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A
C Y O L O PAE DIA
OF
P. R. A. O. T. H. C. A. L. R. E. C. E. I. P.T S
AND
COLLATERAL INFORMATION.
---.
º
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- - -
--- - - -
º ºv : -- 2 & 2.
*-*-ºs- -
Coolby's CYCLOPEDIA
OE
PRACTICAL ERECEIPTS
AND
COLLATERAL INFORMATION
IN THE
ARTS, MANUFACTURES, PROFESSIONS, AND TRADES;
INCLUDING
ilthitint, Jºrmit), am Jomt5tit (Étſmomy:
IDESIGNED AS A COMPREEIENSIVE
SUPPLEMENT TO THE PHARMACOPOEIA.
GENERAL BOOK OF REFERENCE
FOR THE MANUFACTURER, TRADESMAN, AMATEUR, AND
HEADS OF FAMILIES.
-
-
- º - -
2 * * * * * *N
------ º
º: * * * * *
TIFTH EDITION 7 º’ tº .
º, ***** *** *
- * - º
TEVISED AND PARTILY BEWRITTEN BY º º
- -
RICH A R D W. T. US ON, F.C.S.,
PROFESSOR OF CHEMISTRY IN THE ROYAL VETERINARY COLLEGE ; FORMERLY LECTURER
ON CHEMISTRY AT THE CHARING CROSS HOSPITAL.
L O N DO N :
J. & A. CHURCHILL, NEW BURLINGTON STREET.
1872.
º
-
/ *- -
-
-



*
TO
THE RIGHT HONORABLE
T H E E A R L OF D UN DO N A L D,
ADMIRAL OF THE WHITE,
REAR ADMIRAL OF THE UNITED KINGDOM,
G.C.B., F.R.S., ETC., ETC.,
AS
AN HUMBLE TRIBUTE OF ADMIRATION AND RESPECT
For
HIS PUBLIC CHARACTER,
HIS HIGH INTELLECTUAL ENDOWMENTS,
AND
HIS ARDUOUS, DISINTERESTED, AND WELL-DIRECTED EFFORTS
T H B O U G. H. A. L. O N G LIFE
TO PROMOTE THE PROGRESS OF ART AND SCIENCE IN GREAT BRITAIN
AND ITS COLONIES,
Uliš Jü0th,
BY HIS KIND PERMISSION,
IS R. E S P E C T FULLY DET) ICATIED
BY HIS LORDSHIP’s
MOST OREDIENT AND HUMBLE SERVANT,
THE AUTHOR.

P. R. E. FA C E.
THE design of the present work is briefly, but not completely expressed
in its title-page. Independently of a reliable and comprehensive collection
of formulae and processes in nearly all the industrial and useful arts, it
contains a description of the leading properties and applications of the
substances referred to, together with ample directions, hints, data, and
allied information, calculated to facilitate the development of the prac-
tical value of the book in the shop, the laboratory, the factory, and the
household. Notices of the substances embraced in the Materia Medica
of our national pharmacopoeias, in addition to the whole of their prepa-
rations, and numerous other animal and vegetable substances employed
in medicine, as well as most of those used for food, clothing, and fuel,
with their economic applications, have been included in the work. The
synonymes and references are other additions which will prove invalu-
able to the reader. Lastly, there have been appended to all the
principal articles referred to, brief, but clear directions for determining
their purity and commercial value, and for detecting their presence and
proportions in compounds.
The sources from which I have derived the vast mass of materials
forming this volume, are such as to render it deserving the utmost confi-
dence. I have invariably resorted to the best and latest authorities, and
have consulted almost innumerable volumes, both British and foreign,
during its compilation. Secondary channels of information have been
scarcely ever relied on, when original authorities were within my reach.
A large portion of the work has been derived from my personal expe-
rience and observations in the departments of applied chymistry and
hygiène, and from the processes of various laboratories and manufactories,
many of which I can the more confidently recommend, from having
either inspected or witnessed their employment on an extensive scale.
The indiscriminate adoption of matter, without examination, has been
uniformly avoided, and in no instance has any formula or process been
admitted into this work, unless it rested on some well-known fact of
science, had been sanctioned by usage, or come recommended by some
respectable authority. The settlement of doubtful or disputed points
has often occupied me a greater number of hours, and not unfrequently,
a greater number of days, than that of the lines of letter-press which
convey the results to the public. In all cases precedence has been

Viii PREFACE.
given to the standard formulae of our national pharmacopoeias, and to
those processes which long experience, or well-conducted experiments,
have shown to be the most successful, profitable, and trustworthy. In
general, the sources of information have been indicated, for the purpose
of enabling the reader to form a better estimation of their value.
Whenever this is not the case, in reference to borrowed formulae and
data, the omission has arisen from the impossibility of determining to
whom the merit is justly due. -
I have endeavoured, as much as possible, in the present work, to avoid
confusion of the medical weights with those commonly used in trade and
commerce; an attempt which, so far as I am aware, has not been suc-
cessfully carried out in any other quarter. For this purpose I deter-
mined to entirely abandon the usual arbitrary signs or characters
employed to represent the divisions of the apothecaries' pound, and to
distinguish the two weights from each other, by simply printing, in
different type, the plain English names and abbreviations representing
their several denominations. The medical signs for the imperial gallon
and its sub-divisions, have also been abandoned for their common
English names. It would have afforded me pleasure to have reduced
all the quantities to one uniform standard, had it been practicable, or,
in all cases, advisable.
Under the names of most of the leading diseases that could be profitably
noticed in the present work, such explanations and directions have been
given as accord with the prevailing opinions and practice of the faculty
at the present day. These, when judiciously applied, will prove invalu-
able to emigrants, travellers, voyagers, and other parties beyond the
reach of legitimate medical assistance; and, under opposite circum-
stances, will, in general, enable those who have the care of the sick, the
better to second and carry out the instructions and efforts of the
physician for the benefit of their charge. Here, however, it may be
useful to repeat the cautions given in other parts of this volume, as to
the impropriety of unnecessarily meddling with the healing art, or
neglecting a prompt application to a duly qualified practitioner, in all
cases demanding either medical or surgical aid. It is an indubitable
fact, that the best efforts of the inexperienced and uninitiated in the
mysteries of medical science, must be always enormously behind those
of parties whose whole lives and study have been devoted to the
subject.
The nature of a condensed alphabetical arrangement not permitting
numerous articles to come under distinct heads, or to be referred to
under all their synonymes, the casual reader may often be led to sup-
pose that this book is most deficient where in reality it is the most
copious. In general, I have attempted, as much as possible, to bring
together subjects of a closely allied character, and compounds which are
analogous to each other, either in constitution, or the mode of their

PREFACE. ix
preparation. Thus, most of the formulae for Mixtures, Ointments,
Pills, &c., follow, in alphabetical order, the general articles under these
heads; whilst those for the Oxides, Salts, &c., follow the names of their
respective bases. In like manner, a notice of a number of preparations
will be found included in that of their principal ingredients. The
names under which the leading substances appear, are generally those
which are most familiar to well-informed practical men, and which have
commonly reference to either their acknowledged chemical constitution,
or to some long-known and easily recognised quality. The following
extract conveys an important lesson on this subject, with which I per-
fectly agree:–“We have been unwilling to make any unnecessary
changes in the nomenclature of substances whose names are sanctioned
by the usage of the present day; for these names have been, for the
most part, rightly assigned by our predecessors, or confirmed by lapse
of time. We are indeed aware, that every improvement in the know-
ledge of things ought to be embodied in their names; but we must be
careful, in selecting or forming these names, not to make those points
appear certain and established which are as yet doubtful, for it is safer
to be in the rear than in advance of natural history.”
I have exerted myself to the utmost to ensure the accuracy and com-
pleteness of this volume, but I feel conscious that after all my efforts
for this purpose, some errors have crept into it, that many subjects which
deserve insertion in it have been omitted, and that many others have
been either imperfectly or too briefly noticed. “Yet these failures,
however frequent, may,” I trust, “admit of extenuation and apology.
To have attempted much is always laudable, even where the enterprise
is above the strength that undertakes it. To rest below his aim is
incident to every one whose fancy is active, and whose views are com-
prehensive; nor is any man satisfied with himself because he has done
much, but because he conceives little.” When I commenced this
work, I resolved to leave nothing within its legitimate limits unex-
amined or unelucidated; and I flattered myself with a prospect of the
hours which I should thus “revel away” in a pursuit so congenial to
my desires—“the treasures with which I expected every search into
those neglected mines to reward my labour—and the triumph with
which I should display my acquisitions to mankind. But these were the
dreams of a poet, doomed at last to wake a' Cyclopædist. The long
task which I had undertaken soon exhibited its truly onerous character,
and daily grew in urgency, until that which promised to be a pleasure,
had been transformed into an exhausting and continuous labour. At
first, a sacrifice of the hours of leisure only, seemed necessary to the
undertaking, next, those assigned to professional and business avoca-
tions were demanded, and absorbed,—but, ere long, one by one, the
hours usually devoted to repose were sucked into the insatiable vortex,
* Preface to the Ph. L. 1851.
X PREFACE.
until the bright beams of the rising sun not unfrequently illumined
the lamp-lit study or the gloomy laboratory, and surprised the author,
no longer an enthusiast, at his still-enduring task. But long ere this
I had learned, that to carry out my original resolutions in all their
completeness and entirety was impossible, and “that to pursue per-
fection was, like the first inhabitants of Arcadia, to chase the sun,
which, when they had reached the hill where he had seemed to rest,
was still at the same distance from them.” All I can further say in
reference to this point, is simply to assure the reader, that three of the
elements usually deemed essential to give value to a technological
work,+viz., zeal, industry, and capital, have not been wanting in the
production of the present one ;-the first two depending on the author,
and the other chiefly on the liberality and enterprise of the publisher.
As heretofore, I beg to solicit my readers to apprise me of any inac-
curacies or omissions in this volume which may come beneath their
notice. I shall also thankfully receive any hints or suggestions tending
to the improvement of future editions of this work. Such communi-
cations, to be useful, must, however, be written on only one side of the
paper. Parties who may thus kindly afford me assistance, will, in due
course, have their services publicly acknowledged; and their names and
addresses, unless when otherwise requested, will be published in full.
I have endeavoured to render the present volume as self-explanatory
as possible, and, in general, have appended ample directions to the
several formulae and processes that seemed to me likely to cause embar-
rassment to those inexpert in chemical manipulation; but should any
party find it otherwise, I shall be happy to reply, gratuitously, to any
reasonable questions tending to elucidate the difficulty.
In conclusion, I may add that, having now for nearly a quarter of a
century devoted my attention to the applications of chymistry in most
of the useful arts and manufactures, both British and foreign, and in
sanitation, I am in possession of many valuable processes and formulae,
hitherto wholly unknown, or but partially developed, with various
improved plans of factories, laboratories, ventilation, &c., which the
limits of this work will not permit me to describe in its pages, but on
which 1 should be happy to communicate with parties interested in the
same. Persons desirous of establishing any new branch of manufac-
ture, or of improving an existing one, or of determining the purity or
value of articles of food, wines, liqueurs, medicines, &c., or of obtaining
formulae or processes which are not contained in this work, may, in like
manner, have their wishes complied with, by inclosing to me samples, or
the requisite information.
ARNOLD J. COOLEY.
LONDON, February 1, 1856.
* Dr. Samuel Johnson’s Preface to his English Dictionary

PREFACE TO THE FIFTH EDITION.

ALTHOUGH, in preparing a fifth edition of this work, it has been
subjected to a thorough and complete revision, every endeavour has
been made to carry out the original intentions of the author. The arts
and sciences are, however, so continuously undergoing change that, in
order to bring the information given up to the level of the knowledge
of the present day, very many excisions, alterations, and additions have
been rendered necessary. Thus, in the chemical portions of the work
all subjects of practical importance have been retained, corrected, and
added to, while those which possess only a purely scientific interest have,
for the most part, been expunged; to the name of every substance of
established composition a formula has been attached, and the articles
on chemical doctrine have been re-written. In carrying out this part
of my duty I have been most efficiently aided by my talented assistant,
Mr. Edmund Neison.
The value of this Cyclopædia to the pharmaceutist will, it is hoped,
be increased by the additions which have been made from the British,
Indian, and United States Pharmacopoeias.
The length and number of the articles on the recognition and treat-
ment of disease have been reduced, as it was thought that those of
previous editions might, in many instances, be productive of more
harm than benefit to those for whom such information was compiled,
namely, emigrants and others not within the reach of the surgeon or
physician.
Every article on excisable or duty-bearing commodities has been
carefully revised or re-written by my able and experienced friend, Mr.
William Harkness, of the Inland Revenue Department.
In the previous editions the use of different types was not only exten-
sively, but apparently, indiscriminately indulged in, consequently the

xii PREFACE TO THE FIFTH EDITION.
advantage to be derived from their legitimate employment was con-
siderably diminished, and the mental and mechanical processes involved
in the reading of such pages were rendered uselessly irksome. In the
present edition this objectionable practice has been discontinued, Roman
type only being adopted, except in special cases warranting a de-
parture from this rule.
In conclusion, I have to express my obligations to the gentlemen
whose names appear on the next page, for the very valuable assistance
they have cheerfully afforded me in performing the task of preparing
the following sheets for publication.
RICHARD W. TUSON.
ROYAL WETERINARY COLLEGE,
CAMDEN TOWN;
June, 1872.

NAMES OF THOSE WHO HAVE CONTRIBUTED TO, OR
ASSISTED IN THE REVISION OF, THIS EDITION.
John ATTFIELD, Ph.D., F.C.S., Professor of Practical Chemistry to the Pharma-
ceutical Society of Great Britain.
J. WoRTLEY AXE, Assistant Professor in the Royal Veterinary College.
LLOYD BULLOCK, F.C.S.
E. L. BARRET, B.Sc., F.C.S.
E. CANTON, F.R.C.S., Surgeon to Charing Cross Hospital.
SPENCER COBBoLD, M.D., F.R.S., Lecturer on Parasitic Diseases in the Middlesex
Hospital, and of Botany in the Royal Veterinary College.
STEPHEN DARBY, F.C.S.
DR. DE WRIJ, of the Hague.
WILLIAM HARKNESS, F.R.M.S., Assistant Chemist in the Laboratory of the Inland
Revenue Department, Somerset House.
C. W. HEATON, F.C.S., Lecturer on Chemistry at the Charing Cross Hospital.
EDMUND NEISON, F.C.S., Principal Assistant in the Laboratory of the Royal
Veterinary College.
GEORGE PHILLIPs, F.C.S., Director of the Laboratory of the Inland Revenue
Department, Somerset House.
WILLIAM PRITCHARD, Professor of Anatomy in the Royal Veterinary College.
A. E. SANSOM, M.D. Lond., M.R.C.P.S., Physician to the Royal Hospital for Diseases
of the Chest.
J. B. SIMONDs, Principal of, and Professor of Pathology in, the Royal Veterinary
College.
JoBIN SPILLER, F.C.S.
JoHN STENHOUSE, LL.D., F.R.S., formerly Lecturer on Chemistry in St. Bar-
tholomew’s Hospital.
ABBREVIATIONS, ETC., USED IN THIS WORK.
THESE, for the most part, consist of the first syllable, or the initial letter or letters of the
words they stand for. As Prep., preparation; Pur., purity; Purif., purification; Obs., ob-
servations; War., varieties, &c.—Ph., stands for pharmacopoeia ; B. P., for British Phar-
macopoeia, Ind. Ph., for Indian Pharmacopoeia, Cod. for codea.—L., E., D., P., U. S., &c., as-
ciated with the last two abbreviations, are the initial letters of the cities and countries which
produced the respective works; as, London, Edinburgh, Dublin, Paris, United States, &c.
When no dates are given, the last editions of the pharmacopoeias are referred to.
lb., oz., dr., respectively represent the pound, ounce, and drachm (; oz.), AVOIRDUPOIS
WEIGHT. This is the only weight employed in the British and last Dublin Pharmacopoeias.
lb., oz., dr., and gr., refer to the pound, ounce, drachm, and grain, APOTHECARIES' or TROY
WEIGHT.
The word “drop” in all cases indicates a measured drop or minim.
The names of individuals which appear in this work are those to whom the immediately
attached information or formula is usually attributed, or on whose recommendation or
authority it has been selected.
' denotes the accented vowel or syllable.
" .,, that the following consonant coalesces with the preceding letter in utterance.
,, that the name or the definition to which it is attached is “obsolete.”
59 25 52 » 92 “obsolescent,” little used,
or objectionable.
. . , that the name or the definition to which it is attached is “colloquial,” or popular,
or used only in trade.
§ , that the name or the definition to which it is attached is “vulgar.”
A C Y O L O PAE DIA
OF
PRACTICAL RECEIPTS, PROCESSES,
AND
COLLATERAL
INFORMATION.
A—ABBREWIATION.
A-, ab-, abs-. [L.] In composition, from,
denoting distance, departure, separation, or
opposition; as in aberration, abstraction, ab-
normal, &c.
A-, an-, [Gr.] In composition, no, not,
without, denoting the absence or loss of some
quality or thing; as in achromatic, anhydrous,
amorphous, &c.
AB/ACA (-kāh). A species of vegetable fibre,
of several varieties, obtained in the Philippine
Islands, and remarkable for its brilliancy,
strength, and durability. The finer kinds are
woven into muslims, and other delicate fabrics;
the coarser are formed into mats, cordage, and
sail-cloth. It has been recently employed in
Paris for the manufacture of various articles
of furniture and dress; including bonnets, ta-
pestry, carpets, network, hammocks, &c. The
fibre, and fabrics made of it, may be bleached
and dyed in a similar manner to flax and limen.
ABBREWIATION. One or more of the earlier
letters of a word used to express the whole.
1. Abbreviations in general use:—
A.B., Bachelor of Arts.
A.D., In the year of our Lord.
A.I.C.E., Associate of the Institute of Civil
Engineers.
A.M., Master of Arts.-Before noon.
A.R.A., Associate of the Royal Academy.
B.A., Bachelor of Arts.
Bart., Baronet.
B.C., Before Christ.
B.D., Bachelor of Divinity.
B.Sc., Bachelor of Science.
C.B., Companion of the Bath.
C.E., Civil Engineer.
C.S., Civil Service.
D.C.L., Doctor of Civil Laws.
D.D., Doctor of Divinity.
D.G., By the Grace of God.
Dr., Doctor.—Debtor.
D.Sc., Doctor of Science.
D.V., God willing.
Abbreviations in general use (continued) :-
Ed., Editor, or Edition.
e.g., For example.
F.C.P., Fellow of the College of Preceptors.
F.C.S., Fellow of the Chemical Society.
F.G.S., Fellow of the Geological Society.
F.L.S., Fellow of the Linnean Society.
F.R.A.S., Fellow of the Royal Astronomical
Society.
F.R.C.P., Fellow of the Royal College of
Physicians.
F.R.C.S., Fellow of the Royal College of
Surgeons.
F.R.G.S., Fellow of the Royal Geographical
Society.
F.R.S., Fellow of the Royal Society.
F.R.S.E., Fellow of the Royal Society o
Edinburgh. -
H.M.S., Her Majesty’s Ship.
H.R.H., His (or Her) Royal Highness.
i.e., That is.
Inst., Instant (the present month).
I.H.S., Jesus the Saviour of Man.
K.B., Knight of the Bath.
K.C.B., Knight Commander of the Bath.
K.G., Knight of the Garter.
Knt., Knight.
K.St.P., Knight of St. Patrick.
K.T., Knight of the Thistle.
L.A.C., Licentiate of the Apothecaries’ Com-
pany.
Lat., Latitude.
L.D., Licentiate in Dentistry.
LL.D., Doctor of Laws.
L.M., Licentiate in Midwifery.
Loc. cit., The part referred to.
Lon. or Long., Longitude.
M.A., Master of Arts.
M.B., Bachelor of Medicine. 2.
M.C., Master of Surgery.—Master of ſº
Ceremonies. *

M.C.P., Member of the College of P
M.D., Doctor of Medicine.
__--→
2 ABBREWLATION.
Abbreviations in general use (continued):—
M.I.B.A., Member of the Institute of Bri-
tish Architects.
M.R.C.P., Member of the Royal College of
Physicians.
M.R.C.S., Member of the Royal College of
Surgeons.
M.R.C.V.S., Member of the Royal College
of Veterinary Surgeons.
M.R.I., Member of the Royal Institution.
M.R.I.A., Member of the Royal Irish
Academy.
MS., Manuscript.
MSS., Manuscripts.
Mus.Doc., Doctor of Music.
N.B., Mark well.
Nem. con., Without opposition.
O.H.M.S., On Her Majesty’s Service.
Op. cit., The work quoted.
Per cent. (often expressed by the sign $, or
%), By the hundred.
Ph.D., Doctor of Philosophy.
P.M., Afternoon.
Prox., The next (month).
P.S., Postscript.
Q.C., Queen’s Counsel.
Qy. (?), Query, Question.
R.A., Royal Academician.-Royal Artillery.
R.E., Royal Engineers.
R.H.A., Royal Horse Artillery.
R.M., Royal Marines.
R.N., Royal Navy.
Tr., Translator.
Ult., The last (month).
v. or vide, See.
W.S., Writer to the Signet.
&, ampersand, and.
&c., et cetera, And so on.
2. Abbreviations used in Prescriptions:—
A. aa., and (Greek) of each. Equally by
weight or measure.
Abdom., abdomen, the abdomen, the belly.
Abs, febr., absente febre, fever being absent.
Ad 2 vic., ad secundam vicem, to the second
time; or ad duas vices, for two times.
Ad gr. acid., ad gratam aciditatem, to an
agreeable acidity.
Ad def. animi, ad defectionem animi, to
fainting.
Ad del, an., ad deliquium animi, to fainting.
Ad libit., ad libitum, at pleasure.
Add., adde, or addantur, add, or let them
be added; addendus, to be added.
Adjac., adjacens, adjacent.
Admov., admove, admoveatur, admoveantur,
apply, let it be applied, let them be applied.
Ads...febre, adstante febre, while the fever is
present.
Alter. hor., alternis horis, every other hour.
Alvo adstr., alvo adstrictó, when the bowels
are confined.
Aq. astr., aqua astricta, frozen water.
q. bull., aqua bulliens, boiling water.
com., aqua communis, common water.
wv., aqua fluviatilis, river water.
&, aqua marina, Sea water.
Abbreviations used in Prescriptions (con-
tinued):—
Aq. niv., aqua nivalis, snow water.
Aq. pluv., aqua pluviatilis, or pluvialis, rain
Water.
Aq. ferv., aqua fervens, hot water.
Aq. font., aqua fontana, or aqua fontis,
spring water.
Bis ind., bis indies, twice a day.
IBib., bibe, drink.
JBR., Böds., Barbadensis, Barbadoes, as
aloë Barbadensis.
B.M., balneum mariae, or balneum maris, a
warm-water bath.
B. P., or B. Ph., British Pharmacopoeia.
But, butyrum, butter.
B. V., balneum vaporis, a vapour bath.
Caerul., caeruleus, blue.
Cap., capiat, let him (or her) take.
Calom., calomelas, calomel, subchloride of
mercury.
C. C., cornu cervi, hartshorn; it may also
signify cucurbitula cruenta, the cupping-glass.
with scarificator.
C.C. U., cornu cervi ustum, burnt hartshorn.
Cochleat., cochleatim, by spoonfuls.
Coch. ampl., cochleare amplum, a large (or
table) spoonful; about half a fluid ounce.
Coch. infant., cochleare infantis, a child's
(or tea) spoonful.
Coch. magn., cochleare magnum, a large
spoonful.
Coch. med., coch-Y a middling or moderate
leare medium, spoonful; that is, ades-
Coch. Anod., coch- sert-spoonful — about
leare modicum, two fluid drachms.
Coch. parv., cochleare parvum, a small(or tea)
spoonful; it contains about one fluid drachm.
Col., cola, strain.
Col., colatus, strained.
Colet., coletur, colat., colatur, let it be
strained; colatura, to the strained liquor.
Colent., colentur, let them be strained.
Color., coloretur, let it be coloured.
Comp., compositus, compounded.
Cong., congius, a gallon.
Cons., conserva, conserve; also (imperat. of
conservo) keep.
Cont. rem., or med., continuentur remedia, or
medicamenta, let the remedies, or the medi-
cines, be continued.
Coq., coque, boil; coquantur, let them be
boiled.
Coq. ad med, consumpt., coque or coquatur
ad medietatis consumptionem, boil, or let it be
boiled to the consumption of one half.
Coq. S. A., coque secundum artem, boil ac-
cording to art.
Coq. in S. A., coque in sufficiente quantitate
aqua, boil in a sufficient quantity of water.
Cort., cortea, bark.
C. v., cras vespere, to-morrow evening.
C. m. s., cras mane sumendus, to be taken
to-morrow morning.
C. m., cras nocte, to-morrow night.
Crasſ., crastinus, for to-morrow.





ABBREVIATION. 3
Abbreviations used in Prescriptions (con-
tinued):—
Cuj., cujus, of which.
Cujusl., cujuslibet, of any.
Cyath. thea, cyatho theat, in a cup of tea.
Cyath., cyathus, vell a wine-glass; from an
C. vinar., cyathus *} ounce and half to
narius, two ounces and half.
Deaur. pil., deaurentur pilulae, let the pills
be gilt.
Deb. Spiss., debitur spissitudo, due consist-
eIl Ce.
Dec., decanta, pour off.
Decub. hor., decubitàs horá, at the hour of
going to bed, or at bedtime.
De d. in d., de die in diem, from day to day.
Deglut., deglutiatur, let it be swallowed.
Dej. alv., dejectiones alvi, stools.
Det., detur, let it be given.
Dieb. alt., diebus alternis, every other day.
Dieb. tert., diebus tertiis, every third day.
Dil., dilue, dilutus, dilute (thin), diluted.
Diluc., diluculo, at break of day.
Dim., dimidius, one half.
D. in 2 plo., deter in duplo, let it be given
in twice the quantity.
D. in p. aq., dividatur in partes aquales,
let it be divided in equal parts.
D. P., directione propria, with a proper
direction.
Donee alv. bis dej., donec alvus bis dejecerit,
until the bowels have been twice opened.
Donec alv. sol. fuer., donec alvus soluta
fuerit, until the bowels have been loosened.
Donec dol. neph. eaulav., donee dolor ne-
phriticus evulaverit, until the nephritic pain
has been removed.
D., dosis, a dose.
I'burn., eburneus, made of ivory.
I'd., edulcorata, edulcorated.
Bjusd., ejusdem, of the same.
Flect., electuarium, an electuary.
Jºnem., enema, a clyster.
Tahib., eachibeatur, let it be administered.
Evt. sup. alut. moll., eatende super alutam
mollem, spread upon soft leather.
F., fac, make; fiat, fiant, let it be made, let
them be made.
F. pil., fiant pilulae, let pills be made.
Fasc., fasciculus, a bundle.
Feb. dur., febre durante, during the fever.
Fem. intern., femoribus internis, to the in-
side of the thighs.
F. vendes., fiat venaesectio, let venesection be
performed.
F. H.; fiat haustus, let a draught be made.
Fict., fictilis, earthen.
Fil., filtrum, a filter.
Fist. arm., fistula armata, a clyster-pipe and
bladder fitted for use.
Fl., fluidus, fluid.
F. L. A., fiat lege artis, let it be made by
the rules of art.
F. M., fiat mistura, let a mixture be made.
F. S. A., fiat secundum artem, let it be made
according to art.
Abbreviations used in Prescriptions (con-
tinued):—
Gel. quav., gelatina quavis, in any jelly.
G. G. G., gummi guttae gambaº, gamboge.
Gr., granum, a grain; grana, grains.
Gr. ºff pond., grana sea pondere, six grains
by weight.
Głł., gutta, a drop; guttae, drops.
Głł. Quibusd., guttis quibusdam, with some
drops.
Guttat., guttatim, by drops.
Bar. pil. sum. iij, harum pilularum su-
mantur tres, of these pills let three be
taken.
II. D., or hor. decub., horá decubitits, at bed-
time.
II. P., haustus purgans, purging draught.
H. S., horá somni, at the hour of going to
sleep.
Jſor. un. spatio, horae unius spatio, at the
expiration of one hour. -
Hor. interm., horis intermediis, in the inter
mediate hours.
Hor. 11má mat., horá undecimá matutind,
at 11 o'clock in the morning.
Ind., indies, daily.
In pulm., in pulmento, in gruel.
Ind. Ph., Indian Pharmacopoeia.
Inf, infunde, infuse.
Inj. enem., injiciatur enema, let a clyster be
thrown up.
Jul., julepus, julapium, a julep.
Kal. ppt., kali praeparatum, prepared kali
(potassae carbonas).
Lat. dol., lateri dolenti, to the affected side.
M., misce, mix; mensurd, by measure; ma-
nipulus, a handful; minimum, a minim.
Mane pr., mane primo, early in the morning.
Man., manipulus, a handful.
Min., minimum, a minim, the 60th part of a
drachm measure.
M. P., massa pilularum, a pill mass.
M. R., mistura, a mixture.
Mic. pan., mica panis, crumb of bread.
Mitt., mitte, send; mittanţur, let them be
sent.
Mitt. sang. ad 3a'ij, mitte sanguinem ad
3aij, take blood to twelve ounces.
Mod. praescr., modo praescripto, in the man-
ner directed.
Mor. dict., more dicto, in the way ordered.
Mor. sol., more solito, in the usual way.
Ne tr. s. num., ne tradas sine nummo, do
not deliver it without the money.
N. M., nua, moschata, a nutmeg.
No., numero, in number.
O., octarius, a pint.
Ol. lini s. i., oleum lini sine ligné, cold-drawn
linseed oil.
Omn. hor., omni horá, every hour.
Omn. bid., omni biduo, every two days.
Omn. bih., omni bihorio, every two hours.
O. M., or omn. Iman., omni mane, every
morning.
O. N., or omn. noct., omni nocte, every
night.

4. - ABBREVIATION_ABERNETHY MEDICINES.
Abbreviations used in Prescriptions (con-
tinued):—
Omn. Quadr. hor., omni quadrante horae,
every quarter of an hour.
O. O. O., oleum olivae optimum, best olive oil.
Ov., ovum, an egg.
Oz., the ounce avoirdupois.
P. ae., part. a qual., partes acquales, equal
parts.
P. d., per deliquium, by deliquescence.
Past., pastillus, a pastil, or ball of paste.
JP., pondere, by weight.
Ph. D., Pharmacopoeia Dubliniensis.
Ph. E., Pharmacopoeia Edinensis.
Ph. L., Pharmacopoeia Londinensis.
Ph. U.S., Pharmacopoeia of the United
States.
Part. vic., partitis vicibus, in divided doses.
Per. op. emet., peractd operatione emetici,
the operation of the emetic being over.
Pocul, poculum, a cup.
Pocill., pocillum, a small cup.
Post sing. sed. liq., post singulas sedes
liquidas, after every loose stool.
Ppt., praºparata, prepared.
P. r. n., pro re nata, occasionally.
P. rat. aetat., pro ratione astatis, according
to the age.
Pug., pugillus, a pinch, a gripe between the
thumb and the two first fingers,
Pulv., pulvis, pulverizatus, a powder, pul-
verised.
Q. l., quantum lubet, l as much
Q. p., quantum placet please.
Q. S., quantum sufficiat, as much as may
suffice.
Quor., quorum, of which.
Q. V., quantum vis, as much as you will.
Red. in pulv., redactus in pulverem, re-
duced to powder.
Redig. in pulv., redigatur in pulverem, let it
be reduced into powder.
Reg. umbil., regio umbilici, the umbilical
region.
Repet., repetatur, or repetanțur, let it, or
them, be repeated.
S. A., secundum artem, according to art.
Scat., scatula, a box.
S. N., secundum naturam, according to na-
ture.
Semidr., semidrachma, half a drachm.
Semih., semihora, half an hour.
Sestinc., sesuncia, half an ounce.
Sesquih., sesquihora, an hour and a half.
Si n. val, si non valeat, if it does not
anSWer.
Si op. sit, si opus sit, if it be necessary.
Si vir. perm., si vires permittant, if the
strength allow it.
Signat., signatura, a label. -
Sign. m. pr., signetur nomine proprio, let it
be written upon, let it be signed with the
proper name (not the trade name).
Sing., singulorum, of each. -
S. S. S., stratum super stratum, layer upon
layer.
as you
Abbreviations used in Prescriptions (con-
tinued):—
Ss., semi, a half.
St., stet, let it stand; stent, let them stand.
Sub fin. coct., sub finem coctionis, towards
the end of boiling, when the boiling is nearly
finished.
Sum. tal., sumat talem, let the patient take
one such as this.
Summ., summitates, the summits or tops.
Sum., sume, Sumat, Sumatur, Sumanțur, take,
let him or her take, let it be taken, let them
be taken.
S. V., spiritus vini, spirit of wine.
S. V. R., spiritus vini rectificatus, rectified
spirit of wine.
S. P. T., spiritus vini tenuis, proof spirit.
Tabel., tabella, a lozenge.
Temp. deat., tempori deatro, to the right
temple.
T. O., tinctura opii, tincture of opium.
T. O. C., tinctura opii camphorata, cam-
phorated tincture of opium.
Tra., tinctura, tincture.
Ult. praescr., ultimo praescriptus, last pre-
scribed.
U.S. Ph., United States’ Pharmacopoeia.
V. O. S., vitello ovi solutus, dissolved in the
yolk of an egg.
Wom. urg., vomitione urgente, the vomiting
being troublesome.
V. S. B., vendesectio brachii, bleeding from
the arm.
Zz., zingiber, ginger.
See FoEMUL.A., PRESCRIPTIONS, SYMBOLS,
&c.
ABD0'MEN. [Eng., Fr., L.] In anatomy,
the belly, or lower belly; the great cavity of
the body extending from the thorax, or chest,
to the bottom of the pelvis. It contains the
stomach, intestines, liver, spleen, kidneys,
bladder, &c.; and in the female, the uterus,
ovaria, &c. -
ABERNETHY MEDICINES. These origin-
ally consisted of a calomel pill, and subse-
quently of a mercurial or ‘blue’ pill, to be taken
over-night, followed by an aromatised black
draught in the morning. The quantity of
either of the former, for an adult, was about
3 gr. to 3% gr., increased a little in bulk by
the addition of some liquorice powder; that
of the latter, from 1 to 1; fl. Oz. As, however,
when frequently taken, these pills sometimes
occasioned salivation, which proved prejudicial
to their sale, a little compound extract of colo-
cynth (Ph. L., 1836) was introduced into their
composition, by which this objection was obvi-
ated. Ultimately, their composition was
settled at 3 gr. of mercurial pill, and 2 gr. of
compound extract of colocynth; and these pro-
portions are still followed as the best by those
who prepare and sell them. Persons who ob-
ject to black draught, will find a dose of castor
oil, or of any other mild purgative medicine
that may be more agreeable to them, equally
efficacious.


ABERRATION_ABORTION IN COWS. 5
The occasional use of these medicines seldom
fails to prove highly beneficial to the plethoric,
bilious, and dyspeptic. In ordinary cases of
constipation, headache, &c., arising from de-
ranged stomach or liver, wherein the adminis-
tration of mercurials is not contra-indicated,
they will be found of great service. It need
scarcely be added that these medicines are
named after Mr. Abernethy, the celebrated
surgeon, who is said to have frequently em-
ployed them in his practice.
ABERRATION. [Eng., Fr.] Syn. ABER-
RA/TIO, L. A wandering or deviation from
the usual course, or from the normal condition.
In optics, the deviation of the rays of light
from the true focus, when inflected by a lens
or speculum. This arises from a difference
in the physical nature of the rays, from the
figure of the lenses or specula, or from the
nature of the materials of which the media
traversed are composed. See ACHROMATISM,
LENS, &c.
Aberration of mind. Mental alienation or
wandering; insanity. A term frequently ap-
plied, in familiar language, to a mild form of
incipient insanity or dementia, which is more
or less occasional or continued, trifling or
severe, according to circumstances. The
studious, nervous, slothful, and those who are
engaged in sedentary occupations and spend
much of their time in ill-ventilated apartments,
or who indulge in irregular or vicious habits,
as well as ‘fast livers,” are the most liable to
this affection. It also frequently arises from
disordered physical health.
Treat., &c. Change of scene, out-door
exercise, agreeable company, pleasing and con-
tinued mental occupation, and due attention
to diet, clothing, ventilation, &c., with the
judicious use of some mild aperient medicine
and tepid bathing, will generally alleviate,
and frequently effect a cure. For the pre-
vention of its accession, or its recurrence, care
should be taken to promote the general health,
and also, where necessary, to elevate the spirits
and to divert the mind.
ABLUTION. [Eng., Fr.] Syn. ABLU'TIO, L.
In a general sense, washing, cleansing, or puri-
fication by water.
Ablution. In hygiène and the toilet, a
washing of the whole body, or any part of it.
The value of frequent and copious affusions of
pure water to the surface of the body is well
known. During life, the skin is continually
subjected to abrasion, and the processes of re-
production and decay, by which the cuticle,
its exterior portion, is being constantly thrown
off as effete and useless matter, in the shape
of very minute scales or dust. This, mingling
with the oily and saline products of the skin,
acquires sufficient adhesiveness to attach itself
to the surface of the body and clothing, as
well as to attract the waste particles of the
dress, and the dust and soot floating in the
atmosphere. In this way, if occasional ablu-
tion be not had recourse to, the channels of
perspiration will become choked, and the
clothing itself rendered unwholesome and unfit
for use. The consequence of the pores of the
skin being obstructed is impeded transpi-
ration, by which its functions, as a respiratory
organ, are interfered with or suspended. This
adhering pellicle of refuse matter also acts as
an irritant, and forms a favourable medium for
the absorption, and the transmission into the
body, of effluvia, miasmata, poisonous gases,
and the infectious and contagious matters of
disease. “The greater part of (contagious)
poisons are conveyed to us through the ex-
ternal surface of our bodies; and it is fully
proved, that poison, already communicated, has
been by cleanliness removed, before it could
actually produce any bad effects. I here allude,
in particular, to frequent washing, bathing,
rinsing the mouth, combing and brushing the
hair, and often changing the linen, clothing,
and bedding.” (Hufeland.) Such are the
immediate effects of neglected ablution of the
skin; the further consequences are of an
equally serious character. The blood being
deprived of one of its sources of oxygen, and
one of the outlets for its carbon, the functions
of nutrition become imperfect, and the animal
temperature lessened. The matters which
would be thrown out of the system in the
form of perspiration are retained, and must
be eliminated by other channels. The lungs,
the kidneys, the liver, and the bowels, are
each, in their turns, overtasked to perform
the functions of another organ. The oppressed
viscera suffer from exhaustion, and incipient
disease soon follows. Their particular offices
are languidly performed, the equilibrium of
health is disturbed, and skin diseases, or con-
sumption, diarrhoea, dropsy, liver-complaints,
visceral obesity, or some other serious diseases
of the vital organs, ensue. When it is added,
that no dirty or imperfectly washed skin can
long continue healthy, and ceasing to be healthy
must also cease to be agreeable and beautiful,
the argument in favour of the daily use
of pure water to the whole surface of the
body, when possible, will surely be com-
plete.
Ablution. In medicine, the washing the
body, easternally, as by bathing; or internally,
by diluting drinks. In ancient medicine, ac-
cording to Galen, internal ablution was accom-
plished by the use of profuse libations of
milk-whey; an object now aimed at, by the
hydropathists, by the copious administration
of pure cold water. See BATHING, BATHs,
HYDROPATHY, &c.
ABNORMAL, [Eng., Fr.]Syn. ABNoR'MIs, L.
In medicine and the collateral sciences, con-
trary to, or without system or rule; irregular;
deformed; unnatural. In a diseased or un-
healthy state.
ABORTION IN COWS. Abortion is the ex-
pulsion of the contents of the pregnant womb
before the full period of gestation is completed,
and occurs much more frequently in cows than





6 ABRASION.—ABSORBENT.
in any other of the lower animals. . Abortion
is often induced by shocks and injuries, feeding
on ergotised grasses, but more commonly by
causes which are less obvious. Thus, bad
smells, pasturing on flooded meadows, rich
and stimulating food, and even association
with other cows while aborting, are among the
exciting causes of this malady. The premo-
mitory signs are an irritable excited state of
the animal, a discharge from the vagina, loose-
ness and fulness of the external organs of
generation, and, occasionally, sudden enlarge-
ment of the udder. These symptoms may
continue for several days, and, if noticed before
straining or other signs of calving have ap-
peared, the animal should be copiously bled
and placed in a comfortable loose-box, kept as
quiet as possible, moderately supplied with
soft laxative food, and, if the bowels be cos-
tive, with a pound or two of treacle daily.
Powerful purgatives are too irritant, and must,
therefore, be studiously avoided. Two ounces
of laudanum, with the same quantity of sweet
spirits of nitre, should be given twice a day
until all danger is over. To prevent the con-
tinuance and spread of the evil, place the cow
by herself as soon as she aborts; remove and
bury the foetus beyond the reach of other
cows; feed off the cow, if practicable, but if
she be again bulled, it ought not to be for
several weeks, and until the period of heat is
passing off; remove all disagreeable smells,
and see that the remainder of the herd are
moderately fed and carefully watched, so that
the earliest symptoms of abortion may be
noticed.
ABRA/SION. [Eng., Fr.] Syn. ABRA's Io, L.
The rubbing or wearing down of surfaces by
friction. In the arts, the reduction or figura-
tion of materials by the use of an abrasive
tool, or grinder, of which the effective portion
is an exact counterpart of the form to be
produced. -
Abrasion. In numismatics, the ‘wear and
tear,” or waste of the substance of coins, in
the pocket and circulation. It forms a large
item in the expense of a metallic currency.
The means employed to obviate, or to reduce it,
consist in either alloying the metal to render
it tougher and harder, or raising the borders
so as to lessen the surface exposed to fric-
tion. In well-formed coin both methods are
adopted.
Abrasion. In pathology and surgery—1. A
superficial removal or injury of the skin by
fretting or friction.
Treat., &c. When the injured surface is
large, or exposed, it should be protected from
dirt and further injury, by applying a piece of
lint or soft linen rag, covered with spermaceti
cerate, or some other simple ointment ; over
which a piece of strapping, or bandage of any
sort, may be placed, to keep it on. In many
cases, a piece of common sticking-plaster will
be found quite sufficient.
2. A very superficial ulceration or excoria-
tion of the intestinal or other mucous mem-
brane. Treat. Aperients of castor oil, demul-
cents, and a light nutritious diet. See
EXCORIATIONS.
ABRUS PRECATORIUS. (Ind. Ph.) Indian
Liquorice Plant. Habitat. Tropical portions
of both hemispheres. Officinal part. The
root (Abri Radia, Indian Liquorice). Occurs
in pieces of various lengths, from # to 1 inch
in diameter; pale brown externally, yellowish
internally ; inodorous, taste sweetish and
mucilaginous, much resembling officinal liquo-
rice root. Properties and uses. Similar to
those of liquorice, for which it forms an ex-
cellent substitute. Preparation. EXTRACT of
ABRUs (Ea tractum Abri). Prepared as Ex-
tractum Glycyrrhizae.
ABSINTHE (-sånſg]t'). [Fr.] Syn. WER-
MUTH, G. See ABSINTHIUM and LIQUEURS.
ABSINTHIN. Cls HºOs. The bitter prim-
ciple of wormwood (Artemisia absinthium). A
hard crystalline solid, having an intensely
bitter taste and acid properties; slightly
soluble in water, very soluble in alcohol, less
so in ether. Its physiological effects resemble
those of extract of wormwood. Dose. # gr.
to 2 gr., or more; in dyspepsia; as a sto-
machic, to promote the appetite, &c.; as a sub-
stitute for quinine in intermittents; and in
WOI’m S.
ABSINTHIUM.
Fr. ; WERMUTH, G.
ABSOLUTE. Syns. ABSOLUTUS, L.; AB-
SOLU, Fr.; UNDEBINGT, G. In chemistry,
pure, unmixed; as absolute alcohol, pure
spirit of wine, i.e. free from water.
ABSORBED' (-sorbd'). Syn. CHILLED ;
ABSORBá, Fr. In painting, a term, among
French connoisseurs, to represent that state of
a picture in which the oil has sunk into the
canvas or ground, leaving the colours ‘flat,’
and the touches indistinct. The remedy con-
sists in rubbing the surface of the picture,
previously well cleaned, with a soft sponge
dipped in a little drying oil, and after some
days, varnishing it; when it should be kept in
a warm room until perfectly dry.
ABSORB'ENT. Syn. ABSORB'ENs, L.; AB-
SORBANT, Fr.; ABSORBIREND, Ger. Imbibing;
that imbibes or sucks up; variously applied in
science and art. (See below.)
Absorbent Ground. In painting, a picture-
ground prepared wholly or chiefly in distemper
or water colour, in order that the redundant
oil in the colours subsequently applied, may
be immediately ‘absorbed, by which expedi-
tion is permitted, and brilliancy imparted to
them.
Absorbent Surfaces. In the arts, these are
usually rendered non-absorbent, preliminary
to their being bronzed, gilded, painted, or var-
nished, by giving them one, or more, coats of
thin size, so as to destroy their porosity; care
being taken to allow each coat to become
thoroughly dry before the application of the next
one; and also, finally, to remove any unabsorbed
[L.] Syns. ABSINTHE,

ABSORBENTS_ABSORPTION. 7
excess of size from the surface, by means of a
sponge dipped in warm water. This applies to
ALABASTER, PAPER, WOOD, PLASTER CASTS, &c.;
and to WALLS and CEILINGS which are not ex-
posed to the weather, and which there is not
time to prepare with drying oil. See BRONZING,
MAPs, WARNISHING, &c.
Absorption and consequent adherence in
PoRous MoUIDs, as those of plaster, are usually
prevented by thoroughly saturating the pores
of the mould with melted tallow, or a miature
of tallow and bees’ way ; or for DELICATE OB-
JECTS or the ELECTROTYPE, with white way.
The “dry moulds’ are either heated before the
application of these substances, or they are
boiled in them; any portion that may finally
remain unabsorbed, being carefully removed
with cotton-wool or a soft rag. Another method,
is to wash the moulds over two or three times
with drying oil, or to boil them in it; after
which they must be exposed to the air for
some days, to dry and harden. Before being
used for PLASTER, COMPOSITION, &c., the sur-
face of these prepared moulds require to be
slightly moistened with sweet oil.
Plaster moulds are generally prepared for
SULPHUR, WAX, and GUTTA PERCHA CASTS, by
simply placing them (upright) with the back
immersed in a little water, contained in any
shallow vessel, as a saucer or plate; and letting
them remain there until moisture begins to
appear on the surface. The materials to be
cast, or moulded, should then be used at the
lowest possible temperature, to prevent the
formation of air-bubbles.
The adherence of WAX or mixtures con-
taining it, and of GUTTA PERCHA, is best
prevented by moistening the surface of the
mould (whether of plaster, metal, or gutta
percha), immediately before use, with soft
soap reduced to the consistence of thin cream
with water. See CASTS, MoUIDS, ELECTRO-
TYPE, &c.
ABSORB'ENTS. In anatomy and physiology,
two distinct sets of small, delicate, transparent
vessels, which imbibe or suck up fluid sub-
stances, and convey them to the blood. They
are termed LACTEALS or LYMPHATICS; the
former take up the chyme from the alimen-
tary canal, the latter pervade almost every
part of the body in which they absorb
lymph.
Absorbents. In botany and vegetable phy-
siology, the origins of the different vessels
constituting the vascular tissue, as they are
found in the root, where they imbibe or suck
up the nutritive fluids from the soil. See
PLANTS and VEGETABLES.
Absorbents. In agriculture and chemistry,
substances which possess the power of with-
drawing moisture from the atmosphere; as
soils, argillaceous earths, &c. Also (but less
frequently) substances which neutralise acids;
as chalk, lime, and magnesia. Absorbents differ
from ‘deliquescent salts’; the latter, attract
moisture and dissolve in it; whilst the former,
merely suck it into their pores, as a sponge
does water. See ABSORPTION.
Absorbents. Syn. ABSORBEN'TIA, L. In
medicine and pharmacy, substances which re-
move acidity from the stomach and bowels. Of
these the principal are—magnesia, carbonate
and bicarbonate of magnesia, prepared chalk,
and the carbonates and bicarbonates of potash,
soda, and ammonia. The first four are popu-
larly called EARTHY ABSORBENTS; and the
others, ALKALINE ABSORBENTS. See ALKA-
LINES and ANTACIDS.
ABSORPTION. [Eng., Fr.] Syn. ABSORP'TIo,
L.; EINSAUGUNG, Ger. The act or the power
of absorbing, in various applications. (See
below.)
Absorption. In agriculture, the power pos-
sessed by soils of absorbing moisture from the
atmosphere. The more a soil is divided by
labour and vegetation, the greater is its absor-
bent power, and, consequently, its fertility.
Indeed, the latter chiefly depends on its
capacity for imbibing moisture, and may be
illustrated by reference to recent and disin-
tegrated lava. (Leslie.) The finely divided
state, most penetrable by the delicate fibres of
plants, appears to derive its superior power of
acting on atmospheric vapour from the aug-
mentation of its surface and the multiplication
of its points of contact. (Ure.) This method
of increasing the fertility of a soil is well known
to scientific farmers, and seldom neglected by
them. (Loudon.) That soil must be regarded
as the most fertile which possesses this power
in the greatest degree. Garden-mould has the
highest absorbent power of any mineral sub-
stance. (Leslie.)
Process of ascertaining the ABSORBENT POWER
of SoTLS, and other substances. Thoroughly
dry the article by the suitable application of a
heat not exceeding 212°Fahr., continued for
several hours, and transfer it, while still warm,
into a clean dry phial furnished with a per-
fectly tight ground-glass stopper. When cold,
quickly and cautiously introduce it, along with
a delicate “hygrometer,’ into a large wide-
mouthed glass bottle, the atmosphere of which
has been previously rendered as damp as
possible, by suspending a piece of moistened
rag or filtering paper in it. It must now
be kept closed for some hours, when the
hygrometer will indicate the degree of dry-
ness of the enclosed air, and, consequently,
the ‘absorbent power’ of the substance ex-
amined.
Obs. Experiments of this nature are only
relatively correct, and must be performed under
eacactly similar circumstances, to furnish re-
liable comparative results. The whole process,
in each case, must be as similar as careful mani-
pulation can possibly make them. With this
reserve, they will be found invaluable to the
agriculturist.
Absorption. In chemistry, the passage of
gases and vapours into liquid and solid sub-
stances. Thus, water absorbs the oxygen of




8 ABSTERGENTS_ACETATE.
the air, lime absorbs water, charcoal absorbs
ammoniacal and other gases.
Absorption. In medicine and towicology, see
MEDICINES and POISONS.
Absorption. In perfumery, see ENFLEURAGE.
Absorption. In physics, see HEAT, LIGHT,
REFRIGERATION, &c.
Absorption. In physiology (animal and
vegetable), the function of sucking, or taking
up, of appropriate substances, by the ‘ab-
sorbent vessels.” It is one of the chief vital
functions, the primary object of which is to
convey to the circulatory organs the proper
supply of the materials necessary for the
support and growth of the body; and sub-
sequently, to remove and convey to these
organs its effete and useless portions, in
order to their ultimate elimination from the
system.
Absorption. In surgery, the natural process
by which tumours and their contents, morbid
growths, and, sometimes, even healthy glands,
&c., are gradually taken up and disappear, by
the action of the ‘absorbents.”
Absorption (of Surfaces, Moulds, &c.). See
ABSORBENT SURFACEs.
ABSTERGENTS. Syn. ABSTERGEN'TIA, L.
In medicine and pharmacy, substances which
cleanse or clear away foulness from the surface
of the body or sores; as soap, lotions, &c.
See DETERGENT, which has a nearly similar
meaning, and is in more general use.
AC/ARI (-ri). [L.; prim. Gr.] Syn. ACAR/I-
DANS ; ACAR'IDES (-déz); ACARID'IAE (-e-é).
In entomology, a division of arachnidans,
including the mite and tick. All the species
are either microscopic or extremely minute,
and possess such tenacity of life, as to resist
for some time the action of boiling water,
and to live with comparative impunity in
alcohol. Leuwenhoek had one that lived eleven
weeks glued on its back to the point of a
needle, without food. The following are
well known—ACARUS AUTUMNA'LIS, the har-
west-bug or wheal-worm ; A. DOMES"TICUS, the
domestic tick ; A. DYSENTE'RIAE, the dysentery-
tick; A. FARI/NAE, the meal miſe; A. RI"CINUS
(ric-), the dog-tick ; A. SAC'CHARI, the sugar-
mite ; A. SCABIE'I, the itch-insect ; A. SI"RO, the
cheese-mite.
The irritation of the skin, caused by these
vermin, may be relieved by a lotion of equal
parts of sal volatile and water ; and they may
be destroyed by tobacco water, or a lotion or
ointment of stavesacre. See ITCH, MANGE,
PARASITES, PEDICULI, SCAB, &c.
ACCIDENT/AL COLOURS. See CoIOURS
(Complementary).
ACCLI'MATE, or ACCLI'MATISE. In botany
and zoology, to inure a plant or animal to a
climate to which it is not indigenous. When
so inured it is said to be ACCLIMATED. In
medicine, to habituate the body to a foreign
climate, so that it may not be peculiarly liable
to its endemic diseases; or to become so ha-
bituated. Thus, a person who has resided
several years at New Orleans without an
attack of yellow fever, or having had an
attack has satisfactorily recovered, is said to
be ACCLI'MATISED.
ACCOM'PANIMENTS. In
housekeeping, see TRIMMINGS.
ACCUMULATION. [Eng., Fr.] Syn. Accu-
MULATIO, L. In medicine, a term applied
when the effects of the first dose of any
substance still continue when the second is
administered (ACCUMULATION OF ACTION);
or when several doses of insoluble substances
remain inactive in the system until their
energy is developed by chemical influence
(ACCUMULATION OF DOSES). See MEDICINEs,
Poisons, &c.
ACEPH'ALANS. Syn. ACEPH'AIA, Cuv. In
malacology, a class of aquatic mollusca, having
no apparent head, but a mouth between the
folds of their mantle. Several of them, as
the oyster, cockle, mussel, scallop, &c., are con-
sumed for food.
AC/ERATE (äs'-).
ACERIC ACID.
ACERB'ITY. Syn. ACERB'ITAS, L.; ACER-
BITÉ, Fr. ; HERBIGKEIT, Ger. In chemistry,
&c., sourness, with bitterness and astringency,
or harshness. See CIDER, FRUITS, WINE, &c.
ACER'IDES. Plasters that do not contain
Wax.
ACES/CENT. Syns. ACEs'CENs, I. ; ACEs-
CENT, AIGRELET, Fr. ; SAURLICH, Ger. In
chemistry, &c., growing sour; slightly tart or
acid; having a tendency to sourness, or to
run into the acetic fermentation, as wine,
beer, malt-wort, &c. Hence, ACES/CENCE or
ACES'CENCY (acescen/tia, L.; acescense, aig-
neur, Fr. ; sóurlichkeit, Ger.), the tendency to
become slightly acid, or the quality of being
so. See ACETIFICATION, MALT-LIQUORS, WINE,
WoRT, &c.
ACETA"RIOUS (-täre'-e-às). Used for
* (as plants); relating to salads (which
See ).
AC’ETATE (äs'-). Syn. ACE'TAs, L.; ACE-
TATE, Fr. ; ESSIGSAURE SALZE, Ger. In
chemistry, a salt consisting of C2H8O3 (some-
times called the acid-radical of the acetates)
with hydrogen, a metal, or a compound basic
radical ; e.g.,
Hydrogen acetate (acetic acid) HC3H3Os
Potassium acetate - - 3H3O3
Lead (plumbic) acetate . . Pb(C2H5O)2
Ammonium acetate . . . . NH4C3H3Os
Salts of acetic acid with the alkaloids are
likewise termed acetates; e.g.,
Morphia acetate. C1r Hign O3. C.H.O.,
Prep. That of the COMMERCIAL ACETATES,
and of many others, is noticed under the re-
spective metals. In general, they may all be
formed by direct solution of the carbonate,
hydrate or ovide of the metal whose acetate it
is desired to form, in dilute acetic acid ; or
from a solution of an acetate and of another
salt of the metal, by double decomposition.
In either case, the resulting solution must be
cookery and
Syn. Ac'ERAs, L. See


ACETATED–ACETIC ACID. 9
carefully evaporated by a gentle heat, and,
where possible, crystallised.
Prop., &c. All the neutral acetates, except
those of molybdenum and tungsten, are more
or less soluble in water, several so much so as to
be uncrystallizable; many dissolve in alcohol;
they suffer decomposition at a dull red heat,
and by distillation, at that temperature, yield
ACETONE and water, or ACETONE and ACETIC
ACID, and leave a carbonaceous residuum ;
at a full red-heat, those of potassium, sodium,
barium, strontium, calcium, and magnesium,
are converted into carbonates, whilst the
other metallic acetates leave behind the pure
metal, or its oxide. The aqueous solutions of
the alkaline acetates soon turn mouldy and
suffer decomposition. No more of them should,
therefore, be dissolved at once than is required
for immediate use.
Char., tests, &c. The acetates are known
—1. By evolving fumes of acetic acid, recog-
nisable by its peculiar and characteristic odour,
on the addition of strong sulphuric acid:—2.
By evolving the vapour of acetic ether (known
by its peculiar and agreeable odour) when
heated with a mixture of about equal parts
of concentrated sulphuric acid and alcohol.
AC’ETATED (äs'-). In chemistry and phar-
macy, combined or impregnated with acetic
acid or vinegar.
ACE/TIC. Syn. ACE'TICUs, L.; ACKTIQUE,
Fr. Of or relating to vinegar; made with
acetic acid, as perfumes, &c. (See below.)
ACETIC ACID. H.C., H3O3. Syn. PyRo-
LIG/NEOUS ACID (pure); ACID of VINEGAR ;
ACIDUM ACE'TICUM, L.; ACIDE ACKTIQUE,
Fr.; ACIDO ACETICO, Lt. ; ESSIGSAURE, Ger. ;
AZYNZUUR, Dut. ; EISEL, Sax. When free
from water it crystallizes on cooling, and is dis-
tinguished as–ACETIC HYDRATE, HYDRATED
ACETIC ACID, MONOHYDRATED A.A., GLA/CIAL
A. A., MONOHYDRATED A. A., ACE'TUM GLA-
CIA/LE, ACIDUM ACE/TICUM G., X., &c. The
sour principle of vinegar.
P'ar. Commercial acetic acid is found under
the form of the pure acid of the chemist and
pharmaceutist (glacial and dilute), and of
vinegar, of which there are several varieties,
which are noticed under their respective
heads.
Sources. Fermented liquors; the vinegars
of commerce; alcoholic liquors; wood, from
which it is obtained, as pyroligneous acid, by
distillation; the commercial acetates of soda,
potassa, lime, lead, copper, &c. The PURE
ACETIC ACID of the chemist and of commerce,
is almost wholly obtained from the ACETATES,
either by the action of a strong acid, which
seizes on the base, setting the acid free; or,
by dry distillation, in which the high degree
of heat employed separates the acetic acid
from the base in the form of vapour. It is
also obtained by the oxidation of alcohol.
Prep. The following are the principal pro-
cesses at present adopted to obtain pure acetic
acid:—
I. From the Acetates in the moist way —
a. From ACETATE OF SODA :—
1. Commercial acetate of soda (i. e., the
£ pure acetate of the pyroligneous acid
works), in crystals, is put into the body of
a stout copper still, and a deep cavity being
made in the centre of the mass, about 35% of
sulphuric acid of a sp. gr. of not less than
1-84 is poured in; the walls of the cavity are
then thrown in upon the acid, and the whole
briskly agitated, for a very short time, with a
large wooden spatula; the head of the still is
next luted on, and the distillation conducted
at a gentle heat, the receiver being changed
as soon as the distillate begins to acquire a
slight empyreumatic odour. The product,
when the process is well managed, is an almost
colourless acid of the sp. gr. of fully 1:05, con-
taining about 40% of glacial acid, or between
34; and 35% of anhydrous acid. Any trace of
colour or empyreuma is removed by agitation
with some well-washed and recently ignited
vegetable charcoal, or with a very small quan-
tity of recently ignited purified animal char-
coal, and subsequently passing it through a
prepared calico bag-filter; or by allowing it
to stand, for about a fortnight, in barrels
containing some beech-wood chips; after
which it is ready for sale, either as the ordi-
nary ACETIC ACID or pure PYROLIGNEOUS
ACID of commerce, or (on dilution, &c.) as
vinegar.
2. The acid of sp. gr. 1:05 (obtained as
above) is distilled with fused chloride of cal-
cium, the distillate being run into a refrigera-
tor; the crystals that form are drained at a
temperature below 40° or 45° Fahr., and after
removal to a warmer temperature, where they
liquefy, and agitation with a little perovide of
lead, are submitted to a second distillation, as
before ; and this is repeated until the whole
of the acid crystallises at 51° Fahr. The
product is the GLACIAL ACETIC ACID of com-
Imerce.
Obs. The above are the processes usually
adopted, on the large scale, in this country.
3. (M. Mollerat’s process—without distilla-
tion.) Pure commercial acetate of soda, in
coarse powder, is placed in a hard glazed
stoneware or glass pan or receiver set in a
cool situation, and 35% or 36% of concentrated
sulphuric acid, of the sp. gr. 1843, added, in
such a manner that the acid may flow under
the powder, and little heat be generated by
the operation; the whole is then allowed to
remain in contact (covered) for some hours,
when crystalline grains of sulphate of soda
are found covering the bottom and sides of
the vessel, and HYDRATED ACETIC ACID, partly
liquid and partly in crystals, the upper portion.
The temperature being now slightly raised to
a point just sufficient to cause the liquefaction
of the crystals of acetic acid (i. e., to from 62°
to 65° Fahr.), the fluid is poured off, and a
very small quantity of pure acetate of lime
added to it gradually, until it ceases to yield




10
ACETIC ACID.
any trace of ‘free sulphuric acid” on evapora-
tion. After sufficient repose it is carefully de-
canted for use. An excellent commercial STRONG:
ACETIC ACID is thus obtained, without distilla-
tion, owing to the insolubility of sulphate of
soda in acetic acid; and from which GLACIAL
ACID may be procured by refrigeration. If,
however, the process be badly managed, or the
proportions of the ingredients be not carefully
observed, the product will be contaminated
with either a little sulphuric acid or saline
matter.
this process, that it be performed in a cool
apartment, and in well-cooled vessels. Per-
(C.) A Liebig’s Condenser.
(The other reference letters are self-explanatory.)
jectly pure acetic acid may easily be obtained
by rectification from this acid. The above
plan of superseding a troublesome distillation
is one of the greatest improvements yet intro-
duced into the manufacture of acetic acid.
4. (Liebig’s process.) Pure acetate of soda,
thoroughly dried and finely powdered, 3 parts,
is placed in a capacious retort, and pure con-
centrated sulphuric acid, 9-7 parts, poured
over it through the tubulature. One eighth
of the acetic acid passes over by the heat de-
veloped by the reaction of the ingredients.
The heat of a sand bath is next applied and
continued until the contents of the retort
become quite liquid. The distillate, carefully
rectified, yields two parts of pure acid, con-
taining only 20 per cent. of water. On ex-
posing the latter portion which comes over in
a closed vessel to a temperature below 40°
Fahr., crystals of hydrated acetic acid are
deposited. The weaker, or liquid portion,
being poured off, the crystals are again melted
and re-crystallised by cooling. The crystals
of the last operation, separated from the liquid,
and carefully drained in a cool and closed vessel,
are perfectly pure HYDRATED ACETIC ACID.
Obs. The above is an excellent process for
obtaining a chemically pure acid. The excess
of sulphuric acid left from the process may
be recovered by distillation ; or the whole re-
siduum may be employed in a second distilla-
tion with fresh acetate.
Although a retort is recommended by
Liebig for the distillation, and is usually
adopted, on the small scale, for the purpose, a
flask closed by a cork perforated by two tubes,
as exhibited in the engr., will be found more
convenient and safe; as the product is thus
less likely to be contaminated by the “spirting’
of the ingredients over the brim of the vessel.
The heat of a diffused gas-flame, may also be
often advantageously substituted for a sand
bath.
b. From ACETATE OF POTASH:—
1. Acetate of potash (fused and powdered)
is placed in a still, or other suitable vessel, and
50% of the strongest sulphuric acid ( oil of
vitriol’ of fully 1:84 sp. gr.) being added, the
mixture is distilled to dryness, as before. The
product is 50 to 51% of the weight of the ace-
tate employed, with a sp. gr. of about 1:0735 to
1-074, containing about 66% of anhydrous acetic
acid, or nearly 80% of ordinary glacial acid.
By rectification from a little dried acetate of
lead a perfectly pure acidof almost any strength
may be obtained. The ingredients are nearly
in equiv. proportions.
c. From ACETATE OF LEAD :—
1. (Ure.) Take of dried acetate of lead, 4
parts; strongest oil of vitrioi, 1 part. Distil
slowly to dryness. Nearly equal to the
last.
2. (Liebig.) Acetate of lead, 3 parts; sul-
phuric acid, 8 parts; as before.
It is also important to the success of


ACETIC ACID,
11
3. (Dollfuss' Concentrated Acetic Acid.)
Take of dried acetate of lead, 12 oz. ; sulphu-
aric acid, 6 oz. ; distil 7 ounces.
d. From ACETATE OF LIME:—
1. (Christl.) Raw acetate or pyrolignate
of lime (prepared by Völckel’s process), 100
parts, is mixed with hydrochloric acid (20°
Baumé, or sp. gr. 1'1515), 120 parts; and
after 12 hours, distilled in a copper vessel,
with a gradually applied heat. The product
is 100 parts or lbs. of acetic acid of 8° Baumé
(sp. gr. 1:0556), containing about 47% of hy-
drated acid, only slightly coloured and empy-
reumatic, fit for various manufacturing pur-
poses. The advantage of this process is the
low price of hydrochloric acid, and the pro-
duct not being contaminated with sulphuric
or sulphurous acid.
Obs. It will be found that pyrolignate of
lime generally contains 60% to 70% of neutral
acetate; but should it contain either more
or less, a proportionate quantity must be em-
ployed. When the proper proportions are
used the distillate gives only a scarcely per-
ceptible turbid cloud when tested with nitrate
of silver. If the hydrochloric acid used has
the sp. gr. 1:16, a less quantity being em-
ployed, the product will have the sp. gr. of
1.058 to 1.061, and will then contain from 48
to 51% of the monohydrate, or 41 or 42% of
anhydrous acetic acid. The resin sometimes
found floating on the mixed ingredients should
be carefully removed, by skimming, before dis-
tillation.
As acid of the above strength is rarely re-
quired, and as the distillation is more easily
conducted when the ingredients are less con-
centrated, a little water may be conveniently
added either before or towards the end of the
distillation. Hence the following proportions
have been recommended:—
2. (Wölckel.) Acetate of lime (as last), 100
parts; hydrochloric acid (sp. gr. 1:16), 90 to
95 parts; water, 25 parts; mix, and proceed
as before. Prod. 96 to 98 parts of an excel-
lent acid, well adapted to trading purposes,
having a sp. gr. about 1:050, and containing
nearly 40% of hydrated acetic acid. It has
been correctly remarked, that the acetic acid
produced with hydrochloric acid, is always
of better quality than that produced with sul-
phuric acid; being not only less coloured, but
also entirely free from sulphurous acid. The
distillation uniformly proceeds with ease and
regularity, and the whole of the acetic acid
passes over between 212° and 248° Fahr.; by
which the danger of contamination with other
products, resulting from a high degree of heat,
is obviated.
3. An Acetic acid sufficiently strong and
pure for many ordinary purposes may be ob-
tained without distillation, by pouring strong
sulphuric acid, 60 parts, diluted with water,
5 parts, on well-dried acetate of lime, 100
parts; digesting, with occasional agitation in
a close vessel, decanting the clear liquid, and
straining the remainder.
II. From the Acetates by dry distillation
with a sulphate —
a. From ACETATE of LEAD :—
1. Acetate of lead (dried), 5 parts; and
sulphate of iron (gently calcined), 2 parts;
are separately powdered; and after thorough
mixture, carefully distilled, by the heat of a
sand bath, into a well-cooled receiver. An
economical process for a strong acid, under
certain circumstances; but one now seldom
adopted.
2. (Bardollier’s Strong Acetous acid.) Dried
acetate of lead, 10 oz. ; calcined green vitriol,
12 oz. ; as the last.
b. From the ACETATES OF coPPER:—By
substituting acetate or diacetate of copper, in
equiv. proportions, or better with excess of
the sulphate. Seldom used.
c. From ACETATE OF POTASH, as the last.
III. From the Acetates per se –
a. From ACFTATE OF COPPER:—AROMA-
TIC V.: ; SPIRIT OF VERDIGRIS+ ; SPIRITUS
VEN'ERIsf, L.; ESPRIT DE VENUS, Fr.; ACI-
A, Furnace.
B B B, Glass receivers.
C, Stoneware retort.
D, Bottle containing vinegar.
E E E E, Basins containing water.
I'F' FF, Supports for basins.
nux ACE'TICUM, Ph. L. 1787.)
G, Welter safety-tube.
H, Supply-pipe of cold water.
I I I I, Cocks to supply water to the basins.
J. Water main.
L, Adopter connecting retort and globes.
Process. (see engr.), the bottom of which has been
Carefully dry crystallised verdigris (diace- previously coated with a mixture of clay and
tate of copper) by a very gentle heat, and horse-dung, to render it more capable of stand-
introduce it into a large stoneware retort |ing the fire.
Next place it in a suitable fur-

12 ACETIC ACID.
º
nace, and connect it, by an adapter, with 3 or
4 double tubulated globes, the last of which
must be furnished with a vertical tubulature,
to which a double Welter’s safety-tube should
be adapted; the other end being immersed in
a basin half-filled with distilled vinegar or
water, while the funnel portion communicates
with the atmosphere. Then place each globe
in a basin of water, kept cool by a stream
constantly passing through it; and cover the
upper portion with cloths kept continually
wet with cold water. After 15 or 20 hours,
fire may be applied, and must be so regulated
that the drops follow each other with con-
siderable rapidity from the end of the adapter,
whilst the bubbles of air cause no inconveni-
ence at the other end of the apparatus. If
otherwise, the fire must be damped a little.
The operation should be continued, and the
fire gradually increased, until vapour ceases
to come over, known by the globes gradually
cooling, notwithstanding the heat of the fur-
nace. The operation being concluded, the
whole may be allowed to cool, and the acid
collected preparatory to rectification. This
may be effected in a similarly arranged appa-
ratus, except that it must be wholly of glass;
and the retort should not be much more than
half-filled. The operation must now be very
carefully conducted, and discontinued before
barely the whole of the acid has distilled over;
as the last portion is apt to injure the flavour
and colour of the rest. The first portions
which come over are very weak, and should be
kept separate, until the sp. gr. reaches to
about 1:072, when the receiver should be
changed, and the product collected in separate
portions, as noticed below.
Obs. Good diacetate of copper yields, by
careful management, at a temperature of 400°
to 560° Fahr., fully one half its weight of a
greenish-coloured acid, of the sp. gr. of about
1.061, containing above 50% of hydrated acetic
acid, or 43% of anhydrous acid. 20 lbs. of the
ordinary acetate yields 9% lbs. of this rough
acid, leaving a residuum of about 6% lbs. of
metallic copper mixed with a little charcoal, in
the retorf ; the remainder (nearly ºths of the
acid in the acetate) being decomposed by the
heat, and lost. This 95 lbs. of crude acid yields
by rectification, and dividing the products, lb.
of acid of the sp. gr. 1023; 3 lbs. of the sp.
gr. 1:042; and 6 lbs. of the sp. gr. 1.065; ex-
clusive of a little acetone which comes over
with it. In the first distillation, the strongest
acid is found in the third receiver, and the
weakest in the first. The acid obtained in
this way is always accompanied with a little
fragrant pyro-acetic spirit; which renders it
preferable for aromatic vinegar and perfumery.
It dissolves camphor, resins, and essential oils
with facility. This is one of the oldest me-
thods of obtaining glacial acetic acid, and the
product is still preferred for some purposes.
It is the RADICAL VINEGAR of the alchemists,
and it is that which is preferred by the per-
fumers. Well-dried acetate of lead, or of iron,
as well as several other acetates, may be sub-
stituted for acetate of copper in the above
process; but are less economical and conve-
nient. In all cases, great care must be taken
to avoid over-firing, as thereby the quantity
obtained is lessened, and the quality injured.
The residuum of the distillation is pyrophoric,
and frequently inflames spontaneously, on ex-
posure to the air. Due caution must be there-
fore observed regarding it.
IV. From Wood, by dry distillation. See
PYROLIGNEOUS ACID. The preparation of the
‘purified acid,” by converting it into an ace-
tate, and subsequent distillation with a strong
acid, is noticed above, and under the ACETATES
OF SODA, LIME, and POTASH.
V. From Alcohol. (ALCOHOLVINEGAR, GER-
MAN ACETIC ACID.) In a bell-glass, or an
oblong glass case, perforated shelves are ar-
ranged, a few inches apart, one above another,
on which are placed a number of small flat
dishes of porcelain, earthenware, or wood.
These dishes are filled with spirit of wine or
dilute alcohol; and over each is suspended a
watch-glass or capsule containing a portion of
platinum-black; the whole being arranged so
that the platinum-black and the surface of
the alcohol are not more than 1% to 2 inches
apart. Strips of porous paper are next so hung
in the case, that their bottom edges are im-
mersed in the spirit, to promote evaporation;
and lastly, the apparatus, loosely covered, is
set in a light place at a temperature of from
70° to 90° Fahr.—the sunshine, when conve-
nient. In a short time the temperature of the
platinum rises, and the formation of acetic
acid begins; and the condensed vapour trickles

ACETIC ACID.
13
down the sides of the glass and collects at the
bottom of the case, whence it is removed once
or twice a day. (See engr.) The product of
a case of 12 cubic feet content, with 7 or 8
oz. of platinum-powder, is capable of producing
daily, if well managed, nearly 1.31 lb. of HY-
DRATED ACETIC ACID from 1 lb. of absolute al-
cohol; 25 lbs. of platinum-powder and 300 lbs.
of alcohol will, in like manner, furnish a daily
supply of nearly 350 lbs. of PURE ACID, and of
other strengths in proportion. Theoretically,
the product should be 130 parts of the hydrated
acid for every 100 parts of alcohol consumed;
but this is never quite obtained in practice,
owing to a small portion of the alcohol mixing
with the newly formed acid, and escaping de-
composition; and from another small portion
of both the alcohol, and of the newly formed
aldehyd, being carried off by the air that per-
meates the apparatus. The platinum-powder
does not waste, and the most inferior spirit
may generally be employed.
Ratio. In this process, the alcohol (as in
other cases of acetification) is first converted
into aldehyd; and this, as rapidly as formed,
absorbs oxygen and passes into hydrated acetic
acid. The simultaneous formation of aldehyd
during the oxygenation of that already formed,
may be detected by its odour.
Obs. During the mutual action of the
platinum-black and the vapour of alcohol, the
temperature increases, and continues to do so
until all the oxygen contained in the air in-
closed in the case is consumed, when the ace-
tification stops. On opening the case for a
short time, to admit of a fresh supply of air,
the operation recommences, thus showing its
dependence on the oxygen of the atmosphere.
For this transmutation, 100 grains of alcohol
require 71 grains (equal to 200 cubic inches) of
oa:ygen, or about 1000 cubic inches of atmo-
spheric air. To render the process continuous
and rapid, a fresh supply of air must, there-
fore, be constantly provided. This may be
effected by either having a loosely covered
opening at the top of the case, and se-
veral much smaller ones near its lower part ;
or (and preferably) by means of two small
glass tubes passing through the lid or cover, one
of which terminates just below the point of in-
sertion, whilst the other divides into branches
which reach to within a short distance from
the bottom, as shown in the engr. In this
way a very slow current of fresh air will always
be kept up in the apparatus.
In practice, we find, that by loosely spread-
ing the platinum-black on pieces of platinum-
gauze, and supporting these on small tripods
or bars of glass or porcelain (or even wood), the
watch-glasses and their troublesome suspension
may be dispensed with; as also may be the
strip of porous paper, provided a tempera-
ture of not less than 90° Fahr. be maintained
in the case or acetifier, which may easily be
done by the application of artificial heat in
the absence of sunshine.
On the large scale,
a case of wood with a glass roof, or even a
well-seasoned cask or vat may be employed,
in which case the temperature of the appa-
ratus must be kept up either by means of
steam-pipes or flues, or by the supply of warm
air. On the small scale, a hand bell-glass placed
on a dish, with a single watch-glass or piece
of platinum-gauze, and a single capsule com-
taining alcohol, may be used, provided the
bell-glass be supported on three very small
wedges, to admit of a supply of air. A mo-
dification of this is
sometimes employed, in
which the alcohol is
supplied, in drops, to
the platinum-black, by
means of a long, tu-
bular funnel passing
through the mouth of
the bell-glass, and hav-
ing its lower extremity
drawn to a very fine
point, as shown in the
engr. To ensure success, ---
the platinum-black should be either fresh-pre-
pared, or recently washed and very gently
heated, before placing it in the acetifier.
‘Spongy platinum,’ though ordered by many
chemical compilers, does not answer well for
this process.
By the above elegant and economical pro-
cess, perfectly pure acetic acid of considerable
strength may be produced from even impure
alcohol; but it is impossible in this way to
obtain a concentrated acid without a subse-
quent operation, because the action of plati-
num-black on absolute alcohol, or even on
strong alcohol, is so violent that the platinum
soon begins to glow, and inflammation ensues.
Unfortunately the revenue laws of this coun-
try, until lately, stood in the way of the adop-
tion of this beautiful process, unless duty-paid
alcohol or methylated spirit be employed; but
there is no statute that prevents an individual
employing pure spirit, of any strength, on the
small scale, for private consumption. In Ger-
many, and in the United States of America,
vinegar is manufactured on this plan, and from
the low price of crude alcohol there, it will no
doubt prove ultimately to be the cheapest source
of both pure acetic acid and culinary vine-
gars.
VI. Miscellaneous Formulae :—
1. An earcellent acetic acid, of considerable
strength, may be made by soaking fresh burnt
and perfectly dry charcoal in common vinegar,
and then subjecting it to distillation. The
water comes over first, and on increasing the
heat, the acid follows. Vinegar-bottoms and
waste vinegar may be used.
2. By exposing vinegar, or dilute acetic acid,
to the air in very cold weather, or to freezing
mixtures, the water separates in the form of
ice, and the strong acetic acid may be obtained
by draining it into suitable glass vessels,
observing to do so at a temperature suffi-


14. ACETIC ACID.
ciently low to keep the water solid. Said to
answer well in cold climates.
3. Acetic acid containing 20% of water may
be deprived of a good deal of its superfluous
water by standing over dry sulphate of soda.
(Liebig.) It may then be used either with or
without distillation.
4. Acetic acid, of ordinary strength, may be
concentrated to any degree, by rectification
once, or oftener, from dry acetate of potash or
soda, rejecting the first and last portions. The
same acetate may be used repeatedly. The
temperature need not exceed 400°, and must
not rise above 570° Fahr.
ACETIC ACID. (B. P.) Syn. ACIDUM ACE-
TICUM. Water mixed with 33% of hydrated
acetic acid. Prepared by distilling acetate of
soda with sulphuric acid. Colourless sour liquid.
Sp. gr. 1-044.
Prop. Pure hydrated acetic acid is a thin,
colourless liquid above 62°Fahr.; at 50° to 55°
it crystallises in large, brilliant, colourless,
transparent needles and plates, and even at
60° if a crystal of the acid be dropped in ; at
40° it is a solid crystalline mass. Sp. gr.—
liquid, 1.063 (Mollerat) to 1.0635 (Mohr);-
crystallised, 1-135 at 55°Fahr. (Ure). Odour,
intensely pungent when concentrated, but
grateful, fragrant, and refreshing, when dif-
fused; taste, intensely sour and acrid, be-
coming agreeable and refreshing, on suffi-
cient dilution with water; volatile ; inflam-
mable, burning with a white flame; vapour
of boiling acid highly combustible; dissolves
camphor, resins, gum resins, volatile oils,
gelatin, gliadin, coagulated albumen, and
fibrin (as muscle or the crassamentum of
the blood); it coagulates casein, but not
liquid albumen (as the serum of the blood
and white of egg); miscible with alcohol,
ether, and water in all proportions; boils at
248° Fahr.;” and is decomposed at a red heat.
Its salts are called ACETATES (which see).
Char., Tests, &c.—1. Free acetic acid reddens
litmus paper, like the other acids; and may be
readily recognised by its odour and volatility:—
2. Sesquichloride of iron being added, and
the acid then nearly saturated with ammonia,
the fluid acquires a deep dark-red colour.
Istim. See ACETIMETRY. Organic mir-
tures that cannot be thus tested, or from which
the acid cannot be obtained by simple distilla-
tion, may be neutralised, if acid, with carbon-
ate of lime, boiled for a few minutes, cooled,
filtered, the lime precipitated with dilute sul-
1 1064–H. M. Witt (Ure's “Dict. of Arts, M., & M.,”
5th ed.); 1.063 to 1:065—Muspratt (“Chemistry, Theor. }
Prac.,” p. 2); l.06296––Pereira (4th ed.); 1:0629–Brande;
1.062—Ure; 1.057—Berzelius (“Jahr. ber.,” xvi, 192):—va-
riations evidently arising from difference of purity in the
acid examined, or from difference of temperature. The
sp. gr. 1080, with other numbers given by Prof. Lehmann
(“Chemistry,” Day's Transl.), is propably a misprint.
* This is the boiling-point given by the best authorities,
and confirmed by Gerhardt (“Chimie Organique,” i, 718).
Ure made it 230° (an error corrected in 5th ed.), Lehmann
says 243:140, and others give it at 235°, 240°, &c. An acid
of about 80% (sp. gr. 1073 to 1-0743), its maximum density,
boils at 219% to 220°Tahr.
phuric acid, and the whole submitted to distil-
lation, when the acid contents of the distillate
may be estimated as above.
Pur. By heat, it escapes (entirely) in vapour;
nothing is precipitated on the addition of either
hydrosulphuric acid, nitrate of silver, or chlo-
ride of barium. Sometimes it is contaminated
with sulphurous acid, which may be recognised
by putting a fluid drachm of the acid, mixed
with an ounce of distilled water and half a
drachm of pure hydrochloric acid, also a few
pieces of granulated zinc, into a flask. While
effervescence continues suspend a slip of white
blotting-paper, moistened with solution of sub-
acetate of lead, in the upper part of the flask
above the liquid, for about five minutes. The
paper should not be discoloured, and thus in-
dicate the absence of sulphurous acid.
Adult. The acetic acid of the shops is chiefly
adulterated with water. Sulphurous acid and
lead are accidental contaminations; that of
the latter often reaches 2}, making the acid
poisonous.
Phys. eff., &c. In its concentrated state it is
a corrosive and an acrid poison. Taken inter-
nally, it acts by dissolving the animal tissues,
and by thus destroying the organisation, causes
death, like the other acids. In the dilute form
it acts as a stimulant, rubefacient, alterative,
refrigerant, and escharotic. Its action, as a
condiment, is noticed under VINEGAR.
Uses. Acetic acid is much employed by the
chemist and pharmaceutist, in the manufacture
of various preparations, and in analysis; by
the perfumer, in the composition of several of
his most refreshing and agreeable scents; and
in medicine, as an antiseptic, stimulant, rube-
facient, alterative, refrigerant, and escharotic.
Acetic acid (B. P.) applied by means of a
piece of rag tied to the end of a small stick,
is a nearly certain cure for RINGWORM and
SCALDHEAD–one or two applications generally
effecting a cure, and the severe smarting it
causes is only of short duration ; as a caustic,
it removes WARTS and CORNs; a piece of lint
or blotting paper wetted with it and applied
to the skin, (evaporation being prevented,)
forms a useful EXTEMPORANEOUS BLISTER. It
was once employed as a disinfectant; but is
now only used as a fumigation, to disguise the
unpleasant smell of the sick-room and crowded
assemblies. It is a popular refreshing scent
in FAINTINGS, ASPHYXIA, and NERVOUS HEAD-
ACHE ; and is a valuable rubéfacient, astrin-
gent, and local stimulant. It is also used
as a rubefacient and caustic in veterinary
practice.
In the arts, the commercial acid (pure pyro-
ligneous acid) is used by the engraver to etch
his plates; as an antiseptic in pickling and
preserving animal and vegetable substances
used as food, and anatomical preparations; in
dyeing and calico printing, and in the manu-
facture of medicated vinegars and other phar-
maceutical preparations.
In the dilute state, its properties and appli-


ACETIC ACII).
15
cations are similar to those of ordinary vinegar,
and are noticed under that head.
Poisoning from acetic acid is rare. When
concentrated, it is capable, by its corrosive and
solvent action, of perforating the coats of the
stomach and digestive canal; and it colours
the mucus of these organs by the chemical
action it exerts upon the blood. Winegar in an
excessive quantity acts in a similar way; but
in a slighter degree. The treatment and an-
tidotes are similar to those directed in cases of
poisoning by the other acids.
Duty, Earcise, &c. See WINEGAR.
Gen. commentary. Acetic acid, on the large
scale, is principally prepared from ‘acetate of
soda,” which yields by a comparatively inex-
pensive, and not a difficult operation, an acid
sufficiently strong and pure for commercial
purposes, without the necessity of rectification.
In this process shallow vessels of wood, or of
copper formed without rivets or solder (except
“silver solder’) in those parts exposed to the
action of the acid, are generally employed for
the purpose of the distillation. A coil of drawn
copper pipe, heated by steam having a pressure
of 30 to 40 lb. to the inch, traverses the
bottom of the apparatus, to impart the neces-
sary heat. The refrigeratory consists of well-
cooled earthenware, Berlin ware, or glass
vessels; and the adopter pipe is also of the
same materials. Another common form which
is even still more convenient, is a stout copper
still, furnished with a cast-iron jacket to hold
high-pressure steam ; the usual refrigeratory
being employed. In a few instances, the space
between the still and jacket is filled with sand,
oil, tallow, or fusible metal; in which case the
apparatus is set in brickwork, and heated by
a naked fire. Stills of earthenware are also
frequently employed; and even worms and
condensers of silver, or silvered copper, are
sometimes used, and with advantage. With
a leaden worm, the product is always contami-
nated with a little of that metal; the efforts
of the manufacturer to the contrary, by the
exclusion of air, and by rejecting the first and
last portions of the distillate, only lessening
and not preventing this evil. A lute (if any)
composed of ‘linseed meal’ and ‘water,’ with
or without a little powdered “plaster of paris,”
may be employed; but flat bands and short
tubes of well-seasoned ‘ vulcanised Indian rub-
ber,’ are infinitely more convenient and effica-
cious. The ingredients being placed in the
still, and well but hastily stirred together with
a wooden spatula, the head is luted on, and
the distillation soon afterwards commenced.
The chief care now should be to increase the
heat ‘gradually,” as the distillation proceeds;
and when a steam-heat is not used, to carefully
avoid over-firing, particularly towards the
close of the operation. A little acetic ether is
added by some manufacturers. In this way
4 lbs. of acid of the sp. gr. 1-050, is obtained
for every 3 lbs. of “acetate of soda employed.
Should rectification be had recourse to, the ad-
dition of about 2 or 3% of bichromate of potash,
per-owide of manganese, or red oa'ide of lead,
will remove empyreuma, if present. The first
of these substances is the most effective ; the
power of the others being in the order in which
they are printed. In distilling the weaker
acids and vinegars, it is found useful to add
from 25 to 30% of chloride of sodium, which,
by raising the boiling-point of the liquid,
allows the acid the more freely to pass over
(Stein); but this addition proves disadvan-
tageous when any sulphuric acid is present,
in which case sulphate of soda may be em-
ployed instead. If this addition be not made,
the whole of the acid cannot be obtained
without distillation to dryness, and the
generation of empyreuma.
On the small scale, glass retorts are usually
directed to be used, but glass alembics or flasks
are more convenient and safe, as already
noticed. In the preparation of the pure acid,
care should be taken that the acetate of soda
does not contain common salt, as the carbonate
of soda prepared by calcination, and frequently
used to form the acetate, is generally con-
taminated with it, and yields up its hydro-
chloric acid or chlorine during the process of
distillation, thus vitiating the product. In all
the methods given, the product becomes more
concentrated in proportion to the dryness of
the acetate and the strength of the oil of vitriol
or muriatic acid employed. By using the one
dry, and the other concentrated, glacial acid
may always be obtained by collecting separately
the last two fifths that come over, and sub-
mitting this to refrigeration.
According to Melsens, pure GLACIAL ACETIC
ACID is most advantageously obtained by dis-
tilling pure and dry acetate of potash with an
excess of strong and moderately pure acetic
acid, rejecting that which first passes over.
Acetate of soda may be safely dried at a tem-
perature of 400° to 450°, provided care be taken
to avoid ignition from contact with sparks. A
less heat is, however, quite sufficient to drive
off the whole of its water of crystallisation.
It is known to be dry by its assuming the ap-
pearance of a smooth oily liquid whilst hot. If,
whilst heated, it emits fumes, it is suffering
decomposition. The same applies to the other
commercial acetates. Crystallised acetate of
soda loses about #ths of its weight by thorough
drying.
When acetate of soda and sulphuric acid are
the ingredients employed in the production of
“acetic acid,” SULPHATE of SoDA is formed,
which, in the large way, the chemist returns
to the manufacturer of acetate of soda (i. e.,
to the pyroligneous acid maker), who employs
it in the decomposition of fresh acetate or
pyrolignite of lime. In this way, the same
soda-salt is employed over and over again,
acting merely as the vehicle for the sepa-
ration of the crude acetic acid in the solid
form, and its easy and cheap transportation
from one point to another. This ingenious




16
ACETIC ANHYDRIDE—ACETIFICATION.
method of mutual assistance resulting from
the application of chemical science to provide
for the wants of everyday life, offers some ex-
planation of the extraordinarily low price at
which acetic acid may now be purchased.
The acetic acid of commerce (pure pyro-
ligneous acid), is almost wholly obtained from
the acetates of soda and lime. The principal
supply of crude acetate (pyrolignite) of soda
is from America, Norway, and Sweden; but
much is also obtained from our home manufac-
tories. See ACETIFICATION, ACETIMETRY,
FERMENTATION, PYROLIGNEOUS ACID, SODIUM
(Acetate of), WINEGAR, &c.
More recently, acetic acid has been obtained
by decomposing with hydrochloric acid the
double salt of chloride of calcium and acetate
of lime, mentioned by Fritzsche (‘Ann. de Pog-
gend,’ xxviii, 123). For this purpose, solutions
of acetate of lime and chloride of calcium are
mixed and evaporated, the combined salts
readily crystallising in large needles. These
are freed from the mother-liquor and distilled
with common muriatic acid.
The acid furnished by this method requires
redistillation, and is, moreover, contaminated
with some of the fatty products always present
in the crude pyrolignite.
Anhydrous Acetic Acid. Syn. ACETIC AN-
HYDRIDE. Acetic acid deprived of the elements
of water.
Acetic Acid. Water. Acetic Anhydride.
2C3H4O2 — H2O = CH3O3.
Aromatic Acetic Acid. Syn. AROMATIC
VINEGAR ; A. SPIRIT OF V. ; ACIDUM ACE'-
TICUM AROMAT/ICUM, L-Prep. 1. (Ph. E.
1839.) Dried rosemary and origanum, of each,
1 oz. ; lavender flowers, 3 oz. ; bruised cloves,
# dr.; acetic acid (sp. gr. 1068), 1% pint ;
macerate for 7 days, express, and filter. A
fragrant and refreshing perfume. Omitted in
Ph. E. 1841 and P. B. 1867.
2. (Ph. E. 1817.) As the last, but using
distilled vinegar instead of the strong acid of
the Pharmacopoeia. Inferior.
3. (P. Cod. 1839.) Camphor, 2 oz. ; oil of
lavender, 10 gr.; oil of cinnamon, 20 gr. ; oil
of cloves, 30 gr.; concentrated acetic acid,
1 pint. Very fragrant and refreshing.
4. (Ph. Bor. 1847; Cod. Med. Hamb. 1845.)
Oil of cloves, 1 dr. ; oils of lavender and citron,
of each, 2 scrup.; oils of bergamot and thyme,
of each, 1 scrup.; oil of cinnamon, 10 drops;
strongest acetic acid, 1 oz. ; mix. Limpid;
yellow-brown; highly fragrant and refreshing.
See ACETIC ACID (Camphorated), and VINEGAR
(Aromatic). -
Beaufoy's Acetic Acid. A superior com-
mercial acetic acid (i.e., purified pyroligneous
acid), having a sp. gr. of about 1:04.4; or con-
taining about 28% of real acetic acid, or 32 to
33% of the hydrated acid. Same strength, &c.,
as ACETIC ACID P. B.
Cam'phorated Acetic Acid. Syn. CAMPHO-
RATED WINEGAR ; ACIDUM ACE'TICUM CAM-
PHORATUM, L.-Prep. 1. (Ph. E. 1841.)
Camphor, 3 oz. ; pulverise it by means of a
few drops of spirit of wine, and then dissolve
it in acetic acid (Ph. E.), 6% fl. oz.
2. (Ph.D. 1850.) Camphor, 1 oz. ; rectified
spirit, 1 fl. dr. ; pulverise, and dissolve in
strong acetic acid (“acid. acet. forte' Ph. D.),
10 fl. oz.
Obs. This preparation is intended as a substi-
tute for the “aromatic acetic acid” of the shops
and previous pharmacopoeias. It is also
useful as an embrocation, in rheumatism and
neuralgia; as an extemporaneous vesicant
and counter-irritant ; and as a fumigation in
fevers, &c.
Dilute' Acetic Acid. Syn. ACIDUMACETICUM
DILU'TUM, L. Acetic acid, 1 pint; distilled water,
7 pints; mix. Sp. gr. 1:006. One fluid ounce
corresponds to 16 grains of anhydrous acid
(3.63 per cent.).
Glacial Acetic Acid. Syn.
CUM GLACIALE.
liquefied by a gentle heat, stirred till it becomes
pulverulent, and then further heated until it
fuses; it is at once removed from the fire, and,
when cool, the mass is broken up, placed in a
3-pint stoppered retort connected with a
Liebig’s condenser, and then treated with
sulphuric acid, 8 fl.oz. When the distillation
slackens, heat is to be applied, and the process
continued until 6 fl. oz. of acetic acid have
passed over. If a little of the product strikes
a blue colour when mixed with a solution of
iodate of potassium containing mucilage of
starch, the whole product must be agitated
with perfectly dry black owide of manganese,
# oz., and redistilled. Sp. gr. 1.065; contains
85% of anhydrous acid.
ACETIC ANHYDRIDE.
ACETIC ACID.
ACETICA. [L.] Medicated vinegars.
ACETIFICATION. Syn. ACETIFICATIO, L.;
ACETIFICATION, Fr. ; ESSIGMACHEN, EIN-
SAüERN, Ger. In chemistry, the act or process
of converting into vinegar; also the state of
undergoing such conversion.
Acetic acid is produced either by the partial
dehydrogenation and subsequent oxidation of
bodies containing its elements, or by their de-
structive distillation. The first is effected—
by their exposure, in a finely divided state, to
the action of air or atmospheric oxygen, as in
the “quick-process’ of making vinegar; or—
by submitting them, in combination with
ferments, to contact with a free supply of at-
mospheric air, as in the old ‘field-process’ of
making vinegar; or—by exposure to the direct
action of chemical or mechanical oxidizing
agents, as condensed air (‘ platinum-black
process'), chromic and nitric acid, &c. In
general, it is alcohol more or less dilute,
particularly as it exists in fermented liquors,
which is thus converted into acetic acid.
In the second process (‘ destructive distil-
lation'), wood is the substance usually em-
ployed, and heat is the agent which develops
the acid.
ACIDUM ACETI-
Acetate of soda, 20 oz., is
See ANHYDROUS

ACETIMETRY.
17
The conversion of alcohol into acetic acid
is not immediate and direct. The atmospheric
oxygen first oxidises two atoms of its hydrogen,
ALDEHYD and water being formed; and this
aldehyd uniting with one atom of oxygen
produces one molecule of ACETIC ACID. The
changes are represented in the following equa-
tions:—
Alcohol. Oxygen. Aldehyd. Water.
1. C.H.O + O = C, H2O + H2O
Aldehyd. Oxygen. Acetic Acid.
2. C3H4O + O = HC3H3O2
After the first formation of aldehyd, the two
processes, unless artificially checked, go on
simultaneously, as long as any undecomposed
alcohol is present.
The conversion of alcohol into acetic acid,
although greatly accelerated by the presence
of nitrogenised organic matter (according to
Mulder, of a fungus—the Mycoderma Vinā or
Vinegar Plant), is rather a case of eremacausis
(slow combustion) than of fermentation.
Acetification effects combination, as shown by
the foregoing equations, whereas fermentation
resolves complex bodies into simpler one, e.g.
sugar into alcohol and carbonic anhydride.
Moreover, the presence of ferments is not
essential to the change, since pure alcohol
becomes acetified when exposed to the oxidis-
ing agents already named.
Another remarkable distinction between
acetification and fermentation is, that the
former requires the continued presence of
atmospheric oxygen; whilst the vinous fer-
mentation, after being once established, pro-
ceeds perfectly without it.
Pure alcohol does not acetify by itself,
although it readily oxidises when present in
liquids containing vegetable matter; and this,
under like circumstances, occurs with greater
rapidity in weak solutions than in stronger
ones, because of the greater proportion of
extraneous vegetable matter present in them.
This is the reason why solutions of nearly pure
sugar, solutions of coarse moist sugar, grape-
juice, and malt-worts, when fermented, com-
monly suffer acetification with an increasing
celerity corresponding to the order in which
their names are here given; and the same ap-
plies to other liquids susceptible of this change.
During the oxidation of the alcohol of
vegetable solutions, some of the other organic
matters present also suffer change. A white
gelatinous mass (MOTHER OF WINEGAR)' is
commonly deposited; but this is a secondary
result of the process, and not, as formerly
supposed, one essential to it. In ordinary
cases acetification occurs only at or near the
surface of the liquid; which accounts for the
length of time required for the operation
1. It has generally been asserted that this substance
contains vibriones, and other low forms of organised life;
but Mulder describes it, under the name mycoderma aceti,
as a plant of the order “fungi.” It is formed at the ex-
pense of the constituents of the vinegar, and often causes
whole vats of it to pass into water.
under the old process of ‘fielding;' and the
shorter time in which it is accomplished by
the improved process of Mr. Ham. It pro-
ceeds favorably at temperatures ranging
from 60° to 90° Fahr.; and most rapidly at
95° Fahr. (Liebig). In the “quick process’
of making vinegar a temperature of 90° to
92° is generally aimed at ; but it often rises
to 100°, or even to 105°, Fahr. As the tem-
perature falls acetification proceeds more
slowly, and at 46° to 50°Fahr. it ceases alto-
gether (Liebig).
Aldehyd (see above) is an exceedingly
volatile substance, and easily dissipated by a
slight heat. It is, therefore, of the highest
importance to duly regulate the temperature,
as well as the supply of air, during acetifi-
cation. In the “quick process’ of making
vinegar the loss from this cause is always
considerable, and often very great. This loss
may be lessened by passing the heated air, as
it escapes from the “acetifier,’ through a por-
celain or silvered copper worm or refrigerator,
set in a chamber containing water of a tem-
perature not higher than 40° to 45° Fahr. ;
the connection being made at the lower end
of the worm, whilst the upper end is open to
the air. On the small scale, as in the plati-
num-black process, the loss may be almost
entirely prevented by causing the upper air-
tube to pass through a vessel containing ice
or a freezing mixture; or by uniting it with
the lower end of a Liebig’s condenser.
In liquors undergoing the vinous fermenta-
tion, a portion of the newly formed alcohol
is invariably acetified whenever the tempera-
ture rises above 51°Fahr.; and at a higher
temperature, this proceeds with a rapidity
often highly injurious to the quality of the
liquor. In this way there is frequently a
useless loss of the alcohol, which is rendered
more apparent by the incipient, and sometimes
the actual, souring of the liquor.
ACETIMETRY. Syn. ACETOM'ETRY; Acá-
TOMáTRIE, Fr. ; ACETIME'TRIA, &c., L. The
art or process of determining the quantity of
pure acetic acid in vinegar, or in any other
liquid. The plans generally adopted for this
purpose are—
I. From the saturating power of the acid,
as in the common methods of acidimetry:-
1. The molecular weight of commercially
pure bicarbonate of potash, in crystals, being
100, whilst that of absolute acetic acid is 60,
it is evident that every ten grains of the
‘bicarbonate’ will exactly equal 6 grains of the
“acid.’ To apply this practically, we have
only to exactly neutralise 100 gr. of the
vinegar or solution under examination with
the bicarbonate, observing the usual pre-
cautions; then, as 10 is to 6, so is the
number of grains used, to the per-centage
strength required. In this, as in other like
cases, it is convenient to form a test-solu-
tion with the bicarbonate, by dissolving it
in sufficient water to fill the 100 divisions



2
18
ACETIMETRY.
of any simple form of “acidimeter,’ as a, b,
or c ; when the quantity of the solution, and,
consequently, of the salt used, may be read
off at once from the graduated portion of
the tube. Still greater
accuracy may be obtained
by dissolving the bicar-
bonate in exactly 1000
grs. of distilled water con-
tained in a “Schuster's
alkalimeter,’ previously
very carefully weighed;
in which case each grain
of the test-solution will
indicate Hºth of a grain,
or 0.1% of absolute acetic
acid, whilst every 10
grains will be equal to 1 grain, or 1%.
The test-solution may also be prepared from
bicarbonate of soda, or from the carbonates of
soda or potash, care being taken that the
quantity of the salt dissolved be in proportion
to its molecular weight.
2. (Brande.) A small piece of white marble,
clean and dry, is weighed, and then suspended
by a silk thread in a weighed sample (say 100
or 1000 grs.) of the vinegar or acid under
examination; the action being promoted by
occasionally stirring the liquid with a glass
rod, until the whole of the acid is saturated, as
shown by mo further action on the marble
being observable on close inspection. The
marble is then withdrawn, washed in distilled
water, dried, and weighed. The loss in weight
which it has sustained will be nearly equal to
the acetic acid present, or strictly, as 50 (mar-
ble) to 60 (absolute acetic acid). The only
precautions required are, to avoid striking the
piece of marble with the rod whilst stirring
the solution, or causing loss of substance in it
after its withdrawal; and to allow ample time
for the action of the acid on it. If the sample
consists of strong acid, it should be diluted
with twice or thrice its weight of water before
suspending the marble in it.
3. (Ure.) 100 grains of the sample under
examination is slightly reddened with tincture
of litmus, and ammonia of the sp. gr. 0.992 is
added drop by drop (from an acetimeter hold-
ing 1000 water-gr. measure, divided into 100
divisions) until precise neutralisation is effect-
ed, indicated by the blue colour of the litmus
being restored. The number of the divisions
of the acetimeter used, multiplied by 60,
and the first two right-hand figures of the
product cut off as decimals, gives a number
which represents the exact quantity of abso-
lute acetic acid in the sample. In practice, it
is found more convenient to keep the test-am-
monia ready tinged with litmus.
The mode of estimating the per-centage of
acetic acid in beers, when finding their original
gravities, is a slight modification of the above.
A test-solution of ammonia is prepared of such
a strength that a given bulk of it will exactly
neutralise one per cent. of absolute acetic acid
in an equal bulk of beer, so that, if 100 fluid
grains of the solution are sufficient to neutra-
lise the acid in 1000 fluid grains of beer, such
beer contains one tenth per cent. of acid. A
solution of ammonia, diluted with distilled
water until it has the sp. gr. 19986 at 60°, is of
the exact strength required.
An acetimeter holding 1000 grains, and
graduated downwards to 100 equal divisions,
is filled to 0 of the scale with the test-ammo-
nia, which is then added, drop by drop, to
1000 measured grains of the beer, until neu-
tralisation takes place. Every division of the
acetimeter (corresponding to ten fluid grains),
so emptied, indicates '01 per cent. of acetic
acid in the beer. The progress of the neu-
tralisation is tested from time to time with a
slip of reddened litmus paper, which should be
suffered to become faintly blue before ceasing
to add the ammonia. By this method the
exact per-centage of absolute acetic acid in
any Sample may be accurately determined.
The only precaution necessary is to be certain
that the “test-ammonia” has the required sp.
gr. (19986). Test-solutions may also be pre-
pared with pure potash or pure soda.
II. From the specific gravity of the liquid
after it has been neutralised with hydrate of
lime:—
Common hydrate of lime (freshly slaked
lime), in powder, is added gradually to the sam-
ple under examination, until it is saturated,
when the sp. gr. of the resulting clear solution
of acetate of lime is taken by Taylor's ACETI-
METER. This instrument is so adjusted and
graduated as to float at the mark on the stem
called ‘proof,” in a solution containing 5% of
absolute acetic acid (No. 24 vinegar). For
vinegars stronger than proof small weights are
provided, each of which indicates an additional
5 per cent. To ascertain the per-centage of
real acid, 5% must therefore be added to the
acetimeter number. Thus, without being
loaded, the instrument, floating at the ‘proof
mark, indicates a vinegar of 5%; with one
weight, a vinegar of 10%; with two weights,
15%, and so on. According to this system of
notation, each 5% is called a ‘vinegar.’ An
acid of 10% is said to contain two vinegars;
one of 15%, three vinegars, &c. It is also com-
mon to speak of the degrees of the acetimeter
as proof or over-proof. Thus, No. 24 vine-
gar is said to be proof; one of 5 acetimeter
degrees, 5 over-proof; one of 10 degrees, 10
over-proof, &c. For malt and wine vinegars,
which contain gluten and mucilage, this me-
thod is not strictly accurate, as a portion of
these substances escapes precipitation by
the lime, and consequently alters the specific
gravity. A small weight marked “M” is
generally supplied with the acetimeters for
trying such vinegars.
III. From the specific gravity —
The sp. gr. of the sample (carefully deter-
mined by any of the usual methods) is sought
in one of the following Tables, when the cor-


ACETIMETRY.
19
responding per-centage content of acetic acid
is at once seen.
This method furnishes reliable results only
with pure, or nearly pure solutions which do
not contain much above 50% of glacial acid,
or which have a sp. gr. not higher than 1:062.
It is also more to be depended on for weak
solutions than strong ones. By carefully di-
luting a strong acid with an equal weight, or
twice or thrice its weight of water, and allow-
ing the mixture to again acquire its normal
temperature, the sp. gr. may be taken as a
guide in all cases in which great accuracy is
not required. When such dilution is made it
only becomes necessary to multiply the indi-
cation furnished in the Tables by 2, 3, or 4, as
the case may be. As, however, authorities
are not agreed as to the precise sp. gr. of the
monohydrate or glacial acid, and of its solu-
tions, extreme accuracy must not be expected
by this method.

TABLE I.—Adapted to the Specific Gravities
of common vinegar. By Messrs. J. and P.
TAYLOR.
per
sp. gr. cent.
1:0085 contains of anhydrous or real acetic acid 5
1:01.70 xx xx 10
1.0257 25 >> 15
1.0320 >> >> 20
1-0470 5- >> 30
1-0580 » xx 40
TABLE II.-Earhibiting the quantity of ABSOLUTE or GLACIAL ACETIC ACID (HCH3O3), in
acetic acid of successive strengths.
By Mr. CooDEY.

Absolute Absolute Absolute Absolute
Acetic Acid, Sp. Gr. Acetic Acid, Sp. Gr. Acetic Acid, Sp. Gr. Acetic Acid, Sp. Gr.
per cent. per cent. per cent. per cent.
Pure acid, º 1.0630 75 I-0731 49 1.0593 23 1.0320
100 74 I-0732 48 1.0582 22 1.0311
99 1-0648 73 1.0728 47 1.0568 21 1-0292
98 1-0663 72 1.0721 46 1-0557 20 1-0275
97 1-0677 71 1-0718 45 1.0553 19 1-0264.
96 1-0685 70 1-0713 44 1'0544 18 1.0253
95 1:06.96 69 1:07.11. 43 1-0535 17 1-0241
94. 1-0704 68 1-0708 42 1.0525 16 1-0229
93 1-0708 67 1-0702 41 1'0518 15 1.0218
92 1-0715 66 I-0701 40 1:05.13 . 14 1-0200
91 1.0721 65 1.0693 39 1.0502 13 1-0183
90 I-0726 64 1-0692 38 1-0492 12 1.0172
89 1.0729 63 1.0685 37 1-0482 11 1.0161
88 1-0730 62 I'0679 36 1-0473 10 1-0150
87 1.073] 61 1:06.75 35 1-0460 9 1-0131
86 1-0732 60 1-0672 34 1-0449 8 1-0121
85 1.0733 59 1-0665 33 1.0439 7 1.0102
84 1.0734 58 1-0662 32 1-0425 6 1:0085
83 1.07343 57 1.0653 31 1.0413 5 1-0071
82 1.0735 56 1.0645 30 1-0402 4. 1:0057
81 1-0738 55 1.0641 29 1:0392 3 1-0042
80 1-0743 54 1.0632 28 1-0380 2 1.0025
79 1-0742 53 1-0628 27 1.0364 I 1-0012
78 1-0740 52 1'0616 26 1.0352 ||Pure water. 1'0000
77 1.0739 51 - 1:0610 25 1*0341
76 1.0736 50 1.0602 24 1.0330
Concluding remarks. Before applying the
above processes, account should be taken of
any mineral acid which may be present in the
sample, such being not unfrequently added to
vinegar to impart artificial strength; and in
those depending on the sp. gr., gum, gluten,
&c., must also be allowed for. The methods
depending on the saturating power of the acid
will be found appropriate to acetic acid of all
strengths, when unadulterated with the mine-
ral acids. The method based on the sp. gr. is
also very convenient, and is sufficiently accu-
rate for distilled vinegars and for pure acids
of moderate strength.
It is found that the decimal fraction of the
sp. gr. of pure or nearly pure vinegar, is
doubled by its conversion into acetate of lime.
Thus, 1:0085 in vinegar becomes 1:0170 when
converted into a solution of acetate of lime.
In malt vinegar, however, 0.005 may be de-
ducted from the sp. gr. for mucilage and
gluten. The quantity of foreign matter present
in vinegar may therefore be approximatively
ascertained, by deducting the decimal of the
sp. gr. of the solution of acetate of line from
double that of the decimal part of the sp. gr.
of the vinegar. Thus:--the sp. gr. of a
sample of vinegar being 1:014, and after satu-


20
ACETOLATS ACHROMATISM.

ration with hydrate of calcium 1:023, the sp.
gr. of the pure vinegar would be 1:009, and
that due to foreign matter '005. For—
*028–'023='005
and—
1°014–1005=1:009
The reason why proof-vinegar is called, in
commerce, No. 24, is that 1.fl. oz. of it requires
exactly 24 gr. of pure anhydrous carbonate of
soda to neutralise it. Weaker vinegars are
represented in the same ‘notation’ by the
Nos. 22, 20, 18, &c., according to their respec-
tive strengths estimated by their saturating
OWer.
ACETOLATS. [Fr.] Syn. ESPRITs Acá-
TIQUES. In French pharmacy, medicated
vinegars obtained by distillation.
ACETOLES. [Fr.] In French pharmacy,
medicated vinegars obtained by maceration.
ACETOUS FERMENTATION. See ACETI-
IFICATION.
ACETUM. [L.] Vinegar.
ACETYL. Syn. ACETYLE. A name ori-
ginally given to a hypothetical body, having
the formula C3H3, and regarded by Berzelius
as the radical of the acetates and their con-
geners. The acetyl of Gerhardt (C2H5O) is,
however, according to that chemist, the true
radical of the acetates. Williamson, in order
to remove the confusion of terms occasioned
by the application of the same name two com-
pounds of different composition, proposed the
title of othyl for the radical CºH3O.
ACHAR. See PICKLES.
ACHILLEINE (-kil-). A peculiar bitter
principle obtained from achille'a millefoºlium
(Linn.), or yarrow.
A/CHOR (-kör). [Gr.] See SCALD-HEAD.
ACHROMATIC (äk-ro-). Syn. ACHRO-
MATIQUE. Fr. In optics, devoid of colour;
bodies that transmit light without decomposi-
tion, and consequently, without the formation
of coloured rings or fringes; applied to com-
pound lenses, prisms, &c., and to instruments
fitted with them.
ACHR0'MATISM. Syn. ACHROMATISME,
Fr. In optics, the state of being achro-
matic ; the absence of coloured fringes in
the images of objects seen through a lens or
prism.
Light is not homogeneous, but decomposable
by refraction, absorption, or reflection, into
coloured rays of unequal refrangibility. A ray
of white light, in passing through a glass
prism, is entirely separated into the coloured
rays forming the ‘prismatic spectrum;’ and
when it passes through a lens, an analogous
resolution into coloured rays still occurs,
though mot so readily observed, and that to
an extent often incompatible with distinct
vision. Now, if a convea lens be regarded as
a number of prisms united by their bases
round a common centre, and a concave lens, as
a similar number of prisms with their apices
in contact, the action of lenticular and pris-
matic glasses on light will be reduced to a
common principle. A beam of light thrown
on a simple converging lens not only suffers
refraction at the spherical surface (SPHERICAL
ABERRATION), but the different coloured rays
of which it is composed, from the causes men-
tioned, being unequally bent or refracted,
diverge from their original course (CHROMATIC
ABERRATION), forming as many foci on the
axis of the lens as there are colours, and fall
separately, instead of together, on the eye or
object which receives them. Hence arise the
coloured fringes or halos that surround objects
viewed through ordinary glasses, and which
form the great impediments to the construc-
tion of perfect lenses. This effect, like the
refractive power and focal distance, varies .
in degree sub-
stances.
The correction of the chromatic aberration
of lenses is commonly effected by combining
two, or more, made of materials possessing
different ‘dispersive” powers. Thus, the spec-
trum formed by flint glass is longer than that
formed by crown glass, for the same deviation.
When the two are combined, so as to form a
compound lens, the one tends to correct the
‘dispersion’ of the other. On this principle
ACHROMATIC GLASSES are generally formed in
this country. A convea lens of crown glass is
combined with a weaker concave lens of flint
glass, the latter counteracting the dispersion of
the former, without materially interfering with
its refractive power. The resulting combi-
nation is not absolutely achromatic but is
sufficiently so for all ordinary purposes. Ac-
cording to Dr. Blair, a compound lens per-
jectly achromatic for the intermediate, as well
as for the extreme rays, may be made by con-
fining certain fluids, as hydrochloric acid, be-
tween two lenses of crown glass. In order to
produce nearly perfect achromatism in the ob-
ject-glasses of telescopes, microscopes, cameras,
&c., a concave lens of flint glass is commonly
placed between two convea lenses of crown or
plate glass, the adjacent surfaces being ce-
mented with the purest Canada balsam, to
prevent the loss of light by reflection from so
many surfaces.
Obs. The production of perfect achromatism
in lenses is a subject not less fraught with
difficulty than with practical importance to
the astronomer, the mariner, the microscopist,
and the photographer; and it has hence en-
gaged the attention of the leading mathema-
ticians and artists of Europe up to the present
time. All the larger object-glasses lately manu-
factured are said to consist of only two lenses;
the resulting achromatism proving sufficiently
exact for all useful purposes. Those of recent
production have come chiefly from the work-
shops of Dollond, of London, and the opticians
of Bavaria and Switzerland. The achromatism
of prisms depends upon the same principles,
and it is effected in the same way as that of
lenses.
in different diaphamous
ACICULAR–ACIDIMETRY.
21

ACICULAR. Needle-shaped; slender or
sharp pointed; spicular; in botany, applied to
leaves, and in chemistry, to crystals. The last
are also sometimes termed ACIC'ULF.
ACID. Syn. ACIDUM, L.; ACIDE, Fr. ;
ACIDO, Ital.; SAURE, G. In familiar lan-
guage, any substance possessing a sour taste.
In chemistry, substances are said to be acid, or
to have an acid reaction, when they are capable
of turning blue litmus red. In chemistry,
also, the term acid is applied to a very large
class of compounds containing hydrogen (hy-
drogen salts), and in which one or more atoms
of that element may be replaced by an equiva-
lent quantity of a metal or other basic radical;
e.g.—
1. The one atom of hydrogen in hydro-
chloric acid (HCl) may be replaced by
sodium, producing the salt sodium chloride
(NaCl).
2. The one atom of hydrogen in nitric acid
(HNO3) may be replaced by silver, producing
the salt silver nitrate (AgNO3).
3. One atom of hydrogen in acetic acid
(HC3H2O3) may be replaced by the basic radi-
cal ammonium (NH4), producing the salt am-
monium acetate (NH4C3H2O3).
Acids which, like those mentioned in the
foregoing examples, contain one atom of re-
placeable hydrogen are called monobasic ;
those which contain two such atoms (e.g. sul-
phuric acid, H.SO4; tartaric acid, H2CH4O6),
dibasic ; those which contain three such
atoms (e.g. phosphoric acid, HaPO; ; citric
acid, H3C5H5O2)," tribasic ; and so on with
acids of higher basicity. Acids of greater
basicity than unity are frequently termed
polybasic.
Besides containing replaceable or basic
hydrogen, acids are further characterised by
the property of combining with alkaloids to
form salts; e.g.—
Sulphuric Acid. Quinia.
HSSO1 + 2C20H24N2O2 =
Quimia Sulphate.
(C20H24N2O3)2. HASO,
Acetic Acid. Morphia.
HC2H5O2 + C17H16NO3 =
Morphia Acetate.
Clz Hian Os. HC3H8O,
Dibasic Acids. See ACID.
Fatty Acids. Acids separable from fats or
oils; e.g. stearic acid, oleic acid, butyric
acid, &c.
Inorganic Acids.
(which see).
Mineral Acids. Acids chiefly or wholly
derived from the mineral kingdom. In medi-
cine, sulphuric, hydrochloric, and nitric acids,
are commonly so called.
Monobasic Acids. See ACID.
Same as MINERAL ACIDS
| Symbols indicating the number of atoms of replace-
able hydrogen occupy the foremost position in the formulae
of acids, as shown in the text.
Organic Acids. Acids formed by, or derived
from, organic substances; e.g. acetic acid,
tartaric acid, uric acid, &c.
Polybasic Acids. See ACID.
Pyro-acids. Acids resulting from the de-
composition by heat of other acids; e.g.
gallic acid, when heated, yields pyro-gallic
acid.
Tribasic Acids. See ACID.
ACIDIFICATION. [Eng., Fr.] Syn. ACIDI-
FICATIO, L. In chemistry, the act, process,
or state of acidifying, or of making, becoming,
or impregnating with acid.
ACIDIMETER. Syn. ACIDOM'ETER'; ACI-
DIME'TRUM, &c., L.; ACIDIMīTRE, Fr. An
instrument or apparatus employed in acidi-
metry.
The ordinary acidimeters of the chemist
are small tubes, constructed to hold exactly
1000 grains of distilled water, at 60°Fahr.,
within the limits of their scale, which is
accurately graduated into 100 divisions.
They are used to contain the alkaline solu-
tions (TEST-LIQUORs, NoFMAL or STANDARD
SOLUTIONS) employed in the following pro-
CeSSes.
Beaumé’s Acidimeter, and others of the same
class, are HYDROMETERS, and are described
under that ‘head.”
ACIDIMETRY. Syn. ACIDOM'ETRY; ACI-
DIME'TRIA, &c., L.; ACIDIMáTRIE, Fr. The
estimation of the strength or quantity of acid,
in a free state, contained in any liquid. It is
the reverse of ‘alkalimetry.” Acidimetrical
assays are understood to refer to the relative
strengths of the same acids (i.e., the quantity
of real acid of the same kind contained in the
solutions examined), and not to the comparative
strengths of acids of different composition or
IlanleS.
Acidimetrical processes. These are founded
chiefly on the capacity of the acids to saturate
the bases; and, in some of the liquid acids, on
the specific gravity.
a. VOLUMETRICALLY :—
1. The sample of the acid to be examined
(100 gr., or any convenient aliquot part
thereof) is placed in a suitable glass vessel,
and if it be one of the stronger acids, diluted
with six or eight times its weight of water, or
if solid (as oxalic, or citric acid), dissolved in
a like quantity. This liquid is then ea actly
neutralised with an alkali.
This point is usually determined, by the
addition of a small quantity of litmus solu-
tion, which turns just blue when the solution
is neutralised, but when a carbonate is used
for the alkaline solution, the acid must be
boiled a short time after each addition to
expel the carbonic acid. The quantity of the
alkaline solution consumed for this purpose,
represents an equivalent quantity of acid, and
thus gives us the acid content of the sample
under examination. The common practice is
to dissolve one equivalent of the alkaline test
in grains or grammes in water, and to make





22
ACIDIMETRY.
up the solution to exactly 1000 parts by
measure (i.e., 1000 ‘water-grains' or grammes),
so as to accurately fill the 100 divisions of an
acidimeter; when the quantity, in grains or
grammes, of the sample tested, bears the same
proportion to the equivalent number of the
acid under examination, that the number of
acidimeter divisions of the test-liquor con-
sumed bear to the per-centage of acid sought.
Thus:–suppose 50 gr. of a sample of sulphuric
acid, take 25 acidimeter divisions (300 parts
or water-grains measure) of the test-liquid to
neutralise it, what is its content of real
acid P
The equivalent of sulphuric acid is 49 (half
its atomic weight); so, by the rule of propor-
tion,
50 49 25
It therefore contains 24% parts of real sul-
phuric acid, in 50.
If the 1000 parts or grain-measures, instead
of the number of the acidimeter divisions, be
taken for the calculation, it will, of course, be
necessary to point off the first right-hand
24%
figure of the result as a decimal. Thus ; re-
peating the above example—
50 49 250 24.5
Or, since the equivalent of the test-liquid is
100, it will bear the same proportion to the
equiv. of the acid eacamined, as the number of
the acidimeter divisions of the test-liquid
consumed in neutralising 100 gr., do to the
per-centage sought. Thus:—50 gr. of hydro-
chloric acid take 45 acidimeter divisions to
effect neutralisation, what is its real strength?
—The equiv. of hydrochloric acid is 36.5 :
therefore—
100 : 36.5 :: 45 : 16:425%
and, since only 50 gr. (instead of 100 gr.)
were examined,—
16:425 × 2 = 32.85%
Some operators prefer employing 100 gr.
instead of the equivalent weights of the given
tests in making their test-solutions, in which
case each gr. or 1000th part represents Tºth,
and each acidimeter degree 1 gr. of the alkali
or carbonate employed; when a similar pro-
portion will obtain to that first above
given.
In technical analysis it is more convenient
if the number of acidimeter divisions of the
“test-liquid’ consumed express the per-centage
strength of the acid, without further calcula-
tion. For this purpose the number of grains
of the acid taken for the assay should cor-
respond to the equivalent number of such acid
(see Table I., below); or to some convenient
aliquot part of it, as the #, #, #, or ºth ; the
per-centage answer, in the last case, being
doubled, quadrupled, &c., according to the
aliquot part taken. The reason of this is
obvious.
For the test-solutions, ammonia, and the
dry and crystallised carbonates and bicarbo-
nates of potash and soda, are used, and are
made by dissolving in water their constituents
except ammonia, of which 1000 grains, or one
litre, of solution of specific gravity 0.992 con-
tains exactly one equivalent.
53 grains (or grammes) of pure anhydrous
carbonate of soda, prepared by gradually heat-
ing to redness the crystallised salt, constitute
one equivalent (half the atomic weight), and
69 grains (or grammes) of pure dry carbonate
of potash. Of the crystallised salt 143 grains
of carbonate of soda will be required, and 84
grains (grammes) of the crystallised bicarbo-
nate of soda, and 100 of the crystallised bicar-
bonate of potash. Occasionally solutions con-
taining in one thousand parts, 50 of pure
carbonate of lime or chalk, or 28 of pure
caustic lime, are used.
Besides these, a process known as Kiefer’s
is practised, and an ammoniacal solution of
oride of copper is employed as the “test-
liquor;’ and the ‘point of neutralisation’ is
known by the turbidity observed as soon
as the free acid present is completely satu-
rated.
The normal solution or test-liquor is pre-
pared by adding to an aqueous solution of
sulphate of copper, pure ammonia water, until
the precipitate, which at first forms, is just
redissolved, carefully avoiding excess. Or
better, by adding a rather strong solution of
sulphate of copper, to a quantity of a rather
strong solution of ammonia containing exactly
17 gr., or one equiv. of pure ammonia, as long
as the precipitate which forms is redissolved
on agitation; the resulting liquid being after-
wards diluted with pure distilled water, until
it accurately measures 1000 water-grains, or
fills 100 divisions of an acidimeter, at 60°Fahr.
In either case, the strength of the resulting
“test-solution’ must be carefully determined
by means of standard sulphuric acid, and
adjusted, if necessary.
This method answers well with all the
stronger acids (excepting oxalic acid), even
when dilute; and it has the advantage of not
being affected by the presence of a neutral
metallic salt with an acid reaction, as sulphate
of copper, or of zinc. -
Besides this process a solution of lime in
sugar may be used, as proposed by M. Peligot,
and made as follows:–
Pure caustic lime is carefully slaked by
sprinkling with water, and 50 grains (or .
grammes), made up by water to a milky solu-
tion, and 100 grains of pure sugar candy dis-
solved in 1000 grains of water, are added, and
the whole well shaken. It is allowed to settle
in a closed bottle, and the clear solution poured
off and diluted, until 1000 grains neutralise
exactly 100 grains of pure hydrochloric acid
of sp. gr. 1'1812. Of course it only answers
with acids whose calcium salts are readily
soluble in water.

ACIDIMETRY.
23
TABLE I.—Weights of the respective acids equivalent to the given weight of the principal bases,
hydrogen being taken as unity.

17 gr. of pure ammonia."
31 , anhydrous soda.”
40 , hydrate of soda.”
53 , dry carbonate of soda.”
143 , crystallised carbonate of
soda.”
84 », crystallised bicarbonate
of soda.
47 , anhydrous potassa.” rº
56 , hydrate of potassa.” §
69 , dry carbonate of potassa." | #
100 , crystallised bicarbonate #
of potassa. # -.
50 pure chalk. **
” lpure marble. º
28 , pure caustic lime. :
37 , hydrate of lime (fresh). .
44 , dry carbonic acid (when §
the bicarbonate of
potassa or soda is
used for testing in the
process of Fresenius
and Will).
22 , dry carbonic acid (when
a dry carbonate is
used).
b. GRAVERMETRICALLY :—
The test-liquors or standard solutions of the
above methods are made up so as to weigh
exactly 1000 grains, instead of to ‘measure'
100 acidimeter-divisions. Every grain of the
test-liquor thus represents ºth gr. of alkali;
and every 10 gr., 1 gr. of alkali; or respec-
tively, Tºth per cent., and 1 per cent. The
vessel used for containing the solutions is
carefully weighed whilst empty, and 1000 gr.
being placed in the opposite scale, the test-
solution, containing evactly one equivalent of
base, is poured in, and the whole made up with
distilled water (if necessary) so as to restore
the balance to an equilibrium. After the
51 Acetic acid (anhydrous).
60 xx , (crystallised or glacial).
99 Arsenious acid (dry).
35 Boracic acid (anhydrous).
62 5.x , (crystallised).
22 Carbonic acid (dry).
67 Citric acid (crystallised).
85 Gallic acid (dried at 212°).
94. , (crystallised).
1273. Hydriodic acid (dry or gaseous).
27 Hydrocyanic acid (anhydrous).
36% Hydrochloric acid (dry or gaseous).
109 >y , (liquid, sp. gr. 1162).
166}. Iodic acid.
54, Nitric acid (anhydrous).
63 3.5 , (liquid, monohydrated, sp. gr.
1:517 to 1.521).
67} , , (liquid, sesquihydrated, sp. gr.
1:5033 to 1504).
72 , , (liquid, binhydrated, sp. gr.
1.486).
90 , , (liquid, sp. gr. 1'42).
36 Oxalic acid (anhydrous).
63 , (crystallised).

72 Phosphoric acid (anhydrous).
81 xy , (glacial).
50 Succinic acid (dry or anhydrous crystals).
59 >> , (ordinary crystals).
40 Sulphuric acid (anhydrous).
49 25 , (liquid, monohydrated, sp.
gr. 18485).
75 Tartaric acid (crystallised).
212 Tannic acid (carefully dried).
process of neutralisation, the acidimeter, with
its contents, is again placed in the scales; its
previous weight still remaining there. The
number of grains required to restore the
equilibrium of the balance (i.e., the loss of
weight), gives the ea'act weight of the test-
liquor consumed. In all other respects the
process is the same as in the ‘volumetrical
method’ already described.
Another method for estimating the strength
of the sample of acid is by weighing the amount
of carbonic acid expelled during saturation.
(Method of Fresenius and Will.) This de-
pends on the weight of gaseous carbonic acid
which a given weight of the acid-sample under

1 1000 water-grains measure of pure liquor of ammonia,
sp. gr. 0.992, contain exactly 17 gr., or 1, equiv. of pure
gaseous ammonia. A standard liquor of this strength may
be most conveniently prepared by cautious dilution of a
stronger solution, until a hydrostatic bead, corresponding
to the sp. gr., floats indifferently in the middle of the new
solution, at 60°Fahr. By keeping two hydrostatic beads
in the solution—the one made Żarely to float, and the
other barely to sink—we shall always be able to detect any
change of strength or temperature which it may suffer;
since the “loss of a single hundredth part of a grain of
ammonia per cent, or the difference of a single degree of
heat, will cause the beads to ” vary their positions. To
Fº its integrity it must be kept in a well-stoppered
ottle. (See below.)
* These substances, as Well as “test-solutions’ contain-
ing them, must be perfectly free from carbonic acid, and
must be carefully preserved to prevent the absorption of
carbonic acid from the atmosphere. Mohr states that a
dilute solution of either of them is best preserved in a
flask or bottle well closed with a cork fitted with a small
bulb tube (resembling a chloride of calcium tube), filled
with a finely triturated mixture of sulphate of soda and
caustic lime, and bearing a very thin open tube in the exit
aperture. Fresenius, and most other foreign chemists,
prefer ‘test-solutions’ of pure soda. With test-solutions
containing caustic alkalies, exact neutralisation of an acid
is not only more easily effected, but more readily per-
ceived, particularly when either solution is tinted with
litmus.
* Prepared by gradually heating the pure crystallised
carbonate to redness. From being uniform in composition,
and easily procured or prepared, º are much employed;
preference being usually given to the soda-salt.
* The crystals must be free from attached water, but
not the least effloresced.

24
ACIDIMETRY.
examination is capable of expelling from pure
bicarbonate of soda (or of potash), which is
estimated by the loss of weight in the acidi-
meter, or apparatus, after the gas, rendered
perfectly dry by passing through sulphuric acid,
has escaped into the air.
Oper. A determined amount of the acid
wnder examination is accurately weighed into
the flask A (see engr.); and if it be a concen-
trated acid, or a solid, it is mixed with or dis-
solved in 6 or 8 times its weight of water.
The little glass tube (e) is then nearly filled
to the brim with pure bicarbonate of soda, in
powder, and a fine silken thread is tied round
the neck of the tube, by means of which it
can be lowered down into the flask (A), so as
to remain perpendicularly suspended when the
cork is placed in the latter; the cord being
held between the cork and the mouth of the
flask. The flask (B) is next about half filled
with oil of vitriol, and the tubes being arranged
in their places, as represented in the engr. ;
and time having been allowed for the mixture
of acid and water to cool completely, after
the increase of heat caused by mixing, the
whole apparatus is very accurately weighed.
The cork in the flask (A) is then slightly
loosened, so as to allow the little tube con-
taining the bicarbonate of soda to fall into the
acid, and is again instantly fixed AIR-TIGHT
in its place. The evolution of carbonic acid
now commences, and continues until the acid
in the flask (A) is neutralised. When this
takes place, which is easily seen by no bubbles
(A.) A wide-mouthed flask, capable of holding 2% to
3 oz., containing sample for trial (f).
(B.) Ditto, capable of holding 1% to 2 oz., partly filled
with oil of vitriol (g).
(a, c, d.) Tubes fitting air-tight in the flasks by means
of the corks (i) and (j).
(h.) Piece of wax fitting air-tight on the end of (a).”
(e.) Small tube capable of holding about 1 drachm of
powdered bicarbonate of soda or potash.
(h.) Open end of the tube (d).
(k.) Silk cord fastened to the tube (e).
being emitted on shaking the apparatus, the
flask A is put into hot water (120° to 130°
Fahr.), and kept there, with occasional agita-
tion, until the renewed evolution of gas has
completely ceased. The little wax stopper is
then taken off the tube (a), the apparatus
taken out of the hot water, wiped dry, and
suction applied, by means of a perforated cork,
or a small India-rubber tube, and the mouth,
to the end of the tube (d), until the sucked air
no longer tastes of carbonic acid. The whole
is then allowed to become quite cold, when it
is replaced in the balance (the other scale still
containing the original weights), and weights
added to restore the equilibrium.
The loss of weight represents the exact
quantity of dry carbonic anhydride, or an-
hydrous carbonic acid gas, that has been ex-
pelled from the bicarbonate of soda, by the
action of the acid in the sample examined.
The quantity of real acid it contained is
then deduced by the following calculation :-
One equivalent of gaseous carbonic anhydride,
or anhydrous carbonic acid (= 44) bears the
same proportion to one equivalent of the acid
in question, as the amount of the carbonic
anhydride expelled does to the amount of the
acid sought. Thus, suppose a dilute sulphuric
acid expels 3 gr. of carbonic anhydride, the
arrangement is—
44 : 49 :: 3 3'349
Consequently the sample operated on con-
tained 3.5 (nearly) grains of true sulphuric acid.
Instead of the above calculation, we may
multiply the weights of the respective acids
required to earpel 1 gr. of carbonic acid (as
exhibited in the following table) by the num-
ber of gr. of dry carbonic acid evolved during
the above operation. The product represents
the per-centage strength, when 100 gr. of the
acid have been examined. When only 50, 25,
20, or 10 gr. have been tested, this product
must, of course, be doubled, quadrupled, &c.,
as the case may be.
TABLE II.
Multipliers.
Acetic acid (anhydrous) . . . . 1'159
35 , (hydrated or glacial). 1364
Citric acid (crystallised) . . . 1523
Hydrochloric acid (dry or gaseous) 829
25 , (sp. gr. 1:16) . 2.478
Nitric acid (anhydrous). . . 1227
25 , (sp. gr. 1-5) . 1-523
,, , (sp. gr. 1-42). 2:045
Oxalic acid (crystallised) 1.432
Sulphuric acid (anhydrous). . •909
35 27 (sp. gr. 18485) 1114
Tartaric acid (anhydrous) . . . 1:500
55 , (crystallised) . . . 1705
Even this easy calculation may be avoided,
in technical analysis, by simply taking for the
assay, such a weight of the respective acids as
is capable of disengaging eacactly 10 gr. of
dry carbonic acid from the bicarbonate. In
this case, the loss of weight in grains, from
the operation, multiplied by 10, at once indi-
cates the exact per-centage strength sought.

ACIDIMETRY.
25
The proper weight of any acid to be taken to
give per-centage results, is found by simply
dividing ten times the equiv. of that acid by
44. For, taking sulphuric acid as an example,
aS-- 44 : 49 : : 10 : 11-1318
or 11:13 nearly.
On this principle are obtained the weights
to be taken, as given im—
TABLE III. Grains.
Acetic acid (anhydrous) . . . . . 11:59
35 ,, (hydrated or glacial) . 13-64
Citric acid (crystallised) . . . 15:23
Hydrochloric acid (dry or gaseous) 8:29
75 ,, . (sp. gr. 1:16) . 24.78
Nitric acid (anhydrous). . 12-27
32 , (sp. gr. 1-5). . . 15:23
37 , (sp. gr. 142) . 20:45 .
Oxalic acid (crystallised) 14'32
Sulphuric acid (anhydrous). 9:09
35 ,, . (sp. gr. 1845). 11:14
Tartaric acid (anhydrous) . 15:00
55 , (crystallised). 17-05
2. A convenient modification of the preceding
method of acidimetry consists in using the
common apparatus figured
in the margin, and em-
ploying fused chloride of
calcium to dry the evolved
carbonic acid gas, instead
of concentrated sulphuric
acid. The mode of conduct-
ing the process and obtain-
ing the results is precisely
the same as in that last
explained, and need not
therefore be repeated. In
this case, however, suction
must be applied to the small
tube (g), instead of (d) in
the preceding engraving.
(a.) Wide-mouthed flask, containing the sample for ex-
amination, hermetically stopped by the cork (e), and sup-
porting the tubes (b) and (c).
(b.) Bulbous tube, containing fragments of fused chlo-
ride of calcium, terminating in a capillary tube (g).
(c.) Bent tube, reaching nearly to the bottom of the
flask (a).
(d.) Small tube containing bicarbonate of soda.
(e.) Cork fitting bottle (a), and the tubes (b) and (c),
hermetically.
(f) Silken thread, suspending the small tube (d).
Obs. These methods, though apparently com-
plicated, are not difficult to perform, when
once well understood. The application of
heat after the completion of the operation is
indispensable, as if it were neglected, from
0-3 to 0-4 of a gr. of carbonic acid would be
retained in the liquid. The bicarbonate of
soda must be pure, and perfectly free from any
neutral carbonate or sesquicarbonate of soda.
To ensure this, the bicarbonate of commerce is
reduced to a uniform powder, put into a glass
jar, and covered with its own weight of cold
distilled or rain water, and allowed to stand
for twenty-four hours, with frequent stirring.
It is then placed upon a funnel, the tube of
which is stopped with loose cotton, so as to
allow the lye to drain off. It is next washed
several times with small quantities of cold
distilled or rain water, and after being dried,
by pressure between some sheets of blotting
paper, without the aid of heat, is kept for
use in a well-closed glass bottle. Before use,
it may be tested to ascertain its purity. If
pure, it neither reddens turmeric paper, nor
gives a brick-red precipitate with a solution of
bichloride of mercury. Pure bicarbonate of
potassa may be used instead of bicarbonate of
soda ; but in either case it is always proper to
use an excess, so as to leave some undecom-
posed carbonate, after the operation has
ended. The presence of a little sodium chlo-
ride or sulphate in the bicarbonate will not
interfere in the least, but the absence of every
trace of neutral carbonate is a sine quá non.
The two above methods of estimating the
amount of acid are only superior to the
generally used methods first described, when
the presence of colouring matter interferes with
the reaction of the litmus used to show the
point of neutralisation.
Observations. When great accuracy is re-
quired in conducting the neutralisation of the
solution in estimating volumetrically with
litmus as an indicator, it is proper to prepare
and keep standard solutions of sulphuric acid
and oacalic acid, with which occasionally to try
the alkaline test-liquor. The only difficulty in
the process is to avoid over-saturation of the
acid-sample. Great care must be taken not to
exceed the precise point of neutralisation of
the acid. After adding each portion of the
test-liquor, the solution should be well stirred
up, and as soon as the effervescence becomes
languid the greatest caution must be observed
in adding more. The proper point is arrived
at when the liquid ceases to redden litmus, and
does not alter the colour of turmeric paper; if
it turns the latter brown, too much of the test-
liquid has been added, and the operation
becomes useless. Towards the end of the ex-
periment, when great precision is required, a
gentle heat may be applied, in order to expel
the free carbonic acid in the liquor; but other-
wise this is unnecessary. The peculiar soapy
odour gradually acquired by the liquor as it.
nears saturation, will materially assist the
operator when testing vinegars, and some of
the other vegetable acids. A good method is
to tint either the acid-sample or the test-
liquid with a few drops of litmus, as noticed
under ACETIMETRY ; when the reddish shade
will gradually deepen into “purple,” or the
purple into ‘red,’ as the point of saturation is
approached; and the blue colour will be per-
fectly restored as soon as this point is reached.
Dr. Ure recommends keeping the ammonia-test
ready tinged with litmus ; and the same applies
to other test-liquors.
In commerce, the strength of acids is fre-
quently reckoned with reference to a standard,
termed 100 acidimetric degrees. This is taken
from the circumstance that 91 gr. of commer-


26
ACIDITY ACONITE ROOT.
cial oil of vitriol, of a sp. gr. of 1845, exactly
saturate 100 gr. of dried carbonate of soda.
An acid requiring only 35, 50, or any other
number of grains of the carbonate to saturate
it, is in like manner termed of so many degrees
strong; the number of grains representing in
each case an equal number of degrees. This
method originated with the French chemists,
and though only conventional, and principally
confined to commercial purposes, is especially
adapted to practical men but little conversant
with chemistry, yet very ready in retaining or
calculating anything on the centesimal scale,
from its similarity to monetary language and
reckoning.
ACID'ITY. Syn. ACID'ITAs, L.; ACIDITÉ,
Fr. ; SÄURE, Ger. In chemistry, the state of
being acid. In physiology, &c., the impression
given to the organs of taste by tart or acid
substances. Sourness. See FERMENTATION,
MALT-LIQUORS, WINES, &c.
Gastric Acidity. Acidity of the stomach;
a common and well-known symptom of weak
or disordered digestion.
Treat., &c. Small doses of absorbents or
antacids, three or four times daily, to which
some tonic bitter, as calumba, cascarilla, chamo-
mile, gentian, or orange-peel, may be added.
Stomachic stimulants, as capsicum, ginger,
mustard, or wine, &c., taken with, or after,
meals, are also useful. The diet should be light
and nutritious; and acescent vegetables, over-
ripe fruit, and weak new beer or other
liquors, avoided as much as possible. The
bowels should be kept regular, but not open,
by the occasional use of mild aperients; as
Thubarb, aloes, castor oil, senna, or mercurial
pill, or compounds containing them. Excessive
looseness or diarrhoea may be checked by a
few doses of carbonate of soda, chalk-mixture,
or astringents.
In INFANCY this affection is usually accom-
panied by restlessness, continual crying, draw-
ing up of the legs forcibly towards the body,
hiccups, vomiting, diarrhoea, sour eructations,
griping pains, green stools, and debility; often
followed, when the irritation is considerable,
by convulsions. The treatment consists in
relieving the bowels of all offending matter
by a few doses of rhubarb-and-magnesia. The
looseness or diarrhoea may be checked by a
few small doses of carbonate of soda or chalk-
mixture; or better, in an infant which is fed,
by lime-water (1 or 2 fl. oz.) mixed with as
much milk. Two or three drops of caraway,
cinnamon, dill, or peppermint water, on sugar
(not with the food), will tend to promote the
expulsion, and prevent the undue generation
of gases. The flatulence usually disappears
with the acidity. The occasional administra-
tion of 1 to 3 gr. of quicksilver-with-chalk
(“gray powder”), will frequently remove the
complaint, and prevent its recurrence, when
all other means fail. The diet of both nurse
and infant should be carefully regulated. See
ANTACIDS, DYSPEPSIA, &c.
ACIDULAE. [L. pl.] In medicine, mineral
waters rich in carbonic acid.
ACIDULATED. Syn. ACIDULATUS,
ACIDULÉ, Fr. Blended or flavoured with an
acid; made slightly sour. See KAII (Acidu-
lated), DROPs, LozENGES, &c. In chemistry,
the addition of an acid to a neutral or al-
kaline liquid until it reddens blue litmus
paper.
ACIDUM. [L.] An acid.
ACOLOGY. Syn. In medicine, the doctrine
of, or a discourse on, remedies, or the materia
medica. -
AC'0NITE (-nite). Syn. ACON’ITUM, L. ;
ACONIT, Fr. ; AKONITUM, EISENHUT, STURM-
HUT, Ger. Monkshood; wolfsbane. In botany,
a genus of exogenous plants. Nat. ord, Ra-
nunculaceae; Sea. syst., Polyandria Trigynia.
They are characterised by showy purple or
yellow helmet-shaped flowers growing in pani-
cles, deeply cut leaves, and perennial (usually)
tap-shaped or tapering roots. The whole plant
is highly poisonous, the roots being more poi-
sonous than the leaves. In medicine and ma-
(which see).
Symptoms. Numbness and tingling in the
mouth and throat, which are parched; followed
by giddiness, dimness of sight, and (some-
times) delirium, but seldom complete coma;
there is numbness and tingling of the limbs,
a loss of power in the legs, (in some cases)
frothing at the mouth, severe abdominal pains,
nausea, vomiting, and diarrhoea; tremors or
twitchings of the voluntary muscles, (some-
times) convulsions (in animals, but not in
man); sharp cries; pupil (generally) dilated,
very rarely contracted; pulse, fitful and sink-
ing; skin, cold and livid; difficulty of breath-
ing; general prostration; loss of sensation or
feeling ; insensibility, general trembling, faint-
ing, and sudden death. The eyes are often
completely paralysed, yet retains consciousness
to the last.
in from 1 to 8 hours. If it last beyond this
period there is hope of recovery. (Fleming.)
Treatment. See ALKALOIDs.
ACONITE LEAVES (B. Ph.). Syn. AcONITI
FOLIA, L. The fresh leaves and flowering tops
of aconitum napellus, Linn., gathered when
from plants cultivated in Britain.
Char. Leaves smooth, palmate, divided into
five deeply cut wedge-shaped segments; excit-
ing slowly, when chewed, a sensation of tin-
gling. Flowers numerous, irregular, deep blue,
in dense racemes.
Prep. Extractum aconiti.
ACONITE R00T (B. Ph.). Syn. Aconitſ
pellus. Imported from Germany, or cul-
|tivated in Britain, and collected in the winter
or early spring before the leaves have ap-
peared. -
Char. Usually from one to three inches long,
L.;
glaring; and, in some cases, the patient is
The case generally proves fatal
about one third of the flowers are expanded,
RADIX, L. The dried root of aconitum na-.
teria medica, the plant ACONITUM NAPELLUs


ACONITI FOLIA—ACONITUM. -
27
-

not thicker than the finger at the crown, ta-
pering, blackish-brown, internally whitish. A
minute portion, cautiously chewed, causes pro-
longed tingling and numbness.
Prep. Aconitia, the active principle; Lini-
mentum Aconiti, 1 ounce to 1 fluid ounce ;
Tinctura Aconiti, 54% grains to 1 fluid ounce.
ACONITI FOIIA. See ACONITE LEAVES.
AC0NITI RADIX. See ACONITE ROOT.
ACONITIA. CaoHº O.N. (B.P.) Syn. Aco-
NITIA, L. An alkaloid obtained from aconite.
Take of
Aconite root, in coarse powder, 14 pounds.
Rectified spirit .
Distilled water
Solution of ammonia.
Pure ether . . . .
Diluted sulphuric acid J
Pour upon the aconite root three gallons of
the spirit, mix them well, and heat until ebul-
lition commences; then cool and macerate for
four days. Transfer the whole to a displace-
ment apparatus, and percolate, adding more
spirit, when requisite, until the root is ex-
hausted. Distil off the greater part of the
spirit from the tincture, and evaporate the
remainder over a water bath until the whole
of the alcohol has been dissipated. Mix the
residual extract thoroughly with twice its
weight of boiling distilled water, and when it
has cooled to the temperature of the atmo-
sphere, filter through paper. To the filtered
liquid add solution of ammonia in slight excess,
and heat them gently over a water bath.
Separate the precipitate on a filter, and dry it.
Reduce this to coarse powder, and macerate it
in successive portions of the pure ether with
frequent agitation. Decant the several pro-
ducts, mix, and distil off the ether until the
extract is dry. Dissolve the dry extract in
warm distilled water acidulated with the sul-
phuric acid; and, when the solution is cold,
precipitate it by the cautious addition of solu-
tion of ammonia diluted with four times its
bulk of distilled water. Wash the precipitate
on a filter with a small quantity of cold dis-
tilled water, and dry it by slight pressure
between folds of filtering paper.
Characters and Tests. A white, usually
amorphous, solid, soluble in 150 parts of cold,
and 50 of hot water, and much more soluble
in alcohol and in ether; strongly alkaline to
reddened litmus, neutralising acids, and preci-
pitated from them by the caustic alkalies, but
not by carbonate of ammonia or the bicarbo-
nates of soda or potash. It melts with heat,
and burns with a smoky flame, leaving no resi-
due when burned with free access of air.
When rubbed on the skin it causes a tingling
sensation, followed by prolonged numbness. It
is a very active poison.
ACONITIC ACID. (Identical with Pyroci-
tric Acid.) An acid extracted by Peschier
from aconitum napellus, and by Bracconnot
from equisetum fluviatile. It exists in these
plants chiefly in the form of aconitate of calcium.
of each
- w
a sufficiency.
Properties. A white, colourless, semicrys-
talline mass.
ACONITINA. See ACONITIA.
ACONITINE. See ACONITIA.
ACONITUM. [L.] Aconite. The pharma-
copoeial name of aconitum napellus (see below).
Acomitum Ferox. (Ind. P.) Habitat. Tem-
perate and sub-Alpine Himalaya, at 10,000
to 14,000 feet elevation, from Gurhwal to
Sikkim.
Officinal part. The dried root (Aconiti
ferocis Radiv), in common with those of other
Himalayan species, viz., aconitum napellus,
a. palmatum, and a luridum, constitutes the
drug well known in the bazaars of Upper
India under the Hindostani name of Bish or
JBikh.
It occurs in the form of tuberous roots of a
more or less conical form, from two to three
inches in length, and from half an inch to one
inch in thickness at their upper end. They
have usually a shrunken appearance, and are
covered with a dark shrivelled bark; fracture
shining and resinous; sometimes waxy, vary-
ing in colour from pale to deep brown. Some
specimens are white and spongy; and these, it
is asserted, are superior in activity to the more
compact kinds. Inodorous; taste at first
slightly bitter, leaving a peculiar sense of
numbness on the tongue and fauces. Active
principle, aconitia. -
Medical properties and uses. Similar to
those of aconitum napellus of Europe. Pre-
parations. This root may be advantage-
ously used for the manufacture of aconitia,
the proportion of this alkaloid being much
larger than in the European drug; and also
for the preparation of Linimentum Aconiti.
From its greater activity, however, it is un-
suited for the preparation of this tincture,
which is intended for internal use.
Acomitum Heterophyllum. (Ind. P.) Ha-
bitat. Western temperate Himalaya, at
8000 to 13,000 feet elevation; from Indus to
Kumaon. Qſſicinal part. The dried root
(Aconiti heterophylli Radia). Ovoid tuberous
roots, tapering downwards to a point, from
one to one and a half inches or more in length,
and from three eighths to half an inch in
thickness. The surface, which is covered with
a thin greyish epidermis, is slightly wrinkled
longitudinally, and marked here and there
with root scars. It is imodorous, and of a
bitter taste, devoid of acridity. Does not con-
tain aconitia. It may be readily distinguished
from other roots sold in the bazaars under the
same vernacular name (Atis) by its charac-
teristic bitterness. Properties. Tonic and
antiperiodic. It may be administered inter-
nally with safety, as it contains no poisonous
principle. Therapeutic uses. In convalescence
after debilitating diseases, and in intermittent
and other paroxysmal fevers, it has been found
an efficient remedy. Doses. Tonic, 5 to 10.
grains thrice daily; antiperiodic, 20 to 30
grains of the powdered root every three or

28
ACORN –ACRID.
four hours, irrespective of the presence of
pyrexia.
Aconitum Napell'us. [Linn.] Syn. ACO-
NITUM, Ph.L., E., & D.; ACONIT NAPåL, CHA-
PERON DE MOINE, Fr. ; EISENHUT, BLAUER.
STURMHUT, Ger. Early blue wolfsbane, or
deadly aconite. Hab. Various parts of Europe;
grows wild in England, flowering in June and
July. The fresh and dried leaves (ACONITI
Fo"LIUM), Ph. L. & E. The root (ACONITI
RA'DIX), Ph. L. & D. This is the species of
aconite ordered in the pharmacopoeias, and
commonly used in medicine. When chewed
it imparts a sensation of acrimony, followed
by a pungent heat of the lips, gums, palate, and
fauces, which is succeeded by a general tremor
and chilliness. The juice applied to a wound
or the unsound skin, affects the whole nervous
system. Even by remaining long in the hand,
or on the bosom, it produces unpleasant
symptoms. Fatal cases of poisoning, by eating
the root in mistake for horseradish, have been
common of late years.
The leaves should be gathered as soon as the
flowers appear. The root should be taken up
in autumn. When the whole plant is em-
ployed, it should be gathered as soon as the
flowers begin to open. The strength (richness
in aconitia) varies considerably with the time
of the year. 1 oz. of the ‘fresh root’ contains
# to # gr. of aconitia; 1 lb. of the dried
English root contains from 12 to 36 gr. (Hera-
path). The leaves possess the greatest activity
iust before flowering; the root, after it. The
root is at all times fully sia times as strong as
the leaves or herb. The wild plant contains
much more aconitia than that which is culti-
vated. The herb, and all its preparations, lose
their efficacy if long kept. The powder, more
particularly, cannot be relied on.
Properties, Antidotes, &c. See ACONITE.
Tests, &c. See ACONITE. -
Uses, &c. In small doses aconite is narcotic,
powerfully diaphoretic, and sometimes diuretic;
- in larger ones, the symptoms are similar to
those produced by aconitia. It acts as a
powerful sedative on the heart’s action, and
destroys sensibility without disturbing the
mental faculties. It has been given in chronic
rheumatism, gout, paralysis, scirrhus, scrofula,
cancers, venereal nodes, epilepsy, amaurosis,
intermittents, &c.; but its exhibition requires
the greatest possible caution. As a topical be-
number it has been used with great advantage
in painful affections depending on increased
sensibility of the nerves, Externally, it “is
most valuable for the cure of neuralgic and
rheumatic pains. In neuralgia, no remedy, I
believe, will be found equal to it. One appli-
cation of the tincture produces some amelio-
ration; and after a few times' use, it frequently
happens that the patient is cured. In some
cases, the benefit appears almost magical. In
others, however, it entirely fails to give per-
manent relief.” “I do not think that in any
(case) it proves injurious.” “When it succeeds,
it gives more or less relief at the first applica-
tion. When the disease depends on inflam-
mation, aconite will be found, I think, an un-
availing remedy.” “In rheumatic pains, un-
accompanied with local swelling or redness,
aconite is frequently of very great service.”
(Pereira, iii, 691.) Dose, of the powder, 1 to 2
gr., gradually increased to 6 or 8. Dr. Stoerk
was the first who gave wolfsbane internally,
about the year 1762. It has since been suc-
cessfully employed in Germany in cases of
chronic rheumatism, gout, &c., some of which
were of long standing and had resisted every
other remedy. In England it has been less ex-
tensively used.
Acomitum Panicula’tum. Panicled wolfsbane;
a species formerly ordered in the Ph. L.; and,
with a napellus, also in the Ph. U. S. It is
less active than the officinal species.
ACORN. Syn. GLANs QUER'CUs, L. The
seed or fruit of the oak.
the world, acorns probably formed one of the
principal articles of the food of man. (Ovid,
Met., i, 106; Virgil, Georg., i, 8; &c.) In
modern times, during periods of scarcity, they
have been consumed as food on the Continent.
Besides starch, they contain a peculiar species
of sugar, which crystallises in prisms, and is
unfermentable; they also contain tannic and
Mannite and dulcose are the
gallic acids.
substances which it most nearly resembles.
(M. Dessaignes.) During the autumn, acorns
are said to be sometimes poisonous to cattle
and sheep. Supposed cases of so-called acorn
poisoning are best treated by withdrawing the
supply of acorns, or removing the animals from
the pastures on which the acorns fall, and by
the administration of aperients, alkalies, and
stimulants. - -
AC'ORUS CALAMUS. See SWEET FILAG.
ACOTYLEDONS (-ko-te-lèſ-). Syn. Acotyleſ.
DONES (-dòn-éz; L., prim., Gr.), Jussieu ; Aco-
TYLEDONS, Fr. ; OHNE SAMENLAPPEN, Ger. In
botany, plants whose seeds are not furnished with
distinct cotyledonsorseed-lobes. Acotyledonous
plants form one of the two great divisions of the
vegetable kingdom, according to the natural
system. They are remarkable by increasing
chiefly in length, by additions to their end;
and not by additions to the outside, as in Exo-
gens; or to the inside, as in Endogens. They
In the early ages of


are also termed ASEx/UAL and FLOWERLESS
PLANTS, and answer to the CRYPTOGAMIA of
the Linnean system. See ACROGENS, CELLU-
LARES, THALLOGENS, &c.
ACOUSTICS (-kow'-). The science of audition
and sound; that branch of physics which treats of
their causes, nature, and phenomena. The
doctrine of the production and transmission
of sound is termed DIACOUs'TICs ; that of re-
flected sound CATACOUS'TICS.
Acoustics. In medicine, remedies employed
to relieve deafness.
AC'RID. Syn. AC/ER, AC/RIs, L.; ACRE (ficre),
Fr. ; BEISSEND, SCHARF, Ger. In chemistry and
medicine, sharp, pungent, acrimonious. Acrid
ACRIDITY-AIDIPOCERE.
29
substances are such as excite a sensation of
pungency and heat when tasted, and which
irritate and inflame the skin; as mustard,
turpentine, cantharides, &c.
ACRIDITY. Syn. ACRETÉ, Fr.; ACRITUDo,
L. The quality of being acrid.
AC'RIMONY. Syn. ACRIMO'NIA, L.; ACRI-
MONIE, ACRETÉ, Fr. ; SCHARFE, Ger. In
medicine and chemistry, the quality or property
of inflaming, irritating, corroding, dissolving,
or destroying other bodies.
ACROGENS. Syn. ACROGENAE, L.; ACRO-
GłNES, Fr. In botany, acotyledonous or
cryptogamic plants, in which stems and leaves,
or an organisation approaching leaves, are dis-
tinguishable; which have stomates or breathing
pores on their surface, are propagated by spores,
and increase by the growth of the stem at the
point only. Ferns and club-mosses are ex-
amples of this class of plants.
AC'ROSPIRE (-spire). Syn. ACROSPI'RA, L.;
PLUMULE, Fr. ; BLATTKEIM, Ger. The shoot or
sprout of a seed, when it begins to grow; the
part of a germinating seed termed the plume,
or plumula.
When the growth of a seed begins to be
developed, the germ, from which the stem
originates, shoots forth under the form of a
delicate curved fibre, which, gradually bursting
its covering, makes its appearance at the end
of the seed. The fibrils of the radicle first
sprout forth from the tip of the grain; a
white elevation appears, that soon divides into
three or more radicles, which rapidly grow
larger, and are succeeded by the plumula,
which peeps forth at the same point, in the
form of a pale green leaflet, which, twisting
thence beneath the husk to the other end of
the seed, ultimately bursts its prison-house,
and becomes a perfect leaf. "See GERMINATION
and MALTING. -
ACTINIC RAYS. See ACTINISM.
ACTINISM. Syn. ACTINIC RAYs; CHEMI-
CAL RAYS. A term given to a supposed
principle accompanying the heat and light of
the sunbeam. Actinic rays chiefly exist beyond
the violet extremity of the solar spectrum, and
are characterised by the power of exciting
chemical change, e.g., the decomposition of
certain silver salts (in photography); the com-
bination of a mixture of chlorine and hydrogen,
&c. The so-called vital functions of animals
and plants are also greatly influenced by the
actinic or chemical rays.
ACTINOGRAPH. An instrument for regis-
tering the intensity of the chemical influence
(actinism) of the sun’s rays.
ACTUAL. Real, effectual, absolute; as op-
posed to that which is merely virtual or
potential. In surgery, a red-hot iron, or any
other heated body, used as a cautery, is termed
the ACTUAL CAUTERY; whilst a caustic or
escharotic so employed, is called the Pot'ENTIAL
CAUTERY.
ACTUAL CAUTERY. See ACTUAL.
ACUTE'. Syn. ACUT'Us, L.; AIGU, Fr.;
HEFTIG, HITZIG, SPITZIG, Ger. Sharp,
pointed, sensitive. Applied to the senses, as
acute hearing, eye-sight, &c. In pathology,
diseases exhibiting violent symptoms, and
whose course is short, are said to be acute
diseases.
ADAPTER. In chemistry, a tube placed
between two vessels (commonly a retort and
receiver) for the purpose of uniting them,
or increasing the -
distance between
them, so as to
facilitate the con-
densation of va-
pour in distil-
lation. (See fi-
gure.)
ADDER'S TONGUE. Syn. CoMMON ADDER's
ToNGUE ; OPHIoGLos'sUM VULGA'TUM, Linn.
A perennial plant, of the natural order Filices
(DC.), growing wild in England. It is found
in our woods and pastures, and flowers in May
and June. It was once used to form a celebrated
traumatic or vulnerary ointment, and is still
highly esteemed among rustic herbalists.
ADEPS. Syn. LARD. See ADEPs PRIEPA-
RATUS, FAT, and LARD.
ADEPS BENZOATUS.
LARD.
ADEPS PRAEPARATUS,
PREPARED LARD.
ADHE'SION (-hé-zhūn). Syn. ADHE'SIo, L.;
ADHESION, Fr.; ANHANGUNG, ARXLEBUNG,
Ger. The actor state of sticking or being united.
Adhesion. In physics, the force with which
bodies remain attached to each other when
brought into contact; e.g., ink adheres to paper,
paint adheres to wood, &c. It differs from
“cohesion’ in representing the force with
which different bodies cling together; whereas
cohesion is the force which unites the particles
of a homogeneous body with each other; e.g.,
particles of iron cohere and form a mass of
iron; particles of water cohere and form a
mass of water, &c.
Adhesion. In pathology, the morbid union,
from inflammation, of parts normally con-
tiguous but not adherent.
Adhesion. In surgery, the reunion of divided
parts, by the adhesive inflammation; as when
incised wounds heal by what is termed the
‘first intention.’
ADHE'SIVE. Syn. ADHAESI'vus, L.; AD-
HáSIF, Fr. ; ADHASIVE, WERWACHSEND, Ger.
In pharmacy, &c., having the quality or
property of sticking or adhering. Hence
adhe'siveness.
AD'IP0CERE(-sère). Syn. GRAVE-WAxt; ADI-
PoCE"RA, L.; ADIPOCIRE, Fr.; FETTWACHS,
Ger. A substance resembling a mixture of
fat and wax, resulting from the decomposition
of the flesh of animals in moist situations, or
under water. It is chiefly margarate of am-
monium. Lavoisier proposed to produce this
substance artificially, for the purposes of the
Syn. BENZOATED
Syn. AXUNGE;


30
ADJECTIVE_AFFINITY.
arts. Attempts have since been made to con-
vert the dead bodies of cattle (carrion) into
adipocere, for the purposes of the candle-maker
and the soap-boiler, but without success. Be-
sides, dead animal matter can be worked up
more profitably than in making artificial
adipocere.
Batchettine or rock-fat, is sometimes called
‘ adipocere'; and bog-butter is a substance
nearly similar to it.
AD'JECTIVE. Syn. ADIECTI’vus, L.; AD-
JECTIF, Fr. In dyeing, depending on another,
or on something else; applied to those colours
which require a base or mordant to render them
permanent. See DYEING.
AD'JUWANT. [Eng., Fr.] Syn. AD'JUVANS,
L.; AIDANT, &c., Fr. Assistant; helping.
(As a substantive—) In prescriptions, see PRE-
scRIBING (Art of).
A. (6). [L.] For words sometimes written
with this initial diphthong, and not found below,
look under E.
AEGI'RINON (-ji'-). [Gr.] See OINTMENT.
AEGYPTIACUM+ (jip-ti'-). [Lat. Syn.
UNGUEN'TUM AEGYPTIACUM, L. Oxymel or
liniment of verdigris. The name originated
with Hippocrates, who is said to have learned
its composition in Egypt.
AEOL'IPILE (-pile). A hollow ball of metal,
having a slender neck with a very small ori-
fice, contrived to exhibit the conversion of
water into steam by the action of heat, and to
account for the natural production of winds.
It was known to the ancients, is mentioned by
Vitruvius, and was studied by Descartes and
others. It has been used in surgery to pro-
duce eschars, in the same cases as moxas; the
effect of the steam being limited by means of
a piece of perforated pasteboard. When filled
with alcohol, and the jet of vapour inflamed,
it is sometimes employed as a blowpipe. M.
Soyer used an apparatus of this kind to supply
the heat in his portable furnace. The liquid,
however, which he employed, was camphine.
A/ER (ā'-ēr). [L., prim. Gr.] Air.
A/ERATED (äſ-Ér-râte-àd). In chemistry,
&c., impregnated with carbonic acid. See
ALKALI, LEMONADE, WATERS, &c.
AE"RIAL (ā-èreſ-e-āl). Belonging to the air
or atmosphere; produced by, consisting of,
depending on, or partaking of the nature of
the air.
AERIFICATION (ā-ār-e-). Syn. AiRIFICA/-
TIO, L.; AñRIFICATION, GAZáIFICATION, Fr.
In chemistry, the conversion of a body into
'a.S.
A/ERIFORM (ā'-êr-) Syn. AiRIFORM'Is,
L.; AñRIFORME, GAzéIFORME, Fr. ; LUFT-
FoRMIG, &c., Ger. In chemistry, air-like,
gaseous.
AEROL'0GY. Syn. AïROLO'GIA, L.; AğRo-
LoGIE, Fr., Ger. In physics, a discourse or
treatise of the air. In physiology and hygiène,
the doctrine of the air, more especially with
regard to its salubrity and action on organised
beings.
AEROMETER. Syn. AïROMETRUM, L.;
A£ROMETRE, Fr. An instrument used in
aërometry.
AEROMETRY. Syn. AïROMETRIA, L.;
AñROMíTRIE, Fr.; LUFTMESSKUNST, &c., Ger. '
In chemistry and physics, the art of measuring
gases, and of determining their densities.
AERONAUTICS. Syn. AñRoNAUTIQUE, Fr.
The art of sailing in, or of navigating the air.
See BALLOONS.
AEROPHO'BIA. [L.] Syn. AñROPHOBIE,
Fr. In pathology, a dread of air (wind); a
common symptom in hydrophobia, and occa-
sionally present in hysteria and phrenitis.
AEROSTATICS. Syn. AEROSTAT'ICA, L.;
AáROSTATIQUE, Fr. That branch of pneuma-
tics which treats of air, and other elastic -
fluids, in a state of rest.
AEROSTATION. [Eng., Fr.] Syn. AïRos-
TA'TIO, L. The art of weighing the air;
aërial suspension and navigation. See BAL-
LOONS. -
AERU'G0 (3-). [L.] The rust of brass,
bronze, or copper; verdigris.
AESCULIN. C., H2Ols. A crystalline fluo-
rescent substance existing in the bark of the
horse-chestnut (asculus hippocastanum) and
of other trees of the genera AEsculus and
Paria.
is associated with another fluorescent body
called Pariin.
AE'THER. See ETHER.
AETHE’REA (-théré-). [L. pl.] Ethers.
AESTHETICS (Öz-). Syn. AESTHET/ICA, L.
Medicines or agents which affect sensation.
See ANZESTHETICS and HYPERAESTHETICS.
AE'THIOPS. See ETHIOPS.
AFFECTION. [Eng., Fr.] Syn. AFFEC’TIo,
L. In pathology, a term nearly synonymous
with disease.
AFFINITY. Syn. CHEMICAL AFRINITY;
AFFINITAs, L.; AFFINITÉ, Fr. ; WERWANDT-
SCHAFT, Ger. If oil and water be shaken
together they produce no change upon one
another, as is proved by their separating into
In the above-named sources AEsculin
two layers with their properties unaltered,
when the mixture is allowed to remain at rest
for a short time. Such bodies are said, in
chemical language, to have no affinity for one
another. If iodine and metallic mercury be
rubbed together in a mortar they will unite
in definite proportions by weight, and form a
combination possessing properties totally dis-
tinct from those of its constituents.
iodine is a greyish, metallic-looking solid, con-
vertible into a violet vapour by heat, per-
ceptibly soluble in water, and capable of
producing a blue compound with starch.
Mercury is a metallic, silvery looking liquid.
The product of their union (biniodide of
mercury) is a scarlet powder, destitute of
metallic lustre, convertible into vapour by
heat, without the production of violet fumes,
insoluble in water, and incapable of developing
a blue colour with starch. Again, the greenish-
yellow and intensely poisonous gas, chlorine,
Thus,
AFFUSION.—AGUE.
31
unites in definite proportions by weight with
the soft, wax-like, and highly poisonous metal
sodium to produce the white crystalline solid
chloride of sodium (common salt), a compound
which, except in very large quantities, is not
only not poisonous, but actually beneficial to
health.
Such combinations are called chemical
compounds, and the force which binds their
constituents together is distinguished from
all other attractive forces by the term affinity
or chemical affinity. (See MIXTURE.) Bodies
united by affinity are also said to have united
chemically.
Affinity is in most cases exerted between
different substances, in which respect it
resembles adhesion ; but bodies united by
adhesion, e.g. ink to paper, paint to wood, &c.,
unlike those united by affinity, suffer no change
of properties.
Affinity is exerted at immeasurable dis-
tances, therefore substances to be submitted to
its influence must be brought into (apparently)
actual contact. This condition is frequently
fulfilled by the vaporisation, fusion, or solution
of one or more of the bodies to be submitted
to its action.
In many instances substances which have no
affinity for one another at ordinary tempera-
tures manifest this power when heated.
Whenever chemical union takes place, heat
is invariably evolved; conversely, the decom-
position of a chemical compound is always
accompanied by an apparent loss of heat or
reduction of temperature.
Finally, the most striking phenomena cha-
racteristic of, and accompanying, chemical
affinity are, development of heat, change of
properties, and union in definite or constant
proportions by weight.
AFFUSION. In chemistry, the washing of a
precipitate, &c., for the purpose of removing
soluble matters. In medicine, affusion is of
three kinds:–
1. Lotions, which consist in washing a part
of the body with a sponge or rag soaked in a
liquid.
2. Aspersions, which consist in throwing
a liquid drop by drop, like rain, upon the
body.
3. Shower baths, which consist in allowing
a number of small streams of water to fall
from a height upon the surface of the body.
If the water fall from a considerable height,
affusion is then termed douche by the French.
AFTER-DAMP. Syn. CHOKE-DAMP. Car-
bonic acid gas resulting from explosions of air
and fire-damp (light carbonetted hydrogen) in
coal mines.
AFTER-PAINS. Those following child-
birth. The only remedy is patience; they
may, however, be frequently alleviated by
small doses of morphia or liquor opii sedativus.
Heated cloths and warm formentations are
sometimes useful, particularly if assisted by
moderate but sufficient pressure on the
abdomen, by means of a broad bandage.
They seldom follow with severity the first
birth.
AFTER-WASH (-wösh). In the art of the
distiller, the liquor in the still after the spirit
has been drawn over.
AG'ARIC. [Eng., Fr.] Syn. AGAR/ICUM,
AGAR'ICUs, L.; BLATTERSCHWAMM, PILZ,
SCHWAMM, Ger. In botany, a genus of fungi,
of numerous species, embracing the mushrooms
and champignons. Of these plants, some are
edible; others poisonous. The term is also
commonly applied to the boletus found on
oaks (TOUCHWOOD), and on larches (MALE
AGARIC).
Fly-agaric. Syn. FLY MUSH'ROOM ; AGAR'I-
CUS MUSCA"RIA, Linn.; AMANITA. M. One
of the most narcotic and poisonous of our
fungi, producing, in small doses, intoxication
and a pleasing species of delirium; for which
purpose it is commonly employed in Kams-
chatka. (Hooker.) It possesses the singular
property of imparting an intoxicating quality
to the urine, which continues for a long time
after taking it. This secretion is, therefore,
commonly saved by the natives during a
scarcity of the fungus. “Thus, with a few
amanitae, a party of drunkards may keep up
their debauch for a week;” and the intoxica-
tion so produced is capable of “being propa-
gated through five or six individuals.”
(Langsdorff.) Water in which it has been
boiled is poisonous; but the boiled fungus
itself is inert. The liquid from it is used
as a FLY-POISON; whence the name mush-
room is derived. It may be known by its
rich orange-red colour in autumn.
AG'ATE (-āte, -ëtt). [Eng., Fr.] Syn.
ACHA'TES (-kā'-téz), L. A semi-pellucid un-
crystallised species of quartz, remarkable for
its hardness, variety of colour, and suscepti-
bility of receiving a high polish. It is an
aggregate of various siliceous minerals, of
which chalcedony appears generally to be the
base. Carnelian, jasper, amethyst, and other
similar minerals, often enter into its composi-
tion. The colours are often delicately ar-
ranged in stripes, bands, or clouds. Those
which take an angular form, as the Scotch
pebble, are called FoETIFICATION AGATES. It
is the least valuable of the precious stones,
and is chiefly made into rings, seals, beads,
burnishers, &c., on account of its hardness.
Its powder is used for cleansing and polish-
ing iron, brass, &c., and to sharpen edge-
tools.
AG/NAIL. See WHITLow.
AGRYPNOTICS (-grip-). Syn. ANTHYPNOT'-
ICS (-hip-); AGRYPNOT'ICA, ANTHYPNOT'ICA,
L. In medicine and pharmacology, agents or
substances which prevent sleep; as tea, coffee,
digitalis, vinegar, &c.
A/GUE (-gū). See FEVER (Intermittent).
Ague-cake. The popular name of a tumour
felt under the false ribs on the left side, formed
by enlargement and induration of the spleen,


32
AIGREMORE–AIR.
following protracted ague; also, sometimes,
of indurations of the liver following ague.
Ague-drop. See QUACK MEDICINES.
Ague-salt (-sölt). Disulphate of quinine.
Ague-tree. Sassafras.
Ague-weed. The herb thorough-wort (‘Eupa-
to"rium perfolia’tum,’ Linn.).
AIG'REMORE (§g'r-mor). [Fr.] Pulver-
ised charcoal in the state it is used to make
gunpowder.
[Fr.]
AIGUILLETTE (ATTELETTE). In
Attelettes from Soyer.
cookery, a term applied to several small dishes,
from the articles of which they consist being
mounted on silver needles, or skewers, with or-
namental handles or tops. (See engr.) They
form one of the varieties of the ‘hors-d'oeuvres’
of Soyer; and are commonly served on a
napkin. The skewers should be about four
inches long, and of the thickness of an ordi-
nary packing needle. The person eating what
is served on them, takes the head of the
skewer between the thumb and fingers of the
left hand, and picks it off with his fork.
Those noticed by Soyer are—
Aiguillettes à l'Eperlan (smelts);
Aiguillettes aux Huitres (oysters);
Aiguillettes de Filets de Sole (soles);
Aiguillettes de Homard (lobsters);
Aiguillettes de Langue de Boeuf (ow-tongue);
Aiguillettes de Ris de Weau (sweetbread of
veal);
Aiguillettes de Wolaille à la Jolie Fille
(fowl);—
all of which are prepared in a nearly similar
manner, merely varying the sauces, &c., to
suit the article and palate. See ATTELETTES,
HORS-D’OEUVRES, &c.
AIL'MENT. Pain, indisposition; disease.
Its use is generally restricted to the non-
acute, and milder forms of disease.
AIR. [Eng., Fr.] Syn. AER, L. (from &ºp,
Gr.); LUFT, Ger. ; ATMOSPHERIC AIR ; THE
ATMOSPHERE. This name was formerly given
to any ačriform body; thus, by the old che-
mists ammoniacal gas was called alkaline air;
oxygen, dephlogisticated, vital, or empyreal
air; carbonic anhydride (carbonic acid), fixed
air; hydrogen, inflammable air; heavy carbo-
netted hydrogen (olefiant gas), heavy inflam-
mable air; nitrogen,-mephitic, phlogisticated,
or nitrous air.
At the present time the term
air is usually restricted to the gaseous enve-
lope surrounding the solid and liquid parts of
our globe.
Atmospheric Air (or simply, The Air). The
air chiefly consists of a mechanical mixture of
four volumes of nitrogen and one volume of
oxygen, or more accurately—
By volume. By weight.
Nitrogen ......... - 76.8
Oxygen............ 20:9 ... 23.2
100 100
The chief functions of the oxygen are to
maintain respiration and support combustion,
while the office of the nitrogen is to dilute the
oxygen and control its energy.
Besides nitrogen and oxygen, aqueous va-
pour, carbonic anhydride, ammonia, and nitric
acid are met with in the atmosphere, the last
especially during and after thunder storms.
Vapour of water is essential to the respira-
tion of animals and plants, in order that the
organs concerned in this operation may be
kept in a soft and moist condition.
Carbonic anhydride is evolved during com-
bustion, putrefaction, and fermentation; it is
also a product of the respiration of animals,
and highly poisonous to them, even when
diluted with large proportions of air. This
gas is, however, greedily absorbed by plants,
which decompose it; they assimilate the car.
bon and return the oxygen to the atmosphere,
ready to be again consumed in supporting the
life of the animal world.
Ammonia is derived from the putrefaction .
of animal and vegetable substances. It is
from atmospheric ammoniacal compounds that
plants obtain much of the nitrogen which is
essential to the formation of many parts of
their structure.
Nitric acid, like ammonia, is absorbed, and
its nitrogen assimilated, by plants.
In addition to the gases and vapours already
enumerated, as well as others which exist in
minute quantity, or which are of only occa-
sional occurrence, Pasteur and other investi-
gators have discovered in the air living germs
which are capable of exciting putrefaction
and fermentation, and which are competent,
in some instances, to engender disease when
they are injected into the blood of animals.
In fact, the spread of infectious diseases,
e. g., smallpox, typhus fever, cattle-plague,
&c., is attributed to the presence in the
atmosphere of the germs of such maladies.
These germs are believed to be living beings,
which develope and multiply at the expense


ALABASTER.
33
of the tissues of the larger animals into whose
systems they have found entrance.
AL-. [Ar.] An inseparable article equiva-
lent to the English the. It is found in
many chemical and other words derived
from the Arabic; as, alchemy, alcohol, alembic,
almanac, &c.
ALABASTER. Syn. ALBATRE, Fr. ; ALA-
BASTER, ALABASTRI'TES, ALABAS'TRUM, L. A
soft, white species of calcareous and of gypseous
stone, used by sculptors. There are several
varieties, all of which may be ranged under
two heads:—
1. CALCA’REOUS ALABASTER; ORIENT'AL.A.;
CALC-SINTER. A sub-variety of carbonate of
calcium, formed by the deposition of calcareous
particles in the caverns of limestone rocks. It
has a foliated, fibrous, or granular structure, and
a pure, soft, rich, semi-translucent whiteness,
generally agreeably variegated with undulating
zones or stripes of various shades of yellow,
red, or brown. This variety is that most es-
teemed by sculptors, and for the manufacture
of alabaster ornaments. The ancients used it
for ointment and perfume boxes. At the
baths of San Filippo (Tuscany), the process
of its formation may be examined by the ob-
Server.
holds carbonate of lime in solution by means
of sulphuretted hydrogen, which, escaping into
the air, leaves the lime as a precipitate, which
is gradually deposited in a concrete form.
(M. Alex. Brogniart.)
2. GYP'SEOUS or COMMON ALABASTER ; GYP-
SUM. A natural hydrated sulphate of calcium,
containing a little carbonate of calcium. That
from the quarries of the Paris basin contains
about 12% of the latter substance. When cal-
cined or roasted, and powdered, it forms the
substance known under the name of PLASTER
OF PARIS. The more compact, fine-grained
specimens of this variety are, like the pre-
ceding one, sculptured into almost numberless
articles of ornament and utility, such as vases,
clock-stands, statuettes, &c. The inferior
kinds only are manufactured into the ‘plaster
of Paris' of the shops. The best specimens are
obtained from the lower beds of the gypsum
quarries, and are white, and granular, not un-
like Carrara marble. It takes a high polish;
but from its softness and liability to become
discoloured, articles formed of it require more
careful treatment than even those of ‘ cal-
careous alabaster.’
Alabaster is WROUGHT, TURNED, and
FASHIONED, in a nearly similar manner to the
softer varieties of marble. The tools resemble
those employed for the like operations in ivory
and brass. Machinery is now often applied to
this purpose.
Alabaster is POLISHED, first with pumice
stone, and then with a paste or pap made of
whiting, soap, and milk or water; and lastly
with dry flannel. A better method, however, is
to rub it first with dried shave-grass (equise-
tum), and afterwards with finely powdered and
The natural spring of boiling water
sifted slaked lime formed into a paste with
water. The surface is then “finished off” by
friction with finely powdered talc or French
chalk, until a satiny lustre is produced, or with
putty powder, in a similar way to marble.
Alabasteris ENGRAVED with tools resembling
those employed for other soft minerals. It is
ETCHED by covering every part of the surface,
except that to be acted on, with a solution of
white waa in oil of turpentine (1 to 4,) thick-
ened with a little finely powdered white lead,
and subsequent immersion in water acidulated
with acetic acid or hydrochloric acid, for the
calcareous variety; and in spring water, for
20 to 50 hours (according to the effect desired),
for the gypseous variety. The varnish is
washed off with oil of turpentine, and the etched
parts carefully brushed over with finely pow-
dered gypsum.
Alabaster is JOINED and REPAIRED by means
of white of egg, or rice glue, thickened with
finely powdered quicklime; or by a paste of
newly baked and finely powdered gypsum, mixed
up with the least possible quantity of water.
Calcareous alabaster is usually CLEANED
with a brush and warm soap-and-water, or
with tepid water to which a few grains of car-
bonate of soda or of ammonia has been added;
followed in either case by rinsing in clean
water. Delicate objects in gypseous alabaster
can only be safely cleaned with benzol, or with
pure oil of turpentine. If necessary, the surface
must be repolished. GREASE SPOTS may be
removed from either variety with a little ben-
zol or oil of turpentine.
Alabaster is occasionally STAINED or Co-
LOURED, and, for the calcareous variety, in a
similar way to marble, except that heat is not
employed; and for the gypseous variety, in
the manner noticed under PLASTER OF PARIS.
The gypseous variety is also BRONZED and
HARDENED in a similar way to that adopted
for casts in the latter substance.
Obs. Gypseousalabasteris dissolved by water;
and the beauty of both varieties is almost irre-
coverably destroyed by grease, coloured oils,
varnishes, smoke, &c. It is, therefore, unfitted
for garden ornaments, or other objects exposed
to the rain or weather, unless it be painted or
bronzed; and is even then very perishable.
Contact with acids, alkalies, and ammoniacal
and sulphurous fumes, also injure, and, if
prolonged, destroy it. Even an uncorked
phial of smelling-salts placed on a mantel-piece
beside an alabaster vase, will soon destroy its
beauty. Thus, all delicate objects in alabaster
should be protected by a glass shade.
Orient'al Alabaster (Factitious). Figures,
basso relievos, &c., of considerable hardness and
beauty, may be formed by imitating the pro-
cess adopted at the Baths of San Filippo, before
referred to.
Proc., &c. Moulds of sulphur are placed
either vertically or obliquely in an open tub or
cistern, having a freely perforated bottom.
Surmounting the whole are two or more pieces
3

34
ALAMODE—ALBUMEN.
of wood in the form of a cross or star. The
sulphurous calcareous water, falling on this
cross, is scattered into spray or streamlets, and
losing the gaseous portion which holds the lime
in solution, deposits it in the form of ORIENTAL
ALABASTER on the surface of the moulds. In
from 1 to 4 months, according to the nature of
the article, a sufficiently thick deposit is ob-
tained. The object is then removed from the
mould, and trimmed and polished. It is
found that the more vertical the position of the
mould, the finer is the grain of the resulting
deposit. The water of the Spring of San Fi-
lippo may be exactly and easily imitated by the
chemist; and the whole process offers a new and
valuable ornamental art for the amusement
and profit of the ingenious and enterprising.
ALAMODE' (äl-āh-mödé.) [Fr., á la mode.]
According to the prevailing mode or fashion.
In cookery, applied to several dishes, but more
particularly to one of beef (ALAMODE BEEF),
commonly shortened by the lower class of
Londoners into “alamode.” See BEEF,
STEws, &c.
ALANTINE. [Eng., Fr., Ger.] Syn.
ALANTI'NA, L. A substance identical with
inulin, found in the roots of garden angelica
(‘angelica archangelica,’ Linn.).
ALBATA. [L., Eng.] A name given to
several alloys resembling silver. See ALLOYS,
GERMAN SILVER, &c.
ALBU'MEN. [Eng., L.] Syn. ALBUMIN;
ALBUMINE, Fr.; EIWEISS, EIWEISTOFF, Ger.
Literally, the white of egg; a peculiar nitro-
genous substance which enters largely into
the composition of animal bodies. It abounds
in the blood, muscles, bones, coagulable
lymph, vitreous and crystalline humour of the
eye, fluid of dropsy, &c. The white of egg con-
sists of nearly pure albumen dissolved in water.
A substance identical with albumen is found
in many vegetables. It enters largely into
the composition of all the emulsive seeds.
According to Seguin, it exists in considerable
quantity in all those vegetables and fruits that
afford a vinous liquor without the addition of
yeast.
Prep. The white of egg and the serum of
blood, when strained through muslin, furnish
albumen, in solution, in a sufficiently pure
state for all the ordinary purposes of the arts.
Pure SOLID ALBUMEN may be prepared as
follows:—
1. Agitate strained white of egg with 10 or
12 times its bulk of alcohol, collect the preci-
pitated flocculi on a muslin filter, and suffer it to
dry at a temperature not exceeding 120°Fahr.
2. Add a little water to white of egg, mix,
filter, exactly neutralise with acetic acid, and
then largely dilute with pure cold water; the
precipitate which falls may be collected on a
filter and washed. Strained serum of blood
may be used instead of white of egg, in both
the above forms.
Comp., &c. The following is the composi-
tion of albumen according to Lieberkühn —
Carbon . 53.3
Hydrogen 7-1
Nitrogen 15-7
Oxygen . 22°1
Sulphur . 1.8
100°
Chatin found iodine in the white of egg;
it also contains chloride, sulphate, phos-
phate, and carbonate of sodium, phosphate
of calcium, and traces of potassium in it;
but, unlike the sulphur, none of these sub-
stances form a constituent part of pure albu-
men, though probably always present in white
of egg.
Prop. Pure solid albumen (unaltered by
heat) is nearly colourless, inodorous, and taste-
less; scarcely soluble in water, but readily
so in water containing an exceedingly small
quantity of caustic soda or potash, and in a
strong solution of nitrate of potassium. When
dried by a gentle heat it shrinks into a trans-
lucent horny mass; and when exposed to a
sufficient temperature, yields the usual ammo-
niacal odour and products of animal matter.
Its solution (as white of egg) is solidified or
coagulated by a heat of from 145° to 165°.
Fahr., forming a white, opaque mass; when
very dilute, on boiling (only) it separates in
fine light flocks. When thus coagulated, it is
insoluble in water at a less temperature than
302°Fahr. (Wöhler and Vögel), unless alka-
lised. Ordinary solutions of albumen give pre-
cipitates with sulphuric, hydrochloric, nitric,
and metaphosphoric acids, with tannin and
astringent solutions, and with most of the
metallic salts; but are not affected by either
acetic acid or tribasic (common) phosphoric
acid. Alcohol, in quantity, also precipitates
albumen. Strong oil of vitriol turns it
black in the cold, but on applying a gentle
heat, a gorgeous, red-coloured liquid is pro-
duced. Strong hydrochloric acid gives a
deep violet-blue solution. White of egg or
serum exposed in a thin stratum to the air,
dries up into a pale, yellow, gum-like sub-
stance, and in this state may be kept for any
length of time, retaining its property of re.
dissolving when immersed in slightly warm
water.
Tests.-1. Both heat and alcohol (or strong
spirit) coagulate it:-2. A solution of perchlo-
ride of mercury dropped into a fluid contain.
ing albumen occasions a white precipitate:—
3. Subacetate of lead acts in the same way.
Either of the last two will render turbid a .
solution containing only the 1-2000th part of
fresh white of egg, or the 1-10,000th part of
dry albumen —4. Tannin and tincture of galls
give yellow, pitchy precipitates —5. If dry
caustic potash or soda be triturated with
either liquid or solid albumen, ammoniacal
fumes are evolved, and the mixture on cal-.
cination yields ferrocyanide of potassium:—
6. Its coagulability by heat, and its inco-

ALBUMEN-ALCOHOL.
35
agulability by acetic acid, distinguish it from
casein.
Uses, &c. Independently of its value as an
alimentary substance, albumen is largely em-
ployed in photography as a glaze or varnish,
for fixing colours in calico printing, as a
cement, &c., and more particularly as a clarifier
for wines, syrups, vegetable solutions, and other
liquids. Its efficacy for the last purpose de-
pends on its entangling the impurities in its
meshes during coagulation, and either rising
to the surface with them as a “scum,’ or sink-
ing with them as a precipitate. When the
liquid operated on does not spontaneously
coagulate albumen, it is necessary to apply
heat to it. In cases of poisoning by the mineral
acids, corrosive sublimate, nitrate of silver,
sulphate of copper, bichloride of tin, or sugar
of lead, the white of egg (or indeed the yelk as
well) is one of the best antidotes that can be
administered.
Flake Albumen. Syn. ALBUMEN IN PowdER,
SOLID A., SoLUBLE A., PLANTER’s A. Prep. Ex-
pose strained white of egg or serum of bullock’s
blood, in a thin stratum, to a current of dry
air, until it concretes into a solid transparent
substance, resembling horn. In this state it
may be kept any length of time, or it may be
further dried until brittle, and then reduced
to coarse powder.
Use. It is extensively employed as a ‘clari-
fier’ in the sugar plantations of the West
Indies, and elsewhere. It is prepared for use
by soaking and stirring it with cold water
until it is dissolved, when it is whisked to a
froth in the usual way, and agitated with the
liquid to be clarified.
Vegetable Albumen. This substance, long
considered to be a distinct proximate principle
peculiar to the vegetable kingdom, has been
shown, by recent researches, to be identical
with animal albumen. It is particularly
abundant in carrots, turnips, cabbages, green
stems of peas, and oleaginous seeds.
Albumen, Solution of (B.P.). Take of white
of one egg; distilled water, four fluid ounces.
Mix by trituration in a mortar, and filter
through clean tow, first moistened with dis-
tilled water. This solution must be recently
prepared.
ALBU’MEN. In botany, the solid, fleshy,
or horny substance found in many seeds, be-
tween the integuments and the embryo. It
is the part that furnishes the flour of the ‘ce-
reals,” the flesh of the ‘cocoa-nut,’ and the
great mass of the seeds of coffee and other
vegetables. However poisonous the plants
which produce it may be, this substance is
never deleterious.
ALBUMENOIDS. A term applied to albu-
men, fibrin, casein, and similar bodies.
ALBUMENOUS. Sym. ALBUMINo'sus, L.;
ALBUMINE, ABUMINEUx, Fr. ; EIWEISSTOFF-
HALTIG, Ger. Formed of, containing, or hav-
ing the properties of albumen.
Albuminous Plants. In botany, all plants
whose seeds contain albumen in a separate
state; as in the cereals, palms, &c.
Albuminous Principles or Substances.
men, casein, fibrin, gluten, &c.
ALBURN'UM. [L.] Syn. ALBURN*; SAP-
WooD. In botany, the white and softer parts
of the wood of exogenous plants, lying be-
tween the inner bark and the heartwood. It
consists of empty or nearly empty tubes or
cells, which gradually acquire solidity by the
deposition of resins, tannin, and other pro-
ducts of vegetation, and in time becomes wood.
It is through the alburnum that the ascending
sap chiefly flows.
ALCARAZZA. [Sp.] A species of porous
earthenware, or a vessel formed of it, made
in Spain from a light, sandy marl, and but

Albu-

slightly fired. Their value as “coolers’ arises
from the copious evaporation of the water,
which gradually transudes. A similar ware and
articles are made in France, under the name of
HYGROCERAMEN ; and in England, under the
names of POROUS. WARE, WATER COOLERS,
WINE COOLERS, BUTTER COOLERS, &c. The
following are forms said to be used in our
potteries:–
Prep. 1. Take of sandy-marl, 2 parts; brine,
q. S.; make a dough, and then knead in of
common salt, in fine powder, 1 part. Bake
the pieces slowly, and lightly.
2. Good clay, 2 parts; fine siliceous sand, 3
parts; brine, q. S.; common salt, 1 to 2 parts;
as before.
3. Powdered clay, 2 parts; powdered char-
coal, 3 parts (by weight); water, q. S. to form
a stiff dough. The kilning must be so ar-
ranged that the heat is applied gradually, and
the vessels exposed to a current of hot air;
and it must be continued until all the char-
coal is burnt out, carefully avoiding over-
firing.
ALCHEMY (-kim-). Syn. AL/CHYMY (-kim-);
HERMETIC ART*; ALCHEM'IA, ALCHYM'IA, L.;
ALCHIMIE, Fr.; ALCHEMIE, Ger.; ALCHIMIA,
It. The romantic forerunner of the modern
science of chemistry. An imaginary art or
science, having for its objects the discovery of
—a substance (PHILOSOPHER’s STONE) capable
of transmuting the baser metals into gold—
a panacea, or universal remedy (ELIXIR WITHE),
by which disease and death were to be avoided
by its possessor—an alkahest, or universal sol-
vent—a universal ferment; and other like ab-
surdities. A mixed metal formerly used for
utensils was also called by this name.
ALCOHOL. C.H.O. [Eng., L.; B. P.]
Syn. AL'KOHOL, Eng., L.; ALCOöL, ALCO-
HOL, Fr.; ALKOHOL, HöCHST RECTIFIEIRTER
WEIN-GEIST, Ger.; ALCoöLE, It. A term
commonly applied to one kind of spirit—that
obtained by the distillation of any fermented
saccharineliquid, and forming the characteristic
principle of wines, beers, spirits and other in-
toxicating liquors.
Etym. Kohol, a Hebrew-Syriac word, is the
name given to a preparation of powdered



36
ALCOHOL.
antimony used by Oriental ladies to paint
their eyebrows. In course of time this term
was applied to other fine powders, and ulti-
mately to highly rectified spirits.
Hist., &c. Although the art of distillation
was probably known at a comparatively early
age of the world, the preparation of pure rec-
tified spirit is a discovery of modern times.
It was not until the 13th century, that Ray-
mond Lully first showed the way to concen-
trate spirit by means of carbonate of potash;
after which date pure concentrated spirit gra-
dually rose into note as an article of trade
and commerce in Europe. In the 16th cen-
tury its distillation was in common practice in
these countries. (Burns.) By means of chlo-
ride of calcium, Dr. Black obtained alcohol of
sp. gr. 0-800 (about A.D. 1760); and Richter
afterwards procured it of a sp. gr. so low as
0.796 at 60° Fahr. (Crell’s “Annals,’ 1796.)
Lavoisier first demonstrated the composition
of alcohol (about 1780). Its analysis was sub-
sequently perfected by M. Saussure, jun., and
confirmed by MM. Dumas and Boullay, and
Gay-Lussac ; and by many others since.
Nat. hist. Alcohol is peculiar to the organic
kingdom, being exclusively produced, in the
natural way, by the process of fermentation.
Sources, &c. Dilute alcohol may be pro-
cured, by the ordinary process of distillation,
from all fermented liquors. When drawn
from wine (as in France), it constitutes
BRANDY; when from the refuse juice of the
sugar-cane, it is called RUM ; when from malt,
grain, or molasses (as in England), it is called
MALT, RAW-GRAIN or MOLASSES SPIRIT ;
and when from rice or palm-wine, ARRACK.
Brandy, rum, Hollands, and whiskey, contain
only about half their volume of alcohol; and
gin much less. When distilled from any of
these spirituous liquors, the alcohol contains,
besides water, variable quantities of essential
oils, ethers, and other flavouring matters,
which, by one or more redistillations with
charcoal or lime, it for the most part loses,
and then becomes commercial spirit of wine.
By a further rectification from chloride of
calcium, lime, carbonate of potash, or any
other substance having a strong affinity for
water, the water is retained, and a strong
spirit passes over containing not more than
10 per cent. of water. By repeating the
process, and using the proper precautions, it
may be obtained almost entirely free from
water, and is then called absolute or anhydrous
alcohol.
Preparation I. Of Absolute Alcohol —
a. Alcohol (highly rectified spirit), of 85%
(sp. gr. 835 to 822), is mixed, in a tubulated
retort, with about half its weight of fresh-
burnt quick-lime, in coarse powder; and the
whole, after securely stopping the neck with
a cork, and agitation, is allowed to repose for
several days. The alcohol is then carefully
distilled off, drop by drop, by the heat of a
water bath, until the weight of the distillate
nearly equals that of the “ anhydrous alcohol?
in the spirit operated on. The sp. gr. of the
product should be 795 or 796; but by care.
fully repeating the process with the distillaté
and a fresh quantity of lime, and prolonging
the last digestion with the latter for several
weeks, absolute alcohol of the sp. gr. 79381
at 60° Fahr. may be easily obtained.
b. (Drinkwater; Fownes.) The strongest
rectified spirit of wine is digested in a stop.
pered bottle for several days, with about half
its weight of anhydrous carbonate of potash,
in powder, frequent agitation being had re.
course to; the alcohol, after repose, is then
decanted, and treated with sufficient fresh-
burnt quick-lime to absorb the whole of the
spirit. After 48 hours’ digestion, the spirit,
when distilled, will have the sp. gr. 793 at
60° Fahr.
c. (Liebig; Ure.) Alcohol of about 90% is
saturated with fused chloride of calcium, in
powder, and after repose for a few hours in a
stoppered bottle, is submitted to distillation
as before. The product should nearly equal
the quantity of dry alcohol in the sample,
Ure recommends equal weights of the spirit
and chloride to be taken; and the process to
be stopped as soon as about half the volume
of the spirit employed has passed over, or the
distillate acquires a higher sp. gr. than 791
at 68°, or 796 at 60°Fahr. -
d. (B. P. 1867.) Take of rectified spirit,
1 pint; carbonate of potash, 1% ounce; slaked
lime, 10 ounces. Put the carbonate of potash
and spirit into a stoppered bottle and allow
them to remain in contact for two days, fre:
quently shaking the bottle. Expose the slaked
lime to a red heat in a covered crucible for
half an hour, then remove it from the fire,
and, when it has cooled, immediately put the
lime into a flask or retort, and add to it the
spirit from which the denser aqueous solution
of carbonate of potash, which will have formed
a distinct stratum at the bottom of the bottle,
has been carefully and completely separated.
Attach a condenser to the apparatus, and allow
it to remain without any external application
of heat for twenty-four hours; then applying
a gentle heat, let the spirit distil until that
which has passed over shall measure 13 fluid
ounce; reject this, and continue the distillation
into a fresh receiver until nothing more passes
at a temperature of 200°Fahr.
II. Of Hydrated or Commercial Alcohol:—
a. (ALCOHOL, Ph. L. 1836.) Take of recti.
fied spirit (sp. gr. 0.838), 1 gal.; chloride of
calcium, 1 lb.; proceed as above, and distil
7 pints and 5 fl. oz. Sp. gr. of product 0.815,
It contains about 7% of water, by weight, and
5% by volume.

b. (ALCOHOL, Ph.D. 1826.) Rectified spirit,
1 gal.; pearl-ashes (dried and still hot), 3} lbs.;
mix, digest in a covered vessel, with frequent
agitation, for seven days; then decant the
clear portion, and add to it of chloride of cal-
cium, 1 lb.; agitate to effect solution, and
ALCOHOL.
37
distil off the spirit until the mixture in the
retort begins to thicken. Sp. gr. of pro-
duct 0-810. It contains about 5% of water,
by weight.
c. (Without distillation.) Rectified spirit
is agitated, in a closed vessel, with anhydrous
carbonate of potash (prepared by heating the
salt to redness, and still slightly warm),
until the powder sinks to the bottom undis-
solved; the carbonate is then added in consi-
derable excess, and the agitation repeated at
short intervals for some hours or even days;
lastly, after sufficient repose, the clear upper
portion is decanted.—Obs. If a clean spirit,
and pure carbonate of potash (or at least one
perfectly free from caustic potash or any other
impurity soluble in strong spirit), be used, an
alcohol sufficiently pure and free from water
for many common purposes may be thus ob-
tained; otherwise the product contains a
little potassa, &c., which can only be removed
by distillation. For some purposes, however,
this would not be objectionable. Sp. gr. about
•812.
III. (Soëmmering.—WARNISH-MAKER’s AL-
CoHoD.) The bladder of an ow or calf,
thoroughly cleansed from fat, and washed and
dried, is nearly filled with rectified spirit, and
then securely fastened and suspended in any
dry situation, at a temperature of about 122°
Fahr. In from six to twelve hours, when the
heat is properly maintained, the spirit is
generally sufficiently concentrated, and in a
little time longer is rendered nearly free from
water (anhydrous), or of the strength of 96
to 98%.-Obs. The same bladder will serve for
more than one hundred operations. If not
kept very nearly full, a portion of the spirit
escapes through the empty part. To prevent
this accident, a bottle with a double neck, of
the shape represented in the engr., may be
A, A bottle with two necks,
the upper furnished with a
ground-glass stopper.
B, Loop of cord to hang the
apparatus up by.
C, Bladder containing spirit,
filled by means of the bottle
A.
D, Neck of bladder accu-
rately secured to the under
neck of the bottle A.
employed; by which means the bladder may
be kept constantly full during the process.
After the first or second time of using, the
bladder gives alcohol sufficiently pure for all
ordinary purposes. Before hanging the appa-
ratus up, it is better to enclose it in a coarse
potato-netting, to prevent any accident arising
from the strain on the neck of the bladder.
Soëmmering recommends both the inside and
outside of the dry bladder to be smeared over
2 or 3 times with a strong solution of isinglass;
but this is not necessary to the success of the
process. -
IV. Rectified Spirit. (B. P. 1867.) Spi-
Titus Rectificatus. Alcohol with 16 per cent.
of water; obtained by the distilling of fer-
mented saccharine fluids. Sp. gr. 0.838.
W. Proof Spirit. (B. P. 1867.) Spiritus
Tenuior. Take of rectified spirit, 5 pints; dis-
tilled water, 3 pints. Mix. Sp. gr. of product
0-920.
Prop. of Alcohol. Light, transparent, co-
lourless; highly volatile and inflammable,
burning with a pale blue and smokeless flame;
very mobile; odour, agreeable; taste, strong
and pungent; miscible in all proportions with
water, with the evolution of heat, and tem-
porary expansion, but ultimate condensation
of the mixture, some hours elapsing before
the union is complete, and the normal tempe-
rature restored. The mixture has a higher
sp. gr. than the mean of its constituents; and
this is greatest when 54 vols. of alcohol are
mixed with 49.77 vols. of water, the resulting
compound measuring only 100 volumes. It
absorbs water from moist air; dissolves resins,
essential oils, camphor, bitumen, soaps, sugar,
carbonic and boracic acid, iodine and the
iodides, lime, ammonia, soda, potash, the
alkaloids, wax and spermaceti (when boiling),
all the deliquescent salts (except carbonate of
potassa), and various other substances. It
curdles milk, coagulates albumen, and (in
quantity) separates both starch and gum from
their mucilages. It boils, in the air, at 173°
Fahr., when in the anhydrous state. When
diluted with water its boiling-point rises in
proportion to the amount of water added. It
boils, in vacuo, at 56°Fahr. Every volume of
boiling alcohol yields 488.3 vols. of vapour at
212° Fahr. Its sp. gr. is 0.793811 at 60°
Fahr., that of its vapour being 16133. It has
never been frozen; when cooled to — 166°
Fahr., it acquired the consistence of castor oil,
but did not solidify. It contracts by cold;
between —15° and +99° Fahr., this occurs
with great regularity, at the rate of 00047
part of its volume for every degree of the
thermometer. Its evaporation, like that of
ether, produces intense cold. The products of its
combustion are carbonic anhydride and water.
It acts as a powerful antiseptic on organic
substances immersed in it, and is in conse-
quence extensively employed in the preserva-
tion of anatomical preparations. With the
acids it forms ethers.
Phys. eff. Alcohol is a narcotico-acrid poi-
son. In small doses it occasions excitement
and intoxication; in larger ones, delirium,
somnolency, coma, apoplexy, and death. It


38
ALCOHOL.
acts as a violent nervous stimulant, and, by
abstracting water from the soft tissues of the
stomach and prima viae, destroys their organi-
sation. It is alike poisonous to all animals;
—2 drs. will kill a dog. All strong spirits
act in the same way, the effect being propor-
tionate to the state of concentration and the
quantity taken. On plants, it acts as a rapid
and fatal poison.
Ant., &c. Copious internal use of tepid
water, with cold affusions to the head and
spine, and injection of cold water into the
ears. In the absence of vomiting, a strong
emetic should be given, or the stomach-pump
used. Ammonia may be used as a stimulant,
and, added to water just in sufficient quantity
to flavour it, is one of the best antidotes. The
head should be kept elevated, and bleed-
ing had recourse to, if cerebral congestion
threatens.
Tests in case of death. 1. The odour of the
contents of the stomach and ejected matters,
and their ready inflammability. 2. The spirit
may be separated by digestion with water, fil-
tration, the addition of carbonate of potash,
and distillation.
Comp, &c.
IS-
Its per-centage composition
Dumas and Brande and Ure, sp.
Boullay. TC. gr. 0.812,
Carbon . . 52°37 52-18 47.85
Hydrogen 13:01 13'04 12:24,
Oxygen . . 34.61 34.78 39.91
99.99 100:00 100.00
This nearly represents 2 equivalents of carbon,
3 eq. of hydrogen, and I of oxygen. The
atom of alcohol is now regarded as a multiple
of these numbers, and formed by the breaking
up of one atom of grape sugar (C18H38O14) into
4 eq. of alcohol, 8 eq. of carbonic acid, and 4
eq. of water. It was formerly regarded as a
compound of 1 eq. of olefiant gas, and 1 eq. of
water; but it is now generally viewed as HY-
DRATE of THEOxIDE OF ETHYLE(C2H5. HO), or
a compound of ethyleneand water (C2H4. H2O).
Grape sugar alone yields alcohol; cane sugar,
before it undergoes the vinous fermentation,
being first converted into this substance by
contact with the ferment.
Purity. The presence of water is shown by
the specific gravity (see ALCOHOLOMETRY);
the absence of other foreign matter by the
following tests:–
1. Its colour and transparency is not af-
fected by the addition of a little colourless oil
of vitriol (Liebig), or by a solution of nitrate
of silver, and subsequent exposure for some
time to solar light (Vögel), unless either essen-
tial oil or organic matter be present, when it
assumes a reddish tinge. 2. It should be neu-
tral to test-papers, colourless, leave no residue
on evaporation, and be miscible, in all propor-
tions, with water and with ether. 3. Its boil-
ing-point should never be less than 170°Fahr. ;
a lower temperature suggests the presence of
wood spirits, or acetone, or one of the ethers.
To detect wood spirit (wood naphtha) see
Nesler’s Test. For the reverse of this adul-
teration—the evasion of the duty by the in-
troduction of spirit, under the disguise of
naphtha, turpentine, &c.—see those articles.
4. The presence of water in alcohol may be
detected, not only by the sp. gr., but also by
white anhydrous sulphate of copper burning
blue when dropped into it. 5. Potassium :
placed on alcohol does not take fire, unless
a considerable per-centage of water be pre-
sent.
Tests, &c. 1. It may generally be recog-
mised by its volatility, inflammability, odour,
taste, miscibility with water, power of dissolv-
ing camphor and resins, and other qualities
already described. 2. If a few fibres of as-
bestos be ‘moistened’ with a saturated solu-
tion of bichromate of potash in oil of vitriol,
and exposed to the smallest possible portion
of hot alcohol-vapour, it is almost instantly
turned green, owing to the formation of oxide
of chromium. In practice, the asbestos may
be inserted in the neck of a retort, or even of
a bulbed glass-tube containing a few drops of
the suspected solution, when the effect occurs
as soon as distillation commences. Ether and
pyroxylic spirit produce a nearly similar re-
sult ; but the ‘first’ of these is distinguished
from alcohol by its not being miscible with
water in all proportions; and the ‘other,’ by
Nesler's Test; whilst both may be readily dis-
tinguished by their peculiar and characteristic
odour. 3. Dissolve 3 pts. crystallised carbonate
of soda in 10 pts. water. To this solution add
1 pt. of liquid to be tested, and heat to about
160°Fahr. Lastly, add iodine in small pieces,
till it has entirely dissolved, and the liquid has
become colourless. If alcohol be present,
iodoform will make its appearance on cooling,
and sink to the bottom in the form of a yel-
low powder. As a similar result is obtained
with wood spirit, this must be proved to be
absent before applying this test.
The only reliable method of proving that a
sample is ethylic alcohol is the production of
ether, by acting on the suspected liquid with
sulphuric acid. See ETHER.
Uses. In the arts, alcohol is used by the
varnish-maker, to dissolve resins; by the per-
fumer, to extract the odour of plants, and dis-
solve essential oils, soaps, and other similar
substances; by the pharmaceutist, to prepare
tinctures and other valuable medicinals; by
the instrument-maker, to fill the bulbs of ther-
mometers required to measure extreme de-
grees of cold; by the photographer, in the
preparation of collodion; by the chemist, in
analysis, and in the manufacture of numerous
preparations; by the anatomist and natural-
ist, as an antiseptic; and by the physician, for
various purposes and applications as a remedy.
It is also frequently burnt in lamps, and in
parts of the world where it is inexpensive, it

ALCOHOL–ALCOHOLATE.
39
is employed in the manufacture of vinegar.
Its uses, when dilute, as in the “spirituous
liquors' of commerce, are well known. In
medicine, it is employed both concentrated
(‘ alcohol,” “rectified spirit”) and dilute (‘proof
spirit,” “brandy,” “gin,’ &c.), as a caustic, irri-
tant, stimulant, tonic, &c. It has also been
used in a multitude of other cases, and has
been applied to an almost infinite variety of
other purposes.
Gen. commentary. The selection of any
one of the processes given above for the pre-
paration of alcohol, must greatly depend on
the convenience or position of the operator.
Chloride of calcium, and quick-lime, from their
powerful affinity for water, and easy applica-
tion, are the hygrometric substances most
generally employed; but the processes involv-
ing the use of the other substances and me-
thods already noticed, have all of them advan-
tages under particular circumstances. Gay-
Lussac has recommended the use of caustic
baryta, instead of lime; and others have
employed dry alumina, as an absorbent of the
water prior to distillation. Common proof
spirit may be concentrated until its sp. gr.
falls to about 0.825, by simple distillation in a
water bath; at which sp. gr. it contains only
about 11% of water, by weight, and is then
nearly as volatile as pure alcohol.
A convenient apparatus for the preparation
of alcohol, on the small scale, is that figured
in the engr., and which will be self-explanatory
to every one competent to use it. The tank
(?) should be supplied with ice-cold water; and
the receiver (g) should be covered with cloths
kept continually wet with water of the same
temperature. The capsule or basin (c) is a
water bath heated by the little gas furnace (d).
On the large scale, for commercial alcohol, a
copper still, fitted with a glass refrigeratory
and receiver, is commonly employed,
By surrounding the capital of a still, or
other like apparatus, by a water bath kept
at the proper temperature, the alcoholic
richness or content of the product may be
regulated to the greatest nicety, for any de-
sired strength.
The different statements of chemical authors
as to the boiling-point, specific gravity, &c., of
alcohol, already noticed, may be referred to
their having either experimented with samples
which have not been absolutely anhydrous, or
to their not having made the proper correc-
tions for temperature, and for the different
materials of which their vessels and instru-
ments were composed—some probably having
been made of glass, and others of brass or some
other metal. In some instances the differ-
ences are more apparent than real, as in the
Tables by Tralles and Lowitz; in the former
of which, water, at its lowest sp. gr., is taken
as the standard. Until recently, the only
known source of alcohol was the fermentation
of saccharine solutions. Its production by
synthesis, though often attempted, is, how-
ever, erroneously said to have always failed. It
had long been employed as an occasional source
of bicarburetted hydrogen (olefiant gas) at a
high temperature; but M. Berthelot succeeded
in reproducing it, from bicarburetted hydrogen,
by agitating the latter, in a closed vessel, with
sulphuric acid and metallie mercury (“Journ.
de Chimie Med.,’ 1855, p. 175); and Henry
Flennel, nearly thirty years before M. Berthe-
lot's discovery, found that pure olefiant gas is
absorbed by agitation with concentrated sul-
phuric acid, with the formation of sulphovinic
acid, and that by subsequent dilution with
water, and distillation, alcohol passes over
into the receiver.
ALCOHOLATE. Syn. ALCOHATE; ALCO-
HOLAS, L. A salt in which alcohol appears to
replace the water of crystallisation, as is the
case with certain chlorides, nitrates, &c. Some
of them may be formed by simple solution and

40 ALCOHOLIC–ALCOHOLOMETRY.
crystallisation of the salt in alcohol (Graham).
They are all very unstable, being readily de-
composed by water.
ALCOHOLIC. Syn. ALCOHOLICUs, L.; AL-
CoHoLIQUE, &c., Fr.; ALKoHOLISCH, Ger.
Pertaining to, containing, of the nature of, or
made with, alcohol. -
ALCOHOLICA. [L.] Syn. ALcot. LIQUEs,
Fr. ; WEINGEIST-VERBINDUNGEN, Ger. In
pharmacy, liquids containing, or preparations
made with, alcohol, as a characteristic ingre-
dient.
ALCOHOLISATION. [Eng., Fr.] Syn. AL-
CoHOLISATIO, L.; ALCOöLISATION, &c., Fr. ;
ALKOHOLISERUNG, Ger. In chem. and pharm.,
the development of the characteristic proper-
ties of alcohol in a liquid, or the use of it
either as an addition or a menstruum ; also
the act or process of obtaining alcohol from
spirit by rectification.
ALCOHOLOMETER (-löm’-). Syn. ALCO-
Hol/METER (-hš1'-; -höm'-T); ALCOHOLOME'-
TRUM, L.; ALcot.jLoMi TRE, ALCO6MöTRE,
ALCOHOLMETRE, &c., Fr. An instrument or
apparatus used in alcoholometry. Alcoholo-
meters are simply “hydrometers’ adapted to
the densities of alcohol, either concentrated or
dilute. Some of these, as BAUMá’s, CARTIER’s,
&c., merely indicate the number of degrees
corresponding to the state of concentration of
the liquid. Others, of a
like construction, asthose
of RICHTER (a),TRALLES
(b), and GAY-LUSSAC (c),
have their stems so gra-
duated as at once to in-
dicate the proportion per
cent. of alcohol present,
either by weight, or by
volume, at some stand-
ard temperature. (See
engr.) A third class, as
those of the Abbé BROS-
SARD-WIDAL, FIELD, &c.
are essentially thermo-
meters, with scales which indicate the boiling-
points of spirits of different strengths, instead
of the common thermometric degrees; whilst
to a fourth class belong the alcoholometer of
M. SILBERMANN, which is based upon the
known rate of eaſpansion of alcoholic liquors
by heat, expressed in alcoholometric degrees;
and that of M. GEISSLER, which depends on
the measurement of the tension of the vapour
of the liquid, as indicated by the height to
which it raises a small column of mercury. In
SYKES’ HYDROMETER, used by officers of the
Revenue, the scale of the instrument is enor-
mously extended by the use of movable
weights, with each of which it becomes, in
fact, a separate instrument, adapted to a cer-
tain range of specific gravities.
A very convenient alcoholometer for ordi-
nary purposes (d) has been lately produced by
some of the instrument makers. It is of the
usual form, but its stem on one side exhibits
the per-centage richness of the sample in
alcohol by volume; and on the other, the
per-centage by weight. Thus, both results may
be obtained at one trial. This instrument is
sometimes called RICHTER’s ALCOHOLOMETER,
in England. A further improvement, still
more recently introduced, is a similar ‘double-
scale' instrument, showing the degrees of
Sykes on one side, and carrying a small
spirit-thermometer in the bulb, to which
a scale is fixed ranging from 35° to 82°
Fahr.
ALCOHOLOMETRY. Syn. ALCOHOL’METRY
(-hš1'-; -höm’-T); SPIRIT TESTING!; ALco-
HOLMETRIA, L.; ALCO6LoMáTRIE, ALCOöMÉ-
TRIE, &c., Fr. In chemistry, the art or pro-
cess of ascertaining the richness of spirits in
alcohol. In commerce, the determination of
the quantity of spirit of a certain strength,
taken as a standard, present in any given
sample of spirituous or fermented liquors.
In England, this standard is called “proof
spirit.”
Hist., &c. The great importance of being
able accurately to determine the strength of
spirits in the United Kingdom, on account of
the high duties levied on them, has induced
the Government authorities, at various times,
to investigate the subject. In 1790, the mat-
ter was referred to Sir C. Blagden, then
Secretary to the Royal Society, who insti-
tuted an extensive series of experiments to
determine the real specific gravities of differ-
ent mixtures of alcohol and water. The re-
sults of his labours and researches were put
forward, with “Gilpin’s Tables,’ in 1794, but
no practical measures appear to have been
taken in consequence. In 1832 a committee
of the Royal Society, at the request of the
Lords of the Treasury, examined into the ac-
curacy of the Tables, and the construction
and application of the instrument (SYKES'
HYDROMETER) now used by the Revenue offi-
cers, on which they reported favorably, and
declared that they were sufficiently perfect
for all practical and scientific purposes. The
errors introduced into calculations of the
strength of spirits by these Tables were
found to be quite unimportant in practice, and
did not, in any one instance, amount to unity
in the fourth place of decimals. This method
adopts the specific gravity as the test of the
strength of spirits, and is founded on the
fact that alcohol is considerably lighter than
water, and that (with proper corrections for
condensation and temperature) the sp. gr.
regularly increases, or decreases, according to
the relative proportions in which the two are
mixed.
Several other methods of alcoholometry have
been proposed, founded upon—the variations
in temperature of the vapour of alcohol of
different strengths—the heat evolved by its
admixture with water—its dilatation by heat
—the tension of its vapour—the insolubility
of carbonate of potash in alcohol—its vola-

ALCOHOLOMETRY.
41
tility, boiling-point, &c. &c., the more im-
portant and useful of which are noticed further
on. The method adopted by the Boards of
Inland Revenue and Customs is, however, the
one which is almost exclusively employed in
trade and commerce in Great Britain, not only
on account of its simplicity and correctness,
but for the purpose of the results exactly
coinciding with the results obtained by the
Revenue officers.
METHODS OF ALCOHOLOMETRY.
1. Methods based on the specific gravity, or
per-centage strength, by VOLUME:—
a. With SYKES’ HYDROMETER. Revenue
system. The engraving below represents
Sykes' hydrometer, as made by Mr. Bate,
under the directions of the Commissioners of
Inland Revenue and Customs. It consists of
a spherical ball or float, with an upper and
lower stem, and is made of brass, which (in the
more expensive instruments) is usually coated
with gold, to prevent corrosion from damp,
and the acidity so generally present in spirit-
uous liquors. The upper stem (A) is about four
inches long, and is divided into ten parts, each
of which contains five subdivisions. There are
nine movable weights of the form (b), of
different sizes, numbered respectively 10, 20,
30, &c., to 90, each of which represents so
many of the principal divisions of the stem, as
its number indicates. In use, one of these
weights is slipped on to the lower stems;
and thus, by means of them, the instrument
acquires a range of above 500 divisions, or
degrees, extending from the Revenue “stand-
ard alcohol? (sp. gr. 825) to water. It is
so formed as to give the sp. gr. with almost
perfect accuracy, at 62°Fahr. When loaded
with the weight 60 it sinks in proof spirit to
the line marked (P) on the narrow edge of
the stem, at 51°Fahr. ; and, by further placing
the square weight or cap (also supplied with
the instr.) on the top of the upper stem, it
floats exactly at the same point in distilled
water. This weight or cap is found to weigh
43.66 grs., which is practically 1-12th of the
total observed weight of the instrument, and
its poise 60, and hence shows the difference
between the gravity of proof spirit and water,
as explained hereafter. The whole is fitted up
in a meat mahogany case, accompanied with a
thermometer, and a book of Tables containing
corrections for temperature, &c.—Process. A
glass tube of the form of fig. (B) is filled to
about the mark (a) with the sample for ex-
amination; the thermometer is then placed in
the liquor, and stirred about for two or three
minutes (observing not to breathe upon the
glass, nor hold it in the hand), and the tempera-
ture noted. The hydrometer is next immersed
in a similar manner, and gently pressed down
in the liquor to the (0) on the stem with the
finger; it having been previously loaded with
any one of the nine weights that will cause
it to float with the surface of the spirit at some
point on the graduated part of the scale. The
indication at the point cut by the surface of
the liquor, as seen from below, added to the
number of the weight with which the float is
loaded, gives a number which must be sought
in the book of Tables, which is always sold
with the instrument. In this book, at the
page headed “Temperature as observed by the
thermometer,” and against the part of the
column appropriated to the given indication
(weight), will be found the strength per
cent., expressed in degrees over or under proof,
by VOLUME, in whole numbers or decimal
parts. In reading off the indication, to en-
sure accuracy, it is necessary to allow for the
convexity of the liquor at the part where it
immediately rests against the stem.
Obs. In an instrument requiring so much
care and skillin its manufacture, the purchaser
should be careful to procure a perfect one. A
very slight blow, friction from continual
wiping with a rough cloth, and other apparently
trivial causes, tend to injure so delicate an in-
strument. The shape of the weights occa-
sionally vary; some being intended to be
attached to the hydrometer at the bottom of
the spindle, and others to rest on its top. The
first plan is, perhaps, the best, as it tends to
make the instrument float with greater steadi-
ness in the liquor; but, at the same time, it
renders its adjustment by the maker a matter
of greater difficulty.
In employing this instrument, the Revenue
officers are instructed to take the nearest
degree above the surface of the mercury, when
it stands between any two degrees of the
thermometer; and the division on the scale of
the hydrometer next below the surface of the
liquid, when it cuts the stem between any two
lines; thus giving the difference in favour of
the trader in both cases. -
By means of the Table at page 43, the
hydrometer indication, or the degrees over
or under proof, of the Revenue System, may
be converted into “real specific gravities,”
by mere inspection; and the correspond-
ing ‘per-centage richness’ in alcohol of any


42
ALCOHOLOMETRY.
sample may be found, either by WEIGHT or
WOLUME.
The specific gravities in this table are such
as, on being referred to Gilpin's Tables, will
give the expressions of proof strength, answer-
ing to whole indications of the Revenue hy-
drometer. Intermediate values at fifths of
indications may be had by taking proportional
differences between the nearest tabular num-
bers. Thus, to find the specific gravity that
should stand opposite to Indication 70-6, we
first obtain the difference between the densities
standing in a line with Indications 70 and 71
respectively, and then say, as 1:06: : -00192:
•00115, and 94135 + 00115 = 94.250, the
specific gravity required,
b. With GLASS ALCOHOLOMETERS. That of
Tralles, and most others of a like description,
(as made in England), gave the per-centage
strength, by VOLUME, with tolerable accu-
racy, at the standard temperature of 60°Fahr.
Gay-Lussac’s ALCOöMāTRE, which closely re-
sembles that of Tralles, is adjusted for the
temperature of 59° Fahr. (15° Cent.). All of
these, to give at once accurate results, must,
of course, be employed at the ‘normal tem-
perature’ of the instrument. As, however,
in practice, the experiment cannot be conve-
niently performed at any ‘fixed’ temperature,
but only at that of the atmosphere, it is
obvious that certain corrections are constantly
required in order to obtain results of any
value. Perfect accuracy requires that Tables
for every variation of the thermometer, founded
on actual experiments, should accompany
each instrument ; as, without them, tedious
and difficult calculations are necessary, which,
in the hurry of the cellar and laboratory,
or by persons inexpert at figures, are not
easily performed. A series of such Tables
were prepared by Gay-Lussac, and, with his
instrument, are those which are almost exclu-
sively used in France. For rough purposes,
in the absence of Tables, or micer calculations,
it may be useful to know, that, for commercial
spirits, at ordinary temperatures, a variation
of— -

By VoIUME,
5° Fahr. is equal to (about) 1.00% of Alcohol; or (about) º of Proof spirit,
1° 35 s: 22 0.20% 33 77 0.359% 33
5° Cent. 27 2? 1.80% 25 25 3:229% 33
1° >> y? 33 0.36% 22 -> 0.646% 72
By WEIGHT,
5° Fahr, is equal to (about) 0:80% of Alcohol; or (about) 1.62% of Proof spirit,
19 72 22 22 ‘16% 55 35 '32; 52
5° Cent. 32 3- 1.43% 72 32 ‘29% 27
19 22 22 -> ’28; 35 2.5 ‘58% 35
Thus, by making the proper ADDITION to
the apparent strength per cent., when the
observed temperature is BELOW the normal
temperature of the instrument, or a corre-
sponding SUBTRACTION, when it is ABOVE it,
the strength of the sample may be deter-
mined sufficiently near for all practical
purposes.
The following Table, taken from Loftus’s
* Inland Revenue Officer’s Manual,” will be
found of great value in making these cor-
rections, and has the merit of being easily
applied.
An example will show how this Table is to
be used.
Ba'ample.—If a quantity of spirit is of the
sp. gr. 894 at 73°, what will be its sp. gr.
at 60° P
Here the sp. gr. being between 890 and 900,
we must add 450 for each degree of tempera-
ture between 73° and 60°. The sp. gr. at 60°
would, therefore, be 894 -i- (450 × 13)=
899-85. When the temperature is below 60°,
the correction for each degree must be sub-
tracted. When, however, very accurate results
are desired, and the necessary Tables are not
TABLE II.-Table for finding the Specific
Gravity of any Spirit at 60° Fahr., when
the Specific Gravity at any other Tempera-
ture is given.
Water taken as 1000.
Correction Correction
Specific gravity. for each ||Specific gravity. for each
degree. degree.
810 to 820 || -- '475 ||910 to 920 + 434
820 to 830 || -- 473 ||920 to 930 –– 424
830 to 840 || -- 472 ||930 to 940|| -- 406
840 to 850 || -- 471 ||940 to 950 -- '381
850 to 860 || -- 471 || 950 to 960 –– 340
860 to 870 || -- 466 ||960 to 970| -- .269
870 to 880 || -- 460 ||970 to 980|-E 165,
880 to 890 || -- 456 ||980 to 990 -- 090
890 to 900 || -- 450 ||990 to 1000 + 084
900 to 910 || -- 442
accessible, the sample for trial must be
brought to the normal temperature of the
ALCOHOLOMETRY.
43
TABLE I.—Showing the Densities and Values of Spirits at 60° Fahr., corresponding to every
Indication of Sykes' Hydrometer.

Per Cents. of Absolute Per Cents. of Absolute
Sykes' Alcohol. Sykes' Alcohol.
Hydro- Strength. Specific Hydro- Strength. Specific
meter per cent. Gravity. meter per cent. Gravity.
Indication. By By Indication. By By
Measure. Weight. Measure. Weight.
O. P. O. P.
O 67.0 | -81520 95°28 92.78 51 11.4 || 90551 63'54 55-70
1. 66-1 '81715 94-78 92.08 52 10-0 || '90732 62-74. 54.89
2 65.3 '81889 94'31 91'42 53 8-6 || '90913 61.94 54'09
3 64'5 '82061 || 93-84 90.78 54 7-1 || 91107 || 61-09 53.23
4. 63-6 || 82251 93-33 90-07 55 5-6 || '91299 60'24. 52°38
5 62-7 || '82441 92'80 89.36 56 4-2 || 91479 59:43 51-57
6 61-8 '82622 || 92°29 88-67 57 217 | -91666 58:58 50-73
7 60-9 82800 91-77 87-99 58 1-3 || “91839 57-78 49.94
8 60-0 | 82978 || 91.25 87-30 TJ. P.
9 59-1 || '83151 90-74 86-63 59 O-3 || 92037 56-86 49'04
10 58.2 '83323 90°23 85-96 60 1-9 || 92228 55'96 48-17
11 57-3 || -83494 89.72 85.30 61 3-4 || “92408 55:10 47-33
12 56’4 ‘83661 89°21 84-65 62 5-0 || 92597 54:19 46'46
13 55-5 '83827 | 88-70 84'00 63 6-7 || -92798 || 53-22 45'53
14 || 54.6 -83993 88-17 | 83°33 || 64 8-3 | "92984 52-30 || 44.65
15 53-7 | 84,153 87.67 82-70 65 10-0 | ‘931.76 51.36 43°76
16 52.7 | 184331 87-10 81-99 66 11-7 || 93367 50'39 42-84
17 517 | 84.509 86:51 81'26 67 13.5 || “93586 49'34 41-86
18 507 | 84680 || 85-95 80'58 68 15-3 | "93.758 || 48.31 40-90
19 497 | 84851 | 85-39 79-89 69 17-1 || 93949 47.29 39.96
20 487 | 85022 | 84.81 79-19 70 18-9 || 94135 | 46.29 39'04
21 4.7-6 || -85205 | 84.19 78.44 71 20:8 ‘94327 45°20 38'04
22 46-6 || “85372 83-61 77-74 72 22.7 || “94518 44'09 37:03
23 45-6 || 85537 83'04 77.07 73 24-7 || “94709 42.96 36.01
24 44-6 || 85700 82.47 76°39 74 26-7 || -94899 || 41-82 34°98
25 43’5 '85878 81-85 75-66 75 28:8 ‘95092 | 40-63 33.92
26 42'4 '86055 || 81°21 74.92 76 31-0 || 95.288 || 39-40 32.82
27 41-3 || '86229 80-59 74°19 77 33-2 ‘95484 38:10 31-68
28 40°2 | 86402 79-97 73°47 78 35-6 -95.677 36.76 30-50
29 39-1 | "86574 79.34 72.75 79 38-1 || '95877 35-32 29-24
30 38-0 || -86745 || 78°71 | 72-03 80 40-6 || “96068 || 33.90 28-01
31 36.9 '86915 78-08 71°32 81 43-3 || “96259 || 32°41 26-73
32 35-7 || 87099 77°40 70'54 82 46-1 || “964.57 30-77 25'32
33 34°5 '87282 76-71 69-77 83 49.1 '96651 29.08 23°88
34 33.4 -87450 || 76-08 69'06 84 52.2 ‘96846 27-31 22:38
35 32-2 '87627 75:41 68-32 85 55-5 ‘97049 25-39 20-77
36 31-0 | 87809 || 74.72 67:55 86 59-0 || 97254 || 23:41 19-11
37 29-8 '87988 74-03 66.79 87 62.5 '97.458 21:39 17:42
38 28.5 '88179 || 73°29 65.98 88 66-0 || '97660 19:41 15-78
39 27-3 || 88.355 | 72-60 65°23 89 69'4 197857 17:46 14:16
40 26-0 || 88544 71-86 64'43 90 72°8 '98057 15:51 12:56
41 24.8 -88716 || 71:17 63-68 91 76.1 -98.261 13:58 10-97
42 23-5 '88901 70°43 62.89 92 79.2 '98452 11'85 9:56
43 22*2 | "89086 69'69 62.10 93 82.3 | "98657 10:04, 8:08
44 20:9 | 89268 68.95 61:32 94 85.2 '98866 8'28 6.65
45 19-6 || '89451 | 68.21 60-53 95 88.0 '99047 6'83 5'48
46 18-3 || '89629 67-47 59-76 96 90.7 '99251 5:25 4:20
47 16:9 '89822 | 66-67 58-92 97 93-3 || “99448 3.80 3:03
48 15-6 '89997 65.93 58-15 98 95.9 '99658 2-31 1-84
49 14-2 || '90182 || 65'14 57.34 99 98.2 | "99851 •997 ‘793
50 12.8 || “90367 || 64-34 56'52 100 ... 1:00000 --- ---
This Table has been copied, by permission, from Loftus's ‘Inland Revenue Officer's Manual,”
and its correctness verified by W. H. Johnston, Esq., Surveying General Examiner.

44
ALCOHOLOMETRY.
instrument, in the manner explained under
HYDROMETRY.
c. From the SPECIFIC GRAVITY. The tem-
perature having been taken by a thermometer,
and the specific gravity ascertained by any of
the usual methods, but preferably by means
of an accurate glass hydrometer, it merely
becomes necessary to refer to Table I, where,
against the number expressing the specific
gravity, the alcoholic content per cent, by
VoIUME, of the sample examined, will be
found for 60° Fahr., subject to the corrections
just referred to, when the temperature is either
above or below this point.
If the precise specific gravity sought
cannot be found in the Table, the difference
between it and the next greater specific
gravity must be taken for the numerator of
a fraction, having for its denominator the
difference between the greater and the next
less specific gravity in the table. This frac-
tion, added to the per-centage of alcohol in
the fourth column of the table, opposite the
greater sp. gr., will give the true per-centage
sought. Thus, the sp. gr. 96051 is not in the
table, and the next greater number is 96068;
the former must, therefore, be deducted from
the latter, and the difference (17) put as the
numerator of the fraction, having for its
denominator 191, the difference between
•96068 and '95877. The fraction (fºr) 089,
so found, added to the per-centage strength
opposite ‘96068 in the third column, gives
33.989 as the true per-centage of alcohol in
the given sample.
The per-centage by volume may be con-
verted into per-centage by weight, by multi-
plying the former by ‘793811, the sp. gr. of
absolute alcohol, and dividing the product by
the sp. gr. of the sample. The quotient is the
number of pounds of alcohol in 100 pounds of
the given spirit. Thus:—Suppose 1000 grains
by measure of alcohol to weigh 950-92 grains,
and to contain (see Table I) 40.63 per cent. by
volume of absolute alcohol, what per cent. by
weight does the sample contain P
*793811 × 40-63 =32-2525.4093, and this
product divided by 95092=33917, the true
per-centage by weight of absolute alcohol in
the sample.
2. Method based on the specific gravity, or
per-centage strength by WEIGHT :—
The specific gravity is ascertained and the
Table used in precisely the same manner as
in the “method by volume,” already described.
The per-centage by weight may be converted
into per-centage by volume, by multiplying
the former by the sp. gr. of the sample, and
dividing the product by the sp. gr. of absolute
alcohol. This is merely the reverse of the
operation described above.
Obs. The preceding methods of alcoholometry,
as well as all others depending on the sp. gr.,
refer to UNSWEETENED SPIRITs only; and are
inapplicable to those holding sugar in solution,
or any other organic matter capable of
altering the sp. gr. For sweetened spirits,
fermented worts, wine, beer, &c., one or
other of the following processes must be
adopted:— -
3. Other methods, adapted to either SWEET-
ENED or UNSWEETENED Spirits, Tinctures,
Fermented Liquors, &c.— -
a. By DISTILLATION, as originally proposed
by M. Gay-Lussac. 300 parts of the liquor
under examination (measured in a graduated
glass tube) are placed in a retort or small still,
and a quantity ea'actly equal to one third (i.e.,
100 parts), carefully drawn over; a graduated
glass tube" being used as a receiver, and
the operation stopped as soon as the distillate
reaches the hundredth degree. The “alcoholic
strength' of the distilled liquor is then ascer-
tained by any of the usual methods, and the
result divided by three, when the per-centage
of alcohol in the original liquor is at once ob-
tained. If, from want of attention, more than
100 parts should be distilled over, the number
which eaſpresses the relation of the volume of
the distilled product to the original bulk of the
liquor tested, must be employed as the divisor.
Thus, if 106 parts of liquor have distilled over
(instead of 100), containing 33% of alcohol,
the 300 must be divided by 106, which
gives 2.83, and the 33% by this 2.83, which
gives 11-66%, the true proportion of alcohol
in the original liquor. The strength at
‘proof” may be calculated from this in the
usual way.
To ensure accurate results, the acidity (if
amy) of the liquor must be neutralised with
carbonate of sodium, prior to distillation. It is
also advisable to add 8% or 10% of common salt
to the liquor in the retort or still ; this, by
raising the boiling-point, causes the whole of
the spirit to pass over into the receiver before
the distillate has reached the required measure,
This applies more particularly to weak liquors,
With those of greater strength (as the stronger
wines), it is better to distil over 150 parts, and
divide the result by 2 instead of 3. To liquors
stronger than 25% by volume of alcohol, or
above 52% to 54% under proof, add about an
equal volume of water to the liquor in the still,
and draw over a quantity equal to that of the
sample tested; when the alcoholic strength of
the distillate, gives, without calculation, the
true strength sought. To liquors stronger than
48% to 50% (14 to 12 u.p.), add thrice their
bulk of water, and do not stop the process
until the volume of the distillate is double that
of the sample tested, when the per-centage
obtained must also be doubled. In each case
a proportionate quantity of salt is employed.
REVENUE METHOD. The following is the
method adopted in the Inland Revenue and
Customs Laboratories for the estimation of the
per-centage of alcohol in wines, liqueurs, &c.
1 Mulder, in his “Chemistry of Wine,” recommends this
receiver to be shaped like a bottle, with its neck, or tubular
part, bent at right angles above the line of its scale; and
that it should be set in the centre of a glass jar kept filled
with very cold water.
ALCOHOLOMETRY.
45
A measure flask is filled up to a mark on its
neck, with the wine, which is then carefully
transferred to a distilling flask or retort, the
traces of wine remaining in the former vessel
being rinsed out with small quantities of dis-
tilled water, and the rinsings added to the wine
in the latter vessel. About two thirds of the
contents of the retort are then distilled over
into the clean measure flask, and made up to
the original bulk with distilled water, at the
same temperature as the sample was previous
to distillation. The strength is then taken by
TABLE III.-Showing the Alcoholic Content,
Vapour, from the Temperature of the latter, as observed by a Thermometer.
Sykes’ hydrometer, and this (if u.p.) deducted
from 100, gives the per-centage of proof
spirit in the wine. Thus:—
Strength of distillate=74.6 u.p. =25.4 per
cent. proof spirit.
b. From the TEMPERATURE of the WAPOUR,
as originally proposed by Gröning. The bulb
of a thermometer is thrust through a cork
into the head of the still, or other vessel em-
ployed, and the temperature of the vapour in
which it is immersed being noted, is sought
in the following table:—
by VoIUME, of Boiling Spirits, and of their
By GRöNING.

Temperature of Alcoholic content Alcoholic content Temperature of Alcoholic content|Alcoholic content
the Vapour. of the Distillate of the Boiling the Vapour. of the Distillate | of the Boiling
Fahr. per cent. Liquid per cent. Fahr. per cent. Liquid per cent.
170:0 93 92 189'8 71 20
171-8 92 90 192.0 68 18
172:0 91 85 194-0 66 15
172-8 90% 80 196'4. 61 12
174-0 90 75 1986 55 10
174:6 89 70 201:0 50 7
176-0 87 65 203-0 42 5
178-3 85 50 205'4. 36 3
180°8 82 40 207-7 28 2
183-0 80 35 210-0 13 I
185:0 78 30 212°0 0 O
187.4 76 25

This method is admirably adapted to the
purposes of the distiller and rectifier, as it
furnishes a ready means of approximately de-
termining the strength of the spirit passing
over, at every part of the process of distillation,
as well as that of the wash left in the still.
c. From the BOILING-PoſNT, as originally
proposed by M. l'Abbé Brossard-Vidal. This
method is founded on the fact, that the boiling-
points of mixtures of alcohol and water, unlike
water alone, are scarcely disturbed by the ad-
dition of saline, saccharine, or extractive matter
within certain limits. It hence offers a ready
means of determining the proportion of al-
cohol present in spirits, wines, fermented
liquors, &c., with sufficient accuracy for all
ordinary purposes. In applying it, a thermo-
meter, with a large bulb and a narrow bore,
and a movable scale graduated from 180° to
212°Fahr., is usually employed. Before using
it as an alcoholometer, it is set, with its bulb
immersed, in a small metallic boiler (brass or
copper) containing distilled water, which is
then raised to the boiling-point, and the 212°
of the scale accurately adjusted on a level with
the surface of the mercury, should it vary from
that point. This is necessary on account of
variations of atmospheric pressure causing
corresponding variations of the boiling-points
of liquids. It is then ready for several hours’
operations, and, generally, for an entire business
day, without further adjustment. The little
boiler is next filled with the liquor to be ex-
amined, and the lamp again lighted. The
temperature as shown by the scale of the in-
strument at the commencement of full ebullition
being ascertained, may be sought in one of the
following Tables, against which the alcoholic
content of the liquor will be found (nearly).-
TABLE IV.-Ea:hibiting the BoILING-PoſNTs
of Miatures of Alcohol and Water of the
given strengths. By GRöNING.

Boiling-point. Alºh" iling-point. Alcohol
*|† "º"|º.
205'34. 5 179.96 55
19922 10 179.42 60
195'8 15 1787 65
192'38 20 177.62 70
189'50 25 176'54 75
187-16 30 175-46 80
185. 35 174.92 85
183:38 40 1742 90
182°12 45 173-14 95
181'58 50 172. 100
46
ALCOHOLOMETRY.
TABLE W.-Showing the BoILING-PoſNTs of
‘under proof” spirit. By Dr. URE.
Boiling-points. Per-centage Corresponding
Fahr. strength. Sp. Gr.
1785 Proof ‘9200
17975 10 U.P. ‘9321
180°4 20 , ‘9420
182°1 30: ,, ‘9516
183-4 40' ,, ‘9600
185'6 50° 2, *9665
189: 60° , ‘9729
1918 70’ ,, ‘9786
196'4 80' ,, '9850
202' 90° , •9920
Obs. This method does not answer well with
spirituous liquors above ‘proof,” owing to the
variations of their boiling-point being so slight
as not to be easily observed with accuracy; but
with liquors under ‘proof,” and particularly
with wines, beer, and other fermented liquors,
due care being observed, it gives results closely
approximating to those obtained by distillation,
and sufficiently accurate for all ordinary pur-
poses. In testing strong alcoholic solutions it
is, therefore, proper to dilute them with twice
their bulk of water; and commercial spirits,
with an equal bulk of water; the results ob-
tained being doubled or tripled as the case may
be.
d. From the EXPANSION of the LIQUID
when heated:—Silbermann’s DILATATOMETER.
The expansion of alcohol between 0° and
212° Fahr. is triple that of water; and
between 77° and 122° Fahr., it is much
greater. Between —14° and —98° Fahr., the
rate of expansion is about the 00047th part in
volume for every degree of Fahrenheit's scale.
The measurement of this expansion has been
proposed as a new and ready method of alco-
holometry, adapted to nearly all spirituous
and fermented liquors. Silbermann’s in-
strument, which is based on it (see engr.),
simply consists of a flat brass or ivory plate
(A), on which are fixed a mercurial ther-
mometer (D) graduated from 22° to 50° Cent.
(=77° to 122°Fahr.); and the DILATATOMETER
(B), which is a glass pipette open at both
ends. A valve of cork, or vulcanised Indian
rubber, closes the tapering end (c); this valve
is attached to a movable rod (C) which is
fastened to the supporting-plate, and connected
with a spring (f) and a handle (g) bearing
a four-threaded screw, by which the lower
orifice of the pipette can be opened or closed
at will. In use, the pipette is filled with the
liquor under examination, to a little above the
zero point (0) on the scale. This is effected
by suction, by means of a little piston of lea-
ther (i), which fits tightly in the long and wider
limb of the pipette; the valve (d) being pre-
viously opened by turning the knob (h). The
proper quantity of liquor being introduced, and
the lower end closed, the piston is moved up
and down two or three times, for the purposé
of drawing the air-bubbles and absorbed air
out of the liquid, the presence of which would
vitiate the results of the trial. To allow the
piston to be withdrawn without any shock, 0.
the danger of dividing the column abruptly,
the rod attached to it is made hollow through:
out. In using it, the operator applies the ballof
his forefinger to the top of the piston-rod (E), in
order to create a vacuum as he raises it; and
then withdraws it, to readmit the air when he
thrusts it down or removes it from the tube.
The excess of liquid (if any) in the pipette, is
then run off until its upper surface is ea actl|
level with the zero (0) of the scale, at 25°C,
to which it is raised by immersion in a water
bath of that temperature, as observed by the
thermometer; which is done by very cautiously
turning the rod which depresses the valve.
The whole apparatus is now again immersed in
the water bath; and, held by the upper portion
of the plate, kept in gentle motion with the
hand, until the temperature rises to eacacil .
50° C., when the coefficient of expansion is
obtained, and hence also the proportion of
alcohol—the scale of the instrument being sº
graduated, from actual experiments previously.
made upon mixtures of known composition,
as to give, at once, the per-centage of alcohol by
VoIUME (nearly)."
* “Comptes Rendus,” xvii, 418.

ALCOHOLOMETRY.
47
e. From the TENSION of the WAPOUR :—
Geissler’s ALCOHOLOMETER. This method, for
which we are indebted to M. Geissler, of Bonn,
depends on the measurement of the tension or
elastic force of the vapour of the liquid, as in-
dicated by the height to which it
raises a small column of mercury.
The spirit, wine, or other liquor, of
which it is desired to ascertain the
strength, is put into the little
flask (a), which, when completely
filled, is screwed on to the ‘curved
glass-tube’ which contains themer-
curial column (which is inverted
for the purpose), and is closed by
the stop-cock (b). The in-
strument (see engr.), is then
placed erect, and the flask and
lower part of the tube immersed
in a water bath, as in the previous
imethod. The number, on the
graduated scale of the instrument
corresponding to the height of
the mercury, at the boiling-point
of the liquor under examination,
gives the per-centage of alcohol
by VoIUME (nearly).
This method furnishes approximative results
with great facility and expedition; and, with
proper care, these do not vary more than ; to
# of 1%, from those obtained by distillation.
We find, that by having the diameterof the part
of the tube at which the surface of the mercury
is acted on by the vapour a little larger than
that of the longer limb, and by previously
abstracting the air from the sample, as in Sil-
bermann’s method, or even by agitation and
exposure in an open vessel, the two may be made
to correspond almost exactly.
f. From the DIFFERENCE between the Sp.
Gr. BEFORE and AFTER ebullītion :-Taberié's
METHOD and GENOMETER. The sp. gr. of the
sample is first accurately determined by any of
the usual methods. It is next carefully evapo-
rated, in an open vessel, to one half its volume.
The residuum, when cold, is made up with
pure water to exactly its original measure at
its original temperature, and the sp. gr. again
ascertained. The difference between the two
being due to the spirit originally present,
furnishes the means of calculating a new sp. gr.,
from which the per-centage richness of the
sample may be obtained by mere inspection of
the Tables. The observed sp. gr. is the true
one, whenever the liquor, after ebullition and
restoration to its original volume, has the same
sp. gr. as water (i. e., 1'000), at 60° Fahr.
Taberié employs a peculiar instrument, which
he calls an OENOMETER ; but its use is not
essential to his method of alcoholometry. The
results are, of course, only approximative,
though sufficient for all ordinary purposes.
Prof. Mulder, however, says that he prefers it
to any of the previous methods; and that the
results, with care, are almost as accurate as
those obtained by distillation.
g. By means of CARBONATE OF POTASH:-
g. a. (Brande’s Method.) The liquor for trial
is poured into a long, narrow glass-tube
(graduated centesimally), until the vessel is
half-filled, and, after the addition of about
12% or 15% of a strong solution of subacetate of
lead, or a little finely powdered litharge, is
agitated until the colour is entirely, or nearly
removed. Anhydrous carbonate of potash, in
powder, is next added, until it sinks undis-
solved, even after prolonged agitation of the
liquid. The whole is now allowed to repose
for a short time, when the ALCOHOL is seen
floating on the top of the aqueous portion of
the liquid in a well-marked stratum. Its
quantity, read off by means of the gradua-
tions of the tube, and doubled, gives the per-
centage richness of the sample in .# by
VOLUME.
This process answers well with cordials,
wines, and the stronger ales; but with very
weak liquors it is not to be relied on. The
whole operation may be performed in two to
five minutes, and (with these exceptions) fur-
nishes very reliable approximative results. In
most cases the decolouring part of the process
may be omitted. The alcohol thus separated
has a sp. gr. of from 8061 to '8118, and
contains 3} or 4% of water; but for ordi-
nary purposes it may be regarded as pure
alcohol.
4. Alcoholometry of MINUTE QUANTITIEs of
liquid. When only a few drops, or a quantity
too small for the application of the preceding
methods, can be obtained, an organic analysis
may be had recourse to, and the quantity of
absolute alcohol calculated from that of the
resulting carbonic anhydride and water; care
being previously taken to free the sample from
other volatile bodies, if it contains any of them.
Gen. commentary. The DUTIES on spirits in
England are charged on the number of proof
gallons they contain, which is ascertained by
gauging or weighing the spirit, and then trying
its strength by Sykes' hydrometer. The per-
centage of proof spirit multiplied by the
number of gallons, gives the net amount of
proof spirit to be charged.
‘PRooF STRENGTH" is an arbitrary standard,
adopted for the purpose of facilitating calcula-
tions, for which it is well suited; although
pure alcohol would, for this purpose, be more
simple. As defined by Act of Parliament, 58
Geo. III, c. 28, “proof spirit * is such, “as
shall, at the temperature of 51° of Fahrenheit's
thermometer, weigh exactly twelve thirteenth
parts of an equal measure of distilled water.”
Taking, therefore, water at 51° Fahr. as
unity, the sp. gr. of “proof spirit” at 51°
Fahr., is +3 of 1.000 or '92308. When such
spirit is raised to the temperature of 60°Fahr.,
its density is 91984.
Spirit at “proof” contains very nearly equal
weights of absolute alcohol and water; the
exact proportions according to recent experi-
ments are:- -

48 ALCOHOLOMETRY.
By VolumE.
- O TV.
By WEIGHT. Bulk before admixture. Bulk . º and Sp. gr. at 60°Fahr.
Alcohol. Water. Alcohol. Water.
100.00 + 103-08 100.00 + 81:80 175-23 ‘91984
49.24 + 50.76 57.06 + 46.68 100.00
The standard alcohol of the Revenue | The strength of absolute alcohol (sp. gr.
authorities, and that on which Gilpin's Tables
are founded, is a spirit of the sp. gr. 825 at
60°Fahr., which is said to contain, by weight,
89% of pure alcohol of 796; and 92.6% of
alcohol, by volume, which corresponds to about
62.5 o.p.
It is of great importance to the spirit-dealer
to be able to estimate correctly the number of
‘proof gallons’ in any quantity of his commo-
dities, or in the whole or any portion of his
stock, as disagreeable errors frequently result
from ignorance on this point. Calculations of
this kind are extremely simple. Thus, when
we find, by the hydrometer, that a given
sample of spirit is 10% over-proof, it means,
that 100 gallons of such spirit contain as much
alcohol as 110 gallons of proof spirit. In
over-proof spirit, the per-centage o.p. always
represents the quantity of water which the
given spirit requires to reduce it to proof.
By adding this per-centage over-proof to 100,
we obtain a number, which multiplied by any
number of gallons, and divided by 100, gives
the exact number of proof-gallons which is
contained in any quantity of the spirit referred
to. Thus:—A puncheon of rum gauged at
91 galls., and shown by the hydrometer to be
21 0. p., contains—
21 o.p. of sample added to 100. 121
No. of gallons of rum . 91
100 ) 11011
No. of gal. of proof-spirit . . . 110-11
In like manner when a spirit is said to be
11 w. p., or under-proof, it means that 100 gal.
of such spirit contains 11 gal. of water, and
89 gal. of ‘proof spirit.” By deducting the
per-centage under-proof from 100, we not only
obtain the number of proof gal. contained in
100 gal. of such spirit, but, as in the last case,
a factor which multiplied by any number of
gal., and divided by 100, gives the exact num-
ber of ‘proof gallons' contained in any quan-
tity of the given strength. Thus:–An ullage
brandy-piece containing 45 gal. of spirit at
10 u, p., would have the proof value of
Per cent. w. p. of sample 10, } 90
subtracted from 100.
45
100 ) 4050
No. of ji ". . . . .
Quantity of proof spirit. . . 40-50
Or exactly 40% gallons.
‘7938) is estimated at 75% over-proof. It
therefore contains 175% of ‘proof spirit,'
whilst proof spirit (sp. gr. 91984) contains
57.06% of “absolute alcohol; both being by
measure or volume. Thus—
meas. of ale. × 1753 ſ equiv. meas.
100 - { of pf &pt.
And—
meas. of pf. spſ. X 57'06_ſ equiv. meas.
100 - { of abs. alc.
From which we derive the ‘constant multi-
pliers’ 17525 (or roughly 13), and 5706, ap.
plicable to any number of volumes or gallons,
For—
meas. of alc. × 17525–
and—
meas. of pf.spt. × .5706= {
equiv. meas.
of pf. spt.
equiv. meas,
of alc.
To ascertain what quantity of a spirit at any
given strength is equiv. to or contains 100 lbs,
of absolute alcohol, we have only to divide the
constant number 2207-7 by the proof-value
per cent. of such spirit." Thus—for a spirit
12 u. p.–this would be
100 — 12=88% of proof spirit;
and—
2207-7
88
=251 gal. (nearly).
That is, 25 ºn gal. of such spirit would contain
100 lbs. of absolute alcohol.
By removing the decimal point one place to
the RIGHT, we have the equiv. measure of
1000 lbs. By removing it one, two, or three
places to the LEFT, we have it respectively for
10 lbs., 1 lb., and ſº lb. ; from which the equiv.
for all other weights may be easily obtained.
By reversing the above operation, the med-
sure of alcohol corresponding to any given
weight of spirit, at any strength, may also be
easily found.
The WEIGHT of 1 gal. of absolute alcohol
being 7.938 lbs. ; that of 1 gal. of proof spirit,
92 lbs. ; and that of the “alcohol” in 1 gal,
of proof spirit, 4:53 lbs. ; the weight of any
number of gallons or volumes of either,
* This number is obtained thus:–
100
7935i = 12-6 (nearly),
and—
12.6 x 17525 = 2207-7.

ALCOHOLOMETRY.
49
and their equivalents, may be easily found.
Thus:–
gallons of alc. × 7.938–lbs. weight of alc.
,, pf. sp. × 9.2-lbs. w. of pf. spt.
and—
gallons of alc. x 16:121– { *:::::::
.E., ſ content in lbs.
,, pf. spt. × 4:53 = weight of alc.
In these cases a knowledge of the first four
rules of decimal fractions is necessary, or, at
least, advantageous; as the Excise officers carry
their calculations to two figures of decimals,
or Tºrºths. Their plan is to reject the third
decimal figure when less than 5; but to carry
1 to the next figure on the left hand, when it
exceeds 5. Thus, 5:432 is set down as only
5'43; but 5:437 is written 5:44. In the deli-
cate chemical processes of the laboratory, even
greater accuracy is observed.
Formerly, spirit was said to be 1 to 3, 1 to
4, &c., over-proof; by which it was meant that
1 gal. of water ADDED to 3 or 4 gals. of such
spirit would reduce it to ‘proof.” On the
other hand 1 in 5, or 1 in 8, under-proof, meant
that the 5 or 8 gals., as the case might be, con-
tained 1 gal. of water, and the REMAINDER
represented the quantity of ‘proof spirit.”
This method of calculation has now long given
way to the “centigrade system,” which not
only admits of greater accuracy, but is quite
as simple. It should be adopted by every
spirit-dealer in England, from being that
which is employed by the Revenue officers,
whose “surveys’ it is absolutely necessary that
the trader should understand, in order that
his own estimation of his stock and his busi-
ness calculations should correspond with theirs.
Several other methods of alcoholometry, be-
sides those already noticed, have been adopted
at various times, but the majority of them
possess so little accuracy, as to be quite inap-
plicable to the purposes of trade, and of the
laboratory. Thus, the strength was at one
time estimated by what was called the ‘PROOF.’
A little of the spirit was poured upon a small
quantity of gunpowder, contained in a spoon
or saucer, so as just to moisten it, and was
then inflamed. If at the end of the combus-
tion the gunpowder took fire, the spirit was
held to be ‘above proof;’ if it only languidly
fizzed away, or slowly burnt, the spirit was
said to be ‘proof;' but if the gunpowder failed
to ignite, the spirit was esteemed ‘below proof.”
Hence arose the terms ‘proof” and ‘proof
spirit,” which have since been adopted by Act
of Parliament. Another method was that of
dropping oil into the spirit; if the oil floated,
the spirit was considered to be “under proof;’
if it sunk, it was rated as ‘proof” or “over
proof.” The “gunpowder test” is quite falla-
cious; for, if a certain quantity of a spirit is
capable of firing the gunpowder, a little excess
of a spirit 20% or 25% stronger will often fail
to do so, so much water being formed as to
*-
prevent the ignition. The ‘PREUVE D'Hol-
LAND’ test, of the French, or the ‘BEAD,” is
still frequently employed by persons unac-
quainted with the use of the hydrometer. It
consists in shaking the spirit in a phial, and
observing the size, number, and duration of
the bubbles or beads, as they are called. The
larger and more numerous these are, and the
more rapidly they break and disappear, the
stronger the spirit is presumed to be. This
method is unreliable, as the presence of sugar
or acid, even in minute quantities, will some-
times give to a weak sample the appearance
of one many degrees stronger. LOVI’s BEADS
are also often employed to ascertain approxi-
mately the strength of spirit, when a hydro-
meter is not at hand.
The insufficiency of most of the methods of
alcoholometry here referred to, throws us back
on the Revenue System (Sykes’ hydrometer),
or on the specific gravity for UNSWEETENED
SPIRITS. For SWEETENED SPIRITS, as cordials,
wines, beers, &c., there are none of the tests
which give such accurate results as the DIS-
TILLATION test, previously described as the
Revenue Method. -
The spirituous liquors of commerce being
sold by measure, and not by weight, the
methods of alcoholometry which give the
results, per cent., by volume, are those we
have chiefly explained. In the laboratory,
the method by weight is that most generally
employed in delicate processes and in analyses.
By WEIGHT, the per-centage of alcohol remains
the same for all temperatures, for the same
sample; whilst by VOLUME, the per-centage
varies with the temperature of the liquid.
This variation explains the cause of many of
the sudden apparent decreases and increases,
which occur in large stocks of spirits. Persons
purchasing spirits during very warm weather,
and paying for them according to their ap-
parent quantity and strength, lose considerably
by selling the same spirit when the weather
becomes colder, without being conscious of
such loss from the hydrometer. The reason
of this is obvious, for, whilst the relative pro-
portions of the alcohol to the water continue
the same, the sp. gr. and the volume alter with
the temperature; the latter being increased
by warmth, and decreased by COLD, in exact
opposition to the former. Accuracy requires,
in all cases, that a spirituous liquor should be
tested for its strength at the temperature at
which it was measured; and measured at the
same temperature at which its strength was
determined.
A consideration of these facts has led some
of the great houses to introduce the system of
weighing their spirits, instead of measuring
them, the weight of an imperial gallon at
60° Fahr. being taken as the standard gallon.
This is the method adopted by the Inland
Revenue, at all distilleries, for assessing the
duty, and will be readily understood by the
following example:—



4.
50
ALCOHOLOMETRY.
Gross weight of full cask
Tare
Net weight of spirit
or 1254 lbs. Let us suppose the hydrometer
indication to be 43-0, the weight per imperial
gallon would be 8.903 lbs. (see Table VI), and
Cwts. Qrs. lbs.
= 13 2 27
- 2 2 5
= 11 0 22
1254 + 8.903 = 140 gallons.
TABLE VI-Table for determining the Weight per Gallon of Spirits by Sykes' Hydrometer.
- " -- - ndication - Indicati - icati - - - - -
* Wºº |º Wºº [º Wºº Wºº Yº
... gion. . Gäion. . Gion. . Giºn. . Gin
0 8-145 || 10 21 8'512 || 31 42 8.885
2 8-157 6 8'333 2 || 8'516 6 8-699 2 | 8:889 |
4 || 8'161 8 8:337 4 || 8'519 8 8-702 4 || 8'892 ||
6 || 8'164 || 11 8-340 6 || 8'523 32 8-706 6 || 8.896
8 || 8'168 2 8'343 8 8.526 2 8.709 8 || 8.899
1. 8-171 4 8'347 22 8'530 4 || 8.713 || 43 8'903
2 | 8-174 6 || 8:350 2 8°533 6 8-716 2 8-907
4 8178 8 8:354 4 || 8°537 8 8.720 4 | 8911
6 || 8'181 || 12 8:357 6 || 8.540 || 33 8-723 6 || 8'914
8 || 8-185 2 8.361 8 || 8'544 2 8-727 8 || 8'918
2 8.188 4 || 8'364 23 8'547 4 8730 || 44 8'922
2 | 8:191 6 8'368 2 8°551 6 8-734 2 | 8926 ||
4 8'195 8 8:371 4 || 8'554 8 8.737 4 8'929
6 || 8'198 || 13 8-375 6 || 8'558 || 34 8-74.1 6 | 8.933
8 || 8.202 2 8-378 8 8°56]. 2 | 8.745 8 8'936
3 8'205 4 8'382 24 8'565 4 8-748 I 45 8'940
2 | 8.208 6 || 8'385 2 || 8:568 6 8.752 2 | 8.944
4 8-212 8 8-389 4 8'572 8 8-755 4 8:947
6 | 8'215 14 8-392 6 8-575 || 35 8-759 6 8.951
8 || 8-219 2 8:395 || - 8 || 8:579 2 8.763 8 8'954
4. 8'222 4 8:399 || 25 8.582 4 || 8°766 || 46 8'958
2 | 8:225 6 || 8-402 2 || 8°586 6 8770 2 8.962
4 || 8°229 8 || 8:406 4 || 8:589 8 || 8.773 4 | 8965
6 8-232 || 15 8’409 6 8:593 : 36 8-777 6 8,969
8 8-236 2 8°412 8 || 8:596 2 8-781 8 || 8-972
5 8'239 4 8:416 || 26 8:600 4 || 8:784 || 47 8.976
2. 8'24.2 6 || 8'419 2 || 8.603 6 8788 2 8.980
4 8.245 8 || 8°423 4 8:607 8 8-791 4 | 8984
6 || 8'249 || 16 8'426 6 | 8:610 || 37 8-795 6 || 8'987
8 || 8.252 2 8.429 8 || 8.614 2 8-799 8 || 8,991
6 8'255 4 8:433 27 8:617 4 8.802 || 48 8-995
2 | 8:258 6 8.436 2 || 8:620 6 || 8:806 2 | 8-999
4 || 8'262 8 || 8'440 4 || 8-624 8 8.809 4 9:002
6 8.265 || 17 8’443 6 8-628 || 38 8.813 6 | 9:006
8 || 8-269 2 8'446 8 || 8-631 2 | 8:817 8 9:009
7 8'272 4 || 8:450 || 28 8:635 4 || 8'820 || 49 9:013
2 8:275 6 || 8:453 2 8.639 6 8-824 2 9:017
4 8-279 8 8-457 4 || 8:642 8 || 8-827 4 9:021
6 8.282 | 18 8’460 6 8.646 || 39 8’831 6 9:024
8 8.286 2 | 8:464 8 8:649 2 || 8.835 8 9:028
8 8'289 4 || 8.467 29 8:653 4 || 8-838 || 50 9.032
2 8'292 6 8:471 2 | 8:656 6 || 8.842 2 9.036
4 || 8:296 8 8:474 4 || 8:660 8 8.845 4 || 9-039
6 8:299 || 19 8’478 6 8.663 || 40 8-849 6 9:043
8 || 8:303 2 || 8:481 8 8.667 2 8.853 8 9:046
9 8:306 4 || 8’485 || 30 8-670 4 || 8.856 || 51 9:050 |
2 8:309 6 8:488 2 8-674. 6 | 8.860 2 | 9:054
4 || 8'313 8 || 8°492 4 8.677 8 || 8-863 4 || 9:058
6 || 8.316 || 20 8’495 6 || 8:681 || 41 8-867 6 9-061
8 || 8-320 2 || 8:498 8 8-684. 2 8:871 8 || 9.065
10 8'323 4 || 8'502 || 31 8°688 4 8:874 52 9:069
2 8'326 6 8'505 2 8-692 6 8:878 2 9-073
4 || 8'330 8 || 8:509 4 8-695 8 || 8'881 4 9.076

ALCOHOLOMETRY-ALCOHOLS. 51

º Wºº Wºº [º Wºº [º Wºº |º wº
*... gin. . Gion. . Gion. . Gion. . Gion.
52 62 71 81 90
6 9:080 2 || 9-260 8 || 9:444 4 9:631 8 || 9:816
8 9:083 4 9.264 || 72 9:448 6 9'635 | 91 9.820
53 9:087 6 9:267 2 9:452 8 9.639 2 9:824
2 9:091 8 || 9:271 4 9-456 || 82 9:643 4 || 9:828
4 9.095 || 63 9:275 6 9:459 2 9:647 6 || 9'832
6 9:098 2 9-279 8 || 9:463 4 9'651 3 9.836
8 9-102 4 9:283 73 9:467 6 || 9'655 || 92 9-840
54 9-106 6 9:286 2 9:471 8 9:659 2 9:844
2 9-110 8 9-290 4 9:475 83 9.663 4 || 9'848
4 9-114 || 64 9:294, 6 9-479 2 9'667 6 9'852
6 9-117 2 9:298 8 || 9.483 4 9-671 8 || 9'856
8 9-121 4 9:302 || 74 9.487 6 9-674 || 93 9.860
55 9-125 6 || 9:305 2 || 9°491 8 9.678 2 || 9:864
2 9-129 8 || 9:309 4 || 9:495 || 84 9.682 4 || 9'868
4 - 9:132 || 65 9:313 6 9.498 2 || 9'686 6 9:872
6 9:136 2 9.317 8 || 9°502 4 || 9-690 8 || 9,876
8 9:139 4 9-321 75 9:506 6 || 9'694 || 94 9.880
56 9-143 6 9:324 2 9'510 8 || 9'698 2 || 9'884
2 | 9-147 8 || 9:328 4 9:514 || 85 9-702 4 || 9'888
4 9-151 | 66 9°332 6 9'517 2 9.706 6 9.892
6 9-154 2 9:336 8 || 9:521 4 9:710 8 9'896
8 || 9:158 4 9:340 || 76 9:525 6 9:714 || 95 9-900
57 9-162 6 9-344 2 || 9.529 8 9-718 2 9-904
2 || 9,166 8 || 9-348 4 || 9:533 || 86 9-722 4 9'908
4 || 9,170 || 67 9:352 6 9:537 2 9:726 6 9.913
6 || 9,173 2 || 9:356 8 || 9'541 4 9:730 8 9.917
8 9.177 4 9:360 || 77 9:545 6 9:733 || 96 9-921
58 9°181 6 9:363 2 || 9'549 8 9.737 2 | 9:925
2 || 9,185 8 || 9:367 4 9:553 || 87 9:741 4 9-929
4 9-189 || 68 9:371 6 9:557 2 9.745 6 || 9-934
6 || 9.192 2 9-375 8 || 9'561 4 9:749 8 || 9'938
8 || 9,196 4 9-379 || 78 9:565 6 9.753 || 97 9.942
59 9:200 6 9.382 2 || 9'569 8 9:757 2 9.946
2 9.204 8 || 9:386 4 9:573 || 88 9-761 4 || 9°950
4 9.207 || 69 9'390 6 9:576 2 9:765 6 9-955
6 9-211 2 9'394 8 || 9'580 4 9-769 8 9.959
8 9:214 4 9:398 || 79 9'584 6 || 9,773 || 98 9:963
60 9.218 6 9:401 2 9'588 8 9,777 2 9,967
2 9-222 8 || 9-405 4 || 9'592 || 89 9-781 4 9.972
4 9.226 || 70 9-409 6 9:596 2 9785 6 9-976
6 9-229 2 9:413 8 9'600 4 9789 8 9.981
8 9:233 4 || 9:417 | 80 9-604 6 9-792 || 99 9.985
61 9:237 6 || 9'420 2 || 9-608 8 9:796 2 9.989
2 9:24.1 8 || 9'424 4 9:612 || 90 9:800 4 9'994
4 9:245 || 71 9:428 6 9'615 2 || 9'804 6 9.998
6 9:248 2 9-432 8 9'619 4 9-808 8 || 10:003
8 9.252 4 9:436 || 81 9.623 6 9'812 [100 10:007
62 9:256 6 9'440 2 9:627
*** For further information in connection with Alcoholometry, see ALCOHOL, BEER,
BREWING, DISTILLATION, EBULLIOSCOPE, HYDROMETER, HYDROMETRY, LIQUEURS, MALT-
LIQUORS, ORGANIC ANALYSIS, SACCHARINE, SPECIFIC GRAVITY, SPIRIT, SUGAR, SYRUPS,
TINCTURES, WINE, WoRT, &c. &c.
AL/COHOLS. In chemistry, a term applied senting an unmistakable symmetry, and differ
to compounds possessing a composition, for- from one another by well-marked gradations,
mulae, and chemical properties similar to those as shown below:—
of ordinary alcohol. They form a series pre-

52
ALCOOLATIFS-ALDEHYD.
Methyl-alcohol (wood-spirit) . C. H. O
Ethyl-alcohol (ordinary alcohol) C. He O
Amyl-alcohol (fisel-oil) . . C. His-O
Capryl-alcohol . . . Cs His O
Cetyl-alcohol . . . C16 H34 O
&c. &c.
Alcohols. In commerce, pure spirits of a
greater strength than about 58 0. p. (sp. gr.
'8335), or containing more than about 85% by
WEIGHT, or 90% by VOLUME, of pure alcohol,
are commonly so called.
Alcohols. In perfumery, rectified spirit of
wine, or commercial alcohol, holding essential
oils or other odorous matters in solution.
Alcohols. In Fr. pharmacy, alcoholic tinc-
tures and essences.
ALC00LATIFS (alcoölatifs). [Fr.] Syn. AL-
COHOLATI'VA, L. In Fr. pharmacy, alcoholic
solutions of liniments, embrocations, &c., whether
made by distillation, maceration, or solution.
ALC00LATS (alcoölats). [Fr.] In Fr. phar-
macy, esprits; applied by Béral, Henry and Gui-
bourt, and others, to medicated distilled spirits.
ALC00LATURES (alcoölatures). [Fr.] Syn.
ALCOHOLATU"RA, L. In Fr. pharmacy, alcoholic
tinctures, elixirs, &c. M. Béral confines the
term to vegetable juices preserved by alcohol.
ALC00LES (alcoölés). [Fr.] Tinctures;
the “teintures alcoholiques’ of the Fr. Codex.
ALC00LIQUES (alcoöliques). [Fr.] Syn.
ALCOHOL/ICA, L. In Fr. pharmacy, alcoholic
or spirituous solutions. (Béral.)
AL/CORNINE (-nin). [Eng., Fr.] Syn. AL-
COR'NocINE (-sin); ALCOR'NEUM, ALCORNI'NA,
L. A crystallisable substance, apparently in-
termediate between fat and wax, discovered
by Biltz, in alcornoco bark.
ALCORNO'C0. Syn. A.-BARK; ALCORNoquE,
Fr.; ALKORNOC, A.-RIND, Ger. The bark of
an unknown tree of South America. It is
astringent and bitter, and has been highly ex-
tolled as a specific in phthisis; but appears to
possess little medicinal virtue. The bark of
the young branches of the cork-tree (quercus
suber), used in tanning, is also sometimes
called alcornoco-bark; but possesses none of
the characters of the former article.
AL'DECAY. The galls on the leaves of
myrobalanus chebula (Gaertn.), a forest-tree
of Bengal. Equal to the best oak-galls.
AL'DEHYD (-hid). [al-(cohol)-dehyd (roge-
matus).] C.H.O. Syn. HYDRATED ox1DE OF
ACETYLE; HYDRATE of OTHYLE*; HYDROxIDE
OF o.* Literally, dehydrogenated alcohol. In
chemistry, a peculiar ethereal liquid, first ob-
tained in a pure form by Liebig, from alcohol.
It is produced under various circumstances, par-
ticularly during the destructive distillation of
certain organic matters, and in several processes
of oxidation. The following are the most con-
venient methods of preparing it:-
Prep. 1. (Liebig.) Sulphuric acid, 3 parts;
is diluted with water, 2 parts; and as soon as
the mixture has cooled, alcohol of 80%, 2 parts, is
added; and, subsequently, perovide of manga-
nese (in fine powder), 3 parts, The whole,
after agitation, is then distilled at a very gentle
heat, from a spacious retort into a receiver
surrounded with ice, the connection between
the two being perfectly air-tight. The pro-
cess is continued until frothing commences, or
the distillate becomes acid; which generally
occurs when about one third (3 parts) has
passed over. The distillate is next agitated
in a retort, with about its own weight of fused
chloride of calcium, in powder; after which
about one half only is drawn over at a very
gentle heat (85° to 90°Fahr.), by means of a
water bath. This rectification is repeated in
a precisely similar way. The last distillate is
ANHYDROUS ALDEHYD only slightly contami-
nated with foreign matters.
2. (Liebig.) Aldehyd-ammonia, 2 parts, is
dissolved in an equal weight of distilled water;
and, after being placed in a retort, sulphuric
acid, 2 or 3 parts, previously diluted with
rather more than its own weight of distilled
water, and allowed to cool, is added. The
whole is now distilled, by means of a water
bath, into a receiver surrounded with ice, or
(preferably) a freezing-mixture, the tempera-
ture of the bath at first being very low, and
the operation being stopped as soon, or rather,
before the water begins to boil. The distillate
is then placed in a retort connected with a
well-cooled receiver, as before; and after all
the joints are made perfectly tight, powdered
fused chloride of calcium, in weight equal to
that of the liquid in the retort, is added
through the tubulature. The heat produced by
the hydration of the chloride causes the distil.
lation to commence, after which it is carried
on, by means of a water bath, at a temperature
ranging from 80° to 82°Fahr. This rectifica-
tion being very carefully repeated, the last
distillate is PURE ANHYDROUS ALDEHYD.
Prop., &c. Limpid, colourless, ethereal,
neutral, inflammable; mixes in all proportions
with alcohol, ether, and water; odour, pecu.
liar, penetrating, and, when strong, exceed-
ingly suffocating, the vapour, in quantity,
producing spasmodic contraction of the tho.
rax; boils at 72° Fahr. (70°–Ure, 5th ed.);
sp. gr. 1790 at 60°, and '800 at 32°Fahr.; sp.
gr. of vapour, 1:532; by exposure to air it is
gradually converted into acetic acid, and
speedily so under the influence of platinum-
black; heated with caustic potash, a brown
substance resembling resin (ALDEHYD-RESIN).
is formed; gently heated with protoxide of
silver, or its solutions, metallic silver is depo-
sited on the inner surface of the vessel, in a
uniform and brilliant film, whilst ALDEHYDATE
OF SILVER remains in solution; heated with
hydrocyanic acid it yields ALANINE. By age,
even in close vessels, it passes into one or more
isomeric compounds (ELALDEHYDE ; METAL-
DEHYDR), with change of properties. Alde-
hyde for experiments should, therefore, be
always recently prepared; and it must be kept
in a well-stopped bottle, in a very cold place,
and preferably, in ice.
ALDEHYD-AMMONIA—ALE.
53
Obs. Aldehyd is important for its assumed
position in the acetyl-series, and the part
which it plays in the process of acetification,
&c. The word is now also commonly em-
ployed, by chemists, as a generic term for any
organic substance which, by assimilating two
atoms of hydrogen, yields, or would yield, a
compound having the composition or properties
of an alcohol; or which, by taking up one
atom of oxygen, yields an acid. Many of the
essential oils (as those of almonds, cinnamon,
and cumin) are composed principally of bodies
which may thus be called ALDEHYDS. One of
the most valuable properties of these sub-
stances, is their strong tendency to combine
with the bisulphites of ammonium, potassium,
and sodium; and by which they may be sepa-
rated from complex mixtures.
AL/DEHYD-AMMO'NIA (-hid-). An am-
monia-compound of aldehyd, discovered by
Döbereiner and Liebig.
Prep. (Liebig.) Aldehyd (of process No. 1,
above) is mixed with an equal volume of ether,"
in a flask surrounded with ice, or (what is better)
a freezing-mixture; and is then saturated with
dry gaseous ammonia. The crystals which soon
form, after being washed with ether, and dried
by means of bibulous paper and a short exposure
to the air, are PURE ALDEHYD-AMMONIA.
Prop., &c. It smells like a mixture of tur-
pentine and ammonia; melts at 165° to 170°;
volatilises, unchanged, at 212°Fahr.; decom-
posed by exposure to the air; very soluble in
water; soluble in alcohol, and more or less so
in most other menstrua, except ether; acids
decompose it. With sulphuretted hydrogen it
forms THIALDINE.-Use. Chiefly to make pure
aldehyd (which see).
AL/DER (awl’-). Syn. AL'DER-TREE; AI/NUs
(äl-), L.; A. GLUTINo's A (Gaertn.); BETU’LA
ALNUS, Linn.; AUNE, AULNE, Fr. ; ERLE, Ger.
A well-known English tree, chiefly growing in
moist grounds near rivers. Its wood is used
for hurdles, for various articles of turnery and
furniture, and when converted into charcoal,
for making gunpowder; it possesses consider-
able durability under water; but is otherwise
of little value. Bark and leaves, very astrin-
gent, and reputed vulnerary; decoction used
as a gargle in sore throat, and, in double the
dose of cinchona, as a febrifuge in agues; bark
and sap used in dyeing and tanning. The
following belong to different nat. orders and
genera to the preceding:— -
Black Alder. Syn. WINTER-BERRY; PRI'Nos
VERTICILLATUS, Linn. A tree growing in the
United States of America. Bark, febrifuge,
tonic, and astringent; berries, tonic and eme-
tic (Bigelow). It has been much recommended
in dropsies, diarrhoea, intermittents, &c. Dose (of
the dried bark), 3 to 1 dr., 3 or 4 times a day.
Black Alder-tree. Syn. BERRY-BEARING
ALDER-TREE ; RHAM/NUS FRAN'GULA, Linn.
A large shrub found in the woods and thickets
1 Some authorities recommend the use of twice this
quantity of ether.
of England, &c. Wood, BLACK Dog'WooD ;
bark, bitter, emetic, purgative; used to dye
yellow; root-bark, a drastic purgative; berries,
purgative, emetic ; unripe berries yield SAP-
GREEN; charcoal of the wood esteemed the
best for gunpowder.
ALE. Syn. BARLEY WINE*; AILE, Fr.;
WEISS-BIER, Ger.; AEL, EALE, Sax. ; CERE-
VIS'IA ALBA, C. LUPULA’TA, A/LA*, AL/LA*, L.
Pale-coloured beer, prepared from lightly
dried malt, by the ordinary process of brewing.
The ale of the modern brewer is manufactured
in several varieties, which are determined by
the wants of the consumer, and the particular
market for which it is intended. Thus, the
finer kinds of Burton, East India, Bavarian,
and other like ales, having undergone a tho-
rough fermentation, contain only a small quam-
tity of undecomposed sugar and gum, varying
from 1 to 5 per cent. Some of these are highly
“hopped,” or “bittered,’ the further to pro-
mote their preservation during transit and
change of temperature. Mild or sweet ales,
on the contrary, are less attenuated by length-
ened fermentation, and abound in saccharine
and gummy matter. They are, therefore, more
nutritious, though less intoxicating, than those
previously referred to.
In brewing the finer kinds of ale, pale malt
and the best East Kent hops of the current
season’s growth, are always employed; and
when it is desired to produce a liquor possess-
ing little colour, very great attention is paid
to their selection. With the same object, the
boiling is conducted with more than the usual
precautions, and the fermentation is carried
on at a somewhat lower temperature than that
commonly allowed for other varieties of beer.
For ordinary ale, intended for immediate use,
the malt may be all pale; but, if the liquor be
brewed for keeping, and in warm weather, when
a slight colour is not objectionable, one fifth, or
even one fourth of “amber malt' may be advanta-
geously employed. From 4% lbs. to 6 lbs. of hops
is the quantity commonly used to the quarter
of malt, for “ordinary ales;' and 7 lbs. to 10 lbs.
for ‘keeping ales.” The proportions, however,
must greatly depend on the intended quality
and description of the brewing, and the period
that will be allowed for its maturation.
The stronger varieties of ale usually contain
from 6 to 8% of “absolute alcohol;' ordinary
strong ale, 4% to 6%; mild ale, 3 to 4%; and
table ale, 1% to 1% #; (each by volume;) to-
gether with some undecomposed saccharine,
gummy, and extractive matter, the bitter and
marcotic principles of the hop, some acetic acid
formed by the oxidation of the alcohol, and
very small and variable quantities of mineral
and saline matter. See BEER, BREWING, FER-
MENTATION, MALT-LIQUORS, &c.
Dev’onshire White Ale. A liquor once gene-
rally drunk, and still in demand, in the neigh-
bourhood of Kingsbridge and Modbury, Devon.
Prep. Ordinary ale-wort (preferably pale)
sufficient to produce 1 barrel, is slowly boiled
54
ALEBERRY-ALGAE.
with about 3 handfuls of hops, and 12 to 14
lbs. of crushed groats, until the whole of the
soluble matter of the latter is extracted. The
resulting liquor, after being run through a
coarse strainer, and become lukewarm, is fer-
mented with 2 or 3 pints of yeast and, as
soon as the fermentation is at its height, is
either closely bunged up for ‘draught,” or is
at once put into strong stoneware bottles,
which are then well-corked and wired.
Obs. White ale is said to be very feeding,
though apt to prove laxative to those unac-
customed to its use. It is drunk in a state of
effervescence or lively fermentation; the glass
or cup containing it being kept in constant
motion, when removed from the mouth, until
the whole is consumed, in order that the thicker
portion may not subside to the bottom.
Medicated Ales. Syn. BRYT'oDES; BRU-
TOLÉs, Fr. ; CEREVIS'IAE MEDICATE, L. In
pharmacy, ale prepared by macerating medi-
cinal substances in it, either at the ordinary
temperature of the atmosphere, or when
heated; infusions and decoctions, in which ale
or beer is employed as the menstruum. The
old dispensatories enumerate several medicated
ales; such as CEREVISIA OXYDOR'CICA, for the
eyes; C. ANTI-ARTHRIT'ICA, for the gout; C.
CEPHAI/ICA, for the head; C. EPILEP'TICA,
against epilepsy; &c. Preparations of this kind
are now seldom ordered by the faculty, and their
use is chiefly confined to the practice of empirics,
and to domestic medicine. Bark, rue, savine,
anti-scorbutic plants, aromatic bitters, and sto-
machics, are the substances most commonly ad-
ministered in this way. Alein which wormwood,
gentian, orange-peel, and the like, have been
steeped, taken warm early in the morning, is
much esteemed as a restorative tonic by drunk-
ards and dyspeptics. See BEER, PURL, &c.
ALEBERRY. A beverage made by boiling
ale with spice, sugar, and bread-sops ; the last,
commonly toasted. A domestic remedy for a cold.
ALE'GILL (g hard). Ale or beer flavoured
or medicated by infusing the leaves of ground
ivy in it; pectoral, stomachic, and nervine.
ALE'WIFE. The cluped serrata, an Ameri-
can species of herring. Its proper name is
a'loof, although the established pronunciation
and common orthography is ale-wife.
ALEMBIC. Syn. MooRS/HEAD+ ; ALEM'-
BICUS, L.; ALAMBIC, Fr.; DESTILLIRKOLBEN,
Ger. An old form of distillatory vessel usually
made of glass or earthenware, but sometimes
of metal. The body (a) which holds the liquid
for distillation, is called the CU'CURBIT ; the
upper part (b), the HEAD or CAP'ITOL.; (c) is
the RECEIVER, . It is still employed in the
laboratory, in the distillation of articles that are
apt to spurt over into the neck of the common
retort, and thus vitiate the product.
ALEUROM’ETER. Syn. ALEUROMETRE, Fr.
An instrument for determining the quantity
and quality of gluten in wheat-flour, invented
by M. Boland. It essentially consists of a
hollow copper cylinder, about 6 inches long,
and # of an inch internal diameter. This tube
has two principal parts; the one, about 2 inches
long, is closed at the lower end, forming a kind
of cup, into which the gluten is placed; it
screws into the remainder of the cylinder. The
cup being charged with a sample of gluten, and
the upper part of the cylinder being screwed
on, it is exposed in an oven, or (preferably) in
an oil bath, to a temperature of 350 to 380
Fahr. From the length of the tube the gluten
occupies in swelling, as measured by a gra.
duated scale, its quality is determined. The
‘crude gluten’ of good wheat-flour augments tº
four or five times its original volume, when
thus treated; but that from bad flour does not
swell, becomes viscid and semi-fluid, and ge.
nerally gives off a disagreeable odour; whilst
that of good flour merely suggests the smell of
hot and highly baked bread.
AL'GA. (-gã). [L.] Sea-weed. A common
name of grass-wrack (‘Zostera marina’—Ilinn.)
though not one of the algae.
AL'GAE. (äl’-jë). [L. pl.] Syn. AI/GAIS;
ALGAE (DC.), AL/GALES (Lindl.), L.; ALGUES,
WARECH, Fr. ; ALGE, MEERGRASS, SEEGRASS,
Ger. Sea-weeds. In botany, an order of
Thallogens living in water or very moist
places, nourished throughout their whole sur.
face by the medium in which they live, having
no distinct axis of vegetation, and propagated
by zoöspores, coloured spores, or tetrasports.
Linnaeus defines them—“plants, the roots,
leaves, and stems of which are all in one.” The
algae consist either of simple vesicles lying in
mucus, or of articulated filaments, or of lobed
fronds formed of uniform cellular tissue. Those
that vegetate in salt water are popularly called
SEA-WEEDs (fu'ci, L.) and LA'VER (ulva, L.);
those found in fresh water CoNFER'VE. One
of their divisions (the Zoëspermeat) compre:
hends the lowest known forms of vegetable life,
being merely adhering cells, emitting, at matu,
rity, seeds or sporules having a distinct animal
motion. In Oscillatorias, the whole plant twist;
and writhes spontaneously; and Zymenas A&
tually copulate like animals. Some of the Algº
possess great beauty. In the lower grades the
colour is green; in the higher, red or purple.
Prop., Uses, &c. None of the Algae are
1 Mr. Mitchell recommends the heat to be 420°; whilst
Prof. Muspratt gives 284°Fahr. as the proper temperº:
ture; but of these, the first is too high, and the other tº
low. About 210 gr, are also ordered to be taken for ex:
mination; but the exact quantity is immaterial. (Sº
Mitchell’s “Falsification of Food.”)

ALGAROBA—ALKALI.
55
poisonous. Several are nutritious, emollient,
and demulcent, from containing mucilage
(carrageenin), starch, sugar (mannite), and a
little albumen; and are hence used as escu-
lents. The ash from the dried weed varies in
different varieties from 9% to fully 25%; and
contains variable quantities of potassa, soda,
lime, magnesia, iron, manganese, and silica,
with sulphuric acid, phosphoric acid, chlorine,
and a little iodine and bromine. (Schweitzer;
Forchhammer; Gödechens.) Sea-weeds, their
charcoal, and their ashes, have been long re-
garded as alterative and resolvent ; and anti-
phthisic virtues have been attributed to them
by Laennec and others. They were formerly
much given in scrofulous affections and glan-
dular enlargements; but their use is now
almost superseded by that of iodine and its
preparations. Dr. Stenhouse has proposed
some of the algae as furnishing an economical
source of mannite. The sea algae are used for
manure; their ashes form KELP.
ALGAR0'BA. Syn. CA"ROB-TREE, ST. JoHN’s
BREAD ; CERATO/NIA SIL'IQUA, Linn. A le-
guminous tree of southern Europe, Palestine,
and part of Africa. Pods (ALGAROBA BEANS),
used for food, and to improve the voice; they
contain a sweetish, nutritious powder, and are
supposed to have been the ‘locusts’ on which St.
John fed in the wilderness; their decoction has
been used as a pectoral in asthma and coughs.
Algaroba or Algarovil'la. The astringent
pods of prosopis pallida, p. siliquastrum, and
Inga Martha (South American trees), bruised
and more or less agglutinated by the extractive
exudation of the seed and husks. They are
used in tanning, for which purpose they have
been strongly recommended; indeed that of
Chili, and of Santa Martha (New Carthagena),
is said to possess “four times the power of
good oak bark ’’ (Ure); and in dyeing, are only
inferior to oak-galls.
AL/IMENT. [Eng., Fr.] Syn. ALIMEN'TUM,
L.; NAHRUNG, SPEISE, Ger. Food; nutriment;
anything which nourishes or supports life.
ALIMENTARY. Syn. ALIMENTA"RIUS, L.;
ALIMENTAIRE, Fr., ; ZUR NAHRUNG GEHöRIG,
Ger. Pertaining to food or aliment; nutri-
mental; nourishing.
Alimentary Camal'. Syn. ALIMENTARY DUCT;
CANA'LIS AIIMENTA"RIUS, L. In anatomy, the
cavity in the bodies of animals into which the
food is taken for the purpose of being digested;
the whole passage or conduit extending from
the mouth to the anus. In some of the lower
animals this is a simple cavity, with only one
opening; when the same aperture which ad-
mits the food also gives egress to the excre-
mentitious matter. In others, it is a true
canal, with both a mouth and an outlet. An-
other step, and we find this canal is divided into
a stomach and intestines. In the higher grades,
a mouth, pharynx, and oesophagus precede the
stomach. Birds have one or two sacculi or
crops added to the oesophagus. The stomach
of the ruminants consists of four sacs or parts,
each of which may be regarded as a separate
stomach; that of the bottle-nose whale contains
no less than seven of such sacs. The part below
the stomach, forming the intestines, is also vari-
ously subdivided, complicated, and connected.
In man, these subdivisions are termed—DUO-
DE'NUM, JEJU'NUM, II/EUM, CAE’CUM, Co'LON,
and RECT/UM ; the lower end or orifice of the
last being called the A'NUS. The existence of
an alimentary canal is said to be the only true
characteristic of an animal. Plants have no
common receptacle for their food, nor canal for
carrying away effete matter; but every animal,
however low in the scale of being, possesses an
internal cavity which serves it as a stomach.
Alimentary Sub'stances. Syn. ALIMENTS;
MATE’RIA ALIMENTA"RIA, L. Substances em-
ployed as food.
ALIMENTATION. [Eng., Fr.] Syn. AII-
MENTATIO, L.; NAHRHAFTIGKEIT, Ger. The
act, process, power, or state of nourishing, or
being nourished.
AL'IZARI. [Tur., ali-zari.] The commer-
cial name of madder in the Levant.
ALIZARIN. Clo HºOs. 2H2O. Syn. LA-
ZARIC ACID. A red colouring matter obtained
from madder.
Prep. 1. Exhaust madder with boiling
water, and precipitate the decoction by sul-
phuric acid. Wash the precipitate, and, while
yet moist, boil it with a concentrated solution
of hydrate of aluminum in hydrochloric acid,
and mix the solution with hydrochloric acid;
red flakes of impure alizarin deposit. Dissolve
this precipitate in alcohol or in dilute ammonia,
and treat the solution with hydrate of alu-
minum. Boil the aluminum compound thus
formed with carbonate of sodium, and, after
freeing it from resinous impurities by digestion
with ether, decompose it with hot hydrochloric
acid. Wash the alizarin thus separated, dry it
by simple exposure to air, and purify it by
repeated crystallisation out of alcohol.
2. Sublime on a paper an alcoholic extract of
madder. This method yields the purest alizarin.
Props. Red prisms; sublimes at 419 F.;
odourless, tasteless, and neutral to test-paper;
sparingly soluble in water, even at the boiling
temperature; soluble in alcohol and ether;
not decomposed by hydrochloric acid; dis-
solved, without decomposition, by strong sul-
phuric acid; soluble in solutions of the alkalies
and their carbonates; acids precipitate alizarin
from its alkaline solutions in orange-coloured
flakes; alumina decolorises an alcoholic solu-
tion of alizarin, forming a red lake.
ALKALI. Syn. ALKALI, Fr.; LANGEN-
SALZ, Ger. This word has been used in various
senses, but is now usually applied to four sub-
stances only, viz. the hydrates of potassium,
sodium, lithium, and ammonium (the latter
being supposed to exist in the aqueous solu-
tion of ammonia). In a more general sense,
it is applied to the hydrates of barium, stron-
tium, and calcium, which, for the sake of dis-
tinction, are called the alkaline earths. The

56
ALKALIMETRY.

following properties are characteristic of the
alkalies:–(1) They are soluble in water, the
alkalies proper more so than the alkaline earths.
(2) They change the hue of many vegetable
colouring matters; thus, they turn reddened
litmus blue, yellow turmeric brown, and syrup
of violets and infusion of red cabbage green.
(3) They neutralise the strongest acids. (4)
They precipitate most of the heavy metals from
solutions of their salts as hydrates or oxides.
(5) They saponify the fixed oils and fats. (6)
They exert a caustic or corrosive action on
animal and vegetable substances.
ALKALIMETRY. Syn. ALKALIME'TRIA, L.;
ALCALIMáTRIE, Fr. In chemistry, the estima-
tion of the strength of the commercial alka-
lies; the art or process of determining the
quantity or proportion of pure caustic alkali,
or of its carbonate, in any given sample or
simple solution. It is the reverse of “acidi-
metry;' and it should be understood that it
does not apply to alkalies occurring under any
other form or condition than those just men-
tioned. Alkalimetric assays are now also
frequently and conveniently extended to the
estimation of the alkaline earths and their
carbonates, as hereafter noticed.
Alkalimetrical processes. These, like those
of “acidimetry,” are for the most part founded
on—the capacity of the bases to saturate acids
—the estimation of the quantity of dry car-
bonic acid liberated from a given weight of an
alkaline carbonate under the influence of a
stronger acid; and, in the case of the pure
alkalies—the sp. gr. of their solutions. From
any one of these results the exact amount of
alkali, or of alkaline carbonate, present in a
sample, is easily found or calculated. These
processes are, indeed, precisely similar to those
described under ACIDIMETRY; but here the
unknown quantity sought is the alkali, instead
of the acid.
Assay. The SAMPLE is drawn from as near
the centre of the cask containing the alkali as
possible, and at once placed in a wide-mouthed
bottle,which is then closely corked up, and num-
bered. Before proceeding to the assay, the con-
tents of the bottle are thrown on a piece of dry
paper, the lumps crushed small, and the whole
reduced to coarse powder as rapidly as possi-
ble. The number of grains required for the
trial are then at once weighed, placed in a
phial or small glass tube, and agitated with
about ; oz. of hot water. After a short time
allowed for repose, the clear liquid is poured
off into a beaker-glass or other vesselin which
the trial is to be made. This process is re-
peated with a second and a third quantity of
water, or until nothing soluble remains, shown
by the last washings not affecting the colour
of turmeric paper. The greatest care must
here be taken not to waste the smallest por-
, tion of the liquid, which would render the re-
sults inaccurate.
To the solution in the beaker-glass, a little
solution of litmus is added, unless the acid is
tinted with it, when it is unnecessary. The
solution is now heated until near its boiling.
point, and a piece of white paper or porcelain
put behind it, to better show up the changes
of colour. The alkaline solution is now treated
with the standard test-acid, which is poured
carefully from an alkalimeter or Mohr’s bu-
rette, until the solution, after turning a purple
red, suddenly assumes a pink colour. Neu.
tralisation being thus effected, the operator
allows the sides of the alkalimeter or burettº
to drain, and then either ‘reads off’ the num,
ber of divisions which have been consumed, or
(if using the test-acid by weight) determines
the quantity by again weighing the alkali.
meter. The common practice is to allow two
drops (= #th of an alkalimetrical division by
VOLUME,or2gr.by WEIGHT) for over-saturation,
which is, therefore, deducted from the “observed
quantity’ of the test-liquor employed.
In testing solutions of the PURE or CAUSTIC
ALKALIES, the colour, on neutralisation, Sud.
denly changes from blue to pink or red,
without any intermediate vinous or purple
colour being produced.
The quantity of test-acid used gives the
absolute or per-centage composition of the
sample examined, according to the constitution
of the test-acid used.
Standard Acids. The various test-acids in
use as described below, each being used by
different operators as they think best.
The most convenient test-acid, or normal
solution, both for commercial and chemical
assays, is perhaps dilute sulphuric acid, which,
when intended to be used VOLUMETRICALIY,
has the sp. gr. 1.032 at 60° Fahr., and con.
tains in 100 alkalimetrical divisions 1000 water.
grains measure, or 1 litre, exactly 49 gr. (Or
grammes) of sulphuric acid; and when in:
tended to be used GRAVIMETRICALLY, or by
weight, has the sp. gr. 1-033, and contains in
1000 gr. (or grammes) weight exactly 49 gr.
(grammes) of sulphuric acid; and, in both
cases, consequently corresponds to 1 equiv. of
every other base. These dilute acids are easily
prepared by mixing 1 part of the concentrated
acid with 11 or 12 parts of distilled water;
the precise quantity depending on the strength
of the acid employed, and must be so ar.
ranged that 1000 grains shall exactly neutral.
ise 1000 grains of water containing 53 grains
of pure anhydrous sodium carbonate.
This acid (as well as all those hereafter men.
tioned) may be kept faintly tinged with litmus
which is often more convenient than tinging the
alkaline solution at the time of making theassay,
It will at once be seen that every alkali
meter division of the first of the above acids,
and every 10 gr. of the second, represent the
Tºnth part, or 1% of alkali whenever the equiva.
lent weight" of the latter is taken for the assay,
Every 1-10th part of an alkalimeter-division
(or every drop), and every grain weight (when
a Schüster’s alkalimeter is employed) then
1 See Table II, at the end of this article.
ALKALIMETRY.
57
respectively represents the ºr of 1%; and the
result sought is obtained without the necessity
of any calculation.
This is obvious—for if the equivalent of a
pure alkali or of its carbonate (i.e. one of
100%) requires an equiv. (100 alkalimeter-
divisions, or 1000 gr.) of test-acid to saturate
it, an alkali or alkaline carbonate of 75%, 50%,
or 25%, will respectively require only 75, 50, or
25 divisions, or 750, 500, or 250 gr. ; and so
of other strengths in proportion. The only
precaution necessary is always to take the
standard weight for the assay answering to
the equiv. of the denomination of the per-
centage result sought. Thus, in testing a car-
bonate of potash, we may either wish to deter-
mine its per-centage richness in “dry car-
bonate,” or in ‘pure potassa,” the latter being
usually the case. To obtain the first, we must
take 69 gr. for the assay; and to obtain the
second, 47 gr. With CAUSTIC ALKALIES, or
mixtures containing them, the weight, in
grains, taken for the assay, must always cor-
respond to the equiv. of the pure base. See
Table II, at the end of this article.
In commercial assays, when 100 gr. (or some
aliquot part thereof) are taken for trial, the per-
centage result is obtained from the number of
alkalimeter-divisions, or the number of grains,
of the test-acid consumed, by the common Rule
of Proportion. Thus:—A crude sample of pot-
ash having taken 90 alkalimeter-divisions of
test-acid to neutralise it, would contain—
100 47 90 42'30
or nearly 42; per cent. of pure potassa. If
only 50, 25, or 20 gr. are tested, the result
must, of course, be double, quadruple, &c., as
the case may be. Or the third term of the
proportion may be multiplied by the denomi-
nator of the fraction representing the aliquot
part. This, in the case of 50 gr. (repeating
the above example), would be—
100 : 47 : : 45 × 2 : 42.30%
as before; but even these easy calculations
may be simplified, as is shown below.
One of the advantages, and not the least,
attending the use of test-acids corresponding
to equivalents, is, that by means of the simple
Rule of Three, the per-centage quantity of
alkali may be found, whether 100 or any other
number of grains have been submitted to trial.
For—The weight of the sample tested (in
grains) bears the same relation to the equiva-
lent weight of the alkali under examination,
that the number of alkalimeter-divisions or of
the grains of test-acid consumed, do to the per-
centage of alkali sought. Thus, with a sample
of 33 gr. of pearlash taking 35 alkalimeter-
divisions or 350 grains (every 10 gr. being=1})
of test-acid for neutralisation, this would be—
33 47 35 49.85%
or nearly 50 per cent. of pure potassa. By
substituting the equiv. of the dry carbonate of
potash (69), for that of pure potassa used
above, the quantity of that article correspond-
ing to the same weight of the pure alkali may
be at once found. Repeating the last example
this will be— -
33 69 35 73.18%
or nearly 73% per cent. The same applies to
all the alkaline bases and their carbonates.
For commercial purposes, there is used,
amongst others, an empirical solution, as a
test-acid for potassa, soda, and ammonia, to
save the necessity of calculation.
This is dilute sulphuric acid having a sp. gr.
of about 1:071; 100 alkalimeter-divisions (1000
water-grains measure) exactly saturate 100 gr.
of pure potassa, or 113 gr. of anhydrous car-
bonate of soda. The number of measures con-
sumed, read off by mere inspection from the
scale of the alkalimeter, gives the exact per-
centage of alkali in the sample examined, for
PotASH; and by multiplying it by 66, that
for sod A also. By employing 362 as the
multiplier, it gives the like result for AMMONIA.
In fact, occasionally, in order to save the ne-
cessity of any calculation, two “test-acids’ are
frequently employed—the one for potash and
the other for soda.
These are made by diluting sulphuric acid to
a sp. gr. of near l'071 and 1-086 respectively;
1000 grains, by measure, of the first, neutralis-
ing exactly 100 grains of pure potassa, or 113 of
pure anhydrous soda carbonate, and the latter
neutralising exactly 100 grains of pure soda, or
171 gr. of pure anhydrous sodium carbonate.
There is another system of preparing stand-
ard acids by means of a Faraday’s alkalimeter.
A strong acid is prepared by diluting sul-
phuric acid to a sp. gr. of 1:1268 at 60°, and
455-7 grains exactly neutralise 100 of
anhydrous carbonate of soda.
The glass tube here referred to, and known
as Faraday's ALKALIMETER, is graduated cen-
tessimally, in the usual manner; but opposite
the numbers 22:1, 48:62, 54'43, and 65, are
cut the words ‘soda,” “potassa,’ ‘carbonate of
soda,” and ‘carbonate of potassa,’ to indicate
the quantity of the test-acid to be employed
for each of these substances. (See engr.) It
is used by pouring the test-liquid into it until
it reaches the line marked against the alkali,
or carbonate, under examination, the remaining
divisions being filled up with pure water, and
the whole well mixed by placing the thumb on
the orifice of the tube and shaking it well.
The measure of the resulting dilute acid must
then be very carefully observed, and more water
added, if required, to bring it up to the zero
(0) or 1000 gr. on the scale; careful agitation
being again employed, as before. The test-
acid thus prepared, is then added, with the
usual precautions, to the sample until exact
neutralisation is effected. The quantity con-
sumed for this purpose, read off from the gra-
duated scale, expresses the exact per-centage
of the pure ALKALI, or of its CARBONATE, as
the case may be, contained in the sample ex-
amined, provided 100 gr. have been taken for
the assay.
Another method sometimes used is that of


58
ALKALIMETRY.
M. Mohr, and practised as follows:—The
alkaline solution, slightly coloured blue with
litmus, is strongly supersaturated with a
standard acid (sulphuric or oxalic) of known
strength, supplied from an alkalimeter in the
usual manner; the last traces of carbonic
anhydride being removed by boiling, shaking,
blowing into the flask, and, finally, sucking
out the air. A standard solution of caustic
soda (of a strength exactly corresponding to
grs.
1000
—15
—20
Soda —23.
—30
—35
—4:0
—45
Potassa . - - —50
Carbonate of Soda. —5.5
—60
Carbonate of Potassa
-—70
—75
100
that of the test-acid already used) is now
cautiously added, drop by drop, until the
colour, rendered yellowish-red by the acid,
just appears of a light blue. The difference
between the quantity of the solution of the
test-alkali and of the test-acid consumed, ex-
presses the exact quantity of acid neutralised
by the alkali, and hence, also its strength.
Besides the above methods, the alkaline car-
bonates are analysed, by the loss of carbonic
anhydrid (carbonic acid) they suffer, by being
decomposed by a strong acid. The best method
in use is that of MM. Fresenius and Will, and
depends on the same principle, and is performed
in a similar manner and in a similar appa-
ratus to that described under ACIDIMETRY; the
only difference being that here the uses of the
small tube (e) is dispensed with, and that the
alkali is tested under the form of carbonate,
instead of bicarbonate.
Oper. The smaller flask (B) is about half
filled with concentrated sulphuric acid, and the
sample of alkali, in solution (under the form of
carbonate), being placed in the larger flask (A),
water is added until it is about one third full.
The tubes are then fitted into the apparatus
quite air-tight; the end of the tube (b) is
fastened with a piece of wax, and the whole
is very carefully weighed. The apparatus
is now removed from the scales, and a per-
forated cork, or a small piece of India-rubber
tube, being temporarily applied to the end
of the tube (h), a few bubbles of air are sucked
out of the flask (B) by means of the lips;
the consequence of which is, that on re-
moving the mouth, the acid in (B) ascends
to a certain height in the tube (c). If in
a short time this little column of liquid
maintains its height in the tube, it is a proof
that the apparatus is perfectly air-tight, and
as it should be. Suction is now again cau-
tiously applied to the tube (h) and a little of
the acid in (B) made to flow over into the flask
(A), the quantity being proportionate to the
vacuum produced by suction, and capable of
being regulated at will. No sooner does the
acid come into contact with the carbonate
in the flask (A), than the evolution of carbonic
acid commences, and this, from the construc-
tion of the apparatus, having to pass through
the concentrated sulphuric acid, is rendered
quite dry before it can escape by the tube (d)
into the atmosphere. Whenever the efferves.
cence flags, a little more acid is sucked over,
until the whole of the carbonate is decom-
posed; after which an additional quantity is
made to pass into (A), so as to raise the tem.
perature considerably, for the purpose of ex-
pelling all the gas absorbed by the fluid during
the operation. As soon as this is effected, the
wax is removed from the aperture (b), and
suction applied to (h), until all the carbonic
acid in the apparatus is replaced by atmo-
spheric air.
cool, and (together with the piece of wax re-
moved) is again accurately weighed. The loss
of weight gives the exact amount of dry car.
bomic anhydride, or anhydrous carbonic acid,
which was contained in the specimen, from which
the weight of PURE ALKALI is readily estimated,
as every 22 gr. of dry carbonic acid gas evolved
represents exactly 31 gr. of pure SODA, 47
gr. of pure POTASSA, &c. &c.; these numbers
being the equivalents of the respective sub-
stances from which the per-centage strength
may be found by the rule of proportion, as
before explained.
Thus, in the case of a 100-gr. sample of
carbonate of soda which has lost 15% gr. of
carbonic acid, by the assay, this would be—
22 31 15} : 21.48%
or nearly 21% per cent. of pure soda. If 53,
the equiv. of anhydrous carbonate of soda, be
taken, instead of 31 (the eq. of pure soda),
the answer would have been, in the terms of
that substance, 36.748%, or nearly 363 per
cent. When an aliquot part of 100 gr, has
been taken for the assay, either the result, or
the third term of the proportion, must, of
course, be multiplied by the denominator and
divided by the numerator of the fraction re-
presenting such aliquot part.
By multiplying the weight of carbonic anhy-
dride lost, by the numbers opposite the names
of the respective alkalies and their carbonates
in the second column of the following Table, the
equivalent per-centage value of the carbonates
examined may be obtained in terms correspond.
ing to the various denominations named there.
in, when 100 gr., or any aliquot part of 100
gr., have been tested; the result, in the latter
case, being, of course, multiplied as before.
By taking certain standard weights for the
assay, the quantity of carbonic acid evolved
The whole is now allowed to


ALKALIMETRY.
59
may be made to furnish the per-centage
strength or value of the specimen in the terms
of either the pure or carbonated alkalies,
whether in their anhydrous or hydrated state.
The numbers in the second column of the
following Table represent the quantity in
grains and decimal parts of each of the sub-
stances named in the first column, equivalent
to one grain of carbonic anhydride. These
numbers, as already mentioned, may be em-
ployed as factors for converting any numbers
representing grains of that acid into the equiv-
alents of these substances, true to 4 places of
decimals; and further, they furnish us with
the data for determining the exact number of
grains which must be tested, so that the loss
of weight in carbonie anhydride shall at once
give us the per-centage richness of the sample
in the terms of the denomination for which it
is taken. The numbers in the third column of
the Table, formed by simply moving the
decimal point of the numbers in the second
column one figure further to the right, in-
dicate the weights to be taken for the assay,
so that the loss of weight, reckoned in tenths
of a grain, exactly represents the per-centage
strength in the terms sought. The weights
corresponding to the numbers in the fifth
column, give the same results, provided the
loss of weight is reckoned in quarter-grains;
those in the sixth column effect the same when
the loss of weight is reckoned in half-grains;
whilst those in the last column require that
the gas eliminated should be counted in grains,
and are simply the numbers in the second
column of the Table multiplied by 100, or re-
produced by moving the decimal point two
figures to the right.
TABLE I.-Multipliers and Standard Weights for the Principal Alkalies
and their Carbonates. (CooDEY.)

ă § § Quantity (in grains) to be taken, so that the per-
- “– 3 centage value of the sample tested shall be shown
3 * = in the terms of any of the denominations given,
É'sE #.* weight of the evolved Carbonic Acid
### –M
NAMES, &c. #3 iſ tents of a grain. Y
ºš3 —A-
3 #5 s Whole sº in in in
# E's § * COIllin Oil !. º ... grains.
§ P- -S 23 deºis. numbers. grains. gravns.
P-
AMMONIA (pure, gaseous) .................. •77273| 7,727 7; 193 38; 771";
Carbonate of ammonia (neutral, anhy-
drous) ....................................... 1.77273|17–727 | 1.7% 44.1% 88% 1774
Carbonate of ammonia (neutral, crys-
tallised) .................................... 19773 |19773 || 19% 49.1% 98% 197;
Sesquicarbonate of ammonia (translu-
cent).......................................... 2:6818 26.818 26}} | 67 || || 134H, 268}
|Bicarbonate of ammonia (crystallised) ... 35909 |35909 || 35.1% | 89}# 179; 359 ºn
|POTASSA (anhydrous)........................ 2:1364 21:364 21; 53% 107 213;
Hydrate of potassa........................... 2.54546 25:455 25 ºr 63; 1274 25.4%
|Carbonate of potassa (anhydrous)......... 3.1364 || 31.364 31; 78} | 157 313;
yy , (granulated)......... 3-7727 ||37.727 | 37; 94% 188; 3774
- » , (crystallised) ...... 3.9545 39-545 39% 99 198 395;
|Bicarbonate of potassa (crystallised)...... 4.5454 |45'454 || 45% 1.13% 227} 454;
SoDA (anhydrous) ........................... 1'4091 || 14'09 14'; 35} | 70; 141
Hydrate of soda .............................. 1.8182 | 18-182 18} 45% 91 182
Carbonate of soda (anhydrous) ............ 2:4091 |24.091 24% 60} | 120, 241
25 , (crystallised)............ 6'5 65° 65 162; 325 650
|Sesquicarbonate of soda (dry; theoretical)|2:9091 |29.091 29* | 72} | 1.45 290
>> , (Ph. L., 1836)...] 37273 ||37.273 || 37} 93} | 1864 || 373
>> , (average commer-
cial) ............ 3-7954 37.954 || 38 94% 1893 379;
Bicarbonate of soda (crystallised)......... 3.8182 |38-182 38% 95% 191 382
| LITHIA (pure, anhydrous).................. '6818 6'818 6}} | 17.3% 34* | 68}
BARYTA (pure, caustic)..................... 3.4773 ||34.773 || 34 86% 173% 347;
LIME (pure, caustic) ........................ 1:2727 | 12:727 | 12; 31#. 63; 1273
MAGNESIA (pure, anhydrous)............... ‘90909| 9:091 9|| 22#. 45% 91
60 ALKALIMETRY.
In this ingenious method of alkalimetry
it is absolutely necessary that the whole of
the alkali in the specimen tested should be
in the state of neutral carbonate. If a sample
of potash contains any caustic alkali (as the
potashes and pearlash of commerce generally
do), Fresenius and Will direct it, previously to
being tested, to be triturated with its own
weight of pure quartzose sand, and about one
third of its weight of carbonate of ammonia;
and the resulting mixture, placed in a small
iron capsule, or a porcelain crucible, to be
moistened with water, and exposed to a gentle
heat until it becomes quite dry, and all the
, ammonia is expelled. If the sample contains
any bicarbonate or sesquicarbonate, it must be
heated to dull redness before being placed in
the apparatus and tested. In the case of crude
soda (particularly soda-ash), the proportion
of carbonate of ammonia should be equal to at
least one half the quantity operated on. With
both alkalies, if the sample contains sulphides,
sulphites, or hyposulphites, the same method is
to be followed, except that solution of ammonia,
instead of water, is to be employed for moist-
eming the powder. To remedy the error which
would arise from the apparent amount of car-
bonic anhydride liberated during the assay,
being swelled by the disengagement of ‘sul-
phuretted hydrogen' or sulphurous acid from
these substances, a small quantity of neutral
(i.e. yellow) chromate of potash may be added
to the alkaline solution in the flask (A); by
which they will be converted into sulphates,
sulphur, and water, which will remain in the
apparatus, the carbonic acid only being
evolved. “As most sorts of soda of commerce
contain one or other of the substances (just)
named, and as it is far more simple to add at
once some chromate of potassa to the soda
solution, than to test the latter for either of
the three salts—it is always advisable to make
it a rule, in the examination of SODA, to add
some chromate of potassa.” (Fresenius.)
If the sodium or other carbonate under
analysis contains much chloride, the addition
of more sulphuric acid than necessary must be
avoided, and the carbonic anhydride expelled by
gently heating over a water bath, and not by
the addition of excess of acid.
To obviate the difficulties, and to give
greater precision and delicacy to volumetrical
assays, the instrument known as Mohr’s ALKA-
LIMETER, or Mohr’s BURETTE, and which is
figured in the margin, may be employed. By
means of it the test-acid in the graduated
tube (a) may be added to the alkaline solution
in (f), in any quantity at a time, however
minute, by merely pressing the handles of the
clamp (d) with the thumb and finger. The
terminal tube (e) has its lower orifice very
small, and it is connected with the burette by
means of a small piece of vulcanised India-
rubber tube, on which the clamp (d) acts.
(See engr.) The inner cylindrical part of the
arm (b) is lined with cork, to prevent injury to
the glass burette, and to hold it the more
firmly.
Generally the alkali in the specimen ex-
amined may be in either the caustic or car-
bonated state, or it may consist of any mixture
of caustic alkali, or carbonates ; but it is
absolutely necessary for accurate results, that
it should be free from sulphides, sulphites,
and /º/posulphites, as sulphuric acid acts upon
these substances as well as on carbonates.
The presence of chlorides does not interfere
with the accuracy of the assay, unless a
higher degree of heat is employed than that
necessary for the expulsion of the absorbed
carbonic acid. The SODA-ASH of commerce
generally contains all these substances besides
common salt, sulphate of soda, and insoluble
matter, which do not interfere. Rough samples
of Pot-ASHES and PEARL-ASH also generally
contain some sulphides, though not a large
quantity. Various plans have been proposed
to avoid this source of error. The best is that
of MM. Fresenius and Will, given above, in
which the value of the carbonates is estimated
by their yield of carbonic anhydride.
The difference between an assay of a sample
of the unprepared alkali and of another which
has been treated as above, indicates the quan-
tity of impurities contained in them under the
forms just referred to. The presence of these
substances in the commercial alkalies may be
detected by the following tests:—
Sulphides. The addition of sulphuric acid
causes the evolution of an odour like that of
bad eggs. The sample in solution yields a
black precipitate with acetate of lead paper.

ALKALIMETRY.
61
But the most delicate test is the splendid violet-
blue colour with nitro-prusside of sodium.
Sulphites and hyposulphites. A solution of
the alkali, insufficient for saturation, being
added to sulphuric acid tinged reddish-yellow
with bichromate of potash, occasions a greenish
tinge (owing to the formation of oxide of
chromium), when these are present. Some
hydrochloric acid added to a clear solution,
after some time causes a turbidness and odour
of sulphur.
Chlorides yield a copious curdy precipitate
with nitrate of silver, soluble in ammonia, and
reprecipitated by excess of nitric acid.
The amount of pure caustic alkali in a sample
of alkali is best determined by Fresenius's
method, as follows:–The total amount of pure
alkali, both caustic and carbonated, expressed
in per-cents. of carbonate of soda or carbonate
of potassa, is ascertained by any of the usual
methods. The apparent quantity of alkali per
cent, is then determined, without previous
treatment of the sample with carbonate of
Ammonia, by the method of Will and Fresenius
(p. 58). The difference between the results
indicates the per-centage of dry caustic alkali
present; or if the volumetric method be in use,
it can be often fairly estimated by adding the
first portions of the test-acid very gradually to
the sample, carefully observing the effect.
When the effervescence at length commences,
the weight or measure of the test-liquor ex-
pended shows the quantity of pure caustic
alkali under treatment (nearly). The result
depends upon the fact, that little or no car-
bonic acid gas is expelled from the liquid on
the addition of the test-acid, until the caustic
portion is very nearly neutralised.
The quantity of WATER or MOISTURE, per
cent, present in an alkaline carbonate, is indi-
cated by the loss of weight which 100 gr.
suffer on gentle ignition in a loosely covered
iron dish or platinum crucible. So also with
samples containing caustic alkali, except that
here, the water of hydration (= 1 equiv. = 9)
is not expelled from the “caustic’ portion, and
must, therefore, be determined by calculation.
Other matters deserving the serious attention
of the operator are—hitting the exact point of
neutralisation, and—preparing the test-acids
of the proper strength. The method of effect-
ing the former correctly, has been already
referred to in this article, and is also fully
noticed under ACETIMETRY and ACIDIMETRY.
Test-acids may be very simply prepared,
by gradually diluting concentrated sulphuric
acid with water until it is reduced to the proper
strength; the dilution being made in a glass
vessel containing a “hydrostatic bead’ exactly
corresponding to the desired specific gravity
of the dilute acid. When the proper point
is reached, and the mixture has again acquired
the normal temperature of 60°Fahr., the bead
rises from the bottom of the vessel, and floats
about indifferently in the middle of the liquid.
The sp. gr. may then be carefully ascertained
by means of an hydrometer or a specific gra-
vity bottle; after which the strength must be
accurately determined by means of a standard
solution of either pure anhydrous carbonate of
soda or pure caustic soda. An acid of any given
strength or saturating power may also be pre-
pared in the following manner:—49 parts of
commercial sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol), sp. gr.
1825, contain nearly 40 parts or 1 equiv. of an-
hydrous sulphuric acid; if we, therefore, wish
to prepare a dilute acid containing in every 1000
grains weight, or measure, exactly 1 equiv.
of hydrated sulphuric acid, we have only to
make 49 gr. of such acid up to 1000 gr. weight
or measure with pure water. After it has reco-
vered the proper temperature, its sp. gr., or
rather its saturating power, must be carefully
tried, and, if necessary, readjusted. As, how-
ever, it very often happens that the oil of
vitriol employed is not so strong as that above
referred to, it is better first to test its strength
with pure anhydrous carbonate of soda, and to
calculate the quantity required by the Rule
of Proportion. Every 53 gr. of the dry car-
bonate are equal to 40 gr. of “dry sulphuric
acid.” Suppose we find the oil of vitriol to
contain only 72% of hydrated acid, then—
100 : 40 : : 72 : 55-55
or, instead of only 40 gr., fully 55% gr. will
be required, which are to be made up with
water to 1000 gr., as before. Finally, the di-
luted acid must be very carefully re-tested, and
if found correct, at once put into a well-stop-
pered bottle, and labelled, for use. Too much
care cannot be taken to ensure the test-liquid,
whether for alkalies or acids, being of the
proper strength, of which the specific gravity
alone is an insufficient proof. In practice,
so small a quantity only of test-acid as that
referred to above is, of course, seldom made;
but as any larger quantities are mere multiples
of the smaller one, the necessary proportions
to be employed are easily calculated. The
common plan is to prepare one or more gallons
or quantities of 10 lbs. each, and to preserve the
liquid in stoppered green glass “Winchester-
quart bottles, so that it may be always ready
for use.
Although, as may be inferred from the text,
sulphuric acid is generally used as the standard
acid, yet oxalic acid in pure crystals is recom-
mended by M. Mohr, and answers admirably,
and is prepared and used exactly in the same
Imallller.

62 -
ALKALOID.
TABLE II.-Alkalimetrical Equivalents.
Grains.
17 AMMONIA (pure or gaseous).
ORGANIC BASE; ALKALOYDEs (pl., -IDES, or
-IDE), L.; ALCALOYDE, ALCALIORGANIQUE, Fr.
In chemistry, a name commonly given to any
proximate principle of vegetable origin pos-
sessing alkaline or basic properties, however
feeble. In its most extended sense, the term
embraces all organic bases, whether obtained
from the animal or vegetable kingdom, or
produced artificially. The alkaloids form a
numerous and important class of bodies. They
exist in nature nearly always in the form of
salts, the acid being often, like themselves,
peculiar to the plant, or class of plants, in
which they are found; whilst the medicinal
activity of the latter, in most cases, almost
entirely depends on their presence.
Prep. The following general methods of pro-
curing the alkaloids will be found applicable
to such as full directions are not given for
under their respective heads:—
1. (When the base is insoluble in water, non-
volatile, and existing in the plant in an in-
soluble form.) The bruised plant is boiled or
macerated in water acidulated with hydro-
chloric or acetic acid, and the liquor, after
filtration, is neutralised with an alkali (am-
monia, potassa, lime, or magnesia); the re-
sulting precipitate is purified by re-solution in
43% Carbonate of ammonia (neutral, hydrated).
59 Sesquicarbonate of ammonia (Ph. L.; trans-
lucent, hydrated).
79 Bicarbonate of ammonia (crystallised).
47 PotASSA (anhydrous).
56 Hydrate of potassa (pure caustic potassa).
69 Carbonate of potassa (anhydrous). --
83 25 , (granulated, commercial).
87 35 , (crystallised).
100 Bicarbonate of potassa (crystallised)
Grains. - - 31 SoDA (anhydrous).
22 Carbonic anhydride (dry). 40 Hydrate of soda (pure caustic soda).
63 Oxalic acid (crystallised). 53 Carbonate of soda (anhydrous).
49 Sulphuric acid (liquid, mono-| S 143 >> , (crystallised).
hydrated, sp. º 84 Bicarbonate of soda (crystallised). -
gr. 18485). 'S 83} Sesquicarbonate of soda(average commercial).
75 Tartaric acid (crystallised). -s / 84 Bicarbonate of soda (crystals, or cryst. pow-
1000 Dilute sulphuric acid (sp. gr. / s. der, free from moisture).
1:033). § —-
Water-gr. Š 15 LITHIA. -
measure. 24 Hydrate of lithia.
1000 g, 32 , (sp. gr. 37 Carbonate of lithia.
1:032). 76% BARYTA (pure, caustic).
85%. Hydrate of baryta.
98% Carbonate of baryta.
28 LIME (pure, caustic; i.e. quick-lime).
37 Hydrate of lime (slaked lime).
50 Carbonate of lime (chalk; marble).
20 MAGNESIA (pure, calcined).
42 Carbonate of magnesia (dry, neutral).
48% 35 , (ordinary commercial).
52 STRONTIA (pure, caustic).
61 Hydrate of strontia.
74 Carbonate of strontia.
AfKALOID. Syn. VEGETABLE ALKALI, dilute acid, digestion with a little animal
charcoal, and subsequent crystallisation, or
re-precipitation with an alkali; or the first
precipitate is purified by dissolving it once, or
oftener, in boiling alcohol, which yieldsther URE
ALKALOID either on cooling or by evaporation,
2. (When the base is insoluble in water, and
non-volatile, but existing in the plant in a solu-
ble state.) The bruised or sliced plant is boiled
or macerated in water, and the filtered liquor
precipitated and otherwise treated as before.
3. (When the base is soluble in water, and
non-volatile.) An infusion made with very
dilute acid (hydrochloric or acetic), is concen-
trated by a gentle heat; and the residual
liquor treated with potassa (or concentrated
solution of ammonia) and ether (conjointly);
after repose, the etherial solution is decanted
and evaporated. For those alkaloids which
are insoluble in ether (as morphia and cin-
chonia), the previous process may be adopted.
4. (When the base is both soluble in water
and volatile.) The vegetable, in a bruised or
divided state, or its extract, is alkalised with
potassa and distilled; the distillate is neutral-
ised with dilute oxalic or sulphuric acid, and
carefully evaporated to dryness; the residuum
is next digested in alcohol, and the resulting
tincture agitated with potassa and ether, the

ALKALOID.
63
former being in quantity just suffiicent to
, seize on all the acid; lastly, the etherial solu-
tion thus formed, on careful evaporation, leaves
the alkaloid nearly pure. It may be further
purified by cautious distillation.
As some of the alkaloids are soluble in excess
of the alkaline precipitant, over-saturation
should be carefully avoided; or the precipitant
may be used under the form of carbonate or
bicarbonate. When lime and magnesia are
employed, they are boiled for a few minutes
with the solution.
Props. Alcoholic or aqueous solutions of the
alkaloids generally exhibit an alkaline reaction
with vegetable colours. Like the alkalies, also,
they combine with acids to form salts which,
when dissolved in water, are capable of pro-
ducing the ordinary phenomena of saline
double decomposition. Their taste is usually
intensely bitter.
The majority of the natural alkaloids contain
carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen, and
are, at ordinary temperatures, solid, and not
volatile without decomposition. Some natural
alkaloids contain carbon, hydrogen, and nitro-
gen only; these are, for the most part, liquid
at ordinary temperatures, and can be distilled
without decomposition. The greater number
of the artificial alkalies are composed of carbon,
hydrogen, and nitrogen; some, however, con-
tain oxygen in addition. Alkaloids have also
been obtained artificially, in which nitrogen
is replaced by phosphorus, arsenic, antimony,
or bismuth. Most of the alkaloids, as they are
obtained in the free state, correspond in func-
tion to ammonia, NH3 rather than to the
fixed alkalies; that is to say, they form salts
by direct union with acids, without elimination
of water or any other substance. In order to
make them strictly comparable to the fixed
alkalies, they require, like ammonia, the ad-
dition of water (H2O) to their formulae; they
may then be considered as hydrates of com-
pound radicles analogous to ammonium.
Physiological action. The alkaloids gene-
rally possess great medicinal power; some of
them act with terrific energy, and are the
most violent poisons with which we are ac-
quainted. Perfectly pure aconitia is about
200 times more poisonous than arsenic, and at
least 50 times more poisonous than ordinary
medicinal prussic acid. The greater number
act on animals in the same way as the plants
which produce them, provided they are given
in proportionately small doses. Many of them,
when judiciously administered, are most valu-
able medicines. -
Pois, Ant., &c. Some of the alkaloids act
as narcotic or stupefying poisons; others, are
classed with the narcotico-acrid poisons, or
those which produce both narcotism and
irritation of the parts they touch. The
general symptoms produced by opium and its
preparations may be taken as an example of
the former; those from aconite and strychnia,
of the latter. In large doses of the greater
number, narcotism predominates; in smaller
ones, irritation; they are rarely coexistent.—
Treatm. No common antidote to the effects of
this class of substances has yet been discovered.
The only safe treatment, of at all general
application, is to immediately clear the stomach
by means of a strong and quick-acting emetic
(as sulphate of zinc), or the stomach-pump,
and to administer copious and continued
draughts of astringent vegetable solutions (as
of tannin, nut-galls, oak-bark, or what is
always at hand—very strong tea or coffee).
These may be followed by or combined with a
smart purge of castor oil, as soon as the
stomach is thoroughly cleared of the poison.
M. Bouchardat strongly recommends a solu-
tion of iodine, 3 gr., and iodide of potassium,
6 gr., in pure water, 16 fl.oz., in cases of poison-
ing by OPIUM, ACONITE, COLCHICUM, DEADLY
NIGHTSHADE, HEMLOCK, NUX WOMICA, &c., or
by the alkaloids obtained from them—ACONI-
TINE, ATROPIA, COLCHICINA, CONIA, MORPHIA,
STRYCHNIA, &c., or their salts; but not where
foxglove or digitaline has been taken. The
stomach having been well emptied by an
emetic, the solution is to be given by wine-
glassfuls for some time; the vomiting being
still encouraged during the early part of the
administration of the antidote. In the case
of narcotics (as opium, morphia, &c.), this
is to be followed by the free use of a strong
infusion of coffee. According to Dr. Garrod,
purified animal charcoal is an ‘earcellent anti-
dote’ to many of the alkaloids, including
those above enumerated, when taken in poison-
ous doses; as it not merely absorbs them, but,
for the most part, renders them inert. To be
serviceable it should be recently prepared and
fresh-burnt; and should be given in doses of
about an ounce at a time, diffused in warm or
tepid water, and frequently repeated. The
vomiting which follows its use, owing to the
warm water, proves advantageous; but after
a sufficient time, may be lessened by employ-
ing less water, or cooler or even cold water.
Drowsiness, if present, may be combated by
the subsequent use of strong coffee or tea, as
before. We have seen this plan succeed in
several cases.—Lesions. These, like the symp-
toms, vary. In some cases there are redness
and inflammation of the stomach and intes-
tines, and turgescence of the vessels of the
lungs and brain; in others, these appearances
are either slight or wholly wanting. Wherever
there has been much cerebral disturbance,
traces of congestion are usually discernible.
Detec., Tests, &c. The identification of the
pure alkaloids is extremely simple; but their
detection, when combined with organic and
colouring matters, is a task of considerable
difficulty. One or other of the following
plans may be adopted for this purpose:–
1. (Merck.) The matter under examination
is digested, for several hours, with concentrated
acetic acid, added in sufficient quantity to pro-
duce a strongly acid reaction; the fluid portion



64
ALKALOID.

is then strained from the insoluble matter, and
the latter being washed with water acidulated
with acetic acid, the mixed liquors are gently
evaporated to dryness in a water bath; the
residuum of the evaporation is boiled first
with rectified spirit, and next with rectified
spirit acidulated with acetic acid; the mixed
liquors are again evaporated, the residuum
redissolved or diluted with distilled water, and
carbonate of soda or potassa added to feebly
alkaline reaction, and the whole, after evapo-
ration to the consistence of a syrup, set aside
to repose for 24 hours; it is now again diluted
with water, filtered, and the insoluble portion
washed with cold distilled water, and digested
with concentrated acetic acid; this last solu-
tion is diluted with distilled water, and de-
coloured with pure blood-charcoal (if it be
necessary); the fluid, either at once, or after
cautious evaporation, may then be tested for
the alkaloids, in the usual manner. The
charcoal previously used should also be tested
in the way described below. This method
answers admirably with all the NON-VoIATILE
ALKALOIDs, and may be applied to the stomach
and viscera, and their contents, and to food,
&c., in cases of poisoning.
2. (Stas.) The suspected matter, in a finely
divided state, is digested, at 160° to 165°Fahr.,
with twice or thrice its weight of strong al-
cohol acidulated (according to the quantity)
with # dr. to 2 or 3 dr., or more, of pure
oxalic or tartaric acid. After a sufficient
time, and when the whole has become quite
cold, it is thrown on a filter, and the undis-
solved portion, after being squeezed dry, is
washed with strong alcohol. The mixed and
filtered alcoholic liquids are then evaporated
at a temperature not exceeding 95°Fahr., and,
if no insoluble matter separates, the evapora-
tion is continued nearly to dryness;' but if
fatty or other insoluble matter separates
during the process of concentration, the con-
centrated fluid is passed through a moistened
filter, and the filtrate evaporated nearly to
dryness, as before. The residuum is next
digested with absolute alcohol, in the cold, the
insoluble portion, after filtration, washed with
alcohol, and the mixed filtrates again evapo-
rated in the air, or in vacuo. The acid residue
is now dissolved in a little distilled water, and
bicarbonate of soda added as long as effer-
vescence ensues. To this mixture 4 or 5 times
its volume of ether is added, and after length-
ened agitation (the bottle or tube being held
in a cold wet cloth), the whole is allowed to
repose for a short time. A little of the super
natant ether is now removed to a small glass
capsule or watch-glass, and allowed to evapo-
rate spontaneously." When this leaves oily
streaks upon the glass, which gradually collect
into a small drop, which emits, when gently
heated, a disagreeable, pungent, and stifling
1 The evaporation according to Stas, should be con-
ducted under a bell-glass over sulphuric acid, with or
without rarefaction of the air; or in a tubular retort
through which a current of air is made to pass.
odour, the presence of a LIQUID vol.ATILE
BASE or ALKALOID is inferred; whilst a solid
residue or a turbid fluid with small solid par.
ticles floating in it, indicates a NON-VOLATILE
SOLID BASE.” In either case the blue colour
of reddened litmus is permanently restored
by the residuum. If no residuum is left on
the capsule, some solution of pure soda or
potassa is added to the liquid, the whole well
agitated for several minutes, and the ether
(after repose) decanted; an operation which is
repeated with fresh ether a second, third, and
even a fourth time. The base, or bases (if any
are present), will now be found in the mixed
ethereal solution, which is, therefore, tested as
before. The presence of an alkaloid being
detected, the mixed ethereal solutions are
allowed to evaporate spontaneously, care being
taken, if a volatile alkaloid be present, to neu-
tralise the liquid with an acid before the final
evaporation. The last residuum is then tested
for the particular alkaloid present, as before.”
This method, according to Stas, answers well
for all the ALKALOIDS which are soluble in
ether; including—ACONITIA, ANILINE, ATROPIA,
BRUCIA, CODEIA, COLCHIGINA, CONIA, DEL.
PHIA, EMETINA, HYOSCYAMINE, MORPHIA (?)
NICOTIA, PETININE, PICOLINE, SOLANINE,
STRYCHNIA, VERATRIA, &c. By means of
it Stas found nicotia in the heart-blood of
a poisoned dog. With such alkaloids as are,
however, only very sparingly soluble in ether,
(as morphia, for instance,) the result must,
necessarily, be doubtful. To detect these, as
well as all the alkaloids which are insoluble
in ether, it is, therefore, necessary, as directed
by Otto, to add to the alkaline fluid left by
the decantation of the ether, sufficient solution
of soda to dissolve the morphia, &c., (if any
has separated,) and after the expulsion of the
last traces of the ether by a gentle heat, to
add a concentrated solution of hydrochlorate of
ammonia, and to allow the mixture to repose
for some time in the open air. When MOR.
PHIA is present, it separates under the form of
small crystals.” Or the alkaline liquor may
be diluted with distilled water, and treated
with charcoal, and this with alcohol, in the
manner noticed under method 4 (below).
4. (Graham and Hoffmann—slightly mo:
dified.) 2 or 3 oz. of purified animal charcoal
are digested in about 3 gal. of the (neutral or
only slightly acid) aqueous fluid under exami.
nation, with frequent agitation, for 10 to 13
hours, or longer. The liquid is then filtered,
and the charcoal left on the filter is washed
twice with cold distilled water. The charcoal
is then boiled for ; an hour with about ; a
pint of rectified spirit of 80 or 90%; the ebul.
lition being conducted in a flask having a very
long tube, open at both ends, fitted air-tight
through the cork, to prevent loss of the alcohol
* A merely disagreeable animal odour, without put
gency, is here disregarded. -
3 “Bulletin de l'Académie de Méd. Belgique,” is, 304;
“Jahrb.f. prakt. Pharm,” xxiv, 313; &c.
4 Otto’s “Blow to detect Poisons.”

ALKALOID. 65%
by evaporation. The spirit, which now con-
tains the alkaloid (if any was present in the
original liquor), is next filtered whilst hot, and
the filtrate is submitted to distillation until
the whole of the alcohol is removed. A small
quantity (commonly a few drops) of solution of
potassa is then added to the residual aqueous
liquor, followed by 1 to 2.fl. oz. of pure ether,
after which the whole is well agitated for
several minutes, and allowed to repose for a
short time. Lastly, the supernatant ether is
decanted, and allowed to evaporate sponta-
neously, when the residuum (if any) left in
the capsule may be tested by reagents, as
before.
This method was devised for the detection
of STRYCHNIA and NUx VOMICA in malt-
liquors; but it is equally applicable to the
detection of ANY ALKALOID which is soluble
in ether. The CHARCOAL TEST may also be
employed to detect alkaloids which are in-
soluble in ether; but then the base must
be sought in the aqueous residuum obtained by
the evaporation of the alcohol."
The presence of the Alkaloids and their
Salts, in clear solutions, may be thus deter-
mined:—
I. (Fresenius.)—1. The solution is rendered
very slightly alkaline with dilute solution of
potassa or soda, added drop by drop :-
a. No precipitate is formed; total ab-
sence of the alkaloids. (See 4, below.)
b. A precipitate is formed:—solution of
potassa or soda is added, drop by drop,
until the liquid exhibits a strong alkaline
reaction :-
a. The precipitate redissolves; ab-
sence of Brucia, Cinchonia, Narcotina,
Quina, Strychnia, and Veratria; pro-
bable presence of MoRPHIA.
|3. Precipitate does not redissolve,
or not completely; probable pre-
sence of one or more of the first six
of the above-named alkaloids:–the
fluid is filtered from the precipitate,
mixed with either bicarbonate of
soda or of potassa, gently boiled
nearly to dryness, and treated with
water. If it dissolves completely;
absence of Morphia; an insoluble
residue indicates MoRPHIA.
2. The precipitate 1. b. 3. is washed with
cold distilled water, dissolved in a slight excess
of dilute sulphuric acid, neutralised with a
Saturated solution of bicarbonate of soda, and
allowed to repose a few hours: 2–
a. No precipitate; absence of Cin-
chonia, Narcotina, and Quina :-the solu-
tion is gently evaporated nearly to dryness,
and treated with cold water:-if it dis-
solves completely, pass on to 4; if there
is an insoluble residue, it may contain
Brucia, Strychnia, or Veratria. (See 3.)
1 “Journ. of the Chem. Soc.,” y, 173.
* Before setting the glass aside the liquor should be
b. A precipitate:—the filtered fluid is
treated as directed at 2. a. ; the pre-
cipitate is washed with cold distilled water,
dissolved in a little hydrochloric acid, am-
monia. is added in excess, and subse-
quently a sufficient quantity of ether,
agitation being had recourse to:—
a. The precipitate formed by the
ammonia redissolves completely in the
ether, and the clear fluid separates
into two layers; absence of Cin-
chonia; probable presence of QUINA
or NARCOTINA.
{3. The precipitate produced by
the ammonia does not redissolve
in the ether, or not completely; pro-
bable presence of CINCHONIA, and
perhaps also of Quina or Narcotina.
The filtered liquid may be tested for
these alkaloids as at a.
3. The insoluble residuum after the evapora-
tion of the solution 2. a., or of the filtrate
2. b., is now dried in a water bath, and di-
gested with absolute alcohol:—
a. It dissolves completely; absence of
Strychnia ; probable presence of BRUCIA,
QUINA (?), or WERATRIA:—the alcoholic
solution is evaporated to dryness, and, if
quina has been already detected, the
residue is divided into two portions, one of
which is tested for Brucia, the other for
Verałria. -
b. It does not dissolve, or not com-
pletely; probable presence of STRYCH-
NIA, and perhaps also of Brucia and Vera-
tria :—the filtered fluid is divided into
two portions, and tested separately as
at a.
4. The original liquid 1. a., may contain
Salicine, a proximate vegetable principle closely
allied to the alkaloids:—a portion is boiled
with hydrochloric acid for some time; the
formation of a precipitate shows the presence
of SALICINE.
(See 2, below.)”
II. (Larocque and Thibierge.) Terchloride of
gold is recommended, by these writers, as a
more decisive test for the alkaloids than the
‘double chloride of gold and sodium ” com-
monly employed for this purpose.
lowing are the colours of the precipitates which
it produces with the aqueous solution of their
salts :—BRUCIA,
coffee-brown, and lastly chocolate-brown:—
CINCHONIA, sulphur-yellow:—MORPHIA, yellow,
then bluish, and lastly violet; in this last
state the gold is reduced, and the precipitate
is insoluble in water, alcohol, the caustic
alkalies, and sulphuric, nitric, and hydrochloric
acid; it forms with aqua regia a solution
which is precipitated by protosulphate of iron :
—QUINA, buff-coloured:—STRYCHNIA, canary-
yellow :-VERATRIA, pale greenish-yellow. All
these precipitates, with the exception men-
The fol-
milk-brown, passing into

well mixed, and the glass stirrer vigorously rubbed
against the sides of the vessel.
3 For further information on this subject, see the admi-
rable “ System of Qual. Chem. Anal.,” by Dr. C. R.
Fresenius. Í
Churchill.
5

66
ALKANET.

tioned, are very soluble in alcohol, insoluble in
ether, and only slightly soluble in water.
Those with morphia and brucia are sufficiently
marked to prevent these alkalies from being
mistaken for each other; and those with
brucia and strychnia are, in like manner, easily
distinguishable.
The principal Alkaloids and their Salts, in
the state of powder, or with ‘conia’ and
‘nicotia, in the state of an oily looking liquid,
may be thus distinguished:—
1.—a. The powder is treated with nitric
acid:—It is coloured red; probable presence
of Brucia, Delphia, Morphia, or commercial
Strychnia. If the reddened acid becomes
violet on the addition of ‘protochloride of tin,”
it is BRUCIA ; if it becomes black and car-
bonaceous, it is DELPHIA. If the powder is
fusible without decomposition, and strongly
decomposes iodic acid, it is MORPHIA ; if it
is not fusible without decomposition, and
does not decompose iodic acid, it is STRYCH-
NIA.
b. If instead of a red, the powder
strikes a green colour with nitric acid, it is
SoLANIA; if it is insoluble in “ether,’ and not
reddened by nitric acid,” it is EMETIA; if
soluble in ether, not reddened by nitric acid,’
but melts and volatilises when heated, it is
ATROPIA ; if it is thus affected by ether or
nitric acid, but does not volatilise, it is WERA-
TRIA. (See 2, below.)
2. The powder, or (with ‘conia and nicotia’)
concentrated liquid, is treated with a drop or
two of concentrated sulphuric acid:—A red
colour is produced; probable presence of
JBrucia, Nicotina, Salicine, or Veratria. If the
reddened mixture has at first a roseate hue,
turning deep red on the addition of nitric
acid, it is BRUCLA; if the original substance
moistened with solution of potassa evolves the
odour of tobacco, it contains NICOTINE; if the
red colour produced by the acid is permanent
and of an intense blood-hue, and the powder
agglutinates into lumps like resin, it is SA-
LICINE ; if the colour is at first yellowish,
changing to blood-red, and ultimately to crim-
son and violet, it is WERATRIA.
b. If instead of the substance being “red-
dened” by strong sulphuric acid, no particular
action ensues in the cold, it contains either
Conia or Strychnia; if a small fragment of
bichromate of potassa being now dropped in,
produces a rich violet colour, it is STRYCHNIA;
if the original matter on being heated, or
treated with solution of potassa, evolves
a penetrating, disagreeable odour, somewhat
analogous to that from “hemlock,” or to a
mixture of those from tobacco and mice, it is
CONIA.
The presence of one or more of the alkaloids
being shown by any of the preceding methods,
a portion of the original clear solution or
powder, or of the precipitates or filtrates above
referred to, must be treated with their “cha-
racteristic tests,’ as given under the individual
notices of these articles, so as to set at rest
all doubt as to their identity. No single
test must ever be relied on as a positive
proof. The presence of Brucia, Morphia and
Strychnia, may be determined in substances
which after being mixed with the salts of
these alkaloids have undergone the acetous,
vinous, or putrefactive fermentation, as shown
by Orfila, MM. Larocque and Thibierge, and
many other eminent chemists and toxicologists,
and confirmed, in numerous cases, by Our
own experiments. Opium and Morphia may
thus be readily detected in beer, wine, soup,
and milk.
Concluding remarks. It is a singular fact
that none of the organic bases found in plants
have yet been formed artificially, although
several analogous substances have been thus
produced. Closely allied to the alkaloids there
also exists an extensive series of neutral proxi.
mate principles, which differ from those sub-
stances chiefly in the absence of basic properties,
and in most of them being destitute of nitrogen,
They are usually bitter, and, like the alkaloids,
usually represent the active properties of the
plants in which they are found; whilst some
of them possess considerable medicinal energy,
Of this kind areasparagine, elaterine, gentianing,
picrotoacine, salicine, &c. These two classes
of bodies, though actually distinct, are fre:
quently confounded. See ALKALI, ORGANIC
BASES, Poisons, PROXIMATE PRINCIPLES;
WEGETABLE SUBSTANCEs, NOMENCLATURE,
&c.; also the individual alkaloids under their
respective heads.
AL/KANET. Syn. ANCHU's A, L.; ORCA.
NETTE, Fr.; ORKANET, Ger. ; OR/CHANET*,
DYER’s AL'KANET, D. BU'GLoss”. The anchu'sſ.
tincto"ria (Willd.; lithosper'mum tincto"rium
—Linn.), a deciduous herbaceous plant, with
a perennial, dark blood-red root. Hab., Asia
Minor, Greece, Hungary, &c. It is also largely
cultivated in the neighbourhood of Montpellier,
The dried root (ALRANET ROOT; RADIX AN.
CHUSAF, R. A. TINCTORIAE) is chiefly imported
from the Levant. It contains a beautiful
blood-red colour, which it freely gives out to
oils, fats, wax, spirits, essences, and similar
substances, by simply infusing it in them, and
is consequently much employed to colour these
articles. Wax tinged with it, and applied on
warm marble, stains it of a rich flesh-colour,
which sinks deep into the stone, and possesses
considerable durability. Its spirituous tincture
also imparts a deep red to marble.
Prop., &c. The colouring matter of alkanet
was regarded by Pelletier as a fatty acid
(ANCHUSIC ACID); but it has since been shown
to be a species of resin (ANCHUSINE, PSEUD0.
According to
ALKANNINE, P.-ALKANIUM).
Dr. John, good alkanet root contains 5% per
cent. of this substance. Anchusine melts at
140° Fahr.; is scarcely soluble in water, to
which it only imparts a dirty red colour, but
is very soluble in alcohol, oils, and acetic acid.
Alkalies turn it blue.
It is found wholly in
ALLANTOIC ACID—ALLOXANTIN.
67
the root-bark. In selecting this article, the
smaller roots should therefore be chosen, as
they possess more bark than the larger ones,
in proportion to their weight. Exposure to
ammoniacal fumes, or even handling it much
with the fingers, changes its red to a crimson
or purplish hue.
Uses, &c. It is much employed by druggists
and perfumers to colour oils, lip-salves, plasters,
pomatums, &c.; by varnish-makers, to tinge
their varnishes and lacquers; by statuaries,
to stain marble; by dairy-farmers, to colour
cheese; by wine-merchants and bottlers (in the
form of tincture), to stain beforehand the corks
of their port-wine bottles, in order to imitate the
effects of age, and as colouring and flavour-
ing for factitious port-wine; and by dyers,
and others. A species of crimson rouge
was formerly prepared from it (hence its
name).
ALLANT0'IC ACID, See ALLANTOIN.
ALLANTOIN (-to-in; -tó — Mayne). Syn.
ALLANTO'IC ACID*, AMNIOT'IC A.f, AM'NIC
At ; ALLANTOi!NA, L. A substance discovered
by Vauquelin and Buniva in what they im-
agined to be the liquor amnii of the cow, and
mence named by them amniotic acid. It was
afterwards shown by Dzondi and Lassaigne to
exist in the fluid of the allantois, and not of
the amnios. It has since been produced
artificially by Wöhler and Liebig.
Prep. 1. The allantoic fluid of the foetal calf
is evaporated to 1-4th or 1-5th of its volume,
and then set aside for some time. The crystals
thus obtained are purified by re-solution,
digestion with animal charcoal, and re-crystal-
lisation.
2. (Wöhler and Liebig.) Uric acid, 1 part;
is dissolved in water, 20 parts; and freshly
precipitated and well-washed binoxide of lead
is added to the solution until the colour ceases
to change; the liquid is next filtered while
hot, evaporated until a pellicle forms on the
surface, and then set aside to crystallise; the
crystals being purified as before.
Prop., &c. Small, but very brilliant pris-
matic, transparent, colourless crystals; taste-
less; neutral; soluble in 160 parts of cold
water, and in much less at 212°; nitric acid
converts it into ALLANTURIC ACID ; oil of
vitriol resolves it into ammonia, carbonic acid,
and carbonic oxide; hot concentrated solutions
of the caustic alkalies change it into ammonia
and oxalic acid.
ALLANTOX'ICUM. [L.] Syn. ALLANTo-
TOX'ICUM, L. (prim., Gr.). The poison de-
veloped, during putrefaction, in sausages made
of blood, liver, &c. “It often proves speedily
fatal.” (Kraus.) -
ALLIA/CEOUS (-sh’us). Syn. ALLIA/CEUS,
L.; ALLIAC#, AILIACá, Fr.; KNOBLAUCH-
ARTIG, &c., Ger. Garlick-like; an epithet
applied to substances having the odour or
properties of garlic or onions.
Alliaceous Plants. Chives, garlic, leeks,
onions, rocambole, shallots, &c.
ALLIGATION. Syn. ALLIGATIO, L. In
commercial arithmetic, a ‘rule’ for ascertaining
the price or value of mixtures, and for deter-
mining the proportions of the ingredients that
must be taken to produce mixtures of any
given price, value, or strength. The first is
called ALLIGATION ME/DIAL; the second, ALLI-
GATION ALTERN’ATE. Its principles and
applications are explained under MIXTURES
(Arithmetic of).
ALL0P'ATHY. Syn. ALLOPA/THIA, L. (from
&\\oc, other, different, and tra60ç, affection or
disease, Gr.); ALLOPATHIE, Fr. In medicine,
the method of curing disease by the use of
remedies which tend to produce a condition of
the system, either differing from, opposed to,
or incompatible with the condition believed to
be essential to the disease it is sought to cure.
It is commonly employed to distinguish the
ordinary system of medical practice from
homoeopathy (which see). Hence (an) ALLOP'-
ATHIST, and the corresponding adjective ALLO-
PATH'IC (allopath'icus, L.).
ALL0T'ROPY. Syn, ALLOT'RoPISM; AL-
LOTRO'PIA, ALLOTROPIS'MUs, L. Literally, a
difference in character; another form of the
same substance. In chemistry, a term invented,
by Berzelius, to express the state or condition,
or the change of character, assumed by certain
substances at different temperatures, or under
different treatment, whilst their nature and
composition continue the same. It more par-
ticularly relates to colour, hardness, solubility,
texture, &c. Boron, carbon, silicon, iron,
sulphur, and phosphorus, afford striking
examples of the changes here referred to.
ALLOXANTIN (-tin; or -lög-zán'-).
Cs H4N4O7.3H2O. A crystallisable substance,
first obtained by Dr. Prout from uric
acid.
Prep. 1. Uric acid, 1 part; is boiled in water,
32 parts; dilute nitric acid being added until
solution is complete; the resulting liquid is
evaporated to #rds its volume, and then set
aside for 10 or 12 hours; the crystals, which
are deposited, are purified by re-solution and
crystallisation.
2. Sulphuretted hydrogen gas is passed, in
a full stream, through a moderately strong
aqueous solution of alloxan, in the cold. The
allowantin, which is deposited as a crys-
talline mass, is purified by draining, cautious
washing with cold water, re-solution in boiling
water, and re-crystallisation. The impure
mother-liquor from which crystals of alloxan
have separated, if diluted with water, may
be used for this purpose.
Prop., &c. Crystals, small colourless, trans-
parent, four-sided, oblique rhombic prisms;
scarcely soluble in cold water; solution reddens
litmus; with baryta water it gives a charac-
teristic violet-coloured precipitate, which dis-
appears on heating; and with nitrate of
silver a black precipitate of that metal;
the crystals are reddened by ammoniacal
vapours.




68
ALLOY.

ALLOY". Syn. ALLIAGE, Fr. ; LEGIRUNG,
WERMISCHUNG DURCH SCHMELZEN, Ger. In
coinage, a compound of the precious metals
with another, or others, of less value; also the
least valuable metal, or metals, in such com-
pounds. In chemistry and metallurgy, com-
binations of the metals with each other usually
obtained by fusion. When mercury is one of
the component metals, the compound is termed
an AMALG-AM. -
Prep., &c. No general rules can be given
for this purpose. Alloys of metals differing
greatly in fusibility, are commonly made by
adding the more fusible one, either in the
melted state, or in small portions at a time, to
the other melted, or heated to the lowest
possible temperature at which a perfect union
will take place between them. The mixture
is usually affected under a flua, or some mate.
rial that will promote liquefaction, and prevent
volatilisation and unnecessary exposure to the
air. Thus; in melting lead and tin togethel,
for solder, resin or tallow is thrown upon
the surface; in tinning copper, the surface
is rubbed with sal ammoniac ; and in COm
bining some metals, powdered charcoal is used
for the same purpose. Quicksilver combines
with many metals in the cold, forming AMAI.
G-AMS.
Comp. The following Table exhibits the
composition of the more important compounds
of this class : —
Table of the principal Alloys.
NAMEs.
ALBATA
AMALG AMS
------------------------
BRASS
BRITANNIA METAL........ -------------------
BRONZE
CANNON-METAL
DUTCH GOLD
GOLD (standard)..............................
, (old standard)
OR-MOLU
PEWTER (common)
y:
POT-METAL, COCK-METAL
QUEEN’s METAL
SHOT-METAL
SILVER (standard)
STEREOTYPE-METAL
TOMBAC, RED TOMBAC
TUTANIA
TYPE-METAL
-------------------------- ----------------
--- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --------------
-------------------- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
------------------------------
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
------------------ - - - - - - - - - - - -
GUN-METAL....................................
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
(ºes).....................
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
SOLDER .......................................
SPECULUM-METAL ..................... ------
---
------------------------
---------------------
---
-------------------------------- -------
COMBINING METALs.
See German silver.
Mercury and other metals.
Copper and zinc.
Copper and tin.
Copper and zinc.
Tin with antimony, copper, and bis.
muth.
Tin and copper.
Tin and copper.
Copper and zinc.
Bismuth, lead, and tin.
Copper, nickel, and zinc, with, sometimes,
a little iron and tin.
Gold with copper.
Gold with copper and silver.
See Cannon-metal.
Copper and zinc.

32 55.
Tin and lead.
Tin with antimony, bismuth, and copper,
Copper and lead, with, sometimes, a little
Z111C.
Tin with
copper.
Lead with a little arsenic.
Silver and copper.
Tin and lead.
Tin and copper, and arsenic
Lead, antimony, and bismuth.
Copper and zinc.
See Britannia metal.
Lead and antimony.
antimony, bismuth, and
---
WHITE COPPER (Packfong ; White tombac) Copper and arsenic.
Prop., &c. Alloys generally possess charac-
teristics unshared by their component metals.
Thus; copper and zinc form brass, which has
a different density, hardness, and colour to
either of its constituents. Whether the metals
tend to unite in equivalent proportions, or in
any definite ratio, is still undetermined. The
evidence afforded by the natural alloys of gold
and silver, and by the phenomena accompany-
ing the cooling of several alloys from the state
of fusion, goes far to prove that such is the case.
(Rudberg.) The subject is, however, one ºf
considerable difficulty, as metals and metallic
compounds are generally soluble in each other
and unite by simple fusion and contact. Thiſ
they do not combine indifferently with each
other, but exercise a species of elective affinity
not dissimilar to other bodies, is clearly showſ
by the homogeneity and superior quality ºf
many alloys in which the constituent metal
are in atomic proportion. The variation of the
specific gravity and melting-points of alloy;
ALLSPICE–ALMOND.
69
from the mean of those of their component
metals, also affords strong evidence of a
chemical change having taken place. Thus,
alloys generally melt at lower temperatures
than those required for their separate metals.
They also usually possess more tenacity and
hardness than the mean of their constituents;
but their malleability, ductility, and power
of resisting oxygen, is generally diminished.
The alloy formed of two brittle metals is always
brittle ; that of a brittle and a ductile metal,
generally so; and even two ductile metals
sometimes unite to form a brittle compound.
The alloys formed of metals having different
fusing-points are usually malleable whilst cold,
and brittle whilst hot. The action of the air
on alloys is generally less than on their simple
metals, unless the former are heated. A mixture
of 1 part of tin and 3 parts of lead is scarcely
acted on at common temperatures; but at a red
heat it readily takes fire, and continues to burn
for some time like a piece of bad turf. In like
manner, a mixture of tin and zinc, when
strongly heated, decomposes both moist air
and steam with almost fearful rapidity.
The specific gravity of alloys is never the
arithmetical mean of that of their constituents,
as commonly taught; and, in many cases,
considerable condensation or expansion occurs.
When there is a strong affinity between two
metals, the density of their alloy is generally
greater than the calculated mean ; and vice
versä, as may be seen in the following
Table:—

Alloys having a density—
Greater than the mean of their constituents:—
Copper and bismuth,
35 palladium,
35 tin,
25 zinc,
Gold and antimony,
55 bismuth,
55. cobalt,
22 tin,
>> Zinc,
Lead and antimony,
Palladium and bismuth,
Platinum and molybdenum,
Silver and antimony,
25 bismuth,
•x lead,
55 tin,
25 zinc.
“Every alloy,” says Dr. Ure, “is, in reference
to the arts and manufactures, a new metal, on
account of its chemical and physical properties.
A vast field here remains to be explored. Not
above sixty alloys have been studied by chem-
ists, out of many hundreds which may be made,
and of these very few have yet been practically
employed. Very slight modifications often
constitute very valuable improvements upon
metallic bodies.” See ANALYSIs, Ass AYING,
BRASS, BRONZE, ELECTROTYPE, GERMAN SIL-
VER, GOLD, METALS, SPECIFIC GRAVITY, &c.
ALL’SPICE. See PIMENTO.
ALLU"VIAL. (-l’âûv'-yāl). Syn. ALLU”-
VIOUS*; ALLU”vius, L.; D’ALLUVION, Fr.
In geology, applied to partial deposits of mud,
sand, gravel, &c., left by rivers and floods
upon land not permanently submerged beneath
water; in agriculture, applied to soils so
formed or deposited.
ALLU"WIUM. [L., Eng.] Syn. ALLUVION,
Fr. ; ANFLöSSUNG, ANSCHWEMMUNG, Ger.
In geol. and agr., alluvial deposit or soil. See
SOILs, &c. -
AL'LYL (-líl). CAH5. In chemistry, the radi-
cal of the essential oils containing sulphur, as
those of assafoetida, garlic, horseradish, mus-
Less than the mean of their constituents :-
Gold and copper,
, iridium,
* , iron,
,, lead,
, nickel,
, silver,
Iron and antimony,
,, bismuth,
,, lead,
Nickel and arsenic,
Silver and copper,
Tin and antimony,
, lead,
,, palladium,
Zinc and antimony.
tard, onions, &c., which are either sulphides or
sulphocyanides of allyl. Its probable existence
was first shown by Captain Reynolds, who suc-
ceeded in producing several of its derivatives.
It has since been obtained, in a separate state,
by the action of sodium upon iodide of allyl. It
is an oily substance with a high boiling-point.
Sulphide of Allyl, (CAH5)2S; obtained (arti-
ficially) by acting on sulphocyanide of allyl
with sulphide of potassium. See OIL OF
GARLICK.
Sulphocy'anide of Allyl, C.HACNS ; obtained
by submitting iodide of allyl to the action of
sulphocyanide of potassium; or by gently heat-
ing a mixed alcoholic solution of sulphide of allyl
and bichloride of mercury, with sulphocyanide
of potassium. See OIL OF BIACK MUSTARD.
AL/MOND (ah'-münd). Syn. AMYG'DALA
(also -US, -UM*), L.; AMANDE, Fr.; MANDEL,
Ger., Dut., Dan., Swed. The “almond-tree”
(amyg'dalus commu'mis—Linn.; Ph. L., E.,
and D.; Amandier—Fr.), a tree of the nań.
ord. Rosaceae, indigenous to Persia, Syria, and
the north of Africa; but also extensively cul-
tivated in southern Europe. The almond-tree




is about the size of the peach-tree, which it
much resembles in appearance. It is inca-

70
ALMONDS–ALOE.

pable of ripening its fruit in this country, and
is, therefore, only grown here for the sake of its
beautiful vernal flowers. There are several
varieties, of which the most important are the
sweet and the bitter, so named from the flavour
of the seed or kernel. These, for the most
part, resemble each other in appearance. De
Candolle (“Prodromus, ii, 530) gives five
varieties of this species:–A. AMA"RA (bitter-
almond); A. DUI/CIS (sweet-a); A, FRAGILIS
(fräj'-; tender-shelleda); A. MACROCAR'PA(large-
fruited a., pista'chio a., Sultana a.); A.
PERSICO'íDEs (peach-a).
Per'sian Almond. The peach.
AL/MONDS (-mündz). Syn. AMYG'DALE,
L.; AMANDES, Fr. ; MANDELN, Ger. The
seed or kernels of the almond-tree. They are
met with in commerce both in the shell
(AMYG'DALE CUM PUTAM/INE, -īn-e, L.), and
shelled (AMYGDALE, L.). In the retail shops,
most commonly in the latter form. Those
rancid, broken, or worm-eaten, should be
rejected.
Bitter Almonds. Syn. AMYG'DALE AMA"RE,
L.; AMYGDALA AMARA, Ph. E.; AMANDES
AMèREs, Fr. ; BITTERE MANDELN, Ger. A
variety imported from Mogadore, chiefly cha-
racterised by possessing the bitter flavour, and,
when rubbed with water, the odour of peach-
kernels. They are also smaller and thicker
than the sweet almond.
Uses, &c. Bitter almonds are used to re-
lieve the flavour of sweet almonds, to clear
muddy water, and to flavour confectionery,
liqueurs, &c. By pressure, they yield their
bland oil (OIL OF ALMONDs; O'LEUM AMYG'-
DALE, L.); the resulting cake (BITTER-A.
CAKE; PLACEN'TA A. AMARE, L.) is distilled
for the volatile oil (ESSENTIAL or L of A.;
O. A. A., L.), and is afterwards again pressed
into cakes (A.-CAKE) and used to fatten pigs,
and for other purposes. Bitter almonds are
now seldom employed in medicines, although
it is said that they have cured ‘intermittents’
when bark had failed (Bergius), and that their
emulsion has been found useful in pulmonary
and dyspeptic affections, hooping-cough, and
asthma; and externally, as a lotion in acne.
(Thomson.) In large quantities they are
poisonous, and even in the smallest quantities
have been known to produce nettle-rash
(urticaria), and other unpleasant symptoms.
They have long been in repute as an antidote
to intoxication. The ancient bacchanals chewed
them at their orgies, to lessen the effects of
wine, and to enable them to take it in larger
quantities with impunity.
Blanched' Almonds (blåncht'-). Syn. AMYG'-
DALA, DECORTICA/TAP, L. Almonds from which
the husk or seed-coat has been removed. This
is effected by soaking them for a short time in
warm water, until the skin can be easily re-
moved by pressure between the thumb and
forefinger. They are then peeled, rinsed in
cold water, drained, and dried. When intend-
ed for the table, the last is effected by wiping
them with a soft towel; but when they are
intended to be powdered, or kept, they are dried
by a very gentle heat in a stove, or in the sum.
Burnt' Almonds. Syn. ROASTED ALMONDS;
ALMOND COFFEE. Used to colour and flavour
liqueurs and confectionery; and formerly, as a
substitute for coffee.
Guia'ma Almonds
Brazil-nuts.
Indian Almonds. The fruit of terminald
catappa (Linn.). They are oleaginous, and
nutritious; and are used as a substitute for
almonds.
Java Almonds (jäh/-).
of canarium commune (Linn.). They are
eaten, made into bread, and pressed for their
oil.
Sweet' Almonds. Syn. AIMONDS; AMYG'.
DALAB, L.; A. DUI/CES, Ph. D.; AMYGDAIA,

(ghe-āh'-nā; g hard)
A. JoFDAN’ICA, Ph. L.; A. DUL'CIS, Ph, E,
& Ph. L. 1836; AMANDES, AMANDES DOUGES,
Fr. ; SüSSE MANDELN, Ger. These are the
well-known dessert or table fruit of the name,
and are the kind always referred to when
“almonds' (simply) are spoken of or ordered
Comm. var.—1. JoB'DAN ALMONDs, which
are the finest, and are imported from Malag.
Of these there are two kinds; the one, above an
inch in length, flat, and with a clear brown
cuticle, sweet, mucilaginous, and rather tough;
the other, more plump, and pointed at One
end, brittle, but equally sweet with the
former.—2. WALEN'TIA A. (which come next
The nuts or kernels

in quality) are about ºths of an inch broad
not quite an inch long, round at one end, and
obtusely pointed at the other, flat, of a ding
brown colour, with a dusty cuticle.—3. BAR.
BARY and ITALIAN A., which resemble the
latter, but are generally smaller and les
flattened.—4. A variety, of medium quality,
imported in baskets from Spain.
Uses, &c. Sweet almonds are nutritive
emollient, and demulcent; but frequently dis
agree with weak stomachs. The husk is aſ:
to occasion indigestion and nausea. Owing tº
a peculiar idiosyncrasy of some habits, dyspep
sia, diarrhoea, oedematous swelling of the falº
and urticaria (nettle-rash), sometimes, though
seldom, follow the use of unblanched almonds.
Blanched almonds do not produce these incol.
veniences, and, therefore, should be preferred
for the table. In medicine, almonds are em.
ployed chiefly under the form of emulsion, coll:
fection, &c., and to suspend oily substances in
water.
well known.
employed as cosmetics. The cake left after
Their uses for dietetical purposes an
Preparations of them are alsº
expressing the oil (ALMOND-CAKE), is used fºr
washing the skin, which it is said to render
beautifully soft and clear.
&c.
AL/NIGHTi (awl’-). A cake of wax with a
wick in the midst. The forerunner of, and 3
rude form of the modern dumpy night-lights
called MORTARS.
AL'0E (äl’-o). Syn. Alſoß (-0-8), L., Fr. (ºr
See ALMOND PASTE,
ALOE RESIN–ALOES.
71

ALoßs), Ger., Ital, Sp., Belg., Dan, Dut., Swed.
The aloe-tree. In botany, a genus of plants of
the nat. ord. Liliaceae (DC.). The species, of
which there are several, are succulent plants or
small trees with endogenous stems, and stiff,
fleshy, hard, pointed leaves, abounding in a
purgative principle (ALOES), which is obtained
from them by either evaporating the expressed
juice or the decoction. They are all natives of
warm climates, and most of them are indigenous
to southern Africa.
JHisł. roºms, aehleem, (aloe-trees,) were
known to the sacred historians; and both the
plant and the inspissated juice are described
by Dioscorides and Pliny.”
Uses, &c. In Africa, the leaves of the Guinea
aloe are made into ropes, fishing-lines, bow-
strings, stockings, hammocks, &c. The leaves of
another species are used to catch and hold rain-
water. The expressed juice and decoction are
also used by the natives as a distaff. (Vide
infră.) Recent comparative trials, made in
Paris, of the strength of cordage and cables
formed of hemp, and of the aloe from Algiers,
are said to have shown the great superiority of
the latter. Fabroni obtained a fine violet
colour from the recent juice of the aloe,
which has been proposed as a dye for
silk.3
American Aloe. The aga’ve America'na
(Linn.), is a plant unconnected with the pre-
ceding, and belonging to the nat. ord. Brome-
liaceae. It is found in all parts of tropical
America, and is largely cultivated on the shores
of the Mediterranean; and less frequently, as
an exotic plant in this country. It grows to
the height of about 20 feet, and takes many
years to produce its gigantic and magnificent
pyramid of flowers; shortly after which it
perishes, exhausted, as it were, by its efforts in
bestowing its rare beauty on the floral world.
The vulgar belief is, that it blossoms only once
in a century; but, as stated by the late Mr.
Loudon, it flowers sooner or later, according to
the culture bestowed on it. Its sap yields a
kind of honey (AGA'VE HONEY), and by fermen-
tation, an intoxicating liquor (PULQUE); de-
siccated juice, mixed with wood ashes, is used
as soap, and lathers either with sea or fresh
water; leaf-fibre, used as hemp to make thread
and twine.
AL'0E-RESIN. Syn. RESI/NA AI'oïs, L.
The resinous matter deposited by a decoction
of aloes as it cools.
Prep. (Ph. L. 1746.) Boil aloes, 1 part, in
water, 8 parts, and allow the decoction, strained
whilst hot, to repose until the next day; then
wash the deposited RESIN, and dry it by a
gentle heat. It is probably a mixture of aloine
and oxidised extractive.
AL'0ES (-àze). Syn. BITT/ER ALOEst; AL'oï
(-o-é), L.; ALoßs, SUC D’ALois, Fr.; ALOE,
GLAUSINDE ALOE, Ger:* The inspissated juice
or extract of several species of aloe.
Comp., Prep., &c. Aloes is a complex re-
sinous substance containing a body called
aloin, which is its active or purgative principle.
It is completely soluble in boiling water, and
in alcohol or rectified spirit. The decoction
deposits an impure resin or resinoid on
cooling.
Phys. eff, Uses, &c. Aloes is a warm stimu-
lating purgative, in doses of 3 to 10 gr. ; whilst
even 1 or 2 gr. seldom fail to produce one
motion without pain or inconvenience. It is
considered highly serviceable in hypochondri-
acal, hysterical, and dyspeptic affections, par-
ticularly in phlegmatic habits, and in cases
arising from deficiency of bile. As an emmena-
gogue, and a vermifuge, few medicines are
more valuable. It acts on the large intestines,
and principally on the rectum; and, there-
fore, should be administered with caution, or
only in small doses, where there is a tendency
to prolapsus or piles, and in cases where uterine
stimulants (as in pregnancy, &c.) would be
improper. “It is remarkable with regard to it,
that it operates almost to as good a purpose in
a small, as in a large dose; and one or two
grains will produce one considerable dejection,
and twenty grains will do no more, except it be
that in the last dose (case), the operation will
be attended with griping, &c. It is one of
the best curesfor habitual costiveness.” (Cullen.)
Many of the effects complained of arise from
its slow solubility in the primae viae, and may
be obviated by administering it in a liquid
form, or in a solid form combined with soap,
which renders it freely soluble in the juices of
the stomach. -
Aloes is more frequently taken than, perhaps,
any known purgative. It enters into the com-
position of a majority of the aperient medicines
prescribed by the faculty, and forms the prin-
cipal ingredient of nearly all the advertised
purgative, antibilious, and universal pills of
the nostrum-mongers. The fact of aloetic pills
not acting until about 8 to 10 hours after being
swallowed—so that if taken on retiring to rest
at night, they do not generally disturb the
patient before the usual time of rising in the
morning—has contributed more than anything
else to make such remedies popular with parties
whose habits or business avocations would be
otherwise interfered with.
Aloes is also extensively used in veterinary
practice. It is the most valuable and reliable
purgative for the horse of the whole materia
medica; but is less to be depended on for
cattle, sheep, and hogs. Barbadoes aloes is the
best for this purpose. Cape aloes are, how-
ever, often employed, when 1-4th more must
be given.—Dose (of the former), for a HORSE,
4 to 8 dr.;”—CATTLE, 3 to 6 dr. (followed by
a purging drench);-HoGs, 5 to 15 gr, ;-




1 Lib. iii, c. xxv.
2 “Hist. Nat.,” lib. xxvii, c. v.
* “Annales de Chimie,” xxv, 305.
* Also see ALOE (above).
5 Aloes takes from 18 to 30, or even 36 hours, to operate
on a horse.

72
ALOES.

s
SHEEP, 15 to 30 gr.;1–DoGs, (small ones) 10
to 30 gr., (middle-sized) 20 to 40, or even 60
gr., (large) # to 1 dr., or even 2 dr.
Aloes is also used in dyeing; and as a colour-
ing matter in stains, lacquers, and varnishes.
Aloes, and several of its preparations, are like-
wise extensively employed to adulterate por-
ter.
War. These, arranged in the order of their
reputed medicinal value, are—Socotrine, Hepa-
tic, Barbadoes, Cape, &c.; and alphabetically,
as given below:—
Barbaſdoes Aloes. Syn. ALOES IN GOURDS;
AL'of BARBADEN'SIS, L., Ph. L. &. E. Im-
ported from Barbadoes and Jamaica, usually in
gourds; sometimes in boxes. The best is the
inspissated juice of the cut leaf of aloé vulga'-
*is ; an inferior quality is prepared from the
decoction.—Char., &c. Opaque, lustreless, of
a liver colour, a little tending to black, with a
bitter nauseous taste, and a very disagreeable
odour, especially when breathed on; powder,
a dull olive-yellow. It is the “hepatic aloes’ of
most continental writers, and said to be the
*A\ón of Dioscorides. It is more active than
the other varieties of aloes; but is also more
apt to occasion haemorrhoids, and to gripe,
than any of them. -
Cab'alline Aloes (-line). Syn. FoET'ID ALOEs,
HORSE. A.; ALO# CABALLINA, A. GUINIEN'SIS,
L.; ALois CABALLIN, Fr. From aloé In'dica
(O'Shaughnessy); or from aloé spica'ta by
long and careful boiling (Lindley). Used
only by farriers. Scarcely known in English
COInnnel"Ce.
Cape Aloes. Syn. ALoń CAPEN'SIS, A. LU'-
CIDA (Geiger), L. Imported from the Cape of
Good Hope, and obtained from aloé spica'ta,
and other Cape species. Odour, stronger and
even more disagreeable than that of Barbadoes
aloes; colour, deep greenish-brown; appear-
ance, shining and resinous; fracture, generally
glassy; powder, a lively greenish-yellow; al-
most completely soluble in boiling water, de-
coction paler than that of other kinds. It is
weaker than Barbadoes or even hepatic aloes,
and is more apt to gripe, &c., than the latter.
A finer kind, known as “Bethelsdorp aloes,’
imported from Algoa Bay, is more of a liver
colour, and softer than the preceding, and
hence often called CAPE HEPATIC-ALOES.
Hepatic Aloes. Syn. BoM.BAY ALOES*,
EAST-INDIA. A.*, LIVER - COLOURED SOCO-
TRINE A.” ; ALoß HEPAT'ICA, Ph. L. & D.; A.
IN'DICA, Ph. E. Imported from Bombay and
Madras. It is usually said to be obtained from
“uncertain species of aloes;” but it is almost
certain that it is “the juice of the Socotrine
aloes plant which has been solidified without the
aid of artificial heat.””—Char., &c. “Opaque,
of a liver colour, bitter taste, and an unpleas-
ant odour.” (Ph. L.) It is less odorous,
1 Aloes, however large the dose, often fails to purge
sheep. In very large quantities it is poisonous to them.
2 Herº “Elem. Mat. Med, and Therap,” vol. ii, 188,
4th Ed. ; “Pharm, Journ,” vol. xi.
darker coloured, and more opaque than Soco-
trine aloes; its powder has also a duller co-
lour; and weak spirit leaves much undissolved
matter. Its decoction on cooling frequently
deposits a yellow powder. The finer and
brighter varieties of hepatic aloes are com-
monly sold for “Socotrines,’ and their medicinal
virtues are nearly similar. (See below.)
In'dian Aloes (various):—1. Deep brown or
black, very opaque, and less soluble than ordi-
nary aloes. Scarcely known in commerce—2.
Several varieties ranging in character from
‘Cape aloes’ to “hepatics,’ and occasionally to
‘Barbadoes,’ obtained from several species.
Mo'cha Aloes (-kāh). Syn. ALoí DE MOCHA,
L. Imported from Muscat. An inferior kind
of Indian aloes. (Christison.) It is obtained
from the same plant as produces genuine hepa-
tic aloes. (Lindley.) It holds an intermediate
position between ‘Cape’ and “hepatics, but
contains much impurity; the latter often
amounting to upwards of 25%. Some specimens
are, however, of excellent quality. When
melted and ‘doctored,’ it is sold for Barbadoes,
hepatic, and even Socotrine aloes.
Soc'otrime Aloes (-trin; sūk'-T). Syn. SOC'.
OTORINE ALOES, SMYR'NA A., TUR'KEY A.;
ALoí; SOCOTRI'NA, Ph. L.'; ALoí, Ph.L. 1836;
A. SoCoTORI’NA, Ph. E. “The juice of the cut
leaf of uncertain species hardened by the air.”
(Ph. L.) Genuine Socotrine aloes is generally
supposed to be obtained from aloé spica'ta;
but is referred to by De Candolle to a distinct
species, a. Socotri'na; and by Martius, also to
a. purpuras'cens. Formerly this variety was
brought from the Island of Socotra or Zocotora
(hence the name), by way of Smyrna and
Malta; but it is now chiefly obtained from
Bombay and Madras.-Char., &c. Colour,
garnet red to golden red; smell, peculiar and
aromatic, not unlike a decaying russet apple,
especially when fresh-broken, or breathed on,
or warmed; taste, permanently and intensely
bitter; fracture, conchoidal; softens in the
hand, and becomes adhesive, yet retains con-
siderable brittleness; powder, bright golden-yel.
low colour; central portions of the lumps often
soft, especially when first imported. “It is
brittle, bitter, of a reddish-brown colour, and
an aromatic odour. Light permeates thin re-
cently broken laminae.” (Ph. L.) “In thin
pieces, translucent and garnet red; almost en-
tirely soluble in spirit of the strength of sherry.
Very rare.” (Ph. E.)
Socotrine aloes are always preferred for
medicinal purposes, and are the only variety
used in perfumery, varnishes, and other nice
purposes in the arts.
Strained Aloes. Syn. MELTED ALOES; AL0;
COLA"TA, L. Proc. 1. The aloes are melted
in a copper pan, by the heat of steam or a
water bath, and are then pressed through a
strong hair or wire sieve, and allowed to cool.
2. As above, but with the addition of about
twice its weight of water; the decoction being
strained and evaporated. -

ALOES WOOD-ALSTONIA SCHOLARIS. 73
Obs. Mocha, Indian, and other common
aloes, treated in this way and coloured,
are frequently sold for melted or strained
“Socotrines’ and “hepatics.” The colouring
matter usually employed is the precipitated
carbonate of iron (sesquioxide), or Venetian
red, in very fine powder, with, sometimes, a
little annatto. This fraud is not readily de-
tected by mere inspection, by those unaccus-
tomed to these matters; and hence the impu-
nity with which it is perpetrated.
The object in melting aloes is to deprive it
of the foreign matters, as sand, leaves, pieces
of wood, &c., which the commoner kinds gene-
rally contain in large quantities. The action
of the heat drives off much of their nauseous
smell, at the same time that it deepens their
colour, and renders their appearance more
translucent and resinous, to the disguise of
their original nature. The operation, on the
large scale, is usually carried on at night, in
consequence of the horribly nauseous fumes
evolved, which may be smelt at a great dis-
tance, and contaminate the clothes of those
engaged in it for a long time afterwards.
AL'0ES WOOD. Syn. AI/OF-wooD; EAGLE-
WOOD; AGAL'LOCHUM (-küm), LIG'NUM AL'oïs,
L. AGALLOCHI, L. A. VE"RI, L. AQUILE, L.
ASPAL’ATHI, L.; A.GALLOCHE, BOIS D’ALoßs,
Fr. ; ALOEHOLZ, Ger.: CALAM'BAC, CALAM'-
BOUC, Ind, ; XYLO-AL'oïSt. A name applied
to the wood of alòea:'ylon agal'lochum (Lam.),
a leguminous tree of Cochin China; and,
though apparently less correctly, to that of
aquila"ria agallochum and a. ova'ta (Lour.),
trees of tropical Asia, belonging to a different
naţ, order. Both are highly fragrant and
aromatic; used in fumigations and pastilles,
and occasionally, by cabinet makers and in-
layers. The essential oil of the wood, dissolved
in spirit, was regarded by Hoffman as one of
the best cordials and invigorants known.
The same has also been said of a tincture of
its resin.
The same name and synonyms are popularly
applied to the resin of the above woods (ALOES-
wooD RESIN), of which there are two varie-
ties:–the one, light and porous, and filled
with a highly fragrant resinous substance; the
other, denser and less resinous. It is an oily
concretion in the centre of the tree, the result
of disease, which gradually hardens, and, in
time, kills it. It is highly fragrant, and is
said to be nervine, cephalic, cardiac, and
stimulant. The powder is regarded as tonic
and astringent. Of all perfumes this is said
to be the one most esteemed by oriental na-
tions.
AL0ET'IC. Syn. ALoíT/ICUs, L.; ALoß-
TIQUE, Fr. Of or belonging to aloes. In
medicine, pharmacy, &c., applied to any prepa-
ration containing aloes as a characteristic in-
gredient; made or obtained from aloes. Sub-
stantively, an aloetic medicine.
AL'OIN (-0-in). Człłls();. [Eng., Fr.] Syn.
AL/öIN; ALO'NA, L. The Messrs.T. & H. Smith,
of Edinburgh, have applied this name to a crys-
talline substance, which they assert to be the
pure cathartic principle of aloes. Their pro-
cess is to evaporate to the consistence of a syrup,
in vacuo, a solution obtained by exhausting a
mixture of aloes and sand, with cold water,
and then to set it aside for a few days. The
resulting dark crystalline mass is purified by
pressure between folds of bibulous paper, and
repeated crystallisation from hot water. Bar-
badoes aloes are commonly used for the purpose;
but soft or semi-liquid Socotrine aloes, or the
unevaporated Socotrine-aloes juice, is probably
its best source.—Dose, 1 to 2 gr.
ALOPECIA (-sh’ā). [L.] Syn. AI/oPECY,
Fox'-EVIL; ALOP#CIE, Fr.; FUCHSRAUDE, Ger.
In pathology, baldness from disease, often ex-
tending to the beard and eyebrows; as dis-
tinguished from ‘calvities,” or ordinary baldness
arising from attenuation of the scalp or de-
fective nutrition. See BALDNESS.
ALPACA. A species of Llama, popularly
known as the PERUVIAN SHEEP, an animal
intermediate between the camel and sheep,
having long silky hair, nearly as fine as that
of the Cashmere goat. It was introduced to
the British manufacturers in 1834, when only
5700 lbs. of it was imported; but it soon became
an important article of commerce, the quantity
imported having gradually risen to above 2#.
millions of lbs. in 1853; whilst the price has
risen from about 9d. to 2s. 7d. the lb., in the
same time. The name is also given to fabrics
woven from the wool of this animal; and to
others in fine wool, made in imitation of them.
The gigantic factory, &c., erected at Saltaire,
Yorkshire, in 1852, for this manufacture,
covers about 12 acres of land. See LLAMA.
AL/PHA-0RSELL’IC ACID. See ORSELLIC
ACID.
AL'QUIFOU (-ke-föö). Syn. BLACKLEAD-ORE,
POTTER's ORE. A native sulphide of lead used
by potters to give a green glaze to coarse
Ware S.
ALSTONIA SCHOLARIS. (Ind. Ph.) Habitat.
Common inforests throughout India.-Officinal
part. The bark (Alstoniae cortea). It occurs
in thick, irregular, more or less contorted
pieces, easily broken. It consists of a rough
greyish epidermis, investing a buff or pale
cinnamon-coloured bark; internally, still lighter
in colour, and of a spongy texture, having a
very bitter taste, but devoid of odour.—Proper-
ties. Astringent tonic, anthelmintic, antipe-
riodic.—Therapeutic uses. In chronic diarrhoea
and the advanced stages of dysentery; also as
a tonic in debility after fevers and other ex-
hausting diseases.—Dose. 3 to 5 grains, either
alone or combined, in bowel affections, with
small doses of ipecacuanha and extract of gen-
tian.— Preparations. TINCTURE OF ALSTONIA
(Tinctura. Alstoniae). Take of alstonia bark,
bruised, 24 ounces; proof spirit, 1 pint. Ma-
cerate for seven days in a closed vessel, with
occasional agitation; filter, and add sufficient
proof spirit to make 1 pint. Or prepare by





*


74
ALTERATIVE–ALUM.

percolation, as Tincture of Calumba.--Dose. 1
to 2 fluid drachms.
Infusion of Alstonia. (Infusum. Alstoniae.)
Take of alstonia bark, bruised, } an ounce;
boiling water, 10 fluid ounces. Infuse in a
covered vessel for an hour and strain.—Dose.
From 1 to 2 fluid ounces twice or thrice daily.
A good serviceable tonic.
ALTERATIVE (awl’-têr-à-tiv). Syn. AI'-
TERANT*; ALTERANs (äl'-), L.; ALTÉRANT,
ALTÉRATIF, Fr. In medicine, having power
to alter; applied to substances and agents
which occasion a change in the habit or con-
stitution, and thus re-establish the healthy
functions of the body, or any part of it, with-
out producing any sensible evacuation or other
obvious effect.
ALTERATIVES (-tivz). Syn. ALTERANTIA,
L.; ALTÉRATIFs, &c., Fr. Alterative medi-
cines or agents. The preparations of mercury
and iodine, when properly administered, are
the most useful members of this class; and
are those which are now the most generally
employed.
ALTHE IN (äl-thé'-in). Syn. ALTHE'INA, L.
The name given by Braconnot to a substance
identical with asparagin, which he discovered
in the “marsh-mallow” (althaea officina'lis,
Linn.). -
AL'UDEL (-à-). In chemistry, a pear-shaped
glass or earthen pot open at both ends, for-
merly much used for connecting other ves-
sels in the process of sublimation. A number
of them joined together are still employed for
the distillation of quicksilver, in Spain.
AL’UM. KSSO4. Al2(SO4)3. 24Aq. Syn.
PoT'ASH-ALUM, SULPHATE of ALUMINUM AND
PoTASSIUM, COMMON ALUM ; ALU'MEN, A.
POTAS'SICUM, L.; ALUN, SULFATE D’ALU-
MINE ET DE POTASSE, Fr. ; ALAUN, Ger.;
ALUME, Ital.
The principal alum-works in England, until
recently, were those of Lord Glasgow, at Hur-
lett and Campsie, near Glasgow, and those of
Lords Dundas and Mulgrave, at Whitby, York-
shire (est. 1600); but those of Mr. Spence, at
Manchester, and at Goole (Yorkshire), and of
Mr. Pochin, at Manchester, are now among the
largest, if they be not actually the largest in
the world. There are also extensive alum-
works at and near Newcastle-on-Tyne; but
none of importance, as we know of, in any
other part of these realms.
Naț. hist. Alum is found native in some
places (NATIVE ALUM), either effloresced on
the surface of bituminous alum-schist (Gött-
wigg, Austria); or united with the soil in the
neighbourhood of volcanoes (Solfatara, Naples);
when it may be obtained by simple lixiviation
and evaporation, a little potash being commonly
added to convert the excess of sulphate of
alumina present into alum. It is also found
in certain mineral waters (East Indies).
Sources. The alum of commerce is usually
obtained from schistose pyritic clays, com-
monly termed alum-ores, aluminous shale, a.-
schist, &c.; and from alum-rock, a.-stone, or
alunite. At La Tolfa, Civita Vecchia, where
the best Roman-alum is produced, the source
is stratified alum-stone. On the Continent,
and in Great Britain, it is generally pyri.
taceous clays, volcanic aluminous ores, alu.
minous shale, or alum-slate. These minerals
contain sulphide of iron, alumina, bitumen or
carbon, and frequently a salt of potassium. Of
late years large quantities of alum have been
prepared on the banks of the Tyne from alu.
minous clay.
Prep. The manufacture of alum is techni.
cally said to be conducted according to the
natural process when prepared from alum:
schist or alum-ore; and according to the
artificial process when made by acting On
clay with sulphuric acid, and adding a potas.
sium salt to the resulting lixivium. The follow.
ing are the details of these processes:—
a. From ALUM-ORE, ALUMINOUS SCHIST, Or
SHALE, &c.:—
1. The mineral (alum-ore, a.-schist, &c.), is
placed in heaps, and moistened from time tº
time with water, when it becomes gradually
hot, and falls into a pulverulent state. This
decomposition commonly occurs either wholly,
or partially, on the floor of the mine. If the
ore does not possess this property on mere ex:
posure to air and moisture, it is broken intº
pieces and laid upon a bed of brushwood and
small coal, to the depth of about four feet,
when the pile is fired and fresh lumps of the
alum-mineral thrown on, until the mass be:
comes of considerable height and size. The
combustion, as soon as established, is com:
ducted with a smothered fire, until the cal:
cination is complete; care being taken to pre:
vent fusion, or the disengagement of either
sulphurous or sulphuric acid, from contact
between the ignited stones and the car.
bonaceous fuel." To promote these ends the
pile, at the proper time, is “mantled’ (as the
workmen call it) or covered with a layer of
already calcined and exhausted ore, in order
to protect it from high winds and heavy rains;
as also to moderate the heat, and let it pro-
ceed gradually, so that the sulphur present
may not be lost or wasted by volatilisation.
The roasting is finally checked by a thicker
‘mantling, and the whole allowed to cool. By
this time the pile has usually lost about one
half its bulk, and become open and porous in
the interior, so that the air can circulate freely
through the mass; the latter, in dry weather,
as the heap cools, being usually promoted by
sprinkling a little water on it, which, by carry.
ing down some of the saline matter, renders
the interior still more open to the atmosphere.
The whole, when cold, or nearly cold, is, if


1 The generality of alum-minerals require roasting; and
their own bituminous matter is, in many cases, sufficient
to produce the heat required, which need not necessarily
exceed 600 to 650°Fahr., provided it be continued for
sufficient period. It is only when they are less bitumi.
nous or carbonaceous that slack or saw-dust, &c., is em:
ployed.
ALUM.
75
necessary, still further exposed to the action of
air and moisture. The time required to calcine
the heap properly, including that taken by the
burned ore to cool, varies, according to its size
§§§
§
and the state of the weather, from three to
nine, or even twelve months. The residuum of
the calcination is next placed in large stone or
brick cisterns, and edulcorated with water,
until all the soluble portion is dissolved out;
the solution is then concentrated in another
stone cistern, so made that the flame and heated
air of its reverberatory furnace sweep the whole
surface of the liquor. (See engr.) The evapo-
ration is continued until it just barely reaches
the point at which crystals are deposited on
cooling; when it is run off into coolers. After
the sulphate of iron, always present, has been
deposited in crystals, the mother-liquor, con-
taining the sulphate of aluminum, is run into
other cisterns, and a saturated solution of chlo-
ride of potassium, or of sulphate of potassium,
or (sometimes) impure sulphate or carbo-
nate of ammonium, or a mixture of them,'
is added until a cloud or milkiness ceases
to be produced on addition of more.” It is
next allowed to settle and get thoroughly cold,
and the supernatant ‘mother-liquor’ being
drawn off with a pump or syphon, the precipi-
tate, which is alum in the form of minute
* For pure PotAsh-ALUM a salt of potash only must be
employed. When ammonia (usually in the form of gas-
liquor or gas-sulphate) is used as the precipitant, the product
is AMMONIA-ALUM. The ordinary alums of commerce are
now generally mixtures of the two.
* The respective quantities required to produce 100
parts of alum from the sulphate of alumina liquor, are—
Chloride of potassium . - - . 157
xx - - - . 18.4
-> ammonium - . 13.9
In practice, the exact quantity required may be found
by a previous trial of a little of the aluminous liquor; but
the indications mentioned in the text will always show the
operator when a sufficient dose is added.
Sulphate of
= with the clay.
crystals (technically termed ‘flour’), is well
drained, and subsequently washed by stirring
it up with a little very cold water, which is
then drained off, and the operation repeated a
second time with fresh water. A saturated
solution of the pulverulent alum (“flour') is
next formed in a leaden boiler, and the clear
portion is run or pumped off, while boiling hot,
into crystallising vessels, called “roaching casks’
(see engr.), the staves of which are lined with
lead, and nicely adjusted to each other. After
the lapse of a week or ten days, the hoops and
staves of these “casks are removed, when a
thick crust of crystallised alum is found, which
exactly corresponds in form and size to the
interior of the cask. A few holes are then
made in the sides of this mass, near the bot-
tom, to allow the contained mother-liquor to
drain off, after which the whole is broken up
and packed in casks for sale. Sometimes the
alum thus obtained, or the lower portion of it,
is washed with a little very cold water, and, if
discoloured, or small or slimy, is purified by a
second crystallisation.
2. As ammonia-alum (Spence’s process; see
below), but using a potash-salt as the pre-
cipitant, either wholly or in part, instead of
ammonia; and, in the latter case, supple-
menting the deficiency of potash with ammonia,
as there explained.
b. From ALUMINOUS CLAY and OIL OF VIT-
RIOL :—
1. Clay, free or nearly free from ‘carbonate
of lime’ and ‘oxide of iron,’ is chosen for
this purpose. It is moderately calcined (in
lumps) in a reverberatory furnace, until it
becomes friable; great care being taken that
the heat be not sufficient to indurate it,
which would destroy its subsequent solubility.
It is next reduced to powder, sifted, and mixed
with about 45% of its weight of sulphuric acid
(sp. gr. 1'45), the operation being conducted in
a large stone or brick basin arched over with
brickwork. Heat is then applied, the flame and
hot air of a reverberatory furnace being made
to sweep over the surface of the liquor.
The heat and agitation are continued for 2
or 3 days, when the mass is raked out, and set
aside in a warm place for a few weeks (6 to 8),
to allow the acid the more perfectly to combine
At the end of this time the
newly formed sulphate of alumina is washed
out, the solution evaporated until of a sp. gr.
of about 1:38 (124 for ‘ammonia-alum ”), and
the salt of potash added. The remaining
operations resemble those above described.
Good alum may be produced by this process at
about two thirds the cost of rock or mine
alum. !
2. (Process of Mr. Pochin.) Fine China
clay is heated in a furnace, and mixed with
a suitable proportion of sulphuric acid; the
latter being considerably diluted with water,
in order to moderate its action, which would
otherwise be far too violent. The mixture is
then passed into cisterns furnished with
Z
f
f






76
ALUM.
movable sides, where, in a few minutes, it
heats violently and boils. The thick liquid
gradually becomes thicker, until it is converted
into a solid porous mass; the pores being pro-
duced by the bubbles of steam which are
driven through it, owing to the heat resulting
from the reaction of the ingredients on each
other. This porous mass (ALUM-CAKE, CON-
CENTRATED ALUM) appears perfectly dry,
although retaining a large amount of com-
bined water. It also contains all the silica of
the original clay, but in such a state of fine
division, that the whole appears homogeneous;
whilst it imparts a dryness to the touch which
can scarcely be given to pure sulphate of
alumina. From this substance a solution of
pure sulphate of alumina is easily obtainable
by lixiviation, and allowing the resulting
solution to deposit its silica before using it;
but for many purposes the presence of the
finely divided silica is not objectionable. The
sulphate-of-alumina solution, so obtained is
adapted to all the purposes in dyeing for which
alum is now employed; the sulphate of potash
or of ammonia in the latter being an unne-
cessary constituent, and one merely added to
facilitate the purification and subsequent crys-
tallisation of the salt. To obtain ALUM from
the porous alum-cake (the proper proportion
of acid having been used in its preparation, or
subsequently added), it is only necessary to
precipitate its concentrated solution with a
strong solution of a salt of potash, or of ammo-
nia, or a mixture of them, and to otherwise
proceed as before.
Ratio. In the above process the sulphide of
iron of the shale or schist is converted by
atmospheric oxygen into sulphate of iron and
sulphuric acid; the sulphuric acid decomposes
the clay, setting silica free, and producing
sulphate of aluminum. The sulphate of iron is
mostly got rid of by concentrating the solution
of the mixed sulphates, and the mother-liquors
are converted into alum by the addition of the
salt of potassium. When chloride of potas-
sium is used, it yields chloride of iron and
sulphate of potassium, the latter combining
with the sulphate of aluminum, and the former
remaining behind in the mother-liquor. See
ALUMS (in Chemistry).
Comp. Potassium alum has the formula
KSO. Al(SO4)3. 24Aq.
Prop. Alum crystallises in regular octahe-
drons, often with truncated edges and angles;
(see engº. 3) and sometimes
in cubes, but only when
there is a deficiency of
acid in its composition,
with the alkali in slight ex-
cess of the proper quantity.
(Löwel.) It is slightly
efflorescent in dry air;
* The ordinary alum, of commerce, cºnsists of large
crystalline masses, which do not prese.ht any regular
geometrical form; but by immersion in Water for a few
days, octahedral and rectangular forms are developed on
its surface. (Daniell.)
*
-
soluble in 18 parts of cold water, and in
rather less than its own weight of boiling
water ; tastes sweet, acidulous, and very
astringent; is styptic; and reddens litmus
When heated it melts, loses its water of crys.
tallisation, and becomes white and spongy
(DRIED ALUM); a strong heat, short of white.
ness, decomposes it, with the evolution ºf
oxygen and a mixture of sulphuric and Sul.
phurous anhydride; calcined with carbonacº01s
matter it suffers decomposition, and furnishes
a pyrophoric residuum (HoMBERG's PYROPH'.
ORUS). Ignited with alkaline chlorides,
hydrochloric acid is liberated; which also occurs
when their concentrated solutions are boiled
together.
of aluminum from potassium alum; but Only
a subsulphate from the simple sulphate ºf
alumina.
ammonia, often so low as 1710.
Ammonia precipitates pure hydrate
Sp. gr. 1:724; but, when containing
Tests, &c. It is easily recognised by is
crystalline form, its taste, and by its complete
solubility in water. Its aqueous solution gives
a white gelatinous precipitate solublein excess;
a platinum wire moistened with the solution
imparts a violet colour to the blowpipe flame;
and chloride of barium gives a white precipitate
insoluble in nitric acid.
Pur. When pure, its solution is not affected
by tincture of galls, sulphuretted hydrogen
ferrocyanide of potassium, nor solution ºf
nitrate of silver. Heated with caustic potassi,
or quick-lime, it does not evolve fumes of
almlī1OIlla.
Adult., &c. The principal impurity, and One
which renders alum unfit for the use of the
dyer, is iron. This may be readily detected by
the blue precipitate it gives with ferrocyanide
of potassium, or the black precipitate with
sulphide of ammonium, which are very delicate
tests.” Lime, another very injurious con:
tamination, may be detected by precipitating
the alumina and iron (if any) with ammoni,
and then adding oxalate of ammonia to the
boiled and filtered liquid. The liquid filtered
from the last precipitate (oxalate of lime) may
still contain magnesia, which may be detected
by the white precipitate caused on the addition
of an alkaline phosphate. Common alum
frequently contains ammonia, from urine, Or
the crude sulphate of the gas-works, having
been employed in its manufacture. Powdered
alum is frequently adulterated with common
salt, in which case it gives a white curdy pre:
cipitate with nitrate of silver, turning black by
exposure to the light.
Phys. eff, &c. In small quantities alum
acts as an astringent; in larger doses, as an
irritant. It acts chemically on the animal
tissues and fluids, is absorbed, and has been
discovered in the liver, spleen, and urine
(Orfila), the last often becoming acid (Kraus)
Externally, it is astringent. The almost
* Good English alum contains less than 0.1% of iron,
The best Roman or Italian alums seldom contain mºre
than .005% of iron-alum, notwithstanding their exteriºr
colour,

ALUM.
77
general use of alum, by the English bakers, is
one of the most fertile sources of dyspepsia
and liver and bowel complaints, in adults;
and of debility and rickets in children. Bad
teeth and their early decay, is another conse-
quence of the daily use of alum in our food.
The bone matter (phosphate of lime) of bread,
instead of being assimilated by the system, is
either wholly, or in part, converted into a salt
of alumina, which is useless and incapable of
appropriation. When alum has been taken in
poisonous doses an emetic should be given,
followed by warm diluents and demulcents
containing a little carbonate of soda ; and
subsequently, by a purgative.
Uses, &c. The applications of alum in the
arts and manufactures are numerous and im-
portant. It is used to harden tallow and fats;
to render wood and paper incombustible; to
remove greasiness from printers’ blocks and
rollers; to prepare a paper for whitening
silver and silvering brass in the cold; to help
the separation of the butter from milk; to
purify turbid water; to dress skins; to fix
and brighten the colours in dyeing ; to make
lake and pyrophorus, &c. &c. It is also
extensively used for clarifying liquors, and for
many other purposes connected with the arts
and everyday life. In medicine, alum is used
as a tonic and astringent, in doses of 5 to
20 gr. ; as a gargle (1 dr. to # pint of water);
and as a collyrium and injection (10 to 15 gr.
to 6 oz. of water). In lead colic, ; to 1 dr. of
alum (dissolved in gum-water), every 3 or 4
hours, is said to be infallible. Powdered alum
is frequently applied with the tips of the
fingers, in cases of sore throat and ulcera-
tions of the mouth, &c. A teaspoonful of it
is said to be one of the very best emetics
in croup. (Dr. Meigs.) Alkalies, alkaline
carbonates, lime, magnesia, acetate of lead,
astringent vegetables, &c., are incompatible
with it.
Gen. commentary. In addition to the par-
ticulars of its manufacture given above, we
may add, that the plan of getting rid of the
ferric salts there referred to, has to some con-
siderable extent been successfully replaced by
that of precipitating the alum, instead of the
sulphate of iron, by adding alkaline matter to
the lixivium. The crystalline precipitate is
purified by draining, re-solution, and re-crystal-
lisation; whilst the sulphate of iron and Epsom-
salts contained in the mother-liquor, are ob-
tained by subsequent evaporation and crystal-
lisation; after which a fresh crop of alum may
be got from it, by the use of an alkaline pre-
cipitant, as before.
In estimating the strength of his solution,
the alum-maker takes as a standard, a measure
or sp. gr. bottle capable of holding exactly 80
pennyweights of distilled water. The excess
of the weight of liquor, in pennyweights, over
80, or that of water, is called so many ‘penny-
weights strong.” Thus one of 90 pennyweights
(90 dwt.) is said to be “10 dwt. strong; or
simply, ‘one of 90 dwt.” These numbers cor-
respond to 2% degrees of Twaddle's hydro-
meter, and may easily be found by dividing
Twaddle's degrees by 2-5 or 2% ; or by multi-
plying them by 4, and pointing off the
right-hand figure of the product for a deci-
mal. The result is in alum-makers' penny-
weights.
By a patent now expired (Weisman’s, 1839),
the ferric salts are precipitated by the addition
of a solution of ferrocyanide of potassium
(prussiate of potash); after which the super-
natant clear liquor, which is now a solution of
nearly pure sulphate of alumina, is decanted,
and evaporated for future operations, until it
either forms, on cooling, a concrete mass,
which is moulded into bricks or lumps, for the
convenience of ‘packing,” or until it is suffi-
ciently concentrated to be converted into ALUM
by the addition of a salt of potash or of ammonia,
in the usual manner. The product, in each
case, is perfectly free from iron. By a like
addition of the ferrocyanide to a solution of
ordinary sulphate of alumina or alum, the
dyer may himself easily render them free from
iron, or iron-alum; when, as mordants for
even the most delicate colours, they are equal
to the very best Roman alum.
Another process has been patented (Barlow
& Gore, 1851) for the manufacture of alum
from the ash or residue of the combustion of
Boghead-coal, which, though hitherto re-
garded as almost valueless, actually contains
about 30% of alumina. It has not, however,
been found a convenient material for the pur-
pose.
By the latest and most approved processes
the least possible quantity of boiling water or
liquor is employed for making the solutions, so
that they may crystallise without evaporation,
and thus economise fuel; and the mother-
liquors of previous operations are constantly
employed for this purpose, when possible. Nor
is anything which is convertible to use, from
the drainage of the heaps, to the liquor
and slime of the roaching casks, allowed to
be wasted.
By whatever process, or from whatever
materials alum is obtained, it is absolutely
necessary for the successful and economical
conduct of its manufacture, that the precise
composition of the mineral or minerals em-
ployed should be exactly known. This can
only be determined by actual analysis, which
should be extended to several parts of the
same bed, and particularly to the upper and
lower strata, which frequently differ in com-
position from each other, and thus require
different treatment, or may be most advan-
tageously employed in combination with each
other. The necessity of this will be seen by
reference to the composition of the following
minerals, of which the top contains a larger
proportion of iron-pyrites than the bottom,
and the two require to be mixed, to equally
diffuse the sulphuric acid generated by the





78
ALUM.
calcination, &c., to which they are sub-
The following is the per-centage composition
jected. of certain alum shales:–
Whitby, Yorkshire. Campsie, near Glasgow.
(Richardson.) (Ronalds.)
Top rock. º Top rock. Top rock. º
Sulphide of iron 4'20 8'50 Sulphide of ironll 40-52 38°48 9-63(?)
(pyrites) (pyrites)
ilica.................. 52.25 51-16 Silica.................. 15:40 15:41 20:47(?)
Protoxide of iron ...| 8°49 6'll || Protoxide of iron ... — - 2:18,
Alumina ......... ... 1875 18:30 Alumina ............ 11:35 11:64 1891(?)
Lime ........... - - - - - - - 1:25 215 || Lime .................. 1-40 2-22 •40
Magnesia ............ '91 '90 || Magnesia ............ •50 '32 2.17
Oxide of manganese traces traces || Oxide of manganese 15 - *55
Sulphuric acid (SOs) 1:37 250 || Sulphuric acid ...... - - •05
Potassa ............... ‘13 | traces || Potassa ...............] '90 - 1:26
Soda .................. ‘20 traces || Soda .................. - - •21
Chlorine ............ traces traces || Carbon or bitu- - -
Coal .................. 4-97 829 mimous matter } 27.65(?) 28.80 (?)
Water ............... 2.88 2:00 || Coal .................. - - 8:51
Loss .................. 4'60 (?) Water ............... - - 8'54
Loss .................. 2:13 (?) 3:13 1:59(?)
| 100' 100. 100' 100' 100'
Alum-rock, or alum-stone, is a species of
impure alumite, and is not of very common
occurrence. That of Tolfa, near Civita-
Vecchia, according to Klaproth, consists of
Silica . . . . . . 56-5
Alumina - - . 19.
Sulphuric acid (SOA) . 16.5
Potassa . . . . . 4'
Water . . . . . . . .3'
Loss . . . . . . . 1"
100-
which exhibits an excess of about 3% of sul-
phuric acid, and about 14% of alumina, more
than are requisite to form alum with the 4}
of potassa; proportions which, therefore,
require to be supplemented with a potassium-
salt during the process of manufacture. The
alum-stone of Mont d'Or contains, according
to Cordier, 1.4% of oxide of iron.
The presence of lime in alum-ore is most
prejudicial, owing to its affinity for sulphuric
acid being greater than that of either alumina
or iron. Ores containing it in any quantity
are, therefore, unfitted for the manufacture of
alum. Magnesia is also prejudicial; but in
this case, the sulphate of magnesia left in the
mother-liquors is not wholly valueless, as it
may be crystallised and sold as ‘Epsom-salt,’
—a thing which is actually done in some
English alum-works.
The potash-salt employed by the alum-
makers is either the sulphate or the chloride—
chiefly the latter; its sources being the waste
liquor of soap-works, saltpetre refineries, and
glass-houses. Wood-ashes, though rich in
potash, do not answer well unless freed by
lixiviation from the large amount of car-
bonate of lime which is always present in
them.
The ammonia-salt used in making alum is
generally the crude sulphate prepared from
the waste ammoniacal liquor of gas-works,
or that from the manufacture of sal-ammoniac
by the destructive distillation of animal
matter. Both these liquors may be used
without previous conversion into sulphate
is an excess
of ammonia whenever there
of sulphuric acid in the aluminous solu-
tion.
Soda-salts are seldom, if ever, used as pre-
cipitants in the manufacture of alum, on
account of the easy solubility of the resulting
SODA-ALUM-a property which unfits them for
this purpose. See ALUMINA, AMMONIA,
DYEING, MoRDANTS, POTASSA, SULPHURIC
ACID, &c. (also below).
Ammo"mia Alum. (NH4)2SO4. Alſs()),
24Aq. Syn. (ALUMEN; ALUM ; B. P.),
ALU'MEN AMMONIA'TUM, L.; ALUN D’AM-
MONIAQUE, A. AMMONIACAL, Fr. This is an
alum in which the sulphate of potassium is
replaced by an equivalent of sulphate of am.
monium. It is prepared by adding crude
sulphate of ammonium to solution of sul-
phate of aluminum ; or gas-liquor, putrid
urine, &c., to the acid-sulphate.
Much of the common alum, especially that
prepared on the Continent, contains both potas.
sium and ammonium; and recently, enormous
works for its manufacture have been established
in England. As an astringent, and as a source
ALUM-EARTH-ALUMINUM. 79:
of alumina in dyeing, it resembles potash-alum
(i.e. ordinary alum). It may, however, be
readily distinguished from the latter by the
fumes of ammonia which are evolved when it
is moistened and triturated, or heated, with
caustic potassa or quick-lime; and by the resi-
duum of its exposure to a white heat being
pure alumina. See ALUM (antè).
Basic Alum. A variety of alum found
native at Tolfa. On calcination and subse-
quent lixiviation, it yields ordinary alum. A
like substance falls as a white powder, when
newly precipitated alumina is boiled in a solu-
tion of alum.
Baumé's Alum. Alum-white. See WHITE
PIGMENTS.
Dried Alum; Burnt Alum. Syn. ALU'MEN
Us'TUM, A. ExSICCATUM (B. P.); ALUN SEC,
Fr. ; GEBRANNTER ALAUN, Ger. ; ALUME CAL-
CINATO, Ital. Alum deprived of its water of
crystallisation by heat.
Prep. Take of alum, 4 oz. Heat the alum
in a porcelain dish or other suitable vessel, till
it liquefies, then raise and continue the heat,
not allowing it to exceed 400°, till aqueous
vapour ceases to be disengaged, and the salt
has lost 47 per cent. of its weight. Reduce
the residue to powder, and preserve it in a well-
stopped bottle.
Prop., &c. Similar to those of common alum,
but it is rather more astringent, and is less
soluble. When moistened, or placed in contact
with water, it resumes its water of crystalli-
sation with evolution of heat.—Dose. 10 to 20
gr. ; in colic (especially painters’ colic), hae-
moptysis, &c. It is chiefly used as an escha-
rotic, to destroy ‘proud flesh,’ &c.
Chrome Alum. See ALUMS (in Chemistry).
I'ron Alum (-àrn). Syn. ALU'MEN FER/RI-
CUM, SUI/PHAS FER/RI ET POTAs's AB, FER/RI
PEROX'IDI POTASSIO-SUI/PHAs, &c., L.
Comp. K.SO4. Fe3(SO4)3. 24Aq.
Prep. Take of peroxide of iron, 9 lbs. ; sul-
phuric acid, 14 lbs.; dissolve, dilute the mixture
with water, q.s., and add of potassium sulphate,
10 lbs. ; evaporate, and crystallise.
Prop., &c. Crystals, beautiful octahedrons
of a pinkish or pale violet colour. It is
strongly recommended, by Dr. Tyler Smith, as
a chalybeate tonic, and has been used by him,
at St. Mary’s Hospital, with marked success.
It has also been used as a mordant, in dyeing
black-Dose. # gr. to 5 gr.
Ro'mam Alum. Syn. RED ALUM*, ROACH A.,
ROCHE A., ROCK A.*; ALU'MEN ROMA(NUM, A.
RU'BRUM, A. RU'PEUM, &c., L.; ALUN ROMAIN,
A. DE ROCHE, Fr. ; ALUME DI RocCA, It. In
small fragments, covered with a reddish
powder (ALUMEN RUBRUM VE"RUM); originally
imported from Civita-Vecchia, where it occurs
native. It is much esteemed by dyers from
being nearly free from iron-alum. That now
sold for it in England, is ordinary alum
coloured with Venetian red, Armenian bole,
or rose-pink (ALUMEN RUBRUM SPU"RIUM).
This is done by shaking the fragments in a
sieve over a vessel of hot water, and then
stirring them up with the colour, until the
surface is uniformly tinged with it. In
genuine roach-alum the colour not only covers
the surface, but also partially pervades the
substance of the crystals. The name was
formerly also applied to a pure white variety of
alum, prepared at Tolfa; but it is now, in Eng-
lish commerce, exclusively given to common
alum artificially coloured.
Soda Alum. Syn. SULPHAS ALUMINE ET
SODE, L. Comp. Na2SO4. Al2(SO4)3.24Aq.
An alum in which the potassium sulphate of
common alum is replaced by a like salt of
sodium. It does not occur in commerce. (Wide
suprā et infră.)
AL'UM-EARTH, Alumina.
ALUM MOR/DANTS. In dyeing, mordants
having for their basis either common alum or
the acetate or sulphate of aluminum. See
ALUMINA and MORDANTs.
AL'UM-R00T. Syn. AMER/ICAN SAN'ICLE:
HEU'CHERA (Ph. U. S.), L. The root of
heuchera America'na (Linn.), a plant of North
America. It is powerfully styptic and astrin-
gent; and is used chiefly as an external appli-
cation in cancer.
ALUM-WHITE. See WHITE PIGMENTS.
AL'UMS. Syn. ALU'MINA (pl. of alu'men),
L. In chemistry, a term applied to a series or
group of salts having ‘common alum' for their
type, which they resemble in crystalline form
and constitution.
It is found that the aluminum of common
alum may be replaced by any other metallic
oxide having a like constitution, without affec-
ting the leading characteristics of the salt;
and further, that in the newly formed com-
pound, as in potash-alum, the second sulphate
may also be replaced under the like conditions.
All the alums crystallise in octahedrons or
cubes, and they all contain the same number of
molecules of water. The alums of commerce
(or alums proper) all contain aluminum and an
alkaline sulphate.
Prep. All the alums may be made by mixing
together solutions of the respective sulphates
in equivalent proportions, when crystals may
be obtained by evaporation in the usual
manner. The presence of sulphuric acid, in
slight excess, assists their crystallisation.
ALUMED (al’īāmd). Mixed or impreg-
nated with alum. In dyeing, mordanted with
alum.
ALU'MEN (-l’ôö-). [L.] Alum; the phar-
macopoeial name of alum. (See above.)
* Syn. ALUMINUM (which
See ).
ALUMINOUS. In mineralogy, of, resembling,
or containing aluminum. In chemistry, con-
taining or obtained from alum.
ALUMINUM. [Eng., Fr., L.] Syn. ALU-
MINIUM, Eng., Fr., L.; ALUMIUM, Ger. A
metallic radical or element very abundantly
distributed, united with silica. Discovered by
M. Wöhler, who succeeded in obtaining it as a





80
ALUMINUM.

gray metallic powder (A.D. 1827); and later
(1845), under the form of globules exhibiting
the leading characteristics of the metal. In
1854, M. Dumas announced to the ‘Academy
of Sciences,’ that M. St. Clair Deville had pro-
cured pure aluminum from clay, and exhibited
several specimens of considerable size and
beauty. The result was a general impression
that it might be easily obtained in any quan-
tity, and ultimately at a reasonable price; ex-
pectations which have been only partly, though
to a great extent, fulfilled, owing to the expense
and trouble of the process, notwithstanding
recent improvements.
Prep. (M. Deville; A.D. 1854-59) — A
quantity of chloride of aluminum, varying
from 200 to 300 grammes (say from 6 to
10 oz.), is introduced into a wide glass or por-
celain tube, between two plugs of asbestos to
retain it in position, and a current of hydrogen
(thoroughly dried by passing first through con-
centrated sulphuric acid, and then through a
tube containing fused chloride of calcium)
passed over it; a gentle heat being at the
same time applied to the part of the tube con-
taining the chloride, to drive off any free
hydrochloric acid which might have been
formed by the action of the air upon it. A
small porcelain boat, containing sodium, is
now introduced at the other extremity of the
glass tube, which is then again closed; and
when the sodium is fused, the chloride is
sufficiently heated to cause its vapour to come
into free contact with it. A powerful reac-
tion ensues, with the evolution of much heat,
and this continues as long as any undecom-
posed sodium remains to act on the passing
vapour. The mass in the “boat, which is now
a mixture of the double chloride of aluminum
and sodium, in which small globules of the
newly reduced metal are suspended, is allowed
to cool in the hydrogen; after which it is
treated with water, to remove the soluble
double chloride. The residuum, consisting
of small globules of aluminum, is lastly,
reduced to a solid button or mass, by
fusion, at a strong heat, under a layer of
the fused double chloride of aluminum and
sodium.
On a large scale two cast-iron cylinders are
employed, instead of the glass or porcelain
tube just referred to; the anterior one of
which contains the sesquichloride of aluminum,
and the posterior one a tray holding the sodium,
of which 10 or 12 lbs. are commonly operated
on at once. These cylinders are united by
means of a smaller intermediate one, filled with
clean scraps of iron, which serve to separate
iron, free hydrochloric acid, and chloride of
sulphur, from the vapour of the chloride of
aluminum, as it passes through them. During
the passage of the vapour of the chloride this
smaller cylinder, or tube, is kept heated to from
400° to 600°Fahr.; but the two other cylinders
are only very gently heated, since the chloride
is volatilised at a comparatively low tempera-
ture, and the reaction between it and the fused
sodium, when once commenced, usually gene.
rates sufficient heat for the completion of the
process.
Occasionally a mixture of the double chloride
of aluminum and sodium, 40 parts; chloride
of sodium, 20 parts; fluor spar, 20 parts; each
separately dried, powdered, and then blended
together; sodium, in small pieces, 7% to 8 parts,
are used instead of the last.
It is likewise made from a mixture of kryolite
and fused chloride of potassium, of each, in
powder, 5 parts; sodium, 2 parts; a cast-iron
crucible being employed; the resulting minute
globules being collected and fused to a but:
ton under a layer of the double chloride of
aluminum and sodium.
Prop, &c. Aluminum, when quite pure,
closely approaches silver in appearance, except
in being rather less white and lustrous than
that metal. Ordinary specimens, called purº,
have a slight bluish tint or tin-white colour,
with a perfect lustre, but far inferior to that
of pure silver. Sp. gr. 2.56 (about that of
glass), which by hammering may be raised
to 2-67. It is both ductile and malleable;
fuses at a temperature between the melting:
points of zinc and silver; is not affected by
either damp or dry air, or by oxygen at Ordi.
nary temperatures, or by water whether cold
or boiling; even steam, at a red heat, is only
slowly decomposed by it.
boiling, and then very slowly; nor by dilute
sulphuric acid, sulphuretted hydrogen, and the
sulphurets, or even the fused hydrates of the
alkalies. It is, however, readily dissolved by
hydrochloric acid, with the evolution of hy.
drogen, even in the cold; and by a concen:
trated mixture of nitric and sulphuric acid
It is feebly magnetic, conducts electricity
about 8 times better than iron, and is more
electro-negative than even zinc. Commercial
specimens, owing to the presence of iron and
silicon, and often zinc, usually slowly tarnish
in damp air, and possess the other properties
described above in a somewhat diminished
degree.
It is not acted On ,
by nitric acid, however concentrated, unless
In a finely divided state, particularly in the
state of powder or minute scales in which it
was originally obtained, when heated to redness
it catches fire and burns with great rapidity in
the air, and in oxygen gas with intense bril.
liancy, the product in each case being alumini.
Aluminum unites with the other metals,
forming ALLOYS, of which some promise to be
of great value in the arts. An alloy of 100

parts of aluminum with 5 parts of silver, may
be worked like the pure metal, but is harder
and susceptible of a finer polish, whilst its
property of not being affected by sulphuretted
hydrogen and acids remains unimpaired; even
3% of silver is said to be sufficient to impart tº
it the full brilliance and colour of pure silver
An alloy containing 10% of gold is softer and
scarcely so malleable as the pure metal. With
ALUMINUM.
81
8% of iron, or 10% of copper, it still remains
tough and malleable; but a larger proportion
of either of these metals renders it brittle.
The presence of 2 or 3% of zinc destroys its
ductility and malleability, and also impairs its
colour and lustre; whilst less than even #4 of
bismuth renders it brittle in a high degree.
Small quantities of aluminum added to other
metals change their properties in a very re-
markable manner. Thus, copper alloyed with
10% of aluminum has the colour and brilliancy
of gold, is harder than bronze, very malleable,
and may be worked at high temperatures easier
than the best varieties of iron; and with 20%
is quite white, and closely resembles silver.
With more than 12% of aluminum the alloy is
harder, but brittle. The alloy formed of 100
parts of silver with 5 parts of aluminum, is
as hard as the silver of our coinage, whilst
the other properties of the latter metal remain
unaltered.
Uses. The valuable properties of aluminium
adapt it to numerous applications in the arts
and everyday life. Hitherto these have been
very limited, owing to its comparatively high
price; which, notwithstanding it has fallen
considerably, is still sufficient to prevent its
general or even extensive application. The
‘ eagles’ of the French army have been made
of it, as well as certain articles of jewelry,
plate, &c., as brooches, bracelets, chains, spoons,
and other ornamental and useful objects.
Owing to its low sp. gr., it has been used as a
suitable material for the minute decimal weights
of chemists, for military helmets, trumpets, &c.
A few cornet-à-pistons, for which its lightness
and sonorousness admirably adapt it, have
actually been made of it. Its power of resist-
ing oxygen, sulphuretted hydrogen, moisture,
&c., would render it invaluable as a coating to
metals, particularly iron and lead, to protect
them from rust or corrosion, did not its price
intervene.
As an internal coating for water-
pipes, cisterns, &c., no other substance, except
gold and platinum, is so well adapted. In
chemistry, capsules, tubes, &c., either made of
or coated with it, may be often advantageously
substituted for those of platinum.
In addition to what has been said above, it
may be observed that, in preparing aluminum,
the chief care should be to avoid accidents or
failure by the employment of too high a tem-
perature, and to avoid the product being con-
taminated with other metals or with carbon.
To ensure the purity of the metal is a matter
of the greatest difficulty, owing to the facility
with, which foreign matters are taken up,
during the process, from the materials of which
the apparatus is composed; and from the sub-
stances from which it is prepared being seldom
absolutely pure. Indeed, it is not too much to
assert, that chemically pure aluminium has not
yet been obtained; and that even a very close
approximation to it is of very rare occurrence.
Whenever a copper boat is used to hold the
sodium, the product is always contaminated
with copper. Sesquichloride of aluminum
always contains some of the chlorides of iron
and silicon, both of which are volatile, and
probably takes up a further portion from the
porcelain or earthenware used to form the ap-
paratus. Sodium also is seldom uncontami-
nated with carbon or some compound of it; in
which case, and likewise when it is not care-
fully freed from the naphtha in which it has
been preserved, the product always contains
carbon. The crucible, whether of porcelain
or iron, in which the final fusion is made, also
contributes to contaminate the metal. Hence
the inferior whiteness and brilliancy of com-
mercial specimens of aluminum; a metal
which, in its absolutely pure state, may be
reasonably inferred to be as superior in the
above respects to silver, as silver is to tin.
Commercial aluminum contains from 88 to 94
per cent. only of pure aluminium, and from 1
to 4 per cent. of iron, to 3 per cent. of silicon,
and from 1 to 6 per cent. of copper.
Aluminum salts are generally colourless,
soluble, and crystallise with difficulty, and are
distinguished as follows:—
Tests.-1. Ammonia and the alkaline car-
bonates throw down a bulky white precipitate
(hydrate of aluminum)from solutions of its salts,
which is insoluble in excess of the precipitant:
—2. Pure potassa and soda throw down white
gelatinous precipitates, freely soluble in excess
of the precipitant; from which the hydrate of
aluminum is reprecipitated by chloride of am-
monium, even in the cold :–3. Phosphate of
ammonium gives a white precipitate:–4. Iodide
of potassium produces a white precipitate, pass-
ing into a permanent yellow:—5. Sulphuretted
hydrogen gives no precipitate:–6. Sulphydrate
of ammonium precipitates alumina from these
solutions:–7. Bisulphate of potassium, added
to concentrated solutions, gives a precipitate of
octahedral crystals of alum :—8. At a red heat
its salts part with some of their acid; at a
white heat, most of it, if not all:—9. Alumi-
num compounds, ignited on charcoal before the
blowpipe, and afterwards moistened with a
solution of protonitrate of cobalt and again
strongly ignited, give an unfused mass, which,
on cooling, appears blue by day, and violet by
candlelight; a test, however, which is inap-
plicable to fusible compounds of aluminum,
and such as are not free, or nearly free, from
other oxides.
Aluminum, Acetate of Syn. ACETATE OF
ALUMINA. Prep. Pure hydrate of aluminum is
digested, to saturation, in strong acetic acid, in
the cold; and the resulting solution, after
being filtered or decanted, is either evaporated
by a very gentle heat to a gelatinous, semi-
solid consistence (its usual form), or is pre-
served in the liquid state. By spontaneous
evaporation it may be obtained in long, trans-
parent crystals.
Red liquor. From alum, in powder, 4 parts;
warm water, q. S. to dissolve; acetate of lead,
in powder, 3 parts; the solution and mixture







82 ALUMINUM.
being effected by lengthened agitation in a tub
or other wooden vessels, and the clear liquid,
after repose for a sufficient time, decanted or
drawn off from the sediment.
From alum, 2 parts; (dissolved in) warm
water, q. S.; solution of pyrolignite of lime
(20° Baumé), 3 parts; as before, but allowing
a longer time for the subsidence of the preci-
pitate, and taking more care in the decanta-
tion, than when acetate of lead is employed.
By decomposing a solution of crude sulphate
of alumina with neutral or monobasic acetate
of lead.
Prop. Its characteristic property is the
feeble affinity existing between its acid and
base, which, when it is used as a mordant, is
counterbalanced by that of the fibres of the
cloth or yarn to which it is applied. In other
respects, it resembles the other simple salts of
alumina.
Uses, &c. In dyeing and calico-printing, as
a mordant. In medicine, properly diluted, in
chronic diarrhoea; and, mixed with syrup of
poppies, in slight cases of haemoptysis (spitting
of blood). It has been employed, by M.
Gannal, as an injection to preserve animal
bodies, which it will do for years.--Dose. A to
1 dr. daily, in divided portions, taken in thin
mucilage or syrup, or in barley-water; as an
injection, 10 to 20 gr., to water, 4 to 6 fl. oz.,
in gonorrhoea, leucorrhoea, &c.
Aluminum, Chloride of Al2Cl6. Syn. SES-
QUICHLo"RIDE OF ALUMINUM ; ALUMIN’II
CHLORI’DI, &c., L. Prep. A thick paste made
of dry precipitated alumina, lampblack, and oil,
is strongly heated in a covered crucible until all
the organic matter is carbonised. The resi-
duum is transferred to a porcelain tube fixed
across a furnace, one end of which is connected
with another tube containing dried chloride of
calcium, and the other end with a small tubu-
lated receiver. The porcelain tube is then
heated to redness, whilst chlorine, dried by
passing through the chloride-of-calcium tube,
is transmitted through the apparatus. In one
or two hours, or as soon as the tube is choked,
the whole is allowed to cool, and the newly
formed SESQUICHLORIDE collected and pre-
served in mineral naphtha for use.
On the large scale :-Chlorine, dried as be-
fore, is passed over a mixture of pure clay,
lampblack, and coal-tar, contained in an iron
Tetort similar to that used in the manufacture
of coal-gas (previously ignited by means of
a suitable furnace), and connected with a cool
chamber accurately lined with tiles of earthen-
ware. The vapours of the SESQUICHLORIDE
condense in this chamber, as a yellowish crys-
talline mass, which is collected and preserved
as before. -
Prop., &c. It is volatile at a dull red heat;
excessively greedy of moisture; and very so-
luble, with decomposition, hydrochloric acid
and alumina being formed. Once dissolved, it
cannot be again recovered. Its chief use is in
the preparation of aluminum.
Obs. Although alumina, like magnesia, is
freely soluble in hydrochloric acid, the sesqui.
chloride of aluminum contained in this solution
cannot be obtained in the anhydrous state, Or
even the solid form, by its evaporation; the
chloride suffering decomposition, with the
formation of hydrochloric acid, which is vola.
tilised, and alumina, which is left behind.
Aluminum, Nitrate of Al2(NO3)3. Sh,
NITRATE OF ALUMINA; ALU'MINAE NITRAS,
L. Prep. Similar to that of the acetate
and citrate. Its concentrated acid solution
deposits rhombic crystals, containing 18 equiv.
of water.
Aluminum, Oxide of (Al2O3), and Hydrate of
(Al2(HO)6). Syn. ALUMINA.
Prep. Aluminum is precipitated as a hydrate
from solutions of aluminum salts on the addi.
tion of an alkali or alkaline carbonate; and
this precipitate, after being thoroughly washed
and dried, on ignition loses its water and be:
comes anhydrous. The following are the best
formulae for the purpose:–

Alum is dissolved in about 20 times its
weight of distilled water, and the solution is
dropped slowly into pure solution of ammonia,
until the latter is nearly but not entirely satu.
rated, when the whole is set aside for some
time. The clear supernatant liquid is then
decanted, and the precipitate is carefully and
thoroughly washed three or four times with
tepid distilled water; after which it is Col.
lected on a filter, again well washed with water,
and, lastly, pressed and dried between bibulous
paper, either without heat, or at a temperature
not higher than 120° Fahr. The product is
pure hydrate of aluminum, and is converted
into anhydrous alumina by exposure to a while
heat in a covered crucible. The residuum, after
ignition, is pure ANHY'DROUS ALUMINA, or
SESQUIox'IDE OF ALUMIN'UM.
A solution of alum is slowly added to a solº
tion of carbonate of ammonia, avoiding excess;
and the resulting precipitate, after being washed
and pressed, is dried at a heat of from 120° to
180° Fahr. -
Prop., &c. A soft white powder. The
hydrate is freely soluble in the acids and in
solution of caustic potassa and soda (from
which it is precipitable by sal ammoniac);
when anhydrous (as after ignition), it is scarcely
acted on by acids, and when perfectly indu
rated, or crystallised, it is wholly insoluble;
but on ignition with alkalies, alkaline ALU'.
MINATES are formed, and the alumina is them
readily dissolved by acids, forming salts, which
are mostly colourless, non-volatile, and soluble;
they have a very astringent and somewhat
sweetish taste, redden litmus paper, and lose
their acids by ignition. Its most remarkable,
or rather useful property, is its strong affinity
for the fibres of organic bodies, as cotton, flax,
silk, wool, &c., which are capable of taking it
from its salts; and also for organic colouring
matters. Hence its great use in dyeing, and in
bleaching liquids and the preparation of lakes.
ALVINE–AMADOU.
83
Hydrate of aluminum agitated or digested
with liquids containing vegetable colouring
matter, combines with the latter, and either
entirely, or to a great extent, removes it from
the solution.
Moist precipitated alumina, dried at a heat
between 70° and 80°, contains above 58% of
water (OCTOHYDRATE OF ALUMINA); dried at
212° Fahr., about 32% of water (TERHYDRATE
OF ALUMINA).
JEstim. Aluminum is weighed as oxide, after
ignition. The solubility of the moist or re-
cently precipitated hydrate in solution of am-
monia enable us to SEPARATE it from the
ALKALINE EARTHS which, when present, are
thrown down with it.
Uses, &c. The moist hydrate is used in
several processes in the arts. It is the base
of cobalt-blue, the lake-pigments, &c. In
medicine, it is employed as an antacid and
astringent, in acidity of the stomach, cholera,
diarrhoea, and dysentery; in which it is said to
be superior to the other absorbent remedies.
(Ficinus.) It has also been highly recom-
mended in the vomiting and diarrhoea of in-
fancy. (Durr; Neumann; Weese; &c.)—
Dose. Children, 3 to 10 gr. ; adults, 5 or 6 to
20 or even 30 gr., three to six times daily,
suspended in water by mucilage or simple
syrup.
Aluminum, Silicate of Al2(SiO2)3. Syn.
SIL'ICATE OF ALUMINA. A substance, which,
in its hydrous form, is the chief and character-
istic ingredient of common clay; and which
also occurs, in combination, in several other
important and abundant minerals.
Aluminum, Sulphate of Al2(SO4)3. Syn.
SESQUISUL/PHATE OF ALUMINA, NEUTRAL s.
OF A., ALU'MINAE SUI/PHAs, A. SESQUI-
SUL'PHAs, L. Prep. 1. Saturate dilute sul-
phuric acid with hydrate of aluminum, gently
evaporate, and crystallise.
2. (Crude, commercial.) By mixing clay
and oil of vitriol, in the way described under
ALUM. The product is the ‘CONCENTRATED
ALUM' of the dyers.
Prop. Its crystals are needles and thin
pearly plates; soluble in 2 parts of water;
taste, astringent, and somewhat sweetish; re-
action, acid; a full red heat expels its acid,
leaving a residuum of pure alumina; with the
sulphates' of potassium, sodium, and ammo-
nium, it forms alum.
Uses, &c. In the arts, chiefly as a substi-
tute for alum; the sulphate of potasium in the
latter, being found to be an unnecessary and
costly ingredient, only useful to purify the salt
from iron, by forming a compound of easy
crystallisation; an object that may be ef-
fected with greater certainty by cheaper me-
thods. In medicine, as a wash for foul and
ill-conditioned ulcers; and as an astringent
and antiseptic injection. M. Gannal has suc-
cessfully employed a solution of this salt to
preserve animal bodies, by throwing it into
the arteries. Even an enema of 1 quart of it,
or an injection of a like quantity into the oeso-
phagus, will suffice to preserve a body for
several weeks. The mineral called AL/UNITE
or ALU'MINITE, found near Newhaven (Sussex),
is a native subsulphate or basic sulphate (DI-
SUI/PHATE) of alumina.
Aluminum, Sulphide of Al,S3. Syn. SUI/-
PHIDE OF ALUMINIUM, &c. A substance best
obtained by passing the vapour of bisulphide of
carbon over pure alumina, at a bright red heat.
It is instantly decomposed by water, with the
evolution of sulphuretted hydrogen. See ALU-
MINIUM (above).
Aluminum Tann'ate. Syn. TANNATE OF
ALUMINA, Eng.; ALU'MINAE TANN'As, L. Prep.
Take of pure hydrate of aluminum (dried at 90°
Fahr.), 1 part; tannic acid (dried at 212°), 2
parts; triturate them together for some time,
adding just sufficient water to bring them to
the consistence of a syrup, and carefully eva-
porate to dryness at a heat not higher than
120° Fahr. ; lastly, reduce the residuum to
powder.
Uses, &c. A combination of uncertain con-
stitution, which is said to have been found very
useful in obstinate vomiting and diarrhoea, in
dysentery, and particularly in haemoptysis,
haemorrhage, &c.—Dose, 3 to 12 or 15 gr.
ALVINE (-vin). Syn. ALVI'NUs, L.; AL-
VIN, Fr. Of or from the belly or intestines;
relating to the intestinal secretions.
AM'ADOU (-āh-dóð). Syn. GERMAN TIN-
DER, Touch'wooD, PYROTECH/NIC SPONGE,
SPUNK::$, SURGEON's AG'ARIC, A. OF THE OAK,
&c.; AGAR'ICUs QUER'Cös, A. QUER'NUs,
A. CHIRURGo"RUM, FUN'GUS QUERCús, &c.,
L.; AMADOU, AGARIC AMADOUVIER, Fr. ;
ZUNDERSCHWAMM, Ger. A soft, spongy,
combustible substance, being the prepared
flesh of bole’tus fomenta"rius (Linn.), an in-
digenous species of fungus found on the oak,
birch, and a few other trees (REAL AMADOU or
OAK-AGARIC); for which b. ignia"rius (Linn.),
a like fungus, found on the willow, cherry,
plum, and other trees, is frequently substi-
tuted.
Collec., Prep., &c. The onter bark of the
fungus (collected in Aug. or Sept.) having
been removed with a knife, the inner spongy
substance is carefully separated from the woody
portion lying below, and after being cut into
slices, is well beaten with a mallet until suffi-
ciently soft and pliable. Sometimes it is
first boiled in water, in order to separate
the epidermis and porous parts, and to free
it from soluble matter; after which it is
beaten as before. In this state it is used in
surgery, &c. To complete its manufacture for
TINDER, it is soaked once, or oftener, in a
strong solution of saltpetre (RED AMADou ;
BROWN A.); or in a thin paste made of gun-
powder and water, which is thoroughly forced
into the pores (BLACK A.); after which it is
dried, and well rubbed to free it from loose
matter. The first is the more cleanly; the
last, the more combustible.




84
AMALGAM.
Uses, &c. A light brown or reddish-brown
substance. In surgery, pharmacy, &c., it is
used to stop local bleeding, to spread plasters
on, as a compress, and for other like purposes.
When covered with resin-plaster, it forms an
excellent article for the protection of abraded
surfaces. A small piece thus prepared, of a
circular shape, having a round hole cut in the
middle, the size of the apex of the corn, is
one of the very best corn-plasters known; as
from its great softness it at once protects the
part from pressure, and removes the cause.
As a material for shoe-socks it is superior to
all other substances. The amadou for sur-
gical purposes must not contain nitre.
AMAL"GAM. [Eng., Ger.] Syn. AMAI/-
GAMA, L.; AMALGAME, Fr. In chemistry and
metallurgy, an alloy containing quicksilver;
more particularly one in which that metal
plays a conspicuous part. . Medallists impro-
perly apply this term to all soft alloys.
Mercury unites with many of the metals by
mere contact; and with some of them, as gold,
silver, tin, and lead, in certain proportions,
without losing its fluidity. In a few cases, as
with potassium, this union is attended with
considerable violence, and with the production
of light and heat.
Prep. Most of these compounds may be
formed by agitating or rubbing the mercury
with the other metal, or metals, in the state of
filings or small fragments, either with or with-
out heat; or with the easily fusible metals, by
adding it to them in the melted state; care
being taken, in both cases, that the heat be
not sufficient to volatilise the mercury.
Prop., Uses, &c. Some amalgams are solid,
and not unfrequently crystalline; others are
fluid. Of the latter, several crystallise after a
time, becoming solid; being, probably, merely
solutions of the solid amalgams in excess of
mercury. The amalgams of gold, silver, tin,
zinc, &c., are extensively employed in gilding,
silvering, and dentistry, and in other useful
arts and manufactures.
Ammoni'acal Amalgam. An unstable com-
pound produced when a globule of mercury is
placed in a small cavity formed in a piece of
sal ammoniac, and the negative pole of a power-
ful galvanic battery is brought into contact
with the metal, and the positive pole, with the
ammoniacal salt. In a few seconds the new
compound (amalgam) of the consistence of
butter is formed. On withdrawing the influ-
ence of the battery, the whole returns to its
former condition. By putting an amalgam of
sodium into the moistened cavity of the sal
ammoniac, similar results are obtained. The
phenomena attending the formation of this
new substance have been urged as evidence of
the existence of the theoretical basic radicle
AMMONIUM.
Electrical Amalgam. Prep. 1. Take of
zinc and grain-fin, of each, 1 oz. ; melt them
in an iron ladle, remove it from the fire, and
add of mercury (hot), 3 oz. ; stir the whole
well together with an iron rod, pour it into a
well-chalked wooden boa, and agitate it violently
until cold; or, instead of this, it may be briskly
stirred until cold, and then powdered. It
should be preserved in a corked glass bottle.
2. (La Baumé.) Zinc, 2 oz.; grain-tin, 10%;
bees’ wav, 3 oz. ; melt, add of mercury, 6 oz.,
and otherwise proceed as before. Preferred
by some to all other mixtures.
3. Zinc, 2 oz. ; mercury, 5 oz.
Use. To cover the cushions of electrical
machines. A little of the powder is poured on
a piece of paper, crushed smooth with a flat
knife, and then spread thinly on the surface of
the cushion or rubber, previously slightly
smeared with tallow; or the powder may be
rubbed down with a little tallow, prior to the
application of it.
Gilding Amalgam. Syn. AMALG AM OF GOID,
Prep. Take of grain-gold, 1 part; mercury,
8 parts; put them into a small iron saucepan
or ladle, and apply a gentle heat, using :
smooth piece of iron as a stirrer; when the
solution or combination is complete, pour it
out on a clean plate or smooth stone slab.
Use. To gild brass, copper, &c., in the com:
mon process of wash or fire-gilding (which set)
A less proportion of gold, than the above, is
used when a thin and cheap gilding is required;
as by increasing the quantity of the mercury,
the same weight of the precious metal may be
extended over a much larger surface.
Sil'vering Amalgam.—a. For METALS, Sl.
AMALG AM OF SILVER. Prep., Uses, &c. As the
last, but substituting silver for gold.
b. For GLASS. Prep.–1. Lead, tin, and
bismuth, of each, 1 oz. ; bees’ was or resin, #0:
melt, skim off the dross, cool to the lowest
point at which the mixture will remain liquid,
and add of quicksilver, 10 oz.; mix well with
an iron rod.
2. Lead and tin, of each, 1 oz. ; bismuth
2 oz. ; quicksilver, 4 oz. ; as the last.
Uses, &c. For silvering the insides of hollow
glass vessels, globes, convex mirrors, &c. The
glass being thoroughly cleaned and dried, is
carefully warmed, and the amalgam, rendered
fluid by a gentle heat, is poured in, and the
vessel turned round and round, so as to bring
the metal into contact with every part which it
is desired to cover. At a certain temperature
it will be found to readily adhere to the glass
The excess is then poured out, and the vessel
set aside to cool.
Tooth Amalgams.
TOOTH-CEMENTs.
War'nisher's Amalgam. Prep. Melt grain.
tin, 4 oz., with bismuth, 1 oz. ; add quicksilver,
1 oz., and stir till cold; then grind it very fine
with white-of-egg or with varnish, and apply
the mixture to the figure or surface with a sºft
brush. It is used in several of the ornamental
trades.
AMAL"GAMATED. Syn. AMALGAMATUS
L.; AMALGAMK, Fr. Compounded or blended
with quicksilver; formed into an amalgam.
See DENTISTRY and
AMALGAMATION.—AMBER. "
85.

AMALGAMATION. [Eng., Fr.] Syn. AMAL-
GAMATIO, L.; WERQUICKEN, Ger. The act
or process by which an amalgam is formed;
hence loosely, the mixing or blending of dif-
ferent things. In the art of the refiner, the
operation of separating gold and silver from
their ores by means of mercury.
AM’ANDINE (-déne). Prep. 1. (Trans-
parent.)—a. Fine new white or pale honey, 4 oz.;
white soft-soap (prepared from lard and
potassa), 2 oz. ; mix thoroughly in a marble
mortar, adding 1 or 2 teaspoonfuls (if neces-
sary) of solution of potassa, until a perfectly
homogeneous paste or cream is produced; then
rub in, by degrees, and very gradually, of oil of
almonds, 7 lbs. (or q. s.), previously mixed with
essential oil of almonds, 1 oz. ; essence (oil) of
bergamot, # oz.; oil of cloves, # oz.; and balsam
of Peru, 3 dr. The product, which should have
a rich, transparent, jelly-like appearance and
behaviour, is, lastly, put into pots for use or
sale.
b. (G. W. S. Piesse.) Simple syrup, 4 oz.,
white soft-soap (see above), 1 oz. ; oil of
almonds, 7 lbs. (previously scented with—);
essential oil of almonds and bergamot, of each,
1 oz. ; oil of cloves, 3 oz. ; the whole being
mixed, &c., as before. Both the above are of
very fine quality. Glycerin, in the proportion
of about 3 oz. to each lb. of the products,
added with the soap, improves their softening
quality. -
2. (Opaque.)—a. From white potash-soap
and gum-mucilage (thick), of each, 3 oz. ; new
white honey, 6 oz. ; and the yelks of 5 large
eggs; well mixed together, and afterwards
intimately blended first, with oil of almonds
(scented as before, or at will), 2 lbs. ; and
afterwards, with thick pistachio-milk (made
of the fresh-peeled nuts and rose-water),
5 fl. oz.
b. From almond-paste, honey, white potash-
soap, and glycerin, of each, 1 oz. ; yelk of 1
egg; oil of almonds, # pint (holding in solution
—); essential oil of almonds, 1 dr. ; balsam of
Peru, ; dr.
Uses, &c. To whiten and soften the skin,
and to prevent it chapping. A small portion,
about half the size of a filbert, with a few
drops of warm water, produces a very white
and rich lather, with which the hands and face
are lightly rubbed, and the skin, in a short
time, gently wiped with a small napkin, whilst
the water on it is still milky.
The manufacture of AMANDINE is a matter
of some difficulty and labour. The details
essential to success, are given under EMUL-
SINES. It is sometimes coloured, which is done
by infusing or dissolving in the oil, before
using it, a little—spinach-leaves, for GREEN;
and palm-oil, or annatto, for YELLOW and
ORANGE. A beautiful SCARLET or CRIMSON
tinge may be given to it by a little liquid
rouge or carmine (ammoniacal), added just
before removing it from the mortar. See
EMULSINES, OLIVINE, PASTES, &c.
AMANITA MUSCA"RIA. The fly-agaric or
fly-mushroom. See AGARIC.
AMANITINE (-tín). Syn. AMANITINA, L.
The name given by Letellier to the poisonous
principle of amaniſta muscaria, and some other
species of fungi. It is brown, uncrystallisable,
and soluble.
AMA"RA. (-māre'-). [L.] In medicine and
pharmacology, the bitter tonics.
AM'ARANTH. Syn. AMARANTH'Us, L.;
AMARANTE, Fr. The flower love-lies-bleeding
(‘amaranthus cauda’tus’—Linn.). In poetry,
an imaginary flower that never fades. (Milton.)
In chromatics, a colour inclining to purple.
AMARYTH/RINE (-rith'-rin). A bitter
principle found, in certain lichens, associated
with erythrine (which see).
AM/BER. Syn. ELECTRON, Gr. ; ELEC'-
TRUM, SUC/CINUM (Ph. D.), L.; AMBRE, SUC-
CIN, Fr. ; BERNSTEIN, Ger. ; LYNX-STONE +,
LA/PIs LYN/CIS f, L. A well-known yellowish,
semi-transparent, fossil resin, of which trinkets
and the mouth-pieces of pipes are commonly
made. -
Nat, hist., &c. Amber is found in detached
pieces on the sea-coast, and is dug up in dilu-
vial soils. That of commerce comes chiefly
from the southern coasts of the Baltic, where
it is cast ashore between Königsberg and
Memel; and from Ducal Prussia, Saxony,
Poland, Sicily, and Maryland (U.S.), where it
is dug out of beds or mines. It has also been
found on the shores of Norfolk, and small
pieces are occasionally dug up in the gravel
pits round London. It is probably an ante-
diluvian resin; and when found on the coast,
is supposed to be disengaged, by the action of
the sea, from neighbouring beds of lignite or
fossil coal. Much diversity of opinion for a "
long time prevailed amongst naturalists and
chemists as to the origin of amber, some refer-
ring it to the vegetable, others to the mineral,
and some even to the animal kingdom ; its
natural history and analysis affording some-
thing in favour of each. The vegetable origin
of amber has, however, been recently shown
by various facts, and is now generally ad-
mitted. According to Sir David Brewster, its
optical properties are those of an indurated
vegetable juice. (‘Ed. Phil. Journ., ii.) In-
sects and fragments of vegetables are fre-
quently found imbedded in it; and this in a
manner which could only have occurred when
the resin was a viscid fluid. Microscopical
researches have led to the conclusion that
it is the production of some species of pine,
closely allied to the pinus balsamea. (“Entom.
Trans.,’ i & ii.)
Manuf. Amber is work ED in a lathe, Pol-
ISHED with whiting and water or rottenstone-
and-oil, and FINISHED OFF by friction with
flannel. During the operation the pieces often
become hot and electrical, and fly into frag-
ments; to avoid which, they are kept as cool as
possible, and only worked for a short period at
a time. The workmen are said to often suffer

86
AMBER—AMBERGRIS.
considerably from electrical excitement. Amber
is JOINED and MENDED by smearing the surface
of the pieces with linseed or boiled oil, and
then strongly pressing them together, at the
same time holding them over a charcoal fire,
or heating them in any other convenient way
in which they will not be exposed to injury.
The commoner varieties are HARDENED and
rendered CLEARER, either by boiling them in
rape oil for about 24 hours, or by surrounding
the pieces with clean sand in an iron pot, and
exposing them to a gradually increasing heat
for 30 or 40 hours. During this process small
fragments are kept in the sand at the side of
the pot, for the purpose of occasional examina-
tion, lest the heat be raised too high, or be too
long continued.
Prop., &c. Hard; brittle; tasteless; glossy;
generally translucent, but sometimes opaque,
and occasionally, though rarely, transparent;
colour, generally yellow or orange, but some-
times yellowish-white ; becomes negatively
electric by friction; smells agreeably when
rubbed or heated; fracture, conchoidal and
vitreous or resinous; soluble in the pure
alkalies, and, without decomposition, in oil of
vitriol, which then becomes purple; insoluble
in the essential and fixed oils without long
digestion and heat; soluble in chloroform;
melts at about 550° Fahr. ; burns with a
yellow flame, emitting at the same time a
peculiar fragrant odour, and leaving a light
and shiny coal. By dry distillation it yields
inflammable gases, a small quantity of water, a
little acetic acid, a volatile oil (or L of AMBER:
o'LEUM suc'CINI, L.) at first pale, afterwards
brown, thick, and empyreumatic, and an acid
..(SUCCIN'IC ACID ; ACIDUM succIN’ICUM, L.);
with residual charcoal 12 to 13%. Sp. gr.
1.065 to 1:09, but usually about 1:070.
cannot be fused without undergoing more or
less chemical change.
Ident. Amber may be known from mellite
and copal, both of which articles are occasion-
ally substituted for it, by the following charac-
teristics:–1. MELLITE is infusible by heat,
and burns white :-2. A piece of COPAL, heated
on the point of a knife, catches fire, and runs
into drops, which flatten as they fall:—3.
AMBER burns with spitting and frothing, and
when its liquefied particles drop, they rebound
from the plane on which they fall (M.
Haüy):—4. Neither mellite nor copal yield
succinic acid by distillation; nor the agree-
able odour of amber when burnt; nor do they
become so readily electric by friction.
Uses. It is chiefly made into mouth-pieces
for pipes, beads for necklaces, and other orna-
ments and trinkets. It is also used as the basis
of several excellent varnishes. In medicine, it
was formerly given in chronic coughs, hysteria,
&c.—Dose (of the powder), 10 to 60 gr.
Remarks. The finer sorts of amber fetch
very high prices. A piece 1 lb. in weight is
said to be worth from 10l. to 15l. 5000
dollars a few years since were offered in
It.
Prussia for a piece weighing 13 lbs., and which,
it was stated by the Armenian merchants,
would fetch from 30,000 to 40,000 dollars in
Constantinople. It is more valued in the East

than in England; and chiefly on account of
the Turks and other Orientals believing it to
be incapable of transmitting infection. In the
royal cabinet, Berlin, there is a piece weighing
18 lbs., supposed to be the largest ever found,
The coarser kinds alone are employed in
medicine, chemistry, &c.
Acid of Amber” (äs'-). Succinic Acid.
Bal'sam of Amber. Syn. BAI'sAMUM SUC'.
CINI, L. The thick matter left in the retort
after the rectification of oil of amber; and
which it resembles in its properties.
Facti"tious Amber (-tish’-). Syn. SUC'CINUM
FACTI"TIUM, L. Mellite, copal, and anime,
have each been substituted for amber, es:
pecially for small fragments of it. Recently
an imitation has been produced by acting on
gutta percha with sulphur, at a high temperature,
which, either alone, or in combination with
copal, is said to have been extensively passed
off for genuine amber.
Liquid Amberſ. See LIQUID-AMBAR.
Oil of Amber. See OILs.
Re'sin of Amber. See PYRÉTINE.
Salt of Amber. Succinic Acid.
Soluble Amber. Prep. Fragments of amber
are cautiously heated in an iron pot, and as
soon as it becomes semi-liquid, an equal weight
of pale boiled linseed-oil, previously made hot,
is very gradually stirred in, and the whole
thoroughly blended. — Used as a cement for
glass and earthenware, and thinned with oil of
turpentine to make varnishes. It will keep
any length of time if preserved from the air,
AMBER-CAM'PHOR. See PyRETINE (Crys.
talline).
AM'BER DRINK+. Amber-coloured malt
liquor.
AMBER-SEED. Musk-seed (which see).
AM/BER-TREE. The popular name of a
species of anthospermum, an evergreen shrub,
of which the leaves, when bruised, emit an
agreeable odour.
AMBERGRIS (-gris; -grèsef). Syn. GRAY
AMBER + ; AMBRAGRI"SEA (grizh'-e-á), L.;
AMBREGRIs, Fr.; AMBRA, AMBAR, Ger. An
odorous, solid substance, found floating on the
sea in tropical climates, and in the caecum of



the cachalot or spermaceti-whale (physeter
macrocephalus). It has been supposed, by
some, to be a morbid secretion of the liver Or
intestines, analogous to biliary calculi; but
according to Mr. Beale, it consists of the mere
indurated faeces of the animal, perhaps (as
suggested by Brande and Pereira), somewhat
altered by disease. “Some of the semifluid
faeces, dried with the proper precautions, had
all the properties of ambergris.” (Beale.) It
is occasionally found in masses weighing from
60 to 225 lbs.
Prop., &c. Solid, opaque, ash-coloured,
streaked or variegated, fatty, inflammable;
AMBREINE–AMMONIA.
87
remarkably light; highly odorous," particularly
when warmed, cut, or handled—the odour
being peculiar and not easily described or
imitated, of a very diffusive and penetrating
character, and perceptible in minute quantities;
rugged on the surface; does not effervesce
with acids; melts at 140° to 150° Fahr. into a
yellowish resin-like mass; at 212° flies off as a
white vapour; very soluble in alcohol, ether,
and the volatile and fixed oils. It appears to
be a non-saponifiable fat, analogous to choles-
terine. Sp. gr. 0.780 to 0.926.”
Pur. From the high price of genuine
ambergris it is very frequently, if not nearly
always, adulterated. When quite pure and of
the best quality, it is—1. Nearly wholly
soluble in hot alcohol and ether, and yields
about 85% of ambreine —2. It almost wholly
volatilises at a moderate heat, and when burnt
leaves no notable quantity of ashes ; a little of
it exposed in a silver spoon, melts without
bubble or scum ; and on the heated point of a
knife it is rapidly and entirely dissipated:—
3. It is easily punctured with a heated needle,
and on withdrawing it, not only should the
odour be immediately evolved, but the needle
should come out clean, without anything ad-
hering to it (Normandy):–4. The Chinese
are said to try its genuineness by scraping it
fine upon the top of boiling tea. “It should
dissolve (melt) and diffuse itself generally.”
JBlack or white is bad. The smooth and
uniform is generally factitious.”
Uses, &c. It is highly prized for its odour,
which is found greatly to improve and exalt
that of other substances; hence its extensive
use in perfumery. In medicine, it was for-
merly given as an aphrodisiac, in doses of 3 to
10 gr. “A grain or two, when rubbed down
with sugar, and added to a hogshead of claret,
is very perceptible in the wine, and gives it a
flavour, by some considered as an improve-
ment.” (Brande.)
Facti"tious Ambergris. An article of this
kind, met with in the shops, is thus made :-
Orris-powder, spermaceti, and gum-benzoin, of
each, 1 lb. ; asphaltum, 3 or 4 oz. ; ambergris,
6 oz. ; grain-musk, 3 dr. ; oil of cloves, 1 dr. ;
oil of rhodium, dr. ; liquor of ammonia, 1
jl, oz., beaten to a smooth hard mass with
mucilage, and made into lumps whilst soft.
This fraud is readily detected.
AM'BREINE (-bre-in). Syn. AMBREI'NA,
L.; AMBREINE, Fr. ; AMBARSTOFF, Ger. The
fatty, odorous principle of ambergris.
Prep. Digest ambergris in hot alcohol (sp.
gr. 0.827), until the latter will dissolve no
more, then filter. The AMBREINE will be de-
posited as the solution cools, in an irregular
1. It has a “pleasant musk-like odour, which is sup-
posed to be derived from the squid (‘sepia moschata”) on
which the animal feeds,” the “horny beaks” of which
“are often found imbedded in the masses.” (Pereira.)
It has a “a smell resembling that of dried cow-dung.”
(Redwood, “Gray’s Supplement,” 1857, p. 606.)
3 Sp. gr. 780 to .896–Brande; '908 to 920–Pereira.
3 ū. “Dict, of A., M., J. M.,” 5th Ed., i, 128.
sublimation.
crystalline mass, which may be purified by re-
crystallisation in alcohol.
Prop. &c. Melts at about 90°; volatilises
at 212° to 220° Fahr. ; nitric acid converts it
into AMBREIC ACID. It closely resembles
cholesterine.—Prod. 85%.
AMBRETTE' (-brét'). [Fr.] Musk-seed.
AM'ETHYST (-thist). Syn. PURPLE ROCK-
CRYSTAL; AMETHYSTE, Fr. ; AMETHYs'TUS, L.
A beautiful sub-species of quartz or rock crystal,
of a violet-blue colour of varying intensity, in
great request for cutting into seals, brooches,
and other like articles of ornament. It was
known and prized in the earliest ages of
antiquity. Among the ancients, cups and
vases were made out of this mineral; and it
was an opinion of the Greeks and Persians,
that an amethyst bound on the navel would
counteract the effects of wine, and that wine
drank out of an amethystine vessel would not
intoxicate. See GEMS.
Amethyst. In chromation, dyeing, &c., a
rich variety of deep violet colour. Hence,
AMETHYST'INE (-in), &c.
Orient'al Amethyst. A rich violet-blue va-
riety of transparent, crystallised corundum.
AMIANTH (-e-ánth). Syn. AMIANTH'Us,
AMIAN'TUs, L.; AMIANTE, Fr. The whiter
and more delicate varieties of asbestos, par-
ticularly those which possess a satiny lustre.
AM'IDIN (-e-din). [Eng., Fr.] Syn.
AM/YDINE; AMIDI’NA, L. A substance noticed
by Saussure in starch-paste, when long kept.
According to Caventou, it is formed at once by
the action of boiling water on starch. It forms
the interior substance of the starch-grains,
and its properties are intermediate between
those of starch and gum. It is, indeed, the
soluble part of starch, of which a perfect so-
lution can only be obtained by prolonged
ebullition in a large quantity of water.
AMID'OGEN. NH3. Syn. AMMID'oGEN
(Goodrich). Literally, the generator of amides;
in chemistry, the name given by Kane to an
hypothetical body, composed of two atoms of
hydrogen and one of nitrogen. It forms
AMIDEs by combining with other bodies.
Amidogen Baſses. In chemistry, “amines’
in which only one equiv. of hydrogen is re-
placed by an organic radical; and hence called
PRIMARY MON'AMINES.
AMMONIA, NH3. Syn. AMMONIA GAs, AM-
MONIACAL GAS, ANHYDROUS AMMONIA, TER-
HYDRIDE OF NITROGEN ; AMMONIAQUE, Fr. ;
AMMONIAK, Ger. At the present day, the am-
monia of commerce is chiefly prepared from
the ammoniacal liquor of the gas-works and
the manufactories of ivory black, animal char-
coal, &c. In these places a large quantity of
crude ammoniacal liquor is produced; to which
either sulphuric or hydrochloric acid is added,
by which it is coverted into a salt, which may
be obtained nearly pure by evaporation, and
one or more crystallisations, and, in the case of
the hydrochlorate and carbonate, subsequent
Other sources and processes have.




88 AMMONIA.
been sought out and occasionally adopted for
the preparation of the principal salts of am-
monia (its sulphate, carbonate, and hydrochlo-
wate); some of which have been patented, but
few of them have got into general use, or
have been carried out on the large scale. For
many years the manufacture of ammonia and its
compounds has incessantly engaged the atten-
tion of European chemists.
Ammonia, in a state of combination, is
found, in variable quantities, among the saline
product of volcanoes, in sea and rain water,
in bituminous coal, in urine, in guano, and in
the atmosphere, especially that of large towns.
The minute stellated crystals sometimes found
on dirty windows in London, and other popu-
lous cities, consist of sulphate of ammonia.
(Brande; Fownes; Letheby.) In the free
state it exists in the juices of some plants, and
in the living blood of animals, and it is freely
developed during the decomposition of azotised
vegetable substances, and during the putrefac-
tion of animal matter.
Prep. A mixture of fresh hydrate of lime
with an equal weight of sal ammoniac (both
dry and in fine powder), is introduced into a
glass flask or retort, the beak of which com-
municates with one end of a U-shaped tube
filled with small fragments of recently burnt
quick-lime, and from which extends another
glass tube, about 18 inches long, having its
further end bent up ready to be placed under a
gas-jar, on the shelf of a mercurial pneumatic
trough. (See engr.) The joints being all
made air-tight by collars of India rubber, heat
is applied by means of a spirit-lamp, and as
soon as the air contained in the apparatus is
expelled, the gas is collected for use. It can-
not be dried by means of chloride of calcium.
Powdered quick-lime may be substituted for
the hydrate in the above process; in which
case the evolved gas is anhydrous, but a much
greater heat is then required for its liberation.
Comp. Ammonia is a compound of 3 volumes
of hydrogen, and 1 vol. of nitrogen, condensed
into two volumes; and by weight of 82:35 parts
of nitrogen, 17.65 parts of hydrogen," or, in
other words, of one atomic weight of nitrogen
and three of hydrogen, having the formula
NH.
Pºop. Gaseous, colourless, invisible; highly
pungent, acrid, irritating and alkaline; irre-
spirable, unless very largely diluted with air;
extinguishes combustion; burns slowly in oxy.
gen; sp. gr. 0-589; 100 cub. inches weigh
1826 gr. Under a pressure of 6:5 atmſ.
spheres, at 50° Fahr., it forms a transparent,
colourless liquid of the sp. gr. 0.731; at 6?
Fahr. this liquid expanded into 1009 times
its volume of ammoniacal gas; at −40°Fahr,
and the ordinary atmospheric pressure, it
forms a subtle colourless liquid, which at
—103°Fahr. freezes into a white, translucent,
crystalline substance. (Faraday.) It is highly
basic ; all its salts are either volatilised Or
decomposed at, or under, a red heat—those
with a volatile acid sublime unchanged—those
with a fia'ed acid lose their ammonia. It is
decomposed into its elements by transmission
through a red-hot tube; and when in contact
with metallic oxides or spongy platinum, at the
same temperature, the newly evolved hydrº
gen unites with the oxygen of the oxide or ºf
the atmosphere, forming water. Water at 5'ſ
Fahr, absorbs 670 times its volume of this gis,
and the solution has the sp. gr. 0.875. Its
concentrated aqueous solution boils at 130,
and freezes at —40°Fahr.
Tests, &c. Ammonia is recognised by—l.
Its pungent odour:-2. By turning vegetable
blues green, and vegetable yellows brown; but
which soon regain their previous colours, &
pecially on the application of heat:-3. By
producing dense white fumes when brought in
contact with those of hydrochloric acid.
Phys. eff., &c. Inhaled, undiluted with air,
it is an irritant poison, producing spasms ºf
the glottis, convulsions, and death; even when
diluted, it acts as a powerful acrid, and local
irritant; applied to the skin it causes vesick
tion. The use of the pungent odour of COm:
mon “smelling salts,’ in syncope, headache, &c.
is well known. Largely diluted with air, it
has been recently highly extolled in chroni.
hoarseness, asthma, &c.; and as an antidotet
the fumes of bromine, chlorine, and hydrocyani,
acid. (Smee.)
Ant., &c. The vapour of acetic acid or com:
mon vinegar, freely inhaled. It may be prº-
duced by sprinkling a little on a piece of hiſ
iron, as a heated shovel. If bronchial inflam:
mation follows, it must be treated by purg.
tives and a low diet; and, if severe, and the
patient be plethoric or robust, by venesection
or cupping.
Uses. Ammonia is employed in numerous
processes in chemistry and the arts ; but chiefly
in the form of “liquor of ammonia,’ ‘spirits ºf
hartshorn,’ &c., and in combination, under the
form of salts. In its pure or gaseous statei
possesses little practical interest.
Ammonia, Solution of Syn. SOLUTION OF
AMMONIA, LIQUOR AMMONIAE, AMMONIUM HY:
DRATE, AMMONIA, Eng.; AMMONIAQUE II:
QUIDE, DISSOLUTION D’AMMONIAQUE, ESPRIT
DE SALAMMONIAC, Fr.; ATZENDER AMMONIUM.
LIQUOR, SALMIAR-GEIST, Ger.; LIQUORE DI
AMMONIACO, Ital. Ammonia gas readily diº
solves in water, one volume of water absorbing

| AMMONIA.
89
about 670 volumes of ammonia, much heat a solution of gaseous ammonia, a view rendered
most probable by its general physical and by
many chemical reactions; by a few, however,
it is looked upon as a solution of ammonium
hydrate.
being liberated, and the solution increases
greatly in volume.
This solution is regarded in two very differ-
ent lights; firstly and most generally, as simply
Prepared by distilling, in a tubular retort,
equal parts of sal ammoniac, hydrated lime,
or slaked lime and water, and passing the
gas evolved through a set of Wolff's bottles
partially filled with water, as in the figure
above.
Commercially, this article is prepared, on
the large scale, from a mixture of about equal
parts of fresh-slaked lime and sal ammoniac or
sulphate of ammonia, which is heated in an
iron cylinder or retort connected with a set of
“refrigerators;’ the latter consisting of a row
A, Cylindrical Iron Retort.
B, Furnace for ditto.
C C C C, Stoneware Receivers.
of stoneware bottles with double necks, con-
taining water, and kept very cold. The general
arrangement of the apparatus used in this
manufacture is exhibited above, and, with the
accompanying references, will be easily under-
stood. The “condensers, when in use, are
surrounded with cloths (not shown in the
engr.) kept wet with very cold water, whilst
constant current of cold air is commonly made
to pass over them. The pipe (D), leading from
the retort, is also several feet long, and is
advantageously passed through a wooden screen,
in order that the radiated heat of the retort
and brickwork of the furnace, may be inter-
cepted as much as possible.
Two different methods of proceeding are
adopted in this process. In the one, the dry
pulverulent ingredients are mixed together,
D D D D, Connecting Pipes.
E. F. Waste Pipe and Receiver.
G, Safety Tube.
and the resulting gas distilled over into the
water placed in the receivers. In the other,
the lime is made into a “pap’ with water, and
the ammonia-salt, in coarse powder, being
added, the whole is rapidly blended together,
before closing the retort, and applying heat.
In either case a proportionate quantity of water
is put into the condensers, and the operation
is nearly similar; but the latter method re-
quires the least heat, and so far as the receiv-
ers and refrigerators are concerned, is, per-
haps, the one most easily managed. It is that
which is always, and necessarily followed, when
sulphate of ammonia is employed.
Prop., Uses, &c. Highly pungent, caustic,
and alkaline; lighter than water, and present-
ing in a liquid form most of the characteristics
of pure ammonia. When strongest, has a sp.



90
AMMONIA.

gr. of 875, and contains about 39 per cent. of
ammonia, but the usual strong ammonia of
commerce has a sp. gr. of but ‘88. The liquor
ammonia fortior, B. P., has a sp. gr. of about
‘893, and contains 32.5 per cent. of ammonia,
while the liquor ammoniae B. P. has a sp. gr. of
about 940, and contains about 10 per cent. of
ammonia. As a medicine, it is antacid, diapho-
retic, rubefacient, stimulant, and counter-irri-
tant; and is used in various affections in which
these remedies are indicated. As a vesicant it
is superior to cantharides, and as a caustic it is
used with advantage in the bites of rabid ani-
mals, especially those of serpents and insects.
Its vapour is a common nasal stimulant in
faintings, epilepsy, &c. In its concentrated
form it is a corrosive poison.—Dose. 5 to 25
drops, in cold water, or milk and water. It
enters into the composition of several valuable
external remedies, and is in constant employ-
ment in the chemical laboratory, both as a
reagent, and for the preparation of other com-
pounds.
Ant., &c. When the fumes have been in-
haled, the patient should be exposed to a cur-
rent of fresh air; and when the liquid has
been swallowed, vinegar or lemon-juice mixed
with water, may be administered; followed by
an emetic, or, on its failure, by the stomach-
pump.
Estim. The quantity of gaseous ammonia in
pure water of ammonia is easily determined
from the specific gravity of the liquid, or from
its saturating power. When impure or mixed
with other substances, a given weight of the
sample is placed in a small retort, the end of
which is made to dip into a vessel containing
dilute hydrochloric acid. A strong solution of
caustic potassa is then poured into the retort,
and heat applied by means of a small spirit
lamp. When all the ammonia is distilled over,
the acid solution is evaporated to dryness, by
the heat of a water bath, and the residuum
(chloride of ammonium) weighed. Each grain
of the chloride thus found, represents 31804
gr. of pure AMMONIA; 53-5 parts of the former
being equivalent to 17 of the latter. If the
article for examination be a solid substance (as
a salt), it may be dissolved in water, or in dilute
acid, before being put into the retort.
In accurate experiments, in the laboratory,
ammonia is usually WEIGHED either as chloride
of ammonium (see above), or as ammonio-bichlo-
ride of platinum (NHACl, PtCl2); every gr. of
the latter representing '07614 gr. of pure
AMMONIA. Sometimes, though rarely, the
quantity of ammonia is determined from the
volume of nitrogen eliminated from it, of which
14 gr. represent 17 gr. of AMMONIA.
Concluding remarks, Patents, &c. What-
ever form or process may be adopted for the
preparation of liquid ammonia, it is absolutely
necessary to keep the receivers as cool as pos-
sible, by means of snow, ice, or a current of
very cold water, for the purpose of promoting
the absorption of the gas, and to prevent its
loss. On the small scale, the glass receivers or
bottles may be most conveniently surrounded
with ice, or a freezing mixture, and two, Ot
more of them, should be furnished with safety.
tubes, to prevent accidents. On the large
scale, a capacious oblong retort, usually of iron,
(but sometimes, though seldom, of lead), with a
large opening or tubulature conveniently situ.
ated for inserting the ‘charges,’ and withdraw:
ing the residuum of the distillation, is em.
ployed. The tubulature, or opening, is closed
by means of a large and accurately ground
iron stopper, or with a door secured by screws,
as the case may be. The stopper is well
greased before insertion, and is removed by
means of a powerful lever. Should it become
so firmly fixed that it cannot be displaced in
the usual manner, a cloth moistened with
cold water, and carefully wrapped round it,
without touching the neck of the retort, will
generally cause it to contract sufficiently to
enable the operator to remove it with facility,
Sometimes a large iron kettle, with a mov.
able and accurately fitting lid secured in its
place like that of a ‘Papin’s digester,’ and
having a large and long tubulature in its
centre, is employed instead of a retort, Over
which it has the advantage of exposing a
larger opening for the removal of the resi.
duum of the process. In either case the dis.
tillatory vessel is imbedded in sand supported
by fire-brick, and is not exposed directly tº
the heat of the furnace. Before commencing
the distillation the joints are all well luted, tº
avoid leakage. An earcellent plan is to pass
the gas, as it leaves the retort, through a
silver or pewter ‘worm’ or “refrigerator’ set
in a tub supplied with a stream of very cold
water; by which it will be sufficiently cooled
before it reaches the “receivers’ to obviate the
necessity of any further attention to them
than keeping the cloths wrapped round them
constantly moistened with cold water. The
lower end of the ‘worm’ should be connected,
by means of a balloon-shaped ‘adopter, with
the ‘still,’ and the upper end with the first
‘receiver;’ the use of the balloon being to
intercept any volatilised ammonia-salt that
might be accidentally driven over by the heat
being too high, or too suddenly raised.
The heat should be gradually applied, and
very gradually raised, to prevent any of the
sal ammoniac or sulphate being volatilised
undecomposed; and even towards the end of the
process it should not even approach redness,
The lime is best “slaked’ and ‘papped’ with
about 4 parts of water; as a lower heat is
then required to expel the gas, and it passes
over more easily and fully, than when less
water is employed. This is absolutely neces:
sary when the sulphate is the ammonia-salt
used; as otherwise the residuum of ‘sulphate
of lime’ would become so hard that it could
not be easily removed from the retort.
The gas being wholly expelled from the
retort, or other distillatory vessel, it is dis.


AMMONIA.
91
connected from the receivers, and (when sal
ammoniac has been employed) the heat is
raised sufficiently high to fuse the residual
chloride of calcium, which is then at once
baled or poured out. Glass retorts often
suffer fracture at this point; but if they
escape now, it generally happens that they
are broken when heat is applied for a
second operation. Hence, according to Prof.
Muspratt, it is rare to find a retort, even
when carefully handled, that will stand two
operations.
When crude sulphate of ammonia is employed
it is advisable to have only a little water in
the first receiver, which is placed there merely
to purify the gas which passes through it, and
to retain any traces of volatile empyreumatic
or oily matter which may be carried over
with it.
Pure solution of ammonia is most easily ob-
tained from ‘sal ammoniac; but crystallised
sulphate of ammonia, often crude, is more
commonly employed, on account of its lower
price.
The preparation of pure solution of ammonia
admits of no other improvements, than such
as merely affect the form of the apparatus em-
ployed to produce it; and hence, unlike the
ammonia-salts of commerce, has been little
meddled with by inventors and patentees.
Among the plans having for their object the
production of an ammoniacal solution, more or
less concentrated, fitted for many of the pur-
poses of the arts, and for the preparation of
salts, but not for chemical and medical use,
besides those of Reece, Spence, Crane and
Jullien, &c., already noticed, may be men-
tioned—
1. That of Watson (Patent dated 1838) in
which gas-liquor mixed with a proper quantity
of fresh-slaked lime, is distilled from a spacious
retort or still into a receiver containing
cold water, until much steam passes over with
the gas, when the strong alkaline liquor
forming the distillate, and called the first
portion, is drawn off. The distillation is then
continued, when a weaker and impurer so-
lution is obtained, called the second portion.
The first portion is then reintroduced into a
retort or still with a small quantity of fresh
lime, and the distillation repeated. The pro-
duct the patentee calls the first portion of
the second distillation. The latter is a strong
ammoniacal liquor sufficient for all the pur-
poses of scouring, cleaning, conversion into
commercial ammonia-salts, &c. It may be
further purified by a third distillation; the
second portion of each operation being trans-
ferred again to the still with the next fresh
charge of gas-liquor.
2. A modification of Coffey’s still, 1 patented
by Mr. W. E. Newton (1841), under the name
of the “AMMONIA STILL, is now extensively
and successfully employed in this manufacture.
! An engr. and description of this still, as employed for
spirit, is given under DISTILLATION (which see).
By its use ammonia may be obtained from
‘gas-liquor,’ “bone-spirit,” or any other am-
moniacal liquor or solution, and even from so-
lutions of the salts of ammonia, of almost any
density, and of considerable purity; and this
by a process which is continuous and inex-
pensive. The body of the apparatus is
formed of wood, the chambers are lined with
lead, and the diaphragms are of perforated
sheet iron. The management of the apparatus
varies with the form in which it is desired to
obtain the product. When the ammonia is
required to leave the upper chamber of the
rectifier in the form of gas, either pure or
impure, the steam which ascends, and the
current of “ammoniacal liquor’ which descends,
are regulated in such relative proportions that
the latter remains at or near the atmospheric
temperature during its passage through some
of the upper chambers, becoming succes-
sively hotter as it descends, until at length it
enters into ebullition; in which state it passes
through the lower chambers, either to make
its escape, or to enter a cistern provided to
receive it. If, on the contrary, the ammonia
is required to leave the upper chamber in
combination with the vapour of water, the
supply of steam entering below, must be in
such proportion to that of the ammoniacal
liquor supplied from above, that the latter
may be at or near the boiling temperature
in the upper part of the apparatus. Crude
liquor and ammonia-salts, before being thus
submitted to distillation, are, of course, first
treated with a proper quantity of quick-lime—
in the one case, to remove most of the impuri-
ties, and in the other, to set the ammonia free
by seizing on its acid.”
The water or solution contained in the first
bottle or the first receiver is found to be the
strongest, provided it has been kept well
cooled; and that in the others, of progressively
decreasing strength. By mixing the con-
tents of one bottle with another, a solution
of almost any strength may be made. It is
also easy to prepare liquor of ammonia of any
required strength, or to ascertain the strength
of that in the receivers, by observing the
expansion of the liquid. Water, when fully
saturated with ammonia, expands from 3
volumes, to 5 vols.; and in less, but correspond-
ing proportion, according to the quantity
absorbed. All that is necessary in practice is,
that each receiver be furnished with a gauge-
pipe by which the degree of expansion may be
noted. On the small scale, graduated glass
receivers may be used.
Liquor of ammonia is now seldom made by
the druggist, or on the small scale, the large
manufacturing chemists supplying it at a very
low rate, and of very superior quality. In the
shops, it is kept of two or three strengths.
The estimation of the strength of ammonia


2 For a full º of the “AMMONIA-STILL, see
Newton’s “Patent Journ. ;” “I’harm. Journ,” xiii, 64
&c.

92 AMMONIA.
solutions in commerce is known as ammo- |pure solutions of ammonia may be inferred,
nimetry, and depends on the sp. gr., for with sufficient correctness, from their density;
although the per-centage richness of solutions and to this the term AMMONIOMETRY is usually
of ammonia, or of its carbonates, may be restricted.
determined, with the greatest accuracy, by The sp. gr. of the sample being found either
the methods of ALKALIMETRY, already de- by the hydrometer" or sp. gr. bottle, in the
scribed; for all the ordinary purposes of com- usual manner, its per-centage strength may be
merce, and of the laboratory, the strength of seen by inspection of the following Table —
TABLE exhibiting the relations between the SPECIFIC GRAVITY of Solution of Ammonia and the
PER-CENTAGE STRENGTH, for every variation of 00125 Sp. Gr., from '87500 to 1:00000, at
62°Fahr. Abridged from the larger Table of Mr. J. J. GRIFFIN.
Sp. Gr. of the Pure Ammonia Sp. Gr. of the Pure Ammonia Sp. Gr. of the Pure Ammonia
º Ammonia. lºw. Liºia. *W. iſiºi, ºw.
’87500 34'694 •91750 21-837 •96000 10-119
’87625 34°298 '91875 21:477 •961.25 9-790
’87750 33.903 ‘92000 21*118 •96250 9:462
’87875 33'509 ‘921.25 20:760 •96375 9-135
‘88000 33-117 ‘92250 20-403 •96500 8-808
‘88125 32.725 ‘92375 20:046 •96625 8’483
‘88250 32-335 ‘92500 19-691 •96750 8:158
‘88375 31.946 ‘92625 19:337 •96875 7,834
‘88500 31'558 ‘92750 18'983 •97000 7-511
‘886.25 31-172 ‘928.75 18-631 •971:25 7,189
‘88750 30-785 ‘93000 18:280 '97.250 6'867
‘88875 30°400 '93125 17-929 •97375 6'547
‘89000 30.016 “93250 17:579 •97500 6:227
‘891.25 29'633 ‘93375 17:231 •97625 5'908
‘892.50 29-252 '93500 16'883 •97750 5'590
'893.75 28:871 ‘93625 16'536 •978.75 5:273
'89500 28’492 ‘93.750 16:190 •98000 4'956
‘89625 28'133 '93875 15'846 ‘981.25 4'641
•89750 27-736 ‘94000 15'502 '98250 4'326
'89875 27°359 ‘94.125 15:158 •98375 4.011
‘90000 26'984 ‘94250 14:816 ‘985.00 3:698
‘901.25 26'610 ‘94375 14'475 ‘986.25 3.386
‘90250 26-237 ‘94500 14'135 •98750 3.074
‘90375 25'865 ‘94625 13-795 •98875 2.763
‘90500 25'493 ‘94750 13.456 •99000 2'453
‘90625 25'123 ‘94875 13-119 •991.25 2-144
‘90750 24-754 '95000 12782 •99250 1835
‘90875 24'386 ‘951.25 12'446 ‘99.375 1527
‘91000 24.019 ‘952.50 12:111 ‘99.500 1:220
‘91125 23.653 '95.375 11.777 •99625 '914
'91:250 23.288 ‘95500 11°444 •99760 '609
'91375 22:924 '95625 11:111 •998.75 '304
‘91500 22°561 '95750 10'780 1:00000 O
‘91625 22°198 •95875 10-449 { or Water.
*** The specific gravity of mixtures of pure solution of ammonia and pure water is precisely
the mean of the specific gravities of their constituents. (Davy; Dalton; Christison)
In all solutions of ammonia, a quantity of anhydrous ammonia, weighing 2.12% gr., displaces
exactly 300 gr. of water, and reduces the sp. gr. of the liquid to the extent of 0012%
(Griffin.) The strongest solution of ammonia which it is possible to prepare at 62°Fahr,
has the sp. gr. 87500, and contains 34.694% of pure ammonia, by weight, or 21,251 gr, per
gallon. (Griffin.)”
every 212; gr. of anhydrous ammonia a TEST-ATOM; and
1. An hydrometer specially weighted and graduated for
every 7 water-gr. measure, a sepTEM. Thus, a gallon of
this purpose, is called an AMMONIM'ETER, AMMONIoM'-
ETER, or AM Mo'NIA-METER (AMMONIM'ETRUM, AMMo- water (= 10 lbs.) contains 10,000 septems. The degrees ºf
NIoMETRUM, &c., L.). his AMM on IA-METER range from 1 to 100, and indicatetlſ
Griffin, in his ‘System of Ammonimetry,” calls | number of test-atoms of ammonia in onegal. of the liquid.
l
AMMONIUM.
93
Ammonia, Carbonates of. (B. P.) Syn. AM-
MONIAE CARBONAS. See AMMONIUM, SESQUI-
CARBONATE OF.
AMMONIUM. The name given to a group
of atoms, which play the part of a com-
pound basic, radical, or metallic element. This
substance, whose formula is NH4 or (NH4)2,
has never been isolated, although capable of
forming most stable salts with the various acid
radicals. Several attempts have been made,
however, to obtain this compound radical, or
group of elements, in a free state, and with
more or less success, but on account of its
great instability it invariably decomposes when
set free into ammonia and hydrogen.
Ammonium salts are some of the most im-
portant chemical agents, and are usually re-
cognised as follows, ammonia solution, however,
usually acting in exactly the same manner as
a solution of ammonium hydrate:—By im-
parting a deep blue tint to solutions of salts of
copper. By eachalation of ammoniacal gas
(recognised by its odour), when triturated or
mixed and heated with caustic potassa, soda,
or lime. Added to a solution of bichloride of
platinum, they produce a heavy yellow, crys-
talline precipitate, consisting of minute octa-
hedrons easily discernible under the microscope.
With protonitrate of mercury, a black precipi-
tate. With bichloride of mercury, a heavy,
white precipitate. With a concentrated solu-
tion of tartaric acid, a crystalline, white pre-
cipitate, nearly similar to that given with salts
of potassa. They are nearly all soluble in
water, volatile, and crystallisable.
Except the carbonate, they are almost in-
variably estimated by conversion into ammonia,
and estimation by volumetric analyses, as in
alkalimetry. In the laboratory, however, for
exact purposes, they are converted into the
double chloride of ammonium and platinum.
Ammonium Salts:—
Ammonium, Acetate of NH4CH3Os. Syn.
AMMO"NIAE ACE/TAs, L.; ACETATE D’AMMO-
NIAQUE, Fr. ; ESSIGSAURES AMMONIAK, Ger.
Prep. 1. Take of acetate of lime or of potassa
and sal ammoniac, equal parts; mix and distil
at a gentle heat. The oily liquid (BINACETATE
OF AMMONIUM, HNH4(C2H5O)2), in the re-
ceiver forms a radiated crystalline mass on
cooling. Dry gaseous ammonia passed into
this salt, melted by a gentle heat, transforms
it into the solid and inodorous neutral ace-
tate, NH.C. H.O.
2. Strong acetic acid is saturated with am-
monia or carbonate of ammonium, and the solu-
tion evaporated over sulphuric acid in vacuo;
the resulting crystals, after being carefully
drained, are dried by pressure between bibulous
paper.
Prop., &c. Long, slender crystals, or a
crystalline mass, freely soluble in both alcohol
and water, and deliquescent in the air; taste,
sharp and cooling, and somewhat sweetish.
Its solutions cannot be evaporated without
loss of the ammonia; even the salt passes off in
large quantities with the vapour of water. Its
aqueous solution becomes alkaline on keeping,
from decomposition of the acid. Distilled with
anhydrous phosphoric acid, it is converted
into ACETONITRILE. An aqueous solution of
this salt was introduced into the Materia Me-
dica by Boerhaave, and has since been exten-
sively used as a diaphoretic and febrifuge,
under the popular name of MINDERE"RUS
SPIRIT, after Minderer or Mindererus, who ex-
tensively employed it and extolled its virtues.
When pure, both the salt and its solutions are
neutral to test-paper, and are wholly volatilised
by heat. See LIQUOR AMMONIAE ACETATIs.
Ammonium, Arseniate of. (NH4)3AsO4.
Syn. AMMONIAE ARSE/NIAs, L. Prep. 1. (NEU-
TRAL.) Saturate a warm concentrated solution
of arsenic acid with carbonate of ammonium
in slight excess; evaporate by a gentle heat,
that crystals may form on cooling. -
2. Ammonium, Binarsemiate of. H(NH3)2AsO.
As above, but adding an additional equiv. of the
acid, as soon as any eaccess of ammonia has been
expelled by the heat employed to evaporate the
solution.—Dose (of either). 1-24th to 1-12th gr.;
in phthisis, certain skin diseases, &c. See So-
LUTIONS (and below).
Ammonium, Arsenite of NH4AsO2. Syn.
AMMONIAE AR's ENIS, L. Prep. From a hot
concentrated solution of arsenious acid, and
sesquicarbonate of ammonium, as the last.—
Used (chiefly) to make arsenite of iron. The
properties and physiological effects of the above
arsenical preparations are for the most part
similar to those of arseniate and arsenite of
potassa. They are all poisonous.
Ammonium, Benzoate of. Prep. 1. Dissolve
benzoic acid in ammonia solution to saturation,
then further add ammonia in slight eaccess, and
crystallise by refrigeration, or in vacuo.
2. (LIQUID ; SOLUTIO AMMONIAE BENzo-
A^TIs, L.) As the last, but without evaporat-
ing the solution.
Prop., &c. Very soluble and very difficult
to crystallise. If the solution is boiled for a
short time and then abandoned to spontaneous
evaporation, crystals of ACID BENZOATE OF
AMMONIUM are deposited. It is used chiefly as
a chemical test; but has been recently recom-
mended in chronic bronchitis, old coughs, &c.;
and to check the formation of chalk-stones and
urinary calculi.-Dose. 10 to 15 gr. ; (of the
solution) 15 drops to 1 fl. dr., or more. See
BENZOIC ACID.
Ammonium, Bromide of NH4Br. Syn. AM-
Mo"NII BROMI’DUM, A. BRO'MIs, L.; HYDRO-
BROMATE D’AMMONIAQUE, BROMURE D’AMMO-
NIUM, Fr. A salt which is obtained from
hydrobromic acid, bromide of iron, &c., by
similar processes to those adopted for the iodide.
It forms white prismatic crystals; and, in its
general properties, resembles bromide of potas-
sium. It is volatile, and easily decomposed.
Used as a nervine in hysterics; especially
useful for sleeplessness where there is no
organic disease; given in epilepsy when bro-






94
AMMONIUM.

mide of potasium fails. – Dose. 2 to 20
grains.
Ammonium, Carbonates of :—
Ammonium, Carbonate of Syn, NEUTRAL
CARBONATE OF AMMONIUM. Equal parts of dry
sal ammoniac and sodium carbonate are heated
to form the neutral ammonium carbonate of
commerce, which sublimes. Solid crystalline
substance, with a strong ammonical odour,
volatile and soluble.
Uses, &c. In the solid form, it is not now
used in medicine; but it is indirectly employed
in several liquid preparations in which the ses-
quicarbonate is ordered. It is superior to
any other preparation of ammonia for filling
smelling bottles; as it is not only more pun-
gent, but does not lose its pungency by keep-
ing. It volatilises more quickly than the
sesquicarbonate, and the residuum, unlike
that of the latter salt, continues as odorous as
ever. It is the basis of several of the most
popular and esteemed advertised smelling
salts of the shops. Spirit of hartshorn is an
impure solution of this salt, originally obtained
by distilling hartshorn or bones.
Ammonium, Sesquicarbonate of Probably
2NH4HCO3 + NH, NH,CO3, i.e. a mixture or
compound of bicarbonate of ammonium and
carbonate of ammonium. Syn. (CARBONATE
OF AMMONIA, AMMONIAE CARBONAS. B. P.).
CARBONATE D’AMMONIAQUE, Fr.; KOHLEN-
SAURES AMMONIAK, Ger. It is prepared on a
very large scale commercially as follows:—Sal
ammoniac or sulphate of ammonia, and chalk,
equal parts, both dry and in powder, are mixed
as before, and sublimed from a series of iron
Tetorts or iron pots, into a well-cooled and
capacious receiver lined with lead or earthen-
ware; or, more generally, into such a receiver
connected, by iron or lead pipes, with a second
and similar one containing a stratum of water,
to absorb the free ammonia evolved during the
process.
Prop. The carbonate of ammonia, of com-
merce, usually occurs in the form of white,
fibrous, translucent, or semi-translucent cakes,
generally about two inches thick. It is less
volatile and pungent than the neutral car-
bonate; soluble in 4 parts of water at 55°
Fahr., 3-3 parts at 62°, 2-5 parts at 96°, and 2
parts at 120°; boiling water and alcohol de-
compose it, with the evolution of carbonic acid
gas and ammonia; by age or exposure to air,
the surface assumes an opaque white colour,
from its carbonate flying off, and the remain-
ing bicarbonate being less volatile. Unlike the
carbonate, it can neither be resublimed, nor
digested or distilled with either alcohol or
water, without suffering decomposition. Sp.
gr. 0.966.
The exact composition of this salt varies,
according to its method of preparation.
Uses, &c. It is commonly employed by
bakers, to give lightness to their fancy goods,
and to make extemporaneous bread and pastry;
by the chemist and pharmaceutist, for the
preparation of other salts of ammonia, and
in analysis, &c. In medicine, it is used as a
stimulant, antispasmodic, antacid, and dia.
phoretic, in acidity of the stomach, dyspepſi.
affections, gout, scrofula, hysteria, lowness ºf
spirits, epilepsy, &c.; and in the convulsions
attending dentition. It has been recently
recommended, by Dr. Barlow, in diabetes,
It is also employed to make effervesting
draughts; and easternally, as a counter-irritant
and stimulant. Its use as a nasal stimulant
in headaches, fainting, &c., is well known. In

large doses, it is emetic; in excessive doğ,
poisonous. Its long-continued use, in quantity,
is often productive of very serious consequences
—slow fever, debility, emaciation, scurvy,
loss of teeth, haemorrhage, general cachey,
and even death. The antidotes and restorative
treatment are, the free use of lemon-juice, wine
or malt-liquors, new milk, and antiscorbutt
vegetables, with a generous diet, of which the
red meats form a large proportion.--Dose. As
a stimulant or diaphoretic, 5 to 15 gr, dis.
solved in cold water; as an emetic, 20 to 30
gr, in tepid water, repeated if necessary; as
an effervescing saline draught, 15 to 30 g.
A few grains (8 or 10) dissolved in a tumble:
of cold water, is an excellent “refresher' in
lowness of spirits, or after fatigue; and is
highly esteemed by drunkards; being, in each
case, preferable to ‘spirit of salvolatile?
Concluding remarks, Patents, &c. In extºll.
sion of the above, it may be added, that Ol
the large scale, the distillation is usually
carried on in cast-iron retorts, similar in siſº,
shape, and character, to those employed in the
manufacture of coal-gas, and of which five, ºr
more, are commonly set horizontally in the
same furnace. (See engr.). Each retort has its
mouth (a), through which the ‘charge’ is iſ:
troduced, closed with a movable door, which is
securely fastened in its place, in the manner
shown in the engr. ; and is furnished, at the

upper part of its further end, with an im,
pipe (c), to carry off the evolved fumes to the
condenser or receiver. The latter consists ºf
two large square wooden chambers (B, C), lined
with lead, and either fitted with movable
covers, secured by water-joints, or with doºrs
in the side, to permit of the easy removal ºf
the sublimed salt. The first receiver commu.
nicates with the second by means of a large
lead tube (d) near its centre, and by another
tube (d'), somewhat smaller, and nearer the
bottom, but above the surface of the stratum
of water in the second receiver, before alluded
to. These chambers have also a lead pipe (, )
stopped during the process with a plug ºf
cock of lead, to allow of the liquid product ºf
the distillation, &c., to be drawn off, ºf
run into another receiver or cistern, it
will. Both chambers are placed on strong
wooden supports, or scaffolding, to bring
them on a level with the retorts. When
the impure sulphate or other ammonia-salt is
used in the manufacture of the sesquicariº
AMMONIUM. 95
naţe (which is generally the case), the result- little water being introduced into the sub-
ing salt being impure and discoloured, is liming pots to render the product translucent.
resublimed in iron pots (f, f, f), furnished The heat is applied either by means of a flue
with movable leaden, heads, which are kept passing from the retort-furnace (A, b), or by a
cool by a current of air passing over them; a water bath heated in the same manner; the
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latter being the preferable method, as the tem-
perature should not be greater than about 200°
Fahr., and need not exceed 150° to 155°. These
£9% are arranged in sets, as shown at (D) in
the engraving.
The charge of a retort usually consists of
about 70 to 72 lbs. of sulphate of ammonia,
9. 57 to 58 lbs. of the hydrochlorate to 1 cwt.
of *q/k or in these proportions. The pro-
duet is about 40 lbs. of the crude salt, which,
by careful resublimation, yields about 39 lbs.
of marketable carbonate of ammonia.
Carbonate of ammonia, like the chloride and
sulphate, is now scarcely ever prepared on the
small scale, that of commerce being not only
cheaper, but sufficiently pure for all the pur.
P9ses of medicine and the arts. The pºrce
*ges from £30 to £35 per ton, according to
the quality.
** Bicarbonate of HNH CO.
*P. By digesting cold water on sesquicarbo-
* ºf ammonia in considerable excess, until
i. Whole of the pungent neutral carbonate is
*olved out. If the salt is reduced to powder
the Operation is facilitated.
adiº Pºwdered sesquicarbonate of ammonia
d hoiling. "after just sufficient to dissolve it,
º ºl, close the vessel; crystals form
wº. liquid cools, containing 2% equiv. of
af* &c., For the most part similar to
.*.*.*te, except in having a taste
and *. which is only faintly ammoniacal,
obli * more palatable. Crystallises in
. Pºisºns, which, as usually obtained,
of . about *3% of water. It requires 8 parts
º Water to dissolve it. It is distinguished
* º P”us carbonates by the almost
º absence of ammoniacal odour, and by its
ºil. º: no immediate precipitate with
additi e O barium, but by standing, or on the
tion of a little liquor of ammonia, a white
jilllll Hill||
earthy precipitate, accompanied with the evolu-
tion of carbonic acid gas. A saturated solution
of this salt, evaporated by a very gentle heat,
or refrigerated, gives small prismatic crystals
having neither smell nor taste.
Uses, &c. Similar to those of the other car-
bonates.—Dose, 6 or 7 to 20 or 25 gr.
Ammonium, Chloride of NH3Cl. Syn.
MURIATE OF AMMONIA, SAL AMMONIAC, HY-
DROCHLORATE OF AMMONIA; CHLORHYDRATE
D’AMMONIAQUE, SEL AMMONIAC, &c., Fr. ;
SALMIAK, Ger. A substance which, as already
noticed, appears to have been originally ob-
tained, by sublimation, from the soot of camel's
dung, in Egypt. In this country, at the present
day, it is manufactured chiefly from the crude
ammoniacal liquors obtained as secondary
products in the manufacture of coal-gas and
animal charcoal.
Prep. 1. From GAs-LIQUOR –The crude
ammoniacal liquor of the gas-works is, either
at once, or after distillation, neutralised with
hydrochloric or sulphuric acid, the choice
being given to the one which is the cheaper
and more accessible at the place where the
works are situated. When hydrochloric acid
is employed, the SATURATION is usually effected
by allowing the acid to flow from a large
wooden vessel or tank lined with lead or gutta
percha into a large underground reservoir or
tank containing the ammoniacal liquor, and
having an exit-tube passing into the chimney
or shaft of the steam-engine, to carry off the
sulphuretted hydrogen and other offensive
gases liberated during the mixture. Some-
times the gas-liquor is accumulated in
enormous covered wooden tuns, capable of
holding from 10,000 to 20,000 gallons, or
1 This is now generally conducted in a large wrought:
iron boiler, connected with a rude modification of Coffey's
still; the object being to obtain the liquor freer from tar
and more concentrated.
r

96
AMMONIUM.
more; and the acid is added by raising the
gutta-percha carboys containing it by means
of cranes, and then thoroughly mixing it with
the liquor by means of powerful “agitators,”
whilst the offensive fumes are either passed off
as before, or made to traverse the fire of the
steam-engine before entering the chimney-
shaft. The quantity of acid employed to
effect saturation must, of course, depend on
the ammoniacal strength of the gas-liquor
operated on. The usual proportions are 1% to
2 lbs. of the former, to each gal. of the latter;
but in all cases sufficient should be added to
impart a very faint acid reaction to the mixture.
This last having been effected, the saline
solution, now containing hydrochlorate of am-
monia, is, after repose, ready to be pumped
or run off into the evaporators.
The EVAPORATION of the crude saline solu-
tion is usually carried on in large square or rec-
tangular cast-iron vats, of very moderate depth,
and capable of holding from 1000 to 1500
gallons, or more. These are encased in brick-
work, and are heated by a furnace, of which
the flues pass in a sinuous course beneath
the lining of brickwork on which the vats or
pans rest. During the concentration of the
liquid, the tar, &c., which separates and floats
on the surface, and which thus seriously im-
pedes evaporation, is, from time to time, re-
moved by skimming. As soon as the sp. gr.
reaches 1:25, any eaccess of acid in the solu-
tion is eacactly neutralised with a little fresh
ammoniacal liquor; by which any waste of
acid is prevented, at the same time that any
ferric salt present, and which would con-
taminate the ultimate product, is precipitated
as sesquioxide. After settling for a short
time, the hot liquor is ready to be transferred
to the crystallisers.
The vessels employed in the CRYSTALLISA-
TION are pans or tubs, usually circular, and
about 7 or 8 feet wide, by 2% to 3 feet deep ;
and are generally set on the ground, or are
imbedded either partially or wholly in it.
The saline liquor being pumped or run
into them at a little below the boiling tem-
perature, crystallises as it cools; the only in-
terference being occasional stirring or agita.
tion, to prevent the formation of large crystals,
which would be inconvenient in the subsequent
part of the process. The time occupied in the
crystallisation varies, according to the size of
the “crystallisers,’ and the weather, from 3 or
4 to 8 or even 10 days. The ‘mother-liquor'
of the “crystallisers’ is pumped back into the
evaporating pans for further concentration.
The crude blackish salt (hydrochlorate) thus
obtained is contaminated with tarry and Oleń.
ginous matter, free acid, water, &c.; from part
of which it is freed by exposing it in a layer
about 4 inches deep, on a cast-iron plate gently
heated by a zigzag flue of a small furnace,
until all the water is expelled; care being
taken that the heat never rises high enough to
volatilise the salt. This operation is generally
performed under a dome, or the expanded
throat of a large chimney. The salt will now
have become of a greyish-white colour, and is
ready for the next operation.
The crude dry salt of the last process is
finally purified by SUBLIMATION. For this
purpose cast-iron pots lined with clay, and
heated from below and by flues round their
sides, are employed. (See engr.) The crude
grey salt is beaten down into these poſs
until they are about 2-3rds filled, when the
heads or capitols are fitted on, and heat
applied. The latter are very heavy, being
usually made of lead (sometimes of iron), and
have the form of a dome, or a hemispherical
cup, with a small tube or hole at the apex, in
which a plug is loosely placed, to permit the
escape of steam. These domes or heads are
so made as to fit closely and firmly on the
flat rim or flange of the ‘sublimers;' and are
retained in their places, during use, both by
their weight, and by 2 or 3 clamps provided
for the purpose. They are also furnished with
3 rings, set at equal distances, to allow of their
being lifted off, or moved, by means of a pulley
and chains. The due application and regula.
tion of the heat is here of the utmost import.
ance. If the temperature employed be tº
high, the sublimed salt will be contaminated
with empyreumatic matter, whilst some of it
will be carried beyond the dome and lost; and
if it be extreme, the head may be altogether
blown off, and the contents of the pan scat-
tered about the building; whilst on the other
hand, if the heat employed be too low, the
resulting cake of sal-ammonia will be soft
spongy, and either grey or yellowish. The
proper temperature is said to be known by two

AMMONIUM.
97
or three drops of water readily boiling, and
being dissipated in vapour, when placed on
the head or cover of the sublimer; but it
should not ‘spit’ or ‘dance about,’ or be raised
by the heat out of contact with the metal.
The usual practice is to keep the fires “briskly
up until the sublimers and their surroundings
attain a sufficient degree of heat; they are
then slackened, and maintained at a mean
temperature.” (Muspratt.) The sublimation
occupies from 5 to 9 days; but it is customary
to raise the heads once, or even twice a week,
to ascertain the progress made; the fires having
been purposely neglected or checked for some
hours previously. The process is finally stopped
before the whole of the crude salt in the pots
is volatilised; since the heat required for that
purpose would lead to the decomposition of the
carbonaceous impurities, and cause them to
emit volatile hydrocarbons, which would mate-
rially lessen the purity and beauty of the pro-
duct. The unsublimed portion in the pots
forms a conical mass, which is technically called
the ‘yolk.” This is shown in the second engr.
(see below), in which the latest improvements
in the form of the subliming apparatus are also
exhibited.
The sublimation having been carried to a
sufficient extent, the fires are allowed to die
out. The domes, after cooling, are lifted
off, and the attached hemispherical cakes or
“bells’ of SAL AMMONIAC or HYDROCHLORATE
OF AMMONIA at once removed. These vary
from 2 to 5 inches in thickness, and from 45.
or 50 lbs. to 1000 lbs., and upwards, in weight,
according to the size of the sublimers in
which they have been produced. They are
generally nearly pure, except in the outer part
which has been in contact with the metal.
From the subliming-house they are taken to
the store or packing-house, and after having
been scraped, to remove the discoloured portion
before alluded to, are either preserved entire,
or are broken up into convenient pieces, which
are then packed in casks or barrels, and in
either state are ready for the market.
When sulphuric acid" is used to neutra-
lise the ammoniacal liquor, the process is
generally, for the most part, the same as when
hydrochloric acid is employed; but here the
brown salt obtained by the crystallisation,
1 Sp. gr. 133 to 1:38.
and subsequent desiccation, is crude SULPHATE
OF AMMONIA, instead of the hydrochlorate.
It is intimately mixed with about an equal
weight of chloride of sodium (common salt)
In some cases particularly where the am-
moniacal liquor is rich in carbonate of ammo-
nia, gypsum is employed as a source of sul-
phuric acid. (See below.)
Another method is to convert the solution
of the crude sulphate into a solution of the
hydrochlorate, during the process, by the ad-
dition of chloride of sodium. Both these last
methods are described below.
2. From BONE-LIQUOR, &c.:”—The ammo-
niacal liquor technically called “bone-liquor'
or “bone-spirit,' and formerly known under the
name of ‘spirit of hartshorn,’ is essentially a
solution of carbonate of ammonia more or less
contaminated with volatile empyreumatic oil.
Its conversion into SALAMMONIAC may be easily
effected by saturating it with hydrochloric acid,
evaporating the resulting neutral solution in
lead or iron boilers until a pellicle begins to
form, then pumping or running off the hot
liquors into the crystallisers, and, lastly,
draining and drying the crystals. The salt thus
obtained may be purified either by sublimation,
or by recrystallisation. The whole series of
processes closely resemble those already de-
scribed, except in being less troublesome, owing
to the absence of the tarry and other foreign
matters which impede and complicate them
when gas-liquor is employed.
Another method adopted, particularly on the
Continent, and one equally applicable to any
crude ammoniacal liquor rich in free am-
monia or its carbonates, is to employ sul-
phate of lime instead of sulphuric acid to
neutralise the alkali. For this purpose the
ammoniacal liquor is passed through a series
of three or four covered wooden filters lined
with lead, each containing a layer of crushed
gypsum to the depth of 3 or 4 inches. These
filters are usually set on ‘stages' one above
another, and each communicates with a cistern
placed beneath it by means of a leaden pipe
furnished with a stop-cock. This last is not
opened until the liquor has remained some little
time in the filter; and a pump throws back
once, or oftener, upon each filter, what has
already passed through it, before it is allowed
to run into the next lower one. The “liquor’
in each filter is not allowed to stand higher
ferrocyanide of potassium and Prussian blue.
* That employed in England is chiefly obtained, as
already mentioned, from the manufacturers of bone-
black or animal charcoal; but, on the Continent, the
liquor obtained by a like destructive distillation of various
animal offals (blood, flesh, horn, hoofs, woollen rags and
waste, hair, scrapings of hides, leather cuttings, §c.) is
employed for the same purpose. The preparatory pro-
cess by which this liquor is obtained is essentially the
same in each case; except that with animal offal the
temperature should not exceed a red-brown heat, in order
that the resulting charcoal may afterwards serve to |.
lese
liquors have usually a density ranging between 8° and 9°
Baumé (Üre; = sp. gr. 1.056 to 1:063).
-----
- -
--- -
before being put into the sublimers. ---


98
AMMONIUM.

than from 2 to 3 inches above the surface of
the gypsum ; and the lowest or last filter is
supplied with fresh gypsum at each separate
charge of fresh liquor. A little water is lastly
passed through the filters to wash out the por-
tion of ammoniacal liquor absorbed or retained
by the filtering media. In this way, the
gypsum of the filters is converted into car-
bonate of lime at the expense of the carbonate
of ammonia in the solution; whilst the am-
monia of the latter decomposes the gypsum,
and becomes converted into sulphate of am-
monia, which, with some free ammonia, is found
in the filtrate. Sulphuric acid is next added
to the filtered liquor, to completely neutralise
the free and carbonated alkali still existing in
it; after which it is evaporated in a leaden
boiler, with frequent skimming to remove
floating oil, until of the sp. gr. 1:160. Chloride
of sodium (common salt), in sufficient quantity
to convert all the sulphate of ammonia in the
liquid into hydrochlorate, by double decompo.
sition, is now added, with constant stirring;
after which the clear portion is either pumped
or syphoned off into a somewhat deep reser-
voir or tank, where it is allowed to settle. The
liquid, after sufficient repose, is pumped from
the reservoir to the boilers, and evaporated,
with frequent agitation, so long as the sulphate
of soda now existing in it falls to the bottom
in granular crystals. These crystals are, at
intervals, scraped to the cooler portion of the
pan or boiler, whence they are removed by
copper rakes and shovels, into draining-hop-
pers, placed near the edges of the pan. The
liquor in the boiler is now a strong solution of
sal ammoniac, but still containing a little
sulphate of soda, from which it has to be freed
by crystallisation. With this object, it is
further concentrated, and then run or pumped
into the crystallisers. In 30 or 40 hours, or
longer, the mother-liquor is run or pumped off.
The mass of newly formed crystals is then
drained, and slightly washed, first with a little
weak solution of sal ammoniac, and next with
a very little cold water; after which they are
again well drained. The crude HYDROCHLo-
RATE of AMMONIA, thus obtained, is converted
into the pure salts, by desiccation and sublima-
tion, as before.
In France, where this method is very gene-
arlly employed, the sublimation is commonly
conducted in stoneware or earthenware balloons
or bottles coated with loam, of about 18 to 20
inches in height in the body, and either sur-
mounted with inverted “cups' or ‘heads’ 10 or
12 inches high, or simply covered with a tile,
when (in the latter case) the sublimate collects
in the upper part or neck of the balloon, which
is above the action of the fire. A number of
these vessels are set on the dome of a furnace,
which is perforated with holes or slits, to allow
the heat to pass through; whilst their necks or
heads are sheltered from the action of the fire
by plates of iron or earthenware, having semi-
circular indentations on their edges, so that
when placed together they form a level surface,
through which the necks of the sublimes
protrude, and fit closely. The fire is nicely
regulated, so as to cause the salt to condense
in the upper and cooler part of the vessels. Of
in the heads, as the case may be; and great
care is taken to occasionally clear the necks
with a skewer, to prevent choking, and CONº.
quent bursting.
In Scotland, where a similar process is alsº
commonly pursued, the sublimers, according to
Dr. Ure, are generally “cast-iron pots, lined
with fire-proof tiles; the condensation being
effected in globular heads of green glass, with
which each of the iron pots are capped.”
Ratio. Gas-liquor contains carbonate ºf
ammonium (chiefly), with chloride, sulphat,
hydrosulphate, cyanide, sulphocyanide, &c., ºf
the same radical. On neutralisation with hy
drochloric acid, or sulphuric acid, these are
converted into chloride or sulphate of ammº.
nium, according to the acid used. By sublim.
tion with chloride of sodium, the sulphate ºf
ammonium is converted, by double deCOmº
sition, into choride of ammonium, which sub-
limes; and sulphate of sodium, which remains
in the subliming pot. A similar change OCGTs
when the solution of the sulphate, prior to
crystallisation, is decomposed by the addition
of chloride of sodium, or any other chlorid.
When the ‘gas-liquor’ is at once converted intº
chloride of ammonium by the addition of hydrº.
chloric acid, the sublimation merely purifié
the salt. Like changes occur when bone-spirit
is employed.
Comp. Chemically considered, this salt (0.
sists of equal VoIUMEs of gaseous ammomi.
and hydrochloric acid gas condensed into the
solid form; or, by WEIGHT, according to the
ammonia-theory, of
Atoms. Equiv. wi. Percent.
1 ... 17. ... 31.78
} 1 ... 36.5 ..., 68.2%
-
Ammonia (NHA)
Hydrochloric acid
(HCl) - -
Hydrochlorate of
Ammonia (NH3
HCl) . . . .
Or, according to the “ammonium-theory,'of-
1 ... 53.5 ...100
Atoms. Equiv. wi. Pertti
Ammonium (NHA) 1 ... 18: ... 33.6%
Chlorine (Cl) . . 1 ... 35.5 ... 66%
. 53.5 ...100
Chloride of Am-
monium (NH4 - 1
Prop., &c. The sal ammoniac, of commer
is found under the form of large white hemi:
spherical, cup-like cakes or masses (or inlar:
fragments which are sections of them), posses
ing a tough, fibrous, semi-crystalline textuſ:
and very difficult to powder. It is odourles
has a saline taste somewhat sharp or actidº
1 Ure's “Dict of Arts, M., J. M.,” 5th Edn, i. p. 18.
AMMONIUM.
99
frigorific mixtures.
used eaternally, as a stimulant and resolvent or
discutient; and occasionally, internally, as a
water, i. pint.
sublimes without either fusion or decomposi-
tion. It slightly reddens litmus; dissolves in
rather less than 3 parts of cold water, and in
about 1 part of boiling water; is soluble in
alcohol; and when crystallised from water,
under favorable circumstances, forms distinct
octahedra, or cubes, usually small and aggre-
gated together in rays or feathery masses. By
slowly evaporating its aqueous solution, it may
be sometimes obtained in cakes an inch in
thickness. It is anhydrous. Sp. gr. 1:450.
Pur. It should give a colourless solution
with water; wholly sublime with heat; and
neither chloride of barium, nor sulphuretted
hydrogen, should affect its solution. A solution,
to which a few drops of nitric acid have been
added, should not yield a blue precipitate with
ferrocyanide of potassium. It often contains
sesquichloride of iron, and sometimes lead;
both of which may be readily detected by the
above tests. Its complete volatility may be
easily determined by heating, in the flame of a
candle, a small fragment held on the point of
a knife. -
Tests.-1. It is known to be a salt of am-
monium by its cooling ammoniacal fumes when
triturated with lime, or when moistened with
caustic potassa or soda :—2. It is shown to be
a chloride by its solution yielding, with nitrate
of silver, a white curdy precipitate, insoluble in
boiling nitric acid, soluble in ammonia.
Uses, &c. In the arts, chiefly in the coating
and soldering of metals, and the preparation
of alloys; in dyeing ; and in the manufacture
of ammonia-alum; also, in large quantities,
to give a factitious pungency to snuff. In
chemistry, as a reagent ; and, owing to the
cold produced during its solution, to form
In medicine, it is chiefly
diuretic, stimulant, resolvent, alterative, tonic,
&c., particularly in chronic inflammations of
the mucous and serous membranes, in chronic
glandular and visceral enlargements and in-
durations, and in amenorrhoea. In rather large
doses, frequently repeated, it is said to prove
often highly beneficial in chronic enlargement
and induration of the prostate gland (M. René
Wanoye); and also in other like cases.—Dose.
5 to 20 gr., 3 or 4 times daily, either in powder
or solution, mixed with some demulcent ; as a
discutient or resolvent lotion, 1 to 1% oz., to
# pint of water, either with or without 4 or
5 fl. oz. of spirits or strong vinegar (often
serviceable in chilblains); as a weak lotion, or
a collyrium or injection, 1 to 4 dr., to
In very large doses it is poi-
sonous ; the treatment is emetics and mucila-
ginous or demulcent drinks.
Concluding remarks, Patents, &c. The me-
thods already described are those by which
commercial hydrochlorate of ammonia is usually,
if not almost entirely obtained; the various im-
provements or modifications, from time to time
introduced, affecting chiefly the minor details,
and the form or size of the apparatus and
machinery employed, and not the general
principles on which the processes are based.
One of the most important of these has for its
object the entire removal of the iron present in
the crude salt, some of which, if it be not
removed before sublimation, is volatilised and
contaminates the ultimate product. To obviate
this evil, Mr. Brewer passes a few bubbles of
chlorine through the hot concentrated solution
of the salt, previous to its crystallisation; by
which the protochloride of iron is converted
into the perchloride, which, being acted on
by the ammonia always present in the liquor,
is precipitated as ferric hydrate, with the
formation of a small additional quantity of sal
ammoniac. The only precaution necessary is
to avoid employing more chlorine gas than is
necessary to peroxidise the iron; as beyond
this, a portion of the ammonia-salt itself is
decomposed, with the evolution of nitrogen.
The temperature of the liquor is kept up, after
the action of the chlorine, until the whole of
the brown flocculent oxide of iron has subsided,
when it is at once decanted or filtered into the
crystallisers.
Another modification which has been adopted
in two or three places, is to effect neutralisation
of the crude ammoniacal liquor by distilling
it, and passing the fumes in at the lower end
of a hollow shaft or column filled with coke,
down which the acid trickles; the resulting
solution of sulphate or chloride of ammonium
being received in proper cisterns, conveniently
situated near the base of the column.
In Mr. Spence's method of obtaining am-
monia-salts from gas-liquor or bone-spirit, a
series of (usually four) cylindrical boilers, or
reservoirs, so placed that the contents of each
upper one may be drawn off into the one next
below it, are employed. Each boiler has an
exit-pipe which carries the vapour generated in
it to that next above it, whilst that of the
highest boiler passes off to a trunk containing
the acid necessary to form the salt. The top
boiler is connected with the reservoir of gas-
liquor (which is already mixed with ml/ of
lime) by a charging pipe furnished with a
stop-cock turned by a floating ball, so as to
keep the surface of the liquor constantly at the
same height. High-pressure steam enters the
lower boiler, by which its ammonia is driven
through the connecting pipe into the next
boiler, and so on in succession, until it leaves
the highest boiler in a concentrated state, and
thus enters the acid-tank. When this last
contains moderately strong hydrochloric or
sulphuric acid, the resulting solution of CHLo-
RIDE or SULPHATE OF AMMONIUM (as the
case may be) is sufficiently concentrated to be
at once run off into the crystallisers. As
soon as the liquor in the lowest boiler is ex-
hausted of its ammonia, its contents are drawn
off, and replaced by that of the next boiler,
which is followed by a like descent throughout
the whole series. - Aſ º "


º . . .
* * * *
(, - - -
z
tº I ºn --
:
º
|
100
AMMONIUM.
Among improvements having for their object
the substitution of cheap chlorides' for the more
expensive commercial acids, may be mentioned
those of—
1. Mr. Laming (Patent dated 1843), who
employs a strong solution of CHLORIDE OF
CALCIUM for converting the ammonia of gas-
liquor into the hydrochlorate.
2. Mr. Hills (Patent dated 1846) employs
CHLORIDE OF MAGNESIUM" in the same way;
and by a subsequent patent, proposes to convert
the ammonia eliminated in the distillation of
coal into the hydrochlorate, by mixing CHLo-
R1DE OF MAGNESIUM with the coal in the
retorts, or by introducing the chloride into
a retort appropriated for the purpose. The
heat dispels the chlorine of the chloride, in the
form of hydrochloric acid, and this, uniting
with the ammoniacal vapour, forms hydro-
chlorate of ammonia, which is retained in the
liquor of the condenser. From this liquor,
the salt is obtained by evaporation, &c., in the
usual way.
3. Mr. Croll (Patent dated 1849) converts
the crude ammoniacal vapours that issue with
the gas from the common retorts into the
hydrochlorate, and obtains a solution of it, by
passing the gas through a solution of crude
CHLORIDE OF MANGANESE * (1 cwt. of the salt
to about 40 galls. of water), contained in one of
the ordinary vessels used for purifying coal-
gas. The manganic solution absorbs the
ammonia and its salts, converting them into
the hydrochlorate, whilst a correspondin
proportion of oxide of manganese is precipi-
tated. As soon as the liquor in the purifier
is fully saturated, it is drawn off, and replaced
by a fresh quantity; whilst the saturated
liquor containing the hydrochlorate, after
subsidence, or filtration, is evaporated, &c., as
before. Crude CHLORIDE OF IRON may be
substituted for the chloride of manganese, in
the above process; as may also SULPHATE of
MANGANESE, but then the product, of course,
will be sulphate of ammonia, instead of the
hydrochlorate.
4. Mr. Laming (Patent dated 1850) also
proposes the use of various salts and mia-
tures for retaining and condensing the am-
moniacal vapour of coal-gas, as it passes from
the retorts through the purifiers. Of these
the principal are CHLORIDE OF CALCIUM ob-
tained by decomposing chloride of iron by
hydrate of lime; CHLORIDE OF IRON, obtained
by decomposing sulphate of iron with chloride
of sodium ; CHLORIDE OF MAGNESIUM ; a mix-
ture of SULPHATE OF LIME and SULPHATE OF
1 Particularly such chlorides as are the “waste or bye
products’ of other manufactures.
2 Of the Epsom-salt works, &c.
3. Obtained from the chloride-of-lime works. The por-
tion of the precipitated oxide of manganese saved from
the process, may be reconverted into the chloride, by
mixing 3 parts of it with 4 parts of common salt, and
heating the mixture to low redness, scarcely perceptible in
the dark, for 2 to 3 hours. 140 lbs. of the calcined mass,
with 40 galls. of water, forms a solution that may be again
pumped into the purifier.
IRON; or of moist precipitated oride of irº,
with carbonate of lime, carbonate of magnesia,
or magnesian limestone; or one containing
sulphate of magnesia, or chloride of magnesium
or calcium, or one, or more of them, in COm.
bination with oaide of copper, either with or
without lime or magnesia, or with both ºf
either of them or their carbonates. These
salts, or compounds, are mingled with saw.
dust, or some other porous substance not acid
on by the gas, before being put into the
purifiers; and after they become Saturated
with the vapour, the newly formed hydrº
chlorate or sulphate (according to the Salt ºf
mixture employed), is washed out of the mis
with water.
Besides the usual sources of SALAMMONIAC
(and the other ammonia-salts of commerce) iſ
has been proposed to obtain it from qualſ
peat, shale, &c., as noticed under SESQUICAR
BONATE of AMMONIA (suprā); the substant
employed to effect the neutralisation or decº
position of the ammoniacal liquor being, i.
this case, either hydrochloric acid orachloril,
In Young’s Patent (1841) for “obtaining
AMMONIA and its SALTs,” a mixture of 2 part
of guano, and 1 part of hydrate of limb, i.
distilled in a retort placed vertically, at
moderate heat, gradually increased until tº
bottom of the retort becomes red hot. The
ammoniacal portion of the fumes evolved in
absorbed by the cold water contained in
suitable condenser; whilst the other gaº
eliminated by the process pass off uncondensi
By subsequently passing carbonic acid gas it
the liquor of the condenser, a solution :
CARBONATE, BICARBONATE, or SESQUICA},
BONATE of AMMONIA is formed. By near
filling the condenser with diluted hydrochlor;
or sulphuric acid, instead of with water,
solution of HYDROCHLORATE or of SUIPHAſ:
of AMMONIA is obtained.
Stale urine saturated with hydrochlorical
or with sulphuric acid diluted with about twis
its weight of water, yields SAL AMMONIAC,
SULPHATE of AMMONIA (according to the ºil
used) on evaporation.
Hydrochlorate of ammonia is now whly
prepared on the large scale, and never by tº
dealer or retailer, by whom it is only 0&
sionally refined or purified, in small quantitiº
for chemical and medical purposes. Thes
ammoniac of commerce is found to be suff
ciently pure for all its ordinary applications in
the arts; but when wanted of greater purity;
is broken into pieces, and resublimed from
earthenware vessel into a large receiver i
earthenware or glass. The product (REFINI
SAL AMMONIAC, DOUBLE-REFINED S. A.; M:
MonTE HYDRoch Lo"RAs PU"RA, SALAMMOſ.
ACUS DEPURA'TUS+, L.) is popularly known
FLOWERS of SAL AMMONIAC (flores salis wº
moniaci, L.), from being in a finely divid
crystalline state.
The chemically pure chloride of ammoniº
may be prepared by bringing its gaseous tº


AMMONIUM.
101
tuents—ammonia and hydrochloric acid—into
contact. During the combination much heat, and
even light, is generated, and the anhydrous solid
salt is precipitated in a minutely divided state,
which, under the microscope, is seen to be
crystalline. It may be also more easily and
conveniently prepared by Saturating pure and
moderately dilute hydrochloric acid with am-
monia or its carbonates, and evaporating the
solution until a pellicle forms, when crystals of
the HYDROCHLORATE separate as the liquid
cools. A similar but rather more violent reac-
tion occurs when gaseous chlorine is brought in
contact with gaseous ammonia, or is passed into
a nearly saturated solution of ammonia or its
| carbonates; but in this case nitrogen is evolved
at the expense of the ammonia; moreover, the
process is attended with danger.
The manufacture of sal ammoniac is usually
a distinct business, and is carried on to a very
great extent in the neighbourhood of London.
Indeed, the London makers now supply the chief
portion of that used in England. A large
quantity is now, however, made at Manchester
and Liverpool. A small quantity is imported
from Germany. That from Brunswick is in
the form of sugar-loaves. An inferior quality
is also imported, in chests, from the East
Indies.
The red bands frequently seen in the sal
ammoniac of commerce, are said to arise from
the workmen falling asleep, and allowing the
fire to go down, and then suddenly raising the
heat too high. (Muspratt.) They consist
chiefly of ammonio-chloride of iron.
Ammonium, Citrate of. (NH4), HC3H5Oz.
Syn. DIAMMONIUM CITRATE, CITRATE of
OXIDE OF AMMONIA; AMMO'NIAE CIT'RAS, L.
Prep. A concentrated solution of pure citric
acid, gently heated, is saturated with sesqui-
carbonate of ammonium, in fine powder, (about
7 parts to 6,) and slightly in excess; and the
resulting liquid is crystallised by refrigeration
in close vessels, or by evaporation in vacuo. If
heat be employed in the evaporation of the solu-
tion, an ACID CITRATE will be formed.
Uses, &c. Chiefly as a chemical test. An
ea temporaneous citrate, made with lemon-juice
and drank effervescing, is employed as a saline
draught, and a mild aperient and diaphoretic,
in fevers, &c.
Ammonium, Ferrocyanide of. (NH4)3FeCNs.
3Aq. Syn. FERROCYANATE D’AMMONIAQUE,
Fr. Prep.–1. Saturate a solution of hydro-
ferrocyanic acid with sesquicarbonate of am-
monium, in slight excess; evaporate the solution
at a heat below ebullition, and crystallise by
refrigeration.
2. Digest ferrocyanide of lead or of iron in a
solution of sesquicarbonate of ammonium, at a
gentle heat, for some time; then filter, evapo-
rate, and crystallise.
Prop., &c. It is isomorphous with ferrocy-
anide of potassium; it is easily crystallisable,
very soluble in water, and is decomposed by
ebullition.
Ammonium, Iodide of NHAI. Syn. HY-
DRIODATE OF AMMONIA; AMMO"NII IODI'DUM,
L.; HYDRIODATE D’AMMONIAQUE, Fr. Prep. An
aqueous solution of hydriodic acid is neutralised
with ammonia, or ammonium sesquicarbonate,
in slight excess; and the resulting liquid is
either carefully, but rapidly, evaporated to dry-
ness over a water bath, or it is concentrated by
the same means, and then caused to deposit
crystals by refrigeration; in both cases, care
is taken to keep a slight excess of ammonia
present during the evaporation. The crystals
are dried by pressure between folds of bibulous
paper; and the product, in either form, pre-
served in a stoppered bottle.
Pure iodine is triturated with a little dis-
tilled water, and solution of ammonium sul-
phydrate added, in small quantities at a time,
with continued trituration, until the red colour
of the iodine has entirely disappeared. The
solution, after being gently boiled for a few
seconds, to expel the sulphuretted hydrogen
present, is filtered, slightly alkalised with am-
monia, and evaporated or crystallised, as before.
Prop., &c. Colourless; deliquescent; freely
soluble in water, and in spirit; air and light
turn it yellowish or brownish, with partial
decomposition. It closely resembles iodide of
potassium, than which it is more active, and
thought to be better suited to irritable and
relaxed habits.--Dose. 1 to 10 or 12 gr.
Ammonium, Lactate of Syn. AMMO"NIE
LACTAS, L. An uncrystallisable salt prepared
by saturating ammonia, or its carbonate, with
lactic acid. It has been found useful in rickets,
and in dyspepsia and worms, when occurring in
debilitated habits. For this purpose it is best
taken fresh-prepared, as a draught, flavoured
with syrup of orange-peel, 3 or 4 times daily.
See LACTATE and LACTIC ACID.
Ammonium, Nitrate of NH4NO3. Syn.
AMMO"NIE NI'TRAs, L.; NITRATE D’AMMO-
NIAQUE, Fr. Prep. Saturate nitric acid
(diluted with 3 or 4 times its weight of water)
with sesquicarbonate of ammonium, evaporate
by a gentle heat, and crystallise. When not
required in a crystalline form, it is usually
evaporated to dryness at about 212° Fahr.;
and the heat being carefully raised to about
250°, the fused salt is poured out on a polished
slab of iron or stone, and when solidified,
broken up and put into bottles.
Prop. When the evaporation of the solution
is conducted at a heat under 100°Fahr., the
salt is obtained in beautiful hexagonal prisms;
when at 212°, in long silky fibres; when by
rapid evaporation and fusion, it forms a white,
compact, and usually foliated mass. It dis-
solves in about twice its weight of water; is
slightly deliquescent; melts at 230°, and is
decomposed into nitrous gas and water at 460°
Fahr. It deflagrates, like nitre, on contact
with heated combustible matter.
Uses, &c. Chiefly to prepare nitrous owide or
laughing gas (of which nearly 4% cubic feet
may be procured from every lb, avoir.); and


102
AMMONIUM.
with water, to form freezing miatures, for
which purpose it may be used for any number
of times by simply evaporating the solution to
dryness, when the salt, obtained unaltered, is
ready for another operation. Care, however,
should be taken not to expose it to too great a
heat, as at a certain temperature it deflagrates
with violence. It is occasionally employed in
the laboratory to promote the combustion of
organic bodies during incineration; and some-
times, though seldom, in medicine, as a diuretic
and diaphoretic. It is said to reduce the fre-
quency of the pulse, and the animal heat, with-
out affecting the head, chest, or stomach.
(Wibmer)—Dose. 10 to 30 gr.
Ammonium, Nitro-sulphate of Syn. AMMO"-
NIAE NITRO-SUL'PHAS, L. Dissolve sulphite of
ammonium, 1 part; in solution of ammonia, 5
parts; and pass nitric oaside gas through the so-
lution; rapidly wash the crystals that form with
solution of ammonia, dry in bibulous paper,
without heat, and preserve them in a well-
stopped bottle.—Dose. 10 to 12 gr. ; in typhoid
fevers, &c.
Ammonium, Oxalate of. (NH4)2C2O4. Syn.
AMMO."NIE Ox’ALAs, L.; OXALATE D’AMMONI-
AQUE, Fr. Neutralise a hot solution of oacalic
acid with sesquicarbonate of ammonia; evapo-
rate and crystallise. -
Prop. It forms beautiful, colourless, long,
rhombic prisms, which effloresce in the air;
slightly soluble in cold water; freely soluble
in hot water; heated in a retort, it yields
ammonia, carbonate of ammonia, cyanogen,
and carbonic acid, together with oxamide,
which sublimes.
Uses, &c. In chemistry, chiefly as a test for
calcium (with which it produces a white pre-
cipitate soluble in nitric acid), and to separate
lime from magnesium, solutions of the salts of
which it does not precipitate. A BINox'ALATE
may also be formed; but it possesses no prac-
tical interest.
Ammonium, Phosphate of. (NH4)3PO. Syn.
AMMO"NIE PHOS'PHAs, L. Prep. Saturate a
solution of phosphoric acid with sesquicarbo-
nate of ammonium, in slight excess; gently
evaporate and crystallise by refrigeration. Diu-
retic, discutient, and antilithic.—Dose. 3 to
10 gr., or 20 to 30 drops of a saturated solu-
tion, 3 or 4 times a day; in gout, rheumatism,
and calculus, accompanied with the lithic acid
diathesis; also in rickets and certain forms of
dyspepsia.
Ammonium Succinate. Syn. AMMo"NIAE
SUC'CINAs, L. Prep. 1. Succinic acid, 1 part;
water, 4 parts; dissolve, neutralise with solu-
tion of ammonia, or of ammonium carbonate,
in slight excess, and evaporate, and crystallise
as directed under the ‘benzoate' or ‘phosphate.’
—Dose. 5 to 10 gr.
Ammonium, Sulphate of. (NH4)2SO. Syn.
SULPHATE of ox'IDE of AMMONIA; AMMO"-
NIAE SUL(PHAs, L.; SULFATE D’AMMONIAQUE,
Fr. ; SCHWEFELSAUER AMMONIUM SALz, Ger. ;
Glauber's SECRET SALT+, G. SECRET SAL-
AMMONIAC#, SAL AMMONI’ACUM SECRETUM
GLAUBE"RI+, &c. Crude sulphate of ammonia
exists in considerable quantity in the 800t from
pit-coal; and it is obtained, as a secondary
product, from the ammoniacal liquor of gas.
works and animal charcoal manufactories,
These last are its chief sources. It is als)
found native, associated with Sal ammoniac, in
the neighbourhood of volcanoes, under the
name of “mascagnine' or “massagnine.’
Prep. 1. (Medicinal.) Saturate dilute sil.
phuric acid with sesquicarbonate of ammonia,
in slight excess; filter, gently evaporate, and
crystallise. -
2. (Commercial.) From gas-liquor or bone.
spirit, saturated with weak oil of vitriol, and
the clear portion of the liquid, after repº,
decanted, concentrated by rapid evaporation,
and crystallised, in the manner noticed under
AMMONIUM, CHLORIDE OF.
Prop. Crystals, long, flattened, six-sided
prisms; soluble in 2 parts of cold, and 1 ºf
boiling water; fuses, with loss of one atom ºf
water, at about 280° Fahr.; and is volatilised
with entire decomposition, at about 535°. Even
its solution, by long boiling, becomes acid from
loss of ammonia.
exist.
Uses, &c. Pure sulphate of ammonia is
diuretic, aperient, resolvent, and stimulant.
— Dose, 10 to 30 gr. It is now seldom em.
ployed in medicine. The crude sulphateispii.
cipally used in the preparation of sal ammonit
and sesquicarbonate of ammonia, and for
manure. “A mixture of 10% of this sulphuſ:
with 20% of bone-dust, some gypsum, and farm.
gard manure,” forms “a very fertilising com:
post, applicable to a great variety of soils"
(Ure); and we may add—greatly superior to:
very large portion of what is now so commonly
vended under the name of “guano.”
Concluding remarks, Patents, &c. The
manufacture of sulphate of ammonia, On the
large scale, has been unavoidably explained in
treating on the salts of that base already nº
ticed. All that is necessary, is to Saturate
with sulphuric acid the solution of ammomi,
crude or otherwise, and obtained in any mall:
ner; and then to evaporate the solution until
the salt crystallises out. At other times, how:
ever, instead of adding the acid to the ammº.
niacal liquor, the latter, either at once, or after
treatment with lime, is submitted to distilla.
tion, and the evolved alkaline vapour is passed
into the acid (previously somewhat diluted)
contained in a large receiver or cistern, or a
series of them; the salt being obtained from
the resulting solution in the usual manner.
By re-solution and a second crystallisation, the
sulphate is generally obtained sufficiently pure
for all commercial purposes; but when the salt
is intended for use as manure, or (unless very
rough) for conversion into sal ammoniac, this
need not be had recourse to.
Among modifications and improvements, nºt
previously noticed, may be mentioned—

The anhydrous salt does nºt



AMMONIUM.
103
to the heat of a reverberatory furnace.
1. That of Dr. Richardson (Patent dated
Jan., 1850), who mixes SULPHATE OF MAGNE-
SIA with the crude ammoniacal liquor and
thus forms a double sulphate of magnesia and
ammonia, from which he obtains the SULPHATE
OF AMMONIA by sublimation.
2. That of Michiel (Patent dated April, 1850),
who prepares sulphate of ammonia by means of
OXYSULPHATE OF LEAD obtained by roasting
galena (sulphide of lead), by exposing it in a
crushed state and thin layers, for 2 or 3 hours,
The
resulting mixture of sulphate and oxide of lead
is reduced to the state of coarse powder, and
well worked up with the ammoniacal liquor,
when SULPHATE OF AMMONIA and sulphide
and carbonate of lead are produced by the
mutual reaction of the elements present. The
| first is removed by treatment with water; and
the residuum serves for the manufacture of lead
compounds, or may be reduced to the metallic
state by fusion in the usual manner.
3. That of Mr. Laming (Patent dated Aug.,
1852), in which a stream of SULPHUROUs ACID
GAS is transmitted through the liquor contain-
ing the ammonia, either in the free state or
as carbonate, by which SULPHITE OF AMMONIA
is formed. This salt he oxidises, and thus con-
verts into the SULPHATE OF AMMONIA, by
agitation and free exposure to the air.
Sulphate of ammonia, like the hydrochlorate,
may also be obtained by Saturating stale urine
with the acid, and subsequent evaporation and
crystallisation. See AMMONIA; AMMONIA,
CARBONATES OF; AMMONIUM, CHLORIDE OF,
and MANURES, &c.
Ammonium, Sulphide of (Neutral). (NHA).S.
Prep. Saturate strong solution of ammonia with
pure sulphuretted hydrogen gas ; then add a se-
cond portion of solution of ammonia, equal to
that first used, and preserveit in a well-stoppered
bottle.
Ammonium, Sulphydrate of NH4HS. Syn.
SULPHIDE OF AMMONIUM, HYDROSULPHIDE
OF AMMONIUM, HYDROSULPHATE OF AMMONIA.
Prep. By passing sulphuretted hydrogen gas,
to saturation, through a mixture composed of
strong solution of ammonia, 1 part, and dis-
tilled water, 4 parts.
Props. Prepared as above, it has a very
foetid odour. When pure it is wholly volatilised
by heat, and does not disturb a solution of
sulphate of magnesium. Mineral acids decom-
pose it, with the evolution of sulphuretted
hydrogen. By keeping, it decomposes and ac-
quires a yellow colour. This yellow colouration
does not, however, render it unfit for use as a
reagent; but it must be borne in mind that it
will now deposit sulphur when mixed with
acids.
agent to detect hydrocyanic acid, and as a
solvent to separate metallic sulphides thrown
down by sulphuretted hydrogen.
Uses, &c. It is principally employed by
chemists, as a reagent to precipitate metals, to
separate metallic sulphides, &c.; and by the per-
In this state it proves valuable as a re-
fumers, as a mordant in dyeing hair. In medi-
cine, it has been used by Cruickshank, Rollo,
and others, to check the morbid appetite, and to
increase the action of the stomach and general
tone of the system in diabetes mellitus. It has
also been used by Brauw, Gruithuisen, and
others, in old pulmonary and vesical catarrhs.
It is a powerful sedative, lessening the action
of the circulatory system, causing nausea, vo-
miting, vertigo, drowsiness, &c.—Dose. 3 to
6 drops, three or four times daily, mixed with
pure water, and instantly swallowed. In large
doses it is poisonous.
Ant. Very dilute solution of chlorine, or of
chloride of lime or soda, followed by a power-
ful emetic, or the stomach-pump. When the
vapour has been respired, free exposure to fresh
air, with the head a little elevated, and copious
affusions of cold water, with moderate draughts
of brandy-and-water, and the use of the smell-
ing-bottle (ammoniacal) should be adopted.
If need be, artificial respiration should be at-
tempted, and the air around the patient should
be slightly impregnated with the fumes of
chlorine or chloride of lime. -
Ammonium, Persulphide of Syn. Boy LE's
FUMING-Tſquor, HoFFMAN’s VoI/ATILE SPIRIT
of suTPHUR, &c.; AMMO’NIE PERHYDRO-
SUI/PHAs, A. PERHYDROSULPHURETUM, &c.
Authorities differ as to the constitution of this
liquid, which, since its introduction by Beguin
in 1650, has passed under more ‘aliases’ than
perhaps any other preparation. Its precise
position amongst the ammonia-compounds is
still undecided. - -
Prep. 1. (Beguin.) Sulphur, 1 lb ; quick-
lime, ib; sal ammoniac, 4 oz. ; mix and
distil.
2. (Boyle.) Sulphur and sal ammoniae, of
each, 5 oz. ; quick-lime, 6 oz. ; as last.
3. (Liebig.) Agitate the common hydrosul-
phate of ammonia with pure sulphur, until
the latter ceases to be dissolved; and, after
repose, decant the clear liquid. -
Prop., &c. An orange-yellow, fuming, foetid
liquid, of an oily consistence, having the cha-
racteristics of the common sulphydrate in a
remarkable degree. It may prove an excel-
lent medicine. “Useful for wounds and ulcers.”
(Beguin.) Diluted with three parts of spirit
of wine, it formed the LIQUOR ANTIPODAG'R1-
CUs of F. Hoffman; of which we are told, that
about 30 drops acted as a strong sudorific ;
and applied externally, mixed with camphor,
“it relieved pain like a charm.” (Hoffman.)
The sulphides of ammonium are now scarcely
ever employed as remedies. -
Ammonium, Sul’phite of. (NH4)2SO4.7Aq.
Syn. AMMO"NIE SUI/PHIS, L. Prepared by
passing sulphurous acid gas into a solution of
ammonia. It is crystallisable and very soluble
in water. -
Ammonium, Sulphocyanide of NHACNS.
Prep. 1. Neutralise hydrosulphocyanic acid
with ammonia, and gently evaporate the solu-
l.
2
tion to dryness, by the heat of a water bath,

104.
AMMONIACAL–AMORPHOUS.
2. Digest hydrocyanic acid with yellow sul-
phydrate of ammonium, and, after a time,
evaporate as before.
A deliquescent, white, saline mass, very
soluble in water, but seldom employed out of
the laboratory in a pure state. Of late it has
been obtained in quantity as a crude product
of the gas liquors.
Ammonium, Tartrates of. Of these there
are two:—
Ammonium, Neutral Tartrate of. (NHA),
CH4O6. Syn. AMMO"NIE TAR'TRAs, L. Prep.
Saturate a solution of crystallised tartaric acid,
150 grs.; with sesquicarbonate of ammonium,
118 grs.; and either evaporate the solution at
a gentle heat, and crystallise; or evaporate to
dryness, and powder the residuum.
Prop., &c. Prismatic crystals, or a crys-
talline mass; soluble and efflorescent. Its
medicinal properties and doses resemble those
of citrate of ammonium.
Ammonium, Bitartrate of NH4HC, H,0s.
Syn. AMMO"NIE BITAR'TRAs, L. Prep. To
a strong solution of tartaric acid, add another
of sesquicarbonate of ammonium, or of tartrate
of ammonium, as long as a precipitate falls;
which must be collected and dried.
Prop., &c. A crystalline powder, only
slightly soluble in water, closely resembling
ordinary cream of tartar. It is diaphoretic,
diuretic, and deobstruent, and is frequently,
though improperly, sold for the preceding pre-
paration.
Ammonium, Walerianate of NH3C5H2O3:
Syn. AMMO"NIAE VALERTA'NAs, L. Prep.
Saturate valerianic acid with strong solution
of ammonia, and evaporate the resulting liquid
to a syrupy consistence at a heat under 175°
Fahr.; then add twice its volume of alcohol,
and, after agitation, allow it to crystallise by
spontaneous evaporation.—Dose. 2 to 8 or 10
grs. ; in neuralgia, epilepsy, hypochondriasis,
hysteria, low fevers of an intermittent kind,
&c.; also in dyspepsia and debility complicated
with these affections.
AMMONI’ACAL, [Eng., Fr.] Syn. AMMO-
NIACA'LIS, L. Pertaining to, or possessing the
odour or properties of, ammonia.
NIA, PERFUMEs, &c.
AMMONIACUM. Syn. GUM AMMONIACUM,
G. AMMO"NIAC+; Gom ME AMMONIAQUE, Fr.;
AMMONIAK, Ger. A gummy-resinous exuda-
tion from the stem of dorema ammoniacum, in
tears and masses, of a pale cinnamon colour,
brittle, and when broken has a white and
shining surface. Collected in Persia and the
Punjaub. (B. P.)
Gum ammoniacum has an unpleasant odour,
especially when heated, and a nauseous and
slightly bitter taste. It is a mild, stimulating
expectorant and emmenagogue; and its effects
on the system resemble those of assafoetida,
except in being weaker. Eacternally, it is re-
solvent.—Dose, 10 to 30 grs. in pills or emul-
S1OIl.
Strained' Ammoniacum. Syn. PREPARED
See AMMO- |
AMMONIACUM ; AMMONI’ACUM PREPARATUM
(Ph. L.), L. Prep. (Ph. L. 1851.) Boil
ammoniacum in water just sufficient to cover
it ; strain the mixture through a hair sieve,
and constantly stirring, evaporate in a water
bath, until, on cooling, it becomes hard. The
product, owing to a loss of volatile oil, is much
weaker than the unprepared gum-resin, The
process is only necessary with rough lump:
almlin OIllaCllrºl.
Ammo"niated. Syn. AMMONIA'TUS, L. In
pharmacy, perfumery, &c., applied to prepara.
tions containing ammonia.
AMM0"NIO-, Ammon'ico-. In chemistry, a
common prefix to double salts containing
ammonia; as ammonio-citrate, a.-chloride, Or
a.-tartrate of iron, &c. See the respective
metals.
#4+ The sp. gr. of any sample of liquid am:
monia, expressed in three integers, deducted
from 1998, and the remainder divided by 4,
gives a number which represents the per-centage
strength, nearly. (Ure.) This rule may be
sometimes conveniently employed for rough
calculations, in the absence of Tables.
TABLE II.-Showing the per-centage of PURE
AMMONIA, and of AMMONIA-WATER of 9000
in Water of Ammonia of the given specific
gravities, at 60°Fahr. By Dr. URE.
Sp. Gr. by Nº. Pure Water
experiment. of 900, Anº P*| per cent.
per cent. -
•9000 100 26.500 73.500
‘9045 95 25-175 74-825
•9090 90 23.850 76150
‘9133 85 22:525 77475
•9177 80 21:200 78-800
•9227 75 19.875 80-125
‘9275 70 18-550 81:450
•9320 65 17-225 82.775
‘9363 60 15-900 84:100
‘94.10 55 14:575 85.425
‘945.5 50 13:250 86,750
‘9510 45 11:925 88.075
'9564 40 10-600 89.400
'96 I4. 35 9-275 90725
•9662 30 7-950 92.050
•9716 25 6.625 93.375
•9768 20 5:300 94.700
•9828 15 3-975 96.025
•988.7 10 2.650 97:350
‘99.45 5 1.325 98.675
*** Strengths corresponding to sp. gr. which
are not in the above Tables, may be found by
the ‘method of differences’ explained under
ALCOHOLOMETRY (p. 68-9).
AMONTILLAD0. [Sp.] See SHERRY and
WINE.
• AMORPHOUS(-morf'-às). Syn. AMORPH'Us.
L.; AMORPHE, INFORME, DIFFORME, Fr.;

AMPHIBIA—ANALYSIS.
105
AMORPHISCH, MISGEBILDET, MIssGESTALTET,
Ger. Shapeless. In chemistry and mineralogy,
applied to substances devoid of regular or
crystalline form; as a lump of chalk, the ma-
jority of precipitates, &c. The corresponding
substantives are AMORPH/ISM, AMORPH'oUS-
NESS* (amorphis'mus, L.; amorphisme, Fr.).
AMPHIB'IA (-fib'-y’ā). [L. pl. ; prim. Gr.]
Syn. AMPHIB'IANS (-yānz), AMPHIB'IALs
(-y’älz). Animalst hat possess the faculty of
living both in water and on land. In modern
zoology, it is restricted to those animals which
possess both gills and lungs; as the batrach'ia
or frog tribe. The term is also often applied,
colloquially, to otters, seals, walruses, croco-
diles, &c., none of which can breathe under
water, although, from the languid nature of
their circulation, they are able to remain a
long time in it.
AMPHIBIOUS (y’üs). Syn. AMPHIB/IUs,
L.; AMPHIBIE, Fr. ; BEYDLEBIG, Ger. In
botany and zoology, having the faculty of
growing or living both on land and in water.
See AMPHIBLA.
AM'PHITYPE (-fe-). See PHOTOGRAPHY.
AMYGDALIN. CºoH, NOu. 3Aq. This sub-
stance exists in bitter almonds. It crystal-
lises in pearly white plates, which are odour-
less and almost tasteless. It is nearly insoluble
in hot and cold water and in cold alcohol, but
soluble in boiling alcohol.
AMYG'DALOID (-loyd). Syn. AMYGDA-
LOID'AL; AMYGDALOi'DES (-déz), L.; AMYGDA-
LoíDE, Fr. Almond-shaped. In mineralogy,
amygdaloid is “toadstone.’
AMYLA/CEOUS (ām-e-lā’-sh’ūs). Syn. AMY-
LA/CEUs, L.; AMYLACé, Fr. Of or like starch;
consisting of or abounding in starch; starchy.
See FOOD, NUTRITION, STARCH, &c.
AM'YL (-il). C. Hii. The radical of the fusel-
oil compounds (AMYL-SERIES).
Amyl, Ac'etate of (äc/-). C5HuC, H3O3. Syn.
PEAR-OHL. Prep. From fusel-oil, 1 part;
acetate of potassa (dry), 2 parts; concentrated
sulphuric acid, 1 part ; distilled, with the usual
precautions, from a glass retort into a cool
receiver. The distillate is purified by washing
it with very dilute solution of potassa, and re-
distilling it from fused chloride of calcium. A
little litharge added to the liquid in the retort,
before rectification, will remove any sulphurous
odour, should it be present.
Prop., &c. Liquid, limpid, colourless; in-
soluble in water; soluble in alcohol; boils at
272°Fahr.; alcoholic solution of potassa con-
verts it into an acetate of that base, with re-
production of fusel-oil.
Obs. The odour and flavour of this pre-
paration are those of the Jargonelle-pear. It
is now extensively manufactured, and, after
dilution with alcohol, is sold under the name of
ESSENCE OF JARGONELLE-PEAR, for flavouring
liqueurs and confectionery.
Amyl, Wale'rianate of C5H11C3H8O2. Syn.
APPLE-oIL, A.-ESSENCE, &c. This compound
is abundantly formed during the preparation
of valerianic acid from potato oil, and is re-
cognised by the offensive odour of rotten apples
evolved during the process. By treating the
crude product of the distillation with a weak
solution of pure potassa, the valerianic acid is
removed, and the volatile oil obtained nearly
pure. Dissolved in rectified spirit it forms the
“APPLE-ESSENCE' now so much employed as a
flavouring ingredient for confectionery and
liqueurs. See FRUIT EssENCES, WALERIANIC
ACID, &c.
AM'YLENE (-e-lène). C, Hio. [Eng., Fr.]
Syn. AM'ILENE*; AMYLE'NA, AMYLE'NUM, L.
A peculiar volatile, liquid hydrocarbon, dis-
covered by Cahours.
Prep. From fusel-oil repeatedly distilled
along with either anhydrous phosphoric acid, or
a concentrated solution of chloride of zinc ;
the product being repeatedly rectified, at a low
temperature, until the boiling-point sinks to
102° Fahr.
Prop., Uses, &c. An ethereal liquid, lighter
than water, having an aromatic odour, slightly
alliaceous. Sp. gr. of vapour, 2.68. Its vapour
was several times successfully employed, by the
late Dr. Snow, as a substitute for ether and
chloroform in producing anaesthesia, being,
though less agreeable, also less pungent, and
consequently easier to breathe, than either of
them; but its use has since been given up
owing to doubts as to its safety, two or three
deaths having followed its inhalation.
ANESTHE'SIA (ān-Éz-the-zh’ā; -sh’ā;-
thèze'-y'ār). [L.; prim. Gr.] Syn. ANES-
THéSIE, Fr. In pathology, diminished or lost
sense of feeling.
In surgery and obstetrics, the production of
temporary anaesthesia, for the purpose of ren-
dering operations painless, relieving the pangs
of childbirth, &c., is effected by the use of—
ANAESTHETICS. Syn. ANAESTHET/ICA, L.;
ANESTHETIQUES, Fr. In pharmacology and
surgery, substances or agents which diminish
or destroy sensibility, or which relieve pain.
In its full extent this term includes both
anodynes and narcotics ; but it is now more
generally confined to those substances which
greatly diminish common sensibility, or en-
tirely remove susceptibility to pain. Among
the most useful, safe, and powerful of this
class are chloroform, ether, nitrous oxide,
and intense cold. The former are administered
by inhaling the vapour or gas; the last, by
local application.
ANALEPTIC. Syn. ANALEP'TICUs, L.;
ANALEPTIQUE, Fr. Restorative; that recruits
the strength lost by sickness.
Analeptics. Syn. ANALEP'TICA, L.; ANA-
LEPTIQUES, Fr. In pharmacology, &c., resto-
rative medicines and agents.
ANAL'YSIS (-e-sis). [Eng. L., Gr.] Syn.
ANALYSE, Fr. ; AUSLöSUNG, ZERLEGUNG, Ger.
In a gen. sense, the resolution of anything,
whether an object of the senses or of the in-
tellect, into its elementary parts. In che-


mistry, the resolution or separation of a com-
106
ANASTATIC PRINTING—ANCHOVY.
pound body into its constituent parts or ele-
ments, for the purpose of either determining
their nature, or, when this is known, their rela-
tive proportions. It is divided into QUALITA-
TIVE ANALYSIS and QUAN'TITATIVE ANALYSIs;
and these again into PROx'IMATE ANALYSIS and
UI/TIMATE ANALYSIS. The first consists in
finding the components of a compound, merely
as respects their nature or names; the second,
in finding not merely the component parts, but
also the proportions of each of them; the third
gives the results in the names of the proxi-
mate or immediate principles or compounds
which, by their union, form the body under ex-
amination ; whilst the fourth develops the
chemical elements of which it is composed.”
An analysis may also be made to determine
whether a certain body is or is not contained
in a compound (as lead in wine); or it may
be undertaken to ascertain all the constituents
present; the extent of an investigation being
merely limited by the object in view.
For success in chemical analysis a thorough
acquaintance with the various properties of
bodies is required, as well as aptitude in ap-
plying this knowledge in discriminating them,
and separating them from each other. Judg-
ment and expertness in manipulation are,
indeed, essential qualifications. The method
pursued must likewise be such as to attain the
object in view with unerring certainty, and in
the most expeditious manner. “The mere
knowledge of the reagents, and of the reac-
tions of other bodies with them, will not suf-
fice for the attainment of this end. This
requires the additional knowledge of a sys-
tematic and progressive course of analysis, or,
in other words, the knowledge of the order, and
succession, in which solvents, together with
general and special reagents, ought to be
applied, both to effect the speedy and safe
detection of every individual component of a
compound or mixture, and to prove with cer-
tainty the absence of all other substances.
If we do not possess this systematic know-
ledge, or if in the hope of attaining an object
more rapidly, we adhere to no method in
our investigations and experiments, analysing
becomes (at least in the hands of a novice),
mere guess work, and the results obtained are
no longer the fruits of scientific calculation,
but mere matters of accident, which sometimes
may prove lucky hits, and at others total
failures.” (Fresenius.)
ANASTATIC PRINTING.
and ZINCOGRAPHY.
ANATOM'ICAL. Syn. ANATOM'ICUS, L.;
ANATOMIQUE, Fr. ; ANATOMISCH, Ger. Be-
longing to anatomy or dissection.
Anatomical Preparations. Objects of inter-
est in both surgical and pathological anatomy,
1, 2 Thus, suet consists of olein, palmitin, and stearin.
These would form the ‘terms’ of the PROxIMATE
ANALYSIs of this substance. But olein, palmitin, and
stearin consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. The
ULTIMATE ANALYSIs of suet would, therefore, have refer-
ence to the elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen,
See PRINTING
and specimens in natural history, preserved by
subjecting them to antiseptic processes, to
which is also frequently added injection with
coloured fluids (which subsequently harden),
amalgams, or fusible metal, in order to display
more fully the minute vessels, or the micro-
scopic anatomy of the several parts. See
FUSIBLE METAL, INJECTIONS, PREPARATIONS,
PUTREFACTION, SKELETONS, SoDUTIONS, &c.
ANCH0(WY (-chö'-). Syn. ANCHOIs, Fr.;
ANCHOVE, ANSCHOVE, Ger. ; ACCIUGHE, AN-
CHIov E, It. ; ANCHOVA, Port., Sp. The clu'
pea encrasic'olus (Linn.), a small fish of the
herring tribe, closely resembling the English
sprat. It is common in the Mediterranean,
and occurs in the greatest abundance, and of
the finest quality about the island of Gor-
gona, near Leghorn. It is taken in the night,
during May, June, and July.
Anchovies are prepared for sale or exporta-
tion by salting or pickling them—the heads,
intestines and pectoral fins having been first
removed, but not the scales—and afterwards
packing them, along with rock-salt, in the
small kegs in which they are imported into
this country. The small fish are valued more
than the larger ones. For the table they
are often fried to a pale amber colour, in oil
or butter; having previously been scraped
clean, soaked for an hour or two in water,
wiped dry, opened (without dividing the fish),
and had the back-bones removed. Before
being put into the pan they are usually highly
seasoned with cayenne; and after being again
closed, are dipped into a rich light batter,
They are also divided into fillets, and served
as sandwiches, or in curried toasts. An-
chovies are also extensively potted (POTTED
ANCHOVIES), and made into butter (A.-BUTTER),
and into sauce (A.-SAUCE), particularly the
last.
The anchovy has a fine and peculiar flavour,
and is eaten as a delicacy all over Europe. It
was known to the Greeks and Romans, who
prepared from it a kind of garum for the
table. It is said to be aperitive, stimulant,
and stomachic.
The high price of genuine Gorgona ancho-
vies has led the fraudulent dealer to either
substitute for them, or mix with them, fish of
a less expensive kind. The most frequent SUB-
STITUTIONs are Dutch, French, and Sicilian
fish of allied species or varieties, sardines, and
even the common sprat. The genuine Gor-
gona fish is about the length of one’s finger;
and may be known by its silvery appearance;
by the greater thickness of its head, which is
sharp-pointed, with the upper jaw considerably
the longest, and the mouth deeply divided; the
dusky brown colour of its back,” and the pink
salmon colour of its flesh. When only 3 months
old, its flesh is pale; when of 6 months,
rather pink; when of 10 to 12 months (or
in its prime), a beautiful deep pink colour;
* The colour of the top of the head and back is, in the
recent fish, blue, with a tinge of green. (Yarrell.)

ANCHUSIC ACID—ANEMOMETER.
107
ANKYLOSE, Fr., Ger.
of a small degree of motion.
and when much older, darker, but less lively.
The fin-rays, varying in number with the age
of the fish, are—
Yarrell. Hassell.1
Dorsal 14, 16 (?).
Pectoral 15, -
Ventral - 7, -
Anal 18, 19 (?).
Caudal 19, 26 (?).
These fins are delicate in structure and green-
ish-white; and the membranes connecting the
rays almost transparent. “The length of the
head, compared with the length of the body
alone, is as 1 to 3; the depth of the body but
2-3rds of the length of the head, and com-
pared to the length of the whole fish, is as 1
to 7;” “the tail is deeply forked, the gill-covers
are elongated, and the scales of the body large
and deciduous.” “The breadth of the eye is
1-5th of the length of the whole head.”
Dutch fish may be generally known by being
deprived of the scales, and the French fish by
their larger size; and both by the paler or
whiter colour of their flesh; and sardines
and sprats by the flesh being white. The
genuine fish may also be known by the pickle,
after repose or filtration, being of a clear
pinkish colour, without any red sediment;
whilst that from spurious kinds is turbid and
red only when agitated, and deposits a heavy
red sediment (Armenian bole, Venetian red, or
red ochre) on repose. See BUTTER, POTTING,
PowDERs, SAUCEs, &c.
British Anchovies. See SPRATs.
ANCHU'SIC ACID (-kü'-zík. See ANCHU-
SINE. -
ANCHU'SINE(-kü'-zīn).[ Eng., Fr.] Syn.
ANCHU's IC ACID*, PSEU'Do-ALKANN'INE*,
PSEUDo-ALKA"NIUM*; ANCHUSI/NA, L. The
resinoid constituting the colouring matter of
alkanet-roof (which see).
ANCHYL0'SIS (ängk-e-). [L.; prim., Gr.]
Syn. ANKYLO'SIS, ANCYLO's Is (ān-se-), L.;
In pathology, stiffness or
immobility of a joint naturally movable.
Anchylosis is either true or complete, as when
the extremities of the bones forming a joint
are reunited and immoveble; or, false or in-
complete, where the affection depends upon a
contraction of the tendons and ligaments sur-
rounding the joints, which nevertheless admit
For the first
there is no available remedy; for the second,
gentle and progressive flexion and extension of
the part daily (carefully avoiding violence),
friction with oleaginous and stimulating lini-
ments, and the use of the hot bath, vapour
bath, or hot-air or Turkish bath, and elec-
tricity, have been strongly recommended, and
have frequently proved successful.
ANCYLO'SIS. See ANCHYLOSIS.
ANDROGRAPHIS PANICULATA. (Ind. Ph.)
1 Counted, by Dr. A. H. Hassall, in fish in the pre-
served state.
* Yarrell’s “British Fishes.”
Syn. KARIYAT. Habitat. Commonly in shady
places all over India.-Officinal part. The
dried stalks and root (Andrographis Caules et
Radix, Kariyat, Creyat). The stem, which is
usually met with, with the root attached, occurs
in pieces of about a foot or more in length,
quadrangular, of a lightish brown colour, and
persistent bitter taste.—Properties. Bitter
tonic and stomachic, very analogous to quassia
in its action.—Therapeutic uses. In general
debility, in convalescence after fevers, and in
the advanced stages of dysentery.
Preparations —
Compound Infusion of Kariyāt (Infusum
Andrographis compositum). Take of kariyāt,
bruised, } an ounce; orange-peel and coriander
fruit, bruised, of each, 60 grains; boiling
water, 10 fluid ounces. Infuse in a covered
vessel for an hour and strain.--Dose. From
1} to 2 fluid ounces, twice or thrice daily.
Compound Tincture of Kariyāt (Tinctura
Andrographis composita). Take of kariyāt
root, cut small, 6 ounces; myrrh and aloes,
in coarse powder, of each, 1 ounce; brandy,
2 pints. Macerate for seven days in a closed
vessel, with occasional agitation; strain, press,
filter, and add sufficient brandy to make two
pints.--Dose. From 1 to 4 fluid drachms.
Said to be tonic, stimulant, and gently aperient,
and to prove valuable in several forms of dys-
pepsia, and in torpidity of the bowels.
ANDROPOGON (CYMBOPOGON) CITRA-
TUM. Lemon Grass. (Ind. Ph.) Habitat.
Commonly cultivated in gardens in India; also
in Ceylon, upon a large scale, for the sake of
its volatile oil. — Officinal part. The volatile
oil (Oleum Andropogi Citrati, Lemon Grass
Oil, Oil of Perbena), obtained by distillation
from the fresh plant; of a pale sherry colour,
transparent, extremely pungent taste, and a
peculiarfragrantlemon-like odour.—Properties.
Stimulant, carminative, antispasmodic, and
diaphoretic ; locally applied, rubefacient.—The-
rapeutic uses. In flatulent and spasmodic
affections of the bowels, and in gastric irrita-
bility. In cholera it proves serviceable by
aiding the process of reaction. Externally, as
an embrocation in chronic rheumatism, neu-
ralgia, sprains, and other painful affections.
Dose. From 3 to 6 drops, on sugar or in
emulsion. For external application it should
be diluted with twice its bulk of soap liniment
or any bland oil.
ANDROPOGON (CYMBOPOGON) NARDUS.
CITRONELLE. (Ind. Ph.) Habitat. Madras
Peninsula and Ceylon. The volatile oil of
this plant has similar properties to A. citratum,
and is used for the same purposes.
ANDROPOGON PACHNODES. (Ind. Ph.)
The volatile oil of this plant possesses similar
properties to that of A. citratum, and is used
for the same purposes.
ANELECTRIC (ān-e-).
non-electric.
ANEMOM’ETER (ān-e-). Syn. ANEMOM'-
ETRUM, L.; ANKMOMāTRE, Fr. ; WINDMESSER,





Non-electric ; a
108
ANEMOMETRY-ANHYDROUS.
Ger. An instrument or apparatus for mea-
suring the force or velocity of the wind, or of
a current of air. Various contrivances have
been adopted for this purpose. The anemo-
meter of Dr. Lind being also
applicable to the determina-
tion of the draught of a
chimney, and the strength of
air-currents in ventilation,
may be usefully described
here:—
Desc. & appl. The open
end (a) is kept, by means of
a vane, presented to the wind,
which acting on the surface
of the water or other liquid in
(b), raises the level of the fluid in the arm (c.)
The difference of the level of the fluid in the
two arms of the instrument is the measure of
the force of the wind. To estimate the draught
of a flue or chimney, the arm (c) is placed in
the chimney, and the orifice (a) in the apart-
ment."
ANEMOM'ETRY. Syn. ANEMoME'TRIA, L.;
ANáMOMETRIE, Fr.; WINDMESSEN, Ger. In
meteorology, physics, &c., the art or act of mea-
suring the velocity or force of the wind, or of
ascertaining its direction.
ANEM'ONE (à-nēm'-o-ne).
ONY; ANEM'oNE, L., Gr.; ANKMONE, Fr. The
wind-flower. In botany, a genus of beautiful
flowering herbaceous plants, of the nat. ord.
Ranunculaceae. The double flowers of some of
the species are among the most elegant orna-
ments of our gardens. Others are used in
medicine. They are all acrid and stimulat-
Ing.
Sea Anem'ones (-o-nēz). Syn. AN'IMAL-
FLOWERSÍ, SEA SUN'FLOWERSt.Animals of the
genus actin'ia, so called, from the resemblance
of their claws or tentacles, when expanded, to
the petals of a flower. They are of various
colours, are generally fixed by one end to rocks
or stones in the sand, and are very voracious,
being accused of occasionally swallowing a
mussel or a crab as large as a hen’s egg for a
meal. They belong to the highly organised
polypes of Cuvier.
ANEMON’IC ACID. See ANEMONINE.
ANEM'OSCOPE (än’-e—Brande, Mayne).
Syn. ANEMosco'PIUM, L.; ANáMOSCOPE,Fr.;
ANEMOSKOP, Ger. An instrument to measure
the force and velocity of the wind. See ANE-
MOMETER.
AN'EROID (-royd).” In physics, &c., not
fluid, or not depending on water or a fluid for
Syn. ANEM'-
1 The anemometers now generally used in meteorolo-
ical observations are those of Mr. Follet Osler, Dr.
binson, and Dr. Whewell. For a description of these
instruments, see Phillip’s “Report on Anemometry,” the
“Trans. of the Brit. Assoc.,” 1846, “Trans. Royal Irish
Acad.,” &c.
* That is—3, without, vipos, (the) watery, etőos, form, as
correctly given by Brande. By some strange mistake,
Dr. Mayne, in his new “Expository Lericon,” gives “ &,
priv., áip, air, terminal -ides,” as the derivation of this
word; and marks it ‘ane'roid.”
its action; applied to a certain form of ‘baro.
meter’ (which see).
ANGELICA (-jël’-). [L., Port., Sp.; Ph.
E. & D.] Syn. GARDEN ANGELICA; ANGá.
LIQUE, Fr. ; ANGELIKA, A.-WURZEL, ANGEL-
KRAUT, Ger. The angelica archangel'ica of
Linnaeus, an aromatic herbaceous plant with a
biennial, fleshy root, indigenous to the north
of Europe, but frequently found wild in Eng-
land, and largely cultivated in our gardens.
Dried root (ANGELICA, Ph. E.), aperient, car.
minative, diaphoretic, and tonic; much es:
teemed by the Laplanders, both as food and
medicine;—fruit or seed (ANGELICA, Ph. D.),
resembles the root, but is weaker. The whole
plant has been extolled as an aromatic tonic,
As a masticatory, it leaves an agreeable glow-
ing heat in the mouth. The aromatic proper.
ties of this plant depend on a peculiar volatile
oil and resin.
Uses, &c. It has been recommended in
diarrhoea, dyspepsia, debility, and some fevers;
but is now seldom used in medicine.—Dose,
30 grs. to 1 dr. The dried root and seeds
are used by rectifiers to flavour gin and
liqueurs; and the fresh root, tender stems,
stalks, &c., are made by the confectioners
into an aromatic candy. See CANDY, GIN,
LIQUEURS, &c.
Angelica Atropurpu"rea. [Linn.] Syn.
AMER/ICAN ANGELICA; ANGELICA, Ph, U.S.
Elab., North America. Resembles garden an-
gelica, but placed by some botanists in a
separate, though allied genus. It is a popu-
lar remedy for flatulent colic, indigestion,
and cardialgia, in the United States; and
is there regarded as tonic, cordial, and apro-
disiac.
ANGELIC ACID. H.C.H.O.. A volatile
substance, noticed by L. A. Buchner, jun, in
angelica-root. It has a pungent sour smell,
and a biting acid taste; is sometimes fluid
and oleaginous, and sometimes crystallised in
striated prisms.” .
ANGO'LA. Syn. ANGO’LA-wool, ANGo"RA.
W., ANGO’NA-W., &c.; Poll, DE CHEVROND’AN-
GORA, Fr.; (Engoor', Engour', or Engu'ri)
TIFTIC, Tur. The wool of “capra Angoren'sis'
or the Angora-goat, of which the shawls of
Cashmere are made, and others in imitation of
them. It is also used to make plush, light
cloths for paletóts which are repellent of wet,
&c.; and is extensively employed, in France, in
the manufacture of lace more brilliant than
that of Valenciennes and Chantilly, and at
half the price. See ALPACA, SHAWLS,
WoOL, &c.
ANGOSTU'RA, Angustu'ra (-türe'-ā). See
CUSPARIA.
False Angostura.
and STRYCHNOS.
ANGOSTU"RINE, Angustu'rine (in). See
CUSPARINE.
ANHYDROUS (-drüs; an'hydrous, as marked
by Brande, is less usual). Syn. AN'HYDRUS,
3 Schmidt’s “Jahrb.,” 1842.
See BRUCEA, CUSPARIA,



ANIL–ANILINE, 109
L.; ANHYDRí, Fr. ; WASSERFREI, Ger. Free
from water; dry. In chemistry and mineralogy,
a term frequently applied to substances, as
acids, alcohol, gases, salts, minerals, &c., which
do not contain either free or combined water.
GASEs may generally be rendered anhydrous,
by passing them through a tube containing
fused chloride of calcium, or (e.g. AMMONIA
and two or three others) quick-lime, in coarse
powder; and some of them, by passing them
through concentrated sulphuric acid. SALTs
may generally be dried by cautiously sub-
mitting them to the action of heat, or by
exposure to a very dry atmosphere; and
alcohol, and many other volatile fluids,
by careful distillation from chloride of cal-
cium, or some other highly hygrometric
substance.
AN'IL. [Fr., Sp., L.] The indigof"era anil
of botanists—one of the plants yielding “in-
digo’—a native of America, but now largely
cultivated in the East Indies. See INDIGO
(and below).
AN'ILINE' (-een). [Eng., Fr.] C.H.N.
Syn. PHENYL'AMINE; ANILI'NA, ANILI'NUM,
&c., L. A peculiar volatile organic base first
noticed by Unverdorben in empyreumatic bone-
oil, and afterwards obtained by Runge from
coal-tar, and by Fritzsche, Zinin, A. W. Hof-
mann, and others, as a product of various re-
actions, processes, and decompositions, particu-
larly those attending the destructive distillation
of organic bodies.
Prep. Aniline is now almost invariably ob-
tained, on the large scale, either directly or in-
directly from coal-tar or indigo ; and chiefly
from the basic oil or naphtha, or the nitroben-
zol, of which the former is the principal
source. The following are the leading com-
mercial and experimental processes:
1. From COAL-TAR or COAL-TAR NAPHTHA:—
The basic oil or basic portion of coal-tar or
coal-tar naphtha, forming the latter, denser,
and least volatile products of the distillation
or rectification of these substances, is strongly
agitated, for some time, along with hydrochloric
acid in slight excess, a glass globe, or, on the
large sale, a suitable vessel of lead, or of
enamelled iron, being employed for the pur-
pose; the clear portion of the liquid (contain-
ing the hydrochlorates of the bases pre-
sent) is then decanted and carefully evapo-
rated over an open fire until acrid fumes
begin to be disengaged, when it is again de-
canted or filtered; the clear liquor, or filtrate,
is next treated with potassa or milk of lime in
excess, by which the bases — chiefly aniline
and chinoline—are liberated under the form
of a brownish oil; the whole of the resulting
mixture is now submitted to distillation, the
portion which passes over at or about 360°
Fahr., and which consists chiefly of crude ani-
line, being collected separately; the product
1 For a detailed account of the methods of preparing
aniline commercially, and of the dyes obtained therefrom,
see “Dictionnaire de Chimie,” par A. Wurtz.
is purified by rectification and re-collection,
Once or oftener, at the same temperature, and
lastly, by fresh treatment with hydrochloric
acid and careful distillation with excess of
potassa or milk of lime, as before.
2. From NITROBENZOL : — a. (Zinin.) An
alcoholic solution of nitrobenzol, after satu-
ration with ammonia, is treated with sul-
phuretted hydrogen, until, after some hours, a
precipitation of sulphur takes place; the brown
liquid is then repeatedly saturated with fresh
sulphuretted hydrogen, until no more sulphur
separates, the reaction being aided by occasion-
ally heating or distilling the mixture; an excess
of acid is next added, and, after filtering the
liquid, and the removal of the alcohol and
unaltered nitrobenzole by ebullition or dis-
| tillation, the residuum is lastly distilled with
caustic potassa, in excess. The ANILINE found
in the receiver may be rendered quite pure by
forming it into oxalate of aniline, repeat-
edly crystallising the salt from alcohol, and
finally distilling it with excess of caustic po-
tassa, as before.
The following is a cheaper and more con-
venient process; and probably, the best, or
one of the best, that has yet been invented for
obtaining aniline:— -
b. (M. Béchamps.) From nitrobenzol dis-
tilled along with basic protacetate of iron: or,
what is better—by distilling a mixture of iron-
filings, 2 parts, and acetic acid, 1 part, with
about an equal volume of nitrobenzol, the re-
action being assisted, whenever the effer-
vescence flags, by the application of a gentle
heat. The liquor found in the receiver consists
of aniline and water, from which the first,
forming the lower portion, is obtained, after
sufficient repose in a separator; or more
easily, by adding a very little ether, which by
dissolving in the aniline, causes it to rise to the
surface, when it is at once decanted. A very
spacious glass or earthenware retort must be
employed in the process, as the mass swells up
violently; and it must be connected with the
receiver, on the small scale, by means of a
Liebig’s condenser, and, on the large scale,
by an ordinary worm-pipe and tub, kept
in good action by a sufficient flow of cold
water.
3. From INDIGo:—Powdered indigo is added
to a boiling and highly concentrated solution of
caustic potassa, as long as it dissolves and hy-
drogen gas is extricated; the resulting brown-
ish-red liquid is evaporated to dryness, and the
residuum is submitted to destructive distilla-
tion in a retort, which, owing to the intumes-
cence of the mass, should be strong and spa-
cious. The ANILINE is found in the receiver
under the form of a brownish oil mixed with
ammoniacal liquor, and by separation from the
latter, and subsequent rectification, is obtained
nearly colourless. It may be further purified,
as in the preceding processes.—Prod. 18 to
20% of the indigo employed.
4. By fusing, with the proper precautions, a
110 ANIMALCULE.
mixture of isatine and hydrate of potassa (both
in powder); a retort connected with a well-
cooled receiver, being employed as the appa-
ratus. Said by Profs. A. W. Hofmann and
Muspratt, to be “the most eligible process for
isolating” aniline."
5. From anthranilic acid mixed with pow-
dered glass or sand, and rapidly heated in a
retort.
6. By treating an alcoholic solution of ben-
zine with a little zinc and hydrochloric acid.
7. By heating phenyl-alcohol with ammonia
in sealed tubes.
Prop., &c. A thin, oily, colourless liquid,
with a faintly vinous odour, and a hot and
aromatic taste; very volatile in the air;
miscible in all proportions with alcohol and
ether; very slightly soluble in water; neutral
to ordinary test-paper, but exhibiting an alka-
line reaction to dahlia-petal infusion and
paper; dissolves camphor, sulphur, and phos-
phorus, and coagulates albumen; possesses a
high refractive power; and precipitates the
oxides of iron, zinc, and alumina, from solutions
of their salts, and neutralises the acids, like
ammonia. With the acids it forms numerous
crystallisable compounds of great beauty,
and which are easily formed, and are precisely
analogous to the corresponding salts of am-
monia. These, on exposure to the air, acquired
a rose-colour, in many cases gradually passing
into brown. Its boiling-point is 359° to 360°
Fahr.; sp. gr. 1.028.
Tests.-1. Chromic acid gives a deep
greenish or bluish-black precipitate with ani-
line and its salts:—2. Hypochlorite of lime
strikes an extremely beautiful violet colour,
which is soon destroyed:—3. The addition of
two or three drops of nitric acid to anhydrous
aniline produces a fine blue colour, which, on
the application of heat, passes into yellow, and
a violent reaction ensues, sometimes followed
by explosion —4. With bichloride of platinum
it yields a double salt (PLAT'INo-CHLo"RIDE OF
ANILINE, analogous to the like salt of ammonia.
These reactions distinguish it from all other
substances.
Uses, &c. Chiefly in dyeing, for the pro-
duction of colouring matter of various rich
shades of purple and velvet, some approaching
pink, by the action of chromic acid; and of a
splendid crimson, by the action of various
oxidising agents. It forms the basis of the
celebrated new dyes for silks lately patented by
Mr. W. H. Perkin, and others, and which are
not only more delicate and gorgeous in tint, but
also more permanent, than any produced by
other substances.
Besides numerous salts, various substitution
compounds of aniline have been formed, all of
which possess vast scientific interest, and
several are likely to prove of importance in the
arts. See AMINES, DYEING, INDIGO, PHENYLE,
&c. (also below).
1 Muspratt’s “Chemistry,” i, 599.
Aniline, Chro’mates of Prep. 1. (NEUTRAI,
CHROMATE.) From sulphate or ovalate of
aniline and chromate of potassa, by double
decomposition. -
2. (BICHRO'MATE :-Mr. W. H. Perkin)
Sulphate of aniline and bichromate of potassa,
in equiv. proportions, are separately dissolved
in water, and the solutions, after being mixed, .
allowed to stand for several hours. The whole
is then thrown upon a filter, and the black
precipitate which has formed is washed and
dried. It is next digested in coal-tar naphtha
(—? benzol), to extract a brown resinous sub-
stance; after which it is digested in alcohol,
to dissolve out the colouring matter (BICHRO-
MATE OF ANILINE), which is left behind on
distilling off the spirit, as a coppery friable
mass. Patented. -
Aniline, Cy'amide of Benzonitrile.
Aniline, Ox'alate of (CGH;N),C,0, Ob-
tained by saturating an alcoholic solution of
oxalic acid with aniline; the salt separating as
a crystalline mass. It is very soluble in hot,
water ; much less so in cold water; only
slightly soluble in alcohol; and insoluble in
ether. It may be crystallised from hot water
or boiling alcohol. Used chiefly to form other
salts. -
Aniline, Sul’phate of. (C6H,N),SO, Pre-
pared by saturating aniline with dilute sul.
phuric acid, and gently evaporating the liquid
until the salt separates. By re-solutionin boil-
ing alcohol, it crystallises out, as the liquor
cools, under the form of very beautiful colour.
less plates, of a silvery lustre. It is freely
soluble in water, and in hot alcohol; scarcely
soluble in cold alcohol; and insoluble in ether.
It is chiefly employed in the preparation of the
new aniline dyes.
ANIMAL'CULE (-küle). [Eng., Fr.; pl.
animal'cules.] Syn. ANIMAI/CULUM (pl., ani.
mal'cula”), L.; THIERCHEN, Ger. In zoology
and physiology, a microscopic animal, or one so
extremely small, that it is either invisible, or
not distinctly discernible, without the aid of
a lens or microscope; more especially one that
is not perceptible to the naked eye. “A mile
was anciently thought the limit of littleness;
but there are animals 27,000,000 of times
smaller than a mite.” A thousand millions of
some of the animalcula found in common water
are said to be collectively of less bulk than a
single grain of sand; yet their numbers are
so prodigious as sometimes to give the fluid
abit a pale red or yellow tinge. The
a single codfish is said to contain
Aºf these minute animals than there
are people in the whole earth. Animalcula
were first scientifically observed by Leuwen-
hoek, about the year 1677. Assisted by the
micro he unveiled, as it were, a new
2 Anima cºlº for the plural, sometimes heard and met
with, is a barbarism; yet one not wholly confined to the
vulgar, for wé find it in Vincent’s edition of Haydn's
admirable “Dict, of Dates,” not merely twice, or oftener,
in the text, but as a ‘title-word;’ and also in some other
works, where we might least expect it. …
-**
*

ANIME–ANNEALING.
111.
world for future naturalists and microscopists
to explore.
AN'IME (än'-im-e). [Eng., L., Sp.] Syn.
GUM-AN“IME, A.-REs“IN; ANIMá, Fr. ; ANIME-
HARZ, KOURBARILLHARZ, Ger. ; COUR-
BARIL, JUTAIBA, Nat. A pale brownish-
yellow, transparent, brittle resin, which exudes
from the hymenaea courbaril (Linn.) or locust-
tree, the h. martiana, and other species of
hymenaea growing in tropical America. It
contains about 2% of volatile oil, which gives
it an agreeable odour; melts without decom-
position; is (nearly) insoluble in alcohol and
in caoutchoucine, but forms a gelatinous mass
in a mixture of the two. (Ure.) It burns
readily, emitting a very fragrant smell. Sp.
gr. 1054 to 1.057.
Uses, &c. As a fumigation in spasmodic
asthma; in solution, as an embrocation; and
in powder, as a substitute for gum guaiacum.
In this country, it is chiefly employed to make
varnishes and pastilles (which see).
AN'ION (-y’ün—Br., We.; ii-ni"-in-Smart).
Literally, ‘upward going; in electro-chemistry,
a substance which is evolved from the surface
where the electrical current is supposed to enter
the electrolyte; an electro-negative body, or &
one which passes to the positive pole, or anode,
in electrolysis, as opposed to a CATION. See
ANODE, IONs, &c.
AN'ISATED. Syn. ANISA'TUs, L.; ANISá,
Fr. In pharmacy, the art of the liqoriste,
confectioner, &c., applied to articles or pre-
parations impregnated or flavoured with ani-
seed.
AN'ISE (-is). Syn. ANI's UM, PIMPINEL'LA
A. (Linn.), A. OFFICINA'LE, L.; ANIS, Fr.;
ANIS, GEMEINER ANIS, Ger. An annual
plant of the nat. ord. Umbelliferae (DC.);
Hab., Egypt, Scio, and the Levant; but
largely cultivated in Malta, Spain, Germany,
and various other parts of Asia and Europe.
“A considerable quantity is cultivated at
Mitcham, in Surrey, chiefly for the use of the
rectifiers of British Spirits.” (Stevenson.)
Fruit, aniseed. (See below.)
AN/ISEED. Syn. AN/ISE, AN/ISE-SEED ;
SEM'INA ANI's I, FRUCTUs A., L.; ANIs, A.
VRAI, GRAINES D’ANIS, SEMENCE D’ANIS, Fr.;
ANIS, ANISAMEN, Ger.; ANIS, Sp. ; ANICE, It.
The aromatic fruit or seed of the pimpinella
anisum just noticed.
Prop., Uses, &c. Its aromatic properties
depend on the presence of volatile oil. The
seed and oil, and a spirit and a water prepared
from them, are officinal in the pharmacopoeias.
Both the seed and its preparations are reputed
stimulant, stomachic, carminative, pectoral,
diuretic, and emmenagogue. They are com-
monly used to relieve flatulence and colicky
pains, and to prevent the griping effects of
certain cathartics; and they have long been
popular remedies for coughs, colds, and other
breath ailments. They are esteemed especially
useful in warming the stomach and expelling
wind, particularly during infancy and child-
hood; the distilled or flavoured water being
usually employed. Nurses also take the latter
to promote the secretion of milk, to which it
at length imparts its peculiar odour and
flavour. In veterinary practice, the powdered
seed is used as a carminative, pectoral, and
corroborant. The essential oil is said to be
poisonous to pigeons. (Vogel; Hillefield.)
Aniseed is principally used to flavour liqueurs,
sweetmeats, and confectionery.—Dose (of the
powder), 10 grs. to 1 or 2 drs. ;-for a horse, #
to 1 oz. ;-cattle, § to 2 oz.
Pur., &c. Powdered aniseed is nearly always
adulterated, the adulterant being generally
linseed meal. Sometimes, as for the horse,
the latter is entirely substituted for it, a few
drops of oil of aniseed being added to give it
smell. The adulteration is not readily detect-
ed by the uninitiated, owing to the strong
odour of aniseed; but readily by the microscope.
The fruit of myrrhis odorata (sweet cicily),
and of illicium anisatum (star-anise), also
possess the odour and flavour of common
aniseed; indeed, most of the essential oil now
sold as ‘oil of aniseed,” is star-anise oil. See LI-
QUEURS, OILS, PoWDERS, SPIRITs, WATERs,

C.
Star'-Amise. The fruit or seed of illi"cium
anisa'tum (Linn.), an evergreen tree growing
in Japan and China. The odour and proper-
ties of both the seed and oil greatly resemble
those of common anise. They are both em-
ployed by the liqueuriste. See ANISEED
(above), &c.
ANISETTE' (ān-İz-êt').
cordial. See LIQUEURS.
ANI'SUM. Aniseed.
* ANNEAL/ING. Syn. NEALING+$; LE RE-
CUIT, Fr. ; DAS ANLASSEN, Ger. The art of
tempering by heat; appropriately, the pro-
cess by which glass, porcelain, &c., are
rendered less frangible, and metals which
have become brittle by fusion, or long-con-
tinued hammering, again rendered tough and
malleable. -
Glass vessels, and other articles of glass, are
annealed by being placed in an oven or
apartment near the furnaces at which they
are formed, called the “leer, where they are
allowed to cool very slowly, the process being
prolonged in proportion to their bulk.
Steel, iron, and other metals are annealed
by heating them and allowing them to cool
slowly on the hearth of the furnace, or in
any other suitable place, unexposed to the
cold. -
Cast-iron is rendered tough and malleable,
without ‘puddling,” by embedding it in ground
charcoal or haematite, and thus protected,
keeping it exposed at a high temperature
for several hours, after which the whole is
allowed to cool very slowly.
Prince Rupert’s drop may be mentioned as
an example of unannealed glass; and common
cast iron, of unannealed metals; to which
heads the reader is referred. .
[Fr.] Aniseed



112
ANNOTTA—ANODYNE.
ANNOTTA. Syn. ANOT'To, ANNATTO, AN-
NAT'TA; ARNAT'To, ARNOT'To, &c.; ORLEA'-
NA, TER(R.A. o.%, &c., L.; Roucol, ROCOU,
ROUCOU, Fr. ; ORLEANS, Ger. A colouring
matter forming the outer pellicle of the seeds
of the bia'a orella'na (Linn.), an exogenous
evergreen tree, common in Cayenne, and some
other parts of tropical America, and now ex-
tensively cultivated in both the E. and W.
Indies. It is usually obtained by macerating
the crushed seeds or seed-pods in water, for
several weeks, ultimately allowing the pulp to
subside, which is then boiled in coppers to a
stiff paste, and dried in the shade. Some-
times a little oil is added in making it up into
cakes or lumps. A better method is that pro-
posed by Leblond, in which the crushed seeds
are simply exhausted by washing them in
water (–? alkalised), from which the colour-
ing matter is then precipitated by means of
vinegar or lemon-juice; the precipitate being
subsequently collected, and either boiled up
in the ordinary manner, or drained in bags, and
dried, as is practised with indigo. Annotta so
prepared is said to be four times as valuable as
made by the old process.
Prop. Good annotta isofabrilliant redcolour;
brighter in the middle than on the outside;
feels soft and smooth to the touch; has a
good consistence, and a strongly characteristic,
but not a putrid smell. It is scarcely soluble
in water; freely soluble in alcohol, ether, oils,
and fats, to each of which it imparts a beau-
tiful orange colour, and in alkaline solutions,
which darken it; acids precipitate it of an
orange red hue; strong sulphuric acid turns
it blue. Its most important property is the
affinity of its colouring matter for the fibres
of silk, wool, and cotton.
Pur. Annotta is very frequently adulterated;
indeed, nearly always so. The adulterants are
generally meal, flour, or farina, and often chalk
or gypsum, with some pearlash and oil, or even
soap, to give it an unctuous character, turmeric,
Venetian red, red ochre, or even orange chrome,
to give it “colour,’ and common salt and, some-
times, even sulphate of copper, to prevent de-
composition—the last two being POISONOUS.
Sometimes a little carbonate of ammonia is
also added to it, to improve the colour.
When quite pure, it contains about 28% of re-
sinous colouring matter, and 20% of colouring
extractive matter, (Dr. John,) and should
leave only a small quantity of insoluble resi-
duum after digestion in alcohol; whilst the
ash, resulting from its incineration, should not
exceed 1% to 2%. The quantity, colour, &c., of
the ash, will give an easy clue to the inorganic
adulterants, if any are present, which may be
then followed up by a chemical examination.
The presence of red lead may be detected by
heating it on a piece of charcoal in the
reducing flame of the blowpipe, by which
a small bead of metallic lead will be ob-
tained. If it contains chalk, ochre, gypsum,
&c., the undissolved residuum of the washed
ash gives the amount of the adulteration
(nearly).
Uses, &c. To colour varnishes and lacquers;
as a pigment for painting velvet and trans-
parencies; as a colouring matter for cheese
(1 oz. to 1 cwt. of curd), for which purpose it
is not injurious, if pure ; and as a dye-stuff
for cotton, silk, and wool, particularly the
second, to which it imparts a beautiful orange
yellow hue, the shade of which may be varied
from ‘aurora’ to deep orange, by using
different proportions of pearlash with the
water it is dissolved in, and by applying
different mordants before putting it into the
dye-bath, or different rinsing liquids after.
wards. The hues thus imparted are, however,
all more or less fugitive.
Annotta Cake. Syn. FLAG ANNOTTA; OR.
LEA'NA IN Fo'LIIs, L. From Cayenne; bright
yellow, firm and soft to the touch; in square
cakes, weighing 2 or 3 lbs. each.
Ammotta Egg. Syn. LUMP ANNOTTA; OR.
LEA/NA IN ovulis, L. Generally inferior.
Annotta, English. Syn. TRADEA, REDUCED'
A.; ORLEA'NA REDUCTA, L. A fraudulent
mess commonly prepared from egg or flag
annotta, gum tragacanth, flour or farina, chalk,
soap, train-oil, Penetian red, or bole, common
salt, water, mixed by heat in a copper pan, and
formed into rolls. Sold for genuine annotta,
from which it is readily distinguished by its
inferior quality, and its partial solubility in
alcohol.
Ammotta, Liquid. See SOLUTION OF ANNOT.
TA (below).
Ammotta, Pu"rified. See ORELLINE.
Annotta Roll. Syn. ORLEA'NA IN ROT'ULIS,
O. IN BAC'ULIS, L. From the Brazils; hard,
dry, brown outside, yellow within. When
pure, this is the variety most esteemed, and
the one preferred for colouring cheese.
Annotta, Solution of Syn. EssENCE OF AN.
NOTTA, EXTRACT OF A., ANNOTTA-DYE, &c.;
SoLU'TIO or LEA/NAE, ExTRAC'TUM 0., &c., L.
A strong aqueous solution of equal parts of
annotta and pearlash, the whole being heated
or boiled together until the ingredients are
dissolved. Sold in bottles. See ANNOTTA
(above), NANKEEN DYE, &c.
AN'0-. [Gr.] In composition, upwards, &c.;
as in anocathar'tic (emetic). See ANA-.
AN'ODE. Literally, upward way;' in
electro-chemistry, the ‘way in,’ or that by
which the electric current is supposed to
enter substances through which it passes,
as opposed to the CATHODE, or that by
which it goes out; the positive pole of a
voltaic battery.
AN'ODYNE (-dine). Syn. ANO'DYNUs (-din-
ūs-), L.; ANODIN, Fr.: SCHMERZSTILLEND,
Ger. That allays pain; soothing; atalgic.
Amodynes. Syn. ANO'DYNA (sing, ano'di.
num), L.; ANODINS, REMEDEs A., Fr. In me.
dicine and pharmacy, substances and agents
which allay pain. Some (as the PAREGORIC)
act by actually assuaging pain; others (HYP

ANODYNIA—ANTHRACITE. - 113
NOTICs) by inducing sleep; whilst a third
class (NARCOTICS), give ease by stupefying the
senses, or by lessening the susceptibility to pain.
Among the principal anodynes are opium, mor-
phia, henbane, camphor, ether, chloroform,
chloral hydrate, and other medicines of the
like kind; to which must be added spirituous
liquors, wines, and the stronger varieties of
malt liquor. “The frequent use of anodynes
begets the necessity of their continuance.”
(W. Cooley.)
Amodyne, Infantile (-lle). Syn. ANO'DYNUM
INFANTILE (-til-e), L. Prep. Take of syrup
of poppies, 1 oz. ; aniseed-water, 3 oz. ; French
brandy, # 02. (or rectified spirit, # oz.); cal-
cined magnesia, 4 oz. ; mix. An excellent ano-
dyne and antacid for infants.--Dose. A small
teaspoonful as required.
ANODYN'IA (-din'-y'ā). Freedom from
pain; anaesthesia.
AN'OREXY. Syn. ANOREX'IA, L.; ANO-
REXIE, Fr., Ger. In pathology, want of, or
morbidly diminished appetite, without loath-
ing of food. It is usually symptomatic of
other affections. See APPETITE, DYSPEPSIA,
&c.
AN0 ZABAGLIONE (-bál-y’ó’-mâ). Prep. Put
2 eſſ/s, 3 teaspoonfuls of sugar, and 2 small
glassfuls of sherry or marsala, into a ehocolate
cup, placed in boiling water, or over the fire,
and keep the mixture rapidly stirred until it
begins to rise and thicken a little; then add
1 or 2 teaspoonfuls of orange-flower water or
Yose water, and serve it up in wine-glasses.
A pleasant Italian domestic remedy for a
cold.
ANT (änt). Syn. EMM'ET, PIs(MIRE*:(piz'-);
FORMI/CA, L.; FourMI, Fr. ; AMEISE, Ger. ;
AEMET, Sax. This well-known little insect
belongs to the family formä"cidae, and the order
hymenoptera. Like the bee, it is a social
animal, lives in communities which may be
compared to well-regulated republics, and is of
three sexes—male, female, and neuter. Those
belonging to the last alone labour and take
care of the ova and young. The red ant con-
tains FORMIC ACID (acid of ants), and a pe-
culiar RESINOUS or L. Both of these may be
obtained by maceration in rectified spirit. A
tincture so prepared, and flavoured with aro-
matics, constitutes Hoffman’s EAU DE MAGNA-
NIMITÉ, once greatly esteemed as an aphro-
disiac. See FORMICA, FoRMIC ACID, FOR-
MYLE, &c.
ANTAC'ID (-täs'-īd). Syn. ANTAC'IDUs, L.;
ANTACIDE, &c., Fr. ; SAURETILGEND, &c.,
Ger. An agent which neutralises acids or re-
moves acidity. (See below.)
ANTAC'IDS (-tás'-idz). Syn. ANTAC'IDA,
L.; ANTACIDES, &c., Fr. Antacid substances.
In medicine, &c., substances which remove
or prevent acidity of the stomach, and thus
tend to relieve heartburn, dyspepsia, and
diarrhoea.
The principal antacids are potassa, soda, am-
monia, lime, and magnesia, with their carbonates
and bicarbonates. AMMONIA is one of the most
powerful, and when the acidity is conjoined
with nausea and faintness, or is accompanied
with symptoms of nervous derangement or
hysteria, is undoubtedly the best; when great
irritability of the coats of the stomach exist,
POTASH is to be preferred; when the acidity
is accompanied with diarrhoea, carbonate of
lime (prepared chalk), lime-water, or Carara-
water; and when with costiveness, MAGNESIA.
They may all be advantageously combined with
some simple aromatic, as ginger, cinnamon, or
peppermint. Their preparation, doses, admi-
nistration, &c., will be found under each in its
alphabetical place; and formulae containing
them, under DRAUGHTS, LozENGES, MIX-
TURES, &c.
ANTAI/GICS (-täl'.). Syn. ANTAL'GIGA, L.
Medicines which relieve pain; anodynes.
ANTAL'KALINES (änt-ál'-kā-linz). Syn.
ANTALKALI'NA, L. Agents or medicines which
correct alkalinity. All the acids, except the
carbonic, are antalkaline.
ANTE-. In composition, before, contrary,
opposite; generally in the first sense, See
ANTI-.
ANTHELMIN'TICS, Anthelmin'thics(-thél.),
See WERMIFUGES and WoRMS,
AN'THIARINE (-in). See ANTIARINE.
ANTHOK'YAN. Syn. SUCC'Us VI'OLE PRE-
PARATUS, L. The expressed juice of the sweet
or purple violet (viola odora'ta—Linn.), de-
fecated, gently heated in glass or earthenware
to 192°Fahr., then skimmed, cooled, and fil-
tered; a little rectified spirit is next added,
and the following day the whole is again fil-
tered. It must be kept well corked, and in
a cool situation.
Uses, &c. Chiefly to make syrup of violets,
to colour and flavour liqueurs, and as a che-
mical test. The London druggists obtain it
principally from Lincolnshire. -
ANTHONY'S FIRE, Saint (-to-nīz). See
ERYSIPELAS. -
AN'THOTYPE. See PHOTOGRAPHY.
ANTHRACINE (-sin). Paranapthaline.
ANTHRACITE (-site). [Eng., Fr.] Syn.
ANTHRAc'OLITE, GLANCE'-CoAL, STONE'-CoAL,
MINERAL CHAR/COAL*; ANTHRACITES, L.;
GLANZKOHLE, Ger. A species of coal found
in the transition-rock formation, consisting
chiefly of dense carbon. It has a conchoidal
fracture, a semi-metallic lustre, and a sp. gr.
usually varying from 1:4 to 1-6. It burns
without either flame or smoke, emits an in-
tense heat, and leaves scarcely any ash; but
it is difficult to kindle, and requires a lively
draught for its combustion. It is the common
fuel in the United States of America, although,
until recently, scarcely employed in Europe,
and that chiefly in a few iron-works and steam
furnaces. Its adoption in this country would
not merely at once remove the smoke nuisance,
but would produce a vast annual saving to the
community. By contracting the throat of the
chimney a little, and avoiding the use of the

8

114
ANTHRACOKALI–ANTI-ATTRITION.
poker, it may be burnt in a common grate.
The Americans use a little charcoal as kindle,
and seldom supply fresh coal to the fire oftener
than once or twice a day.
The inferior varieties of anthracite are tech-
nically and provincially called culm; as is also
the small and waste of the better kinds.
For the analysis, geology, calorific value, &c.,
of anthracite, see COAL, CULM, EVAPORATION,
FUEL, HEAT, &c.
ANTHRACOKA'LI. [Eng., II.] Syn. AN-
THRAKOKA/LI, ANTHRAK’ALI; AN'THRACO-
KA'LI, Hamb. C. 1845. Prep. 1. (Polya.)
Carbonate of potassa, 6 oz.; quick-lime, 3% oz.;
water, 4 pints; proceed as directed for “liquor
of potassa, then evaporate the clear liquid, in
an iron capsule, to about 6 fl.oz., add of finely
powdered mineral coal, 5 oz., boil, with constant
stirring, to dryness, and continue the stirring
at a reduced heat, until the whole is converted
into a homogeneous black powder, which must
be at once placed in small, dry, and well-
stoppered phials.
2. (Hamb. C. 1845; Ph. Baden. 1841.)
Hydrate of potassa, 7 dr.; melt, add of kennel-
coal, 5 dr., and then proceed as before.
Prop., &c. A deliquescent black powder,
with a caustic taste, and empyreumatic smell;
10 grs. with 1 fl. oz. of water, after filtration,
forms a clear, dark brown solution, giving a
precipitate with acids, without effervescence.
—Dose. 1 to 3 grs., twice or thrice daily; and
externally, made into a pommade or ointment
(# to 1 dr., to lard, 1 oz.); in skin diseases
(particularly herpetic eruptions), scrofula,
chronic rheumatism, &c. It has been highly
extolled by Dr. Gibert, and by its inventor,
Dr. Polya; but apparently undeservedly.
Anthracokali, Sulphuretted. Syn. ANTHRA-
COKA'LISULPHURE'TUM, L. Prep. (Polya.) As
formula 1 (above), but adding sulphur, 4 dr.,
immediately after stirring in the powdered
coal.—Dose, use, &c., as the last. See FULI-
GOIKALI. -
ANTHRACOM’ETER. Syn. ANTHRACOM'E-
TRUM, L.; ANTHRACOMETRE, Fr.; KoRLEN-
SAUREMESSER, Ger. An apparatus used to
determine the heating power or commercial
value of coal, or other fuel; also an instru-
ment for finding the proportion of carbonic
acid in any gaseous mixture.
ANTHYPNOTICS (-thip.).
HYPNOT'ICS (-hip-), &c. See AGRIPNOTICS.
ANTI-. [Gr., ávrt, against.] In compo-
sition, before, against, contrary to, corrective
of, &c., more especially representing anta-
gonism or opposition; whilst the Latin ante-,
is generally used in the sense of before, having
reference to precedence either of place or
time.
Anti- is a common prefix in English words
derived from the Greek and Latin, especially
those connected with pharmacology and me-
dicine, the final i being either dropped or
retained (but generally the first) before a, e,
and h; as in antac'id (-tás'-), antibil’ious,
Syn. ANTI-
anti-emet'ic, anthelmin'tic, antiscorbuſtic, anti.
septic, &c., whether used as adjectives Of
substantives. These compounds, which are very
numerous, are in general self-explanatory.
ANTIARINE (-in; -ti'—Brande). [Eng,
Fr.] Syn. AN'THIARINE, Eng., Fr.; ANTI.
ARI'NA, ANTHIARI/NA, ANTIA"RIA, UPA'I,
(-zh’ā), L. The active principle of the upās,
poison of Java. It is extracted from the par.
tially inspissated juice (upas-poison) of the
upas-tree by alcohol, and may be obtained
under the form of small pearly crystalling
scales, by careful evaporation.— Prod. About
3}} (Mulder).
Prop., &c. Soluble in 27 parts of boiling
water; freely soluble in alcohol; scarcely sº
in ether; heat decomposes it. It is a frightful
poison, to which no antidote is known. Even
a minute quantity introduced into a wound
rapidly brings on vomiting, convulsions,
and death. “It renders the heart insºn.
sible to the stimulus of the blood.” (Sir B.
Brodie.)
ANTI-ATTRI''TION (-trish'.). [Eng., F.
Syn. Ax'LE-GREASE, FRICTION COMPO', I'.
BRICATING COMPOUND, &c. Prep. 1. Gºd
plumbago (black lead), finely powdered and
sifted, so as to be perfectly free from grit, is
gradually added, through a sieve, to 5 times its
weight of good lard contained in an ironpan
and rendered semi-fluid, but not liquid, by a
gentle heat; the mass being vigorously stirred
with a strong wooden spatula, after each al.
dition, until the mixture is complete, and the
composition smooth and uniform. The hºſt
is then gradually raised until the whole
liquefies, when the vessel is removed from the
fire to a cool situation, and the stirring, which
should have been unremitted, continued until
the mixture is quite cold. It is applied, in the
cold state, with a brush, about once a day,
according to the velocity of the parts; and
is said to be fully 3-4ths cheaper in use
than oil, tallow, tar, or any of the ordinary
compo's. When intended for uses in whichi:
will be exposed to warmth, and consequent
waste by dripping, a part, or even the whole
of the lard is replaced by hard strained greas:
or tallow, or a little bees’ wax is added during
its manufacture.
2. Black lead, 1 part; tallow or grease,4
parts; ground together until perfectly smooth,
either with or without camphor, 3 to 5 lbs, pºt
cwt. Expired patent.
3. Scotch soda, 60 lbs. ; water, 30 galls.; dis.
solve in a capacious boiler, add palm oil and
hard tallow, of each 13 cwt., and having with:
drawn the heat, stir vigorously as before,
until the mass is homogeneous and nearly
solidified. In hot weather the proportion ºf
tallow is increased, and that of the palm ºil
diminished; in winter, the reverse. Used for
the axles of railway carriages and other
coarse purposes.
low is usually employed, irrespective of the
weather or season.
For express trains all tal.

ANTIBILIOUS–ANTIGUGGLER.
115
prevent the bearings rusting, &c.
GENGIFT, Ger.
4. Bean or rye flour, 1 cwt. ; water, 6 cwt. ;
mix to a smooth paste, raise the heat until the
mixture boils, and stir in first of milk of lime
(of about the consistence of cream), 7 cwt. ;
Tesin-oil, 10 cwt. ; and stir vigorously until
cold. Inferior.
5. (Booth’s.)—a. From Scotch soda, 3 lb. ;
boiling water, 1 gall. ; palm oil or tallow, or
any mixture of them, 10 lbs. ; as before, ob-
serving to continue the stirring until the
mixture has cooled down to 60° or 70° Fahr.
b. Soda, # lb. ; water and rape-oil, of each,
19all. ; tallow or palm oil, # lb.; as last. Ex-
pired patent.
6. (Mankettrick’s.) From caoutchouc (dis-
solved in oil of turpentine), 4 lbs. ; Scotch
soda, 10 lbs. ; glue, 1 lb.; (dissolved in) water,
10 galls. ; oil, 10 galls. ; thoroughly incorpo-
rated by assiduous stirring, adding the caout-
chouc last.
7. (LIARD, Fr.) Finest rape-oil, 1 gall. ;
caoutchouc (cut small), 3 oz. ; dissolve with
heat.
Uses &c. To lessen friction in machinery,
The sim-
plest are perhaps the best. No. 1 & 3 are
those most generally employed. Of late
years several different liquid hydrocarbons
obtained from coal, and particularly paraffin
oil, have been extensively employed in this
way. See FRICTION, LUBRICATION, &c.
ANTIBIL'IOUS (-yūs). Syn. ANTIBILIo's Us,
L.; ANTIBILIEUX, Fr. An epithet of medicines
that are supposed to remove ailments depend-
ing on disordered action of the liver. Aperients,
mercurials, and aloetic purgatives generally,
belong to this class. See ABERNETHY ME-
DICINES, BILE, PILLS, &c.
ANTICAR/DIUM. See REVIVER (Black).
ANTICHLORE (-klöre). Among bleachers,
any substance, agent, or means, by which the
pernicious after-effects of chlorine are pre-
vented. Washing with a weak solution of
sulphite of soda (which converts any adher-
ing ‘bleaching salt” into sulphate, sulphide,
or chloride), is commonly adopted for this
purpose. Recently chloride of tin, used in the
same way, has been recommended. A cheap
sulphite of lime, prepared by agitating milk
of lime with the fumes of burning sulphur,
and draining and air-drying the product,
has been lately patented in England and
America, by Prof. Horsford, under the name
of ‘ANTICHLORIDE OF LIME.’ See BLEACH-
ING, &c.
ANTIDOTE (-dòte). [Eng., Fr.] Syn. AN-
TID'o'TUM, ANTID'OTUS, L.; ANTIDoT, GE-
In medinine, towicology, &c., a
substance administered to counteract or lessen
the effects of poison.
The principal poisons, with their antidotes,
are noticed under their respective heads. Also
see PoſsONS, TOXICOLOGY, &c.
ANTIFER/MENT (pop. and more us, in this
sense, an’t ferment'). [Eng., Fr.] Syn. AN-
TIFERMEN'TUM, L. Any substance which pre-
vents or arrests fermentation. Several mos-
trums are sold under this name in the cider-
districts. The following are tried and useful
formulae :—
Prep. 1. Sulphite (not sulphate) of lime, in
fine powder, 1 part; marble-dust, ground
oyster-shells, or chalk, 7 parts; mix, and pack
tight, so as to exclude the air.
2. Sulphite (not sulphate) of potassa, 1 part;
new black-mustard seed (ground in a pepper-
mill), 7 parts; mix, and pack so as to per-
fectly exclude air and moisture.--Dose (of
either), 3 oz. to 1% oz. per hkd.
3. Mustard-seed, 14 lbs. ; cloves and capsi-
cum, of each, 14 lb. ; mix, and grind them to
powder in a pepper-mill,—Dose. } to 3 lb.
per hkd.
Uses, &c. The above formulae are infinitely
superior to those commonly met with in trade;
and are quite harmless. A portion of anyone of
them added to cider, or perry, soon allays fer-
mentation, when excessive, or when it has been
renewed. The first formula is preferred when
there is a tendency to acidity. The second
and third may be advantageously used for
wine and beer, as well as for cider. That of
the third formula greatly improves the flavour
and the apparent strength of the liquor,


and also improves its keeping qualities.
See CELLAR-MANAGEMENT, FERMENTATION,
&c.
ANTI-FRICTION METAL, Prep. 1. From
tin, 16 to 20 parts; antimony, 2 parts; lead, 1
part ; fused together, and then blended with
copper, 80 parts. Used when there is much
friction or high velocity. -
2. Zinc, 6 parts; tin, 1 part; copper, 20
parts. Used when the metal is exposed to
violent shocks,
3. Lead, 1 part ; tin, 2 parts; zinc, 4 parts;
copper, 68 parts. Used when the metal is
exposed to heat.
4. (Babbet's.) Tin, 48 to 50 parts; anti-
mony, 5 parts; copper, 1 part.
5. (Fenton’s.) Tin with some zinc, and a
little copper.
6. (Ordinary.) Tin, or hard pewter, with or
without a small portion of antimony or copper.
Without the last it is apt to spread out under
the weight of heavy machinery. Used for
the bearings of locomotive engines, &c.
Obs. These alloys are usually supported by
bearings of brass, into which it is poured
after they have been tinned, and heated
and put together with an exact model of the
axle, or other working piece, plastic clay
being previously applied, in the usual manner,
as a lute or outer mould. Soft gun-metal is
also excellent, and is much used for bearings.
They all become less heated in working than
the harder metals, and less grease or oil is con-
sequently required when they are used. See
ALLOYS, FRICTION, &c.
ANTIGUG/GLER. A small bent tube of
glass or metal inserted into casks and carboys,
to admit air over the liquor whilst it is being


116
ANTIMONIAL–ANTIMONY.
poured out or drawn off, so that the sediment
may not be disturbed.
ANTIM0"NIAL (-möne'-y'âl). [Eng., Fr.]
Syn. ANTIMONIALIS, L. Pertaining to, com-
posed of, or containing antimony. In medicine
and pharmacy, applied to preparations or re-
medies (ANTIMO'NIALS; ANTIMONIA"LIA, L.)
in which antimony, or one of its compounds,
is the leading or characteristic ingredient.
ANTIMO'NIATED. Syn. ANTIMONIATUS,
L. Mixed or impregnated with antimony;
antimonial.
ANTIMON'IC ACID. Syn. ACIDUM ANTI-
MON'ICUM, L.; ACIDE ANTIMONIQUE, Fr.;
ANTIMONSAURE, Ger.
Prep. 1. Pure metallic antimony, in coarse
powder, or small fragments, is digested in
excess of concentrated nitric acid, until the
oxidation and conversion is complete; the
excess of nitric acid is then removed by eva-
poration nearly to dryness, and the residuum
thrown into cold distilled water; after which
the powder (ANTIMONIC ACID) is collected on
a calico filter, washed with distilled water, and
dried by a gentle heat. Pure.
2. Metallic antimony (in powder), 1 part;
powdered nitre, 6 or 8 parts; are mixed and
ignited or deflagrated in a silver crucible; the
mass, when cold, is powdered; the excess of
alkali washed out with hot water, and the re-
siduum (ANTIMo"NIATE OF POTAS'SIUM) decom-
posed with hydrochloric acid; lastly, the pre-
cipitate (ANTIMONIC ACID) is washed and dried
as before.
That obtained by the first process is dibasic,
and has the formula H2Sb2O6, while that pro-
duced by the second process is tetrabasic, and
has the formula HASb2O, ; the former is called
simply antimonic acid, the latter metantimonic
acid.
Prop. Antimonic acid is a soft white pow-
der, sparingly soluble in water, reddens litmus,
and is dissolved, even in the cold, by strong
hydrochloric acid and by potash. The hydro-
chloric solution, mixed with a small quantity
of water, yields, after a while, a precipitate of
antimonic acid; but if diluted with a large
quantity of water, it remains clear. Ammo-
nia does not dissolve it in the cold. By heating
with a large excess of caustic potash it is con-
verted into metantimonic acid.
Metantimonic acid is more readily dissolved
by acids than antimonic acid, and is dissolved
by ammonia, after a while, even at ordinary
temperatures. It is also perfectly soluble in
a large quantity of water, and is precipitated
therefrom by acids. It is very unstable, and
easily changes into antimonic acid, even in
water.
ANTIMONIC ANHYDRIDE (Sb2O). Syn.
ANTIMONIC OXIDE, ANHYDROUS ANTIMONIC
ACID, PENTOXIDE OF ANTIMONY. Antimonic
or metantimonic acid, heated to a temperature
below redness loses water and yields the anhy-
dride, Sb2O3. Antimonic anhydride is a
yellowish-white powder, tasteless and insoluble
in water and acids. Boiled with a solution of
caustic potash, it is dissolved. If fused with
carbonate of potassium, carbonic anhydride is
expelled, and a salt is produced from which
antimonic acid is precipitated by acids,
ANTIMONIOUS ACID. See ANTIMONY,
TETROXII) E of.
ANTIMONETTED. Syn. ANTIMO'NIU.
RETTED ; ANTIMONIATUS, L. Combined with
or containing antimony. See HYDROGEN, &c.
ANTIMONY (-te-mün-e). Syn.METALLICAN.
TIMONYº, REG/ULUS OF A.h; ANTIMO"NIUM, A.
METAL'LICUM, STIB'IUM, METAL'LUM ANTIM0".
NII+, A. REG/ULUS+, &c., L.; ANTIMOINE, Fr.;
ANTIMON, SPIESSGIANZ, SPIESSGLAS, SPIESS.
GLANZMETALL, Ger. ; ANTIMONIo, It, Sp.
The term formerly applied to the native Sul.
phide or greyish-black semi-crystalline Orº
of antimony; but now solely appropriated to
the pure metal.
Sources. Metallic antimony, in combination
with silver and iron (NATIVE ANTIMONY), with
sulphur (GRAY SULPHIDE OF A), or with
nickel (NICKELIF'EROUS SULPHIDE OF A), is
found in Bohemia, Hungary, Germany, Sweden,
France, England, Borneo, and America; and OX.
idised, combined with oxide of iron, &c. (ANTI.
Mo"NIAL O'CHRE, RED ANTIMONY, WHITE A*)
forming ores, either smallinquantity or of little
value, in various parts of the world. Of these,
the only onein sufficient abundance for smelting,
is the common sulphuret, known as ‘grey all.
timony’ or ‘stibnite.’
Prep. Native antimony is freed from im:
purities by fusion. The sulphide, after being
melted from the gangue, is commonly oxidised
by exposure on the concave hearth of a re.
(a.), (b) Grate and fire-place.
(c.) Bridge.
(d.) Air-channel.
(e.) Concave space for ore, resting on a solid bed (f)
formed of sand and clay.
(g.) Door for introducing the ore, and abstracting
residuary slag.
(h) Pipe to convey away the liquid metal.
(i.) Chimney.
verberatory furnace, and is then reduced to
the metallic state by fusion in crucibles with
coal-dust, crude tartar, or some other dº.
oxidising agent. To free the product from
iron, it is generally fused, or re-fused, with a
* Antimon'ial (–Mayne) is a barbarism.
* White A. occurs in considerable quantities in Borneo
and is used after roasting as a white pigment for iron and
other surfaces.


ANTIMONY.
117
little antimonic oxide; and when the ore con-
tains arsenic, some iron or its oxide, and an
alkaline carbonate or sulphate, are used in the
same way. It is seldom prepared on the small
scale. The following formulae are in use, or
are recommended:—
1. On the SMALL SCALE –
a. From tersulphide of antimony, in coarse
powder, 2 parts; iron:filings, 1 part; fused
together in a covered crucible, at a heat
gradually raised to dull redness.
b. From the teroa'ide or the oaychloride of
antimony, fused together, as before, with twice
its weight of crude tartar.
c. (Ph. Castr. Ru. 1840.) Sulphide of an-
timony, 16 parts; cream of tartar, 6 parts;
both in powder; throw the mixture, in small
quantities at a time, into a vessel (an earthen
crucible) heated to redness; when the reaction
is over, (having closely covered the vessel,) fuse
the mass, and after a quarter of an hour, pour
it out, and separate the metal from the slag.
d. From sulphide of antimony, 8 parts; crude
tartar, 6 parts; nitre, 3 parts; as last.
e. (Wöhler.) Sulphide of antimony, 10
parts; nitre, 12 parts; dry carbonate of soda,
15 parts; deflagrate together; powder the
resulting mass, and wash it thoroughly with
boiling water; lastly, smelt the dried residuum
with black flux. All the preceding are nearly
pure; the impurity, if any, being traces of
copper, lead, or iron.
f. (Berzelius.) From metallic antimony, in fine
powder, 2 parts; teroa'ide of antimony, 1 part ;
fused together. The product will be pure
provided the antimony employed is free from
lead.
g. (Muspratt.) From antimony, 9 parts;
peroa'ide of manganese, 1 part ; fused together;
the resulting metal being re-fused with 1-10th
of its weight of carbonate of soda.
2. On the LARGE SCALE-commercial :-
a. See above (before 1 a.).
b. From sulphide of antimony, 100 parts;
iron (in very small scraps), 40 parts; dry crude
sulphate of soda, 10 parts; powdered charcoal,
2} parts; fused together.—Prod. 60 to 65 parts
of antimony, besides the scoriae or ash, which
is also valuable.
c. (Berthier.) Sulphide of antimony, 100
parts; hammerschlag (rough oxide of iron from
the shingling or rolling mills), 60 parts; crude
carbonate or sulphate of soda), 45 to 50 parts;
charcoal powder, 10 parts; as last.— Prod. 65
to 70 parts.
Prop., &c. Bluish-white, lustrous, with a
lamellar texture, and a crystalline or semi-
crystalline fracture, with fern-leaf markings on
the surface, when pure (star antimony); ex-
tremely brittle (may be powdered); imparts
brittleness to its alloys (even 1-1000th part
added to gold renders it unfit for the purposes
of coinage and the arts); melts at 809-810°
Fahr., or just under redness; fumes, boils, and
volatilises at a white heat, and, when suddenly
exposed to the air, inflames with conversion
into the teroxide, which is deposited in beau-
tiful flowers or crystals; when perfectly pure
and fused without contact with air or foreign
matter, it bears an intense heat without
subliming (Thénard); allowed to cool slowly
from a state of perfect fusion, it crystallises in
octahedrons or dodecahedrons; tarnishes, but
does not rust by exposure to air or moisture at
common temperatures; hot hydrochloric acid
dissolves it, with the formation of TRICHLORIDE
OF ANTIMONY; nitric acid, when concentrated,
converts it into ANTIMONIC ACID ; and when
dilute, into TRIOXIDE OF ANTIMONY. Sp. gr.
6-7 to 6.8.l
Tests. Metallic antimony may be recognised
by the above properties; its oxide, salts, &c.,
by the following reactions:–1. Sulphuretted
hydrogen gives, with acid solutions, an orange-
red precipitate, which is sparingly soluble in
ammonia,” and insoluble in dilute acids; but
readily soluble in pure potassa and alkaline
sulphides, and in hot hydrochloric acid with
the evolution of sulphuretted hydrogen gas:–
2. Sulphydrate of ammonium gives an orange-
red precipitate, readily soluble in excess of the
precipitant, if this latter contains sulphur in
excess; and the liquor containing the re-dis-
solved precipitate gives a yellow or orange-
yellow precipitate on the addition of an acid:—
3. Ammonia and potassa, and their carbonates,
give (except in solutions of tartar emetic) a
bulky white precipitate; that with ammonia
and its carbonate being insoluble in excess of
the precipitant; that with potassa, readily so;
whilst that with carbonate of potassium is only
soluble on the application of heat:-4. A rod
of zinc throws down metallic antimony, as a
black powder, from all its solutions not con-
taining free nitric acid. If the experiment be
made with a few drops of a solution of anti-
mony containing a little free hydrochloric acid,
and a small platinum dish or capsule be em-
ployed, the part covered by the liquid is soon
stained brown or blackish, and the stain is
irremovable by cold hydrochloric acid, but may
be easily removed by warm nitric acid:—5. By
ebullition of the acidulated liquid along with
copper gauze, foil, or wire, as noticed under
* Reinsch's Test.” The peculiar violet-grey of
the deposit is characteristic, and may easily be
distinguished from that given by arsenical so-
lutions:—6. Mixed with dilute sulphuric acid
and poured on some metallic zinc in a gas-
generating flask, provided with a small bent
tube (see engr.), it yields ANTIMONETTED HY-
DROGEN (Marsh's test), recognised by burning
with a bluish-green flame, and furnishing dense
white fumes which adhere readily to any cold
substance (as a porcelain plate) held over it;
or, if the plate be depressed upon the flame, a
deep black, and almost lustreless spot of





1 When perfectly pure, 6715–Ure.
* The like precipitate from a solution of antimonic acid
in hydrochloric acid, dissolves readily in ammonia, parti-
cularly when heated.
3 See ARSENIOUS ACID.
118
ANTIMONY.
metallic antimony; the fumes and spots in
both cases being insoluble in water, and in di-
lute solution of chloride (crude hypochlorite)
of soda. On heating the centre of the tube
to redness with a spirit lamp, the bluish-green
colour of the flame lessens in intensity, and
a mirror of metallic antimony, of silvery
lustre, forms inside the tube at the ignited
part. On passing dry sulphuretted hydrogen
through the tube, still heated by a spirit
lamp, this mirror assumes a reddish-yellow co-
lour, approaching black in its thicker parts;
(a) Flask containing the suspected fluid, dilute sul-
phuric acid, and zinc.
(b.) Small tube, at the one end having an almost capil-
lary orifice, where the gas is inflamed.
(c.) Spirit-lamp.
(d.) Support.
and by exposure to a feeble stream of hydro-
chloric acid gas, almost immediately, or in a
few seconds, disappears, being carried off by
the gas, which, if passed into a little dis-
tilled water, yields a solution of chloride of
antimony, which may be further submitted
to any of the usual tests." If the substance
be in the solid state, it must be reduced to
powder and dissolved in water; or if insoluble
in that menstruum, a solution must be ob-
tained by digestion in either hot hydrochloric
or nitrohydrochloric acid, before proceeding
to examine it by this method.
Istim. Antimony is generally WEIGHED
under the form of tersulphide; but sometimes
as antimonious anhydride, and—though more
seldom—as pure metal:—
1. A solution being obtained as above,
if necessary, it is strongly acidulated with
tartaric acid, and the antimony thrown down
as a sulphide by a stream of sulphuretted hy-
drogen. After warming the solution and
allowing it to cool, the precipitate (TERSUL-
PHIDE) is collected on a filter, dried, and
weighed. A small portion digested in strong
hydrochloric acid, will completely dissolve if
it be the pure sulphide; in which case the
quantity of ANTIMONY sought will be equal to
71}} (71.5%) of the weight of the sulphide
found (very nearly).” Should only part of
the precipitate be soluble, a known weight of
it may be introduced into a flask, and a con-
1 See ARSENIous. AcID.
* Tersulphide of º dried at 212° Fahr, still
retains traces of water, which is not wholly expelled until
the heat reaches 390–392°, when it acquires a black
colour and a crystalline appearance.
siderable quantity of fuming nitric acid added,
drop by drop, and afterwards, a little hydro-
chloric acid, the mixture being digested, at a
gentle heat, until the reaction is complete, and
the whole of the sulphur is dissolved. The
resulting solution diluted with water, strongly
acidulated with tartaric acid, and solution of
chloride of barium added as long as it disturbs
the liquid, yields a precipitate, of which the
weight, after it has been thoroughly washed,
dried, and gently ignited, multiplied by 136,
gives the quantity of SULPHUR in the sample;
and which, deducted from the weight of the
sulphide first found, gives the quantity of puré
ANTIMONY, as before.
2. The quantity of pure ANTIMONY in com.
mercial samples may be determined by treating
them (in powder) with nitric acid, which
oxidises the antimony and leaves it in an in.
soluble state, whilst it dissolves the other
metals. The resulting oxide is collected on a
filter, washed, dried, ignited in an open porce.
lain crucible, and weighed—its weight multi-
plied by 7898 gives the quantity of pure
metal sought.
3. Dissolve a known weight of the samplein
hydrochloric acid, immerse a blade of pure me.
tallic tin in the solution, and keep the liquor
acidulous, and in a state of gentle ebullition by
the heat of a sand bath, when the whole of
the ANTIMONY will be precipitated under the
form of a black powder, and may be collected,
washed, dried, and weighed. This is particl.
larly adapted to alloys of antimony and tin,
See Tests (above) and Pur. (below).
Pur. The antimony of commerce generally
contains a little arsenic, with variable quanti-
ties of iron, lead, sulphur, and tin. These
impurities may be thus detected:—
1. (Arsenic.) Byfusing the sample, in powder,
mixed with about an equal weight of tartratedr
bitartrate of potassium, in a covered crucible,for
2 or 3 hours, and placing the resulting button,
which is an alloy of antimony and potassium,
in a ‘Marsh’s apparatus’ along with a little
water, when the disengagement of hydrogen
gas will commence, and may be tested in the
usual manner. See ARSENIC.
2. (Iron.) Dissolve the powdered sample in
nitrohydrochloric acid, dilute the solution with
a large quantity of cold water, filter, and pass
a current of sulphuretted hydrogen through
the filtrate as long as it produces a precipi.
tate; again filter, boil the filtered liquor for a
few minutes to drive off the sulphuretted hy.
drogen, and then test it with ferrocyanide of
potassium, which will give a blue precipitate
if iron be present; or supersaturate the last
filtrate with ammonia, and then add hydro-
sulphydrate of ammonium, when, under like
conditions, a black precipitate will be formed.
3. (Lead.) Digest the powdered sample in
hot mitric acid, which will dissolve out the
LEAD but leave the antimony behind. The
whitish powdery residuum may be washed,
dried, ignited, and weighed, as above; the clear


ANTIMONY.
119
decanted liquor may be now mixed with the
first washings, evaporated to dryness, the
residuum re-dissolved in water, and the solu-
tion submitted to reagents (see LEAD). If
lead is found to be present, a solution of sul-
phate of sodium may be added until it ceases
to disturb the liquid, and the resulting preci-
pitate (sulphate of lead) washed, dried, and
gently ignited (alone) in a porcelain crucible;
the weight of the ignited residuum furnishes
a number which, multiplied by 683, gives the
weight of the LEAD sought.
4. (Sulphur.) The solution in nitrohydro-
chloric acid, when tested with either nitrate
or chloride of barium, gives a white pre-
cipitate of sulphate of barium, insoluble
in both water and acids, which when dried,
ignited, and weighed, and the weight multi-
plied by 136, gives the quantity of SULPHUR,
as before. In this case, as with the sulphides
(see above), free sulphur may be removed by
digesting and washing the powdered sample in
bisulphide of carbon, previous to its solution in
the acid, by which the violence of the subse-
quent reaction will be lessened.
5. (Tin.) Two samples of equal weight are
taken; the one is tested for ANTIMONY, as de-
scribed above; the other is dissolved in a
mixture of equal parts of hydrochloric and
nitrohydrochloric acid, and a blade of zinc im-
mersed in the solution (see above); the mixed
precipitate of tin and antimony which forms
is collected on a weighed filter, washed, dried,
and weighed. The weight of antimony in
the first sample subtracted from that now ob-
tained, leaves a remainder which indicates the
quantity of TIN in the original sample.
Phys. eff., &c. Nearly all the salts and
preparations of antimony are emetic and
cathartic, and in large doses poisonous—
occasioning vomiting, profuse alvine dejections,
acute colic, and inflammation of the stomach
and bowels, often serious, though rarely re-
sulting in death. TARTAR EMETIC and BUT-
TER OF ANTIMONY are those from which acci-
dents have principally occurred.—Ant., &c.
Copious vomiting, if it has not already occurred,
should be promoted, and the recently prepared
hydrated sulphide of iron administered in con-
siderable doses, followed or accompanied by
mucilaginous drinks and diuretics. If much
prostration follows, wine and stimulants may
be had recourse to. In the absence of hydrated
sulphide of iron, a solution of tannin, or de-
coction of galls; cinchona, or oak bark, or even
powdered cinchona, mixed with tepid water,
may be administered.
Uses. In the arts, antimony enters into the
composition of several useful alloys, as TYPE-
METAL, PEWTER, BRITANNIA-METAL, MUSIC-
PLATE METAL, &c. It is added to the alloy for
concave mirrors, to give them a finer texture;
to bell metal, to render it more sonorous; and
to various other metals to increase their hard-
ness and fusibility; for the latter purpose it is
employed in the casting of cannon balls.
Concluding remarks. In “roasting’ or
oxidising the native sulphide of antimony on
the bed of the reverberatory furnace, as in
the common method before referred to, care
must be taken to regulate and gradually raise
the heat, which, until towards the end of the
process, need not be extreme, and then only
should it approach dull redness. Without
this precaution much of the undecomposed
sulphide will be lost by volatilisation. During
the whole time the ‘charge should also be
well stirred with an iron spatula, to ensure the
constant exposure of every part of it to the
atmosphere. The process is complete when
the whole mass assumes a greyish-white ap-
pearance. Earthen crucibles are commonly
employed for the subsequent reduction, and
after being charged and covered over with
ground charcoal, are heated in a reverberatory
furnace. The product is the crude metallic
antimony of commerce. It is generally RE-
FINED by smelting it with about 1-8th of its
weight of the refined sulphide, and about 1-4th
of its weight of carbonate or sulphate of soda;


, but if there be much iron present, more of the
sulphide—even 1-4th–may be required; for
unless there be sufficient sulphur to combine
with the whole of the iron, the arsenic will
not be oxidised, but remain as a contamina-
tion. When cold, the metal is carefully sepa-
rated from the slag, and is frequently re-fused
with a little fresh carbonate of soda (1 to 1%
part); after which it is cast into pigs, lumps,
or ingots. The crude metal, thus treated,
commonly yields 94% of REFINED METAL of
tolerable purity.
Should lead have been present in the sul-
phide or ore, it remains after a second, or even
a third fusion, although proportionately re-
duced in quantity ; and it can only be com-
pletely separated in the humid way. It is,
therefore, always desirable to select an ore
free from lead.
Antimony, Ash of Syn. ANTIMONY-ASH,
CALCINED' ANTIMONYº; CI'NIS ANTIMO'NII,
ANTIMO'NIUM CALCINATUM*, L. Prepared
by roasting the common grey sulphide of anti-
mony on an iron plate set under a chimney,
to carry off the fumes. The product is a
mixture of teroxide of antimony, with some
unburnt sulphide, and a little antimonious
acid.
Prop., &c. Ash-grey; emetic in small
doses. Used chiefly as a cheap substitute for
teroxide of antimony by the manufacturers
of tartar emetic; also to make metallic anti-
mony.
Antimony, Butt'er of. See ANTIMONY, TRI-
CHILORIDE OF.
Antimony, Calx of. Syn. CAIX ANTIMO"NII,
L. Sometimes applied to antimony-ash, but
more commonly to crude, unwashed diapho-
retic antimony.
Antimony, Calx of (Sulphurated), Syn.
ANTIMo"NII CALx SULPHURATA, L. Prep.
(Hufeland.) Calcined oyster-shells, 10 parts;




120
ANTIMONY.
sulphur, 4 parts; crude antimony, 3 parts;
powder, mix, and calcine in a luted crucible
for an hour. Emetic, resolvent, and altera-
tive.—Dose. 1 to 6 grs. ; in gout, rheumatism,
scrofula, &c.
Antimony, Ce'ruse of. Syn. ANTIMO'NII
CERUS'SA, L. Prep. (Bate.) As diaphoretic
antimony (over which it possesses no advan-
tage), merely using the metal instead of the
sulphide.
An old preparation made by igniting anti-
mony in the sun’s rays, by means of a lens, was
called ANTIMONII CERUSSA SOLA"RIs.
Antimony, Chlo"rides of (klöre'-idz):—
1. Antimony, Trichloride of SbCl3. Syn.
TERCHLORIDE OF ANTIMONY, ANTIMONIOUS
CHLORIDE, CHLo"RIDE OF ANTIMONY, SESQUI-
CHLORIDE OF A., BUTTER OF A., CAU'STIC AN-
TIMONY:#, &c.; ANTIMO"NII CHLORI’DUM, A.
TERCHLORI’DUM, A. BU'TYRUM*, &c., L.;
CHLORURE D’ANTIMOINE, BEURRE D’ANTI-
MOINE, &c., Fr. ; ANTIMON-CHLORID, SPIESS-
GLANZ-BUTTER, Ger. This is the substance of
which common chloride, or butter of anti-
mony, of the shops, is an impure concentrated
solution containing free acid.
Prep. 1. SOLID, ANHYDROUS :—
a. Pure commercial tersulphide of antimony,
in coarse powder, 1 part ; concentrated hydro-
chloric acid, 5 parts; are mixed in a capacious
stoneware or glass vessel set under a chimney
with a quick draught, to convey away the
fumes, the whole being constantly stirred, and,
as the effervescence slackens, a gradually in-
creasing gentle heat applied until solution is
complete; the resulting liquid is put into a
retort, and distilled, until each drop of the
distillate, as it falls into the aqueous liquid
which has previously passed over into the re-
ceiver, produces a copious white precipitate;
the receiver is then changed, and the distilla-
tion continued, when pure TRICHLORIDE OF
ANTIMONY passes over, and solidifies on cooling
to a white and highly crystalline mass, which
must be carefully excluded from the air.
b. From pure metallic antimony, 2 parts;
bichloride of mercury, 5 parts; both in fine
powder; mixed and distilled in a retort with a
large neck, by a gentle sand-heat, into a suit-
able receiver. Chemically pure.
2. LIQUID :—
a. (LI'QUOR ANTIMo"NII CHLORI’DI, B. P.)
Syn. SoHUTION OF CHLORIDE of ANTIMONY.
Prep. Take of black antimony, 1 lb.; hy-
drochloric acid, 4 pints; place the black anti-
mony in a porcelain vessel; pour upon it the
hydrochloric acid, and, constantly stirring,
apply to the mixture, beneath a flue with a
good draught, a gentle heat, which must be
gradually augmented as the evolution of gas
begins to slacken, until the liquid boils. Main-
tain it at this temperature for fifteen minutes;
then remove the vessel from the fire, and filter
the liquid through calico into another vessel,
returning what passes through first, that a
perfectly clear solution may be obtained. Boil
this down to the bulk of two pints, and pre-
serve it in a stoppered bottle.
Characters and Tests. A heavy liquid, usu-
ally of a yellowish-red colour. A little of it
dropped into water gives a white precipitate,
and the filtered solution lets fall a copious de-
posit on the addition of nitrate of silver. . If
the white precipitate formed by water be
treated with sulphuretted hydrogen it becomes
orange-coloured. The specific gravity of the
solution is 1:47. One fluid drachm of it mixed
with a solution of a quarter of an ounce of tar-
taric acid in four fluid ounces of water, forms
a clear solution, which, if treated with sulphu-
retted hydrogen, gives an orange precipitate,
weighing, when washed and dried at 212°, at
least 22 grains.
b. (Commercial.)—a. Take of ash or cala of
antimony, 3% lbs. ; common salt, 2 lbs.; oil of
vitriol, 1% lb. ; water, 1 lb., proceed as before,
Prod., 2% lbs. -
c. From roasted sulphide or glass of anti.
mony, 7 lbs. ; salt, 28 lbs. ; oil of vitriol, 21
lbs., water 14 lbs. ; as before.
d. From crude sulphide of antimony (pow-
dered), 25 lbs. ; strongest commercial hydro-
chloric acid, 1 cwt. ; nitric acid, 3% lbs. ; as
before; the product being coloured with a
little pernitrate of iron, and made up to the
sp. gr. 1'4. The quality is improved, and the
process more easily conducted, if the crude anti-
mony is roasted before dissolving it in the
acid. The same applies to the other formulæ,
Prop., &c.—a. SOLID. When pure, and
nearly free from water, it somewhat resem-
bles butter, melts with a gentle heat, and par-
tially crystallises on cooling; is very deliques.
cent, and quickly passes into an oily liquid
when exposed to damp air; very soluble
in strong hydrochloric acid; water, according
to its quantity, more or less decomposes it.
When perfectly pure and anhydrous, it forms
a white and highly crystalline mass, rapidly
decomposed by air and moisture.—b. SOLU-
TION. The sp. gr. of the solution of the shops
varies from 1:25 to 1'4, in which state it is a
transparent fuming yellow liquid (unless when
artificially coloured), and extremely acid and
caustic. Submitted to distillation, it at first
parts with its water and excess of acid, after
which the salt itself is volatilised. By chang-
ing the receiver as soon as the distillate con-
cretes on cooling, or produces a copious white
precipitate on falling into the liquid already
passed over, the pure ANHYDROUS TRICHL0.
RIDE may be readily obtained.
Phys. eff, Ant., Lesions, &c. See ANTIMONY.
Uses. In medicine, only externally, and
chiefly as a caustic or escharotic to the wounds
caused by rabid and venomous animals, and
to repress excessive granulations in ulcers. In
pharmacy, as a source of both oxychloride
and oxide of antimony. The residuum in the
retort when corrosive sublimate is used, is sul-
phide of mercury, and was formerly called
CINNABAR OF ANTIMONY.




ANTIMONY.
121
2. Antimony, Pentachlo"ride of Sb2Cl3:
Syn. PERCHLo"RIDE of ANTIMONY : ANTI-
Mo"NII PENTACHLORI’DUM, L. Prepared by
passing a stream of chlorine gas over metallic
antimony in fine powder, and gently heated.
A mixture of TRICHLORIDE and PENTACHLO-
RIDE OF ANTIMONY is found in the receiver,
from which the latter may be separated by
careful distillation. It is a colourless volatile
liquid, forming a crystalline compound with a
small quantity of water, but decomposed by a
larger quantity.
Antimony, Cro'cus of. Syn. SAFF'RON OF
ANTIMONY, LIV’ER OF A.; CRO'CUs ANTIMO’’-
NII, C. METALLO’RUM, HE/PAR ANTIMONII, L.;
CROCUS D’ANTIMOINE, SAFFRAN D’A., Fr.
Prep. 1. From black sulphide of antimony
and saltpetre, equal parts, deflagrated together
by small portions at a time, and the fused mass
(separated from the scoriae) reduced to fine
powder.
2. (ANT. CRoCUs, Ph. L. 1788.) Sulphide
of antimony, 1 lb.; nitre, 1 lb. common salt,
1 oz.; as before.
Prop., &c. Its medicinal properties closely
resemble those of diaphoretic antimony. It is’
a mixture of sulphate of potassium, antimo-
niate of potassium, teroxide of antimony, oxy-
sulphide of antimony, sulphide of potassium,
and undecomposed trisulphide of antimony, in
variable and undetermined proportions. When
repeatedly washed or boiled in water, and dried,
it forms the WASHED SAFFRON OF ANTIMONY
(C. A. LO'TUS, L.) of old pharmacy, and has
then lost its sulphate of potassium, caustic
potash, and sulphide of potassium. Formerly
used to make tartar emetic. See LIVER OF
ANTIMONY.
Antimony, Crude, Native sulphide of anti-
mony melted from the gangue.
Antimony, Diaphoretic. Syn. CALx OF AN-
TIMONY, CALCINED' A., ANTIMO’NIATE OF
Pot'ASH, STIB/IATED KA'LI+, DIAPHORETIC
MIN’ERAL}, &c.; ANTIMO’NIUM DIAPHORET/I-
CUM, A. CALCINA'TUM, CALx ANTIMO’NII, C.
A. ANGLO’RUM+, POTAS's E ANTIMO’NIAs,
KALI. STIB/ICUMi, &c., L. var. ; ANTIMOINE
DIAPHORÉTIQUE, BIANTIMONIATE DE POTASSE,
Fr. An old preparation with numerous
synonyms, of which the first two of the above
are those which are now chiefly in use.
Prep. 1. Sulphide of antimony, 1 part ;
nitre, 3 parts; powder, mix, and deflagrate by
spoonfuls in a red-hot crucible, then calcine
for half an hour, and when cold powder the
residuum. -
2. WASHED DIAPHORETIC A., W. CALx OF
A.; ANTIMONIUM DIAPHORETICUM LO'TUM, A.
D. ABLU'TUM (Ph. Bor. 1847), A. CALCINATUM
(Ph. L. 1788); ANTIMOINE DIAPHORÉTIQUE
LAVá, &c., Fr.:—a. (Ph. L. 1788.) As the last,
but the powder is subsequently deprived of
soluble matter by repeated washings with water,
after which it is collected and dried.
b. (Ph. Bor. 1847.) Metallie antimony, 1
part; nitre, 2 parts; as above, but drying the
washed powder at a heat not exceeding 104°
Fahr.
Prop., &c. A white or greyish-white powder,
without either smell or taste; gently diapho-
retic and laxative; its activity greatly depend-
ing on the quantity of acid in the stomach.-
Dose. 1 to 6 grs., or even 10 grs. ; for horses,
1 to 3 or 4 drs. It was formerly in high repute;
but is now almost superseded by the present
pharmacopoeial preparations.
Antimony, Ethiops of Syn. AE'THIOPS AN-
TIMONIA’IIs, L. Prep. 1. From metallie
mercury, 1 part; sulphide of antimony, 2 parts;
triturated together until the globules of the
former entirely disappear.—2. Sulphide of an-
timony, 3 parts; black sulphide of mercury, 2
parts; triturated together for some time. An
old remedy in certain skin diseases, still highly
esteemed by some provincial practitioners.-
Dose. 3 to 5 grs., gradually increased to 20 or
30 grs.
Antimony, Flow'ers of Sym. FLO’RES AN-
TIMO’NII, L. ; FLEURS D’ANTIMOINE, Fr.
Prep. Throw powdered sulphide of antimony,
by spoonfuls at a time, into an ignited tubu-
lated retort with a short and very wide neck,
until as many ‘flowers’ collect in the receiver
as are required. An impure oxysulphide of
antimony, with variable portions of trioxide,
and undecomposed tersulphide. Emetic in
doses of 1 to 3 grs.
Amtimony, Flowers of (Argentime). [-in.]
Syn. WHITE ox'IDE OF ANTIMONY, SNow of
A.; ; ANTIMO'NII FLO’RES ARGENTI/NI, A.
NIx+, L.; FLEURS ARGENTINE D’ANTIMoINE,
OxypI BLANC D’ANTIMOINE, Fr. Prep. Melt
metallic antimony in a vessel freely exposed to
the air, and furnished with a cool place for the
‘flowers’ to rest on, and collect them as de-
posited; or, and what is better, heat the metal
to a full red or white heat in a covered crucible,
and then suddenly expose it to the air, when it
will inflame, and the oxidised vapour condense
as ‘flowers’ on any cool surface (as a partially
inverted wide-mouthed flask) held at a little
distance over it. The product is TRIOxIDE of
ANTIMONY in a crystalline form, and received
the name of argentine flowers from its silvery
whiteness and beauty.
Antimony, Flowers of (Helmont's). Syn.
FLO’RES ANTIMO’NII HELMON'TII. An old
preparation formed by dissolving sulphide of
antimony in aqua regia, expelling the free
water and acid by heat, and subliming the
residuum with an equal weight of salammoniac.
Violently emetic, even in small doses, and unfit
for internal use.
Antimony, Flowers of (Red). Syn. FLO"REs
ANTIMo"NII RU'BRI, L. From sulphide of
antimony, and sal ammoniac, both in fine
powder, mixed and sublimed together. Re-
sembles the last.
Antimony, Ful'minating. See FULMINATING
COMPOUNDS.
Antimony, Glass of Syn. WIT'RIFIED ANTI-
MONYº, W. ox'IDE OF A.*, GRAY 0. OF A.*;







122
ANTIMONY.
ANTIMO'NIT WIT'RUM, ANTIMO'NIUM WITRI-
FICATUM, A. VITRIFACTUM (Ph. L. 1788),
Ox'YDUM, ANTIMONIT WITRIFICATUM, &c., L.;
WERRE D'ANTIMOINE, OXYSULFURE I,’ANTI-
MOINE SILICATſ, Fr. Prep. (Ph. L. 1788.)
Roast sulphide of antimony in a shallow earthen
vessel, over a moderate fire, stirring it con-
stantly with an iron rod, until it turns
whitish-grey and ceases to emit fumes at a red
heat; put the residuum into a covered cru-
cible which it shall only two thirds fill, and
expose it to an intense heat (gradually raised),
until it fuses, then pour it out on an iron plate.
If calcined too much, a little more crude
antimony may be added to make it run
well.
Comp., Prop., &c. A mixture of sulphide
and oxide of antimony contaminated with a
little silica and iron. In fine powder it is
emetic, in doses of 1 to 3 grs.; but owing to the
uncertainty and violence of its operation, is
now seldom employed. It has been used as a
cheap source of the TEROXIDE by the manu-
facturers of tartar emetic.
Antimony, Glass of (Cera"ted). Syn. ANTI-
Mo"NII VIT'RUM CERATUM, L. Prep. (Dr.
Young & Ph. L. 1746.) Glass of antimony,
in very fine powder, 1 oz. ; yellow wav, 1 dr. ;
melt together in an iron ladle, and keep it
over a gentle fire free from flame, (constantly
stirring,) for about half an hour, or until it
acquires a snuff colour, then pour it out on a
piece of white paper (or a plate), and when
cold, powder it.—Dose. 2 to 10 grs, in dysen-
tery, &c.
Antimony, Liver of. Syn. HE/PAR ANTI-
Mo'NII, L.; HáPAR D’ANTIMOINE, Oxysul-
FURE D’ANTIMOINE SILICATÉ, Fr. Prep.
From sulphide of antimony, 1 part; and dry
carbonate of sodium or potassium, 2 parts;
melted together, and heated until it acquires
the proper colour, and then cooled, and pow-
dered.
Comp., Uses, &c. A mixture of trioxide of
antimony, sulphide of potassium, carbonate of
potassium, and undecomposed trisulphide of
antimony. It is chiefly used by farriers, in
doses of 1 to 2 drs., as an alterative purge for
horses, in greasy heels, &c.; and sometimes by
chemists, as a source of the crude oxide. Crocus
of antimony, before noticed, sometimes passes
under the name, and is sold for it.
Antimony, Ore of. Syn. ANTIMONY-ORE.
Native sulphide of antimony.
Antimony, Oxide of. The B. P. name for
Antimony, Trioxide of (which see).
Antimony, Oxides of Antimony forms
with oxygen three definite compounds, viz.
the-
Trioxide or antimonious
oxide . - - . Sb2O3
Tetroxide or antimonoso- ſ or
antimonic oxide . Sb2O, 3 Sb2O3.
Pentoxide or antimonic U. Sb2O,
oxide Sb2O,
Antimony, Trioxide of Sb,0s, Syn, TER.
OXII) E OF ANTIMONY, ANTIMONIOUS OXIDE
(B. P. OxIDE OF ANTIMONY, Eng.; ANT1.
MONII OXIDUM, I.). Prep. (B. P.) Take of
solution of chloride of antimony, 16 fluid 0%;
carbonate of soda, 6 oz. ; water, 2 galls.; dis.
tilled water, a sufficiency. Pour the antimonial
solution into the water, mix thoroughly, let
the precipitate settle, remove the supernatant
liquid by a siphon, add one gallon of distilled
water, agitate well, let the precipitate subside,
again withdraw the fluid, and repeat the prº-
cesses of affusion of distilled water, agitation,
and subsidence. Add now the carbonate of
soda previously dissolved in two pints of dis.
tilled water, leave them in contact for half an
hour, stirring frequently, collect the deposit On
a calico filter, and wash with boiling distilled
water until the washings cease to give a pre:
cipitate with a solution of nitrate of silver
acidulated by nitric acid. Lastly, dry the prº.
duct at a heat not exceeding 212°.
Char. & Tests. A greyish-white powder,
fusible at a low red heat, insoluble in water,
but readily dissolved by hydrochloric acid. The
solution, dropped into distilled water, gives a
white deposit, at once changed to Orange by
sulphuretted hydrogen. It dissolves entirely
when boiled with an excess of the acid târträtº
of potash. -
Uses. Chiefly in making tartar emetic and
some other salts of antimony; also in the pre:
paration of pulvis antimonialis. Therapeu.
tically, it is a diaphoretic and febrifuge—D0s.
1 to 4 grains.
Antimony, Pentoxide of. See ANTIMONIC
ANHYDRIDE.
Antimony,Tetroxide of Sb2O, or Sb,0s.Sh;0,
Syn. ANTIMONOSO-ANTIMONIC OXIDE, ANTI.
MONIOUS ACID. Found natural as Cervantite
or Antimony-ochre. Prepared by heating anti.
monic anhydride, by roasting the trioxide Or
trisulphide, or by the action of excess of nitric
acid on finely powdered metallic antimony,
Thus prepared, it is a white solid, unalterable
by heat; slightly soluble in water, more so in
hydrochloric acid.
Antimony, Oxychoride of Sb00l. Syl,
POWDER OF ALGAROTH. Thrown down as a
white precipitate when trichloride of antimony
is poured into water. Continued washing
with water deprives it of nearly the whole of
its chlorine, and converts it into the trioxide,
a change which is more completely effected by
aqueous solutions of the alkalies or their car.
bonates.
Antimony, Oxysulphide of The compound
Sb2O3. 2Sb2S3 occurs native as red antimony,
Antimony blende, Kermesome, Rothspiest.
glanzerz, Crocus of antimony, Glass of anti-
mony, and similar preparations, are believed by
some authorities to be crude oxysulphides of
antimony.
Antimony, Red. See OxySULPHIDE OF AN.
TIMONY, before noticed.
Antimony, Reg’ulus of Syn, REGUIſ:

ANTIMONY.
123
ANTIMO'NII, L. Metallic antimony obtained
by fusion. Alloys formed by fusing anti-
mony with iron, tin, lead, or copper, and a
little tartar, were respectively called MAR'-
TIAL REGULUS of ANTIMONY (r. antimo"nii
martia/lis, L.), R. A. JOVIALIS (L.), R. A. SA-
TURNI'NUs (L.), R. A. VEN'ERIS (L.), &c. (See
below.)
Antimony, Ruſby of Syn. MEDIC'INAL (-dis'-)
REGULUS OF ANTIMONY; ANTIMO’NII RU-
BI'NUs, REG/ULUS MEDICINA'LIS, R. A. M.,
&c., L. From crude sulphide of antimony, 5
parts; fused with carbonate of potassa, 1 part;
and the purified portion separated from the
scoriae. See LIVER OF ANTIMONY.
Antimony, Saffron of See CROCUS OF AN-
TIMONY.
Antimony, Smelt'ed. Syn. ANTIMO"NIUM
PURIFICATUM, L. Crude antimony melted
and poured into small conical moulds.-Uses,
&c. Same as the ordinary tersulphide.
Antimony, Snow of. See FLOWERS OF AN-
TIMONY.
Antimony, Pentasulphide of (Sb2S), is a yel-
lowish redpowder, obtained(1)bypassing hydro-
sulphuric acid gas through a mixture of penta-
chloride of antimony, water, and tartaric acid;
or (2) through antimonic anhydride suspended
in water. It is insoluble in water; hot hydro-
chloric acid decomposes it, producing trichlo-
ride of antimony, sulphur, and hydrosulphuric
acid. With the more basic metallic sulphides
it unites to form a class of salts called sulph-
antimonates.
Antimony, Trisulphide of. Sb,Sa: Syn.
TERSUI/PHIDE OF ANTIMONY, SUL(PHIDE
OF A., SUI/PHURET OF A., BLACK S. OF A.,
SESQUISUL/PHURET OF A., &c.; L’ANTIMOINE
SULFURE, SULFURE D’ANTIMOINE, &c., Fr.;
SCHWEFEL-SPIESSGLANZ, ANDERTHALB, &c.,
Ger. This is the grey or greyish-black sub-
stance commonly known as crude antimony,
black antimony, or sulphide of antimony, in
commerce, and from which the other com-
pounds of antimony are chiefly obtained.
Nat. hist., Sources, &c. See ANTIMONY.
The crude ore is freed from earthy impuri-
ties in the following manner:—The crushed ore
is submitted to “eliquation’ in order to sepa-
rate the SULPHIDE from the gangue or earthy
matter with which it is contaminated; after
which it is remelted and run into “loaves' or
large cakes, in which form it is sent to mar-
ket. Formerly the operation was performed
by introducing the ore into large pots or cru-
cibles having a hole in the bottom ; and which,
after being closely covered, were set in a circle
around a suitable furnace, by which they were
heated. At the present time, the process is
commonly conducted in a ‘reverberatory fur-
nace,’ similar to that figured in the en-
graving.
Native trisulphide of antimony treated in
this way and ground to powder constitutes
the BLACK ANTIMONY (ANTIMONIUM NIGRUM),
B, P.
(a.), (b.) Grate and fire-place.
(c.) Bridge.
(e.) Concave space for ore formed by a solid bed (f)
of clay and sand, and having a ‘hole’ near the bottom
extending nearly horizontally through the wall of the fur-
nace, to run off’ the fused sulphide.
(g) Door for introducing ore, and removing resi-
duum. -
(h.) Chimney.
(i.) Damper, chain, and lever.
Antimony, Trisulphide of (artificially pre-
pared). Saturate an aqueous solution of tar-
tar emetic with hydrosulphuric acid; an
orange precipitate will be thrown down. This
precipitate, when collected on a filter, washed,
and dried, is the pure trisulphide.
Prop, &c. Native, is anhydrous, inodorous,
insipid, opaque, brittle, easily pulverisable, and
of a dark leaden-grey or steel colour; it has a
striated crystalline texture, and breaks with a
rough spicular fracture; is insoluble in both
water and alcohol; soluble, with decomposi-
tion, in hot strong acids and alkaline solu-
tions; melts at a red heat, and is partly dis-
sipated in white fumes, leaving an impure
grey-coloured oxide mixed with some undecom-
posed tersulphide (ANTIMONY-ASH). Its powder
is black, of peculiar richness, and stains the
fingers. Sp. gr. 46 to 4.62. The pure pre-
cipitated (amorphous) tersulphide is of orange
colour; is darkened by a gentle heat, with
loss of water; and at a higher temperature
passes from the amorphous to the crystalline
condition, at the same time that it assumes
the colour and appearance of the native sul-
phide. It dissolves in hot hydrochloric acid,
evolving hydrosulphuric acid, and producing
a solution of trichloride of antimony.
Pur. The crude commercial sulphide fre-
quently contains lead, iron, copper, and arsenic,
and sometimes manganese. Its goodness is
commonly estimated by its compactness and
weight, the largeness and distinctness of the
striae, and the volatility of its sulphide.
Uses, &c. Chiefly as a source of metallic anti-
mony, and of the oxide in the preparation of
other antimonials. Exhibited alone, it possesses
little activity unless it meets with acid in the
prima viaº, when it occasionally acts with con-
siderable violence both as an emetic and ca-
thartic.—Dose. 10 to 30 grs, in powder; as an
alterative and diaphoretic, in rheumatism,
gout, scrofula and glandular affections, and in
lepra, scabies, and some other skin diseases.
It is a favourite alterative in veterinary medi-
cine, particularly in skin diseases. Farriers








124
ANTIMONY–ANTIPHLOGISTIC.
and grooms frequently mix a little of it with
the food of horses to improve their coat and
promote their “condition.”—Dose, for a horse,
1 to 4 drs., in fine powder, often combined with
mitre and sulphur; for CATTLE, # to 1 oz., or
even 1% oz.; DoGs, 5 or 6 to 20 or 30 grs. ;
HOGS, 20 to 30 grs, twice or thrice daily.
According to Dr. Paris, it is one of the ingre-
dients in Spilsbury's Drops. It is also an in-
gredient in Tisane de Feltz.
Antimony, Tartarated. KSbOCH4O6. Aq.
Syn. TARTARIZED ANTIMONY, TARTAR EMETIC,
EMETIC TARTAR, POTASSIO-TARTRATE OF AN-
TIMONY, Eng.: ANTIMONIUM TARTARATUM,
B.P. Prep. Various methods have been de-
vised for the preparation of this compound,
but the following, which is taken from the
‘British Pharmacopoeia, is to be preferred :—
Take of owide of antimony 5 oz., acid tar-
trate of potash, in fine powder, 6 oz., distilled
water, 2 pints. Mix the oxide of antimony
and acid tartrate of potash with sufficient
distilled water to form a paste, and set aside
for 24 hours. Then add the remainder of the
water, and boil for a quarter of an hour,
stirring frequently. Filter, and set aside the
clear filtrate to crystallise. Pour off the
, mother-liquor, evaporate to one third, and set
aside, that more crystals may form. Dry the
crystals on filtering paper at the temperature
of the air.
Char. and Tests. In colourless transparent
crystals exhibiting triangular facets, soluble
in water, and less so in proof spirit. It de-
crepitates and blackens upon the application
of heat. Its solution in water gives with
hydrochloric acid a white precipitate, soluble
in excess, and which is not formed if tartaric
acid be previously added. Twenty grains dis-
solve without residue in a fluid ounce of dis-
tilled water at 60°, and the solution gives with
sulphuretted hydrogen an orange precipitate
which, when washed and dried at 212°, weighs
991 grains. -
Phys. eff, Doses, &c. Externally, tartar
emetic acts as a powerful local irritant, causing
a pustular eruption, which permanently marks
the skin; for this purpose it is used in the
form of solution, ointment, or plaster. In-
ternally, in small doses (Fºr to , or even ; gr.),
it acts as a diaphoretic and expectorant; in
somewhat larger doses (# to ; gr.), it excites
nausea, and sometimes vomiting, occasioning
depression and relaxation, especially of the
muscular fibre; in larger doses (1 to 2 or 3 grs.),
it acts as an emetic and sudorific (and often as
a purge), depressing the nervous functions,
and producing a feeling of feebleness, exhaus-
tion, and relaxation, greater than that caused
by other emetics; in certain doses (; to 3, or
even 4 grs.), it is used as a sedative and anti-
phlogistic, to reduce the force of the circula-
tion, &c.; in excessive doses, it acts as an irri-
tant poison, and has in some instances caused
death; and even small doses frequently ad-
ministered, and long continued, have brought
on a state of weakness, prostration, and
distaste for food, which has led to a
fatal termination. It is usually exhibited
dissolved in distilled water, either with
or without the addition of a little simple
syrup. In acute rheumatism, inflammation of
the lungs or pleura, chorea, hydrocephalus,
and apoplexy, it is said to have been given in
doses of 2 to 4, or even 6 grs., with advantage,
by Laennec, Rasori, and others; but these ex-
treme doses are not always safe, and cannot
be commendable when smaller ones (# to gº,
repeated every two hours) appear equally
beneficial, and distress the patient less." In
doses of ; gr. to # gr. each, combined with
calomel, it is a powerful and excellent altera.
tive in acute rheumatism and many skin dis.
eases. Of all our sudorifics it is, perhaps, the
most valuable, and the one most generally
available. Triturated with 16 to 20 times its
weight of sulphate of potassa, it forms all
excellent SUBSTITUTE for antimonial powder
and James's powder, as a diaphoretic, in doses
of 2 to 4 grs.
Whenever much gastric or intestinal irri.
tation is present, tartar emetic should be
avoided, or very cautiously administered, and
then combined with an opiate, or some other
sedative. It should also be given with caution
to children; as, according to Messrs. Goodlad
and Noble, even in small doses it sometimes
acts as a poison on them.
In veterinary medicine, it is employed to
promote diaphoresis and expectoration, and to
reduce arterial action, particularly in fevers,
and catarrhal affections, the dose for HORSES
being 20 grs. to 1 dr., or even occasionally,
1% dr., in gruel, thrice daily; also sometimes
as a diuretic and vermifuge, in doses of 1 to
2 drs, combined with tin-filings, for 2 or 3
successive days, followed by a purge of aloes,
The usual dose for CATTLE is 20 grs. to 1 dr.;
SHEEP, 5 or 6 to 20 grs.; SWINE (chiefly as an
emetic), 2 to 5 or 6 grs. ; DOGS (chiefly as an
emetic), 1 to 3 grs. It is sometimes, though
seldom, used easternally, as a counter-irritant,
in chest affections, &c.; but its employment
thus requires caution.
Pois., &c. That from large doses has been
already noticed under ANTIMONY (which see).
In poisoning, the treatment is the entire disuse
of all antimonials, followed by tonics, a light
nutritious diet, the use of lemon-juice or ripe
fruit, a little wine, warm baths, and mild re.
storatives generally.
Antimony, Tartarised. See ANTIMONY, TAR.
TARATED. -
Antimony, Wit’rified. See GLASS OF ANTI.
MONY.
ANTIPHLOGISTIC (-flo-jis/-). Syn. ANTI.
PHLOGISTICUS, L. ; ANTIPHLOGISTIQUE, Fr.;
1 “In consequence of the violent vomiting” (and it
might be added—prostration) “which (even) 1 gr, las
sometimes produced, I have found patients positively rºſiº
to continue the use of the medicine.” Pereira, “Th9.
M. M.;” 4th ed, i, 752. -


ANTISCORBUTIC-APIS.
125
ANTIPHLOGISTISCH, Ger. In medicine, the
common epithet of remedies, agents, and
treatment, (ANTIPHLOGISTICS; ANTIPHLOGIS'-
TICA, L.,) which lessen inflammatory action,
or allay the excited state of the system which
accompanies it. Of these the principal are
bleeding, purging, a low diet, cooling beverages
(as water and acidulous drinks), and sedatives
generally.
ANTISCORBU'TIC (-skor-bü'-). Syn. AN-
TISCORBU'TICUS, L.; ANTISCORBUTIQUE, Fr. ;
ANTISCORBUTISCH, GUT WIDER DEN SCHAR-
BOCK, Ger. Good against scurvy. In medi-
cine, an epithet of remedies, agents, &c., (AN-
TISCORBU'TICS; ANTISCORBU'TICA, L.,) used
in scurvy. Lemon-ſuice, ripe fruit, milk, the
salts of potassa, green vegetables, potatoes,
meal-bread, fresh meat, and raw or lightly
boiled eggs, belong to this class.
ANTISEPTIC. Syn. ANTISEPTICUs, L.; AN-
TISEPTIQUE, Fr. ; ANTISEPTISCH, FÅULNHSS-
WIDRIG, Ger. An epithet of substances,
agents, &c., (ANTISEPTICS; ANTISEPTICA,
L.,) that impede, arrest, or prevent putrefac-
tion. The principal antiseptics in common use
are culinary salt, saltpetre, spices, sugar, vine-
gar, carbolic acid, creasote, and alcohol; to
which may be added intense cold, desiccation,
and the eacclusion of air. Among ANTISEPTIC
MEDICINES, bark, dilute acids, quinine, wine,
spirits, camphor, charcoal, and yeast, take the
first rank. See PUTREFACTION, SOLUTIONS
(Antiseptic), &c.
ANTISPASMOD'IC (-spáz-). Syn. ANTI-
SPASTIC ; ANTISPASMOD'ICUs, L.; ANTISPAS-
MODIQUE, Fr. ; KRAMPFSTILTEND, Ger. In
medicine, an epithet of substances and agents
(ANTISPASMOD'ICS; ANTISPASMOD'ICA, L.)
which allay spasms and convulsions. It is
frequently incorrectly applied to anodynes
and marcotics, which soothe pain, but do not
repress muscular spasm. Ammonia, assafoetida,
bark, camphor, castor, chalybeates, chloral
hydrate, chloroform, ether, Indian hemp and
cannabine, musk, opium, saffron, and valerian,
with many other similar substances, are re-
garded as antispasmodics.
ANTS (änts). See ANT, FoRMIC ACID,
GARDENING, INSECTS, &c.
AORTA. [L., Ger.] Syn. AORTE, Fr. In
anatomy, the main trunk of the arterial
system, arising immediately from the left
ventricle of the heart, and giving origin to all
the other arteries of the body, except the pul-
monary artery and its ramifications, which
permeate the air-vesicles of the lungs.
APATITE (-tite). In mineralogy, native
tricalcium phosphate (phosphate of lime). It
is found in Devonshire and Cornwall, and
abundantly in Spain, whence it is imported
for use as manure, and recently particularly
for the manufacture of ARTIFICIAL GUANO.
Its powder phosphoresces on burning coals.
It differs from phosphorite in not containing
fluorine.
Apatite (phosphate of lime of similar con-
stitution to bone-earth, Caº(PO)2) is found
in every fertile soil, and of which it is an
essential ingredient.
APE"RIENT(à-père'-à-ént; -pér'-, as marked
by Mayne and Smart, though etym. correct, is
less usual). Syn. APER'ITIVE (-tiv); APER'I.
ENS, L.; APáRITIF, Fr.; ABFüHREND, ÖFFNEND,
Ger. In medicine, opening, laxative, gently
purgative; usually applied as an epithet to
substances and agents (APE'RIENTS; APERI-
ENTIA, APERITI'VA, L.) which, in moderate
doses, and under ordinary circumstances, gen-
tly, but completely, open the bowels; and in
this respect rank between the simple laxatives
on the one hand, and the stronger purgatives
and cathartics on the other. Among these
may be named as examples—Aloes (when com-
bined with soap or aromatics), Castile soap,
castor oil, compound ea tract of colocynth (in
small doses), compound rhubarb pill, confection
of senna, cream of tartar, Epsom salts, Glau-
ber's salt, phosphate of soda (tasteless purging
salt), pil. ruft, seidlitz powders, cold-water
compress over the abdomen, &c. Several of
these, in larger doses, become active purga-
tives or cathartics. See PURGATIVES, also
DRAUGHTS, MIXTURES, PILLs, &c.
A'PIOLE (-pe-Öle; or -ël). Prep. The soft
alcoholic ea tract of parsley-seed is either di-
gested or agitated for some time with ether;
after sufficient repose in a cool place, the
ethereal solution is decanted, and the ether
removed by distillation; the residuum is puri-
fied by solution in rectified spirit, and agita-
tion first with a little litharge, and next with
animal charcoal; after which the spirit is re-
moved by distillation from the filtered solu-
tion.
Prop., &c. A yellow, oily, non-volatile
liquid, having a peculiar smell, and a highly
disagreeable taste; soluble in alcohol, ether,
and chloroform; insoluble in water; and
coloured red by strong sulphuric acid. Sp. gr.
1078. In small doses it excites the pulse and
nervous system; and in larger ones it causes
headache, giddiness, vertigo, &c. It is said
to be powerfully febrifuge, and has been
highly extolled by MM. Joret and Homalle as
a substitute for quinine in intermittents." It
has also been found useful in intermittent
neuralgias and the nocturnal sweats of phthi-
sis.--Dose, 5 to 15 drops, in capsules.
A/PIS. [L.] The bee. In entomology, a
genus of hymenopterous insects of the family
anthoph'ila or mellifera, section apia"riae.
(Latreille.) The mouth has two jaws, and a
proboscis infolded in a double sheath; the
wings are four; the two foremost covering the
hinder ones when at rest. The seases are
three—prolific females or queens, unprolific
females or workers (commonly termed neuters),
and males or drones. The females and work-


1. According to Drs. G. O. Rees and A. S. Taylor, 66 out
of 116 cases were cured by it in their practice; but ac-
cording to the French Commission, the cures are only
42%, and in many of these only temporary.

126
APLANATIC–APOPLEXY.

ing bees have a sting. The honey or hive bee
is distinguished from the other species of this
genus by having the femora of the posterior
pair of legs furnished with a smooth and con-
cave plate on the outer side, and fringed with
hair, forming a basket or pocket for the recep-
tion and conveyance of the pollen of plants;
and also in being destitute of spines at the
extremity. The Linnaean genus includes
nearly 60 species. See BEES.
Apis Mellifica. [Linn.] The honey-bee.
APLANAT/IC. In optics, applied as an
epithet to lenses, of which the figure, as well
as the materials of which they are composed,
are such that, with a given index of refrac-
tion, the amount of aberration, both chroma-
tic and spherical, is insignificant, or the least
that can possibly be obtained. See ABERRA-
TION, ACHROMATISM, LENS, &c.
AP0-, [Gr.] In composition, from ; denot-
ing derivation, separation, opposition, or de-
parture. It is a common prefix in words from
the Greek, and is etymologically the same as
the Latin ab-.
AP0C'YNINE (-pús'-e-nin). Syn. APOCY-
NI'NA, L. A bitter, crystallisable substance,
found in apú"cynum cannabi'num (Linn.), or
the Indian hemp of North America. See
ALKALOID.
AP'OPLEXY (-pléks-e). Syn. APOPLEX'IA,
APOPLEX/IS, L. (from &trö-TXàgow, I astound
or strike down, Gr.); APOPLEXIE, Fr. ;
SCHLAGFLUSS, Ger. A disease so named on
account of the suddenness and violence of its
attacks.
Symp. Sudden suspension or loss of the
powers of sense and motion; the heart con-
tinuing to beat and the lungs to act, but
generally with difficulty. During the fit the
patient usually lies in a state resembling
sleep, or the stupor induced by drunkenness.
In some cases there is paralysis of one side of
the body, and convulsions of the other. In
the sanguineous or sthenic variety, or the one
which is most common, the pulse is hard and
full, the countenance flushed and bloated, and
the breathing stertorous; in the serous or
asthenic variety, the pulse is feeble, the skin
cold, and the countenance pale. “The pre-
sence of convulsions is indicative of great
danger.” (Dr. Cheyne.) In both cases the
patient is generally found lying on his back,
in a state of complete insensibility, which
defies every effort to arouse him ; the eyelids
almost cover the eyes, which are fixed and
devoid of intelligence, whilst the pupils scarcely
change their dimensions under the varying
influence of light and darkness; the lips are
usually purple or very dark; and both the
lips and nostrils have generally a slight trem-
bling movement communicated to them by the
deep and laborious breathing of the patient.
Treat. In this disease, more than perhaps
any other, medical aid should be immediately
sought. In the mean time the patient should
be placed in an easy posture, in a well-ven-
tilated apartment, and in the sanguineous or
sthenic variety, in as erect a position as p0s.
sible; but in the asthenic variety, when the face
is pale, with the head and shoulders only mode.
rately elevated. The neckcloth should be re-
moved, and the clothes loosened, and the head
and neck laid bare.
patient should be particularly avoided, and a
free exposure to fresh air secured in every
possible way. When medical aid cannot be
immediately procured, blood should be freely
taken (say 15 to 20 fl. oz., or more) from the
arm, by any person competent to do so; unless
the face be pale, and the pulse feeble, when
cupping at the back of the neck, or leeches
behind the ears, should be substituted for Or.
dinary bleeding. Cold water should be dashed
on the head, the legs placed in pretty warm
water, and blisters or mustard poultices applied
between the shoulders. In the mean time 8
or 10 grs. of calomel may be administered,
and its action subsequently promoted by the
use of saline purgatives and stimulating clys-
ters. When there is a difficulty of swallowing,
a couple of drops of croton oil may be applied
to the tongue; or it may be poured on sugar,
before placing it in the mouth. Indeed, this
mode of relieving the bowels should be adopted
in all extreme cases, as soon as possible,
Emetics should be carefully avoided. The
only eacception to this rule is, when the stomach
is distended by a heavy undigested meal; when
an emetic is hazarded as the less of two evils,
Nasal stimulants, as smelling salts or aromatic
vinegar, should also be avoided. If the bleed.
ing has not afforded some relief, it may be
repeated in from 3 to 5 hours. When these
means prove successful, the remainder of the
treatment may consist in the administration
of mild purgatives and diaphoretics, and the
avoidance of stimulating food or drinks, and
of other like exciting agents.
Prev., &c. The premonitory symptoms of
apoplexy are giddiness, pain and swimming in
the head, loss of memory, faltering in speech or
using one word for another, diminished sell.
sibility either of body or mind, or both, drop.
siness, noises in the ears, specks floating before
the eyes, nightmare, frightful dreams, laborious
Tespiration, heavy yet unrefreshing sleep, an in-
clination to sigh without any moral cause,
cramp in the legs at night when there is no
irritation of the bowels to account for them, &c,
&c. When any of these symptoms occur (es.
pecially in “free livers ”) aperient medicines
and a light diet should be at once had recourse
to, and wine, beer, and spirits, avoided as the
most dangerous poisons. If the symptoms
increase or continue, active purgation, a still
lower diet, and even bleeding may be had
recourse to. Pure air, early rising, regular
habits, gentle muscular exercise, and loose, easy
clothing, are powerful preventives of apoplexy,
By attending to the admonitions of nature,
and adopting the simple means which are
within the reach of all, it is indisputable that
Crowding round the



APOSEPEDIN–APPETITE. 127
many fatal cases of apoplexy might have been
avoided, and a still larger number lessened in
severity.
Robust, plethoric persons, with short thick
necks, are universally accounted the most
liable to apoplexy. In them the fit generally
comes on without warning; and when once
attacked with this malady they are especially
liable to its recurrence. But it must be re-
collected that the possessor of no particular
constitution or temperament, to whatever
class it may belong, enjoys immunity from the
attacks of apoplexy—a disease more fatal
among Englishmen than the natives of other
countries.
Obs. A loss of consciousness exists alike in
apoplexy, epilepsy, narcotism from opium and
opiates, complete intoxication, and common
fainting. These may be distinguished by
observing that—in EPILEPSY there are almost
always convulsions, and more or less rigidity
of the limbs, with (generally) foaming at the
mouth and gnashing or grinding of the teeth,
and frequently, the utterance of noises often
not unlike the barking of a dog; whilst
stertor and laborious breathing, as a rule, are
absent :—in the stupor produced by OPIUM,
MORPHIA, &c., the face is pale, calm, and per-
spiring, and the respiration is tranquil and
without stertor; whilst the patient can, in
almost all cases, be temporarily aroused to
consciousness and kept awake by being made
to walk between two attendants; the odour of
opium or laudanum is also frequently per-
ceptible in the breath or ejected matter:—in
the insensibility of INTOXICATION the pulse is
usually feeble, and the patient may be tem-
porarily roused by violent shouting in the ear,
or by the application of nasal stimulants,
particularly the common smelling-bottle (if
strong); and the breath, and ejected matter
(if any), smells of liquor :—in ordinary
FAINTING the face and lips are pale, the
breathing quiet, the pulse scarcely perceptible,
the limbs mobile, and the fit lasts only a few
minutes.
AP0SEP'EDIN (-din). A substance found
in putrid cheese, and supposed to be a pro-
duct of the fermentation of its caseine. Mulder
and others have shown that it is merely im-
pure leucine.
AP'0STEMEf (-tême or -têm). Syn. AP'-
OSTEM} ; APOSTE/MA+, L. An abscess or col-
lection of purulent matter in any part of the
body.
APPARATUS. [L., Eng.; class. pl., appa-
ratus; Eng.pl., apparatuses—Webster.] Syn.
APPAREIL, Fr. ; APPARAT, GERATHSCHAFT,
Ger. In technical language, the instruments,
utensils, and mechanical arrangements, em-
ployed in any operation, experiment, or ob-
servation, or in any art or trade.
Apparatus. In anatomy and physiology, a
catenation of organs all ministering to one
general purpose or function; as the digestive
apparatus, respiratory a, &c.
APPETITE. Syn. APPETITUS, L.; APáTIT,
Fr.; APETIT, BEGIERDE, ESSLUST, Ger. The
natural desire of gratification, whether cor-
poreal or mental. In physiology, the instinc-
tive inclination to perform certain natural
functions, as those of digestion and generation;
but appr., the natural desire for food. In
psychology and philosophy, the APPETITES (pl.)
are affections of the mind directed to general
objects, as fame, glory, or riches; these, when
subsequently turned to particular objects, con-
stitute the PASSIONS, as envy, gratitude, re-
venge, or love. In its common and unqualified
sense, the word appetite is confined to the
desire for food; and in that sense chiefly con-
cerns us here.
The sensations of hunger and thirst are
seated in the stomach, and their recurrence at
proper intervals is a necessary consequence of
vital action, and is essential to the existence
of the body in a state of vigour and health.
Any alteration from their normal condition
indicates diseased action of the stomach, or of
the nervous system or circulation; or it may
result from vicious habits. A healthy appetite
for food is usually a most certain indication
that nature requires a supply; but in the in-
dulgence of this appetite certain regulations
should be observed, and a boundary should be
put to mere animal gratification. By slowly
eating and thoroughly masticating the food,
the stomach becomes gradually and equally
distended, and the individual feels himself
satisfied only after he has taken a quantity
sufficient for the nourishment of his body;
but, on the contrary, if the food be swallowed
rapidly, and without proper mastication, it
presses heavily and roughly against the sides
of the stomach, and induces a sensation of
fulness before a sufficient meal has been made.
The consequences are, that hunger soon re-
turns, and the party must either have recourse
to food between the usual time of meals, or
suffer the consequences of imperfect nutrition.
Exercise and labour, within certain limits,
promote the healthy functions of the stomach
and bowels, through the action of the muscles
of the abdomen increasing the peristaltic mo-
tion of these viscera. An inordinate appetite
in persons leading a sedentary life, is generally
indicative of the food passing off imperfectly
digested, or of the coats of the stomach being
relaxed, or even diseased. More food is required
in winter than in summer, in consequence of
the greater radiation of the heat of the body;
and hence the increased appetite which is usu-
ally an accompaniment of that season. In
persons who lead a more sedentary life in
winter than in summer, either no change of
this kind occurs, or the reverse is the case;
the want of exercise producing a diminution
of appetite corresponding to the increase of
it that would otherwise result from the sea-
sonal change of atmospheric temperature, or
even greater. Deviations of the appetite
from the healthy standard, or the normal



128
APPLE–APRICOT.
condition, constitute DEFECTIVE or DISEASED
APPETITE.
Deficiency or loss of appetite (AN'oREXY);
ANOREX'IA, L.) generally arises from disor-
dered stomach; but is also frequently sympto-
matic of other affections, particularly dys-
pepsia, biliousness, feverishness, and organic
diseases of the lungs, stomach, and prima viaº,
It is a common consequence of sedentary life,
and of extreme mental anxiety, excitement, or
exhaustion. The treatment will necessarily
vary with the cause. In simple spontaneous
cases, the appetite may generally be improved
by out-door exercise, and the occasional use of
mild aperients, especially salines and aloetics.
When the affection arises from the stomach
being loaded with bile and crudities, an emetic
in the evening, followed by a stomachic pur-
gative the next morning, with an occasional
aperient afterwards, will seldom fail to effect
a cure. With heavy drinkers, a gradual re-
duction of the quantity of the strong liquors
usually consumed, is generally followed by a
restoration of the appetite and digestive
powers. The change thus gradually effected
in the course of 8 or 10 days is often almost
magical. The excessive use of liquors—
especially of spirits, wine, or beer, or even of
warm weak ones, as tea, coffee, soup, &c.—
is always prejudicial. Hence drunkards are
particularly subject to defective appetite; and
teetotallers and water-drinkers to a hearti-
ness often almost approaching voracity. See
BILIOUSNESS, DYSPEPSIA, &c.
Depraved appetite (PI/CA, L.), or a desire for
unnatural food, as chalk, cinders, dirt, soap,
tallow, &c., when an idiopathic affection or
depending on vicious tastes or habits (as is
often the case in childhood), may be treated
by admixing very small doses of tartar emetic
or ipecacuanha with the objectionable food or
articles. When symptomatic of pregnancy, a
plentiful and nutritious diet, including the
red meats, with a little good malt liquor or
wine, may be adopted with advantage. When
symptomatic of chlorosis, to this diet may be
added, the use of chalybeate tonics, and sea or
tepid bathing; when of dyspepsia, a light diet,
bitter tonics, free exercise, fresh air, and cold
bathing, will generally effect a cure.
Insatiable appetite (CANINE APPETITE, Vo-
RACITY; BULIM'IA, L.) is generally symp-
tomatic of pregnancy, or worms, or diseases of
the stomach or the viscera immediately con-
nected with it; but sometimes exists as a
separate disease, and is even said to be occa-
sionally hereditary. When it occurs in child-
hood, worms may be suspected, and vermifuges
administered. In adults, a common cause is
imperfect digestion, arising from stomach com-
plaints or gluttony, when the languor and
gnawing pains of disease are mistaken for
hunger. In this case, the diet should be regu-
lated and the bowels kept gently relaxed with
mild aperients, and tonics (as bark and steel),
or bitters (as orange-peel and gentian), may
be administered. When pregnancy or vicious
habits are the cause, the treatment indicated
under DEPRAVED APPETITE may be adopted.
When the affection is occasioned by acidity in
the stomach, an emetic, followed by the mode.
rate use of absorbents or antacids, will gene.
rally effect a cure. In those cases depending
on a highly increased power of the stomachin
effecting rapid and complete digestion, its
contractile force and morbid activity may be
often allayed by the copious use of salad oil,
fat meat, &c., by the cautious use of opiates, or
by the use or, freer use, of tobacco (either
smoked or chewed, or both). A cathartic
daily, with a dose of blue-pill, or mercurial
powder, every second or third day, is alsº
often advantageous. 25 or 30 drops of solution
of potassa, in broth, twice or thrice daily, has
also been recommended. See BILIOUSNESS,
DYSPEPSIA, WoRMS, &c.
APPLE (äp'l). Syn. MA'LUM, PO'MUM, L.;
POMME, Fr. ; APFEL, Ger. ; APPEL, Dut.;
APLE, Swed. This well-known fruit is the
product of the cultivated varieties of pyrus
ma'lus (Linn.), or the crab-apple of our hedges;
a tree of the nat. ord. Rosaceae. The date of
its amelioration from the wild state is probably
very remote, as several kinds are noticed by
Pliny in a manner that would lead to the
inference of a high antiquity. Pippins, Or
‘seedling improved apples,’ are said to have
been introduced into this country from the
South of Europe towards the end of the 16th
century. Don enumerated 1400 varieties of
the cultivated apple; there are now probably
above 1650. Rennet apples (PO'MA RENETTIA)
are those ordered in the P. Cod. to be used in
pharmacy. In botany and composition, the
term apple (POMUM) is used to designate any
large, round, fleshy fruit, consisting of a ‘peri-
carp, enclosing a tough ‘capsule’ containing
several seeds; as love-apple, pine-apple, &c.
The wood of the apple-tree is much used in
turnery; that of the crab-tree is generally
preferred by mill-wrights for the teeth of
mortise-wheels.
The eagressed juice of 1 cwt. of ripe apples,
after the free acid has been saturated with
chalk, yields from 11 to 13 lbs. of a very sweet,
but uncrystallisable sugar.
Love'-applej. The tomato.
Mad'-applej. The larger Mecca or Bus.
sorah gall. They are also called DEAD-SEA
APPLES, A. OF SODOM, &c. See GALLS.
Acid of Apples. Malic acid.
A/PRICOT. Syn. A'PRICOCK+; ARMENI’ACUM
MA'LUM, PRAEco'TIUM, L.; ABRICOT, Fr.; APRI.
KOSE, Ger. The fruit of armeni'aca vulga"ris
(Lamb.; pru'nus armeniaca, Linn.), a rosaceous
tree indigenous in Armenia, Cachmere, &c.,
and now cultivated in every temperate region
of the world. Under the name of praecox, it
was known in Italy in the time of Dioscorides;
but it was not introduced into England until
the reign of Henry VIII (A.D. 1540). Its
cultivation has since been zealously attended


AQUA–ARACHIS HYPOGAEA.
129
to by our gardeners, and it is now one of the
choicest and most esteemed of our wall-fruits,
and is particularly valued for desserts. It is
reputed to be nutritious, easy of digestion,
laxative, and stomachic. The seeds are bitter
and saponaceous.
Apricots are principally eaten as gathered;
but are also dried, candied, and made into jam.
In confectionery, the Brussels and Breda va-
rieties are preferred to the larger and sweeter
kinds. See FRUIT, PRESERVES, &c.
Briançon Apricots. The fruit of arme-
ni'aca brigantiaca (Pers.). Acidulous; seeds
or kernels, by expression, yield HUILE DE
MARMOTE.
A/QUA (-kwā). [L.] Water.—AQUA DES-
TILLATA or A. DISTILLATA, is distilled water;
A. FLUVIA'LIS or A. EX FLU'MINE (-in-e), river-
water; A. FONTA/NA, spring-water; A. MARI'-
NA or A. MA"RIS, sea-water; A. MINERALIS,
mineral water; A. NIVA/LIS or D. Ex NI'VE,
snow-water; A. PLUVIA'LIS, A. PLU"VIA, or A.
IM'BRIUM, rain-water, soft water; A. PUTEA'-
NA or A. EX PU'TEO, well, pump, or hard
Water.
Aqua. In chemistry and pharmacy, this
word was formerly applied to numerous prepa-
rations and articles now included under other
heads. See EAUX, ESPRITS, HAIR-DYES,
LIQUORS, SOLUTIONS, WATERs, &c.
Aquafor'tis. [L.] Literally, ‘strong water;’
the name given by the alchemists to the acid
obtained by distilling a mixture of nitre and
sulphate of iron. The word is still commonly
employed by mechanics and artists to designate
the impure fuming nitric acid of commerce,
and is thus also retained in trade. By these
parties, concentrated nitric acid is called
‘spirit of nitre.’ ‘Double aquafortis’ merely
differs from the other in strength. See NITRIC
ACID.
Aqua Grae'ca, A. Orienta'lis.
DYES and PATENT MEDICINES.
Aqua Mari'na. [L.] The berylf.
Aqua Mirab'ilist. [L.] Literally, “wonder-
ful water; a cordial and carminative spirit
distilled from aromatics, and formerly reputed
to possess many virtues.
Aqua Regia. [L.] Nitrohydrochloric acid,
originally so called, by the alchemists, from its
power of dissolving gold.
Aqua Toffa'mia. [L.] See AQUETTA.
Aqua Vitaet. [L.] Literally, “water of
life; a name familiarly applied to the leading
native distilled spirit. Thus, it is whiskey in
Scotland, usquebaugh in Ireland, geneva in
Holland, and eau de vie or brandy in France.
When the term is employed in England,
French brandy is understood to be referred to.
See ALCOHOL, &c.
AQUATINT'A. [L., Fr.] Syn. A(QUATINT,
Eng.; ACQUATINTA, It. A species of etching
on copper, producing an effect resembling a
drawing in Indian ink.
A/QUEOUS (-kwe-). Syn. AQUOSE”; A^@UEUS,
AQUO'SUS, L.; AQUEUX, Fr. ; WASSERIG,
See HAIR-
WASSERHALTIG, Ger. Watery; made with,
containing, or resembling water. In chemistry
and pharmacy, applied to solutions, extracts,
&c., prepared with water.
AQUETTA. [It., little water.] Syn. A'qua
TOFFA'NA, A. TOFFANIA, L.; AQUETTA DI
NAPOLI, ACQUA DELLA. To FFANA, It. A cele-
brated poison prepared by an Italian woman
named Toffano or Tophano, and employed by
the Romans about the middle of the 17th
century. The composition of this poison has
been a matter of frequent controversy. Pope
Alexander VII, in his proclamation, described
it as “aquafortis distilled into arsenic.” This
would produce a concentrated solution of
arsenic acid. The emperor Charles VI, who
was governor of Naples during Toffano's trial,
declared to his physician Garelli, that it was
arsenic (arsenious acid) dissolved in aqua
cymbalaria. According to Gerarde, this cym-
balaria was an aquatic species of pennywort,
highly poisonous. The only objection to the
latter statement is the smallness of the dose,
regard being had to the comparative insolu-
bility of arsenious acid; but if the woman
Toffana prepared two poisons, as is probable
from history—one, a single dose of which was
fatal; and another, of which the dose required
repetition, and which was more gradual in its
action,-the discrepance will beat onceremoved.
AR'ABESQUE (-bésk). [Fr.] In the Ara-
bian manner; more particularly applied to a
species of capricious, fantastic, and imagi-
native ornamentation, consisting of foliage,
stalks, plants, &c., to the entire exclusion of
the figures of animals. The designs of this
class, now so much employed in cloth and
leather binding, are produced by the pressure
of hot plates or rollers having the pattern
engraved on them. See MoRESQUE.
ARABIN (-bin). Cls Hº On. [Eng., Fr.]
Syn. SoLUBLE GUM ; ARABI'NA, L. The
pure soluble principle of gum acacia.
Prep. Dissolve white gum arabic in pure
water, filter the solution, and add alcohol as
long as it produces curdiness; collect the pre-
cipitated matter, and dry it by a gentle heat.
Prop., &c. Very soluble in water; basic
acetate of lead, alcohol, and ether, precipitate
it from its solutions. It is isomeric with crys-
tallised cane sugar. It possesses no practical
superiority over the best gum arabic, except
its paler colour.
ARABLE (-ābl). Syn. ARAB'IIIs, L.; ARA-
BILE, LABOURABLE, Fr.; PFLüGBAR, Ger.
In agriculture, fit for or under tillage or ara-
tion; ploughed.
Arable Land. In agriculture, land which is
chiefly or wholly cultivated by the plough, as
distinguished from grass-land, wood-land, com-
mon pasture, and waste. See LAND, SOILs, &c.
ARACHIS HYPOGAEA. Syn. GROUND NUT
PLANT. Hab. Cultivated throughout the tropics
of the Old and New World. Qíficinal part. The
oil of the seeds (Oleum Arachis, Ground Nut
Oil). Obtained by expression. Liº clear,





130
ARATION−ARCHIL.
light yellow, almost inodorous, or with a
faint smell, and bland taste. Sp. gr. 0.916.-
Prop. and Uses. This oil affords a cheap and
excellent substitute for olive oil for pharma-
ceutical and other purposes.
ARATION*. In agriculture, ploughing;
culture by ploughing; tillage. Lands in a
“state of aration’ are those under tillage.
AR/B0R. [L.] A tree. The seventh family
of vegetables in Linnaeus's system. In anatomy
and chemistry, a term formerly applied to
membranes and substances having some real or
fancied resemblance to a tree or vegetation.
An ar'boret is a little tree; an arborist, or ar'-
borätorf, is one who studies or cultivates
trees. -
ARCA'NUM. [L.] Syn. ARCANE, Fr.; GE-
HEIMNIS, Ger. A secret. In alchemy, a term
applied to various preparations without any
precise meaning. “Arcanum is a thing secret,
incorporeal, and immortal, which can only be
known to man by experience; for it is the
virtue of each thing, which operates a thousand
times more than the thing itself.” (Ruland.)
in ancient medicine and pharmacy, a nostrum.
The word is still occasionally used in the plural
(ARCA/NA, secrets, mysteries,) in the titles of
books; as, “Arcana of Chemistry,’ a book pro-
fessing to contain a full exposition of the
mysteries of that art.
Among the old chemists, ARCANUM AL'BUM
was “pulvis Viennensis albus virgineus ' (see
PoWDERs); A. BEC'CHICUM, a sweetened aque-
ous solution of liver of sulphur; A. CORAL-
LI'NUM, nitric-owide of mercury that had been
digested in a solution of potash, washed with
water, and then had spirit of wine burnt on it
(once a favourite mercurial and escharotic);
A. DUPLICATUM, sulphate of potash; A. D.
CATHOL’ICUM, roots of colchicum and plantain
(worn as an amulet against fevers and pesti-
lential diseases; A. LUDEMAN/NI, oxide of zinc ;
A. TAR'TARI, acetate of potassa; A. VITAE, elixir
vitae ; &c.
ARCHE/US (-ké'-iis; ir”—Mayne). [L.]
Syn. ARCHAE/US, L. A term invented by Pa-
racelsus, and employed by the alchemists and
older physicians, to imply the occult cause of
phenomena, as well as the sub-causes or agents
by which the effects were accomplished. Van
Helmont and Stahl ascribe certain vital func-
tions to the influence and superintendence of
a ‘spiritus archaeus' or intelligent vital prin-
ciple. According to others, the powers of
‘Archaeus’ were indefinitely extended. He or
it was an occult power of nature, the artificer
of all things, physician-general to the universe,
&c. &c., to the utmost bounds of absurdity and
confusion.
From this word comes the adj. ARCHE/AL or
ARCHAE’AL, hidden, operative.
ARCH(IL (artsh'-il). Syn. ARCH'EL*, OR'-
CHIL; ARCHILLA, ORCHILLA (ch as k), L.;
ORSEILLE, Fr., Ger. ; ORICELLO, It. A violet-
red, purple, or blue colouring matter or dye-
stuff, obtained from several species of lich-
ens, but of the finest quality from roceella
tinctoria (DC.), and next from r. ſuciformis
(DC.).
The archil of commerce is met with as a
liquid paste, or as a thin liquid dye or stain of
more or less intensity. The ordinary archilor
orchil of the shops (ORCHIL-LIQUOR) is under
the last form ; and is known as either BLUE
OR RED ARCHIL–distinctions which arise as
follows:—
Prep. 1. BLUE ARCHIL :—The bruised or
coarsely ground lichen is steeped for some time
in a mixture of stale urine, or bone-spirit, and
lime or milk of lime, or in any similar ammº.
niacal solution, contained in covered W00dºl,
vessels in the cold; the process being repeated
until all the colour is extracted.
2. RED or CRIMSON ARCHIL:—The materials
are the same as for the last variety, but rather
less milk of lime is used, and the “steep' is
generally made in earthen jars placed in a
room heated by steam, technically called a
stove. The two kinds merely differ in the
degree of their red or violet tint—the all.
dition of a small quantity of lime or alkali
to the one, or of an acid to the other, im:
mediately bringing them both to the same
shade of colour.
Prop. Archil has a disagreeable putridam.
moniacal odour. Its colouring matter is $0.
luble in water, alcohol, urine, ammoniacal and
alkaline lyes, and weak acid liquors; alkali’s
turn it blue, acids red; alum gives with it a
brownish-red precipitate, and solution of tin a
red one; the alcoholic solution gradually losé
its colour when excluded from the air. Its
colouring matter consists chiefly of orcéin,
Pur. Archil is frequently adulterated with
ea tract of logwood, or of Lima or Sapan-T00d.
It may be tested as follows:–1. A solution of
50 or 60 drops of pure archil in about 3 fl.01.
of water slightly acidulated with acetic acid,
almost entirely loses its colour, or presents
only a yellowish tinge, when heated to ebul.
lition in a flask along with 50 drops of a fresh
solution of protochloride of tin made with 1
part of the salt to 2 parts of water:—2. A
drop of fluid extract of logwood treated in the
same way, gives a distinct violet tint, which
resists several hours’ boiling; but when only 3
or 4 per cent. of logwood is present, the boiled
liquid has a permanent grey tint:-3. If the
boiled liquid retains its red hue, extract ºf
Sapan-wood is present:—4. The boiled liquor,
when the archil is pure, re-acquires its colour
by exposure to the air, and the addition of an
alkali, particularly ammonia; whilst the colour
produced by logwood is destroyed only by an
alkaline solution of tin, and is restored by
acids.
Uses, &c. It is employed to tinge the spirit
used to fill the tubes of thermometers, and to
stain paper, wood, &c. The aqueous solution
stains MARBLE, in the cold, of a beautiful violet
colour, of considerable permanence when not
exposed to a vivid light. “Marble thus tinged

ARECA—AREOMETER.
131
preserves its colour unchanged at the end of
two years.” (Dufay.) Its principal use is,
however, in dyeing. By proper management
it may be made to produce every shade of pink
and crimson to blue and purple. Unfortunately,
although the hues it imparts to silk and wool
possess an exquisite bloom or lustre, they are
far from permanent, and unless well managed,
soon decay. It is hence generally employed in
combination with other dye-stuffs, or as a
finishing bath to impart a bloom to silk or
woollens already dyed of permanent colours.
In using it as a dye, it is added to hot water in
the required quantity, and the bath being
raised to nearly the boiling-point, the materials
are put in and passed through it, until the
desired shade is produced. A mordant of alum
and tartar is sometimes used, but does not add
to the permanence of the colour. Solution of
tin, added to the bath, increases the durability,
but turns the colour more on the scarlet.
(Hellot.) Milk of lime or salt of tartar is
added to darken it; acids or solution of tin to
redden it. A beautiful crimson-red is obtained
by first passing the stuff through a mordant of
tin and tartar, and then through a bath of
archil mixed with a very little solution of tin.
By the proper management of this dye, lilacs,
violets, mallows, rosemary-flower, soupes au
win, agates, and many other shades, may be
produced on silk or cloth, either alone or in
conjunction with other dyes to modify it.
# lb. of solid archil, or its equivalent in a
liquid form, will dye 1 to 2 lbs. of cloth.
HERB-ARCHIL, it is asserted, will bear boiling,
and gives a more durable tint than the other
lichens, especially with solution of tin.
(Hellot.) Recently Mr. Lightfoot has patented
a process for dyeing with archil with the aid
of oil, after the manner followed for pro-
ducing Turkey-red on cottons.
Archil, Facti"tious:–1. From a mixture of
onions (in a state of incipient putrefaction)
with about 1-10th to 1-12th their weight of
carbonate of potash and some ammonia, fer-
mented together; and adding, after some days,
1-7th to 1-8th of the weight of the potash used
in a salt of lead. The details of the process
essential to success are, however, now unknown,
the secret having died with a relative of the
writer of this article.
2. Eatract of logwood dissolved in juice of
elderberries and putrid urine, with the addition
of a little pearlash for the BLUE, and a very
little ovalic acid or oil of vitriol, for the RED
variety. Used to stain wood.
Arch'il, Herb. Roccella tinctoria.
CHIL (above), LICHENS, & MoSSES.
ARE/CA. [L.] In botany, a genus of East
Indian trees, of the naff, ord. Palmae
(DC.).
Areca Cat'echu. [L.; Linn.] Syn. ARE/CA,
A. IN'DICA, A. FAUFEL, BETEL-NUT TREE.
Hab. East Indies. Fruit (BETEL-NUT), astrin-
gent and narcotic; husk of fruit (PENANG or
PINANG), sialagogue and stomachic ; both are
used as masticatories; wood and nut yield an,
inferior or bastard sort of catechu; charcoal of
the nut highly esteemed as tooth-powder.
Areca Globulifera. [L.] Properties similar
to the last.
Areca Olera/cea.
alm.
ARENA/CEOUS (ār-e-). Syn. ARENA/CEUs,
L.; ARENACE, SABLONNEUx, Fr. ; SANDIG,
SANDARTIG, Ger. In agriculture, mineralogy,
&c., sandy; resembling sand; friable.
ARENA"RIOUS (-nare'-). Syn. ARENA"RIUS,
L.; ARENAIRE, Fr. Sandy, arenaceous. In
agriculture and botany, applied to soils (ARE-
NARIOUS SOILs) in which sand is the prevailing
and characteristic ingredient ; also to plants
that grow in sandy or arid soils.
ARENATION. Syn. SABURRATION ; ARE-
NATIO, L.; ARíNATION, Fr.; SANDBAD, Ger.
In medicine, sand-bathing; a practice formerly
prevalent, in dropsy, of applying hot sand,
either by immersion or otherwise, to the feet,
legs, or even the whole body.
ARENOSE' (ār-e-nóse'). Syn. AR'ENOUS*;
ARENO's Us, L.; ARáNEUX, Fr. Sandy; are-
naceous (which see).
AREOMETER (à-re- or ār-re-; āre-e—
Smart). Syn. AREOM’ETRUM, L.; ARío-
MāTRE, Fr. Literally, a ‘measure of lightness’
or “rarity,” originally applied to any instru-
ment for determining the specific gravity of
alcoholic and ethereal liquids; but since ap-
plied, like the word “hydrometer,’ to instru-
ments adjusted to the densities of all liquids.
In this country, the term is principally con-
fined to the aréometres of Baumé, on account
of their general use by Continental chemists.
The relations and equivalents of Baumé's
scales, as now adopted in France, are shown in
the first two of the following Tables:—
See AR-


[L.; Willd.] Cabbage-




132 AREOMETER,
I.—Corresponding DEGREES of BAUMé's AREOMETERs and REAL SPECIFIC GRAVITIES:—
1. Areometer for liquids LIGHTER than WATER, or Pèse-esprit."
Degrees | Specific |Degrees | Specific | Degrees | Specific Degrees | Specific Degrees | Specific
Baumé. Gravity. Baumé. Gravity. Baumé. Gravity. Baumé. Gravity. Baumé. Gravity.
10 || 1:0000 || 21 0.9300 || 32 0-8690 || 42 0-8202 52 || 07766
11 0.9932 22 O'924.1 || 33 0-8639 43 0.8156 53 || 0-7725
12 0-9865 || 23 O'9183 : 34 0.8588 || 44 0.8111 || 54 || 0:7684
13 0.9799 || 24 || 0:91.25 35 0.8538 45 0-8066 || 55 0.7643
14 0.9733 || 25 O'9068 36 0.8488 46 0-8022 || 56 || 0-7604
15 0.9669 || 26 0-9012 : 37 0.8439 47 O-7978 ; 57 || 0-7556
16 0.9605 || 27 0.8957 38 0-8391 || 48 0.7935 58 || 0-7526
17 0-9542 28 0-8902 || 39 0-8343 49 0.7892 59 || 0.7487
18 0.94.80 29 0.8848 40 0.8295 50 0.7849 60 0.7449
19 0-9420 i 30 0.8795 || 41 0.8249 || 51 0.7807 61 0.7411
20 O'9359 || 31 0-8742
2. Areometer for liquids HEAVIER than WATER; Pèse-acide, or Pèse-sirop."
Degrees | Specific Degrees | Specific Degrees | Specific Degrees | Specific Degrees | Specific
Baumé. Gravity. Baumé. Gravity. Baumé. Gravity. Baumé. Gravity. Baumé. Gravity.
O 1:0000 16 1.1176 32 1.2667 || 47 1.4476 || 62 | 1.6889
1. 1:0066 : 17 1-1259 33 1:27.73 || 48 1.4615 || 63 17079
2 1:01:33 18 11343 || 34 1.2881 || 49 1-4758 || 64 || 1:7273
3 1-0201 || 19 1°1428 35 I-2992 50 1.4902 || 65 17471
4. 1-0270 20 1'1515 || 36 1°3103 || 51 1.5051 | 66 17674
5 1-0340 || 21 1:1603 || 37 1.3217 || 52 1.5200 || 67 || 17882
6 1-04.11 22 1-1692 || 38 1.3333 || 53 1.5353 | 68 || 1:8095
7 1-0483 || 23 1:1783 || 39 13451 || 54 15510 || 69 | 18313
8 1-0556 24 1-1875 || 40 1.3571 || 55 1:56.71 || 70 | 1.8537
: 9 1.0630 || 25 I-1968 I 41 1.3694 56 1:5833 || 71 1-8765
10 1-0704 || 26 1-2063 || 42 1.3818 || 57 1:6000 || 72 1-9000
11 1.0780 27 1°2160 43 1-3945 || 58 1.61.70 || 73 1924.1
12 1.0857 || 28 1-2258 44. 1.4074 || 59 1.6344 || 74 19487
13 1.0935 | 29 1.2358 || 45 1-4206 || 60 1.6522 || 75 19740
14 L'I 014 || 30 1.2459 || 46 1.4339 61 1:6705 || 76 || 2:0000
15 1:1095 || 31 1:2562 |
1 These instruments were originally adjusted at the temperature of 12%." Cent, or 54}^ Fahr. Those now made in
France are adjusted at 15°C., or 59°F.; and those made in England, at either, 59° or (more usually) 60°Fahr. The
standard temperature of the instrument must be known for its correct application.
II.-Corresponding SPECIFIC GRAVITIES and DEGREES of BEAUMá's AREOMETER for heary
liquids. From the Batavian Pharmacopoeia.
Degrees | Specific Degrees | Specific Degrees|| Specific | Degrees | Specific Degrees | Specific
Baumé. Gravity. Baumé. Gravity. Baumé. Gravity. | Baumé. Gravity. I Baumé. Gravity.
O 1000 16 1125 32 1286 47 1485 62 1758
1. 1007 17 1134, 33 1298 48 150L 63 1779
2 1014 18 1143 34 1309 49 1516 64 1801
3. 1022 19 1152 35 1321 50 1532 65 1823
4. 1029 20 1161. 36 1334 51 1549 66 1847
5 1036 21 1171 37 1346 52 1566 67 1872
6 104.4 || 22 1180 38 1359 53 1583 68 1897
7 1052 23 1190 39 1372 54 1601 69 1921
8 1060 24 1199 40 1384 55 1618 70 1946
9 1067 25 1210 41 1398 56 1637 71 1974
10 1075 26 1221 42 1412 57 1656 72 2000
11 1083 27 1231 43 1426 58 1676 73 2031
12 1091 28 I 242 44 1440 59 1695 74 2059
13 1100 29 1252 45 1454. 60 1715 75 2087
14 1108 30 1261 46 1470 61 1736 76 2116
15 1116 31 1275
AREOMETRY-AROMATIC.
133
AREOMETRY. Syn. AREOME'TRIA, L.;
ARíoMáTRIE, Fr. The art or operation of
ascertaining the specific gravity of liquids,
and hence also their strength or commercial
value; hydrometry. See AREOMETER (above),
HYDROMETRY, SPECIFIC GRAVITY, &c.
ARE (ār; are—Eng.). [Fr..] See MEASURES.
ARGENTINE (-in). Syn. ARGENTI'NUs,
L.; ARGENTIN, Fr. ; SILBERFARBEN, &c., Ger.
Silver-like ; pertaining to, resembling, or
sounding like silver; argental.
Argentine (-tín). [Eng., Fr.] German
silver*. In mineralogy, nacreous carbonate of
lime, from its whiteness and silvery lustre.
ARGENT'UM. [L.] Silver. In old che-
mistry and pharmacy, ARGENTUM FUGITI'-
VUMł, A. MO'BILE+ (-il-e), was quicksilver; A.
MoR'TUUM+, dead silver, grain-s.; A. MUSI'-
WUM+, mosaic s., silver-bronze; A. NITRATUM+,
lunar caustic; A. VI'vu Mf, quicksilver; A.
zoöTIN’ICUM+, cyanide of silver; &c.
ARGIL f (jil). Syn. ARGIL'LA, L.; ARGILE,
Fr. Clay or potter’s earth.
ARGILLA/CEOUS (-jil-). Syn. ARGILLA'-
CEUS, L.; ARGILLEUX, Fr.; THONIG, THONAR-
TIG, Ger. Clayey; pertaining to, containing,
or of the nature of clay or argil. In agricul-
ture, an epithet of soils (ARGILLAGEOUS SOILS)
of which clay is the principal or characteristic
ingredient.
Argil'lo-arena'ceous (-jil-).
sisting chiefly of clay and sand.
Argillo-calca"reous. In agr., consisting
chiefly of clay and chalk.
AR/GOL. Syn. ARGAL*; TAR/TARUS CRU'-
DUs, L.; TARTRE BRUT, Fr.; WEINSTEIN, Ger,
In agr., con-
Crude bitartrate of potash, as deposited by
wine. That from red wine is RED ARGOL;
that from white wine, WHITE ARGOL. See
TARTAR.
ARMATURE (-à-türe). Syn. ARMATU"RA,
In magnetism, a piece of soft iron used
to connect the poles of a horseshoe magnet,
for the purpose of preventing loss of power.
AR'NICA. [L., Fr., Eng.] Syn. ARNIQUE, Fr.;
ARNIKA, WOLVERLEI, Ger. In botany, a genus
of plants, of the nat. ord. Compositae (DC.).
In the Ph. U. S., arnica montana (see below).
Arnica Monta'na. [L.; Linn.] Syn. ARNICA,
MoUN'TAIN A., M. To BAC'Co, GERMAN LEOP'-
ARD's BANE; PANACE/A LAPSO’RUM*, L. AR-
NIQUE, A. DES MONTAGNES, TABAC DES SAVOY-
ARDS et DES WOSGES, Fr.; ARNIKA, FALKRAUT,
&c., Ger. Hab. Meadows of the cooler parts
of Europe, North America, and Siberia. It
is now cultivated in our gardens. Flowers
(ARNICA, Ph. U.S., Castr. Ruth., and Bor.)
and leaves, diaphoretic, diuretic, stimulant,
and narcotic; in large doses, emetic and pur-
gative; root, discutient; whole herb, diapho-
retic, stimulant, and nervine.
Prop., &c. Arnica acts as an energetic
stimulant on the cerebro-spinal system, and
as an irritant on the stomach and bowels.
1 The standard temperature of the instrument is here
l2}* Cent, or 54}* Fahr.
It is much employed on the Continent,
and is given in a great variety of diseases
—amaurosis, chlorosis, convulsions, diarrhoea,
dysentery, gout, paralysis, rheumatism, &c.
It is much used in Germany, instead of bark,
in intermittents, putrid fevers, and gangrene.
In France it is commonly employed as an
excito-tonic in paralysis. It has been greatly
extolled as a restorative, and in bruises and
injuries from falls. The Savoyards and inhabi-
tants of the Vosges both smoke and ‘snuff'
the leaves. In England it is little used except
by homoeopaths. It is said that no animal
but the goat will eat this plant. (Thomson.)
Its noxious properties chiefly depend on the
presence of cytisine.—Dose. Flowers, 5 to 10
grs., in powder, with syrup or honey; root, 10
to 20 grs. It is most conveniently adminis-
tered under the form of infusion or tincture.
Severe abdominal pains and vertigo, and even
tetanus and death, have followed excessive doses.
Obs. According to Dupuytren, the emetic
action of infusion of arnica depends on mi-
nute particles of the down of the plant which
remain suspended in it, and which may be
removed by filtration. See INFUSIONS, TINc-
TURES, &c.
AR/NICINE (seen). This name has been ap-
plied to two substances—the one discovered
by Pfaff; the other, by Bastick:-
Armicine (of Pfaff). The resinous matter
extracted by alcohol from the roots and flowers
of mountain arnica, and in which their acridity
appears to reside.
Armicine (of Bastick). Syn. ARNIGI’NA,
ARNICI"A (-nish’-y’ā), L. Prep. 1. (Bastick.)
From the flowers, by a similar process to that
by which he obtains lobelina-2. From the
flowers (or root), as directed under ARICINA.
Prop., &c. Bitter; acrid; crystallisable;
scarcely soluble in water; soluble in alcohol
and ether; forms salts with the acids, the
hydrochlorate, and one or two others, being
crystallisable. Its physiological properties
and dose have not as yet been accurately de-
termined.
ARNATT'0, Arnott'o. See ANNOTTA.
AR0'MA. [L.] Syn. AROME, Fr.; AROM,
GERUCHSTOFF, Ger. The characteristic odour
of substances, particularly the peculiar quality
of plants, and of substances derived from them,
which constitutes their fragrance.
AROMA"TA. [L.] See AROMATIC.
AROMATIC. Syn. AROMAT/ICUs, L.; ARo-
MATIQUE, Fr. ; GEWüRZHAFT, Ger. Fra-
grant; odoriferous; spicy; applied chiefly to
plants and their products (AROMATICS, A.
PLANTS; AROMAT/A, AROMAT/ICA, L.; AROMA-
TIQUEs, £PICEs, Fr.; GEWURz, Ger.) cha-
racterised by their spicy odour or aroma, and
warm pungent flavour, and of which allspice,
cinnamon, cloves, lavender, pepper, rosemary,
sage, &c., are well-known examples. They are
all stimulant, carminative, and antiseptic; and
from remote antiquity have been regarded as
prophylactic and disinfectant.


134
ARQUEBUSADE—ARROW-ROOT.
Aromatic. In medicine, pharmacy, per-
fumery, &c., applied to substances, simple or
compound, characterised by an agreeable odour
or carminative properties, or both; as aromatic
confection, a. pastilles, a. vinegar, a bark
(CORTEX AROMATICUS, white canella), &c.
ARQUEBUSADE" (ar-ke-bād-zade"). [Fr.]
Primarily, the shot of an arquebuse; but after-
wards applied to an aromatic spirit (EAU D’AR-
QUEBUSADE, Fr.), originally employed as an ap-
plication to gunshot (arquebuse) wounds.
AR/RACK (arrack'—Brande). [Ind.] Syn.
ARAC, ARACK, RACK S ; PALM-SPIRIT ; AR-
RAC/CA, SPIR/ITUS PAL/MAE, S. SUC/CI P., S.
ORY/ZAE*, L.; ARACK, Fr. ; ARAK, Ger. A spi-
rituous liquor imported from the East Indies.
The finer qualities are distilled from the fer-
mented juice (toddy, palm-wine) of the cocoa-
nut tree, palmyra tree, and other palms; and
the other kinds, from the infusion of unhusked
rice (rice-beer), fermented with cocoa-nut
or palm-juice, either with or without the
addition of coarse sugar or jaggery.
Prop., &c. It is colourless or nearly so, but
like other spirit, when long kept in wood, gra-
dually acquires a slight tinge, similar to that
of old Hollands. The best kinds, when of
sufficient age, are pleasant flavoured, and are
probably as wholesome as the other spirits of
commerce; but common arrack has a strong
and somewhat nauseous flavour and odour,
depending on the presence of volatile oil de-
rived from the rice, and corresponding to that
of corn-spirit. The inferior qualities are hence
more heating and apt to disagree with the
stomach than the other commercial spirits.
In this country it is chiefly used to make punch.
When sliced pine-apples are put into good
arrack, and the spirit kept for some time, it
mellows down and acquires a most delicious
flavour, and is thought by many to be then
unrivalled for making ‘nectarial punch’ or
“rack-punch.”
Obs. Batavian arrack is most esteemed;
then that of Madras; and next that of China.
Others are regarded as inferior. The common
par’iah-arrack is generally narcotic, very in-
toxicating, and unwholesome ; being com-
monly prepared from coarse jaggery, spoilt
toddy, refuse rice, &c., and rendered more
intoxicating by the addition of hemp-leaves,
poppy-heads, juice of stramonium, and other
deleterious substances.
Arrack, Factiºtious. Syn. MoCK AR/RACK,
BRIT'ISH. A.; WAUXHALI/NEc'TAR; &c. Prep.
Good old Jamaica rum (uncoloured), rectified
spirit (54 to 56 0. p.; clean flavoured), and
water, of each, 1 quart; flowers of benzoin,
1 dr.; sliced pine-apple, 3 oz. (or essence of
pine-apple, teaspoonful); digest, with occa-
sional agitation, for a fortnight; then add of
skimmed milk, 1 wine-glassful; agitate well
for 15 minutes, and in a few days decant the
clear portion.
AR/ROW-R00T. The common name of
maran'ta arundina'cea (Linn.; m. Indi'ca–
Tuss.); a plant of the nat, ord, Marantaceº
(Lindl. ; Cannaceae—Endl.). It was originally
brought from the island of Dominica to Bar.
badoes, by Col. James Walker. It has since
been extensively cultivated in the West Indies.
Tubers, yield true ARROW-ROOT; when fresh
and good they contain about 26% of starch, of
which 23% may be obtained as arrow-root, and
the rest by boiling.
Arrow-root. Syn. MARAN'TA, AM'YLUM
MARAN'TAE, FEC'ULA. M., L.; RACINE FIñ.
CHIERE, PIVOT, Fr. ; PFEILWURZ, P.-SATZ.
MEHL, Ger. The starch or fecula obtained
from the rhizoma or tubers of maran'ta aruſ.
dina'cea (Linn.; see above), and which forms
the true “arrow-root’ of commerce.
Prep. The fecula is extracted from the
tubers when they are about 10 or 12 months
old, by a process similar to that by which the
farina is obtained from potatoes. In Ber.
muda the tubers, after being washed, are de.
prived of their paper-like scales and every
discoloured and defective part by hand; they
are then again washed and drained, and next
subjected to the action of a wheel-rasp, the
starch being washed from the comminuted
tubers with rain-water; the milky liquid is
passed through a hair sieve, or a coarse cloth,
and allowed to deposit its fecula. This is them
allowed to drain, after which it is again care.
fully washed with clean water, again drained,
and, after being thoroughly dried in the air or
sun, is at once packed for market. (Cogswell.)
In St. Vincent (on the Hopewell estate), a
cylindrical crushing-mill, tinned-copper wash.
ing machines, and German-silver palettes and
shovels, are employed; whilst the drying is
effected in extensive sheds, under whitegauſe,
to exclude insects. In Jamaica, the washed
tubes are generally pulped in deep wooden
mortars; machinery being seldom employed
in any part of the proccss. -
Prop., &c. A light, dull, dead-white, taste.
less, inodorous powder or small pulverulent
masses, feeling firm to the fingers, and crack
ling when pressed or rubbed; viewed by a
pocket lens it appears to consist of glistening
particles, which are shown by a microscope to
be convex, irregular, ovoid or truncated gran:
ules, most of them, according to Mr. Jackson,
being 0010 of an inch in length, and 00080:
an inch in breadth; mixed with others varying
from about double to only half that size. In
its action with boiling water, and its general
properties, it resembles the other starches;
than which, however, it is freer from any
peculiar taste and flavour; and thus agrees
better with the delicate stomachs of invalids
and infants than the ordinary farinas,
Comp. Similar to that of the other starches,
Pur. A large portion of the arrow-root of
the shops consists either wholly or in part of
the fecula or farina of potatoes, or is more
or less mixed with sago-meal or rice-meal: such
materials can be readily detected by the micro-
scope. Potato starch is known in commerce as

ARSENIATE–ARSENIC.
135

‘FARINA’ or ‘BRITISH ARROW-ROOT,” or simply
‘ arrow-root;’ whereas, genuine arrow-root is
always described as ‘Bermuda,” “ St. Vincent,’
* St. Kitts,” or, at least, as ‘West Indian arrow-
foot.” The substitution of the inferior farinas
for genuine arrow-root is not only fraudulent
on account of their inferior value, but is re-
prehensible in a hygienic point of view; as
some of them are offensive to a delicate
stomach, and exert of themselves, and still
more when carelessly manufactured, a laxative
action on the bowels; whereas the effect of
true arrow-root is that of a slight and sooth-
ing tonic.
Uses, &c. As an agreeable, non-irritable
article of diet for invalids and children, in the
form of cakes, biscuits or puddings, or boiled
with milk or water and flavoured with sugar,
spices, lemon-juice, or wine, at pleasure. For
young children a little caraway or cinnamon
water is to be preferred. It is especially use-
ful in irritation or debility of the stomach,
bowels, or urinary organs, and in all cases in
which a demulcent or emollient is indicated.
It must not, however, be employed to the
entire exclusion of other food, as, being desti-
tute of the nitrogenous elements of nutrition,
it is incapable alone of supporting life. Arrow-
woot jelly is prepared by first rubbing the
powder up with a very small quantity of cold
water, and then gradually adding the remain-
der boiling, stirring well all the time. Beef
tea, veal broth, or milk, may be used instead
of water. Some persons boil it for a few
minutes. This jelly, flavoured with a little
genuine port wine and nutmeg, is almost a
specific in cases of simple diarrhoea arising
from habit or debility.
Obs. Arrow-root is imported in tins, barrels,
and boxes, from all the West-India Islands;
and from Calcutta and Sierra Leone. The
best quality was, until recently, solely obtained
from Bermuda; but of late equally fine samples
have been produced on the Hopewell Estate,
St. Vincent, and, according to Dr. Ure, with
the advantage of being prepared with the
purest spring water, in profusion, instead of
rain water.
In commerce, the word arrow-root is now
often loosely used as a generic term to indicate
any white, tasteless, and edible starch or
fecula.
Arrow-root, Brazil’iam.
tapioca-meal.
Arrow-root, East Indian. Curcuma starch;
from the tubers of the curcuma angustifolia,
or narrow-leaved turmeric. The maranta
arundinacea is now also extensively cultivated
in India under the name of maranta Indica,
and the fecula therefrom extensively exported,
which might, with equal propriety, be called
East Indian arrow-root; but this is not the
case in commerce, the whole passing as W. I.
arrow-root irrespective of the place of its pro-
duction.
Arrow-root, English. Potato-starch.
Cassava-starch or
Arrow-root, Port'land. From the under-
ground tubers of arum maculatum (Linn.) or
wake-robin.
Arrow-root, Tahi'ti, Tacca starch or Ota-
heite salep; from the tubers of tacca oceanica.
ARSE"NIATE. Syn. AR's ENATE; ARSE”-
NIAS, AR'SENAs, L.; ARSENIATE, Fr. ; ARSE-
NIKSAURE SALZE, Ger. A salt consisting of
AsO4 and a metal or other basic radical; e.g.,
ammonio-magnesium arseniate, NHAM,AsO4.
AR'SENIC (-Se-nik). As. Syn. ARSENIUM ;
ARSEN’ICUM, ARSE/NIUM, L.; ARSENIK, A.-
METALL, Ger. ARSENICO, Sp., It. The brittle,
grey-coloured metal, or metalloid, which forms
the base of the white arsenic and orpiment of
commerce. Discovered by Geber in the eighth
century, but first accurately described by
Brandt (A.D. 1773). The poisonous properties
of arsenious acid were not generally known for
some centuries after its discovery. As a medi-
cine it was first employed in intermittents in
Hungary.
Sources. Arsenic is peculiar to the mineral
kingdom. The metallic arsenic of commerce is
obtained by roasting arsenical pyrites (MIS-
PICKEL), in earthen tubes, or in tubular earthen
retorts; the arsenic sublimes, and sulphuret of
iron remains behind. On the small scale it is
prepared by sublimation from a mixture of
arsenious acid and charcoal or black flux. Com-
bined with oxygen it frequently exists in
mineral waters; and, in a larger quantity, in
certain rivulets and streams.
Prep. A mixture of arsenious acid, 1 part;
and black flux, 2 or 3 parts; is exposed to a
low red heat in a Hessian crucible over which
is luted a deep empty crucible, or an earthen
tube, to receive the metal; the latter being
kept as cool as possible. Charcoal or even oil
may be substituted for black flux, and a retort
of hard glass may be used, with the same
result. Or the following method may be
used:—White oxide of arsenic, of commerce, 2
drs.; is placed at the sealed end of a hard
German-glass tube (; x 18 inches), and covered
with about 8 inches of dry and coarsely pow-
dered charcoal; the portion of the tube con-
taining the latter is then raised to a red heat,
whilst a few ignited coals are placed beneath
the oxide to effect its slow sublimation. The
sublimed metal gradually attaches itself to the
inside of the tube at its cool extremity. A
small charcoal furnace similar to that used for
organic analysis should be employed, and the
process conducted under a flue to carry off any
fumes that may escape. The open end of the
tube should be loosely closed with a cork.
Prop. Very brittle, so much so that it may
be easily powdered in a mortar; lustre, highly
metallic; colour, steel-grey or bluish-white;
texture, crystalline; crystals, rhombohedrons;
sublimes, without fusion, at 356 to 360° Fahr.,
(and slowly at lower temperatures), in close
vessels unaltered, but when exposed to the air
with conversion into arsenious acid; at a higher



| temperature, in open vessels, it burns with a

136
ARSENIC.
pale-blue flame. Its vapour or fumes have a
characteristic alliaceous odour ; it is slowly
oxidised and dissolved by boiling water; but
may be preserved unchanged in pure cold water;
it rapidly tarnishes in the air, particularly when
moist, a black film, consisting of metallic
arsenic and arsenious acid forming on its sur-
face; with chlorine, iodine, sulphur, and hydro-
gen, it unites to form definite compounds.
With oxygen it forms acids, but no basic oxide.
It combines with the metals in a similar man-
ner to sulphur and phosphorus, the latter of
which it resembles in many respects. These
compounds are termed AR's ENIDEs. Sp. gr.
5-7 to 5'9; sp. gr. of vapour, 1.0362.
Uses, &c. With copper it forms a white
alloy (PACKFONG); and it is added to some
other alloys to increase their whiteness, hard-
ness, and fusibility. In medicine, it is only
used in combination. In the metallic state it
is inert ; but, from its great affinity for
oxygen, it rapidly becomes oxidised and poi-
sonous; and hence acts as a powerful poison
when swallowed, or when rubbed on the skin.
Its fumes are also highly poisonous. See
ARSENIOUS ACID (and below).
Arsenic, Tribro'mide of. As Bºr. Syn. TER-
BRO'MIDE OF ARSENIC, SESQUIBRO'MIDE OF
A.; ARSEN'ICI BROMI'DUM, L. Prep. Add
metallic arsenic, in powder, cautiously and
in a very small quantity at a time, to pure
bromine, contained in a vessel set in ice or
a freezing mixture, until light ceases to be
emitted; then cautiously distil into a well-
cooled receiver.
Prop., &c. Solid below 68°Fahr.; above it, a
yellowish fuming liquid, which boils at 428°
Fahr.
Arsemic, Trichlo"ride of. AsCla. Syn.
CHLo"RIDE OF A., ARSEN’ICI TERCHLoRI’DUM,
&c., L. Prep. 1. From a mixture of arsenic,
1 part; and bichloride of mercury, 6 parts;
both in powder, carefully distilled into a well-
cooled receiver.
2. Gently boil powdered arsenic for some time
in hydrochloric acid to which a little nitric acid
has been added; then concentrate cautiously by
evaporation, and distil as before. It is also
produced, with the disengagement of heat and
light, when powdered metallic arsenic is thrown
into gaseous chlorine.
Prop., &c. A colourless, volatile, highly
poisonous liquid, decomposed by water into
arsenious acid and hydrochloric acid. It has
been employed as a caustic in cancer and
venereal warts; but its use requires the greatest
caution.
Arsenic, Flu'oride of. As FA. Syn. ARSENIC
TRIFLUORIDE, TERFLU'ORIDE OF ARSENIC. A
fuming volatile liquid, prepared as the bro-
mide.
Arsenic, Trii'odide of. AsTs. Syn. TER-
IoDIDE OF ARSENIC, IODIDE OF ARSENIC ; AR-
SEN/ICII ODI’DUM, A. TERIODI’DUM, L.; ARSE-
NIC IoDURE, &c., Fr. Prep. 1. From finely-
pulverised metallic arsenic, 2 parts; iodine, 11
parts; mixed and gently heated in a hiſ
glass tube, or a suitable retort, until Combini.
tion is complete; the heat being then riºd
and the sublimed iodide collected, and at Olſº
put into a well-stopped phial.
2. Arsenic, in fine powder, 1 part; iodinº
parts; triturate them together, place the miº
ture in a small flask or retort just lift
enough to contain it, and apply a gentle hº
until liquefaction is complete, avoiding tº
formation of iodine vapour; when the Ol'

of iodine is no longer perceptible, and tº
mass assumes a reddish-yellow colour All
crystallises on the sides of the vessel il
operation is complete, without having re(ON
to sublimation. A very easy and excell
process.
Prop., &c. A deep orange-red, crystallisill;
solid; soluble in water, and highly volatile in
poisonous. Its aqueous solution yields ti
iodine unchanged by rapid evaporation, hiſ
when slowly concentrated and set aside, whi.
pearly plates are obtained, consisting of alsº
nious acid and the teriodide.
it combines the properties of both arsºnii
acid and iodine, but its use requires gº
caution. It has been successfully employ:
by Dr. A. T. Thomson, Biett, and others, i.
obstinate skin diseases (lepra, impetigo, herº
lupus, psoriasis, &c.), and in real or stimulatā
cancer.—Dose. Th; to # gr. (in pills or ºl.
tion), gradually increased to # or even; gº
(A. T. Thomson.) Easternally, 2} grs, toll
1 oz. ; of which 1 dr. may be used at a time
(Biett.)
Arsenic, Disulphide of. As S, Syn, A.
SENIC BISULPHIDE, BISUI/PHIDE OF A, RE)
SUL'PHIDE OF A., &c., REALGAR; RáAIGA,
ARSENIC ROUGE SULFURE, ORPIN ROUGE, &C,
Fr. ; ROTHES SCHWEFELARSENIK, &c., Gº!,
This substance is found native at Solfaterſ,
near Naples, and in several other volcanic diº
tricts; but that of commerce is often prepard
by distilling arsenical pyrites, or a mixture ºf
sulphur and white arsenic, &c., in the prººf
proportions, as noticed under REALGAR all
RED PIGMENTS.
Prop., &c. A fusible, volatile substantº;
scarlet or ruby-red in mass, but orange-relin
powder, by which it is distinguished from cil.
nabar; crystals, oblique rhombic prisms, Sp
gr. 3:3 to 3-6. Its chief use is as a pigment
and in pyrotechny to make white fire. The
factitious sulphide has not the rich colour ºf
the native mineral, whilst it is much moſt
poisonous. It is improved by resublimation,
Arsenic, Trisulphide of. As S. Sº,
TERSUI/PHIDE OF ARSENIC, YELLOWSUI/PHIDE
OF A., SESQUISUI/PHIDE OF A., OR/PIMENT; A.
SESQUISULPHURE'TUM, ORPIMEN'TUM, L.;
ORPIMENT, SULFURE JAUNE D'ARSENIC, &c.,
Fr.; AURIPIGMENT, OPERMENT, RAUSCHGRIB,
Ger. This sulphide, like the last, is found
ready formed in nature; and is prepared arti.
ficially, by sublimation, from a mixture ºf
arsenious acid and sulphur, as noticed under
As a mediciº,


ARSENIC ACID—ARSENIOUS ANHYDRIDE. 137
ORPIMENT and YELLOW PIGMENTS. It also
falls as a precipitate when a stream of sul-
phuretted hydrogen gas is passed through an
acid solution of arsenious acid or of an arsenite.
Prop., &c. Golden-yellow crystalline lumps,
Or a fine golden-yellow powder; crystals, right
rhombic prisms; volatile; fusible; very solu-
ble in pure alkalies, by which it is distin-
guished from sulphide of cadmium; and from
trisulphide of antimony by being insoluble in
hydrochloric acid. The factitious sulphide
(KING's YELLOW) of the shops often contains
80 to 90% of white arsenic; and is, therefore,
much more poisonous than the native trisul-
phide. Sp. gr. (native) 3:44 to 3-60.
Use, &c. As a dye, as a pigment, and as an
ingredient in fireworks, and in some depilato-
ries, Silk, woollen, or cotton goods soaked in
a solution of pure orpiment in ammonia, and
then suspended in a warm apartment or stove-
r00m, rapidly lose their ammonia, and become
permanently dyed of a superb yellow colour.
The native sulphides (both red and yellow) are
much less soluble, and hence, less poisonous,
than those prepared artificially. They also
possess the richest colour; and are, therefore,
preferred by artists and dyers. In former
times, orpiment, like realgar, was employed in
medicine. See ARSENIC.
Arsenic, Pentasulphide of. As Sg. Syn.
SULPHARSEN’IC ACID, &c.; ARSEN’ICI PENTA-
SUIPHURE'TUM, &c., L. When a stream of
sulphuretted hydrogen is transmitted for some
time through a solution of arsenic acid, a pre-
cipitate of the PENTASULPHIDE is deposited
after some hours' repose. Its formation is
accelerated by boiling the liquid.
Prop., &c. It greatly resembles the tersul-
phide in its appearance and general proper-
ties,
Arsenic, White. See ARSENIOUS ANHY-
DRIDE.
Arsenic, Yell’ow. Trisulphide of arsenic.
ARSEN'IC ACID. HaAsO4. Syn. ACIDUM
ARSEN'ICUM, L.; ACIDE ARSENIQUE, Fr. ;
ARSENIKSAURE, Ger.
Prep. 1. Arsenious acid, in fine powder, 2
parts; concentrated nitric acid, 6 parts; hydro-
chloric acid, 1 part; mix in a flask or tubu-
lated retort, and digest, with heat, until solu-
tion is complete; after repose, decant the clear
portion, and evaporate, to the consistence of a
thick syrup.
2. Dissolve arsenious acid in hot hydrochloric
acid, and when the solution is cold, add con-
Centrated nitric acid, in small quantities at a
time, until red vapours cease to be evolved,
then proceed as before.
Prop. Sour, thick syrup, occasionally form-
ing clear transparent crystals,very deliquescent,
and converted by heat into the anhydrous acid.
Extremely poisonous and soluble.
Arsemiates. Prep. Most of the metallic
arseniates may be formed by adding a solution
of a soluble salt of the metal to another of an
alkaline arseniate, as long as a precipitate
falls; which must be collected, washed, and
dried. The alkaline arseniates may be pre-
pared by adding the base or its carbonate to a
solution of the acid, to alkaline reaction, and
then evaporating and crystallising the liquid.
Prop., &c. The arseniates of the alkalies are
soluble in water; those of the earths and
metals insoluble, except in acids. They are
isomorphous with the corresponding phos-
phates.
Tests. Nitrate of silver added to the solu-
tion of an arseniate gives a highly character-
istic reddish-brown precipitate, which distin-
guishes it from arsenious acid. Nitrate of
lead gives a white precipitate, and the salts
of copper greenish-blue ones. Pure lump-
sugar dissolved in an aqueous solution of this
acid becomes, in a few hours, of a reddish
colour, and afterwards of a magnificent purple.
Heated with charcoal it evolves a garlic-like
odour, and is reduced to the metallic state."
The suspected liquid being treated with sul-
phurous acid and boiled for a short time, the
arsenic acid loses oxygen and is converted into
arsenious acid, which may be tested for as
such. Sulphuretted hydrogen does not pre-
cipitate a solution of arsenic acid, or an
acidified arseniate, until after the lapse of
several hours; and alkaline and neutral solu-
tions, not at all.
ARSENIC ANHYDRIDE. As Os. Syn. AN-
HYDROUS ARSENIC ACID, ARSENIC ACID ; ACI-
DUM ARSENICUM, L.; ACIDE ARSáNIQUE, Fr. ;
ARSENIKSAURE, Ger. Best prepared by ignit-
ing the arsenic acid, in a platinum crucible, at
a low red heat, as long as water is given off.
Prop. White deliquescent substance, and
violent poison, readily soluble in water to the
acid.
ARSENIOUS ACID. See ARSENIOUS ANHY-
IDRIDE.
ARSE"NIOUS ANHYDRIDE, As2O3. Syn.
AR'SENIOUS ACID, AR's ENIC, WHITE A.; ACIDE
ARSáNIEUX, ARSENIC BLANC, OXYDE, Fr.;
ARSENIGSAURE, ARSENICHSTE S., Ger.; ARSE-
NICO BIANCO, It.; A. BLANCO, Sp. The arsenic,
or white arsenic, of the shops.
Sources. The white arsenic of commerce is
principally imported from Germany, where it
is obtained in the process of roasting arseniu-
retted cobalt ores, in making Zaffre. At
Altenburgh it is procured from arsenical iron
pyrites (mispickel); and at Reichenstein from
native arsenide of iron. About 900 to 1000
tons are also annually collected at Cornwall,
being principally a secondary product of the
process of roasting grey copper ore and white
mundic. The British arsenic works in that
county, are perhaps the finest in the world.
The usual plan is to roast the powdered ore in
muffle-furnaces; by which its arsenic is con-
verted into arsenious anhydrid, which escapes
as vapour (smelting-house smoke), and passing
into the condensing-chambers, is deposited
in a pulverulent state, forming the flowers of
arsenic, or rough white arsenic, of the smelters,

138
ARSENIOUS ANHYDRIDE.
(the giftmehl or poison-flour of the Germans).
The crude article obtained in this way is puri-
fied by re-sublimation in suitable iron pots or
other iron vessels, before it is fit for sale. It
then forms a semi-transparent vitreous cake,
which gradually becomes opaque, and of snowy
whiteness, by exposure to the air, and at length
acquires a more or less pulverulent state on the
surface.
Prop. Crystals (obtained by careful sub-
limation, or by cooling a boiling aqueous solu-
tion), usually transparent, regular octahedrons
(see fig. 1), but sometimes, though rarely,
1. 2.
©
assume the form of tetrahedrons (see fig. 2).
When prepared on the large scale, it forms
large, glassy, colourless or yellowish-white,
transparent or semi-transparent cakes or por-
celain-like masses (vit/reous arsenious acid,
gla’cial a. a.), which soon become opaque on
their exterior, and often friable and pulveru-
lent; odourless; volatilises at 380° Fahr.;
fumes, odourless, unless carbonaceous organic
matter be present, when they smell strongly
of garlic; heated under pressure it liquefies
and forms a transparent glass; taste, faintly
sweetish, with a slight acidity and astringency,
not perceived until some minutes after being
swallowed. The opaque variety is soluble in
80 parts of water at 59°Fahr., and 7.72 parts
of boiling water; but on cooling to 60°, only
about ºrd of this quantity continues in solu-
tion. The transparent variety is soluble in
103 parts of water at 59°, and 9.3 parts of
boiling water. Both soluble in alcohol,
syrups, oils, and spirits, and freely so in
alkaline lyes and hydrochloric acid; organic
matter generally impedes its solution; solu-
tions redden litmus; heated with organic mat-
ter it is reduced to the metallic state. Sp. gr.
3-5 º opaque var.) to 3-8 (highest transp.
War. ).
Arsemites. True arsenious acid (HAsO3) has
never been obtained in a satisfactory condition,
but its salts are readily obtained by dissolving
arsenious anhydride in a solution of the base,
or by double decomposition. They are gene-
rally white, nearly all insoluble, except those
of the alkalies, and all soluble in acids.
Tests, Detec., &c. Owing to the importance
of the subject, and for convenience and facility
of reference, the leading tests for the arsenites
and arsenious anhydride are noticed alphabeti-
cally below; to which a few general remarks
on their application, under the various circum-
stances that occur to the chemist and toxico-
logist, are appended. When not otherwise
stated, it is to be understood that they are to
be applied to pure, or nearly pure and colour-
less solutions of arsenious acid or the arsenites.
Ammonio-nitrate of silver gives a will
marked yellow precipitate of arsenite of silº
in an agneous of arsenious anhydride sºlutil
which is soluble in ammonia and in dilut:
nitric acid.
Crystallisation Test.—A very minute qual
tity of arsenious acid placed in a small till
(arsenic-tube), all
heated in the flam:
of a spirit lam)
gives a crystalli.
sublimate, whichſ).
lects on the C00||
portion of the ful,
and which, when \,
amined by a pºſłł
lens, is foundt) ().
sist of sparkling ſº
tahedral crystalſº
engr.).
JEllis's Test—This
is a modification ºf
the “nascent hydrogen test,’ in which tº
suspected gas is passed through a tube (I
taining slips of copper leaf or riband, Orsil
better pure oxide of copper, gently heat:
the end of the tube communicating with tº
atmosphere being drawn to a capillary size,
which the gas may be enflamed and tested
in ‘Marsh's Apparatus.” (See engr.) If arsei.
be abundant in the gas, the copper will be il.
most instantly frosted over with a coatingſ
metallic arsenic; and after continuing the hū
for a few minutes it will present a beautil
silvery surface, and may then be submitteli
further examination.
Esº-
||||||||||||||||||||||}}
(a.) Flask containing the suspected fluid, dilute sl.
phuric acid, and zinc.
(b.) Funnel.
(c.) Tube containing the copper-leaf or c-riband, all
heated by the lamp (d).
(e) Support.
(f) Capillary end of tube (c), with the gas inflamed
Lassaigne’s Test. (Adopted by the Frºnt
Academy.) This consists in passing the gºs
generated in the suspected liquid, through
a solution of nitrate of silver. (See engr)
When arsenic is present black flocculi ºf
metallic silver are deposited, and arsenious
acid remains in solution mixed with nitricaid
and some arsenide of silver. The filtered
liquor, treated with ammonia, will now gives





ARSENIOUS ANHYDRIDE.
139
characteristic yellow precipitate of arsenite of
silver; or a little dilute hydrochloric acid may
be cautiously added to precipitate any remain-
ing nitrate of silver, and the liquid, after fil-
tration, tested for arsenic either in a Marsh’s
(a) Bottle containing dilute sulphuric acid, zinc, and
Suspected fluid.
(b) Funnel for supplying the bottle with acid.
(C. c.) Supports.
(d) Tube filled with asbestos.
(e.) Bent tube to convey the liberated gas.
# Glass vessel containing a solution of mitrate of
Sliver.
apparatus, or with any of the liquid tests; or
it may be evaporated to dryness, when its ar-
senious acid will be converted into arsenic acid
by the nitric acid present, and will then be
found to give the usual brick-red precipitate
of arseniate of silver with a solution of the ni-
trate of that metal. See MARSH's TEST.
Marsh's Test. Some of the suspected liquid
is mixed with dilute sulphuric acid until
strongly acid, and is then poured upon some
pure granulated zinc, or clippings or other
small pieces of zinc, previously placed in the
apparatus; hydrogen gas is immediately
evolved, and, if arsenic be present, unites with
it, forming arseniuretted hydrogen gas, which
escapes by the aperture b (see engr.), and may
be recognised as follows:—
(a,a) Bent glass tube, containing dilute sulphuric acid,
zinc, and suspected liquid.
(h.) Stop-cock and jet.
(c.) Plate of glass to receive the stain.
(d) Support. -
(e, e.) Bands to keep the tube upright.
It possesses a garlic-like odour.
It burns with a bluish-white flame and emits
a whitish smoke.
If a piece of window-glass, or a white porce-
lain plate or saucer, be held a short distance
above the flame, a fine pulverulent film of
arsenious acid is deposited on it. See (fig.)
above.
If the cold plate be held in the flame, so as
to slightly impede the combustion of the gas, a
blackish-brown deposit of metallic arsenic is
obtained, more or less deep, brilliant, and
glistening. Both these deposits may be ob-
tained simultaneously by holding nearly verti-
cally over the flame a glass tube about 8 or 10
inches long, and #ths of an inch in diameter.
See (fig.) above.
A solution of arsenious acid may be ob-
tained by letting the flame play upon 3 or 4
drops of water placed on the under side of the
piece of glass or china, to which the “liquid
tests’ may be then applied. Another plan is
to apply drops of the liquid tests to the plate
as above, and to let the flame play on them
successively.
The true arsenical spot or film is of a
blackish-brown colour, and generally of a very
deep hair-brown, usually surrounded at the cir-
cumference, with a white film of arsenious acid;
whilst that of antimony, which in some points
is similar, is of a deep black colour, and but
feebly lustrous, and, when viewed by transmit-
ted light, appears smoky-black; whereas an ar-
senical spot viewed in the same way, appears
brown. It is further distinguished from others
by—Treated with concentrated nitric acid, it
instantly disappears, leaving upon the surface
of the liquid traces of the metal, which only
dissolve on the application of heat. This solu-
tion, gently and carefully heated, leaves a white
residuum, which, when cold, gives with a
concentrated solution of nitrate of silver, a
dull-red precipitate of arseniate of silver.—The
nitric solution treated with a few drops of sul-
phurous acid, and subsequently with sulphu-
retted hydrogen, gives a canary-yellow precipi-
tate of trisulphide of arsenic, which readily
redissolves, forming a colourless solution with
ammonia.-The arsenical spot, when heated, is
turned bright yellow by sulphuretted hydro-
gen, and is then readily dissolved, as before, by
ammonia, and by its bicarbonate; whereas one
of antimony is turned of a deep orange-red, or
reddish-brown, by sulphuretted hydrogen,is not
readily dissolved by ammonia, and is scarcely
or not at all affected by bicarbonate of ammo-
nia.-It is freely soluble in and removed by
hypochlorite of soda; a reagent which does
not affect antimonial spots. Heated by a
flame of pure hydrogen an arsenical stain
rapidly disappears. A mixed stain of anti-
mony and arsenic does not disappear by the
action of the last two reagents, and is shown
to contain arsenic by the two first tests above.
When hydrochloric acid is present zinc stains
are sometimes formed, but they do not re-


140
ARSENIOUs ANHYDRIDE.
semble those from arsenic. The flame which
produces it is very pale blue or bluish-white;
whereas antimoniuretted hydrogen burns with
a pale green or greenish-yellow flame, and a
white smoke, both of which are characteris-
tic.
Obs. Marsh’s test is admirable for its sim-
plicity, delicacy, and trustworthiness, as well as
for the ease of its application. It is adapted
to all liquids, whether colourless or coloured,
which are not so glutinous as to inconveniently
froth during the extri-
cation of the hydrogen.)
Various modifications of
the original apparatus
have been proposed to
obviate this difficulty;
among which the one
chiefly deserving notice
is figured in the margin.
It consists of a bent tube
having two large bulbs
blown in it, and fitted
with a stop-cock and jet
in the usual manner. In
this case the grains or
fragments of zincare put
into the lower bulb (a). * , ;
It is, however, worthy of remark, that, with
ordinary care and skill, a simple wide-mouthed
bottle, furnished with a tube and cock, will
often be found to answer quite as well as
more costly apparatus; as the fluid is less liable
to froth than in a narrow tube. Even a common
quinine-phial, or a 4-02.
or 6-oz. medicine phial,
fitted with a piece of glass
tube of very small bore,
or even with a piece of a
common tobacco-pipe, for
a burner (see engr.), may
be used when no more
convenient instrument is
at hand.
A film of oil placed on
the surface of the liquid
tends considerably to les-
sen the frothing.
Objec., precau., &c. Ob-
jections have been raised
to this mode of testing,
from the great frothing
which often occurs with organic mixtures, and
from antimony and imperfectly charred organic
1 Animal tissues and liquids containing organic matter
are best prepared for testing for arsenic by Marsh’s test,
in the following manner proposed by Odling:—The tissue,
or the residue obtained by the evaporation of a liquid over
a water-bath, is to be thoroughly dried at a temperature of
about 212°F., then ground to powder or cut up into small
pieces, next drenched with the strongest hydrochloric
acid and allowed to stand twenty-four hours in a warm
place, and finally distilled. The distillate will contain
arsenic (if it existed in the material under examination)
comparatively free from organic matter, and is, therefore,
in a fit state to be introduced into Marsh’s apparatus, as
the organic matter, which is the cause of frothing, has been
removed.
matter also forming crusts somewhatresembling,
to the inexperienced eye, those produced by alsº
nic. But these objections are invalid, becaust
there are easy means of purifying the liquid
before testing it, and of discriminating between
true arsenical spots or deposits, and false Ones,
Another objection is, that both zinc and Sul.
phuric acid sometimes contain arsenic; but tº
obviate this difficulty, we have only to use
them when perfectly pure; and to test them
by means of the apparatus before pouring the
suspected liquid into it. Indeed, these Ohiº.
tions apply with equal force to all those tests
which depend on the production of masºn:
hydrogen. The precaution necessary to success
and to reliable results, is to set the apparatus
with simple zinc, acid, and water, and after it
has worked a short time to test the evolved
gas for arsenic (as above); when, if no traſ:
of that substance is detected, the suspected
fluid, in which the organic matter (if necessary)
has been destroyed by any one of the methºds
hereinafter pointed out, may be added, and
the operation continued. Care should also hº
taken not to light the jet of gas before alth.
atmospheric air is expelled from the apparatus
as without this precaution an explosion my
take place. -
Nascent Hydrogen Test. The apparatus
used may be similar to that figured in the
engr. The plan followed in the laboratory ºf
Giessen, is to heat the long tube through
which the gas passes to redness in several
parts, to produce distinct metallic mirrors; and
then to remove the tube from the hydrogen
apparatus and transmit a very feeble stream
of dry sulphuretted hydrogen through it, the
metallic mirrors being at the same time heated
by means of a common spirit lamp from the
outer towards the inner border or extremity,
If arsenic alone is present, yellow trisulphilº
of arsenic is formed within the tube; if anti-
mony alone is present, an orange-red or black
trisulphide of antimony is produced; and it
(a). Flask containing the suspected fluid, dilute sul.
phuric acid, and zinc.
(b.) Small tube, at the one end having an almost capil.
lary orifice, where the gas is inflamed,
(c.) Spirit-lamp.
(d.) Support.
the mirror consists of both metals, the two
sulphides appear side by side, the sulphide
of arsenic, as the more volatile, lying inwari.
ably before the sulphide of antimony. If dry



ARSENIOUS ANHYDRIDE.
141
hydrochloric acid gas be now transmitted
through the tube, without application of heat,
m0 alteration will take place if sulphide of
Arsènic alone is present, even though the gas
he transmitted through the tube for a con-
siderable time. If sulphide of antimony alone
is present, this will entirely disappear; and if
both sulphides are present, the sulphide of
intimony will immediately volatilise, whilst
the yellow sulphide of arsenic will remain.
If a small quantity of ammonia be now intro-
duced into the tube, the sulphide of arsenic is
dissolyed, and may thus be readily distinguished
from sulphur which perhaps may have sepa-
rated.
Reduction Test. A small quantity of the
Suspected sample, in the state of powder, is
mixed with twice its weight, or more, of some
reducing agent or flux, and the mixture is
placed at the bottom of a very small glass tube,
BERZEZ///sº ()
C–
and heated in the flame of a small spirit lamp
for some time, when the arsenic gradually sub-
limes, and condenses in the cooler portion of
the tube, under the form of a metallic crust,
mirror, or ring. A common test-tube, if of
Very small diameter, may be employed; but
those known as the reduction tubes of Liebig,
Rose, or Berzelius, are undoubtedly the most
(Onvenient and efficient. (See engr.)
Liebig's method is by using a mixture of equal
parts of dry carbonate of sodium and cyanide of
pºtassium. The suspected substance, perfectly
dry and in powder, being first introduced into
A Berzelius' tube, is then covered with 6 times
the quantity of this mixture, and so that the
Whole will not more than half fill the bulb.
A very gentle heat is next applied, to expel
any adhering moisture from the powder and
the tube, after which a strong heat is applied
tº the bulb, and continued for some time, to
effect the entire reduction and sublimation of
the arsenical compound.
The best fluxes to use are ferrocyanide of
pºtassium dried at 212°F., calcined bitartrate
ºf potassium, cyanide of potassium, and pow-
dered charcoal.
The metallic ring is proved to be arsenical
by the properties and tests previously noticed.
CAAA*A*S.
(a.) The arsenical mixture.
(b.) Arsenical ring.
Should it be imperfectly formed, or masked by
decomposed organic matter, the portion of the
tube which contains it may be cut off with a
file, next coarsely powdered, then re-intro luced
into another arsenic-tube, and the exposure to
heat repeated. -
The characteristics most simple and well-
marked are—
The volatility of the deposit when heated,
shown by its escaping from the hotter portion
of the tube and condensing on the cooler part
higher up or further on.
Its conversion into minute octahedral crystals
of arsenious anhydride, when repeatedly chased
up and down the tube by the cautious appli-
cation of the flame of a spirit lamp first to one
part, and then to another. The character of
these crystals with respect to volatility, lustre,
transparency, and form, is so exceedingly
well marked, that a practised eye may safely
identify them, though their weight should not
exceed the Tºnth, or even the #7th part of a
grain. A pocket lens is here serviceable. The
form of the crystals is very evident with a
microscope of 4 powers. Oxide of antimony
never forms octahedrons, but only prisms.,
In employing this test, particular care must
be taken to avoid soiling the sides of the tube
in inserting the mixture, and that the sub-
stances operated on are perfectly dry; as, un-
less this is attended to, the experiment does
not succeed. The common plan is to introduce
the mixture through a small paper funnel or
tube extemporised for the purpose. The heat
at first should be gentle, and merely sufficient
to expel any adhering moisture from the mix-
ture and the inner surface of the tube; after
which (except where otherwise ordered) the
upper portion of the mixture should be strongly
heated, and then the bulb or bottom of the
tube exposed to the full flame. After the
operation is complete the bulb or lower portion
of the tube is usually removed by a file, and
the portion containing the deposit hermetically
sealed, when it may be preserved, unaltered,
for any length of time, ready to be produced
as evidence, if required.
This test is usually regarded as decisive;
as we here actually obtain the arsenic in a
solid form, recognisable by the most unequivo-
cal characters.
Reinsch's Test; Cupro-arsenical Test. The
suspected solution is strongly acidulated with
hydrochloric acid (1 to 6 or 8), and after being
raised to ebullition in a porcelain or glass ves-
sel, some bright and clean metallic copper in
the form of gauze, foil, clippings, or wire, but
preferably the first, is added, and the whole
boiled together. The time required for the
ebullition varies according to the strength of
the solution; when weak it should be conti-
nued for at least a quarter of an hour. When
the quantity of arsenic in the suspected liquid
is very small, at least # an hour should elapse
before the removal of the copper. In solutions
containing a notable quantity of arsenic, a few



142
ARSENIOUS ANHYDRIDE.
seconds is often sufficient to obtain a coating ;
but which, for safety sake, may be extended
to 2 or 3 minutes, or even longer. Liquids
rich in organic matter also require longer boil-
ing than those nearly free from it. The coated
copper, which has now acquired a characteris-
tic iron-grey colour, is then taken from the
liquid, carefully washed in distilled water, in
alcohol, and (if greasy) in ether, next dried on
blotting paper, and then either cut into small
pieces or rolled into a small coil or cylinder.
It is then heated in a reduction-tube over a
spirit lamp, when the metallic arsenic forming
the coating is volatilised, and yields a sub-
limate of minute octahedral crystals of arse-
nious anhydride; or, if the tube be very small,
or any reducing agent be added, a bright me-
tallic ring. When the coating on the copper
is sufficiently thick, it may be scraped off with
a knife, and heated separately in an arsenic-
tube. -
This test is invaluable as affording a certain
and ready means of abstracting arsenic from
its solution, whether pure or mixed with or-
ganic matter. The contents of the stomach
or other viscera may thus be at once examined,
without any tedious preliminary operations.
In this way Dr. Christison discovered the pre-
sence of arsenic upwards of 4 months after
interment; and we have ourselves found it 2
years and 8 months after interment. The
coated copper may be preserved unharmed for
years. Dr. Taylor found that the 1-8th of an
inch of one of these deposits that had been
kept in paper nearly fourteen years, gave a
well-marked ring of octahedral crystals, when
heated,
Sulphuretted Hydrogen Test; Sulphur Test.
This produces a bright yellow precipitate of
trisulphide of arsenic (orpiment) in solutions
containing a free acid; but acts slowly and
imperfectly on pure and neutral solutions, and
does not disturb those that possess an alkaline
reaction. The suspected liquid should there-
fore be slightly acidu-
lated with hydrochloric
or acetic acid before
applying this test, un-
less it be already acid,
when it is better first
to neutralise it with an
alkali, and then to add
the acid. The trans-
mission of the gas
through the liquid (see
engr.) should be con-
tinued for at least half
an hour; when the end of the conducting
tube, after being well rinsed in the liquid, is
removed, and the glass, lightly covered with a
piece of porous paper, set aside in a tempera-
ture of about 100° Fahr., until the odour of
sulphuretted hydrogen is completely lost. The
precipitate is now collected on a small filter,
washed with pure water, and dried by a gen-
tle heat. It is then placed in a watch-glass or
small capsule, and redissolved in a little liquºr
of ammonia, which is then again expelled by
heat; or it may be at once submitted to 0.
firmatory tests. It is shown to contain arºli
by its ready and perfect solubility in am.
monia, and in solutions of the fixed alkalić,
their carbonates and bicarbonates, and in alkä.
line sulphides; by being nearly insoluble in
hydrochloric acid, even when concentrated all
boiling; and by yielding a metallic minºr
when mixed with a flux and submitted to the
reduction-test (which see).
Sulphuretted-hydrogen water and Sulphy.
drate of ammonium act in a similar way tº
gaseous sulphuretted hydrogen; but much lºs
effectively.
For accuracy, the sulphuretted hydrºgen
should be washed by passing it through a small
bottle containing a little pure water, OT Sl.
phuric acid, before allowing it to enter th:
arsenical liquor. The reduction of the newly
precipitated sulphide is generally regardell,
the most important part of the investigation
and requires great care and attention, Al
extremely elegant and sensitive method ºf
effecting this, is by heating the mixture in
stream of dry carbonic acid gas. This methºd
has been followed by Drs. Babo and Fresºli,
with the most satisfactory results, and is till
performed:—(A) is a capacious flask for the
evolution of carbonic acid, half filled with
rather large pieces of solid limestone or màt.
ble (not chalk). To one aperture of the dol.
bly perforated cork, a funnel-tube () is
adapted, which nearly reaches to the bottom
of the vessel; to the other aperture a tube ()
by means of which the gas evolved is 0.
ducted into a flask of smaller size (B) in
which it is washed and dried by concentrated
sulphuric acid. The tube (c) conducts the
carbonic acid into the reduction-tube ()
which is shortened in the engr., and must he
made of difficultly fusible glass. When the
apparatus is prepared, the sulphide of arsºit
intended for reduction is rubbed in a small
basin, previously heated in a water bath, with
about twelve parts of a well-dried mixtuſ:
consisting of 3 parts of dry carbonate of sodium
and 1 part of cyanide of potassium (prepard
by Liebig's method). The mixed powder is
then placed on a small strip of card-paper haſ
into the shape of a gutter, which is next pushed
into the reduction-tube up to the point(ſ)
and the tube is turned half round. In this
manner the mixture is deposited without sºil.
ing any other part of the tube; after which
the strip of card-paper is cautiously withdrawn.
The reduction-tube is then, by means of the
cork (e), fixed in its place; a moderate stream
of carbonic acid gas is evolved by pouring
hydroehloric acid into the funnel-tube (a) and
the “mixture’ carefully dried, by very mode.
rately heating the tube along its whole length,
by means of a small spirit lamp. When the
gas-stream has become so slow that the bul.
bles pass through the sulphuric acid at inter-

ARSENIOUS ANHYDRIDE.
143
vals of about a second, the spot (k) is heated
to redness by means of a spirit lamp. When
this point is attained, another strong spirit-
flame is applied to the mixture, progressing
from (d) to (f), until all the arsenic is reduced
and volatilised (the first flame at the same
time continuing in action at k).
The reduced arsenic recondenses at the spot
(), forming a mirror, whilst an exceedingly
Small portion escapes at the capillary orifice (h),
and fills the air with its garlic-like odour. The
second spirit lamp is at last slowly advanced
towards the other lamp, or the spot (k), so as
to drive towards (g) all the arsenic which has
adhered to the walls of the wider part of the
tube. Both lamps are then removed, the tube
closed at the point (h) by fusion, and heat
applied, progressing from the point (h) to-
wards (g), to contract the mirror on that side
also, which increases its beauty and distinct-
ness. The tube is then cut off at (f), and
hermetically closed and sealed. In this state
it becomes a permanent evidence which may
be referred to in any future proceedings.
Neither sulphide of antimony nor any other
Compound of antimony yields a metallic mirror
Or ring, when treated in this way. Less than
ºn gr. of trisulphide of arsenic thus gives a
Very distinct and beautiful mirror; and even
# gr., a clearly perceptible one.
Voltaic Test. The wires from the opposite
poles of a voltaic battery are immersed or
brought in contact with a little of the arse-
nious solution placed in a capsule or on a
piece of window-glass. If arsenic be present it
is developed at the negative pole; and if this
be formed of copper wire, it becomes whitened
and assumes the appearance of polished steel
Or silver, in consequence of the formation of
arsenide of copper.
Detection of Arsenic in Organic Mixtures.
Of the tests, those which act by producing
coloured precipitates are only applicable, with
any degree of certainty, to perfectly limpid and
Colourless liquors. Those depending on the
extrication of arseniuretted hydrogen are par-
tially free from this inconvenience; but even
here, if the suspected liquid be more than
slightly charged with organic matter, so much
frothing ensues, as to render the process nearly
unmanageable. In this respect Reinsch's Test
possesses advantages over all others; as it
may be applied even to coloured liquids con-
taining a considerable quantity of organic
matter, without these being subjected to any
preliminary process, and without danger of
failure. In some cases also, as with liquids
possessing only a slight degree of consistency
or colour, the arsenic may be separated, after
simple filtration and acidulation with hydro-
chloric acid, by a stream of sulphuretted hydro-
gen, in the usual manner. The reduction-test
is only applicable to solid arsenious acid, or to
compounds of arsenic obtained by means of
other tests or processes. In toxicological ex-
aminations the poison is almost always to be
sought for in mixtures loaded with organic
matter, and under other conditions even more
embarrassing. Soon after arsenic is swallowed,
it enters the circulation, contaminates the
various tissues, localises itself in certain viscera,
and is eliminated in the excretions. Hence it
becomes necessary not only to examine the
solids and liquids in which it is suspected the
poison has been administered, the vomited
matter, and the contents of the stomach and
primae via ; but also, in fatal cases, the
stomach itself, the liver, muscles, blood, and,
more especially, the urine." In such cases the
stomach is the part first laid open, and a
careful examination is made of its contents and
coats in order to detect any undissolved par-
ticles of the poison; a pocket lens being em-
ployed, if necessary, in the search. If any
particles, however minute, are found, they are
carefully collected and submitted to the reduc-
tion-test. If the reverse be the case, the
1. Absorbed arsenic more particularly localises itself in
the liver, in which it may generally be found in from 12
to 15 hours after administration. The liver also generally
retains traces of arsenic long after it has been eliminated
from the other viscera and the muscular tissues.


144 ARSENIOUS ANHYDRIDE.
stomach (cut into small pieces), together with
its contents, is submitted to some further pro-
cess, to obtain a solution suitable for the appli-
cation of the usual tests. The liver, also some
muscle, and any other portion of the body that
may be selected, are likewise separately treated
in the same manner. We have here, both
solid and liquid organic matter to operate on,
and the problem for solution is, the abstrac-
tion of their arsenic in the simplest and most
certain manner, and in a form in which its
presence may be demonstrated by tests. This
subject has long engaged the attention of the
most eminent chemists and toxicologists, and
various plans have been proposed for the
purpose; among which the following appear
to be the most valuable, and that usually
adopted :—
(Reinsch.) Solids (as the stomach, liver,
&c.) are cut into small fragments, and boiled
in a glass vessel with water acidulated with
about 1-4th of its volume of hydrochloric acid,
until the tissues or fragments are entirely
broken down into flakes or grains, when the
whole, after filtration, is again heated to the
boiling-point, and tested as described under
Reinsch's test (see ANTIMONY). Liquids do
not require this preparation.
Estim. This may be effected in various
ways:—
1. GRAVIMETRICALLY :—Arsenic is usually
WEIGHED under the form of arsenate of lead,
arsenate of sesquioxide of iron, tersulphuret of
arsenic, (metallic) arsenic, or (directly) as arse-
nious anhydride. The last three only, as the
more simple and convenient, will be noticed
here:—
As Trisulphide : —The whole of the ar-
senic being precipitated by a stream of sul-
phuretted hydrogen, with the necessary pre-
cautions, in the manner already noticed, the
precipitate, after being carefully collected,
washed, and dried, is purified by redissolving
it in pure ammonia water, and evaporating the
resulting solution in a weighed watch-glass or
capsule, by the heat of a water bath. It is
then dried at a temperature not above 212°
Fahr., and finally weighed. Each grain of the
tersulphide so found corresponds to 80487 gr.
of arsenious acid, or 61 gr. of metallic arsenic.
As (metallic) Arsenic: –Obtained by one of
the processes already given. Each gr. repre-
sents 1:32 gr. of arsenious acid.
As Arsenious anhydride:–Obtained in a
weighed capsule or tube, either by the crystal-
lisation or sublimation test. The weight is the
answer sought for arsenious anhydride. Each gr.
of this is equiv. to 75758 gr. of metallic arsenic.
WoLUMETRICALLY. (Method of F. Mohr.)
This depends on the fact, that an aqueous
solution of arsenious acid, or of an alkaline
arsenite, when mixed with an excess of satu-
rated solution of pure bicarbonate of soda, and
a little starch-paste, has its arsenious acid con-
verted into arsenic acid, by a solution of iodine.
A standard solution of iodine is, therefore, an
appropriate arsenim'eter for the above mix.
ture. The solution of iodine is added until
the blue starch-reaction just begins to appear;
the arsenious solution having been previously
exactly neutralised with pure carbonate ºf
soda, if acid; or with pure hydrochloric Aſil
if alkaline. The results are accurate when I)
substance capable of oxidising or decompºsing
iodine is present in the liquid tested.
Phys, eff., &c. Arsenious anhydride Orwit
arsenic is alike destructive to vegetable all
animal life. Seeds soaked in any but a very
weak solution of it, lose their power of gº!
mination; and buds plunged in it becomei:
capable of expanding into flowers. When
applied to the leaves, roots, or stems, abs]]
tion takes place, and the plant SOOn perishū.
On combustion it evolves the characteristi,
garlic-like odour of arsenic, and arsenic my
be discovered in its substance by chemid
tests. According to Jäger, Gilgenkrant, all
Pereira, a few of the lower order of the algº
are occasionally developed in solutions ºf
arsenious acid. To all animals, from the in:
fusoria up to man, arsenic proves deletºrios
although in different degrees; the highºf
susceptibility of its effects existing in man, 0.
account of the superiority of his development
In all of them death is preceded by inordinal:
actions and increased evacuations, espeſilly
from the mucous surfaces. Difficult respin.
tion, thirst, vomiting, and convulsions, are the
leading symptoms which gradually devel):
themselves as we approach the higher gºals
of the system. (Jäger.) In very small I
therapeutical doses, properly administered it
is a valuable medicine, and acts as a tºniº
alterative, and antispasmodic attenuant; all
externally, as an escharotic. In slightly il.
creased medicinal doses, or long-continuedsmall
doses, nausea, vomiting, purging, griping, dº
bility, emaciation, and all the effects of slow:
poisoning, occur in succession—a gradual
sinking of the powers of life, without any
violent symptom; a nameless feeling of ill.
ness, failure of the strength, an aversion iſ
food and drink, and to all the enjoyments ºf
life. Redness of the conjunctiva and eyelids
headache and giddiness, spasms, eczematºll
eruptions, numbness and paralysis of the
limbs, and pytalism, are also frequent and
well-marked symptoms of slow poisoning by
arsenic. In an excessive or poisonous dº,
the symptoms are rapid and violent; usually
indicating extreme gastro-intestinal inflammy
tion and disorder of the cerebro-spinal sº
tem, and often occasioning death in from 1 to
3 days. The smallest fatal dose found tº
corded by Christison is 4% grs, taken in Sºlº
tion. The subject was a child 4 years old
and death occurred in six hours. 2% grs, dº
stroyed a robust girl in 36 hours. (Lethely)
2 grs., in solution, are suspected to have caused
the death of a full-grown woman, 2 Or 3gs.
may be a fatal dose. (Dr. A. Taylor.) No.
withstanding these facts much larger quanti


ARSENIOUS ANHYDRIDE.
145
ties have been taken, under peculiar circum-
stances, with comparative impunity; and cases
aremot wanting in which even enormous quanti-
ties have produced very trifling effects. Under
ill circumstances arsenious anhydride is, un-
doubtedly, one of the most powerful of the mine-
ral poisons; and in whatever form or way it is
introduced into the system, it exerts the same
deleterious influence. In all cases, in suffi-
cient doses, its action is to increase the secre-
tions, diminish the contractility of the volun-
tary muscles, and to produce convulsions,
prostration and death.
Arsenic is a non-accumulative, irritant poi-
son, and exerts no decided chemical or corro-
sive action on the tissues. (Taylor.)
Pois, &c.—Symp. These sometimes begin
to appear within half an hour after the poison
has been taken, or even sooner; but much
more generally, not until after the lapse of
some hours. They usually commence with
lausea and distress at the stomach, followed by
thirst, often intense, and a sense of burning
heat in the bowels; then come on constriction
ºf the Gesophagus, violent vomiting, severe
Clic pains, tenesmus, and excessive and pain-
ful purging, the stools being occasionally
bloody; but pain, vomiting, &c., do not in-
Variably occur. The pulse is generally quick,
Small, feeble, and irregular — sometimes
scarcely perceptible, and the heart’s action is
irregular and tumultuous. The tongue is dry
and furred; the respiration difficult and
pºnting; the urino-genital apparatus is often
affected; there is pain and difficult micturi-
tion, and sometimes entire suppression of
urine; faintings, coldness of the limbs, and
Cold sweats, with other signs of debility, inter-
Vene, Itching and eczematous eruptions of
the skin, trembling, painful cramps and con-
tractions of the extremities, and violent con-
vulsions, often follow ; and after these, a
greater or less prostration of strength, which
induces a deceitful calm. At length the
heart's action abates, the skin becomes suf-
fused with a cold clammy sweat, and the suf-
fºrer dies from exhaustion. The progress,
succession, and precise character of the symp-
toms are modified by the idiosyncrasy of the
individual, the quantity of the poison, and the
manner in which it has been taken; and are
seldom all present in the same person.
Trealm. If vomiting has commenced it
should be promoted by tickling the throat, and
administering a large quantity of gelatinous
hydrated peroxide of iron, or other appropriate
antidote, in divided doses, mixed with a large
quantity of warm or tepid water, strongly
sweetened with sugar. If vomiting has not
commenced, which is rare, it must be excited
by administering 15 to 20 grs. of sulphate of
Zinc, or ipecacuanha (or in the absence of
these, a teaspoonful of flower of mustard) in a
tumbler of tepid water, and tickling the
throat as before. If these means fail in ra-
pidly inducing copious vomiting, the dose
must be repeated, or the stomach-pump had re-
course to. Altogether as much as 16 to 18 oz.
of the hydrated peroxide of iron, may be
administered. If the poison has been swal-
lowed several hours previously, and hence may
have passed the pylorus, a strong dose of
castor oil, or a purgative clyster may be ad-
ministered, and, after its action, another clys-
ter containing the antidote. As soon as the
stomach and bowels are cleared, diuretics and
sudorifics should be given in abundance.
Lastly, any remaining irritation must be re-
lieved by demulcent and soothing remedies;
or if urgent, by slight general or local bleed-
ing, which cannot be earlier practised without
danger; and opium, camphor, and ether, fol-
lowed by tonics, may be had recourse to, to
recruit the system.
Lesions. Redness and inflammation of the
whole primae viae; and sometimes, of the
mouth, fauces, and oesophagus, but more
usually, the contrary. Sometimes also, though
seldom, there is no marked appearance of in-
flammation in the stomach and intestines.
The stomach is usually highly injected, and
frequently marked with extravasations; lungs,
gorged with blood; mucous lining of trachea,
reddened; heart generally flabby, and exhibit-
ing deep red or blackish stains, and the right
cavities more or less loaded with blood; the
conjunctiva is sometimes very vascular; and
redness, extravasation of blood, and effusion of
serum, is occasionally seen in the brain. The
blood is frequently, though not invariably,
fluid after death, and dark-coloured. Under
certain circumstances, the mucous membrane
of the stomach and intestines is lined with a
multitude of brilliant points or grains, which
have been mistaken for arsenious anhydride;
but which, according to Orfila, are composed of
fat and albumen. Placed on burning coals, they
decrepitate on drying, and produce a species
of explosion or detonation. These grains are
also met with in the stomach of persons who
have not been poisoned. Digested in water,
the liquid obtained from them does not show
the presence of arsenic when submitted to re-
agents.
Ant. In the order of their assumed effi-
ciency:—Hydrated or gelatinous sesquioxide
or peroxide of iron (for an adult—a table-
spoonful, in water, every 8 or 10 minutes,
until 12 or 16 oz., or more, have been taken).
Hydrated sulphide of iron (as 10 last).
Gelatinous hydrate of magnesia (as the last).
Calcined magnesia (taken as the first). Salad
or olive oil, or almond oil, and oil or fats
generally (ad libitum), are all highly effective
in lesseming, if not destroying the action of
arsenious anhydride)." Albumen (white of egg),
1 Dr. Blondlot, in a paper communicated to the Paris
Academy of Sciences, has come to the conclusion that the
slightest quantity of greasy matter in contact with arseni-
ous anhydride reduces its solubility to about 1-20th of what
it was before. This explains at once why, in certain judicial
investigations, arsenic has been sought for in vain in the
liquid contents of the stomach, when the food consisted
10

146
ARSENIOUS ANHYDRIDE.

or liquids containing it (in cold water, ad libi-
tum). Milk, wheat-flour, oatmeal gruel, (with
water, ad libitum). Lime water, with milk
(as the last). Chalk, with milk and water (as
the last). Infusion or decoction of bark, or
better, of nut-galls (as the last). Sugar or
syrup (ad libitum). See Treatm. (above);
also the above substances under their respec-
tive heads.
Uses, &c. Arsenious anhydride and its com-
pounds are extensively employed in the arts and
medicine. It is used by the dyer, it furnishes
the artist with several of his most beautiful
pigments, and the glass-maker and enameller
with a flux or material to whiten and decolour
their wares. In agriculture, it is used (in
solution) as an anti-smut for seed-wheat; and
as an anti-vermin lotion or dipping for sheep
and cattle. In small (therapeutical) doses it
is a valuable remedy in intermittent fevers,
chronic skin diseases (especially lepra and
psoriasis), and in several nervous affections
(as neuralgia, epilepsy, chorea, tetanus, &c.).
It is the active ingredient of the tasteless
ague-drop ; and in the Tanjore pills, long
celebrated in India for the cure of the bite of
the cobra di capello and other venomous ser-
pents, as well as of hydrophobia. It has been
given in syphilis, chronic rheumatism, typhus,
and several other diseases, with more or less
advantage. Cautiously administered in phthisis,
it frequently restores the appetite and strength,
and greatly retards, and in some cases, arrests
the progress of the disease. It has been re-
cently used to relieve toothache arising from
caries. Easternally, it is employed in the form
of powder, lotion, and ointment, for the cure
of cancer. Plunkett’s Ointment, Pāte arsé-
nicale, Davidson's Remedy for Cancer, and
several other like preparations, owe their ac-
tivity to arsenious anhydride. Water in which
white arsenic has been steeped has become a
favorite cosmetic wash with many ladies, since
its assumed property of softening the skin
was announced in a certain popular periodical.
Its use, whether internal or external, is, how-
ever, attended with considerable danger in
unskilful hands, and should, therefore, never
be adopted but under proper advice.—Dose.
# to . gr., -made into pills with crumb of
bread and lump sugar; or in solution, 3 to 5
or 6 drops, twice or thrice daily, gradually
and cautiously increased to 12, or even 15
drops. As a rule, arsenical preparations should
be taken soon after a meal, and by no means
partly of fatty substances, such as broth, milk, &c. It like-
wise explains how arsenious anhydride, taken in powder,
may sometimes remain a long time in the stomach before
it produces any deleterious effect; since, in such cases, its
action is hindered by the presence of fatty matter. Jug-
glers often swallow arsenic with impunity, because, accord-
ing to Dr. Blondlot, they previously take the precaution
to drink milk and eat fat bacon. Hence, in cases of
poisoning by arsenic, oils and fatty substances may be
administered as real antidotes, capable of suspending the
action of the poison for a considerable time, until more
radical means of effecting a cure can be applied. The
people engaged in some of the arsenic-works regard salad
oil as almost a certain antidote to this poison.
on an empty stomach. (Dr. A.T.Thomsºn)
The dose should be suspended, or greatly tº
duced, as soon as the conjunctiva is affºd
(Hunt); or if dryness of the mouth or thrº,
or irritation of the stomach or bowels, enslº.
Mr. Maculloch found the pills more efficatiº
than the solution; they act differently, all
cannot be substituted for one another,
Arsenic is a favorite tonic and alteratiº
with farriers; who often administer it waſ
carelessly to horses, to the serious injury'ſ
these animals. It is also a favorite with
grooms, who have imbibed the notion thiſ
small doses of it contribute to improve tº
condition of the skin. The best-informl
veterinarians, however, either wholly avºidi,
or use it with very great caution.—D0% (it
a HORSE), 2 to 5 or 6 grs, twice or thiſ
daily; in farcy or glanders, 10 to 12 gº, Il
solution it is often employed as a wash Ori,
ping to destroy vermin in cattle and shºp;
but its use is not free from danger, particulu,
to the shepherds or dippers.
Gen. commentary. The necessary length ºf
the preceding article, owing to the greatim
portance of the subject in its relations tº
toxicology and medical jurisprudence, hāski;
us little space for further remark here. In
addition to what has been said on arsºnial
testing, it may be useful to caution the raid,
of the absolute necessity of only employing
tests and reagents which are themselves alsº
lutely pure; and in which the operator his
by personal examination, failed to detect tº
slightest trace of arsenic. Commercial ill.
phuric, nitric, and hydrochloric acids, pºli.
soda, nitre, iron, and zinc, frequently Cºnti
arsenic; from which, however, they may
freed by chemical processes; or they mayl:
purchased in the pure state from respecial:
dealers in chemicals. But no assurance ºf the
vendor should be regarded as a proof of thiſ
purity. In all judicial investigations tº
absence of arsenic in the several tests andrº
agents, and the apparatus employed, must lº
demonstrated and sworn to. We may firſt
add, that the results afforded by no singlet:
can be depended on. In matters of such ºf
importance, the most ample confirmatory ºf
dence must be sought.
Marsh's, Reinsch's, Lassaigne's, the Sulph,
and the Reduction Tests, and their modifiti.
1 “As a therapeutic agent for horses, arseniºus ºil
can be well dispensed with. It is, however, emplºtl,
some as a tonic, in doses of from 10 to 30gs daily; I
by others as a vermifuge. When injudiciously adminiº
tered death has been the result. By those of the ºl
school it is extolled as a caustic, and a very powerfulº
doubtlessly it is; but there is this disadvantage attening
its use—we cannot control its action, and, oftentimes,
most extensive and painful wound is caused by it. 0&
sionally it is resorted to for the eradication of wars;
although a better plan is to extirpate them at Once will
the knife. When, however, this is inadmissible, 1partſ
arsenious acid, in very fine powder, may be mixed with:
parts of lard, and a (small) portion of the compul
applied, with friction, over and around the excrºsºlº
every other day, for three or four times. This will tº
such a powerful sloughing action, that in aboutlºdº
the warts will be thrown off.” (Prof. Morton.)

ARSENIOUS ANHYDRIDE.
147
tions, are those now generally preferred by
toxicological chemists; each of which, with its
confirmatory tests, are amply sufficient for the
indisputable identification of arsenic.
Modern toxicologists have abandoned most
ºf the old processes for the detection of arsenic,
and have adopted one of two, which have been
found more expeditious, as well as more certain.
These are the Tests of Marsh and Reinsch,
preferably the latter.
HERAPATH's METHOD is to obtain deposits
by Reinsch's Test on 4 or 5 pieces of No. 13
(Upper wire; each piece being about 2% inches
long, and previously flattened and planished
With a polished hammer for about one half its
length. The deposit, with some of the adher-
ing Copper, scraped from one of these coated
pieces, is sealed up hermetically in a tube for
future production. The “scrapings’ from
three pieces of wire are separately submitted
to the sublimation test in tubes bent in the
form of an obtuse V, capillary at one end, and
about ºths of an inch in diameter at the
Other; the capillary leg being about three
times as long as the larger one. The “scrap-
ings' are placed in the bent part of the tube;
and the flame of a small spirit lamp is so ap-
plied as to slowly drive the sublimate into the
narrower portion of the tube, which is held
rather higher than the other. If the deposit
$0.0btained be mercury, it condenses in white
shining globules;–if lead or bismuth, it does
not rise but melts into a yellowish glass, which
adheres to the copper;—if tellurium, it falls
As a white amorphous powder;-if antimony,
it does not rise at that low temperature; but
—ifit be arsenic, it sublimes as arsenious anhy-
dride, which condenses as minute octahedral
Crystals, looking, with the microscope, like
Very transparent grains of sand. One of these
tubes containing the sublimed arsenious anhy-
dride is then sealed up, like the first one, for
futureproduction. The capillary part of another
tube, containing the sublimate, is then cut off,
and carefully boiled in a few drops (10 to 15)
of distilled water; and, when cold, 3 or 4
drops of the resulting solution is poured on a
plate of white porcelain, and to this, by means
Of a glass rod, one drop of solution of ammo-
liacal sulphate of copper is added. The mix-
ture is then carefully conducted on to a piece
of white filtering-paper set on the surface of a
smooth, clean, and dry chalk-stone, by which
the moisture is absorbed, and the smallest
portion of Scheele's green produced by the
testrendered more conspicuous. The ammonio-
itrate of silver test is then applied, in a similar
manner, to 3 or 4 drops of the remaining so-
lution; after which, the pieces of paper with
the spots are dried, and sealed up in separate
tubes, as before, observing to exclude the light
from that containing the yellow precipitate of
Arsenite of silver. A stream of sulphuretted
hydrogen is then passed through the remaining
tube containing the arsenical sublimate, by
which the latter is converted into the yellow
tersulphide—this too is sealed up. Here are
now five tests—the metal, the acid, arsenite
of copper, arsenite of silver, and yellow ter-
sulphide of arsenic.
It is now well known that certain soils con-
tain arsenic, either as arsenite of lime or sul-
phide of arsenic; and which, under favorable
circumstances, may permeate or be absorbed
by a body, after interment. In judicial inves-
tigations following disinterment it is, there-
fore, necessary to examine portions of the
cemetery-earth taken from the grave, as well
as from parts more or less distant from it.
For this purpose the earth should be thoroughly
dried in a water bath, drenched with pure and
concentrated hydrochloric acid, and allowed
to stand for twenty-four hours. The mixture
is then distilled, and the distillate tested for
arsenic by Reinsch's or Marsh's test. Should
the product of one distillation yield no evi-
dence of arsenic, it should be returned to the
retort, if necessary, a second or even a third
time, and the distillation repeated.
The practice of employing a solution of
white arsenic as an anti-smut steep for
wheat, has lately arrested the attention
of chemists. M. Audouard states that he has
detected traces of arsenic in the crops raised
from seed-wheat thus treated. But that which
appears to be likely to prove much more
dangerous, is the introduction of arsenic into
crops by the employment of crude super-
phosphate of lime as manure—a substance
often rich in this poison. Dr. Edmund Davy
positively states that arsenic, as it exists in
artificial manures, is taken up by plants grow-
ing where those manures have been applied
He found cabbages and turnips taken from
fields manured with superphosphate give
unmistakeable evidence of being ‘arseniated.”
These facts have some important bearings;
for though the quantity of arsenic which
occurs in such manures is not large when
compared with their other constituents, and
the proportion of that substance which is thus
added to the soil must be necessarily small,
still plants during their growth, as in the case
of the alkaline and earthy salts, take up a con-
siderable quantity of this substance. Further,
as arsenic is well known to accumulate in
soils, though not an accumulative poison in
the animal system, the effects, after some time,
will probably be, that vegetables raised on
those continuously so manured, will ultimately
be found to contain such a proportion of ar-
senic, as will exercise an injurious effect on
the health of man and animals. The state-
ment of M. Audouard has been disputed by M.
Girardin, because he failed to detect arsenic in
corn under the circumstances; and it is also
denied by Dr. A. S. Taylor, and others;
but our own experiments, very carefully per-
formed, confirm the assertions of both Au-
douard and Davy. The ultimate consequences of
pouring into the Thames such enormous quan-
tities of disinfectants contaminated with ar-


148
ARSENIDE—ARTICHOKE.
senic, as has been done during the last 3 or 4
years, is another matter deserving considera-
tion, and one which has been ably pointed out
by Dr. Letheby, in his reports, as Officer of
Health to the City of London,
Dr. Lois has found arsenic, often in large
quantities, in ordinary brass, and brass utensils;
and we have ourselves repeatedly found ar-
senic in the Britannia-metal, German-silver,
and other cheap white alloys at present in such
general use.
The preceding facts are recommended to the
careful attention of medical jurists.
By Act of Parliament, it is provided—1.
That every vender of arsenic shall, before the
delivery of the same to the customer, enter in
a book or books kept for the purpose, the date
of sale, name, and residence of the purchaser,
in full, his or her condition or occupation, the
quantity so sold, and the purpose or purposes
for which it is required, in a form set forth in
the schedule to the Act ; which form or sche-
dule shall be signed by the vender, and by the
said purchaser, unless he be unable to write,
when such fact shall be recorded in the said
schedule by the vender; and this schedule,
when a witness is required to the sale, shall
also bear his signature, together with his place
of abode:-2. Arsenic is not to be sold to a
stranger, unless in the presence of a witness
acquainted with both vender and purchaser:—
3. No person to sell arsenic unless it be pre-
viously mixed with at least 1 oz. of soot or ;
oz. of indigo to the pound; unless such admix-
ture would be injurious to the object for which
it is intended, when not less than 10 lbs. is to be
sold at any one time:–4. Penalty for evading
the Act, either as vender, purchaser, or witness,
:620:-5. Act not to eartend to arsenic used in
compounding prescriptions, nor to the wholesale
trade :-6. The word ‘arsenic’ to include “arse-
nious anhydride, and the arsenites, arsenic acid,
and the arseniates, and all other colourless
poisonous preparations of arsenic.’ See AR-
SENIC, ARSENIC ACID, LOTIONS, PILLS, SHEEP-
DIPPING, SOAPS, SOLUTIONS, TOOTH-CEMENTS,
WHEAT-STEEPs, IRON, POTASSA, SODA, and
other Bases, &c. &c. (also below).
Self-detecting Arsenious Anhydride. Prep.
(Dr.Cattell.)—1. Ordinary white arsenic to which
is added a small quantity of a mixture of dry
calomel and quick-lime; or of dried sulphate
of iron and powdered gall-nuts. The product
is white, but immediately turns BLACK when
mixed with liquids —2. As the last, but
adding a mixture of thoroughly dried sulphate
of iron and ferrocyanide of potassium. Strikes
a BLUE :—3. As last, but using dried phosphate
of sodium and dried sulphate of iron. Strikes a
GREEN. Proposed as a method of preventing
arsenic being used as a poison.
ARSENIDE. Syn. ARSEN'TURET; ARSENIU-
RETUM (-i-ū-), L.; ARSãNIURE, Fr. A com-
bination of arsenium with a metal (including
hydrogen), in definite proportion.
* 14 Wict., c. xiii, 1851.
AR'SENITE (-nite). Syn. AR'sRNIS, I.
ARSéNITE, Fr. ; ARSENIGSAURE SAIZ, G,
A salt of arsenious acid.
ART. [Eng., Fr.] Syn. ARS (gen, aris;
pl., ar'tes), L.; réxvn (tech'ne), Gr.; KUN
Ger. Primarily, strength, power, and húſ
also mental strength, skill; the application ºf
knowledge or power to effect a desired T.
pose; the power or ability of doing somethi:
not taught by nature or instinct; practicalkl
guided by rules. SCIENCE is knowledge—M
practical skill in applying this knowlºlº
ART is applied science; whilst SCIENCE i !
knowledge obtained by observation, experiº,
and ratiocination. This distinction is nowhº
more fully seen than within the domain i
chemistry, where knowledge, deduction, gº!
power of generalisation, and great experits
are necessary elements of success, Arth
filled the world with luxuries, convenienſ,
and comforts; and art—the ARTS-isſilſ
fine—are the safest and surest civilisers ºf T
race. See SCIENCE.
ARTE'SIAN (-té'-zhān; or -têſº
[From Artois, a province of France, in with
such wells were first formed.] Syn. Aſ
SIEN, Fr. In physics and civil engineerſ
applied to very deep borings into the gmi
from which water flows. See FOUNTAIN
WATER, WELLs, &c.
ARTHANITINE (-tín). [Eng, Fr.] Nº
ARTANI'TINE ; ARTHANITI'NA, L. A pºliº
substance first obtained by M. Saladin, iſ
the action of alcohol on the tuberous stems?
the herb arthran'ta or sow-bread. It isã(i.
colourless, and crystalline, and imparts is
acridity to the plant.
ARTICHOKE. Syn. CIN'ARA, CVN'll
SCOI/YMUs, L. ; ARTICHAUT, Fr. ; AMF
scHOCKE, Ger. The cyn'ara scol'ſmus (lim)
a thistle-like perennial plant of the maiºſ
Compositae (DC.). Hab. Southern Europe; hiſ
now extensively cultivated in our gardens, ſº
its ‘bottom, or the sweet fleshy receptacle
its flowers, which is eaten as a potherb, Tlºs
are cooked by brisk boiling in water, silk
ends uppermost, until tender; and take ºl
hour, according to their age. Sometimestºſ
are preserved in brine (PICKLED ARTICHORS
and also after depriving them of the ‘chº
and spiny hairs and blanching them by im:
sion in boiling water, by drying in the ST
(DRIED ARTICHOKES ; CULs D'ARTICHAſ
Fr.), by which they retain their flavour ſt
some time. Infusion of the flowers, used will
rennet.
As an esculent the artichoke resembles ºf
ragus in its general properties; but it is sil
to be more nutritious, and even more diurett,
Jeru'salem Artichoke. The helian'thus tº
bero'sus (Linn.), a perennial plant of the ST
flower family, and quite distinct from the pº
ceding. Hab. The Brazils. It is cultivº
in England for culinary purposes, Roots (ºr
bers), resemble the artichoke in flavour; it
are considered far from wholesome, being ºf


ASARABACCA–ASH.
149

to produce flatulence and dyspepsia. They are
diuretic, and impart the odour of turpentine to
the urine. They are cooked by boiling (15 to
25 minutes, according to size), or frying; in
the former case, served with melted butter.
They are also served mashed, like turnips.
The flowers yield a volatile oil resembling that
ºf turpentine.
ASARABAC/CA (äs-á-). Syn. As'ARUM, A.
EUROPE'UM (Linn.), NAR'DUS MONTA/NA*, &c.,
L.; ASARET, A. D’EUROPE, CABARET, AZARUM
C, NARD SAUWAGE, OREILLE D'HOMME, &c.,
Fr.; HAZELWURTZEL, Ger. The doſagov of
Dioscorides, a small, round, hard, stemless,
hardy herbaceous plant, bearing chocolate-
Coloured flowers; and of the nat. ord. Aristo-
lochieae (DC.). It grows freely in central
France, and is found in woods and shady places
in Lancashire, Westmoreland, and other parts
of England. Hab. Europe, between 37° and
60° latitude—Root & rhizome (As'ARI RA’DIX),
has a pepper-like odour and an acrid taste:—
Leaves (A. FO'LIA), less odorous, though bitter-
tasted, acrid, and aromatic; formerly officinal
in the pharmacopoeias:—Whole plant (ASARA-
BACCA, of the shops), nauseant, emetic, and
purgative. Before the introduction of ipecac-
uanha it was the common emetic (6 to 9 of the
green leaves in whey); but, owing to the
violence of its action, it has long fallen into
disuse. Its common name in France (CABA-
RET, or public-house plant), is said to have
arisen from its frequent employment to relieve
the stomach of those who had drunk too hard.
It is now almost solely used as a sternutatory
Or errhine, and is probably one of the best.
According to Gräger,' asarabacca contains
three volatile, oily principles, which may be
obtained by distillation with water:—VOLA-
TILE OIL (O'leum as'ari):—As'ARITF, an odour-
less, tasteless, and crystalline solid; fusible
and volatilisable, yielding white and very irri-
tating fumes:–As'ARUM-CAM'PHOR, differing
Chiefly from the last in being precipitated, by
water, from its alcoholic solution in cubes or
six-sided prisms, instead of delicate flexible
needles. Also a brownish, bitter, crystallisable
principle (ASARINE, AS'ARUM-BIT'TER), which
is soluble in alcohol.
Uses, Dose, &c. Dried leaves, 20 to 30 grs., or
100t, 10 to 12 grs. ; as a purge or emetic. As
an errhine—leaves, 3 to 5 grs. ; root, 1 to 3
grs.; in powder, snuffed up the nose every day,
Or every other day, at bed-time. It excites
irritation and a copious watery discharge, more
Orless muculent, which frequently continues to
flow for several days, and occasionally proves
highly useful in certain affections of the brain,
eyes, mouth, nose, ear, and throat, on the prin-
ciple of counter-irritation. It has been found
“particularly serviceable in cephalalgia (head-
Ache), obstinate headache, chronic ophthalmia
(inflammation of the eyes), and some other
lethargic affections.” (Dr. A. T. Thomson.)
In dimness of sight (especially that arising
* Gobel and Kemze, “Pharm. Waarenk;” 1830-1.
from fatigue or congestion), deafness, and
slight paralytic affections of the mouth, tongue,
lips, or eyelids, not of a serious organic
character, and particularly, in chronic earache,
it also sometimes affords relief after other
remedies have failed. It constitutes the basis
of several CEPHALIC SNUFFS, ASARABACCA-
SNUFF, BARON MICKINSEY’s MEDICINAL POW-
DER (or SNUFF), and several other like mos-
trums, which are much extolled by their
venders, and sold at marvellously high prices.
See PATENT MEDICINES, PoWDERS, SNUFFS,
&c. (also below).
AS/ARIN (-rin). CºoHº,05. Syn. ASARONE.
A species of stearopten, discovered by Görtz,
in asarabacca. It has an aromatic taste and an
odour resembling camphor, and is said to be
emetic. It is probably a mixture of asarum-
camphor and some partially oxidised volatile
oil. (See above.)
As'arine (of Gräger). Syn. ASARI/NA, L. The
crystallisable bitter principle of asarabacca,
noticed above. It is said to greatly resemble
cytisine.
AS/ARITE (-rite). See ASARABACCA.
ASBES/TOS. Syn. ASBESTUs (20/3so roc,
incombustible, unconsumable. Gr.), AMIANTH'-
US, LA/PIS A., &c., L. ; ASBESTE, AMIANTE,
Fr. ; ASBEST, STEINFLACHS, Ger. In minera-
logy, a soft, fibrous substance, composed of
flexible or elastic filaments which, in their most
highly developed form, greatly resemble those
of flax or silk, and which bear exposure to a
very considerable degree of heat without
suffering decomposition. It has been proposed
to clothe our firemen in dresses of asbestos;
but without freedom of respiration could be
insured in a heated and poisonous atmosphere,
this envelope would be of little service. Gloves
are sometimes made of it, for holding red-hot
crucibles. It is also used as a filtering medium
for corrosive liquids.
War. Of these there are several; as AM/I-
ANTH or ELASTIC ASBESTOS, LIG/NIFORM. A.,
MOUNTAIN-CORK, M.-LEATHER, M.-WooD, &c.;
varying from a grey, brown, or green colour,
to pure white, and from extreme flexibility and
softness, to rigidity and hardness, as indicated
by the respective names. In common language,
however, the term ‘asbestos’ is usually re-
stricted to the softer fibrous varieties.
ASH. Syn. FRAX'INUS, L. ; FR£NE, Fr. ;
ESCHE, Ger. The popular name of several
species of valuable hardy trees bearing apeta-
lous flowers (except in the ‘flowering ash ’),
belonging to the nat. ord. Oleaceae (DC.), and
gen. Fraxinus; but appropriately, the-
Ash, Syn. COMMON ASH; FRAX'INUs, F.
EXCEL's IOR (Linn.), F. APET/ALA (Lamb.), F.
OR'NUS (Scop.), L.; FRÄNE, F. COMMUN, Fr. ;
GEMEINE ESCHE, Ger. A large tree common
to our woods and hedges; timber (ASH or ASH-
WOOD), used by carpenters, cabinet-makers,
and machinists, and much esteemed for its
great toughness and elasticity; bark, febrifuge,
diuretic, resolvent, and tonic; has been success-



150
ASH–ASPARAGIN.
fully exhibited in agues; seeds, acrid, bitter,
and diuretic ; leaves, purgative, diuretic, and
febrifuge; sometimes used instead of Senna.
In southern Europe it exudes an inferior kind
of MANNA, and its medicinal properties are
much greater than in our climate.--Dose.
(Leaves) # oz. to 1% oz. (made into an infu-
sion), as a purge; seeds, 1 dr., as a diuretic,
&c.
Flow’ering Ash. Syn. MAN'NA-ASH; FRAX'-
INUS OR'NUS (Linn.), L. A small tree of
southern Europe. Yields MANNA. The ‘round'-
leaved flowering-ash’ (CALA/BRIAN-ASH; FRAX'-
INUs ROTUNDIFo"LIA, Lamarck) is a smaller
variety of the preceding, and a mative of Ca-
labria and the Levant. Said to yield the
best MANNA. The “small'-leaved flowering-ash'
(FRAx'INUS PARVIEo"LIA, Lam.), is another
manna-yielding species, indigenous to Asia
Minor.
ASH. Ashes (which see).
ASH-BALLS. The ashes of land-plants,
especially ferns, damped and made into balls.
Used as a substitute for soap in washing, and
in cleaning paint.
ASH'ERY. [Amer.] A place where potash
or pearlash is made or kept.
ASH'ES. (-iz). [Eng. pl.] Syn. ASH; CI'
NIS, L.; CENDRES (pl.), Fr. ; ASCHE, Ger.
The remains of anything burned. In anti-
quity, the remains of a body consumed on the
funeral pyre; and hence, figuratively, the re-
mains of the dead. The word, in English, has
properly no singular; although ‘ash” is very
commonly heard; and is now almost exclu-
sively used in composition, as in pearlash, pot-
ash, soda-ash, &c.
Ashes. In commerce, the residuum of the
combustion of vegetable substances containing
either carbonate of potassium (‘land-plants’),
or carbonate of sodium (‘marine plants'), and
from which the commercial alkalies are ob-
tained. Their value depends upon their rich-
ness in ‘ alkali,” which is determined in the
manner explained under ALKALIMETRY. The
word is also commonly employed as a general
term for the crude carbonates of potash of
commerce (which see).
Ashes of Plants. See MANURES, PLANTS,
WEGETATION, &c.
ASPAR'AGIN (-ā-jin). CAHSN Os. [Eng.,
Fr.] Syn. ALTHE'INE, ASPAR'AMIDE, MAL'A-
MIDE*; ASPARAGI’NA, ASPARAGI'NUM, L.;
AG#Doi LE, Fr.; SPARGELSTOFF, Ger. A pecu-
liar azotised principle discovered by Vauquelin
and Robiquet in asparagus, and since found in
the potato, marsh-mallow, liquorice, climbing
vetch, and several other plants. Many plants
which do not naturally contain it may be
made to yield it by growing them in dark
damp cellars; whilst many which only nor-
mally contain it in very small quantities, are
found to yield much more when allowed to
vegetate in the same manner.
Prep. 1. From ASPARAGUS-SPROUTs —The
expressed juice, after being heated to the
boiling-point (to coagulate albumen)andº
fully skimmed and filtered, is evaporated it.
gentle heat, to a syrupy consistence, and tâ
abandoned to spontaneous evaporation in
warm dry atmosphere for several days; fl.
resulting crystals being purified by cautil
washing with very cold water or very sº
alcohol, re-solution, and re-crystallisation.
The following are cheaper and more Cºmº
venient processes:—
2. From MARSHMALLOW-ROOT:-q, Tl
root (chopped small, or grated) is maºlº
for several days in milk of lime, in the ºl
the filtered liquid precipitated with Carbºnſ;
of ammonium, and the clear solution (VA)
rated in a water bath, and otherwise tº
as before.
b. From the expressed juice, 2 parts; mil:
of lime, 1 part; agitated well together; fl.
liquid portion, after some hours, being detaill
filtered, and evaporated, &c., as before,
3. From the ETIOLATED SHOOTS OF WETCHS:
—The expressed juice of the young slº
when from 2 or 3 to even 12 or 15 inhã
long, is gently simmered for 8 or 10 minuº
to coagulate the albumen, and, after straig
or clarification, the clear liquid is gently º
porated to the consistence of a thin syrupºl
set aside to crystallise, as before. The rºl.
ing brown crystals are purified by Washi:
with very cold water, re-solution in hiſ
water, and re-crystallisation, as in No. 1; M.
and what is better, the hot liquid, before &
poration to a syrup, is digested for a slºt
time with a little pure animal charcºali
coarse powder, and then filtered, when hiſ
and beautifully white crystals are obtained
the first operation." An excellent and ſº
economical process.
Prop., &c. Crystals brilliant, transpariſ,
colourless, right rhombic prisms; neutral
test-paper; non-basic; having a faint, Cºlling
and scarcely nauseous taste; scarcely sºul.
in cold water; freely soluble in hot water;
insoluble in strong alcohol and ether; solutil
unaffected by alkaline sulphurets, oxalate ºf
ammonia, acetate of lead, or infusion of gills;
triturated with quick-lime, ammoniaisevolvel;
heated to 212°Fahr. the crystals lose 2 equiſ.
or 12% of water; heated with water unit
pressure in a closed vessel, or boiled alºng
with an acid or an alkali, or dissolved in asſº
charine liquid and then submitted to fermel.
tation, it is converted into ammonium and
ASPAR/TIC ACID ; aqueous solutions of aspati.
gin and aspartic acid treated with a currentſ
nitrous acid evolve pure NITROGEN, with the
formation of MALIC ACID which remains in
solution. It was called asparamide under the
impression that it is aspartite of ammoniº
| This use of animal charcoal may also be advantageºusly
extended to the other Formulæ, Mr. C. G. Williams, in
Ure's “Dict of Arts, M., J. M.,” 4th ed.,directs theslºts
to be used when of “a length of 2 inches;" but sºlº
authorities recommend them to be of 9, 18, or even l;


inches. The selection must, however, in many tº
depend upon circumstances and convenience,

ASPARAGUS–ASPHALTUM.
151
minus 1 atom of water; and malamide, for
similar theoretical reasons.
Uses. It is sedative and diuretic.—Dose.
1 to 6 grs.; in dropsies, heart-affections,
&c.
ASPAR/AGUS. [L., Eng.] In botany, a
genus of low, spiny plants, with scale-like
leaves, many of which are shrubs and climbers,
of the nat. ord. Asparageae (D.C.; Liliaceae—
Lindl.). The following species, which is that
best known in England, is, however, an excep-
tion to this description, as it is neither climbing
nor spinose.
Asparagus Officina'lis. [Linn. ; L.] Syn.
ASPAR'AGUS, COMM'oN A., GARD'EN A.; SPAR/-
'AGUS$, SPAR'Row-GRASS$, SPER'AGE+$; As-
PERGE, Fr.; SPARGEL, Ger. A well-known
perennial plant, and one of the oldest and
most delicate of our culinary vegetables.—
Young shoots, from the underground eyes
(TURIO'NES ASPAR/AGI, L.), the asparagus of
Our tables; diuretic; communicate a peculiar
fºtid Odour to the urine, and, when eaten in
excess, Occasion bloody urine and accelerate fits
of gout; formerly esteemed emmenagogue and
Aphrodisiac.—Root (RA'DIX ASPAR'AGI, L.),
properties resemble those of the young shoots,
but stronger; one of the ‘five greater aperient
roots' (RAD'ICES APERIEN'TES QUIN’’QUE MA-
J0"RES, L.) of old pharmacy. The tops and
100ts, though no longer officinal in the British
Pharmacopoeias, are both occasionally em-
ployed as popular remedies in dropsy and stone
—the first being eaten in the usual way at
table; and the second, made into an infusion
Or decoction (3 oz. to the pint), taken ad
libitum.
As an article of food, asparagus, in modera-
tion, is both wholesome and nutritious. It is
Cooked by simply boiling it rather quickly
until tender, like the other soft green vege-
tables; and is either served up plain, or on
toast with melted butter or sauce Hollandaise
in a boat. (Soyer; Rundell.) When very
small and green, it is frequently dressed and
served like green-peas, the tender portion of
each shoot being cut into bits of equal size,
and about 1-3rd of an inch long. (Miss Acton.)
Choice, &c. “The large grass is generally
preferred; although the smaller has the full-
est flavour for a dish.” (Soyer.”) Unlike other
plants, the asparagus officinalis has not pro-
duced a single well-marked permanent variety
by cultivation."
Asparagus Petraea. [L.] Syn. ROCK'-AS-
PARAGUS; CORRUDA ; ASPAR/AGUS ACUTIFO"-
IIA, L.; CORRUDE, Fr. Resembles the last in
its general qualities; but is said to contain
more asparagin.
ASPAR'AMIDE (-mid). See ASPARAGINE.
ASPARTIC ACID. H.C.H.N.O. Syn. MA-
IAM'IC ACID ; ACIDUM ASPAR/TICUM, L.;
ACIDE ASPARTIQUE, Fr. An acid first obtained,
!"The young shoots of polygona'tum (Solomon's Seal),
and others, have been substituted for asparagus.” (Lind-
ley’s “Weg. King,” 3rd ed., 203.)
by Plisson, from asparagin, by boiling it along
with hydrate of lead or of magnesia. Its salts
are called ASPAR/TATES (Eng., Fr. ; ASPAR'TAS,
L. sing.) See ASPARAGIN.
AS'PEN (-pên). Syn. ASP%, TREM'BLING
POP/LART; POP'ULUS. TREM'ULA (Linn.), L.;
TREMBLE, Fr.; AESP.E (fispe), &c., Ger. A
large tree, of the nat. ord. Amentaceae (DC.),
not uncommon in the moist woodlands of
England, and found native on many of the
Scottish mountains. It derives its name from
the trembling motion of its leaves, which,
owing to the peculiar flattening of the leaf-
stalks, are agitated by the slightest impulse of
the air. Bark and leaves contain Pop/ULIN
associated with SAL'ICIN. Both bark and
leaves have been used with advantage in
strangury and intermittents.
ASPHALT' (-fält). Asphaltum.
ASPHALT'UM. [L., prim. Gr.] Syn. As-
PHALT', COMPACT BITUMEN, MINERAL PITCH,
JEW’s PITCH, Foss'IL BITU'MEN, WIT'REUs B.,
&c.; ASPHAL/TUS, BITU'MEN Fos's ILE (-e-le),
B. JUDA/ICUM, B. sol/IDUM, B. VIT'REUM,
MU'MIAf, M. MINERA'LIS*, &c., L.; ASPHALTE,
BITUME MASSIF, B. SOLIDE, POIX IUIVE, &c.,
Fr. ; ASPHALT, ERDPECH, JUDENPECH, &c.,
Ger. A black, hard, brittle, and glossy variety
of bitumen found on the shores of the Dead
Sea (hence called La'cus Asphaltā'tes), on and
near the shores of the Great Pitch Lake, of
Trinidad, and as a mineral product in various
other parts of the world.
Prop., &c. Melts without decomposition,
and, when pure, burns without residue. It is
distinguished from other varieties of bitumen
by its more difficult fusibility, and by its frac-
ture being clean, conchoidal, and vitreous.
Distilled by itself it yields about 36% of a
peculiar bituminous oil (crude PETROLENE),
together with combustible gases, traces of am-
monia, and water. To anhydrous alcohol it
yields 5% of a YELLOW RESIN soluble in recti-
fied spirit and ether ; by digesting the re-
siduum in ether, a further 70% of a BROWNISH-
BLACK RESIN is obtained, which is freely
soluble in the volatile oils and in about 5 times
its weight of mineral naphtha. The portion
(25%) left undissolved by ether, is very soluble
in the oils of turpentine and petroleum.
These three resinous principles dissolve alto-
gether, when digested, in the oils of anise,
rosemary, and turpentine, and in the fixed oils.
(John.) According to others, asphaltum con-
sists almost entirely of asphaltene. (Bous-
singault.) Paranaphthaline has been found in
some varieties. (M. Laurent.) Average sp.
gr. 1 to 1-68. By friction it affords negative
electricity. It is soluble in oil of turpentine,
benzole, mineral and coal-tar naphtha, the fixed
oils, solutions of the caustic alkalies, and several
other liquids, by the aid of heat.
Sources. That of commerce is chiefly ob-
tained from the shores of the Dead Sea; but
much of that of the shops is a spurious article
of the most worthless character. A short time


152
ASPHYXIA—ASPIC.
since some specimens of the purest and most
beautiful description, from the great Bitumen
Lake of Trinidad, were given us by our re-
spected and venerable friend, the late Earl of
Dundonald, who stated, that the supply of
both liquid and indurated bitumens, of every
grade of quality, was unlimited from that
source; but that owing to injudicious importa-
tions of inferior kinds, (those most easily
shipped,) a prejudice had been created against
them in the London market. Our personal
investigations have since confirmed the accuracy
of these statements.
Uses. The finer varieties are chiefly used as
a ‘glazing colour” by artists, and in the manu-
facture of black varnishes and japans. The
inferior kinds are applied to the same purposes
as ordinary solid bitumen. The Egyptians
used it in embalming under the name of
MU'MIA; and the Babylonian builders are said
to have employed it, as a cement, in lieu of
mortar. It is, however, doubtful whether the
hard semi-vitreous variety of bitumen, properly
termed ‘asphaltum,’ was that which was thus
employed; its present hardness being probably
due to time. As a medicine, it is stimulant;
and it was formerly used as an ingredient in
certain plasters and ointments. See BITUMEN,
PITCH, &c. A mixture of asphalt, chalk, sand,
ground sandstone, &c., is used as a pave-
ment for making water-tight tanks and covers,
as a coating for gas and water pipes, and for
various other similar purposes. Sometimes the
pitchy residue obtained by distilling off the
more volatile portions of gas tar is employed to
replace the asphalt in the foregoing mixture;
the product is called artificial or gas-tar
asphalt.
Factiºtious Asphaltum (-tish-'iis). Syn. As-
PHAL/TUM FACTI"TIUM, L. That of the shops,
when not an inferior kind of true asphaltum,
is commonly made from the bottoms of Bar-
badoes tar, and other mineral bitumens, by
heating them until quite hard. Sometimes a
little Scio turpentine, balsam of copaiba, or even
common resin, is added. Colour, hardness,
&c., inferior to those of native asphaltum.
Liquid Asphaltum. Syn. PREPARED' AS-
PHALTUM ; ASPHAL/TUM LIQUIDUM, L. Prep.
1. Scio turpentine, 2 oz. ; melt; add asphaltum
(in powder), 1 oz. ; mix, cool a little, and
reduce with hot oil of turpentine.
2. (Wilson’s.) Asphaltum, lb. ; melt; add
of hot balsam of copaiba, 1 lb. ; and, when
mixed, thin it with hot oil of turpentine.
Both are used as ‘black japan’ or ‘warnish,”
and as a ‘glazing colour' by artists.
ASPHYX'IA (-fik'-sh’ā; -fiks'-e-āj). [L.,
Gr.] Syn. ASPHYX'Yí (-e), Eng.; ASPHYXIE,
Fr. ; PULSLOSIGKEIT, SCHEINTOD, Ger. Liter-
ally, absence of pulse; hence, a fainting fit;
apparent lifelessness. Its use is now generally
confined to a suspension of vitality from some
cause interrupting respiration, but in which
life is not actually extinct, and may, under
Asphyasia is commonly divided into fºr
varieties by nosologists:–
1. ASPHYXIA AL/GIDA :—Cause. Exposure
to intense cold.— Symp. Countenance pil,
livid, and shrivelled; limbs rigid.
2. ASPHYXIA ELECTRICA:-Cause. Sink
of lightning or electricity.—Symp, Count.
nance pale, limbs flexible, blood incoagulable,
3. ASPHYXIA MEPHIT/ICA:—Cause, Imli.
lation of irrespirable gases or fumes—SI).
Countenance pallid, lips wan, &c.
4. ASPHYXIA SUFFOCATIO'NIS:—Cause,Sif
focation or strangulation, as from drowning
hanging, &c.—Symp. Countenance turgidal
livid.
Treatm., &c. No general rules can begiº
exactly suitable to each variety. Whellº
it is possible to procure medical aid, it shill
of course, be immediately sought; as the delayſ
even a single minute may render it unavailing
In the treatment of suspended animation the
principal object is to effect a restoration of the
respiratory and circulatory functions; it
former of which has been arrested by the Y.
ternal condition of the patient; the latter, iſ
the contact of morbidly carbonised blood with
the capillary vessels of the lungs. The jin
thing to be attempted, is the restoration f
warmth by active friction with the Wºm
hands, flannels, &c.; the second, the re-establish
ment of natural respiration by any availal.
means, of which, perhaps, none is simplet I
better than alternate pressure and its relayſ:
tion, applied to the thorax and abdomen, N.
as to induce expiration first, and inspiratil
immediately afterwards, by the natural atti)
and elasticity of the ribs and diaphragm, Cl
water may also be suddenly dashed On the
face and general surface previously warmti
by the frictions, in the hope of inducing
more decided iuspiration. If these measuº
fail, artificial respiration should be promptly
had recourse to. (Dr. Marshall Hall.) The
warm bath, and slight electrical shocks, ſt
continued streaming electricity, may also k
applied.
See CHARCOAL, CoLD, DROWNING, HANGING
RESPIRATION (Artificial), SEWERS-GAS, STRAN.
GULATION, SUFFOCATION, &c.
ASPHYX'IATED. Syn. ASPHYXIATUS, L.;
ASPHYXIÉ, Fr. ; ASPHYKTISCH, SCHEINTODI,
&c., Ger. Affected with or labouring under
asphyxia. (See above.)
ASPIC#. Spike lavender or French layºl.
der; also the male lavender, spica nardi, 0.
pseudo-nardus of old writers. See ASP.
Aspic. In cookery, “savory jelly extracted
from the succulence of meat.” (Soyer.)
Prep. (Miss Acton.) Calf’s feet, 2 in no.;
veal, 4 lbs. ; ham, # lb. ; onions, 2 (large);
carrots, 3; water, 1 gal.; boil 5 or 6 hours, or
until reduced to less than one half, strain, and
when cold, put the jelly into a stew-pan with
the whites of 4 eggs well beaten, a large bunch
of savoury herbs, 3 blades of mace (in shreis),
favourable circumstances, be revived.
a teaspoonful of white peppercorns, and sali,

ASS—ASSAYING.
153
q, S.; keep it well stirred until pretty hot,
then let it gently simmer for about 15 minutes,
and, after settling, pass it through a jelly-bag
till quite clear. After cooling a little, it is
fit for use; or it may be allowed to cool, and
be at any time remelted. French cooks com-
monly flavour it with tarragon-vinegar, added
after clarification.
Uses, &c. “Cold poultry, game, fish, plover’s
eggs, truffles, and various dressed vegetables,
with many other things often elaborately pre-
pared, and highly ornamental, are moulded
and served in it, especially at large déjeúners
and similar repasts. It is also much used to
decorate raised pies, and hams; and for many
other purposes.” "
ASS (äss). Syn. As INUS, L.; ANE (äne),
Fr.; ESEL, Ger. The equus asſinus (Linn.), a
well-known animal found almost everywhere.
ASSAF(ETIDA. [L. and Eng.] Syn. ASSA-
FETIDA, DEVIL's DUNG, Eng. ; ASSAFCETIDA
GUMMI, L.; STINKASAND, STINKENDER ASAND,
TEUFELS-DRECK, Ger. A gum resin exuded
from the excised root of narthea assafoetida
(B. P.); from ferula assafoetida, and probably
from ferula Persica. It yields its virtues to
alcohol, and forms a clear tincture, which
becomes milky on the addition of water. It is
imported into Europe from Persia, via Bombay,
in cases, mats, and casks.
Comp. Assafoetida contains from 4 to 5% of
a peculiar volatile oil, and from 50 to 60% of
resin of a whitish colour, turning rose-red and
reddish-brown by exposure to the air, and
giving a greenish solution with concentrated
sulphuric acid. Brande resolved this resin
into two others—one, soluble in ether; the
other, insoluble in that menstruum.
Pur. The assafoetida of the shops is generally
in masses of a whitish, reddish, or violet hue,
formed principally of adhering tears or grains,
possesses a peculiar foetid, alliaceous odour, and
forms an emulsion with water in all propor-
tions. Hot sulphuric acid blackens it and
forms a dark blood-red liquid, sulphurous fumes
being evolved. This solution diluted with
Water, and then saturated with potassa, has a
blue colour, which is most visible by reflected
light. Digested first in alcohol, and afterwards
in weak spirit-and-water, the residuum should
not exceed 16%. Sp. gr. 1.325 to 1:330. It is
frequently adulterated with inferior gums, and
with chalk, clay, sand, &c. The purest and best
is that which is clear, of a more or less pale-red
colour, full of white tears, and very foetid.
Prop., Uses, &c. Assafoetida is stimulant,
antispasmodic, emmenagogue, expectorant,
aphrodisiac, and anthelmintic, and is the most
powerful of all the foetid gum-resins. It is
administered with advantage in several uterine
diseases, hysteria, chorea, flatulent colic,
hooping-cough, infantile convulsions, spas-
modic asthma, and some other affections of a
spasmodic and convulsive character.—Dose. 5
º Acton’s “Modern Cookery;” Longmans, 1860,
p. 104.
PRüFUNG, &c., Ger.
examination. In chemistry, the determination,
by any chemical means, of the richness of a
substance in its essential material or more
valuable ingredient; more particularly applied
to quantitative analyses of the commercial
alkalies, bleaching-powder, oxide of manga-
nese, ores, and other like articles that are em-
ployed on the large scale.
metallurgy, the determination of the quantity
of metal in any ore, alloy, or other metallic
compound, particularly in the “dry way,” or
by the process of cupellation; and more espe-
cially of the quantity of pure gold, or pure
silver, contained in coin, bullion, and the com-
mercial alloys and ores of these metals.
substance assayed”.
TREIBEN AUF DER CAPELLE, Ger.
assay, or of determining the quantity of gold
or 6 to 30 grs. ; in pills, or preferably made
into an emulsion; as an enema, 2 drs., with
warm water, q. s.
esteem it highly as a condiment.
mins use it against flatulence, and to correct
the coldness of their vegetable food. In Persia,
the leaves of the plant are eaten as salad; and
the root, after being roasted.
is now frequently employed as a substitute for
garlic.
tronome, that the finest relish which a beef-
steak can possess, may be communicated by ”
(slightly) “rubbing the gridiron, on which the
steak is to be cooked, with assafoetida.
Some oriental nations
The Brah-
In cookery, it
“I am assured by an experienced gas-
2: 2
ASSAY' (-sā). Syn. Essai (anc., asaie), Fr.;
Literally, a “trial’ or

In docimacy and
The
See ASSAYING, &c.
ASSAYING. Syn. AsSAY', Doc'IMACY (dös'-),
DOCIMASTIC ART; COUPELLATION, Fr.; AB-

vºy
|| ".z.s"
H - ||}or
cr ()a
(a, a.) Rollers on which the furnace rests.
(b.) Ash-pit.
(c.) One of the ash-pit dampers.
(d.) Grate supporting the muffle-plate.
(e.) Muffle containing the cupels.
(f) The mouth-plate, upon which, during use, is piled
ignited pieces of charcoal, by which the mouth of
the furnace is closed, and heated air made to pass
over the cupels.
(h.) Interior of furnace containing charcoal.
(i, i.) Walls of the furnace.
(k.) Moveable chimney for regulating the draught.
The art of
* Pereira, “Mat. Med. }. Therap.,” 4th ed., iii, 177.
154
ASSAYING.
and silver in ores and alloys of these metals,
in the “dry way,” or by cupellation. It differs
from chemical analysis in merely furnishing
the quantity of the precious metal contained
in the sample examined; instead of the nature
and proportions of all, or any, of the ingre-
dients in the compound, at the will of the
operator.
Materials, Appar., &c. These are—furnace,
muffle, cupels, charcoal, &c., all of which must
be provided and properly arranged for use
before an assay can be made :-
The FUR'NACE employed at the Royal Mint,
and at Goldsmiths' Hall, London, is figured
in section in the engr., and has the following
dimensions:—Total height, 2% feet; from the
bottom to the grate, 6 inches; grate, muffle-
plate, and bed of loam that covers it, 3 inches;
space between the grate and the bottom of the
funnel or chimney, 21% inches; funnel, 6
inches. A furnace of any other shape and
size may be employed, provided it affords a
sufficient heat, and allows of the easy intro-
duction of the muffle.
The MUFF'LE (müf'l) is a vessel made of
clay (see engr.), and furnished with an opening
to admit of the introduction of the cupels, and
the complete inspection of the process. It is
placed on the muffle-plate (see above), by which
it is introduced into the furnace.
The CU'PEL (kā'-pël) is a small, porous,
shallow crucible, usually made of bone ashes
or burnt horn. The powder (slightly moistened
with water), is placed in a circular steel
mould, and after being pressed down tight, is
finished off with a rammer having a convex
face of polished steel, which is forcibly struck
with a mallet, until the mass becomes suffi-
ciently hard and adherent. The newly formed
cupel is then carefully removed and exposed
in the air for a fortnight, or three weeks, to
dry. Fig. 3 represents a cupel in section, and
jig. 4, the tongs used for charging it. The
3 4.
best weight for cupels ranges between 180 and
200 grs. Those used at the Royal Mint are
made of the calcined cores of ox-horns.
Proc. of ass. The muffle, with the cupels
properly arranged on the ‘muffle-plate,” is
placed in the furnace, and the charcoal
added and lighted at the top, by means of a
few ignited pieces thrown on last. After the
cupels have been exposed for about half an
hour, and have become white hot, the lead (Sº
below) is put into them by means of the tong;
As soon as this becomes bright red and “eirº.
lating,’ as it is called, the specimen for assiſ,
wrapped in a small piece of paper Orlead-ſil,
is added. The fire is now kept up strongly
until the metal enters the lead and circulatº
well, when the heat, slightly diminished, is sº
regulated that the assay appears convex all
more glowing than the cupel itself, whilst the
“undulations' circulate in all directions, and
the middle of the metal appears smooth, with
a margin of litharge which is freely absorld
by the cupel. When the metal becomes bright
and shining, or, in technical language, begins
to “lighten, and prismatic hues suddenly flash
across the globules, and undulate and CNN
each other, followed by the metal becoming
very brilliant and clear, and at length fixed
and solid (called the “brightening'), the sº.
ration is ended and the process complete. The
cupels are then drawn to the mouth of the
muffle, and allowed to cool slowly. When
quite cold, the resulting “button,’ if of SILVER,
is removed by the pliers or tongs from the
cupel, and after being flattened on a small
anvil of polished steel, with a polished stºl
hammer, to detach adhering oxide of lead, and
cleaned with a small hard brush, is very dº.
rately weighed. The WEIGHT is that of the
PURE SILVER; and the DIFFERENCE betwº
the weight of the alloy before cupellation, and
that of the button of pure metal, represents
the proportion of alloy in the sample examined.
(See below.) In the case of GOLD, the ‘but.
ton’ has to undergo the subsequent opeſ.
tions of quartation, parting, and annealinſ,
before it is weighed; as described under that
metal.
Assayer's weights, &c. The materials used
in assaying are accurately weighed in a balance
of the most susceptible description; and the
weights are given in terms of the ‘notation'
employed by assayers. The fineness,’ ‘rick
ness,” or “degree of purity’ of GOLD is ex-
pressed in carats. Pure gold is spoken of is
24 carats fine; and any other sample contain.
ing in 24 parts only 12, 18, 22, &c., parts of
pure gold, is said to be of as many carats file,
Every carat is nominally divided into 4'assay.
grains, each assay-grain into “quarters,' and
each quarter into “eighths’ (= # Carat),
giving 768 “reports” for GoI.D. On this
system fractional alloys are commonly spoken
of as of so many “carats and thirty-seconds
fine.” The real quantity taken for assay, tech.
nically termed the ‘ASSAY-Pou ND, is, however,
very small, generally either 12 grs, or 6 grs.;
which makes each assayer's eighth-grain, or
“report,” equal to either the ºr or tº gr.
Troy, as the case may be. The nominal as:
sayer's gold carat is 12 grs. The “journey-
weight of gold” is 15 lbs. Troy ( = 701 sovº.
reigns = 1402 half-sovereigns).
The fineness,’ ‘richness,” or “purity’ of
SILVER was formerly expressed in penny:


ASSAYING—ASSIMILATION.
155
weights; but is now generally reckoned in
1000ths, which admits of greater accuracy.
Pure silver was said to be “silver of 12 penny-
weights.” If it contained 1, 2, or 3 parts of
alloy, it was termed “silver of 11, 10, or 9
pennyweights,” as the case might be. Every
assayer's pennyweight was nominally divided
into24 grs, and hence gave 288 fine grains, or
"reports,’ for SILVER. The fineness of speci-
mens containing odd grains, was given in
pennyweights and fine grains. The ‘ASSAY-
POUND’ for silver, on this system, may be 24
Troy gr., when 2 real grains are equal to 1
“fille pennyweight,’ and #3 real gr. equal to 1
“fine-grain.” In the decimal method pure
silver is = 1000. The usual weight of silver
taken for the ‘assay-pound,” when the fine-
mess is reckoned in 1000ths, is 20 Troy grs.,
every real grain of which represents +}}rth
of fineness; and so on of smaller divisions.
The mint “journeyweight of silver,” is 60 lbs.
Troy (= 3920 shillings, or a like value in other
denominations).
Ratio, Cupellation, which is the distinctive
and most important operation in assaying
gold and silver, is founded upon the feeble
affinity which these metals have for oxygen,
in comparison with copper, tin, and other
cheaper metals; and on the tendency which
these latter metals have to oxidise rapidly in
Contact with lead at a high temperature, and
to sink with it into any porous earthen vessel,
in a thin, glassy or vitriform state. The con-
ditions essential to the success of the process,
and which are found in the precious metals, are
—that “the metal from which we wish to part
the oxides must not be volatile;” and that
"it should also melt and form a button at the
heat of cupellation; for otherwise it would
Continue disseminated, attached to the portion
of oxide spread over the cupel, and incapable
of being collected.”"
Concluding remarks. The art of assaying
requires very great care, skill, and experience,
for its due exercise; and from the costliness of
the precious metals, and their general employ-
ment for coin, jewelry, plate, &c., is of the
utmost importance both to individuals and
governments. Such is the extreme delicacy of
the Operation of cupellation, that, without the
requisites alluded to, it is more likely to fail
than to give reliable results. An assay is thought
to be good when the “button’ or ‘bead’ sepa-
rates readily from the cupel, has a round form,
with a brilliant upper surface, and the lower
One granular and of a dead metallic lustre.
When the upper surface is ‘dead’ and ‘flat,’
too much heat has been employed; and in the
case of silver, some of the metal may have
been lost by fuming or absorption. When the
bead adheres to the cupel, or is spongy, varie-
gated, or has scales of litharge still adhering
to it, either too little heat has been used, or the
process has been stopped before the assay was
Complete. The remedy is re-exposure to heat
1 Ure's “Dict, of Arts, M., & M.,” 5th ed., i, 214.
in the cupel, adding a little powdered charcoal
or a few small pieces of paper, and continuing
the heat until the metal “brightens’ and “cir-
culates’ freely. The lead employed must be
absolutely pure, or that technically called
“poor lead;’ and, for this purpose, is commonly
prepared by the reduction of refined litharge
mixed with some carbonaceous matter, by
heat; but, according to the late T. H. Henry,
“lead reduced from the litharge of commerce
usually contains from 10 to 15 dwt. of silver
per ton.” These remarks apply equally to gold
and silver. -
The process of assaying by the cupel, how-
ever skilfully conducted, gives much less accu-
rate results, especially with silver, than the
method of chemical analysis, often termed
‘humid' or ‘volumetrical assay;’ whilst it is,
in all cases, much more troublesome and ex-
pensive, and with compounds containing only
small quantities of the precious metals, is not
to be depended on. See GOLD, SILVER; also
CARAT, CUPELLATION, PARTING, LIQUATION,
QUARTATION, REFINING, &c. (and below).”
Assay of the Touch. The fineness of JEWEL-
RY, and of small quantities of GOLD which it
is either impossible or inconvenient to assay
according to the usual method, is generally
determined by means of touch-needles and
touch-stones. The former are made in sets,
containing gold of different degrees of fine-
ness, and differently alloyed with copper and
silver. The latter are usually of black basalt;
but pieces of good black pottery answer the
purpose very well. The mode of using them is
to mark the stone with the sample under ex-
amination, and to compare its appearance,
hardness, colour, &c., with that produced by
one or more of the needles. When the two
are similar, the quality or ‘fineness’ is con-
sidered to be the same. The marks are then
further examined by heating the ‘touch-stone”
to redness, and moistening the strokes with
aquafortis, when the appearances resulting from
oxidation, &c., differ according to the nature
and quantity of the alloy. A nearly similar
method is sometimes adopted with SILVER ;
but the characteristics are scarcely so distinct
with that metal. (See above.)
Hu'mid Assaying, Humid Assay. Terms
applied to the estimation of the quantity of
gold and silver in ores and alloys in the moist
way, more especially by the method known as
volumetrical analysis. See GoLD (Estim.),
SILVER (Estim.), VoIUMETRICAL ANALYSIs,
&c.
ASSIMILATION. [Eng., Fr.] Syn. Assi-
MILATIO, L.; ANEIGUNG, VERAHNLICHUNG,
&c., Ger. In physiology, the conversion of
food into nutriment, and finally into the sub-
stances which compose the bodies of animals
and plants; the function of nutrition.


2 Those desirous of further information on the subject
than that contained in this work, are referred to Mitchell's
“Manual of Assaying,” and to the various memoirs of
Gay-Lussac, Chaudet, D'Arcet, Tillet, Brande, Ure, Henry,
and others.

156
ASTHENIC–ASTHMA.
ASTHEN’IC. Syn. ASTHEN’ICUS, L.; AS-
THENIQUE, DáBILE, Fr. ; SCHWACH, Ger.
Weak; debilitated. In pathology, an epithet
of diseases (ASTHEN 'IC DISEASEs) accompanied
by great and well-marked debility.
ASTHEN’OPY. Syn. ASTHENO'PIA, L. In
pathology, incapacity to keep the eyes fixed on
near or small objects for any length of time
without confusion of vision. The common
causes are over-exertion of the eyes, particu-
larly by artificial light, or by a very brilliant
one, or during convalescence; congestion of
the ocular vessels; debilitating discharges or
indulgences; and general nervous debility,
however produced. It “appears to consist in
weakness of the apparatus by which the eye is
adjusted for the vision of near objects;” and
along with this “there is an irritable state of
the retina, connected in some manner with a
tendency to internal congestion of the eyes.” "
The treatment may consist of rest to the eyes,
and ablution of them in cold water, with such
other efforts to restore their tone and the
general health as are noticed under AMAU-
ROSIS. The prospect of complete cure, when
the cause is not removable, is unfavorable ;
but even when confirmed the disease is not
likely to end in blindness. The use of convex
spectacles of very low power will generally be
found serviceable. See EYE, SPECTACLES,
VISION, &c.
ASTH'MA (äst'-mä”). [Eng., Ger., L., Gr.]
Syn. ASTHME, Fr. ; ENGBRüSTIGKEIT, Ger.
In pathology, a well-known disease coming on
by fits, and characterised by shortness and diffi-
culty of breathing, accompanied by a wheezing
sound, cough, stricture and tightness of the
chest, with other like symptoms. These
gradually increase until the patient can no
longer remain in a recumbent position, being,
as it were, threatened with immediate suffoca-
tion; and they generally terminate, after the
lapse of a few hours, in copious expectoration.
The attack usually commences towards evening,
and the symptoms increase in urgency during
the night—often occurring suddenly after the
first sleep—until at length, on the approach of
morning, a remission takes place, and, in all
probability, the patient, worn out and exhausted,
falls into a sound sleep. On awaking in the
morning he still feels the ‘tightness’ at the
chest, breathes with some difficulty, which is
increased by moving, and cannot lie in bed
unless his head and shoulders are greatly
raised. After a repetition of the fits for some
nights, they at length moderate, and after
more considerable remissions, pass off at last,
leaving the patient in his usual state of health
for a time, or until fresh exciting causes pro-
duce a return of the disease. For an evening
or two previous to the fit, the patient generally
feels drowsy, indolent, and low-spirited, and
experiences a sensation of fulness about the
1 T. W. Jones, “Defects of Sight;” Lond., 1856; p. 82.
2 Asth'ma (with thfully sounded), as given by Kuowles,
is difficultly pronounceable, and is now obsolete.
stomach, with headache, general uneasinº,
and indigestion—these are the premonitºry
symptoms. -
Asthma is principally confined to the later
periods of life, and appears in many Cases to
be hereditary. It is generally severest in the
heat of summer, or in the foggy or damp Or
windy weather of winter. The fits vary in
duration from two to several hours. Somt.
times copious expectoration commences early,
which has led to the division of asthma, by
nosologists, into two kinds—dry, nervous, Or
spasmodic asthma (ASTHMA SIC'CUM, L.) and
humid a. (A. HU'MIDUM, L.). -
The earciting causes of asthma are exposum
to sudden changes of temperature, particularly
from heat to cold; unwholesome effluvia, hall
drinking, heavy meals, indigestion, violent &
ercise, and cold, damp, foggy, and sometime,
windy weather.
Treatm. A dry, warm, and airy situation is
a residence, should, if possible, be sought. The
use of flannel next the skin, and tepid Orwäm
bathing is also advantageous. The bowl;
should be kept regular by mild aperients, all
the stomach preserved in order by the adoptiºn
of a light and wholesome diet; particularly
avoiding excess in either eating or drinking
The severity of the paroxysm may be generally
lessened by adopting the sitting posture, all
inhaling the vapour of hot water or of In
infusion of chamomile. Small doses of Cam:
phor, ether, and opium, frequently repeated
may also be tried. The inhalation of the
vapour of a little tar liquefied by heat, is said
to often produce considerable relief. The
fumes arising from the slow combustion ºf
porous paper dipped in a solution of nitre, and
dried, have also been recommended. “The
fumes of a piece as big as one's hand being
placed on an earthenware plate, and ignited
presently become sensible throughout the
room; and within a quarter of an hour their
influence, in many cases, is rendered evident
in clearing the passages, and gradually Opel:
ing the air-tubes.” “Of calming vapours that
of chloroform is, however, the one likely, in
respect of its soothing power, to supersedeal
others. Inspired in moderate quantity, fit
less than is requisite to produce general ill.
sensibility, it has been found of singular eff.
cacy in allaying, at once, the spasmodic distres
of an asthma-fit. But it is a remedy tº
potent and subtle to be intrusted to the
discretion of the patient himself” (Dr.
Watson); unless, indeed, he well understands
its properties and nature, and has some friend
near him to restrain his using it too freely—
thing he is, unfortunately, often tempted, by
the urgency of the symptoms, to do. “Bleed.
ing is an imprudent operation in every species
of asthma’ (Dr. Bree); and has often proved
highly injurious, especially in elderly persons,
It is only in full plethoric habits, or when
the paroxysms are very severe, and attendel
with signs of congestion of the lungs and




ASTRINGENT—ATMOSPHERE. 157
brain, indicated by lividity of the countenance,
stupor, extreme dyspnoea, &c., that blood
should be taken; and then only by ‘cupping'
between the shoulders, or by leeches to the
chest. Emetics, and active purgatives, must
also be avoided during the paroxysm; at which
time costiveness may be best removed by an
aperient clyster containing assafoetida. At
other times, emetics (of ipecacuanha) and
diaphoretics, followed by mild purgatives, may
he administered with advantage; indeed, an
emetic, taken a few hours before an impending
fit, will frequently prevent its accession. Dys-
peptic symptoms must be treated in the usual
manner. “Chalk and opium will astonish the
asthmatic, by the excellence of their effects
when the irritation proceeds from dyspepsia
of the first passages only.” (Dr. Bree.) The
same authority also states that ‘vinegar,”
separately administered, counteracts the flatu-
lence and distension of the stomach.
Various other remedies have been recom-
mended for asthma; among which are the
smoking of tobacco and stramonium. In using
the latter herb, the root and lower parts of
the stem are chopped up and placed in the
bowl of a common tobacco-pipe, and a few
whiffs are occasionally taken. Drinking at
the same time should be avoided. Lately
lobelia inflata (Indian tobacco) has been highly
extolled in asthma, in doses of—tincture, 20
or 30 drops, to 2 teaspoonfuls—powder, 5 to
15 or 20 grs.; taken at the commencement or
shortly before the accession of the fit, and
repeated after the interval of an hour, if
nausea or expectoration does not intervene.
Sir John Floyer is said to have been cured of
an asthma of 60 years’ standing, at the age of
80, by the constant use of very strong coffee.
Sir John Pringle adopted the same remedy
with great success. He remarks, “One quality
occurred to me which I have observed of that
liquor (coffee), confirming what you have said
of its sedative powers. It is the best abater
of periodic asthma which I have seen. The
coffee used ought to be the best Mocha, newly
burnt, and made very strong immediately after
grinding it. I commonly order an ounce for
one dish, which is to be repeated with fresh
coffee after the interval of a quarter or half
an hour; and which Ia direct to be taken
without milk or sugar.”
Very recently cigars and cigarettes of datura
talula, Linn.-a peculiar species of stramo-
nium—have been prepared by Messrs. Savory
and Moore; and are strongly recommended by
Drs. Watson, Latham, Fergusson, and many
other physicians of eminence, as the very best
remedy yet introduced for asthma.
A change of diet and habits, and particu-
larly a change of residence, will often produce
a marked improvement in asthmatic patients,
and even effect a cure, when medicines have
failed. The use of bark and bitters, or mild
chalybeate tonics (when not contra-indicated)
1 “Letter to Dr. Percival.”
tends to improve the tone of the system, and
may be adopted, in nearly all cases, with per-
fect safety. See AIR-BATH (Compressed),
CIGARS, DATURA, &c.
Grinder's Asthma. See MELANOSIs.
ASTRIN’GENT (-trinje'.). [Eng., Fr.] Syn.
ASTRIN/GENS, L.; ZUSAMMENZIEHEND, Ger.
That straitens or causes wrinkling or con-
striction. In pharmacology, an epithet of sub-
stances or agents (ASTRIN/GENTS; ASTRIN-
GEN'TIA, L.) which constrict animal fibre and
coagulate albuminous fluids, and thereby ob-
viate relaxation and check excessive secretion
or discharges. In modern use, the word, both
as an adj. and subst., is chiefly applied to in-
ternal remedies; those of a like character,
employed externally, being usually termed
‘styptics,” “desiccants,’ &c.
The principal astringents are—alcohol, alum,
chalybeates (generally), sulphate of copper,
sulphate and perchloride of iron, acetate and
diacetate of lead, lime, bichloride of mercury,
nitrate of silver, vegetable astringents (see
below), acetate, carbonate, chloride, owide, and
sulphate of zinc, &c. See DESICCANTS, STYP-
TICS, TONICS, &c.
Min'eral Astringents. See ASTRINGENT
(above).
Veg'etable Astringents (véj'-). Of these the
principal are—alkanet, bistort, catechu, the
cinchona barks and their alkaloids, dragon's
blood, French or red rose, galls, kino, logwood,
mastiche, oak-bark, red sander's wood, rhatany,
tormentil, tannic acid, gallic acid, and areca
nut. (See above.)
Astringent Principle. A term formerly
restricted to tannin; but now commonly
applied to the astringent matter of any vege-
table.
ATMOM’ETER. Syn. ATMIDOM’ETER; AT-
MOM'ETRUM, &c., L.; ATMOMETRE, &c., Fr.
In chemistry and meteorology, an instrument
for measuring the rate of evaporation from a
humid surface.
AT'MOSPHERE (-färe). Syn. ATMO-
SPHE’RA, L.; ATMOSPHièRE, Fr.; ATMOSPHARE,
DUNSTKREIS, Ger. Primarily, a “vapour-
sphere;’ appr., the assemblage of respirable
gas and ačriform vapours which surround the
earth; fig., any surrounding medium or in-
fluence.
Comp., Chem. prop., Pur., Uses, &c. See AIR
(Atmospheric).
Mechanical properties of the atmosphere:—
CoLou R:—The prevailing colour of the at-
mosphere is blue; at considerable elevations
this blue tint is lost, and the sky appears deep
black. The prevalence of blue is referred to
the greater facility with which the blue and
violet rays are reflected; whilst the glowing
tints of morning and evening are conceived to
arise from the red rays possessing greater mo-
mentum than the other rays of the spectrum.
DENSITY:—The density of the atmosphere
diminishes with the distance from the earth’s
surface, and this in the duplicate ratio of the



158
ATMOSPHERE-ATOM.
altitude. Thus, if at a given altitude the
density of the air is only one half what it is
at the level of the sea, at twice that elevation
it possesses only one fourth that density. On
this fact depends the application of the baro-
meter to the determination of the elevation
or depression of any point above or below the
level of the sea, taken as a standard.
Density of the Atmosphere at Different
Blevations. By PROF. GRAHAM.
Height above the level Volume Height of the
of the Sea in miles. of Air. Barometer.
0. L 30
2.705 2 15
5'41 4. 7.5
8'115 8 3-75
10.82 16 1875
s 13:525 32 •9375
16:23 64 •46875
HEIGHT, &c. :-If the density of the air
were uniform throughout its whole extent, the
height of the atmosphere, measured by a cor-
responding column of mercury, would be barely
5% miles. As, however, its density decreases
with the distance from the earth’s surface, its
real height must be considerably greater.
Kepler found that the reflection and refraction
of the sun’s rays by the atmosphere, producing
twilight, ceases when that luminary descends
18 degrees below the horizon; whence it is
calculated that the atmosphere cannot have a
greater altitude than 45 miles. On the other
hand, there is reason to believe that it cannot
be much less than this sum. “With a good
air-pump air may be rarefied 300 times; sup-
posing this to be the utmost limit to which
rarefaction can be carried, the atmosphere
would still extend to an altitude of above 40
miles.” Whether, in a state of extreme tenuity
in which its grosser properties are lost, it ex-
tends indefinitely into space, was formerly a
subject of controversy. That its boundaries
are limited, and that it belongs exclusively to
our earth, appears almost certain. “We are
warranted in concluding that the atoms of air
are not infinitely divisible, and consequently,
that the atmosphere has a limit; and the limit
must be situated at that height above the
earth, where the gravitation of the atoms is
just equal to the force of their repulsion.”
Under ordinary circumstances the mercury of
the barometer falls about one inch for every
1000 feet of elevation.
PRESSURE :-The weight or pressure of the
atmosphere is shown by the rise of water in
the barrel of the common ‘lifting pump, and
the suspension of the mercurial column in the
tube of the barometer. The last affords a
ready means of determining the actual pres-
sure of the air; the column of mercury, and
* Brande’s “Dict, of Lit., Sci., & Art.”
the column of air by which it is suspended,
resembling two weights in equilibrio, at the
opposite extremities of the same balanº
The mean height of the barometer at the lºyd
of the sea, in England, is 28-6 inches (= abºut
33% feet of water); and as a cubic inch Of
mercury weighs 3425.92 grs. or 48956 l,
it follows that the weight of a column of meſ.
cury whose base is a square inch, is 14.6l.
avoirdupois. The pressure of the atmosphº
is not merely downwards, but is equally lif
fused in all directions, and exerts a most
powerful effect in the economy of Organi:
beings. On the surface of the body of an all
of ordinary size (say = 15 sq. feet, or 21||
inches), it amounts to the enormous weight ºf
31,536 lbs., which is not sensible, only because
it is balanced by the force of the elastic flui;
in the interior of the body. Were this eli.
librium to be suddenly destroyed, the CONº.
quence would be, either that the body would
be instantly torn to pieces with explosive wi.
lence, or that it would be crushed under th:
overwhelming weight that would suddenly
fall upon it. Even the comparatively slight
variations of atmospheric pressure with
occur with changes of wind, weather, all
season, exercise a perceptible effect on the
functions of life.
Mean pressure of the Atmosphere at the led
of the Sea, in different latitudes, at #
Fahr., eaſpressed in inches of mercury,
|Height Height Height
Lat. dº. Lat. 6. Lat. i.
0° 29.930 | 40° | 30-019; 54}* 29.9%
LO 29.975 || 45 30'000 || 60 29.80%
20 30-064 49 29.978 64 29'606
30 || 30-108; 51% 29.951; 67 29.67%
TEMPERATURE:—The temperature of the
atmosphere, independently of changes arising
from variations of latitude and season, di.
minishes, like its density, with its elevation
In general, every 100 yards of ascent (alsº
the temperature to fall 1° Fahr. See AIR
(Atmospheric), EPIDEMICs, VENTILATION, &c.
Atmosphere. In engineering and pneumatiº,
the pressure of a qolumn of mercury at 7
Cent. or 32° Fahr., which is 76 centimètres Of
29-9218 inches high, at the mean level of the
sea in latitude 45°, taken as a standard ºf
that exerted by other elastic fluids. In prac.
tice this is assumed to be 15 lbs. to the squart
inch, under a barometrical pressure of 30
inches. Thus, steam or air condensed S0 as tº
exert a pressure of 30 lbs. per sq. inch, is said
to be of two atmospheres; at 45 lbs., of thrº
atmospheres, &c. ". -
AT'OM (-im). Atomic Weight, Atºmit
Theory. Syn. AT'oMUs, L.; ATOME, Fl.;
ATOM, UNTHEILBARE THEILCHEN, Ger.
ATOMIC WEIGHT. When the elements unit:
chemically, they invariably do so in the propº
ATOM-ATROPHY.
159
tions by weight represented by the numbers
attached to them in the following table, or in
multiples of these proportions. Dalton ac-
Counted for this law by supposing that the con-
stituent particles of matter are indivisible, and
believed that, if it were possible to place such
particles in the balance, their relative weights
would be found to correspond with the numbers
given in the table." In other words, the term
atom, which is derived from the Greek áropoc,
indivisible, is applied in modern chemistry to
the smallest quantity by weight of an element
which is capable of existing in a chemical
compound, hydrogen being taken as unity.
ATOMIC VOLUME. The volume or space
occupied by the atomic weights of gases at a
temperature of 60° F., and under a pressure of
30 inches of the barometer, compared with that
occupied by one part by weight of hydrogen
under the same conditions.
In the following table [] represents one
volume : —


Name. Symbol. *. *. Name. Symbol. *. º
AIUMINUM ... Al 27.5 Molybdenum ... Mo 92
ANTIMONY .....] Sb 122 NICKEL ......... Ni 58.8
ARSENIC ....... As 75 # Niobium......... Nb 97.6
BARIUM......... Ba 137 NITROGEN N 14 D
BISMUTH ...... Bi 208 Osmium ......... Os 199
BORON ......... B Il OXYGEN ...... O 16 D
BROMINE...... - Br 80 [] PALLADIUM ... Pd 106-5
Cadmium ...... Col 112 [[] PHOSPHORUS. P 31 #
Cºsium ......... Cs 133 PLATINUM ...... Pt 1974
CALCIUM ...... Ca 40 POTASSIUM ... K 39
CARBON ...... C 12 RHODIUM ...... Rh 104
Cerium ......... Ce 92 Rubidium ...... Rb 85.5
CHLORINE ... Cl 35'5 [] Ruthenium Ru 104.
CHROMIUM ... Cr 52-5 Selenium ...... Se 79 []
COBALT ......... Co 58-8 SILICON ...... Si 28'5
COPPER......... Cu 63'5 SILVER......... Ag 108
Didymium ...... D 96 SODIUM ....... Na 23
FLUORINE ... F 19 D STRONTIUM ... Sr. 87°5
Glucinum ...... G 14 SULPHUR ...... S 32 []
GOLD ............ Au 1967 Tantalum ...... Ta 137.5
HYDROGEN .. H 1. Tellurium ...... Te 128
Indium ......... In 74 Thallium ...... T] 204
IODINE......... I 127 Thorium......... Th 231-5
IRIDIUM......... Ir 198 TIN............... Sn 118
IRON ............ Fe 56 TITANIUM ...... Ti 50
Lanthanum L 92 TUNGSTEN ...... W 184
LEAD............ Pb 207 URANIUM ...... U 120
Lithium......... Li 7 Wanadium ...... V 51-2
MAGNESIUM ... Mg 24 Yttrium ......... Y 68
MANGANESE . Mn 55 ZINC ............ Zn 65 [[]
MERCURY .... Hg 200 [T] Zirconium ...... Zr 90
In the foregoing table the most important
elements are distinguished by the largest type,
those next in importance by medium type, and
those of rare occurrence, or of which we know
but little, by the smallest type.
ATOM'IC WEIGHTS. See ATOM.
ATON'I.C. Syn. ATON'ICUs, L.; ATONIQUE,
Fr.; ATONISCH, SCHLAFF, Ger. Weak; de-
bilitated: deficient in tone or strength. In
pathology, applied to diseases or conditions of
the body (ATONIC DISEASEs ; ATONY) in which
debility is the leading feature. In pharma-
1 Strictly speaking, Dalton, the inventor of the Atomic
Theory, did not adopt the precise numbers given in the
table, but others, which, however, bear a very simple rela-
tion to them.
cology, ATONICs are agents which relax or lower
the tone of the system.
AT'0NY. Syn. ATO'NIA, L.; ATONIE, &c.,
Fr., Ger. In pathology, loss of tone, relaxa-
tion, morbid diminution of vital energy or
power; commonly applied to debility of any
kind.
ATROPHY (-fe). Syn. ATRo'PHIA, L.;
ATROPHIE, &c., Fr. ; ATROPHIE, Ger. In
pathology, wasting or emaciation, with loss
of strength, and unaccompanied by fever or
other sensible cause; defective nutrition; de-
cline. - . "
Classif., Causes, &c. It is either local, as in
the case of a limb which is small, imperfectly
developed, or withered; or general, affecting

160
ATROPIA.
the whole body. GEN'ERAL ATROPHY appears
to depend on deficient nutrition, arising from
a want of due balance between the functions
of assimilation and absorption, or from profuse
evacuations draining off the materials neces-
sary for the support of the body. In the for-
mer case only may it be regarded as an inde-
pendent disease. LOCAL ATROPHY commonly
arises from some cause which lessens the nor-
mal circulation of blood in the part; or from
a diminution of the nervous influence, as in
paralysis. General atrophy is most frequent
in infancy, childhood, and old age. In the
first two it may be often traced to bad nursing,
worms, or a scrofulous taint ; and not unfre-
quently, to continually inhaling impure or
damp air. In adults, the causes are impaired
digestion and imperfect action of the chyli-
ferous organs, and sometimes diseased action
of the liver. In many cases it results from the
use of tobacco. -
Treatm. This consists in a close attention
to diet (which should be liberal and nutritious),
exercise, clothing, ventilation, warmth, &c.,
with gentle stimulants, and chalybeate tonics
where not contra-indicated; and, in the case
of adults, the moderate use of pure generous
wine or malt-liquor. Among special remedies,
both in this disease and anaemia, may be men-
tioned pure sweet cod-liver oil, which seldom
fails to arrest or greatly retard the progress of
the disease, and in very many cases effect an
entire cure. When this affection is symptom-
atic of any other disease, as worms, stomach or
liver complaints, &c., the removal of the latter
must of course be first attempted. See ANAE-
MIA, CHLOROSIS, TABES, &c.
ATR0"PIA (tröpe'y’ā). Cai H23NOg. [L.;
B. P.] Syn. AT'ROPINE (-pin; sometimes
atroºpinej), Eng., Fr.; ATROPI'NA, ATRo”-
PIUM*, L. An alkaloid discovered by Brandes
in at'ropa belladon'na or deadly nightshade.
Prep. 1. (B. P. Process.) Take of bella-
dona roof, recently dried, and in coarse pow-
der, 2 lbs. ; rectified spirit, 10 pints ; slaked
lime, 1 oz. ; diluted sulphuric acid, carbonate
of potash, of each, a sufficiency; chloroform, 3
jl. oz. ; purified animal charcoal, a sufficiency;
distilled water, 10 fl.oz. Macerate the root in 4
pints of the spirit, for 24 hours, with frequent
stirring. Transfer to a displacement appara-
tus, and exhaust the root with the remainder
of the spirit by slow percolation. Add the
lime to the tincture placed in a bottle, and
shake them occasionally several times. Filter,
add the diluted sulphuric acid in very feeble
excess to the filtrate and filter again. Distil
off three fourths of the spirit, add to the residue
the distilled water, evaporate at a gentle heat,
but as rapidly as possible, until the liquor is
reduced to one third of its volume and no
longer smells of alcohol; then let it cool. Add
very cautiously, with constant stirring, a solu-
tion of carbonate of potash so as nearly to
neutralise the acid, care, however, being taken
that an excess is not used. Set to rest for six
hours, then filter, and add carbonate of potash
in such quantity that the liquid shall acquire
a decided alkaline reaction. Place in a bottle
with the chloroform; mix well by frequently
repeated brisk agitation, and pour the mixed
liquids into a funnel furnished with a glas
stop-cock. When the chloroform has subsided
draw it off by the stop-cock, and distiliton
water bath from a retort connected with a
condenser. Dissolve the residue in warm tº.
tified spirit; digest the solution with a little
animal charcoal; filter, evaporate, and ()
until colourless crystals are obtained.
2. Ea'pressed juice of belladonna is tº
porated over a water bath to the consist.
ence of an extract, and then triturated in a
marble or porcelain mortar with a strong S.
lution of caustic potassa; the resulting mis
is digested and well agitated for sometim!,
at the temperature of 75° to 80° Fahr, with
benzole, q. S.; and, after repose, the ben/l.
solution is carefully separated, and its Volatile
hydrocarbon is distilled off by the heat ºf a
water bath; the residuum in the retort is now,
exhausted with water acidulated with sulphurt
acid, and the resulting ‘acid-solution,' after
filtration, precipitated with carbonate of sºld;
the precipitate is crude ATROPIA, which is ºl.
lected on a filter, pressed between folds ºf
bibulous paper, and dried; after which it is
purified by one or more re-solutions in alcohºl,
and crystallisations, which may or may not be
modified in the manner noticed. The propºr.
tion of potassa should be about 1 dr, to every
quart of the expressed juice. An excellſ
and economical process. The product is 0}
to 4% of the weight of the plant from which
the juice has been obtained.
3. (Mein and Liebig.) Belladonna-rootſfiel:
dried and coarsely powdered), is exhaustedly
alcohol (sp. gr. 0-822); slaked lime (1 part for
every 24 of the dried root employed) is then
added to the tincture, and the whole digested
with agitation, for 24 hours; sulphuric acid
is next added, drop by drop, to slight exces
and, after filtration, rather more than onehilf
the spirit is removed by distillation; altik
water is now added to the residue, and the
remainder of the alcohol evaporated as quickly
as possible by a gentle heat; after again il.
tering, the liquid is reduced by further evapº.
ration to the ºth part of the weight of the
root employed, and a concentrated solution ºf
potassa dropped into the cold liquid (to throw
down a dark greyish-brown matter), carefully
avoiding excess or rendering the liquid in the
slightest degree alkaline; in a few hours tº
liquid is again filtered, and carbonate of pº
tassa added as long as a precipitate (ATROPIA)
falls; after a further interval of from 12 tº
24 hours, this precipitate is collected and
drained in a filter, and after pressure between
folds of blotting paper, dried by a very gentle
heat. It is purified by making it into a pastº
with water, again squeezing it between the
folds of blotting paper, drying it, re-dissºly.
ATROPIA.
161
ig it in 5 times its weight of alcohol, de-
Colouring it with pure animal charcoal, dis-
tilling off greater part of the alcohol, and
evaporation and crystallisation by a very gentle
heat; or only about one half the spirit is dis-
tilled off, and 3 or 4 times its volume of water
gradually agitated with it, the resulting milky
liquid being then heated to boiling, and allowed
tº cool very slowly, when nearly the whole
ºf the ATROPIA crystallises out after a few
hours. The same may be effected by at once
agitating 6 or 8 volumes of water with the
alcoholic solution, and setting aside the mix-
ture for 12 to 24 hours, by which time the
Crystallisation will be completed. This process
Originated with Soubeiran, was improved by
Mein, and subsequently, with slight modifica-
tions, adopted by Liebig. The product is about
0.3% of the weight of root operated on.
4. (Bouchardat and Cooper.) The filtered
tincture is precipitated with iodine dissolved
in an aqueous solution of iodide of potassium,
the resulting ioduretted hydriodate of atropia,
decomposed by zinc-and-water, the metallic
oxide separated by means of carbonate of po-
tassa, and the alkaloid thus obtained dissolved
in alcohol, and crystallised.
5. (Mr. Luxton.) The dry leaves of bella-
loma are gently boiled, for 2 hours, in dis-
tilled water just sufficient to cover them, and
the resulting decoction is strained through
a coarse, cloth into a large precipitating jar;
this process is repeated with a second quantity
ºf distilled water, and the two decoctions
mixed; concentrated sulphuric acid is now
added in the proportion of 2 drs. to every
pound of leaves operated on, by which the
Vegetable albumen of the decoction is preci-
pitated, and the liquid becomes clear and sherry-
cºloured; the clear liquor is now decanted or
syphoned off, and, if necessary, filtered; the
filtrate is now decomposed by either passing
a stream of gaseous ammonia through it, or by
suspending in it a lump of carbonate of am-
monia. The effect is that the liquid turns
black, and crystals of ATROPIA are slowly
formed and deposited. At the expiration of a
day or two, the supernatant mother-liquid is
removed with a syphon, and the crystals thrown
On a filter to drain and dry." It may be puri-
fied by re-solution and crystallisation. 1 lb.
ºf leaves yields 40 grs.; or at the rate of fully
57.
6. (Rabourdin.) To the crystallised juice of
the plant (previously heated to coagulate its
albumen, filtered, and allowed to cool), 1 quart;
is added of caustic potassa, 1 dr. ; and after-
Wards, of chloroform, 1 oz. ; the whole is then
agitated well, and after & an hour's repose, the
supernatant liquor is poured from the disco-
loured chloroform, which, after being washed
with distilled water as long as it gives any
colour to that liquid, is placed in a small re-
tor, and the chloroform distilled off by the
heat of a water bath; the residuum is dis-
1 “Pharm. Journ.,” 1854-5, p. 299.
solved in a little water acidulated with sul-
phuric acid, and precipitated with carbonate
of potassa, in slight excess; the precipitate is re-
dissolved in alcohol, and the solution, by sponta-
neous evaporation, yields crystals of ATROPIA.
7. (Ure.) From the expressed juice of the
fresh, or the watery extract of the dry plant,
by treating it with caustic soda, in slight ex-
cess, and then agitating the mixture with 1%
times its volume of ether; the ATROPIA taken
up by the ether is again deposited after
repose for some time, and is then purified by
repeating the treatment with fresh ether as
often as necessary.
8. Freshly precipitated hydrate of magnesia
is added to the coagulated and filtered ex-
pressed juice, and the mixture evaporated to
dryness, as quickly as possible, in a water
bath ; the residuum is pulverised and di-
gested in strong alcohol, and the clear liquid
allowed to evaporate spontaneously. The
crystals may be purified by repeated re-solu-
tions in alcohol.
Prop., Tests, &c. The crystals obtained from
hot concentrated solutions, colourless, trans-
parent, silky prisms; from solutions in dilute
spirit, silky needles, like those of disulphate of
quinine. • It is colourless; has a bitter, acrid,
and somewhat metallic taste; dissolves in 200
parts (300 parts—Thomson) of cold and 50 to
54 parts of boiling water, in 1% parts of cold
alcohol, and in 25 parts of cold, and 6 parts
of boiling ether; it has an alkaline reaction,
fuses at about 194°Fahr., is slightly volatile
at common temperatures, and freely rises in
vapour at 212°Fahr.; at higher temperatures
it volatilises with partial decomposition; with
the acids it forms salts, of which several are
crystallisable.
Tests.-1. Nitric acid forms with it a yellow
solution :-2. With cold sulphuric acid it gives
a colourless solution, which becomes red only
when heated :-3. Aqueous solutions of atropia
and its salts are—a., turned red by tincture
of iodine—b., gives a citron-yellow precipitate
with terchloride of gold—c., a flocculent
whitish precipitate with tincture of galls, and
—d., a yellowish-white one with bichloride of
platinum :-4. Heated with caustic potassa or
soda, it suffers decomposition, and ammonia is
evolved:—5. A weak solution cautiously ap-
plied to the eyelid or conjunctiva, produces
dilation of the pupil lasting for several hours.
Pur., &c. Alkaloid prepared from the root
of atropa belladonna. Crystals; white, in the
form of prisms; soluble in water and rectified
spirit. It leaves no ash when burned with free
access of air (B. P.).
Phys. eff. It is a very powerful narcotico-
acrid poison. Its effects are similar to those
of belladonna, but considerably more powerful.
“A very minute (imponderable) quantity ap-
plied to the eye is sufficient to dilate the pupil.”
(Pereira.) The ſº to ºn gr. often causes very
serious effects in the human subject. The ºth
* A “cerebro-spinal *—ºf


162
ATROPIC ACID—ATTRACTION.
of a grain accelerates the pulse, affects the
brain, causes dryness of the throat, difficulty
of deglutition, dilation of the pupil, dimness
of sight, giddiness, strangury, numbness of
limbs, sense of formication in the arms,
rigidity of thighs, depression of pulse, and
sometimes feebleness or loss of voice. These
symptoms continue for from 12 to 24 hours.
In larger doses death ensues.
Ant., &c. These may be similar to those
described under BELLADONNA and ALKALOID.
Uses. Chiefly as an external agent, as a sub-
stitute for belladonna, to cause dilation of the
pupil; and as a local anaesthetic or anodyne,
especially in facial neuralgia. Internally, it
has been occasionally given in hooping-cough,
chorea, and a few other nervous diseases.—
Dose, ºr gr., gradually increased to gº, or occa-
sionally, even tº gr. in solution, or made into a
pill with liquorice powder and honey, or syrup,
or used endermically; for a collyrium, 1 gr. to
water 1 oz., a few drops only being applied to
the eye at a time; the greatest caution in each
case being observed. It is also employed to
make the sulphate. In dispensing it, a single
drop of acetic acid, or dilute sulphuric acid, will
be found to facilitate and ensure its perfect so-
lution. See BELLADONNA and BELLADONINE.
Atropia, Sul’phate of. Syn. ATRO'PIA SUL'-
PHAs, L. Prep. (B. P.) Take of atropia,
120 grs. ; distilled water, 4 ft. drs. ; diluted
sulphuric acid, a sufficiency.
Mix the atropia with the water and add the
acid gradually, stirring them together until the
alkaloid is dissolved and the solution is neutral.
Evaporate it to dryness at a temperature not
exceeding 100°.
Characters and Tests.-A colourless powder,
soluble in water, forming a solution which is
neutral to test-paper, and when applied to the
eye dilates the pupil as the solution of atropia
does. It leaves no ash when burned with free
access of air.
Intended for external application. It is a
powerful poison.
Uses, &c. The same as those of the pure
alkaloid.—Dose. # to gº. gr., either in solution
or pills; 1 to 3 gr., to water, 1 fl. oz., as a
collyrium, of which a few drops seldom fail
to produce full dilation of the pupil in about a
quarter of an hour; 1 to 2 grs., tolard, 1.dr., forms
an excellent ointment in neuralgic affections.
Obs... Sulphate of atropia (which is intended
for external use only) is rather difficult to
crystallise, as it has a tendency to assume an
amorphous or gum-like condition. It is more
soluble than the pure alkaloid; and like it, is
a terrific poison.
ATROPIC ACID. Syn. ACIDUM ATROP/I-
CUM, L. The name given by Richter to a vola-
tile crystallisable substance, possessing acid pro-
perties, found in atropa belladonna or deadly
nightshade. In many respects it resembles
benzoic acid, from which, however, it is dis-
tinguished by not precipitating the salts of iron.
ATR0PI/NA, At'ropine. See ATROPIA.
ATTAR. See OTTO and WOLATILE OIS,
ATTELETTES (-lèts'). [Fr.] In 200km
small skewers, generally of silver, with Omº
mental heads. The term is also applied to smil
dishes (ENTRáEs, &c.) in which the articlesiº
mounted on attelettes. Small fish, as Smills
are often served in this way. See AIGUIIIETI,
ATTEN'UANT (-à-ánt). Syn, ATTENTIN
L.; ATTÉNUANT, Fr.; VERDüNNEND, Ge.
That makes thin, or less dense or viscid; i.
luting. In medicine, applied to remedies (M.
TEN'UANTS, SPANIEM'ICS) which are suppºi
to act by thinning, diluting, or impoveriling
the blood.
ATTENUATION. Syn. ATTENUATIO, I,
ATTÉNUATION, Fr.; WERDüNNUNG, Ger, A
thinning or diminishing; a reducing in ().
sistence. In medicine, see the adj, (abº)
in brewing, the decrease of the density i
worts during fermentation, arising from tº
gradual conversion of their ‘sacchariné"(T)
into alcohol. See BREWING, DISTIILATION
WORTS, &c.
ATTRACTION. [Eng., Fr.] Sh, M.
TRAC'TIO, L.; ANZIEHUNG, Ger. The W&
that draws together matter and resists is
separation. That force which attracts his
towards the centre of the earth, and with
keeps on its surface those that are movall,is
called GRAVITY, or the attraction of gratiº
tion. It is exerted at sensible, often atim:
mense, distances, and determines the figur
and motions of the planets and comets, all
causes the descent of heavy bodies tº tº
ground. This force it is which Confers tº
property of weight upon matter.
That force which unites particles of tº
same kind of matter, so as to cause them iſ
assume the condition of solid or liquid miss
e.g. particles of chalk to form a mass of Chil,
particles of water to form a mass of Wäßis
called CoHESION, or the ATTRACTION OF ().
HESION. That force which binds tºgether
different substances without changing thi:
properties, as when paint sticks to woºd, it
to paper, &c., is called ADHESION, or the M.
TRACTION OF ADHESION. CAPILLARY ATTRAC.
TION is a modification of adhesion, and is
characterised by being exerted between lilil:
and the internal surfaces of tubes and peril
bodies. The absorption of water by a sºng,
the ascent of oil in the wick of a lamp, aſ
examples of this power. The CHEMICAL FORC
or AFFINITY differs from all other kinds (f
attraction in being exerted between deimiº
and constant quantities (atoms) of mateſ,
usually of dissimilar natures, and producing
combinations possessing properties differſ
from those of their components. (See A.
FINITY.) This force, as well as cohesion all
adhesion, is exerted at distances so small is
to be immeasurable.
The terms ELECTRIC ATTRACTION and MAG:
NET/IC ATTRACTION are employed in physiº

to denote phenomena which we imperfectly
understand, and which operate between bºdiº

ATTRITION.—AVIARY.
163
at Sensible distances, and simulate those of the
attraction of gravitation.
ATTRI"TION (-trish'-lin). [Eng., Fr.] Syn.
ATTRI"TIO, L.; ABREIBUNG, AUFREIBUNG, Ger.
In mechanies, the wearing away of parts by
friction. In medicine, a graze, abrasion, or
solution of continuity of the cuticle, or the act
which causes it. In surgery, the crushing or
tearing away of any exterior portion of the
body by violence. See ABRASION, ANTI-AT-
TRITION, FRICTION, &c.
AURANTIA/CEAE (-she-8). [Lat., D.C.]
The Orange tribe. In botany, an extensive
and important natural order of exogenous trees
and shrubs, found exclusively in the temperate
and tropical parts of the Old World, and un-
known in a wild state in America. The fruit
is pulpy, succulent, sub-acid, and eatable, and
separated into cells by membranous partitions,
and is covered with a leathery aromatic skin
Or rind. Some of the genera embrace plants
ofgreatbeauty and utility. A few of the Indian
species are climbers. The genus CIT'RUs, which
includes the orange, lemon, citron, lime, berga-
mot, and shaddock, is that best known in Europe.
AURANTIIM (-she-in). Syn. HESPERIDIN;
AURAN'TINE* (-tin), Eng., Fr. ; AURANTII/NA,
&C., L. The bitter principle of the peel of
Oranges and lemons.
Prep. Theexterior oryellow peel of the Seville
Orange (carefully separated from the white mat-
ter, and air-dried) is steeped in hot water, and
the filtered liquor gently evaporated to dryness.
Prop., &c. It possesses the bitter properties
of the peel without any of its glutinosity or
fragrance, and is said to agree better with de-
licate stomachs. It may be taken in water
tither with or without the addition of a little
sugar or capillaire, or dissolved in wine.
AU"RIC (aw'- or awr’-). Syn. AU'RICUs,
I. Of or relating to gold, or containing it,
Or formed from it.
AURIFEROUS. Sym. AU'RIFER, AURIF'-
RUS, L.; AURIFERE, Fr. ; GoLDHALTIG, Ger.
In mineralogy, that yields or contains gold; as
alriferous sand, a quartz, &c.
AURIPIGMENTUM +. [L.]
Mint of gold; appr., native orpiment.
ARSENIC,
AURO.CHL0"RIDES (-klöre'-idz).
Literally,
See
Com-
pounds of terchloride of gold with chlorides of
ºther bases. They may be prepared by mixing
the terchloride of gold with the chloride of
the lase, in atomic proportions, and setting
Aside the solution to crystallise.
Prop., &c. Most of the auro-chlorides crys-
tallise in prisms, dissolve in both alcohol and
Water, have an orange or yellow colour, and
are decomposed at a red heat.
AUR0-CYANIDES (-idz). In chemistry,
Cºmpounds of cyanide of gold with cyanides
ºf other bases. They may be formed in a
similar manner to the auro-chlorides. Auro-
cyanide of potassium is much used in electro-
gilding.
AUTOGENOUS (-tój"-). AUTOGE”-
Syn.
NEAL ; AUTOG/ENUS (-tūj'-), L. Self-gene-
rating or effecting; acting without the aid of
foreign matter. In anatomy, &c., developed
from distinct and independent centres; as
parts or processes. Among metallists, it de-
notes a method of joining metals by fusing the
parts in contact, by means of a flame of hy-
drogen, or of a mixture of hydrogen and com-
mon air, without the intervention of a fusible
alloy or solder. Lead, and even ordinary hard
solders, are, however, sometimes so employed,
and the name, though improperly, retained.
AUTOMATIC. Syn. AUTOMAT/ICUs, AUTOM'-
ATUS, L.; AUTOMATIQUE, Fr.; AUTOMA-
TISCHE, Ger. Self-acting or self-moving, or
that seems to be so; mechanical; of or re-
sembling an automaton. In physiology, in-
voluntary, applied to functions which are per-
formed without the operation of the will ; as
the movements in respiration, the contractions
and dilations of the heart, the persistent con-
traction of the sphincters, &c. In mechanics,
&c., moving and acting from concealed ma-
chinery; also, as applied to machinery, self-
regulating and directing, within the limits
prescribed by its author, though moved by ex-
ternal power. To the last class belongs the
self-acting machinery of our flax and cotton
mills, our engineering establishments, &c.;
in which the elemental powers are made to
animate, as it were, millions of complex organs,
infusing into forms of wood, iron, and brass,
an agency resembling that of intelligent beings.
The manufactures in which such machinery is
employed are termed the AUTOMATIC ARTs.
AWENA. [L.] The oat; oats.
AWE/NIN (-nin). Sym. AVENA/INE* (āv-e-);
AVENI'NA, &c., L.; AvíNINE, &c., Fr. A ni-
trogenous compound, analogous to, and proba-
bly identical with, casein, obtained from oats,
and on which its nutritiveness chiefly de-
pends.
Prep. The grain, reduced to the state of
powder or meal, is washed on a sieve, and the
milky liquid, after being allowed to deposit its
starch, is heated to about 200° Fahr., to co-
agulate the albumen; when cold, acetic acid is
added as long as a white powder falls, which
is AVENIN; this is collected on a filter, drained,
and dried by a gentle heat.
AVEN'TURIN, Avantſurin(-ü-rin; -vāng-tóð
—Knowles & Smart). [Eng. Fr.] A beauti-
ful iridescent variety of rock crystal, minutely
spangled throughout with yellow scales of
mica (AVENTURIN, A. QUARTZ). A variety of
felspar (A. FEL's PAR) of somewhat similar ap-
pearance is found in the Continent and the
Peninsula, of which the finer kinds are called
A. ORIENTALE and PIERRE DE solPIL by the
lapidaries. Both varieties are now imitated by
the glass and porcelain manufacturers. See
GLASS, GLAZE, PASTE, &c. -
A/VIARY (-ve-). Syn. AVIA"RIUM, L.;
VoIIñRE, Fr. ; VogELHAUS Vog ELHECKE, Ger.
A place for keeping birds; generally applied
to an enclosed space or building in which birds


164,
AVIGNON BERRIES_AZOTE.
are kept, or bred, on account of their rarity,
plumage, or song; and not for food.
Situa., &c. For exotic birds, a place should
be selected where the temperature can be
maintained at a proper degree throughout the
year, and which is well protected from the
weather. This is commonly done by choosing
a space attached to the summerhouse or hot-
house. When the aviary is only intended for
birds of climates similar to our own, any part
of the open garden may be chosen, and a por-
tion closed in, either with trellis-work or wire-
work, or netting; care being taken to provide,
in some easily accessible portion of it, full pro-
tection from vicissitudes of weather and season.
Nor must cleanliness, and due ventilation and
protection from foul air or noxious fumes, be
left unattended to.
AVIGNON’ BER/RIES
French berries.
AVOIRDUPOIS’ (āv-Čr-du-pois'). The com-
mon weight of 16 oz. or 7000 grs. to the lb.,
used in these realms for all kinds of goods,
except jewelry and the precious metals, and
medicines in dispensing, or as ordered in the
‘British Pharmacopoeia' of 1867.
AXIS. [L., Eng., Fr.] Syn. AXE, Fr. ;
ACHSE, Ger. Primarily, that on or around
which anything acts or performs; an axle or
axle-tree. In anatomy, that on or around
which any organ or part rests, gravitates, or
centres. In astronomy, the diameter on or
about which a celestial body revolves. In
botany, part or parts about which particular
organs are arranged; an imaginary line pass-
ing from the base to the apex of a pericarp,
&c. In crystallography, imaginary lines pass-
ing through the central points of a crystal,
and about which the molecules or particles of
matter composing it may be conceived to be
symmetrically built up. In geology, the centre
of a mountain-group. In mechanics, the
straight line, real or imaginary, about which
any body oscillates or revolves. See CRYS-
TAL, &c.
AX'LE, Axle-tree (äks'l). Syn. ESSIEU,
Fr. ; AXE (am rade), &c., Ger. In mechanics,
the pin, rod, or material line, on which a
wheel, &c., turns. See ANTI-ATTRITION,
FRICTION, &c.
AX(UNGE (-inje). Syn. AXUN'GIA, L.
Primarily, ‘wheel-grease; the lard or fat of
an animal; restricted in pharmacy to hog's
lard.—AXUNGIA CURA’TA, A. PREPARATA, is
prepared or washed hog's lard (which see).
AZADIRACHTA INDICA. (Ind. Ph.) Nim
or Margosa Tree. (Ind. Ph.) Habitat. Com-
mon throughout India; often cultivated in
gardens. Officinal parts.-1. The bark (Aza-
dirachtae cortea, Nim bark). It varies much
in appearance, according to the size and age
of the tree producing it. The bark from the
trunk of a tree above three or four years of
age is covered with a thick scaly epidermis,
and varies in thickness from # to , inch.
That from the smaller branches is smooth, of
(āv-veen-yong).
a dullish purple colour, marked by longill.
dinal lines of ash-coloured epidermis, from #|
to T'ath of an inch apart. The inner layerſ
the bark, of a whitish colour in the fresh stål,
is powerfully bitter, far more so than tº
outer dark-coloured layer, which, howeſt,
possesses a greater amount of astringly
It contains a crystallisable principle (M.
gosine) and an astringent principle (Catali)
–2. The fresh leaves (Azadirachta folia, Nin
leaves).-Properties. Bark, astringent tº it
and antiperiodic; leaves, stimulant—Thºrº
peutic uses. In intermittent and other ||
roxysmal fevers, in general debility, and ().
valescence after febrile and other diseases, tº
bark has been employed with success, T.
leaves form a useful application to ulcers all
skin diseases when a mild stimulant is tº
quired.—Dose. Of the powdered bark, adrill
three or four times a day.
Preparations. DECOCTION OF NIM BI||
(Decoctum Azadirachtae). Take of theimº
layer of nim bark, bruised, 202.; water, Aji
and a half. Boil for 15 minutes, and stri
whilst hot.—Dose. As an antiperiodic, ſm
1% to 3.fl. oz., every second hour previous tº
expected paroxysm. As a tonic, 1 or 2|, .
twice or thrice daily. As this decoction SM
decomposes in hot weather, it should lºº.
pared fresh for use when required.
TINCTURE OF NIM BARK (Tinctura Mi
rachtae). Take of the inner layer of miniſh
bruised, 2% oz. ; proof spirit, 1 pint, Maº
rate for seven days in a closed vessel, Wii
occasional agitation; strain, press, filter, all
add sufficient proof spirit to make 1 pint, l:
may also be prepared by percolation in it
same manner as Tincture of Calumbi,
— Dose. From # to 2.fl. drs, as atomic,
PouTTICE of NIM LEAVES (Catalism
Azadirachtae). Take of fresh nim leave,
sufficiency; bruise and moisten with tºl
water. A good stimulant application to ill.
lent and ill-conditioned ulcers. Should iſ
cause pain and irritation, as it sometimes dº
equal parts of rice-flour and linseed-mealmſ
be added. The bitter oil of the seeds ishti
in high repute by the natives as an anthelmi
tic, and as an external application in them.
tism. It is also said to be an insecticide,
AZOERYTH'RYN (-rith'-lin). A substinº
obtained, by Kane, from archil. It is insl.
ble in alcohol, ether, and water; but is very
soluble in alkaline lyes, to which it imparis :
port-wine colour.
AZ0'IC. Syn. AzöOT'IC; AZO'ICUS, AZü0ſ.
CUs, &c., L. Lifeless; wholly destitute ºf
organic life. In geology, &c., applied to still
which do not contain organic remains,
AZOLIT'MIN (āz-0-lit'-min). A darkº
substance obtained, by Kane, from litmus, ºf
which it forms a large portion of the Color
ing matter. It is insoluble in alcohol, andi
water unless alkalised.

Az'OTE= (a/ote; a' zöfe). [Eng, H.
Syn. AZO'TUM*, L.; AZOT*, Ger. Nitrºgº

AZOTIC–BADIGEON.
165
(because it is unfit for respiration, i.e. destroys
life),
ºric Syn. AZOT/ICUM, L.; AZOTIQUE,
Fr.; AZOTISCH, Ger. Of or like azote, or con-
taining it or formed from it; irrespirable;
destructive to life.-Azot'IC ACID# is nitric
acid; A. GASł, nitrogen.—AZO'ToUs ACID+
was nitrous acid.
AZOTISED (-tizd). Syn. NITROGENISED.
Containing azote or nitrogen; a common
epithet of nitrogenous substances used as
food.
AZURE (àzh'-àre; aſ-zhure — Knowles,
Smart, Walker). Syn. CERU'LEUM, L.;
AZUR, Fr; HELLBLAU, HIMMELBLAU, Ger.
i. dyeing and painting, sky-blue; also the
name of one or more pigments which possess
this colour. See BLUE DYES, BLUE PIG-
MENTS, SMALTS, ULTRAMARINE, &c.
AZURE-STONE. Lapis lazuli.
AZ'URITE (-ite). In mineralogy, lazulite;
blue malachite; sometimes, lapis lazuli (the
name being, unfortunately, very loosely applied
by different writers). -
AZYMOUS+ (-e-müs). Syn. Az'yMUs, L.
Unleavened; unfermented; as, sea-biscuit. Un-
leavened bread was formerly termed Az'YMEf
-º-me) and AZ'YMUS+, by theologists.
BARIAH. The rind or shell of the fruit of
mimosa cineraria. According to Dr. Ure, it
(Ontains a considerable quantity of gallic acid,
Some tannin, a red colouring principle, and an
AſOtised substance, and is the article imported
from the East Indies and Senegal under the
name of NEB-NEB.-Used as a cheap dye-stuff
for various shades of drab and grey.
BACCA (bák'-á). [L.; pl., bac'cae, bák"-sé.]
Aberry.
BACK. [D., bak, a bowl or cistern.] Syn.
BAC. In brewing, a large, open, flat reservoir
OT cistern; commonly that in which wort is
COOled. In distillation, the vessel into which
the wort is pumped from the coolers, in order
to be ‘worked’ with yeast. The LIQUOR-BACK
in a brewery, distillery, or rectifying house, is
the water reservoir or cistern. -
BACKS. In the leather trade, the thickest
and stoutest portion of the hide, used for sole-
leather,
BACON (bā'-kn). [W., baceum, prob. from
Ger, bache, a wild sow ; “old Fr., for dried
flesh or pork”—Craig.] The flesh of swine
salted and dried, and subsequently either
smoked or not. The term is usually restric-
ted to the sides and belly so prepared; the
Other parts of the animal having distinctive
names. Sometimes, though rarely, the term
is extended to the flesh of bears, and of other
like animals, cured in a similar manner.
Qual, &c. When bacon has been properly
prepared from young and well-fed animals, and
is neither ‘stale’ nor ‘rusty,’ it forms a very
wholesome and excellent article of food, espe-
cally adapted for a light or hasty meal, or as
a relish for bread or vegetables. For persons
with a weak stomach, and for invalids, great
care should be taken to cook it without injur-
ing its flavour, or rendering it indigestible.
This is best effected by cutting it into slices
of moderate thickness, and carefully broiling
or toasting it; avoiding dressing it too hastily,
too slowly, or too much. The common practice
of cooking it in almost wafer-like slices, until
it becomes brown and crisp, renders it not
merely indigestible, but also a most fertile
source of heartburn and dyspepsia. Fried
bacon is remarkably strong, and is hence more
likely to offend the stomach than when it is
broiled, or preferably toasted before the fire;
the last being, of all others, the best way of
dressing it so as to preserve its delicacy and
flavour. Gourmands, however, often esteem,
as “une bonne bouche,’ bacon dressed in the
flame arising from the dropping of its own
fat.
Choice. Good bacon has a thin rind, and an
agreeable odour; the fat has a firm consis-
tence and a slightly reddish tinge; the lean is
of a pleasing red colour, is tender, and adheres,
whilst raw, strongly to the bone. When the
fat is yellow, it is either “rusty” or becoming
so, and should be avoided. The streaky parts
are not only those which are most esteemed,
but are the most wholesome.
BAD"GER (báj'-ār). Syn. ME'LEs, L.;
BLAIREAU, Fr.; DACHS, Ger. The ur'sus
me/les (Linn.), one of the plantigrade carni-
vora, a burrowing nocturnal animal, common
in Europe, Asia, and North America. Since
the extirpation of the bear, the badger is the
sole representative of the ursine family in our
indigenous zoology. Its habits are “noctur-
nal, inoffensive, and slothful; its food consists
of roots, earth-nuts, fruits, the eggs of birds,
insects, reptiles, and the smaller quadrupeds;
its noxious qualities are consequently few and
of slight moment, and by no means justify
the extirminating war unintermittently waged
against it.” (Brande.) Its “muscular strength
is great, its bite proverbially powerful; and a
dog must be trained and encouraged to enter
willingly into combat” with it. (Id.)
Uses, &c. The flesh of the badger is prized
as food; the skin, used for pistol furniture;
the hair, made into brushes. The American
badger is commonly called the GROUND-HOG.
The Cape badger produces HYRACEUM (which
see).
BAD'IANE (-e-ähn). [Fr.] Syn. BAD'IAN,
B.-SEED. Star-anise seed.
BADI"GEON (bá-dizh'-One: bād-e-Zhiinț,
or bà-dij'-ānī-Smart). Among operatives
and artists, any cement used to fill up holes
and to cover defects in their work. Among
statuaries, a mixture of plaster and free-stone
is commonly used for this purpose; among
joiners and carpenters, a mixture of saw-dust
and glue, or of whiting and glue; and among
coopers, one of tallow and chalk. The name
is also given to a stone-coloured mixture used
for the fronts of houses, and said to be com-

166
BAEL–BALDNESS.
posed of wood-dust and lime, slaked together,
stone powder, and a little ochre, umber, or
sienna; the whole being mixed up with weak
alum water to the consistence of paint, and
laid on in dry weather.
BAEL. [Nat.] Syn. INDIAN BAEL, BEL*;
BA/EI, B. IN'DICUS, BE'LA, B. IN'DICA, L. The
agle marmelos (Correa; crataeva m., Linn.)
one of the Aurantiaceae (DC.). Dried half-ripe
fruit imported from the E. I., under the
name of INDIAN BAEL. Astringent and re-
frigerant; highly extolled in chronic dysen-
tery, diarrhoea, English cholera, and relaxa-
tions generally. It is also used in bilious
fevers, hypochondriasis, melancholia, &c. Root-
bark, stem-bark, and eaſpressed juice of the
leaves, particularly the first, also used in the
same cases in India. Ripe fruit, fragrant and
delicious; used, in the E. I., as a warm cathar-
tic, and regarded as a certain cure for habit-
ual costiveness. Mucus of the seeds used by
painters as size; also as a cement. Unripe
fruit used to dye yellow. It is generally ad-
ministered under the form of DECOCTION or
EXTRACT (which see).
BAGASSE' (-gās'). [Fr.] The dry refuse
stalks of the sugar cane as they leave the
crushing-mill.— Used as fuel in the colonial
sugar-houses.
BAGG/ING. The cloth or materials of which
bags or sacks are made. In agriculture, ap-
plied to a method of reaping corn by a chop-
ping, instead of a drawing cut. See RATs, &c.
BAIN-MARIE. [Fr.] In old chemistry, a
water bath; also, sometimes, a sand bath. In
cookery, a shallow vessel containing heated
water, in which saucepans, &c., are placed, when
it is necessary either to make them hot, or to
keep them so, without allowing them to boil.
It is extremely useful in making sauces, warm-
ing soups and small dishes, and when dimmers
are delayed after they are ready to serve.
BA"KING (båke'-). Syn. ACTION DE CUIRE
AU Four, Fr. The process of cooking, or of
heating, drying, and hardening any substance
in an oven or kiln, or by the rays of the sun;
the art or trade of a baker £; also technically,
a batch or ovenful, or the quantity baked at
once (= Four-NKE, Fr.).
In cookery, baking is, perhaps, of all others,
the cheapest, most convenient, and best way
of dressing dinners for small families, where a
good domestic oven is at hand. Though the
flavour of baked meat is generally considered
barely equal to that of the same parts roasted,
there are some joints and dishes to which it
appears particularly suitable. Among these
may be mentioned legs and loins of pork, legs
and shoulders of mutton, fillets of real, &c. A
baked pig, if it has been occasionally basted,
and the heat has not been too great, eats equal
to a roast one. Geese and ducks treated in
the same way are also excellent. A baked hare
which has been basted with raw milk and
butter, also eats well; and so do various pieces
of beef, especially the buttock. Cooks tell us
that this last should be sprinkled with all.
salt for a day or two before dressing it, all
after being washed, is preferably baked, ill;
with about a pint of water, in a glazedeltà
pan tied over with writing paper ‘thºſ.
four times thick.’ A baked ham is said tº
preferable to a boiled one; to be fºllº
fuller of gravy, and finer flavoured. It shil
be soaked in water for about an hour, will
dry, and covered with a coarse thin Mºſt
batter. Ordinary dishes require similar tº:
ment in baking to that given them Wid
roasted. -
For domestic use, where the kitchellº
does not include a really good oven, the M.
able articles known as a ‘DUTCH-OVEN'ſ
an “American-oven,” form an excellent Sl
stitute, admirably adapted for small is
poultry, &c., all of which, when these util
are skilfully employed, possess a delica) iſ
flavour fully equal to the same when Till
whilst not more than one half the fire is ſº
quired for the purpose. According tº Ms
Acton, they also “answer excellently for iſ
cate sweet puddings, and for cakes.” &
BREAD, CAKES, ROASTING, &c.
Baking Pow'der. See PoWDERS.
BAL'ANCE. [Eng., Fr.] Syn, BMW
BI'LANX, L.; BILANZ, WAGEN, &C, Gº
BALANZA, Sp. Any weighing machine Wii
acts by equipoise; a pair of scales. Sº
SCALES, WEIGHING, &c.
Hydrostatic Balance. SeeSPECIFICGRAVIII
Tor'sion Balance. A delicate instrum:
invented by Coulomb, for measuring theiſt:
sities of the electrical and magnetic for 8.
BALD'NESS (bawld'.). Syn. CAI'VII:
CALVI''TIES (-vish'-e-Éz), L.; CALVITIE,(Hº
VETÉ, Fr.; KAHLHEIT, KAHLKOPF, KAHI’ſº
FIGHEIT, Ger. Primarily, absence or lºsſ
any natural covering; appr., destituti. It
loss of hair, more especially of that of the
and fore-part of the head. In botany, alsº
of beard or awn.
Grey hair and baldness dependent On
age are natural consequences of man's in
ity, and must be regarded as evidence Offi.
ing vigour, rather than in the light ºf
disease. Premature loss of hair may heir
duced by various causes. It is commonitº
severe fevers, and is frequently caused
external pressure, friction, or violence, all
such other local actions and conditions with
when long continued, interrupt the mom
functions of the skin. Persons with a 0.
sumptive, scorbutic, scrofulous, or syllii.
taint, or of a general bad habit of body, ſº
quently lose their hair early. In these tº
it probably arises from debility or paralysis.
the cutaneous vessels, and the consequentiº
sufficient nutrition of the hair-bulbs, Whº
it occurs in persons under the middle agº, i.
apparently enjoying good health, it my lº
often traced to the pernicious practice ºf ºf
stantly wearing a hard non-ventilatinghai,"
to disordered stomach, habitual smoking

-

BALEEN–BALLOON.
167
hard drinking, irregular habits, or late hours.
Excessive anxiety or grief, and intense study
and thoughtfulness, also tend to promote the
early decay of the hair. The natural baldness
Of the aged, and frequently the premature
baldness of earlier years, arises from the gra-
dualattenuation of the scalp, which ultimately
becomes too thin to afford room for the per-
formance of the functions of the hair-produc-
ing Organs, and too scantily supplied with
blood for their due nutrition and support."
Treatm. The baldness of senility and that
arising from the permanent injury or destruc-
tion of the hair-bulbs admit of no cure, not-
withstanding the daily assurances of adver-
tising impostors to the contrary. In other
Cases, when a disposition to baldness exists,
shown by the hair falling off in large quanti-
ties, or ceasing to grow with its usual vigour
and rapidity, the frequent, but gentle use of
the hair-brush, and of any bland stimulating
oil, pommade, or wash, if adopted in time, will
generally prove sufficient to arrest the progress
of decay, and very frequently, to restore the
hair to its pristine condition. The head may
he advantageously washed in cold water, at
lºst Once a day; or what is better, a shower
bath may be taken on rising in the morning.
Should this plan not succeed, the head, or the
upper part of it, may be shaved, and a wig, or
ascalp, adopted for a time. The effect of keep-
ing the hair closely cropped or shaved is to
make it grow thicker, stiffer, and stronger,
and this often when all other means fail.
Among more active and less common reme-
dies for baldness may be mentioned—mild
streaming electricity, stimulant formentations,
(antharadised, ioduretted, phosphuretted, &c.,
Wils and lotions, a might-cap that, without
pressing injuriously on the head, lifts, as it
were, the scalp into its natural position, &c.
&C., all of which are noticed elsewhere.
The celebrated John Wesley recommends
rubbing the part morning and evening with a
raw Onion until it becomes red, and then ap-
plying a little honey. The vendors of Row-
land’s ‘Macassar oil” recommend the head to
be rubbed with a towel (or hair-brush), until
somewhat red, each time before applying their
nostrum; and the advice is certainly good, as
independent of the stimulus thus given to the
skin, and the increased flow of blood through
the minute vessels of the scalp, it is rendered
more absorbent and sensitive to the action of
medicaments. At the same time the reader
must becautioned against placing any reliance
! In such cases it will be found that, owing to this
altenuation, the scalp covers a larger portion of the skull
than previously; and that its sides have somewhat receded
from the top of the head, so that the roots of the remaining
hair descend lower towards the forehead, temples, and
back of the neck, than when the parts were in vigorous
health. This may be perceived by applying the open hand
to the part, and then gently closing the fingers, when the
stalp may be drawn into its original position, and will
them appear loose and wrinkled over the occiput, &c.; and
this in a manner very different to what occurs when the
tºp of the head is covered, or well-covered, with hair.
on external applications, unless he assists their
action by due attention to diet, exercise, venti-
lation, and such other matters as tend to pro-
mote the general health and vigour of the body.
The substances usually employed to medi-
cate hair-cosmetics, the general management
of the hair, and the formulae for various appli-
cations to promote its growth, preservation,
and beauty, are noticed in the articles HAIR,
HAIR-COSMETICS, POMMADES, OILS, WASHES,
&c., to which the reader is referred.
BALEEN’ (-lène'). [Fr. baleine.] The fisher's
name for whalebone.
BALL (bawl). [Eng., Ger., Swed.] Syn.
BALLE, Boule, Fr. ; BAL, BOL, Dan. ; GLOB'U-
LUs, PI(LA, L. In commerce, veterinary medi-
cine, perfumery, &c., applied to various sub-
stances made up into a globular, spheroidal,
or even a cylindrical form; as ash-balls, horse-
balls, soap-balls, &c.
BALL00N’ (-lóón'). Syn. BALLON, Fr., Ger.
Any hollow spherical body of which the sides
are extremely thin or attenuated in comparison
with its diameter or bulk. In aerostatics, a
machine or apparatus for elevating and sus-
taining bodies in the air. In chemistry, a
globular glass-receiver, with either one or two
necks (= GROS RáCIPIENT, Fr. ; GROSSE R.,
Ger). In pyrotechny, a hollow case or ball
of pasteboard filled with fire-works or com-
bustibles, which explodes in the air on being
fired from a mortar.
Balloon. In aerostation, a bag or hollow
pear-shaped vessel, made of varnished silk
or other light material, and inflated with
some gas or vapour lighter than the air, as
hydrogen, carburetted hydrogen, heated air,
&c., so as to rise and float in the atmosphere.
When filled with gas it is called by way of
distinction an AIR-BALLOON (ačrostat, &c., Fr.;
luftball, luff-schiff, &c., Ger.); when with
heated air, a FIRE-BALLOON or MONTGOLFIER
B. (ballon & feu, &c., Fr.).
In the early days of ačrostation, and indeed
for some years afterwards, balloons were in-
flated with hydrogen gas, obtained by the action
of sulphuric acid and water on iron filings or
small fragments of iron; but this method of
filling them ultimately gave place to the
cheaper and more convenient supply afforded
by the gas-light companies. Of late years,
the coal-gas furnished by the gas-works has
been generally, if not solely, used for the infla-
tion of balloons.
The principles of ballooning may be referred
to the well-known difference in the specific
gravity of bodies, and to the physical proper-
ties of the atmosphere. Pure hydrogen,
weighed at the level of the sea, is about 16
times lighter than common air; but when pre-
pared on the large scale, and containing water,
and other impurities, it is only from 7 to 11.
times lighter than the atmosphere. A globe of
atmospheric air of 1 foot in diameter, under
like circumstances, weighs ºr lb., a similar
globe of hydrogen (reckoning it only as 6 times



168
BALLOONING—BALLS.
-
lighter than common air), will, therefore, have
an ascensional force of ºr lb. Now the weight
of the body of air which a balloon displaces
must exceed the gross weight of the balloon
and all its appendages, in order for the latter
to ascend in the atmosphere. The difference
of the two weights expresses the ascensional
force. The aërostatic power of balloons is
proportional to their dimensions, in the ratio
of the cubes of their diameters. Thus, it ap-
pears that a balloon of 60 feet diameter filled
with common hydrogen will ascend with a
weight of nearly 7000 lbs., besides the gas case;
whilst one of only 1% foot in diameter, will
barely float, owing to the less proportionate
volume of gas to the weight of the case con-
taining it. In round numbers the buoyancy
of a balloon may be reckoned as equal to 1 oz.
for every cubic foot of hydrogen it contains,
less the weight of the case and appendages.
The carburetted hydrogen supplied by the gas-
works is much heavier than hydrogen gas,
and consequently much less buoyant, for which
due allowance must be made. That which
possesses the least illuminating power is the
lightest, and consequently the best adapted for
aérostation.
The fabric of which the cases of air-bal-
loons are made is strong thin silk, covered with
an elastic varnish of drying oil or india-rubber,
or, what is better, a solution of india-rubber
in either chloroform or bisulphide of carbon ;
the netting is of strong light silk or flaxen
cord; and the car, of basket-work. Fire-
balloons, on the small scale, are generally
made of silver-paper, and are inflated with the
fumes of burning spirit of wine, by means of
a sponge dipped in that liquid, and suspended
just within the mouth of the apparatus.
Owing to the increasing rarity of the atmo-
sphere as we ascend from the earth’s surface,
balloon cases are made very much larger than
is required to contain the necessary quantity
of gas, to allow for its expansion as it rises
into a rarer medium. A cubical foot of gas
measured at the level of the sea, occupies a
space of two feet at an elevation of 3% miles.
The following Table will prove useful to the
amateur ačronaut or balloonist :—
TABLE showing the relations between the dia-
meters, surfaces, and capacities of spheres.
Diameters. Surfaces. Cubical contents.
1. 3.141 ‘523
2 12:567 . 4.188
3 28:274 14:137
4. 50:265 33-51
5 78:54, 65:45
10 314-159 523-6
15 706.9 1767.1
20 1256-6 4,189."
25 1963.5 8181.
30 2827. 14137.
40 5026. 33510.
See ATMOSPHERE, GAS, HYDROGEN, Pºl.
CHUTE, WARNISH, &c.
BALL00N'INGſ. Syn. BALLOON'RY#. Tº
act, art, or practice of ascending Or travellig
in balloons; ačrostation. A BALLOON'SI;i
an ačronaut (particularly an amateur Or tº
thusiastic one).
BALLS. The application of this termi
commerce, perfumery, veterinary medicinº,
has been already noticed. (See BAII) ||
following may be inserted here:—
Balls, Al'mond (ah'-münd). Sym, BOIF
D’AMANDE, Fr. Prep. 1. Spermaceti, 4%;
white wax (pure), 8 oz. ; oil of almond, I
pint ; melt them together in a glazed eatiº
ware-vessel, by the heat of a water bath, ill
when the mixture has cooled a little, ill
essential oil of almonds, and expressel iſ
mace, of each, 2 drs. ; stir assiduously until
begins to cool, and then pour it intº tº
moulds, which may be ounce-gallipºts will
smooth bottoms (very slightly warmel), WA
it will form beautiful hemispherical tº
Very fine. -
2. Hard clarified suet, 14 lb.; while tº
4 lb. ; ess. oil of almonds, 1% dr. ; oil ºf tº
(or of pimento), dr. ; as before,
Uses, &c. To soften the skin, all
winter, to prevent chaps and chilblains, SI:
times these balls are coloured, which isl:
whilst the mixture is in the liquid state. A
rich PINK or RED may be given by ali.
alkanet-root or dragon’s blood; a YELION,"
palm oil or annotta ; a BLUE, by a littlejº
powdered indigo ; and a GREEN, with ji'ſ
(steeped in the oil before use), or a few gi
of verdigris. The most appropriate titſ.
them is a pale yellow or amber.
Balls, Barèges (-rázhe'). Syn. BOUIS I.
BARäGES, Fr. Prep. 1. Extract of 800)."
3 oz. ; good glue or gelatin 1% oz.; Tſº
oz.; dissolve with heat, and add of sulphilºſ
calcium, 6 oz.: common salt, 1 oz (bºſhi
powder); mix thoroughly, and form theſis
into balls weighing 23 oz. each, adding alſº
powdered gum, if required, to thicken it iſ
using powdered starch to roll them in,
2. Gelatin, 8 oz.; sulphide of calcium, ſº
common salt, 2 oz., water, q. S.; after slui.
and admixture, add carbonate of 80ſ. i
Castile soap, of each (in powder), 2} 0:, ſº
ball is added to the water of a bath fit iſ
adult, to be used as a substitute for flºº
Barèges.
Balls, Bitter. Prep. 1. Powdered ſºil
2 lbs. ; extract of gentian, 1 lb.; grains ſº
radise (ground), 3 lb., syrup, q, S.; mix will
heat, and divide into half-pound rolls. Aſ
AT,E.
2. To the above add of Spanish-juice,1}l;
previously softened with a little boilinſ wild.
For PoETER and STOUT. Both are used by
fraudulent brewers; and by publicans in ſº
ducing their beer.
Balls, Blacking. Prep. 1. (Bailey's) Gº
tragacanth, 1 oz., water, 4 oz.; dissolº



BALLS.
169
of sugar candy, 4 oz., and afterwards, ivory-
black and Prussian blue (in very fine
powder), of each, 2 oz. ; meat’s foot oil, 2.fl.
0:, ; thoroughly incorporate, and evaporate by
A gentle heat, constantly stirring, until of a
proper consistence, then pour it into oiled
moulds.
2. Gum-arabic, moist sugar, and ivory-black,
of each, 3 lb.; lamp-black, 4 lb. ; glue (melted
with a little water), 2 oz. ; water, 1 quart, or
|s,; meat's foot oil, # pint ; as before.—Used
by the shoemakers, harness-makers, &c., to
blacken and polish leather. See HEEL BALLS.
Balls, Breech'es. See SCOURING BALLS.
Balls, Bronze. See CoPYING BALLS.
Balls, Cam'phor. Syn. CAM'PHOR-CAKES,
CHAP'-BALLST, CHIL’BLAIN B.J., &c.; GLOB'ULI
CAMPHORATI, PLACENTAE CAMPHORA'TE, &c.,
I. Prep. 1. Spermaceti and white war, of
each, 2 oz., almond or olive oil, 4 pint ; melt
together by a gentle heat, add of camphor
(in small pieces), 1 oz., when dissolved, stir
until partly cold, and then pour it into
moulds, as directed under ALMOND-CAKES
(above).
2. Clarified suet, 1 lb., spermaceti and
while war, of each, 3 oz. ; camphor, 2 oz., as
before,
3. Spermaceti cerate (Ph. L.), 1 lb. ; sper-
maceti, 2 oz. ; camphor, 1% oz., as before.
4. To either of the above add of balsam of
Peru, + to # oz., and, after solution, either
strain the mixture through muslin, or allow it
to settle, and decant the clear portion from
the dregs. -
Use, &c. A popular preventive of chapping
and chilblains. A little is well rubbed into
the skin, previously washed clean and wiped
dry. Some persons add colour and scent; but
they are generally sold without either. The
Only suitable colours are amber, pink, or yellow.
The best perfumes are allspice, ambergris,
cussia, cloves, mush, nutmeg, rondoletia, vanilla,
and violets. See ALMOND CAKES (antè).
Balls, Clothes. See SCOURING BALLS.
Balls, Contrayer'va. Syn. LA/PIS CONTRA-
YER'VE, GLOB'ULI C., L. Compound contra-
ſerva-powder made into balls with gum-water.
An obsolete preparation, once in great repute
as a stimulant, tonic, diaphoretic, and ab-
SOrbent.
Balls, Copying. These have a similar com-
position to ‘heel-balls” (see below). For BLACK,
the best colouring matter is lamp-black or
plumbago with about half its weight of indigo ;
for a BRONZE-COLOUR, bronze-powder is substi-
tuted; and for a mellow BROWN, burnt terra
di Sienna. These should be all in very fine
powder. The semi-fluid mass is poured into
small flat cylindrical moulds—paper pill-boxes
answer the purpose well.—Used by artists and
amateurs to copy inscriptions, monumental
brasses, and other slightly raised or sunken
patterns; the ball being rubbed over the
paper previously laid flat on the design, and
held securely in its place. They are sometimes
rendered more permanent by damping the
wrong side with a sponge dipped in water,
strong spirit, or oil of turpentine; or by
passing the wrong side over a hot iron held
with the face upwards.
Balls, Cosmetic. See SAVONETTEs, &c. (also
above).
Balls, Cream. See SAVONETTEs, So AP BALLs,
&c.
Balls, Dog. See DoG's.
Balls, Gas'coign's. Syn. GLOB'ULI GAS-
COIG/NII, L. Gascoign’s powder made up
into small balls with thin mucilage. See
POWDERS.
Balls, Heel. Prep. 1. (Ullathorne's.) Bees’
waa, 1 lb. ; suet, 4 oz., melt together, and stir
in of ivory-black (very finely powdered), 4 oz. ;
lamp-black (sifted, 3 oz. ; gum arabic and
sugar-candy, of each (in very fine powder), 2
oz. ; and, when thoroughly mixed and partly
cold, pour the composition into tin or leaden
moulds.
2. To the last add of resin, 3 oz. ; oil of tur-
pontine, 2 oz.
3. Hard suet and bees’ waſp, of each, 4 oz. ;
powdered gum, sugar candy, and Penice fur-
pentine, of each, 1 oz. ; ivory-black and lamp-
black, of each, 2 oz. ; as before.
4. Suet and bees' war. of each, 4 oz. ; lamp-
black and brown sugar, of each, 8 oz. ; common
size, 5 oz. ; melt together and stir until incor-
porated.
Uses, &c. Employed to black leather, and
more especially by shoemakers for the edges
of the soles; the ball being first rubbed on,
and the part afterwards smoothed over with a
burnisher or polished iron tool gently heated.
Also used by artists to copy inscriptions, basso
relievos, &c. To produce a good article, the
gum, colouring matter. and sugar, must be in
the state of eactremely fine powder, and the
mixture very carefully made; no lumps being
left. Some persons dissolve the gum in a little
water, and then stir the mixture over the fire
until it acquires the proper consistence for
moulding (as in No. 4, above); but the first is
accounted the best method.
Balls, Horse. See WETERINARY MEDICINE,
&c.
Balls, Martial. Syn, GLOB'ULI MARTIA/LES,
L. Prep. 1. Those of the P. Cod. consist of
fartarised iron mixed with aromatics, and made
up into small globular masses.
2. (BotſIES DE NANCY.) Equal parts of
iron filings and red tartar, in fine powder, made
into balls with proof spirit or brandy. Both
are used as chalybeate tonics, either in the
form of pills or dissolved in hot water. Seldom
employed in England.
Balls, Physic. (Vet. Med.) See MASSEs.
Balls, Poultry. See PoulTRY.
Balls, Scent. See PASTILs (Toilet), PER-
FUMERY, POMAMBRA, SCENTS, &c.
Balls, Scouring. Syn. BREECH'ES BALLS,
CLOTHES B., CARPET B., &c. Prep. 1. Curd soap
(sliced), 1 lb.; water, 2 oz. ; melt in a water


170
BALM—BALSAM.
bath, or a glue-pot, and when cooled a little,
add oa-gall and oil of turpentine, of each,
2% oz. ; mix well and roll or mould the mass
into balls or cakes.
2. Fuller's earth, 2 lbs. ; curd-soap, 1 lb. ;
beat to a stiff paste with oa-gall, q. s.
3. Soft soap and fuller’s earth, equal parts,
beat up with a little oil of turpentine, and
either with or without a little essence of
lemons.—Obs. The above are used to remove
paint, grease, and dirt from cloth, carpets, &c.
The spot, first moistened with hot water, is
rubbed with the cake, and allowed to soak a
few minutes, or to become nearly dry, when
it is well rubbed with a little warm water and
a brush or piece of woollen cloth, and after-
wards rinsed in clean water, and finally rubbed
dry and smoothed off with a piece of dry
cloth or a dry brush. The last formula pro-
duces the composition so commonly vended
about the streets of London in penny cakes.
4. Whiting and pipe-clay, equal parts;
water, q. s. Used for soldiers’ belts, trousers,
&c.
5. Pipe-clay, 2 lbs. ; fuller’s earth, 1 lb.;
whiting, lb. ; water, q. s.
6. Bath brick, 1 lb.; pipe-clay, 2 lbs. ; soft
soap, # lb., ow-gall, ; pint.
7. To the last add of pumice-stone, in very
fine powder, 6 oz.-Obs. The last four are used
for cloth and leather, especially for drab and
light-coloured coats, trousers, leather breeches,
belts, and gloves. Rose pink, yellow ochre,
umber, Irish slate, or other like colouring
matter, may be added to produce any desired
tint. White pepper, cloves, &c., are also occa-
sionally added to drive away moths and in-
sects; and orris root, or essence of bergamot
or of lemon grass, as perfume.
Balls, Sweet. See SCENT BALLS (antè).
Balls, Tam. The muddy sediment of tan-
pits made into balls or lumps.-Used by the
poor for summer fuel.
Balls, Wash. See SAVONETTES, SOAP, &c.
BALM (bahm). Syn. BAL's AMUM, L.;
BAUME, Fr. ; BALSAM, Ger. Primarily, bal-
sam (of which it is a contraction); formerly
and still popularly applied to anything assumed
to be soothing, healing, or genial in its action,
particularly if also aromatic or fragrant ; but
chiefly to medicines and liqueurs, supposed to
possess these properties. See BALSAMS, LI-
QUEURS, QUACK MEDICINES, &c.
Balm. Syn. CoM'Mon BALM, GAR'DEN B.;
MELIS'sA, L.; BAUME, MáLISSE, Fr. The
melis'sa officina'lis (Linn.), an aromatic peren-
nial herb, a native of the south of Europe,
but commonly cultivated in our gardens. It is
reputed to be diaphoretic, diuretic, emmena-
gogue, exhilarating, nervine, and stomachic ;
and under the form of infusion (BALM-TEA) has
long been a popular remedy in hypochon-
driacal, hysterical, and nervous affections, and
in amenorrhoea and chlorosis. It is still some-
times ordered as a drink in fevers and in
hypochondriasis.
BAL’SAM (bawl’-sām; -simiş–Knowl,
Walker). [Eng., Ger.] Syn. BAI's My
(bál’-), L.; BAUME, Fr. Originally, alſ
strong-scented oleo-resinous vegetable juicº
exudation, of about the fluidity of treacle, all
supposed to possess medicinal virtues, Il
modern chemistry and pharmacy, any Végétall.
production which is either semi-liquid, "
which naturally becomes concrete, and whil
contains either benzoic acid, or cinnamical
combined with resin and aromatic essentiall
Several of the substances popularly termel
balsams contain no benzoic acid, and arº ().
sequently now classed with the turpelliº,
This distinction, however, is far from hiſ
universally adopted, and a late high authoriy
defines balsams to be “Exudations from plans
which are liquid or soft solid, and consist ºf
substance resembling a resin, either Comhill
with benzoic acid, or with an essential Oilſt
both.” (Brande.)
The leading properties of the true miſſil
balsams are—Insolubility in water, almſ;
entire solubility in alcohol, and partial Sl.
bility in ether and in the volatile and iſºl
oils; the possession of a powerful, and gºlf.
ally, an agreeable odour, a hot, resinois I
terebinthinate taste, and the usual stimull
and tonic properties of the milder turpentilă
Distilled with water, ethereal oil and Smt
acid pass over, and the residuum consists cliff
or entirely of acid-resin.
The TRUE BALSAMS, as those of benzi,
Peru, styraw, and tolu, and the celebriºl
Chinese varnish-balsam, contain either belliſt
or cinnamic acid. Among those falselytemd
balsams, are copaiba, opobalsam, Japan hº
varnish, and some of the turpentines,
The following list includes most of the sl.
stances, natural and artificial, which pass,"
have passed, under the name of balsams:-
Balsam, Acous’tic. See DROPS.
Balsam, Americant. Balsam of Peru.
Balsam, An’odyne. Syn. Sooth'ING III:
SAM ; BAL/SAMUM ANO'DYNUM (-din) ||
TRANQUII/LANs, L.; BAUME ANODIN, B.TRAN.
QUILLE, B. TRANQUILLISANT, &c., Fr. Prºp.l.
(Bate's.) See PATENT MEDICINEs.
2. (Guy’s.) A vulnerary balsam invenid
by Guy, of Caliac, once in great repute, it
now obsolete. It consisted of aloes, amitſ,
ammoniacum, balsam of Peru, bdellium, tº
ranna, castor, galbanum, labdanum, myrrh
olibanum, storaa, tacamahaca, and Venicellſ.
pentine, digested in alcohol.
3. (B. TRANQUILLANs, P. Cod.) Freshlalta
of belladonna, henbane, black nightshade, i.
bacco, poppies, and stramonium, of till
(bruised), 4 oz. ; olive oil, 6 pints; heat them
together until all the moisture is evaporati
leave them to digest for 2 hours, and the
strain with pressure; next pour the ‘hot il'
on dried “tops’ of wormwood, hyssop, lated,
1. For articles and preparations often called ‘lºlº'

and not found under this head, see ELIXIRS,0IIs, PATEM
MEDICINEs, PERFUMERY, TINCTUREs, &c, &c.

BALSAM.
171
majoram, costmary, round-leaved mint, rue,
suſe, and St. John’s wort, and the dried
ſlowers' of elder and rosemary, of each, 1 oz. ;
macerate for a month, press, strain, and pre-
serve the oil in a cool dark place.”
4. (BAUME TRANQUILLE DE CHOMEL.) Hen-
lane, hound's tongue, and tobacco, of each,
1 lb.; white wine, 3 pints; boil down to a
quart; press, strain, and add to the hot
'strained liquor’ of olive oil, 1 quart, and
again boil.
Balsam, Ap'oplexy. Syn. BAL’SAMUM APO-
PLECTICUM, B. AD APOPLECTICOS (Ph. E.
1744), L. Prep. 1. Amber, civet, musk, Pe-
ruvian balsam, and some volatile oils, made
into a balsam.
2. (Ph. E. 1744.) Ecpressed oil of nutmeg,
107.; liquefy by a gentle heat, and stir in of
the oils of cloves, lavender, and rosemary, of
each, ; dr.; oil of amber, 10 drops; balsam of
Peru, 1 dr. Both were formerly used to
Anoint the head and nostrils of apoplectic
patients, and were believed to be of great
efficacy.
Balsam, Asiaticf. Balm of Gilead.
Balsam, Bate's. See BALSAM, ANODYNE.
Balsam, Brazil’ian. Balsam of copaiba.
Balsam, Calaba'. Syn. TACAMAHA’CA. A
fragrant resinous substance produced by calo-
phyllum cal'aba, or Santa Maria tree.
Balsam, Cam'phor. Syn. CAM'PHORATED
BAISAM; BAL’SAMUM CAMPHORATUM, &c., L.
Prep. 1. As camphor-liniment, Ph. L.
2. (B. ACE'TICUM C., Sanchez's GouT-B.:—
Pelletier.) Curd-soap and camphor, of each,
5 drs.; oil of thyme, 2 scru,; acetic ether, 5 oz.;
digest together in a stoppered bottle until the
50lids are dissolved. Recommended as an
efficacious anodyne limiment in certain forms
ºf rheumatism and gout.
Balsam, Can'ada. See TURPENTINEs.
Balsam, Cama'ry. A volatile oleaginous
substance obtained by distillation from draco-
tºph'alum Moldav'icum.
Balsam, Carpathian. Riga Balsam.
Balsam, Cephalic (Saxon). Syn. BAL/SA-
MUM CEPHAL’ICUM SAxon’ICUM, L. A liquid
preparation obtained from the essential oils of
amber, lavender, marjoram, nutmeg, penny-
royal, rue, sage, &c., distilled together. Once
in high repute; but long disused in England.
Balsam, Chil’blain. See LINIMENTS.
Balsam, China Warnish. The aromatic
Warnish-like exudation of au'gia sinen'sis, used
by the Chinese as a varnish or lacquer, for
which purpose it is, perhaps, unequalled. It
is highly fragrant, and abounds in benzoic
acid,
Balsam, Command'er'sł. Compound tincture
of benzoin,
Balsam, Copalm'. Liquid-ambar.
Balsam, Egyptiant. Balm of Mecca.
Balsam, Female. Syn. BAL's AMUM EMBRYO'-
NUM, A'QUA E., L. An obsolete preparation
1 A specimen of the absurd complexity of French for-
mulæ,
made by digesting misletoe, civet, musk, and
several other aromatics, in a miarture of wine
and various medicated waters, and submitting
the whole to distillation. Formerly taken
both internally and externally, as a tonic for
both foetus and mother; and particularly to
prevent abortion, &c.
Balsam, Friar's.
benzoin.
Balsam, Genoa. Locatelle’s balsam.
Balsam, Glycerin (glis'-). Syn. BAL's AMUM
GLYCERI'NAE, L. Prep. To white was and
spermaceti, of each, 1 oz. ; almond oil, 4 lb. ;
melted together, add of glycerin, 2 oz.; bal-
sam of Peru, 3 oz. ; and stir or agitate until
nearly cold. 12 or 15 drops of otto of roses
may be substituted for the balsam.—Used to
soften and whiten the skin, and to prevent
chaps and chilblains.
Balsam, God’bold's Vegetable.
MEDICINES.
Balsam, Goulard's". Syn. BAI's AMUM GOU-
LAR'DII, B. SATUR/NI, L.; BAUME DE GouTARD,
Fr. Prep. (Van Mons.) Acetate of lead (in
fine powder, and quite dry) is triturated, for
some time, with hot oil of turpentine, in a
heated mortar, or until no more will dissolve;
after repose, and whilst still hot, the clear
portion is decanted. Recommended as a use-
ful application to foul and painful ulcers, and
to scalds and burns.
Balsam, Green. Syn. BAL/SAMUM VIR/IDE,
&c., L.; BAUME VERT, Fr. Prep. 1. Linseed-
oil, 6 lbs. ; gum-elemi, 1 lb. ; heat them to-
gether; add of powdered verdigris, 3 oz., or
q. s. to impart a rich green colour, and, after
repose, decant the clear portion.
2. Linseed oil strongly coloured with verdi-
gris. Both were formerly much used by sur-
geons as detergents. “Green-oil” or ‘oil of
elder-leaves’ is now commonly sold for it.
A natural balsam, brought from Peru, and
produced by chloroa'ylon verticilla'tum, is
also popularly called GREEN BALSAM (of
Peru). -
Balsam, Gurgun' (-góón'). Syn. GURGI’NA
BALSAM, WooD-OIL (of India). From diptero-
car'pus triner'vis, and other species, by apply-
ing a slow fire to a notch or wound made in
the trunk. Has a mixed smell of copaiba and
naphtha. Properties and dose similar to those
of balsam of copaiba. Sp. gr. 1962 to '964.
See COPAIBA and WOOD-OIL.
Balsam, Hill’s, of Honey.
MEDICINES.
Balsam, Hunga"rian. Syn. BAL/SAMUM
HUNGAR/ICUM, L. A terebinthinate exuda-
tion from the extremities of the branches of
pi'nus pumi/io (Willd.) or mountain-pine. It
is also obtained by pressure from the ‘cones'
of the same tree.
Balsam, Io'duretted. See LINIMENTs.
Balsam, Japan’ Warnish. Syn. JAPAN
LACQUER. Exudes from incisions made in the
trunk of melanorrhoea usitatis'sima, accord-
ing to Wallich; or stagma"ria vernicifºlua,
Compound tincture of
See PATENT

See PATENT

172
BALSAM.
according to Lindley. It constitutes the cele-
brated lac-varnish of the Japanese. It differs
from that of China, and from the true bal-
sams, in not containing benzoic acid. It is
extremely acrid and irritant; and even its
fumes affect the eyes and respiration.
Balsamt, Jews’. Balm of Gilead.
Balsam, Locatelle’s'. Syn. LOCATEL'LI’s
BALSAM ; BAL/SAMUM LOCATEL'LI, B. LUCA-
TEL'LI, B. ITAL'ICUM, B. GENOFE'VAE, &c., L.
var. Prep. 1. (Original Formula.) Olive oil,
6 oz. ; yellow war, 4 oz. ; sherry wine, 5 fl. Oz. ;
red sanders (in very fine powder), 4 dr.; sim-
mer them together until the moisture is nearly
evaporated, then add of Strasburgh turpentine,
6 oz. ; balsam of Peru, 2 drs. ; strain through
linen, and stir until nearly cold.
2. (Ph. E. 1744.) Olive oil, 24 fl.oz. ; yellow
war, 1 lb.; melt, and add of Venice turpentine,
1% lb.; and, when cooled a little, further add,
powdered dragon's blood, 1 oz.; balsam of Peru,
2 oz. ; and stir until cold.
3. (Ph. L. 1746.) Olive oil, 16 fl. oz. ;
Venice turpentine and yellow war, of each, ;
lb.; red sanders, 6 drs.
Uses, &c. A once highly esteemed pectoral,
and still occasionally used, by the lower
classes, in phthisis and chronic coughs (mixed
with an equal weight of conserve of roses),
and as a mild stimulating ointment.—IDose.
# dr., or more.
Balsam, Mercu"rial+. Ointment of nitrate
of mercury.
Balsam, Metz's. Syn. BAL’SAMUM VIR'IDE
METEN's IUM, L. ; BAUME VERT DE METz, Fr.
Prep. (Guibourt.) Linseed oil and olive oil,
of each, 6 oz. ; oil of laurel-berries, 1 oz. ;
common turpentine, 2 oz. ; melt by a gentle
heat, and add of verdigris, 3 drs. ; aloes, 2
drs. ; sulphate of zinc, 1}. dr. ; (all in pow-
der;) mix well, strain or pour the liquid into
a bottle, and add oil of juniper, 4 drs. ; oil of
cloves, 1 dr.—Used on the Continent as a
common detergent dressing to wounds and
ulcers.
Balsam, Mexican+. Balsam of Peru.
Balsam, Naturalf. That which exudes
from plants, as opposed to those formed by
art.
Balsam, Nerv'ine. See OINTMENTS.
Balsam, Odontal'gic. See DROPS.
Balsam, Opodel'doc. See OPODELDOC
(French). -
Balsam, Pectoral. Syn. BAL's AMUM PEC-
TORA'LE, L.; BAUME PECTORAL, Fr. Prep.
1. Tincture of tolu and compound tincture of
benzoin, of each, 2 oz.; rectified spirit, 4 oz. ;
mix-Dose. # to 1 teaspoonful, night and
morning; in chronic coughs, hoarseness, &c.
2, 3. See BALSAM OF HONEY, B. OF HORE-
HOUND, &c.
Balsam, Per'sian:#. Friar's Balsam.
Balsam, Peru”vian. See BALSAM of PERU
(below).
Balsam, Polychrest. See DROPS & ELIXIRs.
Balsam, Riga (ré'-). Syn. CARPA'THIAN
BALSAM; BAL’SAMUM CARPATH'ICUM, .
LIB'ANI, &c., L.; BAUME DE CARPATHES, F,
A pellucid white fluid obtained by Cardi
distillation from the young shoots of pſiſ
cem/bra (Linn.) or Siberian stone-pine. It
much resembles oil of juniper; and, like tº
article, is powerfully diuretic. It is regul:
as vulnerary, and is highly esteemed by Nº
in sprains and bruises. The bottoms of oilſ
juniper are commonly sold for it in the slº
The spirit distilled from pine-tops (spiriº
turionum pini) is also frequently, althoughi
correctly, called RIGA BALSAM.
Balsam, Sanchez's Gout. See CAMPHORM)
BALSAM (above). -
Balsam, Sooth'ing. See ANODYNE BAISM
Balsam, Stomach'ic. (-mäk'.). Sym, Bll.
SAMUM STOMACH'ICUM, L.; BAUMF ST.
MACHIQUE, Fr. Prep. (Ph. Slesv-Hols.1%)
Oils of cloves, mace, wormwood, and pºſt
mint, of each, 1 dr. ; balsam of Peru, ) in:
oil of nutmeg, 2 oz. ; mix. 1 to 5 or 6 lº
on sugar, or dissolved in spirit.
Balsam, Syrian. Balsam of Mecca,
Balsam, Thibaut's. See PATENT MIT,
CINES.
Balsam, Tooth'ache.
Balsam, Traumatic.
benzoin.
Balsam, Turkey. Syn. TUR'KEY HIV
The distilled oil of the dracocephalum ſºlº
Q)2Cl1770.
Balsam, Tur’lington's.
CINES. -
Balsam Univer'sal. Syn. BAI's AMUM TH
VERSA'LE, L. Prep. (Ph. Slesv-Hols.18)
Rape oil (recent), 1% lb.; yellow waſ, l;
acetate of lead (in fine powder), 307.; ºr
dered camphor, # oz. ; melted together; ſº
serving to triturate the ‘acetate' with a sml
portion of the ‘oil’ before adding it tº
mixture, and not to add the ‘camphor Ili
the heat is reduced a little.—Obs. This ill;
See DROPs, &C,
Compound tinctſ:
See PATENT ME).
has also been given to ‘compound Cºlºſ
lead,”
lead.”
Balsam, Wer'vain'sf. Compound tinchini
benzoin.
Balsam, Wound. Several vulnerary pº
rations have been so called; but FRIAR's Eli
and even to “cerate of acetăţ iſ
SAM (‘comp. tinct. of benzoin') is that usual
intended.
Balsam of Acouſchi. A yellowish atomi
liquid, of a terebinthinous nature and Olsº
ence, obtained from the wounded branchesſ
shoots of the icica heterophylla (DC), Iti
highly esteemed as vulnerary by the Christ
Guiana. (Lindley.)
Balsam of Alpinus. Balm of Gilead; lº
cause Prosper Alpinus wrote a learnel ()
treatise on it. ".
Balsam of Amber. Syn. BAI's AMUM [.
CINI, L.; BAUME D’AMBRE, Fr. The artil
to which this term is usually applied histºl
already noticed. Oil of amber was alsº ſº.

merly so called; and the same name is

BALSAM.
173
been given to the following and other like
preparations by their inventors:—
1. (Radius.) Oil of amber, 4 fl. oz. ; oil of
myrrh, 2 fl. Oz. ; oil of turpentine, 1 fl. Oz. ;
mix with a gentle heat. -
2. (Bate.) See PATENT MEDICINEs. They
are all stimulant and antispasmodic, and are
used either internally or as a friction, like oil
of amber.
Balsam of Arcaeus. Syn. BAL’SAMUM AR-
CE'I, L.; BAUME D’ARCAEUS, Fr. A digestive
Ointment formerly in great repute, and still
much employed on the Continent. It is now
superseded in England by the comp. elemi
Ointment of the Pharmacopoeias. In the ori-
ginal formula, boiling water, 4 parts, were
Ordered to be stirred in.
Balsam of Cam'ada. See TURPENTINEs.
Balsam of Cloves. Syn. AROMATIC BALSAM
OF CLOVES ; BAL/SAMUM CARYOPHYL'LI, L.
Prºp. (Bories.) Oil of cloves and oil of nutmeg,
of each, ; dr. ; spirit of juniper berries, 3 oz. ;
mix. Rubefacient and diuretic.—Used chiefly
as a stimulating friction. Internally, } to 1
teaspoonful.
Balsam of Copai'ba. See CoPAIBA.
Balsam of Ferm. Oil of male fern.
Balsam of Fiovaren'ti. Syn. BAL's AMUM
FIOVAREN'TI, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) Venice tur-
pentine, 16 oz. ; amber, elemi, galbanum, myrrh,
straw, and tacamahaca, of each, 3 oz. ; aloes,
1 07.; bay-berries, 4 oz. ; cinnamon, cloves,
|alangal, ginger, nutmegs, and zedoary, of each,
l; 07.; dittany of Crete, 1 oz. ; rectified spirit,
8 lbs. ; macerate a week and distil off 7 lbs.
The distilled spirit constitutes this notable
preparation of, professedly, many virtues. It
is reputed aromatic, diuretic, antispasmodic,
and stimulant. One of its applications is as a
(Ollyrium—a drop or two being rubbed on the
palm of the hands, which are then held to
the eyes, so as to cover, without touching
them—in chronic ophthalmia, conjunctivitis
&c.) -
Balsam of Gil’ead. See BALSAM OF MECCA.
Balsam of Guaſiacum (gwā’-yá-). Syn. BAL/-
SAMUM GUAI'ACI, B. GUAIACI’NUM, L. Prep.
(Ph. L. 1745.) Gum-guaiacum, 1 lb. ; balsam
of Peru, 3 drs.; rectified spirit, 1 quart; digest
10 days and filter. Diaphoretic, arthrodynic,
and anodyne.—Dose. 30 to 60 drops, in milk
Or water; in agues, rheumatism, &c. Eacter-
mally, reputed also antisuppurative.
Balsam of Hom'ey. (hin'e). Syn. PEC'To-
RAL BALSAM, P. B. OF HONEY ; BAL's AMUM
MEI/IIS, B. PECTORA'LE, B. P. MELLIS, L.;
BAUME DE MIEL, &c., Fr. Prep. 1. Bal-
Sam of tolu, 1 lb.; honey (finest), 23 lbs. ; rec-
ified spirit, 1 gal. ; turmeric, 1 oz. ; make a
tincture.
2. To the last, before maceration, add of
powdered opium, 2 oz.
3. (Hill's.) See PATENT MEDICINEs.
Uses, &c. A good pectoral in colds, tickling
Chronic coughs, hoarseness, &c., when unac-
1 See Note 1, p. 171.
companied with fever.—Dose. For an adult, to
1 teaspoonful, twice or thrice a day; an occa-
sional dose of some mild aperient being also
taken. Tincture of balsam of tolu, or a mix-
ture of the tinctures of tolu and benzoin, is
frequently sold in the shops under the mame of
‘balsam of honey.’ See PECTORAL BALSAM,
&c.
Balsam of Hore'hound. Syn. BAL's AMUM
MARRU’BII, L. Prep. 1. Eatracts of hore-
hound and liquorice, of each, 2 oz. ; hot water,
# pint ; dissolve, and when cold, add of pare-
goric, ; pint ; orymel of squills, 6 oz. ; tinc-
ture of benzoin, 2 oz. ; honey, 10 oz. ; and,
after thorough admixture, strain through
flannel.
2. (Ford’s.) See PATENT MEDICINEs.
Uses, &c. A popular pectoral.—Dose, &c.,
same as of BALSAM OF HONEY (above).
Balsam of Houmi"ri. [Nat.] From humir'ia
balsamif"era, or the houmiri-tree of Guiana.
It resembles ‘balsam of umiri” produced by
another tree of the same genus. (See below.)
Balsam of Lead. See GOULARD’s BALSAM.
Balsam of Life. Syn. BALM OF LIFE ; BAL/-
SAMUM WITAF, L.; BAUME DE VIE, ELIx'IR
DE VIE, &c., Fr. Several compound medicines
have been called by this name. Those of
Gabius, Hoffman, and Turlington, are noticed
under PATENT MEDICINEs (which see). The
following are distinct preparations:—
1. BAUME DE VIE EXTERNE :—Soap-lini-
ment, 2 parts; oil of turpentine, 1 part; mix.
Stimulant and rubefacient. Used as a fric-
tion.
2, BAUME DE VIE PURGATIF; Elixir de vie:
—a. (Briett.) Socotrine aloes and saffron, of
each, 2 drs.; rhubarb, 6 drs. ; liquorice-root, 1
oz. ; proof spirit or brandy, # pint; digest a
week, and filter.
b. (Original Swedish formula.) Aloes, 9
drs.; agaric, gentian, rhubarb, saffron, theriaca,
and zedoary, of each, 1 dr. ; proof spirit or
brandy, 1 quart. A mild stomachic purge.—
Dose. I to 6 drs. Tincture of rhubarb-and-
aloes (Ph. E.) is commonly substituted for it.
See ELIXIRs.
Balsam of Liquorice.
CINES.
Balsam of Mecca. Syn. BALM of GIL'EAD,
B. of MEC'CA, OPoBAL/SAM (-bawl’-), JEws’
BALSAM+, OIL OF B.f., &c., Eng. ; BAL/SAMUM
(bål’-) GILEADEN'SE, B. & MEC’CA, OPOBAL's A-
MUM (-bál’-), &c., L.; BAUME DE LA MECQUE,
B. DE MECCA*, B. DE JUDáE, OPoBALSAMUM,
&c., Fr. ; BAL's AMUM AEGYPTI’ACUM+, B. AL-
PI/NI+, B. ANTIQUO’RUM GENUI'NUM+, B.
ASIAT/ICUMf, B. SYRIZACUM #, O'LEUM BAL/-
SAMI+, &c., L. A fragrant oleo-resinous sub-
stance, obtained from balsamoden'dron gilea-
den'se (Kunth. ; amºjris gileaden'sis, Linn.; a.
opobal'samum, Forsk), a middle-sized tree of
the mat. ord. Terebinthacaº (DC.), growing
in Arabia Felix, Asia Minor, and Egypt. It is
the BALM of the Old Testament, and the

See PATENT MEDI-


BáAgapov of Theophrastus and Dioscorides.

174
BALSAM.
It is chemically classed with the turpen-
times.
Prop., &c. When fresh it is turbid and
whitish, but becomes by degrees transparent,
of a rich golden colour, and slightly thicker;
and by exposure, eventually solid. It pos-
sesses a penetrating and delicate fragrance ;
tastes sharp, bitter, spicy, and somewhat
astringent; is not entirely soluble in rectified
spirit, but dissolves more or less completely
in both the fixed and volatile oils, which then
assume the fragrance of the balsam. A drop
let fall on hot water, spreads itself over the
whole surface, like a film of oil, and again
contracts on the water cooling. This, with
its fragrance, is the common test of its genuine-
ness in Turkey. The inferior qualities, or those
of commerce, are generally opaque and thick,
rapidly resinifying and turning of a dull
yellow by age. When applied to the skin it
causes redness and swelling. It was formerly
regarded as possessing the most varied and
exalted virtues, particularly as an antiseptic,
stimulant, vulnerary, and nervine; and its
fumes were supposed to prevent barrenness.
It is still highly prized in the East as a cos-
metic and perfume; and is said to be un-
equalled for giving a healthy glow to the
complexion and promoting the growth of the
hair. Its medicinal qualities are intermediate
to those of the aromatic turpentines and
balsam of tolu, Dose. From 3 to 6, or even 10
or 12 drops.
Obs. According to Bruce, and others, the
best balm of Gilead is a spontaneous exudation
from the tree; a second quality is obtained by
cutting the bark with an axe, and receiving
the juice which exudes in a small earthen
bottle. A large branch is said to produce not
more than 3 or 4 drops a day; and even the
most resinous trees seldom yield more than 60
drops daily. Hence its scarcity and costliness.
Both varieties are held in such high estima-
tion by the Turks and Egyptians, that none of
them are exported as an article of commerce.
That which is sent to England is obtained by
boiling the leaves and young twigs of the
balsam free in water, and is rejected by the
Orientals as worthless. Most of that sold in
the shops of England is entirely spurious (see
below).
The cosmetics recently so much advertised
as ‘BALM OF MECCA,’ do not contain even a
trace of this article; nor do we believe that
there is a single drop of the genuine balm to
be purchased in London.
The following formulae are current in the
trade for Fac"titious Balm of Mecca :-
1. Gum-benzoin (bright, coarsely powdered),
4 oz. ; liquid styraw (finest), 3 oz. ; balsam of
tolu, 2 oz. ; Canadian balsam, 1% pint; are
mixed together in a flask, and exposed (closed)
to the heat of a water bath, with frequent
agitation, until the liquid is saturated; when
cold, the clear portion is decanted, and a
sufficient quantity of the oils of lemon, cassia,
rosemary, nutmeg, and vanilla, added to give it
a strong aromatic odour.
2. From gum-benzoin and balsam of Perl,
of each, 1 oz. ; vanilla and nutmeg, of each
(cut small), 1 dr. ; Canadian balsam, ; pint;
digested as before, and some essential oils alled
to the decanted liquid.
Balsam of Nut/meg. Syn, BAI's AMUMMY.
RIs'TICE, B. NUCIS'THE, L. Prep. (Ph. Bºr,
1847.) Earpressed oil of nutmeg (–; mate)
3 oz. ; olive oil, 1 oz. ; yellow war, $ 0%; malt
them together by a gentle heat, pout the
mixture into paper moulds, and, when Cºll.
cut the mass up into cakes.
Balsam of Peru' (-rūö'). Syn. PERU'VIAN
BALSAM; BAL's AMUM PERUVIA'NUM (Ph. I,
E., and D.), L.; BAUME DU PáROU, B. PERI.
VIEN, Fr. ; PERUVIANISCHER BALSAM, Gº!.
A balsam obtained from Myrodylon Pereirº
(Myrospermum of Sonsonate). It exudes from
the trunk of the tree after it has been SCOrched
and removed. From Salvador, in Central
America. B. P.
Prop., &c. A chocolate-coloured oratelli.
brown liquid, of the consistence of treal,
possessing a bitterish, rather pungent taste
and an agreeable aromatic odour somewhat
similar to that of a mixture of Vanilla and
benzoin. It is reputed stimulant, tonic, and
expectorant, and has long been a popular tº:
medy in chronic asthma, catarrh, and Other
pulmonary affections, debility, &c. It is now,
however, principally used as an ingredient in
pommades, hair-oils, lip-salves, and other tº:
metics, in which it is only inferior to ‘balm ºf
Mecca; and in compound perfumery. It is
also used to scent lozenges, pastils, and Chū.
colate and liqueurs; for these last, chiefly as a
substitute for “vanilla’ when it is scarce all
dear.—Dose. 10 or 12 to 30 grs. (even 1 dris
sometimes given), either on sugar, or mile
into a bolus with liquorice powder, or intº
an emulsion with honey, mucilage, or yelk ºf
eCº.
*#. Tests, &c.—1. The sp. gr. should not
be lower than 1:15; nor higher than 1:16:-
2. Ether dissolves it readily and completely:-
3. Soluble in 5 parts of rectified spirit:-
4. It should undergo no diminution in volume
when agitated with water:-5. 100 grs, hy
its benzoic or cinnamic acid, should sall.
rate not less than 7% grs. of pure crystallised
carbonate of soda –6. Sulphuric acid Cºl.
verts it into resin, artificial tannin, or char.
coal, according to the quantity employed; if
on adding water, a brittle resin is not formed,
some fixed oil (probably castor oil) is present:
–7. Treated with mitric acid, some hydrº.
cyanic acid is formed, benzoic acid sublimes,
and the residual matter is artificial tannin –
8. The alkalies and their carbonates form
with it a thickish semi-crystalline mass, which,
on being treated with sulphuric acid, deposits
a peculiar resinous matter, with crystals of
benzoic and cinnamic acid:—9. If a few drops
are distilled, and, when iodine is added to the

BALSAM.
175

distillate, an ea:plosion results, it has been adul-
terated with ‘copaiba ':–10. The genuine
balsam contains about 6% # of benzoic (cin-
namic) acid.
Obs, Balsam of Peru was formerly very
generally adulterated, and often entirely fac-
titious; but, owing to its present reduced
price, this is now only confined to a few of the
most unprincipled venders. The following
formulæ for this purpose are still extant in
the trade:–
Balsam of Peru, Facti"tious:–From gum-
benzoin (in coarse powder), 3 lbs. ; dissolved in
the least possible quantity of rectified spirit,
and then mixed with balsam of tolu, 1 lb. ;
and liquid styraw, 2 oz. ; subsequently adding
of rectified spirit, q. s.
Balsam, Reduced Peruvian:-1. Balsam of
Peru, 3 lbs. ; balsam of tolu, 2 lbs. ; rectified
spirit, q. S. to reduce it to a proper consist-
ence;—2. Balsam of Peru, 3 lbs.; gum-benzoin
(dissolved in a little rectified spirit), 1 lb.; as
before.
Balsam of Rackasiri. Syn. BAISAM OF
RAKASI'RA; BAL’SAMUM RACKASIRI, B. RACAz-
ZI'RE, B. RHADASI'RI. A species of balsamic
turpentine, said to be obtained from the bur-
sera balsamifera (Pers.), an Indian tree of
the natural order Terebinthaceae.
slightly bitter taste, adheres to the teeth when
chewed, and, when heated, smells like balsam
of tolu. It has been extolled as possessing the
virtues of copaiba in an exalted degree. The
mostrum vended under the name of BALM OF
RACKASIRI by certain quacks, simply consists
of English gin, coloured, sweetened, and aro-
matised.
Balsam of Saffron. See ELIXIRs.
Balsam of Soap. Soap-liniment.
Balsam of Soap (Ethe"real). Syn. BAL's A-
MUM SAPO'NIs ETHE’REUM, L. Prep. (Cotte-
reall) Castile soap (powdered) and camphor,
of each, 1 dr. ; oil of thyme, 10 drops; acetic
tlhér, 1 oz. ; dissolve in a close vessel with the
did of a gentle heat, and decant the clear
portion. Used as an embrocation or limitment
in gout, rheumatism, &c.
Balsam of St. John’s Wort. See OILs.
Balsam of Sto"rax. Liquid-ambar or styrax.
Balsam of Sul’phur. See OILs.
Balsam of Syriacum. See BALSAM OF MECCA
and PATENT MEDICINES.
Balsam of Tolu' (-l’00’). Syn. To LU' BAL'-
SAM*; BAL's AMUM TOLUTA'NUM (Ph. L., E.,
& D), B. DE TO'LÜ, L.; BAUME DE ToIU, Fr.;
TOLUTANISCHER BALSAM, B. von ToIU, &c.,
Ger. Balsam flowing from the incised trunk
of “myrosper'mum toluiferum.” (B. P.) The
tree which produces it is a native of the
mountains of Tolu, Turbaco, &c., in South
America. - -
Prop., Uses, &c. When first brought over
it is soft and tenacious, but by age and careless
keeping becomes hard, and even brittle, some-
what similar to resin. It is perfectly soluble
in alcohol and in ether, and gives out its acid
It has a |
(benzoic or cinnamic) to water. Its odour is
fragrant, though less powerful than that of
either styrax or balsam of Peru; and it has a
pleasant sweetish taste. It softens under the
teeth, melts readily, and burns with an agree-
able odour. As a medicine, it is a stimulating
expectorant, and, as such, is employed in
chronic bronchial affections unaccompanied
with inflammatory action. It has long been
a popular pectoral. Syrup of Tolu is an agree-
able and common adjunct to pectoral mixtures,
and, with Tolu lozenges, is often serviceable in
tickling coughs. It is also used by confec-
tioners, perfumers, &c., and in fumigating
pastils.--Dose, 5 to 20, or even 30 grs, dis-
solved in spirit, or made into an emulsion.
Pur. This is shown by its perfect solubility
in rectified spirit, forming a transparent tinc-
ture, and by its odour. When adulterated it
has a weaker smell, is only partially soluble in
alcohol, and the tincture formed with that fluid
is opaque. The presence of colophony (or
lac), according to Ulex, may be detected by
the balsam, instead of dissolving in sulphuric
acid, swelling up, blackening, and disengag-
ing sulphurous fumes," Castor oil may be
detected in the way noticed under BALSAM OF
PERU.
Balsam of Tolu, a Factitious, was formerly
met with in trade, made of equal parts of
orange-lac and white sugar, reduced to a pro-
per consistence with rectified spirit, and
‘brought up’ with some tincture of benzoin,
and a few drops of the oils of cassia and nut-
meſſ dissolved in a little essence of vanilla.
Balsam of Tur'pentime (-tine). Syn. BAL/-
SAMUM TEREBIN'THINE, L. A name formerly
given to Strasburgh, Venice, and other like
turpentines.
Balsam of Turpentime (Emollient). Syn.
B. TEREBINTHINATUM, I. Prep. Olive oil,
6 oz.; oil of turpentine, 2 oz.; yellow war, 1 oz.;
balsam of Peru, oil of nutmeg, and camphor,
of each, 2 drs. A stimulant emollient; in con-
tusions, ulcerations, engorgements, nephritic
pains, &c.
Balsam of Umi"ri. [Nat..] By incision, from
the humir'ia floribun'dum (Mart.), or the umiri-
plant of Para. It is fragrant, limpid, of a
palish-yellow colour, and in its medicinal pro-
perties is said to combine those of the balsams
of copaiba and Peru.
BALSAMIC (bâl-). Syn. BALSAM'ICUS, BAL-
SA'MEUS, BALSAM'INUS, L.; BALSAMIQUE, Fr.;
BALSAMISCH, Ger. Of the nature of balsam,
or containing or resembling it; bland, soothing,
healing; balmy.
BAMB00' (-bođ'). [Nat.] Syn. BAMBU's A,
L.; BAMBON, Fr. ; BAMBUS, BAMBUSROHR,
INDIANISCHER ROHR, Ger. The name of
several species of the genus ‘bambusa, but
appr. of b. arundina'cea or ‘common bamboo.”
See BAMBUSA (below).
Bamboo'-habit (-hāb-). A species of ‘life-
preserver, or ‘float, used in China and the
1 “Archiv der Pharm.,” 1855.



176
BAMBUSA–BARILLA.
Indian Archipelago, consisting of four pieces of
bamboo tied together so as to form a square.
BAMBU’SA. [Endl..] The bamboo. In
botany, a genus of magnificent arborescent
grasses, of the nat. ord. Gramineae (DC.),
having hollow jointed stems, of a hard woody
texture, externally coated with siliceous
matter, and sometimes secreting a similar
siliceous substance (TABASHEER') in their in-
ternal cavities. They are all of rapid growth,
and vary in height from 6 to 150 feet.
There, is, perhaps, scarcely any other plant,
besides the palm, which serves for so many
purposes useful to man, as the various species
of bamboo. Its grain is used for bread; the
young shoots are eaten like asparagus, and
are also pickled; the smaller stalks are made
into walking canes, umbrella and parasol
sticks, flutes, &c.; whilst its fibres are manu-
factured into cloth, and even paper. It is
employed extensively in the construction of
houses, bridges, masts for boats, domestic fur-
niture, boares, mats, baskets, utensils of various
kinds, fences, water pipes and vessels, quick-
silver bottles, &c., and for numerous other
purposes connected with everyday life. The
genus is confined to the East and West Indies
and tropical America. See CANE, PICKLES,
TABASHEER, &c.
BANA/NA (-nā’- or -nah'-). [Nat.] The
mu'sa sapien'tum (Linn.), a species of plantain;
also its fruit. See PLANTAIN.
BAND'AGE (-āje). Syn. DELIGATIO, FAs”-
CIA, LIGA'MEN, LIGATU"RA, VINCTU"RA, L.;
BANDAGE, BANDE, Fr.; BINDE, VERBAND, Ger.
In surgery, the fillet, roller, or cloths, used to
support parts, to exert pressure on them, or to
retain dressings in their proper places.
Bandages are usually formed of long narrow
slips of calico or linen, and, occasionally, of
flannel, which are generally made into a roll
(ROLLER) of moderate size, so as to be the
more conveniently handled and applied. They
are either SIMPLE, as the circular, the spiral,
or the unit'ing bandage; or COMPOUND, as the
T-bandage, suspen'sory b., &c.
The application of bandages, as in the dress-
ing of wounds, ulcers, &c., though of such
frequent occurrence, is often very carelessly
and badly done. The form and nature of the
part, and the object in view, should always
receive consideration; as should also the con-
dition of the patient after their application—
whether of repose, exercise, or labour. Ordi-
nary ingenuity will supply the rest. The
safest, simplest, and most effective means of
fastening them, is, in most cases, furnished by
a common needle and thread or cotton.
Bandage, Mus’tard. A woollen roller soaked
in a mixture of the best flower of mustard and
warm water, of the consistence of fresh cream,
the excess of moisture being expelled by gentle
pressure.—Used to envelope the body, or a
limb, by repeatedly folding it round the part;
in the cold stages of cholera, and in other
cases requiring an energetic stimulant. Other
medicaments, particularly those of a stimuli.
ting and anodyne character, are sometimes
applied in the same manner. See EMBR001:
TIONS, LOTIONS, PouTTICEs, &c.
BANDAN"A. [Ind.] Syn. BANDAN'NA. A
handkerchief, originally from the East Indies,
having white spots on a red, blue, Or other
dark ground. In calico-printing, a ‘discharge
style in imitation of the Indian balands.
The fabric, many folds thick, is placed betwººl
leaden plates having the pattern cut Out ºf
them; hydraulic pressure is then applied, and
a clear solution of chloride of lime forcel
through, followed by a stream of pure water,
BAND'OLINE (-lín; -lènet). See FIX'.
TURE.
BANE. Poison; anything deleterious ºf
destructive; a word often found joined tº
another, in the popular and vulgar names ºf
plants and diseases, to denote their character;
as BANE'-BERRY, the herb Christopher; BANE'.
WoRT, deadly-nightshade; SHEEP's BANE, the
rot; &c.
BANG, Bangue (bång'). [Nat.] See INDIAN
HEMP.
BAN'IAN (bán'-yān). The fºcus I'diº
(Linn.), or Indian fig. The fruit and young
branches yield one species of gum-laº; and
both the juice and bark are used medicinally,
Among sailors, BANIAN' DAYS are those Ol
which butcher's meat is not served up at
dinner.
BANN'0CK (-lík). In Scotland and tº
northern counties of England, a flat rould
cake made of oat, rye, or barley meal, baked
on an iron plate over the fire, or on the hº
hearth.
BAR (Management).
TAIL, &c.
BARBERRY. Syn. PEP'PERIDGE-BUSH,
THORNY Box-'TREE*; BER'BERIs, B. VULGA".
RIs (Linn.), L.; EPINE-VINETTE, WINETTIER,
Fr.; BERBERITZE, Ger. A perennial bush of
shrub common in woods and hedges, Berris
(BAR/BERRIES, PEP'PERIDGES), gratefully acid
cooling, and astringent; used in pastry, but
require, according to their degree of ripenes,
from one half their weight to an equal weight
of sugar. Both bark and berries were for:
merly esteemed in jaundice, biliary fluxes, &
The crushed berries with water form a re.
freshing fever-drink. The root dyes a fugitive
yellow. See BERBERINE, JAMS, PRESERVES
&c. -
BAREGE (barège, bār-rāzhe'). [Fr.] A
light woollen fabric so named from having
been first made in the valley of Barèges
Of late years Paris has become celebrated for
its barèges; but these are generally woven
with the “warp’ of silk, and the ‘woof" ºf
wool. In the common imitations of the
shops, the “warp’ is generally of cotton.
BAREGINE (barégine). See GLAIRINE.
BARIL'LA. [Eng., Ger., L., Sp.] Sº,
SO'DAE CAR/BONAS VENA'LE, L.; BARIG"LIA,
BARILLOR, Sp., Lev.; BARILLE, SOUDE, Fr.
See COUNTER, RR:

|
-

BARIUM. - 177
The alkaline residuum of the combustion
Of Salsola, salicornia, chenopodium, and other
species of the order chenopodiaceae. These
plants, which are cultivated on the sea-coast
for the purpose, are cut down when ripe,
dried, and burned in heaps, on iron bars laid
across pits dug in the earth. The alkali and
saline matter contained in them is thus fused,
and flows into the cavity below, forming, when
ºld, a hard grey or bluish porous mass which
is BARILLA.
Comp. Carbonate, sulphate, chloride, and
sulphide of sodium, carbonate and sulphate of
Calcium, alumina, silica, oxide of iron, and im-
perfectly consumed carbonaceous matter, with
âlittle iodine and bromine. The proportion
ºf soda varies in different varieties:–
AIICANT' BARILLA; obtained chiefly from
several species of salso'la and from chemopo'-
dium setig'erum (-tij'-), &c.; contains from
25 to 40% of carbonate of soda. (Guibourt.)
CANA"RY B.; from salso'la ka/li. (Loudon.)
French barillas:—
(, NARBONNE' B., SALICOR ; from salicor’nia
am'ua or herba'cea ; contains 14% to 15% of
Carbonate of soda.
b. B. OF AIGUEMORTES, BLANQUETTE; from
mixed plants; contains 3% to 8% of carbonate
of soda, (Guibourt.)
C, NOR'MANDY B., N. SODA; from fuci.
SICTLY BARILLA (sis"-). Principally from
silºla sati'va ; furnishes 55% of carbonate
ºf soda, (Fée.)
G00d barilla, on the average, contains about
! of real or available alkali, chiefly under
the form of carbonate, besides sulphates, mu-
riates, &c.
Assay. See ALKALIMETRY.
Uses, &c. Barilla is chiefly used in the
manufacture of soap and glass; but the gross
|lantity imported, though annually increasing,
ºnly reached 54,608 cwt. in 1856; whilst the
ºports of soda in the same year reached to
abºut 1,500,000 cwt., and in 1859 to above
2000,000 cwt. This enormous quantity was
thiefly furnished by our home manufactories.
Barilla is chiefly imported from Spain, Sicily,
Teneriffe, and the Levant; but since the in-
tºduction of Le Blanc’s process for obtaining
ºld from common salt, its importance and
Value has considerably lessened. See KELP,
SODA, &c.
BARIUM. Ba. A metallic radical or ele-
mºnt, of which baryta is the chief oxide, and
sºmewhat extensively distributed. First ob-
lined in 1808 by Sir H. Davy. Prepared
from baryta by strongly heating it in an iron
tube, through which the vapour of potassium
is conveyed; the reduced BARIUM being sub-
tºlently extracted from the mixed residuum
by quicksilver, which is afterwards driven off
in a small green-glass retort, in a vapour of
mineral naphtha.
Prop., &c. Greyish-white, approaching silver
in colour and lustre; decomposes water, and
gradually oxidises in the air, with the forma-
tion of the ordinary oxide (BARYTA). It is
malleable, fusible under a red heat; burns in
contact with air with a deep red light, and has
the sp. gr. 470.
Salts. Barium forms numerous salts, which
are all either colourless or white, except a few,
whose acids are coloured, as the chromate,
manganate, &c. Some of them are soluble in
water; one or two only are soluble in alcohol,
and that very sparingly ; and (with the excep-
tion of the sulphate) they are all extremely
poisonous. They may be prepared by Satu-
rating solutions of the acids with either baryta-
water, or carbonate of barium ; and some
of them may be prepared by double decom-
position.
The various soluble barium salts are known
by the following reactions, and they are all
(except the sulphate) soluble either in water or
in dilute hydrochloric acid, except the nitrate
and chloride, which are not soluble in aqueous
solutions of their respective acids. Their solu-
tions give an immediate heavy white precipitate
with dilute sulphuric acid, and with solutions of
the sulphates, which is insoluble in dilute acids
and solutions of the alkalies and of the salts
of ammonia, that with a solution of sulphate
of lime being very sensitive and character-
istic:—Hydrofluosilicic acid gives a very cha-
racteristic colourless crystalline and quickly
subsiding precipitate, only slightly soluble in
hydrochloric acid and nitric acid; alcohol, in
equal volume, being added, so hastens and com-
pletes the reaction, that the filtrate is unaf-
fected by sulphuric acid:—Chromate of po-
tassium gives a bright yellow precipitate in
neutral solutions, soluble in hydrochloric acid
and in nitric acid, but insoluble in acetic acid:
— Caustic potassa or soda (when quite free
from carbonate), and caustic ammonia, cause
no precipitate. except in highly concentrated
solutions:—Alkaline carbonates give a heavy
white precipitate with baryta-water or a solu-
tion of baryta, and which is all but insoluble
in water, and freely soluble in dilute hydro-
chloric acid:—Heated with proof spirit,
or pyroxilic spirit, the barium salts give a
greenish-yellow tinge to the flame :-The
barium salts, and particularly the chloride,
when exposed on a platinum wire to the
inner flame of the blowpipe, colour the outer
flame yellowish-green :-Insoluble sulphate of
barium may be mixed with powdered charcoal,
and exposed for a short time to a full red heat,
when sulphide of barium will be formed, which
is freely soluble in water, and which, after
being neutralised with hydrochloric acid, or
acetic acid, will yield a solution suitable to the
application of the usual tests. The carbonate,
and the salts of barium with the organic acids,
are all convertible into pure baryta by ex-
posure to a bright red heat.
Baryta is distinguished from lime and from
magnesia by its great solubility in hot water,
and by the entire insolubility of its sulphate;
from strontia, by being precipitated by hydro-


12
178
BARIUM.
fluosilicic acid, and by not giving a red colour
to the flame of alcohol; from alumina, by its
causticity and alkaline reaction, and by not
being precipitated from its solution in water
by ammonium sulphydrate.
Pois., &c. The sulphate, owing to its inso-
lubility, is the only salt of barium which is
not poisonous.-Symp. Nausea, vomiting,
pains in the head, ringing in the ears, ver-
tigo, and intermitting cramps and convul-
sions; the respiration is frequently suspended
for several moments, and the pupil is gene-
rally dilated. The symptoms, however, often
vary, and are not very distinctive.—Treatm.,
Ant., &c. Vomiting, followed by copious
draughts of water soured with sulphuric acid,
or sulphate of soda (Glauber-salt) or sulphate
of magnesia (Epsom-salt), dissolved in a large
quantity of water. When carbonate of barium
has been swallowed, a mixture of one of the
above sulphates and weak vinegar should be
taken after the vomiting, in order that a
soluble barium salt may be first formed, on
which the alkaline sulphate will act more
readily. Subsequent irritation may be soothed
by opium or morphia, and antiphlogistics.
Barium, Ac'etate of Ba(C2H5O2). Syn.
BARY/TA, ACE'TAS, L. Prep. From dilute
sulphuric acid, neutralised with carbonate of
barium, and the solution evaporated and crys-
tallised. Very soluble in water; insoluble, or
nearly so, in rectified spirit.—Uses, Dose, &c.
Same as the chloride. It is seldom employed.
Barium, Arse"miate of Baa(PO4)2. Syn.
BARY'THE ARSE"NIAS, L. Prep. A solution
of chloride of barium is added to another of
arseniate of potassium or sodium, and the
precipitate collected, washed, and dried. By
dissolving this salt in a solution of arsenic
acid, and crystallising, BINARSE"NIATE OF
BARIUM is obtained. Has been recommended
in certain skin diseases, and in phthisis com-
plicated with scrofula.--Dose, ſº to # gr.
Barium, Ar'semite of Ba(AsO3)2. Syn.
BARY/TA, AR's ENIS, L. Very slightly soluble.
—Use, &c. As the last.
Barium, Bromide of BaBrs. Syn. BA"RII
BROMIDUM, L.; BROMURE DE BARYUM, &c., Fr.
Prep. Boil a solution of protobromide of iron
with moist carbonate of barium, in slight excess;
filter, evaporate to dryness, and heat the resi-
duum to redness. By careful evaporation of
its aqueous solution it may be obtained in
crystals. It is soluble in both alcohol and
water, and its physiological properties resemble
those of iodide of barium.
Barium, Carbonate of BaCO3. Syn. CAR-
BONATE OF BARY/TA; BARY/TAE CAR'BonAs, L.;
CARBONATE DE BARYTE, &c., Fr.; KołILEN-
SAURES BARYT, &c., Ger. A heavy white mass
or powder, very nearly insoluble in water, and
decomposed by nearly all the acids. It is found
in the crude state abundantly in nature,
but can only be obtained absolutely pure by
adding an alkaline carbonate to a solution
of chloride of barium, or by saturating the
hydrate with carbonic anhydride, and in eithe:
case washing and drying the precipitat.
Native carbonate of barium (witherit) is
ordered in the pharmacopoeias, and is sli.
ciently pure for making the barium salts, the
only purpose to which it is therein applied.
Uses. In pharmacy, &c., chiefly to preſt
barium salts. In chemistry, to separateCertil
metallic oxides when occurring togetherins,
lutions. In the arts, as a base for certain dº.
licate colours, as an ingredient in plate.gº
in the manufacture of beet-sugar, &c, Iti
not used in medicine. It is extremely Mi
SOn OuS.
Barium, Chloride of. BaCl, 2Aq, \|
CHLORIDE OF BARIUM ; BARIICHLORIDUM,I;
CHIORURE DE BARYUM, CHIORHYDRATR ]
BARYTE, &c., Fr.; SALZSAURE SCHWERED,
CHLORBARIUM, Ger. Neutralise a hot dilut:
solution of hydrochloric acid with Carbonſ.
of barium, evaporate down, and Crystallis,
Sulphide of barium can be substituted for tº
carbonate. If required chemically puſ:
gaseous hydrochloric acid is transmitā
through a concentrated solution of Comml
or impure chloride of barium, as long is
precipitate forms; the resulting crystaliº
powder, which is nearly the whole of th:
chloride of barium present, is collected On 1
filter, and, after draining, is washed repeately
with small quantities of pure hydrochlorical
until the washings, diluted with water, Ali
precipitated with sulphuric acid, give a filmſ:
which, upon evaporation in a platinum-ºl
or a watch-glass, leaves no residue; the list
traces of acid having been removed by alt:
alcohol, applied in a like manner, the powlſ
is at once dried, and then carefully present
from the air.—Used in analysis.
Prop., &c. Crystals, flat four-sided tâllº,
colourless and transparent; sometimes doll.
eight-sided pyramids; slightly efflorescentil
dry warm air, but otherwise permanent; d.
crepitate when heated, and lose their wateri
crystallisation; fuse at a red heat; volatiº
at a white heat; insoluble in hydrochlorical
and in alcohol, slightly soluble in rectiid
spirit, and very soluble in water; water, it
60°, dissolves 43}} of the crystals, and nearly
37% of the dry salt; and when boiling, 7%
of the former, and about 66% of the latter;
a saturated boiling solution (223°Fahr) ().
tains 100 parts of water, and 78 parts ºf the
crystallised salt. -
The crystals contain 2 atoms of water; all
a formula of BaCl2 + 2Aq.
Uses, Phys. eff., &c. In chemistry, it is em.
ployed as a test for sulphuric acid and the S.
luble sulphates. In medicine, it has bºl
employed, both internally and externally, sal
alterative, resolvent, and deobstruent, in ST.
fula, glandular swellings, and enlargements,
scirrhous cancer, skin diseases, &c.; and mºſt
particularly in the first with marked benefit
In large doses it is poisonous. According tº
Sir B. Brodie, its action on animals is allº


BARIUM. - 179
gous to that of arsenic. Locally, it acts as an
irritant. A very weak solution, used as a
lotion, often proves serviceable in herpetic
eruptions, and as a collyrium in scrofulous oph-
thalmia, Dose. . gr. thrice a day, in water,
gradually increased to 2 or 3 grs.
Barium, Chlo"rate of Ba(ClO3)2. Syn.
CHIORATE OF BARY'TA; BARY/TAE CHLo”-
RAS, L. Prep. From a solution of chloric
acid neutralised with freshly precipitated car-
bonate of barium; the resulting solution,
after filtration, being crystallised by evapora-
tion,
By passing chlorine through strong milk
of hydrate or of carbonate of barium, in
the same way as in making chlorate of
potassium,
Prop., &c. Soluble in 4 parts of cold water.
–Used in pyrotechny, and to make chloric
acid.
Barium, Ferrocy'anide of. Bag|FeC6Nº.
Sh, BA"RII FERROCYANI'DUM, L. From
pure ferrocyanide of iron digested in baryta-
Water. By careful evaporation, efflorescent
prismatic crystals may be obtained, soluble in
4} parts of water.
Barium, Flu'oride of BaFs. Syn. BA"RII
FIUORI'DUM, &c., L. A white powder, formed
by digesting freshly precipitated carbonate of
barium in hydrofluoric acid, in excess.
Barium, Hydrate of. |..}} Syn. HY-
DRATE OF BARYTA; BARYTAE HYDRAs, L.
Prep. By digesting caustic baryta, or barium
Oxide, with a little water, or igniting gently
the Crystallised hydrate. It can be obtained
Crystallised as follows:—
1. From a concentrated solution of either
litrate or chloride of barium, precipitated
with a rather strong solution of pure potassa,
Or of pure soda, perfectly free from carbonic
acid.
2, Astrong solution of sulphide of barium is
boiled with successive portions of black oxide
Of copper, until it ceases to give a black pre-
tipitate with a salt of lead; the liquid, after
filtration, yields crystals of the hydrate on
(00ling.
Prop., Uses, &c. Forms a bulky white
powder, containing 10} {} of water of hydra-
tion, which it retains even after ignition. In
this state it is soluble in 20 parts of cold
Water, and in 2 parts of boiling water. The
hot saturated solution, as it cools, deposits
abundantly columnar crystals (CRYSTALLISED
HYDRATE OF B.), which contain 51} } of water,
of which they lose, by drying and ignition,
88}(=45} of their weight), being reduced
to the state of the common or amorphous hy-
drate. Of all the bases it has the strongest
affinity for both sulphuric and carbonic acid;
and hence its solution (BARY'TA-WATER) and
those of its neutral salts (nitrate or chloride)
form our most sensitive fests for these sub-
stances. Sp. gr. 4:3 to 47. The crystallised
hydrate is converted into the ordinary hydrate
at a gentle heat, and this last fuses at a low
red heat without losing its water of hydration,
which it only slowly and with difficulty begins
to part with at higher temperatures. In che-
mistry, its uses are, for the most part, similar
to those of BARIUM, OXIDE OF.
Barium, Io'dide of. Basſ. Syn. BA"RII
IODI’DUM, L.; IODURE DE BARYUM, &c., Fr.
Prep. 1. Dissolve sulphide of barium in
water, and add iodine (gradually) in excess;
after the reaction is complete, filter, and either
evaporate to dryness, or crystallise.
2. Digest freshly precipitated carbonate of
barium, in excess, in a hot solution of protiodide
of iron; filter and evaporate to dryness; then
re-dissolve and crystallise.
3. By saturating hydriodic acid with oxide
or carbonate of barium.
Prop., &c. A white or greyish-white mass,
or acicular crystals (according to the mode of
its preparation); very soluble in water and in
alcohol; and decomposed by exposure to the
air. It has been highly recommended as an
alterative, resolvent, and liquefacient, particu-
larly in scrofula, glandular swellings, chronic
inflammations, and the other affections in which
chloride of barium and iodine are given.—
Dose. Tº to . gr. (gradually and cautiously in-
creased to 1 gr.), in distilled water, 2 or 3
times a day. Eacternally, as an ointment (3 or
4. gr., to lard, 1 oz.), as an application to scro-
fulous swellings. (Biett.) It possesses all the
irritant, corrosive, and poisonous properties of
the chloride, but in a much more violent de-
gree.
Barium, Nitrate of Ba(NO3)3. Syn. NI'-
TRATE OF BARYTA; BARY/TAE NITRAs, L.
Prep. As the acetate or chloride of barium,
substituting pure nitric acid for acetic or hy-
drochloric acid.
Prop., &c. Transparent, colourless octahe-
drons, which are anhydrous, insoluble in
alcohol, and require about 8 parts of cold
water, and about 3 parts of boiling water, for
solution.
Uses. In chemistry, to prepare baryta, and
as a test for sulphuric acid and the soluble
sulphates; and in pyrotechny, to give a green
tinge to flame.
Barium, Ox'alate of BaC.O. Syn. OX’AL-
ATE of BARYTA; BARY'THE OX/ALAS, L.
Prep. By precipitating a barium salt with
oxalate of ammonium. Very nearly insolu-
ble.
Barium, Oxide of. Ba0. Syn. BARYTA,
BARY'TES, CAU'STIC BARYTA*, Ox'IDE of BA”-
RIUM, PROTox'IDE OF B., HEAV'y EARTH ;
BARYTE, OXIDE DE BARIUM, TERRE PESANTE+,
&c., Fr. ; BARYT, BARYTERDE, ScHWERERDE,

&c., Ger. One of the earths discovered by
Scheele in 1774.
Sources. Sulphate and carbonate of barium
are abundant minerals, forming the “vein-
stone of many lead-mines. It is from the
latter that baryta and the barium salts are al-
most exclusively obtained.
Prep. 1. A mixture of carbonate of barium

180
BARIUM.–BARK.
and charcoal (both in fine powder and moist-
ened) is strongly ignited, for some time, in a
porcelain, Hessian, or black-lead crucible, and
then allowed to cool out of contact with the
air, from which it must also be subsequently
carefully preserved.
2. (Pure.) Crystallised nitrate of barium
is calcined in a capacious covered porcelain or
Hessian crucible, at a bright red heat, until
red (nitrous) vapours are no longer disengaged,
even on raising the temperature; and the re-
siduum, as soon as the temperature has fallen
sufficiently, but whilst still warm, is at once
transferred to a bottle, as before.
Prop. A greyish-white, spongy, earthy-
looking mass, fusible only before the oxy-
hydrogen blowpipe; highly caustic, corrosive,
and alkaline, and slaking, like quick-lime, on
the addition of water, but with the evolution
of more heat. -
Barium, Peroxide of. BaO2. Syn. DEUTOx'-
IDE OF BARIUM ; BA’’RII BINOx YDUM, &c. L.;
BINOXIDE DE BARYUM, &c., Fr. Prep. Pure
baryta is heated to full redness in a porcelain
tube, and a stream of pure dry oxygen passed
over it as long as the gas is absorbed.
Baryta, 4 parts, is heated as above in a pla-
tinum crucible, and chlorate of potassium, 1
part, gradually added to it; the chloride of
potassium formed along with the binoxide
being afterwards washed away with cold
water.
Prop., &c. Grey or greyish-white; with
water it forms a hydrate, which is slightly so-
luble in water, and undecomposed by it in the
cold. It is interesting chiefly in its relations
with peroxide of hydrogen and the oxygenised
acids of M. Thénard.
Barium, Phosphate of Baa(PO)3. Prep.
In a similar manner to the oxalate, which it
resembles in being an almost insoluble white
powder.
Barium, Sulphate of. BaSO4. Syn. SUL-
PHATE of BARYTA, HEAV'Y SPAR, BoIo"GNI-
AN s., CAwk (mi); BARY'THE SUI/PHAs (Ph.
E. & D.), SPA'THIUM PONDERO's UM, &c., L.;
SULFATE DE BARYTE, SPATH PESANT, &c., Fr. ;
SCHWEFELSAURES BARYT, SCHWERSPATH, &c.,
Ger. This salt is found native, often in beau-
tiful tabular crystals, but more frequently in
white or reddish-white masses. It is also oc-
casionally prepared artificially, as a pigment
and chemical, by decomposing a solution of
chloride of barium with dilute sulphuric acid,
or with a solution of sulphate of sodium; the
resulting precipitate being collected, well
washed, and dried.
Prop., &c. When pure, or free from iron,
its powder is white. It is insoluble in water,
and nearly insoluble in all other menstrua.
Before the blowpipe it decrepitates, fuses with
great difficulty (by which it is distinguished
from the sulphates of strontium and calcium),
and ultimately melts into a hard, white ena-
mel. Mixed with charcoal, and heated to red-
mess in a covered crucible, it is reduced to
sulphide of barium. It is readily decompºsed
by fusion with alkaline carbonates; also very
slightly so by their cold solutions; but ulti.
mately completely, though slowly, by their
boiling solutions. Sp. gr. 4:3 to 475,
Uses. Chiefly as a pigment (PERMANENT
WHITE), and to adulterate white-lead; for
which purposes the native sulphate is (Om
monly well washed, first in very dilute sl.
phuric acid, and afterwards in pure water, tº
remove any iron which may contaminate it
and impair its whiteness. It is also used tº
form sulphide of barium; and, in pyrotech'ſ
instead of the more expensive nitrate.
Barium, Sulphide of, BaS. Syn, SII.
PHIDE of BARIUM, SUI/PHURET OF BARYT:
BA’’RII suTPHURETUM, &c., L.; SULFUREDF
BARYUM, &c., Fr. Prep. Sulphate of bari,
well dried and in fine powder, 3 parts; pºr:
dered charcoal or powdered coal, 1 part; th:
mixture is pressed tightly into an earthū
crucible, and the cover being fitted on, it is
exposed for 1% to 2 hours, to a bright rºl
heat; after it has cooled, the black mass this
obtained is powdered, and boiled in water, all
the resulting solution allowed to crystallist.
Some authorities recommend forming the
mixed powders into a stiff paste with oil, or
oil of turpentine, before calcination; but this
is not at all necessary.
Prop., Uses, &c. Crystals, thin and nearly
colourless plates, containing combined water;
very soluble in hot water, less so in coldwater;
and rapidly decomposed by exposure to the
air. It is principally used to form the A.
RIUM. SAITS, and in organic analysis, Caſt
should be taken in its preparation to expº
the solution to the air as little as possible
SULPHIDES of a higher grade may beformed
by boiling this compound with sulphur; but
they possess little practical interest.
Barium, Sulphite of BaSOs, Syn. SUIſ.
PHITE OF BARYTA. Prep. By testing a sk
uble barium salt with sodium sulphite, and
washing the precipitate. Insoluble.
Barium, Tartrate of BaCH,0s, Syn, TAR'.
TRATE OF BARYTA. Prep. Like that of oxalate
of barium. White powder. Slightly soluble.
BARK. [Eng., Dan.] Syn. CORTEX, I,
ECORCE, Fr. ; BAUMRINDE, RINDE, Ger, The
rind or exterior covering of vegetables, Corrè.
sponding to the skin of animals. It consists
of the cuſticle or epiderm'is—cellular sil.
stance, containing colouring matter, &c., and
—liſber, the inner or true bark. The last is
formed of woody fibre in great quantity, in:
termixed with cellular tissue. At the COm.
mencement of the annual growth of a trº,
the bark separates spontaneously from the
wood, in order to make room for the new mat.
ter forming beneath. It thus increases by
yearly layers, and gradually perishes On the
outside, owing to distension, from the growth
of the interior portion. Its physiological uses
are numerous and important. It is the dé.
pository of many of the secretions of plants

BARLEY. - 181
and it acts as a living filter, separating secre-
tiºns from each other, and allowing a part of
them to pass off horizontally through the
medullary processes on their way to the centre
Of the tree. But its principal offices appear to
he to act as a protection to the tender wood,
and as a channel for the sap in its descent
from the leaves. “True bark only exists in
trogens and gymnosperms; in endogens its
place is supplied by cortical integuments, which
Cannot be separated from the adjacent wood,
without violence.” (Lindley.)
According to Liebig, the characteristic in-
gredients found in bark are excrementitious—
"substances evidently expelled by the living
Organism.” True wood yields only 25% to
2}of ash; whilst the bark of some trees give
6, 10, to 15 times more; and these, like the
Organic constituents, differ materially in their
(Omposition and characters.
The uses of different species of bark in me-
dicine and the arts are well known. CINCHONA-
BAEK is invaluable in fevers; OAK-BARK fur-
mishes the tanner with one of the most im-
portant materials of his trade; and the tena-
cious fibres of other varieties are manufactured
into cordage and textile fabrics.
Barks should be collected at that season in
which they can be most easily separated from
the WOOd, which, with a few exceptions, is late
in the spring; because at this time the active
principles deposited in their cells are most
abundant. OAK-BARK, collected in spring,
(Ontains four times as much astringent matter
as that collected in winter.
Bark. (In medicine.) See CINCHONA.
Bark. (In tanning.) See OAK-BARK.
Bark, Jesuit's. Cinchona-bark.
Bark, Salt of (Essential). See ExTRACTs
and SALTs.
BARTEY. Syn. HoR'DEUM, L.; ORGE, Fr. ;
GPRSTE, Ger., Anglo-S. A well-known grain,
the produce of several species of the genus
lordeum.
War, Cult., &c. Those principally cultivated
in England are—Two'-ROWED, LONG'-EARED,
or COMM'ON BARLEY (hor'deum distichon,
Linn.); SPRING'-BARLEY, SQUARE'-B., or BERE
(l, vulga"re, Linn.); and SIx’-ROWED BARLEY,
WINTER B., Scotch BERE or BIGG (h. heavas'-
iichon, Linn.). PUT'NEY, SPRAT, or BATT'LEDORE
B. (h, zeocriton, Linn.), is another species less
frequently met with. Of each of the above
there are several varieties. In Spain and Sicily,
two crops of barley are obtained in a year;
but, in countries so far north as Britain, it
produces only one, and is a delicate species of
grain. In England it is generally adopted as
a succession crop on light lands, following
turnips or green crops. (Loudon.) The ‘yield”
per acre varies from 28 to 64 bushels, and is
usually from 28 to 40 bushels. The average
weight per bushel is 50 to 51 lbs. ; but the
best Norfolk and Essex samples weigh 53 to
54 lbs, per bushel.
Comp. The leading constituents of barley are
nearly similar to those of wheat, but it is
scarcely so rich in nitrogenised matter. Ac-
cording to Einhof, the ripe SEEDS or GRAINS
are composed of—
Meal 70-05
Husk 1875
Moisture . 11-20
100.
According to Johnston, average fine BARLEY-
MEAL contains—
Starch . . . . . . . . . 68:
Albumen, gluten, &c. . . . . 14'
Fatty matter . . . . . . 2'
Ash or saline matter . . . . 2'
Water . . . . . . . . . 14'
100'
According to Dr. Ure, the sp. gr. of ENGLISH
BARLEY is 1:25 to 1:33 (average, 1:235), and
the weight of the husk is about 1-6th ; that
of BIGG, 1227 to 1265, and weight of husk,
2-9ths.
Qual., Uses, &c. Its employment and value
as food, and in the manufacture of malt, are
well known. It forms good wholesome bread
well adapted for persons who live luxuriously;
but which, for the abstemious and the delicate,
is inferior to that made of wheat, as it is rather
less nutritious, and less easy of digestion, and
commonly proves laxative to those unaccus-
tomed to its use. Barley;flour and b.-meal are
also more perishable than wheat-flour; being
very apt to acquire a hot nauseous taste, which
even the heat of the oven does not remove.
In a medical point of view, barley is regarded
as the mildest and least irritating of the
cereals. It has always been in high estima-
tion as a demulcent and emollient. The de-
coction (BAR'LEY-WATER), made with pearl
barley, is a common and useful drink in in-
flammatory diseases, particularly in those of
the chest and urinary organs. Among the
Ancients, decoctions of barley (kpt0%) were the
principal aliments and medicines employed in
acute diseases.
Barley, Cau'stic. Sabadilla.
Barley, Patent. Syn. FARINA HOR/DEI, L.
Pearl barley reduced to fine powder by grind-
ing in a mill.
Barley, Pearl. Syn. PEARL'ED BARLEY*;
HoR'DEUM DECORTICATUM (B.P.), L.; ORGE
PERLó, Fr.; PERLENGRAUPEN, Ger. The seeds of
hordeum distichon deprived of the husks. That
of commerce is usually made by steaming
spring-barley, to soften the skin, then drying
'it, and grinding it in a mill with the stones
set wide apart, so as to round and polish the
grains, and to separate the whole of the husk
except that left in the furrow of the seed.
SCOTCH PEARL-BARLEY and FRENCH BARLEY
resemble the last, but are smaller, being gene-
rally made from winter-barley or bigg. FARO


182
BARLEY SUGAR–BAROMETER.
DE ORZO is another variety made from sprat-
barley. See BARLEY (above).
Barley, Scotch. Sym. HULLED BARLEY.,
Pot-B.J.; HoR'DEUM MUNDATUM, L.; ORGE
MONDE, Fr. ; GERSTENGRAUPEN, GRAUPEN,
Ger. The grains deprived of the husk by a
mill, as noticed above, but less completely, and
without rounding them.
BAR/LEY SUGAR.
and SUGAR.
See CONFECTIONERY,
Torricelli's cistern barometer.
phon ditto.
Huygen’s barometer.
——— modified.
Wheel barometer.
Bernoulli’s syphon ditto.
Aminton’s comical ditto.
Gay Lussac's ditto.
——— S
modified by M. Bunten.
in each, and essentially consists of a column of
fluid (usually mercury) supported in vacuo, in
a glass tube, by the pressure of the atmo-
sphere on its surface. The annexed engr. ex-
hibits the principal varieties at present known;
several of which have been proposed with the
view of improving the original instrument,
either by increasing its range, or its porta-
bility. None, however, equal in simplicity,
cheapness, and usefulness, the old forms pro-
posed by Torricelli, and repr. by the figs. 1 &
2. To avoid confusion, the graduated scales
and cases of the instruments are not shown.
The construction of a barometer requires the
utmost skill and care of a practised artist, and
will therefore be seldom undertaken by the
amateur or experimentalist—a fact which
renders it unnecessary for us to enter into the
details here. In the choice of his instrument,
the purchaser must greatly depend on the
known experience and integrity of the manu-
facturer; as nothing but lengthened use, and
frequent comparisons with other instruments,
can possibly prove its excellence. An ordinary
barometer, however carefully made, is found
to suffer gradual deterioration, from the exter-
mal air insinuating itself between the mercury
and the glass tube, by which the perfection of
the vacuum is destroyed. Various plans have
been proposed to remedy this inconvenience
and source of error. Prof. Daniels forms the
bottom part of the tube, to the extent of about
3rd of an inch, of solid platinum, welded to
the glass. This plan has proved completely
BARM. See YEAST.
BAROM'ETER (-röm'.). Syn. WEATHER.
GLASS f ; BAROM'ETRUM, L.; BAROMSTRP, .
Fr.; BAROMETER, WETTERGLAS, Ger. Amin.
strument for measuring the weight or pressure
of the atmosphere. It was invented by Torri.
celli, of Florence, A.D. 1643.
The barometer is made of several forms, but
the principle of its construction, with the ex
ception of the aneroid barometer, is the same
(a.) Tube containing a column of mercury.
(b.) Mercurial cistern.
(c.) A column of mercury supporting another of Waitt
(d).
(e, e.) Weights, one of which floats on the surfact ºf
the mercury, and by means of the cord (f) moſt
the index (g).
(h.) Graduated à.
(k.) Capillary hole drilled laterally to admit air.
satisfactory. Dr. Ure proposes the use of
platinum-foil for the same purpose. Before
purchasing an instrument it is as well to ascer.
tain that this has been done. In those called
* STANDARD BAROMETERS’ the scale is movable
and adjustable by a delicate screw, so as tº
enable the observer to bring the lower point
or zero (0) of the scale coincident with the
surface of the mercury in the cistern. Exact
contact is readily effected by making the
point, and its image as seen by reflection
from the surface of the mercury, to coincide,
In this case the cistern is made of glass, Pr).
vided the ivory scale be connected with the
zero-point with a strip of brass, correction is
to temperature is very nearly effected by this
simple adjustment. The WHEEL-BAROMETER
is chiefly serviceable as a domestic Or land
weather-glass.
Uses, &e. The barometer is employed for
ascertaining the amount of atmospherical re.
fraction in astronomical calculations, and in
measuring altitudes, and in prognosticating
the weather. For the last purpose, on land,
it sometimes proves a false prophet; but at
sea, its monitions are highly trustworthy. As
a mere weather-glass, the indications, as read
off from the scale of the instrument, are gene.
rally sufficiently accurate; but in all observa.
tions connected with meteorology, altitudes,
astronomy, &c., certain corrections must be
made; the height of the mercury being in:
fluenced both by the size of the tube and by
the temperature of the air by which it is sur.

EAROMETER. 183
rounded, as well as by variations in the weight | yield to the pressure of the atmosphere; the
or pressure of the atmosphere. (See below.) | effect being regulated by a spring, multiplied
Barometrical Corrections :— by a system of levers, and ultimately recorded
1. As to CAPILLARITY:—This applies to all
cistern-barometers formed of tubes of very =-
small diameters, owing to the mercury assum- *||
ing a convex surface in the tube. As the tube
increases in diameter, so the depression of the
mercury lessens. Hence, “the interior dia- - -
meter” of a barometer “should, in every case, by the index on a graduated dial. Compensa-
exceed one fourth of an inch.” (Brande.) Sy- |tion for changes of temperature are self-
phon barometers that have each of their legs effected, with almost perfect accuracy, by the
of equal size, require no correction, as the elastic force of the spring being so adjusted to
depression is equal at both ends. that of the air in the cylinder, that the loss of
force in the one, and the increased expansive
TABLE of Barometrical Corrections for force of the other, shall, independently of
-
CAPILLARITY, from the ‘Encycl. Brit.” changes of atmospheric pressure, preserve the
lever in equilibrio.
Diam. of Tube. Depression. The indications of the aneroid barometer
- closely correspond to those of the mercurial
- - barometer, at ordinary ranges; the differences
... inch. º: inch. -H never exceeding the º . an inch. It is so
º > y º; *: extremely sensitive that an ascent or descent
"25 25 •0407 ». of only a few feet is distinctly indicated by it;
30 . º 25 whilst its portability adapts it for service in
35 . logii xx situations for which an ordinary barometer is
ſo . ºi; . unfitted. On the other hand, it is liable to
45 . oiſ; . . move by jerks, and the elasticity of the spring,
'50 77 •0083 25 and consequently the zero-point of the scale,
"60 -> -0044 25 has been found to be sometimes affected by
jo . oo:23 . time and a rough journey. On this account it
... " - >> is necessary to compare it occasionally with
80 ,, 0012 , some standard mercurial barometer, to deter-
mine its amount or rate of variation, if any.
2. As t :—These depend Barometer, Phi'al. This amusing philoso-
. As to TEMPERATURE:—These depend on phic toy is made by cutting off the rim and
the expansion of the mercury, and of the -mhi -
scale on which the divisions are marked. rººf º* glass-phial with
The Rule for reducing an observed height
to the corresponding height at the freezing-
point, or 32°Fahr., the usual standard tem-
perature, is—Subtract 1-10000th part of the
observed height of the barometer for every
degree of Fahr. above 32° at the time of the
observation. Or-
(obs. t.-32) x obs. h. × 0001 = corr. req.
Barometer, An'eroid. An instrument in-
vented, or at least perfected, by M. Vidi, of
Paris, in which the pressure of the atmosphere
is measured without the employment of a fluid,
as in the ordinary barometer.' Externally, it
nearly filled with water,
either pure or tinged blue
or red; and the finger
being placed on its mouth,
it is inverted, and sus-
pended in a vertical po-
sition by means of a piece
of twine or wire, when the
finger is withdrawn. (See
engr.) In dry weather the
under surface of the water
remains level with the
neck of the bottle, or even
concave; in damp wea-
ther, on the contrary, a
drop appears at the mouth
and continues enlarging
until it falls, and is then
followed by another in the same way.
Barometer, Port/able. The most accurate are
those of Gay-Lussac and Bunten, and after
them the aneroid. They should be set on uni-
versal joints, and well balanced. The common
instrument made with a box and leather cis-
somewhat resembles in appearance a carriage
clock or a ship's chronometer; internally, it
consists of a small air-tight cylindrical box,
fºrmed of thin corrugated copper-plates, and jº.ii. long correct.
partially exhausted of air, the sides of which Barometer, Wheel. The common form of
! An instrument founded on the same º: and of the instrument having a dial-face and hands.
#." }.º º ". º in [For further information in connection with
y - 1-00. -> w- *x - 2 tº - -


184
BAROSCOPE—BATH.
the above subject the reader is referred to
the “articles' ANEROID, ATMOSPHERE, GAS,
HEIGHTS, STEAM, STORM-GLASS, WAPOUR,
WEATHER, &c.]
BAR/OSCOPE+ (-sköpe). [Eng., Fr.] Syn.
BAROSCO'PIUM, L. A barometer; sometimes
applied to the wheel-barometer, of Hooke.
BAR/RAS. The concrete resinous exuda-
tion from the bark of fir-trees. That from
pi'nus marit'ima is called GALIPOT.
BARSE. [Provincial.] The common perch.
BAR/W00D. A red dye-wood imported from
Angola and other parts of Africa. It closely
resembles cam-wood and sanders-wood in its
colouring matter being of a resinous nature,
and scarcely soluble in water. In dyeing, this
difficulty is obviated by taking advantage of
the strong affinity existing between it and the
proto-salts of tin and iron. Thus, by strongly
impregnating the goods with protochloride
of tin, either with or without the addition of
sumach, according to the shade of RED desired,
and then putting them into a boiling bath
containing the rasped wood, the colour is ra-
pidly given out and taken up, until the whole
of the tin in the fibres of the cloth is satu-
rated, and the goods become of a rich bright
hue. In like manner the DARK RED of ban-
dana handkerchiefs is commonly given by a
mordant of acetate of iron followed by a boil-
ing bath of this dye-stuff. See DYEING,
MORDANTS, &c. -
BASALT" (bå-sålt')." [Eng., Ger.] Syn.
BASAL/TES (-säl'-téz), L.; BASALTE; Fr. In
geology, &c., a species of trap-rock, essentially
composed of the minerals felspar and augite.
It is of a fine compact texture, of a dark-
green, gray, or black colour, and usually
occurs in regular columns, of which the Giants’
Causeway and the Island of Staffa furnish
magnificent examples. It is fusible; and when
rapidly cooled forms a dark brittle glass; but
when slowly cooled retains its original beauty
and hardness almost unimpaired. Messrs.
Chance, Brothers, of Birmingham, have availed
themselves of this property to apply it to
decorative and ornamental purposes. Their
process is to melt the material” in a rever-
beratory furnace, and, when sufficiently fluid,
to pour it into red-hot moulds of sand encased
in iron boxes. The corresponding adj. is
BASALTTC (-sålt'- ; BASALTICUs, -săl’-, L.;
BASALTIQUE, Fr.).
BASE. [Eng., Fr.] Syn. BA’s Is (pl., baſses),
L., Gr. ; GRUND, GRUNDFLACHE, Ger. In
chemistry, it was formerly, and is now occa-
sionally, applied to metallic oxides which pos-
sess the property of forming salts with acids.
The alkaloids are also designated organic
bases. In pharmacy, the characteristic or
principal ingredient in any medicine or com-
1 Ba'salt—Mayne; a ‘notation’ contrary to that of all
our leading Orthoepists and lexicographers.
* Rowley-rag is used by the Messrs. C.; as beside
ordinary basalt, greenstone, whinstone, and other similar
minerals, possess the same property.
pound preparation; or that on which its quali-
ties or efficacy depends.
BASIL (báz'-). Syn. SweET BAS'II, CIT'RON
B.; BASIL'ICUM, L.; BASILIC, Fr.; BASIL-
IKUM, Ger. The oc'ymum (Ös'-) basil'icum
(Linn.), an annual aromatic herbaceous plant,
of the nat. ord. Labiatae (DC.). It is a mative
of India, but is largely cultivated in every
part of Europe as a pot-herb. Leaves, strong-
scented; popularly reputed emmenagogue;
much used to flavour salads, soups, &c., espe-
cially in French cookery. Mock-turtle soup
derives its peculiar flavour from this herb; as
also did the original Fetter-lane sausages,
once so highly esteemed by Cockney gour-
mands. In India it is commonly employed as
an anodyne, in childbirth.
BASIL (báz'-). Syn. BAs'AN ; BASANE, Fr.
A sheep-skin, tanned; particularly one dressed
on the grain-side, for book-binding.
BASIL'ICON. See CERATES and OINTMENTS.
BASKET (bás'-). Syn. CoPH'INUs (köf'.),
L.; PANIER, CORBEILLE, &c., Fr. ; KORB, Ger.
BASKETs are generally STAINED or COLOURED
with the simple liquid dyes used for straw or
wood; and that, for variegated work, the
twigs, after being carefully peeled, washed,
and wiped dry or slightly air-dried, are stained
before being woven. See OSIERs, &c.
BASSł. [Provin.] The linden-tree ; also a
hassock or mat made of its inner bark. See
BAST.
BAS'SORIN (-Tin). Syn. BASSORI’NA, L.
A substance first noticed, by Vauquelin, in
Bas'sora-gum. See INSOLUBLE GUM, TRAGA-
CANTHINE, &c.
BAST (bāst). Syn. BASS (which see). The
inner bark of the linden-free or tiel-tree, also
matting, &c., made of it.
BAS"TARDS (-tärdz). Syn. BAs'TARD sug’AR
(shöög'-), PIECES, &c. In sugar-refining, im-
pure or damaged sugar resulting from the
heat and chemicals used in the process of ma-
nufacture, and which will not pay for puri-
fying.
BA"SYL (bāse'-il). In chemistry, any simple
or compound body, acting as a basic radical.
BATH (bahth). Syn. BAL/NEUM, L.; BAIN,
Fr. ; BAD, Ger., Sax. A place for bathing;
a vessel or receptacle, natural or artificial, con-
taining or adapted to contain water, and used
to bathe in. In architecture and hygiene, a
building fitted up for, and appropriated to
bathing.
Constr., &c. Here one of the first subjects
which must engage our attention is the selec-
tion of the material of which the bath is to be
formed. For FIXED BATHS polished white
marble has always been in favour, owing to its
cleanliness and beauty. For this purpose,
slabs of sufficient thickness and free from
flaws or cracks should be chosen; and they
should be securely and properly bedded in good
water-tight cement, in a well-seasoned wooden
case. The objections to marble, independent
of its costliness, are, that it is apt to get yellow



BATH.
185
or discoloured, and to lose its polish, by fre-
quent and careless use; and that the restora-
tion of its surface to its original purity, is a
matter of considerable expense and difficulty.
It is also only fitted to contain water with, at
the most, soap, weak alkalies or alkaline car-
bonates, aromatics, or neutral organic prin-
ciples; and cannot be employed with water
medicated, however slightly, with acids, sul-
phurets, iodine, chlorine, salines (others than
those just named), or colorific substances. As
a cheaper material thick slabs of Welsh slate
are often substituted for marble; but even
this substance is attacked by chemicals, though
much more slowly. A liming of large Dutch
tiles is sometimes used; but here the joints
are very apt to leak. For baths adapted to all
the requirements of health and disease, and
which are at the same time durable and com-
paratively inexpensive, we must, therefore,
seek further. Porcelain, glass, and hard-
glazed stone-ware have been proposed, and are
even sometimes used for baths; but they pos-
sess the disadvantages of being fragile, and
very liable to crack when filled with hot water
in cold weather. Wedgewood-ware is very
beautiful and durable; but it is expensive, and
baths formed of it can only be obtained on
special order. Stourbridge-ware, as produced
of late years, is the only product of the potter’s
art, that appears entirely to meet the case;
but even this yields in durability to enamelled
1.
iron as a material for baths adapted to all
liquids and temperatures, and to rough or
careless usage. (See engr. 1.) The better
qualities of PORTABLE BATHS (see engr. 2) are
generally made of copper. Stout tinned or
galvanised iron, and even stout block-tin
thickly covered with waterproof paint or
japan, are also employed; but though less ex-
pensive than copper, they have the disadvan-
tage of being much less durable. All these
substances are, however, readily acted on by
chemicals. A durable and cheap portable bath,
adapted to all purposes, must, therefore, like
a fixed one, be made of one or other of the
materials already noticed. For MED/ICATED
BATHS large wooden troughs are frequently
employed, particularly for acidulated, ioduret-
ted, and sulphuretted baths.
The arrangements for supplying cold and
hot water must necessarily greatly depend on
circumstances, and the quantity required. For
a single FIXED BATH, or even for 2 or 3 of
them, the common circulating water-heater or
boiler, placed in some apartment on a rather
lower level than the bath, is, perhaps, the
most convenient; but where this is not attain-
able the water may be run, by means of a pipe,
from a boiler situated on a somewhat higher
level. In either case a supply of cold water
must also be at hand, and conveyed in a like
manner, to enable the bath to be reduced to
any required temperature. On the large scale,
as in our public baths, where numerous baths
are in constant use during the day, the hot
water is best supplied from a large cistern
somewhere above the level of the bath-rooms,
and which is heated by a coil of pipe supplied
with high-pressure steam from a boiler situ-
ated on a lower level, as the ground-floor or
basement. The hot and the cold water, con-
veyed by separate pipes of about 1% inch dia-
meter, unite in a two-way cock close to the
bath, so as to enter it together, by which only
one aperture in the end of the bath is required
for the purpose. The bath is emptied, and
excess of water removed, by a grated aperture
in the bottom, also stopped by a cock which,
like the former, has handles or keys so placed
as to be accessible to the attendant outside
the bath-room, as well as to the bather; whilst
the danger of overflowing is obviated by a two-
inch waste-pipe, opening into the bath at about
two inches from the top.
For heating portable baths so many plans
are in use, and have been suggested, and even
patented, that the reader cannot possibly be
at a loss for one to suit his particular case. A
small grate for burning charcoal is the one
most commonly adopted; but where attainable,
a ring or cross of small inflamed gas-jets, is
more cleanly and manageable.
When the bath consists of a wooden tub, or
any other deep vessel, a simple and inexpen-
sive apparatus brought out in America, under
the title of the “ITAL'IAN BATH'-WARMER'
(see engr. 3), and made of thin sheet-iron, will
occasionally be found useful.
The situation and the minor details con-
nected with the comfort and convenience of
the bath, must greatly depend on the charac-
ter of the building, and the sum to be devoted
to the purpose. When possible, the bath-room
should always be on the same floor as the bed-
rooms, of easy access to them, and so situated
and arranged, that a plentiful and constant
supply of pure water can be ensured, and the
1 A small cast-iron ‘horse’ with three legs (not shown
in the engr.) to support the ‘warmer’ about 2 inches above
the bottom of the bath-tub, and to keep it steady and
upright, is usually sold with it.


186
BATH.
waste water removed without trouble or incon-
venience. The basement story should always
be avoided; for, as observed by Dr. Ure, there
is a coldness and dampness belonging to it, in
almost all weathers, which is neither agreeable
nor salubrious.
(a.) Bath-tub.
(b.) The larger arm of the warming-tube by which the
charcoal is introduced, and by which the fumes fly off.
(c.) The smaller arm to admit air to support the com-
bustion.
(d) The fire grate, to support the burning charcoal.
The ranges of the temperature of water
appropriate to the respective baths, according
to the common nomenclature, are shown in
the following Table:–
Name. Temperature. Fahr.
Cold bath ........ - - - - - - - 33° to 75°
Temperate bath ......... 75 , 82
Tepid bath ............... 82 , 90
Warm bath............... 90 ,, 98
Hot bath.................. 98 ,, 112
Concluding remarks. The importance, and
indeed, the absolute necessity of frequent per-
sonal ablution, has been already insisted on
and explained. But however important and
beneficial the use of water in this way may be,
the effects arising from the immersion of the
body in that liquid, as in the practice of bath-
ing, are far more extensive and complete.
What the one does usefully but not completely,
the other accomplishes readily, satisfactorily,
and perfectly. There is no absolute succeda-
neum for the entire bath. Its physiological
effects are peculiar to itself, and of the utmost
importance in pathology and hygiène. The
practice of wearing flannel, the daily use of
clean linen, the mere washing of the more ex-
posed parts of the body, are but poor attempts
at cleanliness, without the occasional, if not
frequent, entire submersion of the body in
water. Nor should the action of judicious
bathing in the promotion of personal comfort
and personal beauty be forgotten. Intellectual
and moral vigour are also gradually, but materi-
ally, influenced and promoted by the beneficial
action of bathing on the system; for mind
and conscience being linked to matter in the
‘house we live in,’ become perturbed, or le-
thargic, in almost exact accordance with the
fluctuations of our physical health. The
neglect of bathing in this country is, to us,
an absolute enigma. We are always talking
about health, and continually professing to be
seeking it; but the practical applications of
the principles which we advocate, and the
doctrines which we teach, are, unfortunately,
the exceptions and not the rule.
Our recommendation of bathing applies
chiefly to the warm bath and the tepid bath,
which are alike adapted to the delicate and
the robust, and to every condition of climate
and season. Cold bathing, in this climate, is
only suited to the most healthy and vigorous,
and can only be safely practised during the
warmer months of the year, and in a mass of
water sufficient to permit of the heat of the
body being maintained by swimming or other
active exercise. The plunge and shower baths
are partial exceptions to these remarks;
whilst sea-bathing, for the reasons given else-
where, comes under another category. This
last, “on account of its stimulative and pene-
trating power, may be placed at the head of
those means which regard the care of the skin;
and it certainly supplies one of the first
wants of the present generation, by opening
the pores, and thereby re-invigorating the
whole nervous system.” “Besides its great
power in cases of disease, it may be employed
by those who are perfectly well, as the means
most agreeable to nature for strengthening
the body and preserving the health.” Another
important advantage which sea-bathing has
over bathing in fresh water is, that persons
seldom take cold from indulging in it.
We may add, that for bathing to produce its
best effects, the water should be soft and pure,
and good soap sparingly, but regularly, em-
ployed whenever the skin requires it.
The medical and hygienic properties of baths
are noticed below, under their respective
720,7776S :—
Bath. In chemistry, &c., a vessel or appa-
ratus containing some medium in which the
vessel holding the substance to be heated is im-
mersed, instead of being exposed to the direct
action of the fire; by which means a limited
and uniform temperature may be ensured.
The highest temperature that can be given
to any substance contained in a vessel placed
in another of boiling water, is about 205 or
206°Fahr.; but by adding ºth part of common
salt to the bath, a heat of fully 212° may be
obtained. Baths of fusible metal, saturated
solutions of salt, sand, and (on the large
scale) steam, are also used for the same pur-
pose. A bath of oil may be safely heated to
about 500°Fahr. without suffering decomposi-
tion, and will be found an exceedingly appro-
priate and convenient source of heat in many

RATH. 187
processes. For a Table of Boiling-points, seeſ of fresh ingredients to keep up their
EBULLITION. strength.
Bath. In medicine, the medium in which | Bath, Acid (ás'-). Syn. BAL/NEUM Ac'IDUM
the body, or a part of it, is bathed or im-
mersed, for some object beyond that of mere
personal cleanliness or enjoyment; the compo-
sition, use, or temperature of the medium,
being generally indicated by some epithet, as
in the instances below. When only the last is
pointed out, pure water is, of course, intended
to be used.
Baths are divided by medical writers into
classes, and even minor subdivisions, in a
manner which is more ingenious than useful.
They are said to be SIMPLE, when water or its
vapour forms the bath; and COMPOUND, when
the water or vapour is medicated by the
addition of other substances (COM'POUND
BATHS; BAL'NEA COMPOSITA, L.). The latter
class is also subdivided into THERAPEU'TIC
BATHS (MED/ICATED BATHS ; BAL/NEA MEDI-
CATA, B. THERAPEU'TICA, L.); and NUTRIT/IVE
BATHS (B. NUTRIEN'TLA, B. NUTRI''TIA*, B.
NUTRITO"RIA*, L.). Thus, besides the ordi-
nary water and vapour baths, the medical uses
of which are hereafter noticed, we have WINE’-
BATHS, MILK'-BATHS, SOUP'-BATHS, &c. (used
to convey nourishment, or to sustain the body,
as in occlusion of the oesophagus, certain dis-
eases of the stomach, &c.); CHLO"RINE BATHs,
SUI/PHUROUs B., MERCU"RIAL B., &c. (used in
skin diseases, syphilis, &c.); AROMATIC and
CHALYB'EATE BATHS (employed as tonics); and
ACID BATHS (sometimes used to remove the
effects of mercury).
On the Continent a variety of substances
are employed to medicate baths, which are
seldom or never so used in this country.
The quantity of any medicinal substance used
to medicate a bath, for an adult, may be, in
general, for each gallon of water employed,
about the same as that which is used to form
a half-pint lotion of medium or rather weak
strength. Thus ; taking the quantity of bi-
chloride of mercury to form the lotion at 5
grs., and that of sulphurated potash at # dr.,
the quantity required for a bath of 30 to 40
galls. will be about 2% drs. of the first, and
about 1% oz. of the second of these substances.
Much, however, depends on the nature of the
case, the length of the immersion, the periods
of recurrence, and the intended number of
repetitions. In the case of very active re-
medies it will be safest and best to begin with
less than (say # to #) the quantity thus in-
dicated.
Medicated baths are, in nearly all cases,
taken warm or fully tepid.
*** In the following notices, which are
given as examples, the quantity of the ingre-
dients ordered, when not otherwise indicated,
is that proper for an ordinary full-sized bath
for an adult ; viz., from 40 to 60 galls. Those
which do not contain volatile substances may
be used more than once; and many of them
several times by adding a small quantity
(äs'-), I. See HYDROCHLoRIC, NITRIC, NITRO-
HYDROCHLORIC, and SULPHURIC ACID BATHS
(below). Enamelled, hard-glazed, or wooden
vessels must be used with all of them.
Bath, Air. Syn. BAL/NEUM PNEUMAT'ICUM,
L. :-a. (Cold.) Simple exposure of the body,
in a state of nudity, for a short time to the
atmosphere. Tonic, anodyne, and sedative; in
febrile excitement, nervous irritability and
restlessness accompanied by a quick or full
pulse, &c. Safe and often very effective. It
will frequently induce sleep when all other
means fail.
b. (Hot :—ASSA, A. SUDA'TIO, L.) An apart-
ment to which dry heated air is admitted.
Sometimes the arrangement is such that the
air is not inhaled. Stimulant; sudorific ; more
so than even the vapour bath; produces copious
perspiration, being, indeed, the most powerful
and certain diaphoretic known. It has been
advantageously employed in cholera (for which
its advocates state that it is almost a specific),
congestive fevers, chronic rheumatism, contrac-
tions, stiff joints, paralysis, scaly skin-diseases,
dropsical swellings, and most of the cases in
which the vapour bath is usually employed.
The temperatures are—as a sudorific, 85° to
105° Fahr. ; as a stimulant, 100° to 130°.
When not inhaled it may be often raised,
with advantage, 15° to 25° higher. See
TURKISH BATH.
c. (Compressed.) Recommended, by M.
Tarberie, in aphonia, &c. It has recently
been employed in asthma, phthisis, and some
other like diseases, with extraordinary success,
at Ben Rhydding.
d. (Rarefied.) Applied locally. Revulsive;
resembles DRY CUPPING (which see).
Bath, Alkaline. Syn. AL'KALISED BATH ;
BAL'NEUM ALKALI'NUM, B. ALKALIZATUM, L.
Carbonate of potash (salt of tartar), 3 lb.
In itch, prurigo and chronic skin diseases ac-
companied with dryness and irritation, acute
gout, lithic gravel, scurvy, diarrhoea, &c.
Scotch soda, 1 lb., is sometimes substituted for
the ‘potash;' but is less effective, and is theo-
retically objectionable.
Bath, Alum. Syn. BAL/NEUM ALU'MINIS,
L. Alum (in powder, or previously dissolved
in hot water), # lb. to 13 lb., or even 2 lbs. In
troublesome excoriations, extensive burns, ob-
stinate vesicular eruptions, diarrhoea, &c.; also
in obstinate piles and prolapsus ani. See
ASTRINGENT BATH.
Bath, Ammoniacal. See HYDROCHLORATE
OF AMMONIA BATH (below).
Bath, Animal. Syn. BAI/NEUM ANIMA/LE,
L. The skin or any part of an animal just
killed, wrapped round the body or a limb.
Once much esteemed; now, happily, disused
in this country. -
Bath, Antimo"nial. Syn. BAI/NEUM ANTI-
MonTA'LE, L. Tartar-emetic, 1 to 2 oz. (Sou-



188 BATH.
--
beiran.) In lumbago and certain skin dis-
eases; also as a counter-irritant.
Bath, Antipso"ric. Syn. BAL/NEUM ANTI-
Pso"RICUM, L. See SULPHURETTED BATH
(also others both above and below).
Bath, Aromatic. Syn. BAL/NEUM AROMAT/I-
CUM, L. Balm, chamomile, lavender, mint,
Yosemary, sage, thyme, with any other like
aromatic herbs (at will), of each, a handful,
mixed together and steeped in a (covered) pail
of boiling or very hot water, for an hour, and
then strained, with pressure, into the bath.
Sometimes 2 or 3 oz. of sal-ammonia, a 4 lb. of
alum, or 1 lb. of common salt, is also added.
Occasionally used in cutaneous affections,
chronic rheumatism, diarrhoea, dyspepsia, stiff-
joints, &c.; also in debility arising from loss
of blood, spermatorrhoea, suppressions, hys-
teria, hypochondriasis, &c. -
The AROMATIC VAPOUR BATH is made by
causing the vapour to pass through the herbs.
Bath, Astringent. Syn. BAL/NEUM ASTRIN'-
GENS, L. Prep. (Most.) Alum, (2 to) 4 lbs. ;
dissolve in boiling water; and add, whey, 6 or
8 pailfuls, or q. s. In extensive burns, piles,
prolapsus ani, &c. See ALUM BATH, OAK-
BARK BATH, &c.
Bath, Balsamic. Syn. BAI/NEUM BALSAM'I-
NUM, L. Bordeaua turpentine and tar, of each,
2 lbs. (or of tar alone, 3 to 4 lbs.); hot water,
6 or 7 galls. ; stir continuously until nearly
cold, then add the clear portion to water, q. s.
to form a bath. In mumps, pruriginous dis-
eases of the skin, eczema, impetigo, &c.
Bath, Barèges (Factitious). Syn. BAL/NEUM
BARETGINEN'SE (Factitium), L. Prep.1. Crys-
tallised sulphuret of sodium, 3} oz.: chloride
of sodium, 1% oz. ; gelatine (dissolved), 4 oz.
2. (Trousseau & Reveil.) Dry sulphuret of
potassium, 4 oz. ; water, 16 oz. ; dissolve, and
add the solution to the bath; then further add,
of sulphuric or hydrochloric acid, 3 oz., pre-
viously diluted with water, 8 oz. In itch,
moist skin diseases, chronic diarrhoea, chronic
rheumatism, lead colic, &c. See BALLs,
WATERS, &c. --
Bath, Benzo'ic. Syn. BAI/NEUM BENZO/I-
CUM, L. 1. Benzoin (in powder), 3 lb. ; water
(at 90°) q. s. In irritations, hysteria, hypo-
chondriasis, &c. It is also reputed to be feebly
aphrodisiac.—2. A common warm bath, with a
little powdered benzoin laid on a heated plate
near the bather, so that the fumes may be in-
haled. Slightly soothing or anodyne; in
chronic laryngitis, relaxed uvula, &c.
Bath, Bichlo"ride of Mercury. See MER-
CURIAL BATH.
Bath, Bran. Syn. BAI/NEUM FUR/FURIs, L.
JBran, 5 to 7 lbs. ; boiling waters, 2 or 3 galls. ;
digested together for an hour, or boiled for 15
minutes; the strained liquid being added to
the bath. Emollient; in dry and scaly skin
disease, and to allay itching and surfacial irri-
tation; also to promote suppuration, &c.
Bath, Camphor. Syn. BAL/NFUM CAM'-
PHORE, B. CAMPHORATUM, L. Camphor, 3
or 4 drs, coarsely powdered, and placed on a
plate heated by boiling water, in the bath-
room. Anodyne, anaphrodisiac, and diapho-
retic ; in spasmodic asthma, chronic cough,
relaxation of the uvula, ardor urinae, nervous
irritability, &c.
Bath, Carbonic. Syn. CARBON’IC ACID
BATH ; BAL/NEUM CARBON'ICUM, B. Ac'IDUM
CARBONICUM, L.
1. Carbonic acid gas applied, by means of
a suitable apparatus, to prevent its being
respired. Antiseptic, diaphoretic, and excitant
to the vascular system ; in amenorrhoea,
chlorosis, hysteria, scrofula, cancerous aud
other ulcers (particularly foul ones), &c.
2. Water, at 50° Fahr., charged with the
gas. Powerfully antiseptic and sedative; in
foul ulcers, gangrene, &c.
Bath, Chlo"ride of Ammo"mium. Syn. BAL'-
NEUM AMMO."NII CHLORI’DI, B. AMMO"NIE
HYDROCHLORATIS, L. Sal-ammoniac, 2 to 3 lbs.,
or even 4 lbs. In chronic inflammations, glan-
dular enlargements and indurations, chronic
rheumatism and affections of the joints, leu-
corrhoea, chilblains, frost-bites, &c.
Bath, Chlo"rime. Syn. BAL/NEUM CHIO-
RIN'II, B. CHLORINA'TUM, L. Tepid water
to which a little chlorine has been added.
Antiseptic, stimulant, and subsequently seda-
tive and antiphlogistic ; in itch, foul and gan-
grenous ulcers, chronic liver affections, &c.
Chloride of lime is commonly substituted for
chlorine.
2. (Magendie; Wallace.) Chlorine gas (ob-
tained from salt, 1% oz. ; oil of vitriol and
water, of each, 1 oz. ; and black oacide of man-
gamese, # Oz. to 1 oz.) diluted with air, at a
temperature of 104° to 150°Fahr., and applied,
by means of a suitable apparatus, for 10
minutes to # an hour; every possible precau-
tion being taken to prevent it being inhaled.
In chronic liver affections, gradually and cau-
tiously increasing the ingredients to three
times the above quantity, and decreasing the
dilution with air until the gas is used nearly
pure.
Bath, Cold. Syn. BALNEUM FRIG'IDUM
(-frij'-), FRIGIDA"RIUM, L.; BAIN FROID, Fr.
Water, fresh, saline, or mineral, at a tem-
perature varying from 33° to about 75°; but
usually understood to apply to water between
50° and 70° Fahr. When below 50° it is con-
sidered very cold. At a temperature ranging
from 60° to about 75° it is commonly used by
the healthy and vigorous as a luxury, and for
cleanliness.
“The immediate effects of the cold bath are
a sensation of cold (speedily followed by one
of warmth), contraction of the cutaneous
vessels, paleness of the skin, diminution of


1 A dangerous remedy in careless or unskilful hands; and
even with the experienced, not always free from danger.
The writer of this article once nearly lost his life from a
single inspiration of the gas which accidentally escaped
its proper limits. Terrific spasms of the glottis and a con-
vulsive cough immediately came on, and lasted, with more
or less severity, for nearly 14 hours.
BATH.
189
perspiration, and reduction of the volume of
the body. Shivering, and, as the water rises
to the chest, a kind of convulsive sobbing, are
also experienced. Continued immersion renders
the pulse small, and ultimately imperceptible,
and the respiration difficult and irregular. A
feeling of inactivity succeeds; the joints be-
come rigid and inflexible ; pain in the head,
drowsiness, and cramps, come on ; the tem-
perature of the body falls rapidly ; and faint-
ness, followed by death, ensues.” “Its primary
effects constitute the SHOCK – its secondary
effects, the REACTION or GLOW.” Hence it is
that immersion of the body in water below
about 65° Fahr. cannot be tolerated for any
length of time without such a loss of animal
heat, as frequently to induce highly sedative
and depressing effects, from which the consti-
tution does not readily recover. Water at a
temperature of below about 50° Fahr. can only
be safely used as a plunge-bath. The sedative
effects of sea and mineral waters, is much less
than that of pure water, or of spring or river
water.
The cold bath, medically considered, is tonic,
stimulant and restorative, when judiciously
taken, and when not too long continued or too
often repeated. When beneficial, the patient
feels a pleasant glow on the surface of the body
immediately following it. If a sensation of
coldness or shivering ensues, it acts injuriously,
and should not be repeated. The duration of
the immersion may vary from 2 to 15 minutes,
the precise time depending upon the tempera-
ture of the water, and the feelings of the
bather; the longer period being only proper in
fine weather, and when accompanied by swim-
ming or violent exercise.
As a remedial agent, the cold bath is princi-
pally recommended to increase the tone and
vigour of the system; and is contra-indicated
when there is a tendency to apoplexy, or to
chronic affections, functional or organic, of
the heart, lungs, or kidneys. It should never
be taken when the party feels chilly, languid,
or depressed; or if drowsiness and shivering
follow it.
The temperature of the water of the rivers
and the coasts of England ranges, in summer,
from 55° to 70 or 72° Fahr.
Bath, Douche. See SHOWER-BATH, DOUCHE,
&c.
Bath, Dry. Syn. BAL/NEUM SIC'CUM, L. The
immersion of the body in any dry material,
as ashes, salt, sand, &c. EARTH-BATHING, as
administered by the once notorious quack, Dr.
Graham, was of this kind. In the sudatorium,
or sweating room, of the ancients, the body
was immersed in heated sand.
Bath, Electric. Syn. BAI/NEUM ELEC'-
TRICUM, L. The patient, placed on an insu-
lated stool, is put in contact, by means of a
metallic wire, with the prime conductor of an
electrical machine in action. The surface of
the body is thus rendered electro-positive, and
1 Pereira, “Mat. Med, and Therap,” 4th ed., i, 29.
the surrounding air, by induction, electro-
negative. It has been recommended in chronic
rheumatism, scirrhous tumours, &c.
Bath, Electro-chem'ical (of Dr. Caplin). This
is founded on the supposition that all diseases
arise from the presence of mineral, or other
extraneous morbific matter, in some organ, or
the whole organism, and which is capable of
removal by electrolysis. The patient is placed
in an appropriately arranged voltaic bath, and
there “saturated with the electric fluid.” This
“decomposes everything which is foreign to
the organism, the vital parts being protected
by the law of conservation belonging to every
organic production.” These foreign substances
are said to be thus carried out of the system
by the electric current, and to be “fixed and
plated on the copper in the same way, and ac-
cording to the same law and principle (only
reversed), as in the process of electro-plating.”
Bath, Fecula, Syn. BAL/NEUM AM/YLI, B.
FAEC/ULAE, L. Potato-starch or wheat-starch,
1 to 4 lbs. ; boiling water, q. S. to dissolve. Re-
sembles the BRAN-BATH.
Bath, Ferruginous. Syn. CHALYB'EATE BATH;
BAL/NEUM FERRUGIN'EUM, B. CHALYBEA'TUM,
L. Green sulphate of iron, 1 to 2 lbs. A well-
tinued copper, wooden, or japanned bath, may
be used. In general debility when chalybeates
are indicated, and the stomach will not bear
iron; also in piles and prolapsus. The stains
on the towels used to wipe the patient, may be
removed by at once soaking them in water
acidulated with hydrochloric acid.
2. (Ioduretted.) See BATH OF IoDIDE OF
IRON.
Bath, Foot. Syn. PEDILU'VIUM, L. Warm
(or hot). Revulsive, counter-irritant; in colds,
menstrual and hamorrhoidal suppressions,
rheumatism, stiffness of the ankles, tender
feet, &c. A little common salt, flour of mus-
tard, or sal-ammoniac, is often added to render
it more stimulant, to prevent ‘ taking cold,”
&c. See FEET, &c.
Bath, Gelatinous. Syn. BAI/NEUM GELATI-
No's UM, B. GELATIN’II, L. Gelafºne or fine
Salisbury glue, 3 or 4 lbs. ; dissolved in boiling
water, 2 galls., or q. S.; and added to a warm
bath. At the “Hospital for Cutaneous Dis-
eases’ 8 lbs. of patent size is used for a bath of
30 to 35 galls. Emollient; formerly, but erro-
neously, considered nutritive. Used in skin
diseases; generally combined with sulphur.
See BARAEGES BATH.
Bath, Glycerin (glis/-). Syn. BAI/NEUM
GLYCERIN'II, B. G. COMPOSITUM, L. Glyce-
rin, 2 lbs. ; gum arabic (dissolved), 1 lb. Used
as a soothing emollient, in itching, dryness,
irritation, and hardness of the skin, &c. Where
expense is an object, 3 or 4 lbs. of good honey,
and 1 oz. of salt of tartar, form an excellent
substitute for the glycerin.
Bath, Hem'lock. Syn. BAL/NEUM co’NII, L.
1. Dried hemlock-leaves (or herb), 4 to 6 hand-



2 “Hist. Records of the Electro-chem. Bath,” by Mons.
J. F. J. Caplin, M.D. Baillière, 1860.
190
BATH.
fuls; water, 1 gall.; infuse 2 hours, and strain.
The part to be immersed in, or bathed with,
the warm infusion, observing not to apply it,
if the skin is unsound; or it may be added to
the water of a bath in the usual manner. In
gout, cancer, chronic rheumatism, and certain
skin diseases.
2. (Cut. Hosp.) Erfract of hemlock, 2 oz. ;
starch, 1 lb.; boiling water, 1 gall. ; dissolve.
For a bath of about 30 galls. As the last.
Bath, Hip. Syn. Cox ELU'VIUM, L. Usually
warm; sometimes fully warm, or somewhat
hot. In inflammatory, spasmodic, and chronic
affections of the abdominal and pelvic viscera;
in suppressed and painful menstruation, hae-
morrhoids, strangury, prolapsus, ischuria, &c.;
also as a substitute for a full bath, when this
last is contra-indicated by some affection of the
lungs, heart, brain, or great vessels. Like full
baths, it may be often advantageously medi-
cated. See BIDET.
Bath, Hot. Syn. BAL/NEUM CAL'IDUM, CAL-
I)A’’RIUM., L.; BAIN CHAUD, Fr. Usual tem-
perature, 98° to 106°Fahr.
The hot bath has a remarkably tranquillising
effect upon the nervous system, producing a
strong tendency to quietude and sleep. It
also acts as a powerful antispasmodic, and by
determining the blood to the surface of the
body, tends to relieve visceral inflammation
and congestion. In chronic affections arising
from the action of cold and damp and from
exhausted energy, in stiff joints, rheumatism,
neuralgia, diarrhoea, and numerous other affec-
tions, its effects are often rapid and remarkable.
At higher temperatures it strongly stimulates
the arterial system, and arouses nervous energy
and vital action, producing excessive excite-
ment and turgescence, followed by copious
perspiration, which has been often found suc-
cessful in cholera, paralysis, &c. If the im-
mersion be too long continued, or the bath be
injudiciously employed, lassitude, debility, and
somnolency ensue, and the good effect of the
bath is more or less lost. In these cases
violent throbbing and painful distension of the
vessels of the head, with a distressing feeling
of suffocation and anxiety, are premonitory
symptoms of impending apoplexy, an accident
which sometimes, though seldom, follows its
improper use.
Bath, Hydrochlo"rate of Ammonia.
CHLORIDE OF AMMONIUM BATH.
Bath, Hydrochlo"ric Acid. Syn. MURIAT'Ic
ACID BATH ; BAL/NEUM HYDROCHLo"RICUM,
See
B. ACIDUM H., B. MURIAT'ICUM, &c., L. Com-
mercial hydrochloric acid, 1 to 3 lbs. (in chronic
liver affections); or 3 to 6 fl. oz. (in prurigo
and lichen).
Bath, Hydrosul/phuretted. Syn. BAL/NEUM
HYDROSULPHURE'TUM, L.-1. A tepid sulphu-
retted bath with the addition of hydrochloric
acid, 2 or 3 fl. drs., immediately before immer-
sion. In rheumatism, chronic skin diseases,
hooping-cough, and certain forms of paralysis:
–2. A tepid bath to which 3 to 6 fl. oz. of
(liquid) hydrosulphate of ammonia is added
immediately before use. Used as the last. It
often acts almost as a specific in hooping-cough
and certain breath-ailments.
Bath, I'odide of Iron. Syn. BAL/NEUM
FER/RI IODI’DI, L. Prep. (Pierquin.) Iodide
of iron, 4 oz. to 2 oz. In amenorrhoea, leu-
corrhoea, chlorosis, scrofula, &c.; gradually in-
creasing the quantity of the iodide until 4 oz.,
or more, is used for a bath.
Bath, I'odine. Syn. BAL'NEUM IODIN 'II, L.:
—1. Iodine, 3 to 5 drs. ; dry siliceous sand, 2
oz. ; triturated together until reduced to fine
powder, and then agitated with the water of
a tepid bath for 10 or 15 minutes:–2. (Cutan.
Hosp.) Iodine, 4 drs. ; liquor of potassa, 4 oz. ;
water, 2 pints; dissolve; for a bath of 30 galls.
In skin diseases complicated with scrofula,
glandular enlargements, amenorrhoea, &c.
Bath, Io'duretted. Syn. IO'DURATED BATH,
I'ODISED B., COMPOUND IODINE-B., &c.; BAL'-
NEUM IoDURETUM, B. IoDURATUM*, B. Po-
TAS"SIL SUPERIODI’DI, &c., L. Lugol, the
leading authority on this subject, employs this
bath of the different strengths, &c., shown in
the following Tables —
a. For ADULTS:—
or - - Iodide of Water for fib
Degree. Iodine. Pºiº. a ‘. e
dr. dr. gal.
I 2 to 2% 4 to 5 50
2 2 , 3 4. , 6 60
3 3 , 3% 6 , 7 75
b. For CHILDREN :—
- Iodide of
Age. Iodine. ºil. Water.
gr. gr. gal.
4 to 7 30 to 36 60 to 72 9
7 , 11 48 , 72 96 , 144 18
11 , 14 72 , 96 || 144 ,, 192 31 .
*** The dry ingredients of the first Table
are to be dissolved in a pint of water, and of
the second, in ; pint of water, before adding
| them to the bath.
In scrofulous affections and the other cases
in which the external use of iodine or the

BATH.
191
iodides is indicated. Enamelled ware, stone-
ware, or wooden vessels must be employed.
Bath, Lime. Syn. BAL/NEUM CUM CAL'CE,
L. Lime, 3 lbs. ; slaked, and added to the
bath. In gout, lithic diathesis, itch, &c. See
WAPOUR BATH." -
Bath, Mercu"rial. Syn. ANTISYPHILIT'IC
BATH ; BAL/NEUM MERCURIA/LE, B. HYDRAR'-
GYRI BICHLORI’DI, B. ANTISYPHILIT/ICUM,
&c., L. ; BAIN MERCURIEL, B. ANTISYPHI-
LITIQUE, &c., Fr. Bichloride of mercury, in
fine powder, 1 to 3 drs. ; hot water, 1 pint;
agitate together until solution is complete,
before adding them to the bath, the ‘water’ of
which (contained in an enamelled or wooden
vessel) must be soft (rain) and pure. At the
“Cutan. Hosp. hydrochloric acid (=}rd the
weight of the chloride), is commonly added;
and at the ‘Fr. hospitals, an equal, or rather
more than an equal weight, of sal-ammoniac.
These additions facilitate the solution of the
chloride, and retard its decomposition by any
slight impurity in the water forming the bath.
Uses, &c. In syphilitic affections, either
with or without skin disease; in chronic rheu-
matism, swelled joints, and chronic skin dis-
eases generally, where the use of mercury is
indicated, and the remedy is rejected by the
stomach; especially in these affections in wo-
men and children (for the last, proportionately
reduced in strength and quantity). Also used
in itch, and to destroy pediculi on the body.
Bath, Met'al. See BATH (in Chemistry),
FUSIBLE METAL, &c.
Bath, Mud. Syn. BAL/NEUM LU'TEUM, B.
LUTI, L. Mud-bathing (ILLUTA'TION) was
common among the ancients. The slime of
rivers, and the mud on the sea-shore, were
especially prized for this purpose. The Tartars
and Egyptians still employ baths of this de-
scription in hypochondriasis, scrofula, and
scurvy. At Franzenbad, in Germany, an acidu-
lous species of black bog-earth found there, is
beaten up with warm water to a semi-liquid
consistence, and used as a bath. This is said
to render the skin satin-like and soft; and to
be useful in debility, and in paralytic affections
of a gouty origin. In France, hot dung (DUNG
BATH) is occasionally used in rheumatism; and
in Poland, in syphilis. The husk of grapes
and the refuse of olives, after undergoing a
partial fermentation, have been successfully
employed in France against acute rheumatism."
Bath, Muriat'icº. See HYDROCHLORIC ACID
BATH.
Bath, Mus’tard. Syn. BAL/NEUM SINA/PIs,
L. :-1. Flour of mustard, 2 lbs., warm water, 1
gall.; make a thin soup; in fifteen minutes pour
it into a coarse linen bag or cloth, and press
out the liquid, which is to be stirred up with
the bath. In cholera, diarrhoea simulating
cholera, &c.; also to cause reaction; the
patient remaining in the bath until a some-
what painful sense of burning and irritation
is experienced:—2. Flour of mustard, 3 to 8
1 Mérat and De Lens, “Dict, Univ. de Mat. Méd.”
oz. ; as before. Used as a gentle stimulant
to excite the skin, and promote its healthy
action, &c.
Bath, Nitro-hydrochlo"ric. Syn. Ac'ID
BATH] (as'-), NITRO-MURIAT’IC B.*, N. A. B.";
BAL/NEUM NITRO - HYDROCHLo"RICUM, B,
Ac'IDI (äs'-), B. A. NITRO-HYDROCHLo"RIC1,
B. A. NITRO-MURIAT/IGI*, &c., L. :-1. Water
slightly acidulated with the acid, so that its
sourness to the taste is about that of common
vinegar. According to Ainslie, 1 oz. of acid
is sufficient for 1 gall. of water.” Other for-
mulae in use are—
2. (Cutan. Hosp.) Nitric acid, 1} lb.: hydro-
chloric acid, 1 lb.; for a bath of 60 to 70 galls.
3. (Soubeiran.) Nitro-hydrochloric acid, 4
to 16 fl. Oz.; according to the case.
4. (Dr. Scott.) Nitric acid, 2 fl. Oz.; hydro-
chloric acid, 3 fl. oz. ; water, 5 fl. oz. ; mix.
1% to 2 fl. oz. to each gall. of water for a
general bath; 3 fl. oz. to the gall, for a foot,
knee, or sponge bath.
Uses, &c. In its weaker forms, in skin-
diseases depending on disordered liver; in
others, chiefly in liver complaints, and to re-
lieve the pain on the passing of gall-stones.
It must be contained in an enamelled or wooden
vessel, and may be used as a hip, knee, or foot-
bath; a knee-bath being the one generally
adopted in England. Dr. Scott, of Bombay,
who first brought this bath into notice, once
plunged the Duke of Wellington up to his
chin in one, in India, and thus cured him of a
severe hepatic affection. In its stronger form
it causes tingling and pricking of the skin,
and a peculiar taste in the mouth, and affects
the gums and salivary glands, often producing
plentiful ptyalism, without which, indeed, its
advocates regard its action as incomplete.
Time of application, 15 to 20 minutes daily,
for a fortnight or three weeks; and after-
wards, every second or third day.
Bath, Oak-Bark. Syn. BAL/NEUM QUER'cús
B. QUER/CI, L. Oak-bark, 3 or 4 handfuls for
a child; 10 to 15, for an adult; made into a
decoction, and strained with pressure into the
bath. In haemorrhoids, prolapsús, leucorrhoea,
hernia, diarrhoea, ill-conditioned and bleeding
ulcerations, &c. Drs. Elaesser, Eberle, and
Fletcher, have successfully employed it in the
intermittents of infancy and childhood, tabes
mesenterica or scrofula, &c. It has also
proved useful in phthisis.
Bath, Oil. Syn. BAL/NEUM ol. EO's UM, L.
Olive or other oil (hot), strongly aromatised
with the oils of cassia, cloves, nutmegs, cedron,
and juniper; and digested for a week on am-
beryris and vanilla, of each (bruised), about
10 grs. to the gallon. Used, in the East, to
anoint the body, as a preservative against
the plague and other contagious diseases;
also as a full bath or hip-bath, the immersion
being for 15 to 30 minutes.
Bath, Pneumatic. See AIR BATH.
Bath, Saline' (Gelatinous). Syn. BAL/NEUM
* “Ilſat. Med. Indica,” ii, 340. -





192
BATH.
SALI/No-GELATINo's UM, L.; BAIN DE PLOM-
BIšREs, Fr. Prep. Common salt and Flan-
ders glue, of each 2 lbs. ; water, 1 gall. ; dis-
solve separately, and add the solutions to the
bath. In scrofula, &c.
Bath, Salt. See SALINE BATH, SEA BATH,
&c.
Bath, Sand. Syn. BAL/NEUM ARE/NAE, L.;
BAIN DE SABLE, Fr. See BATH (in Chemistry),
DRY BATH, &c.
Bath, Sand. Syn. BAL/NEUM MARI'NUM, L.;
BAIN MARIN, Fr. Immersion in the sea or
in recent sea-water (temperate, tepid, warm,
or hot). Owing to the saline matter which it
contains, it possesses stimulant, alterative, and
resolvent properties, superadded to those of
pure water at the corresponding temperature.
When taken, in summer, on our coasts, the
reaction and glow follow more speedily and
certainly than after a common water bath; and
it may be taken with greater safety, and for a
longer period. It often proves very service-
able in diseases accompanied with debility, in
phthisis, scrofula, glandular enlargement, &c.
A warm or hot sea-water bath is one of the
most restorative imaginable; often removing
the effects of fatigue and exposure — ex-
haustion, stiff joints, cramps, rheumatism, &c.
—like a charm. See BATH (above), WATERS,
&c.
Bath, Sea (Factitious). Sym. BAL/NEUM
MARI'NUM FACTI’TIUM, L. Artificial sea-
water, or rather a substitute for sea-water,
for this purpose, is commonly prepared by
adding about 3% of common salt to ordinary
water." The following are, however, more
serviceable imitations:—
1. As above, with the addition of 1 dr. of
Žodide of potassium to every 3 or 4 galls. of
water.
2 (Cutan. Hosp.). Common salt, 8 lbs. ; sul-
phate of magnesia, 2 lbs. ; chloride of calcium,
11b. ; water, 50 to 60 galls.
3. Salt, a handful; water, a pailful; flour of
Anustard, 1 oz. For a foot-bath.
Bath, Show'er. Syn. IM-
PLU"VIUM, BAL/NEUM PEN'-
STLE, &c., L.; DOUCHE, Fr.
Similar in its effects to the
cold bath or plunge-bath;
but without many of its
advantages. It is less
alarming to nervous per-
sons, and less liable to
produce cramp, than im-
mersion in cold water;
whilst the reaction or glow
follows more speedily and
certainly. It is considered
the best and safest mode of
cold bathing, and is often
highly serviceable in ner-
1 Or (say) for small quantities—
1} oz. to the quart;
5 oz. to the gallon.
And for large quantities, as a full bath—
2 lbs. to every 7 gallons.
vous affections. A good plan is to allow the
water to remain in the bedroom all night,
by which any undue degree of coldness is
removed. Tepid water may be commenced
with ; and at first, in extreme cases, the
patient may stand in hot or warm water at the
time of taking the bath. The reaction follow-
ing its use is greatly promoted by friction of
the surface with dry rough towels.
Bath, Soap. Syn. BAL/NEUM SAPO'NIS, L.
White soap, 2 to 3 lbs. ; water, 3 quarts; dis-
solve by heat, and add it to a warm bath. De-
tergent, lubricating, and discutient; in itch
and other skin diseases, &c. . . .
Bath, Spon"ging (spinje'-). This title ex-
plains itself. In the sponging bath exercise
and ablution are combined, and its employ-
ment by persons of sedentary habit is highly
advantageous.
Bath, Sulphur. Syn. BAL/NEUM SUI/PHU-
RIs, L. 1. Flowers of sulphur, to 1 lb. ;
water, a pailful; mix, agitate occasionally for
12 to 24 hours, and then add the whole to an
ordinary bath. Useful in various mild, but
obstinate, skin diseases. Its occasional em-
ployment, even in health, seldom fails to ren-
der the skin soft, smooth, and delicate. Soap
may be used with it.
2. (Compound; B. S. COMPOSITUM, L.)—a.
(Cutan. Hosp.) Precipitated sulphur, 2 \\\s.;
hyposulphite of soda, # lb.; water, \, ga\\.; Öis-
solve, and add of sulphuric acid, 1 dr. One
pint to every 30 galls. of water. In various
skin diseases (see below).
b. See SULPHURETTED BATH.
Bath, Sulphurous. Syn. SUI/PHUROUs ACID
BATH ; BAL/NEUM SULPHURO'SUM, B. SUL'-
PHURISj, L. From sulphur, oz., sprinkled
on a hot plate placed under or near the pa-
tient; the proper precautions being taken as
directed under CHLORINE BATH. In itch,
lepra, psoriasis, &c. Cleanly, but seldom used,
chiefly on account of the number of baths re-
quired to prove serviceable. See SULPHURET-
TED BATH.
Bath, Sulphuretted. Syn. BAI/NEUM SUL-
PHURE'TUM, B. SULPHURA'TUM, B. su LPHU”-
REUM, &c., L.; BAIN SULFURá, &c., Fr. 1.
Sulphurated potash, 1 oz. ; for every 10 or
12 galls. of water employed. Sometimes sul-
phurated soda, or (in the Ger. hosp.) sulphu-
rated lime, is the sulphur-salt employed. } dr.
of sulphuric acid is also occasionally added to
the bath; but this increases its foetor, without
adding much, if anything, to its curative
power; whilst, without care, the evolved gas
may impede respiration. -
2. (Gelatinous; GELAT'INO-SUL'PHUROUs B.;
B. S. GELATINO'SUM, L.). Flanders glue, 1% to
2 lbs. ; dissolved and added to a ‘sulphuretted
bath.' Recommended, by Dupuytren, as a
substitute for the ‘Barèges bath.’
Obs. The sulphur or sulphuretted bath,
under any of its forms, is a powerful remedy
in almost every description of skin disease.
Leprosy, the most obstinate of all, has been

BATH.
193
completely cured by it ; the common itch re.
quires only one or two applications to eradi-
cate it entirely; all the scurfy and moist skin-
affections, local irritation, pimples, inflamma-
tory patches, &c., speedily yield to its influence;
scrofula, and, indeed, all those affections in
which the warm or vapour bath is serviceable,
also derive powerful assistance from the sul-
phur bath.
Bath, Temperate.
RATUS*, L.
Bath, Tep'id. Syn. BAL'NEUM TEP'IDUM,
B. EGEI/IDUM, TEPIDA"RIUM, L.; BAIN
TIEDE, &c., Fr. Approaches the warm bath in
its hygiènic and medical properties; and is, per-
haps, the one best adapted for the mere purposes
of personal cleanliness. In the spacious public
tepid baths of London, swimming may be
safely indulged in, even in cold weather.
Bath, Tum'ble. An obsolete form of the
shower bath.
Bath, Turkish. Syn. BAL/NEUM TUR/CICUM,
L. A hot vapour bath or sweating bath, with
massing or shampooing, ending with a warm
bath or warm ablutions and friction. The
EGYPTIAN, PERSIAN, and RUSSIAN BATHS, are
essentially similar. In the ANGLO-TURKISH
BATH, recently introduced to this country, hot
dry air wholly takes the place of vapour. See
AIR BATH (antè).
Bath, Turpentime. Syn. BAL'NEUM TERE-
BINTHINA’TUM, L. Prep. (Dr. T. Smith.)
Camphine (rectified oil of turpentine), 3 to #
pint; Scotch soda, 2 lbs.; oil of rosemary, dr. ;
for an adult. It calms the pulse, softens the
skin, and renders the perspiration freer.
Bath, Wa'pour. Syn. DEw'-BATH"; BAI'-
NEUM VA'PORIS, B. Ro"RIS+, AS's A SUDA'TIO,
A. WAPORATIO, WAPORA"RIUM*, L.; BAIN DE
VAPEURS, Fr. The vapour of hot water, either
pure or medicated.
The simplest form of vapour bath is, per-
haps, produced by placing some wet cloths, or
sprinkling a little water, on two or three heated
bricks, laid under a chair on which the pa-
tient is seated; both the patient and whole
apparatus being covered with a sheet or
blanket, or, better still, a spacious waterproof
cloak, to keep in the heated vapour. A large
lump of quick-lime, set in a pan or an old iron
pot and sprinkled with a little water, or else
wrapped up in a thick coarse towel which has
been previously soaked in water, may be sub-
stituted for the hot bricks; and often advan-
tageously so. The slaking of the lime, and
the consequent evolution of vapour, may be
kept up or renewed, when necessary, by sprink-
ling on a little more water. This forms the
“POOR MAN’s WAPOUR BATH" of the French.
Dr. Serres has suggested, as something appa-
rently orginal, that—a lump of quick-lime,
wrapped in a wet cloth, and covered with a
dry one, be placed on each side of the patient;
1 “In bed” (!) says the Dr. ; but surely one who could
only afford such a bath, would find it difficult to obtain a
fresh, dry bed; whilst it would be equally improper for
him to lie in a wet or damp one.
Syn. BAL/NEUM TEMPE-
and the whole being covered up, allowed to
remain until copious perspiration is estab-
lished. It must, however, be recollected, that
by none of these minor contrivances, can the
temperature of the vapour, and its supply, be
regulated, as in a perfect bath, even a portable
one, such as is shown in the engraving.
The following are the temperatures, &c., of
this bath :”—
Temperature of Vapour, Fahr.
Not breathed.
96° to 106°
Breathed.
Tepid vapour bath 90° to 100°
Warm 25 100 , 110 || 106 , 120
Hot 25 110 , 130 | 120 , 160
Uses, &c. It is one of the most powerful
diaphoretics known, and is almost specific in
nearly all those cases wherein warm or hot
bathing proves advantageous. It is one of
the most certain agents existing in cases of
chronic rheumatism, contracted muscles and
tendons, stiffness of joints, indurations, dysen-
tery, diarrhoea, suppressions, &c. Instances
are numerous, in which the lame have thrown
aside their crutches, and the bedridden have
again mixed with the world, after a few appli-
cations of this bath. It is no uncommon
thing to hear a patient start and shriek with
agony before entering the bath, and to receive
his congratulations and thanks on his coming
out. They often exclaim—“It is wonderful.
I could not have believed it !”
Bath, Warm. Syn. BAL/NEUM CAI/IDUM, B.
CALID'ULUM, B. THERMA'LE, THERM'A, &c., L.,
BAIN THERMAL, B. CHAUD, &c., Fr. A bath
at a temperature equal, or nearly equal, to that
of the human body.
The sensations attendant upon immersion in
a warm bath are most delicious. Its first effect
is to increase the circulation of the blood, and
to determine it to the skin. After a few mi-
nutes an agreeable and universal increase of
heat is experienced; the face and head are
* The temperatures of baths given here, and previously,
are those now generally adopted in the profession. See
Dr. Forbes’s “Cycl. of Prac. Med.,” v. i., 265; Pereira’s
“Mat. Med.,” i, 17; &c.
3 Culverwell “On Baths and Bathing.”

194
BATHING—BEAD.
generally soon bedeved with perspiration; a
pleasing and prevailing calm, both mental and
physical, follows; and after remaining in it
some 12 or 15 minutes the effect is of the
most refreshing and happy character.
The idea that the warm bath is relaxing, is
erroneous. It is only so where persons remain
in it too long, or take it too frequently. Nor
are those who indulge in it more liable to take
cold than others. On the contrary—they are
less liable, unless they wilfully expose them-
selves, insufficiently clad (particularly about
the neck and chest), to draughts of cold air."
As a remedial agent, the warm bath is adapted
to general torpor of the system, liver and
bowel complaints, hypochondriasis, hysterical
affections, morbid suppressions, dryness of the
skin, nearly all cutaneous and nervous dis-
eases, chronic rheumatism, &c. As a tonic or
stimulant after excessive fatigue, great mental
excitement, or physical exertion, it is un-
equalled, and furnishes one of the most whole-
some, and at the same time luxurious sources
of refreshment we are acquainted with. “To
those who are past the meridian of life, who
have dry skins, and begin to be emaciated, the
warm bath for half an hour, twice a week, I
believe to be eminently serviceable in retard-
ing the advances of age.” (Darwin.) The
healthy longevity of the late Duke of Wel-
lington, after a period of exposure and trials
equal to the entire life of many individuals,
has been by some, and we think correctly,
mainly attributed to the free and constant use
of the warm bath. See BATH (antë), &c.
Bath, Waſter. Syn. BAL/NEUM A'QUAE, B.
AQUO'SUM, B. MA"RIAE, B. MA"RIs, L.; BAIN-
MARIE, Fr. A water bath; in chemistry and
cookery, applied to a bath of hot or boiling
water. See BATH (in chemistry), BAIN-
MARIE, &c. .
BATHING (båthe'.). See BATH.
BATH METAL. A species of brass having
the following composition :-
1. Zinc, 3 parts; copper, 16 parts; melted
together under charcoal.
2. Fine brass, 32 parts; spelter, 9 parts;
See BRASS and ALLOYS.
BATH PIPE. See PIPE.
BATHS and WASH'-HOUSES. See. BATH.
BATTER. Ingredients beaten together so
as to form a semi-fluid mass. In cookery, a
semi-fluid paste, which becomes hard in dress-
ing, formed of flour, and milk or water, or a
mixture of them, enriched and flavoured with
eggs, butter, and (frequently) spices, currants,
&c., at will. Used for frying vegetables, fil-
lets, &c., and as a material for fritters and
pancakes; also to form puddings, which are
either baked alone, or under meat; and to
1 We have been for many years accustomed to take
baths at 98° to 100° Fahr., in all weathers and seasons,
even during our severest winters, and on leaving the bath
have often been engaged, for hours, moving about in the
open air, even until midnight, without ‘ catching cold,” or
the slightest inconvenience. However, we do not recom-
mend others to follow our practice without due care.
cover various articles during the operation
of cooking them. Miss Acton gives the fol-
lowing formulae:–1. (For the Frying-pan.)
Butter, 2 oz. ; boiling water, (nearly) # pint;
mix, and stir in, gradually, of cold water,
# pint; when quite smooth, mix it by degrees,
very smoothly with fine dry flour, # lb. ; add-
ing (for fruit) a small pinch of salt (but more
for meat or vegetables); just before use, stir
in the whites of two eggs (or the white and
Ayelk of one—and fry until light and crisp.
In humble cookery, the eggs may be omitted.
2. (Por Puddings.) Eggs (yelk and white),
about 4 in no.; flour, 3 lb. ; milk, q. s.
Obs. When fruit, &c., are added, the batter
must be made thicker than when none is
used, to prevent it sinking. When suffi-
ciently dressed it should cut smoothly and
not stick to the knife. Eggs increase its
firmness.
BATTERY. In frictional electricity, a series
of Leyden jars so arranged as to admit of
being charged and discharged together. See
ELECTRICITY, &c.
Battery. In electro-chemistry, galvanism,
&c., a pair, or series of pairs, of ‘excited’
metallic plates, so arranged as to actin unison,
producing an electrical current by chemical
decomposition.
Baume Nerval. See OINTMENTS.
BAUME (Baumé). See AREOMETER.
BAY. See SWEET BAY.
BDEL/LIUM (dèl’-yūm).
name of two gum-resins:—
Bdellium African. Syn. BDELLIUM AFRI-
CA'NUM, L. From the heudola'tia africa'na
(Guillem.), a terebinthaceous tree, of Senegal.
Bdellium Indian. Syn. IN’DIAN MYRRH,
FALSE. M.; BDELLIUM (of Scripture); BDEL-
LIUM IN'DICUM, L. From am/jris com-
miph'ora (Roxb.), or balsamoden'dron R0a:-
burgii, a terebinthaceous tree of India.
Prop., &c. Once considered slightly deob-
struent ; sometimes used as a pectoral and
emmenagogue, and, externally, as a stimulant
and suppurative. It is now seldom met with
in this country.
BDELLOMETER (dēl-). Syn. MECHAN'ICAL
LEECH ; BDELLOM’ETRUM, L.; BDELLOMETRE,
Fr. In surgery, a contrivance combining the
principle of the cupping-glass, scarificator,
and exhausting-syringe, in one small instru-
ment.
BEAD (bède). Syn. GLOB'ULUS, SPHER/ULA,
&c., L.; GRAIN (de collier), &c., Fr. ; BETHE,
PERLE, &c., Ger. A little ball or spheroid
pierced for stringing; any very small globular
bodyf; a bubble (f or tech.). A number of
the first mounted on a thread or ribbon form
a ‘string of beads’ or ‘chaplet.’
Materials, Manuf., &c. Beads are often
formed of coral, gems, jet, pearls, porcelain,
rock-crystal, &c.; but much more frequently
of white and coloured glass. The mode in
which these last are produced is as follows:–
Glass tubes, appropriately ornamented by co-

The commercial

BEADS—BEADING.
195
lour, reticulation, &c., are drawn out in various
sizes, and from 100 to 200 feet in length.
These tubes are cut into two-feet lengths,
and then, by means of a steel knife, divided
into pieces having, as nearly as possible, the
same length as diameter. The resulting small
fragments or cylinders are next well stirred
with a mixture of sand and wood-ashes, in
order to prevent the closure of the perfo-
rations and their adhering together during the
subsequent part of the process. They are
then placed in a revolving cylinder and gra-
dually heated until they become sufficiently
spherical. They are next sifted from the sand
and ashes, sorted into sizes, first by means of
sieves, and afterwards by hand, and are lastly,
either put up in weighed parcels or strung
by women and children for the market.
The manufacture of coral, gems, jet, and
minerals generally, into beads, belongs to the
lapidary.
Uses. Chiefly to form necklaces, bracelets,
and other articles of personal ornament; by
'milliners, to decorate head-dresses, &c.; and for
other like purposes. They are also employed
among Catholic and Mohammedan nations
for devotional purposes; and among savage
tribes in lieu of money. They are still some-
times worn as amulets. See BUGLE, CORAL,
GLASS, PASTE, PEARLs, &c. (also below).
Beads, Jum’ble (bědz). The dried seeds of
a'brus precatór'ius (Linn.) or Jamaica wild
liquorice. Hard and indigestible; accounted
cephalic and ophthalmic by the vulgar.
Beads, Lovi's. Syn. SPECIF'IC-GRAv'ITY
BEADS. Small “hollow spheres of glass' care-
fully adjusted and numbered, in sets, intended
to supersede the hydrometer in determining
the density of fluids. They are used by drop-
ping them into the liquid, in succession, until
one is found that exhibits indifference as to
buoyancy, and will float under the surface at
any point at which it may be placed. The
number on this ball indicates, in thousandths,
the sp. gr. sought. They are particularly
serviceable in the hurry of the commercial
laboratory, and have the advantage of being
applicable to very small quantities of liquid;
but their use, of course, requires the same
precautions, and the results obtained the same
corrections for deviations from the normal
temperature, as with other instruments. See
HYDROMETER, SPECIFIC GRAVITY, &c.
Bead. Syn. BEAD/ING!. In architecture,
cabinet-work, &c., any small moulding or con-
tinued projection of which the vertical section
is semicircular.
Bead (of Liquors). [Tech..] The small bright
iridescent bubbles, possessing some slight
degree of permanence, which form on the sur-
face of alcoholic liquors of sufficient strength,
when agitated. See ALCOHOLOMETRY, PROOF,
&c. (also below).
BEAD'ING. In the liquor-trade, anything
added to commercial spirits to cause them to
carry a ‘bead’ and to hang in pearly drops
about the sides of the glass or bottle when
poured out or shaken. The popular notion
being that spirit is strong in proportion as it
‘beads,’ the object is to impart this property
to weak spirit, so that it may appear, to the
eye, to be of the proper strength. Various
formulae are current among the ‘knowing
ones’ of the trade, most of which are unscien-
tific, and many of them absolutely ineffective.
The following are those now usually em-
ployed:—
Prep. 1. Oil of sweet almonds and oil of
witziol, of each, 1 oz. ; rub them together in a
glass, porcelain, or wedgewood-ware mortar or
basin, adding, by degrees, of crushed lump-
sugar, 2 oz.; continue the trituration until the
mixture becomes pasty, then add, gradually,
sufficient rectified spirit (strongest) to render
the whole perfectly liquid; pour it, into a
quart bottle, and wash out the mortar twice,
or oftener, with a little fresh spirit, until about
1 pint of rectified spirit has been employed,
adding the washings each time to the bottle;
lastly, cautiously shake the bottle (loosely .
corked) until admixture appears complete, and
then set it aside in a cool place. For use, this
compound (after agitation) is thrown into a
two-gallon can or measure, which is then filled,
from a tap, with the spirit to be ‘beaded,’
when the whole is thrown into the cask, and
the measure washed out by refilling it and re-
turning it two or three times; after which the
contents of the cask are well “rummaged up.”
Gin is usually “fined’ a few hours afterwards;
but it is better not to add the ‘finings’ for
two or three days. Other spirits are allowed
to become “fine’ by simple repose.—According
to Mr. Hartley, and others, this quantity is
“sufficient for 100 galls. of any spirit;” but it
is more commonly used for a puncheon of 80
to 85 gallons.
2. Oil of vitriol, 2 to 3 oz. ; rectified spirit
(strongest), 1 pint; cautiously agitate them
together in a loosely corked quart bottle; in
2 or 3 hours add another pint of rectified
spirit, and again agitate. It will be fit for
use in a week; as before.
3. Sulphuric ether, 3 lb.; strongest rectified
spirit, 1 quart; mix. May be used at once,
as before; but if otherwise, should be kept,
like the last, closely corked, and in a cool place.
4. Soapwort-root (saponaria officinalis),
bruised or rasped small, 1 lb., rectified spirit
and water, of each, gal.; macerate in a corked
jar, with occasional agitation, for 8 or 10 days,
strain with pressure, and, after a few days’
repose, decant the clear portion. Used as
before. -
Obs. The above are not injurious when em-
ployed for ‘beading,' since the quantity em-
ployed is much too small to injure the whole-
someness of the liquor. The fraud consists in
their being used to disguise the presence of 10
to 12% of water, which is thus sold at the price
of spirit. Beyond a certain degree of dilution

they fail, however, to produce the intended
196
BEAKER—BEAR.
effect, the bubbles becoming “soapy,” and with-
out the requisite permanence. The addition
of a little powdered white sugar (; oz. to 1%
oz. per gal.) increases the efficacy of all of
them. This may be dissolved in the water,
£f any is added at the time; but its effect
on the hydrometer must be recollected. See
ALCOHOLOMETRY, GIN, SPIRIT (Management
of), &c.
BEAKER (běke'-). Syn. BEAK’ER-GLASS. In
chemistry, a beaked -
cup or glass, more or
less of the tumbler-
pattern, used to col-
lect precipitates and
to heat liquids in.
BEAL*(bèle). Syn.
BouTON, PUSTULE,
Fr. A pimple or pustule; a small inflamed
tumour.
BEAM (běme). See BALANCE, SCALEs, &c.
BEAM'.T.R.E.E. Syn. WHITE BEAM-TREE.
The ‘pyrus aria' or wild pear. Wood, hard,
compact, and tough; used for axle-trees, naves
and cogs of wheels, &c.
BEAN (béne). [Sax, Eng.] Syn. FA'BA, L.;
FäVE, Fr. ; BOHNE, Ger. The general name
of leguminous seeds, as also of the plants which
produce them; appr., fa'ba vulgár'is (Mönch. ;
vì"cia faba, Linn.) or common GAR'DEN-BEAN,"
phase'olus multiflór'us (Willd.) or SCARLET-
RUNN’ER,” and ph. vulgaris (Sav.), FRENCH
BEAN, KID'NEY-B., or HAR/ICOT (-ko),” with
their varieties, all of which are annuals culti-
wated in our gardens—the first, chiefly for its
seeds—the others, both for their green pods
and ripe seed. The name is also often popu-
larly applied, as an appellative, to the fruit or
seeds of other plants which, in size and ap-
pearance, resemble common beans, as noticed
below.
Those principally cultivated in our gardens
are the SMALL LIS/BON, SAND’WICH, SPAN'ISH,
To KAY', WIND'SoR, and MAz'AGAN (from
north Africa), with almost innumerable sub-
varieties of each. The exquisite perfume of
beans in blossom is referred to by the poet
Thomson:—
“Arabia cannot boast a sweeter gale.”
Preparations including their fragrant principle
are highly prized in modern perfumery.
Qual., &c. The pods eaten in the green
state, properly dressed, are regarded as anti-
scorbutic and wholesome; but are apt to pro-
duce flatulence, unless combined with spices.
In the dried or ripe state they are rather diffi-
cult of digestion, and very apt to distend the
stomach and intestines with wind. This ob-
jection does not exist, to the same extent, to
1 War. B, II orSE'-BEAN (fa'ba equi'na, f mi'nor, &c.,
L.).
* War. a, phase'olus coccin'eus (red-flowered):—8, ph.
albiflor'us (white-flowered).
3 War. a, ph. unic'olor (seeds of one colour):-8, ph.
fascia’tus (seeds striped) or ZE'BRA-STRIPED BEAN :
ph. variega'tus or SPECK'LED BEAN :–6, ph. na'nus or
DWARF'-BEAN.
their use in the form of flour or meal. The
amount of nutritious nitrogenous matter in
beans rather exceeds that in wheat, and inde-
pendently of a disposition to produce consti-
pation in some habits, and being rather less
easy of digestion, they must be considered
nearly as wholesome as that cereal. The Lon-
don millers and bakers use immense quantities
of bean flour to adulterate their flour and
bread. -
Green beans (pods or legumes) are COOKED
by simply throwing them into boiling water,
and simmering them until quite tender; a
‘pinch’ of salt of tartar, or a little common
salt, being usually added to preserve their
green colour. Young and small ones take from
12 to 18 minutes—large or older ones, longer.
The first are merely ‘topped and tailed” with
a knife, before being dressed; the others re-
quire also the side “strings’ to be drawn off,
and to be cut obliquely into pieces of a lozenge
form, or else to be split lengthwise into strips,
and then divided once across. Old ones never
boil tender. Windsor beans, and other ‘shelled
beans,’ take 15 to 30 minutes according to
age. These last are sometimes skinned after
being dressed. All of them are commonly
‘served up,' or eaten, with melted butter. See
LEGUMINOSAE, PULSE, &c. (also below).
Beam, Algaro'ba. See ALGAROBA.
Beam, Earth. American earth-nut.
Beam, French; Horse-bean ; Kidney-bean,
&c. See BEAN (antè).
Composition. (Einhof.)
Kidney Field
beans. beams.
Water . - - 23:0 15-6
Albumenoid bodies. 23-6 11-7
Starch, Sngar, gum, &c.”. 44-7 58-3
Oil and fat . O-7 2.
Husk . - - 7:0 10-0
Salts (ash) . - 1-0 4'4
100 100°
Beam, St. Ignatius’s. The poisonous seed of
the fruit of Igna'ſſia amär'a (Linn.; strjeh'nos
Igna'tii, Berg.), a tree indigenous to the Phi-
lippine Islands.-Prop., Uses, &c. Similar to
those of nux vomica. Contains strychnia
(which see).
BEAR (bare). Syn. UR's Us, L.; OURS,
Fr.; BAR, Ger. ; BERA, Sax. In zoology, a
Cuvierian genus of the ‘plantigrade carnivora,'
of several species, found both in the Old and
New World. Those generally known under
the name are omnivorous or frugivorous.
The skin of the American black bear (ursus
America'nus, Pallas) was formerly highly
prized, and fetched an extravagant price.
The brown bear (u, arc'tos, Linn.) supplies

BEARBERRY-BED.
197
the Kamschatkans, and some other northern
races, with many of the necessaries, and even
the comforts of life. The fat or grease
(BEAR’s GREASE; AD’EPs UR'SI, L.) of all the
common species has long been highly esteemed
for promoting the growth of the human hair;
but apparently without sufficient reason. The
mass of that sold under the name in England
is simply hog's lard or veal fat, or a mixture of
them, variously scented and slightly coloured.
The quantity annually consumed in Great
Britain, and exported, is estimated at many
tons; being a larger quantity than all the
bears at present procurable in Europe would
supply, if slaughtered and stripped of their
fat.
BEAR/BERRY, Bear's Bilſberry, &c.
UVA URSI. .
BEAR'S GREASE. See BEAR (above), HAIR
CoSMETICs, MARROW, PoWMADEs, &c.
BEARD (běerd). [Sax, Eng.] Syn. BAR'BA,
L.; BARBE, Fr. ; BART, Ger., Dan. ; BAARD,
Dut. The hair of the lips and chim; but appr.,
only the last—that on each lip being distin-
guished, in toilet-nomenclature, by a separate
name. In popular botany and zoology, any
beard-like appendage; the “awn” of corn or
grass; the ‘gills’ or breathing organs of
oysters and other bivalves, &c.
BEARD'ED. Syn. BARBATUS, L.; BARBU,
Fr. ; BARTIG, Ger. In anatomy, botany, and
zoology, having a beard, or a beard-like ap-
pendage; prickly, barbed, jagged; awned.
BEA’WER (bé'-) Syn. CAS'TOR, L.; CASTOR,
BIšVRE, Fr. ; BIBER, Ger. The fiber cas'tor
(Linn.), an animal belonging to the rodentia
of Cuvier, and remarkable for the great in-
genuity which it exercises in the construction
of its lodges or habitations. Hab. Europe
and America. Those of the former are bur-
rowers; those of the latter, builders. The
fur has long been employed in the manufac-
ture of the best quality of hats (BEAVER
HATs). The fat was officinal in the Ph. L.
1618. Castor (CASTo"REUM) is obtained from
this animal.
BE'BEERINE (běbe'-Ér-int). Clo H, NO.
[Eng., Fr.] Syn. BI'BIRINE (bé'-bér-in); BE-
BEERI'NA, BIBIRINA, &c., L. A peculiar al-
kaloid, discovered by Dr. Rodie, in the bark
and seeds of the beeberu, bibiri, or green-heart
tree (nectan'dra Rodiae'i, Schomb.), of British
Guiana; and since minutely examined by Mac-
lagan and Tilley, and by Von Planta.
Prep. 1. That of commerce, which gene-
rally contains some sipirine (– ? altered be-
beerine), and a little lime, is generally first
obtained in the form of sulphate, by a process
analogous to that employed in the preparation
of sulphate of quinine; and from this salt it
is precipitated by the addition of ammonia or
an alkali.
2. (Pure.) By precipitating the sulphate
with ammonia, washing the precipitate with
very cold water, and triturating it, whilst still
moist, with fresh hydrated oxide of lead; next
See
drying the mixture by a gentle heat, exhaust-
ing the residuum with alcohol, distilling off
the alcohol, and treating the last residuum
with ether; the ethereal solution on evapora-
tion leaves pure bebeerine, under the form of
a white or yellowish-white, resinous-looking
substance, which is pure white when pow-
dered.
Prop., &c. Amorphous; uncrystallisable;
non-volatile; bitter-tasted; inodorous; un-
alterable in the air; very slightly soluble in
water; very soluble in alcohol; less so in
ether; reaction, alkaline; when quite pure,
melts at 355° Fahr., and on cooling forms a
vitreous or semi-vitreous mass (Winckler); at
a higher temperature it suffers decomposi-
tion; ignited on platinum-foil, it burns with-
out leaving any carbonaceous residue; neu-
tralises acids forming uncrystallisable salts,
most of which are soluble in water.—Prod.
From the bark, 1.5 to 1.75%; dried seed, 2.5%
(nearly).
Use, &c. Bebeeru-bark has been proposed
and occasionally employed as a substitute for
cinchona bark, and bebeerine for quinine, in
the usual cases; but whether as a tonic, febri-
fuge, or antiperiodic, they appear less power-
ful and certain than these last.— Dose. 2 to
12 grs. or more. (See below.)
Sulphates of Bebeerine. Of these there are
two, both of which are obtained in a similar
manner to the Ph. E. formula for sulphate of
quinine, and merely differ in the amount of
acid finally left in combination with the al-
kali:-
1. Sulphate. Syn. NEU'TRAL SULPHATE of
BEBEERINE ; BIBIRI'NAE SUI/PHAs, &c., L.
Easily soluble in water. Contains 86.4% of
bebeerine, and 13.6% of sulphuric acid.
2. Subsulphate. Syn. BAS'Ic suTPHATE OF
BEBEERINE, DISUI/PHATE of B. ; BIBERI'NAE
SUBSUI/PHAs, &c., L. Soluble in alcohol;
sparingly soluble in water unless acidulated.
Contains 90.8% of bebeerine, and 9.2% of sul-
phuric acid. This is the sulphate of bebee-
rine of commerce, and the one usually em-
ployed in medicine. It is generally met with in
thin brownish-yellow scales, which are formed
in a similar manner to those of ammonio-
citrate of iron.—Dose. As a tonic, 1 to 3
grs. ; as a febrifuge or antiperiodic, 5 to 20
grs. ; in similar cases to those in which disul-
phate of quinine is employed.
BECHAMEL (běsh'-à-mêlt). Sym. BáCH-
AMEL, Fr. In French cookery, a fine white
sauce, essentially consisting of concentrated
veal gravy or veal consommé and cream, with
or without flavouring. See SAUCEs.
BECHIC* (-kīk). Syn. BECHOUsł; BE'-
CHICUs (bék/-ī), L.; BáCHIQUE, Fr. ; HUS-
TEND, &c., Ger. In medicine, &c., of or for a
cough; pectoral; also subst., applied to reme-
dies (BECHICS; BE'CHICA, L.) used to relieve
cough.
BED. [Eng., D., Sax.] Syn. LIT, Couch E,



1 Thus as English.
198
BED–BEECH.
Fr.; BETT, &c., Ger.: CUBI'LE, LEC'TUS,
LECTULUS, GRABATUS, &c., L. A couch;
that in or on which we sleep; that on which
anything is generated, deposited, or rests.
[On the connection of BEDs and BEDDING
with comfort and health, see CoTTON, DAMP,
FEATHERS, LINEN, SLEEP, VENTILATION,
VERMIN, &c.; also below.]
Bed, Air. Beds, pillows, cushions, &c., when
properly constructed and inflated with air,
are clean, luxurious, and healthy substitutes
for those in common use. For this purpose
the air-proof part should be formed of sepa-
rate cells or tubes, arranged in ridges (see
engr.), or in any similar manner to admit of
2^
- - - & à
free ventilation; and in the case of beds, or
of cushions for the sick, two or three folds of
flannel or blanket, or of any loose porous
fabric, should be placed between them and
the under sheet or the person of the sleeper
or patient. Without this precaution, dis-
comfort and restlessness, excessive warmth
and perspiration, and even bed-sores, are apt
to follow their use by invalids, when badly
constructed. To obviate these objections to
articles of this class commonly sold, a new
one has been produced under the name of the
“INCOM/PARABLE BED (Aycbourn’s Patent),
which is thoroughly applicable to all purposes
—domestic, medical, naval, or military—and
(Closed.)
superior to any feather, flock, or spring bed,
however good or carefully made up. This bed
consists of an outer case made of ordinary
bed-ticking divided internally into numerous
separate cells, into each of which is placed a
suitably constructed bag, which may be either
wholly or partially filled with air or water;
the latter either hot or cold. (See engr. 2, 3.)
It is incapable of bursting, and is very agree-
able to lie on. It retains its shape, saves the
time, trouble, and wear and tear ordinarily
bestowed or produced by servants in daily
tossing about one of down or feathers, is
easily washed and kept clean, allows all the
ventilation essential to . health, and is so
portable that it may be easily packed in a
carpet-bag. In almost an instant it may be
converted into six, or more, separate life-pre-
servers; and what is equally important, it will
stand any climate. Hitherto the use of air-
beds and water-beds has been almost exclu-
sively confined to the upper and wealthy
classes, and to hospital practice; but the
moderate prices' at which Aycbourn’s beds,
cushions, &c., are sold, place these luxuries,
and in many cases—absolute necessities—
within the reach of the masses of the people.
Bed, Water. Water-beds, cushions, &c., are
chiefly employed for patients labouring under
bed-sores, paralysis, spinal affections, &c., or
who are the subjects of active surgical treat-
ment in which equable support for the body
or a limb is absolutely necessary. Their con-
struction and use are similar to those pre-
viously noticed, except that, instead of being
inflated with air, they are filled with water,
either warm or tepid. For the bedridden and
for long-continued use generally, they are
much inferior to air-beds. See AIR-BED
(above).
Bed. Syn. STRATUM, L.; STRATE, &c.,
Fr.; SCHICHT, &c., Ger. In geology, a mineral
layer, seam, or stratum, thick or thin.
Bed. In horticulture, a small plot of land,
usually raised a little above the general sur-
face, in which flowers, or other plants, are
raised or grown.
BED'EGUAR (-e-gahr). Sym. BáDíGUAR (or
-GAR), Fr. Sweet-briar sponge (which see).
BEE (bě). Syn. HIVE-BEE, HoN'Ey-B.
(hân(-), Dom Es'TIC B.; A/PIs, L.; ABEILLE,
A. MELLIFIQUE, &c., Fr.; BIENE, HONIGBIENE,
&c., Ger. The aſpis mellif"ica (Linn.; Ph.L.,
E., & D.), one of the hymenoptera best known
and most useful to man.
[Those desirous of studying the habits and
economy of bees are referred to the works of
Huber and Latreille; and for their manage-
ment to Mr. Cobbett’s little book on the sub-
ject.] See APIARY, APIs, HIVE, HoNEY,
WAX, &c.
BEE'-BREAD. The pollen of flowers col-
lected by bees as food for their young.
BEE'-GLUE. Syn. PROP'oDIs, L., Fr. The
resinous matter with which bees cement the
combs to the hives, and close up and repair
the cells.
BEECH (béche). Syn. BEECH'-TREE; FA'-
GUs, L.; HäTRE, H. CoMMUN, Fr.; BUCHE,
GEMEINE B., Ger. The fa’gus sylvatºica (Linn.),
a magnificent English forest-tree, of the nat.
* These are less than those of feather beds of corre-
sponding dimensions.






BEEF.
199
-
ord. Amentaceae (DC.). Fruit (BEECH'-MAST,
B.-NUTS), used to feed swine, and, sometimes,
in obstinate headaches, and in gravel-com-
plaints; yields oil by expression; inner bark,
occasionally used in hectic fevers. Wood
(BEECH, B.-WooD), handsome and very hard,
but brittle and perishable, and particularly
liable to become worm-eaten; its durability
is increased by steeping it, when fresh-hewn,
for some time in water; chiefly used by cabi-
net-makers, coach-builders, millwrights, and
turners; and, sometimes, by coopers; also
burnt for charcoal. -
BEEF (běfe). Syn. CHAIRE DE BOEUF, DU
BCEUF, Fr. ; RINDFLEISCH, &c., Ger. ; BU'-
BULA, CA"Ro Bo'VIs, &c., L. The flesh of
bovine animals generally; but appr., only that
of the domestic ox, cow, or bull.
Qual. Good beef is highly wholesome and
nutritious; and is well adapted to persons of
good appetite, or that labour or take much
exercise. For the delicate, especially those
labouring under debility, partial anaemia,
amenorrhoea, and similar ailments, it is, per-
haps, superior to every other kind of animal
food. If cooked so as to be left full of gravy,
it sits lightly on the stomach, and its fat
proves even more digestible than that of either
veal or mutton.
Choice. Ox-BEEF is known by having a fine
smooth, open grain, a lively and agreeable red
colour, and a tender texture, with the fat
of a pleasing pale whitish-yellow or but
slightly yellow, and the suet white and hard.
When fine and well fed, the flesh is inter-
grained or marbled with fat.—Cow-BEEF has
a closer grain than ox-beef, and the lean is of
a deeper red.—BULL-BEEF is closer still, the
fat dark, hard, and skinny, the lean of a deep
coarse red, and it has a strong smell and
flavour.—HEIFER-BEEF resembles ox-beef, ex-
cept in being smaller, often an advantage; but
it lacks the rich flavour of the flesh of full-
grown oxen.
Joints, Managem., &c. Beef is CURED, SALTED,
and DRESSED, in all the ways common to the
other meats; the only care necessary being in
the selection of the appropriate joint or part.
The ribs, sirloin, rump, and veiny piece, are the
proper joints for ROASTING or BAKING. The
buttock or round, edge-bone, second round or
mouse-buttock, brisket, flank, shoulder or leg-
of-mutton piece, and the clod, those generally
BOILED, STEWED, or SALTED. The choicest
STEAKs are cut from the middle of the rump;
the next best from the veiny piece, or from the
chuck-rib. In summer, excellent ones may also
be cut from the shoulder. In France, steaks cut
from the sirloin (without bone) are preferred
to all others, and are exceedingly delicate and
tender. The neck may be either stewed or
boiled, and is much used to make soup and
gravy. In the country, the round, when fine,
and well hung, is also often roasted or baked.
According to Miss Acton, “the finest part of
the sirloin is the chump-end, which contains
the larger portion of the fillet; of the ribs,
the middle ones.
Beef is in season during the whole year, but
is finest—when it is most relished—during
the winter months, when, owing to the tem-
perature of the air, it may be “hung' a long
time, and thus increased in tenderness and
flavour. See OX, BAKING, BOILING, ESSENCES,
ROASTING, SALTING, TEA, &c. (also below).
Beef, Alamode'. Syn. BCEUF A LA MoDE, Fr.
The true “beef a la mode’ is made as follows;
and is not a mere kind of rich stew, such as
is daily sold under the name in the “cook-
shops’ of London :-
1. (M. Alexis Soyer.) Rump, sirloin, or rib
of beef, (about) 12 lbs. ; lard it through with
10 or 12 long pieces of fat bacon; put it into
an earthen pan with a calf's foot, 4 onions, 2
carrots (sliced), a bunch of parsley, 2 bay
leaves, 2 sprigs of thyme, 2 cloves, 3 teaspoon-

ful of pepper, 1 do. of salt, 4 wine-glassfuls of
sherry, 4 do. of water, and 1 lb. of streaky
bacon (cut into small squares); place on the
cover, make it air-tight round the edges with
a little flour-paste, and expose it in a moderate
oven for about 4 hours. Dish up with the
vegetables and bacon placed tastefully round
it, the gravy (skimmed) being poured over all.
Or it may be eaten cold, in which case the pan
should not be opened until the whole has tho-
roughly cooled.
2. (Mrs. Rundell.) Rump of beef (or any
part of the beef which will stew well), 3 or 4
lbs. ; trim it, and cut off the fat; add several
sorts (according to taste) of sweet herbs chopped
very fine, a little shalot, and a great deal of
spice (cayenne, white pepper, allspice, cloves,
and mace; or mixed spices), and put them,
with vinegar, into a saucer that has been rubbed
with garlic; add fat bacon cut into long slips;
lard the beef regularly on both sides, and rub
it over with the herbs and spices; next flour
it, and add a small piece of butter, and a pint
of water; bake it in an oven until thoroughly
‘done,’ then strain the gravy, and serve it up
with pickles on the top. Excellent either hot
or cold.
Obs. Miss Acton—a high authority in these
matters—tells us, that 7 or 8 lbs. of beef, thus
treated, takes 4 to 5 hours to dress it properly;
and that if a stew-pan be used, it should be as
nearly the size of the meat as possible, the
whole being allowed to simmer very gently,
and the meat turned when half done. She
also states that “veal dressed in this way is
even better than beef;” but, of course, it takes
less time in cooking.
Beef, Collared. Prep. 1. (Miss Acton.) The
piece of beef is rubbed with a little coarse
sugar, and set aside for two or three days; it
is then slightly salted (about 1 oz. of salt,
containing a little saltpetre, to each lb. of
meat); and allowed to rest 8 to 10 days; the
bones and tougher skin are next removed, and
the under side is sprinkled thickly with parsley
and other savoury herbs (shred small), after


200
BEEF—BEER.
with broad tape.
which it is very tightly rolled up, secured
with a cloth, and bound as closely as possible
A piece of 8 lbs. will require
about 5 hours' gentle boiling, and should be
placed, in the same state, whilst still hot, under
a heavy weight, or in a press, for a few hours.
The ribs, or (better) the thinnest part of the
flank, is generally selected. The last should
be ‘hung’ in a damp place for a day or two
before curing it.
2. (Mrs. Rundell.) From stewed shin of
beef and ox-tail, re-stewed with a glassful each
of wine and ketchup, and some of the old
broth, and then poured into moulds. Sweet
herbs, sliced eggs, and pickles, may be added
at will. -
Beef, Dutch, Hung Beef. The round, rump,
veiny-piece, or thick flank, cured, for 10 or 12
days, with dry salt to which a little saltpetre
and some sugar and black pepper has been
added; and afterwards “hung’ for use. It
eats well if boiled tender with greens or car-
rots. If to be grated or shred, as Dutch, and
eaten as a relish on bread and butter, then
cut a lean bit, boil it till extremely tender,
and while hot put it under a press. When
cold, fold it in a sheet of paper, and hang it in
a very dry place. It will then keep two or
three months.
Beef, Pott'ed. See POTTED MEATs, &c.
Beef, Spiced (spist'). Salted beef when spices
(usually black-pepper and allspice) have been
added to the salt, &c., used in curing it. See
CoLLARED BEEF (above).
BEER (bère). Syn. BIñRE, Fr.; BIER, D.,
Ger. ; BIRRA, It. ; CEREVI's IA (-vizh'-'à),
CERVI"SIA (Pliny), C. LUPULATA* (i.e. hopp'd
or modern b.), VI'NUM ANGLIC’ANUM", W.
HoRDEA/CEUM* (-sh’im), Zy'THUM* (or
-THUS*; &#60g, Gr.), &c., L.; BERE, BEERE,
Sax.; BIR, W. An aqueous infusion of malted
grain which, after being boiled with hops, has
undergone the vinous fermentation ; malt-
liquor. The word BEER is now the common
generic term for all fermented malt-liquors,
and, indeed, for all other beverages prepared
by a process of brewing. Whenever the term
is used in a special sense, it is with a descrip-
tive prefix, as, for example, spruce beer, ginger
beer, &c.
Hist. Ale and wine are fabled to have been
invented by Bacchus; the former, in Egypt,
where the soil and climate would not permit of
the cultivation of the grape. Herodotus
ascribes the origin of the art of brewing to Isis,
the wife of Osiris, and notices zythum (ä00g),
a beer obtained from barley. Malt-liquor was
undoubtedly employed as a beverage in the
fifth century before Christ; and, probably, very
much earlier. Xenophon distinctly alludes to
it in his famous retreat (B.C. 401). Aristotle
speaks of ‘beer-drunkenness;' and Theo-
phrastus calls it ‘barley-wine.” The Romans
learned the art of brewing from the Egyptians,
and gave the liquor thus made the appropriate
name of cerevisia (quasi Cererisia), from its
being the product of corn, the gift of Ceres.
The most celebrated beer of ancient times was
the ‘Pelu'sian pota'tion,” so named after a town
at the mouth of the Nile where beer was pre-
pared in great perfection. The use of beer
was likewise known to the ancient Gauls and
Germans, and probably also to most other
ancient nations inhabiting the temperate zone.
Pliny says “Zythum is made in Egypt, ce'lia
and ce'ria in Spain, and many other sorts (of
beer) in Gaul.” In our own country, ale was
early known and valued as a beverage. The
art of its preparation appears to have been
obtained either from the Romans or the Saxons.
According to Verstegan, “This excellent and
healthsome liquor, beere, antiently called ale,
as of the Danes it yet is, was of the Germans
invented and brought into use.” Alehouses
are mentioned in the laws of Ina, king of
Wessex (A.D. 680). Alebooths were regulated
by law, A.D. 728. By the beginning of the
13th century ale was drunk generally in Eng-
land. By a statute of James III, of Scotland,
it was made a capital offence to mix wine with
beer (A.D. 1482). In 1492, a licence was
granted to a brewer at Greenwich, to export
50 tons of that “ale” called “beer” or “bere;”
the distinction between the two apparently
being, that the latter was flavoured with worm-
wood or others bitters; whereas ale was not.
Ale was originally made from barley-malt and
yeast alone, and those who put in anything
else, were held to sophisticate the liquor. Hops
were introduced A.D. 1524; and to this date,
modern, or hopp'd beer, may be traced.
By statute of James I the “ale’’ called
“bere” was taxed, and “one quart of the
best thereof,” ordered to be sold for a penny
(A.D. 1610). Alehouses were first licensed in
1621, and during the reign of Charles II
were, together with all malt-liquor, placed
under the control of the Excise (A.D. 1660).
By the Statutes 1 & 4 Will. IV (1834), pre-
vious enactments respecting malt liquors and
their sale, were reduced to their present form.
Beer is now the common beverage in all
European countries where the vine is not a
subject of rustic husbandry.
Qual. Pure malt-liquor which has under-
gone sufficient fermentation, is perhaps, when
taken in moderation, one of the most whole-
some beverages that can be drunk. ALE
is the most nutritious variety, and, when
moderately mature, is the one best adapted
to the debilitated and delicate; but good
porter, owing to being less rich in extractive
and gummy matter, and from being slightly
astringent from high-dried or scorched
malt being used in its preparation, occasionally
agrees better with bilious constitutions and
the dyspeptic. Much, however, depends on
acquired taste and habit. The most whole-
some, and perhaps the least exceptionable
beverages obtained from malt, are those known
as East-India, Scotch, and Bavarian ales,
when honestly prepared and not highly “bit-

BEER.
201
tered ' with the hop, as is, unfortunately, now
so general. A late writer has described good
beer as nutritious, from the sugar and muci-
lage which it contains; exhilarating, from its
spirit; and strengthening and narcotic, from
its hops. Pereira says, “Beer is a thirst-
quenching, refreshing, intoxicating, and slightly
nutritious beverage.” Its effects, when taken
injudiciously, or in excess, for the most part
resemble those of other intoxicating liquors—
disease, misery, and crime; and these in direct
proportion as it deviates from the true standard
of purity and excellence.
War. The numerous varieties of malt-liquor
met with in commerce, may be resolved into
two great classes—ALE and PORTER. ALE of
all kinds is brewed chiefly from pale malt, and
is generally of a light amber colour. PALE
ALE is manufactured from the finest and
lightest dried malt, and the choicest hops,
the latter in excess. MILD ALE differs from
pale ale in being sweeter, stronger, and almost
free from the flavour of the hop. BITTER ALE
or BITTER BEER has, as a rule, less body than
pale ale, and is more highly hopped. TABLE
BEER is a weak liquor commonly containing
three or four times the proportion of water
usually present in ordinary beer or ale. POR-
TER differs from ale chiefly in its being artifi-
cially coloured by the use of roasted malt, which
also imparts to it a peculiar bitter flavour. In
point of strength, it stands about midway
between light and strong ales, although fre-
quently brewed of a strength very slightly
above that of table beer. STOUT, BROWN
STOUT, &c., are simply richer or stronger de-
scriptions of porter, and may be said to have
nearly the same relation to the higher qualities
of mild ale that porter holds with regard to
pale ale or bitter beer. In London, PORTER is
called BEER ; and, indeed, in all parts of the
kingdom, the prevailing beverage of this kind
consumed by the masses, of whatever class,
commonly goes by the name of beer.
The two great classes of malt-liquor above
referred to, are, independently of mere differ-
ences of strength, excellence, and commercial
value, practically subdivided into an almost
infinite number of varieties. Every county,
every town, and almost every brewer, is dis-
tinguished by the production of a different-
flavoured beer, readily perceived, and highly
appreciated by their respective votaries. These
differences may be traced to—variations in the
quantity and quality of the materials employed
in their manufacture—the temperature of the
water used for mashing—the duration of the
boiling—the temperature at which the fermen-
tation is conducted, and the extent to which it
is carried, together with numerous other cir-
cumstances, which, though usually of an acci-
dental and uncertain character, are neverthe-
less sufficient to affect the flavour and quality
of a brewing. Among these, those depending
on the condition of the building, the locality,
the apparatus, the water, mismanagement, &c.,
are not the least important. In general, how-
ever, when the same quantity and quality of
materials are employed, and the same time
allowed for the maturation of the liquor, the
chief causes of this diversity will be found to
depend on the water used in the brewing, and
the method followed in the preparation of the
malt. Thus, Bavarian, Scotch, and Burton
ales, differ in style from other ales chiefly from
being fermented at a lower temperature, and
from the water employed in the brewing being
that usually denominated ‘hard;’ whilst porter
and stout differ from all these, because they are
brewed from a mixture of pale and roasted
malt. It is from causes like these, though
apparently trivial, that the many varieties of
malt liquor met with, at the present day,
originate. -
Materials, Manuf., &c. See MALT, HOPs,
BREWING, &c.
Purity. The leading characteristics of good
beer are transparency, a fine colour, an agree-
able semi-vinous flavour, and the property of
remaining for several hours exposed in a glass
or cup without becoming ‘flat” or insipid. If
the materials used were good, if the brewing
was skilfully conducted, if the liquor has been
carefully stored in perfectly sweet casks or
vessels, in a suitable cellar, for a sufficient
time, and has not been tampered with, this
will almost always be the case. Hence colour,
transparency, and flavour, and the power of re-
sisting exposure, are tests of the purity and
quality of beer, which should not be lightly
treated. There are none more simple and
effectual; and, together with a good ‘palate,’
and a close observance of its effects on the
head and on the stomach, will readily dis-
tinguish pure and wholesome beer from ‘doc-
tored” and inferior liquor. If, therefore,
we find a sample of beer possessing the above
qualities and in good condition, and on test-
ing it for its alcohol and saccharine matter,
find these substances in such quantities as
fairly to represent the amount of malt which
should have been used in the brewing of such
a liquor, we may, in the absence of proof to the
contrary, infer it to be pure; because the ob-
ject for which adulteration is practised—the
saving of malt and hops—did not exist in this
case. To demonstrate the purity of beer, re-
quires an elaborate and troublesome analysis,
which can only be performed by those accus-
tomed to chemical operations. Good and pure
beer should contain nothing but what exists in
the malt, the hops, and the water, from which
it is brewed, or which is produced from them
in the processes of “mashing,’ ‘fermentation,”
and ‘maturation.’ -
Adulteration. Until the year 1862, nothing
was allowed to enter into the composition of
beer but malt and hops; and the Act 56 Geo.
III, cap. 58, imposes a penalty of £200 on any
“brewer, dealer, or retailer of beer,” who
“shall receive, or have in his possession, or
use, or mix with, or put into any worts or beer,


202
BEER.
any molasses, honey, liquorice, vitriol, quassia,
cocculus indicus, grains of paradise, Guinea-
pepper, or opium, or any extract or preparation
of these substances, for, or as a substitute for,
malt or hops;” and a further penalty of £500
on any “druggist, or vendor of, or dealer in
drugs, or chemist, or other person whatever,”
who shall “sell, send, or deliver to any licensed
brewer,” &c., any of the above materials. How-
ever, by the Act 25 Vic., cap. 22, s. 20, so much
of the above is repealed as relates to hops.
This Act provides that—
“On and after the 16th Sept., 1862, so much
of an Act passed in the 56th year of the reign
of King George the Third, cap. 58, and of an
Act passed in the 7th and 8th years of the reign
of King George the Fourth, cap. 52, and of any
other Act relating to the revenue of excise, as
imposes any excise penalty upon any brewer of,
or dealer in, or retailer of beer, for receiving
into, or having in his possession, or using or
mixing with any worts or beer, any article for,
or as a substitute for hops, or as prohibits the
sale of any such article to the said persons,
shall be, and is hereby repealed: provided
always, that nothing herein contained shall be
construed to extend to repeal any such penalty
or prohibition so far as regards any article
which may be used as a substitute for malt,
notwithstanding that it may be also a substi-
tute for hops.”
Prior to this an Act (10 Vic, c. 5) had been
passed allowing brewers to use sugar under
certain restrictions.
As the law now stands, a brewer may use
hops, quassia, wormwood, gentian, or any other
simple bitter; but he is forbidden to use any
substitute for malt, such as unmalted grain,
sugar in a liquid state, molasses, or any sub-
stance which would give pungency or intoxicat-
ing properties to the beer, such as cocculus
indicus, grains of paradise, tobacco, &c. It is
a well-known and authenticated fact, that beer
is commonly and sometimes dangerously adul-
terated. The cupidity of fraudulent brewers
and publicans frequently induce them to intro-
duce other ingredients than malt and bitters
into their liquors, with a view of giving them
a false appearance and strength. Thus, to
give pungency—capsicum, grains of paradise,
ginger, &c., have been added; to give intoxi-
cating properties—opium, cocculus indicus, to-
bacceo, &c.; as a substitute for malt—molasses,
treacle, colouring, honey, &c.; to impart a
false appearance of age—sulphuric acid, alum,
green vitriol, glycerin, mustard, &c.; to remove
acidity—pearlash, soda, chalk, &c.; and to im-
part a frothy head—alum, foots, table-salt, &c.
The publicans generally ‘reduce’ their strong
beer with water (which they call “liquor’), and
add treacle, together with a mixture of copperas,
salſ, and alum (termed ‘heading'), to make it
bear a frothy head. The cheap beer sold in
many of the low taverns of London is made by
dividing the contents of two butts between
three butts, filling them up with water, and
adding a bladder of porter-extract (technically
termed ‘P. E.') to each. This “P. E.’ is a mix-
ture of powdered cocculus, Spanish juice, cara-
mel, capsicum, &c., boiled up with treacle and
water to the consistence of a thin extract, and
then put into bullocks' bladders.
Fa'am., Tests, &c. The analysis of beer, both
qualitative and quantitative, as already noticed,
is a matter of considerable difficulty. We shall
therefore defer its consideration until we come
to the article PoETER, as that description of
beer, on account of its colour, is not only the
one most difficult to examine, but also the one
most frequently adulterated. See ALE, BREW-
ING, HOPS, MALT, PORTER, &c.
Beer, Amber. Syn. AMBER. A liquor,
formerly much drank in London, brewed from
a mixture of 3 parts of amber malt, and 1 part
of pale malt, with about 6 lbs. of hops to the
quarter. It was generally “tapped’ within a
few days after it had done ‘working, and was
chiefly used mixed with bitters, or made into
* PURL.”
Beer, Wheat'en, Wheat'-malt Beer.
MUM.
*** Besides malt liquor, or BEER properly
so-called, a somewhat similar beverage, though
of inferior quality, may be prepared from any
vegetable substance rich in starch and sugar,
as noticed in our article on BREWING. Certain
summer beverages also pass under the name;
but in both the cases referred to, the name of
the characteristic ingredient, or that of the
vegetable employed, is always conjoined; as
in pea-shell beer, potato-beer, ginger-beer, &c.
Examples of some of these are given below:—
Beer, Ginger. Syn. CEREVIS'IA (-vizh'-)
ZINGIB'ERIS, C.ZINGIBERATA*, C. CUM ZINGIB'-
ERE* (-ér-e), L. Prep. 1. Lump-sugar, 1 lb.;
good unbleached Jamaica ginger (well-bruised),
1 oz. ; cream of tartar, # 02. (or tartaric acid,
# oz.); 2 or 3 lemons (sliced); boiling water,
1 gal.; macerate, with frequent stirring, in a
covered vessel, until barely luke-warm, then
add of yeast, 1% or 2 oz. (about # a wine-
glassful), and keep it in a moderately warm
place, to excite a brisk fermentation; the next
day rack or decant the liquor, and strain it
through a jelly-bag or flannel; allow it to
work for another day, or two, according to the
weather; then skim it, again decant or strain,
and put it into bottles, the corks of which
should be “wired” down.
2. Good white sugar, 18 to 24 lbs. ; lemon-
juice or lime-juice, 1 quart ; finest Narbonne
honey, 1 or 2 lbs. ; bruised Jamaica ginger, 1}
lb., pure soft water (that has been boiled,
and then allowed to settle), q. s. Boil the
ginger in 3 galls. of the water for half an hour;
then add the sugar, the juice, and the honey,
with sufficient water (see above) to make the
whole measure 18% galls., and strain the mixture
as before. When the liquor has become almost
cold, add the white of 1 egg, and , fl. oz. of
essence of lemon, and strongly agitate the cask
or vessel for about half an hour. After standing

See

BEERS.
203
3 to 6 days, according to the state of the
weather, bottle it, and place the bottles on
their sides in a cellar, just as is done with
wine or beer. It will be ready for use in
about 3 weeks, and will keep good for several
months. If wanted for immediate use, about
# pint of yeast may be added, as in formula 1;
but then it will not keep so well, or be quite
so transparent and free from deposit. The
lemon-juice and essence of lemon may be re-
placed, at will, by cream of tartar (in powder)
or tartarie acid, 4 oz. ; and lemons (sliced) 1%
to 2 doz.; added with the sugar, &c.; but the
original formula is preferable.—Prod. 18 galls.
= 24 doz. #-pint bottles, or 30 doz. ordinary
sized ones. -
3. ExTEMPORANEOUS:—a. Into each bottle
put concentrated essence of ginger, 1 drop ;
simple syrup or capillaire, oz. ; (or in lieu of
them, syrup of ginger and simple syrup, of
each, a dessert-spoonful;) and fill with aerated
soda-water at the ‘bottling machine,” in the
usual way. Very superior.
b. Into each bottle put two or three lumps
of sugar, fill them to the proper height with
pure water, throw in (quickly) an effervescing
ginger-beer powder, and instantly cork the
bottle, and secure the cork with wire.
Use. As a cooling and refreshing drink in
warm weather; and as a restorative after
hard drinking, fatigue, &c.
Obs. The products of all the above for-
mulae, if well-managed, are excellent; those
of No. 2, and 3a., of the very finest description,
much stronger and superior to nine tenths of
that sold for the best in the shops. They
are often called, by way of distinction, LIMO"-
NIATED GINGER-BEER, IMPERIAL G.-B., &c.
Cheaper articles are made by omitting some of
the ingredients, and particularly a portion of
the sugar. The ginger-beer vended at 1d.
and 2d. a bottle, with that known as GINGER
PoP, IMPE"RIAL POP, &c., are generally made
with moist sugar (; to # lb. to the gal.), and
merely flavoured with a little coarse ginger.
No. 2, made with 2 lbs. of sugar to the gal.
may be kept 2 years, if not bottled for six
months, and well-stored; and with 3 lbs. to the
gal., for 4 years, when it forms a splendid
article (GINGER-CHAMPAGNE).
Beer, Pine. See SPRUCE BEER.
Beer, Spruce. Syn. CEREVIS'IA (-vizh'-)
ABI'ETIS, C. ABIETI'NA, C. ABIET/ICA*, L.
Prep. 1. Sugar, 1 lb.; essence of spruce, # 02. ;
boiling water, 1 gal.; mix well, and when
nearly cold, add of yeast, a wine-glassful;
and the next day bottle like ginger-beer.
2. Essence of spruce, # pint; pimento and
ginger (bruised), of each, 5 oz. ; hops, 3 lb. ;
water, 3 galls.; boil the whole for 10 minutes,
then add of moist sugar, 12 lbs. (or good treacle,
14 lbs.); warm water, 11 galls.; mix well, and,
when only lukewarm, further add of yeast, 1
pint; after the liquid has fermented for about
24 hours, bottle it. -
Prop., Uses, &c. Diuretic and antiscorbutic,
Regarded by some persons as an agreeable
‘summer-drink,’ and often found useful during
long sea-voyages. When made with lump-
sugar it is called WHITE SPRUCE-BEER; when
with moist sugar or treacle, BROWN SPRUCE-
BEER. An inferior sort is made by using less
sugar, or more water. If made with 1% to 1%
lb. of lump-sugar per gal., and without yeast,
in a similar manner to that described under
GINGER-BEER (No.2), it may be kept a twelve-
month, or longer, in a moderately cool place.
Beer, Sugar. Syn. CEREVIS'IA (-vizh'-) SAC'-
CHARI, L. From moist sugar (1 to 2 lbs. to
the gal.) and a little hops ; as treacle-beer.
Beer, Trea'cle (tré'kl-). Syn. CEREVIS'IA
FA.'CIS SAC'CHARI, &c., L. Prep. 1. From
treacle or molasses, # to 2 lbs. per gal. (accord-
ing to the desired strength); hops, # to # oz. ;
Ayeast, a table-spoonful; water, q. s. ; treated
as below. -
2. Hops, 13 lb.; corianders, 1 oz.; capsicum-
pods (cut small), # 02.; water, 8 galls.; boil for
10 or 15 minutes, and strain the “liquor.”
through a coarse sieve into a barrel containing
treacle, 28 lbs.; then throw back the hops, &c.,
into the copper, and reboil them, for 10
minutes, with a second 8 galls. of water, which
must be strained into the barrel, as before ;
next ‘rummage’ the whole well with a stout,
stick, add of cold water 21 galls. (sufficient to
make the whole measure 37 galls.), and, after
again mixing, stir in # a pint of good fresh
Ayeast : lastly, let it remain for 24 hours in a
moderately warm place, after which it may be
put into the cellar, and in two or three days
‘bottled,” or “tapped' on ‘draught.” In a
week it will be fit to drink. Very superior.
—Prod. 1 barrel, or 36 gallons. For a
stronger beer, 36 lbs., or even cwt. of treacle,
may be used. It will then keep good for a
twelvemonth.
Obs. A wholesome drink; but one apt to
prove laxative, when taken in large quantities.
See BREWING, GINGER BEER, POWDERs, &c.
BEERS. (In pharmacy.) Syn. CEREVIS'IAE
(-vizh'-e-é) MEDICATE, L. The general nature
and preparation of these articles have been
already noticed. They are little employed
in this country. The ingredients should be so
proportioned that from # to # a pint may
form the proper dose. The following are ex-
amples:–
Beer, Antiscorbuſtic. Syn. CEREVIS'IA AN-
TISCORBIj'TICA, L.; SAPINETTE', Fr. Prep. 1.
(P. Cod. 1839.) Scurvy-grass and buds of the
spruce:fir, of each, 1 oz.; horse-radish root, 2
oz. ; (all fresh, and bruised or sliced;) new ale
or beer, 3% pints (say, gal.); macerate 4 days,
press, and strain for use.
2. (Ph. Castr. Ruth. 1840.) Horse-radish
(fresh), 4 lbs. ; juniper berries, 3 lbs.; root of
calamus aromaticus and buds of pinus abies,
of each, 1 lb.; ginger, 1 oz. ; syrup (of brown
sugar), 6 lbs. ; beer, 120 lbs. (say, 12 galls.);
macerate 4 days, or until it ferments, then
1 See ALEs (Medicated).

204
BEERS–BEET.
decant, strain, and add of cream of tartar, 3.
lb.; tincture of mustard, (flour of mustard 2
oz., to proof spirit 12 oz.), 5 lbs. (say, # gal.).
In scurvy, &c.
Beer, Cincho'na. Syn. A'GUE-BEER, BARK'-
BEER; CEREVIS'IA CINCHO'NAE, &c., L. Prep.
1. Bruised cinchona-bark, 1 oz. ; proof spirit
or brandy, 2 oz. ; mix; the next day add of
new beer, 1 quart, and in 3 days decant or
filter.—Dose. 2 or 3 wine-glassfuls.
2. (Mutis.) Cinchona, 4 oz. ; sugar, 2 lbs. ;
boiling water, 5 pints; when lukewarm, fer-
ment with a little yeast, as for ginger-beer.—
Dose. 1 or 2 wine-glassfuls.
3. (Ph. Ferrara.) Bruised Peruvian bark,
1% oz. ; cinnamon, 2 drs. ; nutmeg (rasped), 7
drs. ; sugar, 25 oz. ; Jeast, 2 oz. ; water, 5
pints; mix, ferment, decant, and strain, as
before.—Dose. 3 or 4 wine-glassfuls. They
are all administered during the intermission
of ague.
Beer, Pipsissewa. Syn. CERVIS'IA CHIMAPH'-
ILE, &c., L. Prep. (Dr. J. Parrish.) Pip-
sissewa (chimaphila umbellata), 3 lb.; water,
1 gal.; boil, strain, add of sugar, 1 lb.; pow-
dered ginger, 3 oz. ; yeast, q. s. ; and ferment,
strain, and bottle, as for ginger-beer. In
scrofulous affections; especially of the joints.
—Dose. Half a tumblerful. It is a favorite
remedy with some American practitioners.
Beer, Sarsaparilla. Syn. LIS/BON DI’ET-
BEER, SPAN/ISH JARAVE ; CEREVIS'IA SAR'ZE,
C. SARSAPARII/LAE, INFU'sUM S. PARATUM FER-
MENTATIO'NE, &c., L. Prep. 1. Compound ea:-
tract of sarsaparilla, 1% oz.; hot water, 1 pint;
dissolve, and when cold, add of good pale or
Last-India ale, 7 pints.
2. Sarsaparilla (sliced), 1 lb. ; guaiacum-
bark (bruised small), 4 lb.; guaiacum-wood,
(rasped), and liquorice root (sliced), of each, 2
oz. ; aniseed (bruised), 1% oz. ; mezereon root-
bark, 1 oz. ; cloves, (cut small), 4 oz. ; moist
sugar, 3% lbs. ; hot water (not boiling), 9
quarts; mix in a clean stone jar, and keep it
in a moderately warm room (shaking it twice
or thrice daily) until active fermentation sets
in, then let it repose for about a week, when it
will be fit for use.
Obs. It is said to be superior to the other
preparations of sarsaparilla as an alterative or
purifier of the blood, particularly in old affec-
tions. That usually made has generally only
one half the above quantity of sugar, for
which treacle is often substituted; but in
either case it will not keep well; whereas,
with proper caution, the products of the above
formulae may be kept for one, or even two
years. No yeast must be used.—Dose. A small
tumblerful 3 or 4 times a day, or oftener.
Beer, Stomach'ic. Syn. MED'ICATED PURL:
CEREVIS'IA STOMACH'ICA, L. Prep. (Dr.
Quincy.) Centaury-tops and Roman worm-
wood, of each, 4 handfuls; gentian root
(bruised), 2 oz. ; the yellow peels of 6 Seville
oranges ; Spanish angelica-root and Winter’s
lard, of each (bruised), 1 oz. ; new ale, or beer,
3 quarts (say, 1 gal.); digest for a few days,
as before. One or two wine-glassfuls early
in the morning, and an hour before a meal.
Beer, Sulphu’ric Acid. Syn. SULPHURIC
LEMONADE; CEREVISIA ACIDI suTPHU’’RICI,
C. ANTICOI/ICA, L. Prep. 1. Treacle beer,
or other weak mild beer or ale, to which a little
concentrated sulphuric acid has been added, in
the proportion of about 1 dr. to every 8 or 10
pints; the whole being well agitated together,
and allowed a few hours to settle.
2. Treacle, 14 lbs. ; bruised ginger, 4 lb. ;
coriander, 3 oz. ; capsicum and cloves, of each,
# oz. ; water, 12% galls. ; yeast, 1 pint; pro-
ceed as for ginger-beer, and when the fer-
mentation is nearly over, add of oil of vitriol,
1% oz. (diluted with 8 times its weight of water),
and of bicarbonate of soda, 1% oz. (dissolved
in a little water). It is fit to drink in 3 or 4
days.
Uses, &c. It is taken with great benefit by
workers in lead, especially by those employed
in white lead works; also in cases of lead colic,
poisoning by lead or its salts, &c. A tumbler-
ful twice or thrice daily. It is both harmless
and wholesome.
Beer, Tar. Syn. CEREVIS'IA PI'CIS, C. P.
LIQ/UIDE, L. Prep. (Duhamel.) Bran, 2
pints; tar, 1 pint; honey, 3 pint; water, 6
pints; mix, and gently simmer together for 3
hours; when lukewarm add of yeast, 3 pint;
let it ferment for 36 hours, and strain. Pec-
toral, anti-asthmatic, antiphthisic, &c.—Dose.
One wine-glassful before each meal, in bron-
chial and chest diseases, and incipient con-
sumption. See BEERS (In Pharmacy; above).
BEES'WING. The second or pseudo-crust
so much admired in port and a few other
wines, and which forms in them only when
kept for some time after the first or true crust
has formed. It consists of minute, glittering,
floating particles or lamellae of tartar, purer,
and freer from astringent matter, than that
deposited in the first crust. See CRUST,
WINEs, &c.
BEET (běte). Syn. BETA, L.; BIET, D.;
BETTE, Fr. ; BEETE, MANGOLD, M.-KRAUT,
Ger. ; BIETOLA, It. The common name of
plants of the genus ‘beta,’ and the nat. ord.
Chenopodeae (DC.). There are said to be only
two distinct species cultivated—beta vulgăr'is
and b. horten'sis—each of which occurs in
several varieties; those of the first, and which
we have chiefly to consider, producing a large
fleshy root (BEET'-Root, MAN'GOLD-R.; RA’DIX
BETAE, L.; BETTERAVE, Fr.; ROTHE RüBE,
&c., Ger.), which is both sweet and succulent;
those of the other, only succulent leaves. The
varieties most useful, and now the most exten-
sively cultivated in England, are of compara-
tively recent introduction; field-beet, the
mangold-wurzel of the Germans, having been
only brought under the notice of our agricul-
turists towards the end of the last century.
Field Beet. See HYBRID BEET.
Hy'brid Beet. Syn. CoMMON BEET, FIELD'-

BEET ROOT BELL.
205
B.; BETA HY'BRIDA, B. VULGAR"Is H., L.;
BETTE COMMUNE, BETTERAVE C., RACINE
D’ABONDANCE, R. DE DISETTE, &c., Fr. ; MAN-
GOLD, M.-WURZEL, MANGEL-W., &c., Ger. A
variety of beta vulgaris (Linn.), and that usu-
ally cultivated by English farmers. Root, red
on the outside, white inside; chiefly grown as
winter-food for cattle, being vastly superior
to turnips. It has been used, in Germany, as
a substitute for bread in times of scarcity.
Leaves, dressed and eaten like spinach.
Red Beet. Syn. CU'LINARY BEET, GARDEN
B., BEET'-RADISH, BEET'-RAVE, &c.; BETA
RU'BRA, B. VULGA"RIS R., L.; BETTERAVE,
&c., Fr.; ROTHE RüBE, &c., Ger. Root, ten-
der, well-flavoured, and of a rich red colour
throughout, and hence much used in salads,
pickles, and cookery; also made into a con-
serve, jam, or confection. The kinds most
esteemed for salads are the SMALL RED and the
YELLOWISH-RED varieties of Castelnaudari.
Sea Beet. Syn. BETA MARIT/IMA, L. Said
to be the best variety for dressing as spinach.
White Beet. Syn. BETA AL/BA, B. VUL-
GA"RIs A., B. CI'CLA, L.; BETTE BLANCHE,
POIREE, &c., Fr. A sub-variety of the red
beet. Root, white, and hence preferred for
making sugar; that with a purple crown being
the most esteemed.
Obs. The preceding varieties of beet re-
semble each other in their general properties.
They are all antiscorbutic, detergent, emol-
lient, and nutritious; and their roots contain
about 8% of sugar, which, by proper treatment,
may be obtained from them of excellent
quality. The grated root is sometimes used to
dress blisters and foul ulcers. When sliced,
and dried in a malt-kin, a very palatable beer
may be brewed with it. The leaves of each
variety are dressed and eaten like spinach.
The roots, for the table, after being carefully
washed, are dressed whole—neither scraped
nor cut—and, according to their size and age,
require from 1 to 4 hours' simmering or baking.
They are mostly served in slices, cold, inter-
mingled with other winter salad-vegetables.
See BREWING, CATTLE, SALADS, SUGAR, &c.
(also antè).
BEET ROOT. See BEET.
BEETLE (bé'tl). Syn. SCAR'AB+*, SCAR'-
ABEE+* (-bê); SCARABAE'Us, L.; EscARBOT,
SCARABáE, Fr.; KAFER, Ger.; BETEL, Sax.
In zoology, the common name of an extensive
genus of insects (scaraba'us, Linn.), of nu-
merous species. It is also popularly applied
to all coleopterous insects, or such as have
hard or shelly wing-cases, especially to those
of a dark or obscure colour. The common
pests of our kitchens and basement floors
which pass familiarly under the name of
beetles, black beetles, or cockroaches, belong
to the order orthoptera, and not to the coleop-
tera or beetle tribe, as the name implies. See
CoLEOPTERA, INSECTs, &c.
Black Beetle; Domestic Beetle. See BLATTA,
CoCKROACH, &c. -
Blisſtering Beetle. See CANTHARIs.
BELL. Syn. CAMPA’NA," CAMPAN'ULA,”
No'LA*,3 TINTINNAB'ULUM,4 L.; CLOCHE,
CLOCHETTE,” GRELOT,” Fr.; GLOCKE, SCHELLE,
&c., Ger. ; BELL, BELLA, BELLE, Sax. A
hollow vessel or body, usually of cast metal,
with a wide cup-like mouth expanding out-
wards, so formed as to emit sound when sus-
pended and struck with a hard substance. The
word is also applied, either alone or in compo-
sition, to substances having the figure of a
bell; as bells (of flowers), bell-animal, b.-
jlower, b.-glass, &c.
Form, Manuf, &c. Bells of “the common
and well-known shape, with a thick lip or
sound-bow, are the most effective known in-
struments for producing a loud and musical
sound, such as you want when you erect a
large public clock, or put up a peal of church
bells.” “After trying a number of experi-
|ments, at Messrs. Warner's, I am quite satisfied
that there is nothing to be gained by deviating
materially from the established proportions of
the best old bells.” 7 This view is borne out
by the researches of the Government commis-
sioners” who visited the Paris Exhibition, who
report, that among the ‘founders’ of France
and Belgium, there are no traditions of the
art, nor any discoveries or appliances of modern
science, tending to the improvement of bells,
or to provide efficient substitutes for them ;
nor is there any known improvement on the
established mode and usual material (BRONZE
or BELL-METAL) for casting them. Sir C.
Barry, indeed, according to Mr. Dennison,
“seemed rather impressed with the merits of
cast-steel bells;” but both Prof. Wheatstone
and Mr. Dennison differ from him in opinion.
Undoubtedly some cast-steel bells, of small
size, have been produced, capable of yielding
sounds of extraordinary clearness and richness;
but, in most cases, owing to, the difficulty in
giving the peculiar molecular condition to the
metal essential to a high degree of sonorous-
ness, their tones are comparatively harsh and
disagreeable. Well-annealed glass offers a
cheaper and better material than steel for
large bells up to a certain size, whilst its tones
are exquisite. As the depth of the tone of a
bell depends chiefly upon the dimensions and
weight of the sound-bow, it appears likely
that by directing our experiments to the in-
crease of these, and the diminishing of the
thickness of the metal in the other parts, the
quantity of metal required to produce large
bells might be very greatly reduced. The

* Appropriately, a large bell suspended or adapted for
suspension; as that of a church, &c.
* A small bell.
3 Id
* Id.; appr., one suspended as a door-bell, servants’
bell, &c.
5. A little bell, a hand-bell.
6 A little round-bell.
7 Lecture on the “Form of Bells,” deliv. at the Royal
Institution, by Mr. B. Dennison, to whom the Govern-
ment intrusted the construction of the “great bells” for
the New Houses of Parliament. *
8 Prof. Wheatstone and Sir Charles Barry.
206
BELL-METAL.
sound of an Indian gong that may be easily
held suspended by the hand, is always rich and
usually as loud and deep as a bell of ordinary
construction which it would take several men
to lift. The Chinese often use bells made of
porcelain. Small hand-bells for the toilet and
boudoir are often made of silver, and then
yield tones which are remarkably soft, clear,
and pleasing. The tongue, clapper, or hammer,
of bronze bells should be of iron ; and steel
bells, of bronze. Glass and porcelain bells
require the striking part of the tongue to be
of box-wood, the proper weight being given
by a ball of iron cast on the rod immediately
above it, and a similar one screwed on the end
of the rod immediately below it. In all cases
the hammer-head, preferably globular, should
strike the bell near the verge, and should be
free from projections or asperities.
The casting, &c., of bells is essentially similar
to that of other articles in bronze, of corre-
sponding size, and particularly of cannon. See
BELL-METAL, BRONZE, &c.
BELL’-METAL. Syn. AES CAMPANA''RUM,
L.; MáTAL DE CLOCHE, Fr. ; GLOCKENGUT,
GLOCKENSPEISE, Ger. The alloy, usually
bronze, of which bells, &c., are made.
The composition of BELL-METAL varies con-
siderably, as may be seen below:—
1. (Standard.) Copper, 78 parts; tin, 22
parts;" fused together and cast in the manner
described under BRONZE. The most sonorous
of all the alloys of copper and tin. It is easily
fusible, and has a fine compact grain, and a
vitreous-conchoidal and yellowish-red fracture.
According to Klaproth, the finest-toned Indian
gongs have this composition.
2. (Founder's Standard.) Copper, 77 parts;
tin, 21 parts; antimony, 2 parts.” Slightly
paler and inferior to No. 1.
3. Copper, 80 parts; tin, 20 parts.” Very
deep-toned and sonorous. Used in China and
India for the larger gongs, tam-tams, &c.
4. Copper, 78 to 80 parts; tin, 22 to 20
parts. Usual composition of Chinese cymbals,
tam-tams, &c.
5. Copper, 75 (= 3) parts; tin, 25 (= 1)
parts.” Somewhat brittle. In fracture, semi-
vitreous and bluish-red. Used for church and
other large bells.
6. Copper, 80 parts; tin, 10% parts; zinc,
5% parts; lead, 4} parts. English bell-metal,
according to Thomson. Inferior to the last ;
the lead being apt to form isolated drops, to
the injury of the uniformity of the alloy.
7. Copper, 68 parts; tin, 32 parts." Brittle;
fracture, conchoidal and ash-gray. Best pro-
portions for house-bells, hand-bells, &c.; for
1 The resulting alloy probably contains 7 Cu + Sn.
* More antimony, or some other metal, is often added,
as subsequently noticed; but always to the injury of the
alloy as bell-metal.
3 Equal to about 8 Cu + Sm. In some gongs the pro-
portion of tin is so low as 22, or even 20 parts, to 100
parts of copper.
4. Nearly equal to 6 Cu + Sn.
5 Equal to about 4 Cu + Sn.
which, however, 2 of copper, and 1 of tin, is
commonly substituted by the founders.
8. Copper, 72 parts; tin, 26% parts; iron,
1% part. Used by the Paris houses for the
bells of small clocks or pendules.
9. Copper, 72 parts; tin, 26 parts; zinc,
2 parts. Used, like the last, for very small
bells.
10. Copper, 70 parts; tin, 26 parts; zinc,
2 parts. Used for the bells of repeating
watches.
Concluding remarks. Castings in bell-metal
are all more or less brittle; and, when recent,
have a colour varying from a dark ash-gray to
grayish-white, which is darkest in the more
cupreous varieties, in which it turns somewhat
on the yellowish-red or bluish-red. The larger
the proportion of copper in the alloy, the
deeper and graver the tone of the bells
formed of it. The addition of tin, iron, or
Zinc, causes them to give out their tones
sharper. Bismuth and lead are also often
added to modify the tone, which each metal
affects differently. The addition of antimony
and bismuth is frequently made by the founder
to give a more crystalline grain to the alloy.
All these additions are, however, prejudicial to
the sonorousness of bells, and of very doubtful
utility. Rapid refrigeration increases the so-
norousness of all these alloys. Hence M.
D’Arcet recommends the ‘pieces’ to be heated
to a cherry-red after they are cast, and after
having been suddenly plunged into cold water,
to be submitted to well-regulated pressure by
skilful hammering, until they assume their
proper form; after which they are to be again
heated and allowed to cool slowly in the air,
This is the method adopted by the Chinese
with their gongs, &c., a casing of sheet-iron
being employed by them to support and pro-
tect the pieces during the exposure to heat.
In a general way, however, bells are formed
and completed by simple casting. This is ne-
cessarily the case with all very large bells.
Where the quality of their tones is the chief
object sought after, the greatest care should
be taken to use commercially pure copper. The
presence of a very little lead or any similar
metal, greatly lessens the sonorousness of this
alloy; whilst that of silver increases it. This
last metal has been detected in many old
church bells remarkable for the richness of
their tones—articles of silver plate having
been cast into the crucibles of the founders, as
votive offerings, by the pious Christians of
former ages.
The specific gravity of a large bell is seldom
uniform throughout its whole substance; nor
can the sp. gr. from any given proportion of
its constituent metals be exactly calculated,
owing to the many interfering circumstances.
The nearer this uniformity is approached, or
in other words, chemical combination is com-
plete, the more durable and finer-toned will
be the bell.
In general it is found necessary to take



BELLADONNA—BENZOENE.
207
about 1-10th more metal than the weight of
the intended bell, or bells, in order to allow
for waste and scorification during the opera-
tions of fusing and casting. See BELL (above),
BRONZE, COPPER, &c.
BELLADONN/A (-dòn'-á). [It., Sp., Port.;
Eng., L., Ger. ; B. P.] Syn. DEAD'LY NIGHT"-
SHADE, DWALE: BELLEDAME, BELLADONNE,
&c., Fr.; TöDTLICHER NACHTSCHATTEN, TOLL-
RERSCHE, TOLLKRAUT, WolfSKIRSCHE, &c.,
Ger. ; AT'ROPA. LETHA'LIS*, SoLA(NUM FURI-
O'SUM*, S. LETHA/LE*, S. MANI’ACUM*, S.
MELANOCER'ASUSł, &c., L., Bot. var. Literally,
fair lady; in materia medica, botany, &c., the
usual name (adopted from the Ital.) of atropa
belladonn'a (Linn.), an indigenous, poisonous,
perennial, herbaceous plant, of the nat. ord.
Solaneae (D.C.; Solanaceae, Endl., Lind.). It
flowers in June and July, and its drooping,
purple blossoms are common ornaments of our
hedges and wastes where the soil is calcareous.
It is supposed to be the “ insane root’ of
Shakespeare.”
The parts of this plant used in medicine and
pharmacy are the “fresh leaves and branches
to which they are attached; also the leaves
separate from the branches, carefully dried,
of atropa belladonna ; gathered, when the
fruit has begun to form, from wild or culti-
vated plants in Britain” (B. P.).
Prop., Uses, &c. Every part of this plant
contains ATRO'PIA, and is consequently highly
poisonous. Every part, except the berries,
is foetid when bruised, and of “a dark and
lurid aspect, indicative of its deadly narcotic
quality.” Its berries, which are of a glossy
violet-black, and of the size of a small cherry,
are sweet-tasted, and not at all nauseous.
Children and tired travellers and soldiers,
allured by their beauty and the absence of
disagreeable flavour, have frequently been in-
duced to eat them; but in all cases poisoning,
often fatal, has followed the indulgence.”
Belladonna is, however, in qualified hands,
a safe and most valuable medicine. Its chief
alse is as an anodyne, antispasmodic, sedative,
and discutient, and particularly to diminish
sensibility and allay pain and nervous irrita-
tion in a variety of diseases—neuralgia, ar-
thritic and migratory rheumatic pains, painful
ulcers, cancer, spasmodic rigidity, strictures,
and contractions (especially of the bladder
and uterus), angina pectoris, iritis, epilepsy,
chorea, hooping-cough, hysteria, mania, fevers,
phthisis, asthma, &c.; also as a prophylactic
of scarlet-fever,” hydrophobia, and salivation,
1. As a borrowed word.
* “Macbeth,” a. i, s. 3.
* Pereira, 4th ed., ii, 545.
* One hundred and fifty French soldiers were thus
poisoned at Pirna, near Dresden. (Orfila, “ Toa. Gén.”)
* Of 2027 persons who took it, and were exposed to the
contagion of scarlet fever, 1948 escaped. Bayle, “Bibl.
Thérap.,” t. ii, p. 504.) Of 1200 soldiers who took it only
12 became affected. (Oppenheim, “ Lond. Med. Gaz.,”
xiii, 814.) In this country, however, except among
ºpºlº, it has not found much favour as a prophy-
actic.
as a resolvent in enlarged and indurated glands
(particularly when painful), as an agent to
produce dilation of the pupil during surgical
examinations and operations, &c. &c. It is
employed both internally and externally,
and in various forms, as is noticed under its
“preparations’ elsewhere. — Dose. (Of the
powder) # to 1 gr., twice a day, gradually and
cautiously increased until dryness of the throat,
or dilation of the pupil occurs, or the head is
affected. :
Pois., &c. Belladonna, and its preparations,
are poisonous to all animals, but very much
more so to the carnivora than to the herbivora.
It also acts as a poison on vegetables.
Treatm., Ant., &e. These may be the same
as those employed in poisoning by aconite,
atropia, and opium. The stomach must be
cleared as soon as possible, followed by active
purgation. Unfortunately emetics have scarcely
any action, and, therefore, must be given in
large doses, assisted by tickling the fauces, &c.
If copious vomiting does not rapidly follow,
the stomach-pump may be had recourse to.
When the poison has been removed from the
stomach, copious and continued draughts of
astringent vegetable solutions (weak decoction
of galls or oak-bark, or strong coffee or green-
tea), should be persisted in for some time; fol-
lowed by like draughts of water soured with
any mild vegetable acid (as vinegar, lemon-
juice, citric or tartaric acid, &c.—Detee. The
contents of the stomach or vomited matter
may be searched for the berries, leaves, seed,
or portions of the root; all of which are easily
recognisable. The usual physiological and
chemical tests of atropia may also be applied
to these, and to the organic liquids supposed
to contain the poison. See ALKALOID, ATROPIA,
EXTRACTS, OINTMENTS, TINCTURES, VEGE-
TABLE JUICES, &c.
BELL'Y (-e). The abdomen (which see).
BELTS. In their connection with health
and disease, see BANDAGE, DRESS, STAYs, &c.
BENGAL' (-gawl"). A thin fabric of silk
and hair interwoven, originally from Bengal'.
Ben'gal Light. A firework used as signals.
See FIREs (Coloured).
Bengal Stripes. Cotton cloth, woven with
coloured stripes, orig. from Bengal; ging-
ham.
BEN'JAMIN+*. Benzoin.
BEN'ZENE. See BENZOL.
BEN'ZINE (-zīn). Benzol.
BENZOATE (-zo-āte). [Eng., Fr.] Syn.
BEN'ZOAS, L. A salt in which one atom of
benzoic acid is replaced by a metal or other
basic radical. The benzoates may, in general,
be easily prepared by either neutralising the
acid with the base, or by double decomposition.
Most of them are more or less soluble in water,
and crystallisable. Those of the alkalies and
ammonia are very soluble, and rather difficult
to crystallise. See BENZOIC ACID and the
respective bases.


BEN'ZOENE*. See TULUOLE.
208
BENZOIC ACID.
BENZOIC ACID (-zö'-ik). HC, H,03. Syn.
FLOWERs of BENzo[N’; HY'DRATED BEN'-
zoy L.; ACIDUM BENZO/ICUM (B.P.); ACIDE
BENzoïquE, FLEURS DE BENJOIN, &c., Fr. ;
BENZOESAURE, &c., Ger. A substance which
is commonly stated to be the characteristic
constituent of the true balsams. Pure oil of
bitter-almonds suffers gradual conversion into
this acid by exposure to the air.
Prep. The acid of commerce is principally
obtained from gum-benzoin, either by sublima-
tion (dry way), or by dissolving it out by means
of an alkali, or an alkaline earth, in the form
of a salt (moist way); but chiefly by the first
method.
1. By SUBLIMATION:— -
a. Good benzoin, crushed small or in the
state of coarse powder, is placed in a cylindri-
cal iron pot with a flat bottom, and from 8 to
9 inches in diameter, so as to form a layer of
from 1 to 2 inches deep. The open end of
the pot is next covered with a sheet of soft
and loose blotting-paper,' which is attached to
the rim with paste. A cone, cap, or cylinder,
formed of strong thick paper (cartridge paper),
open at its lower end, is then placed over the
top of the pot, including the blotting-paper;
and this is also attached with paste and
string. The apparatus, thus prepared, is then
placed on a sand bath,”
and exposed for 4 to
6 hours to a gentle and
uniform heat. It is
next removed from the
sand bath, and, when it
has sufficiently cooled,
inverted, and the string
detached, when crys-
- -------- tals of benzoic acid are
found in the paper cone. If, owing to want of
care in manipulating, the product is either
coloured or empyreumatic, it must be enveloped
in several folds of bibulous paper, then sub-
mitted to powerful pressure, and afterwards
resublimed. The simple form of apparatus
figured in the engr. answers well on the small
scale, and is that recommended by Dr.
Mohr.
b. (Ph. D. 1850.) The subliming pot is
ordered to be of sheet-iron. It is to be fitted
into a circular hole in a sheet of pasteboard,
and a collar of tow interposed between it and
the flange, so as to produce a nearly air-tight
junction. The paper receiver or cap is to be
cylindrical, open at one end and about 18
inches high, with a diameter at least twice that
of the pot; and it is to be secured, in an in-
verted position, on the pasteboard, and fas-
tened to it by slips of paper and flour-paste. A
couple of inches of the pot is to be passed
through a corresponding hole in a plate of
sheet-tin, which is to be kept from contact
with the pasteboard by the interposition of a
1 Felt—Liebig.
* On an iron plate on which sand has been spread—
Ph. Bor.
few corks; and a heat” only just sufficient to
melt the benzoin is to be applied for at least
six hours. -
c. (Process adopted at Apothecaries' Hall,
London.) The best gum-benzoin is put into
an iron pot, set in brickwork over a suitable
small fire-place (or flue)," and communicating
by a conical metal neck, with a wooden box
(technically termed a ‘house') lined with white
blotting-paper, as a receiver for the flowers.
A piece of fine muslin, or of bibulous paper, is
interposed between the top of the subliming-
pot and the receiver, to prevent the sublimate
falling back into the former. The sublimation
is conducted rather rapidly, and the acid con-
denses in beautiful white, soft, flexible crystals,
which are at once ready for the market. When
the process is conducted more slowly, the pro-
duct is proportionately scaly.
Obs. Good samples of benzoin yield from 10
to 12%, or even 12% #, of ‘flowers’ or ‘acid of
the first sublimation.” This, after being pressed
in blotting-paper and again sublimed, gives
8% to 10% of nearly pure benzoic acid. The
loss arising from a second sublimation is thus
so great, that the utmost care should be taken
to avoid its necessity.
2. In the MOIST WAY :—
a. (Ph.D. 1826; Scheele's Process.) Equal
parts of benzoin and hydrate of lime, in fine
powder, are intimately mixed together, and
boiled for about an hour, with 40 parts of
water; the liquor, after filtration, is evaporated
to #th, and the lime saturated with hydro-
chloric acid ; the benzoic acid crystallises out
as the liquor cools, and is then either washed
with very cold water, and dried by a gentle
heat, or it is dried and sublimed in the manner
already explained. The product of the subli-
mation is extremely white and pure.
Obs. An economical and productive process;
but, to ensure success, a perfect mixture of the
dry ingredients must be first made ; as other-
wise the benzoin runs into a solid mass in the
boiling water, and the operation fails.-Prod.
“1 lb. of (gum) benjamin yields 1 oz. 6 drs. 2
scr. of flowers.” (Gray.)”
b. (Process of Stoltze.) The benzoin is dis-
solved in 3 times its weight of alcohol, the so-
lution introduced into a retort, and a solution
of carbonate of soda in weak spirit-and-water,
is gradually added, until all the free acid pre-
sent is neutralised; water, equal to about twice
the weight of the benzoin employed, is next
poured in, and the alcohol removed by distilla-
tion. The floating resin is now skimmed off
the residual liquid, and washed with a little
water, and the washings added to the contents
of the retort, which will deposit crystals of
benzoate of soda on cooling, and more by
subsequent evaporation. From this salt the
* That of a gas-flame is recommended. A ring of very
small gas-jets answers better.
* A pan with a steam-jacket answers well, and is very
manageable. -
5. A quantity which, in our own experiments, we were
never able to obtain.

BENZOIC ACID.
209

benzoic acid is obtained by saturating the alkali
with an acid (as the hydrochloric), and by
subsequent sublimation of the crude precipitated
crystals.
3. Other Methods:—
a. Ordinary hippuric acid is very gently
boiled, for about 15 minutes, in nitric acid 1
(sp. gr. 142); water is then added, and the
solution allowed to cool and crystallise. The
crystals are collected on a filter, washed with a
little very cold water, dried by pressure in bi-
bulous paper, and lastly, purified by sublima-
tion, as before.
b. From the urine of horses, cows, and other
graminivorous animals, in a similar way to that
by which hippuric acid is obtained, only allow-
ing the urine to acquire a slight degree of
putridity before evaporation, which last should
be effected by a heat slightly under that of
ebullition. The crude acid thus obtained is
purified as previously directed.
Obs. Large quantities of benzoic acid are
said to be obtained in this way on the Con-
tinent ; but, owing to the process being clum-
sily conducted, it is generally of inferior
quality, and hence unsaleable. It may, how-
ever, by skilful purification, be rendered quite
equal to that obtained from gum benzoin.”
Prop. When obtained by sublimation ben-
zoic acid forms soft, light, feathery, white,
flexible crystals, which are transparent or semi-
transparent, with more or less of a mother-of-
pearl lustre; when by slowly cooling its
aqueous solution, or by precipitation from a
solution of a benzoate, it forms either thin plates
or scales, or a dazzling white crystalline pow-
der. It is inodorous when cold,” but acquires
a faint balsamic odour when gently warmed;
fuses at about 212° Fahr., and begins to sub-
lime freely at a temperature a little above it,
but does not boil until heated to about 460°;
burns with a bright yellow flame; is very so-
luble in alcohol, dissolves in about 200 parts
of cold water, and about 25 parts of boiling
water; resists the action of ordinary nitric
acid even when boiling; and forms salts (BEN'-
zoATEs) with the bases.--.Sp. gr. 0.667. Its
vapour, which is very suffocating and irritat-
ing, has a density of 4:27. Added to fat and
fatty substances it either prevents, or greatly
retards, the accession of rancidity.
Tests, &c. It may be recognised—1. By its
physical properties (appearance, fusibility, vo-
latility, odour, &c.) already enumerated:—2.
By its ready solubility in solutions of the
alkalies; and by being precipitated from these
solutions, on the addition of one of the stronger
acids, under the form of a dazzling white pow-
der, which is only sparingly soluble in cold
1 Hydrochloric acid as well as sulphuric acid also con-
vert hippuric acid into benzoic acid; as does likewise a
sufficient degree of heat. See Hipruric AcID.
* “A manufactory of sal-ammoniac, near Magdeburgh,
which uses urine, is able to supply flowers of benjamin by
the cwt.” (Gray.)
* That of the shops usually smells slightly of benzoin,
owing to the presence of a trace of volatile oil.
water:-3. By its neutral salts with the alka-
lies, or its neutral solution in an alkali, giving
a bulky, flesh-coloured precipitate with per-
chloride of iron, which is insoluble in water:-
4. By its solution not being precipitated by
acetate of lead until after neutralisation with
a fixed alkali, when the acetate produces a
white, flocculent precipitate –5. By a mixture
of alcohol, ammonia, and solution of chloride
of barium, neither disturbing a solution of the
free acid, nor that of one of its salts with the
alkalies.
It is chemically distinguished from cinnamic
acid by not yielding essential oil of almonds
when it is distilled with oxidising agents, as
chromic acid or a mixture of bichromate of
potassium and sulphuric acid; and from suc-
cinic acid, by its different deportment with
sesquichloride of iron (Test 3, antè), and with
a mixture of alcohol, ammonia, and solution of
chloride of barium (T. 5, antè).
JEstim.—1. By weighing it as benzoic acid,
obtained either by precipitation, or by very
careful sublimation in a glass apparatus:–2.
By neutralising its alcoholic or aqueous solu-
tion, by the usual method of acidimetry:-3.
By precipitating its neutral solution with
acetate of lead, or with sesquichloride of iron,
and weighing the carefully washed and dried
precipitate either as benzoate of lead, or as
ferric benzoate.
Pur. &c. White crystalline silky plates and
needles, having an aromatic odour. Solubility
in cold water, 1 in 300; in boiling water, 1 in
12; in spirit, 1 in 4. Also soluble in caustic
alkalies and lime. Borax considerably increases
its solubility in water; 1 of benzoic acid and
1 of borax are soluble in 100 of water. It
sublimes without residue when heated. It is
sometimes met with adulterated with hippuric
acid, which may be easily detected by its
altered form, by its diminishing solubility in
cold water, and by its exhaling an odour of
tonquin-beans, and afterwards of hydrocyanic
acid, when sublimed. The presence of succinic
acid may be readily detected by its greatly
increased solubility in cold water; that of
sugar, not only by its increased solubility, and
partial volatility, but also by the odour of
caramel being evolved on the application of
sufficient heat, and the residuum being black
and carbonaceous ; that of camphor, by its
peculiar odour when gently heated. Sper-
maceti, specially prepared for the purpose, is
also an occasional adulterant, easily detected
by its insolubility and other well-known pro-
perties. All these substances either destroy or
lack the proper crystalline form of benzoic
acid, which is one of the best proofs of its
purity. They also greatly increase its sp.
gr.
Uses, &c. Its chief use in medicine is as a
stimulant and expectorant. It is an ingre-
dient in the compound tincture of camphor
(paregoric elivir) of the pharmacopoeia.-

Dose. 10 to 30 grs., dissolved in water by the
- - 14
210
BENZOIC AIACOHOL–BENZOL.
aid of a little ammonia or potassa; in old
coughs, &c.
BENZOIC AL/COHOL. A peculiar oily fluid,
discovered by M. Cannizzaro, and obtained by
the action of an alcoholic solution of potassa
on pure oil of bitter almonds.
BENZOIN', B. P. (-zoyn’; -z5'-in). Syn.
GUM-BENZOIN*†, BEN/JAMIN+*, GUM-B.4%;
BENZöI'NUM, L., B. P.; BENJOIN, Fr. ; BEN-
zöE, Ger. The balsamic resin exuded from
incisions made in the stem of the styraa ben-
zoin, a native of Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Laos,
and Siam. Several varieties of benzoin are in
the market; two only, however, are chiefly
used in medicine, one in agglutinated masses,
the other (from Siam), in tears, being the
purer and having the stronger odour.
Prop., &c. Odour agreeable, and somewhat
like that of vanilla, but more balsamic ; frac-
ture conchoidal; lustre greasy; sp. gr. 1.063
to 1-092. It fuses at a gentle heat, and ex-
hales white fumes, which, on condensation, are
found to be benzoic acid contaminated with a
little volatile oil. Alcohol dissolves the larger
portion of it, ether much less, and the volatile
and fixed oils only a little. It contains from
9} to 18, or (occasionally) nearly 20%, of ben-
zoic acid, according to the quality. It burns
with an agreeable odour. The resin and its
alcoholic solution strike a bright red colour
with oil of vitriol, and a green colour with
chloride of iron.
Uses, &c. It is chiefly employed in perfu-
mery, and as an ingredient in incense, fumi-
gating pastilles, &c.; also in court-plaster, in
certain cosmetics, and to scent the varnish
used for snuff-boxes, walking-sticks, &c. As
a medicine, its general effects resemble those
of the other true balsams, and of benzoic acid.
—Dose. 5 or 6 to 20, or even 30 grs., in pow-
der, and usually in combination with some
other remedy; chiefly in chronic pulmonary
and bronchial affections, when occurring in
torpid habits, and unaccompanied by inflam-
matory symptoms or gastric irritation. Also
as a fumigation in the same diseases, hooping-
cough, &c. Like benzoic acid, it is used to
prevent rancidity in ointments, pommades, and
other fatty preparations.
BENZOINUIM. See BENZOIN.
BEN'ZOL (-zôle). CºHº. [benz(oin)-oleum.]
Syn. BEN'ZENE*, BEN'Zin E, BEN’zöLE*, HY-
DRíDE OF PHE'NYL*, PHE'NE+, &c.; BENZo'-
LEUM, L.; BENZINE, Fr. ; BENZöL, Ger. A
peculiar ethereal hydrocarbon discovered, by
Faraday, among the products of the destruc-
tive distillation of whale oil and other organic
substances (A.D. 1825); and subsequently
shown, by Mitscherlich, to form the principal
ingredient in the distillate procured by the
action of heat on a mixture of benzoic acid
and hydrate of lime. In 1849, Mr. C. B. Mans-
field, discovered its presence in coal-tar naph-
tha, from which the benzol of commerce is
now chiefly, if not wholly, obtained.
Prep. 1. PURE:—a. A mixture of benzoic
acid, 1 part; fresh-slaked lime, 3 parts; is sub-
mitted, in a coated glass or earthenware retort,
to a heat slowly raised to redness; the oily
portion of the resulting distillate is then se-
parated from the water, and carefully rectified,
with the proper precautions, at a temperature
not exceeding 190° Fahr. The product is
usually stated to be pure benzol; but to ensure
this it may be submitted to one refrigeration
and rectification, in the manner and at the
temperature noticed below.
b. From good commercial benzol, agitated
with 1-4th or 1-5th of its weight of concen-
trated sulphuric acid, and, after repose and
decantation, rectified at a temperature under
195° Fahr.; the resulting distillate is exposed
to a temperature below” 32° Fahr., and the
mass of crystals that form are thrown on a
funnel, kept at the same temperature, to drain,
after which they are pressed between folds of
bibulous paper,” and then allowed to liquefy
by simple exposure, in a close vessel, to the
ordinary temperature of the atmosphere. The
product, after rectification at a temperature
not exceeding 190°, is nearly pure benzol. It
may be rendered absolutely pure by repeating
the refrigeration a second and a third time,
followed by a final rectification at 180-185°
Fahr.
2. CoMMERCIAL :—By submitting light coal-
tar naphtha to distillation, either at once, or
after it has been agitated with a little oil of
vitriol, and decanted, care being taken that the
temperature does not exceed 200°Fahr.
Prop. Pure benzol is a clear, colourless, very
mobile liquid, having a strong, characteristic,
and rather agreeable ethereal odour. It is neu-
tral to test-paper; exceedingly volatile at all
temperatures; insoluble in water; miscible
with alcohol and with ether; highly inflam-
mable; burns with a brilliant flame, emitting
clouds of smoke, which rapidly condense and
fall as a shower of fine sooty, carbonaceous
matter; boils at 176°Fahr.;* solidifies, at 32°, to
a snowy white camphor-like mass, or, when very
slowly refrigerated, to beautiful transparent
cruciform leaflets, which aggregate together
into forms resembling fern-fronds; remelts at
40-1°Fahr.; and when solidifies burns, like cam-
phor, without previous fusion. Sp. gr. 850;”
1 This unfortunate chemist lost his life (Feb. 25, 1855),
in consequence of being severely burned whilst experi-
menting on benzol.
* Preferably considerably below. If the distillate be
not rich in benzol, a temperature so low as 8 or 10°, or
even 4-5°, Fahr. may be necessary or, at all events, ad-
vantageous.
8 Filtration under pressure is thought by some chemists
to be preferable. For this purpose a ‘Beart's Coffee-pot.’
(or a similarly constructed apparatus), was often em-
ployed by Mansfield, and is recommended by Prof.
Muspratt.
* Fownes, Mansfield, Muspratt, and others; 186°–
Mitscherlich; 1879—Mr. C. G. Williams (in Ure’s “Dict.
of A., M., & M.,” 5th ed.). See Note 5 (below).
5 Williams, Ure, Muspratt; '885–Fownes, Mitscherlich.
The different sp. gr. and boiling-points assigned to
benzol, by authors, can only be accounted for by samples
of different degrees of purity having probably been ex-


BENZOYL.
211
sp. gr. of vapour, 2.770. It is unaffected
by the ordinary hydrated acids, and has no
action on the alkaline metals. Highly con-
centrated nitric acid readily dissolves it, and
from this solution nitrobenzol is precipitated
on the addition of water. Its vapour is dan-
gerously inflammable, and, when mixed with
the air, is highly explosive. Its solvent power
extends over a numerous list of substances.
Commercial benzol has a less agreeable odour,
and not unfrequently a slight colour, with
other modifications of the properties just enu-
merated, depending on the relative amount of
impurities contained in it.
Pur.—1. It should be colourless, without
action on either litmus or turmeric paper, and
have the boiling-point, sp. gr.,” &c., already
indicated:—2. A few drops thrown on a slip
of glass, or a piece of white paper, should
rapidly and entirely evaporate by simple expo-
sure to the air, without leaving a stain behind,
or evolving any disagreeable or foreign odour :
—3. Agitation with a little sulphuric acid
should not discolour it:—4. It should not per-
ceptibly lose weight or volume by agitation
with a little cold water.
Detec.—1. From the physical and other
properties already enumerated:–2. By con-
verting it into aniline and then testing it ac-
cordingly. For this purpose a little of it is
dissolved in concentrated nitric acid, and the
nitrobenzol thus formed is precipitated by the
addition of water. The fluid is then agitated
with ether, to dissolve out the nitrobenzol,
and the resulting ethereal solution is mixed
with an equal bulk of alcohol and hydrochloric
acid, and a little granulated zinc at once
added. Hydrogen is evolved, and by its action
the nitro-compound is converted into aniline.
The liquid is next alkalised with potassa in
excess, and the alkaline fluid agitated with
ether. The ethereal solution, on evaporation,
leaves a residue (aniline), which, after the
addition of a little water, may be tested with
a few drops of solution of chloride of lime,
when a characteristic purple colour will be de-
veloped, provided the original liquor was ben-
zole, or contained it. In this way very minute
traces of benzol may be detected.
Uses, &c. In its impure or commercial
form, chiefly as a solvent for gutta percha, and
india-rubber; but it leaves the first in a
spongy, friable state, and the latter glutinous
or sticky, unless heat is applied to it for some
time; also as a solvent in the manufacture of
varnishes, as a diluent, in lieu of oil of turpen-
tine, for oil-paints, as a material for the pro-
duction of artificial light, &c. &c. In the
pure, or nearly pure form, it is largely em-
ployed in the laboratory and in chemical ana-
lysis as a solvent of many resins,” mastic, wax,
camphor, fat, the fixed and essential oils, sul-
phur, phosphorus, iodine, several of the alka-
loids,” &c. &c. Under the name of BENZINE
and BENZINE-COLLAs it has been recently ex-
tensively vended for the removal of spots of
grease, paint, &c., from woven fabrics, which
it does most readily and completely, without
detriment to the material. As a source of
artificial light it has been the subject of innu-
merable applications and patents. It may be
burned in a ‘wickless' lamp, provided a proper
cap-burner be employed. Alcohol or pyroxilic
spirit containing 1-3rd, or even 1-4th of it,
burns with a rich white flame. Air driven
through it becomes sufficiently inflammable to
serve as illuminating gas; whilst ordinary
coal-gas by merely passing over it yields a
flame of greatly increased brilliancy; but in
all these applications the greatest possible care
is necessary to prevent accidents." See NAPH-
THA (Coal-tar). º
BENZOYL. C.H.O. The radical of an ex-
tensive series of compounds, of which the hy-
dride, C.H.OH (essential oil of bitter almonds),
and benzoic acid, HC, H2O2, are the most im-
portant members. -
Benzoyl, Hy"dride of. C.H.O.H. Syn. EssENCE
OF BITTER ALMONDS, ESSENTIAL OIL OF BITTER
ALMONDS, VOLATILE OIL OF BITTER ALMONDS.
Prep. 1. The crude oil of bitter almonds
is agitated with a moderately dilute solution
of protochloride of iron which has been pre-
viously mixed with fresh hydrate of lime in
excess, and the whole, after having been placed
in a retort connected with a suitable receiver,
is subjected to distillation. The hydride passes
over mixed with water, from which it is easily
separated after repose. By subjecting it to a
second agitation and distillation with a fresh
mixture of the protochloride and hydrate, and,
after careful separation from the water which
distils over with it, allowing it to remain for
some hours in contact with a few fragments of
fused chloride of calcium, to free it from all
traces of adhering water, the product will be
nearly chemically pure, provided the whole pro-
cess has been conducted with as little access of
air as possible.

amined. The numbers given in the text are those now
usually adopted; but we are not prepared to say, that
they are definitely settled. On the contrary, we think it
not unlikely that further investigations may show that
the apparently greater levity of the benzole obtained from
maphtha may arise from the presence of some other hydro-
carbon which has hitherto escaped detection.
1 Theoretically, 2738.
* If it has a less sp. gr. than 850, it is probably adul-
terated with the naphtha obtained from the Torbane-hill
mineral or Boghead-coal, of which the sp. gr. is only 750.
3 Anime and copal are scarcely affected by it in the
fluid state, but readily dissolve in its vapour at the point
of condensation.
* Particularly quinine, which it dissolves readily, but
not cinchonine. Hence it is invaluable for the separation
of them. It may be economically and conveniently sub-
stituted for ether in the preparation of many alkaloids,
with the advantage of being applicable in many cases in
which ether cannot be employed.
* Workmen constantly exposed to the vapour of benzol
are very subject to nervous irritability, and, where the
apartment is ill-ventilated, even fits of nervous prostra-
tion and trembling, of a truly alarming character. In two
or three cases which we have seen, the symptoms, to the
inexperienced eye, closely resembled those occasionally
resulting from the long-continued use of very minute
doses of strychnia, or of the alcoholic extract of nux
WOIn 10a. -


212
BERBERINE–BERYL.
2. (Liebig.) Agitate the crude oil of bitter
almonds with mercuric oxide, in slight excess,
and, after a few days’ contact, rectify the oil
from a little fresh oxide of mercury. The
product is quite pure, when the process is pro-
perly managed. The bicyanide of mercury
thus formed may be either employed as such,
or reconverted into oxide of mercury and hy-
drocyanic acid.
Prop., &c. A rather thin, colourless liquid,
of great refractive power, and characteristic
and agreeable odour ; soluble in 35 parts of
water; miscible in all proportions with alcohol
and ether; it boils at 356°Fahr.; on exposure
to the air it rapidly absorbs oxygen, and be-
comes converted into a mass of crystallised
benzoic acid; heated with solid hydrate of
potassa, hydrogen is evolved, and benzoate of
potassium formed; with the alkaline bisul-
phites it forms beautiful crystalline compounds.
Its flame, and that of its vapour, is bright but
very smoky. Sp. gr. 1.043. It differs from
the crude or common oil of bitter almonds
chiefly in the absence of hydrocyanic acid,
and consequently in not being poisonous. It
has hence been proposed as a substitute for the
crude oil as a flavouring ingredient in
cookery, confectionery, liqueurs, &c.; but is
unfitted for the purpose owing to the rapid
deterioration it suffers unless it be kept abso-
lutely excluded from the air.
Formiate of Hydride of Benzoyle. See
FORMOBENZOIC ACID.
BER'BERINE (-een)." CºnFILNO,. [Eng.,
Fr.] Syn. BAR/BERİNE*, BER/BERITE* (of
Thomson); BERBERI'NA, L. A substance dis-
covered by Buchner and Herberger in the root
of the common barberry shrub (ber'beris vul-
går'is, Linn.); and subsequently, by Bödecker,
in calumba-root; and more recently, by Mr.
Perrins, in the calumba-wood (memispermum
fenestratum) of Ceylon, which contains a con-
siderable quantity of it.
Prep. 1. A soft watery extract of the root,
or of the wood, is digested in rectified spirit,
with trituration, as long as anything is taken
up ; the resulting tincture, after repose, is
filtered, and the alcohol gradually distilled
off until the residuum has the consistence of
a thin syrup, The crystals which form as the
liquid cools are drained in a funnel, washed
with a few drops of ice-cold water, pressed
dry in bibulous paper, and then purified by
solution and crystallisation, first in rectified
spirit, and next in distilled water.
2. By digesting the root, or the wood,
(coarsely powdered,) in rectified spirit, and
then proceeding as before.
Prop. Berberine may be classed with the
azotised colouring substances; or, from its
composition and its possessing feeble basic
properties, with the alkaloids. It crystallises
in fine needles, or in stellated prisms, which are
yellow, odourless, very bitter-tasted, neutral
1 This substance must not be confounded with BEE-
BERINE or BIBERINE (which see).
to test-paper, and contain 12 equiv. of water.
At 212° Fahr. it acquires a red colour; but re-
covers its normal yellow on cooling. A much
higher temperature decomposes it, yellow va-
pours being evolved. It is freely soluble in
boiling water, and in alcohol, from either of
which solutions it may be readily obtained in
crystals. It requires 500 parts of water at
60° to dissolve it, and very much more at
lower temperatures. Its solutions are yellow;
that in alcohol appears green, by reflected light.
The concentrated mineral acids destroy it.
Its salts are more or less soluble.
Uses, &c. Chiefly in medicine, in similar
cases to those in which the use of calumba-
root is indicated. It has been highly recom-
mended in dyspepsia and heartburn, in dis-
turbed action of the liver, and, combined with
iron (lactate, phosphate, or hyposulphite), in
chlorosis, anaemia, &c. According to M. Altin,
it is an effectual remedy for the mucal, co-
lourless diarrhoea, and the derangement of the
urinary secretion, which commonly follow
cholera.--Dose. 3 to 10 grs. ; in larger doses it
proves laxative. See CALUMBA, &c.
BERG/AMOT. Syn. BERG AMO'TA, L.;
BERG AMOTE, Fr. ; BERG AMOTTE, Fr., Ger.
The bergamot-lemon, or fruit of cit'rus ber-
ga'mia ; also sometimes, colloquially, the fra-
grant oil obtained from its rind. See OILS
(Volatile).
BER/RY (bér'-re). Syn. BAC/CA (pl. bacca,
-sé), L.; BAIE, Fr. ; BEERE, Ger. Any small
succulent or pulpy fruit containing several
naked seeds or granules. In botany, an inde-
hiscent pericarp or seed-vessel, pulpy, many-
celled, and many-seeded; the seeds being naked,
and for a time connected by a slender mem-
brane, from which they become detached at
maturity, and then remain dispersed through
the pulp. It is distinguished by its figure,
&c., into several varieties. -
The leading berries employed in domestic
economy and the arts are noticed in their
alphabetical places (which see).
BER'YL (bér'-ril). Syn. AQUAMARINE’
(-rène'); A'QUA-MARI'NA, BERYL'LUs, L.;
AIGUE-MARINE, BáRIL, Fr. ; BERYLL, &c.,
Ger. ; SMARAGD, It. A beautiful mineral,
which, in its richer forms, is classed with
the gems. It is usually of a green colour of
various shades, passing into honey-yellow and
sky-blue. It is allied in composition to the
emerald; but occurs in much larger crystals
than that gem, and owes its colour to oxide of
iron, instead of oxide of chromium. Accord-
ing to Gmelin its composition is—Silica, 68.7%;
alumina, 17.6%; glucina, 13.4%; red oxide of
iron, 24%. Other (previous) authorities state
that it contains fully 14% of glucina, 2% of
lime, and 1% of oxide of iron.
The finest beryls come from Dauria on the
frontiers of China, from Siberia, and from
Brazil. Some of gigantic size have been
found in the U. S., at Ackworth and Gran-
tham, New Hampshire, and at Royalston,



BERYLLA—BEZOAR.
213
Mass. One of these measured 32 × 22 × 15
inches, and weighed 2900 lbs. ; another, 12
× 24 × 45 inches, and weighed 1076 lbs.
Apatite or Saxony beryl, chrysolite or
pierre d’asperge, coloured fluor-spar, and
even natural crystals of phosphate of iron, are
often worked up by the lapidaries and passed
off as beryls, or false beryls, emeralds, topazes,
&c. See GEMs, PASTEs, &c.
BERYL'LA*. See GLUCINA.
BERYL'LIUM%. See GLUCINIUM.
BETEL (bé'tl). [Eng., Ger.] Syn. BE'TLE,
BETEL-TREE, B. PEPPER-TREE: BíTEL, Fr. ;
WASSERPFEFFER, &c., Ger.; PI'PER BE'TEL
(Linn.), CHAVICA BETLE (Miquel), L. A
climbing plant of the nat. ord. Piperaceae,
common in India and the East. Its leaves, which
somewhat resemble those of the citron, are bitter,
stomachic, tonic, stimulant, and sialogogue.
Betel. A common masticatory in the East,
where it is chewed in the same way as tobacco
is by Europeans and Americans, but much
more generally, being regarded by the Malays,
Sumatrans, &c., as an absolute necessary of
life. It is commonly formed by dividing
areca-nuts' into four or six equal parts or
slices, one of which is rolled up, with a little
chunam,” in a sirih or leaf of the piper-betel,”
and then constitutes a ‘quid’ ready for use.
Prop., &c. Betel, in those accustomed to its
use, produces a species of pleasing excitement
or intoxication, stimulates the action of the
salivary glands, stomach, and kidneys, corrects
acidity, diminishes cutaneous perspiration,
restrains excessive discharges, increases the
power of physical exertion and endurance,
moderates the effects of climate, and appears
to act as a general tonic on the system. It
darkens the teeth, and tinges the saliva, as
well as the mouth and lips of a bright red
colour. In those unhabituated to its use, it
causes giddiness, astringes and excoriates the
mouth and fauces, and temporarily deadens the
sense of taste. The Indians conceive that it
preserves and fastens the teeth, cleanses and
strengthens the gums, sweetens the breath,
cools the mouth, assists respiration, and acts
as a general aphrodisiac on both sexes. Peron
states that he preserved his health during a
long and very trying voyage by the habitual
use of betel, whilst his companions, who did
not use it, died mostly of dysentery.”
BETEL-NUT. Syn. ARE/CA-NUT; NUx
ARE/CE CAT/ECHU, N.-BE'TEL, &c., L. The seed
of the catechu-palm (are/ca cat'echu, Linn.),
divested of the husk or fibrous pericarp. The
whole fruit (ARECA-NUT of commerce) is about
the size of a small egg; the husked nut is of
the size of a large nutmeg. The whole fruit
is remarkable for its marcotic or intoxicating
power. It has, however, been thought doubt-
ful whether its intoxicating effect is not
owing to the piper-leaf in which it is wrapped
when eaten (chewed), rather than to any

special property of its own. See ARECA
CATECHU.
BET'ULINE (-ū-lin; bé'-tū). [Eng., Fr.]
Syn. BETULI'NA, L. A crystalline substance
obtained from the bark of the white birch
(betiála al’ba, Linn.).
BE'Z0AR (-zöre). [Eng., L. indecl. ; prim.
Pers.”] Syn. BE'zoAR-STONE: BEZoKR'DUs,
LA/PIS BEZOAR/DICUS, &c., L.; BázoAR, Bá-
ZOARD, Fr. ; BEZOARSTEIN, Ger. The name of
preternatural concretions found in the stomach,
intestines, &c., of certain animals, and formerly
supposed to possess the most extraordinary
antidotal power and medicinal virtues. So far,
indeed, did this belief extend, that other sub-
stances regarded as antidotes were called
BEZOAR'DICs+, or otherwise named after them;
whilst the adj. BEZOAR/DIC# (béz-) and BE-
zoAR'TICAL} (bézoardique, Fr.; bezoar'dicus,
L.), came to be synonymous with antidotal.
Certain bezoars were once valued at even ten
times their weight in gold. They were not
only taken internally, but also worn as amulets,
They have, however, long since fallen into dis-
use in this country.
Among the leading bezoars of old medicine
are—
Bezoar, German. Syn. BE'ZOAR GERMAN/I-
CUM, B. CAPRI'NUM, L. From the Alpine
goat.
Bezoar, Hu'man. Syn. B. How'INIS, L.
Falsely stated to be found occasionally in man.
Bezoar, Microcos'mic. Syn. B. MICRoCos'-
MICUM, L. Human urinary calculi.
Bezoar, Mom'key. Syn. B. SIM'IAE, LA/PIs
S., L. From certain species of ape or monkey,
obtained by giving an emetic.
Bezoar, Occidental. Syn. WEST'ERN, B. ; B.
OCCIDENTALE, L. Found in the fourth sto-
mach of the chamois or wild goat of Peru, &c.;
or, according to others, of a species of antelope.
Bezoar, Orien'tal. Syn. EAST'ERN B.; B.
ORIENTA'LE, LAPIs B. or IENTA/LIS, L. From
the fourth stomach of ca'pra aga'grus, a species
of goat inhabiting the mountains of Persia,
&c. -
Bezoar, 0x. Syn. B. BOVI'NUM, L. From
the ox, and other bovine animals.
Bezoar, Porcupine. Syn. B. HYs'TRICTs, B.
HYs'TRICUS, LA/PIs H., L. Porci'NUs, &c., L.
Said to be found in the gall-bladder of the
Indian porcupine. Chiefly from Malacca. Has
an intensely bitter taste, which it imparts to
water.
Bezoar, West'ern. See OCCIDENTAL BEzoAR
(antè).
5 Some authorities derive this word from badzahr or
pazahar,Persian compounds implying ‘antidote to poison;’
others, from paseng, or pasahr, the name of the goat in


* In many cases suitable pieces of the whole fruit, in-
cluding the husk, are used; and in others, only the husk
(PIN ANG); there being different strengths and qualities of
‘betel’ employed.
* Lime made by burning shells.
* In some cases, the i. of chavica siriboa (Miq.),
which possesses similar properties, is employed.
4 cc ſ'. aua, Terres Australes.”
Persia. Mayne's notation—bezoar, is unusual; and
several of his analogues, synonymes, &c., are incorrectly
given (? misprinted). ---
214 BHAURTA—BILE.
Of the preceding, those from the stomach
of ruminants vary in size from that of a bean
to that of a hen’s egg, and have a composition
and appearance closely imitated by the follow-
ing formula, the product of which is commonly
sold for them :—
Bezoar, Facti"tious. Prep. From pipe-clay,
or clay and chalk, equal parts, made into a stiff
paste with ox-gall; a little hair or wool being
added, and the resulting mixture pressed by
the hands into small masses of a flattened
spheroidal or egg-like form. These give a
yellow tint to paper rubbed with chalk, and a
green one to quick-lime, which tests are used
for genuine bezoars. Like the latter, they are
antacid or absorbent, which is probably the
only virtue they possess.
Amongst “chemical bezoars’ now obsolete,
even on the Continent, were—
Bezoar, Argentimef; B. LUNA"RE, L. Made
by distilling butter of antimony with a solu-
tion of nitrate of silver. Once highly esteemed
in epilepsy and head diseases.
Bezoar, Mineral; B. MINERALE, L. Pow-
der of algaroth deflagrated with nitre in a red
hot crucible, and then well washed with water.
Once used as a diaphoretic. Other similar
preparations were B. JOVIALE (from tin), and
B. MARTIALE (from iron).
Bezoar, Satſurmine, B. OFIEAD; B. SATUR/NI,
L. Made by distilling a mixture of oxide of
lead, butter of antimony, and nitric acid.
Once highly esteemed in diseases of the
spleen.
BHAURTA. In Indian cookery, a dish made
of mashed potatoes and onions, strongly spiced
with capsicum, and sometimes also with curry-
powder, shaped in a mould, and then slightly
baked.
BIBASIC. Syn. BIBAS'ICUs, L.; BIBASIQUE,
Fr. In chemistry, having two bases, or two
atoms of the base or basic radical in its com-
position. See ACID, NOMENCLATURE, SALT,
&c.
BIB’ERON (bib'-rông). [Fr.] A sucking-
bottle or ‘artificial mother.’ See BOTTLES.
BI'BIRINE (bě/-). See BEBEERINE.
BIB'ULOUS (-à-). Syn. BIB'ULUs, L.;
SPONGIEUX, Fr. Absorptive; spongy.
BICAR/BONATE. A salt in which only half
the hydrogen in (hypothetical) carbonic acid
(H2CO3) is replaced by a metal, e.g. bicarbo-
nate of sodium, NaHCO3.
BICE (bise). Syn. BLUE BICE. See BLUE
PIGMENTS.
Bice, Green. See GREEN PIGMENTS.
BIDERY (bé'-). Syn. VI'DRY. An alloy
of which the chief seat of the manufacture is
the city of Bider', near Hyderabad, India. It
was first brought under the notice of the
British public at the International Exhibition
of 1851, where many articles made of it were
greatly admired for the elegance of their forms,
and the gracefulness of their engraved and
enchased patterns.
Prep. 1. Zinc, 31 parts; copper and lead,
of each, 2 parts; melted together, with the
usual precautions, under a mixture of resin and
bees’-waa, to prevent oxidation."
2. (Dr. Heyne.) Copper, 8 parts; lead, 2
parts; tin, 1 part ; melted together, as before.
For use, the resulting alloy is remelted, and
to every 3 parts of it, 16 parts of zinc are
added.
Prop., &c. Colour, between that of pewter
and zinc ; does not corrode by exposure to air
or damp; yields little to the hammer, and can
only be broken by extreme violence. It pos-
sesses a convenient degree of fusibility, above
that of zinc and tim, but much lower than that
of copper. For the turner it is usually cast in
moulds of baked clay; but otherwise in moulds
of iron or other hard metal. The beautiful
black colour, which the finished articles pos-
sess, is imparted by dipping them into a solu-
tion of sal-ammoniac, saltpetre, sea-salt, and
blue vitriol. See BRASS, BRONZE, PEWTER,
&c.
BIDET' (bid-àtſ; -ā'—Fr.). An article of
bedroom furniture conveniently formed for
laving the lower part of the body. Besides
the value of its use as an instrument of per-
sonal cleanliness and health, it offers a ready
means of medicating the parts, often highly
serviceable in piles, prolapsus, affections of the
scrotum and prostate gland, strangury, ischuria,
suppressed or difficult menstruation, &c. See
ABLUTION, BATHS, &c.
BIEN/NIAL (bi-śn'-y’āl). Syn. BIEN/NIS,
L.; BIENNAL, BISANNUEL, DE DEUx ANS,
Fr.; ZWEIJAHRIG, Ger. Occurring once in,
or lasting, two years. In botany and garden-
ing, applied to plants that do not produce
flowers and seed until the second year or season
of their growth, and which then die; subst., a
biennial plant.
The existence of the biennials, like that of
the annuals, may be prolonged by art; indeed,
many of them, by carefully removing the
flowers ere the seed-vessels begin to form, may
be made to bloom a second season, and even

|for several seasons following, like perennials.

See ANNUALS, FLOWERS, PLANTs, &c.
BIFF'IN. A baked apple, flattened by
pressure.
Prep. The apples are placed in a cool oven,
6 or 7 times in succession, and flattened each
time by gentle pressure, gradually applied, as
soon as they are soft enough to bear it; after
which they are talken out, and as soon as cold
put on clean dishes or glass plates. The sour
or tart variety of apples is the best for baking.
If the process be well managed, the appear-
ance of the prepared fruit is very rich, and the
flavour delicious.
BIL/BERRY. The whortleberry.
Bilberry, Bear's. Uva ursi.
BILE. Syn. BI'LIs,” CHO'LE,” FEL,4 L.;
1 These are very nearly the proportions which Dr.
Hamilton says he saw used in India.
* Properly, the “gall” after it leaves the “gall-bladder’
—a sense retained in its English analogue. 8 XoAjl, Gr.
4 Strictly, the gall-bladder with the gall.
BILE–BIRCH.
215
BILE, FIEL, GALLE, Fr.; GALLE, &c., Ger. A
bitter fluid secreted by the liver, from venous
blood; in part flowing from the intestines, and
in part regurgitating into the gall-bladder.
Its composition is of a very complex character;
and its uses in the animal economy appear to
be—to separate the chyle from the chyme,
to promote the digestion and assimilation of
oleaginous substances, and to assist in exciting
the peristaltic action of the intestines. The
faeces appear to owe their colour chiefly to the
presence of bile; as, without it, they possess a
dirty pipe-clay colour. Several of the sub-
stances which enter into its composition, or
which are formed from those which do so, are
noticed elsewhere, under their respective names.
Its analysis, detection, and uses in the arts, are
given under GALL.
Bile (of Animals). See GALL.
BILE, Bil’iousness.
popularly included all those slight affections
of the stomach, usually accompanied with de-
rangement of the head and bowels, apparently
arising from excess of bile. Persons subject
to attacks of this description should be particu-
larly careful to avoid excess in both eating and
drinking, and should more especially shun
those articles of food, and those liquors, which,
from experience, they find are apt to disagree
with them. A mutton chop, slightly under-
dressed, is an excellent article for the breakfast,
or the lunch, of bilious patients; and good
beef or mutton, either broiled or roasted, so
that the gravy be retained, is better for dinner
than many dishes apparently more delicate.
These, with fresh game and venison, form a
good variety from which to choose a bill of
fare. New beer and porter should be particu-
larly avoided, as well as boiled meat, stews,
soups, greasy or rich puddings, much butter
or fat, and most articles of pastry, as they are
very indigestible, and, by overtasking the
powers of the stomach, very apt to derange
it. Strong cheese,' salads (particularly cu-
cumbers), over-ripe or unripe fruit, new bread
and rolls, cabbages and green vegetables, and
especially peas, beans, nuts, almonds, and the
like, are also objectionable for parties with
delicate stomachs or a bilious tendency. The
bread eaten by such persons should be per-
fectly free from alum, and preferably prepared
with meal retaining the whole of the bran in
it; and should be two days, or at the least,
one day old. The quantity of animal food
per day, except for the laborious, should be
limited to from 6 or 8 to 12 oz. ; and warm
slops of all kinds, except moderately strong
tea and coffee, should be taken as seldom as
possible, and, in general, avoided altogether.
Even cocoa and chocolate prove injurious to
the delicate and bilious. Out-door exercise
and plenty of fresh air are essential to the
health of such persons. Those who indulge in
them freely are never attacked with affections
of this kind, unless it be after gluttonising or
1 Rotten cheese is absolute poison to the bilious.
Under these terms are (
heavy drinking. Above all things heavy and
late suppers should be abandoned; indeed, the
better plan is to take nothing more than a hard
biscuit, or dry crust, after tea.
In general, attacks of bile may be pre-
vented by the exercise of moderate judgment
and temperance in living; and, in those
hitherto subject to them, by the occasional use
of an aloetic, mercurial, or saline aperient; and
they may be generally rapidly removed by an
emetic, followed by a dose of castor oil, Epsom
salts, or Seidlitz powder. A tumbler of pure
cold water taken on retiring to rest, and ano-
ther (or even two) on rising in the morning,
will often remove both the tendency and the
fit, when all the usual remedies have failed.
See ABERNETHY MEDICINES, ANTIBILIOUS,
DYSPEPSIA, STOMACH AFFECTIONs, &c.
BIL'IARY AFFECTIONS (-yār-e). See BILE
antè), CALCULI, JAUNDICE, LIVER, &c.
BILINE (-lín). Syn. BILI'NA, L. This
name has been loosely applied to two sub-
stances:–1. Bile, or pure bile, freed from the
mucus of the gall-bladder, and gently evapo-
rated to dryness. A gummy pale yellow mass,
white when powdered:—2. Tauro-cholalic or
choleic acid. See GALL, &c.
BIL'IOUS (-yūs). Syn. BILIo's Us, L.;
BILIEUX, Fr. ; GALLIG, G ALLICHT, &c., Ger.
Pertaining to, caused by, full of, or having
excess of bile. See BILE, BILIOUSNESS.
BILIPH'EINE (-e-in). Cholepyrrhine.
BILIVERDINE (-din). A green colouring
matter, identical with chlorophyll, found in
bile, and in the green dejections of children.
BILL OF FARE. In cookery, domestic eco-
nomy, &c., a list of things ready dressed or
prepared for the table (CARTE, c. D'UN RESTAU-
RANT, MENU, &c., Fr.); also a list of articles
of food in season. For Tables of the latter,
see FOOD.
BINARY. Syn. BINA"RIUs, L.; BINAIRE,
Fr. Consisting of two parts. In chemistry,
compounded of two elements, or of two bodies
performing the function of elements.
BIN00"ULAR (-ū-). Having two eyes. In
optics, of or with two eyes, as binoc'ular
vì"sion; or formed with two eye-pieces or
tubes, so as to be used with two eyes, as a b.
mi'croscope, b. tel'escope, &c.
BIRCH. Syn. BETULA, L.; BouTEAU, Fr.;
BIRKE, Ger. The common mame of trees of
the genus betula; appr., b. alba (Linn.), or
white birch; also its wood. See BETULINE,
and below.
Black Birch. Syn. CHER'RY B., SWEET B.,
MoUNT/AIN MAHOGANY : BETULEN'TA, L. A
forest tree of No. America. Wood, used for
cabinet-work: bark yields a volatile oil similar
in odour and taste to that of gualtheria; juice,
obtained by tapping, saccharine, and yields
BIRCH-SUGAR.
White Birch, Syn. BIRCH, (or) CoMMON
B.; BE'TULA, L. A tree found in the woods
of England. Wood, neither very hard nor du-


! rable; leaves formerly used in itch and dropsy;
216
BIRD-BIRDS.
bark febrifuge, yields a pyroligneous oil by
distillation. See OILs (and above).
BIRD." [Eng., Sax.] Syn. A/VIs, L.; OISEAU,
Fr. ; Vog EL, Ger. Any fowl, or animal of the
feathered kind. In fashionable and gour-
mandic cant, appr. a partridge. See BIRDS
(below).
BIRD'LIME. Syn. WISCUs, L.; GLU, Fr. ;
VogFLLEIM, Ger. Prep. The middle bark of
the holly (gathered in June or July), is boiled
for 6 to 8 hours in water, or until it becomes
quite soft and tender; the water is then
drained off, and it is placed in a heap, in a pit
underground (commonly on layers of fern),
and covered with stones. Here it is left to
ferment for 2 or 3 weeks, and watered, if ne-
cessary, until it assumes a mucilaginous state.
It is next pounded in a mortar until reduced
to a uniform mass, which is then well kneaded
with the hands, in running water, until all the
refuse matter is worked out. It is, lastly,
placed in an earthen vessel, and covered with
a little water; in which state it may be pre-
served from season to season. In about a week
it is fit for use.
Prop. Greenish coloured; very gluey, stringy,
and tenacious; when air-dried, brittle and pul-
verisable, but capable of gradually assuming its
previous viscosity when moistened.
Uses. To cover twigs to catch birds, and
other small animals. It is said to be discutient,
but is now never employed in medicine.
Obs. Birdlime may also be made from
misletoe-berries, the young shoots of the elder,
the bark of the wayfaring-tree, and some other
vegetables, by a similar process to that above
described. Should any of it stick to the hands,
it may be removed by means of a little oil of
turpentine. -
A kind of FACTITIOUS BIRDLIME is made by
boiling linseed oil either with, or without, a
little yellow resin, until it forms a viscid,
stringy paste when cold. This is chiefly used,
spread on paper or cloth, to catch insects.
See FLY-PAPERS, &c.
BIRDS. Syn. A/VES, L. Birds, besides their
value as food, play an important part in the
economy of organic nature, and particularly
in that of the vegetable kingdom. They are
the best friends of the agriculturist and the
gardener; and their presence, in numbers,
appears essential to keep down the innu-
merable races of insects that prey upon our
cereals, fruits, and culinary vegetables. M.
Florent Prevost, who has for fifty years pre-
sided over the Natural History Museum of
Paris, and who has, like the ancient Roman
augurs, examined the entrails and stomach of
fowls with scientific curiosity, avers, as the
result of his long experience, that birds, of
1 Properly, a ‘chicken” or ‘young flying animal.”—It is
remarkable, as observed by Webster, that a nation should
lay aside the proper generic name of flying animals—
“fowl' (fugel, fugl, Sax.; vogel, Ger., Dut. ; fugl, Dan. ;
fogel, Sw.; from the root of the Lat., fugio, fugo), and
substitute the name of the young of those animals, as the
generic term. - -
whatever sort, are an unmitigated blessing to
the farmer, and that the detritus and organic
particles found by inspection of them in whole
hecatombs, which, by the assistance of the
Royal Forest Rangers, he has sacrificed on the
altar of utility, show an immense preponderance
of insect corpuscula in their digestive organs,
whilst the traces of cereal or other valuable
products are infinitesimal in comparison. It
is found that even sparrows, rooks, and owls—
three of the feathered tribe the most perse-
cuted by the farmer—are, in reality, the
faithful and vigilant conservators of his fruits
and crops. In one of the smaller states of
Germany, where, owing to public rewards
being given to their destroyers, the whole race
of sparrows were exterminated, the crops
failed to such an alarming extent, that it
became necessary to offer large premiums for
the re-introduction of these useful birds from
other parts. In some of the agricultural dis-
tricts of France, where the destruction of
small birds has been carried on with relentless
activity for years, insects have so prodigiously
multiplied as to attack everything green
around them. Even the forest-trees are, in
many cases, denuded of leaves by them, and
are rapidly perishing. Venomous species of
caterpillars, previously scarcely known except
to entomologists, have now become common;
and cases of children losing their lives from
attacks of them whilst bird-nesting, have
recently been published in the newspapers.”
In our own country, the extension of sparrow-
clubs—associations disgraceful to the boasted
intelligence of the nineteenth century —
threatens similar results. Already the gar-
dener finds his fruit-crops lessening year by
year; and that many of them, particularly of
the smaller and sweeter fruits, have become so
precarious, that they now scarcely pay for
cultivation. In our own neighbourhood,
where small birds have for some years been
destroyed by bushels at a time, it is almost
impossible to raise a currant, gooseberry,
cherry, or plum; whilst seedling flowers and
culinary vegetables often entirely disappear
on the first night after being planted, or are
so completely deprived of the succulent portion
of their leaves and stems, that the remaining
skeleton of network, in a few days withers and
dies. But this is not all—the columns of our
diurnals bring us continual reports of failing
grain-crops in the neighbourhoods in which
these bird-clubs have existed for any length
of time, and that even on land previously
remarkable for its fertility.” Did this loss fall
only on the benighted beings who so wilfully
cast back the blessings of an all-wise, protect-
ing Providence, it would be a just retribution;
but, unfortunately, it affects the whole nation,
and threatens, ere long, unless arrested by



* A striking fatal case of this description is given in the
“Times” of June 12, 1862.
See the “Times” and other leading ‘journals’ for :
1862
BISCOTIN–BISMUTH.
217
legislation, to prove a national calamity. The
only apparent remedy for the evil, at present,
is the diffusion of information tending to show
that the farmer and the gardener, in destroy-
ing small birds, destroy their best friends.
[For further information respecting birds,
see AVES, AVIARY, BIRD (antè), GAME, GER-
MAN PASTE, NESTs (Edible), PouTTRY, PU-
TREFACTION, TAXIDERMY, TRUSSING, &c.]
BISCOTIN. [Fr.] A small biscuit. In cook-
ery, &c., a species of confection made of eggs,
flour, marmalade, and sugar, variously com-
pounded and flavoured according to the taste
of the operator.
BISCUIT (-kit). [Eng., Fr.] Syn. BUCCEL-
LA/TUM, PA/NIs BIS COC'TUS, L.; SWIEBACK,
Ger.; BISCOTTO, It.; BIZCOCHO, Sp. Literally,
“twice-baked;’ appr., a well-known variety of
hard, dry, unleavened bread, made in thin flat
pieces. Those prepared for seamen (SEA'-BIS-
CUITs, CAP’TAIN's B.") are composed of flour
and water only. When made of fine flour,
and a few caraway seeds are added, they are
commonly called AB’ERNETHY BISCUITs.
Fancy biscuits generally contain a little sugar
and butter, to which almonds, caraways, mace,
ginger, lemon, and other articles, technically
called ‘flavourings,’ are frequently added.
Prep. On the small scale, biscuits are made
by forming the flour and water into a dough
by the common process of hand-kneading,
occasionally assisted with a lever, as in making
ordinary bread. The dough is then rolled
into a sheet, and cut into pieces of the desired
size and form. These, after being stamped, are
exposed to the heat of a moderately quick oven,
when a few minutes (12 to 18, according to
their size) are sufficient to bake them.
On the large scale, the whole manual pro-
cess, from preparing the dough to the point
at which the newly made biscuits are ready
for baking, is now generally performed by
machinery. The articles so prepared are
commonly known in trade as ‘MACHINE-MADE
BISCUITs,’ and are not only much cheaper,
but of fully equal quality to those ‘made by
hand.” In the bakehouses of her Majesty’s
Victualling Yards at Deptford, Gosport, and
Plymouth, the ingenious machinery invented
by Mr. T. T. Grant, is employed. These
establishments are said to be capable of pro-
ducing annually above 8000 tons of sea-bis-
cuits, at a saving of upwards of 12,000l. a
year, from the cost that would have been
incurred for the purpose on the old system.
Under the latter, it is stated, that wages, and
wear and tear of utensils, cost about 1s. 6d.
per cwt. of biscuit; whilst under the new
system, the cost is only 5d.
The allowance of biscuit to each seaman in
the royal navy is 1 lb. per day; or, on the
average, six biscuits.
Biscuits, Fan'cy. The varieties of these are
almost innumerable. In a printed list now
1 A captain's biscuit differs from a common ‘sea-
biscuit” in being made of finer flour.
before us, we observe the names of upwards of
one hundred different kinds. These are pro-
duced by varying the number and proportions
of the ingredients used in their composition,
and the form and size in which they are
turned out of hand. They are further modi-
fied by the relative heat of the oven, as well
as the length of time they are allowed to
remain in it. It would, therefore, be waste
of space to give particular directions for the
preparation of each. The proportions of butter
and sugar, or either of them, may be from 1
oz. and upwards, to flour, 1 lb., according to
the degree of richness desired. In a few cases,
milk, or eggs, or both, are introduced. The
‘flavourings’ embrace a wide range of sub-
stances—bitter-almonds, caraways, cassia, cin-
namon, ginger, mace, nutmeg, lemon, orange-
peel, orange-flower water, essence of peach
kernels, vanilla, &c. &c.; many of which give
their name to the biscuit.—AR'ROW-Root
BISCUITs are usually made of equal parts of
arrow-root and flour; MEAT'-BISCUITs, from
about 1 part of lean meat (minced small and
pulped) beaten to a dough with about 2 parts
of flour, and a little seasoning, no water being
added;” SODA BISCUITs, by adding 1 to 2 drs.
of carbonate of soda to each lb. of flour. In
most other cases, the mere inspection of the
biscuit will convey to the experienced biscuit-
baker and cook sufficient information to enable
him to produce an exactly similar one, or at
least a very close imitation. The richest kind
of SPONGE-BISCUITS, as we are informed, are
made as follows:—Add the whites and yelks
of 12 eggs, previously well beaten, to 13 lb. of
finely powdered sugar, and whisk it until it
rises in bubbles, then add 1 lb. of the finest
pastry-flour, and the grated rind of 2 lemons.
Put it into ‘shapes,” sift a little sugar over
them, and bake them in buttered tin moulds,
in a moderately quick oven, for nearly half an
hour.”
BISCUITs, DEv'ILED, in cookery, are captain’s
biscuits (or any similar kind) buttered on both
sides, peppered well, and then covered on one
side with a slice of good cheese formed into a
paste with made mustard; the whole being
seasoned with a little cayenne pepper, is, lastly,
grilled. Chopped anchovies, or essence of an-
chovies, is a good addition.
BISMUTH. Bi. BISMUTH, ETAIN DE GLACE,
Fr.; BISMUTH, WISMUTH, W.-METALL, Ger.
One of the metals.
Sources. Bismuth occurs in the mineral
kingdom in the metallic state (NATIVE BIs-
MUTH), and in combination with sulphur
(BIS'MUTHINE), and with oxygen (B. o'cHRE,
&c.). That of commerce is mostly imported
from Saxony, where it is chiefly obtained from
native bismuth, by the simple process of
eliquation. The ore, sorted by hand from the

* For the MEAT-Biscuits used in the navy, and by
travellers, see MEAT.
8 A few fancy biscuits will be found noticed in their
alphabetical places. See CRACKNELs, MACARooNs, &c.
218 .
gangue, and broken into pieces of about the
size of nuts, is introduced into the ignited
iron pipes of the furnace (see engr.), until
Bismuth-furnace in Section.
(a.) Eliquation-tube.]
(b.) End at which it is charged.
(c.) End from which the metal flows.
(d.) Receiving-pan.
(e.) Water-trough.
(f) Grate, &c.”
(g. g.) I)raught-holes.
these latter are filled to about one half their
diameter, and to three fourths of their length.
From these the liquefied metal is allowed to
flow into iron pans containing some coal-dust,
and from these into a trough of water, in which
it is granulated and cooled. It is subsequently
remelted and cast into moulds so as to form
‘bars’ varying in weight from 25 to 56 lbs.
each. In this state it usually contains a small
admixture of arsenic, iron, lead, and sulphur;
from the first of which it may be freed by
exposure, for some time, under charcoal, at a
dull red heat. It is best obtained in a pure
condition by heating to redness, in a covered
crucible, a mixture of oxide, or submitrate of
bismuth, with half its weight of charcoal.
Prop. Colour, grayish-white with a reddish
tint; crystalline ; very brittle (may be pow-
dered); melts at about 480° Fahr., and does
not re-solidify until cooled to 6 or 7° below
this point ; it volatilises at a strong heat, and,
in close vessels, the fumes condense unchanged,
in crystalline laminae; little acted on by the
air, but when exposed to it at a high tem-
perature burns with a faint blue flame,
emitting yellow fumes which condense into a
yellow pulverulent oxide; when slowly cooled,
in large masses, it forms large cubic crystals,
or octahedrons, of great beauty; nitric acid,
somewhat dilute, dissolves it freely. It is
highly diamagnetic. Sp. gr. 9:8 to 9:83,
which, by careful hammering, may be increased
to 9.8827. A bar of bismuth, when heated
from 32° to 212°, expands exactly rig in
length.
Uses, &c. Bismuth enters into the compo-
sition of STEREOTYPE-METAL, SOLDER, PEWTER,
FUSIBLE METALS, and several other alloys.
Added to other metals it renders them more
fusible. An alloy of tin, nickel, bismuth, and
silver, is said to hinder iron from rusting. A
1 Several of these tubes are usually set side by side
together.
2 Usually one to each eliquation-tube.
-
BISMUTH.
mixture of bismuth, lead, and tin, is much em-
ployed for taking impressions from dies, form-
ing moulds, and for other purposes.
Bismuth salts are usually insoluble, or de-
composed by any quantity of water into free
acid, and a basic salt. They are nearly all
colourless, and, except the chloride, more
volatile. They are easily recognised by the
following reactions:–
Their saturated or concentrated solutions
giving a white precipitate on dilution with
water:—Sulphuretted hydrogen blackensthem,
or gives a black precipitate :-The nitric solu-
tion is unaffected by the addition of sulphuric
acid:—Chromate of potassium gives a yellow
precipitate, which differs from that from lead,
by being soluble in nitric acid, and insoluble in
potassa.
Bismuth, Chlorides of:—
Basic Chlo"ride. BiºCls. Syn. SUBCHLo”-
RIDE OF BISMUTH, PEARL/-PoWDER ; BISMU'-
THI SUBCHLORI’DUM, L. Prep. A dilute
solution of hydrochloric acid, is dropped into
another of bismuth (prepared by dissolving
that metal in nitric acid); and the resulting
precipitate, after being well washed in pure
water, is dried in the shade.—Prop., Uses, &c.
Similar to those of the submitrate.
Chlo"ride. BiCl3. Syn. TERCHLo"RIDE OF
BISMUTH. Prep. A mixture of corrosive subli-
mate, 2 parts; bismuth, 1 part ; (both in
powder,) is exposed to heat until all the ‘mer-
cury’ present is expelled, after which it is at
once put into bottles. A grayish-white, granu-
lar substance.
Bismuth, Nitrates of :—
Basic Nitrate. BiONO3. Syn. PEARL-
WHITE, BISMUTH SUBNITRATE ; BISMUTHI
SUBNITRAS, BISMUTHI NITRAS, L.; BLANC DE
FARD, B. D’ESPAGNE*, &c., Fr. ; PERLWEISS,
SCHMINKWEISS, &c., Ger. Prep. Bismuth,
1 oz. ; mitric acid, 1}; fl. Oz. ; distilled water,
3 pints; mix 1 fl. Oz. of the water with the
acid, and dissolve the bismuth in the mixture;
throw the solution into the remainder of the
water, and, after repose, pour off the super-
natant liquor, drain the powder that has sub-
sided on a linen cloth, wash it with distilled
water, and dry it with a gentle heat.
Prop. A pearly white, inodorous powder,
insoluble in water, but freely soluble in nitric
acid; long exposure to a strong light turns it
grayish. When prepared from a neutral solu-
tion, it consists of very fine microscopic crys-
talline laminae; but when prepared from acid
solutions, with less water, the crystals are
acicular, and more silky and lustrous. When
moistened it exhibits an acid reaction with
litmus paper.
Pois., &c. Like the other salts of bismuth,
it causes vomiting, purging, giddiness, cramp,
insensibility, &c. No certain antidote is known.
The treatment may consist of an emetic, fol-
lowed by the copious use of emollient drinks,
as weak broth, barley-water, milk-and-water,
&c.; and subsequently, when necessary to


BISTRE.
219
prevent inflammation, by a low diet and
aperients.
Uses, &c. In medicine, as a sedative, an
astringent, or tonic, and an antispasmodic, in
chronic affections of the stomach unaccom-
panied by organic disease of that organ, and
apparently of a nervous character; particularly
in gastrodynia, troublesome sickness and vomit-
ing, pyrosis or waterbrash, and generally in
gastro-intestinal affections attended with
fluxes; also in intermittent fever, spasmodic
asthma, &c.—Dose. 5 to 10, or even 20 grs.
Baternally, made into an ointment with 4
parts of lard, it has long been employed in
certain chronic skin-diseases. Under the name
of PEARL-WHITE it is commonly used by ladies
as a cosmetic; but it is stated, that it injures
the skin, producing, after a time, paralysis of
its minute vessels, rendering it yellow and
leather-like—an effect which, unfortunately,
it is usually attempted to conceal by its freer
and more frequent application. In very large
doses it is poisomous.
Both the basic nitrate and the basic chloride
of bismuth pass under the names of PEARL-
WHITE and PEARL-POWDER, owing to their
extreme whiteness and beauty. That of the
druggists, however, is usually the former;
that of the perfumers, usually the latter, but
not unfrequently both.
Nitrate. Bi(NO3)3. Syn. NEUTRAL NI-
TRATE,TERNITRATE. Purified bismuth (in small
fragments), 2 oz., nitric acid, 6 oz. ; dissolve
with heat, adding more acid, if necessary, to
effect entire solution of the metal; to the
resulting solution add half its volume of
distilled water, filter through powdered glass,
and evaporate until crystals form.
Use. Chiefly in chemistry, and as a source
of the pure oxide and the submitrate.
Bismuth Oxides:—
Bismuthous Oxide. Bi,03. Syn. TER-
OXIDE OF BISMUTH, PROTOXIDE OF BIS-
MUTH. From either the neutral or the basic
nitrate, by exposure, in a crucible, to gentle
ignition. Pure. A straw-yellow powder, of
rather difficult solubility.
HYDRATED :—By gradually dropping an
acid solution of bismuthous nitrate into a con-
centrated solution of potassium hydrate per-
fectly free from carbonic acid, and washing
and drying the resulting precipitate. Pure.
A rich-looking white powder. -
Prop., &c. Fuses at a high temperature, and
then acts as a powerful flux on siliceous matter
without itself imparting colour, a property of
which the enameller and gilder has long availed
himself. Like the basic nitrate, it has been
wsed as an antispasmodic, and as a cosmetic.
Sp. gr. 8:211 to 8:355.
Bismuthic Oxide. Bis0s. Syn. BISMUTHIc
ANHYDRIDE, BISMUTHIC ACID. Suspend ter-
oxide of bismuth in a strong solution of potassa,
and pass chlorine through the mixture until
decomposition is complete; treat the powder
with dilute nitric acid (to remove any unde-
composed teroxide), after which wash it in
cold water, and dry it.
Prop., &c. A reddish powder, insoluble in
water. Its salts, of which little are known,
are called BIS'MUTHATEs. When heated it
loses oxygen, and a bismuthate of bismuth is
formed.
Bismuthous Sulphide. BiºS3. This compound
occurs native (BIS'MUTHINE), and may be easily
prepared artificially by either fusing its ele-
ments together, or by passing sulphuretted hy-
drogen through a solution of nitrate of bismuth.
Bismuthous Waleriamate. Syn. BISMU'THI
VALERIA/NAs, L. Prep. An acid solution of
nitrate of bismuth is decomposed with a solu-
tion of valerianate of soda in water containing
a little free valerianic acid; the precipitate is
carefully washed in distilled water, and dried
in the shade. Recommended as superior to
the submitrate in some forms of gastrodynia,
dyspepsia, intermittents, &c.—Dose. 2 to 6 grs,
Ol' in Ore.
BISTRE (-ter). [Eng., Fr.] Syn. BISTER,
Ger. Prep. 1. The most compact, best co-
loured, and well-burnt portions of the soot of
beechwood, or of peat," are selected, reduced
to powder, and sifted through a very fine lawn
sieve. It is then digested in clear warm water
for several hours, with frequent stirring; after
which it is allowed to settle, when the liquid
portion is decanted from the sediment. This
process is repeated a second, and even a third
time. The paste is next poured into a tall
narrow vessel, which is then filled with pure
cold water, and well agitated. The grosser
parts only are now allowed to subside,” and
the supernatant liquor, containing the finer
portion of the BISTRE in suspension, is poured
off into another vessel, where it is left to de-
posit its contents. The deposit is next col-
lected, and carefully dried and powdered; or
it is only partially dried, and at once made
into cakes with gum-water, or isinglass-size,
and then allowed to dry and harden for sale.
2. (Dr. MacCulloch.) The tar-like liquid
obtained from the dry distillation of wood, is
again carefully distilled until all volatile matter
has passed over, and a brittle, pitch-like resi-
duum is obtained, which is either brown or
black according to the time and temperature
employed; after which the heat is still further
prolonged, but with increased care, until the
brittle substance becomes pulverulent, and
carbonaceous. It is then ground and elutriated
with pure cold water, as before.
Uses, &c. As a water colour to tint drawings,
in the same way as Indian ink, to which it is
esteemed superior when the subjects are in-
tended to be afterwards tinted with other
colours. It occupies the same place among
water colours that brown-pink does in oil.
According to Dr. MacCulloch, bistre from
wood-tar, when carefully prepared, has great
depth and beauty of colour, with all the fine







1 The first is usually employed in England.
* Two or three minutes suffice for this purpose.
220
BITES AND STINGS BITTER.
properties of sepia; but that if the whole of
the oils and acids have not been removed by
the process, it is apt to collect in little flocks,
which interfere with its use.
BITES and STINGS. Syn. MoR's Us (-Süs,
sing.) ET ICTUS (-TÜs, s.), L. The treatment
of the bites of non-venomous and non-rabid
animals is the same as that of ordinary lace-
rated or punctured wounds, as the case may
be; that of the bites and stings of venomous
and rabid animals, serpents, insects, &c., often
require, in addition, the use of special anti-
dotes to destroy the virus, or to prevent its
absorption, or to neutralise its effects when
absorbed and to promote its elimination from
the system.
The bites and stings of ANTS, BEES, WASPs,
HORNETs, and similar insects common to this
climate, may be treated by washing the part
with spirit of hartshorn or dilute liquor of
ammonia, or eau de luce, or a weak solution of
chloride of lime. Should considerable inflam-
mation ensue, and the part become much
swollen, a thing that rarely occurs, leeches
may be applied, and a cooling purgative given.
The stings of venomous reptiles may be simi-
larly treated, excepting that the strength of
the solutions of ammonia, chloride of lime,
&c., should be stronger than in the former
case, so as to produce some pain and smarting.
In cases where the venom is of a very poison-
ous description, the wound should be first well
washed with water of ammonia, and afterwards
seared with lunar caustic in every part, includ-
ing the interior and deep-seated portions. In
extreme cases, the surface of the wound, both
internal and external, may be removed with
the knife; or, in the case of a small joint, as
a finger, the injured portion may be amputated.
Prior to the use of the washes or caustic, dry-
cupping or suction with the mouth may be
had recourse to with great advantage. A
ligature placed on the limb, above the wound,
as soon as possible after the accident, will im-
pede the absorption of the poison whilst the
other treatment is in progress. A similar
plan may be followed after the bite of a dog
supposed to be mad. It has, indeed, been
lately asserted by one of our most celebrated
veterinarians, that he and his colleagues have
been repeatedly bitten by dogs that have after-
wards been proved to be mad, but from having
fearlessly applied caustic to the parts, they
have escaped uninjured.
The poison inserted by the stings and bites
of several venomous reptiles is so rapidly
absorbed, and of so fatal a description, as fre-
quently to occasion death within a very short
space of time, and before any remedy or anti-
dote, under ordinary circumstances, can be
applied. But even in these extreme cases it
is probable that absorption, and consequently
the rapidity of the action of the poison, might
be considerably impeded or lessened by the
immediate application of a ligature above the
part, as before described, the patient accom-
panying the treatment by swallowing a large
quantity of liquid, by which partial plethora
would be produced, and the functions of the
absorbents for a time nearly suspended. A
few minutes, thus gained, would permit of the
application of appropriate antidotes, by which
the poison might be neutralised before it would
become necessary to remove the ligature, whilst
the kidneys would be in full action. Unfor-
tunately, these wounds are generally inflicted
in parts of the world where precautionary
measures are seldom thought of, and generally
at times when people are least prepared to
meet them, as well as so suddenly and unex-
pectedly as to stagger even those observers
who may be in no absolute danger themselves.
Such is the bite of the East Indian CO'BRA DI
CAPEI/Lo, against which two Asiatic (arsenical)
pills are often prescribed by the Hindoos; but
which are generally scarcely swallowed before
the poison of the serpent has rendered the
patient a stiffened corpse. Eau de luce, a
favorite remedy in India, when liberally em-
ployed both internally and externally, is said
to prove sometimes more successful. The bite
of the PUFF-ADDER is of a similar, or even a
more fatal description than that of the cobra.
When the venom of any of these animals, or of
a rabid dog, is once fully absorbed into the
system, there appears to be no treatment that
can save the patient. A bottle of Madeira
wine, or ; a pint of brandy or rum diluted
with twice its weight of water, drank in two
doses, about 3 or 4 minutes apart, is a popular
remedy in India, in such cases. Its effect is
to impede absorption.
The secret antidote so long successfully em-
ployed by Mr. Underwood, the “snake-king' of
Australia, for the bites of the WHIP-SNARE and
the DIAMOND-SNARE, two of the most veno-
mous of that region, is now positively asserted
to be the common male fern (polypodium
fi'lia mas, Linn.). Of the powdered root, or
preferably, of the green leaves of this plant
nearest the root, he prepares a sort of decoc-
tion, or broth, which he takes or administers
liberally. A more convenient preparation
would, perhaps, be a tincture prepared by
digesting 1 oz. of the dried, or 3 oz. of the
fresh leaves, (bruised,) in a pint of proof spirit
or strong brandy or rum, for a fortnight; as
in this state it could be kept for any length
of time, if well-corked, without deterioration.
[See HYDROPHOBIA, Poisons, SNARE-BITES,
STINGs, VENOM, Wounds, &c.]]
BITTER. [Eng., Ger.] Syn. AMA"RUS,
L.; AMER, Fr. Tasting like wormwood,
quassia, or other similar vegetables; subst., a
bitter plant, bark, or root ( = AMA"RUM, L.;
see below).
Bitter App'let. Colocynth.
Bitter Cup. A cup or tumbler formed by
1. Notices of several chemical and neurotic antidotes, of
great promise, will also be found in different parts of this
volume. The names of the respective animals may like-
wise be referred to. .."
BITTERN_BITUMEN.
221
the turner out of quassia wood. Liquor, by
standing in it a short time, becomes bitter and
stomachic. They are now common in the
shops.
Bitter Earth%.
Bitter Herbs,
SPECIES (Bitter).
Bitter Salt}, Bitter Pur’ging-salt. Sulphate
of magnesia.
Bitter-sweet. Woody nightshade.
Bitt'er-wort: (-wirt). Gentian.
BITTERN. The ‘mother-water ’ or “bitter
liquor’ of salt-works from which the chloride
of sodium (sea-salt) has been separated by
crystallisation.
Bittern. An intoxicating poisonous mixture
sold by the brewers’ druggists, composed of 1
part each of eactract of quassia and powdered
sulphate of iron, with 2 parts of eactract of
cocculus indicus, 4 parts of Spanish liquorice,
and about 8 parts of treacle ; the liquorice
being first boiled with a little water until dis-
solved, and the solution evaporated to a proper
consistence before adding the other ingredients.
Used by fraudulent brewers and publicans to
impart a false bitter and apparent strength to
their liquors.
BITTERS (-èrz). Syn. AMA"RA, &c., L.
Vegetable bitters are commonly regarded as
tonic and stomachic, and to improve the appe-
tite when taken occasionally, and in moderation.
The best time is early in the morning, or half
an hour or an hour before a meal. An exces-
sive, or a too prolonged use of them, tends to
weaken the stomach, and to induce nervous-
ness. They should not be taken for a longer
period than about 8 or 10 days at a time, al-
lowing a similar period to elapse before again
having recourse to them.
Among the most useful and generally em-
ployed bitters are—calumba, cascarilla, cha-
"momiles, gentian, hops, orange peel, quassia,
and wormwood.
Bitters. In the liquor-trade, a compound
prepared by steeping vegetable bitters, and
some aromatics as flavouring, in weak spirit,
for some 8 or 10 days; a little sugar or syrup
being subsequently added to the strained or
decanted tincture. In that of the taverns
and gin-shops the menstruum is usually gin,
or plain spirit reduced to a corresponding
strength. BRAN'DY-BITTERS and WINE’-BIT-
TERS are prepared in a similar way with com-
mon British brandy, or some cheap white wine
(Cape or raisin), as the case may be. Each
maker has usually his own formulae, which he
modifies to suit the price, and the palate of
his customer.—This class of liquors has been
justly charged with being the fertile cause of
habitual intemperance, of disease, and even of
death ! Their occasional use as tonics or
stomachics is also objectionable, owing to the
trash, and even deleterious substances, which
so frequently enter into their composition.
See LIQUEURS.
BITU'MEN. [Eng., L.] Syn. BITUME, Fr.;
Magnesia.
See BITTERS (infră) and
ERDPECH, ERDTHEER, &c., Ger. A term of a
very comprehensive character, and, in general,
very loosely applied, including a variety of
inflammable mineral substances, of which as-
phaltum, naphtha, and petroleum, may be men-
tioned as examples. The solid bitumens are
now extensively employed in the manufacture
of bituminous mastic or cement and similar
compositions, which are used for the lining of
water-cisterns, and for various other hydraulic
purposes; as also for roofs, floors, pavements,
&c. For the last purpose, the native varieties
of ‘asphaltic rock, consisting of a mixture of
bitumen and calcareous earth, when tempered
with a proper quantity of crushed granite, or
calcareous sand or gravel, is found to be the
most substantial and durable. The plan fol-
lowed in laying down such pavements in Paris,
where they have been the most extensively
adopted, is—The ground having been made
uniformly smooth, is edged, in the usual man-
ner, with curb-stones rising about 4 inches
above its level, and then covered, to the depth
of 3 inches, with concrete (made with about
1-6th part of good hydraulic lime), which is
well pressed upon its bed, the surface being
subsequently smoothed over with a very thin
coating of hydraulic mortar. On this, when
perfectly dry, the ‘bituminous mastic, ren-
dered semi-fluid by being cautiously heated in
a suitable iron cauldron,” is evenly spread over
so as to form a layer three quarters of an inch,
or for less solid work, half an inch thick.
Some coarse sand is lastly sifted over and
pressed down on the surface, when the work is
complete; and in a few days the pavement
becomes sufficiently compact and solid to be
thrown open to foot passengers.
The asphalto-bitumen mine of the Val de
Travers, in the Canton of Neufchâtel, is said
to be the richest and most extensive in the
world of its particular class. The calcareous
bitumen which it yields contains 20% of nearly
pure bitumen, and 80% of carbonate of lime;
and it has a sp. gr. (2:115) approaching that
of ordinary bricks.
The “Val de Travers Company,’ and the
‘Bastenne and Gaujac Company,’ are those
who have hitherto been the most successful in
laying down asphalto-pavements. See As-
PHALTUM, PETROLEUM, &c.
Bitumen, Elastic. Syn. MIN’ERAL CAOU'-
TCHOUC (köö'-chöök), ELATERITE. A rather
rare species of bitumen, differing chiefly from
the other solid varieties in being elastic.
Bitumen, Liquid. Petroleum.



1 On this point depends the success of the work. Abso-
lute dryness is a sine quá non in the process. The mastic
must also be laid down in dry weather. If laid in wet,
damp, or even foggy weather, it will be liable to separate
from its bed, and gradually to break up. This is why so
much of the asphalt and bituminous pavement laid down
in London, has proved a failure.
* It is here that the mixture of the bitumen (previously
crushed sufficiently small to pass through meshes 10 to
the inch) is made with the sand or gravel; a small portion
of mineral tar or coal-tar (3 to 7 or 8%) being commonly
added to promote their fusion and complete union.
222 BITUMINOUS—BLACK DYE.
BITU'MINOUS. Syn. BITUMINo'sus, L.;
BITUMINEUx, Fr. ; ERDPECHIG, Ger. Of
bitumen, or resembling or containing it.
BIX'EINE (-e-in). The red colouring-prin-
ciple of annotta. It is obtained by treating
bixine with liquid ammonia, with subsequent
free contact of air. -
Prop., &c. When pure, a rich deep-red
powder, soluble in alcohol and in alkalies, and
turned blue by sulphuric acid. It appears to
be oxidised bixine.
BIX'INE (-in). The yellow colouring-prin-
ciple of annotta.
Prep. A solution of annotta is precipitated
with a solution of acetate of lead; the precipi-
tate, after having been washed in cold water,
is decomposed by sulphuretted hydrogen; the
decanted liquor or filtrate yields crystals by
cautious evaporation. -
JProp., &c. Yellowish white, turning full
yellow by exposure to air; soluble in water,
and freely so in alcohol and in alkaline solu-
tions; by oxidation it is converted into
biaseine. For a correct knowledge of both
of these substances we are indebted to M.
Preisser.
BLACK. Syn. A^TER,” NI/GER, L.; NoTR,
Fr. ; SCHWARz, Ger. ; BLAC, BLAEC, Sax. In
dyeing, &c., of the colour of lamp-soot, or of
night ; subst., a black colour.
Black Ash. The waste lye of the soapmakers
is evaporated in large iron boilers, the salt
separated as it falls down, and then heated in
a reverberatory furnace until it is partially
decomposed and fused, when it is run into iron
pots to cool. It is used in the manufacture of
alum and common soap.
Black Colours (kül'-). See BLACK PIG-
MENTS.
Black Draught. See SENNA MIXTURE (Com-
pound).
Black Drop. See DROPs, PATENT MEDI-
CINES, &c.
BLACK DYE. Syn. TEINTE Norrº, Fr. ;
SCHWARZE FARBE, Ger. The following are
the processes and materials now commonly
employed in dyeing black:—
a. For COTTON :—
1. The goods, previously dyed blue, are
steeped for about 24 hours in a decoction of
gall-nuts or sumach, then drained, rinsed in
water, and passed through a bath of acetate of
iron for a quarter of an hour; they are next
again rinsed in water, and exposed for some
time to the air; after which they are passed a
second time through the bath, to which a little
more iron-liquor is previously added. The
whole process is repeated, if necessary, ac-
cording to the intensity of the shade of black
desired.
2. The goods are steeped in a mordant of
acetate of iron, worked well, and then passed
through a bath of madder and logwood for 2
hours. Less permanent than No. 1.
* Black, deep black; as opposed to albus, white.
Obs. About 2 oz. of coarsely powdered galls,
or 4 oz. of sumach, are required for every.
pound of cotton, in the process of galling.
The first should be boiled in the water, in the
proportion of about 3 gal. of water to everyth.
of cotton, The sumach-bath is better made by
mere infusion of that dye-stuff in very hot
Water.
3. (For 10 lbs. of cloth.) The goods are put
into a boiling bath made of 3 lbs. of sumach,
and allowed to steep, with occasional ‘working,’
until the liquor is perfectly cold ; they are
next passed through lime water, and, after
having drained for a few minutes, immediately
transferred to and worked for an hour in a
warm solution of 2 lbs. of copperas; after free
exposure to the air, for about an hour, they
are again passed through lime water, and, after
draining, ‘worked’ for an hour in a bath made
with 3 lbs. of logwood, and 1 lb. of fustic; they
are then ‘lifted,” and 4 lb. of copperas being
added, they are returned to the bath, ‘worked’
well for about 30 minutes, and finished. Good
and deep.
Obs. Instead of copperas iron-liquor may be
used, observing to take 13 pint of the latter (of
the ordinary strength) for every lb. of the
former ordered above.
b. For FLAX and LINEN:—
This, for the most part, closely resembles
that employed for cotton; but, in some cases,
a mordant of iron-liquor, or of copperas,
followed by passing the goods through lime-
water, and exposure to the air, precedes the
dye-bath.
c. For SILK :—
Silk goods are dyed much in the same way
as woollens, but the process is conducted with
less heat :—
1. A bath of nut-galls is given for 12 to
36 hours, occasionally working the goods
therein; they are next taken out, rinsed, and
well aired, after which they are passed for a
few minutes through a bath containing sul-
phate of iron, and are then again drained,
rinsed, and aired. The steep in the nut-gall
bath may be repeated, if necessary, followed,
as before, by the iron-bath previously reple-
nished with a little fresh copperas. The whole
quantity of galls to be taken for 1 lb. of silk,
varies with their quality from 3 to # lb., that
of the copperas (for the first bath), from 3 to
4 oz.
2. (For 1 cwt. of silk.) Boil 22 lbs. of bruised
Aleppo-galls, for 2 hours, in 90 to 100 galls. of
water, observing to add boiling water from
time to time, to compensate for that lost by
evaporation; to the clear bath add 32 lbs. of
copperas, 7 lbs. of iron-filings, and 21 lbs. of
gum; digest with agitation, for 1 hour, and
when the ingredients are dissolved, pass the
silk (previously prepared [“galled 'I with ºrd
of its weight of gall-nuts) through the bath for
about an hour; then rinse and air it well; next
leave it in the dye-bath for 6 to 12 hours; and
this immersion or steep may be repeated, if

BLACK DYE. 223

necessary, at will. This is said to be the pro-
cess commonly adopted for velvet at Genoa
and Tours.
3. (For 5 lbs. of silk.) Turn the goods for an
hour through a mordant formed of 1 lb. of cop-
peras and 2 oz. of nitrate of iron (dyer's), with
sufficient water; after rinsing in cold water,
and airing them, ‘work’ them, for an hour, in
a decoction made of 5 lbs. of logwood and 1 lb.
of fustic ; then lift them from the bath, add
2 oz. of copperas, re-immerse, and ‘work’ them
well for 10 or 15 minutes longer; lastly, rinse,
air, and finish. A full deep black.
4. (For 5 lbs.) For the mordant use } lb. of
copperas; rinse, and air; for the ‘dye-bath,” a
decoction of 4 lbs. of logwood to which 3 pint
of stale urine has been added; after ‘lifting '
the goods add 2 oz. more of copperas to the
bath, and work for 15 minutes, as before. A
good black. By adding 2 oz. of dyer's nitrate
of iron to the mordant the same ingredients
will give a deep black; and by substituting a
little white soap for the urine, and omitting
the addition of copperas to the logwood-bath,
it will give a blue-black. The last may also be
produced by first dyeing the goods deep blue
as with ‘prussiate,’ and omitting the urine and
soap, in which case one half only of the log-
wood will be required.
d. For WOOL:—
To produce a good permanent black on wool,
or woollen goods, they must be first dyed of a
deep blue in the indigo-vat, or, more cheaply,
by the Prussian-blue process. When the goods
are coarse or common, and price is an object,
they are generally ‘rooted instead of being
‘blued.” This consists in giving them a dun
or brown colour with the husks of walnuts, or
the roots of the walnut-tree, or with other like
cheap astringent substances.
1. (For 1 cwt. of wool.) Good logwood-chips,
20 lbs., and Aleppo-galls, 18 lbs. ; are inclosed
in a coarse bag, and boiled with water, q. S.,
for 5 or 6 hours; ºrd of this decoction is then
transferred into another copper, with verdigris,
2 lbs., and a sufficient quantity of water having
been added, the goods (previously dyed dark
blue) are passed through the liquor for two
hours, at a heat slightly below the boiling-
point. The goods are next lifted and drained,
another ºrd of the decoction of logwood and
galls, with copperas, 9 lbs., added to the boiler,
after which the fire is lowered, and as soon as
the copperas is dissolved, the cloth is returned
to the bath, and again well ‘worked" for at
least an hour. It is then taken out, thoroughly
aired, and the remaining ºrd of the decoction
added, with sumach, 20 lbs. The whole is
then brought to a boil, and sulphate of iron, 2
lbs., together with a pailful of cold water,
thrown in; after which the goods are put in a
third time, and ‘worked for one hour; they
are then taken out, rinsed, aired, and again
passed through the bath for another hour.
After being thoroughly rinsed, the goods are
at once either “fulled, dried, and folded, or
are further softened and beautified by passing
them for 15 minutes through a hot weld-bath
(not boiling), when they are rinsed, &c. (but
not ‘fulled '), as before. A beautiful though
expensive dye. With management, the above
quantities of the ingredients will dye 13 or
even 1% cut. of wool.
2. (For 1 cwt.) The cloth (previously dyed
blue) is ‘galled with 5 lbs. of nut-galls, and
then dyed in a bath made with 30 lbs. of log-
wood, to which about 5 lbs. of copperas has been
added ; after which it is rinsed, aired, and
‘fulled,” as before. This is said, by Lewis, to
be the usual proportions and plan adopted by
the English dyers.
3. (For 1 cwt.) Make a bath, as before, with
fustic, 2 lbs.; logwood, 5 lbs. ; and sumach, 10
lbs. ; work the (blued) cloth for 3 hours at the
boiling heat, or near it; lift it out, add sul-
phate of iron, 10% lbs., and when dissolved,
pass the cloth through it for 2 hours; rinse,
air well, and again pass the goods through the
bath for an hour; lastly, rinse until the water
runs clear. Inferior to the last, but less ex-
pensive.
4. (For 1 cwt., without previous blueing or
‘rooting.')—a. Work the goods, at about 200°
Fahr., for 1 hour, in a bath made with 6 to 7
lbs. of cam-wood; lift, add 64 lbs. of copperas,
and again work the goods for an hour, after
which withdraw the fire, and allow them to
steep for 10 or 12 hours; next drain and rinse
them, and work them in a second bath made
with 60 lbs. of logwood for 13 hour; lift, add
3 lbs. of copperas, and again work for an hour;
lastly, rinse, air, and finish:-b. The goods are
first worked, for about two hours, in a bath of
3 lbs. of fustic, in which 5 lbs. of bichromate
of potash and 4 lbs. of alum have been dis-
solved; after exposure to the air for about an
hour, and thorough rinsing, they are worked
for a second two hours in a bath made with 45
lbs. of logwood, 3% lbs. of barwood or cam-
wood, and 3 lbs. of fustic ; they are then lifted,
and 3 lbs. of copperas having been added to the
bath, are again immersed and worked for half
an hour to an hour.
5. (For 10 lbs. of wool or w.-cloth.) Work
the goods for ; an hour in a bath of 3 lb. of
cam-wood; lift, add 7 or 8 oz. of copperas, and
after working them for 20 minutes, withdraw
the fire, and leave them in the liquor for 10 or
12 hours; next rinse them in cold water, drain,
and then work them for an hour in a bath
made with 5 lbs. of logwood, to which 1 pint
of urine has been added; lift, add 4 oz. of
copperas, work them for half an hour longer,
and, lastly, wash and dry them.
6. (For 7 lbs.) Take of galls (bruised), 4 lb.;
logwood chips, 1% lb.; for the bath; boil or
work the goods for 2 hours, take them out, add
of copperas, 4 lb. ; and when it is dissolved,
work the goods through the liquor for at
least 2 hours, keeping the bath nearly boiling;
again take them out, wash, and air; then add
1 oz. more of copperas to the bath, and pass


224
BLACK LEAD–BLACK PIGMENTS.
the cloth through it for another hour; lastly
air, rinse, and finish.
7. (For 5 lbs.) For the first bath—bichro-
mate of potash, 8 oz. ; alum, 6 oz. ; fustic, 4
oz, ; for the second bath—logwood, 4 lbs. ; bar-
wood and fustic, of each, 4 oz. ; to which add,
after the lift, copperas, 4 oz. ; the process being
conducted as in 4, b. This, as well as the two
formulae immediately preceding it, is particu-
larly suited to articles of dress dyed in the
small way, at home. When the articles are
only re-dipped, as it is called, a proportion-
ately smaller quantity of the ingredients may
be taken.
Concluding remarks. In dyeing black, par-
ticularly on wool, it is absolutely necessary to
take the goods out of the dye-bath several
times, and to expose them to the air. This is
called “airing” them, and is done to allow the
oxygen of the atmosphere to act upon the
ingredients of the dye, and especially on the
iron; as without this action of the air a good
colour cannot be produced. The usual propor-
tions employed by the dyers of England are
5 lbs. each of galls and copperas, and 30 lbs. of
logwood, for every cut. of cloth; but these
weights are frequently increased for choice
goods, just as they are always lessened for
common ones. The other astringent sub-
stances used as substitutes for galls in dyeing
black, are taken in quantities proportionate to
their respective strengths, that of good Aleppo
gall-nuts being referred to as a standard.
The German wool-dyers usually commence
their process with a mordant of Salzburgh
vitriol (3 parts) and argol (1 part); and after
exposure of the goods, in a cool place, for
24 hours, work them in a bath of logwood
(5 to 6 p.) and fustic (2 p.); after which the
bath is restored by the addition of verdigris
(# p.) dissolved in vinegar and the goods again
worked through it for about ; an hour.
This is for 20 parts weight of wool or cloth.
Black marinos are usually mordanted (hot)
with about Tºth of their weight of copperas,
and then aired for 24 hours; after which they
are dyed in a boiling bath made with about
# their weight of logwood with the addition
of about 2% of argol or tartar.
As black is the shade most commonly at-
tempted by amateur dyers, it may be here
necessary to call their attention to what is
said on mixed fabrics in our article on DYEING ;
since an inattention to this point will inevit-
ably cause the failure of their efforts.
According to Muspratt, a mixed fabric of
silk and woollen may be dyed black, by one
process, as follows:–Work the goods an hour
in a solution of 8 oz. each of tartar and cop-
peras, and wash out ; work for 15 minutes in
a decoction of 4 lbs. of logwood; lift, add 1 oz.
of bichromate of potash, work for # an hour,
and dry. And a mixed fabric of cotton, silk,
and woollen —Steep for six hours in a bath
made of 2 lbs. of sumach ; then work for an
hour in a solution of 6 oz. each of tartar, sul-
phate of copper, and copperas; wash, and
work ; an hour in a decoction of 4 lbs. of
logwood; lift, add to the bath 1 oz. of cop-
peras; work ten minutes, wash, and dry. If
a very deep black be required, 1 lb. of bark is
to be added with the logwood. See DYEING,
MORDANTS, &c.
BLACKLEAD (léd). See PLUMBAGo.
BLACK PIG/MENTS. Syn. PIGMENTA NI'-
GRA, L. The principal black pigments of com-
merce are obtained by carbonising organic sub-
stances (particularly bones), by exposure to a
dull red heat, in covered vessels out of contact
with the air; or by collecting the soot formed
during the combustion of unctuous, resinous,
and bituminous matters. Artists and ama-
teurs also prepare, on the small scale, a variety
of blacks, many of which are not procurable
at the colour-shops. This they effect either by
the carbonisation of substances not usually .
employed for the purpose, or by simply re-
ducing to powder certain mineral productions
selected on account of the peculiar shades of
colour which they respectively possess. Some
of the last might, however, be more appro-
priately classed with browns. The following
list embraces most of these articles:—
Am'imal-Black. Bone-black.
Beech'-Black. Carbonised beech-wood.
Blue'-Black. Wine-twigs dried and then
carefully carbonised, in covered vessels, until
of the proper shade. That of the ancients.
was made of wine-lees. Pit-coal, carefully
burnt at a white heat, then quenched in water,
dried, and well ground, forms a cheap, good,
and durable blue-black, fit for most ordinary
purposes. See FRANKFORT-BLACK. -
Bone'-Black. Syn. I'voRY-BLACK (of com-
merce); CAR/BO os's IS, OS Us'TUM NI/GRUM,
E‘BUR U. N. (vena'le), &c., L.; NoLP D’Os, &c.,
Fr. ; KNOCHENSCHWARTZ, &c., Ger. Carbon-
ised bones reduced to powder. That of com-
merce is usually the residuum of the distillation
of bone-spirit. Inferior to true ivory-black;
having a slight, but peculiar reddish tinge,
from which the latter is quite free. Besides
its use as a pigment, it is extensively employed
in making blacking, as a material for the
moulds of founders, as a clarifier and bleacher
of liquids, &c. See IVORY-BLACK and ANI-
MAL CHARCOAL.
Cas'sel-Black, Cologne'-Black. Ivory-black.
Coal'-Black. See BLUE-BLACK and NEW-
CASTLE-B.T.A.C.K.
Composi"tion-Black (-zish'-in-). The se-
lected portion of the residuum of the process
of making prussiate of potash from blood and
hoofs.-Used both as a pigment, and to de-
colour organic solutions, which it does better
than bone-black.
Cork'-Black. Spanish-black.
Flo"rey-Black, FLORÉE. D'INDE. The dried
scum of the dyer's wood-bath. A superior
blue-black.
Frank'fort-Black, NOIR. DE FRANCFORT.
From vine-twigs dried, carbonised to a full

BLACK. 225
black, and then ground very fine. An excel-
lent black pigment; also used by the copper-
plate printers to make their ink. See BLUE-
BLACK.
Harts'horn-Black. Resembles ivory-black,
which is now usually sold for it. It was for-
merly prepared by carbonising the residuum of
the distillation of spirit of hartshorn.
I'vory-Black. Syn. CAR'Bo EB'oRIs, EBUR
Us'TUM NI'GRUM, L.; NoLR D'Ivoir E, &c.,
Fr.; ELFENBEINSCHWARTZ, Koh LE VON EL-
FENBEIN, Ger. From waste fragments and
turnings of ivory, by careful exposure in co-
vered crucibles, avoiding excess of heat or
over-burning. The whole having been allowed
to become quite cold, the crucibles are opened
and their contents reduced to fine powder. For
the first quality only the richest coloured por-
tion of the charcoal is selected, and this, after
being powdered, is ground with water on por-
phyry, washed on a filter with warm water, and
then dried. A very rich and beautiful black.
It is brighter than even peach-stone black, and
is quite free from the reddish tinge of bone-
black. With white-lead it forms a rich pearl-
gray. See BoME-BLACK.
Jamai'ca-Black (-mā'-). Sugar-black.
Lamp'-Black. Syn. FULI'Go LUCER/NA., F.
PI/NEA, &c., L.; NoLR DE FUMéE, &c., Fr.;
KIENRUSs, &c., Ger. Prep. 1. (On the small
scale.) A conical funnel of tin-plate furnished
with a small pipe to convey the fumes from the
apartment, is suspended over a lamp fed with
oil, tallow, coal-tar, or crude naphtha, the
wick being large and so arranged as to burn
with a full smoky flame. Large spongy, mush-
room-like concretions of an exceedingly light,
very black, carbonaceous matter, gradually
form at the summit of the cone, and must be
collected from time to time. The funnel should
be united to the smoke-pipe by means of wire,
and no solder should be used for the joints of
either.
2. (Commercial.) On the large scale, lamp-
black is now generally made by burning bone-
oil (previously freed from its ammonia), or
common coal-tar, and receiving the smoke
in a suitable chamber. In the patented process
of Messrs. Martin and Grafton, the coal-tar
is violently agitated with lime-water until the
two are well mixed, after which it is allowed
to subside, and the lime-water having been
drawn off, the tar is washed several times with
hot water. After subsidence and decantation,
it is put into stills, and rectified. The crude
naphtha in the receiver is then put into a long
cast-iron tube furnished with numerous large
burners, underneath which is a furnace to heat
the pipe to nearly the boiling-point. Over
each burner is a sort of funnel which goes into
a cast-iron pipe or main, which thus receives
the smoke from all the burners. From this
main the smoke is conveyed by large pipes to
a succession of boxes or chambers, and thence
into a series of large canvas bags arranged
side by side, and connected together at top and
bottom alternately. Fifty to eighty of these
‘bags are employed; the last one being left
open to admit of the escape of the smoke,
which has thus been made to traverse a space
of about 400 yards. As soon as the bags con-
tain any considerable quantity of black, they
are removed and emptied. The black depo-
sited in the last bag is the finest and best, and
it becomes progressively coarse as it approaches
the furnace.
Obs. The state of minute division in which
the carbon exists in good lamp-black is such as
cannot be given to any other matter, not even
by grinding it on porphyry, or by “elutriation'
or ‘washing over” with water. On this ac-
count it goes a great way in every kind of
painting. It may be rendered drier and less
oily by gentle calcination in close vessels, when
it is called burnt lamp-black, and may then be
used as a water-colour; or its greasiness may
be removed by the alkali-treatment, noticed
under Indian ink. It is the basis of Indian
ink, printer’s ink, and most black paints.
Russian Lamp-black is the soot produced by
burning the chips of resinous deal. It is ob-
jectionable chiefly from being liable to take
fire spontaneously when left for some time
moistened with oil.
Manganese-Black (-nēze'-). Native bin-
ovide of manganese. Durable and dries well.
New'castle-Black. From the richer-looking
varieties of pit-coal by grinding, and elutria-
tion. Brown black or, in thin layers, deep
brown. It is, perhaps, “the most useful brown
the artist can place on his palette; being re-
markably clear, not so warm as Vandyke-brown,
and serving as a shadow for blues, reds, and
yellows, when glazed over them. It seems
almost certain that Titian made large use of
this material.” See BLUE-BLACK (antè).
Oporto-Black. Carbonised wine-lees.
Paris-Black, NoLRDE PARIs. From turner’s
bone-dust, treated as for ivory-black. Works
well both in oil and water. It is commonly
sold for real ivory-black, and for burnt lamp-
black.
Peach-stone Black. From the stones or
kernels of peaches, cherries, and other similar
fruits, treated as for ivory-black. A bright,
rich black; works well with oil; with white-
lead and oil it makes old gray.
Pit/coal Black. Newcastle-black.
Prus"sian-Black. (prüsh'-ām). Composition-
black. -
Rice'-Black. Rice-charcoal. Inferior.
Rus"sian Black. See LAMP-BLACK.
Soot-Black (sêöt/-). The soot of coal-fires,
ground, and sifted. Used in common paint,
and to colour whitewash ; with Venetian-red
and oil, it makes chocolate-colour; also used
to make gray mortar. -
Spanish Black. From cork-cuttings car-
bonised, as bone-black. Resembles Frankfort-
black, but works softer.
Sug'ar-Black (shöög'-). Carbonised moist
sugar. Has little body, but for washing

15 -
226 BLACKBERRY-BLACKING.
drawings is equal in mellowness to Indian ink
and bistre.
Sun/derland Black. Newcastle-black.
Turner’s Black. Paris-black.
Wine'-twig Black. Frankfort-black.
Wheatſ-Black (hwöte"-). Carbonised wheat.
It has a good colour, a full body, and dries
hard and quickly with oil.
BLACK'BERRY. The popular name of
ru'bus fructico'sus (Linn.) or the common
“bramble. Fruit (BLACK'BERRIES; MöRES
DE RONCE, Fr.), antiscorbutic and wholesome,
but in excess apt to sicken; twigs, used in
dyeing black; root, astringent, formerly used
in hooping-cough.
American Blackberry. The ru'bus villo'sus
(Ait.). Root, astringent and tonic ; officinal
in the Ph. U. S. -
BLACKING. Syn. CIRAGE (des bottes),
NoLR (pour les souliers), Fr. ; SCHWARZE,
SCHUHSCHWARZE, Ger. An article too well
known to require description.
Hist., &c. Blacking, and other polishes for
leather, were undoubtedly in common use
among the ancients; but the compound to
which we now more particularly apply the
name is of comparatively modern invention.
The latter appears to have been first intro-
duced into England from Paris, during the
reign of Chas. II, but was not in common use
among the masses of our population much
before the middle of the 18th century.
The general and still increasing use of
blacking as a polish for boots and shoes by
all classes of the inhabitants of civilised coun-
tries, has given an extent and importance to
its manufacture which a stranger to the sub-
ject would scarcely be led to suspect. The
princely establishments of some of the firms
who compound this sable article, cannot fail
to have arrested the attention of the pas-
senger through the streets of this great metro-
polis ; whilst the enormous fortune acquired
by one of their late members, and, for the
most part, bequeathed by him for purposes of
charity and philanthropy, has invested both
the donor and his craft with an interest and
notoriety which they did not previously pos-
sess. At the present time, the consumption of
blacking is greater than at any former period;
and of this, as of many other articles, England
is the principal manufactory for the world,
alike distinguished for the extent of her trade
and the excellent quality of this product of
her industry. In truth, England excels all
other nations in the manufacture of common
shoe-blacking ; and, perhaps, in no other coun-
try is an equal attention paid to the cleanliness
and appearance of the external clothing of the
feet.
Prep. I. LIQUID BLACKING:-
1. Take of bone-black, 16 parts; treacle, 12
parts; oil of vitriol, 3 parts; sperm oil," 2
1 Sperm oil is commonly regarded as the best for black-
ing ; but pale seal oil is thought by some to be quite as
good. The cod-liver oil of the curriers, if clear, is less ex-
parts; gum-arabic, 1 part; strong vinegar, or
sour beer, 48 to 50 parts;” (all by weight;)
place the bone-black in a capacious wooden,
stone-ware, or enamelled iron vessel,” add the
oil, and rub them well together; next gra-
dually add the treacle, and actively and
patiently grind or rub the mass, after each
addition, until the oil is perfectly killed,
and finally for some time afterwards, to ensure
complete admixture; then cautiously dilute
the vitriol with about three times its bulk of
water, and add it, in separate portions, to the
former mixture, observing to stir the whole
together, as rapidly as possible, on each addi-
tion of the acid, and for some minutes after
the whole is added, so as to render the mass
thoroughly smooth and homogeneous; let it
stand, covered over, for two or three days, or
longer, stirring it, in the mean time, for 15 or
20 minutes daily; lastly, having dissolved the
gum in the vinegar, add the solution gradu-
ally to the rest, and stir the whole together
briskly for some time, and again daily for
3 or 4 days. It may be further diluted, at
will, with a little more vinegar or beer, or with
water; but unnecessary or excessive dilution
should be avoided, as the richness and quality
of the blacking become proportionately re-
duced. If all the ingredients (except the
vitriol) be made hot before admixture, the
shining quality of the product will be greatly
improved, and the process may be short-
ened.*
2. Ivory-black, 16 parts; treacle, 8 parts;
oil of vitriol, 4 parts; (diluted with) water,
2 parts; oil, 2 parts; gum-arabic, 1 part;
soft water (for the final dilution, instead of
vinegar), 64 parts; mixed, &c., as before.
Excellent.
3. As the last ; but taking only 6 parts of
treacle, 1 part of oil, and omitting the gum-
arabic. Good. A commoner article of liquid
blacking does not sell. -
4. (Bryant and James's INDIA-RUBBER
LIQUID BLACKING-Patent dated 1836.) Take
of India rubber (in small pieces), 18 oz. ; hot
rape oil, 9 lbs. (say 1 gal.); dissolve; to the
solution add of ivory-black (in very fine pow-
der), 60 lbs. ; treacle, 45 lbs. ; mix thoroughly;
further add of gum-arabic, 1 lb., dissolved in
vinegar (No. 24), 20 galls. ; reduce the whole
to a perfect state of smoothness and admix-
ture by trituration in a paint-mill; throw the
compound into a wooden vessel, and add, very
gradually, of sulphuric acid, 12 lbs. ; continue
the stirring for ; an hour, repeating it daily
for 14 days; then add of gum-arabic (in fine




pensive, and probably better than either of them. Common
olive oil, and refined rape oil, are, however, those most
generally used by the blacking-makers.
* That is, 3 to 3} times the weight of the ivory-black.
8 Metallic vessels must be avoided. -
4. By taking the ‘parts’ ordered in this and the other
formulae as so many # lbs., lbs., 4 cwts., or cuts., the pro-
portions of each ingredient for any quantity of blacking,
from a # of a lb., or a + pint, up }." tons, or nearly 450
galls., will be at once seen; and so on of even larger
quantities. See Concluding Remarks (infra). -
BLACKING. 227
powder), 3 lbs. ;1 again mix well, and repeat
the stirring for ; an hour daily for 14 days
longer, when the liquid blacking will be ready
for use, or for bottling. The quality is very
excellent; but this, probably, does not depend
on the presence of the India rubber, but on
the general correctness of the proportions, and
the care and completeness with which they
are mixed. -
5. (Without Vitriol.) Take of ivory-black
(in very fine powder), 2 lbs. ; treacle, 13 lb. ;
sperm oil, # pint; mix, as before; then add of
gum-arabic, 1 oz. ; (dissolved in) strong vine-
gar, pint; mix well; the next day further
add of good vinegar, or strong sour beer, 3 to
4 pints (or q. s.); stir briskly for a # of an
hour, and again once a day for a week. Ex-
cellent. A cheaper, but inferior article, may
be made by the reductions and omissions no-
ticed above.
6. From paste-blacking (see below), by re-
ducing it with sufficient vinegar, sour beer, or
water, to give it the liquid form:”
II. PASTE BLACKING:—
1. Qualities from good to super-excellent
may be made from any of the preceding
formulae, by simply omitting the final dilu-
tion with the vinegar, sour beer, or water,
therein ordered at the end of the process.
2. (Bryant and James's INDIA-RUBBER
PASTE BLACKING.—Patent dated 1836.) Of
India-rubber oil, ivory-black, treacle, and gum-
arabic, the same as for their liquid blacking
(see I, 4, above), but dissolving the last in
only 12 lbs. (say 5 quarts), instead of 20 galls.
of vinegar; grinding to a smooth paste in a
colour-mill, and then adding of oil of vitriol,
12 lbs., as before. The mass is to be stirred
daily for a week, when it will be fit for use, or
potting.” Excellent.
3. Ivory-black, 1 cwt. ; treacle, 28 lbs. ; rape
oil (or other cheap oil), 1 gal.; mix, as before;
then add of oil of vitriol, 21 lbs.; (diluted with)
water, 2 galls. ; mix them quickly and tho-
roughly by forcible stirring with a strong
wooden spatula, and as soon as admixture is
complete, but whilst still fuming, put the cover
on the tub, and leave it till the next day, when
(without further stirring) it will be fit for use
or sale.* Good ordinary. Used for packets
and tins.
4. As the last; but adding with the ivory-
1 This should be gently rubbed through a sieve, held
over the blacking by one person, whilst another stirs the
mass assiduously with the spatula.
. *. It is sometimes convenient to prepare liquid blacking
}. º way from a stock of ‘paste-blacking’ already on
and.
* The final addition of the 3 lbs. of powdered gum,
ordered in the formula of their liquid blacking, is not
mentioned by the patentees; and we, therefore, presume
they do not intend it to be made. If made, it should
be at the end of the week, and the daily stirring must
then be continued for another week. This addition, or
omission, enables us to produce two qualities from the
same formula.
* The object here is to make the product as spongy and
light as possible, so that the purchaser may fancy he has
a great deal for his money.
black, &c., 14 to 28 lbs. of coal-soot" (sifted),
omitting one half of the oil, and diluting the
vitriol with an extra gal. of water. Inferior.
Chiefly used for 1d. and #d. packets."
5. (GERMAN BLACKING...) Ivory-black, 1
part; treacle, # part; sweet oil, part; mix,
as before; then stir in a mixture of hydro-
chloric acid, part; oil of vitriol, 4 part (each
separately diluted with twice its weight of
water before mixing them). This forms the
ordinary paste-blacking of Germany, accord-
ing to Liebig.
6. (Without Pitriol.) As I, 5 (ante); but
with the omission of the last & gal. of ‘vine-
gar.”
Concluding remarks. To produce a first-
rate article of blacking it is absolutely neces-
sary that the ingredients be of the best quality,
and used in the proper proportions; and that
the order of their admixture, and the general
manipulations, be conducted, under ordinary
circumstances, in the manner described in the
first of the above formulae. The proportions
of the treacle and the oil (the most expensive
of the ingredients) should not be stinted; and,
indeed, that of the latter may be safely in-
creased in quantity, without materially affect-
ing the polish, and with manifest advantage
as far as the softness and durability of the
leather to which it is applied, is concerned.
The manipulations required in the manufacture
of both paste-blacking and liquid blacking, are
essentially the same; the difference between
the two articles, when the same materials are
used, depending entirely on the quantity of
liquid added. Thus, as noticed before, by
diluting paste-blacking with water, vinegar,
or beer-bottoms, it may be converted into
liquid blacking of a nearly similar quality;
and, by using less fluid matter, the ingre-
dients of liquid blacking will produce paste-
blacking. One thing must, however, be ob-
served, and that is, that the ivory-black used for
liquid blacking should be reduced to a much
finer powder than for paste-blacking; as, if,
this is not attended to, it is apt to settle at the
bottom, and to be with difficulty again diffused
through the liquid. Persons who object to
the use of blacking containing oil of vitriol,
may employ formula I, 5, or II, 6 (above). The
vitriol, however, greatly contributes to pro-
mote the shining properties of the blacking;
and in small quantities, or in the proper pro-
portion, is not so injurious to the leather as
some persons have represented; as it wholly
unites itself to the lime of the bone-phosphate
contained in the ivory-black, and is thus neu-
tralised, insoluble sulphate of lime, and an
acid phosphate or superphosphate,being formed.
It is the latter that gives the acidity to a well-
made sample of blacking, and not the sul-
5 This is also to give bulk.
6 A still more common article is vended in the north of
England, and in Scotland, in which the oil is omitted
altogether. The sale of such blackings (?) is disreputable,




when it is remembered that a really good article may be
made for 2d. to 2%d. per lb.
228
BLACKING.
phuric acid originally added to it. In this
way, the larger portion of the ivory-black is
reduced to a state of extremely minute divi-
sion, and with the other ingredients forms a
strongly adhesive paste, which clings to the
surface of the leather, and is susceptible of
receiving a high polish by friction when in a
scarcely dry state. This is the reason why
lamp-black should never be employed for
blacking to the exclusion of the necessary pro-
portion of bone-black, as it has no earthy base
to absorb or neutralise the acid, which, if left
in a free state, would prove very hurtful to the
leather. Oil of vitriol is now employed in the
manufacture of all the more celebrated and
expensive blackings; and that, simply because
no other substance is known so efficient, and
so little injurious to the leather. In the
common blackings of Germany, hydrochloric
acid is often used to the entire exclusion of
oil of vitriol; but blacking so prepared pos-
sesses several disadvantages from which that
of England is free. In the best German
blackings only a small portion of this acid is
used, as may be seen by reference to formula
II, 5 (above). The addition of white-of-egg,
isinglass, and similar articles' to blacking,
always proves injurious, as they tend to stiffen
the leather, and to make it crack, without at
all improving its polishing properties. Even
gum-arabic, in quantity, is on this account,
objectionable. Oil has an opposite tendency,
and, as already stated, the quantity com-
monly used may be increased with advantage.
Resin oil should be particularly avoided.
Dr. Ure has recommended the use of a little
copperas” in blacking; with the object, we
presume, of striking a black with the tan in
the leather; but except with new, or nearly
new leather, this effect would not occur, whilst
its presence, if not objectionable, would other-
wise be useless.
The only improvement that has been in-
troduced in the manufacture of blacking
since the early days of the celebrated Day &
Martin is, a few hours after the conclusion of
the mixture of the ingredients, (but before
adding the vinegar, if any) to simmer the
whole very gently, for about 8 or 10 minutes,
observing to stir it assiduously all the time.
The fire must then be withdrawn, and the
pan covered over until it is quite cold, when
half an hour's lusty stirring will finish the
process.” In this way a degree of maturity and
! In Scotland, flour-paste soured by keeping, is often
substituted for part of the treacle in the common black-
ings; with the effect, however, of greatly impairing their
polishing qualities, and causing the leather to rapidly be-
come stiff, and to crack. Further, such blacking will not
keep, often growing mouldy and hard in two or three
weeks.
2 The proportion recommended by Dr. Ure is 3 oz. to
each lb. of bone-black, dissolved in 10 parts of water, and
to be added with the vitriol.
3. A capacious enamelled cast-iron boiler, with a concave
bottom, should be used for this purpose; in which case
the ingredients can be mixed in 1t, and thus the trouble of
removal avoided. If a common copper or cast-iron boiler
be employed, the blacking must not be allowed to remain
brilliancy will be imparted to the product;
which, without the application of heat, it would
take months to acquire, if, indeed, it ever
reached it.
As it is generally more convenient to
measure than to weigh liquids, it may be
useful to remind the reader that, in round
numbers,
1 gal. of oil
weighs 94 lbs.
1.
1 ,, sour beer , 10% ,
1 , vinegar. 10
1 » QUałer 25 35
We may here further remark that the black-
ings of different houses vary considerably in
some of their properties; as also do those of
even the same maker by age. Some blackings
dry off rapidly, and give a very brilliant polish
with very little labour; whilst others take a
little longer to “dry off,' and somewhat more
labour to polish them. The former are best
adapted to hasty use, and when a very bril-
liant surface is desired; the latter when depth
of polish, without extreme brilliancy, satisfies
the wearer. The first best meets the require-
ments of fashionable life; the last, those of
the middle classes and pedestrians exposed to
dirt, mud, and the various vicissitudes of tra-
velling and weather. To the one belong the
‘blackings' of Everett, Day & Martin, &c.; to
the other, those of Warren, Bryant & James,
and most of the smaller manufacturers, with
nearly all the paste-blacking of the more
respectable shops. Time, however, equalises
the qualities of these two classes. Black-
ings which are crude, moist, and oily, lose
these properties, and become drier and more
brilliant by age. The practice of several of
the first-class West-end boot and shoe makers
is never to use a blacking which they have not
had in their stock at least a twelvemonth.
Blacking, both liquid and paste, should be
stored in a cool and moderately dry cellar;
and when in use should be kept corked or
otherwise excluded from the air. Exposure or
desiccation destroys most of its best qualities.
The present annual value of the blacking
consumed in the United Kingdom is estimated
at 562,500l., or about 4}d. per head for the
whole population; while the collective yearly
value of that exported is about 35,000l.
[See BLACKING BALLS, BONE-BLACK, Boots
AND SHOES, LEATHER, SULPHURIC ACID, &c.;
also below.]
Blacking, Automatic. Syn. SELF-SHI"NING
BLACKING, SPAN'ISH JAPAN, &c. Prep. 1.
Gum-arabic, 4 oz. ; treacle or coarse moist
sugar, 1% oz. ; good black ink, # pint ; strong
vinegar, 2 oz. ; rectified spirit of wine and
sweet oil, of each 1 oz. ; dissolve the gum in
the ink, add the oil, and rub them in a mortar,
or shake them together for some time, until
they are thoroughly united; then add the
vinegar, and lastly, the spirit.
in it longer than necessary to give it the ‘simmer,’ at the
conclusion of which it should be turncil out into a wooden
tub or vat to cool.
BLADDER—BLANCHING.
229
2. Lamp-black, 3 oz. ; indigo (in fine pow-
der), 1 dr. ; put them in a mortar, or basin,
and rub them with sufficient mucilage (made
by dissolving 4 oz. of gum in # pint of strong
vinegar) to form a thin paste; add very gra-
dually, of sweet oil, 1 oz. ; and triturate until
their union is complete, adding toward the end
the rest of the mucilage; then further add of
treacle, 1% oz.; and afterwards, successively, of
strong vinegar, 2 oz. ; rectified spirit, 1 oz.;
lastly, bottle for use.
3. Mix the whites of 2 eggs with a table-
spoonful of spirit of wine, 2 large lumps of
sugar (crushed), and sufficient finely powdered
ivory-black to give the required colour and
thickness, avoiding excess.
Obs. The above are chiefly used for dress
boots and shoes. The first two are applied to
the leather with the tip of the finger, or a
sponge, and then allowed to dry out of the
dust. The third is commonly laid on with a
sponge or soft brush, and when almost dry or
hard may have its polish heightened with a
brush or soft rubber, after which it is left for
a few hours to harden. It may also be used
to revive the faded black leather seats and
backs of old chairs. They all possess great
brilliancy for a time; but are only adapted to
clean, dry weather, or indoor use. They should
all be applied to the leather as thinly as possi-
ble, as otherwise they soon crack off.
Blacking, Har'ness. Good glue or gelatine,
4 oz. ; gum-arabic, 3 oz. ; water, # pint; dis-
solve by heat; add of treacle, 6 oz. ; ivory-
black (in very fine powder), 5 oz. ; and gently
evaporate, with constant trituration, until of a
proper consistence when cold; when nearly cold
put it into bottles, and cork them down. For
use, the bottle may be warmed a little to thin
it, if necessary. Does not resist the wet.
2. Mutton-suet, 2 oz. ; bees-wax (pure), 6
oz.; melt, add of sugar candy (in fine powder),
6 oz. ; soft soap, 2 oz. ; lamp-black, 2% oz. ;
indigo (in fine powder), 3 oz.; when thoroughly
incorporated, further add of oil of turpentine,
# pint ; and pour it into pots or tins.
3. Bees’-wax, 1 lb. ; soft soap, 6 oz. ; ivory-
black, 4 lb. ; Prussian blue, 1 oz. ; (ground in)
linseed oil, 2 oz. ; oil of turpentine, pint; to
be mixed, &c., as before.
Obs. The above are used by laying a very
little of them on the leather, evenly spreading
it over the surface, and then polishing it by
gentle friction with a brush, or a soft rubber.
The last two are waterproof. Numerous com-
positions of the class are vended by the sadlers
and oilmen, but the mass of them are unche-
mical mixtures, badly prepared, and cause dis-
appointment to those who use them. Such is
not the case with the products of the above
formulae, if we may rely on the statements of
those who have employed them for years. The
last two are suitable for both harness and car-
riage leather. See HEEL BALLS, &c.
BLADD’ER. Syn. VES/ICA, L.; VESSIE, Fr.;
BLASE, BLATTER, Ger. In anatomy, &c., a
thin membranous sac or bag, in an animal,
serving as a receptacle for some secreted fluid;
appr., the urinary bladder. See CALCULUS,
INFLAMMATION, RUPTURE, &c.
Bladd’ers. (In commerce.) The better quali-
ties of these articles are prepared by cutting
off the fat and loose membranes attached to
them, and washing them first in a weak solu-
tion of chloride of lime, and afterwards in clear
water; they are then blown out and submitted
to strong pressure by rolling them under the
arm, by which they become considerably larger;
they are next blown quite tight, dried, and
tied up in dozens. Commoner qualities are
merely emptied, the loose fat removed, and
then blown out, and strung up to dry.—Used
chiefly by druggists and oilmen to tie over
pots, bottles, and jars, and to contain pill-
masses, hard extracts, and other similar sub-
stances; also in surgery, to cover wounds, sore
heads, &c.—Obs. Bladders should never be
purchased unless perfectly dry and air-tight;
as, if the reverse be the case, they will neither
keep nor prove useful, but will rapidly become
rotten and evolve a most offensive odour. If
purchased whilst damp, they should be at once
hung up in a current of air, so as to dry as
soon as possible.
BLAIN* (blåne).
tule.
BLANC (blóng). [Fr.] In cookery, a dish
which, according to Mrs. Rundell, is formed of
grated bacon and suet, of each, 1 lb. ; butter,
# lb.; 2 lemons; 3 or 4 carrots (cut into dice);
3 or 4 onions; and a little water; the whole
being simmered for a short time, with or
without the addition of a glass of sherry or
marsala, before serving.
BLANCHING. Syn. CANDICATIO, DEAL-
BATIO, &c., L.; BLANCHIMENT, &c., Fr. ;
BLEICHEN, &c., Ger. A whitening, or making
white; a growing white. In some cases it
means decortication. See ALMONDS, BLEACH-
ING, DECOLORATION, &c.
Blanching. In cookery, an operation in-
tended to impart whiteness, plumpness, and
softness, to joints of meat, poultry, tongues,
palates, &c. It is usually performed by put-
ting the articles into cold water, which is then
gradually raised to the boiling-point, when
they are at once taken out, plunged into cold
water, and left there until quite cold. They
are subsequently removed and wiped dry, ready
for being dressed.
Obs. The operation of blanching meat,
although it renders it more sightly according
to the notions of fashionable life, at the same
time lessensits nutritive qualities, by abstracting
a portion of the soluble saline matter which
it contains, especially the phosphates, and thus
deprives it of one of the principal features
which distinguish fresh meat from salted meat.
Animal food, before being dressed, may be
washed or rinsed in cold water without injury,
provided it be quickly done; but it cannot be
soaked in water at any temperature much

A boil; a sore; a pus-

230
BLANCMANGE–BLEACHING.
below the boiling-point without the surface,
and the parts near it, being rendered less nu-
tritious. Washing meat when first received
from the butcher is, indeed, a necessary act
of cleanliness; but soaking it for some time
in water is unnecessary, and for the reasons
stated, should be avoided.
Strong acetic acid (concentrated vinegar)
poured on or rubbed over hard lean meat,
gradually renders it soft and gelatinous. Ordi-
nary household vinegar has the same effect,
but in a less degree. Tough meat thus treated
for a short time before dressing it, becomes
more tender and digestible, though somewhat
less nutritious; whilst the taste and flavour of
the vinegar is removed by the heat subse-
quently employed in dressing it.
BLANCMANGE'. (blo-möngzh'i). Syn.
BLANCMANGER (blóng-möng-zhä), Fr. Lite-
fally, white food; in cookery, a confected
white jelly. It is commonly prepared by
simmering 1 oz. of isinglass, 2 or 3 oz. of
lump sugar, and a little flavouring," in about
a pint of milk, until the first is dissolved, when
the whole is thrown into a jelly-bag, and the
strained liquor is allowed to cool and solidify;
it is next remelted by a gentle heat, and,
when nearly cold, poured into moulds, which
have been previously rubbed with a little salad
oil and then wiped out again. -
Obs. Good gelatine, or strong calves’ feet
jelly, is often substituted for the isinglass.
At other times the jelly is made with about
# pint of water (instead of milk), when , pint
of almond-milk, or of cream, is added to the
remelted jelly. Sometimes ground rice or
arrow-root is employed in lieu of isinglass,
when the product is called RICE-BLANCMANGE,
or WEST-INDIAN B., as the case may be.
TRANSPA"RENT BLANCMANGE * is merely cla-
rified isinglass-jelly, flavoured. See CREAM
(Stone), ISINGLASS, and JELLY.
BLANQUETTE’ (blang-ketſ). [Fr.] In
cookery, a species of white fricasee. It is also
the name of a delicate species of white wine,
and of a particular sort of pear.
BLAST/ING. In civil and military en-
gineering, the disruption of rocks, &c., by the
explosion of gunpowder, or other like mate-
rial. -
BLASTING POWDERS (Melville and Cal-
low’s). Prep. 1. (PowDER No. 1.) Chlorate
of potassa, 2 parts; red sulphuret of arsenic,
1 part; to be separately carefully reduced to
powder, and lightly mixed together, scrupu-
lously avoiding the use of iron instruments,
percussion, much friction, the slightest con-
tact with acids, or exposure to heat.
2. (PowdER No. 2.) Chlorate of potassa, 5
parts; red sulphuret of arsenic, 2 parts; ferro-
cyanide of potassium (prussiate of potash), 1
part; as No. 1.
1 This may be 5 or 6 bitter almonds (grated), or a little
cinnamom, orange, or lemon peel, &c., at will. Sometimes
these are omitted, and a little orange-flower water, rose-
water, or essence of vanilla, added to the remelted jelly,
* A misnomer of the confectioners and cooks.
3. (PowdER No. 3.) Chlorate of potassa
and ferrocyanide of potassium, equal parts.
Obs. These compounds are not permanently
injured by either salt or fresh water, merely
requiring to be dried to regain their explosive
character. They possess fully eight times the
force of ordinary powder. One of their ad-
vantages, especially to the underground miner,
is the very trifling amount of smoke produced
by their explosion. On the other hand, the
extreme facility with which they explode by
attrition, contact with a strong acid, and a
slight elevation of temperature, render them
unsuited to most of the purposes of ordinary
gunpowder. On this account they should only
be prepared in small quantities at a time, and
with the utmost caution. Mr. Callow, the
inventor of them, lost several of his fingers,
and was rendered a cripple for life, by an ex-
plosion of the kind referred to, which occurred
only a few weeks after the sealing of his patent.
A straw, or small strip of wood, only slightly
wetted with oil of vitriol, and applied to a
small heap of the powder, produces instan-
taneous explosion. See GUN-COTTON, GUN-
POWDER, MINING, &c.
BLEACH'ING. (bléche'-). Syn. DEXL-
BA/TIO (-sh'o), INSOLA/TIO,” &c., L.; BLANCHI-
MENT, BLANCHISSAGE, Fr. ; BLEICHEN, Ger.
The process by which the colour of bodies,
natural or acquired, is removed, and by which
they are rendered white or colourless. It is
more particularly applied to the decolorisation
of textile filaments, and of cloths made of
them.
Hist. Bleaching is a very ancient art, as
passages referring to it in the earlier sacred
and profane writers fully testify. It had pro-
bably reached a high degree of excellence
among the inhabitants of the first Assyrian
empire, and was certainly practised in Egypt
long before the commencement of written
history. We may fairly assume that fine
white linen formed part of the “raiment,”
which, together with “jewels of gold, and
jewels of silver,” and “precious things,”
Abraham sent as presents to the beautiful
Rebecca and her family," fully three centu-
ries and a half before the Exodus. Subse-
quently, in Scripture, we have special mention
of “fine linen, white and clean.” Herodotus,
the earliest Greek historian, tells us, that the
Babylonians wore “white cloaks;” and in
Athenaeus we read of “shining fine linen,” as
opposed to that which was “raw” or un-
bleached." At this early period, and for many
centuries afterwards, the operations of wash-
ing, fulling, and bleaching, were not distinctly
separated. The common system of washing
followed by drying in the sun, adopted by the
ancients, is a process which of itself, by fre-
quent repetition, decolorises the raw materials


8 Bleaching by exposure in the sun.
4 Gen. xxiv, 53: B. C. 1857.
5 Herod., i, 195.
6 Athen., ix, 77.
BLEACHING.
231
of textile fabrics, and thus must inevitably
have taught them the art of “natural bleach-
ing” of a character similar to that practised
in Europe up to a comparatively very recent
period. And this appears, according to the
authority of ancient authors, to have been the
case. Washing or steeping in alkaline and
ammoniacal lyes, or in milk of lime, followed
by exposure in the sun, formed the chief basis
of their system; whilst woollens, them as now,
were treated with soap and fuller’s earth, or
with potter’s clay, marl, Cimolian earth, or
other like mineral. Urime was highly esteemed
among them ; and we are told that in the time
of the emperor Vespasian," and undoubtedly
long before it, cloths were sulphured. Indeed,
according to Pliny, sulphuring was often had
recourse to in ordinary washing, as well as in
the bleaching process.”
Bleaching continued to be practised with no
essential change of its principles until the dis-
covery of chlorine, to which we shall presently
refer. In the last century, Holland obtained
the best name for bleaching. The process
passed then to Ireland and Scotland, and
thence into England. It was even customary
to send goods from this country to be bleached
in Holland. The first attempt to vie with
Holland, was made, in Scotland, in 1749.
The first steps towards the modern or che-
mical system of bleaching were the investiga-
tions of Berthollet on chlorine, in 1784, but
which were not communicated to the French
Academy until the year 1787. The know-
ledge of the use of chlorine as a bleacher was
soon afterwards brought to this country by
the Duke of Gordon, and by Prof. Copeland of
Aberdeen, and through them was practically
applied by Messrs. Milnes of that place.
About the same time, James Watt, a cor-
respondent of Berthollet, successfully intro-
duced its use in the neighbourhood of Glasgow,
and then generously laid a statement of the
results before the Manchester manufacturers.
In enforcing the importance of the new sub-
stance and process on these gentlemen, he was
ably followed and seconded by Dr. Henry. In
1798, Mr. Chas. Tennant, of Glasgow, ob-
tained a patent for a new bleaching liquor
prepared by saturating lime-water with chlo-
rine; and another, in 1799, for dry chloride of
lime, a substance which is still preferred as a
bleacher to all other preparations of chlorine.
The new or continuous process of bleaching,
as it is called, and that which is at present
in general use in all the chief bleach-works of
Lancashire, was introduced by Mr. David
Bentley, of Pendleton, and patented by him
in 1828.
Proc. Bleaching is commonly said to be
natural, when exposure to light, air, and
moisture, forms the leading part of the pro-
cess; and to be chemical, when chlorine, chlo-
ride of lime, sulphurous acid, or other like
1. About A. D. 60.
* Hist, Nat., xxxv, 57, &c.
substances, are employed. In some cases, as
with linen, the two processes are combined.
The subject requires to be noticed under
separate heads, depending on the material
operated on :-
I. BLEACHING of Cotton :-Cotton is more
easily bleached, and appears to suffer less from
the process than most other textile substances.
On the old plan it was first (1) thoroughly
washed in warm water, to remove the weaver’s
paste or dressing; then (2) “bucked’ or “bowked’
(boiled) in a weak alkaline lye, or in milk of
lime, to remove colouring, fatty, and resinous
matters, insoluble in simple water; and after
being (3) again well washed, was (4) spread
out upon the grass, or bleaching ground, and
freely exposed to the joint action of light, air,
and moisture (technically called ‘crofting’).
The operation of “bucking’ in an alkaline lye,
washing, and exposure, was repeated as often
as necessary, when the goods were (5) “soured’
or immersed in water acidulated with sul-
phuric acid, after which they (6) received a
final thorough washing in clean water, and
were (7) dried, finished, and folded for the
market. From the length of the exposure
upon the bleaching ground, this method is apt
to injure the texture of the cloth; and from
the number of operations required, is neces-
sarily expensive and tedious. It is therefore
now very generally superseded by the sys-
tem of chemical bleaching briefly described
below. -
In the CHEMICAL SYSTEM of bleaching, the
goods are ‘washed’ and “bucked’ as on the
old plan, then submitted to the action of a
weak solution of chloride of lime, and after-
wards passed through water soured with hy-
drochloric or sulphuric acid, when they have
only to be thoroughly washed, and to be dried
and finished, for the entire completion of the
process.
The new or continuous process, before re-
ferred to,” is the method of chemical bleach-
ing at present in the most general use ; and,
indeed, it has nearly superseded all other
methods. In this system the pieces, previ-
ously tacked together endwise so as to form a
chain, are drawn, by the motion of rollers, in
any direction, and any number of times,
through every solution to the action of which
it is desired to expose them, and this entirely
and completely under the control of the
operator.
The following Table exhibits an outline
of the several operations in the improved
form of the continuous process as practised
by Messrs. McNaughten, Barton, & Thom,
at Chorley, and in most other large bleach-
works:—
1. Preliminary operations:—a. The ‘pieces”
are separately stamped with the printer’s
name, a solution of silver, or sometimes coal-
tar, being employed for the purpose.





3 See Hist, (antè).
4. Usually about 30 yards each,
232
BLEACHING.
b. They are tacked together endwise either
by hand or a machine, so as to form one con-
tinuous piece of 300 to 350 yards in length,
according to the weight of the cloth.
c. They are singed."
d. They are crushed into a rope-like form
by drawing them through a smooth aperture,”
the surface of which is generally of glass or
porcelain—the rope-form being given them to
enable the water, and other liquids, to pene-
trate the goods more easily, and to allow them
to be laid in loose coils in the kiers.
2. The pieces are bucked or boiled in milk
of lime 3 for 12 to 14 hours," followed by rins-
ing or cleansing in the washing-machine.
3. They are soured in water acidulated with
hydrochloric acid,” and again washed; similar
machines being employed for each.
4. They are bucked or boiled for 15 or 16
hours in a solution of resinate of soda,” and
then washed as before.
5. They are chemicked by being laid in a
wooden, stone, or slate cistern, when a solution
of chloride of lime.7 is pumped over them, so
as to run through the ‘goods’ into a vessel
below, from which it is returned on them, by
continued pumping, so that the cloth lies in it
for 1 to 2 hours; it is then washed.
6. They are bucked or boiled, for 4 or 5
hours, in a solution of 1 lb. of crystallised car-
bonate of soda, dissolved in 5 galls. of water,
to every 35 lbs. of cloth; and washed.
7. They are again ‘chemicked,” as before;
and washed.
8. They are soured in very dilute hydro-
chloric acid; 8 and then left on ‘stillages” for
5 or 6 hours.
9. They are, finally, thoroughly washed, well
squeezed between rollers, dried over steam-
heated tin-cylinders, starched or dressed, and
finished.
This is the usual process for good calicos.
Muslims, and other light goods, are handled
rather more carefully; whilst for commoner
ones, the sixth and seventh operations are
generally omitted. The whole usually occupies
-5 days; but by using Mr. Barlow's high-
pressure steam kiers, it may be performed in
two days. Yarns, &c., may be bleached in a
1 Generally on one side only; but for goods to be sub-
sequently finely printed, on both sides. For very fine
printing the map is sometimes removed by shearing in-
stead of “singeing,” an ingenious and effective machine
being employed for the purpose.
* Such apertures are also used instead of pulleys, in the
transfer of the rope from place to place.
* The common proportions are about 1 lb. of quick-lime
slaked and reduced to milk, with 2 galls. of water, for every
14 or 15 lbs. of cloth.
* This is done in a large iron boiler furnished with a
perforated false bottom of wood, and technically termed a
* kier.”
* This dilute acid or acidulated water has usually the
sp. gr. 1:010, or 2° Twaddle.
6 Made with about 17 lbs. of soda-ash and 3 lbs. of resin,
with water, 50 galls., to every 20 or 21 lbs. of cloth.
7 Technically called ‘chemick.” The strength of the
solution is usually of the sp. gr. 1.0025, or 3.9 Twaddle.
8 Sp. gr. 1.0125, or 23° Twaddle.
* Low stools or props to keep them from the ground.
similar manner by first looping the skeins
together.
Obs. According to the most reliable autho-
rities, the strength of cotton-fibre is not im-
paired by its being boiled for two hours in
milk of lime, under ordinary pressure, out of
contact with the air; nor, according to the
bleachers, even by sixteen hours boiling at the
strength of 40 lbs. per 100 galls. It is said
that lime is less injurious than ‘soda.’
Solution of caustic soda, sp. gr. 1:030, does
not injure it, even by boiling under high
pressure; but, in practice, soda-ash, or car-
bonate of soda, is used, and this only in the
second bucking, and in the third, if there be
one. The strength now never exceeds 25 lbs.
of the crystals to the 100 galls., and is usually
less.
Experiments have shown that immersion for
8 hours in a solution of chloride of lime con-
taining 3 lbs. to the 100 galls., followed by
souring in sulphuric acid of the sp. gr. 1067,
or for 18 hours in acid of 1:035, does not
injure it.
By the improved method of previously
treating the goods with lime or alkalies, little
chloride of lime is required. Indeed, it is said
that where 300 lbs. were formerly employed,
30 to 40 lbs. only are now used. At the same
time it is right to mention, that though a
solution at #" Twaddle is usually regarded as
the best and safest strength, yet in some
bleach-works, particularly for inferior and less
tender goods, this is greatly increased, even
up to 5°, the period of immersion being pro-
portionately reduced, as it is not safe to expose
the goods long to the action of such powerful
solutions. With the higher strengths they
are passed rapidly through the liquid with the
calender, sufficient time only being allowed
to soak them thoroughly ; then immediately
through the acid or souring, followed by
washing as before.
In Scotland and Ireland the washing is
generally performed by wash-stocks; whilst in
Lancashire, dash-wheels or washing-machines
with squeezers, are almost always used for the
purpose.
Cotton loses about 1-20th of its weight by
bleaching.
II. BLEACHING of Linen — Linen may be
bleached in a similar way to ‘cotton,’ but the
process is much more troublesome and tedious,
owing to its greater affinity for the colouring
matter existing in it in the raw state. Under
the old system, several alternate buckings
with pearlash or potash and lengthened ex-
posure on the field, with one or two sourings,
and a final scrubbing with a strong lather of
soft soap, constituted the chief details of the
process. In this way a high degree of white-
ness, though not an absolutely pure or snow
white, was ultimately produced. Grass-bleach-
ing or crofting is still extensively used for
linen; but it is more generally employed only
for a limited time, and in combination with a


BLEACHING.
233
modification of the system at present almost
universally adopted for cotton goods; whilst,
in some cases, crofting is omitted altogether,
and the bleaching conducted wholly by the
latter process. The following Tables exhibit
the outlines of the new system as at present
practised in Ireland and Scotland:—
a. For plain sheetings —
1. They are bucked for 12 or 15 hours in a
lye made with about 1 lb. of pearlash (or soda-
ash) to every 56 lbs. of cloth, and washed.
2. Crofted for about 2 days.
3. Bucked in milk of lime.
4. Turned, and the bucking continued,
some fresh lime and water being added; and
washed.
5. Soured in dilute sulphuric acid at 2°
Twaddle.
6. Bucked with soda-ash for about 10 hours,
and washed.
7. Crofted, as before.
8. Bucked again with soda-ash, as before.
9. Crofted for about 3 days.
10. Examined, the white ones taken out,
and the others again bucked and crofted.
11. Scalded or simmered in a lye of soda-
ash of about only 2-3rds the former strength,
and washed.
12. Chemicked, for 2 hours, at #2 Twaddle,
washed, and scalded.
13. Again chemicked, as before.
14. Soured for 4 hours, as in No. 5; washed,
and finished.
This occupies 13 to 15 days, according to
the weather.
b. For shirtings, &c. :—As the preceding,
but with somewhat weaker solutions.
c. For goods to be subsequently printed:—
1. Bucked in milk of lime for 10 or 12
hours.
2. Soured in dilute hydrochloric acid of 2?
Tw., for 3 to 5 hours, and washed.
3. Bucked with resinate of soda for about
12 hours.
4. Goods turned, reboiled as before, and
washed.
5. Chemicked at #" Tw., for 4 hours.
6. Soured at 2° Tw., for 2 hours, and
washed.
7. Bucked with soda-ash for about 10 hours,
and washed.
8. Chemicked as in No. 5.
9. Soured, as at No. 6, for 3 hours; washed,
and dried."
Obs. The chief difficulty in bleaching linen
arises from the fact that its colouring matter
is insoluble in acid or alkaline solutions until
it has been long acted upon by light, air, and
moisture, as in the common process of grass-
bleaching. Chlorine hastens the operation;
but, unfortunately, it can only be employed
towards the end of the process; as when earlier
used, the colour of the raw cloth becomes set,
1 The strengths of the solutions, when not otherwise
stated, are about the same as those given under CoTTON
(antè).
and irremovable. To obviate this difficulty
Mr. F. M. Jennings, of Cork, has lately? intro-
duced the joint use of an alkali and an alkaline
hypochlorite (chloride) in the place of the
ordinary chloride of lime. He prepares a bath
of solution of soda at 5° Twaddle, which he
raises by the addition of chloride of soda (or
of potash) to 6 or 7°, and in this he steeps the
cloth (after the first bucking and souring) for
some hours, heat, or constant squeezing be-
tween rollers, being had recourse to, to facili-
tate the action. Souring and washing follow,
when the goods are again put into the alkaline
and chloride bath, as before; after which they
are soured, and bucked again with soda. These
last three operations are repeated until the
cloth is almost white, when crofting for one
half to one fourth the time required by the
usual method renders it fit for the final buck-
ing, and finishing. Indeed, it is said that if
the process be very carefully managed it ren-
ders crofting unnecessary.
Raw linen loses about 1-3rd of its weight in
bleaching.
III. Silk:-Silk is usually bleached by first
steeping it, and then boiling it in solutions of
white soap in water, after which it is subjected
to repeated rinsings, a little indigo-blue, or
archil, being added to the last water to give it
a pearly appearance. When required to be
very white (as for gloves, stockings, &c.), the
goods are cautiously submitted, for 2 or 3
hours, to the action of the fumes of burning
sulphur, and then finished by rinsing, as
before.
Obs. Boiling or sulphuring is not required
for the white silk of China. Raw silk loses
from 4 to 5 oz. per lb. by bleaching. -
IV. Wool:—In bleaching raw wool it is first
deprived of the yolk or peculiar natural varnish
with which it is covered. For this purpose it
is steeped and stirred for about 20 minutes in
rather warm water (135°–140°Fahr.), either
with or without the addition of 1-4th part of
stale urine; after which it is placed in baskets
to drain, and soon afterwards thoroughly
rinsed in a stream of water, when it is again
allowed to drain, and is hung up to dry. The
further operations depend on circumstances,
wool being sometimes whitened in the fleece,
or in the yarn, but still more frequently and
extensively, not till woven. When it is in-
tended to send it in the first two forms white
to market, it is hung up or spread out, whilst
still wet, and sulphured (see below); after
which it is either at once rinsed for some time
in cold water, or is previously treated with a
very weak bath of soft soap.
In the case of woollen fabrics the operations
of purifying or whitening the wool, beyond
the removal of the yolk, are, for the most
part, mixed up with the weaving and working
of it. The pieces leave the hands of the
weaver of a dingy gray colour, loaded with
oil, dirt, and dressing. They then pass to the
2 Patent dated 1859.



234
BLEACHING.

fulling-mill, where they are treated with
fuller's earth and soap, often preceded with
ammonia or stale urine, after each of which
they are well washed out or scoured with cold
water, and are then ready for the dyer. When
it is intended to obtain them very white, or to
dye them of a very delicate shade, they are
commonly sulphured; after which they are
washed or milled in cold water for some
hours, a little finely ground indigo being
added towards the end, to increase their
whiteness; an addition also made when the
cloth is sufficiently white without the sulphur-
ing process.
The usual mode of SULPHURING woollen
goods is to hang them up on pegs or rails,
or, in the case of fleece-wool, to spread it about,
at the upper part of a close, lofty room or
chamber, called a sulphur-stove. In each
corner of this room is set a cast-iron pot con-
taining sulphur, which, after the introduction
of the goods, is set on fire, when the door at
the lower part of the chamber is shut tight
and clayed. This is commonly done over-
night; and by the morning the bleaching
being finished, the goods are removed, washed,
and azured.
Sulphuring, unless very skilfully managed,
imparts a harsh feel to woollen goods, which
is best removed by a very weak bath of soap-
and-water (lukewarm); but the action of
soap in part reproduces the previous yellowish-
white tinge. Milling with cold, or luke warm
water, tinged with indigo, is the best substi-
tute.
Obs. Raw wool loses from 35 to 45% of its
weight by scouring, and 1 to 2% more in the
subsequent operations of the bleacher; the loss
being in direct proportion to the fineness of
the staple.
*** The above are the four principal appli-
cations of the art of bleaching; but, in tech-
nical language, the words bleaching, bleacher,
bleachery, bleach-works, &c., when employed
alone, are understood to have reference only to
cotton and linen. This has arisen from the
enormous extent of these manufactures, and
from the process of bleaching them forming a
business entirely distinct from that of weav-
ing, dyeing, or printing them. The following,
with the exception of the first, are of compara-
tively minor importance and interest:-
* W. Materials for Paper:-Old rags for the
manufacture of paper, and paper-pulp, are now
almost universally bleached with chlorine or
chloride of lime; the former being generally
used in France, and the latter in England.
The process usually consists in (1) boiling
in an alkaline lye to remove grease and dirt,
(2) washing, (3) pressing, (4) deviling or tear-
ing up the pressed cake into fine shreds or
pulp, (5) chemicking, with agitation, for about
an hour, in a clear solution of chloride of lime,"
sº I The ‘strength” varies with the colour and quality of
the rags. From 2 to 4 lbs. per cwt. of rags is a common
proportion; but for dyed and printed rags as much as 7
followed by (6) washing, (7) souring with
dilute hydrochloric acid at 1 or 2° Tw., or
treatment with a solution of some antichlor,
or both, and (8) a final washing and pressing.
For the common kinds of paper, the operations
included in No. 7 are omitted; but unless the
whole of the lime-salt be removed from the
pulp, the paper made of it is liable to turn
brown and become rotten by age. In some
cases rags are bleached before being divided
and pulped. Cotton-waste is bleached in a
similar way to rags.
In France, the chlorine, in a gaseous form, is
passed from the generators into the bleach-
cisterns containing the pulp, which in this case
must be fitted with close covers.
VI. Printed Paper, as Books, Engravings,
Maps, &c.—These when stained or discoloured
may be whitened by (1) wetting them with
pure clean water, (2) plunging them into a
dilute solution of chloride of lime, (3) passing
them through water soured with hydrochloric
acid, and then (4) through pure water until
every trace of acid be removed. This process
may be further improved by further dipping
them into a weak solution of some antichlor,
and again washing them, before finally drying
them. It is only rare and valuable original
works or specimens of art that are worth this
treatment, which, owing to the very nature of
paper, requires considerable address to manage.
In many cases a sufficient degree of renovation
may be effected by simply exposing the arti-
cles, previously slightly moistened, to the fumes
of burning sulphur, followed by passing them
through a vessel of pure water.
VII. Straw, Straw-plait, and articles made
of them, are, on the large scale, usually
bleached by (1) a hot steep or boil in a weak
solution of caustic soda, or a stronger one of
soda-ash, followed (2) by washing and (3) by
exposure to the fumes of burning sulphur. To
effect the last, the goods are suspended in a
close chamber connected with a small stove, in
which brimstone is kept burning. On the
small scale, a large chest or box is commonly
employed. A piece of brick, or an old box-
iron heater, heated to dull redness, is placed at
the bottom of an iron crock or earthen pan, a
few fragments of roll sulphur thrown on, the
lid instantly closed, and the whole left for
some hours. Care should be taken to avoid
inhaling the fumes, which are very deleterious
as well as disagreeable and annoying. Straw
goods are now also frequently bleached by the
use of a weak solution of chloride of lime, or
of water strongly soured with oxalic acid or
even oil of vitriol, followed by very careful
rinsing in clean water; but here, as in the
or even 8 lbs. per cwt. are often employed. It is better,
however, to prolong the process with a weaker solution,
than to hasten it by using the chloride in excess. Large
rectangular cisterns of wood, or of slate, are commonly
employed as the bleach-vessels, Cisterns of wood or
brick-work lined with gutta percha or with asphalto-bitu-
men, are employed in some paper-mills, and answer
admirably. -----
BLEAR-EYE-BLINDNESS.
235
former case, the natural varnish, dirt, grease,
&c., must be first removed by alkalies or soap,
to enable the chlorine or acid to act on the
fibres.
Concluding remarks. The theory of bleach-
ing, notwithstanding the giant strides of che-
mistry during the last 20 years, remains still
unsettled; and hence the processes employed
are still, for the most part, empirical. It ap-
pears probable that chlorine acts by uniting
with the hydrogen of the water, or of other
compounds present, or probably with that of
both, and that it is the oxygen thus liberated,
and whilst in the mascent state, that is the
true operative agent. Hence bleaching by
chlorine, or by the hypochlorites, may be re-
garded as an oxidation of the colouring mat-
ter; but whether the chlorine or the oxygen
effects this oxidation is of little practical im-
portance—the result being the same—the
destruction of the compound, and the removal
of the colour that depends on its existence.
It is doubtful whether the bleaching power of
sulphurous acid is due to it as an oxidising or
a deoxidising agent; but the last is probably
the case, with a like destruction of the com-
pound constituting the colouring matter. It
may, however, be supposed that sulphurous
acid acts as an oxidiser, as it appears to do
when it decomposes sulphuretted hydrogen;
or it may act by simply altering the compound
by inserting itself, a view receiving some sup-
port from the fact that wool whitened by
sulphuring may be restored to nearly its pre-
vious colòur by merely treating it with soap
or alkalies.
The bleaching power of light depends on its
actinic or chemical rays, which, like chlorine,
appear to act as an oxidising agent.
Chlorates, chromates, chromic acid, manga-
nates, &c., have been proposed as bleaching
agents for textile filaments and fabrics, but
without success or practical advantage. Im-
mersion in water more or less strongly im-
pregnated with sulphurous acid has, however,
been successfully substituted for the com-
mon sulphuring process, particularly for
silk.
To avoid the injury of the goods by sparks,
and by drops of water highly saturated with
sulphurous acid falling from the roof, Mr.Thom
has invented a method of passing them rapidly
through, or keeping them in constant motion
in, the sulphuring chamber. His apparatus is
constructed on the principle of the washing-
machine, the fumes of burning sulphur being
used instead of water.
[Further information in connection with
bleaching will be found under the heads
ACTINISM, BLANCHING, CALIco-PRINTING,
CHARCOAL, CHLORIDES (Bleaching), CHRO-
MATES, CHROMIC ACID, HYPOCHLORITEs,
HYPoCHLoRous ACID, LIGHT, RINSING,
SPOTs and STAINS, SULPHURING, WASHING,
&c.; also under Bon ES, ENGRAVINGS, FAT,
FEATHERS, HoRN, Ivory, OIL, PAPER,
PRINTED Books, RAGS, SPONGE, STRAW-
PLAIT, TALLow, WAX, &c."
Bleaching Liquid. Solution of chloride of
lime.
Bleaching Pow'der.
Bleaching Salts.
chlorites.
BLEAR/-EYE [blèreſ-i). Syn. LIPPITU'Do,
L.; CHASSIE, LIPPITUDE, Fr. An exudation
of a puriform matter from the margins of the
eyelids, which are red, tumid, and painful;
and frequently, during the night, glued toge-
ther by the discharge.
Treatm. Mild astringent collyria, as those
of sulphate of zinc or alum (6 or 8 grs. to 1 oz.
of water). An ointment formed of 1 part of
the ointment of nitrate of mercury (Ph. L.),
diluted with 11 parts of sweet washed lard,
may be advantageously applied nightly, by
means of a camel-hair pencil, the smallest
quantity possible only being used. Excess in
eating and drinking should be avoided, and
some aperient medicine taken.
BLEAK (bléke). Syn. BLAY!, BLEY: (blå).
The cypriºnus albur'nus (Linn.), a small river-
fish, the scales of which are used in making
artificial pearls (which see).
BLEED/ING (bléde'-). In the sense of a
flow or loss of blood, see HAEMORRHAGE ; in
that of bloodletting, see CUPPING, LEECHING,
WENESECTION, &c.
BLENDE(blénd). A name applied to several
minerals; appr., zinc-blend, or native sulphu-
ret of zinc–the black jack of miners.
BLIGHT (blite). See MILDEw, and PLANTs
(Diseases of).
BLIND'NESS (blind'.). Syn. ABLEP's IA,
CAE'CITAs, &c., L.; AVEUGLEMENT, CéCITÉ,
Fr. ; BLINDHEIT, Ger. Deprivation or want
of sight.
Blindness may be congenital, or born with
a person; or it may arise from accident, external
violence, or disease. In the latter it may
frequently be relieved by medical and surgical
treatment. See AMAUROSIS, CATARACT, EYES,
OPHTHALMIA, VISION, &c.
Day Blindness. Syn. NIGHT'-SIGHT; NYC-
TALO'PIA, L. A disease of the eye in which
vision is painfully acute or more or less ex-
tinct in a strong light, as that of day; but
clear and pleasant in the dusk of evening
and at night. Its chief causes are excessive
exposure of the eyes to the direct influence of
very strong or glaring light, or to heat, or
both of them together; and is often one of
the sequelae of ophthalmia (which see).
Night Blindness. Syn. DAY-SIGHT; HE-
MERALO/PIA, L. An affection of the eye, the
reverse of the preceding, in which objects are
clearly seen only in broad daylight. In the
beginning of the complaint the patient con-
tinues to be able to see, though less clearly, for
Chloride of lime.
The commercial hypo-




1 An accurate description of the apparatus and ma-
chinery employed in bleach-works, with numerous en-
gravings, will be found in Ure's “Dict. of Arts, Manuf. §
Mines,” 5th ed., i, 318-351, &c. --
236
BLISTER.
a short time after sunset, and even by moon-
light, and perhaps distinctly by bright candle-
light; but after a short time this power is lost.
It most frequently occurs in hot climates, and
low latitudes at sea. Its chief causes are fatigue
and exposure of the eyes to the glare of the
tropical sun, probably coupled with gastric
derangement. In some cases it is congenital,
and is then generally incurable. The treatment
consists in avoiding exciting causes, and en-
deavouring to restore the tone of the stomach,
and the general health, by the usual methods.
The eyes at the same time should be topically
medicated by the frequent use of cold water,
or mild astringent collyria. See OPHTHALMIA
(Chronic).
BLISTER. Syn. PAP'ULA, PUs'TULA, L.;
PUSTULE, WESSIE, &c., Fr. ; BLASE, BLATTER,
Ger. A bladder or vesicle caused by the de-
position of serous fluid between the cuticle
and the derma or true skin, occasioned by
the application of a vesicant, or by a burn,
scald, or friction.
Blister. Syn. VESICATO’RIUM., L.; EPIS-
PASTIQUE, WESICATOIRE, Fr. ; BLASEN-PFLAS-
TER, B.-STOFF, Ger. A substance which vesi-
cates or raises blisters; in pop. lang., a vesi-
cating plaster or similar application.
The use of blisters is very ancient, and
appears to date back long prior to the time of
Hippocrates. Indeed, their value as cutaneous
stimulants and counter-irritants appears to
have been recognised by the medical faculty of
all nations down to the present time. It is a
principle sufficiently established with regard
to the living system, that where a morbid
action exists, it may often be removed by in-
ducing an action of a different kind, as a state
of excitement or irritation, in the same or a
neighbouring part. In this way is explained
the utility of blisters in local inflammation and
spasmodic action, and it is this principle which
regulates their application in pneumonia, gas-
tritis, hepatitis, phrenitis, angina, rheumatism,
colic, spasmodic affections of the stomach, &c.—
diseases in which they are employed with the
most marked advantage. A similar principle
exists with respect to pain; exciting one pain
often relieves another. Hence blisters fre-
quently give relief in neuralgia, toothache, and
other like painful affections. Lastly, blisters,
by their operation, communicate a stimulus to
the whole system, and raise the vigour of the
circulation. Hence, in part, their utility in
fevers of the typhoid kind, though in such
cases they are used with still more advantage
to obviate or remove local inflammation.
Blisters are commonly prepared with can-
tharides-plaster, or with some other prepara-
tion of cantharides; and, in the former case,
usually have their surface sprinkled over with
powdered Spanish fly; whilst the blistering
surface is surrounded with a margin spread
with common adhesive plaster, for the purpose
of causing them to adhere to the part to which
they are applied. In order to prevent the
action of the cantharides upon the mucous
membrane of the bladder, or urinary organs,
they are also often sprinkled with a little pow-
dered camphor, or better still, are moistened
with camphorated ether, which, on its evapora-
tion, leaves a thin layer of camphor on the
surface; but care must be taken that the
layer be not too thick, as in that case the
plaster would not take effect. With a like
object, a piece of thin book-muslin or tissue-
paper (silver-paper) is frequently placed be-
tween the blistering surface of the plaster and
the skin; the efficacy of which may be still
further heightened by first soaking the muslin
or paper in olive or almond oil.
The usual time an ordinary blister of can-
tharides-plaster is allowed to remain in contact
with the skin is from 10 to 12 hours. It is
then gently removed. The subsequent treat-
ment depends on the object in view. When it
is not wished to maintain a discharge from the
blistered surface, the vesicle is cut with the
point of a pair of scissors at its most depending
part, to let out the fluid which it contains,
followed by a dressing of spermaceti or other
simple ointment ; but when the case requires
the blister to be kept open, or to be converted
into a perpetual blister, as it is sometimes
called, the whole of the detached cuticle is
carefully removed with the scissors, and the
part is dressed with either the ointment of
cantharides or of savine, at first, more or less
diluted with lard or simple ointment, with an
occasional dressing of resin cerate. According
to Mr. Crowther, the blistered surface is best
kept clean by daily fomentation with warm water.
Of late years, to obviate the unpleasant
effects occasionally arising from the common
blister, various compounds having cantharides
for their base, as well as fabrics spread with
them, have been brought before the public.
These are noticed hereafter. See PLASTERS,
WESICANTS, &c.
Extempora"neous Blisters. Among the
best of these may be mentioned the fol-
lowing:—
1. A piece of lint dipped in the strongest
vinegar of cantharides, and immediately after
its application to the skin, covered over with a
piece of strapping, or preferably a piece of sheet
gutta percha or oiled silk, to prevent evapora-
tion. Raises a blister in from 5 to 8 minutes.
2. Concentrated acetic acid, applied in the
same way, has a similar effect.
3. (Dr. Darcq.) Into a flat watch-glass
pour from 8 to 10 drops of highly concen-
trated liquor of ammonia; cover the liquid.
with a small piece of linen of rather less
diameter than that of the glass, and at once
apply this little apparatus to the previously
shaved skin. The whole must be kept in its
place by means of moderate pressure with the
fingers, until a red ring, about 2 centimétres
in breadth, is observed round the glass, when
it is certain that vesication is effected. Some-
times scarcely 30 seconds are necessary for
BLISTERING—BLOOM.
237
obtaining the result. The apparatus may then
be removed, and the blistered part treated in
the usual manner; the dressing being accord-
ing to the object in view.
4. (Trousseau.) Bibulous paper slightly
wetted with a little of the ethereal extract
of cantharides, and instantly applied to the
skin, the whole being covered with a piece of
common adhesive plaster to prevent evapora-
tion.
5. Boiling water applied by means of a
suitably shaped tube, the adjacent parts being
at the same time protected from injury. In-
stantaneous.
Horse Blister. See WETERINARY MEDICINEs.
Perpetual Blister*. See BLISTER (antè).
BLISTERING. Syn. VEs’ICANs, VESICA-
To"RIUS, L.; EPISPASTIQUE, Vás ICANT, Vás I-
CATOIRE, Fr. ; BLASENZIEHEND, &c., Ger. In
medicine, &c., that vesicates or raises blisters
when applied to the skin.
Blistering Paper, Plaster, Tis"sue (tish-à),
&c. See PLASTERS, VESICANTs, &c.
BL0AT/ER. See BLOTE.
BLONDE. [Fr.] Syn. BLOND'-LACE. Silk-
lace. The name is now also applied to cotton-
lace edged with silk. For the mode of cleaning
it and getting it up, see LACE and MUSLIN.
BL00D (blåd). Syn. SAN’GUIs, L.; SANG,
Fr. ; BLUT, Ger. The general circulating
fluid of animals, and that on which the nou-
rishment and growth of their bodies depend,
and from which all the secretions are formed.
It is warm and red in vertebrated animals;
and, for the most part, cold and white in the
invertebrata. In man and all other mam-
mals, and in birds—the two highest classes of
the animal kingdom—the blood, though col-
lectively forming but one circulating stream,
varies considerably in appearance according to
the part or vessels in which it is found. That
contained in the left side of the heart, and in
the arteries, possesses a very brilliant scarlet
colour, and is called arte"rial blood; whilst
that found in the right side of the heart, and
in the veins, has a darkish purple colour, and
is called venous blood. The two, however,
differ little from each other in their chemical
properties and composition; the most marked
point of difference being that venous blood
holds carbonic acid in solution, whilst oxygen
predominates in the blood of the arteries.
The fibrine of venous blood is also soluble in
a solution of nitrate of potassa; while that of
arterial blood is insoluble in that menstruum.
Comp. Blood consists of a transparent and
nearly colourless fluid (plas'ma, se"rum, sér-
albu'men), in which float about a countless
multitude of microscopic round red bodies
(blood'-discs, b.-corpuscles, -piislz), to which
its colour is due, accompanied by a few colour-
less globules (white b.-c.) of a somewhat
larger size. The red corpuscles are found, on
more minute examination, to consist of an
envelope containing a solution of haematosine.
Prop. These are, for the most part, well
known. It has an alkaline reaction, a saline
and rather disagreeable sweetish taste, and
when newly drawn evolves a peculiar odour or
halitus, which almost immediately disappears.
As it cools and on repose it coagulates, owing,
according to some, to the spontaneous solidi-
fication of the fibrine; but more probably, as
has been recently shown, to the loss of am-
monia, traces of which are always present in
newly drawn blood.
Uses, &c. That of bullocks is employed for
the clarification of wines and syrups; also in
the preparation of adhesive cements, as the
vehicle in coarse paint for out-door work, as
a manure, as a bleaching powder, to make pure
animal charcoal, and for several other purposes.
The blood of sheep, pigs, and bullocks, mixed
with flour or oatmeal, and seasoned, is eaten
by the common people, but it is rather indi-
gestible, and apt to induce disease. Gut-
skins stuffed with this mixture form the black
puddings of the vulgar.
Bullock’s blood, dried by exposure in thin
layers to a current of air, at a heat under 125°,
and then reduced to powder, is exported in
large quantities to the colonies, where it is
used, as a ‘clarifier,’ in the sugar-works.
Dried at a temperature ranging between 212°
to 220°, then coarsely powdered, and the dusty
portion sifted off, it is much used by fraudulent
dealers to adulterate grain-musk. See ANI-
MAL-CHARCOAL, GLOBULINE, HAEMATOSINE,
PLASMA, SERUM, STAINS, WISION, &c.
Spitt'ing of Blood. See HAEMOPTYSIS.
Wom'iting of Blood. See STOMACH DIS-
EASES.
BLOOD'-R00T. Syn. RED'-Root, PUCCoon';

"SANGUINA"RIA, L. The sanguinár'ia Cana-
den'sis (Linn.), a papaveraceous plant of North
America; also its root (SANGUINA"RIA, Ph.
U. S.), which is the part used in medicine.
Juice, blood-red, used in dyeing. In small
doses (3 to 5 grs.), it is stimulant, diaphoretic,
and expectorant; in large ones (10 to 20 grs.),
narcotic, emetic, and purgative. The powder
is sometimes used as an escharotic. See SAN-
GUINARINE.
BLOOD'STONE. A hard compact variety of
haematite used to form burnishers. The name
is also applied by lapidaries to the heliotrope.
BL00M. In perfumery, &c., a name given
to several colorific skin-cosmetics, of which
the following are examples:—
Bloom of Almonds (ah'-mündz). Syn. AL'-
MOND-BLOOM. Prop. Boil 1 oz. of ground Brazil-
wood, in 2% pints of soft water for 30 minutes,
adding the juice of two lemons towards the end;
strain, and add # oz. of isinglass, 3 oz. of pow-
dered cochineal, 1 oz. of alum, and 3 oz. of
borax; boil again for 4 or 5 minutes, and
strain through muslin. Glass or earthenware
vessels must be used, as metals injure its
colour.
Bloom of Roses. Prep. 1. Dried red rose
leaves, 1% oz. ; boiling water, 1 pint; infuse in
glass or earthenware for 2 hours, press out the


BLOTE–BLOWPIPE.
liquor, and add the juice of 3 large lemons; the
next day filter, or decant the clear portion.
Both the above should be kept in a cool place,
otherwise they soon spoil. A little spirit of
wine (3 or 4 fl. oz. to the pint) is sometimes
added to them, to remove this objection. They
are greatly inferior to the following —
2. Carmine, 4 oz. ; strong liquor of ammonia
(not weaker than 900), 1 oz. ; put them into
a stoppered bottle, set it in a cool place, and
occasionally agitate it for two or three days,
to effect a solution; then add of rose-water, 1
pint ; and, after admixture, further add of
esprit de rose, fl. oz. ; pure rectified spirit,
1 fl. oz. ; again well agitate, and set the whole
aside for a week; lastly, decant the clear por-
tion from the dregs (if any), for use or sale.
Very fine. A cheaper article is made by
omitting a portion of the carmine, and the
whole of the esprit and spirit; and a still
inferior one, by substituting 1% oz. of silver-
grain cochineal (in powder) for the carmine,
with digestion for a week in the ammonia
previously diluted with one half of the
water.
BLOTE. To prepare or cure by drying and
smoking ; now only applied to fish.
BLO'TER. Syn. BLOAT'ER. A bloted fish;
appr., a herring slightly salted, and only very
slightly dried and smoked.
BLOW'PIPE (bló'.). Syn. CHALUMEAU, Fr.;
LöTHROHR, Ger. An instrument by means
of which the flame of a candle or lamp, or a
gas-jet, is directed upon any substance placed
to receive it, which is thus subjected to an
intense heat. The blowpipe is to the artist, and
the experimentalist, what the wind-furnace is
to the artisan; but it is proportionately more
powerful, convenient, and economical.
Beginners are usually unable to maintain a
continued stream of air from the jet of this
instrument, although the doing so is really a
very simple affair. The operation merely
depends on a little artifice in using it, which is
more difficult to describe than to acquire.
The effect intended to be produced is a con-
tinual stream of air for many minutes, if ne-
cessary, without interruption, even for an
instant. This is done by simply applying the
tongue to the roof of the mouth, so as to inter-
rupt the communication between the mouth
and the passage of , the nostrils; by which
means the operator is at liberty to breathe
through the nose, at the same time that by the
muscles of the lips he forces a continued stream
of air from the anterior part of the mouth
through the blowpipe. When the mouth
begins to be empty it is replenished by the
lungs in an instant, while the tongue is with-
drawn from the roof of the mouth, and re-
placed again in the same manner as in pro-
nouncing the monosyllable tut. In this way
the stream of air may be continued for a long
time without fatigue, provided the flame be
not urged too impetuously; and even should
it be so urged no other inconvenience will be
felt than that of slight fatigue of the muscles
of the lips.
The hottest portion of the flame produced
by the action of the blowpipe is at the
tip of the outer white flame, which has
also the property of rapidly burning or oxi-
dising substances placed in it which are sus-
ceptible of such a change; and it is hence
commonly called the oXIDISING FLAME. The
interior blue flame is, for a like reason, called
the DEOXIDISING or REDUCING FLAME, as it
possesses the property of extracting oxygen
from most bodies capable of being so affected.
Substances to be submitted to the action of
the blowpipe-flame are placed on a support,
which is either a piece of charcoal, or a wire or
small spoon of platinum, gold, or silver, as the
case may require. Sometimes a plate of cyanite
is used. Pine-wood charcoal is preferred for
this purpose; and the sides, not the ends of
the fibres, are presented to the flame.
a very intense heat is required, the substance
operated on should not exceed the size of half
a peppercorn.
For producing extreme degrees or heat the
flame is blown with a jet of oxygen gas, the
instrument being then called an OXYGEN
BLOWPIPE ; or a mixture of oxygen and
hydrogen is burned, when it is called an
oxy-HYDROGEN BLOWPIPE. The heat pro-
duced by the last is so great that no substance
can stand exposure to it, even the most re-
fractory native compounds being immediately
fused. Gold is volatilised, and iron is ra-
pidly consumed the instant it is placed in the
flame.
The principal varieties of the blowpipe in
When
general use are figured in the engravings
below:—
1, Hemming's safety-jet for the oxy-hydrogen blowpipe.
a, Pipe conveying oxygen gas.
y xx hydrogen gas.
c, Ball stuffed with fine wire-gauze.
e, Jet (internal diameter 1-80th of an inch).
2, Black's blowpipe.
3, Bergman’s
4, Pepy’s 22
5, Wollaston's ,
6, Oxy-hydrogen blowpipe.
2x
Beside the above there are several other
varieties of the blowpipe occasionally employed;
one, in which the air is expelled by the pres-
sure of a column of water, and hence called the
HYDROSTATIC BLOWPIPE ; another, in which
the flame is blown with the vapour of boiling
alcohol, is named the SPIRIT-BLOWPIPE.
Blowpipe, Herepath. For sealing and bend-

BLUBBER—BLUE PIGMENTS. -
ing glass tubes and constructing glass appa-
ratus of various forms, it is convenient to have
the blowpipe mounted on a fixed support, and
when a flame of considerable power is required,
the blast must be supplied by bellows worked
with the foot. A very convenient form of blow-
pipe for these purposes is that invented by Hera-
path, and represented in the following figure, a
º
4
º
is a flexible tube attached to a stop-cock (b),
which communicates with a tube (c. d), bent at
right angles at d, where a T-shaped tube (e.f.g)
slips on by means of the piece f. The blow-
pipe jet (h i) passes into the longer arm of the
T-piece, and fits somewhat tightly; k l is a
second piece of flexible tube, terminating in a
mouthpiece, or connected with a blowing ap-
paratus. On turning on the gas, it passes in
the direction marked by the arrows, and is to
be inflamed at e. On blowing with the mouth,
or by means of a pair of bellows, into the tube
k l, the ignited gas takes the form of a blow-
pipe flame of great power, the nature of which
is entirely under control by means of the stop-
cock b, and also by regulating the quantity of
air supplied through the tube (k l). The T-
shaped piece is movable at f, so that the jet
may be directed to any position. The appa-
ratus may be mounted on a heavy foot, and
connected with the gas-supply, by means of
the flexible tube, so that it can be placed in
any required position on the laboratory table ;
or it may be permanently fixed on a table
specially devoted to the purpose, and having
beneath it a pair of bellows worked by a
treadle.
BLUB/BER. Syn. AD/EPs BALAENA"RUM, L.;
GRAISSE DE BALEINE, Fr. The soft fat of
whales, and of other large sea-animals, from
which the oil (TRAIN" or L, WHALE’ or L) is ob-
tained by heat,
Sea Blubber. The popular name of several
species of marine animals of the genus medusa,
having a body resembling a large mass of jelly.
They are very plentiful in some parts of the
*
239
coast of England, and are said to form a rich
and cheap manure for pasture and arable land.
They are used at the rate of about 1 ton to
every 20 or 30 loads of mould, together with a
chaldron of lime, per acre. In 3 or 4 months
the land is usually found in prime condition.
Pilchards, and other fish that swarm upon our
coasts, and for which there is not a ready
market, may be used in the same way, and are
much richer, being, when properly managed,
but little inferior to guano.
BLUE (bl’öö). Syn. CAERU'LEUs, L.; BLEU,
Fr. ; BLAU, Ger. Of the colour of the clear
sky, or of any shade of it, whether lighter or
darker; subst., a blue colour, blueness (COL'OR
CHERU'LEUS, L.); or a blue colouring material
or pigment (CAERU'LEUM, L.).
BLUE DYE. Syn. TEINTE BLEUE, Fr.;
BLAU FARBE, Ger. The most permanent blue
is that given by indigo, and particularly by
what is called the “indigo-vat.” A variety of
shades, of great beauty, and considerable per-
manence, may also be given by the “Prussian-
blue process.” Cheaper blues are commonly
dyed with logwood. Each of these are noticed
at length under their respective heads. The
following are also employed, and are well
adapted for common goods, on the small scale
and for domestic use. -
1. Give the goods a mordant of alum, or
of acetate of alumina (‘red liquor’), them rinse
them well, and boil them in a bath of logwood,
to which a small quantity of blue vitriol has
been added; lastly, rinse and dry.
2. Boil the goods for a short time in a
bath of logwood; then add to the liquor tartar
and verdigris, in the proportion of 1 oz. of
each to every lb. of logwood employed; and
again boil for a short time.
3. Give the goods a mordant of tartar;
lift, add a little chromate of potash; again
work for 15 or 20 minutes, and rinse; next
boil in a bath of logwood, adding towards the
last a few grains more of the chromate;
again boil, and finish. The whole quantity
of chromate used should not exceed # oz. to
each lb. of logwood taken for the bath. Very
dark.
4. Bilberries, elder-berries, mulberries, pri-
vet-berries, and several other like vegetable
substances, may be used to die blue, as above,
instead of logwood.
Obs. By increasing the proportion of alum
or red-liquor the colour verges on purple;
and by employing a little acetate of iron or
green copperas, the darker shades of blue are
produced. Verdigris, blue vitriol, and alkalies,
turn it more on the blue; whilst a mordant of
tin imparts a violet cast. If much more
chromate be used than that ordered the result
is a blue-black. See DYEING, INDIGO, LOG-
WOOD, MoRDANTS, PRUSSIAN BLUE, &c.
BLUE PIG/MENTS. Syn. CERU'LEA, &c.,
L. The preparation of the principal blue pig-
ments of commerce is described under their
respective names. In the following list those

240 BLUE-PIGMENTS.
for which directions are given are of a mis-
cellaneous and less usual character.
Azure, Syn. Azure Blue. A name frequently
given to smalts. That of the oil-painter is
ultramarine, that of the ancients is noticed
below. See AZURE (p. 165), ULTRAMARINE,
&c.
Barth’s Blue. See SULPHATE OF INDIGO.
Berlin'-Blue. Prussian blue.
Blue Bice. Native blue carbonate of copper,
prepared by grinding and elutriation. That
of the shops is generally a factitious compound
made from smalts.
Blue Carmine. See CARMINE and SULPHATE
OF INDIGO.
Char'coal-Blue. Carbonised vine-stalks are
triturated with an equal weight of salt of tartar
or pearlash, the mixture put into a crucible,
and heated over the fire until it ceases to swell,
the mass being kept well stirred all the time;
when cold, it is dissolved in water, and the
excess of alkali saturated with dilute sulphuric
acid. The liquid becomes blue, and a dark
precipitate falls down, which turns of a bril-
liant blue colour when dried and cautiously
heated.
China-Blue, Syn. Roy'al Smalts. The crude
oxide of cobalt, or zaffre, is ground with an
equal weight of potash, and about eight times
its weight of felspar, the mixture submitted to
fusion in a crucible, and when cold reduced to
an impalpable powder. Used to paint pottery,
and as a blue pigment.
Cobalt-Blue, Syn. Cobalt'ic Az'ure. This is
commonly prepared by one or other of the fol-
lowing formulae:–
1. Zaffre, 1 lb., is dissolved in nitric acid
(diluted with an equal weight of water), #lb., by
digestion for some hours; the solution is evapo-
rated nearly to dryness, and the residuum
redissolved in warm water; to this solution,
after filtration, a solution of phosphate of soda
is added as long as a precipitate forms; this
last is collected on a filter, washed with cold
water, and mixed, whilst still moist, with 8
times its weight of fresh-precipitated hydrate
of alumina; the paste is then dried, and ex-
posed to a cherry-red heat in a crucible, after
which the mass is cooled and reduced to a very
fine powdcr.
2. A solution of nitrate of cobalt is preci-
pitated with ammonia-alum, and the precipitate
washed, dried, and exposed to a cherry-red
heat, as before. The products of the above
formulae are very beautiful and permanent.
See COBALTO-ULTRAMARINE.
Egyp’tian Azure, Alexan/drian Frit, Azure
of the Ancients. A mixture of carbonate of
soda, 1 lb. ; calcined flints, 1% lb. ; copper
filings, 3 lb. ; (all in fine powder;) fused toge-
ther in a crucible for 2 or 3 hours, and when
cold, reduced to an impalpable powder. A
beautiful and unchangeable sky-blue colour.
Used in both oil and fresco painting ; and as a
substitute for smalts, of which, indeed, it is a
variety.
Indigo (which see).
I'ron-Blue, Fer'rie Blue. Ordinary phos-
phate of iron prepared by precipitating a solu-
tion of protosulphate of iron with another of
phosphate of soda, the resulting powder being
washed, and dried at a gentle heat. A lively
sky-blue colour, but without much depth or
body.
Blue Lake. See LAKES and SULPHATE OF
INDIGO.
Molybde"mum-Blue. From sulphuret of
molybdenum, dissolved in nitric acid, and some
tin filings and a little muriatic acid added.
After digestion for some time, the clear liquid
is poured off, and evaporated to dryness. The
resulting powder is then mixed with moist
hydrate of alumina (as in making cobalt blue),
heated to a very dull red, and when it has
again become cold, reduced to powder. Used
both as a paint and an enamel-colour.
Mountain-Blue. Native carbonate of copper,
mixed with more or less earthy matter, reduced
to fine powder. That of the shops is often
factitious.
Paris-Blue. Prussian blue.
Pow’der-Blue. Smalts.
Prus"sian Blue (which see).
Queen's Blue. See STONE-BLUE (below).
Sander’s Blue. Ultramarine-ashes.
Saxon Blue, Saaron Az'ure. A compound of
hydrate of alumina and Prussian blue, pre-
pared as follows:—
1. To sulphate of iron, 1 oz. ; and alum,
8 oz. ; dissolved in water, 1 gal. ; add, simul-
taneously, separate solutions of prussiate of
potash and common pearlash, until they cease
to produce a precipitate; after repose collect
the deposit, wash it well with water, and dry
it.
2. A solution of sulphate of iron is precipi-
tated with another of prussiate of potash, and
instantly mixed with the precipitate which
has just been obtained by treating a solu-
tion of alum with a solution of pearlash ; the
mixed precipitates being finally treated as
before.
Smalts (which see ; also CHINA-BLUE and
EGYPTIAN AZURE, above).
Thénard's Blue. See ULTRAMARINE (Co-
baltic).
Thumb'-Blue, Cake'-blue, Crown'-Blue, Fig'-
blue, Knob'-blue, Mech/lenburg-blue (mēk'-),
Queen’s blue, Stone-blue, &c. Names given to
the lump-blue used in laundries, which vary
according to the quality and the particular
form given to it.
Prep. 1. A mixture of powdered starch with
sufficient indigo (in impalpable powder) to
give the necessary colour, made into a stiff
dough with starch-paste, and then formed into
lumps or cakes of the desired size and shape,
and dried. This forms the ordinary “washer-
woman’s blue” of the shops.
2. As the last, but substituting caºruleo-
sulphate of potassa or blue carmine for the
1 See INDIGo (Sulphate of).

BLUSHING—BOIS DURCE. 21.
‘powdered indigo” ordered in the last formula.
Very fine.
3. As No. 1, but substituting whiting for
the powdered starch, and weak size or a de-
coction of Irish moss for the starch-paste.
Inferior.
Uses, &c. Employed by laundresses to im-
part a faint blue tinge to linen, in order to in-
crease its apparent whiteness. The common
forms given to it are that of small balls of
about # to 1 inch in diameter; the same, but
rather larger, and pinched with the thumb and
finger in three directions, so as to leave corre-
sponding depressions (THUMB-BLUE); and
p g p
cakes, which are cut out of the mass, pre-
viously rolled into a sheet, by a suitably shaped
cutter. -
Turnbull’s Blue. Ferridcyanide of iron
(which see ; also TURNBULL's BLUE).
Blue Verditer. See VERDITER.
Ultramarine' (-réne'), U.-blue.
MARINE.
BLUSHING. Syn. RU'BoR, RUBE'Do, L.
In physiology, &c., the red glow on the cheeks
or face occasioned by confusion, bashfulness,
surprise, or shame.
Blushing is caused by a sudden increase in
the quantity and velocity of the blood in the
capillaries, occasioning their turgescence; and,
consequently, a heightening of the natural
pale-reddish hue of the skin. It is referable
to sudden mental emotions of an exciting cha-
racter, such as surprise, confusion, conscious-
ness of slight, injury, or indignity, and the
like. Emotions of a depressing character
frequently produce an opposite effect. This
is termed pallor; and depends on the rush of
blood from the skin and surface of the body
upon the internal organs. The first, though
often unpleasant, is never dangerous ; the
last, always so. The cure of the habit of
blushing consists in persisting efforts to
maintain a sufficient degree of presence of
mind and self-confidence to permit of reflec-
tion, or a calm view of the exciting circum-
stance, instead of sinking into a state of tem-
porary mental imbecility and helpless con-
fusion.
BOIL (boyl). Syn. FURUN/CULUS, L. ;
FURoNCLE, Fr. ; BEULE, EITERSTOCK, Ger.
In surgery, a well-known inflammatory tu-
mour, of a superficial and more or less tem-
porary character, which generally terminates
by suppuration.
Boils (furun'culi) generally attack the
healthy and robust during the period of
youth and early manhood, and seldom trouble
ºn: who have arrived at the middle age of
ife.
Treat., &c. When boils begin to appear, and
exhibit persistency by daily enlargement and
increasing pain, suppuration should be pro-
moted by warm poultices of bread and linseed-
meal, to which a little fat or oil may be added,
to prevent their getting hard. If poultices
are inconvenient, warm and stimulating embro-
See ULTRA-
cations, or exposure to the vapour of hot water,
or the application of stimulating plasters, may
be adopted instead. When the tumour is
sufficiently “ripe,” the matter should be eva-
cuated by gentle pressure, and the wound
dressed with a little simple ointment spread on
a piece of clean lint or linen. The diet may
be full and liberal until the maturation of the
tumour and the discharge of the matter, when
it should be lessened, and the bowels kept
gently open by saline purgatives, as Epsom-
salt or cream of tartar. When there is a dis-
position in the constitution to the formation of
boils, the bowels should be kept at all times
regular, and tonics, as bark or steel, had re-
course to, with the frequent use of sea-bathing
when possible. An occasional dose of the
Abernethy-medicines (which see) also often pre-
vents their recurrence. A course of sarsa-
parilla may be likewise taken with advantage.
See ABSCESS, TUMoURS, &c.
B0II/ERS. See INCRUSTATION and STEAM.
B0II/ING. In cookery, the operation of
dressing food in water at the point of ebul-
lition, or one very closely approaching it. The
practice of cooking animal food by boiling,
although exceedingly simple, and often most
convenient, is neither judicious nor economical
when the broth or liquid in which it has been
dressed is to be rejected as waste; as in this
way, the most nutritious portion of the flesh
of animals, consisting of soluble saline and
other matter required for the formation of
bone, and the nutrition of the muscular
tissues, &c., is to a great extent lost. This
particularly applies to small pieces so dressed,
and to those presenting a large surface to the
action of the water in proportion to their
weight. Large pieces of meat suffer less in
proportion than smaller ones, for the same
reason ; but even with them the outside should
be rejected, as it is both insipid and innutri-
tious compared with the interior portion. To
reduce the solvent and deteriorating action of
the water to the lowest possible point, the arti-
cles to be boiled should not be put into the
water until it is in a state of full ebullition,
which should be maintained for 5 or 6 minutes
afterwards, by which time the surface, and the
parts lying immediately beneath it, will have
become, to a certain degree, hardened, and will
then act as a protective shield to the inner
portion of the mass. To induce tenderness,
the subsequent operation should be carried on
at a mere simmer; the slighter the better.
The practice of dressing meat by putting it
into cold water, which is then gradually
raised to the boiling-point, cannot be too much
censured. A # of an hour per lb. for dressing
young meat, poultry, and small pieces, and 20
minutes per lb. for old, tough, and larger ones,
are the usual times allowed by cooks for the
purpose. See BouTLLI, FooD, &c.
BOIL/ING-POINT. See EBULLITION. -
BOIS DURCE (bwah diir-sā). [Fr.] The
substance invented in France, and to which



242
BOLAS–BONE-DUST.
this name is given, is made from sawdust,
which, under the influence of a high tem-
perature and the enormous pressure of 600
tons, acquires a degree of hardness very much
exceeding that of ordinary wood. It has a
very fine grain, and is unaffected by atmo-
spherical variations; but its principal merit is
its adaptation to moulding, so that by the most
economical processes, forms and impressions are
given to it which it would require, in any other
way, considerable labour and workmanship.
BOLAS. Sweet light cakes which, accord-
ing to Mrs. Rundle, are prepared as follows:—
Into flour, 2 lbs., pour of warm milk, # pint, a
small teacupful of yeast, and 6 eggs; make a
dough, add of butter, 1 lb. (by degrees), and
set it in a warm place to rise for an hour; then
mix in of powdered sugar, 1 lb.; and make the
mass into cakes; put these into cups or tins
previously well buttered, and ornament the top
with candied orange or lemon peel; lastly bake
them. See CAKES.
BOLE. Syn. Bo'LUs, L.; TERRE BOLAIRE,
&c., Fr. The name of several argillaceous
minerals, varying in colour from white to
yellow, red, and brown, which they owe chiefly
to iron. See OCHRES and RED and BROWN
PIGMENTS.
BOLOG"NAPHIAL (-lawn'-yā). See PHIALs.
B0'LUS. [L., Eng.] Syn. BoI, Fr. Boluses,
in pharmacy and medicine, are small, roundish
masses of medicinal substances, which are
taken in the same manner as pills, which they
resemble, except in their larger size. Those
persons who object to swallowing them in
their common state, may wrap them in soft
paper, or introduce them into the emptied
husks of raisins or grapes.
Boluses (bo'li, L.) are prepared with the
same ingredients, and in a similar manner to
pills (which see).
BON'-BON (böng'-bóng). [Fr.] A sugar-
plum. See CoNFECTIONERY and SUGAR-
PLUMS. -
BONE. Syn. Os, L., Fr. ; BEIN, KNoCHEN,
Ger.; BAN, Sax. The hard substance forming
the interior skeleton of animals, or any single
part of it.
Comp. According to Berzelius:—
Human bones. Ox bones.
Animal matter soluble in
boiling water . 32:17 ... 33'30
Vascular substance . . . 1'13
Triphosphate of calcium,
with a little fluoride of
calcium . 53.04. ... 57-35
Carbonate of calcium . 11:30 , 3.85
Phosphate of magnesium 1:16 ... 2:05:
Chloride of sodium and
other salts - 1-20 . 3°45
100. 100-
The soluble animal matter is chiefly fat and
gelatine.
Uses, &c. The bones of animals are em-
ployed for various purposes in the arts, manu-
factures, and domestic economy. Those of
good meat form most excellent materials for
making soups and gravies, as is well known to
every cook. In France, soup is extensively
made by subjecting bruised bones to a steam
heat of 2 or 3 days’ continuance. In England
the same is commonly effected in an iron
Papin’s digester. When the earthy matter of
a bone is dissolved out by digesting it in a
large quantity of very dilute hydrochloric acid,
a lump of gelatine is obtained, which, after
being well washed with water, is equal to
isinglass for all the purposes of making soups
and jellies. The following is the process
recommended by Proust for making the best
of bones, in hospitals, gaols, and similar estab-
lishments:—
The bones, crushed small, are to be boiled
for 15 minutes in a kettle of water, and the
fat (which is fit for all common purposes)
skimmed off, as soon as cold. The bones are
then to be ground, and boiled in 8 to 10 times
their weight of water (of which that already
used must form a part), until half of it is
wasted, when a very nutritious jelly will be
obtained. Iron vessels should alone be used
in this process, as the jelly and soup act upon
copper, brass, and the other common metals.
The bones of fresh meat are the most pro-
ductive; those of boiled meat come next, whilst
those of roasted meat scarcely afford any jelly.
As ‘boning’ meat before cooking is now a
very general practice, a quantity of fresh bones
may always be obtained.
Bones are, for the most part, WROUGHT,
TURNED, BLEACHED, and DYED, in a similar
manner to ivory; but with less care, owing to
their inexpensive and coarser character. Be-
fore being submitted to any of these operations
they are, however, first submitted to long
boiling, to deprive them of grease.
The bones of living animals may be dyed by
mixing madder with their food. The bones of
young pigeons may thus be tinged of a rose
colour in 24 hours, and of a deep scarlet in 3
days; but the bones of adult animals take a
fortnight to acquire even a rose colour. The
bones nearest the heart become tinged the
soonest. In the same way extract of logwood
tinges the bones of young pigeons purple.
See BLEACHING, DYEING, Ivory, &c.
BONE'-ASH. Impure triphosphate of cal-
cium, obtained by calcining bones to whiteness,
and reducing the ash to fine powder. Used to
make pure phosphate of calcium, to form cu-
pels, &c.; also sold for burnt hartshorn.
BONE'-DUST. Syn. Bon E-MANURE. Bones
(previously boiled for their grease) ground to
different degrees of coarseness, in a mill. It
is sowed along with the seed in a drill. Wheat
thus treated, is said to yield 30 to 50 per cent.
more weight in straw and grain than by the
common methods. Turnip, and other light
soils, it renders more than ordinarily pro-
ductive. Bone manure is much used in the
west of Yorkshire, Holderness, and Lincoln-

BONE-GLUE—BOOKBINDING.
243
shire. The usual quantity per acre is 70
bushels, when used alone; but when mixed
with ashes or other common manure, 30
bushels per acre is said to be enough. When
coarse, and applied in the same manner as
other manures, it has been found to remain
upwards of seven years in the ground, the pro-
ductiveness of which it has increased during
the whole time.
BONE/-GLUE. See GELATINE.
BONE'-GREASE. From refusebones, bruised,
boiled in water, and the broth skimmed when
cold. Prod. 4th to 4th of the weight of the
dry bones. (Proust.) Used for making soap
and candles. See ANIMAL CHARCOAL.
BONE'-PHOSPHATE. See TRIBASIC PHOS-
PHATE OF LIME.
RONE-SHAVINGS. Syn. Bon E!-DUST(Turn-
ers’), Bon E-TURNINGs. This, by boiling with
water, yields a beautiful jelly, which is nearly
equal to that produced from hartshorn and
ivory shavings, for which it is very frequently
sold. Used to make jellies and blancmanges,
to stiffen straw bonnets, &c.
B00KBINDING (-bind-). Although a full
description of the various operations of this
well-known art, or handicraft, does not pro-
perly fall within the province of this work, a
brief notice of them will probably, in many
cases, prove useful to the amateur and the
emigrant :—
The process of binding books is divided into
several distinct operations, which, in large
establishments, are usually performed by dif-
ferent persons; such a method being found to
produce greater expedition, and better work,
than when the whole is done by one person.
The sheets received from the hands of the
printer are—
1. Folded, which is done correctly by ob-
serving the ‘marks’ or ‘signatures’ at the
bottom of the pages. As the sheets are folded
they are laid upon each other in proper order,
and are ready to undergo—
2. The operation of beating. This is per-
formed by either laying them upon a large
stone, and striking them with a heavy smoothed-
faced hammer, or by passing them through a
rolling-press. The former method is usually
adopted in the small way, and the latter on
the large scale.
3. The sheets are next fastened to bands,
which is done by taking them up one by one,
and sewing them to pieces of cord, stretched
in a little frame screwed or fastened to the
counter or table, called the sewing press.
(See engr.) The number of bands used, is
f
|
wº
-
C
J
É
generally 6 for a folio, 5 for a quarto, and so
on proportionally, less than 4 being seldom em-
ployed even for small sizes. The ends of the
cords being cut off to within about 2 inches of
the back, the sheets are ready for—
4. Glueing. The back being knocked into
shape with a hammer, and the sheets placed
in the cutting-press, which is then slightly
screwed up, melted glue is thinly and evenly
applied. After a short time to permit it to
become sufficiently set and hard, the book is
removed from the press, and the back pro-
perly adjusted with a hammer, when it is again
put into the cutting-press, where it is screwed
up very tight, and is then ready for—
5. Cutting. The instrument employed for
this purpose is of a peculiar shape, and called
a plough or plough-knife, which consists of a
stout flat knife, double-edged at the “cutting
point,’ firmly set in a kind of frame, in which
it may be adjusted by screws.
6. Affiring the boards. The bands are now
scraped out fine at the ends, and fastened to
the pasteboard intended to form the covers,
which is then properly adjusted, and further
shaped, if necessary, with a large pair of shears.
The edges now undergo the operation of-
7. Sprinkling, gilding, or other adornment,
The first is performed with a stiff brush made
of hog's bristles, dipped in the colour; the
brush being held in the one hand, and the hairs
moved with the other, so as to scatter the
colour in minute drops equally over the
surface.
8. The easternal covering of leather, fancy
cloth, or paper, is now applied, having been
previously soaked in paste, to make it properly
adhere. One or more of the blank leaves of
the book are next pasted against the inside of
the cover, to screen the ends that are turned
over, when the book is finished; or for choice .
work, is handed to a ‘finisher’ for—
9. Lettering, gilding, &c. Ordinary gold-
leaf is applied by means of white of egg, the
pattern being given by pressure with heated
brass tools, having the design or letters on
their surfaces. The whole is then glazed over
with white of egg, and polished.
The succession of the above operations
sometimes slightly varies with the workmen,
and with the nature of the binding. The
examination of a bound book during their
perusal will, however, render the whole quite
familiar to the reader.
There are several varieties of binding, of



which only the following deserve notice
here:—
BoARDS. A book rather loosely done up,

without cutting the edges, and covered with
coloured paper or cloth, is said to be in
“boards.”
CLOTH, CLOTH-BINDING. This is the style
of binding in which the majority of works are
now issued. It admits of great neatness and
even beauty, is cheap, and when well executed
is very durable.—The prepared cloth (hard-

244 BOOTS AND SHOES.

glazed or varnished calico), cut by a pattern
to the proper size, is passed rapidly between
the engraved cylinders of a rolling-press, by
which the design is given to it. Paste is now
applied to each piece of cloth, which is then
placed over the volume previously prepared
to receive it. In many cases the covers are
prepared separately before being embossed, and
are afterwards fastened in the finished state to
the book by means of a piece of canvas or
calico previously affixed to its back for the
purpose, when all that is required is to paste
the ends of it to the inside of the boards, with
the last blank leaf over it. Books in cloth
are seldom cut at the edges, unless they are
otherwise highly finished.
HALF-BINDING. Books forwarded in boards,
and finished with leather backs and corners,
are said to be “half-bound.”
LEATHER-BINDING. A book is only said to
be ‘bound,” or ‘fully bound,” when both its
back and sides are wholly covered with one
piece of leather.—The leather is wetted by
immersion in water, wrung or squeezed,
stretched on a smooth board, cut to the proper
size, pared thin on the edges, and covered with
paste. It is then applied to the book (pre-
viously forwarded in boards, and cut), drawn
tightly over it, turned down on the inside,
rubbed smooth with a folding-stick, and other-
wised adjusted; after which it is placed in some
suitable situation, at a distance from a fire, to
dry.
Rough calf requires to be damped on the
grain side with a sponge and water before
pasting and covering.
JRussia-leather is well soaked in water for
an hour, taken out, beaten, and rubbed ; after
which the paste is well worked into the flesh
side before covering.
Morocco is first “grained” by rubbing it on
a board, with the grain side inside, and, after
being pasted, left to soak for about a quarter
of an hour; after which it is drawn on with a
piece of woollen cloth, to preserve the grain.
Roan is either soaked in water, or left to
soak when pasted.
SCHOOL-BINDING. Originally applied to
school-books strongly sewn and “dome up in
sheep-skin, which was either left of a plain
brown, or sprinkled or marbled with copperas-
water. Similar works of a cheaper class, are
now often ‘done up” in canvas, brown-holland,
and even coarse and strong coloured glazed
calico.
Concluding remarks. Numerous patents
for improvements in binding books, several of
which possess very great merit and usefulness,
have been obtained during the last 30 years.
Among these, one known as ‘Hancock’s Patent
Binding,’ from its extreme novelty, simplicity,
durability, and inexpensiveness, deserves a
passing notice here. By Mr. Wm. Hancock’s
method the sheets are folded in double leaves,
and being properly placed together and ad-
justed (by setting them vertically, with the
edges forming the back of the book down-
wards, in a concave mould so formed that whilst
giving shape it may leave the whole breadth,
and nearly the whole length exposed), and
firmly secured by a few turns of packthread,
the book is subjected to the action of a press,
and a strong and quick-drying solution of India
rubber is smeared over the back with the finger,
when the whole is left for 3 or 4 hours, or,
longer, to dry. The operation is repeated, as
often as necessary, after which fillets of cloth
are cemented on with the same varnish, and the
book is ready to have the boards attached.
The sheets of books that cannot be folded in
‘double leaves' may be strongly stitched
through, separately, before adjusting them in
the mould. In this way, several of the usual
operations of binding are dispensed with. We
most willingly bear testimony to the strength
and durability of this method, as well as to the
great convenience it affords in allowing the
books to open perfectly flat upon a table, or to
be distorted in any possible manner, without
injury to their backs. It is, undoubtedly, the
best way of binding books for travellers. The
Editor of the last edition of this work once had
a large trunk of books, among which was a mas-
sive volume bound on Hancock’s plan. All the
rest were nearly torn to pieces by a few months'
journey, but this one remained uninjured even
after five years, during which time it accom-
panied him in his travels, extending, collec-
tively, to upwards of 23,000 miles. See
GILDING, MARBLING, SPRINKLES, STAINS, &c.
B00TS and SHOES. The cleaning of boots
and shoes forms no unimportant part of the
domestic duties of a large establishment; as
on it being properly performed depend both
their appearance and durability. A votary of
St. Crispin, in whom we place considerable
reliance, assures us, that to effect this object
in the best style, all that is necessary is to
employ very little blacking (merely enough to
moisten the surface of the leather), and to
brush it off whilst still damp. Never make
the surface wet, nor allow the blacking to dry
before applying the polishing brush. For this
purpose, a portion only of the boot or shoe
should be attended to at a time. The dirt is,
of course, to be carefully brushed off before
applying the blacking. When it is desired to
restore the shape of a boot or shoe, as well as
to clean it, boot trees may be used. Of the
brushes, we are told that there should be at
least three—one (dirt-brush) with bristles
stiff, but not wiry nor scratchy, to remove
mud and dirt ; another (blacking-brush), with
fine, flexible hair, and plenty of it, for applying
the blacking; and a third (polishing-brush),
covered with long, fine, springy, and slightly
stiff hair, for giving the polish. The employ-
ment of inferior or worn-out brushes, is said
to be false economy, and proves particularly
destructive to the lighter classes of leather.
The occasional use of a little oil or grease to
the uppers of boots and shoes, increases their

BOOT-POWDER—BORAX.
245
softness and durability, as well as the depth,”
but not the brilliancy of the polish, from com-
mon blacking. For this purpose some good
tallow or ‘dubbing’ may be used; the absorp-
tion being aided by a very gentle heat. The
soles or bottoms of new boots and shoes may
be thoroughly saturated with similar substances,
by which means their durability will be fully
doubled. The common practice among the
shoemakers is to moisten the surface of the
leather with a wet sponge before applying
the oil or grease; by which (they say) its
pores are opened and its absorbent powers
increased.
Patent-leather boots and shoes are best
cleaned with a little sweet oil or milk, (pre-
ferably the first,) the dirt having been pre-
viously removed in the usual way.
India-rubber goloshes and overshoes may be
cleaned with a sponge or brush, and water,
care being taken not to wet the linings. The
same applies to gutta percha. See BLACKING,
LEATHER, WATERPROOFING, &c.
The reasons why boots and shoes so com-
monly cause corns, and fatigue, and give pain
in wear, are explained in our article on the
FEET (which see). -
B00T-POW'DER. French chalk reduced to
powder by scraping or grating. Used to fa-
cilitate the ‘getting on of new or tight boots,
a little of it being rubbed on the insides of
the backs, heels, and insteps.
B00T-TOP LIQUID. Syn. Boot"-Top COM-
POSI"TION. There are numerous articles of
this class extant, but, with few exceptions,
they are most unchemical mixtures, not infre-
quently containing ingredients which are
either unnecessary, or opposed to the action
of the rest. The following are examples:–
Prep. a. WHITE-TOP :–1. Oxalic acid and
white vitriol, of each, 1 oz., water, 1% pint;
dissolve.—It is applied with a sponge, the
leather having been previously washed with
water; after a short time it is washed off with
water, when the boot-tops are either dried in
a current of air, or by a gentle heat; they are
lastly either polished with a brush, so as to
appear like new leather, or they are left rough,
as the case may require.
2. Sour milk, 1 quart; butter of antimony,
cream of tartar, tartaric acid, and burnt alum,
of each, 2 oz. ; mix.
3. Sour milk (skimmed), 3 pints; cream of
tartar, 2 oz. ; alum and oxalic acid, of each,
l oz.
4. Alum, cream of tartar, magnesia, and
oxalic acid, of each, 1 oz. ; salt of sorrel and
sugar of lead, of each, 3 oz. ; water, 1 quart.
The preceding are for white tops.
b. BROWN-TOP :—Alum, annatto, and oxalic
acid, of each, 1 oz. ; isinglass and sugar of
lead, of each # oz. ; salt of sorrel, # oz. ; water,
1 quart; boil for 10 minutes.
BORAC/IC ACID (-rás'.). HaBOs. Syn.
Bo"RIC ACID, SED/ATIVE SALT+, S. S. of VIT'-
RIOL:f ; ACIDUM BORAC'ICUM (-rás'-), L.;
ACIDE BORACIQUE, A. BORIQUE, Fr.; BORAX-
SÄURE, &c., Ger. The pure acid is obtained
from common borax. That of commerce is
extracted from the boracic acid lagoons of
Tuscany.
Prep. 1. Borax, 1 part; boiling water, 4.
parts; dissolve, and add sulphuric acid until
the solution acquires a distinctly acid reaction,
for which purpose about ; the weight of the
borax will be required. As the solution cools,
crystals of BORACIC ACID will be deposited.
These may be purified by placing them on a
filter, and washing them with a little very cold
water, followed by re-solution in boiling water,
and recrystallisation. Nearly pure.
2. As the last, but substituting hydrochloric
acid for the sulphuric acid, there ordered.
Very nearly pure.
3. By exposing the product of the first crys-
tallisation of either of the preceding formulae
to heat in a platinum crucible, and redissolving
and recrystallising the residuum. Chemically
pure. Used in analysis.
Prop., &c. Odourless; bitter-tasted; dis-
solves in 25 times its weight of cold water,
and in 3 times its weight of boiling water;
very soluble in alcohol, which then burns with
a bright green flame; reddens litmus; browns
turmeric-paper; (properties characteristic of
this substance;) when strongly heated it forms
a brittle glass (VITRIFIED BORACIC ACID) on



cooling. The crystallised acid contains 3
atoms, or 43.5%, of water. Its salts are called
BO’RATES.
Uses. Boracic acid was once administered
internally, in large doses, as an anodyne, anti-
spasmodic, and sedative, but is now scarcely
ever employed as a medicine. The crude acid
is used in the manufacture of borax; the pure
acid, in the manufacture of certain chemicals.
BORACIC ANHYDRIDE. See BORIC AN-
HYDRIDE. - - -
B0"RATE. [Eng., Fr.] Syn. Bo"RAs, L.;
BORAXSAURE SALZE, Ger. A salt in which
the hydrogen of boracic acid is replaced by a
basic radical. The borates may be formed by
either digesting the hydrate of the base in a
solution of the acid, with the assistance of heat,
or from a solution of borax and a soluble salt
of the base, by double decomposition. They
are all decomposed by the stronger acids.
Tests. The borates may be tested by di-
gesting them in a slight excess of oil of vitriol,
evaporating the resulting solution to dryness,
powdering the residuum, and dissolving it in
alcohol; the resulting solution possesses the
property of burning with a green flame if the
sample examined was a borate, or contained a
notable quantity of one. See BoRACIC ACID.
B0"RAX. [Eng., Fr., Ger., L., B. P.]
2NaBO.B.O. Syn. BIBo"RATE of so’DA,
Bo"RATE OF S.*, SUBBO’RATE OF s.h., GOLD
SoLDER+*, REFINED' TINC'AL+*; SO’DAE BI-
Bo"RAs, S. Bo"RAs, L.; CHRYSOCOLLE, &c.,
Fr. ; BoRAxSAURES NATRON, &c., Ger. Com-
mercial biborate of soda. Borax is obtained

246
BORIC ACID—BOUGIE.
either by purifying native borate of soda
(TINC'AL, TINC'AR), or by saturating crude
boracic acid with the alkali. It is never pre-
pared on the small scale unless for chemical
analysis.
Prop. Crystals, six-sided prisms, which
contain 10 equiv. of water, and effloresce in
dry air; soluble in 20 parts of cold, and in 6
parts of boiling water; solution has an alka-
line reaction on test-paper; by heat it loses
its water of crystallisation, and at a higher
temperature fuses to a glass-like substance
(see below).
Pur. This may be ascertained by deter-
mining the quantity of sulphuric acid required
to neutralise a given weight of the sample
under examination, as indicated by litmus
paper. Common salt and alum are frequently
mixed with borax to lower the value. The
first may be detected by a solution in hot
water giving a curdy-white precipitate with
nitrate of silver, soluble in ammonia; the last,
by water of ammonia, giving a bulky-white
pulverulent precipitate. The former must be
distinguished from the white pulverulent pre-
cipitate of borate of silver, which is thrown
down from pure borax.
Uses, &c. Borax is extensively employed
as a flux for metals, for soldering, and in
medicine. Internally, it is diuretic, sedative,
emmenagogue, and refrigerant, in doses of 15
to 40 grs. ; externally, made into a gargle for
sore throat, and in powder as a detergent in
aphtha, and ulcerations of the mouth. Dis-
solved in rose-water, it is used as a cosmetic ;
and mixed with about 8 times its weight of
lard, forms a useful ointment in piles and sore
nipples.
Borax, Glass of Borax dried at a gentle
heat, and then melted by increasing the heat
until it forms a vitreous mass on being cooled.
Used in soldering, and as a flux, particularly
in blowpipe experiments.
B0"RIC ACID. See BORACIC ACID.
BORIC ANHYDRIDE, B,0s. Syn. ANHY-
DROUS BORACIC ACID, BORACIC ANHYDRIDE,
BoRIC oxIDE. The only known oxide of boron.
It can be produced by burning boron in oxy-
gen, in the air, or in nitrous oxide, but is most
easily and economically prepared by strongly
heating boracic acid so as to deprive it of water.
It is a brittle vitreous solid, not volatilised by
heat except in the presence of water. Dis-
solves in water, forming boracic acid. Its
alcoholic solution burns with a green flame,
like that of boracic acid.
B0'RON. B. The base of boracic acid. It
was discovered by Homberg in 1702; but, from
attracting little notice, was soon forgotten.
It was rediscovered almost simultaneously, by
Sir H. Davy, and by Gay-Lussac and Thénard,
in 1807-8.
Prep. Boron is prepared by a process
similar to that employed to obtain silicium :—
Potassium and perfectly dry boracic acid, or,
preferably, boro;fluoride of potassium, inti-
mately mixed together, are placed in a glass
adopter-tube, and submitted to a low red heat.
When cold, the loose cork that fastened its
mouth is removed, and hot water poured in,
in successive portions, until the whole matter
is detached and all its soluble portion dissolved;
the liquid is next allowed to settle, and the
precipitate washed first with a solution of sal-
ammoniac, and afterwards with alcohol; the
residuum (boron) is lastly dried in a capsule,
and put into a well-stoppered phial.
Prop., &c. A solid, tasteless, and inodorous
powder, of a dark grayish-brown colour. With
sulphur it unites at high temperatures, form-
ing sulphurets (sulphides of boron); and when
placed in chlorine gas it spontaneously in-
flames, and a gaseous chloride of boron is
formed. The compounds of boron with
simple bodies are termed Bo"RIDEs (-idz) or
BO’RURETS*.
Obs. Among the most remarkable of the
recent discoveries in chemistry, are those of
MM. Wohler and Deville, relative to silica and
boron. Each of these substances is now proved
to exist in three very different states, ana-
logous to the three known states of carbon,
namely, charcoal, graphite, and diamond. The
last of these states is, of course, the most in-
teresting. Crystallised boron possesses a
hardness, brightness, and refractive power,
comparable to those of the diamond; it burns
in chlorine, without residue, and with cir-
cumstances resembling those of the combus-
tion of diamond in oxygen; it is not acted on
by any of the acids, and appears to be the
least alterable of all the simple bodies. Its
powder is already used in the arts, instead of
diamond-dust; and it seems not improbable
that, when obtained by the chemist in crystals
of a larger size, it may rival even the diamond
as a gem.
Boron,
ACID.
BOTT'LES (böt'lz). See GLAss, INFANCY,
LACTATION, PHIALs, PHOSPHORUs, &c.
BOTT'LING (böt'l-ing). See CoRKs, MALT
LIQUORS, WINE, &c.
BOUGIE (böö'-zhè). [Fr.] Syn. CE’REUs,
CERE'OLUs," CANDE'LA PROBATO’RIA*, L. In
surgery, a long slender instrument, originally
of wax,” introduced into the urethra, oesopha-
gus, or rectum, in stricture and other diseases
of those organs.
Prep. 1. (Prof. Pickel's.) Amber (melted),
1 part; boiled oil, 3 parts; mix, cool a little,
and further add of oil of turpentine, 1 part;
spread the mixture, at 3 successive intervals,
upon loose spun-silk cord or web ; dry in a
heat of 150° Fahr., and repeat the process
until the instrument has acquired the proper
size; lastly, polish it, first with pumice-stone,
and afterwards with tripoli and oil. This is
the original receipt of the once celebrated
French professor Pickel, and is still generally


Terflu'oride of. See FLUOBORIC

1 Properly, a ‘little bougie.”
* Hence the name.
BOULES DE NANCY —BRAIN. 247
used, slightly modified, on the Continent. At
the present time, in Paris, a little caoutchouc,
equal to about ºth of the weight of the oil
employed, is generally added. For the best
ELASTIC Boug|ES the process usually occupies
from 6 to 8 weeks, to allow full time for the
drying and hardening of the composition.
When the bougie is required to be hollow, a
piece of polished metallic wire is introduced
into the axis of the silk; or tin-foil is rolled
round the wire and the composition applied as
before. When dry and hard the wire is
withdrawn.
2. (Hunter's.) Yellow wax, 2 parts; red
lead, 3 parts; olive oil, 6 parts; slowly boiled
together until combination takes place; strips
of soft linen (rather wider at the one end than
the other) are then dipped into the composi-
tion, rolled up firmly, and finished off on a
polished slab.
3. (Piderit's.) Olive oil, 1 part; wax, 6
parts; as before.
4. (Bell's.) Lead-plaster, 11 parts; yellow
wax, 4 parts; olive oil, 1 part.
5. (St. B. Hosp.) Wax, 12 parts; Chio
turpentine, 4 parts; red sulphide of mercury,
1 part.
6. CAOU'TCHOUC Boug|Es: — In France,
where ether is comparatively inexpensive,
these are made by applying an ethereal solu-
tion of India rubber to the silk or foil pre-
pared as before. In England, naphtha was,
until recently, employed instead of “ether;’
but it furnishes a very inferior product. Now
bisulphuret of carbon is generally used as the
solvent. Sometimes strips of India rubber,
previously boiled in water, or that have had
their edges softened by moistening them with
a little ether, or bisulphuret of carbon, are
wound round the “wire' or ‘foil, and kept in
their place by a piece of tape applied over
them. They are afterwards carefully smoothed
off and polished.
7. GUTTA-PER/CHA BOUGIES:—These are
formed of gutta percha (previously softened by
immersion in boiling water), by rolling it be-
tween plates of polished glass or marble. When
skilfully prepared from the best (uncoloured)
gutta percha, they are admirable instruments.
A bougie of this description, of moderate size,
and slightly oiled, or wetted with glycerine or
gum-water, may be passed through the whole
length of the urethra of a healthy person
without causing the slightest pain. Gutta-
percha catheters (hollow bougies) are still more
flexible and easily introduced, and may remain
in the urethra for a long time without causing
irritation; an important advantage in such
matters. The reader cannot, however, be too
careful to avoid those made of coloured gutta
percha, which, unfortunately, rapidly become
very brittle by age. Those originally manu-
factured in this material were coloured black,
and were constantly breaking whilst in use; a
disaster from which several serious and even
fatal cases ensued. There is no such danger
to be dreaded from those made of the un-
coloured material when of good quality.
BOULES DE NANCY. See BALLS (Martial).
BOUILLI (bööl’-ye). [Fr.] A name fre-
quently applied by cooks to dishes of boiled
or stewed meat, as a refinement on its plain
English synonymes. Thus, beef bouilli, beef
Čn bouilli, &c., mean stewed or boiled beef,
&c. As, however, the name is a la français,
so must be the “accompaniments,” which gene-
rally consist of herbs and vegetable seasoning
in greater quantity and variety than is usually
deemed essential for an humble dish of English
boiled or stewed meat.
BOUILLON (bööl'-yong). [Fr.] In cookery,
broth, soup.
BOUQUET' (böö-kā'). [Fr.] Anosegay. In
perfumery, highly scented spirits (esprits)
adapted for the handkerchief are commonly
called bouquets. The following are examples:—
Bouquet d’Amour. Prep. From esprits de
rose, jasmin, violette, and cassie (flowers of
acacia farnesiana), of each, 2 parts; essences
of musk and ambergris, of each, 1 part; mix,
and filter.
Bouquet de la Reine. Prep. 1. Essence of
bergamot, 1 dr. ; English oil of lavender, 25
drops; oil of cloves, aromatic vinegar, and
essence of musk, of each, 10 drops; alcohol, 1
fl. Oz. ; mix.
2. Oils of beganot and lavender, of each,
30 drops; meroli, 15 drops; oils of verbena
and cloves, of each, 5 drops; essences of musk,
ambergris, and jasmin, of each, # dr. ; recti-
fied spirit of wine (strongest, scentless), 2 fl.
oz. ; mix. A much-esteemed perfume.
BRA'GRAS. Tar, black resin, and the dregs
of strained resin, melted together.
BRAIN (bråne). Syn. BRAINst; CER'E-
BRUM, L.; CERVEAU, Fr. ; GEHIRN, HIRN,
Ger. The soft whitish mass of nerve-matter
contained in the skull of animals, and, in
man, supposed to be the seat of the soul and
the mind.
Brains. (In cookery.) There appears to be
scarcely anything which is at all eatable, that
the ingenuity and taste of the modern cook
does not appropriate to his purposes, and
clothe with delectability, or transform into
something execrable. We observe that our
chef de cuisine—no unimportant personage—
has taxed every viscera and brought together
every novelty and dainty to humour and ex-
cite the appetite. Animals which were guilt-
less of brains whilst living, are found by him
to possess excellent ones when dead, from
which he prepares a variety of miniature dishes,
which are truly novel and inviting. Let
frugal housewives for the future carefully value
their brains, and apply them to useful pur-
poses in a double sense. When cleaned, washed,
blanched, and flavoured with the necessary
seasoning, they may be formed into a variety
of hors-d'oeuvres, creditable to any table.
Mrs. Rundell tells us, that “beat up with a
little white pepper and salt, a sage-leaf or two



248 BRAN–BRANDY.
(scalded and finely chopped), and the yelk of
an egg, and fried, they make excellent cakes,
fritters, &c.”
BRAN. Syn. FUR/FUR, L.; BRAN, SON,
Fr.; KLEIE, Ger. The inner husk or proper
coat of the cereal grains, sifted from the flour;
appr., that of wheat. Comp. 100 parts of
bran contain albuminoid bodies, 13.80; oil,
5-56; starch, fibre, &c., 61-67; ash, 6:11;
water, 12.85.
Uses, &c. The bran of wheat, diffused
through hot water, is largely employed by the
calico-printers to remove the colouring matter
from those parts of their goods which are not
mordanted. A handful mixed with a pail of
warm water forms an excellent emollient
foot-bath. Infused in hot water (bran-tea),
and sweetened, it forms a popular demulcent,
much used in coughs and hoarseness, and
which, taken in quantity, proves gently laxa-
tive. It also forms an excellent manure, and,
from containing the ammoniaco-magnesian
phosphate, is especially adapted as a “dressing’
for potatoes. It is frequently mixed with
flour, and made into bread (bran-bread), which
is eaten by the poorer orders for economy, and
by the higher classes because it is recom-
mended by the faculty as being more whole-
some than white wheaten-bread. -
BRAN'DY. Syn. SPIR/ITUs GAI/LICUs, S.
VI'NI GAL/LICI (-si; B. P.), A(QUA VI'TE+*,
L.; EAU-DE-VIE, Fr. ; BRANNTWEIN, CoGNAc,
Ger. ; BRAN'DY WINE+. A well-known spiritu-
ous liquor obtained by the distillation of
the wine of grapes. The name is also often,
though improperly, given to the spirit distilled
from other liquors, and particularly from the
fermented juice of fruits; but in this case,
usually with some qualifying epithet.
When first distilled, brandy, like other spi-
rituous liquors, is colourless (WHITE BRANDY),
and continues so if kept in glass or stoneware;
but if stored in new oak casks, as is usually
the case, it gradually acquires a yellowish tint
from the wood (PALE BRANDY). The deep
colour that this spirit frequently possesses
when it reaches the consumer, is imparted to
it by the addition of a little burnt sugar (cara-
mel). Catechu, or terra japonica, in powder
or solution, is also sometimes added to give a
roughness to the spirit. The original intention
was merely to imitate the appearance acquired
by brandy from great age, when kept in wood;
but in process of time the thing has come to
be overdone. The natural colour which the
spirit receives from the cask, however long it
may be kept in it, never exceeds a light amber
tint, about equal to that of pale Jamaica rum.
Nothing, however, will now please the public
taste but a spirit of lively and full “brandy-
colour,’ as it is called. The consequence is,
that more colouring is commonly added than
is compatible with a rich appearance or a very
fine flavour.
The brandies most esteemed in England are
imported from France, and are those of Cognac
and Armagnac, the preference being generally
given to the former. The brandies of Ro-
chelle and Bordeaux come next in quality;
while those obtained from Portugal, Spain, and
Italy, are very inferior.
The constituents of pure brandy are alcohol
and water, together with small quantities of
a volatile oil, acetic acid, acetic ether, obnan-
thic ether, colouring matter, and tannin. It
is from the presence of the two ethers that the
spirit derives its characteristic smell and fla-
vour. The amount of absolute alcohol in
brandy varies from 45 to 55 per cent. When
first imported, it is generally 1 or 2 over-proof,
but its strength decreases by age, and by the
time it is taken from the bonded store for
sale, it is seldom stronger than 3 or 4 under-
proof. Pure brandies of the best quality, even
when new, seldom exceed proof, and are gene-
rally a little below it. The reason of this is,
that they are but slightly rectified, as redistil-
lation tends to injure the ethereal oils, upon
which the flavour of the brandy depends.
The quality and flavour of the brandy im-
ported from France vary, and often consider-
bly, from that which is drunk at the best
tables on the Continent; this principally arises
from it being prepared, or, as it is technically
termed, ‘made up,” for the London market;
which means lowering it by the addition of
plain spirit, colouring, &c. This is done to
any extent desired by the English purchaser,
and the quantity and prices of the substances
so added are regularly set out in the invoice.
The strength at which foreign brandy is sold
in England varies from proof to 33 under-
proof. In large quantities, and from bond,
the strength, of course, depends much upon
the age and quality of the spirit; a fine old
brandy being, perhaps, 15 or 17 u.p., while
one of the last year’s vintage, of a commoner
quality, may be as strong as 2 u. p., or even 1
u. p. These matters are familiar to every
experienced brandy dealer.
In France there are several varieties of
brandy, which are known by names descrip-
tive of their qualities, source, and strengths:—
“Eau-de-vie supérieure” is obtained from
pale white wines by skilful distillation, and is
remarkable for its rich and delicate flavour.
It forms the finest variety of CoGNAc BRANDY,
both ‘white ’’ and “pale,” of the English
drinker, being seldom artificially coloured. Its
deepest tint, though long kept in wood, never
exceeds a pale amber; and hence, even when
thus coloured, it is frequently called “white
brandy’ by the uninitiated.
“Bau-de-vie ordinaire,” or common brandy,
is distilled from inferior or spoilt white or red
wines; average sp. gr. about 0.9476 (from 22
to 27 u.p.). It forms the “ordinary brandy”
of the taverns and hotels; and, after being
‘made up with plain spirit to 1 or 2 u.p., a
very large portion of that which is exported.
Of each of the above varieties there are
numerous degrees of qualities, which are fur-

BRANDY.
249
ther increased in number by their admixture,
and by the addition to them of plain spirit.
“IEau-de-vie de marc.” From the lees of
sour, damaged, and inferior red wines, the
marc or cake of grapes, &c., distilled by a
quick fire, to drive over as much essential oil
and flavouring matter as possible. Coarse
flavoured and inferior. Used chiefly to mix
with other brandy, or to flavour plain spirit.
“Eau-de-vie seconde.” The weak spirit that
passes over, after the receiver has been changed.
Very weak and inferior.
“Eau-de-vie à preuve d’Hollande.” Sp. gr.
‘941 to 1942 (18 to 20 u.p.). The common
strength at which brandy is retailed in France,
and that at which it stands the ‘proof" or ‘bead.'
“Fau-de-vie à preuve d'huile.” Sp. gr.
‘9185 (about 23° Baumé, or 1% o.p.); pure
olive oil just sinks in it. It is the strongest
brandy kept for retail sale in France.
“Eau-de-vie forte.” From common brandy
distilled at a low temperature. It answers to
our spirit of wine. Sp. gr. 839 (38° Baumé,
or 55° o.p.).
“Esprit de vin” is brandy or spirit, care-
fully rectified to '861 (28° Baumé, or 42 o.p.,
and upwards). -
Pur., &c. The method of determining the
strength of brandy is explained under “ALCO-
HOLOMETRY. Of the large quantity of this
liquor consumed in England, we can assure
the reader, that a small fraction only escapes
adulteration. Pure French brandy is indeed
an article quite unattainable by the small con-
sumer. The brandy of our shops and taverns
is not only systematically “lowered a little
(with spirit of wine or British brandy) by the
wholesale dealer, but it undergoes a like process,
but to a much greater extent, at the hands of
the retailer. The only method to obtain per-
fectly pure brandy is either to take it direct
from the bond store, or to buy it of some
known respectable party, and to pay a price
that offers no inducement to dishonesty. When
this cannot be done, British brandy had better
be at once purchased, by which money will be
saved, and a more wholesome article obtained.
French brandy, as already noticed, is com-
monly ‘lowered’ with water, malt brandy, and
spirit of wine, by which its original flavour is
more or less weakened and injured. This spe-
cies of adulteration is best detected by the
palate. Another, and no very uncommon
fraud practised by the retailers, is to reduce
their brandy with a large quantity of water.
As a natural consequence their liquor suffers
so greatly in flavour, and its deficiency in
alcohol becomes so apparent, that they soon
see the necessity of either abandoming the
nefarious practice, or resorting to others of a
less harmless character to disguise it. The
latter alternative is commonly adopted. An
excess of burnt sugar is immediately intro-
duced into the spirit, followed by sundry por-
tions of cayenne pepper, grains of paradise,
horse-radish, acetic ether, &c., to give it a
pungency and “make-believe strength” that
“passes muster” with the petty consumer.
This fraud may be detected by gently evapo-
rating a little of the suspected liquor in a spoon
or glass capsule, when the acrid matter, colour-
ing, and sugar, will be left behind, and may
be readily detected by their flavour, sweetness,
glutinosity, &c. A little perfectly pure brandy
evaporated in a similar manner, (on a watch-
glass, for instance,) merely leaves a trifling
discoloration on the surface of the glass.
Genuine French brandy always reddens blue
litmus paper, from containing a little acetic
acid; the old coloured varieties are also black-
ened by a solution of a persalt of iron. Some-
times brandy is contaminated with a small
quantity of “lead’ or ‘copper,” derived from
the apparatus or utensils with which it has
been prepared or measured. “Sugar of lead’
has also sometimes been used by the ignorant
dealer to clarify it. The presence of these
highly deleterious substances may be detected
in the following manner:- -
1. CoPPER –a. A small piece of clean
polished iron or steel immersed in the sus-
pected liquid for a short time (with agita-
tion) becomes coated with a film of metallie
copper, when that metal is present. To facili-
tate the precipitation of the metal, the sample
under examination may be slightly acidulated
with a few drops of pure acetic acid. Minute
traces of copper may sometimes be detected on
the surface of the iron with a lens, which would
be passed over unnoticed by the naked eye.
ºb. (Böttger.) A little of the brandy is to
be agitated with a few drops of pure olive oil.
The latter will acquire a green colour if copper
be present.
2, LEAD :—a. Sulphuretted hydrogen and
hydrosulphuret of ammonia produce a black
precipitate or discoloration in brandy contain-
ing lead.-b. A solution of sulphate of soda
(Glauber-salts), or water soured with sulphuric
acid, produces a heavy white precipitate, which
turns black when moistened with hydrosul-
phuret of ammonia. -
Concluding remarks. In the ‘trade,’ the
addition of water (. liquor') to spirit is techni-
cally called ‘reducing;' whilst absolute adul-
teration is known under the questionable
name “improving.” Both of these operations
have now been so long practised with impunity
as to form the leading qualifications demanded
in a cellarman.
The following formulae for “reducing’ brandy
are those of two large wholesale dealers, who
consider themselves much more honest than
their brethren in the same line : -
1. Cognac brandy (10 u. p.), 20 galls.;
British brandy (17 u.p.), 5 galls.; water, 4}.
galls. Strength of mixture, 25 u.p.
2. To 72 galls. of full-flavoured French
brandy (5 u.p.) are added 10 galls. of spirit of
wine (58 o.p.); 25 galls. of water, and 1 pint
of good colouring. The whole is then well,


‘rummaged up,” and allowed to stand for two
250
BRANDY.

days, when it is fit for use. Strength of mix-
ture, 22 u.p.
A liqueur, sold in London under the name of
“brandy improver,” or “brandy essence,”
consists of a thin sugar syrup, flavoured with
acetic ether and essence of cayenne, and co-
loured with burnt sugar. It is said to heighten
the true Cognac flavour, and restore lost alco-
holic strength.
Brandy, British. Syn. MALT BRANDY, &c.
For a long time this liquor was distilled from
spoiled wine and the dregs of wine, both
British and foreign, mixed with beer-bottoms,
spoiled raisins, and similar substances. Malt
and molasses spirit were afterwards employed,
as at the present day, for the purpose; but it
was long considered as “an unpardonable and
wicked misuse of these articles.” Modern ex-
perience, however, has proved that pure malt
spirit is, in this country, the most convenient,
if not the best kind, to form the basis of an
imitation brandy.
Prep. 1. To 12 galls. of malt spirit (finest
and flavourless), at proof, add, of water, 5 galls.;
crude red tartar or wine-stone, # lb. (previously
dissolved in 1 gal. of boiling water); acetic
ether, 6 fl. Oz. ; French wine-vinegar, 2 quarts;
French plums (bruised), 5 lbs. ; sherry wine-
bottoms, # gal.; mix in a sherry or French-
brandy cask, and let them stand for about a
month, frequently ‘rummaging up’ the liquor
with a stick; next draw over 15 galls. of the
mixture from a still furnished with an agita-
tor. Put the ‘rectified spirit’ into a clean,
fresh-emptied Cognac-brandy cask, and add of
tincture of catechu, 1 pint; oak shavings, 1 lb.;
and spirit colouring, # pint; agitate occasionally
for a few days, and then let it repose for a
week, when it will be fit for use. Prod., 15
galls. of BRANDX, 17 u.p. Age greatly im-
proves it. *-
2. Malt spirit (as before), 99 galls.; red
tartar (dissolved), 7 lbs. ; acetic ether, 3 gall. ;
wine-vinegar, 5 galls.; bruised raisins or French
plums, 14 lbs. ; bitter-almond cake (bruised and
steeped for twenty-four hours in twice its
weight of water, which must be used with it),
# lb.; water, q. S.; macerate as before, and
draw over, with a quick fire, 120 galls. To
the distilled spirit add a few lbs. of oak shav-
àngs; 2 lbs. of powdered catechu (made into
a paste with hot water), and spirit-colouring,
q. s. ; and ‘finish' as in the last. Prod., 120
galls. of spirit, fully 17 u.p. Equal in quality
to the last,
3. Clean spirit (17 u.p.), 100 galls.; nitrous
ether, 2 quarts; cassia buds (ground) 4 oz. ;
bitter-almond meal, 5 oz. ; orris-root (sliced),
6 oz. ; powdered cloves, 1 oz. ; capsicum, 1% oz. ;
good vinegar, 3 galls. ; brandy colouring, 3 pints;
powdered catechu,2lbs.; full-flavoured Jamaica
orum, 2 galls. Mix in an empty Cognac
‘piece,’ and macerate for a fortnight, with
occasional stirring. Prod., 106 galls., at 21 or
22 u. p.
4. Malt spirit (17 u.p.), 100 galls.; catechu,
2 lbs. ; tincture of vanilla, ; pint; burnt-sugar
colouring, 1 quart; good rum, 3 galls.; acetic
or nitrous ether, 2 quarts. Mix as the last.
5. Clean spirit (17 u. p.), 89 galls.; high-
flavoured Cognac, 10 galls. ; oil of cassia, 2
drs. ; oil of bitter almonds, 3 drs. ; powdered
catechu, 1 lb.; cream of tartar, (dissolved),
14 lb.; Beaufoy's concentrated acetic acid, #
gal. ; sugar colouring, 2 to 3 pints; good rum,
1 gal. When the above mixtures are distilled,
the French brandy, colouring, and catechu,
should be added to the distilled spirit.
6. To plain spirit (coloured), at 17 u. p.,
add a little tincture of catechu, and a suffi-
cient quantity of eau-de-vie de marc, or of the
oil distilled from wine-lees, to flavour it.
Obs. The oil referred to in the last formula
is obtained by distillation from the lees of
wine, either dried and made up into cakes, or
in their wet state, mixed with about 7 or 8
times their weight of water. This oil should
be kept dissolved in alcohol, as it is otherwise
apt to lose its flavour. Brandy from any
part of the world may be very closely imitated,
by distilling the oil from the lees of the wines
produced in that particular district. Where
black tea is cheap, as in the United States
of America, it is very commonly employed to
impart the roughness of brandy to the coloured
spirit, and the subsequent addition of a little
‘flavouring' greatly improves it. A really
good article of cider-spirit thus treated forms
a passable “mock brandy.” In conclusion, we
may remark that, as the strength and quality
of ingredients frequently vary, and success
depends greatly on skill in manipulation,
much must be left to the experience, judg-
ment, and discretion of the operator. In all
cases he must recollect that a certain degree
of ‘age’ is absolutely necessary to give a high
character to any spirit. Indeed, to age in the
one case, and its absence in the other, may
be referred the reasons why French brandy
and British brandy, apart from mere shades
of flavour, so materially differ.
The production of a flavoured British spirit
closely resembling French brandy is a subject
well worthy of the attention of the ingenious
chemist, rectifier, and cellarman, as a matter
of profit; and of the amateur, as affording an
interesting field for useful and amusing ex-
periment. ".
Brandy, Car'away. A species of cordial
commonly prepared as follows:–1. Caraway-
seeds (bruised), 4 oz. ; lump sugar, 2 lbs. ;
British brandy, 1 gal.; macerate a fortnight,
occasionally shaking the bottle. —2. Sugar,
1 lb.; caraways (bruised), 1 oz. ; 3 bitter
almonds (grated); spirit-colouring, 1 oz. ;
plain spirit or gin (22 u. p.), 3 gal.; as before.
Some persons omit the colouring.
Brandy, Cher'ry. Prep. 1. Brandy and
cherries (crushed), of each, 1 gal.; let them
lie together for 3 days, then express the
liquor, and add 2 lbs. of lump sugar; in a week,
or two, decant the clear portion for use.
BRANDY-BRASS.
251
2. To the last add 1 quart of raspberry
juice, and a pint of orange-flower water.
Both the above are excellent.
3. Treacle, 1 cwt. ; spirit (45 u.p.), 41 galls. ;
bitter almonds (bruised), 1 lb. (or more or less
to taste); cloves, 1 oz. ; cassia, 2 oz. ; mace-
rate a month, frequently stirring. This is the
article now commonly vended in the shops and
at stalls for cherry brandy.
Obs. Equal part of fully ripe Morello
cherries and black cherries produce the richest
cordial. Some persons prick each cherry sepa-
rately with a needle instead of crushing them;
in which case they retain them in the liquor,
and serve up a few of them in each glass.
The plan named in the first formula is, how-
ever, that usually adopted. On the small
scale, the fruit is commonly bruised between
the fingers. A portion only (if any) of the
stones in the cherries should be crushed, to
impart a nutty flavour. See LIQUEURs.
Brandy, Cider. From cider and perry; also
from the marc of apples and pears fermented.
It is very largely manufactured in the United
States of America and Canada, where it may
be purchased for about 2s. 1d. a gallon. See
BRITISH BRANDY (above).
Brandy, Dant'zic. From rye, ground with
the root of calamus aromaticus. It has a
mixed flavour of orris and cinnamon.
Brandy,Guern'sey. Beet-root spirit flavoured.
Brandy,Lem'on. Prep.1. Fresh lemons (sliced),
1 dozen; brandy, 1 gal.; macerate for a week,
press out the liquor, and add of lump sugar,
1 lb. -
2. Proof spirit, 7 galls.; essence of lemon, 3
drs. ; sugar, 5 lbs. ; tartaric acid, 1 oz. ; (dis-
solved in) water, 2 galls.; turmeric powder or
spirit-colouring, a dessert-spoonful; as before.
Sometimes milk is added to the above, in the
proportion of 1 quart (boiling hot) to every
gallon.
Brandy, Malt.
Brandy, Or'ange.
employing oranges.
Brandy, Pale. This article has been already
referred to. (See p. 248.) That of the gin-
shops and publicans is generally a spurious
article, made by mixing together about equal
parts of good brown French brandy, clean
spirit of wine, and soft water, and allowing the
whole to stand until the next day to “fine down.”
If the first is 9 u.p., and the second, 58 o.p.,
the product will be 17 u.p. Any deficiency of
strength is made up by adding a little more
spirit of wine. .
Brandy, Pat'ent. The article so much be-
puffed under this name, by certain houses, is
merely very clean malt-spirit mixed with about
1-7th of its bulk (or less) of strong:flavoured
Cognac, and a little colouring.
Brandy, Peach. From peaches, by fermen-
tation and distillation. Much used in the
United States, where peaches are very plenti-
ful, and consequently cheap. A cordial spirit
under the same name is prepared as follows:–
See BRITISH BRANDY.
As lemon brandy, but
1. From peaches, sliced and steeped in
twice their weight of British brandy or malt-
spirit, as in making cherry brandy.
2. Bitter almonds (bruised), 3 oz. ; proof
spirit (pale), 10 galls.; water, 3 galls.; sugar,
5 or 6 lbs.; orange-flower water, , a pint;
macerate for 14 days. Add brandy-colouring,
if required darker.
Brandy, Rais'im (rā'zm). SeeSPIRIT (Raisin).
Brandy, Rasp'berry (ráz'-). From rasp-
berries, as directed under CHERRY BRANDY.
Sometimes a little cinnamon and cloves are
added. The only addition, however, that
really improves the flavour or bouquet, is a
little orange-flower water, a very little essence
of vanilla, or a single drop of essence of am-
bergris.
Brandy, White. See BRANDY (p. 248) and
PALE BRANDY (above).
BRASS. Syn. AEs, AE’RIs METAL'LUM, L.;
AIRAIN, LAITON, CUIVRE JAUNE, Fr. ; ERZ,
MESSING, Ger.; BRAES, Sax. A well-known
alloy of copper and zinc.
Prep. Brass is now generally manufactured
by plunging copper, in slips, into zinc melted
in the usual manner. The former metal
rapidly combines with the fluid mass, and the
addition is continued until an alloy somewhat
difficult of fusion is formed, when the re-
mainder of the copper is at once added. The
brass thus obtained is broken into pieces, and
remelted under charcoal, and a proper addition
of either zinc or copper made, to bring it up
to the colour and quality desired. It is next
poured into moulds of granite. Before being
submitted to the rolling-press for reduction to
thin plates, it undergoes the operation of
annealing.
The proportions of the metals forming this
alloy are varied according to the desired
colour, and the purposes to which it is to be
applied. The following formulae are founded
chiefly on analyses of standard brasses and
yellow metals, made expressly for this work.
Small fractions are omitted; the nearest whole
numbers being generally taken :-
a. FINE BRASS :—1. Copper, 2 parts; zinc,
1 part; either combined, as explaimed above,
or the two metals separately melted, suddenly
poured together, and united by vigorous
stirring.
2. Copper, 7 parts; zinc, 3 parts.
yellow ; malleable.
3. Fine copper, 4 parts; zinc, 1 part. Deeper
coloured than the last ; an excellent and very
useful alloy.
b. MALLEABLE BRASS:—1. Copper, 33 parts;
zinc, 25 parts; as before.
2. Copper, 3 parts; zinc, 2 parts.
alloys are malleable whilst hot.
c. RED BRASS. This name is commonly
applied to all those alloys which do not contain
more than 18 to 20% of zinc. In the deeper-
coloured foreign varieties (RED TOM'BAC) the
per-centage of copper occasionally amounts to
88, 90, or even 923. -


Bright
These

252
BRASS-COLOUR-BRASS-STAIN.
d. YELLOW BRASS. See FINE BRASS
(above).
e. BUTTON-BRASS:-1. Copper, 8 parts;
zinc, 5 parts. This is the ‘PLATIN of the
Birmingham makers.
2. Yellow brass, 16 parts; zinc, 2 parts;
tin, 1 part. Paler than the last.
3. Copper, 25 parts; zinc, 20 parts; lead, 3
parts; tin, 2 parts. Pale; used for common
buttons.
f. For FINE CASTINGS :-1. As fine brass,
according to the colour desired. (See above.)
2. Copper, 62 parts; zinc, 35 parts; lead, 2
parts; tin, 1 part. -
3. Copper, 60 parts; zinc, 36 parts; tin, 4
parts. Both the last two are rather pale and
brittle.
4. Copper, 90 parts; zinc, 7 parts; tin, 2
parts; lead, 1 part. Rich deep colour.
5. Copper, 91 parts; zinc, 5 parts; tin, 3
parts; lead, 1 part; as the last.
g. For GILDING :—1. As fine brass (above).
2. Copper, 64 parts; zinc, 32 parts; lead, 3
parts; tin, 1 part.
3. Copper, 82 parts; zinc, 18 parts; tin, 3
parts; lead, 1 part.
h. For SoLDER:—1. Fine brass, 12 parts;
zine, 6 parts; tin, 1 part; melted together.
2. Brass, 2 parts; zinc, 1 part; as before.
3. Brass, 3 parts; : zinc, ; 1 part. Very
strong. Used for soldering tubes, and other
like purposes requiring great strength. The
above alloys form the ‘HARD SOLDER of the &
braziers. For certain purposes a little silver
is added to them, when the compound receives
the name of ‘SILVER-SOLDER.’
i. For TURNING :=1. Fine, brass, 98 parts;
lead, 2 parts ; melted together.
2. Copper, 61 parts; zine, 36 parts; lead, 3
parts. ſº -
3. Copper, 65 parts; zinc, 33 parts; lead, 2
parts. - - -
j. For WIRE :—1. Copper, 72 parts; zinc,
28 parts; the resulting alloy being subse-
quently properly annealed.
2. Copper, 64 parts; zinc, 34 parts; as
before. . . .
3. To the last add of lead, 2 parts.
Anal. This may be briefly described as
follows:— -
a. 100 grs. of the alloy is digested in nitric
acid. The insoluble portion is peroxide of
tin, every 74 grs. of which, when washed and
dried, contain 58 grs. of metallic tin. . .
b. Sulphuric acid is added to the nitric
solution as long as a white precipitate falls;
after a time the precipitate is collected on a
filter, washed with a mixture of water and
alcohol, and ignited in a porcelain crucible.
Every 152 grs. of the residuum represents 104
grs. of metallic lead.
c. The liquid filtered from the precipitate
of sulphate of lead is treated with a stream
of sulphuretted hydrogen; the precipitate is
collected on a filter, washed with water mixed
with a little sulphuretted hydrogen, dried, and
digested in pure nitric acid until the sulphur
which separates acquires its natural full
yellow colour; the resulting solution is next
diluted with water, and reprecipitated with
potassa, the whole being boiled until the pre-
cipitated oxide of copper becomes of a deep
brown or black; it is then collected on a
filter, washed, dried, ignited in a platinum
crucible, and weighed therein immediately
after it becomes cold. Every 40 grs. of oxide
of copper thus obtained represents 32 grs. of
pure copper. -
d. The liquid poured from the precipitate of
sulphide of copper is boiled for about a
minute, when it is precipitated with a solution
of carbonate of sodium; the whole is then boiled
for a few minutes, and the precipitated oxide
of zinc collected, washed, dried, and ignited.
Every 40 grs. of this oxide contains 32 grs. of
metallic zinc.
Concluding remarks. In the adoption of
his formula the operator should be entirely led
by the object he has in view. The larger
the proportion of copper, the deeper will be
the colour, and the greater the density, and,
within certain limits, the toughness of the
alloy. Zinc lessens the specific gravity and
colour. Tin gives it hardness and grain;
whilst lead toughens it, and renders it fitter
for turning. These facts are known to every
experienced brass-founder. See ALLOYS, COP-
PER, MOSAIC GOLD, PRINCE's METAL, TOMBAC,

C. -
BRASS'-COLOUR. Syn. BRASS-PIGMENT,
B.-BRONZE. Prep. 1. Grind copper filings, or
the precipitated powder of copper, with a little
red ochre. Red-coloured. . . . .
2. Gold-coloured brass, or Dutch leaf, reduced
to a very fine powder. Yellow or gold coloured.
Obs. Before application these powders are
mixed up with, pale varnish, no more being
worked up at once than is wanted for imme-
diate use. They are also applied by dusting
them over any surface previously covered with
warnish to make them adhere.
BRASS-PASTE. Prep. 1. Soft soap, 2 oz.;
rotten-stone, 4 oz. ; beaten to a paste.
2. Rotten-stone made into a paste with
sweet oil.
3. Rotten-stone, 4 oz. ; oa'alic acid (in fine
powder), 1 oz. ; sweet oil, 1% oz. ; turpentine,
q. S. to make a paste.
Obs. The above are used to clean brass-
work, when neither varnished nor lacquered.
The first and last are best applied with a little
water; the second, with a little spirit of tur-
pentine or sweet oil. Both require friction
with soft leather. See BRASS-work, PASTEs,
&c.
BRASS-STAIN. Prep. 1. Sheet-brass (cut
into small pieces), is exposed to a strong heat
for 2 or 3 days, then powdered, and again
further exposed in a like manner for several
days; the whole is then reduced to fine pow-
der, and exposed, a third time, to heat, testing
it occasionally, to see if it be sufficiently burnt.
BRASS-WORK–BRAZIL-WOOD.
253
When a little of it, fused with glass, makes the
latter swell and froth up, the process is com-
plete. It imparts to glass a green tint, passing
into turquoise.
2. Equal parts of plate-brass and sulphur are
stratified together in a crucible, and calcined,
until they become friable ; the whole is then
reduced to powder, and exposed to heat as
before. This imparts a calcedony red or yellow
tinge to glass by fusion; the precise shade of
colour being modified by the mode of using it.
Obs. The common practice in the glass-
houses is to conduct the calcination by exposing
the metal, placed on tiles, in the leer or anneal-
ing arch of the furnace; a plan both convenient
and economical.
BRASS'-WORK. Articles of brass and copper,
when not varnished or lacquered, may be
cleaned and polished with sweet oil and
tripoli, rotten-stone, or powdered bath-brick,
applied with friction, on flannel, and ‘finished
off” with leather; due care being taken to
ensure the absence of anything gritty, which
would scratch and disfigure the surface of the
metal. A strong solution of oxalic acid in
water gives brass a fine colour. Vitriol and
spirits of salts make brass and copper very
bright, but the polish thus obtained soon tar-
nishes, and the articles consequently require
more frequent cleaning. A strong lye of roche
alum and water also improves the appearance
of brass. In all cases where acids or saline
matter has been used, the metal should be
at once well rinsed in clean water, and then
wiped dry, and finally dry polished with soft
leather.
BRASS INLAID-WORK may be cleaned with
tripoli and linseed oil, applied by a rubber of
felt or leather; the whole being afterwards
thoroughly rubbed off, and then finished
with clean soft leather. The ornaments of a
French clock, and similar articles, are said to
be best cleaned with bread-crumb, carefully
rubbed, so as not to injure the wood-work. OR-
MOLU CANDLESTICKS, LAMPS, and BRANCHES,
may be cleaned with soap and water. LAC-
QUERED and GILDED ARTICLES are spoiled by
frequent rubbing, and by acids and alkaline
levs.
* fine colour may be given to BRASS ORNA-
MENTS, when not gilt or lacquered, with a
little sal-ammoniac, in fine powder, moistened
with soft water. The articles must be after-
wards rubbed dry with bran and whiting.
Another plan is to wash the brass-work with
a strong lye of roche alum (1 oz. to water 1
pint), and after rinsing it in clean water and
drying it, to finish it off with fine tripoli.
These processes give to brass the brilliancy of
gold. See BRASS-pASTE.
BRASS/ING. Syn., BRAss-CoATING.. 1.
Copper-plates and copper-rods may be covered
with a superficial coating of brass by simply
exposing them, in a heated state, to the fumes
given off by melted zinc at a high temperature.
The coated plates and rods are rolled into
thin sheets or drawn into wire. The spurious
gold wire of Lyons is said to be made in this
Wa,V.
2. Vessels of copper may be coated with
brass, internally, by filling them with water
strongly soured with hydrochloric acid, adding
some amalgam of zinc and cream of tartar,
and then boiling the whole for a short time.
This plan may be usefully applied in certain
cases to copper boilers in laboratories, and to
other purposes.
3. By the electrotype (which see).
BRAWN. A boar or its flesh. When young,
the horny parts feel moderately tender. If
the rind is hard, it is old. (Mrs. Rundell.)
Also, in cookery, the flesh of the boar, or of
swine, collared so as to squeeze out as much of
the fat as possible, boiled, and pickled.
Mock Brawn. Prep. (Mrs. Rundell.) Take
the head and belly-piece of a young porker,
well saltpetred; split the head and boil it ;
take out the bones and cut it to pieces; then
take 4 ox-feet, boiled tender, and cut them in
thin pieces; lay them in the belly-piece with
the head cut small; roll it up tight with
sheet tim, and boil it 4 or 5 hours. When it
comes out set it up on one end, put a trencher
on it (within the tin), press it down with a
heavy weight, and let it stand all night. The
next morning take it out of the tin and bind
it with a fillet, put it in cold salt-and-water,
and it will be fit for use; it will keep a long
time, if fresh salt-and-water are put into it
about once every four days.
BRAZIL-W00D (-zéle'.). Syn. BRAZIL't;
LIG/NUM BRAZILIEN'SE, L.; BoIS DE BRisii,
Fr. A dye-stuff furnished by several species
of trees of the genus cæsalpin'ia, and much
used in dyeing various shades of red. The
usual practice is to boil it for some hours in
hard spring-water, and to keep the resulting
decoction for some time, or until it undergoes
a species of fermentation; as it is thus found
to yield more permanent and beautiful colours
than when employed fresh. The following
are examples of its application:—
a. For CoTTON:—
1. The goods are first boiled in a bath of
sumach, next worked through a weak mordant
of solution of tin, and then run through the
Brazil bath lukewarm. This gives a bright
red.
2. The goods are alumed, rinsed, next mor-
danted with solution of tin, rinsed again, and
then turned through the Brazil dye bath.
This gives a rose colour.
b. For LINEN:—This, for the most part, is
similar to that adopted for Cotton.
c. For SILK : — The goods, after being
alumed in the same way as wool, but at a
lower temperature, are rinsed, and passed
through the Brazil-wood bath lukewarm.
d. For WooD :—The goods are first steeped
or boiled in a weak mordant of alum and
tartar, for 1 hour, and then allowed to lie in
the cold liquor for 2 or 3 days, with frequent



254 BRAZILINE–BREAD.
moving about; they are lastly boiled in the
Brazil-wood bath for about # an hour.
Obs. The shades of colour given with
Brazil-wood may be modified by varying the
strength of the bath, the mordant, &c. The
addition of a little alum turns it on the pur-
ple. A little alkali added to the bath, or
passing the goods, after being dyed, through
water holding a little alkali in solution, pro-
duces what is called false crimson. A deep
crimson is obtained by adding a little logwood
to the Brazil-wood bath. 1 lb. of Brazil-
wood, ; oz. of alum, and 2 oz. of tartar, are
sufficient to dye from 20 to 28 lbs. of cotton,
according to the depth of shade required. See
DYEING, RED DYES, &c.
BRAZI"LINE (-zéleſ-in). Syn. BREZE"LiNE,
SAPAN'íNE. The colouring matter of Brazil-
wood. It forms small orange-coloured needles,
soluble in both water and alcohol. Alkalies
turn it violet; acids, yellow.
BRA"ZING. The operation of uniting pieces
of copper, brass, iron, &c., by means of hard
solder.
Proc. The edges, after being filed or scraped
quite clean, are covered with a mixture of
hard solder and powdered borax, made into a
paste with water. The whole is then al-
lowed to dry, and is afterwards exposed,
in a clear fire, to a heat sufficient to melt
the solder. See AUTOGENOUS, SOLDERING,
SOLDERS, &c.
BREAD (bréd). Syn. PA/NIs, L.; PAIN,
Fr. ; BROD, Ger. ; BROOD, Dut. ; BRöD, Dan.,
Swed. ; BREOD, Sax. Loaves or cakes made
from ground corn, and constituting the staple
article of food of all civilised nations.
This important article of food is made of the
flour of different cereal grains, but only those
that contain gluten admit of conversion into
light or spongy bread. In this respect wheat-
flour is superior to all others. When this
flour is made into a paste or dough with
water, and the dough, previous to baking, is
left for some time in a moderately warm place,
a state of fermentation comes on, owing to the
sugar of the flour gradually undergoing the
process of conversion into alcohol, in every
respect similar to that which takes place
during the fermentation of wine and beer. In
this process a large quantity of carbonic acid
gas is liberated, and the toughness of the
dough preventing its escape, the whole mass
becomes puffed up and spongy, and a light
porous paste is formed, the porosity of which
is still further increased by the heat of the
oven. The natural process of fermenting the
dough just described is, however, tedious and
uncertain, whilst the dough has a tendency to
run into the acetous fermentation, and to
acquire a sour and disagreeable taste, by which
it is rendered less nutritious, and less easy of
digestion. This has led to the use of a fer-
ment, which produces a similar condition more
speedily, and with greater certainty. Leaven
or dough was originally employed for this
purpose, and the bread so made was hence
called LEAVENED BREAD. At the present time
barm or yeast is almost universally used for
this purpose. All that is essential to make a
loaf of bread, is to add a proper quantity of
yeast to the dough, and to allow it to remain
for a short time in a warm place, and as soon
as it rises or becomes spongy, to subject it to
the process of baking.
In preparing his dough, the modern baker
takes a part of the water needed for the batch,
and having rendered it tepid or lukewarm (80°
to 90°Fahr.) by the addition of boiling water,
dissolves his salt in it, and adds the yeast,
together with a portion of the flour. With
these he forms a thin dough, which he sets
aside in a moderately warm place provided for
the purpose, and technically called the ‘knead-
ing trough,’ ‘prover,” or ‘tryer,” where it soon
begins to ferment and swell up. This process
is called “setting the sponge;’ and according
to the proportion the water in it bears to the
whole quantity that is to be used, it receives
the name of ‘whole,” “half,’ or ‘quarter sponge.”
Here, the sponge heaves and swells, and ulti-
mately the surface bursts and subsides, and if
not checked, swells again and again in a similar
manner, and would continue to do so, until
the whole of the “saccharine matter' was
destroyed, and the dough had become sour.
The baker is careful, however, to stop it before
it has communicated a sourness to the mass.
After the first, or at the furthest, after the
second or third ‘dropping of the sponge,” he
adds the remaining quantity of flour, water,
and salt, necessary to form the ‘batch,’ and
them kneads the whole until it becomes suffi-
ciently tough and elastic to bear the pressure
of the hand without adhering to it. The
‘dough’ is now left to itself for a few hours,
during which the fermentation still goes on.
The inflated mass is then again kneaded, cut
into pieces, weighed, and shaped into loaves.
In an hour, or two, these unbaked loaves swell
up to nearly double their former size, and are
then placed in the oven, and baked. During
this operation they continue for a time to in-
crease in size, in consequence of the dilation
of the pent-up gas by the heat. At length the
fermentation is checked, and the dough be-
comes too solid to admit of further altera-
tion.
Such are the principles and practice of the
art of baking. The operations are precisely
the same on both the small and the large
scale, and therefore need not be separately
described.
Adult. The adulteration of both flour and
bread is carried to a fearful extent, more espe-
cially in London. The bakers’ flour is very
often made of the worst kinds of damaged
foreign wheat; and other cereal grains, and
particularly beans, are mixed with them in
grinding them into flour. In this capital no
fewer than sia: distinct kinds of wheaten flour
are brought into the market—fine flour,
BREAD. 255
seconds, middlings, fine middlings, coarse mid-
dlings, and twenty-penny flour.
Among the principal substances which have
been proved to have been used to adulterate
wheat-flour and bread are the following:—
**Alum.
*Ammonia (Sesqui-
carbonate).
** Beans.
*Bone dust.
*Chalk.
Clay.
Copper (Sulphate).
Lime (Sulphate
from the soda
water makers).
*Magnesia (Carbon-
*Plaster of Paris.
*Potash (Carbonate
and bicarbon-
ate).
**Potatoes.
**Rice.
*Soda (Carbonate
and sesquicarbon-
ate).
*Starch (Potato).
**Water (in excess).
Zinc (Sulphate).
ate).
Of these substances, those marked thus (*)
are very frequently used; and those marked
thus (**), almost universally so.
According to Mr. Accum, the smallest quan-
tity of alum that can be employed with effect
to produce white, light, and porous bread,
from the inferior kinds of flour commonly
used by the bakers, is from 3 to 4 oz. to
a sack of flour weighing 280 lbs. But Dr. P.
Markham states, that the ordinary bread of
the London baker is made of one sack or 5
bushels of flour; 8 oz. of alum; 4 lbs. of salt;
# gal, of yeast; and about 3 galls. of water.
Our own analyses, extending to many hundred
samples of London bread, as well as those
of other chemists, show that even this large
quantity of alum is often very much exceeded
by the bakers.
Alkaline substances, as the carbonates of
ammonia, soda, and potash, are often employed
to realise the important consideration of pro-
ducing light and porous bread from spoiled,
or, as it is technically called, sour flour. The
first salt becomes temporarily converted into a
gaseous, state during the operation of baking,
causing the dough to swell up in minute bub-
bles, which thus render it light and porous;
the salt itself being at the same time, for the
most part, volatilised. Alum is added, not
only with a like intention, but also to enable
the dough to carry more water. There are
several instances of convictions on record of
millers and bakers having used gypsum, chalk,
and pipeclay, in the manufacture of their
goods. A gentleman lately writing from the
North of England, says that he found in one
sample of flour, which he recently examined,
upwards of 16% of gypsum ; and in another,
12% of the same earth.
A few years since it was discovered that
some of the bakers in France and Belgium
added blue vitriol to their dough to make it
take more water, in the same way as the
English baker uses alum. 1 oz. of this sul-
phate was dissolved in a quart of water, and
a wine-glassful of this solution added to the
water necessary to make about 50 4-lb. loaves.
This enormous crime was soon detected, and
deservedly caused the ruin of its heartless
perpetrators.
Ba'am. The principal adulterants above
referred to are fortunately easy of detection.
The following are the simple and most ap-
proved methods for this purpose:–
1. ALUM:—a. (Robine and Parisot.) About
} lb. of the suspected bread (somewhat stale or
dry) is reduced to crumbs, macerated for 2 or 3
hours in cold water, and then squeezed through
a clean piece of white linen. The liquid is
next evaporated to dryness at a steam-heat,
the residuum redissolved in a little hot water,
and the solution filtered. Liquor of ammonia
or a solution of sal-ammoniac, and a solution
of chloride of barium, added to the filtered
liquid, give a white precipitate when ALUM is
present.
When nearly the whole of the alum has
suffered decomposition in the loaf, as is fre-
quently the case, the following process is re-
quired:—
b. (M. Kuhlman.) 4 or 5 oz. of bread are
reduced to ash, which is powdered and treated
with nitric acid, the mixture evaporated to
dryness, and about 1 oz. of hot water added.
A little caustic potassa is added to the last
solution (unfiltered), the whole boiled a few
minutes, and passed through a filter. The
filtrate is next tested with a solution of sal-
ammoniac, and the whole again boiled for 2 or
3 minutes. If a precipitate forms it is alu-
mina; every 50 grs. of which are equivalent to
332 grs. of crystallised alum.
c. The suspected sample is wetted with a
weak solution of logwood, or, preferably, of
cochineal. Pure bread is only slightly stained
by this solution; bread containing alum strikes
a lavender, lilac, or purple colour, according
to the quantity of the adulterant present. If
it acquires a pearl-gray, or bluish tint, some
alkali (potash, soda, or ammonia) is present.
2. CoPPER:-a. Moisten the suspected
bread with a few drops of a solution of ferro-
cyanide of potassium. It will assume a pink-
ish-brown colour if copper be present.
b. A little of the bread may be steeped in
hot water, or better still in water soured with
a little nitric acid, and the clear liquor squeezed
or poured off, and tested with ferrocyanide of
potassium, as before.
3. MAGNESIA :-Bread adulterated with
magnesia, on digestion in hot water acidulated
with sulphuric acid, furnishes a liquid which
gives a white precipitate when tested with a
solution of either carbonate of potassa or of
carbonate of soda, especially on boiling.
4. SODA ; POTASSA :-Hot water after di-
gestion on the ashes or charcoal turns turmeric
paper brown. The liquid may be evaporated
to dryness, redissolved in distilled water,
slightly acidulated with hydrochloric acid, and
tested with bichloride of platinum. If a
yellow crystalline precipitate forms, either at

256 BREAD.
once or after some hours, it is potash; other-
wise, the alkali present is soda.
5. CHALK, WHITING, BURNT BONES, PLASTER
OF PARIS, and similar substances, are easily
detected by calcining a little of the flour or
bread in a clean open vessel, when the amount
of ash left will indicate the quantity of adul-
teration. The quantity of the ash left by
genuine bread or flour is very trifling indeed,
about 2%.
Concluding remarks. A number of pro-
cesses are used by cooks and confectioners to
make the different varieties of fancy bread,
cakes, puddings, &c., which vary according to
the peculiar characteristic it is desired to com-
municate to them; but none of these articles
properly belong to the trade of the common
baker. Thus, some kinds of cakes and pastes
are made to eat ‘short,’ as it is called, or are
rendered less tenacious, and a species of brit-
tleness imparted to them, by the addition of
starch, rice-flour, or sugar. In pastry a similar
effect and peculiar lightness is produced by
butter or lard, whilst in some articles, white-
of-egg, gum-water, isinglass, and other adhe-
sive substances, are added to produce an exceed-
ingly light and porous mass.
The different varieties of bread made in
England vary, in their quality, chiefly accord-
ing to the flour of which they are formed.
The best whitF BREAD is made from the
purest wheat-flour; ordinary WHEATEN BREAD,
of flour containing a little of the finest bran;
SECONDs, from flour containing a still larger
proportion of bran; and common HOUSEHOLD-
BREAD, from flour produced by grinding the
whole substance of the grain, without any se-
paration of the bran. The last variety is un-
doubtedly the most wholesome and nutritious,
although that least frequently used. SYMNEL-
BREAD, MANCHET or ROLL-BREAD, and FRENCH
BREAD, are varieties made of the purest flour,
from the finest wheat, a little milk being usu-
ally added for rolls, and butter and eggs for
choicer purposes. Several other minor kinds
of bread are also made, varied by the addition
of sundry trifles, as sugar, currants, and other
palatable ingredients. The SCOTCH SHORT-
BREAD is made from a very thick dough, to
which butter, sugar, orange-peel, and spices,
are added, according to the taste of the
maker.
In the manufacture of white bread from
damaged or inferior flour, a large quantity of
alum is employed by the fraudulent baker, as
already noticed; but with the ‘best flour? no
alum is required. The utmost beauty, spongi-
ness, and sweetness may be given to bread
without the addition of one particle of alum,
provided the best materials alone enter into its
composition. As such materials are seldom
employed by the bakers, the usual practice is
to introduce 4 or 5 oz. of alum to every sack
of flour, or about 1 oz. to each bushel; and
very frequently fully double this quantity of
alum is employed. But even this enormous
quantity is often not the whole of the alum
present in common bread; for the miller, in
order to cheat the baker, puts in the ‘doctor,'
in the shape of 4 to 6 oz. of alum to the sack,
whilst the baker, unconscious of this victimi-
sation, subsequently uses a double dose of alum
in order to cheat his customers." The method
of detecting this pernicious adulteration has
been already explained. The proper quantity
of salt is 4 lbs., and never more than 5 lbs., to
the sack, or 1 lb. per bushel. One sack of the
best flour, with 4 or 5 lbs. of salt, yields about
360 lbs. of good bread; and a sack of seconds,
345 to 350 lbs. of bread; each being moderately
baked. If the loaves are well-baked or over-
baked, the product will be from 345 to 350 lbs.
only; but if they are slack-baked or under-
baked, from 370 lbs. to 385 lbs. of crumbling
bread may be obtained from 1 sack of good
white flour.
The attention of chemists has, at various
times, been directed in search of some method
to rectify or lessen the effects of bad harvest-
ing and improper storage on grain, so that a
damaged or inferior article might be rendered
serviceable, and available for human food.
Prof. E. Davy recommends the addition of 4 oz.
of carbonate of magnesia to about every 3 lbs.
of sour, melted, heated, and similarly damaged
flour. This substance materially improves the
quality of the bread, “even when made from
the worst new seconds flour;” whilst it is said
to be perfectly harmless; and the bread so
prepared, for temporary use, is certainly unob-
jectionable. What effects would arise from
the daily consumption of such bread for seve-
ral months has not been determined; but it is
doubtful whether it would prove salutary.
Indeed there are sufficient reasons for con-
demning the adoption of such bread in the
general diet of a people for any very length-
ened period.” Our own experiments in bread-
making, extending over a long period of years,
lead us to prefer carbonate or bicarbonate of
soda, for the purpose. Theoretically, the cor-
responding salts of potassa would be prefer-
able. A mixture of equal parts of the bicar-
bonates of potassa and of soda, will, perhaps,
ultimately be found to be more useful than
either substance used separately.
In times of scarcity and famine various
substances, besides the flour of the cereals,
have been made into bread, or have been
mixed with it, in order to lessen the quantity
of the former required by the people. For
this purpose, almost every amylaceous vege-
table at once plentiful and cheap, has, in its
turn, been eagerly appropriated. Acorns,
beech-mast, the leguminous seeds, numerous
1 The common excuse of the bakers for using alum is,
that without it the bread is not sufficiently white to
please their customers, and that the batches are not
easily parted into loaves after baking; but Liebig has
shown that clear lime-water, which is perfectly harmless,
will effect the same object if substituted for the simple
water used to make the dough.
* See GoITURE, MAGNESIA, &c.
BREAD.
257
starchy bulbous roots, and similar substances,
have been employed, either in the form of
meal, or made into an emulsion or jelly, which
has been used instead of water to form the
flour of bread-corn into a dough. At such
times bran, the most nutritious and valuable
portion of the grain, although usually rejected
as worthless, has been retained in the flour,
and has even been added to it in excess.
Birkenmayer, a brewer of Constance, during a
period of scarcity, succeeded in manufacturing
bread from the farinaceous residue of beer
(brewer’s grains). 10 lbs. of this substance,
rubbed to a paste, with 3 lb. of yeast, 5 lbs. of
ordinary meal, and a handful of salt, produces
14 lbs. of BLACK BREAD, which is said to be
“both savoury and nourishing.” The nutri-
tious quality of brewers’ grains is shown by
their extensive employment at the present
day as food for pigs and cattle, and particularly
for milch cows. In like manner Iceland, Car-
ragheen, and other mosses, have been made
into bread, either alone, or mixed with flour
or meal. They are used, in the first case, in
the state of meal, in the same way as flour;
in the second case, 7 lbs. of moss are directed
to be boiled in 10 or 12 galls. of water, and
the resulting glutinous liquid or jelly to be
employed to make 70 lbs. of flour into dough,
which is then fermented and baked in the
usual way. It is said that flour thus produces
fully double its weight of good household-
bread. A simpler plan is to mix 1 lb. of lichen
meal with 3 or 4 lbs. of flour; the bitterness
of the lichen having been first extracted by
soaking it in cold water. Bread so prepared
has of late been highly recommended for the
delicate and dyspeptic. The modern baker is
in the habit of mixing large quantities of
potatoes with his bread, whenever he can pur-
chase them at paying prices. Mealy potatoes
are selected, and are carefully mashed or
pulped, and the dry flour is worked into this
pulp or dough, which is then mixed with the
sponge in the usual manner. For inferior
bread, equal weights of potato pulp and dry
flour are often used. Bread so prepared eats
‘short,” and is deficient in sponginess, and in
that fine yellowish-white tint which forms one
of the characteristics of pure wheaten bread.
More recently, rice boiled with water to a
jelly, has got into very extensive use among
the bakers. A “sponge’ is made with a por-
tion of the jelly thickened with some flour,
and the whole process is conducted in the
ordinary manner, except that the fermentation
is generally more slowly conducted and allowed
to proceed for a longer period. Flour so
treated yields fully 50% more bread than when
merely mixed up with yeast and water. This
constitutes the process of Messrs. Morian,
Martin, and Journet, of Paris, which was
tested, a few years since, at Marylebone Work-
house. The experiment succeeded, but the
only result to the public has been, that the
common bakers have adopted the plan, and
now very generally surcharge their bread with
such an excess of water that, in many cases, it
only possesses two thirds the amount of nou-
rishment which it did before the publication
of the system just referred to. Unfortunately,
the cupidity of dishonest tradesmen appears
to be continually impelling them to avail
themselves of the exertions of philanthropists
and the discoveries of science, in order to in-
crease their profits, regardless alike of the
quality of their commodities and the health of
their customers. Bread containing an excess
of water rapidly becomes sour and mouldy,
and is apt to disorder the digestive functions
of those who eat it.
From the experiments of Dr. Colquhoun,
it appears that the starch of flour is partially
converted into sugar during the process of
fermenting and baking the dough, and thus
contributes to the sweetness of the bread. He
proposes to add to the flour, arrow-root, the
farina of potatoes, and similar amylaceous sub-
stances, made into a jelly with hot water, for
this purpose. Dr. Percival has recommended
the addition of salep with the same inten-
tion. 1 oz. of salep, dissolved in 1 quart of
water; 2 lbs. of flour; 80 grs, of salt; and 2
ozs. of yeast, gave 3 lbs, 2 oz. of good bread.
The same weight of materials, without the
salep, gave only 23 lbs. If too much salep
is added, it gives its peculiar flavour to the
bread.
In reference to the above substitutions, and
to the relative quantity of bread produced from
any given weight of flour, the reader should
remember that the mere increase of the weight
or bulk of the product does not carry with it a
corresponding increase of the nutritive ele-
ments contained in the flour. These remain
the same, in all cases; and just in proportion
as the product, in bread, is greater, will be the
decrease in the value of such bread as food.
So also with potatoes, rice, and other farina-
ceous and pulpy substances used as substitutes
for wheat-flour. Their poverty in nitroge-
nous matter, or flesh-formers, is so great,
that the greatly increased quantity required
as food, to support the body, apart from mere
inconvenience, more than compensates for
their apparent low price. Thus, good wheaten
bread, at 2d. per lb., is more than twice as
cheap as potatoes at 1.d.; for, assuming 2 lbs.
of the first as a day’s food, 10 lbs. of the last
will be required for the same purpose; and
even this large quantity will scarcely effect
the desired object. Liebig has demonstrated,
that, regard being had to the nutritive power
of wheat, it is, under all ordinary circum-
stances, the cheapest article of food provided
by nature for man.
In the preceding article we have not en-
tered into particulars respecting oven man-
agement, because, on the large scale, it is
thoroughly understood by every practical
baker. For the instruction of the busy house-
wife, we may state that the oven º always




258
BREAD.
be sufficiently heated before the bread is put
into it, in order that the gas contained in the
cells of the “sponge’ may be expanded as ra-
pidly as possible by the heat, and the resulting
light mass quickly rendered sufficiently solid
to prevent its subsequent collapse. The heat
should also be maintained at nearly the same
temperature during the whole of the time the
bread is submitted to its action. In general,
with ordinary kitchen ovens properly heated,
30 minutes’ baking is sufficient for one-pound
loaves and cakes; and 15 minutes in addition
for every pound after the first, for larger ones.
Thus, a 1 lb. loaf requires # hour; a 2 lb. loaf
# hour ; and a 4 lb. loaf, 14 hour.
It is the common ambition of the English
baker to give that peculiar tint to the crust
of his bread in the process of baking which
is so highly esteemed by connoisseurs, and so
successfully produced by the Viennese and
Parisians. It has been long known at Vienna,
that if the hearth of an oven be cleaned with
a moistened wisp of straw, the crust of
bread baked in it immediately afterwards,
presents a beautiful yellow tint. It was
thence inferred that this peculiarity depends
on the vapour, which being condensed on the
roof of the oven, falls back on the bread. At
Paris, in order to secure with certainty so
desirable an appearance, the hearth of the
oven is generally laid so as to form an inclined
plane, with a rise of about 11 inches in 3 feet;
and the arched roof is built lower at the
end nearest the door, as compared with the
further extremity. When the oven is charged,
the entrance is closed with a wet bundle of
straw. By this arrangement the steam is
driven down on the bread, and a golden-
yellow crust is given to it, as if it had been
previously covered with the yelk of an
egg.
Pure wheaten bread is one of the most whole-
some articles of food, and has been justly
termed the ‘staff of life.” When well fer-
mented and baked, it is very easy of digestion.
It should never be eaten until it has stood at
least 24 hours after being taken out of the
oven. When newer, bread is apt to disagree
with the stomach, frequently producing indi-
gestion, biliousness, diarrhoea, dyspepsia, and
other like ailments. Bread prepared from
meal coataining the whole of the bran is the
most nutritious and digestible, and should
alone be given to children and growing per-
sons, and eaten by the dyspeptic and delicate.
See ALEUROMETER, ALUM, FLOUR, WHEAT, &c.
Bread, Aerated. For a full description of the
method of preparing this article, see Watts’
‘Dic. of Chemistry.”
Bread, American. From American barreled
flour. “14 lbs. of American flour will make
21% lbs. of bread; whereas the best sort of
English flour produces only 18% lbs, of bread.”
(Mrs. Rundell.) This arises from the superior
quality of the wheat used in its production;
and also from its being kiln-dried before
'grinding, by which much water is driven
off.
Bread, Bee. The matter collected by bees
to form the bottom of the hive. It resembles
a mixture of resin and wax. Its fumes were
formerly thought to be anti-asthmatic.
Bread, Bram. 1. From the whole meal, with-
out sifting out any of the bran. -
2. By adding about 3 oz. of bran to every lb.
of ordinary flour.
Bread, Extemporaneous. See UNFERMENTED
BREAD.
Bread, French. Prep. 1. From fine flour, as
the best white bread. For the better kinds,
and for those intended for rolls and small fancy
bread, the sponge and dough is commonly
wetted with milk and water, and, occasionally,
a very little butter is added. “When the rolls
or small fancy loaves have lain in a quick oven
about a quarter of an hour, turn them on the
other side for about a quarter of an hour
longer. Then take them out and chip them
with a knife, which will make them look
spongy, and of a fine yellow ; whereas rasping
takes off this fine colour, and renders their look
less inviting.”
2. FRENCH SOUP-BREAD. From fine flour,
but employing fully double the usual quantity
of salt. It is baked in thin loaves, so as to be
nearly all crust, by which means it becomes
more soluble in hot soup.
Bread, Hick’s Patent. This is ordinary
bread baked in an oven so arranged that the
vapours arising during the process are con-
densed in a suitable receiver. The condensed
liquor is a crude, weak spirit, produced during
the fermentation of the dough, and possesses
little commercial value ; indeed, insufficient to
pay for the expenses attending its collection.
Besides which, the bread prepared under this
patent was rejected by the vulgar, who flocked
to the shops of the neighbouring bakers, who
professed to sell their bread with “the gin
in it.”
Bread, Household. This name is commonly
given to bread made with flour from which
only the coarser portion of the bran has been
removed; and to bread prepared from a
mixture of flour and potatoes. The following
are examples:—
1. (Rev. Mr. Haggett.) Remove the flake-
bran from flour, 14 lbs. ; boil the bran in
1 gal. of water until reduced to 7 pints;
strain, cool, and knead in the flour, adding salt
and yeast as for other bread. Very wholesome.
2. Flour, 7 lbs. ; mealy potatoes (well mash-
ed), 3 lbs. ; as before. Objectionable for the
reasons already given.
Bread, Leavened. (lév'.). Using leaven in-
stead of yeast, and in the same way. About
1 lb. to each bushel of flour is usually suffi-
cient. The more leaven used, the lighter the
bread made with it will be ; and the fresher
and sweeter the leaven, the less sour will it
taste. Leaven, except among the Jews and
sailors, is now superseded by yeast.
º
BREAD – BREAKFAST. 259
Bread, Londom White (lūn'-). The common
proportions of the London bakers are—Flour,
1 sack; common salt, 4% lbs. ; alum, 5 oz. ;
yeast,4pints; warm water for the sponge (about)
3 galls. The process has been already noticed.
Bread, Paris White. The following has been
handed to us as the plan commonly adopted by
the Paris bakers for their best white bread:—
On 80 lbs. of the dough (before the yeast was
added) from yesterday’s baking, as much
luke-warm water is poured as will be required
to make 320 lbs. of flour into a rather thin
dough; as soon as this has risen, 80 lbs. are
taken out and reserved in a warm place as
leaven for the next day's baking ; 1 lb. of dry
yeast, dissolved in warm water, is then added
to the remaining portion, and the whole lightly
kneaded; as soon as it has sufficiently risen,
it is made into loaves, and shortly afterwards
baked; the loaves being placed in the oven
without touching each other, so that they may
become crusty all round.
Bread, Unferment'ed. Syn. EXTEMPORA"NE-
OUS BREAD. Prep. 1. From Jones's patent
flour. Very wholesome and excellent; in-
deed, when skilfully made and baked, almost
equal to French bread.
2. From Sewell’s patent flour.
ferior to the last.
3. To each lb. of flour, add, separately,
14 dr. of bicarbonate of soda, and 1 dr. of tar-
taric acid (both perfectly dry, and in very fine
powder); rub them well together with the
hands until thoroughly incorporated; then
form the whole into a dough with water, as
quickly as possible, and at once bake in a quick
oven. About 8 or 9 oz. of water are required
for every lb. of flour. Answers well when ex-
pertly managed.
4. Flour, 1 lb.; bicarbonate of soda, 1 dr. ;
mix; make a dough with water, q. S., to which
1 dr. of hydrochloric acid (commercial) has
been added, and further proceed as before.
5. Whiting’s PATENT BREAD :—This closely
resembles the last. The proportions are—
Slightly in-
Flour, 7 lbs. ; carbonate of soda and hydro- |
chloric acid, of each, 1 oz. ; water, 2% pints.
This method was suggested by Dr. Henry, in
1797, and was patented by Dr. Whiting in
1836. If the proportions be not observed, or
the mixture be not perfect, the quality of the
bread suffers. The action of the acid on the
soda forms common salt in the loaf. -
6. AMMONI’ACAL BREAD :—Carbonate of
ammonia, # to 1 oz. ; cold water, q. S.; dis-
solve, add of flour, 7 lbs.; and make a dough,
which must be formed into loaves and baked
immediately, as before.—Obs. To ensure suc-
cess the carbonate should be recent, and free
from bicarbonate, the presence of which is
known by its being white and powdery, and
of inferior pungency. If any of the last salt
be present, the bread will have a yellowish
colour, and a slightly alkaline or urinous
flavour. The process answers best for small
loaves, cakes, and fancy bread. By employing
pure carbonate of ammonia instead of the
commercial sesquicarbonate, the process suc-
ceeds admirably, and the resulting bread is
most wholesome. A late writer recommends
the use of bicarbonate of ammonia, but evi-
dently does so in ignorance, as in practice it is
inapplicable, as we have verified by numerous
carefully conducted experiments.
7. It has been at various times proposed to
knead the dough with water highly charged
with carbonic acid, on which Dr. Ure observes,
that “the resulting bread will be somewhat
spongy.” We have repeatedly endeavoured to
make bread in this way, but never could suc-
ceed in producing a light spongy loaf. The
quantity of gas in the water is much too
trifling for the purpose, and the greater part
of it escapes in the process of making the
dough, even though all the materials be well
cooled, and the operation conducted in a cold
place. The only way of obviating the difficulty
is to conduct the kneading in a trough
under considerable atmospheric pressure, and
at a very low temperature, by means of ma-
chinery, as is done by Dr. Dauglish, whose
method is now protected by letters patent.
This method is not, however, adapted either
to domestic use or the small scale."
Obs. Unfermented bread has been strongly
recommended as being more wholesome, and
generally better adapted to bilious and dys-
peptic patients, than fermented bread. It
must, however, be confessed, that the unfer-
mented bread commonly met with, has a slight
‘raw-grain’ taste, which is very disagreeable
to some persons. But this taste is not neces-
sarily present, being chiefly dependent on bad
manipulation, the use of inferior flour, and in-
sufficient baking. The process of fermenta-
tion doubtless modifies the condition of the
starch and gluten of the dough, and renders
them easier of digestion. This species of
bread is sadly adulterated with a variety of in-
describable messes. See BISCUITs, BREAD
(ant?), FLOUR, GINGERBREAD, &c.
BREAK"FAST (brékº-). Syn. JENTAc'ULUM,
L.; DíJEöNER, DáJEöNá, Fr. ; FRüHSTüCK,
Ger. The first meal of the day; or the food
served at it.
The morning meal—the ‘early bit’ of the
Germans—is, perhaps, the most important one
of the day. According to Erasmus Wilson,
it is usually “taken at eight or nine.” The
proper time for the purpose must, however,
depend upon that at which the party rises.
About an hour, to an hour and a half, after
leaving the bed, will generally be found
the most appropriate time for breakfast, and
appears to be the one pointed out by nature,
and the most conducive to health. By that
time the powers of the system have fully re-
covered from the inactivity of sleep, and the
functions of the stomach and other viscera
have again come into full play. The appetite

1 For a full description of Dauglish's process, see Watts'
“Dic. of Chemistry.” -
260 BREAST – BREWING.
is excited and seeks appeasing, and both
instinct and reason direct us to the social
board. If abstinence be now prolonged, the
physical and mental energies, unsupported by
the supply of food which indirectly gives
them birth, gradually lessen, and incipient ex-
haustion ensues. The fluids of the stomach
and the smaller intestines begin to act upon
the coats of those viscera, instead of on the
food, and an unpleasant feeling of hunger, or a
loss of appetite comes on, with all its depress-
ing consequences. When breakfast cannot be
taken within a reasonable period after rising,
the gap should be filled up by chewing a crust,
a biscuit, or the like. A raw egg or two,
sucked from the shell, or broken into a tea-
cup and drank, will be found most valuable
for this purpose. Raw milk, cheese, salted
food, and other indigestible matter, should be
particularly avoided at this early period of the
day.
The articles of food to be chosen for the
breakfast-table must depend entirely on the
state of the health, the occupations, &c., of
those assembled round it. Coffee appears to
be, by common consent, the favourite beverage.
For the delicate, the bilious, and the young,
it should neither be taken too strong, nor
very weak, and should be softened down with
milk or cream, and well sweetened with sugar.
Tea is more apt to affect the nerves and
stomach than pure unchicoried coffee. Green
tea, taken thus early in the day, often acts as
an absolute poison, though a slow one. We
have seen severe fits of vomiting and exhaus-
tion follow its use.
The solid food for breakfast should be easy
of digestion, and nutritious. Females, chil-
dren, and persons leading a sedentary life,
should confine themselves to a sufficient
quantity of good meal-bread with only a
moderate quantity of butter, to which an egg,
or a small rasher of mild bacon, may be advan-
tageously added. Parties engaged in active
occupations may extend their exploits some-
what farther, and add to this bill of fare a
little ham or cold meat. When an undue time
will elapse before the luncheon or dinner, and
particularly during the colder season of the
year, the broiled leg of a fowl, an underdressed
mutton chop, or a little tender beef-steak, will
be found, by the parties last referred to, most
useful; nay, in many cases, invaluable. But
excess must be particularly avoided. The
object is to take enough food to maintain the
system in full energy and vigour, and par-
ticularly to avoid offending the stomach by
overloading it; a misfortune easily effected at
the breakfast table. Old commercial travellers
—men wise in the mysteries of life and its
enjoyments—are scrupulously careful to make
a good, but not a heavy breakfast, before com-
mencing the arduous duties of the day. See
DíJEöNER, MEALs, &c.
Breakfast Pow'der.
DILLEN'IUS's C.,
RYE/-COFFEE,
ECONOM/ICAL
Syn.
HUNT'S
BREAKFAST POWDER, &c. Rye, roasted along
with a little fat, after the manner of coffee.
It was once sold at 2s. 6d. the lb., and was
formerly extensively used as a substitute for
foreign coffee, of which it is one of the cheap-
est and best. Since the reduction of duty on
coffee it has nearly fallen into disuse, unless it
be by the grocers to adulterate that article.
BREAST (Sore). See NIPPLEs.
BREATH (Fetid). Scarcely anything is
more disagreeable or disgusting than a stink-
ing breath. Various means have been proposed
to remove this annoyance, depending princi-
pally on the administration of aromatics,
which by their odour smother it for a time;
but these require continual repetition, and are
liable to interfere with the functions of diges-
tion. The real cause of stinking breath may
generally be traced to a diseased stomach, or
to decayed teeth. When the former is the
case, mild aperients should be administered;
and if these do not succeed, an emetic may
be given, followed by an occasional dose of
the Abernethy-medicines. When rotten teeth
are the cause, they should be thoroughly
cleansed, and then ‘stopped;’ or if this is
impracticable, they should be removed. When
this is impossible or inconvenient, the evil
may usually be lessened by keeping them
scrupulously clean, Dirty teeth also often
cause the breath to smell; and hence the use
of the tooth-brush should be a daily habit.
Occasionally rinsing out the mouth with a
little clean water to which a few drops of
solution of chloride of lime, or of chloride of
soda, has been added, is often an effective
method. As a tooth-powder, fresh-burnt
charcoal, and particularly areca-nut charcoal,
is without comparison the best. Lozenges,
such as the following, have been strongly re-
commended to sweeten and purify the breath:
—Gum-catechu, 2 oz. ; white sugar, 5 oz.;
orris powder, 1 oz. ; meroli, 5 or 6 drops;
make them into a paste with mucilage, and
divide the mass into very small lozenges. 20
or 30 drops of oil of cloves may be substituted
for the orris and neroli, at will. One or two
may be sucked at pleasure. See CACHOU
AROMATISí, PASTILS, &c.
BREWING. The art of making beer.
The only ingredients allowed by law to
enter into the composition of beer are malt,
sugar, hops or any substitute for hops, and
water, together with a little yeast.
The apparatus and utensils required, under
the common system, in brewing beer, are—
1. A copper or boiler capable of holding
fully two thirds of the quantity proposed to
be brewed; with a gauge-stick to determine
the number of gallons of fluid at any given
depth therein; and a wooden cover to place
over it before the boiling commences, or when
not in use. A copper capable of holding not
less than 140 galls. is a convenient size for
brewing a quarter of malt, and is commonly
known as a one-quarter copper.

BREWING.
261
2. A mash-tub or mash-tun capable of con-
taining one third more than the copper.
3. One or more tuns or vessels, to ferment
the beer in.
4. Three or four shallow coolers, to reduce
the wort as rapidly as possible to a proper
temperature for fermentation.
5. One or two copper or wooden bowls, for
bailing, &c.
6. A thermometer with a scale reaching from
below 32° to a few degrees above the boiling-
point of water (say to 225° or 230°Fahr.).
7. A saccharometer, for taking the density
of worts and beer.
8. A suitable number of casks (clean and
sweet), to contain the beer.
9. One or more large funnels or tunners.
10. Two or more clean pails.
11. A hand-pump of a size proportionate to
the brewing.
12. A mill, for crushing the malt. Brewers,
for sale, are restricted by law to the use of
mills with plain metal rollers.
These articles will vary in value from £10,
upwards to many hundreds, or even thousands,
according to the extent of the brewing ; but
the whole of them necessary for a private
family may be bought for less than the former
amount, as the mill, pump, &c., may then be
dispensed with, and the rest may be of the
simplest and least expensive character possible.
By proper care they will last for 30 or 40 years,
and still continue in a useful state.
Preliminary proceedings —
The malt is chosen according to the intended
character of the brewing—pale, amber, roasted,
or any mixture of them, as the occasion may
require. It is bruised or crushed in a mill
(malt-mill) before employing it in brewing,
that it may be the more readily acted on by
the water. It should not be ground too small,
as it would then make the wort thick, and
cause it to run with difficulty from the mash-
tun. The crushed malt may advantageously
lie for a few days in a cool situation, by which
it will attract a considerable quantity of mois-
ture from the air, and be the more easily
exhausted by the water used in mashing. Pale
malt may be used coarser than amber or brown
malt. A bushel of good malt should measure
1% bushel when ground; and a quarter should
yield between 9% and 10 bushels, the quantity
slightly varying according to the degree of
bruising it has undergone. On the large scale,
malt is ground in crushing-mills furnished
with plain iron rollers; on the small scale, by
wooden rollers or mills worked by hand. For
private brewing, the malt is generally bought
ready crushed or ground, for convenience
sake.
The hops, after being taken from the
“pockets’ or ‘bag,” are crumbled with the
hands ready to be thrown into the copper.
For general purposes those grown in Kent,
and of the present season, are preferred. For
the finer sorts of ale, East-Kent hops are com-
monly used; and when it is intended to keep
the liquor for a long time, those known by the
names of Country’s, Alton’s, or Farnham hops,
are employed.
The quantity of hops required by a given
measure of malt varies from 2 lbs. to 22 lbs.
per quarter, according to the strength or gra-
vity of the wort, the character of the beer
intended to be brewed, and the climate which
the beer may have to sustain. Export beer re-
quires, as a rule, an exceptionally large amount
of hops to enable it to bear without injury
the heat of the country to which it is shipped.
The following are the usual proportions:–
Hops. Malt.
Table beer . . . . . . 21bs. 1 qr.
Mild ale or porter . 4. , 1 .
Brown stout . . . . . . 5 , l,
Scotch ale (best) 5, 1 .
Strong ale (ordinary). 5}, 1 ,
>> (keeping) . . . 23 1 ,
Bitter ale. . . . . 10 to 14 , 1 ,
East India ale (export) 12, 22, 1 .
When a strong, coarse hop is used, a less
quantity suffices for the same strength brewed,
but the flavour is always inferior.
The water, which should be clear, and free
from all traces of decomposing animal and
vegetable matter, must be provided in abun-
dance. Of late years hard water has been
preferred by many brewers, on the ground that
beer brewed with it is self-fining, and hence
requires no artificial clarification either in the
vat or cask. The water at Burton-on-Trent,
a place celebrated for its ales, is of this class.
The yeast must be sweet and good; and all
the vessels and utensils perfectly sweet and
clean. If the latter be neglected, even the
most skilful brewing will prove a failure.
Process of brewing —
1. MASHING :-The ground or bruised malt
placed in the mash-tun is macerated for some
time in hot water, and the infusion (wort)
drawn off from a hole in the bottom, over
which a strainer or false bottom is placed, to
prevent the malt passing out along with the
liquor. During the process of mashing a pecu-
liar principle contained in the malt, called
diastase, reacts upon the starch with which
it is associated, and converts it into grape-
sugar. The more completely this conversion
is effected, the richer will be the resulting
wort in sugar or saccharine, and the stronger
and more alcoholic the beer produced by its
fermentation. It is, therefore, a desideratum
with the brewer to mash at the temperature
which most fully promotes this important
object. The best temperature for this pur-
pose ranges between 150° and 170° Fahr.
When more than one mash is made, the first
should be something lower than the first-
named temperature; the second may be from
175° to 185°; and the third as high as 200°F.
If the first mashing has been rightly con-
ducted, the whole of the starch should be con-

262 BREWING.
verted into sugar, and the action of the second
and third mashings is merely to wash out any
of the remaining saccharine matter still adher-
ing to the crushed grains.
In practice, as soon as the water in the cop-
pel acquires the temperature of 170°, 45 galls.
are run into the mash-tun, and 1 quarter of
crushed malt gradually added to it. The
whole is now thoroughly mixed with the mash
liquor, by means of oars, or machinery, the
agitation (mashing) being continued for 30
or 40 minutes, when 36 galls. more water from
the copper are added, and the whole again well
agitated, as before. The mash-tun is now
closely covered up, and the mash allowed to
repose for about two hours, in order that the
‘diastase' may exert its saccharifying power
upon the unconverted starch of the malt. At
the end of this time the tap is set, and the
wort run into the “underback.' It generally
amounts to about 50 galls. The second mash
is then made with about 60 galls. of water, at
185° F., and the whole process repeated as
before. After an hour, the liquor is drawn
off, and the malt drained ready for the third
mash. This time, only 35 galls. of water are
added at 200° F., and the whole is seldom
allowed to stand longer than half an hour.
It is then run off, and the malt allowed to
drain as dry as possible.
In some cases, the worts of the first and
second mashes only are used for strong beer;
that of the third mashing being kept for table
beer, or as liquor to mash a fresh quantity of
malt.
Pale malt and mixtures of malt and raw
grain should be mashed for a longer time, and
at a somewhat lower temperature than brown
or high-dried malt.
Instead of making second and third mashes
as above described, it has long been the prac-
tice in Scotland, and is now becoming com-
mon in England, to sprinkle the surface of the
grains in the mash-tun with water, at or about
the temperature of 180° F., by means of a
simple revolving instrument termed a ‘sparger,’
and to let the liquor drain through the goods
and run off by the tap with the last portions
of the first wort. By this means the whole
surface of the grain is continuously and regu-
larly sprinkled with hot water.
When sugar is used, it may be either mixed
with the malt in the mash-tun, at the time of
mashing, or put into the underback, just be-
fore setting the taps, and the hot wort run
upon it. The proportions of malt and sugar
vary, according to the quality of the latter,
but, on an average, from 170 lbs. to 200 lbs. of
good raw sugar may be taken as the equiva-
lent of a quarter of malt.
2. BoILING :—The wort is next transferred
from the underback to the copper, and heated
to the boiling-point as soon as possible, the ob-
ject of this expedition being to prevent the
formation of acidin the wort, by exposure to the
air, before undergoing the changes which take
place in the copper. As soon as the boiling of
the wort commences the hops are added, and
the boiling is continued for about 2 or 2%
hours. A longer boiling is highly objection-
able, owing to the extraction of a heavy, re-
sinous bitter from the hop, and the danger of
losing the volatile oil upon which the aroma
depends. For mild beers the worts are sel-
dom boiled so long; for strong keeping ales,
sometimes a little longer. The boiling is
known to be completed when the liquor
* clears,’ as it is called, and albuminous flocks
sink to the bottom of the copper.
The hops, strained from each wort, are re-
turned into the copper with the following one.
The average loss by evaporation in the pro-
cess of boiling varies from #th to 4th of the
original bulk of the wort. The gravity in-
creases at the same time in about the ratio of
5 to 4; so that, if the gravity be, at first, say
32 lbs. per barrel, it will at the end of the
operation have risen to about 40 lbs.
3. COOLING:—The wort, under the common
system, is ‘run off” from the copper into the
‘hop-back,’ through a strainer which keeps
back the hops. It is then pumped into
large square shallow vessels called “coolers,'
where it is freely exposed to a current of air
to reduce its temperature as quickly as pos-
sible, in order to avoid acidity or ‘souring.’
In 6 or 7 hours, or sooner, the temperature
should fall to about 60° Fahr. In warm wea-
ther the depth of the liquor in the coolers
should not exceed 3 or 4 inches; and in cold
weather, not more than 5 or 6 inches. As
soon as the temperature has fallen to about
60° the liquor is ‘tunned’ and ‘yeasted.’
The loss by evaporation and condensation
in the coolers, varies from 13 to 18 galls. per
quarter. -
4. FERMENTATION: — The cooled wort is
next run into the fermenting tuns or vessels
(gyle-tuns). In small brewings these may be
casks, with one of their heads removed; but
under any form they must not be more than
#ds filled. The yeast, previously mixed with a
little wort, and kept until the whole has begun
to ferment (technically termed ‘lobb’), is now
added, and after agitation, the vessel is co-
vered up, and kept so, until the fermentation
is well established. By this time the tempe-
rature has risen from 9° to 15°.
The quantity of yeast employed, and the
temperature of the wort when it is added,
differs in different breweries and for different
kinds of beer. It seldom exceeds 2 lbs. per
barrel, unless the weather is unusually cold, or
the yeast old or stale, when a larger propor-
tion is required. The Scotch brewers gene-
rally take only 1 gal. of yeast to fully 4 hbds.
of wort.
In England, the temperature at which the
yeast is added, varies from 55° to 65° Fahr.
In Scotland, the common temperature is 51°
to 52°. In cold weather, the heat may be 5’
or 6’ higher than in mild and warm weather,
BREWING.
263,
and a little more yeast may also be advan-
tageously employed. In cold weather, ale is
commonly tunned at 60°, porter at 64,” and
weaker beers at 65° or 70° Fahr. In ‘warm
weather,’ strong beer should be 4° or 5°, and
other beers 7° or 8° cooler than the ‘heats' just
mentioned. On the small scale, 1 to 14 pint
of yeast may be used to every barrel of strong-
beer wort, and # pint to every barrel of mild-
beer wort.
The commencement of the fermentation is
indicated by a line of small bubbles forming
round the sides of the tun, and in a short
time extending over the whole surface. A
‘crusty head’ soon forms, and then a ‘fine
rocky head,' followed by a “light frothy' one.
At length the ‘head’ assumes a yeasty appear-
ance, the colour becomes yellowish-brown, and
a vinous odour is developed. As soon as this
last head begins to fall, the tun is skimmed
every 2 or 3 hours, until no more yeast is
formed. The object of this is, not only to
check the violence of the fermentation, but
also to remove a peculiar bitterness, with
which the first portion of the yeast is impreg-
nated. The beer is then put into casks, or
* cleansed,’ as it is called. A minute attention
to every stage of this process is necessary to
secure a fine flavour and a brilliant beverage.
It may be regarded, as a rule, that the lower
the temperature, and the slower, more regular,
and less interrupted the process of fermenta-
tion, the better will be the quality of the
brewing, and the less likely to change by age,
A little more yeast is required in winter than
in summer. When the fermentation becomes
slack in the ‘gyle-tun, a little more “lobb’ is
generally added, and the whole is well ‘roused
up.' On the contrary, if the temperature rises
considerably, or the fermentation becomes too
brisk, the wort is cooled a little and skimmed,
or at once cleansed.
5. CLEANSING:—This consists in running
the beer from the gyle-tun into casks, or other
vessels, set sloping, so that the yeast, as it
forms, may work off the one side of the top,
and fall into a vessel placed below to receive it.
In small brewings, the beer is often at once
transferred from the gyle-tun to the ‘store-
casks,’ which are sloped a little until the fer-
mentation is over, when they are skimmed,
filled, and bunged.
The process of cleansing is generally com-
menced as soon as the “saccharine’ in the fer-
menting wort falls to about 10 lbs. per barrel,
a degree of attenuation which it usually reaches
in about 48 hours. Some brewers add a little
wheat-flour or bean-flour (about 4 lb. per barrel)
to the beer in the gyle-tun, shortly before
cleansing, to quicken the discharge of yeast;
but it is not clearly ascertained whether such
a plan is advantageous, or the contrary.
6. STORING :—As soon as the fermentation
is concluded, which generally takes from 6 to
8 days, or longer, the clear liquor is pumped
into the store-casks or vats, which are then
closely bunged, and deposited in a cool cellar,
if not already there, to mature. The prefer-
ence, which at present exists in most parts of
the United Kingdom, is for mild, freshly-brewed
malt liquors; the good old or mature-watted
beer, being now seldom met with. This,
of course, is a source of increased profit to the
brewer, as it enables him to turn over his capi-
tal more rapidly, and saves the risk and ex-
pense attendant on long storage.
7. RIPENING :—After a period varying from
one to twelve months, or longer, according to
the nature of the brewing, and the condition
of the cellar, the liquor will have become fine,
and sufficiently mature for use. During this
period the casks, &c., should be occasionally
examined to see that there is no leakage, and
to open the vent-holes, should any oozings
appear at the joints. As equable a tempera-
ture as possible should be maintained in the
cellar, by ventilation, on the one hand, and the
employment of artificial heat on the other,
as circumstances and seasonal changes may
render necessary.
8. FINING or CLARIFYING:—Beer which
has been badly brewed or badly stored, or
which from other causes may be thick or
muddy, requires clarifying by artificial
means. For a barrel about 1 to 1% pint of
brewer’s finings (isinglass or fish-gelatine
dissolved in sour beer) is put into a bucket,
and some of the beer being gradually added,
the whole is violently agitated with a whisk
until a frothy head is formed. The mixture is
then thrown into the cask of beer, and well
‘rummaged up,' after which the bung is re-
placed, and the liquor allowed to repose for a
week or ten days.
Sometimes the above method is found to
fail with weak and bad-conditioned beer.
When such is the case, the addition of a tea-
spoonful of sulphuric acid, or a table-spoonful
of powdered catechu (previously dissolved in
# a pint of boiling water), followed by agita-
tion for a quarter of an hour, will generally
cause the ‘finings” to clarify the liquor; 2 or
3 oz. of tincture of catechu (mixed with a
little water) may be used in the same way.
A handful of hops, previously boiled for five
minutes in a little of the beer, and then added
to the barrel, and the whole allowed to stand
for a few days, before proceeding to clarify it,
will generally have a similar effect, and cause
the ‘finings’ to act with certainty. It is the
absence of the proper quantity of astringent
matter in beer that usually renders them
ineffective. º
Gen. commentary. The preceding is a con-
cise account of all the essential operations of
the system of brewing at present practised in
this country. On the large scale, extensive
and costly apparatus and machinery are em-
ployed for the purpose. On the small scale,
various modifications, of a minor character, or
the several processes herein detailed, are fre-
quently adopted, according to the circum-



264
BREWING.
stances or ingenuity of the operator. The
principles and practice of brewing beer are,
however, essentially the same under all the
conditions here referred to. In Scotland, only
one mash is made, and that at a temperature
of about 180° Fahr., with one third of the
quantity of the water required for the brew-
ing. The “mash-tun' is then covered up for
about half an hour, when the wort is drawn
off, and the operation of ‘sparging” begun.
This operation is continued until the density
of the mixed worts becomes adapted to pro-
duce the quality of the ale then under process
of manufacture. The ‘gyle-tun' (fermenting-
tun) is set at from 50° to 60°Fahr., the fer-
mentation being continued slowly for fifteen
to twenty days; and the ale is not “cleansed”
before the degree of attenuation falls to about
3 lb. per day, and not more than one fourth of
the original gravity of the wort remains. Scotch
ale is justly celebrated for its superior quality.
Its usual original gravity is from 34 to 45 lbs.
per barrel.
In Bavaria, a country remarkable for the
excellence of its beer, the wort is made to fer-
ment at a low temperature, until all the sub-
stances which favour acetification have been
rendered insoluble, and have separated from
the liquor. The fermentation is conducted in
wide, open, shallow vessels, which afford free
and unlimited access to atmospheric oxygen;
and this in a situation where the temperature
does not exceed 45° to 60°Fahr. A separation
of the nitrogenous constituents thus takes
place simultaneously on the surface, and within
the whole body of the liquid. The clearing of
the fluid is the sign by which it is known that
these matters have separated. The fermenta-
tion usually occupies three or four weeks, and
is conducted during the cooler portion of the
year only, and in a situation removed as much
as possible from the influence of atmospherical
changes of temperature. The sedimentary yeast
(unterhefe), and not the surface yeast (ober-
hefe), of the Bavarian fermenting backs, is
employed.
The beers of England and France, as well as
most of those of Germany, become gradually
sour by contact with the air. This defect, as
observed by Liebig, does not belong to the
beers of Bavaria, which may be preserved, at
pleasure, in half-full casks, as well as in full
ones, without suffering any material altera-
tion. This precious quality must be ascribed
to the peculiar process employed for ferment-
ing the wort, called by the German chemists
‘untergährung,” or fermentation from below;
and which “has solved one of the finest theo-
retical problems that had long taxed the
ingenuity and patience of both the scientific
and practical brewer.” (Liebig.)
In the ordinary fermentation of grape-juice
and worts, these liquids do not furnish a quan-
tity of alcohol equivalent to the sugar which
they contain; and this because a certain por-
tion of the sugar serves for the oxidation of
the gluten, and is not transformed like the
rest. But wherever the liquor has arrived at
the second period of transformation, the pro-
duct in alcohol ought to be equivalent to the
quantity of sugar present, as actually happens
in all fermentations (sedimentary) which are
not accompanied with a formation, but a dis-
appearance of the yeast. According to Dr.
Ure, worts furnish, in the Bavarian breweries,
from 10% to 20% more alcohol than they do by
the ordinary process of fermentation (ober-
gährung), or that excited by the use of ‘ober-
hefe’ or top-yeast.
East-India Ale or Pale Ale, for exportation,
is brewed from worts of a sp. gr. of from 1:060
to 1-070. For the best varieties, 15 to 16 lbs.
of the finest East Kent hops are used to every
quarter of pale malt. The pale ale or bitter
beer of the publicans is commonly a very weak
liquor (mere table beer), highly bittered with
the hop, and too often with quassia, worm-
wood, and other still more objectionable sub-
stances. The process now adopted by the
great brewers of pale ale at Burton-on Trent,
combines all the most admirable points of
both the Bavarian and Scotch systems of
brewing.
Berlin White ale or Pale beer is brewed
from wheat-malt mixed with about #th part of
barley-malt, the ‘wort’ being boiled with hops,
# lb. to the bushel, and slightly fermented
with “top-yeast,’ at a rather higher tempera-
ture. -
The desire of evading the duty led to the
discovery of its being only necessary to employ
#rd, or less, of the grain, in the form of malt;
this portion being sufficient to convert into
sugar, in the process of mashing, the starch of
the unmalted grain forming the other part.
This plan answers well when the wort is
merely intended for the production of ‘grain
spirit; but beer so made is insipid and in-
ferior in quality to that brewed wholly of
malt. Inferior kinds of beer have also been
made from other ingredients than barley-malt,
among which may be named the grain of the
cheaper cereals, bran, potatoes, turnips, beet-
root, carrots, parsnips, pea-shells, and other
vegetable substances rich in starch and sugar,
all of which will produce beer by being mashed
with water in the common way, with about
9% or 10% of barley-malt.
One quarter of the best barley-malt yields,
by skilful mashing, fully 84 lbs. of “saccharine,’
or soluble sweet extractive matter. This con-
centrated within the compass of one barrel
(36 galls.), gives a sp. gr. of 1:234. In the
process of mashing about #ths of this quantity
of saccharine (or 48lbs.) is generally carried off
in the first wort; #ths (or 24 lbs.) in the
second wort; and 4th (or 12 lbs.) in the third
wort; the strengths of the worts being to
each other respectively as 4, 2, 1. The aver-
age gravity obtained by the common brewers
from malt of current quality, ranges from 80
to 81 lbs. Sugar may be used as a partial sub .

BREWING.. . 265
stitute for malt, with, in most cases, some de-
gree of saving to the brewer, and without
injury to the quality of the beer. The kind
of sugar to be used will depend on the quality
of the beer to be brewed, but it should be re-
membered, that a bad sugar will not, any more
than bad malt, yield a sound palatable beer.
From 170 lbs. to 200 lbs. of good raw sugar
may be taken as the average equivalent of a
quarter of malt.
When the process of mashing has been pro-
perly conducted, the wort, after leaving the
cooler, should not be turned blue by tincture
of iodine, or by iodide of potassium added
along with a little acid. If it turns blue
some of the starch has escaped conversion into
sugar, and is dissolved in the liquor.
By multiplying the decimal part of the
number representing the specific gravity of a
wort by 360 (the weight in pounds of a barrel
of pure water), we obtain the quantity of sac-
charine, per barrel, corresponding to the given
sp. gr. ; and by dividing the joint weight of
saccharine and water, per barrel, by 360, we
obtain the specific gravity. Thus—
Suppose a sample of wort to have a specific
gravity of 1:055, then—
Decimal of sp. gr. 055 x 360 = 19.8 lbs.
per barrel.
Again, a barrel of wort weighs 379.8 lbs.,
that is, 360 lbs., for the weight of a barrel of
water, and 19.8 lbs. for the weight of saccha-
rine in the water, then—
297.8 + 360=1:055 specific gravity.
It is usually stated in works on brewing
that certain temperatures must be reached
by each variety of beer, during the progress of
the fermentation, in order for the liquor to
acquire its characteristic flavour. Thus, it is
stated, that—mild beer begins to acquire fla-
vour when the heat of fermentation arrives at
75° Fahr., increases at 80°, and is highest at
90°, but sometimes even reaches 100°. Old ale is
said to obtain its best flavour at a temperature
not exceeding 75°; and porter at 70° Fahr.
In order to reach these temperatures, the worts
are directed to be set at from 10° to 15° lower,
the rise being due to the heat generated
during the fermentation. That these state-
ments refer principally to the old methods of
brewing is shown by the fact, that some of the
brewers of Bavaria, Scotland, and Burton-on-
Trent, produce rich and high-flavoured liquors
at temperatures vastly below those above emu-
merated. Still, however, the fact must not be
concealed, that since the introduction of the
new German system of brewing into England,
the general character of its beers, as they
reach the consumer, are inferior in strength
and flavour to those of a former period. We
may now seek almost in vain for the fine
vinous, high-flavoured, invigorating old beers
vended in our early days by the common pub-
licans and tavern-keepers, of whom the larger
majority were their own brewers. Under the
new system of chemical brewing, as Worked
by those huge monopolists, the “great brewers,”
the only object appears to be to obtain the
largest quantity possible of saccharine out
of the quarter of malt, and to convert this
into the largest possible quantity of beer, with
little regard to flavour or quality, but an ex-
cessive one for their own profits. In due
course this liquor is forced on their helpless
tenants, the publicans, who, in their turn,
‘reduce’ and ‘doctor’ the liquor, until, by the
time it reaches the consumer, its insipidity
and low strength would have led even a
brewer’s drayman of the last century to cast it
into the kennel.
The best times for brewing are the spring
and autumn; as at those periods of the year
the temperature of the air is such as to permit
of the easy cooling of worts sufficiently low,
without having recourse to artificial refrigera-
tion, or to the use of machinery for the pur-
pose. Old ale cannot be conveniently brewed
in summer.
Beers are classed by the brewers into—


Small beers—made from worts not ex-
ceeding the sp. gr. 1.025, or 9 lbs.
per barrel.
Middlings—made from worts of the sp. gr.
1:030 to 1-050, and averaging about
14 lbs. per barrel.
Strong beers—made from worts of the
sp. gr. 1040 to 1:080, extending
from about 35 lbs. per barrel up-
wards.
The densities of the worts employed for
different kinds of beer vary considerably, as
will be seen by the following table:—
TABLE of the Densities of Beers.

Pounds
Description. per
Specific gravity.
barrel.
Burton ale, Class 1 40 to 43 || 1:111 to 1:120
25 ,, 2 35 , 40 || 1:097, 1-111
22 , 3|28, 33 1.077 , 1-092
Ordinary ale ... 25 , 27 | 1:070 , 1075
Common , - - 21 1.058
Scotch ale, Class 1 40 to 44 1*111 to 1-122
25 ,, 2 33 , 40 1-092 ,, 1-111
Porter (ordinary) . 18 1*050
, (good) . . 18 to 21 | 1.050 to 1:058
, (double). . 20, 22 || 1:055 , 1.060
Brown stout . . 23 1.064
>> (best), 26 1-072
Table beer . 12 to 14 || 1-033 to 1:039
Small , (com.) .. 6 1:01.7
EXPORTATION OF BEER :—When beer is
exported from any part of the United King-
dom, either as merchandise or ships’ stores,
the brewer or exporter of such beer is allowed
a certain drawback of duty. The amount is
236 BRICKS BROMIDE.
proportional to the quantity of malt or sugar,
inferred to have been used in the brewing of
the beer. Thus, if the original specific gravity
of the worts from which the beer was brewed
were not less than 1040, a drawback is granted
of 4s. 3d, per barrel. This is equivalent to a
return of the duty on 13 bushels of malt, with
an allowance of 3d. for licence duty, now
charged in lieu of the abolished hop duty. For
every additional 5 degrees of specific gravity,
from 1040° to 1125° inclusive, a further sum
of 6d. per barrel is allowed.
[For further information connected with the
above subject, the reader is referred to the
separate articles—ALE, BEER, DEXTRINE,
DIASTASE, FERMENTATION, MALT LIQUORS,
PoKTER, SACCHAROMETER, SPECIFIC GRAVITY,
WoRT, YEAST, &c.]
Brewing Utem'sils. The cleansing and pre-
servation of brewing utensils, beer casks, &c.,
has frequently engaged the attention of prac-
tical men and brewers’ chemists. To preserve
them sweet they should always be thoroughly
cleaned before setting them aside. Contact
with soap, or any greasy material, should be
carefully avoided. A scrubbing-brush and
scalding-hot water are generally sufficient to
clean them. Great care should be taken to
remove every particle of yeast or fur on the
sides and bottom; and after being well-drained,
they should be stowed away in some clean and
cold situation, properly exposed to the fresh
air. Should they become tainted or mouldy, a
strong lye of pearl-ash, common salt, or quick-
lime, may be spread over them, scalding hot,
with a broom or scrubbing-brush. Washing
them with oil of vitriol diluted with about 7
or 8 times its bulk of water, is another excel-
lent and very effective method. Fresh-burnt
charcoal has also been employed for the same
purpose. In each case the vessels must be
subsequently thoroughly washed out with clean
water, as before. Steam, assisted by the action
of a chain, has been successfully applied to
clean casks in several breweries. Bisulphite
of lime has, within the last few years, been
highly recommended for sweetening and clean-
ing vats, casks, &c. It is also said to prevent
beer from developing acidity. See CASKS,
VATs, &c.
BRICKS. Brick-making scarcely comes
within the province of this work. In con-
nection with hygiene, however, we may call
the reader's attention to the superior advan-
tages of both hollow and waterproof bricks;
the first, for ventilation and lightness; the
last, for preserving the dryness and integrity
of our homes under all the vicissitudes of
climate, season, and weather, either on damp
soils or dry ones. Workman’s “Patent Water-
proof Bricks” received a strong commendatory
notice from the Commissioners of the “Great
International Exhibition ” of 1851.
BRINE (for Meat). Prep. 1. A nearly
saturated solution of common salt, 1 lb. ; and
saltpetre, 1 oz. ; in soft water.
2. To the last, add of sugar or treacle, 3 lb.,
Bay-salt is recommended when the meat is to
be kept for a very long period. See PICK-
LING, &c.
Brime, Red-Cabbage. Red-cabbage leaves
steeped in a strong solution of common salt.
Used as a test for acids and alkalies.
Brime, Wiſolet. From the petals of the blue
violet, as the last. Used as a test for acids.
BRIOCHE PASTE (bre-àsh'). In cookery,
a species of paste, or crust, prepared of eggs
and flour, fermented with yeast, to which a
little salt, a large quantity of sugar, and about
half as much butter as the weight of the flour
used, are afterwards added, and well worked
in. Used as an addition to soup, and as a
casing for lobsters, patties, eggs, &c. -
BRISK'NESS. The natural briskness and
sparkling of fermented liquors depends on the
gradual evolution of carbonic acid gas within
the body of the fluid, by the process of fer-
mentation. See MALT LIQUORS, PORTER,
WINES, &c.
BRIS'TLES (bris/lz). The stiff hair of
swine, &c. They are commonly stiffened by
immersion for a short time in alum-water;
and are dyed by steeping them for a short time
in any of the common dyes used for cotton or
wool.
BRITAN/NIA METAL (-y’ā). Syn. TU-
TA"NIA. A superior species of pewter, used
for teapots, spoons, &c.
Prep. 1. Plate-brass, bismuth, antimony, and
tin, equal parts, melted together, and the re-
sulting alloy added at discretion to melted tin,
until it acquires the proper degree of colour
and hardness.
2. To the first alloy, prepared as in No. 1,
add ºth of its weight of metallic arsenic, be-
fore mixing it with the melted tin.
3. Antimony, 1 part; brass, 4 parts; tin, 5
or 6 parts; melted together. See ALLOYS,
QUEEN’s METAL, PEWTER, &c.
BRIT/ISH GUM. See GUMS.
BRITISH WINES. See WINES.
BR00'COLI. [Eng., L., Ger.] Syn. BRO-
COLT, Fr. ; BROCCOLO, It. A well-known sub-
variety of cauliflower. The qualities, and the
mode of dressing broccoli, are similar to those
of cabbages, noticed elsewhere. See VEGE-
TABLES (Culinary), &c.
BR0'MA. Prep. 1. Pure cocoa, 1 lb.;
sugar and sago-meal, of each, 4 oz. ; mix.
British arrow-root (i.e. carefully prepared
potato-starch) is often substituted for the sago.
2. As the last, but using fine wheat-flour, in
lieu of sago-meal. Made into a beverage in a
similar way to cocoa.
BRO'MIDE (-mid). Syn. BRO'MURET *,
HYDROBRO'MATE *; BROMI’DUM, BROMURE'-
TUM, HYDROBRO'MAs, L.; BROMIDE, BRO-
MURE, Fr. A chemical compound of bromine
with another radical.
Prop., &c. The soluble bromides give
white precipitates with nitrate of silver, ace-
|tate of lead, and protonitrate of mercury.
BROMINE–BRONZE.
267
That from the first of these is insoluble in
dilute nitric acid and in ammonia water
unless concentrated; and it has a slight yel-
lowish tinge, changing to a violet on exposure
to the light. A few drops of liquid chlorine
poured upon a bromide, followed by agita-
tion of the mixture with a little sulphuric
ether, furnishes an ethereal solution of bro-
mine. [For the other bromides see the re-
spective bases.]
BR0'MINE (-min). Br. Syn. BROME *;
BRO'MIUM, BROMIN(IUM, L.; BRóME, Fr. An
elementary substance, discovered by M. Balard,
of Montpellier, in 1826.
Prep. A current of gaseous chlorine is passed
through the uncrystallisable residuum of sea-
water called bittern, which then assumes an
orange tint, in consequence of bromine being
set free from its combinations; sulphuric ether
is then agitated with it, and the mixture is
allowed to stand, in a close vessel, until the
ethereal portion floats upon the surface. This
is a solution of crude bromine, and for
common purposes the ether may be at once
evaporated by a very gentle heat. To render
it pure, caustic potassa is added in excess to
the ethereal solution, or the latter is agitated
with a solution of potassa, by which means
bromide and bromate of potassium are formed.
The whole is evaporated to dryness, and
submitted to a dull red heat. The re-
siduum is next powdered and mixed with
pure peroxide of manganese; the mixture
having been placed in a retort, sulphuric acid
(diluted with half its weight of water) is
poured in. Red vapours immediately arise,
and condense into drops of bromine, which
are collected by plunging the neck of the re-
tort nearly to the bottom of a small receiver
containing a little very cold water. The bro-
mine forms a stratum beneath the water, and
may be collected, and at once put into a stop-
pered bottle; or, it may be further purified by
distillation from dry chloride of calcium.
Prop., &c. A dark, reddish-coloured, vola-
tile liquid, having an odour intermediate be-
tween that of chlorine and iodine, but much
more suffocating and offensive. It solidifies
at about 19°, and boils at about 145° Fahr.
It is slightly soluble in water, more so in alco-
hol, and abundantly so in ether. Its aqueous
solution bleaches like chlorine, but less power-
fully. With hydrogen it forms HYDROBRO'MIC
ACID ; and with the bases, compounds called
BRO'MIDES. Its sp. gr. is 2.976; that of its
vapour, 5:39.
Zests. It is readily recognised by its
colour, odour, and volatility, and by the colour
of its vapour; by its giving a yellowish-white
precipitate with nitrate of silver, which is
turned violet by the action of light; and by
its solutions giving an orange or yellow colour
to starch, and a red tinge to solution of chlo-
ride of gold.
Uses, &c. Bromine possesses very similar
medicinal properties to iodine, and has been
administered in goitre, scrofula, &c., in the
form of an aqueous solution composed of 1
part of bromine to 40 of water, of which 5 or
6. drops is the dose; but it is more usually
given under the form of bromide of potassium
(which see). The solution has also been used
as a lotion. It is very poisonous; the anti-
dotes, &c., resemble those for iodine. See
BROMIDE, SOLUTIONS, &c.
BRONCHITIS (bröng-ki'.). [L.; prim. Gr.]
In pathology, inflammation of the mucous
lining of the bronchia or smaller ramifications
of the windpipe. In its milder form it is
popularly called a “cold on the chest.”
Symp. The usual symptoms are hoarseness,
dry cough, and a slight degree of fever, fol-
lowed by expectoration of mucus, at first thin,
and afterwards thick and copious. In the
severer forms there is more fever, cough, and
oppression at the chest, &c.
Treatm. It generally yields to small and
repeated doses of ipecacuanha, and antimonial
diaphoretics; a light diet and mild purgatives
being at the same time adopted.
BRON'CH0CELE (bröng'-ko-sèle). See
GOITRE.
BRONZE. [Eng., Fr., Ger.] Syn. AEs, L.;
BRONZO, It. An alloy of tin and copper, remark-
able for the exactness of the impressions which
it takes by moulding and stamping, as well as
for its great durability. It has hence been
always extensively employed in the casting of
buts, medals, statues, &c. In ancient times,
when the manufacture of steel was ill-under-
stood, cutting instruments were commonly
made of it. It was also the general material
of coins of small value; a use which, of late
years, has been revived in several of the states
of Europe, and still more recently in the
coinage of these realms. Bell-metal, gun-
metal, and speculum-metal, are mere varieties
of bronze.
Prep. On the small scale, this alloy is pre-
pared in crucibles; but for statues and larger
works, on reverberatory hearths. The fusion
of the mixed metals is conducted as rapidly as
possible under pounded charcoal, and the
melted mass is frequently stirred together to
produce a perfect mixture, before casting.
The proportions of the materials so vary in
different castings, that it is almost impossible
to say precisely what quantities are the best.
The following are given as examples:–
a. For EDGE-TOOLS:—Copper, 100 parts;
tin, 14 parts. When skilfully hardened and
tempered this alloy is capable of receiving an
edge nearly equal to that of steel.
b. For GILDING :—1. Copper, 82 parts;
zinc, 18 parts; tin, 3 parts; lead 2 parts.
2. From copper, 83 parts; zinc, 17 parts;
tin, 2 parts; lead, 1 part. -
c. For MEDALS :–1. Copper, 89 parts; tin,
8 parts; zinc, 3 parts. This alloy assumes a
beautiful antique appearance by age, and takes
a sharp impression by stamping.
2. (M. Chaudet.) Copper, 95 parts; tin, 4

268 BRONZING.
or 5 parts. This is also excellent for any
small castings.
d. For MoRTARS :—Copper, 93 parts; lead,
5 parts; tin, 2 parts.
e. For STATUARY :—1. Copper, 88 parts ;
tin, 9 parts; zinc, 2 parts; lead, 1 part.
2. Copper, 82% parts; zinc, 10% parts; tin,
5 parts; lead, 2 parts. These are very nearly
the proportions of the celebrated statue of
Louis XV. -
3. Copper, 90 parts; tin, 9 parts; lead, 1
part.
4. Copper, 91 parts; tin, 9 parts.
Obs. Several analyses have been made of
ancient cutting-instruments, from which it
appears that the proportion of tin varies from
4% to 15%; a fact which tends to prove that
more depends on the exact mode of tempering
the alloy, than on the relative proportions
of the ingredients. Lead and zinc are inad-
missible in bronze for this purpose. One or
two per cent. of iron may, nevertheless, be
added with advantage. The ancient bronze
used for springs contained only 3% to 4% of tin.
The edges and lips of bronze mortars must be
carefully tempered by heating them to a
cherry red, and then plunging them into cold
water, as unless so treated they are very apt
to be broken in use. See BELL-METAL, BRASS,
GUN-METAL, &c.
Bronze'-powder. Syn. BRONZE. A name
given to various powders having a rich me-
tallic appearance, which they retain when
applied on varnish, or when mixed with it, as
in surface bronzing.
Prep. 1. GOLD-COLOURED :—a. From Dutch-
foil, reduced to an impalpable powder by grind-
ing. Cheap and looks well, and is very durable
when varnished.
b. From gold-leaf, as the last.
c. Precipitated powder of gold.
d. From verdigris, 8 oz. ; tutty-powder, 4.
oz.; borax and nitre, of each 2 oz. ; bichloride
of mercury, # oz.; grind them together, make
the mixture into a paste with oil, and then
fuse it; when cold, roll it into thin sheets or
leaves, and grind it as in No. 1. -
2. IRON-COLOURED :—Plumbago, in fine
powder.
3. RED —Sulphate of copper, 100 parts;
carbonate of soda, 60 parts; mix, and apply
heat until they unite into a mass; then cool,
powder, and add of copper filings, 15 parts;
again well mix, and keep the compound at a
white heat for about twenty minutes; lastly,
when cold, reduce the “residuum ' to an im-
palpable powder, wash it in pure water, and
dry it.
4. SILVER :—Bismuth and tin, of each, 1 oz. ;
melt them together, and add of quicksilver, 1
to 1% oz. ; when cold powder it.
Obs. The above are used by painters, japan-
ners, &c. See BISULPHIDE OF TIN, POW-
DERS, &c.
BRONZ'ING. The process of giving a
bronze-like, or an antique metallic appearance,
brushed off.
to the surface of copper, brass, and other
metals. The following methods are recom-
mended for this purpose:—
1. To the surface of the specimen, first tho-
roughly cleaned and polished, evenly apply, with
a brush, the common crocus-powder (“jewellers’
rouge'), previously made into a smooth paste
with water. When dry, place it in an iron
ladle, or on a common fire-shovel, and expose
it over a clear fire for about one minute;
lastly, when sufficiently cold, polish it with a
plate-brush. This gives a very rich appear-
ance, similar to that on tea-urns; the shade
depending on the duration and the degree of
heat employed.
2. As the last, but substituting finely pow-
dered plumbago for crocus powder. Equally
beautiful, but deeper coloured and more per-
manent than that produced by No. 1.
3. As the preceding, but employing mix-

tures of plumbago and crocus in various pro-
portions, according to the shade desired.
4. A dilute solution of liver of sulphur
(sulphurated potash), or of hydrosulphate of
ammonia, is applied with a camel-hair pencil
to the medal previously slightly warmed; when
dry, the surface is either left rough or
If liver of sulphur has been
used, it will be better to wash it first in clean
hot water; but withont the slightest friction.
This gives the appearance of very antique
bronze. -
5. Werdigris, 2 oz. ; and sal-ammoniac, 1 oz.;
are dissolved in vinegar, 1 pint; and the mix-
ture is diluted with water, until it tastes only
slightly metallic, when it is boiled for a few
minutes, and filtered for use. Copper medals,
&c. (thoroughly clean), are steeped in the
liquor at the boiling-point, until the desired
effect is produced. Care must be taken not to
keep them in it too long. When taken out
they are carefully washed in hot water, and
dried. Effect as the last.
6. Verdigris and vermilion, of each, 2 oz.;
alum and sal-ammoniac, of each, 5 oz. (all in
fine powder); vinegar, q. S. to form a thin
paste. This is spread over the surface of the
copper, which is then uniformly warmed by
the fire, and afterwards well washed, and dried.
The tint may be deepened by repeating the
process. The addition of a little blue vitriol
inclines the colour to a chestnut-brown; and a
little borax to a yellowish-brown. Used by the
Chinese for copper tea-urns, &c.
7. Sal-ammoniac, 1 oz. ; cream of tartar,
3 oz. ; common salt, 3 oz. ; hot water, 1 pint;
dissolve; then add of nitrate of copper, 2 oz.,
dissolved in # a pint of water; mix well, and
with it repeatedly moisten the article (placed
in a damp situation), by means of a soft brush.
Produces a very antique appearance.
8. Salt of sorrel, 1 oz. ; sal ammoniac, 3 oz. ;
distilled vinegar, 1 quart; dissolve. As the
last. Much used for bronze figures.
9. A very weak solution of bichloride of
platinum, applied with a hair pencil, or by im-

BROOM.–BROWN DYE.
269
mersion. Used for binding screws, holders,
and other small articles of copper and brass.
10. Sulphate of iron and sulphate of copper,
of each, 1 oz. ; water, 1 pint; dissolve ; wash
the surface of the articles with it ; let them
dry; then apply a solution of verdigris, 2 oz, ;
dissolved in strong vinegar, 3 pint ; when dry,
polish them with a soft brush, and either some
plumbago or colcothar. Used for tin castings,
11. The articles (properly cleaned) are either
immersed in, or ...' over, with a solution
of sulphate of copper or of verdigris.
short time they acquire a coating of
metallic copper, and are then washed.
only answers with iron and steel goods.
admirably suited for iron castings.
12. An antique appearance may be given
to silver by either exposing it to the fumes
of hydrosulphate of ammonia, or immersing
it for a very short time in a solution of hydro-
sulphate of ammonia, or in dilute nitric acid.
Sur'face Bronzing. A term commonly ap-
plied to the process of imparting a bronze-
like or metallic appearance to the prominent
portions of the surfaces of figures made of
paper, wood, plaster of Paris, &c. It is ef-
fected by first giving them a coat of oil-varnish
or size, and when this is nearly dry, applying,
with a “ dabber’ of cotton, or a camel-hair
pencil, any of the ordinary metallic bronze-
powders before referred to.
powder is placed in a little bag of muslin,
and dusted over the surface. The articles
should be afterwards varnished.
Paper is bronzed by mixing the bronze-
powders up with a little weak gum-water, and
burnishing the surface when dry and hard.
BR00M. The common name of the plant
spar'tium scopa"rium. -
Broom Ashes. From broom-stalks burnt.
Formerly used as a diuretic in dropsy.
Broom, Salt of. Obtained by dissolving
broom ashes in water, and filtering and evapo-
rating the solution. It consists principally of
carbonate of potassa. It was formerly used in
dropsy, and as an antacid, &c.
BROSSE DE CORAIL. [Fr.] The root of
lucerne (medica'go sati'va), cleaned, dried, and
hammered at the end. Used as a tooth-
brush.
BROTH. Syn. JUs (coctis carnibus), JUs'-
CULUM, L.; BoDILLON, JUS, Fr.; FLEISCH-
BRüHE, Ger. In cookery, the liquor in which
flesh has been boiled. Broth is distinguished
from soup by its inferior strength and quan-
tity of seasoning, &c. It contains much of
the nutriment of the meat. See BoILING,
SOUP, &c.
BROWN DYE. Every shade of brown may
be produced, almost at will, by mixtures of
reds and yellows with blues and blacks; or
directly. by simple dyes. The following are
examples:–
a. For COTTON:—
1, Give the goods a mixed mordant of ace-
tate of alumina and acetate of iron, followed
In a
pure
This
It is
Sometimes the
by a bath of madder or of madder and fustic.
Excess of acetate of alumina turns it on the
AMARANTH TINT ; the acetate of iron darkens
it.
2. First “gall’ the goods, then turn them
for a short time through the black bath; next
give them a mordant of sulphate of copper,
then pass them through a decoction of fustic,
afterwards through a bath of madder, and
again through the solution of sulphate of
copper; drain, dry, rinse well, and finish with
a boil in soap and water. This gives a CHEST-
NUT-BROWN,
3. First give the goods a mordant of alum,
then a bath of madder, and next a bath of
fustic to which a little green copperas has
been added. This gives a CINNAMON-BROWN.
b. For LINEN:—This varies little from that
commonly employed for cotton.
c. For SILK :—
1. One of the above mordants is followed by
a bath made by mixing equal parts of the
decoctions of logwood, fustic, and Brazil-wood,
The shade may be varied by altering the pro-
portions of the decoctions; Brazil-wood red-
dening, logwood darkening, and fustic yellowing,
the tint.
2. Annotta, 4 oz, ; and pearlash, 1 lb.; are
dissolved in boiling water, q. s. ; the silk is
passed through it for two hours, then taken
out, and squeezed dry; it is next passed
through a mordant of alum, and then through
a bath of Brazil-wood, followed by another of
logwood to which a little green copperas has
been added.
d. For WOOL:—
1. Boil the cloth in a mixed mordant of
alum, common salt, and water, then dye it in a
bath of logwood to which a little green copperas
has been added. 2 oz. of alum, and 1 oz. of
salt, are required for every lb. of wool.
2. Boil the goods in a mordant of alum
and sulphate of iron, then pass them through
a bath of madder. The more copperas the
darker will be the die. Good proportions
are 2 parts of alum and 3 of copperas.
3. Give a mordant of alum and tartar, then
pass the goods through a madder bath; next
run them through a bath of galls and sumach
or logwood to which a little acetate or sulphate
of iron has been added.
4. Mordant the cloth as last, dye in a
madder bath, remove the cloth, add a little
acetate or sulphate of iron, and again pass it
through the bath, as long as necessary.
5. Give the cloth a light blue ground
with indigo, and then a mordant of alum;
rinse, and lastly run it through a bath of
madder.
6. A mordant of alum and tartar, followed
by, first a bath of madder, and afterwards a
bath of weld or fustic to which a little iron-
liquor has been previously added. In this
way every shade, from MoRDORÉ and CINNA-
MON to DARK CHESTNUT, may be produced.
7. Boil fustic-chips, 1 lb., for 2 hours; pass

270 BROWN PIGMENTS_BRUCIA.
the cloth through the bath for 1 hour; take
it out and drain; add of green copperas, 14 oz. ;
good madder, 4 oz. ; boil for a short time, and
again pass the cloth through the bath,
until it acquires the proper tint. BRONZE-
BROWNS, and every similar shade, may be thus
given by varying the proportions.
e. The following are called SUB'STANTIVE
Or DIRECT BROWNS :—
1. Decoction of oak-bark. It dyes wool of
a fast brown of various shades, according to
the quantity employed. A mordant of alum
brightens it.
2. Infusion or decoction of walnut-peels.
Dyes wool and silk a brown, which is bright-
ened by alum. -
3. Horse-chestnut-peels. A mordant of
chloride of tin turns it on the BRONZE; and
sugar of lead, on the REDDISH-BROWN. 0
4. Catechu or Terra Japonica. For cot-
tons. Blue vitriol turns it on the BRONZE,
and green copperas darkens it, when applied
as mordants. Acetate of alumina as a mor-
dant brightens it. The French colouf, CAR-
MELITE, is given with 1 lb. of catechu, 4 oz. of
verdigris, and 5 oz. of sal-ammoniac. : -
5. Sulphate or chloride of manganese. Dis-
solved in water with a little tartaric acid, it
gives the bronze tint called sol17AIRE. The
stuff, after being passed through the solution,
is turned through a weak lye of potash, and
afterwards through another of chloride of
lime, to heighten and fix it. . .
6. Prussiate of copper. This gives a fine
BRONZE or YELLOWISH-BROWN to silk. A
mordant of blue vitriol is commonly first given,
followed by a bath of prussiate of potash.
BROWN PIG/MENTS. The principal and
most useful of these are—umber, terra di
Sienna (both burnt and raw), Spanish brown,
and some of the ochres. Brown, of almost
any shade, may be made by the admixture of
blacks with reds and yellows, or with greens,
in different proportions. See BISTRE, NEW-
CASTLE-BLACK," OCHRES, SEPTA, &c.
Spanish Brown. See OCHRES.
BROWN PINK. See YELLOW. PIGMENTS.
BROWN’ING. In cookery, a fluid prepara-
tion used to colour and flavour gravies, soups,
Prep. 1. Sugar, 4 oz. ; and butter, 1 oz. ;
are melted in a frying-pan or ladle with about
a tablespoonful of water, and the heat is con-
tinued until the whole has turned of a deep
brown; the heat is then lowered a little, and
some port wine (about 1 pint) is gradually
poured in ; the pan is now removed from the
fire, and the mixture well stirred until the
roasted sugar is entirely dissolved; it is then
put into a bottle, and 3 oz. each, of bruised
pimento and black pepper, 5 or 6 shalots (cut
small), a little mace and finely grated lemon-
peel, and # pint of mushroom catsup, added.
The bottle is shaken daily for a week, and the
clear liquid, after 5 or 6 days’ repose, decanted
1 Under BLACK PIGMENTs. -
into another bottle. Rich-flavoured, but ex-
pensive. -
2. As the last, but using strong beer, or
water, instead of wine. A glassful of spirit
may be added after bottling it.
3. Sugar-colouring 1 pint; salt, # lb.;
mushroom-catsup, # pint; spice, q. S. Ex-
cellent for all ordinary purposes.
4. Lump sugar (powdered), 2% lbs. ; salad
oil, ; lb.; heat as before; then add, of port
wine, 1 quart ; Cape wine, 3 quarts; shalots,
6 oz. ; mixed spice, 4 oz. ; black pepper, 3 oz.:
mace, 1 oz. ; salt, 1 lb. ; lemon juice, 1 pint;
catsup, 1 quart ; mix well.
5. Good spirit-colouring or sugar-colouring
and mushroom-catsup, of each, 1 gal. ; Ja-
maica pepper, black pepper, and shalots, of
each, 4 oz. ; cloves, cassia, and mace, bruised,
of each # oz. ; boil in a covered vessel for 5
minutes; digest for 14 days, and strain.
6. Colouring, 3 pints; mushroom-catsup, 1
pint; common salt, # lb. ; Chili vinegar,
(strongest), ; pint ; spice, q. S. Half a pint of
British brandy or rum may be added.
Obs. The above are excellent additions to
gravies, soups, &c.; and of themselves form
most admirable sauces for fish, meat, and
game. -
Browning (for Gun-Barrels).
following are current formulae:—
1. Blue vitriol, 4 oz. ; tincture of muriate of
iron, 2 oz. ; water, 1 quart ; dissolve, and add
aquafortis and sweet spirit of nitre, of each,
1 oz. -
2. Blue vitriol and sweet spirit of nitre, of
each, 1 oz. ; aquafortis, 3 oz. ; water, 1 pint;
as last. -
3. Butter of antimony and sweet oil, equal
parts; well shaken together. To be applied
to the iron previously warmed.
Obs. The above fluids are rubbed on the
barrel (previously well polished and cleaned
off with whiting to remove the oil), and
allowed to remain on for some hours, or until
the next day, when they are rubbed off with
a stiff brush. The process may be repeated,
if necessary. The barrel is next washed in
water in which a little pearlash or soda has
been dissolved, and afterwards well rinsed in
clean water; it is then polished, either with
the burnisher, or with a brush and bees' wax.
Sometimes a coat of tough shellac varnish is
applied.
BRU'CEA* (-sh’ā). False cusparia (which

Prep. The

see).
BRU’CIA. CºHoº N2O4. 4 Aq. [Eng, Fr.]
Syn. BRU'CINE ; BRU’CINA, L. An alkaloid dis-
covered, by Pelletier and Caventou, in the
bark of bruſcia antidysenter'ica, and afterwards
associated with strychnia, in nua, vomica.
Prep. Ground nux vomica, or the bark of
brucia antidysenterica, is boiled in dilute sul-
phuric acid, and the resulting decoction mixed
with hydrate of lime (in excess); the crude
precipitate thus obtained is boiled in alcohol
(sp. gr. 850), and the tincture filtered whilst
BRUISE—BUG. 271
hot. A mixture of crude strychnia and brucia
is deposited as the fluid cools, and the remainder
is obtained by evaporation. This is powdered
and digested in cold alcohol, which dissolves
out the brucia; the solution furnishes crystals
on spontaneous evaporation. It may be further
purified by re-crystallisation from alcohol.
Prop. Soluble in 850 parts of cold, and
about 500 parts of hot water; freely soluble
in alcohol; added to the dilute acids until they
are neutralised, it forms crystallisable salts,
easily obtained by evaporation.
Tests. It is distinguished from strychnia,
which in many respects it resembles, by its
ready solubility in both dilute and absolute
alcohol, and its insolubility in ether. With
nitric acid it strikes a fine red colour, which
is removed by sulphuretted hydrogen and sul-
phurous acid. Iodic acid, chloric acid, and
chlorine, also turn it red.
BRUISE (brööze). Syn. CoNTU's Io, CoN-
TU's UM, L.; CoNTUSION, MEURTRISSURE, Fr. ;
BRAUSCHE, QUETSCHUNG, &c., Ger. A con-
tusion; but in popular language applied
chiefly to cases in which there is an extravasa-
tion of blood owing to the rupture of the
minute vessels, with consequent discoloration
or tumefaction of the part.
Treatm. In common cases, sufficiently
serious, bruises may be rubbed with a little
opodel.doc or soap-liniment; or, if the inflam-
mation be considerable, they may be bathed
with a little weak goulard water, or with
vinegar and water. In more severe cases
leeches may be applied. See CONTUSION.
BRUNS/WICK BLACK. See WARNISHES.
BRUNS/WICK GREEN. See GREEN PIG-
MENTS.
BRY'0NIN (-nin). A peculiar bitter prin-
ciple extracted from the root of white bryony
(bryonia dioica, Jacq.). It is obtained from
the dry extract of the expressed juice, by so-
lution in alcohol, filtration, and cautious
evaporation.
Prop., &c. A yellowish-white mass. It is
a drastic *purgative; and, in large doses,
poisonous. It enters into the composition
of several quack medicines.
BUBBLE-AND-SQUEAK. In cookery, a
species of olla podrida variously prepared, as
the materials and fancy of the maker dic-
tate.
Prep. (Rundell.) Take slices of cold meat,
fry them quickly until brown, and put them
into a dish to keep them hot. Then clean the
pan from the fat; put in it greens and carrots
(previously boiled and chopped small); add a
little butter, pepper, and salt; make them
very hot, and put them round the beef with a
little gravy. Cold boiled pork is a better ma.
terial for bubble and squeak than beef. In
either case the slices should be very thin and
lightly fried.
BUB/BLE FEWER+. See PEMPHIGUS.
BU/CHU (-kū). The plant dios'ma crena'ta
(which see).
as it is excessively inflammable.
BUCK'THORN. Syn. RHAM'NUs, L. The
rham'nus cathar’ticus (Linn.). Berries (BAC/CE
RHAM/NI, L.), cathartic; juice of the berries
(SUC/CUs R., L.) is officinal in the B. P. See
RHAMNINE, SYRUPS, &c.
BUCK/WHEAT. See WHEAT.
BUG. Syn. CI’MEX, L.; PUNAIsà, Fr. ;
WANZE, Ger. A name popularly and very
loosely applied to a vast number of insects
that infest houses and plants; in zoology,
hemipterous insects of the genus ‘cimex,” of
which there are many hundred species; appr.,
the bed-bug.
Bug. Syn. BED'-BUG, Hous E^-B., WALL-B.,
WALL/-LOUSE*, &c.; CI’MEX Dom ESTICUS,
C. LECTULA"RIUS (Linn.), L.; PUNAISE, Fr.;
BETTWANZE, HKUSWANZE, Ger. An insect
too well known in all the larger towns of
Europe and America, and in the huts of squalid
poverty everywhere, to require a description
here. It is almost the only species of the bug-
kind that has undeveloped wings.” Its intro-
duction to England is believed to have occurred
soon after the great Fire of London (A.D. 1666).
Human blood appears to be its favourite food;
but it will also eat grain, seed, flour, dried
paste, size, soft deal, beech, osier, &c. Cedar,
mahogany, and the odorous and harder woods,
are usually avoided by this insect. Aromatics,
perfumes, and strong odours generally, are un-
favorable to its propagation.
Easterm., &c. Various means have been
adopted to prevent the accession, and to de-
stroy or drive away, these enemies of “tired
nature's sweet restorer, balmy sleep.” Among
the most certain of these is thorough cleanli-
ness, and ventilation. The furniture brokers
put articles infested with these insects into a
room with doors and windows fitting quite
close, and subject them to the fumes of burning
sulphur or chlorine gas. In the small way,
poisonous washes are commonly resorted to.
For this purpose nothing is more effective
than chloride of lime or chloride of zinc.; the
latter being preferable to the other on account
of its being comparatively scentless.
The following mixtures are in common use,
or have been recommended for this purpose:–
1. Corrosive sublimate (in powder) and hy-
drochloric acid, of each, 1 oz. ; hot water, #
pint ; agitate them together until the first is
completely dissolved. It is applied with a
paint-brush, observing to rub it well into the
cracks and joints. This is the common “bug
wash’ of the shops. It is a deadly poison
2. As the last, but substituting 2 oz. of sal-
ammoniac for the hydrochloric acid.
3. Oil of turpentine, 1 pint; camphor, 2 oz.;
dissolve. Very cleanly and effective.
4. Tobacco-water, made by steeping 2 oz.
of good shag in 1 pint of warm water, for a
few hours.
5. Crude pyroligneous acid. -
6. Coal-tar naphtha. This, as well as No. 3
(above) should never be used by candle-light,
When the


272 BUGLE-BURGLARIES.
smell of the common naphtha is objectionable,
benzol or benzine may be used instead. The
celebrated nostrum vended under the name of
“Insecticide” is said to be nothing but
benzol,
7. Sulphurated potash (in powder), 6 oz.;
soft soap, # lb. ; oil of turpentine, 3 pint, or
q. s, to make a species of soft ointment. The
odour of the last three (Nos. 5, 6, 7) is rather
persistent and disagreeable; but they are very
effective.
8. Strong mercurial ointment, soft soap, and
oil of turpentine, equal parts, triturated to-
gether. Rather greasy and dirty.
9, Scotch or Welsh snuff, mixed with twice
its weight of soft soap.
10. Sulphur, or squills, in impalpable powder,
blown into the cracks or joints, or scattered in
a fine cloud, by means of a hollow ball or
balloon of vulcanised India rubber filled with
it and furnished with a small wooden jet or
mouth-piece, or in any other convenient man-
ner. Very cleanly and effective. Dumont’s
* Patent Vermin Killer,’ as well as the whole
host of imitations of it, is of this kind.
Obs. Out of the above list there is ample
room for selection. The common practice is
to take the bedstead, or other piece of furni-
ture, to pieces, before applying them.
These pests exist only in dirty houses. A care-
ful housewife or servant will soon completely de-
stroy them. The surest methodof destruction is
to catch them individually when they attack the
person in bed. When their bite is felt, instantly
rise and light a candle and capture them.
This may be troublesome, but if there be not
a great number a few nights will finish them.
When there is a large number, and they have
gained a lodgment in the timbers, take the
bed in pieces, and fill in all the apertures and
joints with a mixture of soft soap and Scotch
snuff. A piece of wicker-work, called a BUG-
TRAP, placed at the head of the bed, forms a
receptacle for them, and then they may be
daily caught till no more are left. Oil-painting
a wall is a sure means of excluding and de-
stroying them. It has been asserted that these
insects are so fond of narrow-leaved dittany or
pepperwort (lepidium ruderale), that if a
bunch of it be suspended near their haunts,
they will settle in it, and may be thus easily
captured. It is said to be commonly used as
a bug-trap in some of our rural districts.
Water, poured boiling from the spout of a
kettle into the cracks and joints, is a cleanly
and certain remedy, which we have often seen
employed; so also is a jet of steam; they are
both destructive to all insects, and will be
found particularly so to beetles.
The proper time for attacking these pests is
early in March, or shortly before they are re-
vived from their dormant state by the warm
weather. See INSECTS.
Har'vest Bug. See ACARI.
BU'GLE (bu'gl). An elongated cylindrical
glass bead. See BEAD.
BUN'ION (-yūn). A species of corn or
swelling on the ball of the great toe, resulting
from pressure, and irritation by friction. The
treatment recommended for corns applies also
to bunions ; but in consequence of the greater
extension of the disease, the cure is more
tedious. A bunion may often be effectually
stopped and removed by poulticing it, and, at
the proper time, carefully opening it with a
lancet. See CoRNS.
BUN. A well-known kind of light, sweet
cake.
Prep. 1. BATH-BUNs:—As 6, but adding a
little candied lemon and orange peel, and put-
ting a little grated peel and a few caraway
comfits on the top of each.
2. CROSS-BUNS:—Flour,2}lbs.; sifted sugar,
# lb.; coriander seeds, cassia, and mace, of
each (powdered), q. s. ; make a paste with
butter, 3 lb. ; (dissolved in) hot milk, 3 pint;
work with three table-spoonfuls of yeast; set
it before the fire for an hour to rise, then make
it into buns, and set them before the fire on a
tin for half an hour; lastly, brush them over
with warm milk, and bake them to a nice brown
in a moderate oven.
3. MADEIRA-BUNS:—Butter, 8 oz. ; 2 eggs;
flour, 1 lb.; powdered sugar, 6 oz. ; half a
nutmeg (grated); powdered ginger and cara-
way seeds, of each, 3 teaspoonful; work well
together, then add as much milk as required,
and ferment; lastly, bake on tins in a quick
OVen.
4. PLAIN BUNS:—Flour, 2 lbs.; butter, 4 lb.;
sugar, 6 oz. ; a little salt, caraway, and ginger;
make a paste with yeast, 4 spoonfuls, and
warm milk, q. S.; as before.
5. PENNY-BUNs:—To the last add of cur-
rants, well washed, ; b. ; and water, stained
by steeping a little saffron in it, q. S. to give a
light yellow tinge to them.
6. RICH BUNs:—Fine flour, 3 lbs. ; sugar,
1 lb. ; butter, 2 lbs. (melted, and beat with);
rose water, 4 oz. ; currants, 1 lb.; yeast, #
pint ; as before.
Obs. The great secret in proddºcing good
buns is, the use of sweet yeast and the best
currants only, and thoroughly washing these
last in a sieve or colander, to remove grit,
before adding them to the dough.
BURG/LARIES. The common precautions
of locks and bolts, alarum-bells and fire-arms,
are frequently found useless in preserving
houses from burglars; but a light in the upper
part of the house, or a small dog on the
ground-floor, with the means of running into
a place of safety from its enemies, has been
seldom known to fail. A combination of the
two would undoubtedly be doubly effective.
The bark of the dog, and the fear of detection
by the approach of the light, would deter the
majority of rogues of common pluck and
feeling. A dog out of doors, and consequently
accessible, however large and fierce, is easily
pacified or silenced by men of the class re-
ferred to.


BURNS BUTTER. 273
BURNS1 and Scalds.2 Treatm. When the
injury is superficial and slight, a little creosote
may be applied to the part. If a scald, the
vesicle should be first pierced with a needle,
or what is better, snipped with a pair of scis-
sors, and the water which it contains should be
then gently squeezed out. When creosote is
not procurable, a liniment formed of equal
parts of soft soap, basilicon ointment, oil of
turpentine, and water, may be used instead.
When the part feels very hot and painful, a
poultice may be applied, on the surface of
which a few drops of creosote, or of the lini-
ment, should be spread with a knife. This
treatment will generally succeed in allaying
the pain. It may be followed by a dressing of
spermaceti ointment, or any other like simple
emollient or unctuous preparation. Creosote,
contrary to what is commonly asserted, pro-
duces scarcely any smarting or pain; whilst it
rapidly removes the burning sensation, and
the charred surface soon assumes a dry scabby
appearance, which, by dressing with simple
ointment, soon comes off and leaves the part
beneath in a sound and healthy state. If a
poultice be applied it is best to keep it on until
the next day. Plunging the part into very cold
water immediately after the receipt of an
injury of this kind, will frequently prevent any
further remedy being required. In all cases
cooling laxatives should be administered; and
the diet should be rather low until the inflam-
matory symptoms subside.
BURN"ING-GLASS, See LENS.
BUTEA FRONDOSA, Roab. (Ind. Ph.) Syn.
BENGAL KINo TREE. Habitat. Common all
over India.-Officinal part. The inspissated
juice obtained from the stem by incision (Bu-
tea Gummi, Kino Bengalensis, Bengal kino).
It occurs in the form of irregular shining frag-
ments, seldom as large as a pea; more or less
mixed with adherent pieces of grayish bark;
of an intense ruby colour and astringent taste;
soluble, but not freely so, in water and in
alcohol. Its astringency is due to the presence
of tannic and gallic acids.-Prop. & Uses.
Similar to those of kino, for which it has been
found an efficient substitute.-Prep. Same as
those of kino. -
BUTTER. [Eng., Ger.] Syn. BUTY'RUM,
L.; BEURRE, Fr.; BUTER, BUTERA, Sax. The
fatty matter obtained from cream by churn-
ing it.
Manuf. The process of making butter by
the common operation of churning is extremely
simple, and is well known. The chief objects
to attend to, are maintaining a proper tem-
perature, and a certain degree of exposure to
the air. Extreme cleanliness must also be
observed; the churn and other utensils being
frequently scalded out with water. When the
butter is “come,” it should be put into a fresh-
scalded pan, or tub, which has been standing
in cold water, cold water poured on it, and
after it has acquired some hardness, it should
be well beaten with a flat board until not the
least taste of the buttermilk remains, and the
water, which must be often changed, becomes
quite colourless and tasteless. A little salt
may then be worked into it; after which it
may be weighed and made into “forms,' which
should then be thrown into cold water con-
tained in an earthen pan provided with a cover.
In this way nice and cool butter may be ob-
tained in the hottest weather.
At Dumbarton, the newly separated butter
is put into a clean vessel, and a corn sickle is
drawn several times crosswise through it, to
extract any hairs that may adhere to it. This
operation is performed in very cold spring
water, and is followed by thoroughly washing
it therein. 10 oz. of salt are now added to
every stone-weight" of the butter, and well
mixed in.
In Devonshire, the milk is generally scalded
in copper pans over a charcoal or wood fire,
and the cream collected as soon as it rises, or,
and more frequently, when the whole has got
cold. It is then churned in the usual way. On
the small scale, the butter is commonly obtained
from this cream by patiently working it with
the hand in a shallow pan or tub. Without
care the cream is apt to absorb some of the
fumes from the charcoal, which impart a pecu-
liar taste to the butter. This is the reason
why some of the Devonshire butter has a slight
smoky flavour. It may be removed by tho-
rough washing in cold water. Of late years,
in the large dairy-farms of Devonshire, covered
flues, with openings to receive the bottoms of
the pans, have superseded open fires, by which
the danger of contamination from the fumes
is removed.
Choice. Fresh butter has a pleasant odour
and is of an equal colour throughout
its substance. If it smells sour, the butter-
milk has not been well washed out; and if
it is streaked or veiny, it is probably mixed
with stale butter or lard. A good way to try
butter is to thrust a knife into it, which should
not smell rancid and unpleasant when with-
drawn. Rancid and stale butter, when eaten
in quantity, is capable of producing dangerous
symptoms.
Pur. The cheaper kinds of butter are fre-
quently adulterated with common wheat-flour,
oatmeal, pea-flour, lard, &c., as well as with a
large quantity of salt and water. The trick
is concocted between the Irish factors and the
London dealers. The higher priced article is
seldom mixed with anything beyond an excess
of salt and water, notwithstanding the as-
sertions of alarmists to the contrary. The
presence of lard may be detected by the flavour
and paleness of the colour. A little of the
sample adulterated with the other substances
named, if melted in a glass tube or phial, will
separate into strata, which are very marked

1 BURN, s. sing.; AMBUs'TIo, L.; BRöLURE, Fr.;
BRAND, BRANDMAHL, Ger.
* See ScALDs (under S).
when cold.
18
274 BUTTER—BUTTER-MILK.
Preservation. 1. Melt the butter in a stone-
ware or a well-glazed earthen pan set in a
water bath at a heat not exceeding 180°Fahr.,
and keep it heated, skimming it from time to
time, until it becomes quite transparent; then
pour off the clear portion into another vessel,
and cool it as quickly as possible, by placing
the vessel in very cold water or ice. This is the
method employed by the Tartars who supply
the Constantinople market. In this state it
may be preserved perfectly fresh for 6 or 9
months, if kept in a close vessel and a cool
place. This is the plan so strongly recom-
mended by M. Thénard. Mr. Eaton states
that butter melted by the Tartarian method,
and then salted by ours, will keep good and
fine-tasted for two years.
2. Saltpetre and white sugar, of each, 1 oz. ;
best Spanish great-salt (or Cheshire large-
grained salt), 2 oz.; all in very fine powder;
mix thoroughly, and add 1 oz. of this mixture
to every lb. of butter, and thoroughly incor-
porate them together. The butter thus pre-
pared is then to be tightly pressed into clean
glazed earthenware vessels (or well-seasoned
casks), so as to leave no vacuities. This plan
is recommended by Dr. Anderson, who declares
that “butter so prepared will keep in a cool
place for years; and will bear a voyage to the
East Indies, if packed (stowed) so as not to
melt.” It does not taste well before it has
stood for three or four weeks, after which it
acquires a rich marrow-like flavour, which no
other butter ever possesses. A good method
to preserve the butter from the air, is to fill
the pots to within an inch of the top, then to
lay on it some coarse-grained salt to the depth
of a # to # an inch, and lastly to cover each
pot with a slate, plate, or other flat article.
The salt by long keeping runs to brine, which
forms an air-tight layer on the top of the butter,
and may at any time be very easily removed
by turning the pot on one side.
3. Fresh butter, 21 lbs. ; salt, 1 lb. ; salt-
petre, 1 oz. These are the common proportions
for the best salt butter of the shops.
4. Fresh butter, 18 lbs. ; salt, 1 lb. ; salt-
petre, 1% oz. ; honey or fine brown sugar, 2 oz.
Superior to No. 3. -
Concl. remarks. It may be useful to know
that rancid butter may be restored, or, in all
cases greatly improved, by melting it in a
water bath with some fresh-burnt and coarsely
powdered animal charcoal (which has been tho-
roughly freed from dust by sifting), and strain-
ing it through clean flannel. A better and less
troublesome method is to well wash the butter
first with some good new milk, and next with
cold spring water. Butyric acid, on the pre-
sence of which rancidity depends, is freely
soluble in fresh milk. -
The turnip-flavour, arising from the cows
being fed on turnips or cabbages, is said to be
removed by one or other of the following
methods:—1. When the milk is strained into
the pans, put to every 6 galls., 1 gal. of boiling
water.—2. Dissolve 1 oz. of nitre in a pint of
spring water, and put a # pint of the solution
to every 15 galls. of milk.-3. Keep back a
# pint of the sour cream when you churn, and
put it into a well-scalded pot, into which you
are to gather the next cream; stir that well,
and do so with every fresh addition. Each of
these methods come on good authority, but we
are bound to say, that our own experience does
not confirm their constant success. We have
found that the addition of a handful of salt to
the water used to wash the butter, is as good
a plan as any.
Butter, Ancho'vy. From anchovies (boned
and beaten to a paste), 1 part; butter, 2 parts;
Spice, q. S.
Butter, Clar'ified. Fresh butter melted in a
water bath, allowed to settle, and the clear
portion poured into an earthenware basin or
pot, set in cold water, so as to cool it as
quickly as possible, without allowing it to
crystallise. It keeps a long time without be-
coming rank. See BUTTER, No. 1 (anté).
Butter, Hon’ey. Fine Narbonne-honey, 2 to
4 oz. ; mixed with good butter, 1 lb. Used as a
delicacy for children, and by the sick and aged.
Butter, Lem'on. See ORANGE BUTTER.
Butter, Melt'ed. This well-known sauce may
be prepared of excellent quality as follows:–
Beat up about 1 oz. of fine flour with 4 oz. of
butter, in the cold, until they are evenly and
thoroughly mixed, then add 4 or 5 table-
spoonfuls of hot milk, put the whole into a
small saucepan, and continue shaking it, all
in one direction, until it simmers very gently;
lastly, remove it from the fire, and pour it
into the butter-boats for use. These last
should be filled with hot water, and them,
emptied and wiped dry, before putting the
melted butter into them. See SAUCES.
Butter, Or'ange. Prep. 1. From 6 eggs, 2
oz. of powdered sugar, and 4 oz. of butter,
well beaten together with a little orange-
flower water. Sometimes 1 or 2 oz. of blanched
almonds, or of almond-paste, is added.
2. Butter, 1 lb.; syrup of orange peel, 4 oz.
Both are eaten as a delicacy. LEMON-BUTTER
is made in a similar manner.
Butter of An'timony”. Trichloride of an-
timony.
Butter of Cacao.
NUT OIL.
Butter of Nut’megs. Collected from the
surface of the water in the still, after the dis-
tillation of the essential oil of nutmegs.
Butter of Roſses. Obtained by distilling
damask roses. It separates slowly from the
water in the receiver. It has little smell, and
is hence used to dilute the odour of musk, am-
bergris, and civet.
Butter of Wax. Prepared by distilling bees'-
wax. A factitious kind is also made.
Butter of Zincºjº. Chloride of zinc.
BUTTER-MILK. The liquid that remains
after the butter is separated from the cream.
Qual., &c. Butter-milk left from the
See Co'CoA, and Co'COA-
BUTTONS-CADMIUM. 275
churning of sweet cream is not only very de-
licious, but exceedingly wholesome and nu-
tritious. It is eaten with fruit, puddings, and
cakes, and is said to possess the property of
allaying the nervous irritability induced by
excessive tea-drinking. It is an admirable
beverage in rickets, diabetes, and many sto-
mach affections. An American physician has
recently asserted that it induces longevity.
See MILK.
BUT"TONS. See BRASS, GILDING, &c.
BU'TYRATE. [Eng., Fr.] Syn. BU'TYRAs,
L. A salt in which the hydrogen of butyric
acid is replaced by a basic radical.
Butyrate of Barium. Prep. Saponify butter
with a boiling solution of caustic alkali, and
decompose the resulting soap by adding a so-
lution of tartaric acid; filter and distil; neu-
tralise the distillate with hydrate of barium,
and evaporate; the first crystals that form
are caprate of barium; the next, caproate of
barium; and the last, butyrate of barium.
This salt is very soluble in water, and hence
is easily separated from the others.-Use.
Chiefly for making butyric acid.
BUTYRIC (-tir'.) Syn. BUTYR'ICUs, L.;
BUTYRIQUE, Fr. Of or from butter.
BUTYRIC ACID. HC, H,0s. Syn. ACIDUM
BUTYR'ICUM, L.; ACIDE BUTYRIQUE, Fr. ;
BUTTERSAURE, Ger. An oily acid, first ob-
tained by Chevreul, from butter.
Prep. From butyrate of barium or magne-
sium, by adding sulphuric acid in quantity
not quite sufficient to decompose the whole of
the salt; the clear liquid filtered, and dis-
tilled, yields butyric acid, from which the
water may be removed by digestion with chlo-
ride of calcium.
Prop. A thin colourless liquid, of pungent
rancid odour, and sour taste, miscible with
water and alcohol. It boils and distils un-
changed at 327° Fahr. Sp. gr. 1963. See
ETHERS.
BU'TYRIN (-in). [Eng., Fr.] An oily
substance existing in butter, and of which it
forms the characteristic portion. It was dis-
covered by Chevreul.
Prep. Keep clarified butter in a porcelain
vessel, at a heat of 66°, for some days; care-
fully collect the oily portion which separates,
mix it with an equal weight of alcohol of the
sp. gr. 796, and agitate it frequently for 24
hours; after repose pour off the clear portion,
and evaporate it; treat the oily residuum with
a little carbonate of magnesium, to remove
free acid, and wash off the butyrate of mag-
nesium, thus formed, with water; lastly, heat
the remaining fatty matter in alcohol, filter,
and evaporate, by a gentle heat; the residuum
is butyrin.
BUX'INE (in). An alkaline substance, de-
tected by M. Faure, in buw'us semper'virens,
or the common box-tree.
CABB'AGE.
Fr.; KoRI, Ger.
Syn. BRAS's ICA, L.; CHOU,
This common esculent, and
all its numerous varieties, are merely culti-
wated specimens of the wild sea-cabbage of
our coasts (bras'sica olera'cea, Linn.), one of
an extensive and valuable genus of plants be-
longing to the nat. ord. Cruciferae. After the
potato, the cabbage is doubtless more exten-
sively used by the masses of the people, than
any other fresh vegetable. When young, and
properly dressed, it forms an agreeable and
wholesome addition to animal food, the gross-
ness of which, it is said, it tends to correct.
It should be eaten only when fresh gathered
and fresh cooked; and the unconsumed por-
tion, as well as the water in which it has been
boiled, should be at once thrown away. Per-
sons troubled with a weak digestion, or who
have a tendency to flatulence, diarrhoea, or
worms, would do well to avoid them. Their
use is particularly serviceable in scurvy, and
in numerous skin diseases.
It has been asserted that cabbages, cauli-
flowers, broccoli, celery, and several other
culinary vegetables, may be preserved in a
fresh state for some time, by cutting them so
that they may have about two inches of stem
left below the leaves, scooping out the pith as
far down as a small knife will reach, and then
suspending them perpendicularly by means of
a cord, in an inverted position, in some cool
situation, and daily filling up the bottom part
of the stem with clean cold water. In this
way it is stated that a supply of green vege-
tables may be readily obtained during a severe
winter, and on ship-board. Other methods,
including those usually adopted with the
same object, are noticed under VEGETABLES
(Culinary).
Cabbages, broccoli, &c., are dressed by simply
throwing them into boiling water, and sim-
mering them until tender. A few minutes is
sufficient for this purpose. A pinch of salt
of tartar, or of carbonate of soda, is commonly
added to the water, to preserve the green colour.
of the vegetables.
CACHOU AROMATISE (kāshoo #römātāzā).
[Fr.] A mouth-lozenge intended to sweeten
and perfume the breath. Preparations of this
description are much used by smokers and
bacchanals. The form under which they are
generally prepared for sale, is that of 1% to
2 gr. pills, neatly silvered. Originally they
were composed chiefly of catechu and sugar,
flavoured and perfumed with the stronger
aromatics; but at the present day the catechu,
from which they derive their name, is not un-
frequently omitted. Their preparation is de-
scribed elsewhere. See BREATH, LozENGES,
PASTILS, &c. -
CAD/MIUM. Cd. [Eng., L.] Syn. KLA-
PRO'THIUM. A metal discovered by Stromeyer
and Hermann, in the ores of zinc.
Prep. 1. (Stromeyer.) The cadmo-zincic
ore is dissolved in an excess of dilute -sul-
phuric or hydrochloric acid, by heat; a stream
of sulphuretted hydrogen is passed through
the solution, the resulting precipitate (sul-

276 CADMIUM.
phide of cadmium) dissolved in nitric acid,
and the solution evaporated to dryness; the
residuum is dissolved in water, the solution
precipitated with carbonate of ammonium in
excess, and the precipitate (carbonate of cad-
mium) collected, mixed with charcoal, and
heated to redness in a crucible apparatus so
arranged as to condense the fumes; the cad-
mium sublimes.
2. (Wollaston.) A solution of the ore ob-
tained as above is placed in a platinum capsule,
and a piece of metallic zinc is plunged into it.
In a short time the cadmium is precipitated,
and attaches itself to the sides of the capsule,
when it is collected, washed, and dried.
3. (Herapath.) When zinc is obtained by
distilling its ores, per descensum, the first por-
tion of the metallic fumes evolved burn with
a brownish flame, and deposit oxide of cad-
mium, which is subsequently reduced by dis-
tillation with charcoal. Thousands of pounds
of cadmium are yearly wasted at the zinc
works which might be easily collected in a
similar manner.
Prop., &c. Resembles tin in most of its
physical properties, being white, soft, and mal-
leable. Sp. gr. 8:61. Stromeyer gives its
melting-point as 442°Fahr, but Dr. Wood, an
American chemist, states that the metal re-
quires for its fusion nearly the same heat as
lead, and gives it as about 600°Fahr, It vo-
latilises at a somewhat higher temperature,
giving off orange-coloured, Suffocating fumes,
which, when inhaled too freely, leave a dis-
agreeable, sweetish, styptic sensation upon the
lips, and a persistent brassy taste in the mouth,
with constriction of the throat, heaviness in
the head, and nausea. The alloys of cadmium
are said to be brittle, by almost all who have
treated of them, but Wood found that many
were extremely tenacious, as, for instance, the
combination of 2 parts of silver and 1 part of
cadmium, which is perfectly malleable and
very strong. The amalgam of equal parts of
cadmium and mercury is also highly malleable,
Like bismuth, cadmium has the property of
promoting fusibility in certain alloys; thus, a
remarkable fusible metal may be formed by
melting together cadmium 1 to 2 parts, lead 2
parts, and tin 4 parts.
Tests. Its ores and salts are recognised as
follows:–1. Mixed with carbonate of sodium,
and exposed on a charcoal support to the re-
ducing flame of the blowpipe, the charcoal be-
comes almost instantly covered with a reddish-
yellow inérustation of oxide of cadmium, com-
monly forming a circle or zone.—2. Caustic
soda and potassa give a white precipitate (hy-
drated oxide) in solutions containing cadmium,
insoluble in excess of the precipitant.—3. Am-
monia gives a similar white precipitate, freely
soluble in excess.-4. The alkaline carbonates
give white precipitates (carbonate of cadmium),
insoluble in excess.-5. Sulphuretted hydro-
gen, and sulphydrate of ammonium, give a
bright yellow precipitate (sulphide of cad-
mium), which is insoluble in dilute acid, al-
kalies, sulphides, and cyanide of potassium,
but readily soluble in both hydrochloric acid
and nitric acid, especially with heat.—6. The
salts of cadmium are readily distinguished from
those of arsenic, by the precipitated sulphide
being insoluble in ammonia, and soluble in hy-
drochloric acid, and being capable of sustain-
ing a white heat without subliming.
Cadmium, Carbonate of CdCog. Syn. CAD'-
MII CAR'BONAS, L. From a solution of sulphate
or chloride of cadmium, and an alkaline carbon-
ate; the precipitate being collected, washed,
and dried by a gentle heat. A white powder.
Cadmium, Chlo"ride of. CdCl2. Syn, HY-
DROCHLO’RATE OF CADMIUM, MU’’RIATE OF
CADMIUM ; CAD'MII CHLORI’DUM, CAD/MII
HYDROCHLo"RAs, L. Prep. 1. (Pure.) By
dissolving carbonate or oxide of cadmium in
hydrochloric acid, and crystallising by gentle
evaporation. Prismatic crystals; very soluble
in water.
2. (Turner.) By exposing the product of
the last process to heat. Amorphous.
3. From crude cadmium or its oxide, and
hydrochloric acid, as last.
Cadmium, I'odide of CdI2, Syn. HYDR1'0-
DATE OF CADMIUM ; CAD/MII IODI’DUM, C.
HYDRIO'DAs, L.
Prep. (Crookes.) Cadmium in filings 1 part,
pure iodine 2 parts, are to be placed together
in a capacious flask, with alcohol, sufficient to
cover them. Action commences at once, at-
tended with considerable evolution of heat;
when it ceases, heat the mixture till it is
colourless; then filter from a few grains of
cadmium which will remain undissolved, eva-
porate and crystallise.
Uses. In photography this salt has lately
been employed with great success for iodizing
collodion. Being very stable, it is not decom-
posed, and the collodion iodized with it pre-
serves its sensitiveness undiminished during
many months. (See CoILODION.) In medicine
it is used occasionally as a substitute for iodide
of lead,
Cadmium, Ox'ide of CdC). Syn. PROTOx'IDE
OF CADMIUM ; CAD/MII OXY"DUM, L. Prep. 1.
(Hydrated.) From sulphate or chloride of
cadmium, and a solution of caustic alkali; ob-
serving to well wash and dry the precipitate.
A white powder, freely soluble in acids.
2. (Anhydrous.) By igniting the hydrated
oxide, or the carbonate or nitrate of cadmium,
That from the first two has a pale brown colour;
that from the nitrate has a dark brown tint
and a semi-crystalline appearance. The former
has been proposed to be used as a pigment.
Cadmium, Sulphate of CdSOſ. Syn,
CAD/MII suiſ PHAs, CAD/MIUM SULPHU'RICUM,
KLAPRO'THRIUM SULPHU'RICUM, L. Prep. 1.
From carbonate or oxide of cadmium and dilute
sulphuric acid, as the chloride.
2. (Cottereau.) Oxide of cadmium, 1 oz.;
sulphuric acid, q. S.; dissolve, evaporate, and
crystallise.




CAESALPINA-CAFFEINE.
277
3. (Pereira.) Sulphuric acid, 6% parts;
water, 15 parts; mix; add cadmium, 7 parts;
dissolve, evaporate to dryness, redissolve in
water, filter, and evaporate by a gentle heat,
so that crystals may form.
Prop., &c. Efflorescent, rectangular, pris-
matic crystals; very soluble in water; tastes
astringent. It is about 4 times as strong as
sulphate of zinc, and is used in similar cases.
Dose. 3 to 10 grs. Eacternally (; to 3 or 4 grs.
to water, 1 oz.); in specks of the eye, opacity
of the cornea, chronic ophthalmia, &c. As an
ointment, 10 to 12 grs. to lard, 1 oz.
Cadmium, Sulphide of CdS. Syn. CADMIUM
YELLOW. This occurs native as GREENOCK/ITE.
It may be prepared artificially, either by fusing
its elements together, or by passing a stream
of sulphuretted hydrogen through a solution
of the chloride, nitrate, or sulphate. When
prepared artificially, it is of a bright yellow or
orange colour, and is of great value to the
artist. It has been used in making fireworks.
See FIRES, Coloured.
Cadmium Yellow. See SULPHIDE OF CAD-
MIUM (above) and YELLOW PIGMENTs.
CAESALPINA (GUILANDINA) BONDU-
CELLA. (Ind. Ph.) Habitat. Tropical portions
of both hemispheres.—Qfficinal part. The
seeds (Bonducellae Semina, Bondue seeds); of
a somewhat irregular sub-spherical or ovoid
form, usually from # to # of an inch in dia-
meter, smooth, hard, and lead-coloured, and
contain an amylaceous white nucleus, having
a bitter taste. They contain a fixed oil, resin,
and a bitter principle.—Properties. Tonic
and antiperiodic.—Therapeutic uses. In inter-
mittent fevers; also in debility, and other cases
requiring tonics.--Dose. 10 to 15 grains twice
daily.
CoMPOUND PowDER OF BONDUC (Pulvis
JBonducellae compositus). Take of bonduc
seeds, deprived of their shells and powdered, 1
oz. ; black pepper, powdered, 1 oz. Mix tho-
roughly, and keep in a well-stoppered bottle.
— Dose. 15 to 30 grs., three times a day.
CHESIUM. [Eng., L.] Cae. A metal be-
longing to the alkaline group, discovered by
Bunsen in the mineral water of Durckheim by
means of SPECTRUM ANALYSIS (which see), and
so named by him from caesius, grayish-blue,
the colour of its characteristic ray.
CAFFE'IC ACID. Syn. CHLOROGE'NIC ACID.
A white powder, discovered by Runge in coffee,
in which it exists in combination with potas-
sium (caffeiate of potassium), and caffeine, and
is then very soluble in alcohol. Pfaff states
that the aroma of coffee is dependent on the
volatilisation, or, rather, the decomposition of
this acid. -
CAFFE'INE, CŞHion,0s. Syn. CAFFE'INA,
THE'INE, GUARANINE'. A peculiar nitrogen-
ised principle, discovered by Robiquet in coffee.
It is, moreover, the essential principle of tea,
of Paraguay tea, and of Guarana, infusions of
which are used as beverages in different parts
of the world. The proportion of caffeine to
the pound was found by Liebig to be as stated
below in the six descriptions of coffee named:—
Martinique . . . . . 32 grains.
Alexandrian . . . . . 22 ,
Java. . . 22 ,
Mocha . . 20 ,,
Cayenne . . . . 19 ,,
St. Dominique . . 16 xx
In Hyson tea it exists in the proportion of
from 25 to 3.4 per cent. ; and in gunpowder
tea from 22 to 4:1. In Paraguay tea, or maté
as it is called in Brazil, and in Guarana, it
exists in the proportion of 13 per cent.
Prep. 1. Coarsely powdered raw or un-
roasted coffee, is boiled in water, and subacetate
of lead added to the filtered decoction to throw
down the extractive and colouring matter;
the excess of lead is next precipitated with
sulphuretted hydrogen, and the liquid filtered
and evaporated by a gentle heat; the residuum
is dissolved in boiling water, the solution agi-
tated with freshly burnt animal charcoal, fil-
tered, evaporated, and crystallised. By redis-
solving the product in hot alcohol, it may be
obtained in white, shining, silky filaments, as
the solution cools.
2. (H. J. Versman.) Quick-lime, 2 lbs.;
water, q. S. to form a hydrate; raw coffee
(bruised), 10 lbs. ; mix, put it into a displace-
ment apparatus, and cause alcohol of 80% to
percolate through the mixture, until the fluid
obtained no longer contains caffeine; the
mass in the percolator is then roughly ground
to powder, mixed with a fresh quantity of
quick-lime, and the process of percolation re-
peated with fresh alcohol, as before. The
spirit is next distilled from the mixed tinc-
tures in a retort, and the residuum washed
with a little warm water to remove the oil;
the evaporation is then gently conducted until
a crystalline mass is obtained, which is further
freed from adhering oil by pressure between
folds of blotting paper. It is purified by re-
dissolving it in boiling water or hot alcohol,
&c., as before.
3. (A. Vogel.) An extract of powdered
coffee is made with commercial benzol; this
being distilled off, leaves an oil and caffeine
behind; the oil is then removed by a little
ether or by hot water, from which latter liquid
the alkaloid crystallises on cooling.
4. From a hot infusion of tea-leaves by
treatment with subacetate of lead and sulphu-
retted hydrogen, as in process 1 (above).
Prop., &c. Soluble in 100 parts of cold
water; freely soluble in hot water and in
water acidulated with an acid; slightly soluble
in cold alcohol; it fuses at 352°Fahr., tastes
slightly bitter, and possesses feeble basic pro-
perties. With the sulphuric and hydrochloric
acids it forms crystallisable compounds. The
salts of caffeine may be made by dissolving it,
to saturation, in the dilute acid, and evapo-
rating the solution by a very gentle heat.




278 CAFFEONE–CAKES.
It forms splendid double salts with bichloride
of platinum and terchloride of gold.
Uses. Caffeine has been recommended in
those pains that affect only one side of the
head (hemicrania); in doses of 1 to 3 grs. Its
physiological action is very trifling, notwith-
standing all that has been said to the contrary.
Mr. Cooley took 20 grs. daily, of pure caffeine,
for above a month, without experiencing any
other effect than a very slight elevation of
spirits after each dose, similar to that produced
by a small quantity of spirits of sal-volatile.
It has been used lately with doubtful success
as an antidote to the poisonous effects of
opium. See CoFFEE, TEA, &c.
CAFFE'0NE. A brown, aromatic oil, formed
during the roasting of coffee.
CAJ'EPUT OIL. See OILs (Volatile).
CAKES. A species of fancy bread or trifle
familiar to every one.
Before proceeding to the actual operation of
cake-making, the various materials which are
to enter into their composition undergo a cer-
tain amount of preparation. For this purpose
every article is got ready about an hour pre-
viously to its being wanted, and is placed be-
fore the fire, or upon a stove, that it may be-
come gently heated. Without these precau-
tions it is impossible to produce good cakes.
The flour is thoroughly dried, and warmed.
The currants are nicely washed in a hair sieve,
wiped dry in a cloth, and then set before the
fire. Before use, they are dusted over with a
little flour. The sugar is rubbed to a fine
powder, and passed through a sieve. The eggs
are well beaten in a basin, and strained. The
butter is melted by being placed in a basin set
in hot water, and is afterwards well beaten up
with a little warm milk. The lemon peel is
cut very thin, and beaten in a mortar to a
paste or powder, with lump sugar; or for com-
mon purposes, it is grated. The caraways,
ginger, and other flavouring ingredients, are
preferred in the form of fine powder, or are
made into an essence, by digesting them in
spirit of wine; the first is the most common
‘method. The milk and water is made luke-
warm. When all these things are ready and
have stood a sufficient time, they are put into
a pan, one after another, in the proper order,
and well beaten together, by which the light-
ness of the cakes is considerably increased.
In plum cakes, as well as in some other
varieties, a little yeast may be added after
the butter, and the mass allowed to rise a
little, and then again well kneaded, by which
not only less butter and eggs may be used,
but the products will be both lighter and
more wholesome. Good stale bread, well
soaked in hot milk or water, and then beaten
to a paste, and passed through a fine sieve,
forms an excellent thing to mix up the in-
gredients with, and produces a very light and
nutritious cake. Cakes “wetted up” with
milk are richer, but do not keep so well as
those without it; they get stale sooner, and
when in that state are far from agreeable to
the palate. A kind of flour prepared from
maize or Indian corn has been recently intro-
duced to the notice of cooks, but it is better
adapted for puddings than for cakes. See
CORN-FLOUR.
Cakes are preferably baked on flat tins or in
little “tin shapes,” which should be first well
buttered.
Cakes should be kept for store in tin
canisters; wooden boxes, unless very well
seasoned, are apt to give them an unpleasant
taste. Brown-paper linings and wrappers
should be avoided for the same reason. See
BISCUITs, BREAD, BUN, ICING, STAINS, &c.
Cakes, Al'mond. Prep. 1. From sweet al-
monds (blanched and beaten to a smooth
paste), flour and powdered sugar, of each, 3 lb.;
7 eggs, and the outside peel of 4 lemons
(shredded small). The almonds, sugar, lemon
peel, and eggs, are beaten together, until as
white as sponge paste; the flour next worked
in, and the paste put into buttered moulds,
and baked in a slack oven, with 8 or 10 thick-
nesses of white paper under them and one or
two over them.
2. Almonds, 1 lb.; sugar, 4 lb.; rose water
or orange-flower water, 4 pint; flour, # lb.;
3 eggs; as above. Some persons ice these
cakes.
Cakes, Ban'bury. Prep. From butter and
dough fermented for white bread, of each, 1 lb.,
as in making puff paste, then rolled out very
thin, and cut it into oval or triangular pieces,
or other shapes. On these are placed a mix-
ture of currants and moist sugar, equal parts,
wetted with a little wine or brandy, and the
paste being closed up, they are placed on a
tin with the closed side downwards, and baked.
A little powdered sugar, flavoured with can-
died peel (grated), or essence of lemon, is sifted
over them as soon as they come out of the
oven. In the common cakes of the shops,
the brandy is omitted, and lard is used for
butter, and less of it. -
Cakes, Bath. Prep. From butter, 3 lb., flour,
1 lb., 5 eggs, and a cupful of yeast; when risen,
add powdered sugar, 4 oz., and caraways, 1 oz.
Bake them on tins.
Cakes, Cheese. Prep. 1. Curdle some warm
new milk with rennet, drain the curd in a
linen bag, and add + of its weight, each, of
sugar and butter, 6 eggs, some grated nutmeg,
and a little-orange flower or rose water.
2. (Almond Cheese Cakes.) To the above
add as much blanched almonds, beaten to a
smooth paste, as there is butter, and an equal
weight of macaroni.
3. (Lemon Cheese Cakes.) To the first form
add lemon peel (grated fine), or essence of
lemon, q. S.
Cakes, Diet. Syn. DIET BREAD. Prep. 1.
Dissolve sugar, 1 lb., in milk, ; pint; add 6
eggs, and whisk the mixture to a full froth,
then cautiously stir in flour, 1 lb., beat it for
# hour, and immediately bake it in a quick


CAKES. 279
oven. It may be baked whole or divided into
small cakes.
2. From fine flour and powdered sugar,
equal parts; 6 eggs; and the juice and rind
(grated) of 1 lemon.
Cakes, Drop. Prep. Eggs, 1 dozen; rose-
water, 1 table-spoonful; powdered sugar, 4 lb.;
fine flour # lb.; and caraways, # Oz. Drop it
on wafer paper, and bake as before.
Cakes, Ginger. Prep. Sugar, 1 lb.; powdered
ginger, 4 oz. ; flour, 2 lbs. ; water, 1 pint ;
butter, 3 lb.; candied orange peel, 8 caps
(grated).
Cakes, Lem'on. Prep. Flour and sugar, of
each, 1 lb.; eggs, 1 dozen ; grated peel and
juice of 4 lemons; whisk the eggs to a bright
froth, then gradually add the rest.
Cakes, Marlſborough. Prep. Beat 8 eggs and
1 lb. of pounded sugar # hour; then add fine
flour, 1 lb.; and caraway seeds, 2 oz.
Cakes, Plain. Prep. 1. From flour, 4 lbs.;
currants, 2 lb.; butter, 3 lbs. ; caraway seeds,
# oz. ; candied lemon peel (grated), 1 oz. ;
yeast, # pint; milk, q. S. Let it rise well
before baking.
2. Baker's dough, 2 lbs. ; currants, 1 lb.;
butter, 4 lb.; 3 eggs; milk (hot), 3 pint.
3. (Rundell.) Baker’s dough, 4 lbs. ; butter
and moist sugar, of each, # lb.; caraway seeds,
a small handful. Well work it together, pull
it into pieces the size of a golden pippin, and
work it together again. This must be dome
three times, or it will be in lumps, and heavy
when baked.
4. (Rich.) Equal weights of flour, butter,
Sultana raisins, eggs, currants, and brown
sugar, mixed up with milk, and seasoned with
candied peel, nutmeg, &c., and baked in a quick
oven. This resembles “pound cake.”
Cakes, Plum. Prep. 1. (Good.) From but-
ter, 3 lb.; dry flour, 3 lbs. ; Lisbon sugar, 8 oz.;
plums and currants, of each, # lb.; and some
pimento, finely powdered; to be “wetted up.”
with 3 spoonfuls of yeast, and a Winchester
pint of new milk (warmed); bake on a floured
tin half an hour.
2. (Eacellent.) From fresh butter, sifted
sugar, flour, and currants, of each, 1 lb.; 18
eggs; powdered spices, 2 oz. (viz., cloves, mace,
cinnamon, nutmeg, and allspice); sliced almonds,
4 oz. ; raisins (stoned and chopped), 3 lb.;
and a large glass of brandy; bake in a hot
oven. When sufficiently baked, let the oven
cool, and afterwards put in the cake and allow
. * for several hours to dry. (Run-
ell.
3. (Rich.) Take fresh butter and sugar, of
each, 1 lb. ; flour, 1% lb.; currants, 2 lbs. ; a
glass of brandy; sweetmeats and peels, 1 lb.;
sweet almonds, 2 oz. ; 10 eggs; allspice and
cinnamon, of each, # oz. ; bake in a tin hoop
in a hot oven for 3 hours, and put 12 sheets
of paper under it to keep it from burning,
(Mackenzie.)
Cakes, Portugal. Prep. From flour, pow-
dered sugar, and fresh butter, of each, 1 lb. ;
10 eggs; currants, 3 lb.; and a little white
wine; bake in small tins only half filled.
Cakes, Pound. Prep. 1. As plum cake; but
using 1 lb. each of all the ingredients, except
the spices.
2. Using equal parts of sugar, flour, cur-
rants, and sultana raisins, and half that quan-
tity each of butter, brandy, and candied peel,
with spices as required.
Cakes, Queen. Prep. From about 1 lb. each
of dried flour, sifted sugar, washed currants,
and butter, with 8 eggs; the whole beaten for
an hour, made into a batter, and baked in
little tins, teacups, or saucers, only half filled.
A little fine sugar is frequently sifted over
them. Nutmeg, mace, and cinnamon are also
sometimes added.
Cakes, Rat'ifia. Prep. Beat # lb. of sweet,
and 1 oz. of bitter almonds, in fine orange,
rose, or ratifia water; mix in 3 lb. of pounded
sugar; add the whites of 4 eggs (well beaten);
set it over a moderate fire in a preserving-
pan; stir it one way until it is pretty hot,
and when a little cool, form it into small rolls,
and cut it into thin cakes; shake some flour
lightly on them, give each a light tap, put
them on sugar papers, sift a little sugar on
them, and put them into a very slack oven.
Cakes, Rout. Prep. From flour, 2 lbs.; butter,
sugar, and currants, of each, 1 lb.; 3 eggs; }
pint of milk; 2 glasses of white wine; and 1
glass of brandy; drop them on a tin plate, and
bake them.
Cakes, Savoy. Prep. From flour and sifted
sugar, of each, 1 lb.; 10 eggs; and the rind of
a lemon (grated); form a batter by degrees,
put it into moulds, and bake in a slack oven.
Cake, Seed. Prep. 1. (Plain.) From flour,
# peck; sugar, 3 lb.; allspice, 4 oz. ; melted
butter, 3 lb. ; a little ginger; milk, ; pint;
yeast, 4 pint; add seeds or currants; and bake
an hour and a half.
2. (Good.) To the preceding add of butter
and sugar, of each, 3 lb., and wet it up with
milk previously mixed with 6 eggs.
3. (Rich.) Take of flour, 13 lb. ; butter and
sugar, of each, 1 lb.; 8 eggs; 2 oz. of caraway
seeds, 1 grated nutmeg, and its weight in cin-
namon. Bake 2 hours in a quick oven.
4. (Scotch.) Nine eggs; sugar and butter,
of each, # lb.; mix well together, then add a
little cinnamon, nutmeg, and cloves; # oz. of
caraway seeds; } lb. of candied citron; } lb. of
candied orange peel; } lb. of blanched almonds
(pounded fine); flour, 3 lbs. ; and brandy,
# pint.
Cakes, Shrews'bury. Prep. From flour, 3 lbs.;
sugar, 1 lb.; a little cinnamon and nutmeg ;
3 eggs; a little rose water; and melted butter
enough to make it into a dough.
Cakes, Soda. Prep. 1. From flour, 1 lb.;
bicarbonate of soda, 4 oz. ; sugar and butter, of
each, 3 lb.; make a paste with milk, and add
candied orange, lemon, or citron peel, or the
fresh peels grated, q. S. to flavour.
2. To flour, 1 lb.; sugar and butter, of each,
280 CALAMINE–CALCIUM.
2 oz. ; candied peel, 3 oz. ; sesquicarbonate of
soda, 3 drs. ; milk, q. S.
Obs. An equal weight of carbonate of
magnesia, used instead of the soda, also makes
good cakes. Both are suitable to delicate
stomachs, especially in dyspepsia, with acidity.
Cakes, Sponge. Prep. From 8 eggs; lump
sugar, # lb.; flour, 3 lb.; water, 4 pint ; the
yellow peel of a lemon; mix as follows:—Put
the lemon peel into the water; when about to
make the cake, put the sugar into a saucepan,
pour the water and peel on it, and let it stand
by the fire to get hot. Break the eggs into a
deep earthen vessel that has been made quite
hot; remove from the heat, whisk for a few
minutes; make the sugar and water boil up,
and pour it very gradually boiling-hot over
the eggs; continue to whisk them briskly
until they become thick and white; add the
flour (quite warm), stir it lightly in, put the
paste into tins lined with white paper, and
bake them immediately in a moderately hot
OWell.
Cakes, Tea. Syn. BENTON CAKES. Prep.
From flour, 1 lb.; butter, 4 oz.; and milk, q. S.;
bake on a hot hearth or slow oven plate.
2. To the last, add 2 table-spoonfuls of
yeast.
Cakes, Tip'sy. Prep. Small sponge cakes
steeped in brandy, and then covered with
grated almonds and candied peel; or almonds
(cut into spikes) are stuck in them. They are
commonly piled on a dish, surrounded with a
custard, and covered with preserves drained as
dry as possible.
Cakes, Wigg. Prep. From ; pint of warm
milk; # lb. of fine flour; and 2 or 3 spoonfuls
of light yeast. Afterwards work in 4 oz. each
of Sugar and butter; make it into cakes, or
wiggs, with as little flour as possible, add a
few caraway seeds, and bake them quickly.
Cakes. (In medicine.) Cakes have been
used as a form of administering medicinal
substances to children, but have not been ex-
tensively employed in this country for the
purpose, unless by quacks, and in domestic
practice. In preparing them, the active in-
gredients are added in such proportions to the
common materials of a sweet cake, that one or
two, as the case may be, are sufficient for a
dose. See GINGERBREAD, WoRM-CAKES, &c.
CAL'AMINE. See ZINC (Carbonate of).
CALCINATION. The operation of burning
or roasting any solid body to expel its more
volatile parts, as the conversion of chalk into
lime by the expulsion of carbonic anhydride.
The roasting of the ores in the first stage of
the Welsh process of copper smelting and in
the Silesian mode of extracting zinc is techni-
cally termed CALCINATION.
The method of conducting the process of
calcination depends on the nature of the body
operated on. Many substances, for delicate
experiments, are calcined over a spirit lamp in
a platinum spoon or crucible; others, in iron
vessels or earthen crucibles, placed in a com-
mon furnace. When the action of the air
proves injurious, as in the manufacture of
charcoal, the process is performed in close
vessels or chambers. In some cases the fuel
is mixed with the articles, and they are both
burnt together, as in the manufacture of lime,
the roasting of ores, &c. The process of dry-
ing salts, or driving off their water of crys-
tallisation by heat, is also frequently called
CALCINATION; thus we have calcined copperas,
alum, &c.
CALCI"NER... A reverberatory furnace used
for the calcination of metallic ores, particularly
those of CoPPER and ZINC (which see).
CAL/CIUM. [Eng., L.] Ca. The metal of
which LIME is an oxide. Though it is a che-
mical curiosity when isolated, it is one of the
most abundant substances in nature, forming a
very large portion of the crust of the earth.
It occurs in combination with fluorine as
fluor-spar; with oxygen and carbonic acid
as chalk, limestone, and marble; and with
oxygen and sulphuric acid as gypsum. The
metal was first obtained from lime by Sir H.
Davy, in 1808; but little was known of its
properties until Dr. Matthiessen formed it by
the electrolytic decomposition of the chloride
of calcium.
Prep. 1. By the action of a powerful voltaic
current upon a paste of pure lime in contact
with mercury, as in the original method of
preparing barium.
2. By the electrolysis of chloride of calcium
in a state of fusion.
3. (Caron.) Fused chloride of calcium in
powder, 300 parts; distilled zinc, finely granu-
lated, 400 parts; sodium, in small pieces, 100
parts; the whole placed in a crucible and
heated to redness in an ordinary furnace. The
action is very feeble at first, but after some
time zinc flames arise. The heat must now
be moderated, to prevent the volatilisation of
the zinc, but at the same time it must be
maintained as high as possible. When the
crucible has remained in this state for about a
quarter of an hour it may be withdrawn. On
cooling, a metallic button will be found at the
bottom. This alloy of zinc and calcium, which
generally contains from 10 to 15% of the latter
metal, must be placed in a coke crucible and
heated until the whole of the zinc is driven
off. The alloy should be in pieces as large as
possible. When proper precautions have been
observed, a button of CALCIUM is obtained,
only contaminated with the foreign metals
contained in the zinc.
Prop., &c. The metal belongs to the group
which includes BARIUM, STRONTTUM, and MAG-
NESIUM ; it is of a light yellow colour; is
rather harder than lead, and very malleable.
It melts at a red heat. It tarnishes in a day
or two, even in dry air, and in contact with
moist air it breaks up like ordinary lime. Its
sp. gr. is 1:55.
Tests. Salts of calcium in solution pro-
duce a white precipitate with carbonate of

CALCIUM.
281
ammonium; it becomes far less voluminous on
heating the solution, and dissolves very readily
in hydrochloric acid. Sulphuric acid, when
added to concentrated solutions, gives an im-
mediate white precipitate; if the solution is
not concentrated, the precipitate may separate
gradually, in minute crystals; and if it is very
dilute, no precipitation will take place, because
sulphate of lime is soluble in about 500 times
its weight of water. With neutral solutions,
even when very dilute, oxalate of ammonium
gives a copious white precipitate, soluble in
most dilute acids.
Calcium, Broºmide of Cabra. Syn. CAL/CII
BROMI'DUM, L. Prep. (Magendie.) To a so-
lution of bromide of iron add hydrate of cal-
cium in slight excess; filter, evaporate to dry-
ness, redissolve in water, and again filter, and
evaporate.
Calcium, Chlo"ride of CaCl2. Syn. CAL/CII
CHLORI’DUM (B. P.). Prep. Hydrochloric acid
and water, of each, 10 fl, oz. ; chalk, 5 oz. ;
evaporate the solution until the salt becomes
solid, and dry the residue at about 400°F.
It is obtained in solution as a residuum in
making several preparations of ammonia, as
the liquor and carbonate, and in making car-
bomic acid by the action of hydrochloric acid
on marble. The residuum is concentrated and
set aside to crystallise, or evaporated to dryness.
Prop., Uses, &c. This salt crystallises in
colourless, striated, hexagonal prisms, termi-
nated by very acute points. It is very soluble
in alcohol and water, the latter even at 32°
dissolving more than its own weight, and at
60° three or four times its weight of this salt.
When heated, the crystals undergo watery
fusion. When dissolved in water, they pro-
duce great cold ; and hence are frequently
employed as an ingredient in FREEZING MIX-
TURES. These crystals contain nearly half
their weight of water. They are very deli-
quescent, passing readily into the liquid state,
and forming what used to be called oleum
calcis, or oil of lime. The anhydrous chloride
is hard and friable; slightly translucent;
totally and readily soluble in water, and, like
the crystallised salt, very deliquescent. In
the laboratory chloride of calcium, either fused
or merely dried, is continually used for drying
gases and for absorbing the water from ethe-
real and oily liquids in organic analysis. The
unfused is now generally preferred for this
purpose, as it is more porous than the fused.
The salt is also used in the rectification of
alcohol, and to form a bath for heating stone-
ware stills and other apparatus liable to be
cracked on the sand bath. As a chemical
reagent, it is employed chiefly in detecting
certain organic acids. As a medicine, it has
been given in some scrofulous and glandular
diseases. Dose. 10 to 20 grs. See SoLUTIONS.
Calcium, Fluſoride of. CaF2: Syn. HYDRO-
FLU'oRATE OF LIME. This occurs native as
the mineral called fluor-spar. It is found in
beautiful crystals in the lead mines of Alston
Moor and Derbyshire, and in the concretionary
crystalline masses known as Blue John or
Derbyshire spar at Castleton. It may be pre-
pared by the action of hydrofluoric acid upon
lime, as directed under FLUORIDE OF BARIUM.
Calcium, I'odide of Cal, Syn. HYDRI'o-
DATE OF LIME; CAL/CII IoDI’DUM, CALCIS
HYDRIO'DAs, L. Prep. 1. (Magendie.) From
a solution of protiodide of iron and hydrate of
calcium, as directed under iodide of barium.
2. Dissolve lime or carbonate of lime in hy-
driodic acid.
Prop., Uses, &c. It is a deliquescent salt,
easily soluble in water, and has a bitterish
taste. It has been used in scrofulous affections,
internally, in doses ranging from to 2 grs.,
thrice daily, and externally in ointments con-
taining 2 drs. or less to the oz.
Calcium, 0xide of. See LIME.
Calcium, Phosphide of. Syn. PHOSPHU’RET
OF LIME; CAL/CII PHOSPHURE'TUM, C. PHos-
PHI’DUM, L. Prep. By passing the vapour of
phosphorus over lime (in small fragments)
heated to redness in a porcelain tube. A
brownish substance, supposed to be a mere
mechanical mixture of phosphide and phos-
phate of calcium. Thrown into water, it suf-
fers instant decomposition, and phosphuretted
hydrogen gas escapes.
Calcium, Sulphides of Calcium forms with
sulphur at least three different compounds:–
1. Calcium, Protosul/phide of CaS. Prep.
—a. From sulphate of lime, exposed at a high
temperature to a stream of hydrogen gas.-
b. From dried gypsum, 25 parts; lampblack
or finely powdered charcoal, 4 parts; calcined
together at a strong heat in a covered eru-
cible.
2. Calcium, Bisulphide of CaS. Prep.
From sulphur and quick-lime, equal parts;
water, q. s. ; slake the lime, add the sulphur,
and boil until a solution is obtained, which on
cooling deposits crystals.
3. Calcium, Pentasulphide of CaS. Prep.
As the last, but increasing the quantity of
sulphur, and continuing the boiling for a longer
period. Little is known about it.
4. Calcium, Commercial Sulphuret of. Syn.
COMMERCIAL SULPHIDE OE CALCIUM. Prep.
—a. As 1, b (above).
b. Sulphur, 1 part; hydrate of lime, 3 parts;
water, 2} pints; boil it until it solidifies on
cooling, then pour it out on a cold marble slab,
and when solid break it into pieces and preserve
it in a well-corked bottle.
c. (Guibourt.) Quick-lime, 7 parts; sulphur,
4 parts; mix, and heat the compound for about
2 hours in a covered crucible.
d. (Cottereau.) Quick-lime, 2 parts; sul-
phur, 1 part; water, 5 parts; as 4, b (above).
Obs. The precise composition of the last
three preparations is uncertain. They are
acrid, caustic, stimulant, and diaphoretic.
Dose. 1 to 3 grs. Sulphide of calcium has
been used as a depilatory by applying it made
into a paste with water, and washing it off in





282 CALCULATIONS-CALICO PRINTING.
about 4 of an hour. Made into an embroca-
tion, it has been strongly recommended in gout,
scabies, &c. Its solution yields pure sulphur
on the addition of hydrochloric acid.
CALCULATIONS (Useful). 1. To find the
Value of a Dozen Articles. Take the price in
pence as shillings, and if there are any farthings
in the price, add threepence for each. Thus
2s. 8d., or 32 pence per yard, is £1 12s. per
dozen.
2. To find the Value of One Hundred Arti-
cles. For every farthing take as many pence
and twice as many shillings. Thus, 1%d. each,
is—5d., and 10s. =10s. 5d. per hundred.
3. To find the Value of a Pound at any price
per Ounce. Take the price in farthings as
shillings, and divide by three. Thus, 5}d. per
ounce, is 21 farthings; taken as shillings,
21 + 3 = 7s. per pound.
4. To find the Value of an Ounce at any
price per Pound. Take the shillings as far-
things, and multiply by three. Thus, at
6s.—6 × 3 = 18 farthings, or 4%d, per ounce.
Obs. By reversing Nos. 1 and 2, the price
of a single article or pound may be found
from the price per dozen or hundred. For
several other calculations, useful in domestic
economy, chemistry, &c., see BREWING, DECI-
MALS, EQUIVALENTS, MEASURES, PER-CENT-
AGE, WEIGHTS.
CAL/CULUS. Syn. STONE. In medicine, a
hard concretion formed within the animal
body by the deposition of matters which usu-
ally remain in solution. The concretions most
commonly formed are those formed in the
kidneys or bladder, and termed urinary calculi,
and those formed in the gall-bladder or biliary
ducts, which are called biliary calculi. Both
of these give rise to very painful symptoms,
and may even threaten life.
CAL'ENDAR. Syn. CALENDA'RIUM., L.; CA-
LEN’DRIER, Fr. A table of all the days of the
year, arranged in the order of days and weeks,
to which are generally added certain astrono-
mical indications and dates of great civil and
religious events. The most remarkable ca-
lendars are the Hebrew calendar, the calendar
of the Greeks, the Roman, or Julian calendar,
the Gregorian calendar (now adopted by all
Christian peoples except the Greeks and Rus-
sians), and the French Republican calendar,
which, having remained in force about thirteen
years, was abolished by Napoleon I on the 1st
of January, 1806.
Calendar, Perpet'ual. A table which furnishes
the general indications necessary to construct
a calendar for any year, and to resolve, without
error, many difficulties connected with the
verification of dates.
CAL'ENDERING. The process of finishing
by pressure the surface of linen or cotton
goods. It is usually performed by passing the
fabric between cylinders pressed together with
great force. It is necessary that one of the
cylinders, at least, shall be of a material com-
bining considerable hardness with a slight de-
gree of elasticity; for this purpose the paper
cylinder is used. It is made by forcibly com-
pressing a number of circular discs of thick
pasteboard, each with a square hole in the
centre, upon an iron axis, so as to form a solid
cylinder, which is turned perfectly smooth and
true in a lathe. The paper cylinder usually
works against a hollow roller of copper or
iron, heated by steam or metallic heaters.
Before the final rolling in the calendering
machine the fabric is lightly smoothed by
passing over warm cylinders. Cotton goods
are starched, and a fictitious appearance of
stoutness is sometimes given to them by em-
ploying starch thickened with plaster of Paris,
porcelain clay, or a mixture of these. Water-
ing is a beautiful effect produced by means of
a hot cylinder with a pattern raised upon it.
Glazing is produced by combined rubbing and
pressure, the rollers being made to move with
unequal velocities, so that one side of the fabric
is rubbed as well as pressed by the roller whose
surface moves with the greater speed. A cop-
per cylinder is preferred for glazing, and is
made so hot that if the machine stops it burns
the goods. The old method of glazing consisted
in burnishing the surface of the fabric with a
polished flint.
CAL'IC0. See CoTTON. -
CAL/ICO PRINT'ING. The art of producing
figured patterns upon calico, by means of dyes
and mordants topically applied by wooden
blocks, copper-plates, or engraved cylinders.
The goods are either directly printed in colour,
or receive their patterns by being run through
a colouring matter or mordant, when the dye
is only produced upon that portion of the
ground previously prepared for it. Of late
this system of dyeing has been extended to
silks and woollens.
The mordants are thickened with some
glutinous substance, as flour, starch, or gum,
to render them adhesive and to prevent their
spreading.
The following are the principal styles of
calico-printing, each requiring a different
method of manipulation :-
In the madder, fast colour, or chintz style,
the mordants are applied to the white cloth,
and the colours are brought out in the dye
bath. This is the method commonly followed
for “permanent prints.”
In the padding or plaquage style, the whole
cloth is passed through a bath of some particular
mordant, and different mordants are afterwards
printed on it before submitting it to the dye
bath. By this means the colour of the ground
and pattern is varied. Like the last, it is
much used for gown pieces, &c.
In the reserve or resist-paste style, white or
coloured figures are produced, by covering
those parts with a composition which resists
the general dye afterwards applied to form the
ground of the pattern. In this style the dye
bath is indigo, or some other substantive
colour.
CALOMEL–CAMERA LUCIDA. 283
The discharge, or rongeant style, is the re-
verse of the preceding ; it exhibits bright
figures on a dark ground, which are produced
by printing with acidulous or discharge mor-
dants after the cloth has been passed through
the colouring bath.
Steam-colour printing, consists in printing
the calico with a mixture of dye extracts and
mordants, and afterwards exposing it to the
action of steam.
Spirit-colour printing, is a method by which
brilliant colours are produced by a mixture of
dye extracts and solution of tin, called by the
dyers “spirits of tin.”
Pigment printing, consists in applying such
colours as ultramarine, magenta, or aniline
purple, to the cloth, and fixing them by such
agents as casein, albumen, or solution of India
rubber. This style of printing has been de-
veloped to a great extent since the introduc-
tion of the splendid mauves and purples
obtained from aniline.
For further information on this subject, the
reader is referred to Ure's “Dictionary of Arts,
Manufactures, and Mines,’ and O’Neill’s “Dic-
tionary of Calico Printing and Dyeing,’ where
he will find the several processes of calico
printing fully treated on, and most ably and
accurately described. To enter largely into
the subject in this work might amuse the
reader, but would be of no practical value;
as calico printing is an art only practised on
the large scale, and by men who obtain their
whole knowledge of it in the laboratories and
printing rooms of the factories.
CAL'OMEL. See MERCURY (Chlorides of).
CALOTR0'PIS PROCE/RA.
CALOTR0'PIS GIGAN'TEA.ſ (Ind.Ph.) Syn.
MUDAR.—Habitat. One or other of these
species, everywhere in India.-Qfficinal part.
The root-bark, dried (Calotropis cortea). Small
flat or arched pieces, brownish externally,
yellow-grayish internally, peculiar smell, and
mucilaginous, nauseous, acrid taste. Its ac-
tivity appears to reside in a peculiar extractive
matter named mudarine.—Properties. Altera-
tive tonic ; diaphoretic, and, in large doses,
emetic.—Therapeutic uses. In leprosy, consti-
tutional syphilis, mercurial cachexia, syphilitic
and idiopathic ulcerations, in dysentery, diar-
rhoea, and chronic rheumatism, it has been
used with alleged benefit.
Powder of Mudar. (Pulvis Calotropis.)
Take of the roots of mudar, collected in the
months of April and May from sandy soils, a
sufficiency; carefully remove, by washing, all
particles of sand and dirt, and dry in the open
air, without exposure to the sun, until the
milky juice contained in it becomes so far in-
spissated that it ceases to flow on incisions
being made in it. The bark is then to be care-
fully removed, dried and reduced to powder.
Preserve in well-corked bottles.—Dose. As an
alterative tonic, 3 grains, gradually increased
to 10 grains or more, thrice daily. As an
emetic, from # to 1 drachm.
CAL’OTYPE. See PHOTOGRAPHY.
CALUM'BA, Syn. CALUMBE RADIX, B. P.
CALUM'BA-Root; KALUMB, Hind. The root
of a plant of Eastern Africa, extensively used
in medicine as a stomachic and mild tomic.
Dose. 10 to 20 grains, three or four times
a day. The botanical name of this plant is
Jateorhiza palmata, or Cocculus palmatus.
See CALUMBINE (below); also INFUSIONS and
TINCTURES. -
CALUM'BA WOOD. This wood, which is
used as a tonic by the Cingalese, is not the
produce of the true calumba plant, but of
Menispermum fenestratum. It contains the
alkaloid BERBERINE (which see).
CALUM'BINE, Sgn. CALOM'BINE, CALUM'-
BINA. A bitter substance discovered by Witt-
stock in calumba root. -
Prep. 1. Digest calumba root (in coarse
powder) in water acidulated with acetic acid;
express, filter, boil to one half, again filter, add
carbonate of calcium, in slight excess, and
evaporate to dryness in a water bath; reduce
the residuum to powder, and digest it in boil-
ing alcohol; the latter will deposit crystals of
CALUMBINE on cooling.
2. (Wittstock.) Evaporate tincture of ca-
lumba root (made with rectified spirit) to dry-
mess; dissolve the residuum in water, and
agitate the solution with an equal bulk of
ether; after repose for a short time, decant
the ethereal portion, distil off most of the ether,
and set the liquid aside to crystallise.
Prop., &c. Impure calumbine occurs as a
yellow-brown mass; when pure, it forms
rhombic prismatic crystals or delicate white
needles; it is only slightly soluble in alcohol,
ether, and water; 40 parts of boiling rectified
spirit take up only 1 part of calumbine. Its
best solvent is acetic acid; it is also soluble in
acidulated and alkalised water. Neither nut-
galls nor metallic salts affect its solution.
Concentrated sulphuric acid dissolves it, and
assumes first a yellow, and then a red colour.
Its properties indicate that weak vinegar or
sour wine would be the best menstruum for
extracting the medicinal virtues of calumba
root. Dose. 1 to 3 grs. twice a day as a tonic
and stomachic, in dyspepsia, debilitated stomach,
bilious vomiting, &c.; and in the later periods
of dysentery and diarrhoea.
CALX. This term was formerly applied to
the residuum of the combustion of any sub-
stance; or to any substance which had been
exposed to a strong heat. See CALCINATION,
LIME, &c.
CAMB06E'. See GAMBOGE.
CAM'ERA LU'CIDA. [L. and Eng.] When
a ray of light (r) falls upon a quadrangular
glass prism (a), it is bent by two reflections
(at c and d), and thrown upwards where it may
be received by the eye, to which it will appear
described on the table or sheet of paper (f'),
glaced to receive it. The point of a pencil
used to trace any object on the paper can also
be seen, and by its means the picture can be


284. CAMERA. OBSCURA–CAMPHOR.
easily copied. When the prism is mounted
on a stand, and a thin brass plate with a small
hole through it for the eyepiece adjusted there-
to, it forms the CAMERA LUCIDA of the opti-
cians. The image may be magnified or les-
sened by placing a lens, so as either to inter-
cept the rays before they strike the prism, or
before they reach the eye. An ingenious per-
son will readily be able to set up this instru-
ment, than which a more useful one cannot
exist.
*S.
..f
CAM'ERA. OBSCU"RA. [L, and Eng.] An
optical instrument for producing upon a screen
the image of a field of view more or less ex-
tensive. It was invented by Baptista Porta
in the 16th century. The principles and con-
struction of the camera obscura may be thus
described:—A convex lens (B), is placed in a
hole admitting the light into a darkened box
or chamber (A), which, falling on a white
ground (D), produces an inverted picture of
every object within its range. The image thus
formed may be restored to its natural position,
by allowing the rays of light to pass through
two lenses instead of one, or by receiving the
rays on a mirror placed at an angle of 45°,
when the image will be thrown on the floor
in its original position. The picture may be
viewed through an oblong aperture cut in the
box, or the experiment may be performed in a
darkened room, by placing the lens in a hole
in the shutter, and allowing the image to fall
on the wall, or on a sheet of white paper
stretched to receive it.
In the simplest form, when intended for
taking views or portraits, the image is thrown
upon a mirror placed at an angle of 45°, and
resting on the bottom of the box, by which
means it is thrown upwards against a plate of
glass, also placed at a similar angle. On this
is laid a piece of semi-transparent tracing paper,
on which the object is distinctly seen painted,
and may be traced out with a pencil.
When
the camera is used in photography, slides are
provided to retain the sensitive paper in the
proper position in the box or dark chamber
to receive the image, and the whole apparatus
is adjusted with screws, and slides of the most
delicate description. Achromatic glasses are
also employed. See PHOTOGRAPHY.
CAM'PHINE. The name given by the
trade to rectified oil of turpentine when sold
for burning in lamps, in order that purchasers
may not be aware of the inflammable character
of the liquid. Since the introduction of the
hydro-carbon oils from coal, shale, and petro-
leum, camphine has been little used for burn-
ing. To rectify the turpentime, it is passed in
vapour through a solution of caustic potash,
soda, or lime; or through sulphuric acid.
CAM'PHOR. Clo HigO. Syn. CAM'PHIRE,
LAU'REL CAM'PHOR; CAMPHO'RA, B. P. A
crystalline substance found in many plants;
though only obtained in large quantities from
two, namely, Camphora officinarum and Dryo-
balanops aromatica. The first, commonly
known as the laurel camphor tree of China and
Japan, yields the camphor of commerce; the
latter, the Sumatra or Borneo camphor, and
the peculiar fluid known as liquid camphor.
It is found that several of the essential oils,
by carefully distilling off about one third their
volume, yield a species of camphor. By col-
lecting this, and redistilling the remainder of
the oil 2 or 3 times, a further quantity of cam-
phor may be obtained. Oil of rosemary,
treated in this way, yields about 10% of cam-
phor; oil of sweet marjoram the same ; oil of
sage yields 13%; oil of lavender, 25%. By
keeping the oils loosely corked, and in a cool
place, they produce a larger portion of this
camphor. Aniseed camphor is the congealable
portion of oil of aniseed, separated from the
liquid oil, which it resembles in odour and
flavour.
Camphor, Am/ber.
lised).
Camphor, Com/mercial (Crude). The produce
of the laurel camphor tree, brought to Europe
chiefly from China and the island of Formosa,
in the form of grayish grains, aggregated into
crumbling cakes.—Prep. The Chinese and
Japanese extract the camphor by cutting the
wood into small pieces, and boiling it with
water in iron vessels, which are covered with
large earthen capitals or domes, lined with
rice straw. As the water boils, the camphor
is volatilised along with the steam, and con-
denses on the straw.
Camphor, Commercial (Refined). Syn.
WHITE CAMPHOR; CAMPHo’RA, B. P. Prep.
100 parts of crude camphor are mixed with 2
parts each of quick-lime and animal charcoal,
both in powder, and the mixture is placed in a
thin, globular, glass vessel, sunk in a sand
bath. The heat is then cautiously applied,
and the vessel gradually and carefully raised
out of the sand as the sublimation goes
on. When the process is complete, the
See PyRETINE (Crystal-


CAMPHOR— CAMPHORIC ACID.
285
subliming vessel is removed and allowed to
cool.
Obs. The whole process of refining camphor
requires great care and experience to ensure
its success. If conducted too slowly, or at a
heat under 375° Fahr., the product is found
to be flaky, and consequently unsaleable, with-
out remelting or subliming. An improvement
on the common method, is simply to sublime
the above mixture in any convenient vessel
furnished with a large and well-cooled receiver,
and to remelt the product in close vessels under
pressure, and to cool the liquid mass as rapidly
as possible.
Prop., &c,. A white, semi-crystalline solid,
very volatile at common temperatures; freely
soluble in alcohol, ether, bisulphuret of carbon,
benzole, oils, and acetic acid, and sufficiently
so in water (about 1% gr. to 1 oz.), to impart
its characteristic smell and taste; 100 parts
of alcohol (sp. gr. 806) dissolve 120 parts of
camphor; concentrated acetic acid dissolves
twice its weight of camphor; average sp. gr.
‘990. It fuses at 347°, boils at 400° Fahr.,
and when set fire to, burns with a bright
flame. It evaporates slowly at ordinary tem-
peratures, and crystallises on the inside of
bottles. While floating on water it undergoes
a curious rotatory movement.
Uses, &c. Camphor is sedative, narcotic,
anodyne, diaphoretic, and anaphrodisiac. Dose.
2 to 10 grs. in the form of pill or bolus, or
made into an emulsion with yolk of egg, mu-
cilage, or almonds. In overdoses it is poison-
ous. The best antidote is opium or wine, pre-
ceded by an emetic. It is also used externally
in ointments, liniments, and embrocations.
Camphor is frequently put into wardrobes
and clothes-trunks, to keep away insects; it
is used to make the white stars and fire of
the pyrotechnist; and by the varnish-maker
to increase the solubility of copal and other
gums. Mixed with six times its weight of
clay, and distilled, it suffers decomposition,
and yields a yellow, aromatic, volatile oil, smell-
ing strongly of thyme and rosemary, which is
much used by the wholesale druggists and per-
fumers to adulterate some of the more costly
essential oils, and by the fancy soap-makers to
scent their soaps.
Camphor may be beaten in a mortar for
some time, without being reduced to powder,
but if it be first broken with the pestle, and
then sprinkled with a few drops of rectified
spirit of wine, it may be readily pulverised.
By adding water to an alcoholic or ethereal
solution of camphor, this drug is precipitated
under the form of an impalpable powder of
exquisite whiteness.
Tests. Pure camphor is entirely soluble
in rectified spirit, oils, and strong acetic acid;
a fragment placed on a heated spoon or in a
warm situation, will wholly disappear, and the
evolved fumes will be highly fragrant (cam-
phoraceous), and be free from an acid or tere-
binthinate odour. In an alcoholic solution of
natural camphor, ammonia gives but a slight
precipitate, which is dissolved on shaking the
mixture; a similar solution of artificial cam-
phor under the like treatment gives a floccu-
lent precipitate, which remains undissolved.
See FACTITIOUS CAMPHOR (below).
Camphor, Facti"tious. Syn. HYDROCHLo-
RATE OF TUR/PENTINE, HYDROCHLORATE of
CAMPHENE, ARTIFICIAL CAMPHOR. Prepared
by passing dry hydrochloric acid gas into pure
oil of turpentine, cooled by a freezing mixture
or pounded ice. After a time a white, crys-
talline mass is formed, which must be drained,
and dried by pressure between folds of bibu-
lous paper. It may be purified by solution in
alcohol.
Prop., &c. It has a camphoraceous taste
and odour; burns with a greenish, sooty flame,
and when blown out evolves a terebinthinate
odour; heated a little above the boiling-point
of water, slight fumes of hydrochloric acid
gas are perceptible. See CAMPHENE.
Camphor, Hydrochlo"rate of. Syn. MU"RI-
ATE OF CAMPHOR; CAMPHO'RAE HYDROCHLo”-
RAs, L. By passing hydrochloric acid gas over
camphor, in small fragments, until it ceases to
be absorbed.
Camphor, Liquid. Syn. CAMPHOR OIL;
O'LEUM CAMPHO'RE, L. A pale yellowish, limpid
fluid, which exudes from Dryobalanops aro-
matica, a tree growing in Sumatra and Borneo,
when deep incisions are made in the trunk.
It is supposed that the crystalline SUMATRA
CAMPHOR (see below) is deposited from this
fluid. The liquid camphor has somewhat the
odour of CAJEPUT OIL, and might, no doubt,
be beneficially employed for the same purpose.
It is sometimes imported into Europe.
Camphor, Nitrate of. Syn. CAMPHOR OIL;
O'LEUM CAMPHO'RAE FACTI"TIUM, L. Pre-
pared by dissolving camphor in nitric acid, in
the cold.
Camphor, Sul’phite of. From camphor and
sulphurous acid gas, as hydrochlorate of cam-
phor.
Camphor, Sumatra. Syn. BOR'NEO CAM-
PHOR, HARD C., DRAGON’s BRAIN PERFUME.
Obtained from Dryobalanops aromatica, being
found in natural fissures or crevices of the
wood. It resembles ordinary camphor in most
properties, but its odour is not of so diffusible
a nature. This kind is not seen in European
COImmerce.
CAMPHOR CAKES. See BALLs (Camphor).
CAMPHORIC ACID. H. Clo HiſO. Syn.
ACIDUM CAMPHOR'ICUM, L. Prep. From
camphor, 1 part ; and nitric acid (sp. gr.
133), 4 parts; distilled together in a glass
retort, with a gradually increasing heat, until
vapours cease to be evolved; the camphor that
has volatilised is then added to that in the
retort, along with 4 or 5 parts more of nitric
acid, and the process repeated again and again,
until 20 parts of acid have been consumed,
when crude camphoric acid crystallises out of
the remaining liquor, on cooling. The crystals






286 CAMWOOD-CANDLES.
are purified by washing with cold distilled
water, solution in boiling water, and evapo-
rating the solution until a pellicle forms ;
crystals of pure camphoric acid are formed as
the liquid cools.
Prop., &c. Small, colourless, lamellar or
acicular crystals; acid; bitter; fusible at 158°
Fahr.; sparingly soluble in water; soluble in
alcohol ; alcoholic solution not precipitated by
water, which distinguishes camphoric acid
from benzoic acid. Its salts are called CAM-
PHORATES. The soluble camphorates may be
made by digesting the carbonate or hydrate
of the metal in a hot solution of the acid, and
the insoluble camphorates by double decompo-
sition. By distillation, camphoric acid yields
a colourless, crystalline, neutral substance,
which has been improperly called anhydrous
camphoric acid.
CAM'WOOD. This dye-stuff resembles Brazil
wood in its properties, and is used in a similar
Imallnet.
CAN’ADA BALSAM. Syn. BAL’SAMUM CA-
NADEN's E, TEREBINTH'INA CANADEN's Is, L.
A thick, viscid oleo-resin obtained from the
Abies balsamea (Lindley), a tree of common
growth in Canada and the State of Maine. It
is much employed as a medium for mounting
microscopic objects. When pure, it is per-
fectly transparent, has an agreeable odour
(not terebinthinate), and is wholly soluble in
rectified oil of turpentine, with which it forms
a beautiful glassy and colourless varnish, much
used for preparing a semi-transparent copying
paper.
Canada Balsam, Facti"tious. Syn. BALSA-
MUM CANADENSE FACTI"TIUM, L. Prep. 1.
Yellow resin, 3 lbs. ; oil of turpentine, 1 gal.;
dissolve, and add essence of lemon, 2 drs.; oil
of rosemary, 14 dr.
2. To the last add of nut oil, 1 pint. Both
are sold in the shops for Canada balsam.
CAN'DIES. See CANDYING.
CAN’DLES. Candle-making, once a rude and
noisome trade, is now a first-class chemical
manufacture, and as it is generally carried on
in large works under the superintendence of
men trained in the laboratory, a detailed ac-
count of the numerous processes included in
it would be out of place here. We will, how-
ever, briefly describe the principal kinds of
candles now in use, and give a few particulars
respecting their manufacture. Candles are
either dipped, moulded, or rolled. The cheaper
sorts of tallow candles are formed by the first
process, and wax candles by the last ; all the
other kinds are moulded. The moulds are
tubes of pewter, well polished on the inside,
eight or more being fitted into a frame, the
upper part of which forms a trough to receive
the melted candle material. When in the
moulds the candles are inverted ; in other
words, the bottom of each mould corresponds
to the top of the candle. The wick passes
through a small hole at the lower extremity
of the tube, and is held in the axis by a little
bar placed across the top. At the factories of
Price’s Patent Candle Company the frames of
moulds are ranged close together in long
benches, and are filled with hot candle mate-
rial from cars running along little railways
above them. When quite cold the candles are
withdrawn. The plan of pulling them out
one by one with the aid of a bodkin has been
superseded at the factories above mentioned,
by the ingenious device of blowing them out
with compressed air.
The wicks of ordinary tallow candles are
made of the rovings of Turkey skein-cotton,
4 or more of which, according to the intended
thickness of the wick, are wound on a reel,
from which they are again run off, and cut
into the proper lengths. Of late years the
wicks of the best candles have been made
in such a way that they do not require snuff-
ing. This object is effected by causing the
wick to bend over, and its end to fall outside
the flame, where it is exposed to the oxygen of
the air. This bending over is variously brought
about.—1. By twisting the wick with one
strand shorter than the rest, which, being
slightly stretched during the moulding of the
candle, contracts again and bends the wick
when the fat melts. 2. By plaiting the cotton
into a flat wick, which naturally takes the re-
quired curve. Such a wick is generally dipped
in a solution of borax, which preserves it from
being acted upon by the flame except at its
extreme point at the edge of the flame. A
very fine wire is sometimes included in the
plaited wick. 3. In Palmer's patent two-
wicked candles, which were formerly much
used in lamps, the wicks are saturated with
submitrate of bismuth ground up with oil;
they are then twisted tightly round a wire,
which is withdrawn after the candle is moulded.
In burning, the ends gradually untwist and
stand out of the flame on either side. Other
devices are said to be employed.
Candles, Composite. Mould candles formed
of a mixture of the hard fatty acid obtained
from palm oil and the stearine of cocoa-nut oil.
They were introduced in 1840. Other com-
positions are occasionally used, such as a mix-
ture of spermaceti and hard white tallow, to
which a little bleached resin is added.
Candles, Medicated. These have been pro-
posed as a convenient means of diffusing the
active principles of certain volatile substances
through the atmosphere, and for complete and
partial fumigations. They are seldom em-
ployed in England.
Candles, Mercu"rial. From the red sulphide
or the gray oxide of mercury mixed with wax,
and a wick of cotton inserted therein. Re-
commended by Mr. Colles for partial mercu-
rial fumigation. They are burnt under a glass
funnel with a curved neck, the upper orifice
of which is directed to the diseased part.
Candles, Par'affin. From the beautiful
translucent substance paraffin (which see). .
These candles surpass all others in elegance,

CANDLESTICKS-CANDYING. 287
and are entirely free from odour and greasi-
ness. The light produced by 98 lbs. of paraffin
candles is equal to that of 120 lbs. of spermaceti,
or 138 lbs. of wax, or 144 lbs. of stearic, or
155 lbs. of the best composite candles (Letheby).
They are sometimes delicately tinted with red,
mauve, violet, crimson, and rose colour. The
Belmontine Candles of Price's Patent Candle
Company are formed of the paraffin of Rangoon
tar.
Candles, Spermaceti. From spermaceti
(which see). These are very delicate in
appearance, but rather expensive. They burn
well, but as the melting-point of spermaceti is
low, 120° Fahr., they will not bear carrying
about in the hand without guttering. They
are generally adulterated with stearic acid or
hard white tallow.
Candles, Stear'ic. Under this head we may
place the various sorts of candles moulded
from the hard fatty acids of both animal and
vegetable origin. The principal sources whence
British manufacturers derive their acids are
tallow, palm oil, and cocoa-nut oil. The pro-
cesses employed for separating them are
generally described under Stearic Acid.
Candles formed of the fatty acids can now
be prepared so as to imitate and almost rival
those of wax and spermaceti; and they are
quite as cheap as the nearly obsolete mould
candles formed of common tallow. They are
extremely hard; they do not grease the hands,
and they burn away brightly and steadily,
without giving off any offensive odour. Un-
coloured, they are snowy white, but a yellow
tint is frequently given them by gamboge.
Candles, Tal/low. From ordinary tallow or
from tallow which has been freed from much
of its oleic acid by pressure. These have so
unpleasant an odour and are so apt to gut-
ter, that they will probably ultimately dis-
appear from use. They are, however, sold at
so low a price, that among the lower classes
they must long retain their hold. For dip
candles the wicks are immersed in melted tal-
low, and after rubbing with the hands, are
placed straight and allowed to harden, after
which they are arranged upon the “broaches”
ready for dipping. For mould candles, the
last operation is omitted. Great care is taken
to select a cotton that yields the least possible
quantity of ash after burning.
In the process of “dipping,” the “dipping
cistern' being filled with tallow of a proper
temperature from the boiler, one of the
broaches covered with wicks is placed upon the
end of the “dipping beam,” and pressed down
gently into the melted fat; it is then with-
drawn, the bottoms of the candles just touched
against a board placed on one side of the cis-
term for the purpose, and the frame removed
to the rack. This operation is repeated until
the candles acquire a sufficient size, when they
are finally cooled, sorted, weighed, and strung
in pounds for sale.
The mould candles once in common use were
made of the finer kinds of tallow only; a mix-
ture of 3 parts of sheep, with 1 part of ox suet,
being preferred. See WAx.
CAN’DLESTICKS. Metallic, earthenware,
and porcelain candlesticks, snuffers, and snuf-
fer-stands, are recommended to be cleaned by
pouring boiling hot water on them (previously
placed in an earthen pan), and, after wiping
them quite dry with a cloth, to clean them
with a piece of wash leather; those made of
silver, or of plated copper, may be finally
polished with a little plate powder; those of
white metal, with a little whiting or fine chalk,
and those of brass, with a little rotten-stone
or one of the polishing pastes. For articles of
this kind, made of bronze and papier maché,
the water should be used only hot enough to
melt the tallow, and they should be only gently
dabbed or rubbed off with a very soft cloth or
leather. The common practice of placing
candlesticks before the fire to melt off the
grease is injudicious, as the solder or japan
about them is almost certain to be injured.
Hence the common annoyance of damaged or
“crippled” candlesticks in houses where there
are careless servants.
CAN'DYING. When the object is simply to
form a confection or sweetmeat, imbued with
the aroma, flavour, or medicinal property of any
substance, candies are generally prepared by
simply boiling lump sugar with a sufficient
quantity of the infusion, decoction, tincture,
expressed juice, or sometimes even the powder
of the particular article, until a portion taken
out and cooled becomes quite solid, when it is
either poured out on a marble slab, or into
tin, marble, or paper moulds, dusted with
powdered lump sugar.
When the object is to preserve the form
and character of the vegetable in the candy,
the substance is boiled in water until soft,
and then suspended in concentrated syrup (in
the cold), until they become transparent;
after which they are either dried in a current
of warm air, or in a stove, at a heat not ex-
ceeding 120°Fahr. The syrup must be kept
fully saturated with sugar by reboiling it once
or twice during the process.
Another method occasionally employed by
confectioners for almonds and the like is to
put the substances into a syrup boiled until it
forms a small thread between the opening
fingers, and to stir the whole until it is nearly
set. See SUGAR BOILING.
The following are the principal candied
articles kept at the shops:–
Camdied Al'monds. From blanched almonds,
roasted and halved.
Camdied Angel'ica. Prep. 1. From the root.
Boil the fresh roots (after slicing them and
removing the pith) in water, to deprive them
of part of their bitterness and aroma; then
drain them and put them into syrup boiled to
a full candy height, and boiling hot; let them
remain until nearly cold, when they may be
taken out and carefully dried.


288
CANNON METAL–CANTHARIDIN.
2. From the stems. From the tender stems,
stalks, and midribs of the leaves, as last.
Used as a sweetmeat and dessert. It is said
to be cordial, stomachic, tonic, and aphro-
disiac.
Camdied Apricots. From the fruit, scarcely
ripe, either whole or cut into quarters, im-
mersed in the syrup (hot), without any further
preparation.
Camdied Cit'rons.
Candied Erin'go.
washed.
Camdied Ginger.
ginger.
Candied Hore'hound. From a strong de-
coction or infusion of the root, and lump sugar,
1 pint to 8 or 10 lbs. may be used. Boil the
mixture to a candy height, and pour it whilst
warm into moulds or small paper cases well
dusted with finely powdered lump sugar; or
pour it on a dusted slab and cut it into
squares.
Candied Lem'on Peel. As Candied Citron.
Camdied Or'ange Flow’ers. From the flowers
deprived of their cups, stamina, and pistils
(2 oz. to each lb. of sugar), as Candied Almonds,
but poured out on a slab.
Candied Or'ange Peel. From the peel of the
Seville orange, or common orange, as Candied
Citron.
Camdied Sugar. See SUGAR BoILING.
The following are articles of a more special
character.
Candy, Car'away. 1. From caraway seeds
(in fine powder), # oz. ; sugar, 1 lb.
2. Oil of caraway, 1 dr.; sugar, 1 lb.
Candy, Digestive. Syn. LIVE-LONG CANDY.
Prep. 1. Rhubarb and bicarbonate of soda, of
each, 1 dr.; ginger, 3 dr. ; cinnamon, 20 grs.;
(all in fine powder;) heavy magnesia, 1 oz. ;
powdered sugar, 2 oz. ; mucilage of traga-
canth, q. S. to form a lozenge mass; to be
divided into small squares of 18 or 20 grs.
each. -
2. As the last, but adding finely powdered
caraways, 1 dr.; oil of caraway, 15 drops;
and sugar, 1 oz. Both are used as heartburn
and digestive lozenges.
Candy, Ginger. Prep. 1. From ginger (in
coarse powder), 3 oz. ; boiling water, 14 pint ;
macerate in a warm place for 2 hours, strain,
add lump and moist sugar, of each 5 lbs., and
boil to a candy.
2. Ginger (in very fine powder), 1 oz. ;
powdered sugar, 2 lbs.; syrup, q. s. to make a
paste. Stomachic and carminative.
For various sweetmeats which might come
under the head of CANDY, see CoNFECTIONs,
DROPs.
CAN’NON METAL. See GUN METAL.
CANTHAR'IDES. Syn. SPANIsh FLIES,
BLISTERING F., LYT'TAE; CANTHAR/IS, B. P.
The Cantharis vesicatoria of Latreille, com-
monly known as the Spanish fly, is an insect
of the order Coleoptera; it abounds in the
south of France, Spain, and Italy; and has
From the peels.
From the roots, slit and
From the roots of green
spread into Germany and the south of Russia.
When alive it exudes a strong fetid and pene-
trating odour.
Pur., &c. These insects should be preserved
in well-closed bottles or tin canisters. The
addition of a few drops of oil of cloves, or of
strong acetic acid, or even a few cloves in sub-
stance, will preserve them unchanged for a
length of time in closed vessels. The best proof
of their goodness is the smell. The powder
is constantly adulterated. The plan of the
wholesale druggists is to sort out the most
worthless flies for powdering, and to com-
pensate for their deficiency of vesicating
power, by adding 1 lb. of euphorbium to every
12 or 13 lbs. of flies. When a superior article
is required, liquorice powder is added (4 or
5 lbs. to every 14 lbs.), along with about 1 lb. of
euphorbium, and sufficient blue black or char-
coal to turn the yellow of the liquorice to a
greenish colour. The best mode of detecting
this adulteration is by the microscope.
Ant. An emetic of sulphate of zinc, followed
by the stomach-pump, if necessary. The
vomiting may be promoted by copiously drink-
ing warm bland diluents, such as broth, linseed
tea, milk, &c. Friction on the spine, with
volatile liniment and laudanum, and the subse-
quent administration of draughts containing
musk, opium, and camphorated emulsion, have
been strongly recommended.
Tests. By the microscope, very minute par-
ticles may be discovered in the stomach and
intestines, on a post-mortem examination.
Orfila thus found particles of cantharides in a
body that had been interred nine months.
Uses, &c. Spanish flies are used externally,
to raise blisters, and internally, as a stimulant
and diuretic, generally in the form of tincture.
In excess they produce strangury, bloody urine,
satyriasis, delirium, convulsions, and death. See
TINCTURES, VESICANTs, &c.
CANTHARI'DIN. C. HisO, Isomeric with
picrotoxin. This substance is found in, and is
the vesicating principle of the Spanish fly,
Chinese blistering fly, and other coleopterous
insects. Prep. Pulverised cantharides are
allowed to remain in contact for 24 hours
with twice their weight of chloroform, in a
displacement apparatus. The chloroform is
then drained off, and finally displaced by alco-
hol, and the solution is left to evaporate. The
cantharidin crystallises out, saturated with
green oil. In order to purify the cantharidin
it is laid on bibulous paper, which absorbs the


greater part of the oil, and then crystallised
out of a mixture of alcohol and chloroform
(Procter).
Prop. Prismatic crystals, melts at 200°C.,
volatilises in white fumes, which strongly irri-
tate the eyes, nose, and throat, and condenses
in rectangular prisms. Cantharidin is insolu-
ble in water, but soluble in alcohol, ether, chlo-
roform, acetic acid, and in the fixed and vola-
tile oils. Its solution in any of the liquids
above mentioned possesses vesicating proper-
CAOUTCHOUC.
289
ties, which, however, is not exhibited by solid
cantharidin.
CAOUT"CHOUC. Syn. INDIA RUBBER, ELAS-
TIC GUM. India rubber is the concrete juice
of the Ficus elastica, Siphonia elastica, the
Urceola elastica, and many other tropical
plants. The fresh milky juice is spread over
moulds of unbaked clay, and is then exposed
to the heat and smoke of a fire, or torches, to
dry it, whence it derives its dark colour. Suc-
cessive coats of juice are laid on, and the ope-
ration of drying repeated, until the bottles ac-
quire sufficient thickness. When it has become
thoroughly hard and dry, the clay is beaten
out. In this form it is commonly imported.
Prop., &c. The general properties of India
rubber, as well as its numerous applications,
are well known. The fresh juice has a cream-
like appearance and consistence, is coagulated
by heat, and is miscible with water, alcohol,
and wood naphtha; sp. gr. 1:012 to 1:041; it
yields from 18% to 45% of solid caoutchouc,
either by heat or evaporation. By excluding
it from the air, it may be preserved unchanged
for a considerable period.
Solid caoutchouc has a sp. gr. ranging be-
tween 919 and '941; it melts at 248° Fahr.
into a viscid mass, which does not again harden
on cooling; it is unaltered by chlorine, hydro-
chloric acid, sulphurous acid, fluosilicic acid,
ammonia, caustic alkaline lyes (even when
boiling), and most similar substances; nitric
acid and sulphuric acid act on it only by long
contact when concentrated. Some specimens
of caoutchouc are harder than gutta percha
itself, and equally inelastic, whilst others never
perfectly solidify, but remain in a condition
resembling that of birdlime or printers' var-
nish.
The best solvents of caoutchouc are rectified
sulphuric ether (which has been washed with
water to remove alcohol and acidity), chloro-
form, bisulphide of carbon, a mixture of bi-
sulphide of carbon and absolute alcohol (94.
of the first to 6 or 7 of the last), and caout-
choucin. All these liquids dissolve India rub-
ber rapidly in the cold, and leave it unaltered
on evaporation. The first two, are, however,
too expensive to be generally employed. The
others have a disagreeable odour, but are much
cheaper than the rest, and possess the advan-
tage of leaving the film of caoutchouc in a
firmer and stronger condition than other sol-
vents. Pyrogenous oil of turpentine is another
cheap and good solvent. Benzol, rectified
mineral or coal-tar naphtha, crude petroleum,
and oil of turpentine, dissolve India rubber by
long digestion and trituration, (with heat,)
otherwise they merely form with it a glutinous
jelly that dries very slowly and imperfectly,
leaving it much reduced in hardness and elas-
ticity. The fats and fixed oils also readily
dissolve caoutchouc (with heat), forming per-
manently glutinous solutions or pastes; so also
do most of the volatile oils, but the solutions
with the majority of them dry with difficulty.
One of the most remarkable properties of
India rubber is the great amount of heat
which is disengaged during its condensation
by pressure or in the exercise of its elasticity.
During the process of kneading the raw caout-
chouc in the “masticators,” the cold water
thrown in to reduce the temperature soon
becomes boiling hot. When no water is added,
a temperature so high is often reached as to
occasion the melting of the rubber. This is
particularly the case during the process of
“dry kneading” with quick-lime. A tube 2%
inches in diameter, impactly secured, was sub-
jected to a force of 200 tons. The result was
a compression amounting to 1-10th; great
heat was evolved, and the excessive elasticity
of the substance caused a flywheel weighing
five tons to recoil with alarming violence.
Mr. Brockedon states that he succeeded in
raising the temperature of an ounce of water
2° in about fifteen minutes by collecting the
heat evolved by the extension of a small thread
of caoutchouc. He refers this effect to the
change in specific gravity, and contends that
the heat thus produced is not due to friction,
because the same amount of friction is occa-
sioned in the contraction as in the extension
of the substance, and the result of this con-
traction is to reduce the caoutchouc thus acted
upon to its original temperature.
The edges and surfaces of India rubber are
readily and perfectly joined by mere contact
and intense pressure. On the small scale, the
edges may be moistened with ether, naphtha,
oil of turpentine, or some other solvent, or by
long boiling in water, and immediately pressed
tight together, and held in contact for some
time.
Elastic tubes are readily formed of India
rubber, by cutting it into uniform slips of
proper thickness, and winding them round
rods of polished glass or metal, so that the
edges are in close contact or “overlapping.”
A piece of tape is then wound round outside
it, and the whole boiled in water for 2 or 3
hours, after which time the edges will be
found to be sufficiently adherent. A better
plan is to immerse the “rubber” in a mix-
ture formed of bisulphide of carbon, 95 parts,
and rectified spirit, 5 parts, until it swells into
a pasty mass, which may then be moulded into
any desired form, or passed through the die
of a tubing machine. For chemical purposes,
brewing, &c., vulcanized India-rubber tubing
has now taken the place formerly occupied by
the unprepared material.
The once celebrated “Mackintoshes” are
made by spreading two or more coats of a
paste made of caoutchouc and rectified coal-
tar naphtha over the surface of the stuff or
cloth, and when it has become partially dry,
pressing two such surfaces evenly together
by passing the goods between a pair of cylin-
ders or rollers. The articles are then placed
in a stove room for the composition to harden,
and to remove the odour of the * Of
1


290
CAOUTCHOUC.
late years, vulcanized or mineralized rubber
(coloured) has been used for this purpose,
and being spread on the outside of the stuff
instead of the inside, forms an ornamental and
thoroughly waterproof material.
India-rubber thread is prepared by stretch-
ing it (previously cut into coarse filaments) to
5 or 6 times its length in boiling water or hot
air, in which state it is allowed to cool slowly.
This process is repeated again and again, until
it reaches 16,000 or 17,000 times its original
length, when it is glazed by agitating it with
powdered sulphur, or French chalk. This
thread is readily joined or “pieced,” as it is
called, by paring the ends obliquely with a
pair of scissors or a knife, and then pressing
the clean ends strongly together with the
fingers. When the coarse filaments from the
cutting machine are simply stretched with the
moistened thumb and finger in the act of
“reeling” to about 8 or 9 times their length,
they are said to be “inelasticated,” and are
ready to be made into elastic braces, elastic
web, and other like elastic tissues and fabrics,
in the braiding machine.
Caoutchouc, Vulcanized. Syn. VULCANIZED
INDIA RUBBER, MINE’RALIZED I. R., SUL'-
PHURETTED I. R. The discovery of the singu-
lar action of sulphur and the mineral sulphides
on caoutchouc was made by Mr. Charles Good-
year, of New York, in 1842, at which date
the manufacture of vulcanized India rubber
may be said to have commenced. In 1843
Mr. Thomas Hancock patented a process for
vulcanized India rubber in these countries,
founded on that of Mr. Goodyear. A sheet of
caoutchouc immersed in melted sulphur ab-
sorbs a portion of it, and at the same time
undergoes important changes in many of its
leading characteristics. So prepared, it is no
longer affected by changes of temperature; it
is neither hardened by cold nor softened by
any heat insufficient to destroy it. It loses
its solubility in the solvents of ordinary caout-
chouc, whilst its elasticity is greatly aug-
mented, and has become permanent.
The same effect is produced when sulphur
is kneaded into caoutchouc in a masticator, or
by means of powerful rollers, as well as when
common solvents (naphtha, spirit of turpen-
tine, &c.) are charged with a sufficient amount
of sulphur, in solution, to become a compound
solvent of the rubber. In these cases articles
may be made of any required form before
heating them for the change of condition,
technically termed “vulcanization.” It is
necessary, however, for this purpose, that the
form should be carefully maintained both before
and during the exposure to the heat.
“A vulcanized solid sphere of 2% inches in
diameter, when forced between two rollers
# inch apart, was found to maintain its form
uninjured. In fact, it is the exclusive pro-
perty of vulcanized caoutchouc to be able to
retain any form impressed upon it, and to re-
turn to that form on the removal of any dis-
turbing force which has been brought to act
upon it.” (Brockedon.)
Caoutchouc combines with from 12% to 15%
of sulphur; the quantity of sulphur added to
the naphtha paste should not, therefore, ex-
ceed 10% or 12% of its weight.
The temperatures for vulcanization by the
common method range from 320° to 330°;
and the period required is one hour or more,
according to the temperature. A much lower
temperature is, however, sufficient, if the du-
ration of the exposure is much extended, or
the compound mass is softened with any of
the common solvents of India rubber.
The process of sulphuring, or mineralization,
is differently conducted in different manufac-
tories. Under Mr. Burke's patent, oxysulphide
or amorphous sulphide of antimony (formed
by decomposing a solution of crude antimony
in a lye of potash or soda, with hydrochloric
acid) is employed. This powder he combines
with either India rubber or gutta percha, or
mixtures of them, by kneading in a “mastica-
tor” for 2 or 3 hours, and after strong com-
pression in a mould whilst still warm, he ex-
poses the mass to a steam heat ranging from
250° to 280° Fahr. The block, so prepared,
is afterwards cut into sheets, &c. The advan-
tages possessed by the product are, that it
possesses no unpleasant odour, nor does the
sulphur effloresce on its surface, as in ordinary
vulcanized India rubber.
Under Mr. Christopher Nickel’s patent
(1849) 1 part of sulphur is kneaded with 6
parts of caoutchouc, and then pressed into
moulds, as before. He also vulcanizes rubber
by exposing it in a cylinder heated in a steam
jacket to the fumes of sulphur or to sul-
phuretted gases, given off from a retort con-
nected with the apparatus. The rubber thus
prepared he next subjects to hydraulic pres-
sure in moulds, at a temperature ranging be-
tween 220° and 250° Fahr.
Small articles or sheets of India rubber may
be extemporaneously vulcanized at common
temperatures by simple immersion, for a
minute or two, in a mixture of bisulphide of
carbon, 97% parts, and protochloride of sul-
phur, 2% parts; after which they must be well
washed first in weak alkaline lye, and next in
pure water. Mr. Parkes employs 100 instead
of 97% parts of the bisulphide. This method
is termed “cold sulphuring.”
An excellent method of vulcanization, re-
commended by Mr. Parkes, particularly appli-
cable to small articles, consists in immersing
them for about 3 hours in a close vessel con-
taining a solution of polysulphide of potas-
sium at 25° Baumé (sp. gr. 1197), and of the
temperature of 240° Fahr. It is afterwards
washed in an alkaline lye, then in pure water,
and dried.
Among the many applications of vulcanized
India rubber those connected with its elas-


ticity and its enormous contractile power when
extended are particularly striking. Under
CAOUTCHOUCIN–CAPRIC ACID.
291
Mr. E. Smith's patent, “torsion springs” for
roller blinds, door springs, clock springs, car-
riage springs, &c., are made of it. Mr.
Hodges, in another patent, has availed himself
of the same property as a new mechanical
power. Short lengths of caoutchouc, which
he terms “vulcanized power purchases,” are
successively drawn down from or lifted to a
fixed bearing, and attached to any weight
which it is required to raise; when a sufficient
number of these power purchases are fixed to
the weight, their combined elastic force lifts
it from the ground. Thus, 10 purchases of the
elastic strength each of 50 lbs. raise 500 lbs.
Each purchase is 6 inches long, and contains
about 1% oz. of Vulcanized caoutchouc. These
10 purchases, if stretched to the limit of their
elasticity (not of their cohesive strength), will
lift a weight exceeding 650 lbs.
The same principle has been applied to re-
lieve and equalise the strain on ships’ cables,
especially where several boats are towing one
vessel; and as a projectile force. A number
of power purchases, attached to the barrel of
a gun constructed to project harpoons, will
exert a power, if suddenly relieved, propor-
tioned to their aggregate forces. By similar
contrivances balls may be projected 200 yards
or more, and a charge of No. 4 shot can be
thrown 120 yards. A bow, in which the string
alone is elastic (the reverse of the usual form),
has been contrived which throws a 30-inch
arrow 170 yards.
The last great improvement in the manu-
facture of caoutchouc is the discovery that by
continuing the process of vulcanization for a
longer time at an increased heat and under
pressure, a hard black substance is obtained,
which can be turned in a lathe like ebony.
This substance has already been applied to an
extraordinary number of uses. See VUL-
CANITE.
An exceedingly useful combination of cork
and India rubber has lately been introduced.
See KAMPTULICON.
Caoutchouc, Facti"tious.
DATED OIL.
CAOUT"CHOUCIN. An extremely light fluid
obtained by distilling India rubber.
Prep. (Barnard's patent process.) A
highly volatile fluid, discovered by Mr. Bar-
nard. India rubber or caoutchouc, as im-
ported, cut into small lumps, containing about
2 cubic inches each, is thrown into a cast-
iron still, connected with a well-cooled worm-
tub (any flat vessel with a large evaporating
surface will do, the entire top of which can
be removed for the purpose of cleaning it
out); and heat is applied in the usual way,
until the thermometer ranges to about 600°
Fahr., when nothing is left in the still but
dirt and charcoal. The dark-coloured fetid
oil which has distilled over is next rectified
along with ºrd its weight of water, once or
oftener; and at each rectification becomes
brighter and paler, until at about sp. gr. 680
See CoNSOLI-
it is colourless, and slightly volatile. The pro-
duct is then shaken up with nitro-hydrochlo-
ric acid, or chlorine, in the proportion of a +
of a pint of the acid to 1.gallon of the liquid.
To enable the dirt to be the more easily re-
moved from the bottom of the still, common
solder, to the depth of about ; an inch, is
trown in.-Prod. 80%.
Prop., &c. Mixed with alcohol, caoutchou-
cin dissolves gums and resins, especially copal
and India rubber, at the common temperature
of the atmosphere, and it speedily evaporates,
leaving them again in the solid state. It
mixes with the oils in all proportions. It has
been used in the manufacture of varnishes,
and for liquefying oil paints, instead of tur-
pentine. It is very volatile, and requires to
be kept in close vessels. According to the
researches of Himly, Gregory, and Bouchardat,
the caoutchoucin of Barnard consists of seve-
ral liquids, some of which have the compo-
sition of olefiant gas, and others that of oil of
turpentine.
CA"PERS. The flower buds of various
species of Capparis, particularly C. spinosa,
caper tree, preserved in vinegar. They are
chiefly imported from Spain, Italy, and the
South of France, where the caper tree is
largely cultivated for the purpose. The
flower-buds are picked daily, and thrown into
a cask of strong pickling vinegar, until it
becomes full, when it is sold to the dealers by
the collector. The former sort them into dif-
ferent sizes by means of copper sieves, in a
similar way to that adopted for lead shot and
gunpowder. In this way they are divided
into nonpareilles, capuchins, capotes, seconds,
and thirds, of which the former, or smallest,
are regarded as the best ; but much depends
upon the quality of the vinegar.
The lively green colour of capers, so much
valued by the ignorant, arises chiefly from the
presence of copper derived from the sieves
used in sorting them. In many cases, copper
coin, as sous and halfpence, are added for the
purpose. Thus the eye is gratified at the
sacrifice of the stomach, and an insidious poi-
son introduced into the system, simply to give
an unnatural appearance to a condiment which
tastes better without it. See CoPPER.
CAPILLAIRE". [Fr.] Simple syrup, or a
concentrated solution of sugar in water, fla-
voured with orange-flower water, or some
other similar aromatic. The name was origi-
nally given to a mucilaginous syrup, prepared
by adding to an infusion of maiden-hair (Adian-
tum capillus Veneris) some sugar and orange-
flower, water.
CAP'NOMOR. See KAPNoMoR.
CAP'RIC ACID. H.Clo HigO2. Syn. RU'TIC
ACID ; ACIDUM CAP'RICUM, L. An acid dis-
covered by Chevreul, and obtained by decom-
posing caprate of barium with dilute sulphuric
acid, or primarily by the saponification of butter
or cocoa-nut oil, when it appears combined
with butyric, caproic and caprylic acids. It is


292
CAPSICINE–CAPSULES.
also procured by acting upon oleic acid or oil
of rue with nitric acid.
Obs. When butter is saponified with caustic
potassa or soda, and the resulting soap decom-
posed by adding an acid, in excess, and dis-
tilling the mixture, the four acids above
named pass over into the receiver, in combi-
nation with water. The mixed acids may be
separated by saturating them collectively with
baryta, and by taking advantage of the
unequal solubility of the newly formed barium
salts. The less soluble portion (equal to about
#th of the dry mass) contains capric and ca-
prylic acid; the larger and more soluble
portion, butyric and caproic acid. On the
same plan, the two groups are resolved into
their separate acids. These acids are deprived
of thcir uncombined water by means of chloride
of calcium. It is advisable to employ the
term rutic acid, as the older term is easily
confounded with caproic and caprylic.
Prop. Capric or rutic acid crystallises in
fine needles, which fuse at 86°Fahr., giving
out an odour resembling that of a goat. It
is sparingly soluble in boiling water.
Prep. (Miller.) Castor oil is saponified by
means of potassa or soda, and afterwards an
excess of the hydrated alkali is added, amount-
ing to one half the oil used. The mass is
heated in a retort, and an oily liquid covered
with water distils over. This oily liquid,
which is the octylic alcohol, is rectified
several times with potassa until the residue is
no longer coloured brown.—Prop. A colour-
less liquid, of powerful aromatic odour; in-
soluble in water, but dissolving readily in acetic
acid, ether, and alcohol. Its boiling-point is
356° Fahr., its sp. gr. 823. The caprylate
of ethyl, erroneously termed caprylic ether,
is a colourless liquid, with an agreeable odour
of pineapples.
CAP'SICINE is the name given to an alka-
loid obtained from the capsicum or Cayenne
pepper. It has a burning taste, and when
quite pure crystallises. It forms crystallisable
salts with acetic, nitric, and sulphuric acids.
CAP'SICUM. [L. and Eng.] Syn. CHIL/I,
RED PEPPER. A gen. of plants belonging to
the natural order Solanaceae, species of which
yield the fruits which are used to form
Cayenne pepper and Chili vinegar. The offi-
cinal capsicum of B. P. is the fruit of the
species C. fastigiatum. See PEPPERS, TINC-
TURES, WINEGARS.
CAP'SULES. This term is now commonly
applied to small egg-shaped or spherical vessels,
in which medicines are placed, for the purpose
of covering their nauseous taste, at the time
of swallowing them. They are commonly
made of gelatin, mixtures of sugar and gela-
tine, or animal membrane.
Capsules, Gel’atin. Prep. 1. By dipping the
bulbous extremity of an oiled metallic rod into
a strong solution of gelatin. When the rod
is withdrawn, it is rotated, in order to diffuse
the fluid jelly equally over its surface. As
soon as the gelatinous film has partially hard-
ened, it is removed from the mould and placed
on pins, furnished with suitable heads, and
fixed on a cork table. When sufficiently dry,
the capsules are placed upright in little cells,
made in the table to receive them, and the
liquid with which they are to be filled is then
introduced by means of a small glass tube.
They are next closed by dropping some of the
melted gelatin on the orifice of each. Six
parts of gelatin, and one part of sugar, are now
the common proportions.
2. (Simonin.) Oval balls of wax, of the
requisite size, are prepared by pouring wax
into a wooden mould, consisting of two parts,
and arranged for the reception of a row of
these balls. These are afterwards stuck on
iron needles, affixed to rods of convenient size,
in rows. The balls are now uniformly coated
all at once by dipping in the usual manner,
then removed from the needles, and are next
placed with the needle holes downwards, on a
gently heated plate, when the wax flows out,
and a round capsule is left behind.
Capsules, Gel’atin and Sugar. Prep. (Gi-
raud.) Gelatin, 6 parts; solution of gum and
simple syrup, of each, 1 part; water, 5 parts;
melt in a water bath, remove the scum, and
proceed as before.
Capsules, Glut'em. These, which form the
subject of a French patent, are said to be
formed of the gluten of wheat flour, a sub-
stance which is insoluble, although softened,
by water. We have placed these capsules for
twenty-four hours in warm water, and found
them, at the expiration of that time, still un-
broken, the enclosed medicine being completely
enveloped. The mode of preparation is kept
secret.
Capsules, Mem'bramous. Syn. ORGAN'IC CAP-
SULES. From gut-skin moistened and stretched
over an oiled bulb of glass or metal, and filled
in the common way. These have been pa-
tented, but they do not appear to be an
improvement on the common capsule of
gelatin.
Obs. The common capsules usually hold
about 10 or 12 grs. of balsam of copaiba.
Those of the shops, in nine cases out of ten, are
filled with adulterated copaiba, and at least
4-5ths of them are filled with train oil or lin-
seed oil, to which a few drops only of the
balsam are added.
Balsam of copaiba (capivi) and oil of cubebs,
or a mixture of them, castor oil and cod-liver
oil, are the substances most usually adminis-
tered in this way. Bacca copaiferae factitia,
are officinal in the Ph. Castr. Ruth. Ratier
has proposed to grease them and administer
them per anum. Ricord has strongly recom-
mended capsules of copaiba, coated with extract
of rhatany, as much superior to the common
ones of copaiba alone, in the treatment of gleet
and gonorrhoea. They may be easily prepared
by either of the following methods:
1. By immersing, for an instant, the com-


CARAMEL–CARBOLIC ACID.
293
mon capsule in a mixture of extract of rhatany
(newly prepared from the root), 3 parts;
syrup of moist sugar, 1 part ; mucilage of gum
Arabic, 1 part; melted together in a water
bath.
2. By forming the bodies of the capsules
with the above mixture or composition, instead
of with gelatin, and then following the same
manipulations as for the manufacture of the
common gelatin capsules.
These capsules are said to sit well upon the
stomach, the tone of which they contribute to
improve, and to act with greater certainty
than those made of copaiba and gelatin
alone.
CAR’AMEL. A dark-brown product ob-
tained by heating sugar. It is formed during
the roasting of all materials containing sugar,
such as coffee and malt. It is much used for
colouring soups, wines, spirits, and other
liquids.
Caramel, Crude. Syn. SPIRIT COLOURING,
BURNT SUGAR. Prep. From cane sugar, by
heating it to from 410° to 428°Fahr., as long
as aqueous vapour is formed; dissolving the
product in water, and concentrating the solu-
tion by evaporation.
Caramel, Pure. Prep. 1. (Graham.) Crude
caramel, obtained as above, is placed on a
parchment-paper dialyser. The undecomposed
sugar and certain intermediate compounds
diffuse out with considerable facility, and what
ultimately remains on the dialyser possesses
five times the colouring power of the original
crude caramel, weight for weight. See DIA-
LYSIS.
2. (Peligot.) Add strong alcohol to a filtered
aqueous solution of crude caramel until it
ceases to produce a precipitate; collect the
precipitate, which is caramel, on a filter, wash
with alcohol, and dry. Graham recommends
that the product should be dissolved and pre-
cipitated four or five times, or till the mass
thrown down, from being plastic at first, be-
comes pulverulent.
3. (J. J. Pohl.) Cane sugar is heated in a
spacious metallic vessel by means of an oil
bath to 410° or 419°Fahr. as long as aqueous
vapours escape, the mass being occasionally
stirred with a spatula. The mass is then
finely powdered and digested with alcohol for
two or three hours; the digestion is repeated
until the fluid no longer tastes bitter.
Prop. A solution containing 10% of purified
caramel is gummy, and forms a tremulous jelly
on standing. Evaporated in vacuo, it dries up
into a black shining mass soluble in water;
but if the solution be evaporated to dryness
by the heat of a water bath, the whole matter
is rendered insoluble in hot or cold water. A
very small proportion of caramel suffices to
give a rich sepia tint to water.
CAR'AT. A weight of 4 grains used in
weighing diamonds, which are spoken of as
of so many carats weight. Among assayers,
a carat is a weight of 12 grains; but more
commonly a proportional weight or term, re-
presenting the number of parts of pure gold
in 24 parts of the alloy; pure gold being
spoken of as of 24 carats fine. It is commonly
the 24th part of the “assay pound,” and is
nominally subdivided into 4 assay grains, and
these again into quarters. See ASSAYING.
CAR'AWAY. Syn. CARAWAY SEED ; SE'-
MENA CARUI, L.; CARUI, B. P. The fruit of
the Carum Carui (Linn.), an umbelliferous
plant, common in England and other parts of
Europe. These fruits, commonly called “seeds,”
form an agreeable and useful aromatic and
carminative, and are especially esteemed in
the flatulent colic of children. They are also
largely employed as an adjuvant or corrective
in various officinal preparations; and as a
flavoring ingredient in cakes, biscuits, cordials,
confectionery, &c. See ESSENCES.
CARBAZ0T/IC ACID. See PICRIC ACID.
CARBOLIC ACID. H. C.H.O. Syn. PHE-
NYLIC ACID, PHENIC ACID, PHENOL, PHE-
NYLIC ALCOHOL, HYDRATE OF PHENYLE, HY-
DRATED OXIDE OF PHENYLE. A powerful anti-
septic substance obtained from coal-tar oil.
Prep. Crude, heavy coal oil is agitated
with milk of lime, allowed to stand, and the
aqueous portion separated from the undissolved
oil and decomposed by hydrochloric acid. The
oily liquid obtained is purified by distillation.
1. Crude coal oil is distilled in a retort fur-
nished with a thermometer, and the portion
which passes over when the heat ranges
between 300° and 400° Fahr., is collected
apart, and mixed with a hot saturated solution
of caustic potassa; after standing for some
time, a semi-crystalline pasty mass forms, from
which the supernatant liquid is decanted; the
pasty mass is now agitated with a small quan-
tity of water until dissolved; the solution thus
formed separates into two portions, the denser
of which contains carbolate of potassa; this
being separated by decantation, is decomposed
by hydrochloric acid. The solution of car-
bolic acid which rises to the surface is digested
with chloride of calcium, to remove water, and
purified by distillation; the distillate, by re-
frigeration, furnishes crystals of the acid, which
must be drained, dried, and preserved from the
all".
2. From salicylic acid. Mix intimately to-
gether equal weights of salicylic acid and pow-
dered glass; introduce the mixture into a good
German retort, and heat on a sand bath, gra-
dually raising the heat till it becomes red hot
at the bottom. The vapour is condensed in
any convenient receiver. If the materials are
perfectly dry, it solidifies to a mass of crystals
as soon as it condenses, but if there be a trace
of water present it remains liquid. The slower
it distills over, the lighter will be the colour,
while if a high temperature be employed it
comes over nearly black. It may be rendered
colourless and anhydrous by rectification over
quick-lime.
Of late years the manufacture of carbolic


294,
CARBON.—CARBONATES.
acid has increased to a great extent, and is
generally found in a pale yellow clear solution,
instead of as a dark hazy liquid. The pure
anhydrous acid is in long, colourless, prismatic
crystals, often, however, on keeping turning a
beautiful pink, rose, or crimson, and which
rapidly deliquesce in moist air, becoming con-
verted into a colourless refractive liquid, having
a faint odour of roses and tar. Carbolic acid
is poisonous, and is a powerful antiseptic.
Uses. The extraordinary antiseptic proper-
ties of carbolic acid have long been known,
but its extended use has been delayed, owing
to the difficulty experienced in obtaining it in
considerable quantities. It is now, however,
principally owing to the labours of Dr. F.
Crace Calvert, produced on a large scale, and
this chemist has proposed its application to
many valuable purposes. As a medical agent,
it seems to have all the useful properties of
creosote in an exalted degree, with some pe-
culiar actions of its own, and is being applied
with marked success in the Manchester Royal
Infirmary and similar institutions, in cases of
chronic diarrhoea, obstinate vomiting (even
after creosote has failed), and as a disinfecting
wash for ill-conditioned ulcers and gangrenous
sores. It has also been applied successfully in
cases of foot-rot, a disease which annually
carries off large numbers of sheep. It has
been employed for the preservation of gelatin
solutions and preparations of size made with
starch, flour, and similar materials, and of
skins and other animal substances. It appears
to act strongly as an antiferment, and Dr.
Calvert states that it is one of the most pow-
erful preventives of putrefaction with which
he is acquainted. Commercial creosote is fre-
quently nothing more than hydrated carbolic
acid.
CAR/B0N. C. Syn. CARBO'NIUM,CAR'Bo, L.;
CHARBON, Fr. ; KOHLENSTOFF, Ger. An ele-
mentary or simple non-metallic solid body,
very widely diffused through nature. Its
purest and rarest form is that of the diamond.
Nearly pure, it occurs very abundantly in the
forms of graphite and anthracite. In com-
bination with oxygen, as carbonic acid, it ex-
ists in the atmosphere and in the waters of
most springs, also in limestone, marble, chalk,
and dolomite. Combined with hydrogen, it
enters largely into coal, peat, and lignite. It
is an essential constituent of organic matter,
and hence it has been termed the “organic
element.” Charcoal, lamp-black, and coke,
are more or less pure forms of carbon. By
strongly igniting lamp-black in a covered
crucible, the element is obtained sufficiently
pure for most chemical purposes.
It is best obtained purest by burning a jet
of pure olefiant gas in an atmosphere of pure
chloride, collecting the amorphous carbon de-
posited, and igniting in vacuo at a red heat.
Forms several chlorides, sulphides, &c., of
which the following are the chief:-
Carbon, Protochloride of. Obtained from
the sesquichloride by subliming it repeatedly
through a tube filled with fragments of glass
heated to redness. A transparent colourless
liquid, with aromatic odour.
Carbon, Sesquichloride of C. Clg. Obtained
by exposing Dutch liquid with chlorine, in a
glass vessel, to the direct rays of the sun, taking
care to renew the chlorine as long as it is ab-
sorbed. The liquid is ultimately converted
into the sesquichloride of carbon, which is a
white, crystalline, volatile substance.
Carbon, Oxychloride of COCl. Syn. CHLo'-
ROCARBON'IC ACID, PHOSGENE GAS, CHLO-
RIDE OF CARBONY L. Equal measures of car-
bonic oxide and chlorine are exposed to the
direct rays of the sum ; they combine, and be-
come condensed to half their volume. It is a
colourless, suffocating gas, which is imme-
diately decomposed by water into carbonic and
hydrochloric acids. - *
Carbon, Sulphide of CS3. Syn. BISULPHIDE
OF CARBON, CARBON DISULPHIDE, SULPHURET
OF CARBON. Bisulphide of iron (iron pyrites),
5 parts, and fresh dry charcoal, 1 part, are
heated together in a stoneware retort, fur-
nished with a glass tube, having the end bent,
and passing nearly to the bottom of a bottle
or receiver filled with pounded ice. The bi-
sulphide of carbon collects at the bottom of
the receiver, and is then purified from adhering
moisture and sulphur by distilling it, at a low
temperature, from fused chloride of calcium.
By passing the vapour of sulphur over frag-
ments of charcoal, heated to bright redness in
a porcelain tube, and collecting the product as
before. " .
Prop., Uses, &c. A colourless, pungent, fetid
liquid, having the sp. gr. 1:27. It is exceed-
ingly volatile, boiling at 118:5° Fahr., and has
never been frozen. It is highly inflammable,
burning with a pale-blue flame, and giving off
sulphurous and carbonic acid gases. It freely
dissolves sulphur, phosphorus, and several other
substances, and by spontaneous evaporation
deposits the first in beautiful crystals. The
solution of phosphorus is much used in electro-
typing objects, which are coated with a con-
ducting film by its means. Its refractive power
is remarkably high, and on this account it is
employed to fill hollow lenses for spectroscopes
and other optical instruments. It produces
intense cold by its evaporation. A spirit ther-
mometer, having its bulb covered with cotton,
if dipped into this fluid and suspended in the
air, rapidly sinks from 60° to 0°, and if put
into the receiver of an air-pump it will fall to
—81°Fahr. A mixture of sulphide of carbon
and solid carbonic anhydride forms almost the
most powerful frigorific agent known. Sul-
phide of carbon is now prepared on the large
scale, and extensively employed as a solvent.
It is stated that the odour of sulphide of
carbon can be readily removed by allowing it
to stand over mercury or corrosive sublimate
for some time, and then redistilling.
CAR/BONATE, a salt in which the hydrogen




CARBONIC ACID–CARBONIC ANHYDRIDE.
295
of (hypothetical) carbonic acid (H2CO3) is re-
placed by a metal or other basic radical.
Prep., &c. The processes by which the
commercial carbonates and many others are
prepared are described under the respective
bases. Most of the earthy carbonates are
found abundantly in nature. In general, the
salts of this class may be formed by adding an
alkaline carbonate to a salt of the metal in
solution by double decomposition.
Prop. The carbonates of the alkalies are
soluble in water; those of the other bases are
for the most part insoluble, except the water
is highly charged with carbonic acid. From
most of them carbonic anhydride or anhydrous
carbonic acid can be easily expelled by heat.
Tests. The carbonates are easily distin-
guished by the following reactions:—They
dissolve with effervescence in hydrochloric
acid, and in most other acids; in some cases a
gentle heat is required to promote the disen-
gagement of the gas.--The gas evolved in the
last, passed into lime water and baryta water,
occasions white precipitates, which redissolve
in acids with effervescence, and after the solu-
tion has been boiled are not reprecipitated by
liquor of ammonia.-Chloride of calcium and
chloride of barium give white precipitates in
solutions of the neutral alkaline carbonates,
but in solutions of the alkaline bicarbonates
only after ebullition; and the precipitates are
readily soluble with effervescence in acetic
acid.
Estim. The quantity of the metal in an
alkaline or earthy carbonate may be easily de-
termined by the ordinary volumetric methods
of alkalimetry (which see), and the quantity
of carbonic acid, by the method of Fresenius
and Will (see ALKALIMETRY). The apparatus
figured below, or preferably that shown in the
article on ALKALIMETRY, may be used instead
of the more complicated contrivance of the
German chemists.
(a.) Flask containing the sample of carbonate for exa-
mination, stopped by a closely fitting cork, through
which passes the bent tube (c).
(b.) A small tube, sufficiently long to maintain a slanting
position without falling, filled with sulphuric or
hydrochloric acid.
(c.) A bent tube, connecting the flask with (d).
(d.) Horizontal tube, filled with small fragments of fused
or dried chloride of calcium, with a fine orifice at
the extremity (e).
With the apparatus above, which is that
the sample,
commonly used, a weighed sample of the car-
bonate to be examined is placed in the flask (a)
along with a little water, and the small tube
(b), filled with either sulphuric or hydrochloric
acid, is carefully introduced. The cork, with
its chloride of calcium tube (d), is then fitted
to the flask, and the whole apparatus very
accurately weighed.
On inclining the apparatus the acid escapes
over the side of the small tube, and mixing
with the liquor in the flask, expels the carbonic
acid of the carbonate, which is then dried by
passing over the chloride of calcium. After
effervescence has ceased, heat should be applied
to the bottom of the flask, until it be filled
with steam, to expel the carbonic gas it con-
tains. The loss of weight gives the weight of
the carbonic acid gas that was contained in
The quantity of carbonic acid in
the carbonates of the metals that do not con-
tain water, may be determined by heating them
to redness in a platina crucible.
CARBONIC ACID, H,CO. , True carbonic
acid has not yet been obtained in any satisfac-
tory condition, although the solution of car-
bonic anhydride (often called carbonic acid),
or anhydrous carbonic acid, is generally
regarded as such. It forms with bases an
important series of salts, called the carbonates,
by double decomposition.
CARBONIC ANHYDRIDE. COs. Syn.
CARBONIC ACID, CARBON DIOXIDE, FIXED
AIR, CHOKE DAMP ; ACIDE CARBONIQUE, Fr. ;
KOHLEN SÄURE, Ger. A compound formed
by the chemical union of carbon and oxygen.
IHist. Van Helmont recognised carbonic
acid as a peculiar gas. Dr. Black, in 1757,
proved that it was a constituent of limestone,
and gave it the name of fixed air; he also
showed that the causticity of alkalies depended
on its absence. Bergmann first described it
as an acid, applying to it the term ačrial acid.
Lavoisier, in 1776, established its true nature,
and gave it the name it now bears. Faraday,
in 1823, by pressure at an extremely low tem-
perature, reduced carbonic acid to a liquid,
and a few years later Thilorier and Brunel
obtained it in the solid form.
Naț. hist. Carbonic acid is a constituent
of the atmosphere, its presence being essential
to the existence of vegetable life on the globe.
It issues from the earth in many situations, as
the Grotto del Cane in Italy, the Valley of
Poison in Java, and near the Lake of Laach in
Germany. It gives to many mineral springs
their sparkling brilliancy, and is held in solu-
tion by all natural waters. Combined with
the bases, lime and magnesia especially, it
exists in large quantities in the crust of the
earth. It is the chief product of combustion,
and one of the products of fermentation. It
is always being exhaled by animals in the
process of respiration, and in smaller quan-
tities by plants at night or in the shade. It
forms the terrible “choke-damp” or “after
damp” of the coal mines. It is the gas dis-
-

296 CARBONIC OXIDE—CARMINATIVES.
engaged during the effervescence of soda water
and other ačrated drinks, and the cause of the
freshness of newly drawn beer.
Prep. Hydrochloric acid, 1 part, diluted
with water, 4 or 5 parts, is poured upon frag-
ments of white marble, previously placed in a
suitable generating apparatus."
Carbonic acid is rapidly evolved, and may
be collected, with some loss, over water in the
pneumatic trough. If required dry, the gas
must be passed over fragments of fused chlo-
ride of calcium, placed in a large tube, or
through a small quantity of concentrated sul-
phuric acid, and collected by displacement or
over mercury.
From oil of vitriol, 1 part; water, 6 parts;
and chalk or whiting, 1} part ; mixed in a
suitable vessel, applying agitation.
Prop. Under ordinary conditions, carbonic
acid is a colourless, non-inflammable, irrespir-
able gas, possessing a slightly pungent odour,
and an acidulous taste. Water absorbs its
own volume of this gas, and by pressure may
be made to take up enormous quantities, form-
ing carbonated or ačrated water. Its sp. gr.
is 1:520, hence it may be poured from one
vessel to another like water. By a pressure
of thirty atmospheres at 32°Fahr., it is lique-
fied, the pressure required decreasing as the
temperature gets lower. At —94° Fahr. it
solidifies into a vitreous transparent mass.
Carbonic acid, even when greatly diluted
with air, cannot beinhaled without insensibility
following. An atmosphere containing more
than its natural quantity of the gas (1 part in
2500 parts, by measure) acts upon the system
as a narcotic poison, hence the danger of over-
crowded rooms. It is a non-supporter of com-
bustion, at once extinguishing a lighted candle,
gas-jet, or even a piece of burning phosphorus,
when these are placed in a jar of the gas.
Tests. It feebly reddens litmus paper, ex-
tinguishes the flame of a burning taper, and
forms a white precipitate in aqueous solutions
of lime and baryta, which is soluble in acetic
acid. By the last test, a very small quantity
of this gas may be easily detected in the atmo-
sphere of rooms, &c. A lighted candle is
generally used to test an atmosphere suspected
to contain carbonic acid; but it is found that
air that will support combustion will contain
sufficient of this gas to cause insensibility.
Ant., &c. The patient should be immedi-
ately removed into the open air, and placed
on his back with the head slightly raised. Cold
water should be dashed over the body, hot
water or mustard poultices applied to the feet,
and ammonia (carefully) to the nostrils.
Brandy-and-water and other stimulants may
be administered. Continued friction on the
surface of the body is also very useful. If the
1 A large flask, provided with a bent glass tube for con-
veying the gas, and a tube-funnel for introducing the
acid, is the most convenient form of apparatus. A tubu-
lated retort may be used, but the generating flask or bottle
is to be preferred.
-
patient has ceased to breathe, artificial respira-
tion should be attempted. This may be done
by gently pressing down the ribs, and forcing
up the diaphragm, and then suddenly with-
drawing the pressure. The inhalation of air,
mixed with very little chlorine gas, has also
been recommended. Wells, cellars, or other
underground apartments, containing carbonic
acid in poisonous quantities, may be freed from
this gas by pumping it out, in the same way
as water, observing to allow the suction hose
to fully reach the floor or bottom of the place.
Fresh slaked lime or milk of lime, copiously
thrown in, will have a like effect, by absorb-
ing the gas. Free ventilation, whenever it
can be established, is, however, not only the
cheapest, but the most efficient remedy. See
ASPHYXIA.
CARBON’IC OXIDE, CO. Syn. PROTOxIDE
OF CARBON, CARBON MONOxIDE, GA(SEOUS
OxIDE OF CARBON ; OXY'DUM CARBON'ICUM,
L. A gaseous compound of carbon and oxy-
gen, containing less oxygen than is contained
in carbonic acid.
Prep. 1. From carbonic acid gas passed over
fragments of charcoal, heated to redness in a
tube of porcelain or iron.
2. From crystallised oxalic acid, gently heated
with 5 or 6 times its weight of strong sulphu-
ric acid in a glass retort.
3. From ferrocyanide of potassium in fine
powder, and 8 or 10 times its weight of con-
centrated sulphuric acid, heated together in
a glass retort,
Obs. All the processes except the last give a
mixture of carbonic acid and oxide. It is
therefore necessary to pass the gas through
a caustic alkaline solution or milk of lime, to
deprive it of carbonic acid. It may then be
passed over dried chloride of calcium, to de-
prive it of moisture. It may be collected either
over mercury or water, as the latter absorb
very little of this gas. -
Prop. Carbonic oxide is colourless, inodor-
ous, neutral, inflammable, and irrespirable. It
is extremely poisonous, 1% mixed with air being
sufficient to cause dangerous drowsiness. The
deaths produced by the combustion of charcoal
in close rooms are now attributed to this gas.
The antidotes, &c., are the same as for poison-
ing from inhaling carbonic acid.
CAR/BURETTED HYDROGEN. See HY-
IDROG-EN.
CARD’AMOM. Syn. CARD’AMUM ; CARDA-
Mo'MUM, B. P. The seed or fruit of the
Flettaria Cardamomum forms the officinal
cardamom. It is warm, pungent, carminative,
and stomachic, and is largely used as a condi-
ment in the East, and in Europe as an adju-
vant in other medicines. Several kinds of
cardamoms used medicinally and as spices are
produced by the genus Amomum, belonging
to the natural order Zingiberaceae, the Ginger
family.
CAR/MINATIVES. Medicines that allay
flatulency and spasmodic pains. Among the


CARMINE.
297
principal carminatives are ANISEED, CARAWAY
SEED, CARDAMOMS, CASSIA, CINNAMON, GIN-
GER, PEPPERMINT, and the PEPPERS. To
these may be added ARDENT SPIRITs, and
most of the AROMATIC ESSENCES and TINC-
TURES. See MIXTURES, PATENT MEDICINES,
&c.
CAR'MINE. Syn. CARMINE RED, VEGE-
TABLE SCARLET; CARMI'NUM, L. A beautiful
red pigment prepared from the cochineal in-
sect.
Prep. The preparation of carmine is little
understood, but success in its manufacture
depends less on any mystery connected with
the process than on the employment of the
purest water and the best materials, and the
exercise of moderate care, dexterity, and pa-
tience. The following forms will produce car-
mine of the richest hues down to ordinary and
common, according to the skill possessed by
the manipulator.
1. (Madame Cenette’s process.) Cochineal
(in powder), 2 lbs., is boiled in pure river water,
15 galls., for 2 hours, when refined saltpetre
(bruised), 3 oz., is added to the decoction, and
the whole boiled for 3 or 4 minutes longer;
salt of sorrel, 4 oz., is next added, aſid the
boiling again renewed for 10 or 12 minutes;
the heat is now removed, and the liquid
allowed to settle for about 4 hours, after which
time it is decanted with a syphon, into shallow
plate-like vessels, and set aside for three weeks.
At the end of this time the film of mould
which has formed on the surface is dexterously
and carefully removed, without breaking it or
disturbing the liquid beneath it. The remain-
ing fluid is next very carefully removed with a
syphon, and the adhering moisture, as far as
possible, drained off, or sucked up with a
pipette. The residuum, which is the carmine,
is dried in the shade, and possesses extraor-
dinary lustre and beauty.
2. (Alaon or Langlois process.) Powdered
cochineal, 1 lb., is boiled in river water, 4 galls.,
for 10 minutes, when carbonate of soda, # oz.,
dissolved in water, 1 pint, is added, and the
whole again boiled for hour longer; when
the decoction is cold, alum (in fine powder),
# oz., is thrown in, and the liquid agitated
rapidly until it is entirely dissolved; after 20
minutes’ repose, it is decanted into another
vessel, and clarified by heating it with the
whites of 2 eggs; the perfectly clear liquid is
then allowed to repose for 40 minutes or
longer, when it is decanted, and the carmine
which it has deposited is collected, drained on
a filter, and dried on shallow plates covered
with silver paper. The product by either of
the above processes varies from 9% to 10% on
the weight of the cochineal employed in them.
3. (China or Spirit process.) Cochineal, 1 lb.,
is boiled for 15 minutes, in water, 3 galls.,
powdered alum, 1 dr., is next added, and the
whole again boiled for 5 or 6 minutes; when
the liquid has become cold, the clear portion
is decanted, and again heated, and solution of
tin (spirits of tin), cautiously dropped in until
all the carmine is precipitated; it is collected,
drained, and dried, as before. Prod. 1% oz.
3. (French process.) From cochineal (in
powder), 1 lb., boiled for 15 minutes, in water,
3 galls.; cream of tartar (in powder), 1 oz., is
then added, the boiling further continued for
10 minutes, and powdered alum, 1% oz., thrown
in ; after another 2 minutes' boil, the heat is
withdrawn, and in 5 or 6 minutes more, the
clear portion is decanted into porcelain vessels,
which are set aside until the carmine falls
down.
4. (German process.) Powdered cochineal,
1 lb., water, 4 galls.; boil 15 minutes, add
powdered alum, 1 oz.; boil 3 minutes longer,
remove the heat, allow the liquor to settle for
5 minutes, pour off the clear portion into por-
celain or earthenware vessels, and set them
aside for 3 or 4 days. The carmine is found
deposited on the bottom of the vessel, and
must be now carefully drained, and dried, as
before. The decanted liquor yields more car-
mine by standing in fresh vessels. Product.
About 1% oz. ; besides 4 oz., or more, of an
inferior quality obtained as a second deposit.
5. (English process.) From cochineal, 1 lb.,
and carbonate of potash, 3 oz., boiled in water,
7 galls., for 15 minutes; the vessel is then
removed from the fire, and powdered alum,
1 oz., added; the liquor is them well agitated
and allowed to settle for about 15 minutes
longer; the clear liquid is next decanted into
a clean copper, and isinglass, oz., dissolved
in water, 1 pint (and strained), added; as soon
as a coagulum forms upon the surface, the heat
is removed, and the liquid is strongly agitated
with a bone or silver spatula, after which it is
allowed to repose for 20 or 30 minutes. The
deposited carmine must be drained and dried,
as before. - -
Obs. The best black cochineal is generally
used for the preparation of carmine. For
ordinary qualities, spirits of tin (bichloride) is
added to the decoction as a precipitant, and
the liquid being put into suitable vessels
(wash-hand basins answer very well), a deposit
of carmine slowly takes place. Neither expo-
sure to solar light nor artificial heat is advisable
during the drying, but the latter must never-
theless be effected with all possible expedition.
Hence, the finer shades of carmine can only be
successfully made during certain states of
weather; as in very hot weather the liquid
rapidly sours or ferments, and the deposit is
more or less dissolved; whilst in dull, damp
weather, it is difficult to dry the precipitate
sufficiently, which is then apt to become mouldy,
and to lose colour. The researches of Pelletier
and Caventou tend to show that the solution
of tin used as a precipitant, should be at the
maximum of oxidation or chlorination, to pro-
duce the richest shades of carmine. That first
deposited is, in all cases, the most beautiful,
and the quality gradually deteriorates as the
process proceeds. 6 or 7 drs. only of carmine



298 CARMINIC ACID—CARPETS.
of the very finest quality can hence be ob-
tained from 1 lb. of cochineal.
Prop., &c. Pure carmine is a very light,
lustrous, scarlet powder, entirely soluble in
ammonia, a test by which its purity is readily
determined. Mr. Warren De la Rue says the
pure colouring principle of cochineal is car-
minic acid. By digesting ammonia on carmine,
until all the colour is taken up, filtering and
adding acetic acid and alcohol, till the whole
is precipitated; and lastly, carefully washing
the precipitate with spirit of wine, at proof,
and drying in the shade, carmine of the richest
and most lustrous hue, may be obtained even
from samples of inferior quality. -
Uses, &c. As a pigment in velvet and minia-
ture painting, and fºr tinting artificial flowers,
and as rouge for the complexion. The pow-
dered cqchineal (carmine grounds), from which
the coloured liquor (liquid rouge, carmine
liquor), has been decanted, is used by the paper
stainers, and both are used in the preparation
of carminated lake.
Blue Carmine. See INDIGO.
Liquid Carmine. Syn. FLUID CARMINE,
LIQUID ROUGE, CARMINE INK. Prep. 1. A
solution of carmine in ammonia water, or spirits
of hartshorn. Very rich and beautiful. -
2. The residual liquor of the process of
making carmine. Inferior. The first is use
in velveſ and miniature painting, and for
tinting artificial flowers; the second for com-
mon purposes, as a stain or wash.
Pur'ple Carmine. See MUREXIDE.
CARMIN’IC ACID. Cld HiſOs. Prep. (W.
De la Rue.) The powdered insect, after treat-
ment with ether to remove the fat, is digested
in water. The decoction of cochineal is pre-
cipitated by adding a solution of acetate of
lead, and the impure carminate of lead thus
formed, after being washed with water, is sus-
pended in water, and decomposed by a stream
of sulphuretted hydrogen; the whole process
is repeated with the decanted solution, so ob-
tained; the second solution is then evaporated
to dryness (in vacuo over sulphuric acid), dis-
solved in absolute alcohol, digested on some
washed crude carminate of lead (to separate a
little phosphoric acid), and, lastly, mixed with
ether (to precipitate some nitrogenised matter);
the residuum obtained by careful evaporation
(in vacuo) is pure carminic acid.
Prop., &c. A purple-brown mass, yielding
a rich-red powder; it is freely soluble in water
and alcohol; slightly soluble in ether; and
without decomposition in oil of vitriol; it is
feebly acid; its salts are termed carminates,
only two or three of which have been examined.
According to Mr. De la Rue, this acid con-
stitutes the pure colouring matter of cochi-
neal.
CAR0T'INE. ClsH2O. A crystalline, copper-
red substance, obtained from the root of the
Daucus carota (sativa) or garden carrot. It
is tasteless; odourless; neutral; fusible; in-
flammable; insoluble in ether and water;
slightly soluble in alcohol; and very soluble
in the mixed and volatile oils,
CAR'PETS. Considerations of cleanliness
and economy demand a few words on carpets
and hearth-rugs. We are assured by an ex-
perienced person, that before proceeding to
sweep a carpet, a few handfuls of waste tea-
leaves should be sprinkled over it (say some
five or six minutes before). A stiff hair broom
or hair brush only should be employed, unless
the carpet be very dirty, when a whisk or
carpet-broom may be used first, followed by
another made of hair, to take off the loose
dust. The frequent use of a stiff “carpet-
broom” (those made of cane or birch are here
alluded to), soon wears off the beauty of the
best carpet. An ordinary clothes-brush, or a
clean one, resembling the dirt brush used for
shoes, is best adapted for superior carpets.
When carpets are very dirty, they should be
cleaned by shaking and beating. “If you
must have a carpet, take it up two or three
times a year, instead of once. A dirty carpet
literally infects the room: if you consider the
enormous quantity of organic matter from
the feet of people coming in, which must
saturate it, this is by no means surprising.”
(Miss Nightingale.) In laying down carpets,
it is very advisable, at first, to cover the
floor beneath them with large sheets of thick
paper, so as to prevent dust from rising
between the boards. Old drugget, sacking,
matting, or any similar substance, will effect
the same purpose, and will, moreover, ma-
terially increase the durability of the carpet,
by preserving it from the contact of the hard
floor.
BRUSSELS CARPETs may be cleaned with
ox-gall (1 pint to a pailful of water), and a
scrubbing-brush and floor-cloth; afterwards
rinsing them in fresh water applied in the
same way. They should be previously per-
fectly freed from dust by beating, and should
be nailed down before commencing the above
operations. Great care should be taken to
rub them as dry as possible with a clean dry
floor-cloth. A small portion only should be
done at a time, and a dry windy day selected
for the purpose. A carpet treated in this
manner will be greatly refreshed in colour,
particularly the greens.
KIDDERMINSTER CARPETs will scarcely bear
the above treatment without becoming so soft
as to get speedily dirty again. This may in
some measure be prevented, by brushing them
over with a hot weak solution of size in water,
to which a little alum has been added. Curd
soap, dissolved in hot water, may be used
instead of ox-gall, but it is more likely to
injure the colours, if produced by false dyes.
When there are spots of grease on the car-
peting, they may be covered with curd soap,
dissolved in boiling water, and rubbed with a
brush until the stains are removed, when they
must be cleaned with warm water as before.
The addition of a little gall to the soap renders

CARRAGEEN–CASE-HARDENING.
299.

it more efficacious. Some persons employ a
mixture of soap, fuller’s earth, and turpentine,
for the same purpose. Benzol rapidly removes
the grease stains, and may be advantageously
substituted for preparations of soap.
CAR/RAGEEN. Syn. I’RISH Moss; CHON'-
DRUS, L. The Chondrus crispus of botanists,
a well-known alga or seaweed. It contains a
large proportion of a peculiar jelly, called
carrageen'in or pect'in. This may be puri-
fied by agitation with dilute alcohol and fil-
tration. The jelly forms an agreeable article
of diet. It is used to a limited extent for
thickening colours in calico printing. In
medicine, carrageen is used in the form of a
jelly and decoction as a demulcent, and is
often prescribed in pulmonary complaints.
See FIXATURE, PASTE, SYRUP. -
CAR'R0T. Syn. CARO'TA, L. The seed is
carminative and diuretic; the expressed juice
of the root is anthelmintic. Scraped raw
carrot is sometimes employed as a stimulant
application to sore nipples; the boiled root as
a poultice to sores and tumours. As an article
of food, unless young and well dressed, carrots
are rather indigestible. - *
CARTHAMIN. C. HigOz. Syn. PURE
Rouge, SAF'FLow ER CARMINE, SAFFLOWER
LAKE. The red colouring matter of Cartha-
mus tinctorious or safflower, formerly much
used as a dye, particularly in the form of pink
saucers for dyeing stockings. * : : - ..
Prep. 1. Safflower, exhausted by washing
it with water (or with water acidulated with
acetic acid), is dried, coarsely pulvérised, and
the powder digested in a weak solution of car-
bonate of sodium ; pieces of clean white cotton
or calico are then immersed in the solution,
and acetic acid gradually added in slight
excess; the cotton is next washed, dried, and
digested in a fresh quantity of dilute solution
of carbonate of sodium, and agitation em-
ployed until the whole of the colour is again
dissolved; the new solution is filtered and
slightly super-saturated with citric acid (or
acetic acid); the carthamin, which falls down
in rich carmine-red flocks, is lastly washed
with cold distilled water, and dried. --
2. Washed safflower (dried and powdered),
any quantity; aqueous solution of carbonate
of sodium (containing 15% of carbonate), q. s.
to form a thick paste; after some hours press
out the red liquor, nearly neutralise it with
acetic acid, put in cotton as before, and add
acetic acid in slight excess; the next day
remove the cotton and wash it in water holdin
in solution 5% of carbonate of sodium, until the
colour is dissolved out, after which precipitate
with citric acid, as before.
Prop., &c. An amorphous, brilliant, green-
ish powder; nearly insoluble in water, soluble
in alcohol, forming a gorgeous purple solution,
and in weak alkaline lyes, giving an equally
beautiful red one.
CARTHAMUS. Syn. SAF'FLOWER. In bo-
tany, a genus of composite plants, the most
important species of which is Carthamus time-
torius, the safflower. The florets of this yield
a beautiful pink dye (see above), and are some-
times used to adulterate hay saffron. The
“cake saffron” of the shops consists entirely
of safflower and mucilage. The fruits, com-
monly called “seeds,” yield by expression the
useful oil known in India as Koosum oil.
CARUM (PTYCHOTIS) AJOWAN. Ind. Ph.
Syn. AJWAIN or OMUM PLANT. Habitat.
Tropical Africa P. Much cultivated in India.
—Officinal part. The fruit (Fructus Ptychotis,
Ajwain fruit). Occurs in the form of minute
umbelliferous fruits, which, examined with a
lens, are seen to be covered with prominent
tubercles, extremely aromatic, evolving, when
rubbed, a strong odour resembling that of
common thyme. Taste somewhat bitter, and
very pungent. Its virtues reside in a volatile
oil.—Properties. Valuable stimulant, carmina-
tive, and antispasmodic.—Therapeutic uses.
In flatulence, flatulent colic, atomic dyspepsia,
and diarrhoea, it is a remedy of much
value. t
OIL of AJWAIN, or OMUM (Oleum Ptycho-
tis). The oil obtained by distillation from the
fruit. Recently prepared, colourless, but soon
acquires a yellowish tinge. It has the odour
of the fruit, and an acrid burning taste. Sp.
gr. about 0.88–Dose. 1 to 3 drops on sugar
or in emulsion. º
AJWAIN, or OMUM WATER (Aqua Pſychotis).
Take of ajwain fruit, bruised, 20 oz.; water,
2 galls. Distil a gallón.—Dose. 1 to 2 fluid
ounces. A valuable carminative; also useful
in disguising the taste of disagreeable drugs,
especially castor oil, and obviating their ten-
dency to cause nausea and griping.
CARYOPHYLLIN. Clo HigO. Syn. CLovE
CAMPHOR, CLOVE RESIN. A crystalline sub-
stance, isomeric with ordinary camphor, which
deposits from oil of cloves in needles.
CARYOPH/YLLUS." See CLOVE.
CASCARILLA. Syn. CASCARILLE contex
(B. P.), L. The bark of Croton eleutheria or
the seaside balsam, a tree growing in the Ba-
hamas and Jamaica. It is an aromatic bitter,
stomachic, and tonic.—Dose. 10 grs. to 30 grs.,
in the form of powder, infusion, or tincture;
in diarrhoea, dysentery, dyspepsia, low fevers,
intermittents, &c. -
CASCARILLINE. Syn. CASCARII/LINA.
Prep. (Duval.) Cascarilla is exhausted with
cold water, by percolation, precipitated with
acetate of lead, and the filtrate treated with
sulphuretted hydrogen; the filtered liquid,
after agitation with animal charcoal and filtra-
tion, is gently evaporated to dryness. The
powder is redissolved in boiling alcohol and
crystallised by very slow or by spontaneous
evaporation. It has a bitter taste, and acid
reaction; its aqueous solution is unaffected
by the ferric salts and tincture of galls.--
Dose. 1 to 3 grs. ; in dyspepsia, &c.
CASE-HARDENING. Syn. STEEL SUR'-
FACING. The operation of giving a surface of
300 CASEIN–CASKS.
steel to iron goods. Tools, fire-irons, fenders,
keys, &c., are usually case-hardened.
Process. 1. The goods (finished in every
respect but polishing) are put into an iron
box, and covered with animal or vegetable char-
coal, and “cemented ” at a red heat, for a
period varying with the size and description
of the articles operated on; these, when taken
out, are hardened by plunging into water, or
oil, if they are of a delicate nature.
2. (Moxon.) Cow's horn or hoof is baked or
thoroughly dried, and pulverised; to this is
added an equal quantity of bay salt, and the
whole is made into a paste with stale chamber-
lye, or white wine vinegar; the iron is covered
with this mixture, and bedded in it, in loam,
or inclosed in an iron box. In this form it is
laid on the hearth of the forge to dry and
harden, then it is put into the fire, and blown
till the lump has a blood-red heat (no higher).
It is hardened as before.
3. Coat the goods with a paste made of a
concentrated solution of prussiate of potash
and loam; then expose them to a strong red
heat, and when it has fallent to a dull red,
plunge the whole into cold water.
4. The goods, previously polished and
finished, are heated to a bright red and
rubbed or spritikled over with prussiate of
potash. As soori as the prussiate appears to
be decomposed and dissipated, the articles are
plunged into cold water.
Obs. The process of case-hardening has
been well conducted when the surface of the
metal proves sufficiently hard to resist a file;
The last two plans are a great improvement
upon the common method. By the topical
application of prussiate of potash (ferrocyanide
of potassium) any part of a piece of iron may
be case-hardened, without interfering with the
rest.
Case-Hardening Powders. Syn. CASE-
HARDENING COMPOSITIONS. 1. Prussiate of
potash, dried and powdered.
2. Prussiate of potash, 3 parts; sal-ammoniae,
1 part ; mix.
3. Sal-ammoniac and bone-dust, of each,
2 parts; prussiate of potash, 1 part. (See
above.)
CASEIN. Syn. CA's EUM, CA’s EIN, LACT-
ALBU’MEN, ALBUMEN OF MILK. The nitro-
genous principle of milk. Cheese made from
skimmed milk and well pressed, is nearly pure
caseine. (Liebig.)
Prep. 1. The curd obtained by adding
dilute sulphuric acid to milk is well washed
and dissolved in carbonate of soda. It is
allowed to stand for 24 hours, to let the oil
rise to the surface, and when this is properly
skimmed off, the caseine is precipitated by an
acid. The process is repeated a second time,
and the coagulum digested with alcohol and
ether, and dried. With all these precautions
the caseine still contains some saline matter
which cannot be removed.
2. Milk is coagulated by hydrochloric acid,
and the curd then well washed with dilute
acid, and finally with pure water. The curd
so prepared is dissolved by digestion at 110°
Fahr., with a large quantity of water; the
solution, after filtration, is coagulated with
carbonate of ammonia; the coagulum is washed
with water, ether, and alcohol, and finally
dried.
Prop., &c. Coagulated caseine is readily
dissolved by the alkalies and alkaline carbon-
ates. The most remarkable property of caseine
is its coagulation by certain animal membranes,
as in the process of cheese-making, with
rennet. See PACTARIN.
CASKS. The care and management of casks
is an important affair in a large establishment.
It is found that they last longest when stored
either in a dry situation, or in one uniformly
very moist. Continual variations from the
one to the other speedily rot them. As soon
as casks are emptied they should be bunged
down quite air-tight, with as much care as if
they were full, by which means they will be
preserved both sweet and sound. Should amy
of the hoops become loose, they should be im-
mediately driven up tight, which will at once
prevent the liability of their being lost or mis-
placed, as well as the casks fouling or becom-
ing musty from the admission of air. For this
purpose, those out of use should be occasion-
ally hauled over and examined.
Numerous plans are adopted for CLEANING
and PURIFYING CASKS, among which are the
following:—
1. Wash them well out with oil of vitriol,
diluted with an equal weight of water.
2. Wash them first with a little chloride of
lime and warm water, and then with water
soured with oil of vitriol.
3. Match them with sulphur, or with sul-
phur mixed with a little saltpetre.
4. Unhead them and whitewash them with
fresh milk of lime, made pretty strong. This
plan is commonly followed for brewers' vats.
5. Remove the heads, and char the insides
of the staves by the aid of a fire of shavings,
kindled within them.
6. A simpler, safer, and more effectual
method of charring them than the last, is to
wash the dry casks out with strong oil of
vitriol (sp. gr. 1854). This not only purifies
the surface of the staves, but penetrates into
all the cracks, some of which might escape the
action of the fire.
7. Steam has lately been applied to the in-
sides of casks, with great advantage. High-
pressure steam is driven in at the bung-hole,
at the same time that the cask is violently
agitated (a heavy chain having been pre-
viously put into it), until all the dirt and bad
smell is removed.
8. A lye of pearlash or soda, mixed with
milk of lime, as well as strong hot brine, and
other similar liquors, have been adopted by
some persons, and are highly spoken of.
9. The coopers boil the staves for gin casks


CASSAREEP—CATALEPSY.
301
in a strong lye of alum before placing them
together, to prevent their colouring the spirit,
but washing with oil of vitriol is a better
plan.
10. Some persons fill musty casks with
water, and add 3 or 4 lbs. of coarsely pow-
dered fresh burnt charcoal, and agitate well
for a few days.
Obs. In all the above processes the great-
est care must be taken to scald, or soak and
well rinse out the casks after the treatment de-
scribed. See BREWING UTENSILS, MATCHES,
&c.
CAS'SAREEP. The expressed juice of the
sweet cassava, concentrated by heat and fla-
voured with aromatics. It is used in the
West Indies as a condiment. (See below.)
CAS'SAVA. A poisonous shrub cultivated in
the West Indies, and in many parts of South
America, for the sake of the starchy matter
contained in its roots. It belongs to the
natural order Euphorbiaceae, and is known to
botanists under the names Manihot utilissima
(Pohl), Janipha manihot (Humboldt), and
Jatropha manihot (Linn.), the former being
that now generally adopted. The name “bit-
ter cassava” is commonly given to it in the
West Indies, to distinguish it from another
species of the same genus, Manihot aipi (Pohl),
which, from having no poisonous properties, is
named the “sweet cassava.” The roots of
both species yield the starch, but those of the
poisonous plant are the richer.
The roots, after being well washed and
scraped, are rasped or grated, and the pulp
thus formed is subjected to strong pressure, to
expel the poisonous juice which it contains.
The compressed pulp is next thoroughly dried
over the fire, being constantly stirred the
whole time, by which any remaining portion
of the noxious juice is either volatilised or de-
composed. It now forms CASSAVA MEAL.
When it is further prepared by grinding, it
forms FINE CASSAVA MEAL, or CASSAWA FLOUR.
When the compressed pulp is baked on a hot
plate, it forms CASSAVA BREAD or CASSAVA
CAKES, the flavour of which greatly resembles
that of Scotch oat-cakes. See TAPIOCA.
CAS'SIA. In botany, a genus of the na-
tural order Leguminosae, including several im-
portant medicinal plants. The “purging
cassia,” Cassia fistula (Linn.), produces pods
containing a soft, blackish pulp. (See below,
also SENNA.)
Cassia Pulp. Syn. CASSIA PRAEPARATA,
CASSIAE PULPA (B. P.), L. Prep. The cassia
(pods or fruit), broken lengthwise, are mace-
rated in sufficient distilled water to cover
them, for six hours, constantly stirring; and
the purified pulp strained through a hair
sieve, and evaporated to the consistence of a
confection in a water bath.-Dose, As a mild
laxative, 1 to 2 drs.; as a purgative, # oz. to
l; oz.
CAS'SOLETTES (Scented). See PASTILLES
and PERFUMERY.
CAS/TOR. Syn. CASTO’REUM, L. (B. P.).
“The follicles of the prepuce of the Castor
fiber or beaver, filled with a peculiar secre-
tion.” (Ph. L.) “A peculiar secretion from
the praeputial follicles.” (Ph. E. and D.) It
is often sophisticated; a fraud readily detected
by the “absence of the membranous partition
in the interior of the bags, as well as by the
altered smell and taste.” (Ure.) Russian
castor, which is very rare, may be distin-
guished by a tincture of 1-16th part in alco-
hol, being of the colour of deep sherry, while
that with American castor is of the colour of
London porter. (Pereira.)—Dose. 1 to 2
drs. or more, in powder or made into pills; in
nervous and spasmodic affections, especially in
hysteria, epilepsy, and other like diseases of
females.
CASTORIN, Syn. CASTORIN’A, CASTOREUM
CAMPHOR. When castor is cut into small
pieces and boiled in about 6 times its weight
of alcohol, crystalline substance (castorin) is
deposited by the filtered tincture in cooling.
By re-solution in alcohol, it may be obtained
under the form of colourless, prismatic, acicular
crystals.
Obs. Genuine Russian castor, although the
most expensive, must be employed in the
above process, as scarcely any castorin can be
obtained from the American variety.
Prop., &c. Castorin has the odour of castor,
and a coppery taste; it is inflammable, and is
soluble both in ether and hot alcohol.
CAS/TOR OIL. See OILS.
CASTS. In preparing casts and moulds
with gelatin, wax, fusible metal, and similar
substances, it is important to use them at the
lowest temperature compatible with fluidity;
as when only a few degrees hotter, the water
which adheres to the things from which the
casts are taken, is converted into vapour, and
produces bubbles. Fusible metal may be al-
lowed to cool in a teacup until just ready to
set at the edges, and then poured into the
moulds. In this way beautiful casts from
moulds of wood, or of other similar substances,
may be procured. When taking impressions
from gems, seals, &c., the fused alloy should
be placed on paper or pasteboard, and stirred
about till it becomes pasty, from incipient
cooling, at which moment the gem, die, or seal,
should be suddenly stamped on it, and a very
sharp impression will then be obtained.
CATALEP'SY. Syn. TRANCE; CATALEP's Is,
CATALEP's IA, L. A disease in which the
organs of sense and motion cease to exercise
their functions, and the heart and lungs feebly
perform their offices, and in a scarcely percep-
tible manner. The paroxysm generally comes
on without previous warning, and its duration
varies from a few minutes to several days, and
if medical reports are to be credited, sometimes
for a much longer period. Dr. Cullen seriously
affirms that this disease is always counter-
feited.

Treat. Ammoniacal stimulants applied to
302 CATAPLASMS-CATECHU.
the nostrils, and spirituous liquors injected
into the stomach, with general friction of the
body, and free access to pure air, are the best
remedies. Electricity and galvanism should
also be had recourse to, when the necessary
apparatus is at hand.
CAT/APLASMS. See PouTTICEs.
CAT"ARACT. An opaque condition of the
lens of the eye. It is a common cause of
blindness. It can only be cured by a surgical
operation.
CATARRH'. Syn. CATARRH/Us, L. The
“cold in the head,” or “cold on the chest,”
of domestic medicine. Influenza is a severer
form of this complaint, and has been called
epidemic catarrh.
The common symptoms of catarrh are a
copious discharge from the eyes and nose; a
hoarseness, and generally a cough, more or
less severe. The exciting causes are sudden
changes of temperature, and exposure to cur-
rents of cold air while the body is heated ;
hence the frequency of colds in hot and
changeable weather.
Treat. A light diet should be adopted, and
animal food and fermented and spirituous
liquors should be particularly avoided. Some
mild aperient should be administered; and
when the symptoms are severe, or fever or
headache is present, small diaphoretic doses of
antimonials, accompanied by copious draughts,
of diluents, as barley water, weak tea, or
gruel, should be taken. This treatment, ex-
cept in very bad cases, will generally effect a
Cure.
CAT'ECHIN, Syn. CATEöHU’IC ACID, RE-
sINous TAN/NIN. When cubical gambir, or
catechu, in powder, is treated with cold water,
a portion remains undissolved. This is cate-
chin. By repeated solutions in alcohol, it may
be obtained under the form of white, silky,
acicular crystals. - -
Prop., &c. Catechin strikes a green colour
with the salts of iron, but does not precipitate
gelatin. When dissolved in caustic potassa,
and the solution exposed to the air, it ab-
sorbs oxygen, and japonic acid is formed.
If, instead of caustic potassa, carbonate of
potassa is employed, it is converted into rufic
acid.
CATECHU. Syn. CAS"HEw, CUTCH, GAM'-
BIR; CAT'ECHU (Ph. L. E. & D.), TER'RAJA-
Pon’ICA, L.; CACHOU, Fr. “The extract from
the wood of Acacia Catechu, or from the leaf
of Uncaria Gambir.” (PALE GATECHU, Cate-
chu Pallidum, B. P.) Also of the “kernels of
areca catechu ; probably, too, from other
plants.” (Ph. E.) The term is now applied
to several extracts similar in appearance and
properties to that of Acacia Catechu.
There are several varieties of catechu known
in commerce, of which the principal are—
CATECHU, BOMBAY. Firm, brittle, dark
brown, of a uniform texture, and a glossy,
semi-resinous, and uneven fracture. Sp. gr.
1:39. Richness in tannin, 52%.
CATECHU, BENGAL. Rusty brown colour ex-
ternally; porous, and more friable than the
preceding. Sp. gr. 1'28. Richness in tannin,
49.5%.
CATECHU, MALABAR. Resembles the last in
appearance, but is more brittle and gritty.
Sp. gr. 1:40. Richness in tannin, 45.5%.
Of the above varieties the first is the one
generally employed in medicine, and which
commonly passes by the name of catechu. The
second popularly passes under the name of
terra Japonica (Japan earth), from the old
belief that it was of mineral origin.
CATECHU, PALE, is prepared at Singapore
and in the Eastern Archipelago. It generally
occurs in cubical reddish-brown pieces, porous,
bitter, and astringent in taste. Entirely
soluble in boiling water; the solution, when
cold, is not rendered blue by iodine. Of 100
parts, only 60 are dissolved by cold water, and
the solution is bright. Thirty parts of isin-
glass preeipitate the whole of the astringent
matter.—Test. Sp. gr. 1:39. “The pale
catechu being already in the Edin, the B. P.
1864, retained it with the black; but the black
is the one adopted by all other pharmacopoeias,
and is preferred in the arts and manufactures;
it is well known to be far superior to
the pale in astringency, and is always to
be had of good quality; it is therefore a
matter of surprise and regret that it has been
rejected from the ‘British Pharmacopoeia.’”
(Squire.)
Estim. It is often of importance to the
tanner and dyer to determine the richness of
this article in tannic acid or tannin. The

following are two simple methods:–
1. Exhaust a weighed sample (in powder)
with ether, and evaporate by the heat of a hot-
water bath. The product, which is the tannin,
must then be accurately weighed.
2. Dissolve the sample (in powder) in hot
water, let it cool out of contact with the air,
filter, and add a solution of gelatin, as long as
a precipitate falls. The precipitate, after being
washed and dried at a steam heat, contains
40% of tannin.
Uses, &c. Catechu is extensively employed
in medicine, both internally and externally, as
an astringent. It is used to flavour British
brandy, and by the tanners as a substitute for
oak bark. With it the dyer produces, inex-
pensively, many of his most pleasing browns.
Alum mordants are mostly employed in dyeing
with catechu. “The salts of copper with sal-
ammoniac cause it to give a BRONZE COLOUR,
which is very fast ; the proto-chloride of tin,
a BROWNISH YELLOW ; the per-chloride of tin,
with the addition of nitrate of copper, a DEEP-
BRONZE HUE ; acetate of alumina, alone, a
REDDISH BROWN, and with nitrate of copper,
A REDDISH-OLIVE GRAY ; nitrate of iron, a
DARK-BROWN GRAY. For dyeing a GOLDEN
COFFEE-BROWN, it has entirely superseded
madder; 1 lb. of it being equivalent to 6 \bs.


| of this root.” (Ure.)—Dose. 10 grs. to 30 grs.
CATGUT-CAUSTIC.
303
in solution, in water, or made into a bolus, or
sucked as a lozenge.
CAT'GUT. The prepared and twisted in-
testines of animals. Prep. The guts, taken
whilst warm from the animal, are thoroughly
cleaned, freed from adherent fat, and well
rinsed in pure water. They are next soaked
for about 2 days in water, after which they
are laid on a table and scraped with a copper-
plate, having a semicircular notch, beginning
the operation at the smaller end. In this way
the mucous and peritoneal membranes are
removed. The guts are then put into fresh
water, and soaked until the next day, when
they are again scraped, the larger ends cut
off, and after well washing, again steeped for
a night in fresh water, and then for 2 or 3
hours in a weak lye of pearlash or potash (2
Oz. to the gal.). They are lastly washed in
clean water, and passed through a polished
hole in a piece of brass to smooth and equalise
their surface; after which they are twisted,
and sorted, according to the purposes for
which they are intended: For many purposes
the prepared gut is dyed or sulphured, and
rubbed with olive oil. It improves by age.
Red or black ink, or any of the simple dyes or
stains, are used to colour it.
Uses, &c. Catgut is employed in several of
the arts. The strings of harps, violins, &c.,
are formed of this material. Whipcord is
made from catgut, which is sewed together
while soft with the filandre or scrapings, after
which it is put into a frame and twisted.
Bowstrings for hatmakers are made out of the
largest intestines, 4 to 12 of which are twisted
together, until the cord is extended to 15 to
25 feet in length. It is then rubbed perfectly
smooth and free from knots, half dried, sul-
phured twice, again stretched and sulphured,
and lastly, dried in a state of tension. Clock-
makers’ cords are made of the smallest intes-
times, in a similar manner.
The best fine catgut is made at Venice or
Rome, from the intestines of thin, sinewy
sheep. That made in England is formed from
the fat sheep killed for the shambles, and is,
hence, inferior. Coarse catgut, for turning
lathes, &c., is made from the intestines of
horses, cut into 4 or 5 strips, by forcing a ball
furnished with projecting knives placed cross-
wise along them. These strips are next
twisted, dried, and rubbed smooth with fish
skin. Gutta percha and vulcanized India
rubber are now applied to many of the pur-
poses formerly exclusively occupied by cat-
gut.
CATHARTICS. See PURGATIVES.
CATHARTIN. The purgative principle of
senna, first noticed by Lassaigne and Fenuelle.
A strong aqueous infusion of senna leaves is
evaporated to the consistence of a syrup, out
of contact with the air; this fluid extract is
then digested in alcohol or rectified spirit, and
the tincture, after filtration, is evaporated to
dryness by a gentle heat.
Prop., &c. A reddish-coloured, uncrys-
tallisable mass; having a peculiar odour, and
a bitter, nauseous taste; freely soluble in both
water and alcohol, and strongly cathartic.
Two or three grs. cause nausea, griping, and
purging. It has been proposed to employ it,
combined with aromatics, as a cathartic.
CATH'ETERS. Small tubes introduced into
the bladder for the purpose of drawing off its
contents. They may be regarded as hollow
bougies. -
Prep. 1: A piece of smooth catgut, or steel
wire, bent to the proper shape, is coated with
melted wax. When cold, it is dipped repeat-
edly into an ethereal solution of lndia rubber,
until a sufficient thickness is obtained, after
which it is dried by a gentle heat, and then
boiled in water to melt out the wax, and to
allow the catgut to be withdrawn. A solution
of India rubber in bisulphide of carbon is now
generally employed instead of an ethereal
solution.
2. From slips of India rubber, as directed
under BOUGIES.
3. A smooth tissue of silk is woven over a
bent wire, and then coated with a surface of
India rubber, or elastic varnish, and finished
off as before. See Botſ GIES.
CAU’’DLE. Gruel enriched by various addi-
tions. -
Prep. 1. Thick oatmeal gruel mixed with
about one half its weight of good mild ale
(made hot), and as much sugar, and mace, nut-
meg, or ginger, as will make it agreeable.
2. To the last add an egg, well beaten.
3. Sugar, 3 or 4 lumps; hot water, a table-
spoonful; dissolve; add 1 egg ; beat well
together ; further add a glass of wine and a
little nutmeg or ginger; mix well, and stir the
mixture into good gruel (hot), # pint. .
Uses, &c. A nourishing and restorative
mixture during convalescence, much used
among certain classes after accouchement.
It is an excellent domestic remedy for colds,
&c., unaccompanied with fever ; for which
purpose it should be taken on retiring to rest
at night, preceded by a dose of castor oil
during the day.
CAUSTIC. Syn. CAUSTICUM, EscHAROT/I-
CUM, L. A substance that corrodes or destroys
the texture of organised bodies. This action
is popularly termed “burning.”
The principal caustićs are nitrate of silver,
caustic potassa, a mixture of caustic potassa
and quick-lime, sulphate of copper, red oxide
of mercury, verdigris, tincture of sesquichlo-
ride of iron, chloride of zinc, chloride of
antimony, nitric acid, acetic acid, and carbolic
acid.
Use. Caustics are employed to remove ex-
crescences, morbid growths, granulations, &c.,
as corns, warts, and proud flesh; and to open
issues, abscesses, &c. The first, second, and
fourth are applied by gently rubbing them on
the part previously moistened with water ;
the third is commonly made into a paste, with



304
CAUSTIC. *

rectified spirit or glycerin, before application;
red oxide of mercury and verdigris (in the
form of powder) are often sprinkled over foul
and indolent ulcers; whilst the acids and other
liquid caustics are applied with a feather,
camel-hair pencil, or glass rod. The same
applies to the liquid preparations below. In
all cases care should be taken to confine the
application to the affected part.
Caustic, Ammoniacal. See OINTMENTS, and
GoNDRET's CAUSTIC (below).
Caustic, Antimo"nial. Syn. CAUSTICUM AN-
TIMONIALE, L. Chloride of antimony.
Caustic, Arsen'ical. Syn. CAUSTICUM AR-
SENICA/IE, C, ARSENIO'SUM, C. A. COMPOS'I-
TUM, L. Prep. 1. See PLUNKET’s CAUSTIC,
2. (Cutan, Hosp.) Calomel, 2% oz. ; red sul-
phide of mercury, 1 dr. ; arsenious acid, 1 dr.
to 2 drs.
3. (Van Mons.) Arsenious acid, 6 drs. ;
dragon's blood, 2 drs.; animal charcoal, 1}
dr. ; cinnabar, 3 oz.
4. (Ratier.) Arsenious acid, 1 part; kino, 8
parts; cinnabar, 16 parts. The ingredients of
the last three must be separately reduced to
fine powder, and then carefully mixed. They
are favorite applications on the Continent, in
cases of cancer, cancerous sores, obstinate
lepra, &c. They are either dusted over the
part, or are made into a paste with mucilage
or the saliva, and applied like an ointment on
a piece of rag or lint; due caution being
observed, and the effects watched. The last is
much used in the French hospitals.
Caustic, Canquoin's. See ZING CAUSTIC
(below).
Caustic, Canthar'ides. Syn. CAUSTICUM CAN-
THAR'IDIs, L. Prep. 1. Powdered cantharides
made into a paste with concentrated acetic
acid.
2. (Cutan. Hosp.) Tannin, 1 oz.: cantharides
(powdered), 2 oz.;
digest a week, and strain. Blisters.
Caustic, Common. See POTASSA (Fused), and
POTASSA WITH LIME.
Caustic, Duville’s. Prep. 1. Aloes, 5 oz. ;
proof spirit, 10 oz. ; oil of vitriol, 6 oz. ;
mix.
2. Aloes (in powder), 2} oz, ; rum, 4 pint ;
mix, and the next day add, oil of vitriol, 1 oz.
A favorite caustic in veterinary practice; es-
pecially in foot-rot.
Caustic, Filho's. Prep. From caustic po-
tassa, 2 parts; quick-lime (in powder), 1 part ;
melt together in a ladle, mix well, and pour it
into small leaden tubes, the size of a large
swan-quill. When cold, coat each piece with
melted bees' wax, to exclude the air. Used as
a strong caustic in veterinary practice. It is
applied like nitrate of silver.
Caustic, Golden. Syn. CAUSTIC OF CHLORIDE
OF GOLD ; CAUSTICUM AUR/EUM, C. AUR"II
CHLOR'IDI, L. Prep. 1. (Recamier.) Ter-
chloride of gold, 6 grs.; nitro-hydrochloric
acid, 1 oz. ; dissolve.
2. (Legrand.) As the last, but using nitric
strong acetic acid, 8 oz. ;
acid. Both are recommended as caustics in
syphilitic, scrofulous, and scorbutic ulcers,
cancerous growths, &c.; applied by means of
a dossil of lint.
Caustic, Gondret's. Syn. GONDRET's AM-
MONI’ACAL CAUSTIC; POMMADE DE GONDRET,
Fr. ; CAUSTICUM AMMONIACA'LE, L. Prep. 1.
See AMMONIACAL OINTMENT.
2. (Original formula.) Almond oil, 2 drs. ;
suet, 4 drs. ; lard, 6 drs. ; melt together in a
wide-mouthed bottle, copla little, add solution
of ammonia, 12 drs. ; and agitate until cold.
A powerful rubefacient and counter-irritant ;
used to produce an immediate revulsion. If
covered with a compress, it raises a blister in
4 or 5 minutes.
Caustic, I'odine. Syn. CAUSTICUM IODIN'II,
L. Prep. (Lugol.) Iodine and iodide of po-
tassium, of each, 1 part ; water, 2 parts; dis-
solve. Used in similar cases to iodine paint,
and to scrofulous growths and ulcers,
Caustic, Lu'mar. Syn. LA/PIS INFERNA'LIS,
L. Prep. 1. Nitrate of silver fused and formed
into sticks by pouring it into moulds,
2. (E. R. Squibb.) Nitrate of silver fused
with a small quantity of chloride of iron, and
formed into sticks or points. The chloride of
iron gives toughness to the caustic.
Caustic, Mercu"rial. Syn. CAUSTIC OF NI-
TRATE OF MERCURY ; CAUSTICUM Ac'IDI HY-
DRAR'GYRI NITRATIS, C. H. DEUTRONITRATIS,
L. From mercury, 1 part ; commercial nitric
acid, 2 parts; dissolve. ”
2. (Cutan. Hosp.) Mercury, 1 part; nitric
acid (sp. gr. 1-5), 2 parts.
3. (P. C.) As No. 1, but evaporating the
solution to #ths its weight. These liquids are
applied with a pencil or lint, in scrofulous and
syphilitic ulcers and eruptions, and in lupus,
psoriasis, lepra, and other obstinate skin
diseases; but their use requires great care.
4. (With arsenic.—Cutan. Hosp.) Mercury,
# oz. ; nitric acid, # oz. ; arsenious acid, # dr.;
as before.
Caustic, Niſtric. Syn. SoTID'IFIED NITRIC
ACID ; CUASTICUM NITRICUM, L. Prep. (Dr.
Rivallie.) Concentrated nitric acid is gra-
dually dropped on a piece of lint, placed in a
saucer or glass; as soon as the lint is gela-
timised, it is pressed into a suitable shape with
a glass rod, and applied to the part ; it must
be removed in 15 minutes. In cancerous
tumours, fungoid growths, &c.
Caustic, 0"piated. Syn. CAUSTICUM opLA'-
TUM, L. Prep. 1. Common caustic (potassa
with lime), 4 drs. ; powdered opium, 1 dr.; soft
soap, q. S. to make a paste. Applied to fun-
gous ulcers.
Caustic, Plunket's. Upright crowfoot and
lesser spear-wort, of each, 1 oz. ; sulphur, 5
scrup. ; white arsenic (in very fine powder),
1 dr.; beat to a smooth paste, form it into
balls, and dry them in the sun. In cancer; a
portion of one of the balls is reduced to pow-
der, which is mixed up with yelk of egg, and
applied on a piece of bladder.

CAUSTICS.–CEMENT.
Caustic, Potential. Fused caustic potassa.
Caustic, Recamier’s. See GOLDEN CAUSTIC.
Caustic, Sulphu"rigº Syn. CAUSTICUM sul-
PHU"RICUM, C. Ac'IDI SULPHU’RICI, L. Prep.
1. Plaster of Paris made into a paste with oil
of vitriol.
2. Saffron, lint, or unsized paper, soaked in
oil of vitriol, and triturated to a plastic mass.
Caustic, Zinc. Syn. CAUSTIC OF CHLORIDE
OF ZINC, DR. CANQUOIN'S CANCER CAUSTIC;
CAUSTICUM ZINCI, C. z. CHLORID'I, L. Prep.
1. (Dr. Canquoin.)—a. From cloride of zinc,
1 dr. ; flour, 2 drs.; made into a stiff paste with
water, q. s.
b. From chloride of zinc, 1 dr. ; flour, 3 drs. ;
water, q, S.; as the last.
c. From chloride of zinc, 1 dr. ; flour, 4 drs. ;
water, q. S.; as before.
d. From chloride of zinc, 2 drs. ; chloride of
antimony, 1 dr, ; flour, 5 drs. ; as before.
2. (Alex. Ure.) As above, but substituting
plaster of Paris for the flour there ordered.
Uses, &c. As a caustic in cancer, lupus,
skin-marks (naevi), &c. It is formed into
small cakes or wafers not exceeding 1 or 2
lines in thickness, one of which is applied to
the part, and allowed to remain on from 6 to
12 hours, when it is removed, and the part
covered with a poultice. It produces an eschar,
often exceeding a quarter of an inch in depth.
The chlorides must be in the form of powder,
and well mixed with the flour previously to
adding the water. The last (No. 1, d) is
recommended in nodulated cancerous tumours.
CAUSTICS (Weſterinary). In veterinary
practice, any of the substances enumerated in
the foregoing list may be employed; but nitric
acid, sulphuric acid, carbolic acid, chloride of
zinc, and nitrate of silver, are those most com-
monly used. See WETERINARY MEDICINEs.
CAVIARE. Syn. CAv'IAR, CAv'IALE. The
salted roe of several species of sturgeon. It
is much esteemed by the Russians, as well as
by some other nations of northern Europe,
and is occasionally eaten as a delicacy in this
country. It is, however, very oily, indiges-
tible, and unwholesome.
CAYENNE'. See CAPSICUM, PEPPERS.
CEDAR-WOOD (Oil of). See OILs.
Cedar-Wood (Tincture of). See TINCTURES.
CEDRAT. See LIQUEURs.
CE'DRENE and CEDROLA. The oil of cedar-
wood, by careful distillation, is separable into
two substances—a solid crystalline compound
(cedrola), and a volatile liquid hydrocarbon
(cedrene). The first may be converted into the
other by distillation with phosphoric anhy-
dride.
CEL'LULOSE. See LIGNIN.
CEMENT". Syn. CEMENT'UM, L. Any sub-
stance which, when applied to the surfaces of
other bodies, causes them to adhere together
when placed in contact. Those referred to
below are amongst the most useful prepara-
tions of this class. The term cement is also
applied by builders and architects to several
-
305.
species of mortars and like compositions em-
ployed either to unite stones and bricks into
masses, or as a protective covering against
the weather or water, or to make statues,
cornices, and similar ornamental articles.
In general, the thinner the stratum of in-
terposed cement, the stronger is the junction
of the surfaces operated on. This caution is
necessary, as in their anxiety to unite broken
articles persons generally defeat themselves, by
spreading the cement too thickly on the edges
of the fracture; whereas the least possible
quantity should be used, so as to bring the edges
as close as possible together.
Cement, Alabaster. 1. From plaster of Paris
(in fine powder), made into a cream with water,
and at once applied.
2. Yellow resin, 2 parts; melt and stir in
plaster of Paris, 1 part.
3. Yellow resin, bees’ wax, and plaster of
Paris, equal parts.
4. Resin, 8 parts; wax, 1 part; melt and
stir in plaster of Paris, 4 parts, or q. s.
5. Sulphur or shell-lac, melted with sufficient
plaster of Paris or colouring matter to give the
desired shade. Used to join or mend pieces in
alabaster, white marble, Derbyshire spar,
porphyry, and other like substances; and to
fill up cracks, supply chips out of corners, &c.
The last four are applied hot, the surfaces to
be united having been previously warmed.
Cement, Architectural. 1. From paper (re-
duced to a smooth paste by boiling it in water),
sifted whiting, and good size, equal parts, boiled
to a proper consistence.
2. Paper paste, size, and plaster of Paris,
equal parts; as before.
Obs. This is a species of papier-maché. It
is used to make architectural ornaments, busts,
statues, columns, &c. It is very light, and
receives a good polish, but will not stand the
weather unless it is well varnished or painted.
Cement, Armenian. Syn. DIAMOND CEMENT,
PERSIAN C., TURKISH. C., JEWELLERS’ C.
The jewellers of Turkey, who are mostly Ar-
menians, have a singular method of orna-
menting watch-cases, &c., with diamonds and
other precious stones, by simply gluing or
cementing them on. The stone is set in silver
or gold, and the lower part of the metal made
flat, or to correspond with the part to which
it is to be fixed; it is then gently warmed,
and the glue is applied, which is so very strong
that the parts thus cemented never separate.
This glue will strongly unite pieces of glass
and china, and even polished steel, and may be
applied to a variety of useful purposes.
Prep. 1. (Original Armenian formula; Eton.)
Dissolve five or six bits of gum mastic, each
the size of a large pea, in as much rectified
spirit of wine as will suffice to render it liquid;
and, in another vessel, dissolve as much isin-
glass, previously a little softened in water
(though mone of the water must be used), in
French brandy or good rum, as will make a
two-ounce phial of very strong glue, adding

20

306
CEMENT.
two small bits of gum galbanum or ammonia-
cum, which must be rubbed or ground till they
are dissolved. Then mix the whole with a
sufficient heat. Keep the glue in a phial
closely stopped, and when it is to be used set
the phial in boiling water.
2. (Keller’s ARMENIAN CEMENT.) Soak
isinglass, 3 oz., in water, 4 oz., for 24 hours;
evaporate in a water bath to 2 oz. ; add rectified
spirit, 2 oz., and strain through linen; mix
this, whilst warm, with a solution formed by
dissolving gum mastic (best), 4 oz., in rectified
spirit, 2 oz. ; add of powdered gum ammoniac
1 dr., and triturate together until perfectly
incorporated, avoiding loss of the spirit by
evaporation as much as possible.
3. (Uure's DIAMOND CEMENT.) Isinglass,
1 oz. ; distilled water, 6 oz. ; boil to 3 oz., and
add rectified spirit, 1% oz. ; boil for a minute
or two, strain, and add, while hot, first a milky
emulsion of ammoniac, ; oz., and then tincture
of mastic, 5 drs.
4. Isinglass soaked in water and dissolved in
spirit, 2 oz. (thick); dissolve in this 10 grs. of
very pale gum ammoniac (in tears), by rubbing
them together; then add 6 large tears of gum
mastic, dissolved in the least possible quantity
of rectified spirit.
5. Isinglass dissolved in proof spirit (as
above), 3 oz. ; bottoms of mastic varnish (thick,
but clear), 1% oz. ; mix well.
Obs. When carefully made, this cement
resists moisture and dries colourless. As
usually met with, it is not only of very bad
quality, but sold at exorbitant prices. “Some
persons have sold a composition under the name
of Armenian cement in England; but this
composition is badly made; it is much too thin,
and the quantity of mastic is much too small.”
(Eton.) Methylated spirit may be used instead
of the pure spirit in the above preparations.
Mastic and mastic varnish are also used by
jewellers as cements.
Cement, Beale’s. Chalk, 60 parts; lime and
salt, of each, 20 parts; Barnsey sand, 10 parts;
iron filings or dust, and blue or red clay, of
each, 5 parts; grind together and calcine.
Patented as a fire-proof cement.
Cement, Boiler. Prep. Dried clay in pow-
der, 6 lbs. ; iron filings, 1 lb. Make into a paste
with boiled linseed oil. Used to stop cracks
and leaks in iron boilers, stoves, &c. See IRON
CEMENT, STEAM-BoILER C.
Cement, Botſamy Bay. Yellow gum (Botany
Bay gum) and brickdust, equal parts, melted
together. Used to cement coarse earthenware,
&c.
Cement, Bottle. Prep. 1. Resin, 1 lb.;
tallow or suet, 3 lb.; melt together, and stir
in the colouring matter.
2. Resin, 5 lbs. ; bees' wax, 1 lb.; colouring,
q. s. ; as last. -
3. (Red.) To each pound of the above add
whiting (dry), 3 oz., and light red (burnt
ochre), 4 oz. ; or red bole, q, S.; (all in fine
powder).
4. (Black.)—a. To each pound of No. 1, or
No. 2, add ivory black (bone black), q. s.
b. From black pitch, 6 lbs. ; ivory black and
whiting, of each, 1 lb. ; melted together.
Used in the same way as common sealing-wax
for bottle corks, cask bungs, &c. See MAIS-
SIAT’s CEMENT.
Cement, Brim'stone. Melted brimstone, either
alone, or mixed with resin and brickdust.
Cheap and useful.
Cement, Bru'yere's. Clay, 3 parts; slaked
lime, 1 part ; mix and expose them to a full
red heat for 3 hours, then grind to powder.
Recommended as an hydraulic cement.
Cement, Building. Syn. ARTIFICIAL PUZZO-
LENE'. From a mixture of clay or loam,
broken pottery, flints, or siliceous sand, or
broken bottle glass, and wood ashes, exposed to
a considerable heat in a furnace, until it be-
comes partially vitrified; it is then ground to
fine powder, sifted, and mixed with one third
its weight of quick-lime, also in fine powder,
after which it must be packed (tight) in casks
to preserve it from the air and moisture. For
use it is mixed up with water and applied like
Roman cement.
Cement, Cap. Prep. 1. Resin, 5 lbs.; bees’
wax and dried Venetian red, of each, 1 lb.;
melted together.
2. (C. G. Williams.) Equal weights of red
lead and white lead. Used for chemical and
electrical purposes. For cementing glass tubes,
necks of balloons, &c., into metal mount-
ings. No. 2 is preferable to white lead alone,
and may be depended on for temperature up
to 212°.
Cement, Cheese. From grated cheese, 2
parts; quick-lime (in fine powder), 1 part;
white of egg, q. S.; beat to a paste. Used for
earthenware, &c.
Cement, Chemical. Syn. SOFT CEMENT.
Prep. From yellow wax, 4 parts; common
turpentine, 2 parts; Venetian red (well dried),
1 part ; melted together. Used as a tempo-
rary stopping or lute for the ends or joints of
tubes, which are not exposed to much heat;
as in alkalimetry, &c. See ELECTRICAL CE-
MENT.
Cement, Chinese. Syn. SHELL-LAC CEMENT,
LIQUID GLUE. Prep. 1. Finest pale orange
shell-lac (broken small), 4 oz. ; rectified
spirit (strongest), 3 oz. ; digested together
in a corked bottle in a warm place until dis-
solved. Very strong and useful; almost odour-
less. It should have about the consistence of
treacle.
2. As before, but using rectified wood
naphtha as the solvent. Inferior to the last,
but excellent for many purposes.
3. (Without spirit.) Prep. Borax, 1 oz. ;
water, # pint ; shell-lac, 3 oz. ; boil in a co-
vered vessel until dissolved, then evaporate to
a proper consistence. Cheap and useful, but
dries slowly.
Uses, &c. Employed to mend glass, china,
fancy work, jewelry, &c., for which it is only

CEMENT.
307
inferior to Armenian cement. The first for-
mula produces a cement so strong that pieces
of wood may be joined together, cut slopingly
across the grain, and will afterwards resist
every attempt to break them at the same place.
In many of the islands of the Indian Ocean,
in Japan, China, and the East Indies, a similar
cement is used to join pieces of wood for
bows, lances, &c. The fluid is thinly smeared
over each face of the joint, a piece of very
thin gauze interposed, and the whole pressed
tightly together and maintained so until the
next day. Joints so made will even bear the
continual flexure of a bow without separating.
It is admirably adapted for fishing rods. The
product of the second formula is commonly
sold as LIQUID GLUE. That of the last is much
used by the druggists and oilmen, instead of
gum, for fixing paper labels to tin, and to glass
when exposed to damp.
Cement, Coppersmiths'. Syn. BLOOD CE-
MENT. From bullock’s blood thickened with
finely powdered quick-lime. Used to secure the
edges and rivets of copper boilers, to mend
leaks from joints, &c. It must be used as soon
as mixed, as it rapidly gets hard. It is cheap
and durable, and is suited for many other pur-
poses.
Cement, Curd. Prep. 1. The curd of skimmed
milk (obtained by the addition of vinegar or
rennet) is beaten to a paste with quick-lime, in
fine powder.
2. Add vinegar, 3 pint, to skimmed milk, #
pint ; mix the curd with the whites of 5 eggs;
well beaten and powdered quick-lime, q. S. to
form a paste. Used for mending glass and
earthenware; they resist water and a moderate
degree of heat.
Cement, Cut'lers’. Prep. 1. Black resin,
4 lbs. ; bees’ wax, 1 lb.; melt, and add finely
powdered and well-dried brickdust, 1 lb.; mix
well.
2. Equal weights of resin and brickdust,
melted together.
Use. To fix knives and forks in their handles.
It is put into the hollow of the handle, and
the metal, previously made hot enough to
melt the composition, pressed into its place
whilst warm, and the whole kept upright and
still until quite cold.
Cement, Diamond.
MENT.
Cement, Egg. White of egg thickened with
finely powdered quick-lime. Used to mend
earthenware, glass, china, marble, alabaster,
spar ornaments, &c. It does not resist long
exposure to moisture, unless it has been ex-
posed to heat.
Cement, Elastic. Prep. 1. Caoutchouc (in
small pieces), 1 part ; chloroform, 3 parts;
dissolve.
2. (Lenher.) Caoutchouc, 5 parts; chloro-
form, 3 parts; dissolve, and add gum mastic
(powdered), 1 part. Elastic and transpa-
rent.
3. Gutta percha, 3 parts; caoutchouc, 1
See ARMENIAN CE-
part (both cut small); bisulphide of carbon, 8
parts; mix in a close vessel and dissolve by the
heat of a water bath. This is to be gently
warmed before it is applied.
4. Gutta percha, 1 lb. ; caoutchouc, 4 oz. ;
pitch, 2 oz. ; shell-lac, 1 oz. ; linseed oil, 2
oz. ; melted together. This must be melted
before being applied.
Obs. The cements 1 and 2 are elastic and
transparent, and are applicable to many uses.
The others, 3 and 4, are used for uniting lea-
ther, cloth, &c.
Cement, Electrical. Syn. CHEMICAL CE-
MENT. From black resin, 7 lbs. ; red ochre, 1
lb.; plaster of Paris, 3 lb. ; (both well-dried
and still warm); melted together, and the
heat and agitation continued until all frothing
ceases, and the liquid runs smooth; the vessel
is then withdrawn from the fire, and the mix-
ture stirred until cooled sufficiently. Used to
cement the plates in galvanic troughs, join
chemical vessels, &c. See CAP CEMENT, SIN-
GER's CEMENT, &c.
Cement, Engineers”. Prep. 1. Ground white
lead, mixed with as much red lead as will make
it of the consistence of putty.
2. Equal weights of red lead and white lead,
mixed with boiled linseed oil to a proper con-
sistence. Used by engineers and others to
make metallic joints. A washer of hemp,
yarn, or canvas, smeared with the cement, is
placed in the joint, which is then “brought
home,” or screwed up tight. It dries as hard
as stone. It also answers well for joining
broken stones, however large. Cisterns built
of square stones, put together, while dry,
with this cement, will never leak or come to
repair.
Cement, Extempora"neous. 1. Shell-lac, mel-
ted and run into small sticks the size of a quill.
Used to join glass, earthenware, &c. The
edges are heated sufficiently hot to melt the
cement, which is then thinly smeared over
them, and the joint made while they are still
hot. This is the cement so commonly vended
in the streets of London, and which used to
surprise us in our boyhood days.
2. Tears of gum mastic, used in the same
way. Commonly employed by jewellers and
others.
Cement, Fire"proof. Prep. From fine river
sand, 20 parts; litharge, 2 parts; quick-lime, 1
part ; linseed oil, q. S. to form a thin paste.
Applied to walls, it soon acquires a stony hard-
ness. It is also used to mend broken pieces
of stone, stone steps, &c. See BEALE’s CE-
MENT, &c.
Cement, Flour. Syn. PASTE, FLOUR PASTE.
This useful and well-known article is made by
mixing about a tablespoonful of wheat flour
with cold water, (say) ; pint, adding the latter
gradually, and thoroughly stirring in each
portion before pouring in more; the vessel is
then placed over the fire, and the whole assi-
duously stirred until it boils, great care being
taken to prevent caking on the bottom, or

308
CEMENT.
burning. Some persons add about #rd of a
teaspoonful of powdered alum to the water,
which is said to strengthen the product; the
shoemakers add a little quantity of powdered
resin to the flour, with the same intention.
The addition of a little brown sugar and a few
grains of corrosive sublimate will prevent it
turning mouldy, and is said to preserve it for
years. When too hard or dry, it may be
softened by beating it up with a little hot
Water.
Cement, French. Mucilage of gum arabic,
thickened with starch powder or farina; a
little lemon-juice is sometimes added. Used
by naturalists in mounting specimens; by ar-
tificial-flower makers; and by confectioners,
to stick paper, wafer papers, ornaments, &c.,
on their fancy cakes. Plain mucilage is often
used in the same way.
Cement, Gad's. Syn. GAD's HYDRAULIC
CEMENT. From clay (well dried and pow-
dered), 3 parts; oxide of iron, 1 part ; mixed
together, and made into a stiff paste with
boiled oil. Used for work required to harden
under water.
Cement, Glass. Syn. GLASS FLUX. Prep.
Red lead, 3 parts; fine white sand, 2 parts;
crystallised boracic acid, 3 parts; mixed and
fused; it is levigated, and applied with thin
mucilage of tragacanth. Used for mending
broken china, &c. The repaired article must
be gently heated, so as partially to fuse the
cement.
Cement, Gibbs'. Mr. Gibbs patented in 1850
various processes for making admirable build-
ing and architectural cements, equal in hard-
ness and duration, and superior in colour, to
the best Roman and Portland cements at pre-
sent in use. His materials are obtained from
“the vast beds of (natural) argillaceous marls
and marly limestones, or marl stones, which
contain the due admixture of lime, silica, and
alumina, from which hydraulic cements and
artificial stones may be manufactured.” These
materials he finds in “the chalk formation,
the Wealden formation, the Purbeck beds, the
lias formation, the mountain limestone, and
the lowest strata of the coal-measures.” After
duly choosing his materials according to the
particular object in view, he prepares them
“by burning in kilns, and grinding in mills,
in the way cement is now manufactured.”
Marls and limestones are to be “first dried in
kilns or ovens, at a heat fit for baking, until
all moisture be driven off, and that then the
calcination be prolonged as much as possible;
the heat being kept as low as is only just suf-
ficient to effect complete calcination—this
being indispensable, to avoid the commence-
ment of vitrification, which would destroy the
adhesive properties of the cement.”
Cement, Glue. Prep. 1. From glue, 1 lb.,
melted with the least possible quantity of
water, and then mixed with black resin, 1 lb.,
and red ochre, 4 oz.
2. Glue, melted as above, and mixed with
about 4th of its weight each of boiled oil and
red ochre.
3. (Ure.) Melted glue (of the consistence
used by carpenters), 8 parts; linseed oil boiled
to varnish with litharge, 4 parts; incorporate
thoroughly together.
4. Glue (melted as last), 4 parts; Venice
turpentine, 1 part.
Obs. The first three dry in about 48 hours,
and are very useful to render the joints of
wooden casks, cisterns, &c., watertight; also
to fix stones in frames. The last serves to
cement glass, wood, and even metal to each
other. They all resist moisture well.
Cement, Grindſers’. Prep. 1. From pitch,
5 parts; wood ashes and hard tallow, of each,
1 part; melted together.
2. Black resin, 4 lbs. ; bees’ wax, 1 lb. ;
melt, and add of whiting (previously heated
red hot, and still warm), 1 lb.
3. Shell-lac, melted and applied to the pieces
slightly heated. Used to fix pieces of glass,
&c., whilst grinding. The last is used for
lenses and fine work.
Cement, Ham'elin's. Syn. HAMELIN’s MAS-
TIC. From siliceous sand, 60 parts; Bath or
Portland stone (in fine powder), 40 parts;
lime-marl, 20 parts; litharge, 8 parts; ground
together. For use, it is mixed up with linseed
oil and used like mortar. When this cement
is applied to the purpose of covering build-
ings intended to resemble stone, the surface
of the building is first washed with linseed
oil.
Cement, Hens'ler's. Litharge, 3 parts;
quick-lime, 2 parts; white bole, 1 part; (all in
fine powder); linseed-oil warnish, q. S. to make
a paste. Used for china, glass, &c. It is very
tenacious, but long in drying.
Cement, Hoe'mle’s. Shell-lac, 2 parts; Venice
turpentine, 1 part; fused together, and formed
into sticks. It is used like extemporaneous
cement for glass and earthenware.
Cement, Hydrau'lic. Hydraulic mortars or
cements are those which set or become hard
under water. Common lime does not possess
this property; but limestones containing from
8% to 25% of alumina, magnesia, and silica,
yield a lime on burning, which does not slake
when moistened with water, but forms a
mortar with it, which hardens in a few days
when covered with water, although it does not
acquire much solidity in the air. Puzzolana,
septaria, and argillaceous or siliceous earths,
burnt, either with or without the addition of
common limestone, and then ground to pow-
der, form excellent hydraulic cements. The
reniform limestone, commonly called “cement
stone,” which is found distributed in single
nodules or lenticular cakes, in beds of clay, is
the substance most commonly used in this
country for the manufacture of the cements
in question. See GAD's, HAMELIN's, and
PARKER’s CEMENTS, &c.
Cement, Iron. This cement, which is much
used for closing the joints of iron pipes and
CEMENT. 309
similar purposes, is formed of the borings or
turnings of cast iron, which should be clean
and free from rust, mixed with a small quan-
tity of sal-ammoniac and flowers of sulphur.
For use, it is stirred up with just enough water
to thoroughly moisten it, and it is rammed or
caulked into the joints with a blunt caulking
chisel and hammer, after which the joint is
screwed up by its bolts as tightly as possible.
If the turnings and borings are very coarse,
they are broken by pounding in an iron mor-
tar, and the dust sifted off before use. The
following are good proportions:—
1. Sal-ammoniac (in powder), 2 oz.; flowers
of sulphur, 1 oz. ; iron borings, 5 lbs. ; water,
q. S. to mix.
2. Sal-ammoniac, 2 oz. ; sulphur, 1 oz.; iron
borings, 12 lbs. ; water, q. S. to mix.
3. Sal-ammoniac, 2 oz.; iron borings, 7 or
8 lbs. ; water, q. S. to mix.
4. Iron borings, 4 lbs. ; good pipeclay, 2 lbs. ;
powdered potsherds, 1 lb.; make them into a
paste with salt and water.
IRemarks. The first of these forms is that
generally employed for common purposes, but
formerly much more sulphur and sal-ammoniac
were used. We are told by one of the leading
engineers in London, that the strongest cement
is made without sulphur, and with only 1 or
2 parts of sal-ammoniac, to 100 of iron borings
(see the third form); but that when the work
is required to dry rapidly, as for the steam
joints of machinery wanted in haste, the
quantity of sal-ammoniac is increased a little,
and a very small quantity of sulphur is added.
This addition makes it set quicker, but reduces
its strength. As the power of the cement
depends on the oxidisation and consequent
expansion of the mass, it is evident that the
less foreign matter introduced the better. No
more of this cement should be made at a time
than can be used at once, because it soon
spoils. I have seen it become quite hot by
standing even a few hours, when it contained
sulphur; and I have been informed by work-
men, that when much sulphur is used, and it
has been left together in quantity all night,
combustion has taken place. The last form
produces a cement that gets very hard when
allowed to dry slowly, and is excellent for
mending cracks in iron boilers, tanks, &c.
Cement, Japanese'. Syn. RICE GLUE. From
rice flour, mixed with a little cold water, and
boiling water gradually poured in until it ac-
quires a proper consistence; when it is boiled
for 1 or 2 minutes in a clean saucepan or
earthen pipkin. It is beautifully white, and
almost transparent, for which reason it is well
adapted for fancy paper work, which requires
a strong and colourless cement. It is superior
to French cement. (See antè.)
Cement, Keene's Mar’ble. Baked gypsum or
plaster of Paris, steeped in a saturated solu-
tion of alum, and then recalcined, and reduced
to powder. For use, it is mixed up with water,
as ordinary plaster of Paris.
Obs. This cement has been most exten-
sively applied as a stucco. It is susceptible of
a high polish, and when coloured, produces
beautiful imitations of mosaic, and other in-
laid marbles, scagliola, &c. It is not adapted
to hydraulic purposes, or for exposure to the
weather, but it is admirable for internal deco-
rations, and from its extreme hardness is very
durable. It may be coloured or tinted of any
shade, by diffusing mineral colours (levigated,
if in powder) through the water used to mix
up the cement with. A pleasing tint is given
to this cement by adding a little solution of
green copperas to the alum liquor.
Cement, Lab'oratory. Syn. CHEMICAL MAS-
TIC. From equal parts of pitch, resin, and
plaster of Paris (thoroughly dried), mixed to-
gether. Used for the masonry of chlorine
chambers, vitriol works, &c.; and as a lining
for casks intended to hold chloride of lime.
Cement, Let’ter-fixing. Prep. Copal var-
nish, 15 parts; drying oil, 5 parts; turpentine,
3 parts; oil of turpentine, 2 parts; liquefied
glue (made with the least possible quantity of
water), 5 parts; melt togethr in a water bath,
and add fresh slaked lime (perfectly dry, and
in very fine powder), 10 parts. Used to
attach metal letters to plate glass in shop
windows, &c.
Cement, Mahog'any. Prep. 1. Melt bees’
wax, 4 oz. ; then add Indian red, 1 oz., and
enough yellow ochre to produce the required
tint.
2. Shell-lac, melted and coloured as above.
Very hard. Both are used to fill up holes and .
cracks in mahogany furniture by the cabinet
makers. Red putty is also used for the same
purpose.
Cement, Mais'siat's. India rubber is melted,
either with or without about 15% of either
bees' wax or tallow; quick-lime (in fine pow-
der) is gradually added; and the heat con-
tinued, until change of odour shows that com-
bination has taken place, and until a proper
consistence is obtained. Used as a waterproof
and air-tight covering for corks, bungs, &c.
Cement, Mar’ine. See MARINE GLUE and
ELASTIC CEMENT.
Cement, Opti"cians'. Prep. 1. Shell-lac
softened with rectified spirit or wood naphtha.
For fine work.
2. Bees’ wax, 1 oz. ; resin, 15 oz. ; melt,
and add, whiting (previously made red hot,
and still warm), 4 oz.
3. Resin, 1 lb. ; melt and add plaster of
Paris (dry), 4 oz. The above are used to fix
glasses, stones, &c., while polishing and cut-
ting them. The last is a very strong cement
for rough purposes. -
Cement, Oxychlo"ride of Zinc. (Sorel.) Prep.
In solution of chloride of zinc, marking from
50° to 60° of Baumé’s hydrometer (i.e. sp. gr.
1.490 to 1652), dissolve 3% of borax or sal-
ammoniac; then add oxide of zinc, which has
been heated to redness, until the mass is of a
proper consistence.


310 CEMENT.
Obs. This cement becomes as hard as mar-
ble. It may be cast in moulds, like plaster of
Paris, or used in mosaic work, &c.
Cement, Parabolic. Syn. UNIVERSAL CE-
MENT. Prep. Curdle skim milk with rennet
or vinegar, press out the whey, and dry the
curd by a very gentle heat, but as quickly as
possible. When it has become quite dry,
grind it in a coffee or pepper mill, and next
triturate it in a mortar until reduced to a very
fine powder. Mix this powder with Tºth of its
weight of new dry quick-lime, also in very fine
powder, and to every ounce of the mixture add
5 or 6 grs. of powdered camphor; triturate
the whole well together, and keep it in wide-
mouth 1-oz. phials, well corked. Used to join
glass, earthenware, &c. It is made into a
paste with a little water, as wanted, and ap-
plied immediately.
Cement, Park'er's. This cement is made of
the nodules of indurated and slightly ferrugi-
nous marl, called by mineralogists “septaria,”
and also of some other species of argillaceous
limestone. These are burnt in conical kilns,
with pit coal, in a similar way to other lime-
stone, care being taken to avoid the use of too
much heat, as if the pieces undergo the slight-
est degree of fusion, even on the surface, they
will be unfit to form the cement. After being
properly roasted, the calx is reduced to a very
fine powder by grinding, and immediately
packed in barrels, to keep it from the air and
moisture.
Uses, &c. This cement is tempered with
water, and applied at once, as it soon hardens,
and will not bear being again softened down
with water. For foundations and cornices ex-
posed to the weather, it is usually mixed with
an equal quantity of clean angular sand; for
use as a common mortar, with about twice as
much sand; for coating walls exposed to cold
and wet, the common proportions are 3 of sand
to 2 of cement, and for walls exposed to ex-
treme dryness or heat, about 2% or 3 of sand
to 1 of cement; for facing cistern work, water
frontages, &c., nothing but cement and water
should be employed. Under the name of
compo’ or Roman cement, it is much employed
for facing houses, water-cisterns, setting the
foundations of large edifices, &c.
Cement, Pew's. Quick-lime, 1 part; baked
clay, 2 parts—(both in powder); mix and cal-
cine; then add gypsum (fresh baked and in
fine powder), 1 part, to powdered baked clay,
2 parts; mix well, add the former mixture,
and incorporate them well together. Used to
cover buildings. It is applied like mortar,
and is very hard and durable. See GIBBS’
CEMENT, &c.
Cement, Plumb'ers’. Black resin melted with
about an equal weight of brick-dust. Some-
times a little pitch or tallow is added.
Cement, Portland. From clay and chalk, or
argillaceous river-mud and chalk or limestone,
calcined together, and then ground to powder.
See PARKER'S CEMENT.
Cement, Roman. Genuine Roman cement
consists of puzzolene (a ferruginous clay from
Pozzuoli, calcined by the fires of Vesuvius),
lime, and sand. The only preparation which
the puzzolene undergoes is that of pounding
and sifting. It is generally mixed up with
water, like most other ceuments, but occa-
sionally with bullock’s blood and oil, to give
the composition more tenacity. That used in
this country is now generally prepared from
the septaria of either Harwich or Sheppy, or
of the lias formation, or from the cement stone
found in the upper division of the lias forma-
tion, or in the shale beds of the Kimmeridge
clay. It is also prepared from several artificial
mixtures of ferruginous clay and lime, calcined
together. It must be kept in close vessels, and
mixed with water when used. See PARKER'S
and GIBBS’ CEMENT.
Cement, Seal Engra”vers’. Resembles plumb-
ers' cement. Used to fix the pieces of metal
while cutting, and also to secure seals and
tools in their handles. It grows harder and
improves every time it is melted.
Cement, Sim'ger's. Prep. 1. Melt together
resin, 5 lbs., and bees' wax, 1 lb., and stir in
finely powdered red ochre (highly dried and
still warm), 1 lb., and plaster of Paris, 4 oz. ;
continuing the heat a little above 212° Fahr.,
and stirring constantly till all frothing ceases.
2. Resin, 6 lbs.; dried red-ochre, 1 lb.; cal-
cined plaster of Paris, 3 lb.; linseed oil, 3 lb.
Used to cement the plates in voltaic troughs,
to join chemical vessels, &c. No. 2 is specially
applicable to troughs. See ELECTRICAL CE-
MENT.
Cement, Steam-boiler, Prep. Litharge, in
fine powder, 2 parts; very fine sand and quick-
lime (that has been allowed to slake spon-
taneously in a damp place), of each, 1 part ;
mix, and keep it from the air. Used to mend
the cracks in boilers and ovens, and to secure
steam joints. It is made into a paste with
boiled oil before application.
Cement, Steam-pipe. Prep. Good linseed oil
varnish is ground with equal weights of white
lead, oxide of manganese, and pipeclay.
Cement, Transpar'ent. See ELASTIC CEMENT.
Cement, Turners'. Prep. Bees' wax, 1 oz. ;
resin, 4 oz. ; pitch, ; oz. ; melt, and stir in
fine brick-dust, q. s.
Cement, War"ley’s.
Black resin, 16 parts; bees' wax, 1 part; melt,
add whiting (sifted, dried by a dull-red heat,
and allowed to cool), 16 parts; and stir until
nearly cold.
Cement, Univers'al. See PARABOLIC CEMENT.
Cement, Water. Prep. 1. From good gray
clay, 4 parts; black oxide of manganese, 6
parts; limestone (reduced to powder by sprink-
ling it with water), 90 parts; mix, calcine,
and powder. -
2. Mix white iron ore (manganese iron ore),
15 parts, with lime, 85 parts; calcine and
powder as above. Both this and the preced-
ing must be mixed up with a little sand for
Syn. VARLEY’s MASTIC.
CEMENTATION.—CERATE.
311
use. A piece thrown into water rapidly
hardens.
3. Fine clean sand, 1 cwt. ; quick-lime, in
powder, 28 lbs. ; bone ashes, 14 lbs. The
above are beat up with water for use. See
HYDRAULIC CEMENT, &c.
Cement, Waſterproof. Several compounds
of this class have been already noticed. The
celebrated “waterproof cement of Dihl” con-
sists of porcelain clay or pipeclay, dried by a
gentle heat, and powdered, mixed up to the
consistence of a paste with boiled linseed oil,
and, sometimes, a little oil of turpentine. It
is coloured by adding a little red or yellow
ochre, or any similar pigment. It is used to
cover the fronts of buildings, roofs of veran-
dahs, &c.
Concluding remarks. For mending broken
CHINA, EARTHENWARE, GLASS, and WOOD,
the preparations generally used are the ce-
ments described above as ARMENIAN, BOTANY,
BAY, CHEESE, CHINESE, CURD, EGG, EXTEM-
PORANEOUS, GLASS, GLUE, HENSLER's, HCE-
NLE’s, MAHOGANY, and PARABOLIC. For SPAR,
MARBLE, and similar materials, the ALABASTER
CEMENT is specially adapted; the EGG and
PARABOLIC CEMENTS will, however, answer
the same purpose. For CLOTH, LEATHER,
PAPER, CARD, and LIGHT FANCY WORK, the
most suitable cements are the ELASTIC,
CHINESE, FLOUR, FRENCH, and JAPANESE.
The cements adapted for CHEMICAL and
ELECTRICAL APPARATUS, and for SEALING
BOTTLES, are those termed BOTTLE, BRIM-
STONE, CAP, CHEMICAL, ELECTRICAL, LABO-
RATORY, MAISSIAT’s, and WARLEY’s. The
BUILDING and HYDRAULIC CEMENTS are
described under the heads ARCHITECTURAL,
BEALE’s, BRUYERE's, FIREPROOF, GAD’s,
GIBBS’, HAMELIN’s, HYDRAULIC, KEENE’s,
OXYCHLORIDE, PARKER’s, PEW’s, PoETLAND,
ROMAN, WATER, and WATERPROOF. The ce-
ments used for METAL-WORK, &c., in different
trades, are noticed under the heads COPPER-
SMITHS', CUTLERS', ENGINEERS’, GRINDERs’,
IRON, LETTER-FIXING, OPTICIANs', PLUMB-
ERs', SEAL-ENGRAVERS’, STEAM-BOILER,
STEAM-PIPE, and TURNERS’. See GLUE, LUTE,
MoRTAR, Tooth-CEMENT, &c.
CEMENTATION. The process of imbedding
a substance in, or covering it with, some
powder or composition capable of acting on it
when heated, and in this state exposing it to
a red heat. Iron is converted into steel, and
glass into Réaumur's porcelain, by cementa-
tion.
CEN/TAURIN. Syn. CENTAURIN’A. The
bitter extractive matter of Erythaea centau-
Tium, or common centaury. Combined with
hydrochloric acid, it has been highly recom-
mended as a febrifuge.
CER/ASIN. Syn. PRUN'INE. The insoluble
portion of cherry-tree gum. It is identical
with bassorin. Dr. John applies the term to
all those gums which, like tragacanth, swell,
but do not dissolve in water. See BASSORIN.
CE/RATE. Syn. CERATUM, L. A thick
species of ointment containing wax. Cerates
are intermediate in consistence between oint-
ments and plasters; but are less frequently
employed than either of those preparations.
The medicinal ingredients which enter into
the cerates are very numerous; indeed, almost
every kind of medicine capable of exercising a
topical effect may be prescribed in this form.
It is a general custom with the druggists
to use a less quantity of wax for their cerates
than that which is necessary to give them a
proper consistence, and in many cases it is
omitted altogether, and its place supplied by
hard suet or stearine, and frequently by com-
mon resin. Lard is also very generally sub-
stituted for olive oil. Indeed, in no class of
pharmaceutical preparations are the instruc-
tions of practitioners and the colleges more
commonly disregarded. The operation of
melting the ingredients should be performed
in a water bath or steam bath, and the liquid
mass should be assiduously stirred until cold.
All the medicated cerates may be prepared
by adding the active ingredients, in the form
of fine powder, soft extract, solution, &c., as
the case may be, to either simple cerate or
spermaceti cerate, in the proportions indicated
under the head of “Doses” appended to every
article of importance noticed in this work.
The mixture, which must be complete, may be
effected by working the articles together on
a marble or glass slab or tile, or, still better,
by trituration in a clean wedgwood mortar.
In some cases the simple cerate is melted by a
gentle heat, and the whole stirred or triturated
until nearly solid; in others, digestion with
heat is employed.
Cerate. Syn. SIM'PLE CERATE, SIMPLE
DRES's ING ; CERATUM (Ph. L.), C. SIM'PLEX.
(Ph. L. 1824). Prep. (Ph. L.) Yellow wax,
20 oz. ; melt by a gentle heat; add olive oil,
1 pint; and stir until it begins to solidify.
Used as a simple emollient dressing. The
corresponding preparations of the other col-
leges will be found noticed under OINTMENTS.
The ceratum simplea of the Ph. E. is SPER-
MACETI CERATE.
Cerate, Ac'etate of Lead. Syn. CE/RATE OF
SUGAR OF LEAD; CERATUM PLUM'BIACETATIS
(Ph.L.), L. Prep. (Ph.L.) White wax, 5 oz. ;
olive oil, 18 fl. Oz. ; melt together; add, acetate
of lead (in fine powder), 5 drs., previously tri-
turated with olive oil, 2 fl. oz., and stir till
they unite (begin to solidify). Used as a
cooling dressing to burns, excoriations, and
inflamed sores.
Cerate, Ammoniacal. Syn. CERATUM AM-
MONIACA'LE, L. Prep. (Rechoux.) Simple
cerate, 1 oz.; carbonate of ammonia, 1 dr.; mix.
As a counter-irritant in croup, &c.
Cerate, Arsen'ical. Syn. CERATUM ARSEN'-
ICI, C, ACIDI ARSENIO'SI, L. Prep. 1. (Ph.
U. S.) Arsenious acid (in very fine powder),
20 grs. ; simple cerate, 1 oz.
2. (Sir A. Cooper.) Arsenious acid and




312
CERATE.
sublimed sulphur, of each, 1 dr. ; spermaceti
cerate, 1 oz. The above ingredients must be
very carefully triturated together. The first
is used as a dressing to cancerous sores; the
second is applied on lint as a caustic in like
Ca,SeS.
Cerate, Belladonn'a. Syn. CERATE OF
IEADLY NIGHTSHADE ; CERA'TUM BELLA-
DONN'E, L. Prep. 1. (W. Cooley.) Extract
of belladonna, 3 drs. ; simple cerate, 1 oz. ;
olive oil, 1 dr.; triturate together in a warm
mortar, until nearly cold. Used in frictions
to indolent tumours.
2. (Compound; C. B. COMPOSITUM, L.)
Prep. (W. Cooley.) Belladonna cerate, 1 oz. ;
iodide of gold, 12 grs. ; carefully triturated to-
gether. Used as a friction to scrofulous and
syphilitic tumours, and to remove syphilitic
and rheumatic pains. A most active and
excellent preparation.
Cerate, Brown. See PLASTERS.
Cerate, Cacao. Syn. CACA’o POMMADE.
Prep. Butter of cacao, white wax, and oil of
almonds, equal parts, melted together and
strained. Used as a cosmetic for chapped
hands and lips, &c.
Cerate, Cal'amime. Syn. TURNER's CERATE,
HEALING SALVE, CERATUM CALAMI'NE (Ph.
L. & E.), C. LA/PIs CALAMINA'RIS (Ph. L.
1788), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Yellow wax,
7% oz. ; olive oil, 1 pint ; melt together, re-
move the vessel from the fire, and when they
first begin to thicken, add prepared calamine,
7% oz., and stir constantly until they cool.
2. (P. E.) Prepared calamine, 1 part ;
simple cerate (Ph. E.), 5 parts; mix.
3. (Ph. D.) See OINTMENT.
4. (Commercial.) Hard suet, 5 lbs. ; lard,
3 lbs. ; melt, and sift in, gradually, calamine,
4 lbs. ; agitate well for a few minutes, or until
the whole is perfectly mixed, and after one
minute's repose, pour it off into another vessel,
the coarse sediment that has fallen to the
bottom being carefully avoided; lastly, stir
assiduously, until it is nearly cold. This forms
the TURNER's CERATE of the wholesale drug-
gists. In many cases nothing but lard and
calamine are used.
Uses, &c. When honestly prepared with
genuine calamine, it is a most valuable desic-
cant and astringent application to excoriations,
ulcers, burns, scalds, sore nipples, &c. It has
long been held in popular esteem as a drying
and healing dressing for sores.
Cerate, Cal'amine with Mercury. Syn.
CERATUM CALAMI'NE CUM HYDRAR/GYRO, L.
Prep. (Ph. Chirur.) Calamine cerate, 1 lb.;
red oxide of mercury, 1 oz. ; mix. Used as
a stimulant application to foul and indolent
ulcers, psorophthalmia, &c.
Cerate, Cal'omel. Syn. CERATUM CALO-
MELA'Nos, C. HYDRAR/GYRI CHLOR'IDI, L.
Prep. 1. Calomel, 1 dr.; spermaceti cerate,
7 drs. In herpes, and some other skin
diseases.
2. (Compound; C. C. COMPOS/ITUM, L.)
Calomel, 2 drs.; calamine cerate, 1 oz.; olive
oil, 1 dr.
Cerate, Cam'phor. Syn. CERA'TUM CAM-
PHORATUM, C. CAMPHOR'AE, L.; POMMADE
DU FRâRE COSME, Fr. Prep. Olive oil, 1 lb.;
white wax, 3 lb.; camphor, 3 drs. As an ap-
plication to chaps, chilblains, abrasions, exco-
riations, and slight wounds. See CAMPHOR
BALLS.
Cerate, Canthar'ides. Syn. BLISTERING CE-
RATE; CERATUM LYTT/AE, C. CANTHAR/IDIs,
L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Cantharides (in very
fine powder), 1 oz. ; spermaceti cerate, 6 oz. ;
IIll N.
2. (Parrish.) Cantharides, 12 parts; lard,
10 parts; yellow wax and resin, of each, 7.
parts; incorporated by fusion. Irritant;
used to keep blisters open, and to stimulate
issues, and indolent ulcers and tumours.
Cerate, Chalk. Syn. CERATUM CRE'TE, L.
Prep. 1. Chalk (thoroughly dried, and in
fine powder), 2 drs. ; simple cerate, 6 drs.; al-
mond oil, 3 drs. Used in piles, and foul ulcers.
2. (Acetated.) See KIRKLAND’s NEUTRAL
CERATE.
3. (Compound; CERA'TUM CRE'TE COM-
Pos’ITUM, L.)—a. To simple chalk cerate,
1 oz. ; add powdered catechu, ; dr. In piles,
and foul and indolent ulcers.
b. (U. S. Hospital.) Lead plaster and olive
oil, of each, 8 oz. ; white wax, 3 oz. ; melt to-
gether; add solution of subacetate of lead, 6 oz.;
thoroughly incorporate, and then further add,
chalk (in fine powder), 5 oz. Cooling and
astringent. Useful in inflamed sores, excoria-
tions, piles, &c.
Cerate, Cher'ry-laur'el. Syn. CERA'TUM
LAURO-CERASI, C. CALMANs, L. Prep. (Roux.)
Simple cerate, 1 oz.: cherry-laurel water, 3 oz. .
As an application to burns.
Cerate, Cincho'na. Syn. BARK CERATE ;
CERA'TUM CINCHO'NAE, L. Prep. 1. Extract
of bark, 2 drs. ; simple cerate, 1 oz.
2. (Van Mons.) Simple cerate, 8 oz. ; cam-
phor, 1% dr. ; melt together by a gentle heat,
then add gradually, decoction of Peruvian
bark (concentrated), 1 oz., and triturate until
cold. Used as a dressing for ill-conditioned
ulcers.
Cerate, Cin'mabar. Syn. CERATUM RU'-
BRUM, C. CINNABA'RIS, C. HYDRAR/GYRI SUL-
PHURE/TI RU'BRI, L. Prep. 1. Camphor,
20 grs. ; vermilion, 60 grs. ; simple cerate,
1 oz. This is Alibert’s “ANTIHERPETIC Pom-
MADE.”
2. (Ph. Chirur.) Yellow wax and lard, of
each, ; lb. ; yellow resin, 3 oz. ; red sulphide
of mercury, 1 dr. Used as a common dress-
1ng.
Cerate, Cit'rime. See RESIN CERATE, NE-
TRATE OF MERCURY C.
Cerate, Copaiºba. Syn. CERATUM COPAI/B.E,
L. Prep. 1. Spermaceti cerate, 3 oz. ; melt
by a gentle heat, then add, balsam of copaiba,
1 oz.
2. (Dr. Houlton.) White wax, 1 oz.; balsam



*
CERATE.
313
of copaiba, 2 oz. ; mix, as last. Both the above
have been recommended as topical applica-
tions to wounds and ulcers of the rectum,
vagina, and urethra; especially in those of
a fistulous character; and in piles, &c.
Cerate, Copper. Syn. CUPRIATED CERATE ;
CERATUM CU'PRI; C. C. AMMONIA'TI, L.
Prep. (Swediaur.) Simple cerate, 8 parts;
melt, and add solution of ammoniuret of cop-
per, 1 part. As a stimulant dressing for in-
dolent ulcers; and in psorophthalmia, &c.
Cerate, Cosmet'ic. Syn. COLD CREAM, CE-
RATE OF GA/LEN; CERATUM COSMET/ICUM,
C. GALENI, CREMOR FRIGIDA, L.; POMMADE
EN CR£ME, Fr. Prep. 1. Oil of sweet almonds,
1 lb.; white wax and spermaceti, of each,
2 oz. ; melt, pour the mixture into a marble
or wedgwood mortar, which has been heated
by standing for some time in boiling water;
add, gradually, rose water, 10 fl. oz., assidu-
ously stirring until an emulsion is formed;
then further add, oil of bergamot, 3 oz.; oil of
lavender, 1 dr.; and continue the stirring or
trituration until the whole has become cold.
2. To the last, add otto of roses, 1 dr. ; oil
of rosemary, 15 drops.
3. Oil of almonds, 5 Oz, ; spermaceti, 5 drs. ;
white wax, 4 drs. ; rose water, 3% oz. ; balm of
Mecca (genuine), 8 drops.
4. As the last, with essence of vanilla, 15
drops; essence of ambergris, 10 drops.
5. (P. C.) White wax, 1 part; oil of almonds,
4 parts; rose water, 3 parts; as before.
6. (Van Mons.) White wax and butter of
cacao, of each, 1 part; oil of almonds and rose
water, of each, 4 parts.
Obs. The above are used as agreeable and
cooling emollients for irritable surfaces, exco-
riations, sore nipples, &c. See COLD CREAM
and OINTMENTS.
Cerate, Croton. Syn. CERATUM CROTO'NIs,
L. Prep. (Caventou.) Lard, 5 parts; wax,
1 part; melt, and when nearly cold, add croton
oil, 2 parts. Used as a counter-irritant ; but
is apt to affect the bowels.
Cerate, Gou'lard's. See LEAD CERATE.
Cerate, Hem'lock. Syn. CERATUM CO'NII,
L. Prep. (St. B. Hosp.) Spermaceti, 2 oz. ;
white wax, 3 oz. ; melt, and add of hemlock
ointment, 12 oz. Used for inveterate cancer-
ous, scrofulous, and other sores.
Cerate, Honey. Syn. CERATUM MEI/LIS,
L. Prep. 1. Simple cerate, 3 parts; honey,
1 part; oil of lemon grass, 6 drops. Used as
cold cream.
2. (Ph. Chirur.) Olive oil, 3 lb.; wax and
lead plaster (or galbanum plaster), of each,
4 oz. ; melt, and add honey, 3 lb. As a cooling
emollient dressing.
Cerate, Issue. Syn. CERATUM AD FONTI-
CULOS, L. As issue plaster, but adding a little
almond oil.
Cerate, Kirk'land's. Syn. KIRKLAND’s NEU-
TRAL CERATE ; CERATUM NEUTRA/LE, C.
CRETA, ACETA(TIS, L. Prep. 1. Lead plaster,
8 oz. ; olive oil, 4 oz. melt, sift in chalk,
-
4 oz. ; mix well, then add gradually, Goulard's
extract, # oz. ; distilled vinegar, 4 oz. ; and
stir until cold.
2. (Paris.) Lead plaster, 8 oz. ; olive oil and
chalk, of each, 4 oz.; sugar of lead, 3 drs.,
(dissolved in) distilled vinegar, 4 fl.oz. As a
cooling dressing to irritable ulcers and exco-
riated parts.
Cerate, Lead (Compound). Syn. Gou’LARD's
CERATE ; CERATUM PLUM'BI COMPOSITUM
(Ph. L.), L. Prep. (Ph. I.) Olive oil, 16
fl. oz.; yellow wax, 8 oz. ; melt, remove the
vessel from the fire, and when they begin to
thicken, add gradually, solution of subacetate
of lead (slightly warmed), 6 fl. oz.; and stir
constantly until the whole is nearly cold;
then add camphor, 1 dr., dissolved in olive oil,
4 fl oz. (by heat), and stir until the cerate is
quite cold. Used in similar cases to KIRK-
LAND’s CERATE (which see). See also ACETATE
OF LEAD CERATE. - -
Cerate, Mar'shall's. Prep. 1. Palm oil and
calomel, of each, 2 oz. ; acetate of lead, 1 oz. ;
ointment of nitrate of mercury, 4 oz. ; tritu-
rated together in a wedgwood mortar.
2. (Paris.) Palm oil, 5 oz. ; calomel, 1 oz.;
acetate of lead, 3 oz. ; citrine ointment, 2 oz. ;
as the last. Applied to the eyes, &c.
Cerate, Mercu"rial. Syn. CERATUM MER-
CURIA/LE, C. HYDRAR"GYRI, L. Prep. 1.
(Guibourt.) Strong mercurial ointment and
simple cerate, equal parts.
2. (Ph. L. 1746.) Strong mercurial oint-
ment and yellow wax, of each; 6 oz. ; lard,
3 oz. Both are used as dressings to venereal
ulcers.
3. (Compound; CERATUM MERCURIA/LE
COMPOS'ITUM, C. HYDRAR"GYRI, L.) Prep.
(Ph. L.) Mercurial ointment (strong) and
compound soap cerate, of each, 6 oz. ; camphor
(in powder), 1% oz. ; triturate together. Alte-
rative and discutient; used to disperse indolent
tumours and swellings, and as a resolvent in
enlarged joints, &c.
Cerate, Meto"pium. Syn. CERATUM METO"-
PII, L. Prep. (Dr. Barham.) Hog-gum (from
Rhus Metopium), and lard, of each, 4 oz. ;
white wax and root of Sweet Aristolochia
(powdered), of each, 2 oz. ; yellow resin, 1 oz.;
in stiff joints and rheumatic pains.
Cerate, Mez'ereon. Syn. CERATUMMEZ'EREI,
L. Prep. 1. Extract of mezereon, 1 part ;
(dissolved in) alcohol, 5 parts; add bees' wax,
5 parts; olive oil, 11 parts; melt together,
and continue the heat until all the alcohol is
evaporated.
2. Green oil of mezereon, 1 part; simple
cerate, 20 parts; melt together. Both are
used to keep up the discharge from blistered
surfaces, and as a stimulant application to
indolent sores.
Cerate, Neuſtral.
RATE.
Cerate, Ni'trate of Mer'cury. Syn. CIT'-
RINE CERATE ; CERATUM HYDRAR"GYRI NI-
TRATIs, L. Prep. (St. B. Hosp.) Citrine

See KIRKLAND’s CE-
314 CERATE.
ointment and simple cerate, equal parts. See
OINTMENTS.
Cerate, 0'pium. Syn. LAUD'ANUM CERATE,
AN'oDYNE c.; CERATUM o'PII, C. op1A(TUM,
C. ANODY'NUM, L. Prep. 1. Tincture of
opium and olive oil, of each, 2 drs. ; simple
cerate, 1 oz. ; digest with heat until all the
spirit and water is evaporated, constantly
stirring the mixture all the time.
2. (Gilbert.) Wine of opium, 1 dr. ; simple
cerate, 1 oz.
3. (Lagneau.) Opium (in fine powder),
# dr.; yolk of 1 egg; mix, then triturate it
with simple cerate, 1 oz.
Uses. The above are applied to painful
swellings, piles, and ulcers, and in chronic
ophthalmia, &c.
Cerate, Phosphoraſted. Syn. CERA'TUM PHos-
PHO'RI, C. PHOSPHORA'TUM, L. Prep. 1.
Phosphorus, 6 grs. ; simple cerate, 3 oz. ; heat
together in a phial placed in a water bath,
with frequent agitation for 2 hours; and
after repose for 10 minutes, pour off the clear
portion, and stir it well until cold.
2. (Foy.) Phosphorated ether, 5 parts;
simple cerate, 24 parts.- Uses. Both of the
above have been recommended as frictions in
obstinate cutaneous affections, and in rheu-
matism of the joints.
Cerate, Pitch. Syn. CERATUM PI'CIS BUR-
GUNDI/CAE, L. Prep. (Beral.) White wax, 3
parts; suet, 4 parts; Burgundy pitch, 6 parts;
melted together. A mild stimulant and de-
tergent dressing. See OINTMENTS.
Cerate, Quin'ine. Syn. CERATUM QUINIAE,
L. Prep. 1. Sulphate of quinine, 5 or 6 grs. ;
simple cerate, 1 dr. Applied to the denuded
dermis (endermically).
2. Sulphate of quinine and olive oil, of each,
1 dr.; simple cerate, 6 drs. As a friction.
Both are used in intermittents.
Cerate, Res’in. Syn. BASIL'ICON, B. CERATE,
B. OINTMENT, YELLOW. B., CIT'RINE CERATE ;
CERATUM CITRI'NUM (Ph. L. 1788), C. RESI/NE
FLA’vAE (Ph. L. 1745), C. RESI/NE (Ph. L.
1809 and since), L. Prep. 1. (Ph.L.) Yellow
resin and bees' wax, of each, 15 oz. ; melt, add
olive oil, 1 pint; strain through a cloth, and
stir the mixture until cold.
Obs. The above is the formula of the London
College, but the basilicon of the shops is seldom,
if ever, made in this manner. The following
forms are those commonly used in trade, but
the products are much inferior to that made
according to the directions in the Pharma-
copoeia.
2. (Commercial.)—a. Yellow resin, 10 lbs. ;
bees' wax, 2 lbs. ; linseed oil, 7 lbs.; melt to-
gether, and stir until cold.
b. As the last, but using nut oil instead of
linseed oil.
c. Nut oil, 1 gal.; bees' wax, 5 lbs. ; yellow
resin, 14 lbs.
d. Lard (common) and linseed oil, of each,
3 lbs. ; yellow resin, 9 lbs. ; as before.
Uses, &c. This cerate is a mild stimulant,
detergent, and digestive application ; and as
such is employed to dress foul and indolent
ulcers, blistered surfaces, burns, &c. For the
corresponding preparations of the other col-
leges, see OINTMENTs.
3. (Compound; DESH'LER's CERATE ; CE-
RA(TUM RESI/NE COMPOSITUM, L.) Prep.
(Ph. U.S.) Resin, suet, and bees’ wax, of each,
1 lb. ; turpentine, # lb. ; flax-seed oil (linseed
oil), , pint ; as above. Rather more stimu-
lating than resin cerate, but used for the same
purposes.
Cerate, Rose. Syn. LIP SALVE ; CERATUM
ROSATUM, L. Prep. (P. C.) Oil of almonds,
16 parts; white wax, 8 parts; alkanet root,
1 part; digest, with a gentle heat, until suffi-
ciently coloured, then strain, and for every
ounce of the cerate, add otto of roses, 2 drops.
See LIP SALVE.
Cerate, Sav'ime. Syn. CERA'TUM SABI'NE
(Ph. E.; and Ph. L. 1836), L. Prep. 1.
(Ph. E.) Bees’ wax, 1 part ; lard, 4 parts;
fresh savin (leaves, bruised), 2 parts; boil
together until the leaves become crisp, then
strain, with pressure, through a linen
cloth.
2. (Ph. L. 1836.) Lard, 2 lbs; savin leaves,
1 lb. ; bees' wax, # lb. ; as last.
3. (Ph.L. 1851.) In the B. P. this prepa-
ration is included among the OINTMENTS
(which see); in trade, however, the old name
(Ph. L. 1836) is still generally retained.
Obs. The preparation of this cerate requires
caution, as the active principle of the savin,
being volatile, is injured by long boiling and a
high temperature. The leaves are usually
boiled until they are crisp, but as this takes some
time, the essential oil, and consequently the
odour, is nearly all dissipated. A better plan .
is to express the juice from the leaves, and to
add it to the wax and oil melted together, and
just beginning to cool. As usually met with
in the shops, this cerate has a lively green
colour, and the odour of the fresh plant; but
neither of these is derived from the leaves in
the common process of making it. The first
is caused by the addition of powdered verdi-
gris, and the last by adding a little of the
essential oil of savin to the compound when
nearly cold. The preparations of the British
Colleges have only a very pale green colour,
and even that rapidly changes by exposure to
the air. A uniform green colour may therefore
be regarded as a proof of adulteration; as the
unadulterated compound, however skilfully
prepared, is of a dingy green colour, of little
intensity; and after it has been made a short
time, it fades on the surface, and the under
portion becomes streaky and mottled. A greater
quantity of colour is obtained from the leaves
by long digestion in the fat and wax in earthen
vessels, at a moderate heat, than by hasty
boiling. In this way a lively green is some-
times produced, but it rapidly changes in the
manner just mentioned.
The following forms are those commonly
CERATE.
315
adopted by the wholesale druggists for the
manufacture of this cerate:—
4. Lard and suet, of each, 6 lbs. ; yellow wax,
2 lbs. ; melt them together in an earthen
vessel; add 2 oz. of distilled verdigris (pre-
viously rubbed down smooth in a mortar with
an equal weight of sweet oil); strain, whilst
hot, into a large earthen pot, and when the whole
has cooled a little, add of oil of savin, 1 oz., and
stir until cold.
5. Savin leaves, 4 lbs. ; yellow wax, 2 lbs. ;
lard, 8 lbs. ; boil until the leaves become
crisp ; then strain, and add, of green ointment
(lively coloured), 5 lbs. ; when cooled a little,
further add, of oil of savin, 3 drs., and stir
briskly until cold. Prod. 134 lbs.
Uses, &c. Savin cerate and ointment are
chiefly employed to keep up the discharge
from blisters (perpetual blisters), for which
purpose it is peferable to preparations of can-
tharides. The practice of colouring this
cerate with verdigris, which is general in trade,
cannot be too severely censured, as its thera-
peutic action is thereby altered. The copper
may be detected by burning down a little in a
platinum or Hessian crucible, washing out the
ashes with a little dilute nitric acid, placing
the liquor in a glass tube, and applying the
usual tests. See COPPER and OINTMENTS.
Cerate, Sim'ple. Syn. CERATUM SIM'PLEX,
L. Prep. 1. (Ph. E.) Spermaceti, 1 part;
white wax, 3 parts; olive oil, 6 parts; melt
by a gentle heat, and stir until cold. This
preparation is similar to SIMPLE OINTMENT
(Unguentum Simplex) B. P. (which see).
Cerate, Soap. Syn. COMPOUND SOAP CE-
RATE ; CERATUM SAPO'NIS (Ph. L. 1836),
C. SAPONIs compos’ITUM (Ph. L. 1851), L.
Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Boil litharge, 15 oz., in
distilled vinegar, 1 gal., until dissolved, stir-
ring continually; then add of Castile soap,
10 oz. ; again boil until all the moisture is
evaporated; then add, gradually, bees’ wax,
12% oz., and olive oil, 1 pint, previously
melted together, and stir until nearly cold.
Similar to SOAP CERATE PLASTER (Emplas-
trum Ceraži Saponis) B. P. (which see).
2. (Wholesale.) Distilled vinegar, 6 galls. ;
litharge, 5 lbs.; soap, 3% lbs. ; yellow wax,
4% lbs. ; olive oil, 6 pints. Mix as above. Good
nut or poppy oil may be used instead of olive oil.
Obs. Unless the instructions contained in
the above formulae are followed in every par-
ticular, the process is apt to miscarry. When
this is the case, the cerate, on cooling, sepa-
rates into two portions, and is commonly full
of hard, gritty particles. To prevent this, care
should be taken to use soap of the best
quality. This mishap cannot be got over by
long boiling and stirring, as is generally sup-
posed. The only remedy is the addition of a
little more soap, previously melted with some
water, and again evaporating to a proper con-
sistence. A small quantity of solution of
potassa has a similar effect.
The colour and consistence of soap cerate
chiefly depends on the length of time it is
kept heated after the addition of the oil and
wax. As evaporation proceeds, so the colour
and consistence increase. Its usual colour is
that of a lively, pale chocolate-brown, but
occasionally it is much paler. This arises from
its containing an undue quantity of moisture.
When it has been kept heated for a period
beyond that usually adopted, it attains greater
hardness, and is then frequently called hard
soap cerate (CERATUM SAPONIS DURUM); but
by over-boiling it is apt to become gritty.
Uses, &c. Soap cerate is resolvent, cooling,
and desiccative, and is chiefly employed as a
cooling dressing for scrofulous swellings, &c.
It may be spread on linen and applied like a
plaster. It is sometimes used as a support for
fractured limbs, and forms an excellent dress-
ing for soft corns.
Cerate, Spermaceti. Syn. WHITE CERATE,
WHITE LIP SALVE, SIMPLE C. ; CERATUM
SIM'PLEX (Ph. E.), C. ALBUM (Ph. L. 1745),
C. SPERMATIs CE/TI (Ph. L. 1788), C. CETA(CEI
(Ph.L. 1809, and since), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.)
Spermaceti, 2 oz. ; white wax, 8 oz. ; melt by
a gentle heat; add, olive oil (warm), 1 pint,
and stir with a spatula until they cool.
2. (Ph. E.) See SIMPLE CERATE.
3. (Ph. D.) The corresponding preparation
of the Ph.D. is classed under Ointments, and
contains lard.
4. (Commercial.) On the large scale lard or
suet is substituted for oil, by which means less
wax is required. The following is a good form
where a cheap article is wanted, and is that
commonly adopted in the wholesale trade:–
Clarified mutton suet, 5% lbs. ; white wax
and spermaceti, of each, # lb. ; as above.
Obs. The materials should be melted by a
very gentle heat (that of a water bath is best)
in a clean stoneware vessel, and as soon as
perfect liquefaction takes place, the heat should
be withdrawn, and the fluid cerate strained
into a clean vessel, and stirred with a clean
wooden spatula until it solidifies. To facilitate
the cooling, the vessel may be placed in cold
water or in a current of cold air. In this way
the product is rendered both whiter and finer
than when the liquid mass is allowed to cool
by itself. By adding a little flowers of benzoin
with the oil, or a little nitric ether when the
cerate is about half cold, this, as well as other
like preparations, will keep for years without
becoming rancid or suffering any material
change of condition.
Uses, &c. Emollient and cooling. It is
commonly employed as a soft, cooling dressing,
as a lip salve, as an application to chaps, chil-
blains, &c.
Cerate, Sulphur. Syn. CERATUM suTPHU'-
RIs, C. SULPHURA'TUM, L. Prep. (P. C.)
Washed sulphur. 2 parts; cerate of Galen, 7
parts; almond oil, 1 part; mix. In itch, &c.
Cerate, Sulphide of Mer'cury. Prep. (Swe-
diaur.) Yellow resin, 3 oz. ; yellow wax and
lard, of each, 3 lb. ; vermilion, 20 grs. As a


316 CEREBRIC ACID—CHAIRS.

dressing to unhealthy ulcers. See CINNABAR
CERATE.
Cerate, Tobacco. Prep. Bees' wax, 3 oz. ;
yellow resin, 1 oz.; olive oil, 6 oz. ; tobacco,
juice, 4 oz. ; mix and evaporate to dryness,
and when nearly cold, add bergamot, 2 drs.
Used to destroy pediculi, &c.
Cerate, Touch. Syn. CERA'TUM PRO TEC'TU,
L.; CERAT POUR LE TOUCHER, Fr. Prep.
(Soubeiran.) Spermaceti and yellow wax, of
each, 1 part ; olive oil, 16 parts; melt, add
caustic soda, 1 part, and stir until cold. Used
in hospitals for practising the touching in
accouchements.
Cerate, Turner’s. See CALAMINE CERATE.
Cerate, Ver'digris. Syn. CERATUM ERU’.
GINIs, C. CU'PRI DIACETA'TIs, L. Prep. 1.
Resin cerate, 19 parts; verdigris (in fine pow-
der), 1 part.
2. (For. Ph.) Wax and resin, of each, 6
parts; Venice turpentine, 5 parts; linseed oil,
2 parts; verdigris, 1 part. Used as a mild
escharotic and stimulant to fungous ulcers,
warts, corns, &c.
Cerate, White. See SPERMACETI CERATE:
Cerate, Zinc. Syn: CERA'TUM ZINC'1, C. z.
OXY"DI, L. Prep. 1. Oxide of zinc, 20 grs.
spermaceti cerate, 1 oz. Used in sore nipples,
excoriations, &c.; and in chronic ophthalmia.
2. (Compound; CERA'TUM ZINCI COMPOSI-
TÜM, L.)—a. To the last, add calomel, 10 grs. ;
Used as the last, and in scrofulous ophthalmia.
b. (Mid. Hosp) Zinc ointment and com-
pound lead ointment, equal parts. Cooling,
astringent; in excoriations, and as a dressing
or ulcers. -
c. (Hufeland.) Oxide of zinc and lycopodium,
of each, 15 grs. ; simple cerate, 3 oz. In sore
nipples, ulcerations of the breast, tetters, &c.
It acts best when diluted with half its weight
of spermaceti cerate.
CEREB'RIC ACID. A peculiar acid com-
pound, first noticed by M. Frémy, obtained
along with oleo-phosphoric acid when the
brain and nerves are treated with hot alcohol.
It is solid, white, crystalline; freely soluble in
boiling alcohol, and forms a solid gelatinous
mass with hot water; fusible with decompo-
sition, exhaling a peculiar odour, and leaving
much charcoal behind. It has been found also
in the yolk of eggs, in seminal fluid, and in
pus. With the alkalies it forms insoluble salts
termed cerebrates.
CEREB'ROLEIN. When oleo-phosphoric
acid is boiled in water, it is resolved into a
fluid neutral oil and phosphoric acid, which
dissolves. The former is cerebrolein.
CE’RIN. H.C., H3O3. (Brodie.) Syn. CE-
ROTIC ACID. When pure bees' wax (bleached)
is digested in boiling alcohol for some time,
a solution of myricin and cerin is formed.
The former is deposited as the liquid cools,
and the latter may be obtained by eva-
porating the decanted portion. Cerin is a
white, crystallisable substance, soluble in 16
parts of boiling alcohol; it fuses at 144°
soluble in water, ether,
Fahr. ; and is readily saponified with caustic
alkaline lyes. It greatly resembles white
wax, of which, indeed, it forms from 70% to
80%. * -
CE’RIUM. Ce. A metal discovered in
1803 by Hisinger and Berzelius, in the mine-
ral named cerite. -
CEROMEL. Prep. (Van Mons.) Bees' wax,
1 oz. ; honey, 4 oz. ; melt together and stir
until cold. An excellent application to irri-
table ulcers, abraided surfaces, sore nipples,
&c.
CERO'TIC ACID. See CERIN. -
CETIN. Caº HsO3. Chevreul applied this
name to pure spermaceti. Prep. Dissolve
spercaceti in boiling alcohol, and collect the
crystals that are deposited as the solution
cools. Bright pearly crystals, melting at 120°,
and subliming at 670° Fahr. See SPERMA-
CETI. -
CETRAR/IC ACID. H. ClsHMOs. Syn. CE-
TRAR'IN. The bitter principle of Iceland moss
(Cetraria Islandica). It exists, in the free
state, in the cortical portion of the thallus.
Prep. 1. Iceland moss (bruised), 1 part;
rectified spirit, 6 parts; boil in a covered
vessel for half an hour; express the liquor
whilst hot, filter, and distik off the spirit; re-
dissolve the residuum in boiling alcohol, de-
cant the clear, and let the solution cool slowly;
lastly, collect the crystals and preserve them
out of contact with air.
2. (Herberger.) Iceland moss (in coarse
powder), 1 lb.; alcohol ('883), 4 lbs. ; boil as
before, cool until vapours cease to rise, express
the tincture, add hydrochloric acid, 3 drs,
(dissolved in) water, 2 oz. ; let it rest for a
night in a closed matrass; then decant, throw
the deposit on a filter, press it in bibulous
paper, and whilst still moist, wash it with
both alcohol and ether; lastly, purify it by di-
gestion in boiling alcohol, as before.
Prop., &c. Pure cetraric acid occurs under
the form of minute, shining, acicular crystals;
it is intensely bitter, non-volatile, scarcely
and cold alcohol;
soluble in alkaline solutions forming soluble
salts, which give a red colour with the per-
salts of iron, and a yellow one with acetate of
lead. The compounds are called cetrarates.—
Dose. 2 to 4 grs. every three hours, as a
febrifuge; 1 to 3 grs. thrice daily, as a tonic.
CHA'BERT'S OIL. Syn. CHABERT's EMPY-
REUMAT/IC OIL; O'LEUM EMPYREUMAT/ICUM
CHABERTI, O. CONTRA TAENIAM CHABERTI, L.
Prep. (Ph. Bor. 1847.) From empyreu-
matic oil of hartshorn, 1 part ; oil of turpen-
time, 3 parts; mix and distil over three fourths
only in a glass retort, and keep it in well-
stopped bottles. In tape-worm.—Dose. 2
teaspoonfuls in water, night and morning,
until 4 to 6 or even 7 oz. have been taken; a
cathartic being also administered from time to
time.
CHAIRS. The black leather work of chairs,
settees, &c., may be restored by first well
CHALK. 317
ſ
washing off the dirt with a little warm soap
and water, and afterwards with clean water,
The brown and faded portions may now be
restrained by means of a little black ink, or
preferably, black reviver, and when this has
got thoroughly dry, they may be touched over
with white of egg, stained and mixed with a
little sugar-candy. When the surface is nearly
dry, it should be polished off with a clean
brush.
CHALK. Syn. SOFT CARBONATE OF LIME,
or CARBONATE OF CALCIUM, EARTHY C. of L.;
CRETA, L. Chalk is largely used in the arts
and manufactures, and in medicine. The
natural varieties are remarkable for the fossils
which they contain. The COLOURED CHALKS
which are used as pigments and for crayons
generally contain both clay and magnesia, as
well as oxide of iron, and are minerals quite
distinct from WHITE CHALK, or CHAIK, pro-
perly so called. The latter is an AMORPHOUS
CARBONATE OF LIME, Exposed for some time
to a red heat, it is converted into QUICK-LIME ;
ground in mills and elutriated, it forms
WHITING; the same process performed more
carefully and on a smaller scale produces the
PREPARED CHALK used in medicine. When
prepared artificially (by precipitation), it is the
PRECIPITATED CHALK of modern pharmacy.
(See below.) -
Chalk, Black. A variety of drawing slate.
Chalk, Brown, A familiar name for umber.
Chalk, Cam'phorated. Syn. CRETACEOUS
Tooth POWDER, CAM'PHORATED T. P.; CRE'TA
CAM'PHORATA, C, CUM CAMPHO'RA, L. Prep.
1. Camphor, 1 oz. ; add a few drops of spirit
of wine, reduce it to a very fine powder, and
mix it (perfectly) with precipitated chalk, 7
Oz. ; lastly, pass it through a clean, fine sieve,
and keep it in a corked bottle. These propor-
tions make the strongest “CAMPHORATED
TOOTH PoWDER” of the shops.
2. Camphor, 1 oz. ; precipitated chalk, 15
Oz. ; as before. These are the best and safest
proportions, and those now generally adopted
by the West-end perfumers.
3. As either of the above, but using pre-
pared chalk in lieu of precipitated chalk. Less
white and velvety, but cleans the teeth better
than the softer article.
Uses, &c. Camphorated chalk is much es-
teemed as a dentifrice; especially by smokers,
and those troubled with foul teeth, or offensive
breath. It may be scented with a few drops
(3 or 4 to each oz.) of otto of roses, oil of cloves,
or neroli, or of the essences of ambergris,
musk, or vanilla; but care must be taken not
to overdo it. When the teeth are much furred
or discoloured, it may be mixed with about
one seventh of its weight of finely powdered
pumice stone (sifted through lawn), which will
render it more effective. A little carmine,
rouge, light red (burnt ochre), red coral, or
rose pink, is also sometimes added to give it a
tinge approaching that of the gums. The
quantity of camphor (1 to 3 or 4) commonly
ordered in certain books is absurdly large,
and would render the compound not only un-
pleasant in use, but actually detrimental to
the teeth. See DENTIFRICEs.
Chalk, French. Soap stone or steatite, a
soft magnesian mineral, possessing the pro-
perty of writing on glass. It is used by
tailors for marking cloth. Its powder (ob-
tained by scraping) is very soft, velvety, and
absorbent of grease, It forms the boot pow-
der of the boot- and shoe-makers. -
Chalk Mixture. Syn. MISTURA CRETA,
L. Prepared chalk, 1 part; gum arabic (in
powder), 1 part; syrup, 2 parts; cinnamon
water, 30 parts; mix by trituration.—Dose,
1 to 2 oz., with astringent tinctures and opium.
Care should be taken to use the prepared
chalk, as directed; the precipitated chalk has
a crystalline character, and is said to occasion
irritation of the bowels. (Squire.)
Chalk, Precip'itated. Syn. PRECIPITATED
CAR'BoNATE OF LIME; CRETA PRAECIPITA’TA,
CAL/CIS CARB'ONAS PRAECIPITA’TUM, L. Prep,
1. By adding to a solution of chloride of cal-
cium, any quantity, another of carbonate of
soda (both cold), and well washing the pre-
cipitate with pure water, and drying it out of
the dust.
2. (Ph.D.) Solution of chloride of calcium
(Ph.D.), 5 parts; carbonate of soda, 3 parts;
(dissolved in) water, 4 parts.
Uses, &c. It is chiefly employed for making
aromatic confection, cretaceous powder, and
chalk mixture. That of the shops is seldom
pure, the refuse of the soda-water makers
(sulphate of lime) being commonly sold for it,
When pure, it is wholly soluble, with effer-
vescence, in dilute hydrochloric acid. (See
below.)
Chalk, Prepa"red. Syn, CRE'TA (Ph. E. &
Ph. L. 1836), CRE'TA PRAEPARATA (Ph. L.
1851), CRE'TA AL/BA (Ph. D.), L. Prep. 1,
(Ph. D. 1836.) Rub chalk, 1 lb., with suffi-
cient water, add gradually, until reduced to a
smooth cream; then stir this into a large
quantity of water, and, after a short interval,
to allow the coarser particles to subside, pour
off the supernatant water (still turbid) into
another vessel, and allow the suspended pow-
der to settle; lastly, collect the chalk so pre-
pared and dry it. In the same way shells are
prepared, after being first freed from impuri-
ties and washed with boiling water.
2. (Commercial; WHITING...) On the large
scale, the chalk is ground in mills, and the
elutriation and deposit made in large reser-
voirs. It is now seldom prepared by the
druggist.
Pur. Almost entirely soluble in dilute hy-
drochloric acid, provided it contains no sul-
phate of lime or silica, giving off small bubbles
of carbonic acid gas.
Test. The salt formed by dissolving the
chalk in hydrochloric acid, if rendered neutral
by evaporation to dryness and redissolved in
water, gives only a very scanty precipitate on
318 CHALYBEATES—CHARCOAL.
the addition of a saccharated solution of lime,
indicating absence of phosphate. (B. P.)
Uses, &c. In medicine, as an absorbent,
antacid, and desiccant; in acidity, heartburn,
dyspepsia, and other like stomach affections,
and in diarrhoea, depending on acidity or
irritation; in the latter, generally combined
with aromatics, astringents, or opium. It
forms a valuable dusting powder in excoria-
tions, ulcers, &c., especially in those of chil-
dren.—Dose. 10 grs. to a spoonful, in a little
water or milk, or made into a mixture with
mucilage or syrup.
Chalk, Red. A natural clay containing
about 18% of protoxide and carbonate of
II*OIl.
CHALYB'EATES. Syn. CHALYBEATA, FER-
RUGIN'EA, L. The medicinal qualities of the
preparations of iron are noticed under the
name of that metal. Those most frequently
employed in medicine are—IRON FILINGS ;
QUEVENNE’s IRON ; the BLACK OXIDE, MAG-
NETIC OXIDE, and SESQUIOXIDE OF IRON ; the
AMMONIO-CHLORIDE and SESQUICHLORIDE;
the CARBONATE and SACCHARINE CARBONATE;
the CITRATE and AMMONIO-CITRATE ; the
IODIDE, LACTATE, and SULPHATE ; the TAR-
TRATE, AMMONIO-TARTRATE, and POTASSIO-
TARTRATE OF IRON ; and the CHALYBEATE
MINERAL WATERS. For the doses, &c., see the
respective articles.
CHAM/OMILE. Syn. ANTHE'MIS, L. The
flowers of the Anthemis nobilis (Anthemidis
Flores, B. P.). They are bitter, stomachic,
and tonic ; in dyspepsia, loss of appetite, in-
termittents, &c. They are an effectual remedy
for nightmare; and, according to Dr. Schall,
the only certain remedy for that complaint.
—Dose. 10 grs. to # dr., or more, in powder or
made into a tea. Fomentations are also made
with it. See EXTRACTS, OILS, PILLs, &c.
CHAMPAGNE'. See WINES.
CHAPS. These are too well known to
require description. Chapped hands are com-
mon amongst persons with a languid circula-
tion, who are continually “ dabbling” in water
during cold weather. Chapped lips generally
occur in persons with pallid, bluish, moist lips,
who are much exposed to the wind in dry,
cold weather; especially in those who are con-
tinually moving from heated apartments to
the external air. The application of a little
COLD CREAM, POMATUM, SPERMACETI OINT-
MENT, LARD, or any similar article, will gene-
rally prevent chaps on the lips, and chaps and
chilblains on the hands. Persons employed in
oil and tallow works, or about oil, and who
have consequently their hands continually in
contact with greasy matter, never suffer from
these things. A little oil or unguent of any
kind, well rubbed on the hands on going to
rest (removing the superfluous portion with a
cloth), will not only preserve them from cold,
but tend to render them both soft and white.
See CHILBLAINS.
CHAR (Potted). The flesh of the Salmo
Alpinus (Linn.), or trout of the Alps, common
in the lakes of Lapland, preserved by the
common process of potting.
CHAR/BON-ROUX [Fr.]. See WooD CHAR-
COAL (below).
CHAR/C0AL. Charcoal is made by char-
ring organic substances, such as wood, bone,
blood, &c., and is, in other words, the
fixed residuum of vegetable or animal matter
exposed to a high temperature out of contact
with atmospheric air.
There are several different varieties of char-
coal, the chief of which, however, are wood
and animal charcoal.
Charcoal, Animal. Syn. ANIMAL BLACK,
BONE BLACK, IVORY BIACK, CARBO ANIMA-
LIS. The charcoal obtained by igniting bone
in close vessels, but often applied likewise to
any charcoal obtained from animal matter.
Commercial. Bones (deprived of their
grease by boiling) are broken to pieces, and
put into small cast-iron pots, varying from #
to # an inch in thickness. Two of these
being filled, are dexterously placed with their
mouths together and then luted with loam.
A number of these vessels are then placed side
by side and piled on each other, in an oven
resembling a potter's kiln, to the number of
100 or 150, or even more. The fire is next
kindled, and the heat kept up strongly for 10
or 12 hours, according to circumstances, until
the process is completed. The whole is then
allowed to cool before opening the pots.
A more economical method is by distillation,
as under :—
Bones (previously boiled for their grease)
are introduced into retorts similar to those
used in gas works, and heat being applied, the
volatile products are conveyed away by iron
pipes to cisterns where the condensable portion
is collected. As soon as the process of distilla-
tion is finished, the solid residuum in the
retorts, while still red hot, is removed through
their lower ends into wrought-iron canisters,
which are instantly closed by air-tight
covers, and luted over. These are then raised
to the ground by a crane, and set aside to
cool.
The bones having been carbonised, are
ground in a mill, and the resulting coarse
powder, sorted by sieves into two kinds, one,
granular, somewhat resembling gunpowder,
for decolorising liquids, and the other, quite
fine, to be used as a pigment. The first is
sold under the name of animal charcoal; the
second, as bone or ivory black. The latter
and other fine varieties of animal charcoal are
fully described under the head of BLACK PIG-
TMENTS.
Uses, &c. This crude animal charcoal pos-
sesses the valuable property of taking lime
and other saline matter from syrups and other
aqueous solutions, especially organic ones, at
the same time that it decolours them. Its
power as a decoloriser may be tested by adding
it to a solution of brown sugar or of molasses,

CHARCOAL.
319
or to water containing Tºrm part of indigo dis-
solved in sulphuric acid. The test should be
made in a small glass tube. By well washing
and carefully reburning it, this charcoal may
be used any number of times. As a decoloriser
and deodoriser, animal charcoal is vastly
superior to vegetable charcoal.
PREPARED ANIMAL CHARCOAL. Hydrochlo-
ric acid, 1 lb.; water, 1 pint ; mix, add bone
black, 7 lbs. ; make a paste; in 2 or 3 days
stir in boiling water, 1 quart; and the next
day wash it with fresh water until the wash-
ings cease to affect litmus paper or a solution
of carbonate of sodium ; then collect it in a
cloth, and drain, press, and dry it ; lastly,
heat it to redness, as before. Used to decolour
syrups, &c.; and occasionally by the distillers
and rectifiers.
The most powerful charcoal is prepared by
calcining blood, and well washing the residue,
and which is the method of the last ‘London
Pharmacopoeia.”
Concluding remarks. Animal charcoal, how-
ever prepared, if intended to be used as a
deodoriser or decoloriser, should be kept
thoroughly excluded from the air, as by ex-
posure it loses all its valuable properties, and
becomes absolutely inert. Freshly burnt char-
coal is therefore to be employed whenever it
can be obtained.
Charcoal, Wood. Syn. VEG/ETABLE CHAR-
COAL; CAR/Bo LIG/NI, L. The residue ob-
tained after heating wood without access of
air to about 572° Fahr. It is extremely
porous, and retains the structure of the wood
from which it is derived. It consists essen-
tially of carbon and of the fixed or inorganic
matter which exists in wood; but if carbonisa-
tion be imperfectly effected, it may contain a
sensible amount of hydrogen.
Charcoal-burning is effected in the open air
in piles or stacks provided with a yielding
cover, in pits, in closed chambers of brick or
stone, and in iron retorts heated externally
like common gas retorts. The latter method
is only practised by the manufacturers of
pyroligneous acid and gunpowder.
CHARCOAL FOR FUEL, &c. The method of
pile burning is that which is most extensively
practised. Pieces of wood of equal length are
piled concentrically round a sort of chimney
formed by driving 3 stakes in the ground;
those nearest the centre are almost vertical,
and the surrounding pieces have a slight but
gradually increasing inclination; a second row,
and in the case of very large piles even a
third, may be stacked in a similar manner one
above the other. The pile is covered with
turf and soil, and kindled by filling the space
within the 3 central stakes with easily in-
flammable wood, which is ignited. The
character of the smoke which issues from vents
made in the pile indicates exactly the degrees
of carbonisation in differents parts. When
the charcoal is drawn from the pile it is ex-
, tinguished by cold water, or if that is not at
hand, by charcoal dust or dry soil. In some
parts of Sweden the wood is charred in large
rectangular stacks, and in China the method
of charring in pits is practised.
CHARCOAL FOR GUN'Powl).ER ; CYL'INDER
CHARCOAL. The charcoal employed in the
manufacture of gunpowder is burnt in close .
iron cylinders, and has hence received the
name of cylinder charcoal. For this and other
nice purposes, it is essential that the last por-
tion of the tar and vinegar should be suffered
to escape, and the reabsorption of the crude
vapours prevented, by cutting off the com-
munication between the cylinders and the
condensing apparatus; as without this pre-
caution, on the fire being withdrawn, a retro-
grade movement of the product takes place,
| and the charcoal is much reduced in quality.
Alder and willow are the woods chiefly used
for making charcoal at Waltham Abbey. The
Dutch white willow, and after that the Hun-
tingdon willow, are said to yield the best
charcoal for gunpowder. The charcoal from
the cylinders of the pyroligneous acid (wood
vinegar) works is also called cylinder char-
coal, and is that chiefly used for chemical
purposes; but it is inferior to that prepared
for gunpowder.
CHARCOAL FOR SCIENTIFIC PURPOSES. The
box-wood charcoal, employed in voltaic elec-
tricity, is prepared by putting prismatic pieces
of box-wood, about 1 inch long by # inch
thick, into a crucible, which is then filled with
clean, dry sand, covered up, and exposed to a
red heat for about an hour.
Uses, &c. These are numerous and varied.
Charcoal is extensively employed as a fuel;
and in metallurgy for tempering metals,
making steel, &c.; reduced to powder, it is
used to surround vessels and bodies required
to retain their heat for some time; a coating
of charcoal, formed on piles and stakes of
wood by charring them, promotes their pre-
servation. Fresh burnt charcoal, in coarse
powder, restores tainted meat and putrid
water, decolours vegetable solutions, deodorises
fetid substances, and withdraws lime from
syrups filtered through it. -
In medicine, charcoal is principally used as
a deodoriser and disinfectant, either in the
form of powder or made into a poultice. It
has been given internally in dyspepsia, diar-
rhoea, dysentery, heartburn, agues, constipa-
tion, sickness of pregnancy, and various other
diseases, with advantage. As a prophylactic
of cholera and fevers it is invaluable and
superior to all other substances. It forms the
best tooth powder known, as it both whitens
the teeth and deodorises the breath.--Dose.
10 grs. to a teaspoonful, or more ad libitum.
An ointment made with lard and charcoal has
been successfully employed in some skin dis-
eases. In all cases, to be useful, the charcoal
must be both fresh-burnt and fresh-powdered,
and carefully preserved, out of contact with
the air, until about to be administered.

320
CHARGES-CHEESE.
Fresh carbonised bread forms an excellent
charcoal, both for a prophylactic and a tooth
powder.
Charcoal varies in its qualities according to
the substance from which it is prepared; that
of the soft woods (willow or alder) is best for
crayons and gunpowder; that of the hard
woods for fuel, and for blowpipe supports.
That made by a low-red heat, not exceeding
cherry red, and which has a dull surface, is
the most valuable. If the heat is carried
much beyond this point, the charcoal acquires
a brilliant surface, and deteriorates in quality.
Chestnut charcoal is preferred by smiths for
forging, as it not only burns slowly, but
deadens as soon as the blast ceases, Areca-
nut charcoal is preferred as a dentifrice; but
the willow charcoal or box-wood charcoal is
usually substituted for it by shopkeepers.
Ant., &c. Poisoning or suffocation, resulting
from respiring the fumes of burning charcoal,
has been already alluded to, and the treatment
briefly pointed out. See CARBONIC ANHY-
idIRIIDE.
CHARGES (for Cattle), See WETERINARY
MEDICINE,
CHAR/RING (Surface). The operation by
which the surface of wood is carbonised, to
prevent its decay from exposure to air and
moisture. Stakes and piles are generally thus
treated before they are driven into the ground.
Casks are charred on the inside by coopers
when they are intended to hold water. In
both these cases the fire is commonly applied
directly to the wood. A new method has,
however, been lately employed with apparent
success. This consists in washing the wood
with the strongest oil of vitriol. In this way,
not only the outer surface, but the surface of
all the cracks and holes, gets carbonised,
which is not the case when heat is employed.
It succeeds admirably with musty casks and
vats.
CHEESE. Syn. CA's EUM, CA's EUs, L. The
curd of milk compressed into a solid mass.
That of commerce is usually salted and dried,
and in some varieties it is also coloured and
flavoured.
The process of cheese-making is one which
is eminently interesting and scientific, and
which, in every gradation, depends on princi-
ples which chemistry has developed and illus:
trated. When a vegetable or mineral acid
is added to milk, and heat applied, a coagulum
is formed, which, when separated from the
liquid portion, constitutes cheese. Neutral
salts, earthy and metallic salts, sugar, and gum
Arabic, as well as some other substances, also
produce the same effect; but that which
answers the purpose best, and which is almost
exclusively used by dairy farmers, is rennet,
or the mucous membrane of the last stomach
of the calf. Alkalies dissolve this curd at a
boiling heat, and acids again precipitate it.
The solubility of cheese in milk is occasioned
by the presence of alkaline phosphates and of
free alkalies. In fresh milk these substances
may be readily detected by the property it
possesses of restoring the colour of reddened
litmus paper. The addition of an acid neu-
tralises the alkali, and so precipitates the
curd in an insoluble state. The philosophy
of cheese - making is thus expounded by
Liebig :—
“The acid indispensable to the coagulation
of milk is not added to the milk in the pre-
paration of cheese, but it is formed in the milk
at the expense of the milk-sugar present. A
small quantity of water is left in contact with
a small quantity of a calf's stomach for a few
hours, or for a night; the water absorbs so
minute a portion of the mucous membrane as
to be scarcely ponderable; this is mixed with
milk; its state of transformation is commu-
nicated (and this is a most important circum-
stance), not to the cheese, but to the milk sugar,
the elements of which transpose themselves
into lactic acid, which neutralises the alkali,
and thus causes the separation of the cheese.
By means of litmus paper the process may be
followed and observed through all its stages;
the alkaline reaction of the milk ceases as
soon as the coagulation begins. If the cheese
is not immediately separated from the whey,
the formation of lactic acid continues, the
fluid turns acid, and the cheese itself passes
into a state of decomposition.
“When cheese-curd is kept in a cool place,
a series of transformations takes place, in con-
sequence of which it assumes entirely new
properties; it gradually becomes semi-trans-
parent, and more or less soft, throughout the
whole mass; it exhibits a feebly acid reaction,
and develops the characteristic caseous odour.
Fresh cheese is very sparingly soluble in
water, but after having been left to itself for
two or three years, it becomes (especially if
all the fat be previously removed) almost
completely soluble in cold water, forming with
it a solution, which, like milk, is coagulated
by the addition of the acetic or mineral acids.
The cheese, which whilst fresh is insoluble, re-
turns during the maturation, or ripening, as
it is called, to a state similar to that in which
it originally existed in the milk. In those
English, Dutch, and Swiss cheeses, which are
nearly inodorous, and in the superior kinds of
French cheese, the caseine of the milk is
present in its unaltered state.
“The odour and flavour of the cheese is
owing to the decomposition of the butter;
the non-volatile acids, the margaric and oleic
acids, and the volatile butyric acid, capric and
caproic acids, are liberated in consequence of
the decomposition of glycerin. Butyric acid
imparts to cheese its characteristic caseous
odour, and the differences in its pungency or
aromatic flavour depend upon the proportion
of free butyric, capric, and caproic acids
present.” In the cheese of certain dairies and
districts, valerianic acid has been detected
along with the other acids just referred to.
CHEESE. 321:
f
-
Messrs. Jljenko and Laskowski found this acid
in the cheese of Limbourg, and M. Bolard in
that of Roquefort.
“The transition of the insoluble into soluble
casein depends upon the decomposition of the
phosphate of lime by the margaric acid of the
butter; margarate of lime is formed, whilst
the phosphoric acid combines with the casein,
forming a compound soluble in water.
“The bad smell of inferior kinds of cheese,
especially those called meagre or poor cheeses,
is caused by certain fetid products containing
sulphur, and which are formed by the decom-
position or putrefaction of the casein. The
alteration which the butter undergoes (that is,
in becoming rancid), or which occurs in the
milk-sugar still present, being transmitted to
the casein, changes both the composition
of the latter substance and its nutritive
qualities.
“The principal conditions for the prepa-
ration of the superior kinds of cheese (other
obvious circumstances being of course duly
regarded) are a careful removal of the whey,
which holds the milk-sugar in solution, and a
low temperature during the maturation or
ripening of the cheese.”
Cheese differs vastly in quality and flavour,
according to the method employed in its
manufacture, and the richness of the milk of
which it is made. Much depends upon the
quantity of cream it contains, and conse-
quently, when a superior quality of cheese is
desired, cream is frequently added to the
curd. This plan is adopted in the manufacture
of Stilton cheese and others of a like descrip-
tion. The addition of a pound or two of
butter to the curd for a middling size cheese
also vastly improves the quality of the product.
To ensure the richness of the milk, not only
should the cows be properly fed, but certain
breeds chosen. Those of Alderney, Cheddar,
Cheshire, Gloucestershire, Guernsey, and
North Wiltshire, deserve a preference in this
respect.
The materials employed in making cheese
are milk and rennet. Rennet is the stomach
of the calf, and is used either fresh or salted
and dried; generally in the latter state. The
milk may be of any kind, according to the
quality of the cheese required. Cows' milk is
that generally employed; but occasionally
ewes' milk is used; and sometimes, though
more rarely, that from goats.
In preparing his cheese, the dairy farmer
puts the greater portion of the mill; into a
large tub, to which he adds the remainder,
sufficiently heated to raise the temperature to
that of new milk. The whole is then whisked
together, the rennet or rennet liquor added,
and the tub covered over. It is now allowed
to stand until completely “turned,” when the
curd is gently struck down several times with
the skimming-dish, after which it is allowed
to subside. The vat covered with cheese-
cloth is next placed on a “horse” or “ladder”
over the tub, and filled with curd by means
of the skimmer, care being taken to allow as
little as possible of the oily particles or butter
to run back with the whey. The curd is
pressed down with the hands, and more added
as it sinks. This process is repeated until the
curd rises to about 2 inches above the edge.
The newly formed cheese, thus partially sepa-
rated from the whey, is now placed in a clean
tub, and a proper quantity of salt added, as
well as of annotta, when that colouring is used,
after which a board is placed over and under
it, and pressure applied for about 2 or 3 hours.
The cheese is next turned out and surrounded
by a fresh cheese-cloth, and then again sub-
mitted to pressure in the cheese press for 8 or
10 hours, after which it is commonly removed
from the press, salted all over, and again
pressed for 15 to 20 hours. The quality of the
cheese especially depends on this part of the
process, as if any of the whey is left in the
cheese it rapidly becomes bad-flavoured. Be-
fore placing it in the press the last time, the
common practice is to pare the edges smooth
and sightly. It now only remains to wash the
outside of the cheese in warm whey or water,
to wipe it dry, and to colour it with annotta
or reddle, as is usually done.
The storing of the newly made cheese is the
next point that engages the attention of the
maker and wholesale dealer. The same prin-
ciples which influence the maturation or ripen-
ing of fermented liquors also operate here.
In England, a cool cellar, neither damp nor
dry, and which is uninfluenced by change of
weather or season, is commonly regarded as the
best for the purpose. If possible, the tempe-
rature should on no account be permitted to
exceed 50° or 52°Fahr. at any portion of the
year. An average of about 45° is preferable
when it can be procured. A place exposed to
sudden changes of temperature is as unfit for
storing cheese as it is for storing beer. “The
quality of Rochefort cheese, which is prepared
from sheep's milk, and is very excellent, de-
pends exclusively upon the places where the
cheeses are kept after pressing and during
maturation. Those are cellars, communicating
with mountain grottoes and caverns, which
are kept constantly cool, at about 41° to 42°
Fahr., by currents of air from clefts in the
mountains. The value of these cellars as
storehouses varies with their property of main-
taining an equable and low temperature. Giron
mentions that a certain cellar, the construction
of which had cost only 480l. (12,000 francs),
was sold for 8,600l. (215,000 francs), being
found to maintain a suitable temperature, a
convincing proof of the importance attached
to temperature in the preparation of these
superior cheeses.” (Liebig.)
It will thus be seen that very slight differ-
ences in the materials, in the preparation, or
in storing of the cheese, materially influence
the quality and flavour of this article. The


richness of the milk—the addition to or sub-
21
322 CHEESE.
traction of cream from the milk—the separa-
tion of the curd from the whey with or without
compression—the salting of the curd—the
collection of the curd, either whole or broken,
before pressing—the addition of colouring
matter, as annotta or saffron, or of flavouring
—the place and method of storing—and the
length of time allowed for maturation, all tend
to alter the taste and odour of the cheese, in
some or other particular, and that in a way
readily perceptible to the palate of the con-
noisseur. No other alimentary substance ap-
pears to be so seriously affected by slight
variations in the quality of the materials from
which it is made, or by such apparently trifling
differences in the methods of preparing it.
War. The varieties of cheese met with in
commerce are very numerous, and differ greatly
from each other in richness, colour, and fla-
vour. These are commonly distinguished by
names indicative of the places in which they
have been manufactured, or of the quality of
the materials from which they have been pre-
pared. Thus, we have Dutch, Gloucester,
Stilton, skimmed-milk, raw-milk, cream, and
other cheeses; names which explain them-
selves. The following are the principal varie-
ties met with in Europe:–
CHEESE, BRICK-BAT. From its form; made
in Wiltshire of new milk and cream.
CHEESE, CHEDDAR. A fine, spongy kind of
cheese, the eyes or vesicles of which contain a
rich oil; made up into round, thick cheeses, of
considerable size (150 to 200 lbs.). -
CHEESE, CHESHIRE. From new milk, with-
out skimming, the morning’s milk being mixed
with that of the preceding evening, previously
warmed, so that the whole may be brought to
the heat of new milk. To this the rennet is
added, in less quantity than is commonly used
for other kinds of cheese. On this point,
much of the flavour and mildness of the
cheese is said to depend. A piece of dried
rennet, of the size of half-a-crown, put into a
pint of water over night, and allowed to stand
until the next morning, is sufficient for 18 or
20 gallons of milk. In large, round, thick
cheeses (100 to 200 lbs. each). They are gene-
rally solid, homogeneous, and dry, and friable
rather than viscid.
CHEESE, COTTENHAM. A rich kind of
cheese, in flavour and consistence not unlike
Stilton, from which, however, it differs in
shape, being flatter and broader than the
latter.
CHEESE, CREAM. From the “strippings”
(the last of the milk drawn from the cow at
each milking), from a mixture of milk and
cream, or from raw cream only, according
to the quality desired. It is usually made in
small oblong, square, or rounded cakes, a
gentle pressure only (that of a 2 or 4 lb.
weight) being applied to press out the whey.
After twelve hours, it is placed upon a board
or wooden trencher, and turned every day,
until dry. It ripens in about three weeks. A
little salt is generally added, and frequently a
little powdered lump sugar.
CHEESE, DERBYSHIRE. A small, white, rich
variety, very similar to Dunlop cheese.
CHEESE, DUNLOP. Rich, white, and but-
tery; in round forms, weighing from 30 lbs. to
60 lbs.
CHEESE, DUTCH. (Holland.) Of a globular
form. 5 to 14 lbs. each. Those from Edam
are very highly salted ; those from Gouda
less so.
CHEESE, GLOUCESTER. Single Glo'ster; from
milk, deprived of part of its cream; Double
Glo'ster, from milk retaining the whole of the
cream. Mild tasted, semi-buttery consistence,
without being friable; in large, round, flattish
forms.
CHEESE, GREEN or SAGE. From milk mixed
with the juice or an infusion or decoction of
sage leaves, to which marygold flowers and
parsley are frequently added.
CHEESE, GRUYêRE. A fine description of
cheese made in Switzerland, and largely con-
sumed on the Continent. It is firm and dry,
and exhibits numerous cells of considerable
magnitude. Its flavour is peculiar, and is not
generally liked by English people.
CHEESE, LINCOLN. From new milk and
cream; in pieces about 2 inches thick; soft,
and will not keep over 2 or 3 months.
CHEESE, NEUFCHATEL. A much esteemed
variety of Swiss cheese; made of cream, and
weighs about 5 or 6 oz.
CHEESE, NORFOLK. Dyed yellow with an-
notta or saffron; good, but not superior; in
cheeses of 30 lbs. to 50 lbs.
CHEESE, PARMESAN. (Parma, &c.) From
the curd of skimmed milk, hardened by a
gentle heat. The rennet is added at about
120°, and an hour afterwards, the curdling
milk is set on a slow fire until heated to about
150°Fahr. ; during which the curd separates.
in small lumps. A few pinches of saffrom are
then thrown in. About a fortnight after
making, the outer crust is cut off, and the new
surface warnished with linseed oil, and one side
coloured red. -
CHEESE, ROQUEFORT. From ewes' milk;
the best prepared in France. It greatly re-
sembles Stilton, but is scarcely of equal rich-
ness or quality, and possesses a peculiar pun-
gency and flavour.
CHEESE, SLIPCOAT or SoFT. A very rich
white cheese, somewhat resembling butter; for
present use only.
CHEESE, STILTON. The richest and finest
cheese made in England. From raw milk to
which cream taken from other milk is added;
in cheeses generally twice as high as they are
broad. Like wine, this cheese is vastly im-
proved by age, and is therefore seldom eaten
before it is 2 years old. A spurious appear-
ance of age is sometimes given to it by placing
it in a warm, damp cellar, or by surrounding it
with masses of fermenting straw, or dung.
CHEESE, SUFFOLK. From skimmed milk;
º

CHEESE—CHELSEA PENSIONER.
323
in round, flat forms, from 24 lbs. to 30 lbs.
each. Very hard and horny.
CHEESE, SWISS. The principal cheeses made
in Switzerland are the Gruyère, the Neuf-
châtel, and the Schabzieger or green cheese.
The latter is flavoured with melilot. -
CHEESE, WESTPHALIAN. In small balls or
rolls of about 1 lb. each. It derives its pecu-
liar flavour from the curd being allowed to
become partially putrid before being pressed.
In small balls or rolls of about 1 lb. each.
CHEESE, WILTSHIRE. Resembles poor
Cheshire or Glo'ster. The outside is generally
painted with a mixture of ruddle or red-ochre
or whey.
CHEESE, YoFK. From cream : it will not
keep.
Qual., &c. Cheese has been objected to
as an article of diet, but without sufficient
reason, since it is, when of good quality,
eminently nutritious, wholesome, and digestible.
Like all other food, cheese digests more readily
when well masticated, and the neglect of this
precaution is one reason why it frequently dis-
agrees with delicate stomachs. It is rendered
more agreeable to many palates by toasting it,
but becomes less digestible by that operation.
The basis of cheese is casein or coagulated
curd, a protein substance; it therefore cannot
fail to prove nutritious, provided it is properly
digested. Cheese-curd, carefully freed from
water and milk by expression, and the addi-
tion of salt, is a mixture of casein and butter.
It contains all the phosphate of lime and part
of the phosphate of soda of the milk. (Liebig.)
When taken as a condiment, especially when
rich and old, it powerfully promotes the secre-
tion of the saliva and gastric juice, and
thereby aids the stomach in performing its
proper functions. Rotten cheese is very un-
wholesome.
Concluding remarks. It is surprising that
cheese is not more frequently made an article
of domestic manufacture, especially by house-
wives resident in the country. The operations
of cheese-making are all exceedingly simple,
and not laborious, and will, in most cases,
amply repay the outlay for the milk. Besides,
cheese is not unfrequently coloured with stains
and pigments, which are injurious, and even
poisonous, the risk of taking which is not en-
countered when it is made at home. Several
persons have nearly lost their lives from eating
cheese coloured with annotta, for instance.
This substance, though harmless in itself, is
frequently adulterated with red lead, so that
the cheesemonger may very innocently intro-
duce a dreadful poison, when he only intends
to improve the colour of his goods.
When a whole cheese is cut, and the con-
sumption small, it is generally found to become
unpleasantly dry, and to lose flavour before it
is consumed. This is best prevented by cutting
a sufficient quantity for a few days’ consump-
tion from the cheese, and keeping the re-
mainder in a cool place, rather damp than dry,
spreading a thin film of butter over the cold
surface, and covering it with a cloth or pam,
to keep off the dirt. This removes the objec-
tion existing in small families against pur-
chasing a whole cheese at a time. The com-
mon practice of buying small quantities of
cheese should be avoided, as not only a higher
price is paid for any given quality, but there
is little likelihood of obtaining exactly the
same flavour twice running. Should cheese
become too dry to be agreeable, it may be used
for stewing, or for making grated cheese or
Welsh rare-bits.
Cheese, Apple. The pomace or ground
apples from the cider press.
Cheese, Dam’son. Prep. From damsons
boiled with a little water, the pulp passed
through a sieve, and then boiled with about
one fourth the weight of sugar, until the mix-
ture solidifies on cooling; it is next poured
into small tin moulds previously dusted out
with sugar. Cherry cheese, gooseberry cheese,
plum cheese, &c., are prepared in the same
way, using the respective kinds of fruit.
They are all very agreeable candies or confec-
tions.
Cheese, Factitious Roque'fort. Prep.
(Roulle.) The gluten of wheat is kneaded with
a little salt, and a small portion of a solution
of starch, and made up into cheeses. It is
said that this mixture soon acquires the
taste, smell, and unctuosity of cheese, and
when kept a certain time is not to be distin-
guished from the celebrated Roquefort cheese,
of which it possesses all the peculiar pungency.
By slightly varying the process, other kinds of
cheese may be imitated. -
Cheese, Legu'minn. The Chinese prepare
an actual cheese from peas, called “tao-foo,”
which they sell in the streets of Canton. The
paste from steeped ground peas is boiled, which
causes the starch to dissolve with the casein ;
after straining the liquid, it is coagulated by
a solution of gypsum ; this coagulum is worked
up like sour milk, salted, and pressed into
moulds.
Cheese, Toast'ed. This much relished article
is seldom well prepared. The following has
been recommended as an excellent receipt:-
Cut the cheese into slices of moderate thick-
ness, and put them into a tinned copper sauce-
pan, with a little butter and cream; simmer
very gently until they are quite dissolved, then
remove the saucepan from the fire, allow the
whole to cool a little, add some yolk of egg,
well beaten, add spice, make the compound
into a “shape,” and brown it before the fire.
See FOUDUE.
CHEL/SEA PEN’SIONER. Prep. From
gum guaiacum, # oz. ; rhubarb, 3 oz.; cream
of tartar, 2 oz. ; flowers of sulphur, 4 oz. ;
nutmegs, 2 in number; (all in powder); honey,
1% lb., or q. S.; made into an electuary by
beating them together in a mortar.—Dose. 1
to 2 table-spoonfuls, night and morning, in
gout and chronic rheumatism. The name is



324 CHELTENHAM SALTS-CHICORY.
said to have been given to it from the circum-
stance of a Chelsea pensioner having cured
Lord Amherst with it.
CHEL'TENHAM SALTS. See SALTS.
CHEM'IQUE or CHEMI/IC BLUE. See IN-
I)IGO.
CHER00T'. A species of cigar imported
from Manilla, in the Philippine Islands, dis-
tinguished by extreme simplicity of construc-
tion, as well as delicacy of flavour. The cigars
now so commonly sold as cheroots in England
are, for the most part, made of inferior tobacco,
and are often much adulterated articles.
CHER/RIES are the fruit of different spe-
cies of the genus Cerasus. They are regarded
as wholesome, cooling, nutritive, laxative, and
antiscorbutic. Brandy flavoured with this
fruit or its juice is known as cherry-brandy.
Morello cherries preserved in brandy are called
brandy cherries. See BRANDY, FRUIT, &c.
CHER/RY LAUR'EL. Syn. LAU’REL. The
Cerasus Lauro-Cerasus, a shrub common in
every garden in England, and often con-
founded with the true Laurel or Sweet Bay,
which does not possess any of its deleterious
properties. Leaves, occasionally used instead
of bay leaves in cookery. The distilled oil and
distilled water are both poisonous. See OIL,
WATER.
CHI’CA. The red colouring matter deposited
by a decoction of the leaves of Bignonia Chica
in cooling. Used by the American Indians to
stain their skin. It is soluble in alcohol, ether,
oil, fat, and alkaline lyes, and slightly so in
boiling water.
Chica. See MAIZE-BEER.
CHIC'ORY. Syn. WILD suc'CoRY; CICHOR'-
IUM INTY'BUS (Linn.), L. A plant belonging
to the natural order Compositae. It is indi-
genous to this and many other countries of
Europe, and is extensively cultivated for the
sake of its roots, which are sliced, roasted, and
ground, to form the chicory of the shops.
Nearly 100 millions of pounds are annually
consumed in Europe. Much of the chicory
used in Britain is of home growth; but still
more is imported in a raw state from Holland
and other parts of the Continent. A blue dye
has been prepared from the leaves of this
plant.
The FRESH. Root of CHICORY (ra'dia chi-
co'rii reſcens) is reputed to be alterative,
attenuant, diuretic, febrifuge, hepatic, resolv-
ent, and tonic; and in large doses, aperient.
It is now seldom used in medicine, although it
appears to possess similar qualities and equal
activity to those of dandelion. “An infusion
of the root, mixed with syrup, becomes thick;
forming the GOMME SACCHO-CHICORINE of
Lacarterie.” (Fee.)
The ROASTED Root is prepared by cutting
the full-grown root into slices, and exposing
it to heat in iron cylinders, along with about
1} % or 2% of lard, in a similar way to that
adopted for coffee. When ground to powder
in a mill, it constitutes the CHICORY of the
grocers (CHICORY COFFEE, SUCCORY C.; RA-
DIX CHICO/RII TORREFACTA, R. C. T. CON-
TRI''TA); so generally employed both as a sub-
stitute for coffee and as an adulterant of that
article. The addition of 1 part of good, fresh
roasted chicory to 10 or 12 parts of coffee
forms a mixture which yields a beverage of a
fuller flavour, and of a deeper colour than
that furnished by an equal quantity of pure or
unmixed coffee. In this way a less quantity
of coffee may be used, but it should be remem-
bered that the article substituted for it does
not possess in any degree the peculiar exciting,
soothing, and hunger-staying properties of
that valuable product. The use, however, of
a larger proportion of chicory than that just
named imparts to the beverage an insipid
flavour, intermediate between that of treacle
and liquorice; whilst the continual use of
roasted chicory, or highly chicorised coffee,
seldom fails to weaken the powers of digestion
and derange the bowels. “There can be no
doubt that roasted chicory must, when taken
largely, have a tendency to excite diarrhoea.”
(Pereira.)
Pur., &c. The ground chicory of the shops,
like ground coffee, is almost universally adul-
terated. Pigments are added to it to colour
it, and various vegetable substances to lessen
its value. The following articles have been
reported to have been detected in roasted
chicory, or to have been known to be used to
adulterate it :—Wenetian red, reddle, and red
clay; roasted acorns, beans, carrots, damaged
dog-biscuits, damaged bread, damaged wheat,
horse-chestnuts, mangel wurzel, parsnips, peas,
rye, and sugar; coffee flights (coffee husks),
coffina (roasted lupins), Hambro’ powder
(roasted peas coloured with reddle), and the
marc of coffee; exhausted bark (from the tan
yards), logwood dust, mahogany dust, &c. It
has also been asserted that the scorched livers
of bullocks, horses, and dogs, have been ap-
plied to the same purpose; but of this there
is not sufficient evidence. The only way to
avoid being thus cheated or poisoned is to buy
the chicory whole, and to grind it at home.
Roasted chicory is highly hygrometric or
absorbent of moisture, and should, therefore,
be always kept in close vessels (bottles or
canisters), the same as coffee. If the lumps
become tough or soft, or the powder cakes to-
gether, it is unfit for use; but in some cases
it may be recovered, by exposing it on a plate
in an oven until it again becomes perfectly dry
or brittle.
Tests.-1. Powdered chicory thrown on
water turns it reddish-brown and rapidly
sinks, leaving light impurities either floating
or diffused through the liquid.—2. The cold
decoction tested with tincture, or solution of
iodine, gives a brown colour; if it turns
purple, blue, or black, it indicates the pre-
sence of roasted peas, beans, rye, or some other
like substance, containing starch.-3. Persul-
phate or perchloride of iron, added in the

CHILBLAIN–CHIMNEYS.
325
same way, should not materally affect the
liquid; if it turns it bluish or blackish, it in-
dicates the presence of roasted acorns, oak-
bark tan, or some other substance containing
tannin.-4. Water acidulated with vinegar, di-
gested on the powder, should not be blackened,
or even materially darkened, by tincture of
galls or a solution of red prussiate of potash;
the contrary shows the presence of ferrugi-
neous colouring matter.—5. The dry powder,
when incinerated, should not leave more than
4% to 5% of ash, which should be of a grayish
or fawn colour; the contrary indicates the pre-
sence of reddle, red clay, ochre, or the like.—
6. To the above may be added attention to
the odour, colour, and appearance, both to the
naked eye and under the microscope; by the
latter, adulteration may be easily detected.
See CoFFEE. -
CHIL’BLAIN. Syn. PER/NIO, L. An in-
flammatory swelling, of a purple or lead colour,
produced by the action of cold. Chilblains
(PERNIO'NEs) exclusively attack the extremi-
ties of the body, and are generally confined to
the fingers, toes, and heels. The common
symptoms are itching and irritation, more or
less intense, often accompanied with shooting
pains, and tenderness, and tumefaction of the
parts. Children, especially those of a scro-
fulous habit, and elderly persons, are generally
the most liable to chilblains. The common
cause of chilblains is holding the hands or feet
to the fire after exposure to cold. The sudden
change of temperature partially destroys the
vitality of the minute surfacial vessels, and
thus prevents the proper flow of blood through
the part. The best preventives of chilblains
are woollen socks or stockings, good water-
proof shoes, woollen gloves, exercise, and fric-
tion. These act by promoting the circulation
of the blood in the extremities, and protecting
them from vicissitudes of temperature. When
chilblains have once formed, the best treatment
is friction with stimulants, as spirits of wine
and camphor, oil of turpentine, opodel.doc,
dilute spirits, camphorated oil, hartshorn and
oil, &c. Linnaeus recommends bathing the
part with dilute muriatic acid, just strong
enough to faintly prick the skin. When the
inflamed parts have ulcerated, they are com-
monly called KIBES. In this state they should
be dressed with a little resin cerate, or elemi
ointment. If fungous granulations appear,
they must be removed by touching them
with nitrate of silver or blue vitriol. See
CHAPs, &c.
REMEDIES FOR CHILBLAINS.—The follow-
ing have been strongly recommended by dif-
ferent parties, and may all prove useful in
their turns, as circumstances and convenience
may suggest:—
1. Sulphate of copper, 1 oz. ; rosemary water,
1 pint; dissolve.
2. Sal-ammoniac, 1 oz. ; vinegar, pint.
3. Sal-ammoniac, 1 oz. ; rum, # pint; cam-
phor, 1 dr. The affected part is wetted with
the above night and morning, and when dry,
is touched with a little simple ointment, cold
cream, or pomatum.
4. Soap limiment, 2 oz.; tincture of can-
tharides, 1 oz.; oil of cajeput, 2 drs.
5. Oil of turpentine, 2 oz. ; camphor, 3 drs. ;
oil of cajeput, 1 dr. The application of the
last two is accompanied by gentle friction.
6. (DR. GRAVEs’ PREVENTIVE.) Sulphate
of copper, 20 grs. ; water, 1 oz. As the first
three.
7. (LEJEUNE's BALSAM.) See CHILBLAIN
BALSAM.
8. (LINNAEUs’ REMEDY). Hydrochloric acid,
1 oz. ; water, 11 oz. As No. 3.
9. (MoRTON's LINIMENT.) Calomel and
camphor, of each, 1 dr. ; spermaceti ointment,
4 drs. ; oil of turpentine and cocoa-nut oil, of
each, 2 drs. As No. 5.
10. (RUSSIAN REMEDY.) The rind of per-
fectly ripe cucumbers, dried with the soft parts
attached. For use, they are placed with the
inner side, previously soaked in warm water,
over the soft parts. (Med. Zeitung.)
11. (SWEDIAUR's PASTE.) Bitter almonds,
8 oz. ; honey, 6 oz. ; powdered camphor and
flour of mustard, of each, # oz. ; burnt alum
and olibanum, of each, # oz. ; yolks of 3 eggs;
beat to a paste. To be applied night and
morning.
12. (VANCE's CREAM.) Ointment of nitrate
of mercury, 1 oz. ; camphor, 1 dr.; oil of tur-
pentine, 2 drs. ; oil of olives, 4 drs. ; mix well
together. To be applied, by gentle friction,
2 or 3 times daily.
Obs. All the preceding preparations are
intended for chilblains before they break.
The liniments of ammonia, camphor, opium,
soap, and turpentine, as well as the compound
camphor liniment of the British Pharma-
copoeia, are also excellent preparations for the
same purposes.
13. (WAHLER's OINTMENT.) Black oxide of
iron, bole, and oil of turpentine, of each, 1 dr.;
resin cerate, 1 oz. For broken chilblains.
We have found a mixture of equal parts of
calamine cerate and resin cerate answer quite
as well. See CERATE, OINTMENT.
CHILDREN (Care of). See INFANCY.
Children (Diseases of). See the respective
heads, and DISEASES.
CHILLIES. See CAPSICUM, PEPPERs.
CHIM'NEYS were not introduced into Eng-
land until the reign of Queen Elizabeth, and
for a considerable period the principles of
their construction were ill-understood. When
the air inside and outside a chimney is at the
same temperature, an equilibrium exists; there
is no draught in the chimney, because the
downward tendency of that within is counter-
acted by the upward pressure of that without.
Let a fire be kindled in the grate; hot air is
evolved, the chimney is heated, the air it con-
tains suffers expansion, and a portion is
expelled. The chimney now contains a smaller
weight of air than it did before; the external,



326
CHINA–CHLORAL.
and internal columns no longer equibalance
each other, the warmer and lighter air is forced
upwards from below, and its place is occupied
by cold, and consequently heavier air. If the
fire continues to burn, and the chimney retains
its temperature, this second portion of air is
disposed of like the first, and the ascending
current continues, so long as the sides of the
chimney are hotter than the surrounding air.
Should the reverse happen to be the case, as
sometimes occurs from sudden atmospheric
changes, the column of air within the chimney
rapidly contracts in volume, the deficiency is
filled up from without, the column of air be-
comes heavier than one of a corresponding
height on the outside of it, or in the apartment,
and, obeying the common laws of gravitation,
it falls out of the throat of the chimney or fire-
place, just as a heavy body sinks in water, and
has its place occupied by air from above. In
this way, a descending current, of more or less
intensity and duration, is established, and, if
there is a fire in the grate, the chimney
“smokes,” or, if the grate is empty, perhaps,
the smoke from neighbouring chimneys finds
its way into our apartments. By the judicious
arrangement of the fire-place, and the throat
and flue of a chimney, an upward current may
be constantly ensured so long as there is a fire
in the grate, or the air of the apartment is
warmer than the external atmosphere.
Count Rumford was the first who scientifi-
cally investigated the construction of chimneys.
He showed that more heat is obtained from
the fire by reflection when the coverings are
placed in an oblique position. He also
directed that the fire itself should be kept as
near to the hearth as possible, and that the
throat of the chimney should be constructed
much narrower than was then the practice, in
order to prevent the escape of so much heated
air as happened with wide throats. By con-
tracting the open part of the fire-place im-
mediately over the fire, as by lessening the
width of the hobs, or by bringing the throat
of the chimney closer to the fire, and by cou-
tracting the throat of the chimney itself,
within certain limits, any desired amount of
draught may be obtained. When the space
above the fuel is too small, the throat too near
the burning fuel, or the throat itself too con-
tracted, the draught of a common chimney is
often too strong, and much fuel and heat is
wasted. When the reverse is the case, the
draught is commonly too languid, the fire
draws badly, a portion of the smoke escapes
into the room, and all the usual annoyances of
a smoky chimney are suffered. By a proper
attention to these conditions, a common fire-
place may be adapted for the combustion of
bituminous or easy burning coal, or of anthra-
cite, and varieties of coal that require a con-
siderable draught. It may even be converted
into a wind furnace; whilst the inconvenience
of smoky chimneys may be always avoided,
and when existing, easily cured. This is pre-
suming, however, that a sufficient supply of
air exists in front of the fire-place (i. e. in the
apartment), not only for the combustion of
the fuel, but also for the upward current of
the chimney. Many chimneys smoke simply
from the apartment being soill-ventilated that
the supply here alluded to is not provided. It
may be further stated, as a rule, that the
greater the length of a chimney, the stronger
will be the draught. Hence, the chimneys of
the upper rooms of a house often smoke,
whilst the fires in the rooms beneath them
burn pleasantly and vigorously. Such cases
are commonly relieved by a chimney-pot or
cowl, of which numerous varieties are now
before the public. The more crooked or
tortuous the course of a chimney, the less
likely is it to be affected by eddies and gusts
of wind from neighbouring buildings or hills.
See FIRES, GRATE, SMOKE, STOVE.
CHINA. In the purchase of china, glass,
and earthenware, care should be taken to
select those patterns which in case of breakage
can be the most readily matched. Peculiar
or rare patterns should be avoided, for if any
such be broken, it will generally be found very
difficult and expensive, and frequently im-
possible, to replace them.
China, glass, and earthenware, when very
dirty, are best cleaned with finely powdered
fuller's earth and warm water, followed by
rinsing in clean water. A little clean soft
soap may be added to the water instead of
fuller’s earth. See PACKING, PORCELAIN.
CHIN'OIDINE, See QUINOIDINE.
CHINOLINE BLUE. See CYANINE.
CHITIN. This name has been given to the
hard, insoluble matter forming the shells and
elytra of insects. It is obtained by boiling the
elytra of the cockchafer with water, alcohol,
ether, acetic acid, and alkalies.
CHIT/TICK'S REMEDY. Dr. Chittick’s
remedy for stome consisted of a fixed alkali,
administered in veal broth. (Paris.)
CHLORAL. C.HCl2O. A peculiar liquid
first obtained by Liebig, by the action of
chlorine on alcohol.
Prep. (Liebig.) Anhydrous alcohol is placed
in a tubulated retort, and dry chlorine gas
passed through it, at first in the cold, but after-
wards with the application of a gentle heat,
until the chlorine passes unchanged through
the liquor on raising it to the boiling tempe-
rature; on cooling, the whole forms a crystal-
line mass of chloral hydrate; this is melted
by a gentle heat, and agitated with three times
its volume of oil of vitriol; on increasing the
heat a little, an oily stratum of impure chloral
rises to the surface. It is purified by boiling
it for some time (to drive off free hydrochloric
acid and alcohol), next distilling it with an
equal volume of oil of vitriol; and lastly,
rectifying it from some powdered quick-lime,
the process being stopped as soon as the sur-
face of the lime becomes dry.
Prop., &c. Chloral is an oily liquid, pos-

CHLORAL HYDRATE–CHLORIDE.
327
sessing an ethereal smell; it is soluble in alco-
hol, ether, and water; with a small quantity
of the latter it rapidly changes into a semi-
solid crystalline mass (chloral hydrate), which
is soluble in a larger quantity of water; boils
at 201°; sp. gr. 1:502. It is decomposed by
the caustic earths and alkalies. By age it is con-
verted into a white, solid, translucent substance
(insoluble chloral), which is reconverted by
heat and by sulphuric acid into ordinary chloral.
Obs. In operating as above, the chlorine is
most conveniently introduced by a tube in-
serted into the tubulature of the retort, and a
long tube, bent upwards, should be connected
with the beak to convey away the hydrochloric
acid gas extricated, and to allow the volati-
lised alcohol and chloral to condense, and flow
back into the retort.
CHLORAL HYDRATE. C.HCl2O. Aq. Syn.
HYDRATE OF CHLORAL. Prep. “Pass dry
chlorine gas, for several days, through absolute
alcohol, sp. gr. 0.795, until it becomes a thick
viscid liquid of sp. gr. 1:57. At the beginning
of the operation the alcohol is well cooled to
prevent inflammation and explosion, but to-
wards the end of the operation the alcohol is
heated nearly to the boiling-point. The re-
sulting liquid, which after a day or two
solidifies to a mass of crude chloral hydrate, is
agitated with four times its bulk of concen-
trated sulphuric acid, and the anhydrous
chloral which floats on the surface is separated
and purified by fractional distillation. The
purified anhydrous chloral is placed in a still,
mixed with 11 per cent. of water, and distilled
over chalk to remove any hydrochloric acid
that may be present; the resulting solid dis-
tillate is then fused and poured out into shal-
low vessels to cast into cakes.” (Squire.) The
purest chloral hydrate is said to be that which
has been crystallised two or three times out
of pure bisulphide of carbon.—Prop. White
opaque solid, having a pungent odour resem-
bling that of a ripe melon. Soluble in water,
glycerin, and alcohol. Gradually volatilises
in the air, and may be distilled without de-
composition. From 100 grs. dissolved in #
fl. oz. of water, well shaken with 1 fl. oz. of
solution of potash (B.P.), and allowed to stand
for several hours, at least 46 grain-measures
of chloroform should separate.
Uses. An excellent sedative, antispasmodic,
hypnotic, anodyne. It has done good service
in hypochondriacal and other nervous affec-
tions, also in asthma, whooping-cough, and
scarlet fever. It has also the reputation of
being an efficient preventive of sea-sickness,
especially on short voyages, such as crossing
the Channel, which can be accomplished during
the sleep occasioned by the agent.—Dose.
From 10 to 60 grs.
CHLORALUM. An impure aqueous solution
of chloride of aluminum, sp. gr. 1:15. 1 fl. oz.
of the liquid contains 75 grains of anhydrous
chloride. Introduced by Professor Gamgee as
an antiseptic and disinfectant, for which pur-
tube.
poses it is recommended to dilute the article as
sold with four times its bulk of water.
CHL0"RATE. Syn. HYPERoxyMU’’RIATE+,
CHLo"RAs, L. A compound in which the
hydrogen of chloric acid, HClO3, is replaced
by a metal or other basic radical, e.g. KClO3,
chlorate of potassium. Chlorates may be
prepared by dissolving the hydrate or oxide in
chloric acid, and crystallising. The alkaline
chlorates, however, are made by passing
chlorine into solutions of the hydrate or car-
bonate of potassium or sodium, boiling the re-
sulting liquid, and separating the chlorate
from the chloride, which is also formed, by
crystallisation. They are very similar to the
nitrates, both in their general properties and
composition. They are all decomposed at a
red heat, metallic chlorides being formed and
oxygen gas given off. Like the nitrates, they
deflagrate with inflammable substances, but
with greater facility and violence. A mixture
of this kind will detonate with a slight blow
or friction. All the chlorates are soluble in
water.
Char, Tests, &c. The chlorates are known
by their deflagrating when placed on red-hot
charcoal. By evolving a yellowish-green gas
when treated with concentrated sulphuric
acid, in the cold, which gas also communicates
to the liquid a red or yellow tinge. By evolv-
ing oxygen gas when heated alone in a test-
This test is not characteristic, unless
carried a stage further, by dissolving the
residual chloride out of the tube, and adding
to the filtered solution a few drops of nitrate
of silver; then the formation of a white pre-
cipitate, insoluble in nitric acid, will show that
the salt treated was a chlorate, and not a
nitrate. Pure chlorates give no precipitate
with nitrate of silver.
CHLORHYDRIC ACID. See HYDROCHLORIC
ACID.
CHL0"RIC ACID. HClO4. Syn. HYPER-
oxyMURIAT/IC ACID ; ACIDUM CHLo"RICUM,
L. An acid discovered by Chenevix, but
first obtained in a separate form by Gay-
Lussac.
CHL0"RIDE (-id). Syn. CHLo"RURETf;
CHLoRI'DUM, L. A chemical compound of
chlorine with a metal or other basic radical,
e.g. NaCl, chloride of sodium; C3H3Cl, chloride
of ethyl.
Prep. The majority of the metallic chlorides
may be made by simply dissolving the metal
or its carbonate, oxide, or hydrate, in hydro-
chloric acid (previously diluted with about
twice its weight of water), and evaporating
and crystallising the solution, in the usual
manner. Zinc, cadmium, iron, nickel, cobalt,
and tin, dissolve readily in hydrochloric acid;
copper only in strong boiling acid; silver,
mercury, and gold, not at all. The insoluble
chlorides, as those of silver and mercury, may
be readily prepared by precipitating any of
their corresponding soluble salts, with hydro-
chloric acid, or a soluble chloride, such as





328 CHLORIMETRY_CHLORITE.
common salt. Anhydrous chlorides are gene-
rally prepared by the direct action of chlorine
on the bases.
Char., Tests, &c. Most of the metallic
chlorides are soluble in water. Many fuse
when heated, and volatilise unchanged, but
others are completely or partially decomposed
at a red heat. All, with the exception of those
of the alkali and earth metals, are decomposed
at a red heat in a current of hydrogen. They
are recognised by the following reactions:–1.
Heated with a little peroxide of manganese
and sulphuric acid, chlorine is evolved, and
easily detected by its colour, smell, and bleach-
ing properties:–2. The soluble chlorides may
be readily detected by their solutions, slightly
acidulated with nitric acid, giving with a
solution of nitrate of silver a white, curdy
precipitate (chloride of silver), insoluble in
nitric acid, freely soluble in liquor of ammonia,
and blackened by the light :—3. The in-
soluble chlorides may be tested by digesting
them in a little liquor of potassa, when a
solution of chloride of potassium will be
formed, which may be treated as just directed
(2); or the chloride may be dissolved in nitric
acid, and tested with nitrate of silver as
before.
CHLORIM'ETRY. See CHIOROMETRY.
CHLORINATED LIME. See LIME.
CHLORINATED SO’DA. See SODA.
CHL0"RINE. Syn. CHLoRIN'IUM, L.;CHLORE,
Fr. ; CHLOR, Ger. An elementary substance
discovered by Scheele in 1774, and at first sup-
posed to be a compound body. In 1809, MM.
Gay-Lussac and Thénard suggested the pro-
bability of it being a simple substance; but it
was reserved for Sir H. Davy, shortly after-
wards, to demonstrate the truth of the sug-
gestion of these foreign chemists.
Nat. hist. It exists in nature chiefly in
the form of chloride of sodium, which consti-
tutes rock salt when deposited in inland beds,
sea salt when dissolved in masses of water.
The sea also contains chlorides of potassium,
calcium, and magnesium. It is a constituent
of several well-known minerals. It has been
met with in the air of volcanic districts, com-
bined with hydrogen, as hydrochloric acid.
Prep. Strong hydrochloric acid is poured
on half of its weight of finely powdered per-
oxide of manganese, previously placed in a
glass flask or retort; chlorine gas is imme-
diately evolved, even in the cold, but much
more rapidly on the application of a gentle
heat, and is collected in clean, dry bottles by
displacement. The tube conducting the gas
is so arranged as to reach to the bottom of
the bottle, and the chlorine, being heavier
than the air, displaces the latter without
mixing with it. The bottle is known to be
full by the gas, easily perceived by its green
colour, overflowing the top of the vessel. The
bottle is then closed up with an accurately
fitting stopper, previously greased, and an
empty one put in its place, which is subse-
quently treated in like manner. To free the
gas entirely from hydrochloric acid, it is
passed through a wash bottle containing a
small quantity of water; and to render it
quite dry, it is passed over fused chloride of
calcium. When the presence of moisture is
no object, chlorine may be collected over warm
water, or, what is better, a saturated solution
of common salt, in the pneumatic trough.
The mercurial trough cannot be employed, as
the chlorine rapidly acts upon the metal, and
becomes absorbed.
Commercial.—From oil of vitriol and water,
of each, 7 parts, cautiously mixed, and allowed
to cool; chloride of sodium (common salt), 4
parts, mixed intimately with peroxide of man-
gamese, 3 parts. The dilute acid is placed in
a retort or other generating vessel, and the
powder added. The gas comes off slowly at
first, but the application of a gentle heat causes
it to rush forth in large quantities. Of late
years, owing to the general demand for bleach-
ing agents, numerous new methods for ob-
taining chlorine have been patented, with a
view of adopting a continuous process.
Prop., Uses, &c. Chlorine is a gas possessing
a yellowish-green colour, and a pungent, suffo-
cating odour. It is one of the heaviest sub-
stances that are gaseous at ordinary tem-
peratures, being nearly 2% heavier than atmo-
spheric air—sp. gr. 1'47. It is soluble to a
considerable extent in water, that liquid at
60°Fahr. absorbing about twice its volume.
It is non-inflammable, but its union with
some of the elements is attended with the
phenomena of combustion; thus, phosphorus,
copper leaf, powdered antimony and arsenic,
and several other substances thrown into
chlorine immediately inflame. Under a pres-
sure of 4 atmospheres, it is condensed into a
yellow, limpid liquid. Moist chlorine gas
cooled to 32° Fahr. condenses into yellow
crystals, containing 35% parts of chlorine
and 90 parts of water. The most remark-
able property of chlorine is, its power of de-
stroying almost all vegetable and animal
colours, and the putrid odour of decomposing
organic matter; hence its value as a bleaching
agent, and as a disinfectant and fumigation.
When first proposed as a bleaching agent
by Berthollet, it was used much the same
way as sulphur is now in bleaching woollen
goods; afterwards a solution of the gas in
water was employed, but the final improve-
ment was Tennant’s patent of combining the
gas with lime to form “chloride of lime.”
With the bases chlorine forms an importan
series of compounds called chlorides. -
Tests. Free chlorine is readily distinguished
from other gases by its colour, suffocating
odour, and bleaching properties. The aqueous
solution dissolves gold leaf, and with nitrate
of silver gives a white, curdy precipitate.
CHLO'RITE. A salt in which the hydrogen
of chlorous acid, HClO3, is replaced by a metal
or other basic radical. See CHLOROUS ACID.



CHLOROCHROMIC ACID—CHLOROFORM.
329
CHLOROCHRO'MIC ACID. CrOCl. Syn.
CHLOROCHROMIC ANHYDRIDE. Prep. Bi-
chromate of potassium, 3 parts; common salt,
# parts; are intimately mixed together, put
into a glass retort, and oil of vitriol, 9 parts,
added; heat is next applied and maintained
as long as dense, red vapours are given off.
The product in the receiver is a heavy, deep-
red liquor, greatly resembling bromine in ap-
pearance. Water resolves it into hydrochloric
and chromic anhydride.
CHLO’RODYNE. See PATENT MEDICINES.
CHL0"ROFORM. CHCla. Sym. TERCHLo”-
RIDE OF FoR'MYLE, FoR'MYL-CHLo"RID; CHLo-
ROFOR/MYL, CHLOROFOR'MUM, L. A remark-
able fluid discovered by Soubeiran in 1832, and
carefully examined in 1834 by Dumas. In
1842 its action upon animals was investigated
by Dr. M. Glover, and in 1847 it was intro-
duced to the medical profession as an anaes-
thetic agent by Dr. Simpson, of Edinburgh.
It was first obtained by the action of caustic
alkali upon chloral, but it is more easily pre-
pared by distilling alcohol or wood spirit with
chloride of lime.
Prep. 1. Chloride of lime (in powder), 4 lbs. ;
water, 12 lbs.; mix, in a capacious retort or
still, add of rectified spirit, 12 fl.oz., and cau-
tiously distil, as long as a dense liquid, which
sinks in the water it passes over with, is pro-
duced; separate this from the water, agitate
it with a little sulphuric acid, and, lastly,
rectify it from carbonate of barium.
2. Chloride of lime, 4 lbs. ; water, 10 pints;
rectified spirit, # pint ; proceed as last, using
a spacious retort that the mixture will only
1-3rd fill, and the heat of a sand bath. When
ebullition commences remove the fire as quickly
as possible, lest the retort be broken by the
suddenly increased heat, and let the solution
distil into a receiver as long as there is nothing
which subsides, the heat being restored if it
be at all needed. Add to the distilled liquid
four times as much water, and shake the
whole well together; next cautiously separate
the heavier part as soon as it has subsided,
and to this add of chloride of calcium, broken
into fragments, 1 dr. ; and shake occasionally
during an hour; finally let the fluid again
distil from a glass retort into a glass receiver.
3. Hydrate of lime, 1 part, is suspended in
cold water, 24 parts, and chlorine passed
through the mixture until nearly the whole
of the lime is dissolved; hydrate of lime, q. s.
just to restore the alkaline reaction of the
liquid, is then added; and, afterwards, recti-
fied spirit of wine or wood spirit, 1 part, is
mixed in ; the whole, after repose for 24 hours
in a covered vessel, is cautiously distilled as
before.
Prop., &c. Liquid; transparent; colour-
less; odour, fragrant, ethereal, and apple-like;
taste, ethereal, sweetish, but slightly acrid;
soluble in 2000 parts of water; mixes in all
proportions with alcohol and ether; dissolves
(readily) bromine, camphor, caoutchouc, gutta
percha, iodine, oils, resins, wax, and several
other like substances; boils at 141.8° Fahr.;
kindles with difficulty; burns with a greenish
flame; and communicates a dull, smoky-yellow
colour to the flame of alcohol. Sp. gr. 1:48
(1497, Miller); density of vapour, 4.2. The
vapour has the remarkable property of ren-
dering a person breathing it temporarily in-
sensible to pain.
Pur. Chloroform is frequently adulterated
with alcohol and ether; and, owing to careless
manipulation, is also sometimes contaminated
with other substances, as chloral, hydrochloric
acid, and free chlorine. When pure, it is free
from colour, and of a pleasant odour. Sp. gr.
not less than 1:48. It is not perfectly soluble
in water; and does not turn the colour of
litmus red. Rubbed on the skin, it quickly
evaporates, scarcely leaving any odour. Drop-
ped into water, it falls to the bottom and
remains bright and limpid; but if it contain
alcohol the surface of the drop becomes opaline.
If the same experiment be made with diluted
sulphuric acid, sp. gr. 1'44, the drop of pure
chloroform will fall to the bottom; but that
which contains spirit, if not shaken, will float
or remain suspended in the acid solution.
When contaminated with heavy hydrocarbon
oils, a drop evaporated from the palm of the
hand leaves behind a strong smell. Hydro-
chloric acid and free chlorine are detected by
the ordinary tests.
Uses, Action, &c. Chloroform is anodyne,
antispasmodic, sedative, stimulant, and anaes-
thetic. In small doses (5 to 12 or 15 drops,
in water, mixed with a little syrup or mu-
cilage), it is employed in spasmodic disorders,
and as a stimulant and diaphoretic. It is now
chiefly used as an anaesthetic to produce insen-
sibility to pain during surgical operations.
The dose for inhalation is 1 fl. dr., which is
repeated, in a few minutes, if no effect is pro-
duced, until 3 fl. dr. have been thus exhibited;
the effects being carefully watched, and the
source of the chloroform vapour removed as
soon as a sufficient degree of anaesthesia is pro-
duced, or any unpleasant symptoms develop
themselves.
Chloroform in large doses depresses the
heart's action, and causes profound coma, and
death. It is therefore dangerous in all cases
complicated with diseases of the heart or brain,
or any visceral affections of a congestive cha-
racter.
The treatment of asphyxia from chloroform
is—the horizontal position, cold affusion to
the head and spine, artificial respiration, and,
if possible, either the application of electricity,
or the inhalation of protoxide of nitrogen or
oxygen gas, largely diluted with atmospheric
all".
Concluding remarks. The preparation of
chloroform is not unattended with danger,
and frequently miscarries in careless or inex-
perienced hands. This arises chiefly from the
violent reaction, which immediately follows




330 CHLOROHYPONITRIC
GAS–CHLOROMETRY.
the application of the heat. On the common
plan there is great danger of explosion, or of
the liquid in the still being forced over into
the receiver, owing to the extraordinary
rapidity with which the vapours are elimi-
nated, and the ingredients, in consequence,
swell up. The method we have successfully
adopted on the large scale, is to employ a
very broad and shallow capsule-shaped still,
having a flat rim round it, with a head or
capital furnished with a corresponding rim at
its lower part. In use, a flat, endless band of
vulcanised India rubber is placed between
the two rims, which are then held air-tight
together by means of small, iron clamps. The
application of heat is also delayed for some
time after the admixture of the spirit with
the other ingredients, and the process is inter-
rupted as soon as the first violence of the
reaction has subsided, by which time the
whole product of chloroform will have passed
over into the receiver. If the distillation is
continued beyond this point, the remaining
product is water. On the small scale, a very
capacious, flat-bottomed retort or cucurbit
should be employed. A similar refrigeratory
may be used to that noticed under ether.
CHLOROHYPONITRIC GAS (NOCl) and
CHLORONITROUS GAS (N.O.C.) are two
peculiar compounds, formed when nitric acid
and hydrochloric acid are mixed.
CHLOROM’ETER. Syn. CHLORIM'ETER.
An instrument or apparatus employed in chlo-
rometry. The chlorometers in common use
are graduated measures and tubes precisely
similar to those used in ACIDIMETRY, ALKALI-
METRY, &c.
CHLOROMETRY. Syn. CHLoRIM'ETRY.
The estimation of the available chlorine in
the bleaching powder of commerce, which is
valued and sold in this country by its per-
centage of that element. The plans generally
adopted are applicable to the so-called chlorides
of soda and potassa, as well as to the ordinary
bleaching powder, chloride of lime. Most of
them depend on the oxidising effect of water
when undergoing decomposition through the
action of chlorine.
Dalton’s Process. The test-solution is pre-
pared as follows:—Pure protosulphate of iron
(previously dried by strong pressure between
the folds of cloth or bibulous paper), 78 grs.,
are dissolved in distilled water, 2 oz., and a
few drops of hydrochloric or sulphuric acid
added. This quantity of protosulphate requires
for complete peroxidation just the quantity of
oxygen liberated by 10 grs. of chlorine ; in
other words, the solution exhibits the indirect
effect produced by exactly 10 grs. of the
bleaching element.
Exactly 50 grs. of the sample of chloride of
lime to be examined are next weighed, and
well mixed in a glass or wedgwood mortar
with tepid water, 2 oz. ; and the mixture
poured into a graduated tube or chlorometer.
The tube is next filled up to 0, or zero, with
the washings, of the mortar, and the whole
well mixed, by placing the thumb over the
orifice and shaking it. The solution of chloride
of lime, thus formed, is next gradually and
cautiously added to the solution of sulphate of
iron, previously noticed, until the latter is
completely peroxidised, which may be known
when it ceases to be affected by a solution of
red prussiate of potash. When a drop of the
latter test, placed upon a white plate, ceases
to give a blue colour on being touched with
the point of a glass stirrer or rod dipped in
the liquor under examination, enough of the
solution of the chloride has been added. The
number of measures thus consumed must now
be carefully read off from the graduated scale
of the chlorometer, from which the richness
of the sample may be estimated as follows:–
As 100 of the chlorometer divisions contain
exactly 50 grs. of the chloride under exami-
nation, each measure will contain only ; gr.,
and, consequently, the number of measures
consumed will represent half that number of
grains of the chloride examined; and the
weight of the chloride thus used will have
contained 10 grs. of chlorine—the constant
quantity of that substance required to per-
oxide the test-solution of sulphate of iron.
Thus:–If 80 measures of the liquor in the
chlorometer have been consumed, this quantity
will represent 40 grs. of chloride of lime, and
10 grs. of chlorine. By dividing 1000 by
this number, the per-centage of chlorime will
be obtained. In the present instance this
would be—


1000
—=25%.
40
Crum’s Process. Equal weights of water
and hydrochloric acid are mixed together, and
cast-iron borings digested in the diluted acid
until Saturation is complete; a large excess of
iron being purposely employed, and the liquid
kept at the heat of boiling water for some
time. One measure of the solution, marking
40° on Twaddell’s scale (sp. gr. 1:200), is then
mixed with an equal quantity of acetic acid
(sp. gr. 1.048). This forms the test-liquid.
When mixed with 6 or 8 parts of water, it is
quite colourless, but chloride of lime occasions
the production of peracetate of iron, which
gives it a red colour.
The above proof-solution is next poured into
12 two-oz. vials, of exactly equal diameters, to
the amount of #th of their capacity; these
are filled up with bleaching liquid of various
strengths; the first at Path of a degree of
Twaddell, the second ºths, and so on up to
#ths of 1°. They are then well corked up,
and, after agitation, arranged side by side on
a tray, furnished with holes to receive them.
(See engr.) To ascertain the strength of an
unknown sample of bleaching liquor, the
proof-solution of iron is put into a phial,
exactly similar to the 12 previously used, and
CHLOROMETRY. 331
in precisely the same proportion (}th). The
phial is then filled up with the bleaching
liquor, well shaken, and placed beside that one
of the 12 already prepared which it most
resmbles in colour. The number on that phial
expresses the strength of the sample under
examination, in twelfths of a degree of Twad-
dell's hydrometer.
|lin,
TABLE eachibiting the quantity of Bleaching
Liquid, at 6° on Twaddell’s scale (sp. gr.
1:030), required to be added to a weaker
liquor, to raise it to the given strengths.
Adapted from Mr. Crum’s table by Mr.
Cooley. -
Strength Required Proportions required.
º Strength. Given Liquor
12 * Sample. at 6°.
Parts. Part.
Water. *...* 8 1
1 55 94 1.
2 >> 11 1.
3 33 13} 1
4. 25 17 1
5 25 23 1.
6 35 35 1
7 35 71 1.
Water. * 11 I
1 >> 13} 1
2 >> 17 1.
3 25 23 1
4. 55. 35 1.
5 25 7 l 1
Water. #;" 17 I
1. 33 23 1
2 >> 35 1
3 75 71 1.
Water. ** 23 1
1. 25 35 L
2 xx 71 1
Obs. The preceding method is admirably
suited for weak solutions, such as are employed
for bleaching textile fabrics, and is well adapted
(from its simplicity) to the purposes of prac-
tical men. Indeed, it is quite astonishing to
see with what ease and accuracy it is applied
by unlettered operatives. This gives it great
practical value. It has been for some time in
extensive use in the bleaching houses of Scot-
land.
According to Mr.Crum, the range of strength
within which cotton is “safe,” is very limited.
A solution at 1° of Twaddell’s scale (sp. gr.
1:005), is not more than safe, while one at #"
is scarcely sufficiently strong for the first ope-
ration on stout cloth, unless it is packed more
loosely than usual.
Gay-Lussac’s Indigo Process. One part of
the best indigo is dissolved in 9 parts of strong
sulphuric acid, by the aid of a gentle heat;
this solution is then mixed with distilled water,
in such proportion, that 1 volume of chlorine
gas shall exactly decolour 10 volumes of this
solution. Each measure so decoloured is called
a degree, and each degree is divided into fifths.
5 grs. of the best chloride of lime, dissolved in
500 gr. measures of water, possess the above
power, and indicate 10° or proof; or in other
words, will decolour 10 times its volume of the
indigo solution.
Obs. This method of chlorometry is objec-
tionable, and liable to error, from the indigo
solution altering by keeping. When, however,
the proper precautions are used, it may be
safely trusted for weak bleaching liquors.
Arsenious Acid Process. This depends on
the conversion, by oxidation, of arsenious acid
into arsenic acid, in the presence of chlorine
and water.
To prepare the test-liquor, pure arsenious
acid, 100 grs, are dissolved in about 4 fl.oz. of
pure hydrochloric acid (free from sulphurous
acid), and the solution diluted with water until,
on being poured into a graduated 10,000 grains-
measure-glass, it occupies the volume of 7000
grains measure marked on the scale. Each
1000 grains measure of this liquid now con-
tains 14.29 grs. of arsenious acid; correspond-
ing to 10 grs, of chlorine, or Tºth gr. of chlorine
for every division or degree of the scale of the
chlorometer.
100 grs. of the chloride of lime to be ex-
amined are next dissolved in water as before,
and poured into a tube graduated up to 2000
grains measure. The whole is now well shaken,
in order to obtain a uniformly turbid solution,
and half of it (1000 grains measure) trans-
ferred to a graduated chlorometer, which is,
therefore, thus filled up to 0°, or the zero of
the scale, and contains exactly 50 grs. of the
chloride of lime under examination; whilst
each degree or division of the scale contains
only 3 gr.
1000 grains measure of the arsenious acid
test-liquor are now poured into a glass beaker,
and a few drops of solution of sulphate of in-
digo added in order to impart a faint but dis-
tinct blue colour to it; the glass is then shaken
so as to give a circular movement to the liquid,
and whilst it is whirling round, the chloride of
lime solution from the chlorometer is gradually
and cautiously added, until the blue tinge given
to the arsenious acid test-liquor is destroyed;
care being taken to stir the mixture well during
the whole process, and to stop as soon as the
decolorisation is completed.
Let us suppose now, that in order to destroy
the blue colour of the 1000 grains measure of
the arsenious acid test-liquor, 90 divisions or
degrees of the chloride of lime solution have
been employed. These 90 divisions, therefore,

332
CHLOROPHYLL–CHOCOLATE.
contained the 10 grs. of chlorine required to
destroy the colour of the test-solution; and
since each division represents # gr. of chloride
of lime, 45 grs. of chloride of lime (10 grs. of
chlorine) were present in the 90 divisions so
employed, from which the per-centage strength
may be astertained. For—
45 10 100 22-22
The chloride of lime examined, therefore,
contained 22% per cent. (nearly) of chlorine.
Obs. This method is extremely simple and
trustworthy when properly employed; but to
ensure accuracy, certain precautions must be
adopted. Instead of pouring the test-liquor
into the solution of the sample (as in alkali-
metry), the solution of the sample must be
poured into the test-liquor.
Another process is that of Dr. Ure, as fol-
lows:– Liquor of ammonia, of a known
strength, tinged with litmus, is added to a
solution of a given weight of the chloride
under examination, until the whole of the
chlorine is neutralised, which is known by the
colour being destroyed. From the quantity of
ammonia consumed the strength of the sam-
ple is estimated.
CHL0"ROPHYLL. The green colouring
matter contained in the leaves, stalks, unripe
fruit, and juices of most plants.
CHLORO'SIS. Syn. GREEN SICKNESS. A
disease which principally affects young un-
married females.
Symp. Langour, listlessness, fatigue after
the least exercise, palpitation of the heart,
flatulency, indigestion, acidity of stomach and
bowels, constipation (generally), appetite for
unnatural food, general debility, &c. As the
disease advances, the skin, at first pale, assumes
a peculiar greenish tint, the respiration be-
comes affected, the feet and legs swell, and
various organic affections of the viscera ensue.
During the early stages of this disease the
catamenia are usually pale and scanty, and
return at irregular intervals, and as it pro-
gresses they disappear altogether.
Treat. This should be tonic and restorative.
That recommended under ANAEMIA may be
adopted with advantage. See also APPETITE,
ATROPHY.
CHL0"ROUS ACID. HClO3. Syn. ACIDUM
CHLORO's UM, L. Prep. From chlorate of
potassium, 4 parts; arsenious anhydride, 3
parts; nitric acid, 12 parts; (diluted with)
water, 4 parts; heated together in a glass
flask, furnished with a bent tube, and placed
in a water bath. It must be collected in the
same way as chlorine, or passed into water,
when it forms a solution of chlorous acid.
Prop., &c. Chlorous acid is a greenish-yel-
low gas, non-condensable by a freezing mix-
ture of salt and ice, but liquefiable by extreme
cold. The aqueous solution undergoes gra-
dual decomposition, yielding chloric acid and
chlorine. Chlorous acid possesses powerful
oxidising and bleaching properties; with the
bases it forms salts called CHLORITES. These
are all soluble in water, and bleach like the
acid. They may be recognised by the evolution
of chlorous acid gas when acted on by an acid.
The use of the arsenious acid is to deoxidise
the nitric acid employed in the process. Tar-
taric acid, or other deodorising agent, may be
substituted for it.
CHOC'OLATE. Syn. CHOCOLA"TA, L.;
CHOCOLLATL, Mexican; CHOCOLAT, Fr. A
beverage or paste made from the roasted seeds
of the Theobroma Cacao, or CocoA. Strictly
speaking, the term “chocolate ’’ is applicable
to all genuine preparations of cocoa, but it is
now generally used to distinguish those which
contain sugar, and, commonly, flavouring sub-
stances. Of late years great attention has
been paid to the manufacture of chocolate in
England; our principal makers now import
the finest descriptions of cocoa, and produce
varieties of the manufactured article which are
scarcely inferior to those of their French rivals.
The different kinds of cocoa, and the processes
of roasting, sweating, &c., are described under
CoCoA, to which article we refer the reader
also for particulars respecting the chemistry of
chocolate.
Prep. The cocoa nibs' are ground in a mill
consisting of stone or metal rollers, which are
usually heated either by charcoal fires or by
steam, so as to soften or melt the natural fat.”
The warm, smooth paste which passes from
the mill is then placed in a mixing mill, and
incorporated with refined sugar, and usually
vanilla or other flavouring substance. The
trituration is continued until the whole paste is
converted into an entirely homogeneous mass,
which is finally shaped, by means of suitable
moulds, into various forms, as blocks, loaves,
tablets, lozenges, &c.
Obs. Chocolate, prepared as above, without
the addition of aromatics, is known in the
trade as PLAIN CHOCOLATE. The Spaniards
flavour it with vanilla, cloves, and cinnamon,
and frequently scent it with musk and am-
bergris. With these additions it is termed
SPANISH CHOCOLATE. In general, they add
too large a quantity of the last four articles.
The Parisians, on the contrary, use little fla-
vouring, and that principally vanilla. They
employ the best kinds of cocoa, and add a con-
siderable quantity of refined sugar. So pre-
pared, it is called FRENCH CHocoLATE.
Proportions. 1. FRENCH CHOCOLATE:-The
proportions used for the best description are
said to be—2 beans of vanilla, and 1 lb. of the
best refined sugar, to every 3 lbs. of the choicest
cacao nuts.
2. SPANISH CHOCoLATE :-The following
forms are said to be commonly adopted :—
a. Caracas cocoa, 11 lbs. ; sugar (white), 3
lbs. ; vanilla, 1 oz. ; cinnamon (cassia), 4 oz. ;
cloves, # dr.
1 The bruised, roasted seeds, freed from husk and mem-

brane.
2 Cacao- or cocoa-butter.
CHOCOLATE. 333
b. Caracas cocoa, 10 lbs. ; sweet almonds, 1
lb. ; sugar, 3 lbs. ; vanilla, 14 oz.
c. Caracas cocoa, 8 lbs. ; island cocoa, 2 lbs. ;
white sugar, 10 lbs. ; aromatics, as above.
d. Island cocoa, 7 lbs. ; farina, q. S. to absorb
the oil. Inferior.
3. WANILLA CHO.COLATE. Syn. CHOCOLAT
Å LA VANILLE, Fr. A variety of French or
Spanish chocolate highly flavoured with va-
nilla. The following proportions have been
recommended:—
a. Caracas cocoa, 7 lbs. ; Mexican vanilla, 1
Oz. ; cinnamon, # oz. ; cloves, 3 in no.
b. Best chocolate paste, 21 lbs.; vanilla, 4
Oz. ; cinnamon, 2 oz. ; cloves, # dr. ; musk, 10
grs.
Obs. The vanilla used in making chocolate
is reduced to powder by rubbing it with a
little sugar, before adding it to the paste.
Pur., &c. The chocolate commonly sold in
England is prepared from the cake left after
the expression of the oil, and this is frequently
mixed with the roasted seeds of ground peas,
and maize or potato flour, to which a sufficient
quantity of inferior brown sugar, or treacle
and mutton suet, is added to make it adhere
together. Inferior sweet almonds are also
employed in the same way.
Since the above paragraph was written
there has been a vast improvement in English
chocolates, though the cheaper sorts of certain
makers are still much adulterated. Genuine
chocolate should dissolve in the mouth without
grittiness, and should leave a peculiar sen-
sation of freshness; after boiling it with water
the emulsion should not form a jelly when
cold, for if it does starch or flour is present.
The presence of animal fat may generally be
detected by a cheesy or rancid flavour. See
CoCOA.
Qual., &c. Chocolate is nutritive and whole-
some, if taken in moderation, but is sometimes
apt to disagree with weak stomachs, especially
those that are easily affected by oily sub-
stances or vegetable food. When this is the
case, by adopting the simple plan recommended
under BUTTER, chocolate may generally be
taken with impunity, even by the dyspeptic.
The quantity of aromatics mixed with the
richer varieties of chocolate improve the
flavour, but render them more stimulant and
prone to produce nervous symptoms and head
complaints.
Chocolate is taken in the solid form, or
made into a beverage; or, combined with
sugar, is made into various articles of con-
fectionery.
CHOCOLATE FOR THE TABLE is prepared by
slicing or scraping very finely the required
quantity into a jug, and adding to it a small
quantity of boiling water. This is worked into
a thin, smooth paste, and the jug immediately
filled up with boiling milk-and-water. A
froth is produced by the same means that
eggs are beaten up. The operation of “mil-
ling,” performed by rapidly twirling a notched
cylinder of wood in the emulsion, raises the
froth very quickly. Sugar may be put in with
the scraped chocolate, or added afterwards at
pleasure.
Chocolate should never be made for the
table before it is wanted, because beating it
again injures the flavour, destroys the froth,
and separates the body of the chocolate, the
oil of the nut being observed, after a few
minutes’ boiling, or even standing long by the
fire, to rise to the top. This is one of the
principal reasons why chocolate offends the
stomach.
Preparations of chocolate, intended either as
nutritious articles of food for convalescents, or
as vehicles for medicine, are common among
the pharmacopoeial and magistral formulae
of the Continent. The following are a few
examples:—
Chocolate, Aromat'ic. Prep. (Weiglebt.)
Cocoa beans and sugar, of each 16 oz. ; cinna-
mon, 3 oz. ; cloves 2 drs. ; cardamoms and va-
milla, of each, 1 dr.
Chocolate, Car'rageen.
LATE (Nos.1 and 2).
Chocolate, Chalybeate. Syn. FERRUGIN'-
EOUS CHOCOLATE ; CHOCOLA"TA CHALYBEATA,
C. MARTIs, L. Prep. 1. (Trousseau.) Span-
ish chocolate, 16 oz. ; carbonate of iron, 3 oz. ;
mix, and divide into 1-0Z. cakes. One at a
time; in anaemia, amenorrhoea, chlorosis,
&c.
2. (Pierquin.) Iodide of iron, 2 drs.; cho-
colate, 16 oz. For #-oz. cakes ; as above, and
in scrofulous and glandular affections.
Chocolate, Guarana'. Syn. PAULLIN'IA CHO-
COLATE; CHOCOLA"TA PAULIN'IAE, C. GUA-
RAN'AE, L. Prep. From guarana and white
sugar, of each, 1 oz., triturated together,
and afterwards thoroughly mixed with good
plain chocolate, 18 oz. Recommended as a
restorative in debility, chlorosis, and other
diseases of debility, especially those of a ner-
vous character.
Chocolate, Ice'land Moss. Syn. CHOCOLA"TA
CETRAR'IAE ISLAND'ICAE, C. LICHEN’IS, L.
Prep. 1. (P.C.) Simple chocolate (P.C.), 32
parts; sugar, 29 parts; dried jelly of Iceland
moss, 11 parts; mix.
2. (Cadet.) Chocolate, 4 lbs. ; sugar, 2 lbs. ;
Iceland moss (freed from its bitter, and pow-
dered), 13 lb.; tragacanth and cinnamon, of
each, 4 oz. ; water, q. S.; to be beaten in a
warm mortar, or ground with a muller on a
warm slab to a paste. Recommended in pul-
monary affections, general debility, weakness
of stomach, &c. See CoCOA (Iceland Moss).
Chocolate, Pur’gative. Syn CHOCOLA"TA
PUR/GANs, C. CATHAR'TICA, L. Prep. 1. Jalap,
1 oz. ; chocolate, 9 oz. ; mix, and divide into
1-dr. cakes.—Dose. 1 to 2 cakes, as a purge.
2. Jalap, 2 oz. ; calomel and sugar, of each,
1 oz. ; triturate together, then add chocolate,
20 oz. ; for 1-dr. cakes.
3. Scammony, 2 drs.; chocolate, 3 oz, ; for
1 dozen cakes. The last two are given in


See WHITE CHOCO-

334
CHOKE-DAMP–CHOLERA.
worms.-Dose (for an adult). 1 cake, taken
fasting.
Chocolate, Sal'ep. Syn. SAL'oop CHOCOLATE;
CHocoLA/TA CUM SAT/EP, L. Prep. 1. (P.C.)
Chocolate, 16 oz. ; powdered salep, 3 oz.
2. (Cadet.) Cacao paste and sugar, of each,
1 lb.; powdered salep, 1 oz. Arrowroot choco-
late and tapioca chocolate are made in the
same manner. (See below.)
Chocolate, Sim'ple. Syn. HYGIEN’IC C.,
HoMOEOPATH'IC C.; CHOCoLATA, C. SIM'PLEx,
C. SALU'TIS, L.; CHOCOLAT DE SANTÉ, Fr.
Prep. (P.C.) Caracas and Maragnan cocoa,
of each, 96 lbs. ; sugar, 160 lbs. ; cinnamon, 1
oz. (to 2 oz.); triturated together in the usual
manner, and formed into cakes or powder.
Chocolate, Vanilſla. Syn. CHOCOLA"TA CUM
VANII/LA, L. Prep. 1. (P.C.) Chocolate
(plain,_P.C.), 16 oz. ; vanilla, # dr.
2. (Cotterau.) Cocoa paste, 6 lbs. ; sugar,
10 lbs. ; vanilla, 11 drs. .
See forms previously given.
Chocolate, Wer'mifuge. Syn. CHOCOLA"TA
VERMIFU/GA, L. See PURGATIVE CHOCOLATE
(Nos. 2 and 5, above).
Chocolate, White. Syn. WHITE COCOA,
CAR'RAGEEN c.; CHOCOLA/TA CUM CHON'DRO,
PAs'TA CACA'o CUM CHON'DRO, P. C. C. LI-
CHEN/E CARRAGHEN’o, L. Prep. 1. As Ice-
land moss chocolate, but employing carrageen
Ill OSS, # ,
2. (Ph. Dan.) Roasted and decorticated
cocoa seeds (reduced to a subtile mass in a
warm iron mortar) and powdered white sugar,
of each, 2 lbs. ; powdered carrageen (debit-
terised), 3 oz.
3. (Cottereau.) Sugar, 6 lbs. ; rice flour, 1}
lb.; potato starch and butter of cocoa, of each,
3 lb.; gum arabic 4 lb. (dissolved); tincture
of vanilla, , fl. oz. ; boiling water, q. s. ; tri-
turate to a stiff paste. The above are highly
nutritious, and are recommended as articles of
diet for convalescents and debilitated persons.
CHOKE-DAMP. Syn. AFT'ER-DAMP. The
term applied by miners to carbonic anhydride
(carbonic acid) and other irrespirable gases
and vapours evolved in mines. See CARBONIC
ACID, FIRE DAMP, VENTILATION, &c.
CHOLALIC ACID. C., H10O3. Syn. CHOL’IC
ACID." A non-nitrogenous acid existing in
bile. It is best prepared by boiling the re-
sinous mass precipitated by ether from an
alcoholic solution of ox bile with a dilute solu-
tion of potassa, for 24 to 36 hours, till the
amorphous potassa-salt that has separated
begins to crystallise. The dark-coloured soft
mass is then removed from the alkaline liquid,
dissolved in water, and hydrochloric acid
added. A little ether will cause the deposition
of the CHOLALIC ACID from this solution in
crystals. With sulphuric acid and solution of
sugar, it strikes a purple-violet colour; this
constitutes Pettenkofer’s test for bile.
CHOLE'IC ACID. Syn. TAURO-CHOLAI/IC
* This mame is generally applied to another compound.
See Cholic AcID.
S.
x
-
ACID. A peculiar conjugated compound of
cholalic acid with a substance called taurine,
which contains both nitrogen and sulphur. In
combination with soda, choleic acid constitutes
a principal ingredient in bile.
CHOL’ERA. This word, which, from its de-
rivation, can be only applied correctly to a
bilious affection of the stomach and bowels,
has been of late years very loosely extended
to a malignant disease, the most marked cha-
racteristic of which is a total suspension of the
functions of the biliary organs.
Cholera, En”glish. Syn. CoM'MON CHOLERA,
BIL/IOUS C.; CHOI/ERA MOR'BUS, L. A disease
characterised by bilious vomiting and purging,
accompanied by more or less pain and debility.
Diarrhoea is the most common precursor of
the disease, and ought to be attended to with-
out delay, particularly if the weather be warm.
Cholera most frequently occurs towards the
end of the summer and early in the autumn,
when the increased heat of the sun stimulates
the liver to an inordinate secretion of bile, by
which the whole system becomes overloaded
with it. Among secondary and accidental
causes, are sudden changes of temperature,
checked perspiration, and the use of indiges-
tible food, and food and beverages in a state of
incipient decomposition. It is usually accom-
panied by fever, thirst and severe colic, and
sometimes, by cold sweats, extreme debility,
feeble pulse, &c., under which the patient sinks
in 24 hours.
Treat. In most cases this complaint is not
dangerous, and yields to proper treatment in a
few days. As soon after the commencement
of the attack as possible, some mild aperient
should be administered. Opiates may be em-
ployed, both topically and by the mouth.
Jeremie's solution is stated to be very effica-
cious in the diarrhoea which so generally pre-
cedes cholera. A teaspoonful or two of lau-
danum, rubbed over the region of the stomach
and bowels, is a simple application which will
generally allay the pain. 10 to 20 drops of
laudanum, mixed with a table-spoonful of good
brandy, or a few grains of cayenne pepper, may
also be taken every hour, if the pain is severe.
Should the stomach reject the medicine, or
the vomiting be apparently increased by drink-
ing warm diluents, a few spoonfuls of ice-cold
water, or of a mixture of lemon-juice and
water, may be taken instead, until the sick-
ness abates. Dr. Copeland recommends spirit
of turpentine in violent attacks, both inter-
nally and as an external application in the
form of warm epithems. When the violence
of the symptoms has abated, tonics and bit-
ters (as calumba, gentian, orange-peel, &c.)
may be advantageously had recourse to.
Calumba, in the form of a weak infusion, con-
joined, if necessary, with aromatics, is, per-
haps, the most valuable agent we possess
for the after-treatment of the disease. See
DIARRHCEA.


Cholera, Malig'mant. Syn. ASIAT/IC CHO-
CHOLERA.
335.
LERA, EPIDEM/IC C., BLUE C., PESTILEN'TIAL
C., SPASMOD'IC C.; CHOL’ERA ASIAT/ICA, C.
ASPHYX/IA, C. MALIG/NA, L. This fearful
disease first became known in this country in
the autumn of 1831. The attack usually begins
with sickness and purging; this discharge,
however, is not bilious, as in ordinary cholera,
but a thin, colourless fluid, like rice-water; at
the same time there is great prostration of
strength, and cold, clammy sweats. In a short
time dreadful cramps assail the extremities and
afterwards the abdomen; the body becomes
bent, the limbs twisted, the countenance cada-
verous, the pulse almost imperceptible, and
the eyes sunken; the patient sinks into a
state of apathy, and unless a favorable change
speedily takes place, soon expires from exhaus-
tion. When there is a reaction the pulse gra-
dually returns, the natural warmth of the body
is restored, and the spasms and difficulty of
breathing give way. Frequently, however,
the reaction is accompanied by fever closely
resembling typhus, and which often terminates
fatally in from four to eight days. The
symptoms of epidemic cholera are not always
of this terrible character.
Treat. The following are a few of the many
remedies that have been recommended for this
terrible malady:-
1. (American remedy.) Equal parts of maple
sugar and powdered fresh-burnt charcoal, made
into a stiff paste with lard, and divided into
pieces the size of a filbert.—Dose. One, occa-
sionally, swallowed whole.
2. (Austrian specific.) The proportions of
the ingredients in the following formulae are
founded on Mr. Herapath’s analysis of this
celebrated preparation, and are given in the
nearest available whole numbers:—
a. Sulphuric acid (sp. gr. 1845), 20 grs. ;
nitric acid (sp. gr. 1:500), 12 grs. ; sugar and
gum, of each, 15 grs. ; distilled or pure soft
water, q. S. to make the whole weigh exactly
1 oz.
b. Sulphuric acid, 3 drs.; nitric acid, 2 drs.;
simple syrup, 6 drs.; water, q. S. to make the
whole weigh exactly 10 oz. A single drop of
essential oil of lemon may be added.
Doses, &c. One table-spoonful is ordered to
be taken in water, on the first appearance of
premonitory symptoms, followed by the free
use of very cold water. In half an hour a
second dose is to be taken. This (as asserted)
is generally sufficient to arrest the progress of
the disease. A table-spoonful is then to be
added to a pint of cold water, and drank ad
libitum. In more obstimate cases it is said that
4 or 5 doses are generally required to effect a
cure. When collapse sets in, double doses are
ordered to be given, and to be repeated after
every attack of vomiting until the sickness
and cramp abate. After the vomiting abates,
the doses are still to be repeated until 5 or 6
doses are retained by the stomach. Should
quiet sleep or drowsiness come on, it is not to
be interfered with. The free use of cold water
or soured water is to be allowed until perspira-
tion sets in and the warmth of the body re-
turns. According to the report, the use of
warm liquors, wines, spirits, &c., must be care-
fully avoided, as so much poison.
Obs. A bottle of the above remedy was
handed to the late Mr. Wm. Herepath, by the
superintendent of the Birmingham police, who
had received it from the head of the Austrian
police, as being in general use in Austria, under
the sanction of the medical department of the
government, and being found to act almost as
a specific in cholera. In 1831-2, it was first
tried on some criminals, with perfect success,
and soon afterwards with similar results on
thousands of the general public. In 1849 the
Austrian government ordered its use in the
public establishments of the empire, since
which not a single case of failure had occurred
in which it had been fairly tried.
3. (Mr. Buxton’s Remedy.) From dilute
sulphuric acid (spirit of vitriol), 25 drops;
water, 1 fl. oz. For a draught; as the last.
4. (College of Physicians and Board of
Health; for Premonitory Diarrhoea.) Chalk
mixture, 1 oz. ; aromatic confection, 10 to 15
grs.; tincture of opium, 5 to 15 drops; to be
repeated every 3 or 4 hours, or oftener, if
required, until the looseness is arrested.
5. (Dr. Graves's Astringent Pills.) Acetate
of lead, 20 grs. ; opium, 1 gr. ; conserve of
roses, q. S.; for 12 pills.--Dose. One every #
hour or hour, at first ; then one every two
hours. -
6. (Homoeopathic Preventive.) Camphor,
1 dr.; rectified spirit, 6 drs. ; dissolve, and
preserve it in a well-corked bottle.—Dose. 2
drops on a lump of sugar, sucked as a lozenge
two or three times a day.
7. (Homoeopathic Remedy.) As the last,
repeating the dose every 10 or 15 minutes,
followed by draughts of ice-cold water, until
the symptoms abate.
8. (Mr. Hope's Remedy.) Red nitrous
acid, 2 drs. ; peppermint water or camphor
julep, 1 oz.; tincture of opium, 40 drops; mix.
—Dose. One to two teaspoonfuls in a cupful
of thin gruel every 3 or 4 hours.
9. (Liverpool Preventive Powders.) Bicar-
bonate of soda, 20 grs. ; ginger, 10 grs. ; for
a dose. One to be taken in a glass of water
after breakfast and supper daily.
10. (Police Remedy; Mr. B. Child’s r.)
Rectified sulphuric ether and tincture of opium,
of each, 30 drops; for a dose for an adult;
especially during the earlier stages.
11. (Mr. Ross's Astringent Pills.) Each
pill contains 1 gr. of nitrate of silver, made up
with crumb of bread, q. S.–Dose. One pill, to
be repeated after the interval of half an hour
or an hour, should the symptoms continue
unabated.
12. (Russian Remedy.) Sumbul, in the form
of tincture, concentrated essence, in decoction,
in cold infusion, and in powder in the form of
pill.—Doses. Tincture, from 20 to 60 drops;


336 CHOLESTERIN–CHROMIUM.
essence, from 5 to 10 or 20 drops; in a little
camphor julep or plain water. The physicians
of Moscow and St. Petersburg ascribe to the
virtues of this drug the saving of thousands
of lives during the last epidemic. See SUMBUL.
13. (Dr. Stevens's Saline Powders.). Bi-
carbonate of soda, # dr. ; common salt, 20grs.;
chlorate of potassa, 7 grs.; for a dose.
14. (Sir M. Tierney’s Remedy.) Cajeput oil,
in doses of 20 to 30 drops, every two or three
hours. The oil excites the nervous system
and equalises the circulation. The late Sir
M. Tierney and others prescribed it frequently,
it is said with considerable success.
15. (Common Remedies of the Shops.)
These generally consist of chalk mixture, with
a little laudanum, and some aromatic or car-
minative, as cassia, cinnamon, cardamoms,
nutmeg, or peppermint. In a few, some
astringent, as tincture of catechu, or extract of
logwood, is added.
CHOLESTERIN. C. CHAO. H.O. This sub-
stance is found in the bile, brain, nerves, blood,
&c., and forms the principal ingredient of
biliary calculi (gall-stones).
Note.—The remedies containing astringents
are the most efficacious.
CHOL’IC ACID. Syn. GIYCO-CHOLALIC ACID.
A peculiar acid, existing as cholate of sodium,
and associated with choleic acid in the bile.
It is a conjugate compound of cholalic acid
with a nitrogenised substance called glycocin.
CHON’DRIN. Gelatin obtained from car-
tilage. It differs from ordinary gelatin, in
being precipitable by acetic acid, alum, and
acetate of lead.
CHR0'MATE. Syn. CHRO'MAs, L. A salt
in which the hydrogen of (hypothetical) chro-
mic acid, HCrO3, is replaced by a metal or
other basic radical.
Chromates :-
Prep. The insoluble chromates, as those
of barium, zinc, lead, mercury, silver, &c.,
may be made by mixing a soluble salt of those
bases with neutral chromate of potassium.
The first three are yellow; the fourth, brick-
red; and the fifth, reddish-brown, or ruby red
when crystallised. The soluble chromates may
all be made by direct solution of the base in
the acid, or by double decomposition. The
chromates of commerce are prepared from
either chrome ore or chromate of potassium.
Prop., Uses, &c. The chromates are charac-
terised by their yellow or red colour, the latter
predominating when the acid is in excess; and
except those with the alkaline bases, they are,
for the most part, insoluble in water. Both the
chromate and the bichromate of potassium are
extensively used in dyeing and calico-printing.
The former is employed in conjunction with
sulphuric acid in the laboratory as an oxidising
agent, and in the manufactory for bleaching
sperm oil. The bichromate of ammonium and
potassium are used in photography.
They are readily recognised by the following
tests:—
On boiling a chromate in hydrochloric acid
mixed with alcohol, chromic acid is first set.
free, and then decomposed, forming a green
solution of chloride of chromium. Sulphu-
retted hydrogen and sulphurous acid effect
similar changes. With acetate of lead, the
chromates give a yellow precipitate; with
nitrate of silver, a reddish-brown; with nitrate
of mercury, a red one.
CHROME ALUM. See ALUMS.
CHROME GREEN. See GREEN PIGMENTS.
CHROME RED. See RED PIGMENTS.
CHROME YELLOW. See CHROMATE OF
LEAD.
CHROMIC ACID,
I) BIDE.
CHR0'MIUM. Cr. A metal discovered in
native chromate of lead by Vauquelin in 1797.
It is found in the state of oxide, combined
with oxide of iron, in some abundance, in the
Shetland Islands, and elsewhere; as chromate
of lead, it constitutes a very beautiful material.
Prepared in an impure condition as a white,
very infusible, hard metal, by igniting the
oxide with charcoal, at a white heat, in a lime
crucible. .
Chromous Chloride. CrCl3. Syn. PROTOCHLo-
RIDE. Prep. Ignite the chromic chloride in a
current of dry hydrogen. A white, foliated
mass, soluble in water (evolving much heat),
and yielding a blue solution, which absorbs
atmospheric oxygen with astonishing rapidity,
acquiring a deep-green colour, and passing into
the state of oxychloride of chromium. It is
the most powerful reducing or deoxidising
agent known.
Chromic Chloride. CrºCls. Syn. SESQUI-
CHLORIDE. Prep. Pass dry chlorine over a
mixture of sesquioxide of chromium and char-
coal, heated to redness, in a porcelain tube.
The chloride collects as a sublimate, of a peach
or violet colour, in the cool part of the tube.
Dissolve chromic oxide in hydrochloric acid
and evaporate to dryness; the residue is
chromic chloride. It forms a dark green mass,
containing water, which is evolved by igniting
at a temperature of 400°, turning a purplish
red.
Chromium 0xides :—
Chromous Oxide. CrO. Syn. PROTOXIDE
OF CHROMIUM. This oxide has not yet been
obtained in a satisfactory manner, but the hy-
drate is prepared by the addition of potassium
hydrate solution to a solution of chromous
chloride or sulphate. A brownish-red pow-
der, speedily passing to a deep foxy-red, with
disengagement of hydrogen, and forming pale,
blue-coloured salts with the acids, which ab-
sorb oxygen with avidity, whilst the metal
passes into a higher state of oxidation.
Chromic Oxide. Cr2O3. Syn. SESQUIOXIDE.
Prepared by igniting potassium bichromate at
a red heat and well washing the residue, and
as hydrate by cautiously adding equal parts of
hydrochloric acid and alcohol or sugar to a
boiling solution of chromate of potassa in water,
See CHROMIC ANHY-

CIDER.
337
in small portions at a time, until the red tint
disappears, and the liquid assumes a green
colour; pure ammonia, in excess, is next added,
and the precipitate which subsides is collected,
and washed with water.
Prop., &c. The anhydrous oxide is a rich
crystalline, green powder, insoluble in both
water and acids; fused with borax and glass,
it imparts a beautiful green colour.
The hydrate is soluble in the acids and in
alkaline lyes; with the first, it forms salts
which have a green or purple colour. These
compounds may be made by direct solution of
the hydrate in the dilute acids. Chromic sul-
phate combines with the sulphates of potassium
and ammonium, giving rise to salts (CHROME
ALUMS) which crystallise in magnificent octa-
hedrons of a deep claret colour. The finest
crystals are obtained by spontaneous evapora-
tion.
These salts of chromium are the most im-
portant, the chromous salts being seldom met
with, and are best recognised by the follow-
ing reactions:—Caustic alkalies precipitate the
hydrate, easily soluble in excess of the preci-
pitant.—Ammonia, the same, but the precipi-
tate is nearly insoluble.—The carbonates of
potassium, sodium, and ammonium, throw
down a green precipitate of carbonate and hy-
drate, slightly soluble in a large excess.-Sul-
phuretted hydrogen causes no change. —
Sulphydrate of ammonium precipitates the
hydrate of a bluish-green colour.
Chromic Anhydride. CrO3. Syn. CHRO-
MIC ACID, ANHYDROUS CHROMIC ACID, CHRO-
MIC TEROXIDE. Prep. By conducting gaseous
fluoride of chromium into a silver or platinum
vessel, the sides of which are just moistened
with water, and the aperture covered with a
piece of moist paper, the anhydride will be de-
posited under the form of red, acicular crys-
tals, which will nearly fill the vessel. When
the process is skilfully conducted, the product
is of exquisite beauty and chemically pure.
The fluoride referred to above is obtained from
fluor spar, 3 parts; chromate of lead, 4 parts;
fuming (or the strongest) sulphuric acid, 5
parts; mixed cautiously, in a silver or leaden
retort. A red-coloured gas is evolved, which
acts rapidly on glass, forming fluosilicic acid
gas, and upon water, forming hydrofluoric acid
and chromic anhydride. The moisture of the
atmosphere is sufficient to effect the decompo-
sition last referred to ; the former substance
escaping as gas, and the latter being deposited
in small crystals.
It is also prepared nearly pure by adding a
cold saturated solution of potassium bichromate
to once and a half its bulk of pure strong sul-
phuric acid. As the liquor cools, the anhy-
drous chromic acid is deposited under the form
of brilliant crimson-red prisms; the mother-
liquor is then poured off, and the crystals,
placed between two tiles of glass or porcelain,
are submitted to strong pressure for some
time, under a bell-glass or jar, when the anhy-
dride will be found sufficiently dry. It may
be deprived of a little adhering moisture, by .
placing it over sulphuric acid for a short time
àn vacuo.
Commercially, it is prepared by one of the
two following processes:–
To a saturated solution of chromate of po-
tassium, 100 parts, add oil of vitriol (sp. gr.
1-845), 49 parts; and let the whole cool. This
is the common process. The product contains
sulphate of potassium, but this does not
much interfere with its value as a bleaching
agent.
From chromate of barium, decomposed by
concentrated nitric acid. The anhydrous
chromic acid is separated from the nitrate of
barium by decantation, or, which is still better,
by filtration through glass or asbestos. It is
then evaporated to dryness, when the nitric
acid is volatilised, and pure chromic anhydride
left behind. The volatilised nitric acid may
be condensed, and again used for the same
purpose. The only precautions necessary to
ensure the purity of the anhydrous chromic
acid prepared by this plan are—to use a suffi-
cient quantity of nitric acid, and to take care
that the nitric acid is sufficiently concentrated
and pure.
Prop., &c. Forms ruby-red anhydrous
prisms, very soluble in water, with formation
of true chromic acid, and extensively manu-
factured for the purpose of oxidising and
bleaching substances.
CIDER. Syn. CYDER; POMACEUM, L.
Cider is the fermented juice of the apple, and
is a very ancient beverage. Pliny calls cider
and perry the “wine of apples and pears.”
The attention of the cider farmer should be
first directed to the culture of the apple tree.
The situation most appropriate for an orchard
is one on rising ground, rather dry than moist,
and unexposed to sea air or high winds. The
soil should be strong, but not too heavy, and
should be rich in the alkaline and earthy
bases, especially the phosphates. The selec-
tion of the proper varieties of the apple for
grafting, is also a point on which particular
care should be taken. It is found that the
juices of different kinds of apples vary in the
quantity of saccharine matter which they con-
tain, as well as in other particulars that influ-
ence the quality and flavour of the cider pre-
pared from them. As a general rule, those
varieties should be chosen that yield a juice
rich in sugar, and contain no undue amount
of acid, and which, after the period of active
fermentation is past, furnishes a liquor which
clarifies itself, and keeps well. This quality
of the juice may generally be determined from
its specific gravity. The heaviest and clearest
is the best, other points being equal. The
specific gravity of the juice of the different
varieties of apple varies from 1060 to 1:100.
Cider apples are classed under three heads—
bitter, sweet, and sour. The first are the
best ; their juice has the greatest specific gra-



22
338
CIDER.
vity, is the richest in sugar, ferments the most
freely, clarifies spontaneously the quickest,
and keeps the best after fermentation. They
contain a minute quantity of extractive mat-
ter which is not present in other apples. The
juice of sweet apples ferments tumultuously,
clears with difficulty, and the resulting cider
does not keep so well as that produced from
the first variety. The juice of sour apples
contains less sugar and more acid than the
other two, and consequently, not only pro-
duces the weakest, but the worst cider ; it,
however, “fines” well, although it “stores”
badly. Sour and “rough-tasted” apples are
usually preferred by farmers for making cider.
This preference, which is very decided in the
West of England, may be readily accounted
for. The sour and rough-tasted apples con-
tain less sugar, and more malic acid, than
some of the other varieties, and the presence
of this acid impedes the conversion of the
alcohol of the cider into vinegar; a change
which their rude mode of operating renders
otherwise inevitable. But cider made with
such apples never equals in quality that pre-
pared at a low temperature, from fruit abound-
ing in sugar, provided equal skill is exercised
in the manufacture as in the process of con-
verting malt-worts into beer.
The process of making cider varies in differ-
ent places, but in every case essentially consists
of the collection of the fruit, the expression and
fermentation of the juice, and the storing and
management of the fermented liquor.
The collection of the fruit should not be
commenced before it has become sufficiently
mature, and should be performed with greater
care than is commonly bestowed upon it. The
apples, after being gathered, are usually left
for 14 or 15 days in a barn or loft, to mellow,
during which time a considerable portion of
the mucilage is decomposed, and alcohol and
carbonic acid developed. If this “ripening”
is allowed to go too far, loss arises, notwith-
standing the vulgar prejudice in its favour.
The spoiled apples are then separated from the
sound ones, as they not only impart a bad
flavour to the cider, but impede its sponta-
neous clarification.
The expression of the juice is the next step
in the process of cider-making. The apples
are crushed or ground in mills consisting of
two fluted cylinders of hard wood or cast iron,
working against each other. The common
practice is next to sprinkle the pulp with #th
to 4th of its weight of spring or river water,
and then to allow it to remain in tubs or
wooden cisterns for 12 or 14 hours, during
which time incipient fermentation commences,
and the breaking up of the cells of the mem-
brane takes place, by which the subsequent
separation of the juice is facilitated. This
plan, though general among cider manufac-
turers, is prejudicial to the quality of the future
liquor; as not only is a portion of the newly
formed alcohol lost, but the skins and pips
often impart to it a disagreeable flavour. By
employing more efficient crushing machinery,
this system of vatting is rendered quite unne-
cessary. A machine furnished with a revolv-
ing circular rasp, similar to that used in mak-
ing potato starch, is admirably adapted to this
purpose.
The pulp of the crushed or ground apples is
now placed on a kind of wicker frame, or in
hair-cloth or coarse canvas bags, and after
being allowed to drain into suitable tubs or
receivers, is subjected to powerful pressure,
gradually applied, in the cider press. The
liquor which runs off first is the best, and is
usually kept separately; whilst that which
follows, especially the portion obtained by
much pressure, tastes of the “pips” and skins.
The expressed juice or must, obtained as
above, is next put into clean casks with large
bung-holes, and freely exposed to the air in
the shade, where they are placed on “stillions,”
with flat tubs under them to catch the waste.
They are now constantly attended to, and
kept quite full, in order that the yeast, as it
forms, may froth over and be carried off from
the surface of the liquor. After 2 or 3 days
for weak cider, and 8 or 10 days for strong
cider, or as soon as the sediment has subsided,
the liquor is “racked off” into clean casks,
which have been (according to the common
practice) previously sulphured with a cooper's
match. The casks containing the “racked
cider” are then stored in a cellar, shaded barn,
or other cool place, where a low and regular
temperature can be ensured, and are left to
mature or ripen. By the following spring the
cider is commonly fit for use, and may be
“re-racked” for sale.
The marc, or pressed pulp, is generally again
sprinkled with 3 or ; its weight of water, and
re-pressed. The resulting liquor, when fer-
mented, forms a weak kind of cider (cider
moil, water moil), which is reserved for do-
mestic use in the same way as table-beer.
The refuse-pulp (apple marc, pomace, pommage,
apple cheese) is used as food for pigs and store
cattle, and is very acceptable to them.
The storing and management of cider are
matters of vast importance to the cider farmer,
the factor, the wholesale dealer, and the bot-
tler. The principles by which these should be
directed are precisely similar to those which
are explained under the heads BREWING, FER-
MENTATION, and MALT LIQUORS ; and which,
indeed, refer, with slight modifications, to all
fermented liquors.
Preparatory to bottling cider, it should be
examined, to see whether it is clear and
sparkling. If not so, it should be clarified, in
a similar way to beer, and left for a fortnight.
The night before it is intended to put it into
bottles, the bung should be taken out of the
cask, and left so until the next day, and the
filled bottles should not be corked down until
the day after; as, if this is done at once, many
of the bottles will burst by keeping. The




CIDER.
339
best corks should alone be used. Champagne
bottles are the variety generally chosen for
cider. It is usual to wire down the corks, and
to cover them with tinfoil, after the manner of
champagne. A few bottles at a time may be
kept in a warm place to ripen. When the
cider is wanted for immediate use, or for con-
sumption during the cooler portion of the
year, a small piece of lump sugar may be put
into each bottle before corking it; or, what is
the same thing in effect, the bottles may be
corked within 2 or 3 hours after being filled.
In summer, and for long keeping, this practice
is, however, inadmissible. The bottled stock
should be stored in a cool cellar, when the
quality will be greatly improved by age.
Cider for bottling should be of good quality,
sound and piquant, and at least a twelve-
month old. When out of condition it is unfit
for bottling.
Qual., &c. Cider, when of good quality,
and in good condition, is doubtless a very
wholesome liquor. Cider consumers, living in
the cider districts, appear to enjoy almost an
immunity from cholera, and often from other
diseases which are common in other parts of
the kingdom. At the same time, however, it
is right to mention, that the dry colic or belly-
ache (colica pictonum) is far from uncommon
in these districts, but is wholly confined to
those who drink early, hard, or inferior cider,
made from harsh, unripe fruit. We believe
that, in most cases, it may be referred to the
acid of the common cider having acted on the
lead, pewter, or copper of the articles or
utensils with which it has come in contact,
and of which it has dissolved a very minute
portion. The best cider contains from 8% to
10% of absolute alcohol; ordinary cider, from
4} to 63.
Concluding remarks. Much of the ex-
cellence of cider depends upon the tempera-
ture at which the fermentation is conducted; a
point utterly overlooked by the manufacturers
of this liquor. Instead of the apple-juice, as
soon as it is expressed from the fruit, being
placed in a cool situation, where the tempe-
rature should not exceed 50° or 52°Fahr., it
is frequently left exposed to the full heat of
autumn. In this way much of the alcohol
formed by the decomposition of the sugar is
converted into vinegar, by the absorption of
atmospheric oxygen, and thus the liquor ac-
quires that peculiar and unwholesome acidity,
known in the cider districts by the name of
“roughness.” When, on the contrary, the
fermentation is conducted at a low tempe-
rature, nearly the whole of the sugar is con-
verted into alcohol, and this remains in the
liquor, instead of undergoing the process of
acetification. The acetous fermentation, by
which alcohol is converted into vinegar, pro-
ceeds most rapidly at a temperature of about
90° Fahr., and at lower temperatures, the
action becomes gradually slower, until at 46°
to 50° Fahr. no such change takes place.
(Liebig.) It is therefore evident, that if the
saccharine juice of apples, or any other fruit,
is made to undergo the vinous fermentation in
a cool situation, less of the spirit resulting
from the transformation of the sugar, will be
converted into acetic acid, and, consequently,
more will be retained in an unaltered state in
the liquor, to improve its quality, and by its
conservative and chemical action, to preserve
it from future change. This is the principal
cause, other circumstances being alike, of the
difference in the quality of the cider made by
persons living in the same district. The one
has probably a cooler barn and cellar than the
other, to store his liquor in, and is more careful
to keep the pulp and juice cool during the
early part of the process. In Devonshire, the
pressing and fermentation are conducted in
situations where the temperature varies little
from that of the external air, and fluctuates
with all its changes; the result is, that Devon-
shire cider, of the best class, will rarely keep
more than 4 or 5 years, and seldom improves
after the second or third year; whilst the cider
of Herefordshire and Worcestershire, where
these operations are more carefully attended
to, will keep for 20 or 30 years.
When the pressing the apples for the juice
is deferred until late in the season, it some-
times happens that the fermentation is slug-
gish. Though the juice has been set on the
old system, in November or December, the
working hardly commences until March. At
this time the cider is sweet; it now rapidly
becomes pungent and vinous, and is soon ready
to be racked for use. If the fermentation
still continues, it is again racked into a clean
cask that has been sulphured; or, two or three
cans of the cider are put into a cask, and a
brimstone-match burned in it. The cask is
then agitated, after which it is nearly filled
with the cider. By this process the fermenta-
tion is checked, and the cider in a short time
becomes fine. Great care must be taken that
the sulphuring be not overdone, as it is apt to
impart a slightly unpleasant flavour to the
liquor. If, on the first operation, the fermenta-
tion is not checked, the process of “racking ”
is repeated, until the liquor becomes clear, and
is continued from time to time, till the cider
is in a quiet state, and fit for drinking.
A common practice in Devonshire is to add
a stuff called ‘stum,’ sold by the wine-coopers,
or an article called ‘antiferment,' sold by the
druggists, for the purpose of checking the fer-
mentation, but a much better plan is that de-
scribed above.
To improve the flavour of weak cider, or to
render ordinary cider more vinous, various
plans are followed by the cellarmen and
bottlers. An excellent one is to add to each
hogshead 1% gal. of good brandy or rum, with
2 oz. of powdered catechu (dissolved in water),
10 lbs. of good moist sugar or homey, 3 oz. each
of bitter almonds and cloves, and 4 oz. of
mustard seed (all in powder). These must be

340 CIDER-SPIRIT-CIGARS.
well “rummaged” into the liquor, and the
whole occasionally stirred up for a fortnight,
after which it must be allowed to repose for 3
or 4 months, when it will usually be found
perfectly “bright,’ and no bad substitute for
foreign wine. Should this not be the case,
the liquor must be ‘fined’ with a pint of isin-
glass finings, or a dozen eggs, and allowed to
rest for a fortnight. If the cider is preferred
pale, the catechu must be omitted, and instead
of isinglass, a quart of skimmed milk is to be
used as “finings.” When desired of a pinkish
tint, 1 oz. of cochineal (in powder) may be
added, instead of the catechu.
About 13 cwt. of November apples com-
monly yield one hogshead of cider. In Devon-
shire, about 6 sacks or 24 bushels are the
common quantity for the hogshead of 63
galls.
The best cider made at the present day is
that of Normandy, Herefordshire, and New
Jersey (U. S.), and next that of Devonshire
and Somersetshire. See ANTIFERMENT, FER-
MENTATION, &c.
Cider, Champagne. This name is given in
the United States of America to a fine, pale
variety of cider, much used for bottling, which
has a great resemblance to inferior champagne.
The best variety comes from New Jersey.
The name is also applied in this country in a
similar manner. The following is a good
form for a ‘made 2 cider of this class:—
Prep. Good pale vinous cider, 1 hbd.;
proof spirit (pale), 3 galls. ; honey or sugar,
14 lbs. ; mix well, and let them remain to-
gether in a temperate situation for 1 month ;
then add orange-flower water, 3 pints; and in
a few days fine it down with skimmed milk,
# gal. A similar article, bottled in champagne
bottles, silvered, and labelled, is often sold to
the ignorant for champagne.
Cider, Made. An article under this name
is made in Devonshire, chiefly for the supply
of the London market, it having been found
that the ordinary cider will not stand a voyage
to the metropolis without some preparation.
The finest quality of ‘made’ cider is simply
ordinary cider racked into clean and well-sul-
phured casks; but the mass of that which is
sent to London is mixed with water, treacle,
and alum. The cider sold in London under
the name of Devonshire cider, would be re-
jected even by the farmers’ servants in that
county.
Cider, Rai'sin. This is made in a similar
way to raisin wine, but without employing
sugar, and with only 2 lbs. of raisins to the
gal., or even more, of water. It is usually fit
for bottling in 10 days, and in a week longer
is ready for use.
Ciderkin. Syn. CIDER MoIL.
CIDER SPIRIT. See BRANDY.
CIGAR'. Syn. SEGAR’; CIGARRE, Fr. ;
CIGARRO, Span. A small roll of tobacco-leaf
used for smoking. The leaf is stalked or
stripped of its midrib, and damped before it
See above.
small rolls, 3 or 4 inches long.
passes into the hands of the cigar-roller. The
envelope or skin is cut from a smooth, un-
broken leaf, and is quickly rolled round suffi-
cient tobacco to form the inside. To secure
the loose end of the envelope a small quantity
of paste, coloured brown with chicory, is
generally used. Only those who have had
great practice can make cigars of a good shape.
A full account of the manufacture of cigars
does not come within the scope of this work.
Although cigars of British make cannot com-
pete in point of flavour with those manu-
factured in tobacco-growing countries, they
have obtained a high degree of favour from
the excellent manner in which they are made,
and from their comparative cheapness. For
information respecting the adulteration of
cigars, and the influence of their use upon
health, see TOBACCO.
CIGARS'. (In pharmacy.) Syn. MED/I-
CATED CIGARS, M. CIGARETTES'. The admi-
nistration of medicinal agents in the form of
cigars, is of recent introduction, and as yet, in
only very limited use. The medicinal sub-
stance, if of a suitable description, as the
leaves of plants, is made up into small folls,
like cheroots, and then smoked in the usual
manner. In some cases, common cigars, or
paper cigars (cigarettes), are medicated by
moistening them in a preparation of the article
to be administered. When the marcotic pro-
perty of the tobacco would prove injurious, it
is first exhausted by soaking and washing it in
water.
Cigars, Aromatic. Syn. AROMATIC CIGAR-
ETTES; CIGARETT'E AROMATICE, L.; CIGAR-
ETTES AROMATIQUES, Fr. Aromatic spices,
lavender flowers, &c., made into cigarettes.
Smoked for their odour; and in tooth-ache,
face-ache, &c. See SCENTED CIGARS (below).
Cigars, Arsen'ical. Syn. CIGARR'E AR-
SENICA'LES, L. Prep. Dissolve arseniate of
soda, 1 part, in water, 30 parts; dip white,
unsized paper into the solution, and form it into
Used in pul-
monary consumption; 4 or 5 whiffs as many
times a day.
Cigars, Balsam'ic. Syn. BALSAMIC CIGAR-
ETTES ; CIGARR'E BALSAM/ICAE, CIGARETT'E
B., L. Thick, unsized paper is soaked in a
solution of saltpetre, and dried; after which it
is brushed over first with tincture of cascarilla,
and when again nearly dry, with compound
tincture of benzoin ; in about half an hour, it
is cut into pieces (1} X 4 inches), and rolled
into cigarettes. Used in hoarseness, loss of
voice, asthma, &c.
Cigars, Belladonna. Syn. BELLADONNA CI-
GARETTES ; CIGARETT/AE BELLADONN'AE, L.
Prep. 1. Belladonna leaves made into cigar-
ettes of 1 dr. each.
2. (Compound—C. B. COMPOS'ITUM.) From
belladonna leaves, 4 parts; moistened with
tincture of opium (Ph. L.), 1 part ; dried, and
made into 1 dr. cigarettes, as before.
Used as an anodyne and antispasmodic, in


*
CINCHONA–CITRIC ACID. 341
troublesome coughs, hooping-cough, tooth-
ache, sore throat, tic douloureux, &c.
Cigars, Cam'phor. Syn. CAMPHOR CIGAR-
ETTES ; CIGARETT/AE CAMPHO'RAE, L.; CIGAR-
ETTES DE CAMPHRE, Fr. Prep. 1. Bibulous
paper, moistened with 2 or 3 drops of essence
of camphor, and rolled into cigarettes. For
use, they are loosely placed in a tubular cigar-
holder.
2. (Raspail.) These are made by loosely
filling a quill or large straw with small frag-
ments of camphor, closing the open end with
a little cotton wool or bibulous paper, and
piercing the closed end with a pin, to allow
the passage of air. -
Obs. Both the above are used unlighted,
by drawing the air through them into the
mouth, which then becomes very slightly
charged with the vapour of camphor. In cold
weather, the vaporisation is promoted by
holding the cigarette for a few minutes in the
warm hand. The homoeopathists regard them
as prophylactic of cholera, and the common
people hold them to possess the same virtue
in reference to contagious diseases generally,
but especially typhus and scarlet fever. They
should not be employed oftener than 3 or 4
times a day.
Cigars, Henſbane. Syn. CIGARR'E HYOS-
CY'AMI, L. From henbane leaves, as directed
under BELLADONNA CIGARS.
Cigars, Mercu"rial. Syn. CIGARR'E MER-
CURIA/LES, L. Prep. (Paul Bernard.) Ordi-
nary cigars are deprived of their narcotic
properties by soaking them in water, and are
then wetted with a weak solution of corrosive
sublimate, to which a little opium is generally
added. The proportion may be, of corrosive
sublimate, 1 gr. ; rectified spirit, 20 drops;
dissolve; add laudanum, 15 drops; with this
solution, 6 cigars are to be equally moistened
to within about 1% inch of the mouth end,
and then set aside to dry.
Used by persons afflicted with syphilitic
affections of the throat and palate, as a con-
venient method of mercurial fumigation. For
those accustomed to the use of tobacco, mild
cigars, undeprived of their nicotine, may be
employed for the purpose.
Cigars, Scented. Syn. PERFU"MED CIGARs;
CIGARR'E AROMATICE, L. Prep. 1. By
moistening ordinary cigars with a strong tinc-
ture of cascarilla, to which a little gum benzoin
and storax may be added. Some persons add
a small quantity of camphor, or of oil of
cloves or cassia.
2. By soaking the tobacco, of which the
cigars are to be made, or the cigars themselves,
for a short time, in a very strong infusion of
cascarilla, and then allowing them to dry by a
very gentle heat.
3. By simply inserting very small shreds of
cascarilla bark between the leaves of the cigar,
or in small slits made for the purpose.
Obs. The above yield a very agreeable
odour when smoked; but are said to intoxi-
cate quicker than unprepared cigars of equal
strength and quality. They lose much of
their fragrance by age.
Cigars, Stramo"mium. Syn. DATU'RA CIGARs;
CIGARRAE STRAMo"NII, L. From the leaves of
J)atura stramonium, or preferably those of the
eastern species, Datura tatula. See ASTHMA,
DATURA.
CINCHONA.
CINCHONICINE.
CINCHONIDINE,
CINCHONINE,
CINCHOVATINE, Syn. CINCHOVINE. See
Appendix.
CINNAMEIN. CigFIMOs. Syn. OIL of
BALSAM OF PERU. A volatile oil existing in
balsam of Peru.
CINNAMIC ACID. HC, H,0s. A colour-
less, transparent, crystalline substance, ob-
tained from oil of cinnamon, liquid storax,
balsam of Peru, and balsam of tolu. It is
freely dissolved by alcohol, but nearly insoluble
in water. At 248° Fahr. it fuses, and at 560°
Fahr. it sublimes unchanged. Distilled with
dichromate of potassium and sulphuric acid, it
is converted, into benzoic acid. Its salts are
called cinnamates.
See QUINIA.
CINNAMON. Syn. CINNAMON BARK; CIN-
NAMoMI CortEx (B. P.), L. The inner bark
of shoots from the truncated stock of the
Cinnamomum Zeylanicum, imported from Cey-
lon, and distinguished in commerce as Ceylon
cinnamon. The best is obtained from branches
about three years old.
Used in medicine as a carminative and
astringent, chiefly as an adjuvant to other
medicines, e.g. with chalk, in diarrhoea.
Dose. 10 to 20 grains.
Obs. Owing to the high price of this drug,
it has become a general practice to substitute
the bark of cassia (Cassia ; Cortea cinna-
momi cassia) for it, which so closely resembles
it in flavour that the uninitiated regard them
as the same. Cassia, however, is not only
thicker and coarser than cinnamon, but its
fracture is short and resinous, and its flavour
is more biting and hot, whilst it lacks the
peculiar sweetish taste of cinnamon. The
thickness of cinnamon seldom exceeds that of
good drawing paper.
CITRATE. A salt in which the hydrogen
of citric acid is replaced by a metal or other
basic radical.
CIT'RIC ACID. H.C. H.O. Syn. ACID of
LEMONS, CONCRETE A, OF L.; A.C'IDUM LI-
Mo'NIS, ACIDUM CIT'RICUM (B.P.), L.; ACIDE
CITRIQUE, Fr. ; CITRONENSAüRE, Ger. An
acid peculiar to the vegetable kingdom. It is
obtained in large quantity from the juice of
iemons, and other fruits of the genus Citrus ; it
is found in gooseberries, currants, &c., in con-
junction with malic acid.
Prep. The citric acid manufacture consists
in separating it from the mucilage, sugar, and
other foreign matter with which it is combined
in the juice of lemons and limes.

342 CITRIC ACID.
1. (Ph. L. 1836,-Scheele's process.) Take
of lemon juice, 4 pints; prepared chalk, 4% oz. ;
diluted sulphuric acid, 27; fl. oz. ; distilled
water, 2 pints. Add the chalk by degrees to
the lemon juice, made hot, and mix well; set
by, that the powder may subside, and, after-
wards, pour off the supernatant liquor. Wash
the precipitated citrate of lime frequently
with warm water; then pour upon it the di-
luted sulphuric acid, mixed with the distilled
water, and boil the whole for 15 minutes, in
glass, stoneware, or lead; press the mixture
strongly through a linen cloth, and filter it.
Evaporate the filtered liquor with a gentle
heat, and set it aside, that crystals may form.
To obtain the crystals pure, dissolve them in
water a second and a third time; filter each
solution, evaporate, and set it apart to crys-
tallise.
2. (Ph. L. 1851.)
materia medica.
3. (Ph. E. 1841.) Similar to that of Ph.L.
1836, except that the washed citrate of lime
is ordered to be squeezed in a powerful press,
and that the filtered solution of citric acid is
ordered to be tested with nitrate of baryta,
and if the precipitate is not nearly all soluble
in mitric acid, to add a little citrate of lime
to the whole liquor, till it stands this test.
4. (Ph.D. 1826.) Same as that of Ph. L.
1836. -
5. (Ph.D. 1851.) Included in the materia
medica.
6. (Dr. Price.) The crude juice is saturated
with ammonia, potassa, or soda (carbonates),
or with the ammoniacal product distilled from
gas liquor; chalk 150 parts, or hydrate of
lime, 90 parts, are then added for every 192
parts of citric acid contained in the liquor,
and the whole stirred well together; heat is
next applied, and the ammonia distilled into
another quantity of lemon juice; the citrate
of lime thus obtained is then decomposed with
dilute sulphuric acid, and the whole process
conducted as before. When potassa or soda
is used, the distillation is omitted, and the
expressed liquor, after filtration, used to de-
compose fresh lemon juice.
7. (Ordinary manufacturing process.) To
crude lemon or lime juice, mixed with water, is
added ground chalk; the precipitate is washed
to free it from the impurities dissolved in the
water, and afterwards decomposed by sulphuric
acid. If the citric acid is not sufficiently
white, it is decolorised by digestion with
animal black.
Obs. If the lemon or lime juice be allowed
to ferment a short time, the mucilage and other
impurities will, to a certain extent, separate
and subside. See Concluding remarks.
Prop., Uses, &c. Citric acid forms rhom-
boidal prisms, which are clear colourless,
odourless, sour, and deliquescent in a moist
atmosphere. It is an agreeable acid, at once
cooling and antiseptic. It is much used in
medicine as a substitute for lemon juice,
Merely placed in the
and to form effervescing draughts, citrates,
&c.
17 grs. citric acid, in crystals, or ; fl. oz. of
lemon juice,
\ J
—y
are equivalent to
A
25 grs. bicarbonate of potash;
20 , carbonate of potash;
carbonate of ammonia;
20 ,, bicarbonate of soda;
35 carbonate of soda.
The bicarbonate of potassa is that generally.
preferred for making saline draughts with
citric acid; and when flavoured with a little
tincture of orange peel and simple syrup, or
syrup of orange peel alone, it forms a most
delicious effervescing beverage. Citric acid
in pure crystals or in lime juice is much used
by the calico-printer, being the best known
* resistant ’ for iron and alumina mordants.
Pur. Citric acid is frequently met with
adulterated with tartaric acid; the fraud is:
easily detected by dissolving the acid in a
little cold water, and adding to the solution a
small quantity of acetate of potassa. If tar-
taric acid be present, a white, crystalline pre-
cipitate of cream of tartar will be produced on
agitation. When pure, it is devoid of colour,
is entirely, or almost entirely, decomposed
by heat. It is soluble in water and in spirit,
and what is thrown down from its watery
solution by acetate of lead, is dissolved by
nitric acid. No salt of potassium precipitates
anything with citric acid except the tartrate.
When a few drops of a solution of citric acid
are added to lime water, a clear liquid results,
which, when heated, deposits a white powder,
soluble in acids without effervescence. By the
action of nitric acid, citric acid is converted
into oxalic acid. -
JEstim. See ACIDIMETRY and LIME JUICE.
Tests. See above.
Concluding remarks. The preparation of
citric acid has now become an important
branch of chemical manufacture, from the
large consumption of this article in various
operations in the arts. In conducting the
different steps of the process some little
expertness and care are, however, necessary
to ensure success. The chalk employed, which
should be dry, and in fine powder, is added to
the juice, from a weighed sample, until the
latter is perfectly neutralised, and the quantity
consumed is exactly noted. The precipitated
citrate of lime is next thoroughly washed with
water, and the sulphuric acid, diluted with 6
or 8 times its weight of water, whilst still
warm, is poured upon it, and thoroughly
mixed with it. The agitation is occasionally
renewed for 8 or 10 hours or longer, when the
solution of citric acid is poured off, and the
residuum of sulphate of lime thoroughly washed
with warm water, the washings being added
to the liquid acid. This last is then poured
off from the impurities that may have been
CITRON_CIVET.
343
deposited, and evaporated in a leaden boiler,
over the naked fire, or by high-pressure steam,
until it acquires the gravity of 1:13, when the
process is continued, at a lower temperature,
until a syrupy aspect is assumed, and a pel-
licle appears on the surface of the liquor.
Without great care at this part of the pro-
cess, the whole batch may be carbonised and
spoiled. At this point the concentrated solu-
tion is emptied into warm and clean crystal-
lising vessels, set in a dry apartment, where
the thermometer does not fall below temper-
ate. At the end of 4 days the crystals are
found ready for removal from the pans. They
are thoroughly drained, redissolved in as little
water as possible, and after being allowed to
stand for a few hours to deposit impurities,
again evaporated and crystallised.
The acid of the second crystallisation is
usually sufficiently pure for the market; when
this is not the case, a third, or even a fourth
crystallisation must be had recourse to. The
mother-liquors from the several pans are now
collected together, and a second or third crop
of crystals obtained from them, by evapora-
tion, as before.
A frequent cause of difficulty in obtaining
crystals from the solutions, is the employment
of too little sulphuric acid to decompose the
whole of the citrate of lime; the consequence
of which is, that a little of that salt is taken up
by the free citric acid, and materially ob-
structs the crystallisation. 40 parts of dry
sulphuric acid are required to decompose 50
parts of chalk. Commercial sulphuric acid
(oil of vitriol) is usually of the sp. gr. of 1845,
and it therefore requires 49 lbs. of this acid
for every 50 lbs. of chalk employed in the
process. In practice, it is found that a very
slight excess of sulphuric acid is preferable
to a preponderance of undecomposed citrate of
lime.
The first crop of crystals is called “brown
citric acid,” and is chiefly sold to the calico-
printers. Sometimes a little nitric acid is added
to the solution of the coloured crystals, for the
purpose of whitening them, but in this way a
minute quantity of oxalic acid is formed. A
more general plan is to bleach the citrate of
lime, by exposing it in shallow vessels to the
sun's rays, covered with a weak solution of
chloride of lime, and to re-wash it before de-
composing it with the sulphuric acid. A safer
plan is to dissolve the crude citric acid, digest
with animal charcoal, and again concentrate
the solution to the crystallising point.
Good lemon juice yields about 63% of crys-
tallised lemon acid; 2 galls. yield fully 1 lb.
of crystals. See LEMON JUICE, LIME JUICE,
&c.
CIT'RON. The fruit of the citron tree
(Citrus medica) is acidulous, antiseptic, and
antiscorbutic; it excites the appetite, and
stops vomiting; and, like lemon juice, has
been greatly extolled in chronic rheumatism,
gout, and scurvy. Mixed with cordials, it
is used as an antidote to the manchineel
poison.
Citrom, Oil of See OIL.
Citron Peel. This is prepared in the same
way as candied orange and lemon peel, which
it for the most part resembles.
Citrom. Syn. LEMON COLOUR. The term
applied to a pale and delicate shade of yellow.
See YELLOW DYES, &c.
CIT'RONELLE. See LIQUEURS and OILS
(Lemon-grass).
CITRUS. A genus of plants belonging to the
natural order Aurantiaceae, the species of which
yield useful fruits. From Citrus Aurantium,
and its varieties, all the various descriptions
of sweet oranges are obtained. The species
C. Bigaradia or vulgaris yields the bitter or
Seville orange; C. Limonum, and its varieties,
yield the lemons; C. Limetta is the source of
the lime ; C. medica, of the citron; C. Decu-
mana, of the shaddock; C. paradisi, of the
forbidden fruit; C. Pampelmos, of the Pam-
pelmoose; and C. japonica, of the kumquat.
Citrus Bergamia. (Ind. Ph.) Syn. THE
LIME TREE. Habitat. Commonly cultivated
in India and other tropical countries.—Qfficinal
part. The fruit ('ime) closely resembles the
lemon, but is smaller, with a smoother, thinner
rind, and of somewhat less fragrant odour.
Its juice (lime juice) has the same pungent
acid taste, and contains the same ingredients,
as lemon juice, though in somewhat different
proportions, that of the citric acid being larger,
and that of the mucilage less in quantity.
Much of the article imported into England
under the name of lemon juice is obtained
from the lime.—Properties and Uses. Very
similar to those of the lemon, the juice being
equally refrigerant and antiscorbutic; indeed,
it is preferred by many tropical practitioners.
The fresh juice of the lime is procurable in
almost every portion of the tropics, and is
considered more effectual than preserved lemon
juice.
Lime juice may be advantageously employed
in the manufacture of citric acid, the propor-
tion of this acid being larger than in lemon juice.
CIVET. Syn. CIVETTA, ZYBETH'UM, L.
A perfume, obtained from the civet cat (Wi-
verra civetta, Linn.), a fierce, carnivorous
quadruped, somewhat resembling a fox, found
in China and the East and West Indies. The
civet is secreted in a sort of pouch between
the anus and the sexual organs. “Several of
these animals have been brought into Holland,
and afford a considerable branch of commerce,
especially at Amsterdam. The civet is
squeezed out in summer every other day, in
winter twice a week; the quantity procured
at once is from 2 scruples to 1 drachm or
more.”
Civet is frequently adulterated with sper-
maceti and butter, and a similar substance to
civet, but of a darker colour, obtained from
the polecat. When pure it has an odour
intermediate between that of musk and am-




344
CLAIRET-CLOTHES.
bergris, but less refined; a pale-yellow colour;
an acrid taste; and the consistence of honey.
It is used in perfumery,
CLAIRET. See LIQUEUR.
CLARET RAGS. Syn. Tour.NESOL EN
DRAPEAU, Fr. ; BEZET/TA CGERU'LEA, L. 1.
Pieces of clean linen coloured with Auvergne
—or ground archil.
2. Pieces of linen dipped into the juice of
mulberries, blood-red grapes, lees of red wine,
&c. Used to colour jellies, confectionery, the
rind of cheeses, &c.
CARIFICATION. The act of clearing or
making bright ; commonly applied to the
process of “clearing' or ‘fining’ liquids
by chemical means, instead of by filtration.
The substances used for this purpose are
popularly known as ‘clarifiers’ or ‘finings.”
The substances employed in the clarification
of liquids, operate by either mechanically em-
bracing the feculous matter, and subsiding
with it to the bottom of the vessel, or by in-
ducing such a change in its nature or bulk
that it subsides by its own density, in each
case, leaving the liquor transparent. Albu-
men, gelatin, the acids, certain salts, blood,
lime, plaster of Paris, alum, heat, alcohol, &c.,
serve in many cases for this purpose. The
first is used, under the form of white of egg,
for the clarification of syrups, as it combines
with the liquid when cold, but on the appli-
cation of heat rapidly coagulates and rises to
the surface, carrying the impurities with it,
forming a scum which is easily removed with
a skimmer. It is also much used for fining
wines and liqueurs, particularly the red wines
and more limpid cordials. Gelatin, under
the form of isinglass, dissolved in water
or weak vinegar, is used to fine white wines,
beer, cider, and similar liquors that contain
a sufficient quantity of either spirit or astrin-
gency (tannin), to induce its precipitation.
Sulphuric acid is frequently added to weak
liquors for a similar purpose, either alone,
or after the addition of white of egg or
gelatin, both of which it rapidly throws
down in an insoluble form. A pernicious
practice exists among some unprincipled manu-
facturers, of using certain salts of lead and
potassa to clear their liquors; especially
those that are expected to sparkle in the
glass, as ‘cordial gin,’ &c. For this purpose, a
little sugar of lead, dissolved in water, is first
mixed up with the fluid, and afterwards a
little more than } its weight of sulphate of
potassa, also dissolved in water, is added, and
the liquor is again ‘roused’ up. By stand-
ing, the sulphate of lead, formed by this
mixture, subsides, and leaves the liquor clear.
Bullock’s blood is used in the same way as
isinglass or white of eggs, for fining red wines,
beer, and porter. Lime, alum, alcohol, the
acids, and heat, act by curdling or coagu-
lating the feculencies, and thus, by increasing
their density, induce their subsidence. Plaster
of Paris acts, partly like the above, and partly
like albumen, or gelatin, by enveloping
and forcing down the suspended matter.
Sand is often sifted over liquors (especially
cordials and syrups), for the simple purpose of
acting by its gravity, but appears to be quite
useless, as it sinks too rapidly. The juices of
plants are clarified by heat, which coagulates
the albumen they contain. Marl or clay is
frequently used to clear cider and perry. A
strip of isinglass is generally employed to
clarify coffee. See WINE, BREWING, CoR-
DIAL, CoFFEE, FININGS, INFUSION, &c.
CLAY. Clay is formed from the disinte-
gration of felspathic rocks, by the combined
action of air and water. Its plasticity, when
moist, and its capability of being made hard
by heat, are properties which render it avail-
able for many useful purposes. The purest
kind of clay is kaolin, or China clay, which
consists almost entirely of silicate of aluminum.
It is found in China; but a precisely similar
substance is obtained from deposits in Corn-
wall and some parts of France. Pipe clay, a
white clay nearly free from iron, is found in
large quantity in the island of Purbeck.
Potter’s clay is found in many parts of
Britain; that of Devonshire and Dorsetshire
is much valued. Brick clay contains varying
proportions of iron; hence the different colours
of the bricks used in different counties. See
ALUMINIUM, FULLER'S-EARTH, OCHRE, &c.
CLEAN'ING. In domestic economy, the
best way to clean a house is to keep it clean
by a daily attention to small things, and not
allow it to get into such a state of dirtiness
and disorder as to require great and periodical
cleanings. Some mistresses, and also some
servants, seem to have an idea that a house
should undergo regular cleanings, or great
washing and scrubbing matches, once every
three or six months, on which occasions the
house is turned almost inside out, and made
most uncomfortable. All this is bad economy,
and indicates general slovenliness of habits.
(Chambers.) For hints upon cleaning, see
CARPETs, CLOTHES, &c.
CLEAN/LINESS. See ABLUTION, BATHING,
and SICKNESS.
CLOTHES. Economy and cleanliness re-
quire due attention to be paid to every article
of clothing, but more especially to those which
are the most exposed to dirt and the weather.
The following remarks, having reference
chiefly to woollen articles, may prove useful
to the reader:-If very dusty, hang them on
a horse or line, and gently beat them with a
cane; then lay them on a clean board or
table and well brush them, first with a stiff
brush, to remove the spots of mud and the
coarsest of the dirt, and next with a softer
one, to remove the dust and to lay the map
properly. If clothes are wet and spotted
with dirt, dry them before brushing them,
and then rub out spots with the hands. The
hard brush should be used as little as possible,
and then with a light hand, as it will, if
f
º

CLOTHING—COBALT.
345
roughly and constantly employed, soon render
the cloth threadbare. Spots of tallow-grease
on the clothes may be taken off with the nail,
or, if that cannot be done, have a hot iron
with some thick brown paper, lay the paper
on the part where the grease is, then put the
iron upon the spot; if the grease comes
*hrough the paper, put on another piece, till
it ceases to soil it. Moths may be prevented
attacking clothes, by putting a few cloves or
allspice into the box or closet with them. See
CLOTHES BALLS, SCOURING, &c.
CL0"THING. In our changeable climate
great care should be taken to clothe the body
effectually; for when the skin is chilled, the
blood is determined in increased and injurious
quantity to the internal organs, causing colds
and inflammations. The ordinary materials
for clothing are cotton, linen, woollen, and
silk. Cotton is generally employed for under-
garments, for which its softness and warmth
render it well adapted. Linen is not nearly
so warm, but it keeps its colour better; it is
more expensive, and although it wears much
longer, it is not so economical as cotton.
Woollen garments are, in cold and variable
climates, almost essential to comfort; the
warmth obtained by wearing flannel next the
body is very beneficial, and the slight stimu-
lating effect arising from its roughness tends
to keep the skin in healthy action.
CLOVE. Syn. CARYop H^XLLUM (B. P.),
L. The flower-buds of the Caryophyllus
aromaticus (Linn.), or clove tree, collected
before they open, dried, and smoked. Cloves
are aromatic, stimulant, carminative, and
stomachic ; and according to some, possess
febrifuge properties. They are chiefly used as
an adjuvant in compound medicines. A few
cloves kept in a closet or box prevent moths or
mould attacking furs, woollens, &c.
It is a common practice to adulterate this
spice in the same manner as cinchona bark.
Cloves from which the oil has been distilled,
are dried and rubbed between the hands, pre-
viously moistened with a little sweet oil, to
brighten their colour, after which they are
mixed up with fresh spice for sale.
Cloves, Mother of. The unripe fruit of the
clove tree; they are frequently imported pre-
served (preserved mother of cloves), and are
reputed stomachic and antispasmodic.
Cloves, Oil of. Syn. O'LEUM CARYOPH/YLLI
(B. P.), L. This possesses similar virtues to
the unexpanded flower-buds, and is esteemed
as a remedy for the tooth-ache. Used to fla-
vour liqueurs and confectionery.
CLYSTERS. See ENEMAS.
C0AL. The varieties of this valuable sub-
stance may be conveniently described under
the three heads ANTHRACITE, LIGNITE, and
PIT-COAL (which see). See also FUEL.
C0'BALT. Co. Syn. REG/ULUS OF COBALT;
CoBALT'UM, L. A metal discovered by Brandt,
in 1733. It generally occurs in the same ore
as nickel, and the separation of the two
metals is a task requiring great patience and
expertness. Speiss cobalt and cobalt glance
are the ores from which the metal is commonly
extracted.
Prep. 1. Dissolve oxide of cobalt in hydro-
chloric acid, and pass sulphuretted hydrogen
gas through the solution, until all the arsenic
is thrown down; filter, and boil with a little
nitric acid, then add carbonate of potassium, in
excess, and digest the precipitate in a solution
of oxalic acid, to remove any oxide of iron;
wash and dry the residuum (oxalate of cobalt),
and expose it to great heat, in a covered cru-
cible lined with charcoal; the product is pure
metallic cobalt.
2. Mix equal parts of oxide of cobalt or
roasted Cornish cobalt ore, and soft soap, and
expose them to a violent heat in a covered
crucible.
3. Pass hydrogen gas over oxide of cobalt
strongly heated in a porcelain tube.
Prop., Use, &c. Cobalt is a white, brittle
metal; unchanged in the air; feebly acted on
by dilute hydrochloric and sulphuric acids;
has a high melting-point, and is strongly mag-
netic; sp. gr. 8:5. It is seldom employed in
the metallic state, from the great difficulty of
reducing its ores, but its oxide (black oxide) is
largely employed in the arts. It forms salts
with the acids, which are interesting from the
remarkable changes of colour which they ex-
hibit. See INK, SMALT, ZAFFRE, and below.
Char., Tests. Solutions of the salts of cobalt
are known as follows:–1. Ammonia gives a
blue precipitate, slightly soluble in excess,
giving a brownish-red colour.—2. Potassa
gives a blue precipitate, turning to violet and
red when the solution is heated.—3. Carbonate
of ammonium and carbonate of sodium give
pink precipitates; that from the former is
soluble in excess.-4. Cyanide of potassium
gives a yellowish-brown precipitate, soluble in
excess; and the clear solution, after being
boiled, is unaffected when mixed with hydro-
chloric acid.-5. Sulphuretted hydrogen pro-
duces no change in acid solutions.—6. Sulph-
ydrate of ammonium gives a black precipitate
in neutral solutions.—7. Melted with borax,
before the blowpipe, it gives a head of a mag-
nificent blue colour, almost verging on black,
if much is present. Phosphate of sodium and
ammonium give a similar bead; but the colour
is less intense.
Cobalt, Ac'etate of. Co(C5H8O3)2. Prep.
From the carbonate or protoxide and acetic
acid. It forms a sympathetic ink which turns
blue when heated.
Cobalt, Carbonate of CoCO3. Prep. By
adding an alkaline carbonate to a solution of
the nitrate or sulphate. A pale peach-coloured
powder, soluble in acids. It contains some
hydrate.
Cobalt, Chlo"ride of CoCl2. Syn. HY-
DROCHLO"RATE OF C., MU"RIATE of C. Prep.
By dissolving the carbonate or protoxide in
hydrochloric acid; the solution deposits deep




846 COCCULUS INDICUS—COCHINEAL.
rose-red crystals on standing, which contain
water. By evaporating the solution by heat,
anhydrous blue crystals of the chloride are
obtained. Both of them yield a deep rose-
red solution with water, which is turned green
by a little acid. This solution forms a well-
known sympathetic ink, the traces of which
become blue when heated. If the solution
contains either chloride of iron or chloride of
nickel, the traces become green. (Klaproth.)
The addition of a little nitrate of copper to
the above solution forms a sympathetic ink,
which by heat gives a very rich greenish-
yellow colour. (Ure.) The addition of a very
little common salt makes the traces disappear
with greater rapidity, on the withdrawal of
the heat. In each case, when the paper is laid
aside, moisture is absorbed, and the writing
once more disappears. If, however, much
heat has been used, the traces become perma-
nent.
Cobalt, Ni'trate of Co(NO3)3. Prep. As
the last, substituting nitric for hydrochloric
acid; it forms deliquescent crystals.
Cobalt, Ox'alate of CoC,04. Prep. As
the acetate, from oxalic acid and the carbonate
or protoxide; or by double decomposition.
Cobalt, Oxides of. Of these there are two,
the protoxide and the sesquioxide; besides an
acid compound of cobalt and oxygen, to which
the name cobaltic acid has been given.
1. Cobalt, Protoxide of. CoO. Syn. OxTDE
OF COBALT, GRAY O. OF C., BLACK O. OF C.,
COBALT BLACK. Prep. 1. By precipitating a
solution of sulphate or chloride of cobalt with
carbonate of sodium, and washing, drying, and
igniting the powder which subsides.
2. By boiling powdered bright-white cobalt
ore (from Cornwall) in dilute nitric acid, and
adding a solution of carbonate of potassium,
very gradually, until the clear liquor, after
the impurities have settled, becomes of a rose
colour; and then as long as a precipitate falls;
wash and dry it, as before.
Prop., &c. A gray powder, turning black
on exposure to the air; strongly basic; and
forming salts with the acids, having a fine red
tint. It is remarkable for the magnificent
blue colour it communicates to glass, and by
this character its presence may be readily de-
tected before the blowpipe; the substance to
be examined being fused with borax on a loop
of platinum wire. Used to make blue colours
for painters, stains and glazes for enamellers,
glass-melters, potters, &c. In medicine, it
has occasionally been given as a remedy for
rheumatism.
2. Cobalt, Sesquioxide of Co,03. Syn.
PERox'IDE OF COBAL.T. A black, insoluble,
neutral powder, obtained by mixing solutions
of cobalt and of chloride of lime; or, by heat-
ing the protoxide to redness in an open
vessel.
Cobalt, Phosphate of CoaſpO)3. Prep.
As the acetate, substituting phosphoric for
acetic acid. An insoluble purple powder,
which, when heated along with eight times its
weight of gelatinous alumina, produces a blue
pigment (COBALT BLUE, COBALT ULTRAMA-
RINE), almost equal in beauty to ultramarine.
(See below.)
Cobalt, Sul’phate of. CoSO4. By boiling
sulphuric acid on the metal, or by dissolving
the oxide in the acid.
tals, soluble in 24 parts of water.
Cobalto-Ultramarine. A fine blue pigment,
prepared by mixing freshly precipitated alu-
mina, 8 parts, with phosphate or arseniate of
cobalt, 1 part ; drying the mixture, and then
slowly heating it to redness. By daylight the
colour is pure blue, but by artificial light it is
violet. See BLUE PIGMENTS.
COC'CULUS IND'ICUS, Syn. INDIAN BER-
RIES, INDIAN COCKLES, LEVANT NUT, LOUSE
GRAINs; BAC/CA ORIENTA'LIS, CoCCULUS PIS-
CATOR'IUS, &c., L. The fruit of the Anamirta
paniculata, a shrub which abounds on the
sandy shores of Malabar, and several other
islands in the Indian Ocean. The kernels
should fill at least two thirds of the fruit.
It is a dark, tough, hard wrinkled berry,
about the size of a cherry, and possesses an in-
tensely bitter taste. The berry consists of
two parts, the husk and the kernel, the former
being hard and difficult to bruise, and the
latter soft and containing a large proportion
of fatty matter.
Uses, &c. Cocculus indicus is poisonous to
all animals, and to most vegetables. It is
never employed internally in medicine, but an
ointment, formed by mixing the powder with
lard, has been used to destroy pediculi and
in porrigo. Its active principle is picro-
toxin, a peculiar needle-shaped, crystalline
substance, possessing all the poisonous proper-
ties of the berry in an exalted degree, and of
which it contains about 2 per cent. Its effects
on the system are, to produce giddiness, con-
vulsions, and insensibility, frequently ending
in death. A small portion of the cocculus in-
dicus imported is used by poachers, and a still
smaller quantity to destroy vermin, the re-
maining, and by far the greater part, being
employed to adulterate beer and even wine.
“In our own analytical experience, we have
seldom found this substance in beer purchased
from a respectable house. We have detected
it, however, in beers purchased in the lowest
localities in London and elsewhere, but have
every reason to suspect that the adulterants
had been added by the publican himself, in the
form of an extract known in the trade by the
name of ‘B. E.’ or black extract.” (Hark-
ness.)
Chemists and druggists are liable to severe
penalties if they are found supplying cocculus
indicus, or any extract of the same, to brewers
or publicans. See BEER, PORTER, &c.
COCH/INEAL. Syn. Coc'CUs (B. P.), L.;
GRANA FINA, Span. The Coccus Cacti (Linn.),
an insect found upon the cactuses of Mexico.
It is of great value as a dye-stuff. The female
It forms reddish crys-

COCINIC ACID—COCOA.
347
insects, when matured, are brushed off the
plants and dried by artificial heat. The entire
insect is used. There are two varieties known
in commerce—silver cochineal, which has a
purplish-gray or silver-gray colour; and black
cochineal, which is smaller, and of a reddish
or purplish-black colour. The former is that
* commonly met with.
Adult. Genuine cochineal has the sp. gr.
1:25. It is commonly increased in weight by
slightly moistening it with gum-water, and
then rouncing it in a bag, first with sulphate
of baryta, and then with finely powdered bone-
black. In this way its sp. gr. is raised to 1:35,
in consequence of being loaded by about 12%
of useless, foreign matter.
Uses, &c. Cochineal is principally used to
prepare lake and carmine, and in dyeing. Its
colouring principle is freely soluble in water.
It imparts every variety of scarlet and crimson
to textile fabrics previously prepared with
alum, tin, and other mordants. It is also used
to colour liqueurs, tinctures, and confectionery.
It has been recommended as an antispasmodic
and anodyne, in hooping-cough and neuralgia.
–Dose. 10 to 60 grs., in powder, confection,
or tincture. See CARMINE and CARMINIC
ACID.
COCIN’IC ACID. Syn. CocosTEAR/IC ACID.
A crystalline, fatty acid, obtained by the
Saponification of CoCOA-NUT OIL. See STEARIC
ACID.
CO'C0A (kö’-ko). Syn. CACA'o. An ali-
mentary substance formed of the roasted seeds
of the Theobroma Cacao, a tree belonging to
the natural order Byttneriaceae. This defini-
tion is equally applicable to chocolate, but we
commonly class the preparations containing
sugar and flavouring substances under that
head, and the unsweetened and cheap prepa-
rations under CoCOA. The cocoa-seed or berry
must not be confounded with the cocoa, nut,
which is the fruit of a palm (Cocos nucifera).
The cocoa tree is a native of Mexico, and is
now more or less extensively grown through-
out Central America, Brazil, Peru, Venezuela,
Caraccas, Ecuador, Grenada, Demerara, Esse-
quibo, Guayaquil, and Surinam; with some
of the West India Islands, foremost among
which stands Trinidad. It has also been in-
troduced with more or less success into Africa,
the Mauritius, Madagascar, Bourbon, the
East Indies, Australia, and the Philippine
Islands. The following is a list of the prin-
cipal kinds of cocoa, in the order of their com-
mercial value:—Caraccas, Surinam, Trinidad,
Grenada, Jamaica, Dominica, Guayaquil, Ve-
nezuela, Bahia, Brazil, St. Lucia. It seems
probable that some of the highest kinds of
cocoa do not find their way into this country,
but are consumed by the inhabitants of
Spain.
Prep. The pods containing the seeds are
gathered when ripe, and after having lain for
a day and a night are opened, and the seeds,
which are taken out by hand, are submitted to
what is termed the sweating process. They
are first placed on a sloping floor or in baskets,
so that the chief part of the pulp in which
they are enveloped may drain off, and are then
shut up in a close box, and left for 24 to 48
hours, according to the season and weather,
after which they are turned out in the sun to
dry. Upon a nice performance of the sweating
process, which may be likened to malting, the
value of the cocoa greatly depends. When
quite dry, the seeds are packed in barrels or
bags, and are ready for shipment. The process
of roasting is effected in a metal cylinder, with
holes at each end, through which the vapour
generated is allowed to escape. When the
aroma is sufficiently developed, the seeds are
cooled, and then passed to a “kibling mill,’
which removes the husks and skins from the
‘ nibs' (see below).
Prop., Constituents, &c. Cocoa, when un-
adulterated, forms a wholesome and highly
nutritious beverage. Its active principle is
theobromine, an alkaloid greatly resembling
caffeine, the active principle of coffee and tea.
A peculiar concrete oil, called cocoa-butter,
or, more correctly, butter of cacao, is another
important constituent, forming more than
half the weight of the seed. The presence of
about 20% of albumen gives to cocoa its nutri-
tive character.
Adult. Much of the cheap stuff sold as
genuine cocoa is shamefully adulterated. Out
of 68 samples of cocoa and chocolate examined
by the ‘Lancet’ commission, 39 contained
coloured earthy substances, as reddle, Vene-
tian red, umber, &c. To some, chalk or
plaster of Paris had been added, for the pur-
pose of increasing the weight. Many of the
samples consisted of sugar and starch, with
only sufficient cocoa to impart a flavour.
Cocoas containing a moderate amount of ar-
row-root or other starch must not be consi-
dered adulterated articles, for it is impossible
to render cocoa soluble, or rather emulsive,
without the addition of some diffusible sub-
stance.
Cocoa, Flake. This is formed by grinding
the nibs in a mill, consisting of two cones,
working one inside the other. Pure flake
cocoa is not a diluted or amalgamated article;
in other words, it contains no sugar, and but
a trace of starch.
Cocoa Nibs. The bruised, roasted seeds, freed
from husk and membrane. They ought to be
of a dull-red or grayish colour, but are fre-
quently given a bright-red colour by a coating
of Venetian red.
Cocoa, Sol'uble. From cocoa nibs and sub-
stances which are readily soluble or diffusible
in water, ground together. Sugar and sago
or arrow-root are the diluents used by respect-
able makers, but all kinds of starches, coloured
with Venetian red, are used for the trashy
articles which are sold to the poor. No form
of cocoa is really soluble, but by the addition
of easily diffusible substances an article is pro-



348
COCOA-NUT OIL–COD-LIVER, OIL.

duced which is capable of forming an emul-
sion with boiling water. The following are
the principal varieties of the so-called soluble
COCOa :-
1. Cocoa, GRANULATED. From cocoa nibs
and sufficient sugar and arrow-root to keep the
fatty particles from forming a pasty mass. As
it is impossible to granulate the nibs without
the admixture of some other substance, those
makers who declare that their granulated
cocoas are perfectly pure do not act homestly
towards their customers.
2, COCOA, HOMOEOPATHIC. A kind of solu-
ble cocoa prepared with arrow-root, but with-
out sugar.
3. CoCOA, ICELAND-MOSs. From cocoa and
Iceland moss, freed from its bitter principle,
cetrarine. This form of cocoa was introduced
by Messrs. Dunn and Hewett, and is said to
form a very valuable article of diet for in-
valids.
4. CoCOA, MARAVILLA. This is stated to be
“ the perfection of prepared cocoa.” It con-
sists of cocoa, Sugar, and Sago flour, the last
two being in great excess.
5. CoCoA, CARACCAS. This is similar to
the last, being a mixture of cocoa, sugar, and
Sago flour. The cocoa used in its manufacture
is said to be imported from the Caraccas, on
the north coast of South America, and to pos-
sess a peculiarly delicious flavour.
The amount of flour or starch in these so-
called soluble cocoas frequently exceed 40 per
cent., and the amount of sugar 20 per cent.
They have been, not inaptly, called “soups.”
Within the past year or two a new variety
of soluble cocoa has been brought into the
market. It is sold under various names, thus,
“Theobromine, or Concentrated Cocoa, ‘Cocoa
Essence,” “Cocoatina,’ &c. We have examined
many of these varieties, and find them to con-
sist of pure cocoa deprived of about two thirds
of its fat. It appears very suitable for people
of weak digestion.
Obs. No warm drink that we take ap-
proaches cocoa in its nutritive character, be-
cause, while performing to a certain extent the
exhilarating work of coffee or tea, it presents
to the stomach a very considerable quantity
of nitrogenous and carbonaceous matter; this
advantage is partly due to the fact that cocoa
is taken in the form of an emulsion, instead of
an infusion or decoction.
CoCOA FOR THE TABLE is readily prepared
from the soluble varieties by simply pouring
boiling water upon the powder. From cocoa
nibs, or flaked cocoa, the beverage is prepared
by first pouring boiling water upon them,
and then allowing the mass to simmer from 4
to 6 hours. The cocoa must on no account be
allowed to boil, for in that case a coagulum
will be formed, which cannot be dissolved in
water.
C0C0A-NUT OIL. A species of vegetable
butter obtained from the common cocoa nut—
the fruit of Cocos nucifera, the cocoa palm. It
is separated from the dried kernel by hy-
draulic pressure. It contains olein, and a solid
fat often used as a candle material. Large
plantations of the cocoa palm, connected with
Price's candle company, exist in Ceylon.
Cocoa-nut oil is often confounded with cocoa-
or cacao-butter, which is the produce of a
very different plant, namely, Theobroma
cacao. See CoCINIC ACID, CoCOA, STEARIC
ACID, &c.
COD. Syn. GA/DUS MOR'RHUA (Ph. L.),
MoR'RHUAVULGARIS (Linn.), ASEL'LUs (Pliny),
L. A fish common in the seas of the northern
hemisphere, from about 40° to 75° of latitude.
The flesh forms a most wholesome and excellent
article of food. The best fish are very thick
about the neck; and, when fresh, are marked
by the redness of the gills, freshness of the
eyes, and the whiteness and firmness of the
flesh. The fish so largely imported from New-
foundland (NEWFOUNDLAND FISH) are cod,
beheaded, split open, gutted, and salted. They
are caught by millions on the ‘Grand Bank.’
CoID-SOUNDS are pickled in brine and also made
into isinglass. The spawn is made into
CAVIARE, and the liver is both pressed and
boiled for its oil (see below).
CoD Is GENERALLY COOKED by boiling it,
but is sometimes baked, or cut into slices and
broiled or fried. Cod’s head and shoulders
with oyster sauce is a favorite dish. Shrimp
and anchovy sauce are also good additions.
COD-LIVER OIL. Syn. MoR/RHUAE o'LEUM,
B. P.; O'LEUM JECOR/IS ASEL/LI, L.; HUILE
DE MORUE, Fr. The oil obtained from the
liver of the common cod (oleum ejecore com-
paratum).
Prep. 1. The livers being removed from
the fish, are piled on layers of fir-twigs placed
in tubs perforated at the bottom, and are
allowed to remain for a considerable time
exposed to the sun and air. As the livers
putrefy, the oil runs out and flows through the
holes in the tubs into vessels placed to re-
ceive it.
2. The partially decomposed livers, cut into
pieces, are heated in iron pots without water,
and the oil is poured off and set aside to de-
posit impurities.
3. (Savory.) The livers taken from the
fresh fish are carefully washed. The large
veins are then divided through their whole
length, and any blood in them is carefully
rinsed away. The livers are now cut into
pieces, again washed and drained, and after-
wards placed with a small quantity of water in
vessels gently heated by steam. As the heat
increases, the oil separates and rises to the
surface, from which it is skimmed off; and
after well cooling, to allow the deposit of some
of the margarine, it is repeatedly filtered
through flannel bags and finally through
paper. This process gives a fine, clear, straw-
coloured oil, having but a slight smell and
taste.
4. (Donovan.) The perfectly fresh livers are

CODEIA—COFFEE. 349
placed in a metallic vessel and heated with
constant stirring to 180°Fahr., by which treat-
ment they break down into a uniform pulpy,
liquid mass. This mass is immediately trans-
ferred to calico bags, whence the oil drains
out ; after filtration, while still warm, this oil
is sufficiently pure for use.
Obs. Three kinds of cod-liver oil are usually
distinguished—the pale yellow, pale brown, and
dark brown. The latter is the most impure;
its odour and taste are extremely disagreeable.
The most conflicting opinions have been ex-
pressed by medical men as to the relative value
of the light-brown and yellow varieties.
Ozonised cod-liver oil is said to be prepared by
passing oxygen into the oil, and then exposing
it to sunlight. Dr. Letheby has applied the
most delicate tests to this much-vaunted
remedy, but has not been able to detect the
slightest trace of ozone.
Prop. and Uses. Cod-liver oil has acquired
much reputation for its remedial powers in
pulmonary consumption, scrofulous and other
glandular affections, chronic gout and rheuma-
tism, certain skin diseases, and several other
ailments. It is generally supposed that the
iodine and bromine, which are present in
minute quantities in this fish, are the sub-
stances to which it owes its efficacy. “Dr.
De Jongh refers its virtues to the presence of
both iodine and the elements of the bile. Our
own researches lead us to infer, that one of its
most active constituents is free phosphorus.
Good cod-liver oil contains fully '02 of this
substance, as well as about '09 of phosphoric
acid. Now, the marked action of minute doses
of phosphorus on the nervous, vascular, and
secreting organs, is well known to every expe-
rienced surgeon. The difficulty, however, of
bringing it into a form adapted for adminis-
tration, has hitherto prevented phosphorus
being extensively employed as a therapeutic
agent. This obstacle is removed by the em-
ployment of cod-liver oil. Nature has here
provided a simple remedy, which the ingenuity
of man has failed to produce artificially. This
opinion is borne out by the facts, that cod-
liver oil cures those forms of scrofula and other
diseases which do not yield to iodine, and that
those varieties of the oil are the most active
which contain the most free phosphorus. We,
therefore, think it reasonable to conclude, that
the efficacy of cod-liver oil depends on the
joint action of the minute quantities of iodine,
phosphorus, and the elements of the bile, which
it contains, and not on any one separately; and
that no substance, at present known, can be
used as a substitute for it.” (Cooley.)—Dose.
1 to 8 drums., on water, syrup, or orange juice;
or made into an emulsion with 1 fl. oz. of pep-
permint water.
CODE'IA. CisB210s. Aq. Syn. CODE'-
INE. An alkaloid discovered by Robiquet
associated with morphia.
Prep. Dissolve commercial hydrochlorate of
morphia in water, and precipitate the morphia
with ammonia. Codeia is left in solution, and
is obtained in octahedral crystals by spontane-
ous evaporation. It may be further purified
by solution in ether. By the addition of a
little water to the ethereal solution, and spon-
taneous evaporation, it may be obtained quite
pure and in a crystalline state.
Obs. The morphia may be recovered by
digesting the precipitate in weak solution of
potassa.
Prop., &c. Freely soluble in alcohol and
ether; soluble in 80 parts of cold and 17 parts
of boiling water. Its solution in the latter, by
slow evaporation, yields large, transparent
octahedra. With the acids it forms crystal-
lisable salts. These possess the singular pro-
perty of producing a general and violent itch-
ing of the surface of the body when adminis-
tered internally. The same symptoms fre-
quently follow the exhibition of opium and
hydrochlorate of morphia, and are referred to
the presence of codeia. The commercial mu-
riate of morphia frequently contains 3} to
4% of codeia.
Tests. It is distinguished from morphia by
not becoming blue on the addition of sesqui-
chloride of iron, nor turning red with nitric
acid; and by not being precipitated by am-
monia, when dissolved in hydrochloric acid
and mixed with a large quantity of water.
Unlike morphia, it is insoluble in weak solu-
tion of potassa, and is soluble in ether. The
salts of codeia are known by tincture of galls
throwing down a copious precipitate from
their solutions; this does not occur with the
salts of morphia. It is distinguished from
meconia by its aqueous solution showing an
alkaline reaction with test-paper.
COFFEE. The seeds or berries of the Coffea,
arabica (Linn.) or coffee plant; a shrub of
the natural order Cinchonaceae, sub-order
Coffede, indigenous in the low mountainous
districts of Arabia Felix, and largely cultivated
in various other parts of the world. About
40 millions of pounds of coffee are annually
consumed in this country, and the consumption
for the whole world has been estimated at
about 600 millions of pounds. The seeds are
roasted and ground, and used in the form of a
decoction or infusion. The term coffee is
applied to the prepared beverage as well as to
the seeds. The valuable properties of coffee
are mainly due to the presence of the alkaloid
CAFFEIA. Or CAFFEINE.
Prep., &c. The finest kind of coffee is that
called mocha, from Aden, but that in common
use is principally supplied from the British
plantations in the West Indies. The selection
being made, the berries are carefully roasted
in revolving cylinders by a gradually applied
heat, until the aroma is well developed, and
the toughness destroyed. Too much heat is
avoided, as the volatile and aromatic proper-
ties of the coffee, and, consequently, the
flavour, are thereby injured; whilst, on the
other hand, if the berries are roasted too


350
COFFEE.
little, they produce a beverage with a raw,
green taste, very liable to induce sickness and
vomiting. When properly roasted, coffee has
a lively chocolate-brown colour, and should
not have lost more than 18% of its weight by
the process. If the loss exceeds 20%, the
flavour suffers in proportion. The roasted
coffee should be placed in a very dry situation,
and excluded from the air as soon as possible.
It loses flavour by keeping, and also power-
fully absorbs moisture from the atmosphere
by reason of its hygrometric power.
Qual., &c. Coffee promotes digestion, and
exhilarates the spirits, and when strong,
generally occasions watchfulness, but in some
phlegmatic constitutions induces sleep. Drunk
in moderation, especially if combined with
sugar and milk, it is perhaps the most whole-
some beverage known. The various qualities
that have been ascribed to it by some persons,
such as dispelling or causing flatulency, re-
moving dizziness of the head, attenuating the
blood, causing biliousness, &c., appear to be
wholly imaginary. In a medical point of
view, it has been regarded as a cerebral stimu-
lant and anti-soporific, and as a corrector of
opium. As a medicine, it should be strong,
and is best taken only lukewarm.
Adult., &c. The principal substances used
for the purposes of adulteration, are caramel,
roasted chicory, roasted locust beans, roasted
corn, &c. Chicory being now charged with
the same amount of duty as coffee, is not con-
sidered, in a revenue point of view, an adulte-
ration; nevertheless, when we contrast coffee
with chicory, we at once see the vast supe-
riority of the former over the latter, thus:–
Coffee is the fruit of a tree, whilst chicory
is the root of an herbaceous plant, and it is
well known that more virtues exist in fruits
and seeds than in roots.
Coffee contains three active principles, viz.
an essential oil, caffeia, and tannic acid, and
these exercise a powerful influence on the
system, retarding the waste of the tissues
of the body, exciting the brain to in-
creased activity, and exhilarating without in-
toxicating. Chicory contains none of these
constituents.
Coffee exerts on the system highly bene-
ficial physiological effects; chicory possesses
medicinal properties, which are not desirable
in an article of food.
Chicory, therefore, is very objectionable,
and when a dealer sells a mixture of coffee
and chicory for pure coffee, as is almost in-
variably the case, he is guilty of selling an
adulterated article, and ought to be punished
accordingly.
The adulteration with caramel or chicory
may readily be detected as follows:–
1. A spoonful of pure coffee placed gently
on the surface of a glass of cold water will
float for some time, and scarcely colour the
liquid; if it contains caramel or chicory, it
will rapidly absorb the water, and, sinking to
the bottom of the glass, communicate a deep
reddish-brown tint as it falls. Another method
of applying this test is by expertly shaking a
spoonful of the suspected coffee with a wine-
glassful of cold water, and then placing the
glass upon the table. If it is pure, it will
rise to the surface, and scarcely colour the
liquid, but if caramel or chicory is present, it
will sink to the bottom, and the water will be
tinged of a deep red, as before.
2. The brown colour of decoction or infusion
of roasted coffee becomes greenish when
treated with a per-salt of iron; and a brownish-
green, flocculent precipitate is formed. The
colour of chicory is only deepened, but not
otherwise altered, and no precipitate is formed,
under the same treatment. A mixture of
chicory and coffee retains a brownish-yellow
colour after the precipitate has subsided, and
the liquid appears brownish-yellow by re-
fracted light. The addition of a little weak
ammonia water aids the subsidence of the
precipitate.
3. Under the microscope, the presence of
chicory may be readily detected by the size,
form, and ready separation of the cells of the
cellular tissue, and by the presence and
abundance of the pitted tissue or dotted ducts,
which are absent from coffee, and by the size
of the spiral vessels, which are very small in
coffee. The most characteristic structure,
however, and that by which chicory can be
easily identified, is the lacticiferous tissue.
Roasted corn, and other amylaceous substances,
may also be detected, in the same way, by the

peculiar size and character of their starch
grains.
Roasted corn, beans, &c., may be detected
by the cold decoction striking a blue colour
with tincture of iodine. Pure coffee is merely
deepened a little in colour by this substance.
Obs. A few years ago the attention of the
scientific world was drawn to the value of
roasted coffee leaves, as furnishing materials
for a beverage unexcelled in excellence by the
coffee berry itself. It appears that the leaves,
prepared for use, may be purchased for 1%d. per
lb., or packed ready for export at 2d. per lb.
“That this preparation contains a considerable
amount of the nutritious principles of coffee is
evident from the analysis; but as the leaves
can only be collected in a good state at the
expense of the coffee-bush, it is doubtful
whether the coffees produced by the berries
be not, after all, the cheapest, as it certainly
is the best.” (Jury Report, Exhibition, 1851.)
Coffee for the table is best prepared with the
aid of a French cafetière, or coffee biggin,
furnished with a percolator or strainer, which
will permit a moderately rapid filtration. To
produce this beverage in perfection, it is
necessary to employ the best materials in its
preparation—fresh roasted and fresh ground.
“At least 1 oz. of coffee should be used to
make 3 common-sized coffee-cupfuls, with 1
teaspoonful of freshly roasted and ground
COFFEE–COKE.
351
chicory. If desired strong, the quantity of
both should be doubled.” (Cooley.) Many
habitual coffee drinkers cannot tolerate the
use of chicory, which is a doubtful improver
of coffee. The prevailing fault of the coffee
made in England is its want of strength and
flavour. The coffee-pot should be heated pre-
viously to putting in the coffee, which may be
done by means of a little boiling water. The
common practice of boiling coffee is quite
unnecessary, for all its flavour and aroma is
readily extracted by boiling hot water. In-
deed, all the “useful and agreeable matter in
coffee is very soluble; it comes off with the
first waters of infusion, and needs no boiling.”
(Ure.) Should prejudice, however, induce the
housewife or cook to boil her coffee, it should
be only just simmered for a minute, as long or
violent boiling injures it considerably.
When coffee is prepared in a common pot,
the latter being first made hot, the boiling
water should be poured over the powder, and
not, as is commonly the plan, put in first. It
should then be kept stirred for 4 or 5 minutes,
when a cup should be poured out and returned
again, and this operation repeated 3 or 4 times,
after which, if allowed to repose for a few
minutes, it will generally become fine of itself.
In all cases, when a percolator is not used, the
liquor should be well stirred up several times
before finally covering it up to settle for use.
Coffee is sometimes clarified by adding a
shred of isinglass, a small piece of clean eel-
or sole-skin, or a spoonful of white of egg.
An excellent plan, common in France, is to
place the vessel containing the made coffee
upon the hearth, and to sprinkle over its
surface half a cupful of cold water, which from
its greater gravity descends, and carries the
“foulness’ with it. Another plan sometimes
adopted is to wrap a cloth, previously dipped
into cold water, round the coffee-pot. This
method is commonly practised by the Arabians
in the neighbourhood of Yemen and Moka,
and rapidly clarifies the liquor, unless a very
large quantity of chicory is present. It should
be recollected that the use of isinglass, white of
egg, and all like artificial finings, remove much
of the astringency and vivacity of the liquor.
The French, who are remarkable for the
superior quality of their coffee, generally allow
an ounce to each large coffee-cupful of water,
and they use the coffee both newly ground and
freshly roasted. A shred of saffron, or a little-
vanilla, is frequently added, whilst the perco-
lating coffee-pot is generally employed. When
the Parisian uses a common coffee-pot, he gene-
rally divides the water into 2 parts. The first
portion he pours on boiling hot, and allows it to
infuse for 4 or 5 minutes; he then pours this
off as clear as possible, and boils the grounds
for 2 or 3 minutes with the remaining half of
the water. As soon as this has deposited the
sediment, it is decanted, and mixed with the
infusion. The object of this process is to ob-
tain the whole of the strength as well as the
flavour. The infusion is thought to contain
the latter, and the decoction the former; a
plausible, but erroneous idea, since both of
them were carried off by the first water.
A much better method, and one we can re-
commend from experience, is to divide the
coffee into 2 parts. Boil the first portion in
the coffee-pot, for 4 or 5 minutes, then add
the other portion, and allow it to infuse slowly
for about 10 minutes, the coffee-pot lid being
kept well closed. This gives a coffee possess-
ing a flavour which even the French cannot
excel.
Coffee, Essence of. A highly concentrated
infusion of coffee, prepared by percolation with
boiling water, gently and quickly evaporated
to about ºrd or 4th of its bulk, and mixed with
a thick aqueous extract of chicory and syrup
of burnt sugar, so as to give the whole the
consistence of treacle. The proportions of the
dry ingredients should be—coffee, 4 parts;
chicory, 2 parts; burnt sugar (caramel), 1
part. It should be kept in well-corked bot-
tles in a cool place. This preparation is very
convenient for making extemporaneous coffee;
but the beverage so made, though superior to
much of that sold at coffee-houses, is inferior
in flavour, aroma, and piquancy, to that we
are accustomed to drink at home. Much of
the so-called ‘Essence of Coffee’ is simply
treacle and burnt sugar, flavoured with coffee.
Coffee, Searle's Patent. This is prepared by
mixing condensed milk with a very concen-
trated essence of coffee and evaporating at a
low temperature (in vacuo, if possible), until
the mixture acquires the consistence of a
syrup (coffee syrup), paste (coffee paste), or
candy (coffee candy). The last may be pow-
dered (coffee powder, dry essence of coffee).
Coffee, Substitutes for. These are numerous,
but are now seldom employed, owing to the
cheapness of the genuine article, and the strin-
gency of the revenue laws. Among the prin-
cipal are the following:—
1. CoFFEE, ACORN. From acorns deprived
of their shells, husked, dried, and roasted.
2. CoFFEE, BEAN. Horse-beans roasted
along with a little honey or sugar.
3. CoFFEE, BEET-Root. From the yellow
beet-root, sliced, dried in a kiln or oven, and
ground with a little coffee.
4. CoFFEE, DANDELION. From dandelion
roots, sliced, dried, roasted, and ground with
a little caramel.
5. CoFFEE, GERMAN. Syn. SUCCORY C.,
CHICORY C. From chicory or succory. Used
both for foreign coffee, and to adulterate it.
Obs. All the above are roasted, before
grinding them, with a little fat or lard. Those
which are larger than coffee-berries are cut
into small slices before being roasted. They
possess none of the exhilarating properties or
medicinal virtues of foreign coffee.
COINS. See MEDALS and ELECTROTYPING.
COKE. Charred or carbonised coal. The
principle of its manufacture is similar to that


352
COLCHICINA—COLD.
of charcoal. There are three varieties of
coke:–
1. KILN-MADE CORE ; STIFLED COKE. Made
by burning pit-coal in a pile, kiln, or stove.
It has a dull-black colour, and produces an
intense heat when used as fuel. By condensing
the bituminous vapours which are given off
during the process, about 3% of tar may be
obtained from common coal, and from some
strong coal, by careful treatment, fully 10% of
its weight. The screenings, or dust coal,
separated from the better kinds of bituminous
coal, is the sort commonly used for making
coke in ovens.
2. GAS COKE ; DISTILLED CORE. The cinder
left in the gas-retorts. Gray; produces a
weak heat, insufficient to smelt iron.
3. SHALE COKE ; MINERAL CARBON. From
bituminous shale, burned in covered iron pots,
in a similar way to that adopted for making
bone-black; or in piles. Black and friable.
Used to clarify liquids, but is vastly inferior
to bone-black, and does not abstract the lime
from syrups. See FUEL, PIT-COAL, &c.
COLCHICIN’A. Syn. Col/CHICINE, COL-
CHI’CIA. A peculiar principle discovered by
Gieger and Hesse in the seeds of the Colchi-
cum autumnale or common meadow saffron.
It also exists in the corms or bulbs.
Prep. Macerate the bruised seeds in boiling
alcohol, add magnesia, to throw down the
alkaloid, digest the precipitate in boiling al-
cohol, and filter. By cautious evaporation
colchicine will be deposited, and may be purified
by re-solution and crystallisation in alcohol.
Prop., &c. Odourless; bitter; soluble in
water and alcohol; forms salts with the acids.
It is very poisonous. Tºth of a grain, dis-
solved in spirit, killed a cat in 12 hours. It
differs from veratria in being soluble in water
and crystalline, and in the non-production of
sneezing when cautiously applied to the nose.
Strong oil of vitriol turns this alkaloid of a
yellowish-brown; nitric acid turns it of a deep
violet, passing into indigo-blue, green, and
yellow. It is not used in medicine.
COL/CHICUM. Sym. MEA'Dow SAF'FRON;
CoLCHICUM AUTUMNALE (Linn.), L. The
recent and dried corms or bulbs (colchici
cormus), as well as the seeds (colehici semina),
are official in the British Pharmacopoeia. The
corms are ordered to be dug up in the month
of July, or before the autumnal bud has pro-
jected. The dry coatings having been torn
off, cut the cormus transversely in thin slices,
and dry, at first with a gentle heat, but after-
wards slowly increased to 150°Fahr.
Dose (of the corms), 2 to 8 or 9 grs. ; (of
the seeds), 2 to 7 grs., made into a pill or bolus
with syrup or conserve; chiefly, as a specific in
gout, to alleviate or check the paroxysm. This
drug forms the base of almost all the adver-
tised gout nostrums. It is, however, an active
poison, and its administration requires care.
“After all that has been said respecting col-
chicum in gout, and admitting that it rarely
fails to allay pain and check a paroxysm, I
would record my opinion that he who would
wish to arrive at a good old age, should eschew
it as an ordinary remedy, and consider that he
is drawing on his constitution for a temporary
relief, with a certainty of becoming prema-
turely bankrupt in his vital energies.” (Col-
lier.
&corian See OXIDES OF IRON.
COLD. Syn. FRI'GUS, L. The privation of
heat.
tion and effects which this privation produces.
When the body of an animal is immersed in
an atmosphere at a temperature below the
healthy standard, a sensation of coldness is
experienced, produced by the passage of the
caloric or heat of the body into the colder
medium. If this abstraction of caloric exceeds
the quantity produced by the vital system,
the temperature of the body decreases, until it
sinks below the point at which the functions
of life can be performed. This declination of
the heat of the body is gradual; the extreme
sensation of coldness changes into a disincli-
nation for voluntary motion; next comes on
drowsiness, followed by numbness and insen-
sibility. At this point, if the sufferer is not
rescued, and remedial measures had recourse
to, death inevitably and rapidly ensues.
The prevention of the effects of cold consists
in the use of ample food and clothing propor-
tioned to the inclemency of the weather, the
exposure to be endured, and the habits of the
wearer. The circulation of the blood should
be promoted by active exercise, and any dis-
position to sleep shaken off by increased bodily
exertion. The principal endeavour should be
to keep the extremities and chest warm, as, if
this can be accomplished, no danger need be
feared.
In cases of asphyxia produced by intense
cold, the patient should be laid in a room
remote from the fire, and bathed with cold
salt-and-water, or water to which some brandy
or vinegar has been added; after which the
body should be wiped dry, and friction assi-
duously applied by the hands of the attendants
(warmed); as many operating at once as can
conveniently do so. Gentle stimulants should
be administered by the mouth, and the bowels
excited by some mild, stimulating clyster. The
lungs should also be inflated, and an effort
made to re-establish the respiration. As soon
as symptoms of returning animation are
evinced, and the breathing and circulation
restored, the patient should be laid in a bed
between blankets, and a little wine-and-water
administered, and perspiration promoted by
heaping an ample quantity of clothing on the
bed. Should the patient have suffered from
hunger as well as cold, the appetite may be
appeased by the adminstration of a limited
quantity of light food, taking especial care to
avoid excess, or anything indigestible or ex-
citing. See ASPHYXIA, BRONCHITIS, CA-
TARRH, &c.
The term is also applied to the sensa-

COLD CREAM–COLLODION. 353
COLD CREAM. A snow-white, bland oint-
ment, about the consistence of good lard, and
an admirable substitute for that excipient
where expense is no object, especially for ap-
plications about the face. It is commonly sold
as a lip-salve and as a healing application to
abraded and chapped surfaces generally. The
ordinary receipts are given under the head of
CoSMETIC CERATE (which see). The follow-
ing produces a superior article.
Prep. (Dr. L. Turnbull.) From white wax,
1 oz. ; oil of almonds, 4 oz. ; rose-water, 2 oz. ;
borax, ; dr. ; oil of roses, 5 drops. Melt, and
dissolve the wax in the oil of almonds by a
gentle heat; dissolve the borax in the rose-
water, which is then to be warmed a little and
added to the heated oil; lastly, add the oil of
roses, stirring.
COL'IC. Syn. CoI/ICA, L. The belly-ache
or gripes. The name is popularly given to all
severe griping abdominal pains, without refe-
rence to the cause. There are several varieties
of this disease, as noticed below.
Colic, Accident'al. Produced by improper
food, and poisons. The treatment may be
similar to that recommended for bilious or
flatulent colic.
Colic, Bil’ious. In this variety the pain is
intermittent and transient, accompanied by
constipation, nausea, and vomiting. The faces,
if any, are bilious, dark-coloured, and offensive.
The common remedies are, a full dose of blue
pill, calomel, colocynth, or aloes, followed by a
sufficient quantity of Epsom salts or Glauber's
salts. Warm formentations are also service-
able.
Colic, Flat'ulent. Marked by constipation,
and the irregular distension of the bowels by
gas, accompanied by a rumbling noise, &c. It
is commonly produced by the use of indiges-
tible vegetables and slops. The remedies are,
a full dose of tincture of rhubarb combined
with a few drops of essence of peppermint.
If this does not afford relief, an Abernethy
pill may be taken, washed down with a glass
of any cordial water, as peppermint, cinnamon,
or caraway. When the pain is extreme, warm
fomentations to the belly, or a carminative
clyster, will generally give relief.
Colic, Paint'er's. Syn. PLUMB'ER's CoIIc,
DEVONSHIREC., LEAD C.; CoI/ICA PICTO'NUM,
L. The dry belly-ache. It is marked by ob-
stinate costiveness, acrid bilious vomitings,
violent pains about the region of the navel,
convulsive spasms in the intestines, and a ten-
dency to paralysis in the extremities. It is
most prevalent in the cider counties, and
amongst persons exposed to the fumes of lead.
The remedies are the same as for the spasmodic
variety. Should these fail, after the bowels
have been thoroughly evacuated, small doses
of camphor and opium may be administered,
and sulphuric beer or sweetened water very
slightly acidulated with sulphuric acid, had
recourse to as a beverage. Mr. Benson, the
managing director of the British White-lead
Works at Birmingham, says:–“ Although
during several weeks after the addition of the
sulphuric acid to the treacle beer, drank at the
works, little advantage seemed to be derived,
yet the cases of lead colic became gradually
less frequent, and since October of that year,
or during a period of fifteen months, not a
single case of lead colic has occurred amongst
the people.” (“Lancet.") See SULPHURIC
BEER and SULPHURIC ACID.
Colic, Spasmodic. Marked by a fluctuating
pain about the navel, which goes away and
returns by starts, often leaving the patient
for some time. The belly is usually soft, and
the intestines may often be felt in lumps,
which move about under the hand, or are
wholly absent for a time. It is unaccompanied
by flatulency. The remedies are warm fomen-
tations, warm clysters, and carminatives, ac-
companied by small doses of camphor and
opium.
Colic, Stercora/ceous. Marked by severe
griping pains and constipation of the bowels.
The remedies are powerful cathartics, as full
doses of calomel, aloes, colocynth, jalap, &c.,
followed by purgative salts, as sulphate of
magnesia, or sulphate of soda.
COLLO'DION. Syn. Collo’DIUM, L., B. P.
A viscid fluid formed by dissolving pyroxylin
(Schönbein’s gun-cotton) in a mixture of ether
and alcohol. In surgery, it is used in its natural
state, and combined with certain elastic and
medicinal substances. In photography, it is
used in combination with agents that render
it sensitive to the action of light.
Collodion. Syn. PLAIN COLLODION. The
following are the best methods of preparing
plain collodion for surgical purposes:–
Prep. 1. (Ph. U. S.) Nitrate of potassa,
in powder, 10 oz. ; sulphuric acid, 8% fl. oz.;
triturate together in a wedgwood mortar until
uniformly mixed; then add of fine carded
cotton (free from impurities), 3 oz.; and by
means of the pestle or a glass rod, saturate it
thoroughly with the liquor for a period of about
3 or 4 minutes; next transfer the cotton to a
vessel containing water, and wash it in suc-
cessive portions of pure water, with agitation
and pressure, until the washings cease to affect
litmus paper or a solution of chloride of ba-
rium; it is then to be spread out and dried by
a very gentle heat, and dissolved by agitation
in a stoppered bottle with rectified sulphuric
ether, 1 quart, to which rectified spirit (alcohol),
1 fl. oz., has been previously added.
2. (Mialhe.) Nitrate of potassa, 40 parts;
concentrated sulphuric acid, 60 parts; carded
cotton, 2 parts; proceed as last until the dry
cotton is obtained, then take of the prepared
cotton, 8 parts; rectified sulphuric ether, 125
parts; mix in a well-stoppered bottle, and
agitate it for some minutes; then add, gradu
ally, rectified alcohol, 1 part; and continue to
shake until the whole of the liquid acquires
a syrupy consistency. It may be now passed
through a cloth; but a better way ‘.prºvent

354
COLLODION.
loss is to let it repose for a few days, and then
decant the clear portion.
3. (Lauras.) This process only differs from
No. 2 in the following particulars:–The cotton
is immersed for 12 minutes, then rinsed 2 or
3 times in cold water, and afterwards immersed
in a solution of carbonate of potassa, 4 parts,
and water, 200 parts. Lastly, it is plunged
again into simple water, and dried at a tem-
perature of 77° to 86°Fahr.
4. (B. P.) Pyroxylin, 1 part; rectified
spirit, 12 parts; ether, 36 parts; mix the
ether and spirit, and add the pyroxylin.
5. (Parrish.) Thoroughly saturate clean
carded cotton, ; oz., with fuming nitric acid
and sulphuric acid, of each, 4 fl. oz., previously
mixed and allowed to become cool; macerate
for 12 hours; wash the cotton in a large
quantity of water; then free it from the water
by successive washings in alcohol, and dissolve
in ether, 3 pints.
Obs. For success in the manufacture of
collodion, it is absolutely necessary to avoid the
presence of water. The ordinary commercial
oil of vitriol, sp. gr. 1-84, may be used. Pro-
fessor Procter, of Philadelphia, gives preference
to the process with the mixed acids (No. 5),
and directs that the cotton should be allowed
to macerate for four days. In drying the
cotton great care should be taken to prevent
an explosion.
Uses, &c. In surgery, plain collodion is em-
ployed as a dressing for wounds, and as a pro-
tection to abraded surfaces. On drying, it
unites the former closely, and preserves the
latter from the action of the air. It is imper-
vious to water, and being transparent, it ad-
mits of the progress of the wound being in-
spected when necessary. Such is its adhesive
power, that a piece of cloth cemented with it
to the dry palm of the hand will support a
weight of 25 to 30 lbs. The parts to which it
is applied should be freed from moisture. See
COLOURED, ELASTIC, MEDICATED and VESI-
CATING CoILODIONS (below).
Collodion, Blistering. See WESICATING COL-
TODION.
Collodion, Col'oured. Syn. CoILODIUM TINC-
TUM, L. Prep. (Cutan. Hosp.) Collodion, 2
Oz. ; palm oil, 1 dr. ; alkanet root, q. S. to
colour (say 15 grs.); digest and decant the
clear. Colour bears a greater resemblance to
the skin than that of common collodion, whilst
it is more flexible; but it is weaker than the
latter.
Collodiom, Elastic. Prep. 1. (Lauras.) Heat
together Venice turpentine, 2 parts; castor oil,
2 parts; and white wax, 2 parts; add sul-
phuric ether, 6 parts; and mix all with the
product of No. 3 (above), that is, to the col-
lodion formed with 8 parts of prepared cotton,
125 ether, and 8 alcohol.
2. (C. S. Rand.) Dissolve prepared cotton
(No. 5, above), 2 drs., in sulphuric ether, 5 fl.
oz.; then add, Venice turpentine, 2 drs, and
complete the solution by slight agitation.
Obs. The collodion made by either of the
above processes, when applied to the skin,
forms a transparent pellicle, more pliable and
more difficult to remove than that of ordinary
collodion.
Collodion, Medicated. It has been proposed
to medicate collodion in several ways, but the
practice has not found much favour with the
medical profession. The following prepara-
tions have been described:—
COLLODION, ACONITE. From aconite root,
by a similar formula to that of BELLADONNA. C.
(below).
CoLLODION, BELLADONNA. Prep. Macerate
select belladonna leaves, powdered, 8 oz., in
ether, 12 fl. oz., with alcohol (95%), 4 fl. oz.,
for six hours. Pack in a percolator, and pour
on alcohol till a pint of tincture is obtained;
in this dissolve pyroxylin (gun-cotton), 1 dr,
and Canada balsam, # oz. Used as a substitute
for BELLADONNA PLASTER.
CoLLODION, CANTHARIDIN. See WESICAT-
ING COLLODION.
CoLLODION, IODINE. Prep. Dissolve iodine
and Canada balsam, of each, ; oz., in collodion,
1 pint. Used as a substitute for IODINE OINT-
MENT.
Collodion, Photograph'ic. There are so
many methods adopted for preparing photo-
graphic collodion, that a large volume might
be filled with notices of them. We will
merely give Mr. Hardwich’s forms, which are
much esteemed by practical photographers.
The preparation of a sensitive collodion,
whether positive or negative, includes three
distinct operations, namely, the formation of
the pyroxylin or gun-cotton, the conversion of
this into plain collodion, and the final process
of iodising the collodion.
1. Collodion, Positive. (Hardwich.) To form
the PYROXYLIN :—Take sulphuric acid, sp. gr.
1845, at 60°Fahr., 12 fl. oz. ; mitric acid, sp.
gr. 1:45, at 60°, 12 fl. oz. ; water, 3} fl. oz. ;
mix, and allow the temperature to fall to 140°;
then immerse cotton, 300 grains. (If the
cotton is found to gelatinise or dissolve in the
acid mixture, the quantity of water is too great,
and may be reduced to 3 fl. oz.) The cotton
should be well pulled out in pieces, weighing
about 30 grains each; and should be left in
the acid for about 8 minutes, the vessel being
covered over. It is taken out with a glass
spatula, squeezed to remove acid, washed for
at least 24 hours by a stream of water, then
squeezed in a cloth, and pulled out to dry.
To form the PLAIN COLLODION:-Shake up the
dry pyroxylin, 48 grains, with alcohol, sp. gr.
'805, 1} fl. Oz., and then add ether, sp. gr.
‘725, 4} fl.oz. The solution should be allowed
to rest for a week or ten days, when the clear
fluid should be decanted from the sediment.
To prepare the IoDISING SOLUTION:—Take of
iodide of ammonium, 1% dr. ; iodide of cad-
mium, 1% dr. ; bromide of ammonium, 40
grains; powder, and dissolve in alcohol, sp. gr.
'805 to 816, 10 fl. oz. The collodion is
COLLODION.—COLLYRIUM.
355
iodised by adding the solution to it in the
proportion of 1 part solution to 3 parts col-
lodion. The iodised collodion should be kept
for at least six weeks before using. If re-
quired for immediate use, add a few drops of
an alcoholic solution of iodine, formed by
dissolving 5 grains of iodine in 1 fl. oz. of
alcohol.
Obs. Mr. Hardwich recommends that the
cotton, before being converted into pyroxylin,
should be cleansed by boiling for two hours in
a solution of caustic potassa (2 oz. to the
gallon), and by being afterwards repeatedly
washed and dried. The purest nitric acid, sp.
gr. 1:45, should be employed, but the ordinary
commercial sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol) is
sufficiently pure for use. To purify the ETHER,
and to get rid of a certain ozonised principle,
which would decompose the iodising solution,
Mr. Hardwich recommends the following
process:—Take the best washed ether of com-
merce, and agitate it thoroughly with a small
portion of dilute sulphuric acid, and then in-
troduce it into a retort, and distil over one
third. The alcohol used is of the strength of
that sold for absolute alcohol; it should be
pure.
2. Collodion, Neg'ative. (Hardwich.) To
form the PYROXYLIN :—Take of sulphuric
acid, sp. gr. 1845, at 60°, 18 fl. oz. ; mitric
acid, sp. gr. 1475, at 60°, 6 fl. Oz. ; water, 5%
fl. Oz. ; cotton, 300 grains. Mix, and allow the
temperature to fall to 150°Fahr. The weight
of the pyroxylin ought to be 375 grains. To
form the PLAIN COLLODION :—Take alcohol,
sp. gr. 806, # gallon; ether, sp. gr. 725, 1
gal. ; pyroxylin, 1900 grains. Saturate the
pyroxylin with the alcohol, then pour in half
a gallon of the ether, agitate for 3 or 4 minutes,
and repeat the process in adding the remainder.
Decant the clear liquid from the sediment
after a week or ten days’ rest. The following
forms for IODISING SOLUTIONS are recom-
mended:—a. (Potassium Iodiser.) Iodide of
potassium, 135 grains; alcohol, sp. gr. 816,
10 fl. oz. Powder and dissolve in the alcohol,
previously heated to 140°.-b. (Cadmium
Iodiser.) Iodide of cadmium, 170 grains;
alcohol, sp. gr. 816, 10 fl. oz. Dissolve in the
cold, and filter.—c. (Bromo-iodiser.) Bromide
of ammonium, 40 grains; iodide of ammonium,
90 grains; iodide of cadmium, 90 grains;
alcohol, sp. gr. 816, 10 fl. oz. Pulverise, and
dissolve in the cold. To sensitise the collo-
dion, add to three parts one part of either a, b,
Ol' C.
Obs. Most of the practical directions given
under the head of POSITIVE COLLODION apply
equally to NEGATIVE COLLODION. Nothing
but patient and intelligent practice will ever
lead to success in preparing collodion for pho-
tographic purposes. Although formulae of
undoubted excellence may be used, it con-
tinually happens that the results are entirely
nugatory from some trifling cause. See PHO-
TOGRAPHY.
-.
Collodiom, Wes'icating. Syn. BLIS'TERING
COLLODION, CANTHAR'IDIN c.; CoILO'DIUM
VEs’ICANs, L. Prep. 1. (Tichborne.) Coarsely
powdered cantharides, 6 oz., are placed loosely
in a displacement apparatus (provided with a
tap to regulate the flow), and treated with
ether from methylated spirit, 13 fl. oz., and
glacial acetic acid, 2 fl. Oz., previously mixed
together. After the fluid has passed through,
it will be found that the débris has retained
by absorption 7 fl. oz., which must be displaced
by the gradual addition of methylated spirits
of wine, 7 fl. oz. If properly managed, there
is not the least danger of the admixture of
the spirits with the percolated menstruum, as
the animal substance of the flies swells con-
siderably under the prolonged influence of the
spirits of wine, so that the same bulk will be
insufficient to quite displace the ether. The
ethereal solution should be made to measure
exactly 15 fl. oz. with a little spirit, and may
then be converted into a collodion by the
addition of pyroxylin, ; oz.
Obs. The giacial acid plays a double part
in this preparation. It dissolves the can-
tharidin, and at the same time gives to the
collodion film the essential property of poro-
sity. Ordinary collodion is useless as an ex-
cipient, for it produces a tough and contractile
film, which really screens the skin from the
action of the greater part of the blistering
material.
2. (Ilisch.) Cantharidin, 15 grs.; pyroxy-
lin, 20 grs. ; rectified ether, 1% oz. ; acetic
ether, 4 oz. ; dissolve.
3. (OEttinger.) Ether of cantharides and
collodion, equal parts.
Use. Vesicating collodion is used as an
irritant. No. 1 was introduced in 1862, and
has many advantages over the other two.
Mr. Tichborne thus described the most effec-
tual method of using it in the ‘Pharm.
Journ.’:—“The part upon which the blister is
to be raised should be painted with the vesi-
cant to the desired extent, bearing in mind that
the blister produced always extends to about
one tenth of an inch beyond the margin of the
space covered. Care should be taken to give
a coating of considerable thickness, and to
ensure this result the brush should be passed
over and over again, until about $ dr. has been
used to the square inch, or less when operat-
ing upon a tender epidermis. It is desirable
to place over the intended blister a piece of
oil silk, or, what is still better, a piece of sheet
gutta percha, somewhat larger than the sur-
face painted, as this will stop the exhalations
of the skin, and so render it moist and per-
meable. In ten minutes, or a quarter of an
hour if the cuticle is hard, the collodion should
be wiped off with a little cotton-wool moistened
with ether, when the blister will almost in-
stantly rise.”
COLLOID. See DIALYSIS.
COLLYR'IUM. [L.] In medicine and phar-
macy, a topical remedy for diseases of the eye.
356 COLOCYNTH –COLOURING.
-
Formerly the term collyrium was applied to
any medicament employed to restrain de-
fluxions.
Collyr'ium, Dry. Syn. EYE POWDER ; COL-
LYR'IUM SIC'CUM, L. Prep. 1. (Dupuytren.)
White sugar, 1 dr.; red oxide of mercury, 10
grs. ; oxide of zinc, 20 grs. ; mix.
2. (Lagneau.) Sugar candy, 2 parts; ni-
trate of potassa, 1 part.
3. (Falconer.) Chloride of barium, 1 gr.;
sugar candy, 1 dr.
4. (Radius.) Calomel and white sugar, of
each, ; dr. ; opium, 10 grs. -
5. (Recamier.) Oxide of zinc and sugar
candy, equal parts.
6. (Welpeau.) Trisnitrate of bismuth and
sugar candy, equal parts.
7. (Wiseman.) Acetate of soda, 10 grs. ;
powdered opium, 1 gr. ; sugar candy, # dr.
Obs. It is absolutely necessary that the
ingredients in the above preparations should
be reduced to an impalpable powder, by careful
trituration in a wedgwood mortar. For use,
a small pinch is placed in a quill or straw, and
blown into the eye previously opened with the
fingers. On the whole, they may be regarded
as unnecessary preparations, and are unsafe,
except in skilful hands.
Collyrium, Liquid. See WATER (Eye).
Collyrium, Unctuous. See OINTMENT (Eye).
COL'OCYNTH (-sinth). Syn. (CoLocyNTH
PULP., CoLocyNTHIDIs PULPA, B. P.) BIT'-
TER AP'PLE, BITTER GOURD, BITTER CU/CUM-
BER, PEELED COLOCYNTH ; Co.LoquTNT'IDA,
CoLocyNTH'Is (B. P.), L. The decorticated
fruit or pulp of the Citrullus Colocynthis
(Schrad.—Ph. L.), or Cucumis Colocynthis
(Linn.-Ph. E. & D.). It is an acrid, drastic
purge and hydragogue, and cannot be given
alone with safety; but, in combination with
other substances, it forms some of our most
useful cathartic medicines. -
COLOCYNTH/IN. Syn. ColocyNTH/HUM,
L. The bitter, purgative principle of colo-
cynth. - :-
COI/OPHENE. Formed by distilling oil of
turpentine with concentrated sulphuric acid.
A colourless, viscid, oily liquid; with a high
boiling-point; and exhibiting a bluish tint by
reflected light.
COL'OPHONY. See RESIN.
COLOUR BLINDNESS. Syn. DAL'TONISM.
A curious defect of vision, from which the eye
is incapable of distinguishing colours. It is of
three kinds:–1. An inability to distinguish
any colour properly so called, the person being
only able to distinguish white and black, light
and shade. 2. An inability to distinguish
between the primary colours, red, blue, and
yellow, or between these and the secondary or
tertiary hues, such as green, purple, orange,
and brown. 3. An inability to distinguish
nicer shades and hues, as grays and neutral
tints. The first form is rare; the second and
third are common. Dr. George Wilson found
that of 1154 persons examined by him in
Edinburgh, 65, or 1 in 177, were colour blind;
of these, 21 confounded red with green, 19
brown with green, and 25 blue with green.
COL'OURING. Syn. BRANDY colour ING,
BREWER’s C., SPIRIT C., CAR'AMEL; ESSEN'TIA
BI'NA, L. Prep. Brown sugar is melted in
an iron vessel over the fire, until it grows
black and bitter, stirring it well all the time,
after which water is added, and it is boiled to
a syrup. In the making of brandy colouring
white sugar is more frequently used.
Obs. Some persons use lime-water to dis-
solve the burnt sugar. Care must be taken
not to overburn it, as a greater quantity is
thereby rendered insoluble. The heat should
not exceed 430°, nor be less than about 400°
Fahr. The process, for nice experiments, is
best conducted in a bath of melted tin, to
which a little bismuth has been added to
reduce its melting-point to about 435°; a little
powdered resin or charcoal or a little oil being
put upon the surface of the metal, to prevent
the oxidisement of the alloy. See CARAMEL.
COL'OURS. White light from the sun is of
a compound nature, and may be decomposed
into rays of different colours. Newton distin-
guished seven PRIMITIVE COLOURS, namely,
violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, and
red. Sir D. Brewster is disposed to think
that four of these colours are really compound,
and that three, namely, blue, yellow, and red,
alone deserve the name of primitive. The
colours of matural objects are supposed to
result from the power possessed by their sur-
faces of absorbing some of the coloured rays
of light, while they reflect or transmit, as the
case may be, the remainder of the rays. Thus,
an object appears red because it absorbs or
causes to disappear the yellow and blue rays
composing the white light by which it is
illuminated. Black and white are not colours,

strictly speaking.
A body is said to be black when it absorbs
or quenches a large proportion of all the rays
of white light falling upon it. A body is said
to be white when it receives the white light,
and reflects all the rays with moderate strength.
Gray may be regarded as a luminous black,
or dark white. The names given to colours
are far from being satisfactory, for although
many thousand shades may be distinguished
by a practised eye, it is a question whether
there are fifty names which would convey the
same idea of shade to any ten colourists in
the world. The names taken from natural
coloured objects, as indigo, violet, orange, lilac,
amber, emerald, &c., are the least objectionable.
M. Chevreul has devised an ingenious system
of naming and classifying colours. He em-
ploys only 6 fundamental names, which are
those of the three elementary colours, red,
yellow, and blue; and of the three secondary
colours, orange, green, and violet. By the
direct union of the elementary and secondary
colours, 6 tertiary colours are formed. He
arranges the twelve colours in a circle, like

COLTSFOOT COMBINATION.
357
the spokes of a wheel, commencing with the
red, and going to the right, thus:–Red, red-
orange, orange, yellow-orange, yellow, yellow-
green, green, blue-green, blue, blue-violet, violet,
red-violet. The chromatic circle is completed
by placing 5 shades between the red and red-
orange, 5 between the red-orange and orange;
and so on between each of the other couples.
This chromatic circle of 72 colours is not
imaginary, but actually exists, composed of
dyed wools. The shades are distinguished by
numbers; thus there are red, 1 red, 2 red, 3
red, 4 red, and 5 red, &c. Each of the 72
shades has, moreover, 20 different degrees of
depth, from the lightest that can be discerned
from pure white to the most intense depth,
approaching to brown and black. These de-
grees of depth are called tones or tints. The
addition of these tones to the chromatic circle
brings up the number of tints to 1440. To
indicate any one of these tints, we have merely
to write the number of the shade, and after it
the number of the tone, as, for example, 3
blue-violet, 13 tone. By mixing each of the
1440 tints with gray or black, so as to darken
it in different degrees, a total of 14,440 colours
may be defined. This part of the system is
generally regarded as unnecessary. Mr. O’Neill,
in his valuable “Dictionary of Calico Printing
and Dyeing' (to which work we refer the
reader for a full account of Chevreul's classifi-
cation), gives a long list of colours and co-
loured bodies, which are pretty well defined in
common language with the names of the
colours, according to this ingenious system.
We select from this list the following exam-
ples:–
Amber in mass=2 orange, 12 tone.
Amethyst=5 blue-violet, from 3 to 16
tone.
Blood, ox=1 red, 13 and 14 tones.
Butter=yellow-orange, 2 to 3 tone.
Carrot = orange, 7 tone.
Chocolate in cake=5 orange, 18 tone.
Emerald = 2 green, 11 tone.
Green, apple=4 yellow-green, 8 tone.
Isabelle = 1 yellow-orange.
Mauve =3 violet, 8 tone.
Red-lead=yellow-orange, 20 tone.
Ruby = red, 11 tone.
Yellow, canary =1 yellow, 6 tone.
For notices of DYES, PIGMENTs, &c., refer to
the principal colours.
Colours, Complement'ary. Syn. ACCIDENT'AL
CoLOURS. Colours are said to be comple-
mentary to each other which, by blending
together, produce the perception of whiteness.
According to Mayer, all colours are produced
by the admixture of red, yellow, and blue
light, in certain proportions; and by inter-
cepting either one or more of these coloured
rays in a beam of light, those which meet
the eye will consist of the remaining coloured
rays of the spectrum. Thus, by intercepting
the red rays in a beam of white light, the
remaining yellow and blue rays will produce a
green colour; by intercepting the blue rays,
the remaining yellow and red will give an
orange; and so on of other cases; so that red
and green, blue and orange, are COMPLEMEN-
TARY COLOURS. If we look for some time,
with one eye, on a bright-coloured object,
as a wafer, placed on a piece of paper, and
subsequently turn the same eye to another
part of the paper, a similarly shaped spot or
mark will be seen, but the colour will vary,
though it will be always the same under like
circumstances. Thus, if the original spot or
wafer be of a red colour, the imaginary one
will be green; if black, it will be white; the
imaginary colour being always complementary
of that first gazed upon. The colour so per-
ceived is often called an ACCIDENTAL COLOUR,
to distinguish it from the real colour. It
is a general maxim in design that “colours
look brightest when near their complementary
colours.”
Colours, Drug'gists’ Show.
BOTTLES.
Colours, Flame. See FIRES (Coloured).
COLTS"F00T. This popular herb is the
Tussilago farfara of Linnaeus. It is a demul-
cent bitter, and is slightly stomachic and
tonic. It is much esteemed by the lower
classes in coughs, shortness of breath, and
other affections of the chest. The leaves form
the basis of most of the British herb tobaccos,
and have been recommended to be smoked in
asthma and difficulty of breathing.—Dose.
One or two wine-glassfuls of the tea or decoc-
tion (1 oz. to the pint) ad libiţum.
COLUMBIC ACID. See TANTALIC ACID.
COLUMBIUM. See TANTALUM.
COMBINATION. In chemistry, the union
of dissimilar substances. The great general
laws which regulate all chemical combinations
admit of being laid down in a manner at once
simple and concise. The laws of COMBINATION
BY WEIGHT are as follows:—
“1. All chemical compounds are definite in
their nature, the ratio of their elements being
constant.
“2. When any body is capable of uniting
with a second in several proportions, these
proportions bear a simple relation to each
other.
“3. If a body, A, unite with other bodies,
B, C, D, the quantities of B, C, D, which unite
with A, represent the relations in which they
unite among themselves, in the event of union
taking place.
“4. The combining quantity of a compound
is the sum of the combining quantities of its
components.” (Fownes.)
There is a remarkable relation between the
specific gravity of a body in the gaseous state
and its chemical equivalent or combining pro-
portion—a relation of such a kind that quan-
tities by weight of the various gases, expressed
by their equivalents, or, in other words, quan-
tities by weight which combine occupy, under
similar circumstances of pressure and tempera-
See SHOW

358
CONCENTRATION.—CONFECTION.
ture, either equal volumes or volumes bearing
a simple proportion to each other. This rela-
tion accounts for the law of COMBINATION BY
VOLUME discovered by Gay-Lussac, and thus
expressed :—
When gases combine, chemical union in-
variably takes place, either between equal
volumes or between volumes which bear a
simple relation to each other.
Gerhardt assumes that equal volumes of the
elementary gases and vapours, when compared
under similar conditions of pressure and tem-
perature, contain the same number of atoms.
See AFFINITY, ATOMIC THEORY, EQUIVA-
LENTs, &c.
CONCENTRATION. The volatilisation of
part of a liquid in order to increase the
strength of the remainder. The operation can
only be performed on solutions of substances
of greater fixity than the menstrua in which
they are dissolved. Many of the liquid acids,
solutions of the alkalies, &c., are concentrated
by distilling off their water.
In pharmacy, the term CONCENTRATED is
commonly applied to any liquid preparation
possessing more than the usual strength.
Thus, we have concentrated infusions, decoc-
tions, liquors, solutions, tinctures, and essences,
most of which are made of 8 times the com-
mon strength. This is generally effected by
using 8 times the usual quantity of the in-
gredients, with a given portion of the men-
struum, and operating by digestion or perco-
lation; the latter being generally adopted
when the articles are bulky. When the men-
struum is water, a little spirit is added, to
make the product keep. See DECoCTION, IN-
FUSION, &c.
C0N'CRETE. A compact mass or cement,
composed of pebbles, lime, and sand, employed
in the foundations of buildings. The best
proportions have been said to be—60 parts of
coarse pebbles, 25 of rough sand, and 15 of
lime; but Semple recommends 80 parts of
pebbles, 40 parts of river sand, and only 10
parts of lime. The pebbles for concrete should
not exceed about 3 lb. each in weight.
CON’DIMENTS. Substances taken with the
food, to season or improve its flavour, or to
render it more wholesome or digestible. The
principal condiments are COMMON SALT, VINE-
GAR, LEMON-JUICE, SPICES, AROMATIC HERBS,
OIL, BUTTER, SUGAR, HONEY, and SAUCES.
Most of these, in moderation, promote the ap-
petite and digestion, but their excessive use
tends to vitiate the gastric juice, and injure
the stomach.
CONFECTION. Syn. ConFECTIO, L. Any-
thing prepared with sugar; a sweetmeat, or
candy. In medicine, the name is commonly
applied to substances, usually pulverulent,
mixed up to the consistence of a soft elec-
tuary, with powdered sugar, syrup, or honey.
In the ‘London Pharmacopoeia' (1836 and
1851) both CONSERVES and ELECTUARIES are
included under this head, though there ap-
pears to be some little distinction between
them.
In the preparation of confections all the
dry ingredients should be reduced to very fine
powder, and passed through a sieve, not
coarser than 80 holes to the inch ; and the
pulps and syrups used to mix them up should
be perfectly homogeneous, and of a proper
consistence. The mixture should be intimate
and complete, in order that the characteristic
constituents may be equally distributed
throughout the mass. The consistence of the
newly made confection should be sufficiently
solid to prevent a separation of the ingre-
dients, and yet soft enough to allow of it
being easily swallowed without previous mas-
tication.
Confections should be preserved in stone
jars covered with writing paper, and placed in
a cool and not too dry a situation. Without
this precaution, they are apt to mould on the
top. If at any time the mass ferments and
swells up, the fermentative process may be ar-
rested by placing the jar in a bath of boiling
water, for an hour or two, or until the whole
becomes pretty hot; when it should be re-
moved from the heat, and stirred occasionally
until cold. Should the sugar crystallise out
of the confection, or “candy, as it is called,
the same method may be followed. Or, the
mass may be well rubbed in a mortar until the
hard lumps of sugar are broken down, and a
uniform consistence again produced. On the
large scale it may be passed through the
mill.
As remedial agents, the officinal confections
possess little value, and are chiefly used as
vehicles for the administration of more active
medicines. See CONSERVES and ELECTU-
ARIES.
Confection of A/corns. Syn. CoNFECTIO
SEM'INUM QUER'CUs, L. Prep. (Bories.)
Powdered acorns, 3 oz. ; red coral and catechu,
of each, 1% oz. ; confection of dog-rose, 10 oz.;
syrup of red roses, q. S. to make a confection.
—Dose. 1 dr., every 4 hours; in chronic
diarrhoea, &c.
Confection of Al'monds. Syn. ALMOND
PASTE, CoNSERVE OF ALMONDs; CoNFECTIO
AMYG'DALA (Ph.L.), CoNSERVA AMYGDALA”-
RUM (Ph. E.), CoNFECTIo AMYGDALA"RUM
(Ph. D. 1826), L. Prep. (Ph. L.) Sweet
almonds, 8 oz. ; white sugar, 4 oz. ; powdered
gum arabic, 1 oz. ; macerate the almonds in
cold water, then remove the skins, and beat
them with the other ingredients until reduced
to a smooth confection. The Ph. E. form is
similar.
Uses, &c. To prepare EMULSION or MILK
OF ALMONDs. A little of this paste or powder,
triturated with a sufficient portion of water,
and strained through a piece of calico, forms
emulsion of almonds. “This confection will
keep longer sound, if the almonds, first decor-
ticated (blanched), dried, and rubbed into the
finest powder, be mixed with the acacia and

CONFECTION. 359
sugar, separately powdered, and the mixed in-
gredients be kept in a well-stoppered bottle.”
(Ph. L.) The same effect may be arrived at
by simply well drying the blanched almonds
before mixing them with the gum and sugar.
The addition of even a small quantity of
water or syrup causes the confection “to
become soon mouldy, or rancid, or both.”
(Brande.)
Confection of Al'um. Syn. ConFECTIO
ALU'MINIs, L. Prep. 1. (St. B. H.) Alum
(in fine powder), 1 dr. ; conserve of roses,
6 drs.
2. (Foy.) Alum, 1 dr. ; conserve of roses, 1
oz.—Dose. 1 dr., 2 or 3 times a day; in lead
colic, and as an astringent in diarrhoea and
other affections.
Confection, Aromatic. Syn. AROMATIC
ELECTUARY: CoNFECTIO AROMAT'ICA (Ph. L.
& D.), ELECTUA’’RIUM AROMATICUM (Ph. E.),
L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Nutmegs, cinnamon,
and hay-saffron, of each, 2 oz.: cloves, 1 oz. ;
cardamoms, 3 oz. ; prepared chalk, 16 oz. ;
white sugar, 2 lbs. ; reduce the whole to a
very fine powder, and keep it in a closed vessel.
When wanted for use, mix it with water to the
consistence of a confection.
2. (Ph. E.) Aromatic powder (Ph. E.), 1
part; syrup of orange peel, 2 parts; mix.
3. (Ph. D.) Aromatic powder and simple
syrup, of each, 5 oz.: clarified honey, 2 oz. ;
powdered saffron, 4 oz. ; mix, and add, oil of
cloves, 30 drops.
4. (Commercial.)—a. Hay-saffron, cassia,
and turmeric, of each, 4 oz. ; cardamoms,
1 oz. ; starch, 8 oz. ; precipitated chalk, 2 lbs.;
white sugar, 4 lbs. ; oil of nutmeg, 2 drs. ; oil
of cloves, 3 drs. ; reduce the dry ingredients to
fine powder, and pass it through a sieve (80
holes); then add the oils, and after well
mixing them in, pass the whole through a
coarse sieve (about 40 holes to the inch), to
ensure perfect admixture.
b. Hay-saffron, 4 oz. ; turmeric, 3 oz. ; pow-
dered starch, 8 oz. ; precipitated chalk, 2 lbs. ;
white sugar, 4 lbs. ; oil of cloves and cassia, of
each, 3 drs. ; oil of nutmeg, 2 drs.; essence of
cardamoms, 1 oz. ; boil the saffrom turmeric in
1 gallon of water, placed in a bright copper
pan, for 10 minutes, then, without straining,
add the chalk, starch, and sugar; mix well,
and continue stirring until the mixture be-
comes quite stiff, then break it up, dry it
thoroughly by the heat of a steam or water
bath; next reduce it to fine powder, which
must be passed through a fine sieve, as before ;
the oils and tincture are now to be added, and
after being well mixed, and passed through a
coarse sieve, it should be placed in a jar or
bottle, and bunged up close. Very bright
coloured.
Obs. In the wholesale trade this article is
kept under two forms—one, in powder, as
ordered by the College, and commonly called
for distinction sake PULV’IS CONFECTIO'NIS
AROMAT/ICAE; the other, mixed up ready for
use. In preparing the latter, it is a common
plan to make a strong infusion or decoction of
the saffron, and to use it to mix up the other
ingredients, adding the aromatics last. (See
4, b.) When the price of precipitated chalk is
an objection to its use, prepared chalk may be
used instead. There is much anxiety evinced
by the wholesale druggists to prepare this
confection of a rich colour, without an undue
expenditure of saffron, which is generally
economised on account of its costliness. This
confection is cordial, stimulant, antacid, and
carminative.—Dose. 10 to 60 grs., either as a
bolus or stirred up with a glass of water; in
diarrhoea, acidity of stomach, heartburn, and
any like affection, if accompanied by looseness
of the bowels. In diarrhoea, English cholera,
and flatulent colic, gr. of powdered opium
may be added to each dose.
Confection of Bark. Syn. CoNFECTIo CIN-
CHO'NE, L. Prep. 1. Yellow bark and white
sugar, of each, 1 oz. ; capsicum, 1 dr.; simple
syrup, 4 oz.
2. (St. B. Hosp.) Yellow bark, 6 drs.;
ginger, dr. ; treacle, 3% oz.-Dose. 1 to 6
drs., where the use of bark is indicated.
Confection of Cas'sia. Syn. ConFECTIo
CAS's LE (Ph. L.), L. Prep. (Ph. L.) Pre-
pared cassia, ; lb.; manna, 2 oz. ; prepared
tamarinds, 1 oz. ; syrup of roses, 8 fl. oz.; mix
with heat, and evaporate to a proper con-
sistence.—Dose. 2 drs. to 6 drs. ; or more, as
a laxative.
Confection of Cat'echu, Syn. CONFECTIo
CAT'ECHU COMPOSITA (Ph. D.), L. Prep.
(Ph. D.) Compound powder of catechu, 5 oz. ;
simple syrup, 5 fl. oz.-Dose. 10 grs. to 20
grs. ; as an astringent, in diarrhoea, &c.; either
alone or combined with chalk.
Confection of Copai'ba. Syn. ConFEC'TIO
COPAI/B.E., L. Prep. 1. (Berton.) Copaiba and
powdered cubebs, of each, 2 oz. ; alum, 1 oz. ;
opium, 5 grs. ; mix well.
2. (Swediaur.) Turpentine, 1 oz. ; copaiba,
# oz. ; mix; add mucilage of gum arabic, 1
oz. ; triturate to an emulsion, and further add,
conserve of roses, 4 oz.
3. (Traill.) Copaiba, 2 oz. ; oatmeal, q. S.
to form an electuary; then add, conserve of
roses, 1 oz.
4. (Voght.) Copaiba and powdered cubebs,
of each, 4% drs. ; yolk of 1 egg; conserve of
roses, 3 oz. All the above are excellent me-
dicines in gonorrhoea.—Dose. 1 to 3 drs., three
or four times a day, made into boluses, and
covered with the fresh emptied skin of a prune
before being swallowed; in gomorrhoea, gleet
&c. -
Confection of Cream of Tar'tar. Syn. CoN-
FECTION OF BITAR/TRATE OF POTAS'SA; CON-
FEC'TIo POTAS's E BITARTRATIS, L. Prep. 1.
Cream of tartar and powdered sugar, of each,
1 oz. ; simple syrup, 2 oz.: 1 nutmeg, grated.
— Dose. 2 drs, to 6 drs. -
2. (St. B. Hosp.) Bitartrate of potassa
and simple syrup, of each, 3 oz. ; ginger, 1 dr.


360 CONFECTION.
— Dose. 1% dr. to 5 drs. Both are laxatives
well adapted for women and children.
Confection of Hem'lock. Syn. CONFECTIO
co'NII, L. Prep. (Marshall Hall.) Fresh hem-
lock leaves beaten up with an equal weight of
sugar.—Dose. 10 to 20 grs., as a bolus, 2 or 3
times daily, where the use of hemlock is indi-
cated. The confection of other narcotic plants
may be made in the same way.
Confection of Hips. Syn. CON'SERVE OF
HIPS, CONFECTION OF DOG-ROSE, CONSERVE
of D.-R. ; CONFECTIO RO's E CANI'NAE (Ph.
L.), CoNSERVA Ro's E FRUC'TÜs (Ph. E.), L.
Prep. 1. (B. P.) Hips, 1 part; refined sugar,
2 parts; heat the hips in a stone mortar, rub
the pulp through a sieve, add the sugar, and
mix thoroughly.—Dose. 60 grains or more.
2. (Ph. L.) Fruit of the dog-rose, without
the seeds (carpels), 1 lb.; pound it to a pulp,
add, gradually, powdered white sugar, 20 oz. ;
and beat them together until thoroughly in-
corporated.
3. (Ph. E.) Pulp of hips, 1 part; white
sugar, 3 parts; as No. 1.
4. (Wholesale.) Pulped hips, 2 cwt, ; fine
white sugar, 3 cwt.; incorporate them without
applying heat.
Obs. Both this and the confection of red
roses have a brighter colour, if made without
heat, or touching metallic vessels. On the
small scale, it is generally made by beating the
ingredients together in a marble mortar, but
in large quantities by grinding in a mill.
Great care must be taken to remove the seeds
(carpels) with the hair surrounding them,
before pulping the fruit, as they are apt, like
the hairs of cowhage, when swallowed, to pro-
duce vomiting, itching about the anus, &c.
This conserve is slightly laxative, and is prin-
cipally used for forming pills. It is very apt
to candy by keeping.
Confection of Ipecacuanſha. Syn. CONFECTIO
IPECACUAN'HE, L. Prep. (Bories.) Ipecacu-
anha, 12 grs. ; sulphur, 20 grs. ; orris root,
1 dr.; syrup of mallows and manna, of each,
2 oz.-Dose. A teaspoonful, 2 or 3 times daily;
in hooping-cough, dyspepsia, &c.
Confection of Jal'ap. Syn. CONFECTIO
JAI/APAE, C. J. COMPOSITA, L. Prep. (St. B.
Hosp.) Jalap, 4 drs.; ginger, 1 dr. ; bitartrate
of potassa, 3 oz. ; treacle, 5 oz.-Dose. 1 to 3
drs., as a purgative.
Confection of Mercury. Syn. ConFEC'TIO
HYDRAR/GYRI, C. MERCURIA/LIS, L. Prep 1.
Stronger mercurial ointment (Ph. L.), 1 part;
conserve of roses, 3 parts.
2. (Dr. D. Davis.) Mercury and manna, equal
parts; treacle, q. S.; triturate until the globules
of mercury disappear.
Dose, &c. The same as those of mercurial pill.
Confection of Ni‘tre. Syn. CoNFECTIO
PoTAs's A NITRA'TIS, L. Prep. 1. Nitre,
1 part ; confection of roses, 6 parts; oil of
juniper, a few drops.
2. (St. B. Hosp.) As the last, without the
juniper. Both are used in gonorrhoea.
Confection of 0'pium. Syn. CoNFECTIO
o'PII (B. P.), ELECTUA’’RIUM o'PII (Ph. E.),
L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Compound powder of
opium, 192 grs. ; syrup, 1 oz.
2. (Ph. L.) Powdered opium, 6 drs.; long
pepper, 1 oz. ; ginger, 2 oz. ; caraways, 3 OZ, ;
tragacanth, 2 drs. ; reduce to fine powder, and
keep it in a closed vessel; for use, add to it by
degrees, hot syrup, 16 fl. Oz. (i. e., 3% drs, of
the powder to each fl. oz. of syrup). It con-
tains 1 gr. of opium in every 36 grs.
3. (Ph. E.) Aromatic powder, 6 oz. ; senega,
3 oz. ; opium, diffused in a little sherry, 3 oz.;
syrup of ginger, 1 lb. Contains 1 gr. of opium
in every 43 grs.
Uses, &c. This confection is intended as a
substitute for the once celebrated Mithridate,
philonium, and theriaca of the old Pharmaco-
poeias. It is stimulant, anodyne, and narcotic.
—Dose, 5 to 30 grs. ; in flatulent colic and
diarrhoea unaccounpanied by fever.
Confection of Orange Flow’ers. Syn. CON-
FECTIO FLOR'UM AURAN'TII, L. Prep. 1.
Orange flowers, 1 part ; white sugar, 2 parts;
beat together to a confection.
2. (Tadei.) Orange flowers, 1 part; simple
syrup, 3 parts; evaporate to a proper con-
sistence. Both are used as agreeable adjuncts
or vehicles for other medicines. The first is
the best article.
Confection of Orange Peel. Syn. CoNFEC-
TION OF ORANGE, CONSERVE OF ORANGE PEEL;
CoNFECTIo AURANTII (Ph.L.), CONSERVA
AURAN'TII (Ph. E.), CoNSER'vA AURAN-
TIO"RUM (Ph. L. 1824), L. Prep. (Ph. L.
and E.) External rind of the fresh orange,
separated by rasping, 1 lb.; beat it in a stone
mortar with a wooden pestle to a pulp, then
add, white sugar, 3 lbs.; and beat them together
until incorporated.
Uses, &c. This confection is an agreeable
fonic and stomachic ; it is much used as an
adjunct to bitter and purgative powders, and
as a vehicle for the sesquioxide of iron.
Confection of Pepper. Syn. CoNFECTION OF
BLACK PEPPER, CONSERVE OF B. P.; WARD's
PASTE; CoNFECTIO PIP'ERIs (B. P.), C. P.
NI/GRI (Ph. D. & Ph. L. 1836), ELECTU-
A"RIUM PIP'ERIs (Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.)
Black pepper, in fine powder, 2 parts; cara-
way, in fine powder, 3 parts; clarified honey,
15 parts; triturate.—Dose. 60 to 120 grs.
2. (Ph.L.) Black pepper and elecampane, of
each, 1 lb.; fennel, 3 lbs. ; white sugar, 2 lbs. ;
reduce to a very fine powder, and keep it in a
covered vessel; for use, add it, gradually, to
honey, 2 lbs. ; and beat the whole to a paste
(i.e., 2 oz. of honey to each 7 oz. of powder).
3. (Ph. E.) As the last, but using liquorice
powder instead of elecampane, and at once
making a confection.
4. (Ph. D.) Black pepper and liquorice
root, of each, 3 oz. ; refined sugar, 1 oz. ; oil
of fennel, # fl. Oz. ; honey, 2 oz. ; mix-Dose,
of each of the above, 1 to 3 drs., two or three
times daily, for 3 or 4 months; in Wiles,

CONFECTION.
361
fistula, &c., unaccompanied with inflammatory
symptoms. Or, it may be used as a sup-
pository. It is intended as a substitute for
the once celebrated nostrum, ‘Ward’s Paste
for the Piles.”
Confection of Peppermint. Syn. CONFECTIO
MEN'THE PIPERI'THE, L. Green peppermint,
4 oz. ; white sugar, 12 oz. Anti-emetic and
anti-flatulent ; in colic, diarrhoea, &c.; in the
form of a bolus, or made into a mixture.
Confection of Resin. Syn. ConFECTIO
RESIN’A., L. Prep. (Dr. Watson.) Powdered
resin, 1 oz. ; balsam of copaiba, 3 oz. ; honey,
5 oz.-Dose. 1 to 3 drs. ; in piles and gleet.
It is best combined with a little confection of
orange peel, which effectually covers the taste
of the copaiba.
Confection of Roſses. Syn. CONFECTION OF
RED ROSES; CONFECTIO RO's E (Ph. L. & D.),
CoNSER/VA Ro's E (Ph. E.), CoNFECTIo Ro's E
GAL'LICAE (B. P.), CoNSERVA. R. G. (Ph. L.
1824), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Fresh red-rose
petals, 1 lb.; white sugar, 3 lbs. ; mix as con-
fection of hips.
2. (Ph. E.) Fresh petals, 1 part ; sugar,
2 parts.
3. (Ph. D.)—a. Fresh petals, 3 oz. ; sugar,
8 oz. Or—
b. Dried petals, 1 oz. ; water, 2 fl.oz. ; mace-
rate for 2 hours; then add refined sugar, 8 oz. ;
and beat to a mass, as before.
Obs. It is astringent and tonic, but is
principally used as an elegant vehicle for more
active medicines. It keeps well, and does not
candy like confection of hips.--Dose. 1 to 2
drs., eaten off a spoon, either alone or combined
with chalk; in slight cases of diarrhoea, vomit-
ing in pregnancy, &c. See CoNSERVE.
Confection of Rue. Syn. ConFECTIO RU’TA:
(Ph. L.), L. Prep. (Ph. L.) Fresh rue (bruised),
caraways, and laurel berries, of each, 1% oz. ;
prepared Sagapenum, oz. ; black pepper,
2 drs. ; honey, 16 oz. ; water, q. S.; rub the
dry ingredients to a fine powder, then add,
gradually, the sagapenum, previously dissolved
in the water and honey over a slow fire, and
mix well. In the Ph. L. 1836, dried rue was
ordered. Carminative and antispasmodic. In
flatulent colic, and in the convulsions of chil-
dren, when there is no inflammation.— Dose.
15 to 60 grs. ; either by the mouth, or made
into an enema with gruel.
Confection of Scam'mony. Syn. CoNFECTIO
SCAMMO"NII (B. P.), ELECTUA"RUM scAM-
Mo"NII (Ph.D.). Prep. (B.P.) Scammomy,
in fine powder, 24 parts; ginger, in fine pow-
der, 12 parts; oil of caraway, 1 part; oil of
cloves, # part ; syrup, 24 parts; clarified honey,
12 parts; rub the powders with the syrup and
the honey into a uniform mass, then add the
oils, and mix.-Dose. 10 grs. to 30 grs.; as a
warm cathartic, and in worms, &c.
Confection of Sen’ma. Syn. LEN'ITIVE ELEC'-
TUARY, ELECTUARY of SENNA; CoNFEC'TIo
SEN/NAE (Ph. L. & D.), ELECTUA"RIUM SEN'-
NAE (Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. Senna, 8 oz. ; cori-
anders, 4 oz. ; rub them together, and by a
sieve separate 10 oz. of the mixed powder;
also boil figs, 1 lb., and fresh liquorice, bruised,
3 oz., in water, 3 pints, until reduced to one
half; press, strain, and evaporate the strained
liquor in a water bath to 24 fl. Oz. ; then add
sugar, 2% lbs. ; dissolve, and further add, pre-
pared tamarinds, cassia, and prunes, of each,
# lb.; remove from the heat, and when the
whole has considerably cooled, add the sifted
powder, by degrees, and stir until the whole
is thoroughly incorporated.
2. (Ph. E.) Senna, 8 oz. ; corianders, 4 oz. ;
liquorice root, 3 oz. ; figs and pulp of prunes, of
each, 1 lb.; white sugar, 24 lbs.; water, 3% pints.
3. (Ph.D.) Senna leaves, in fine powder,
2 oz. ; corianders (in fine powder), 1 oz. ; oil
of caraway, # dr. ; mix, and add them to pulp
of prunes, 5 oz. ; pulp of tamarinds, 2 oz. ;
brown sugar, 8 oz. ; water, 2 fl. Oz. ; previously
brought to a smooth paste by the heat of a
water bath.
Uses, &c. Confection of senna is a gentle
and pleasant purgative, and well adapted for
persons suffering from piles, and as a laxative
during pregnancy. The dose is 1 dr. to 3 oz.,
taken at bedtime or early in the morning.
Obs. There is no one pharmacopoeial pre-
paration which it is more difficult to obtain of
good quality than confection of senna. The
absolute cost of an article prepared according
to the directions of the Colleges, is greater
than the price at which many wholesale
houses are vending the drug. Dr. Paris very
truly remarks that, “the directions of the
Pharmacopoeia are very rarely followed.” Con-
siderable quantities are manufactured, into
which unsound and spoilt apples enter as a
principal ingredient; whilst the substitution
of jalap for the whole, or a portion of the senna,
is a very common practice. We have seen the
following forms employed in the trade.
4. Powdered senna, pulp of tamarinds, cassia,
and prunes, of each, 1% lb.; powdered corian-
ders, # lb.; Spanish juice, 3 lb. ; simple syrup,
12 lbs.
5. As the above, but omitting the cassia
pulp, and adding 2 lbs. more tamarind pulp.
Both these articles are labelled “P. L.” and
sent out as genuine, and that when no com-
petition as to price exists. The cheaper article
is made as follows:—
6. Common prunes and tamarinds, of each,
16 lbs. ; treacle, # cwt. ; species (a compound of
senna dust and small senna, mixed with 3 lbs. of
coriander seeds, and strengthened with jalap;
all ground to a fine powder), 184 lbs. To this
is frequently added, of rotten or inferior apples,
} cwt., which are pulped with the prunes and
tamarinds. This article is commonly labelled
“CoNF. SENNE WER.” by its manufacturer.
Confection of Sponge. Syn. ELEC'TUARY OF
BURNT SPONGE; CoNFECTIo SPONGII, C. S.
Us'TE, L. Prep. 1. Burnt sponge, 3 parts;
confection of orange peel and hips, of each,
1 part ; simple syrup, q. S.


£62 CONFECTIONERY_CONSERVE.
2. (St. B. Hosp.) Burnt sponge, made into
a confection with syrup of orange peel. The
first form produces the most agreeable con-
fection.—Dose, of either, dr. to 2 drs., twice
or thrice daily; in scrofula, &c.
Confection of Steel. Prep. 1. CoNFECTIO
FER/RI SESQUIOX'IDI, L.-a. From confection
of orange and sesquioxide of iron (Ph. L.), of
each, 2 oz. ; white sugar, 3 oz. ; syrup, 1% oz. ;
mix.-Dose, 1 dr. to 3 drs.
b. (St. B. Hosp.) Sesquioxide of iron, 1 oz. ;
treacle, q. S.–Dose. # dr. to 1 dr. Both are
given in the usual cases wherein iron is indi-
cated; especially in anaemia, chlorosis, and
amenorrhoea.
2. (ConFEC'TIo FER/RI TARTARIZA'TI,-St.
B. Hosp.) Cream of tartar, 1% oz. ; tartrate
of iron, 2 drs. ; ginger, 1 dr. ; treacle, 2% oz., or
q. s.-Dose. 1 dr, to 2 drs., 2 or 3 times daily.
Confection of Sul’phur. Syn. BRIMSTONE
AND TREACLE ; CoNFECTIO SULPHU’RIs, L.
Prep. 1. Sublimed sulphur, 2 oz. ; treacle, 4 oz.
— Dose. A spoonful night and morning for a
week or longer, as an alterative or purifier of
the blood; in skin diseases, &c.
2. (St. B. Hosp.) Precipitated sulphur,
1 oz. ; cream of tartar, 2 drs. ; honey or treacle,
2 oz. As the last.
3. (B. P.) Sublimed sulphur, 4 oz. ; cream
of tartar, 1 oz. ; syrup of orange peel, 4 fl. Oz.
—Dose. 1 to 2 drs. ; as a laxative, in piles,
gomorrhoea, &c.
Confection of Tin. Syn. CONFECTIO STAN'NI,
L. Prep. (Hosp. Form.) Powdered tin, 1 oz. ;
confection of roses, 2 oz. ; mix.-Dose. 2 to
4 drs., every morning; in worms.
Confection of Turpentime. Syn. ConFECTIO
TEREBINTH/INAE, L. Prep. (B. P.) Oil of
turpentine, 1 fl. oz.; liquorice powder, 1 oz. ;
triturate together, then add clarified honey,
2 oz.—Dose and use, as the last.
Confection of Worm-seed. Syn. CoNFEC'-
TIO CIN'E, C. S. CINE, L. Prep. 1. (Ph.
Slesvico-Holsat. 1831, and Ph. Suec. 1845.)
Worm-seed, 2 oz. ; heat it in a pan over a gentle
fire, add white sugar, boiled to a low candy
height, 4 oz. ; and stir together until they
become dry; then pick out those seeds which
are covered with sugar, and repeat the process
with the others.
2. Powdered worm-seed and syrup of orange
peel, equal parts.--Dose. 1 to 2 drs, night and
morning, followed by a brisk purge; in worms.
CONFECTIONERY. See CANDIES, DROPs,
LOZENGES, SUGAR, &c.
CONGELATION. The conversion of a sub-
stance from the fluid to the solid state by the
abstraction of heat. See ICE and REFRIGERA-
TION.
CONGLUTINUM (Bracy Clarke's). Sulphate
of zinc (white vitriol), 4 oz. ; dissolved in
water, 1 pint. Used as an astringent lotion in
veterinary practice, and, much diluted with
water (a dessert-spoonful to 4 pint or more of
water), as a collyrium in chronic inflammation
of the eyes.
CO'NIA. CŞHisO. Syn. Co'NINE, CON'I.
CINE. An alkaloid, discovered by Gieseke in
hemlock. It exists in every part of the
plant, but is present in the largest quantity in
the seed.
Prep. (Gieger.) The seeds of hemlock, or
their alcoholic extract, is distilled with water
and potassa. The conia passes over into the
receiver, and floats on the top of the water,
which also contains a little conine in solution.
It is purified in the way directed for the vola-
tile bases. (See ALKALOID.) When the alco-
holic extract is employed, about half its weight
of potassa should be used.
Prop., &c. Pure conia is an oily looking
liquid, smelling intensely of hemlock, or rather
of a combination of the odours of tobacco and
mice; volatile at common temperatures; red-
dens turmeric; boils at about 340° Fahr., but
readily distils over with water at 212°; sp. gr.
'89; with the acids it forms salts, some of
which are crystallisable. 6 lbs. of fresh and
9 lbs. of dried seeds yielded 1 oz. of conia.
(Gieger.) 40 lbs. of the ripe but green seeds
yielded 2% oz. of hydrated conia. (Christison.)
Conia is remarkably poisonous. 1 drop,
placed in the eye of a rabbit, killed it in 9
minutes; 5 drops, poured into the throat of a
dog, killed it in less than a minute. It has
been employed in some convulsive and spas-
modic diseases, but is now seldom used medi-
cinally. “The plaintive cries, the contortions,
and the rigidity of the limbs, which have
always preceded death (caused by conia), leave
no doubt as to the cruel pains which this kind
of poisoning brings on.” (Boutron-Chalard
and Henry.) The treatment may be that re-
commended under ACONITE and HEMLOCK.
CON'SERVE. Syn. CoNSER'VA, L. Recent
vegetable matter, as flowers, herbs, roots, fruit,
and seed, beaten with powdered sugar to the
consistence of a stiff paste, so as to preserve
them, as nearly as possible, in their natural
freshness. Conserves are made both by the
confectioner and the druggist; by the first, as
SWEETMEATs; by the other, chiefly as vehi-
cles for more active medicines. The London
College of Physicians now includes both con-
serves and electuaries under the general head
of CONFECTIONS. The term appears, how-
ever, in some cases, scarcely appropriate. The
word confection has a more general applica-
tion, and implies any sweatmeat or composi-
tion in which sugar is the principal ingredient.
See CoNFECTION and ELECTUARY.
Conserve of Ac'etate of Potas'sa. Syn. CON-
SERVA POTAS's EACETA'TIs, L. Prep. (Bories.)
Acetate of potassa, Oz.; sulphate of soda,
1 dr. ; juices of scurvy grass, fumitory, and
dandelion, of each, 2 oz. (reduced to one half
by gentle evaporation ?); sugar, q. S. to make
a conserve. A teaspoonful, 2 or 3 times daily,
as a diuretic aperient; in obstruction of the
bowels, &c.
Conserve of Al'monds.
Conserve of Angel'ica.
See CoNFECTIONS.
Syn. CoRSERVA

CONSTIPATION.
363
ANGEL'ICE, L. Prep. (Giordano.) Fresh an-
gelica root, 2 parts; water, 16 parts; mace-
rate for a few hours, clarify the liquor, add
sugar, 3 parts; cook the root in the syrup, and
preserve it in this state (confection), or dry it
(to a candy). Used as an agreeable tonic, sto-
machic, and carminative.
Conserve, Antiscorbuſtic. Syn. CoNSER'VA
ANTISCORBU'TICA, L. Prep. (Selle.) Horse-
radish, water-cress, and water-trefoil, orange-
juice, and radish-juice, equal parts; powdered
white sugar, q. S. to make a conserve. In
scurvy, &c.
Conserve of A"rum. Syn. CoNSERVA A"RI,
C. A. MACULATI, L. Prep. From fresh arum
tubers (cuckow-pint or wake-robin), 3 lb. ;
sugar, 2% lbs. As a diuretic and attenuant in
dropsy, or as an expectorant in chronic coughs.
—Dose. A teaspoonful, gradually increased.
Conserve of Broom. Syn. CoNSERVA SCO-
PA"RII, L. Prep. (Van Mons.) Broom flowers,
1 part ; sugar, 2 parts.-Dose. # to 2 tea-
spoonfuls, 2 or 3 times a day; in dropsy, gout,
rheumatism, &c.
Conserve of Hips. See CoNFECTION.
Conserve of Lavender. Syn. CONSER'VA
LAVENDU/LAE, L. Lavender flowers, 1 part;
powdered lump sugar, 3 parts; beaten to-
gether to a smooth paste. Used to sweeten
the breath. In a similar way conserves are
made from various other leaves and flowers;
but mostly with only twice their weight of
sugar, when they are not very odorous or
active.
Conserve of Lem'on Peel. Syn. CONSERVA
LIMO'NIS, C. L. CORT/ICIS, L. As CONFECTION
OF ORANGE PEEL.
Conserve of Mallows. Syn. CONSER'VA
MAL/VF, L. From the flowers, as CONSERVE
OF LAVENDER.
Conserve of Or'ange Peel.
Conserve of Pep'permint. See CoNFECTION.
Conserve of Rose'mary. Syn. ConsER'VA
ROSMARI/NI, L. As CoNSERVE OF LAVENDER.
Conserve of Roses. 1. See CONFECTION.
2. (ACIDULATED CONSERVE OF ROSEs.
CONSER'vA. Ro's E AC/IDA, L.) Prep. (Hosp. F.)
Confection of roses and powdered gum, of each,
1 oz. ; sulphuric acid, 1 dr. to 1% dr. ; (diluted
with) water, 2 drs. An excellent substitute for
tamarinds.
Conserve of Sav'im. Syn. CONSER'VA SA-
BI'NAE, L. Prep. (Ph. Han.) Fresh savin,
1 part ; sugar, 2 parts. As an emmenagogue,
in amenorrhoea, &c. Three parts of sugar
make a better conserve.
Conserve of Scurvy Grass. Sgn. CONSER'VA
COCHLEA"RIAE, C. C. HoRTEN'SIs, L. Prep.
(Ph. Aust. 1836.) Fresh scurvy grass, 1 lb.;
sugar, 3 lbs. Stimulant and antiscorbutic.
Conserve of Sea Worm"wood, Syn. Con-
SERVA AB.SINTH'II MARITI'MI, L. Prep. (Ph.
L. 1788.) From sea wormwood, as the last.
As a stomachic bitter and vermifuge; in dys-
pepsia, &c.
Conserve of Sloes.
See CONFECTION.
Syn. CONSER'WA PRU'NI
SYLVESTRI, L. Prep. (Ph. L. 1788.) From
the pulp of the fruit, 1 part; sugar, 3 parts.
Astringent. Useful in simple diarrhoea, &c.;
either alone or combined with chalk.
Conserve of Squills. Syn. CONSER'vA SCII/-
LAE, L. Prep. (Ph.L. 1788.) Fresh squills, 1 oz.;
sugar, 5 oz. Diuretic, attenuant, and expec-
torant; in dropsy, chronic coughs, &c.—Dose.
10 to 20 grs.
Conserve of Tamarinds. Syn. ConsBR'VA
TAMARIND'ORUM, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) Tama-
rind pulp, 2 oz. ; white sugar, 3 oz. ; evaporate
by the heat of a water bath to the consistence
of honey.
Conserve of Violets. Syn. ConsER'VA
VIO'LE, C. V. ODORATE, L. Prep. (Soubeiran.)
Flowers, 1 part ; sugar, 3 parts; beat to a
paste. Demulcent and laxative; used as a
purge for infants, and by ladies to perfume
the breath.
Conserve of Waſter-cress. Syn. ConsER'VA
NASTUR"TII, L. Prep. (Ph. Graeca, 1837.)
From fresh water-cresses, as the last. In
scurvy; taken ad libiţum.
Conserve of Wormwood. See CoNSERVE of
SEA Worm WOOD.
CONSTIPATION. Syn. CoNSTIPATIO, OB-
STIPA(TIO, L. Surgeons distinguish between
costiveness and constipation. The first applies
to that condition of the body in which the
bowels act tardily, and in which the faeces are
abnormally and inconveniently indurated; the
last implies the absence of the proper alvine
evacuations. The one rapidly undermines the
health; the other destroys life in a period
varying from a few days to 3 or 4 weeks. In
popular language, however, the words are fre-
quently used synonymously. The use of bread
containing alum, and water containing much
lime (very hard water), and the want of suffi-
cient exercise, are common causes of con-
stipation.
Treatment. When the affection is merely
accidental or occasional, a dose of some aperient
or cathartic is the only treatment necessary;
but when it is habitual it calls for further atten-
tion. Great benefit may generally be secured by
adopting a diet free from astringents, and con-
sisting of a large portion of green vegetables
and ripe fruit; particularly avoiding the use
of over-cooked, salted, or dried animal food.
Brown bread may be eaten, as it acts as a gentle
laxative, from the bran it contains. The occa-
sional use of aperient and emollient enemata
may be had recourse to ; but their habitual
administration, as well as that of purgative
medicines generally, by the mouth, is not to
be recommended. The bowels, accustomed to
the continual use of stimulants, act but lan-
guidly or scarcely at all without their appli-
cation. In females, especially of the higher
classes, the want of proper exercise is com-
monly the chief cause of this affection. With
such persons, a short walk, two or three times
daily, will often do wonders, particularly if a
little ripe fruit, a few raisins or tamarinds, or,
364
CONSUMPTION.—COPAIBA.
still better, 2 or 3 drum figs, be occasionally
eaten. In some cases of obstinate constipa-
tion a cold-water dressing, placed over the pit
of the stomach or the abdomen, will cause the
bowels to act in the course of an hour or two.
When the inactivity of the bowels arises from
a deficiency of bile (one of the most common
causes), no remedy is more natural, or more
effective, than inspissated ox-gall. In cases
complicated with nervous, hypochondriacal, or
hysterical affections, in chlorosis, dyspepsia,
depraved appetite, and numerous other ail-
ments, this remedy frequently succeeds, after
the most active articles of the materia medica
have been tried in vain.
In the treatment of the constipation of
infants, castor-oil (; teaspoonful occasionally),
or manna (4 to 4 oz., sucked at will), may be
given. The introduction (very gently) of a
little slip of writing paper, parsley stalk, or
suet, is a method sometimes adopted success-
fully by nurses. Friction on the stomach and
bowels with the warm hand, or a piece of soft
flannel, should also be employed. See GALL,
PURGATIVE, &c.
CONSUMIP/TION. See PHTHISIS.
CONTA/GION. See DISINFECTANT.
CONTU'SION. A hurt, or injury to the
flesh, such as might be caused by a blunt in-
strument or by a fall, without breach or appa-
rent wound. For treatment, see BRUISE.
COPAI/BA. Syn. CoPAI'vA, CoPAIVA BAL-
SAM, CAPIV'I, BALSAM OF CAPIV'I; COPAI/BA
(Ph. L. E. & D.), L.; BAUME DE COPAHU, Fr.;
COBAIVA BALSAM, Ger. “The oleo-resin, of a
brown colour, obtained by incision from the
trunk of Copaifera multijuga.” (B.P.) Most of
the balsam of commerce is obtained from Para
and Maranhao. It is packed in casks containing
from 1 to 13 cwt. each, or in large bottles, or
in cylindrical tin boxes.
Prop., Purific., &c. Copaiba, though usually
called a ‘balsam,” is not correctly so named,
as it contains no benzoic or cinnamic acid. It
is correctly described in the B. P. as an
‘oleo-resin.” Considerable variation exists in
the colour, odour, consistence, and transpa-
rency, as well as in the proportion of oil and
resin yielded by different samples, scarcely
any two of which exactly agree. The sp. gr.
varies from 1950 to '996. Brazilian copaiba is
thin, clear, and pale; whilst the West Indian
variety is thick, golden yellow, less transparent,
and has a less agreeable and somewhat tere-
binthinate smell. Some varieties are opaque,
and continue so unless filtered. This is often
a most troublesome operation. The opacity
generally arises from the presence of water,
which it retains with great tenacity. The fol-
lowing is the plan we have found to answer on
the large scale:–Place the casks upon their
ends in a warm situation, and leave them so
for 10 days or a fortnight, or longer, if con-
venient. They may then be tapped a little
above the bottom, when the contents of some
of them will generally be found quite trans-
parent, and may be drawn off and Vatted, care :
being taken to avoid shaking up the bottom.
The copaiva that remains foul must be filtered
through one or more long Canton flannel bags,
sunk in the bottom of a tin cistern, placed
over a suitable receiver, in a similar way to
that adopted for oils; a few pounds of coarsely
powdered charcoal being mixed up with the
first 5 or 6 gallons thrown in. This will
rapidly fill up the pores of the bag, and make
the balsam soon flow clear and pale. The
“bottoms” of the casks, containing the water
and impurities, may be poured into a large
can or jar, and allowed to settle for a few days,
when the copaiba may be poured off the top
and filtered. A sudden change of temperature
will frequently turn a transparent sample of
this article opaque or milky; it is not, there-
fore, deemed fit to send out by the whole-
sale trade, unless it stands this test. To
ascertain this point, a common practice is to
fill a small bottle with the copaiba, and to
leave it out of doors all night in an exposed
situation.
Pur., Tests, &c. This substance is frequently
adulterated; indeed, fully one half that sold
for copaiba does not contain 10% of the genuine
balsam. This is particularly the case with
that sold in capsules, at low prices, in the
shops. Pure balsam of copaiba may be recog-
nised by the following characters:–
1. (Ph. E.) It is transparent; free of
turpentine odour when heated; soluble in
2 parts of alcohol; and dissolves one fourth
of its weight of carbonate of magnesia with
the aid of a gentle heat, and continues trans.
lucent.
2. (Chevallier.) A drop of the balsam, placed
on a piece of unsized paper, and heated until
all the essential oil is expelled, forms a semi-
transparent, well-defined spot; but if the balsam
has been adulterated with a fatty oil, it is sur-
rounded by an oily areola.
3. (Planche.) 2% parts of balsam shaken
with 1 part of solution of ammonia, sp. gr.
‘965, forms a mixture which becomes clear
and transparent in a few moments, and may
be heated to 212° Fahr. without becoming
opaque.
4. (Vigne.) Boiled with 50 times its weight
of water for 1 hour, it should lose at least half
its weight.
5. (Adder.) By agitating the suspected
sample with a lye of caustic soda, and setting
the mixture aside to repose, the balsam after
a time rises to the surface, and the fatty
oil present (if any) forms a soapy, thick mass
below.
6. (“Journ. de Pharm.,’ 1842.) Pure copaiba
may be adulterated with 50 per cent. of a fat
oil (nut, almond, or castor oil), without it
ceasing to give a clear solution with 2 parts
of alcohol; but it combines badly with mag-
nesia and ammonia. Excess of alcohol, how-
ever, separates the oil in all cases.

The best-
test for detecting the fat oils is the use of
COPAIBA.
365
pure alcohol, to which some caustic potash has
been added.
Uses, &c. Balsam of copaiba is considered
detersive, vulnerary, diuretic, and astringent;
and appears to possess a sort of specific power
over diseases of the mucous membranes of the
urino-genital organs. It is hence a favorite
remedy in gonorrhoea, as soon as the first in-
flammatory symptoms have subsided, anti-
phlogistic and soothing measures being pre-
viously adopted.— Dose. 20 to 60 drops on
sugar, floating on water, or made into an emul-
sion with yolk of egg or gum arabic, 3 or 4
times daily, if the stomach will bear it. The
addition of a few drops of sweet spirits of nitre
and laudanum have been recommended, to
allay the nausea. By adding 1 dr. of oil of
orange (ol. aurantii) to each oz. of the balsam,
its flavour becomes far from disagreeable, and
it sits well upon the stomach. Copaiba is also
given in capsules and pills. See CAPSULES,
EMULSION, OIL, PILLS, &c.
Obs. Numerous preparations of this article
are sold under such names as ‘soluble co-
paiba,” “specific solution,’ ‘salt of copaiba,’
&c.; none of these appear to possess equal
activity and certainty of operation to the
natural balsam. As the whole virtue of
copaiba as a medicine depends on the essential
oil it contains, the value of any of these pre-
parations may be estimated by the quantity of
that article which is found in them. In the
case of the first two articles above named, the
quantity is very small indeed, and in the last
it is wholly deficient.
The following forms are current in the trade
for the reduction (adulteration) of balsam of
Caplv1:—
1. Balsam of copaiba, 4 lbs.; castor oil, 3 lbs.;
mix well.
2. Balsam, 7 lbs. ; castor oil, 4 lbs. ; yellow
resin, 2 lbs.
3. Equal parts of balsam of copaiba
Canada balsam. -
4. To the last add, Venice turpentine, 1 lb.
5. Balsams of Canada and copaiba, and nut
or castor oil, equal parts.
6. Copaiba, 7 lbs.; nut oil, 3 lbs.; yellow resin,
2 lbs. ; Canada balsam, 1 lb. Used to fill the
cheap capsules; and to sell in the lower parts
of London and in the manufacturing districts.
See also FACTITIOUS COPAIBA (below).
Copaiba, Facti"tious. Syn. COPAI'BA FAC-
TI"TIA, BAL's AMUM coPAI'BAE FACTI"TIUM, L.
Prep. 1. Castor oil (warm), 7 quarts; copaiba
bottoms, 1 quart; mix, and filter through
flannel.
2. Castor oil, 1 gal.; yellow resin, 3 lbs. ;
Canada balsam, 2 lbs. ; oil of juniper, 2 oz. ;
oil of savin, 1 oz. ; essences of orange and
lemon, of each, 3 oz. ; powdered benzoin,
1 oz. ; melt the resin with the castor oil
and benzoin, and when nearly cold add the
€SSences.
3. Canada balsam, 9 lbs.; castor oil, 7 lbs. ;
yellow resin, 1 lb.; Venice turpentine, 2 lbs. ;
and
oils of rosemary, juniper, and savin, of each,
1 dr.; essential oil of almonds, 20 drops.
4. Canada balsam, 3 lbs. ; Venice turpentine,
1 lb.; oils of fennel, juniper, and savin, of
each, q. s. -
Used chiefly to fill capsules. It is readily
distinguished from balsam of copaiba by the
proper tests. (See above.) Train oil or nut
oil is frequently substituted for the castor
oil.
Copaiba and Kaſli. Syn. COPAIBA CUM
POTASSA, L. Prep. Carbonate of potassa and
water, of each, equal parts; dissolve, and add,
gradually, transparent balsam of copaiba, until
the fluid, at first milky, turns quite clear.
Resembles miscible copaiba (see below).
Copaiba, Miscible. Prep. From balsam of
copaiba (pure and transparent), mixed with
half its volume of solution of potassa made of
double the strength ordered in the B. P.
Obs. As different samples of copaiba often
require slightly different quantities of the
solution of potassa, it is best to mix the two
gradually and cautiously together. Should
the mixture be opaque, a little more of one or
other of the ingredients, as the case may be,
will render it clear. No heat must be used.
This article is miscible with water, with which
.it forms a kind of milk; and from containing
all the volatile oil of the copaiba, is a very
valuable preparation. Its activity is considered
equal to that of the balsam itself, and it is
given in similar doses.
Copaiba, Soluble. Syn. CoPAI'BA SOLU-
BII/IS, L. Prep. 1. Heat miscible copaiba in
an earthen, glass, or bright-tinned copper
vessel, to nearly the boiling-point, pour it
while still hot into a separator, cover it up,
and allow it to cool very slowly. After a few
days, draw off the clear portion from a cock
or hole placed at or near the bottom of the
vessel, observing to reject the first few drops
which pass through, and to stop the stream
before any of the floating oil (oleum copaibae)
reaches the orifice. A very little concentrated
liquor of potassa, added before applying the
heat, renders it more soluble. Thick, trans-
parent, soluble in pure water, and resembles
the natural balsam in appearance.
2. Balsam of copaiba and solution of potassa
(B. P.), equal parts, by volume; mix, boil for
a few minutes, and then proceed as before.
Thinner than the last.
Prop. Less powerful than miscible copaiba,
but it sits better on the stomach, and is about
four times as strong as specific solution of co-
paiba. See SOLUTION.
Copaiba, Res'im of Syn. COPAI/BAE RESI/NA,
L. The residuum of the process of distilling
the oil of copaiba from the balsam. It consists
principally of copaibic acid. It has been re-
commended for gonorrhoea, but is nearly inert,
even in oz. or # oz. doses. See OIL.
Copaiba, Salt of. Syn. SAL COPAIBAE, L.
There are two preparations sold under this
name; the one, crude copaibic acid; the other,



366 COPAIBIC ACID—COPPER.
copaibate of an alkali. Neither of them pos-
sesses the valuable properties of copaiba, which
reside almost entirely in its essential oil. “We
have taken the ‘sal copaibae, and have watched
its action on others, but have not been able to
perceive any good effects to result from its
administration.” (Cooley.)
COPAIBIC ACID. Syn. CAPIV'IC ACID,
YELLOW RESIN OF COPAIBA. An amber-
coloured, brittle, semi-crystalline, resinous sub-
stance, obtained from resin of copaiba, soluble
in alcohol, rectified spirit, ether, and oils, red-
dens litmus paper, and forms salts with the
bases, called copaibates.
C0/PAL. Syn. CoPAL’, GUM CoPAL. A re-
sinous substance, which exudes spontaneously
from various trees belonging to the genera
Hymenaea, Guibourtia, and Trachylobium.
The varieties commonly met with in com-
merce are East Indian copal, or anime, which
is the produce of Hymenaea Courbaril, and
West Indian copal, obtained from numerous
species.
Prop. When of good quality, it is too hard
to be scratched by the nail, has a conchoidal
fracture, and a sp. gr. ranging from 1:059 to
1-072. Unlike other resins, it is dissolved with
difficulty by alcohol and essential oils; and
this property, combined with its extreme hard-
ness, renders it very valuable for making var-
nishes. See WARNISH.
COPPER. Cu. Syn. CU"PRUM, L.; CUIVRE,
Fr.; KUPFER, Ger. -
Sources. Metallic copper (native copper)
is found in many parts of the globe, diffused
in isolated particles in the form of thin laminae,
in loose grains intermixed with quartz (copper
sand, copper barilla), in dendritic pieces, and
in solid blocks, occasionally of many tons
weight. The richest deposits of native copper
are those of Lake Superior, in North America.
More frequently and more abundantly it occurs
as an ore, e. g. red oxide, black oxide, green
carbonate of copper or mal'achite, blue car-
bonate of copper, vitreous sulphide of copper,
purple copper, copper pyrites, or yellow cop-
per ore, with sulphur, antimony, or arsenic,
and other metals (true gray copper ore or
fah’lerz), as an impure hydrated silicate
(chrysocolla), and as an impure hydrated oxy-
chloride (atac'amite). The most abundant and
important ore is copper pyrites. It is princi-
pally obtained from the mines of Cornwall,
Devonshire, and Cuba. The carbonates of
copper are now largely imported from Aus-
tralia; the metal produced by smelting them
is generally of the best quality.
Prep. We will not attempt to give a minute
description of the various complex processes by
which the reduction of copper from its ores is
effected, but will merely give an outline of
the common or Welsh process. This process
includes six distinct operations, as follows:—
1. The ore (copper and iron pyrites), containing
from 8 to 10% of copper, is roasted in a rever-
beratory furnace, called a ‘calciner,’ by which
much of the sulphide of iron is converted .
into oxide. 2. The calcined ore is melted with
‘metal slag ’ (a product of a subsequent ope-
ration—No. 3), in a melting furnace called the
‘ore furnace.” The products are a regulus,
termed “coarse metal, containing about 35% of
copper, and ‘ore-furnace slag,' which is thrown
away. Much of the iron, and the whole of the
so-called earthy matter of the ore, are thus
separated, as slag. 3. The coarse metal, having
been granulated by causing it to flow from the
furnace into water, is calcined with free access
of air in a calciner, and a considerable amount
of sulphur is expelled. 4. The calcined, granu-
lated, coarse metal is melted, with the addition
of matters rich in oxides of copper, namely,
‘roaster’ and ‘refinery slags” (from the two
remaining operations, Nos. 5 and 6, respect.
ively), and native carbonates of copper, or ores
containing oxide of copper. The products are
a regulus, termed ‘metal,’ which contains
about 75% of copper, and metal slag (see No. 2).
The metal should be in the state of ‘white
metal,’ compact and brittle, with a feeble
metallic lustre and a dark bluish-gray colour,
It is tapped off into sand moulds. 5. The pigs
of regulus obtained by the last operation are
roasted in a furnace through which air passes.
The temperature is so regulated that the
regulus may be melted in from 6 to 8 hours,
The slag is skimmed off, and after a time the
heat is lowered, to allow the regulus to solidify,
It is again melted and tapped into sand moulds,
the product being called ‘blister copper.’
6. This, the last operation, is termed ‘refining.’
From 6 to 8 tons of blister copper, in pigs, are
melted in a furnace, and kept exposed for about
15 hours to the oxidising influence of the air,
The slag is skimmed off through the end open-
ing. When the oxidation has been sufficiently
prolonged, anthracite or free-burning coal, as
pure as possible, is thrown upon the surface of
the metal, and after a short time the thick end
of a long birch or oak pole is plunged into the
molten mass. This part of the operation is
termed “poling.” The wood in contact with
the copper is rapidly decomposed; much gas is
evolved, which causes the metal to be splashed
about, and every part of it to be exposed to
the reducing action of the coal. When the
refiner finds the metal to be at the state of
“tough pitch,’ the pole is taken out, and the
coal pushed back from the end opening, through
which the copper is then ladled out as quickly
as possible, and cast into suitable moulds. For
full details of this and other processes, the
reader is referred to Dr. Percy’s work on
‘Metallurgy.’
In the laboratory, copper is commonly em-
ployed under the following forms:—
1. BEAN-SHOT COPPER. Produced by
simply lading the melted copper from the re-
fining furnace into hot water. In small lumps
like peas and beans; hence its name. Used
to make alloys, solutions, &c.


2. ELECTROTYPE COPPER. A very pure
COPPER.
367

form, obtained by decomposing sulphate of
copper in an electrotype apparatus. It does
not contain lead, whereas most varieties of
commercial copper do contain that metal.
3. FEATHER-SHOT COPPER, GRANULATED C.
Produced by lading the refined copper from
the furnace into cold water. In small pieces,
with a feathered edge. Used to make calamine,
brass, solution of copper, &c.
4. COPPER IN PLATES OR FOIL. Those of
commerce (best, annealed) are generally em-
ployed.
5. COPPER IN POWDER.—a. A solution of
sulphate of copper is heated to the boiling-
point, and precipitated with distilled zinc ; the
precipitated copper is then separated from the
adherent zinc by dilute sulphuric acid, washed
with water, and dried by exposure to a mode-
rate temperature. -
Prop., &c. Copper has a brilliant yellowish-
red colour, a nauseous, styptic taste, and emits
a disagreeable odour when rubbed; is very
malleable and ductile; unchanged in dry air;
in damp air it soon becomes covered with a
greenish rust (carbonate of copper); slightly
soluble in dilute sulphuric and hydrochloric
acid; freely soluble in boiling oil of vitriol (sul-
phurous anhydride being evolved); dilute
nitric acid dissolves it readily with copious
evolution of nitric oxide; heated to redness
in the air, it rapidly becomes covered with
a black scale (oxide); it fuses at a full red
heat; its crystals are either octahedra or
dodecahedra; sp. gr. 8:8 to 896; it forms
numerous compounds (alloys and salts) with
other bodies, all of which are more or less poi-
sonous; its salts are either blue or green, and
most of them (when neutral) are soluble in
water.
Tests. Metallic copper may be recognised
by the above properties; its oxides, salts, &c.,
by the following characters and reactions:—
The solutions of copper possess a blue or green
colour, which they retain even when consider-
ably diluted with water:-With caustic potassa
they give a light-blue, bulky precipitate, turn-
ing blackish-brown or black on boiling the
liquid:—Ammonia and carbonate of ammonium
produce a bluish-white precipitate, soluble in
excess, yielding a rich deep-blue solution:—
The carbonates of potassium give a like preci-
pitate, insoluble in excess:–Ferrocyanide of
potassium gives a reddish-brown precipitate:–
Sulphuretted hydrogen and sulphydrate of am-
monium give blackish-brown or black ones:—A
polished rod of iron, on immersion in an acidu-
lated solution, quickly becomes coated with
metallic copper.
Estim., &c. Copper is generally WEIGHED
under the form of black oxide, but sometimes
as pure metal:—By throwing it down from its
solution by pure potassa, after which it must
be carefully collected, washed, dried, ignited
in a platinum crucible, and weighed therein as
soon as it is cold. Every 5 parts of the ignited
precipitate (oxide) represents 4 parts of copper
(nearly); or, more accurately, every 397 parts
are equal to 317 of pure metallic copper:-
By immersing a piece of polished steel in the
solution, and weighing the resulting precipi-
tate of the copper (see above). Less delicate
than the preceding.
Copper can be separated from the other
metals by means of the following processes:–
From lead. By adding sulphuric acid to
the nitric solution, and evaporating to dryness,
when water digested on the residuum will
dissolve out the sulphate of copper, but leave
the sulphate of lead behind. From this solu-
tion the oxide of copper may be thrown down
as before. -
From tin. By digestion with hot nitric
acid, which dissolves out the tin.
From zinc. By sulphuretted hydrogen,
which throws down the sulphide of copper
from an acid solution.
From silver. By digesting it in the state of
filings or powder in a solution of chloride of
zinc, which dissolves the first, but leaves the
last unchanged.
Copper may be separated, in a state of great
purity, from ANTIMONY, ARSENIC, BISMUTH,
LEAD, IRON, TIN, ZINC, &c., as it exists in bell-
metal, brass, bronze, gun-metal, mosaic gold,
and other commercial alloys, by fusing it in a
crucible for about half an hour, along with
copper scales (black oxide) and ground bottle-
glass, or other like flux. The pure metal is
found at the bottom of the crucible, whilst the
impurities are either volatilised or dissolved in
the flux. The proportions for refining com-
mercial copper are, metal, 10 parts; copper
scales and bottle-glass, of each, 1 part. The
Society of Arts conceived this process to be so
valuable, that they presented one of their gold
medals to its inventor, Mr. Lewis Thompson.
Uses, &c. The ordinary uses of copper are
well known. In medicine, 3 or 4 grs. of the
filings or powder were formerly given in rheu-
matism, and to prevent hydrophobia. Some
of its salts are still used as astringents, eme-
tics, and caustics. Its alloys are of great value.
With zinc it forms BRASS; with tin, BRONZE,
BELL-METAL, GUN-METAL, and SPECULUM-
METAL. WHITE COPPER is formed by the
addition of metallic arsenic, and GERMAN
SILVER is a mixture of nickel, zinc, and
copper.
Ant. Copper in the metallic state is almost
inert, but all its compounds are poisonous.
The antidotes are—the white of egg, milk, or
flour, mixed with water. The hydrated sul-
phides of iron, iron filings, and ferrocyanide
of potassium have also been strongly recom-
mended, and are exhibited in the same way.
Sugar is likewise highly spoken of as an anti-
dote. In all cases a strong emetic should be
first given.
Obs. Culinary and pharmaceutical vessels
are very commonly made of copper, but too
much caution cannot be exercised in their
employment. Acid syrups, vegetable juices,

368
COPPER.

aqueous extracts, soups, stews, &c., prepared
in copper saucepans, or boilers, receive a
metallic contamination proportional to the
length of time they are exposed to the action
of the metal. Such vessels are frequently
tinned, for the purpose of protecting the copper
from contact with their contents, but this film
of tin is necessarily very thin, and soon be-
comes imperfect by constant use. When copper
vessels are allowed to remain wet or dirty, or,
more especially, greasy, a poisonous green rust
forms upon the surface, somewhat similar to
verdigris. If articles are prepared in them in
this state, serious consequences may ensue.
Cases of poisoning from this cause are fre-
quently met with, and instances of vomiting
following the use of such articles are almost of
daily occurrence, without the reason being
suspected. We have occasionally seen con-
fections and extracts, prepared in copper pans,
deposit a coating of that metal upon the knives
used to stir them. The ashes of the inspissated
juices of fresh vegetables, and especially the
pulps of fruit, prepared in vessels of this metal,
have exhibited the presence of copper on the
application of chemical tests. Ketchup is fre-
quently rendered poisonous in this way. The
most wholesome material for culinary utensils
is thin sheet iron, or tinned iron-plate (TIN),
which is very durable if kept clean and dry
when not in use. Copper vessels of every kind
should be cleaned out, immediately before use,
even though they may not appear to require it,
and on no account should they be employed for
any fluids that are the least acidulous, or that
may have to remain long in them.
Copper, Neuſtral Acetate of Cu(CH3O)s.
Syn. No R'MAL CU’PRIC ACETATE, ACETATE of
CoPPER, CRYSTALLISED VER'DIGRIs. Prep.
Dissolve common verdigris or cupric hydrate
in hot acetic acid, so as to form a highly con-
centrated solution; filter, and place in a cool
situation to crystallise.
Prop. Beautiful dark, bluish-green prisms,
which dissolve in 14 parts of cold and 5 parts
of boiling water.
Copper, Baſsic Acetates of Syn. BA’s IC
CU'PRIC ACETATES, SUB-AC’ETATES OF COPPER.
Common verdigris is a mixture of several basic
acetates which have a green or blue colour.
One of these (SESQUIBASIC ACETATE) is ob-
tained by digesting powdered verdigris in tepid
water, filtering, and leaving the soluble part
to spontaneous evaporation. It may also be
obtained in a state of purity by adding liquor
of ammonia in small portions to a boiling con-
centrated solution of the neutral acetate till
the precipitate is just redissolved, and leaving
the solution to cool. It forms a blue, crystal-
line mass, but little soluble in cold water. The
green, insoluble residue of the verdigris, after
treatment with tepid water, contains another
acetate (TRIBASIC ACETATE); this may be
formed by digesting neutral acetate of copper
with the hydrated oxide. A third salt (DI-
BASIC ACETATE, BLUE VERDIGRIS) is prepared
on a large scale in France by exposing copper
to the air in contact with fermenting wine-
lees.
Copper, Ammo"mio-sulphate of. Syn. SUL-
PHATE OF CUPRAMMONIUM, CU'PRO-SULPHATE
OF AMMO’NIA; CU’PRI AMMO’NIO-SULPHAs, L.;
CUIVRE AMMONIACAL, Fr.; KUPFER SALMIAK,
Ger. Prep. Sulphate of copper, 1 oz.; ses-
quicarbonate of ammonium, 1% oz. ; rub toge-
ther until carbonic acid ceases to be evolved,
then wrap it in bibulous paper, and dry it in
the air.
Pur. Pulverulent; dark blue; at an in-
tense heat it is changed into oxide of copper,
at first sesquicarbonate of ammonia, and, after-
wards, sulphate of ammonia, being thrown off.
It is soluble in water to a splendid purple-blue
solution, from which the salt is precipitated.
by alcohol in blue crystals. This solution has
the peculiar property of dissolving CELLULOSE
(cotton, paper, &c.). The cellulose may be
precipitated from the solution in colourless
flakes by the addition of acids. -
Uses, &c. It is occasionally employed i
pyrotechny. In medicine, it has been given in
chorea, epilepsy, hysteria, &c., but is now
principally used as an injection, as a wash for
foul ulcers, and as a collyrium, in opacity of
the cornea.—Dose. # gr., gradually increased to
5 grs., twice a day. Great care must be taken
in drying, as it is apt not only to lose a large
portion of its weight, but to become of an
inferior colour. Both the ingredients should
be separately reduced to powder before mixing
them. -
Copper, Ar'senite of Cu(AsO3)2. See GREEN
PIGMENTS (Scheele's Green).
Copper, Car"bonate of. CuCO3. Syn. DIBA's IQ
CARBONATE OF COPPER, DICARBONATE OF C.;
CUPRI CARBONAs, L. Prep. Add carbonate of
soda in excess to a solution of sulphate of cop-
per, and warm the mixture till the pale-blue,
flocculent precipitate becomes sandy and as:
sumes a green tint. Used as a pigment. See
GREEN PIGMENTS and VERDITER.
Obs. As prepared above, the carbonate con-
tains 2 equivalents of water. The beautiful
green mineral, MAL/ACHITE, has a similar com-
position, but contains only 1 equiv. of water,
Another carbonate (TRIBASIC C., BLUE C.),
occurs as a natural ore in large, transparent
crystals, of the most intense blue; it has not
yet been artificially imitated.
Cuprous Chloride. CuCl. Syn. DICHLORIDE
OF COPPER, SUBCHLORIDE OF COPPER. Prep.
By exposing the neutral chloride of copper to
the action of heat.
Prop. White ; fusible ; slightly soluble in
water ; and decomposed by exposure to the
all".
Copper, Chloride of. CuCl2. Syn, NEUTRAL
CHLORIDE OF COPPER. Prep. From copper
scales or black oxide of copper dissolved in
hydrochloric acid, and the solution evaporated
and crystallised.
Prop., &c. Green, acicular crystals; deli-

COPPER—COPPERAS.
369
quescent; soluble in alcohol, the flame of
which it colours green. When gently heated,
it loses water, and assumes the form of a yel-
lowish-brown powder (ANHYDROUS CUPRIC
CHLORIDE, or CHLORIDE OF COPPER); at a high
temperature it loses half its chlorine, and
becomes converted into cuprous chloride.
Cupric Iodide. Cusſ. Syn. IODIDE OF COP-
PER, DINI/ODIDE OF coPPER; CU'PRI IoDI’DUM,
L. Prep. By adding iodide of potassium to a
solution of sulphate of copper, and washing
out with alcohol the free iodine from the pre-
cipitate formed. A greenish-white precipitate.
(Commercial.) To a solution of sulphate
of copper, 1 part, and protosulphate of iron, 3
parts, add a solution of iodide of potassium,
and wash and dry the precipitate. This is the
preparation commonly known in trade by the
name of ‘iodide of copper.”
Cupric Nitrate. Cu(NO3)3. Syn. NITRATE
OF COPPER; CU'PRI NITRAs, L. Prep. By
dissolving the copper in dilute nitric acid to
Saturation; evaporating to dryness; redissolving
in distilled water; filtering, evaporating, and
allowing to crystallise; or from black oxide of
copper and nitric acid in the same manner.
Prop., Uses, &c. Deep-blue prismatic crys-
tals, very soluble in water and deliquescent,
soluble in alcohol. Generally used in medi-
cine externally, in injections, or as a caustic,
but sometimes given internally, dissolved in
mucilaginous liquids.--Dose. to # gr.
Cuprous Oxide. Cu2O. Syn. RED OXIDE OF
CoPPER, DINox'IDE, SUBoxIDE; CUPRI sub-
ox'YDUM, L. Prep. Add grape sugar to a
solution of sulphate or acetate of copper, then
further add caustic potassa, in excess; the blue
solution heated to ebullition deposits the sub-
oxide, which must then be collected, washed,
and dried.
A solution of cane sugar, 27 parts, in water,
60 parts, is poured over hydrated oxide of
copper (weighed in the compressed and still
moist state), 9 parts; a solution of caustic po-
tassa, 18 parts, in water, 60 parts, is then
added, and the whole mass well agitated
together at the ordinary temperature, and
strained through linen. If the dark-blue fil-
trate is next heated (continually stirring), over
a water bath, anhydrous cuprous oxide is disen-
gaged, and the liquor becomes nearly colourless.
Prop., Uses, &c. A superb red powder,
with a metallic lustre. It often occurs in
beautiful transparent, ruby-red crystals, asso-
ciated with other ores of copper, and can be
obtained in this state by artificial means. It
is used as a pigment and a bronze, and as a
stain for glass and enamels, to which it gives
a rich red colour. By heat it is converted into
the black oxide. With ammonia it forms a
colourless solution, which rapidly becomes blue
from the action of the air.
Cupric Oxide. CuO. Syn. Ox'IDE OF COPPER,
BLACK oxIDE, PROToxLDE; CU'PRI PROTOx(x-
DUM. Prep. By heating the nitrate or car-
bonate of copper to redness. When it ceases
to lose weight the conversion is completed, and
the oxide appears as a heavy, black powder.
By heating in the air the hydrated oxide
thrown down from solutions of copper by pure
potassa.
By adding caustic potassa, in excess, to a
solution of a cupric salt, and heating the whole
to a boiling-point; the precipitate is then col-
lected, washed and dried. A heavy, dark-
brown powder.
Uses, &c. Protoxide of copper is unchanged
by heat, unless combustible matter is present,
when it readily parts with its oxygen; hence
its general use in ORGANIC ANALYSIS as a
source of that element. It communicates a
beautiful green colour to glass and enamels.
With the acids it produces the ordinary salts
of copper.
Cupric Sulphate. CuSO4. 5Aq. Syn. SUL-
PHATE OF COPPER, BLUE COP'PERAs, B.
VIT'RIOL ; CU'PRI SUL'PHAs, L.; SULFATE
DE CUIVRE, Fr.; KUPFER WITRIOL, Ger. ;
NEELA TOOTIA, Hind. Prep. (Commer-
cial.) The sulphate of copper of commerce
is obtained by the oxidation of native sul-
phide of copper (COPPER PYRITEs); by the
joint action of air, heat, and moisture, the
copper is converted into an oxide, and the
sulphur into sulphuric acid. The resulting
salt is washed out, and the solution evaporated
and crystallised. The water found in and
issuing from copper mines often furnishes such
a solution ready to the hands of the manufac-
turers. A large quantity of sulphate of cop-
per is also obtained as a secondary product in
the refining of silver, and is occasionally pre-
pared by dissolving in sulphuric acid an oxy-
chloride of copper, made for the purpose, by
exposing sheets of copper to the joint action
of air and hydrochloric acid.
(Pure.) By the direct solution of the metal,
or preferably, of its oxide or carbonate, in sul-
phuric acid, or by purifying the commercial
salt by recrystallisation, &c.
Prop., Uses, &c. Fine blue crystals, slightly
efflorescent, having an intensely styptic and
metallic taste. By heat the blue salt loses its
water of crystallisation, and becomes a white,
anhydrous powder. It dissolves in 4 parts of
water at 60°Fahr., and in 2 parts at 212°; is
insoluble in alcohol and ether; and is decom-
posed at an intense heat into protoxide of
copper, sulphurous acid, and oxygen. It has
been used to prevent the dry rot in timber,
and in dyeing. It is largely employed as a
source of metallic copper in the ELECTROTYPE.
Grain is steeped in a weak solution of it by
the farmer, to prevent the “smut.” As a
medicine, it is employed chiefly as a styptic
(in solution) and caustic (in substance) to
destroy ‘proud flesh;’ and, less frequently,
as an astringent or tonic (from # gr. to 2 grs.),
and an emetic (3 or 4 grs. to 10 or 12 grs.). It
is exceedingly poisonous.
COP'PERAS. This is a generic name for the
CRUDE METALLIC SULPHATES. When used



24
370 COPPERING—CORK.

without a qualifying adjective, it generally
means sulphate of iron.
Copperas, Blue. Crude sulphate of copper.
See CoPPER (above).
Copperas, Calcined'. From green copperas,
heated in an unglazed earthen pot until it
becomes white and dry. Used as an astrin-
gent and “drier,’ and in making ink and
dyeing.
Copperas, Green. Syn. COPPERAs. Crude
sulphate of iron. See IRON.
Copperas, White. Crude sulphate of zinc.
See ZINC.
COP'PERING. Iron may be covered with a
thin film of copper by merely immersing it
(previously scoured clean) in an acidulated
solution of sulphate of copper, after which it
must be rinsed in clean water. This film
soon rubs off, but still it lasts long enough to
deceive the travelling tinker’s customers, who
imagine that their copper kettles are properly
repaired. Metals may be conveniently coated
with compact copper to any desired thickness
by means of voltaic electricity. See ELEC-
TROTYPE.
COP'ROLITE. Syn. DUNG's TONE, FOSSIL
MANURE. This mineral is the petrified dung
of carnivorous reptiles. (Buckland.) Copro-
lites are found in all the secondary and tertiary
strata. They contain a considerable propor-
tion of phosphate of lime, for which reason
they are largely employed in the manufacture
of artificial manures. They form the bases of
Lawes' SUPERPHOSPHATE OF COPROLITE MA-
NURE. The nodules, after being washed, are
ground to powder in a mill, and mixed with an
equal weight of oil of vitriol.
COPTIS TEETA. (Ind. Ph.) Syn. CoPTIs,
or MISHMI TITA. Hab. Mishmel mountains,
east of Assam. Officinal part. The dried
root (Coptidis Radia), imported into Bengal
from Assam, in small rattan baskets, each con-
taining from 1 to 2 ounces of the drug. This
consists of pieces of a woody rhizome, of the
thickness of a small goose-quill and from 1 to
2 inches in length, often contracted at one ex-
tremity into a short woody stem; the surface
is usually rough, irregular, more or less annu-
lated, and marked with the remains of rootlets
in the shape of short spiny points. Externally,
yellowish-brown; internally, much brighter,
frequently of a golden-yellow colour, exhibit-
ing on fracture a radiated structure. Taste,
persistently bitter, and when chewed tinges
the saliva yellow. Contains neither tannic nor
gallic acid, but abounds with a yellow, bitter
principle, soluble in water and alcohol.—Prop.
Pure bitter tonic.—Therapeutic uses. In de-
bility, convalescence after fevers, and other
debilitating diseases, atonic dyspepsia, and in
mild forms of intermittent fewers.--Dose, 10
to 15 grs. of the powdered root, thrice daily.
Tincture of Coptis (Tinctura Coptidis).
Take of coptis root, in coarse powder, 2% oz.;
proof spirits, 2 pints. Macerate for 7 days in a
closed vessel, with occasional agitation; strain,
press, filter, and add sufficient proof spirit to
make 1 pint.—Dose. } to 2 fl. Oz.
Infusion of Coptis (Infusum Coptidis).
Take of coptis root, in coarse powder, 5 drs.;
boiling water, 1 pint. Infuse in a covered
vessel for 2 hours, and strain.--Dose. 1 to 2
fl. oz., thrice daily.
CORAL. Syn. CoRAL'LIUM, L. The com-
prehensive term for all calcareous or stony
structures secreted by the marine asteroid
polypes, or Zoophytes. The RED CORAL of
commerce, which is so largely employed for
beads, ear-rings, and other ornaments, may be
described as the internal skeleton of Corallium
Tubrum.
Coral, Red (Facti"tious). Syn. CoRAI/IIUM
RU'BRUM FACTI"TIUM, L. Prepared chalk,
coloured with a little sesquioxide of iron or
rose pink, and passed through a sieve. Sold
by the druggists for powdered coral.
Coral, Prepared' Red. Syn. CORAL'LIUM
RU'BRUM PREPARATUM. Levigated coral was
formerly used in medicine as an antacid or
absorbent, and is still occasionally employed
as a dentifrice. It consists almost entirely of
carbonate of lime, coloured with red oxide of
iron, and possesses no advantage over good
chalk. It is prepared in a similar manner as
chalk.
CORD'IALS. Syn. CARDI’ACA, L. Warm,
stimulating, restorative medicines, that tend
to raise the spirits and promote the circula-
tion. The principal cordial medicines are no-
ticed under the heads TINCTURE and SYRUP.
See also PATENT MEDICINEs.
Cordials. Aromatised and sweetened spirits
used as beverages. See LIQUEUR.
CORIAN'DER. Syn. (CoRIANDER FRUIT,
CoRIANDRI FRUCTUS, B. P.); CoRIANDERS,
C. SEED ; CoRIANDRUM (Ph. L. E. & D.), L.
“The ripe fruit of the Coriandrum sativum,
dried.” (B.P.) Coriander is chiefly used by
confectioners and distillers as a flavouring in-
gredient. In the East it is much employed as
a condiment, being an ingredient in CURRY
POWDER. It is aromatic, carminative, and
stimulant; and more effectually covers the
taste of senna than any other substance.—
Dose. 20 to 60 grs. ; chiefly used as a cor-
rective or adjuvant in compound medicines.
CORK. The outer bark of the Quercus
Suber or cork oak, a tree common in southern
France, Italy and Spain. The bark obtained
from the younger branches of the same tree is
employed for tanning. See ALCORNOCo.
Cork. A stopple or plug for a bottle or jar
cut from the above substance. The common
practice of employing inferior corks for the
purpose of stopping the mouths of bottles is
often productive of considerable loss, from the
air being only partially excluded, and the
contents suffering in consequence. Many a
large bin of valuable wine has become, from
this cause, in less than a year, little better
than sour “Cape.” Chemical preparations
often suffer from a similar cause. The best

CORN.
371
corks are those called ‘ velvet corks,” and of
these the finest qualities are imported from
France. No pains should be spared to obtain
sound and soft cork for connecting the com-
bustion- and drying-tubes used in organic
analysis.
Several attempts have been made to in-
troduce cork-cutting by machinery, but they
have hitherto failed to supersede hand labour.
Cork-bo"rer. A thin brass tube, filed to a
cutting edge, used for piercing holes through
corks. Several tubes of different sizes, which
fit into each other, are generally sold toge-
ther. This simple and convenient instrument
was introduced into the laboratory by Dr.
Mohr.
CORN. Syn. CLA’vus, L. A horny indu-
ration of the skin, with a central nucleus,
very sensitive at the base. The common
cause of corns is continued pressure over
the projection of the bones, from tight or
stiff boots or shoes. They are of two kinds,
hard and soft. The first grow on the ex-
posed portions of the joints; the last, between
the toes.
Preven. This consists in keeping the feet
clean, by frequent ablution with warm water,
and in the use of easy, soft boots and shoes.
Without the latter precaution, corns will gene-
rally return, even after they appear to have
been perfectly removed.
Treatment. After soaking the feet in warm
water for a few minutes, pare the corns as
close as possible with a sharp knife, taking
care not to make them bleed. They may now
be touched over with a little lunar caustic, or
nitric acid, or a little concentrated acetic acid
or aromatic vinegar. The last two do not
stain the skin. The first is used by merely
rubbing it on the corns, previously slightly
moistened with water; the others, by moisten-
ing the corns with them, by means of a small
strip of wood, or, preferably, a rod of glass;
due care being taken not to allow the liquid
to touch the neighbouring parts. This treat-
ment, adopted every 3 or 4 days for 10 days
or a fortnight, accompanied by the use of soft,
loose shoes, will generally effect a cure. It
has been recommended to remove large corns
by ligatures of silk, applied as close to their
base as possible, and tightened daily until
they drop off; but this plan is tedious, and
often inconvenient, and is not always suc-
cessful. Another mode of extirpation is, the
application of a small blister, which will fre-
quently raise them with the skin out of their
beds. In this case the exposed surface must
be dressed with a little simple ointment. Soft
corns may be removed by applying ivy leaf,
previously soaked in strong vinegar, changing
the piece every morning; or by placing a
dressing of soap cerate, spread on a bit of lint
or old rag, between the toes. One of the
simplest and best remedies for hard corns, and
which has received the sanction of high medi-
cal authority, is to wear upon the toe or part
affected a small, circular piece of soft leather,
or, still better, a piece of amadou, spread with
diachylon, or some other emollient plaster, and
having a hole cut in the centre, corresponding
to the size of the corn. (Sir B. Brodie.) By
this means the pressure of the boot or shoe is
equalised, and the apex of the corn protected
from injury. The following are among the
most useful of the POPULAR REMEDIES FOR
CORNS :— -
Corns, Caus’tic for. Prep. From tincture of
iodine and chloride of antimony, of each, 1 dr.;
iodide of iron, 3 grs. ; mix. It is applied with
a camel-hair brush, after paring the corn. 2
to 4 applications are said to effect a cure.
Obs. Most of the remedies noticed below
really act as caustics.
Corms, Loºtion for. Prep. 1. A solution of
sal-ammoniac, 1 part; in proof spirit, 4 parts.
2. A concentrated aqueous solution of sul-
phate of copper. To be applied night and
morning.
Corn Plasters. Prep. 1. From white dia-
chylon, 3 parts; yellow resin, 2 parts; verdi-
gris, 1 part; melted together, and spread on
leather. -
2. From galbanum plaster, 1 oz.; verdigris,
1 dr.; as the last.
3. From resin plaster, 2 oz. ; black pitch,
1 oz. ; verdigris and sal-ammoniac, of each,
1.
2 -
4. To the last add powdered opium, 1 dr.
Recommended to allay pain, &c.
5. (W. Cooley.) A piece of spread adhesive
plaster is placed upon a table, and a piece of
card paper having a round hole cut in it the
size of the central portion of the corn is laid
upon it; the exposed part is then softened by
holding a piece of heated iron for a second or
two near it ; the card paper is then instantly
removed, and nitrate of silver, in fine powder,
is sprinkled over the part which has been
warmed. As soon as the whole is cold, the
loose powder is shaken off, and the plaster is
ready for use. Very cleanly and convenient.
Two or three applications seldom fail to effect
a. Cure.
6. (MECHANICAL CORN PLASTERs.) From
common adhesive plaster spread on buckskin,
amadou, or vulcanised India rubber, cut into
pieces, and a circular hole corresponding to the
size of the corn punched in each.
Corm Solºvent. Prep. 1. Carbonate of po-
tassa or pearlash, contained in an open jar or
bottle, set in a damp place, until it deliquesces
into an oil-like liquid (oil of tartar). Applied
by means of a feather, or a small piece of rag
dipped in it is bound on the corn.
2. Hydrate of potassa, 1 dr.; rectified spirit,
1 oz. ; dissolve. As No. 1.
3. Carbonate of potassa, with smalts, ochre,
or bole, q. S. to give it the required colour.
It must be kept dry, in a well-corked bottle.
A pinch is placed on the corn, and confined by
means of adhesive plaster or rag.
4. Carbonate of soda, 1 oz., finely powdered

372
CORROSIVE SUBLIMATE–COUGH.
and mixed with lard, 3 oz. Applied on linen
rag every night.
5. (Sir H. Davy’s.) Carbonate of potassa,
2 parts; salt of sorrel, 1 part; each in fine
powder; mix, and place a small quantity on
the corn for four or five successive nights,
binding it on with a rag.
Obs. Care must be taken, in all cases, to
pare the corn moderately close before applying
the remedy; but in no case should any of the
above be applied to a raw surface.
Corms, Pommade’ for. Prep. 1. Powdered
verdigris, 1 dr. ; savine ointment, 7 drs.
2. Dried carbonate of soda, 3 drs. ; lard, 5
drs. ; verdigris or smalts, q. S. to give a slight
tinge of green or blue. Applied on a piece of
rag.
CORRO'SIVE SUBLIMATE. See MERCURY.
CORUN’DUM. See EMERY.
COSMET'ICS. Syn. CoSMET/ICA, L.; Cos-
METIQUES, Fr. External applications em-
ployed for the purpose of preserving or re-
storing personal beauty. The term is generally
understood to refer to substances applied to
the cuticle, to improve the colour and clear-
ness of the complexion; but some writers have
included under this head every topical appli-
cation used with the like intention. Hence
cosmetics may be divided into—CUTANEOUS
COSMETICS, or those applied to the skin; HAIR
COSMETICS, or such as are employed to promote
the growth and beauty of the hair; and
TEETH COSMETICS, or such as are used to
cleanse and beautify the teeth. See BALD-
NESS, CoSMETIQUE, DENTIFRICE, DEPILA-
ToRY, HAIR-DYE, POMMADE, Tooth PoWDER,
&c.
' COSMETIQUE. [Fr.] Hard pomatum,
formed into a cake or stick for the toilet. It
is sometimes coloured black or brown, the
pigments being added in the state of an im-
palpable powder.
1. (BLACK–COSMETIQUE NoLR.) From good
lard, 5 parts; wax, 2 parts; (or, hard pomatum,
7 parts;) melt, stir in levigated ivory black,
2 parts; and pour it into moulds of tinfoil;
which are afterwards to be placed in paper
sheaths.
2. (BROWN-CoSMETIQUE BRUN.) As the
last, but using levigated umber for ‘plain
brown,” and levigated terra di Sienna for ‘au-
burn’ and ‘chestnut.”
3. (WHITE, OR PLAIN–CoSMETIQUE BLANC.)
The same, without colouring matter.
Obs. They are generally scented with musk,
ambergris, or cassia.
Use. The above are used to colour mous-
taches, eyebrows, whiskers, &c., as well as to
keep the hair in its place. The labels on the
packets before us have—“pour fixer et lisser
les cheveux.” The application must be re-
newed daily, as the cosmetique is gradually
removed by friction, and perfectly so by soap-
and-water. -
COTARNINE. A crystallisable substance
obtained from the mother-liquors of opianic
acid. It is basic, very soluble, and bitter.
Hydrochlorate of cotarnine is soluble and crys-
talline.
COTTON. Syn. GossyPIUM, L. The cotton
of which textile fabrics are made consists of
hairs covering the seeds of certain plants be-
longing to the natural order Malvaceae, or the
Mallow family. Our commercial cotton ap-
pears to be derived from four distinct species,
WIZ. :—
Gossypium arboreum. The tree cotton,
an Indian species. Unlike the other cotton
plants, it has the dimensions of a small tree.
The cotton-hairs are remarkably soft and
silky, and are woven by the natives into very
fine muslin, used for turbans by the privileged
classes only.
Gossypium Barbadense. The ‘Barbadoes'
or ‘Bourbon cotton plant.’ This is the species
which yields all our best cotton. In the small
American islands which fringe the coast from
Charlestown to Savannah, this plant has pro-
duced the celebrated ‘sea-island cotton,’ which
is unrivalled for the length of its ‘staple, its
strength, and silkiness.
Gossypium herbaceum. The common cotton-
plant of India. It produces the Surat cotton
of commerce.
Gossypium Peruvianum or acuminatum. A
species supposed to be indigenous to America.
It furnishes the South American varieties of
cotton, as Pernambuco, Peruvian, Maranham,
and Brazilian.
Identif. See LINEN.
Dyeing. The fibres of cotton have nearly
the same affinity for mordants and the colour-
ing matter of dyed stuffs as linen, and may
be treated in the same manner. See DYEING,
LINEN, &c.
COTTON, GUN-. See PyRoxy LIN.
COUGH. Syn. TUS's Is, L. The sudden and
violent expulsion of air from the lungs. It is
generally symptomatic of other affections,
but is sometimes idiopathic, or a primary
disease. Many cases of cough depend upon
the extension of catarrh to the trachea and
bronchiae, which thus become loaded with
mucus or phlegm, which they endeavour to
throw off by the convulsive effort called
coughing. In some cases it is caused by a
vitiation and inspissation of the secretions,
arising from the imperfect action of the ab-
sorbents; this is the common cause of the
dry cough of old people. Idiopathic cough is
not considered dangerous in itself, or while
running its regular course, but it is often pro-
ductive of most serious consequences, by super-
inducing the inflammation of some organ, or
laying the foundation of phthisis.
Cough is sometimes attended by copious
expectoration, and at other times exists with-
out any ; it has hence been distinguished into
moist or mucous cough, and dry cough.
Treatment. That of common catarrhal cough
consists in allaying the irritation as much as
possible, by demulcents and expectorants, as
COUMARIN–CRAYONS.
373

mucilaginous drinks and lozenges, which act
upon the glottis, and sympathetically upon
the trachea and bronchiae. Among the first
may be mentioned, almond milk, barley water,
refined Spanish juice, gum arabic, and a mixture
of the last two made into lozenges; among the
second, the most innocent and convenient is
ipecacuanha, in the shape of lozenges, 2 or 3
of which may be sucked whenever the cough is
troublesome. A light diet should be adopted,
the bowels kept slightly relaxed by the use of
gentle aperients, and a mild and equable tem-
perature sought as much as possible. When
this plan does not succeed, recourse may be
had to an emetic, followed by small doses of
Dover's powders, and extract or tincture of
henbane, or squill pill. When a cough is
troublesome at night, and unattended with
fever, a small dose of laudanum, or tincture of
henbane, taken on going to rest, will generally
procure sleep. In the treatment of dry cough,
the more stimulating expectorants are useful,
as garlic, ammoniacum, styrax, and benzoin,
combined with narcotics and sedatives, as
henbane, hemlock, and opium. A diaphoretic
opiate is also very useful, especially in the
cough of old people. See DRAUGHT, EMULSION,
MIXTURE, PILLs, &c.
COU'MARIN (köö-). Syn. CU'MARIN. The
odorous principle of the fruit or bean of
Dipterya odorata (tonquin bean). It exists in
several other plants, as Melilotus officinalis,
Asperula odorata, and Anthoacanthum odo-
Tatum.
Prep. From the sliced tonquin beans, by
macerating in hot alcohol; straining through
cloth, and distilling off the greater part of the
spirit. The syrupy residue deposits, on stand-
ing, crystals of COUMARIN, which must be
purified from fat oil by pressure, and then
crystallised from hot water.
Prop. Slender, brilliant, colourless needles;
fusible at 122°Fahr., and distilling at a higher
temperature without decomposition. It has a
fragrant odour and burning taste; it is very
slightly soluble in cold water, more freely in
hot water, and also in alcohol.
COUNTER-IR/RITANTS. In medicine and
pharmacy, substances applied to the surface
of the body to establish a secondary morbid
action, with the view of relieving one already
existing. In painful and spasmodic affections,
as neuralgia, spasms, and cramp; in rheuma-
tism, lumbago, swelled and painful joints; in
headache, sore throat, sprains, languid glandu-
lar tumours, and many other cases, this class
of medicines often proves extremely valuable.
The counter-irritants which are best known
are blisters, mustard poultices, hartshorn-and-
oil, and liniment of ammonia.
COURT PLASTER. See PLASTER.
COW DUNG. This substance was formerly
employed in large quantities by the calico
printers. Recently, a mixture of sulphate,
carbonate, and phosphate of lime and soda, with
British gum or bran, has been successfully
tested as a substitute for it, and has the ad-
vantage of cleanliness and economy.
COWHAGE. Syn. Cow/ITCH; MUCU'NA (Ph.
L. E. & D.), L. “The hairs of the fruit
Mucuna pruriens” (Ph. L.). “The hairs from
the pods” (Ph. E.). “The hairy down '' (Ph.
D.). It occasions violent itching when it
comes in contact with the skin, which can
only be allayed by a solution of green vitriol,
or by oil. It is frequently administered as a
vermifuge, made into a confection, by scraping
the hair off a pod into treacle, syrup, or
honey, for a morning dose, which is repeated
for 3 or 4 successive days, followed by a brisk
purge. It acts more effectually if its admi-
nistration has been preceded by a gentle
emetic.
COWS. See DAIRY.
CRAB. See SHELL-FISH.
CRACK'NELS. Small, brittle cakes or bis-
cuits, made by first boiling and then baking
paste. Prep. To flour, 1 pint, add a little
grated nutmeg, the yolks of 2 eggs, 2 or 3
spoonfuls of rose-water, and cold water, q. s.
to make a paste; then roll in butter, 3 lb., and
make it into shapes. In one hour put them
into a kettle of boiling water, and boil them
until they swim, then throw them into cold
water; take them out, and when dry, bake
them on tins. Those of the shops contain
less butter, and the rose-water is omitted.
CRACK'NUTS. Thin and sweet cakes or
wafers. Prep. 1. Flour, 1 lb.; sugar, 3 lb.;
melted butter, 3 lb.; 6 or 7 eggs, well beaten;
make a paste with a glassful of raisin wine and
a little water; add caraways, roll it out as
thin as paper, cut it into shapes with a
tumbler, wash the pieces with the white of
egg, and dust them over with powdered sugar.
2. As the last, but using 3 lb. more flour.
CRAMP. See SPASMs.
CRAPE is cleaned by rinsing it in ox-gall
and water, to remove the dirt; afterwards in
pure water, to remove the gall; and lastly, in
a little gum-water, to stiffen and crisp it. It
is then clapped between the hands until dry.
CRAY-FISH. See SHELL-FISH.
CRAY'0NS. Colouring substances made up
into small cylinders or any other convenient
form for use in writing or drawing.
Crayons, Draw'ing. Prep. 1. Spermaceti,
3 oz. ; boiling water, 1 pint; agitate together
till they form a species of emulsion; add bone
ash, 1 lb. (or more, previously reduced to an
impalpable powder), and colouring matter, q. s.
to give the proper tint; reduce the whole to a
perfectly homogeneous paste, and form it into
crayons.
2. Pipeclay and the finest prepared chalk,
equal parts; or pipeclay alone, q. S.; colouring,
a sufficient quantity; make them into a paste
with pale mild ale.
3. White curd or Castile soap, cut into thin
shavings, 1 oz. ; boiling water 1 pint ; dissolve,
and when cold, add gradually, as much recti-
fied spirit of wine as will render the liquid


374, - CRAYONS–CREAM.
barely transparent. With this fluid make
equal parts of the finest elutriated clay and
chalk into a stiff paste, adding colouring mat-
ter, q. S., as before. For common qualities,
the spirit of wine may be omitted, but the
mass will then dry more slowly.
4. Curd soap, 1% oz. ; gum arabic, ; oz. ;
boiling water, 14 pint; dissolve, and use it as
the last. General Lomet uses a similar mix-
ture to work up the softest varieties of hema-
tite, with which he thus forms superior red
crayon.
5. (Process of the Brothers Joel, of Paris.)
Shell-lac, 3 parts; spirit of wine, 4 parts; oil
of turpentine, 2 parts; dissolve; add pure clay,
6 parts; colouring matter, q. S.; form the mass
into crayons, and dry them by a stove heat.
6. Pale shell-lac, 5 parts; wood naphtha, 12
parts; dissolve, and with this fluid mix up the
colouring powder, previously stirred up with
an equal weight of fine pale-blue clay; dry by
a stove heat, as before. When this process is
well managed, it produces crayons equal to
those of the best Parisian houses.
Obs. The composition may be formed into
crayons by simply rolling it on a slab; but to
ensure their solidity the manufacturers gene-
rally employ a metallic cylinder of 2 or 3
inches in diameter, with one end open and the
other firmly secured to a perforated plate,
having holes of the same size as the intended
crayons. The crayon composition, in the state
of a stiff paste or dough, is introduced into
the open end, and is forced down and through
the holes, by means of a small plug or piston,
that exactly fits the inside of the cylinder, and
which is driven by the equable motion of a
small screw. The pieces that pass through
the holes are then cut into lengths and dried.
The substances employed as colouring mat-
ters for crayons are very numerous, and their
choice offers a wide field for the skill and fancy
of the artist. The pigment having been
selected, it may be reduced to any shade or
tint by admixture with other pigments, and
by dilution’ with a proper quantity of elu-
triated or prepared chalk. As, however, crayon
colours do not admit of being mixed together
at the time of using them, like liquid colours,
it is usual to make 3 to 6 different shades of
each colour, so as to enable the artist at once
to produce any effect he chooses.
CRAYONs, BLACK. From prepared black-lead,
ivory-black, lamp-black, &c. Black chalk and
charcoal are frequently made into crayons by
simply sawing them into suitably sized pieces.
They may then be put into a pipkin of melted
wax, and allowed to macerate for an hour;
after which they should be taken out, drained,
and laid on a piece of blotting-paper to dry.
Drawings made with these crayons are very
permanent, and if warmed slightly on the
wrong side, the lines will adhere, and become
almost as durable as ink.
CRAYONS, BLUE. From indigo, smalts, Prus-
sian blue, verditer, &c.
CRAYONs, BROWN. From umber (raw and
burnt), terra di Sienna (raw and burnt), Cul.
len's earth, brown ochre, &c.; and some pecu-
liar shades, from a mixture of black, carmine,
and either of the above colours.
CRAYONS, GREEN. From a mixture of king's
yellow, or yellow ochre, with blues.
CRAYONS, PURPLE. From any of the more
brilliant blues, mixed with carmine, lake, or
vermilion. -
CRAYONS, RED. From carmine, carminated
lakes, vermilion, hematite, and any of the
earthy or mineral colours commonly used as
pigments. Crayons of red chalk may be pre-
pared in the manner pointed out for crayons
of black chalk.
CRAYONS, WHITE.
chalk.
CRAYONs, YELLOW. From king’s yellow,
Naples yellow, orpiment, yellow ochre, &c.
Crayons, Lithographic. Prep. 1. Tallow-
soap, 7 parts; white wax, 6 parts; melt by a
gentle heat, and add lamp-black, 1 part; keep
it melted, with constant stirring, for 20 or 30
minutes, then let it cool a little, and cast it
into moulds.
2. White wax, 4 parts; shell-lac and hard
tallow soap, of each, 2 parts; lamp-black, 1
part ; as last.
3. Spermaceti, white wax, and hard tallow-
soap, of each, equal parts; lamp-black, q. S. to
colour.
Obs. Some makers melt the soap, wax, and
lamp-black, in an iron-ladle, over a brisk fire,
and allow the mixture to blaze for a few
seconds before adding the shell-lac, which is
no sooner thoroughly incorporated than the
heat is increased until the mass again kindles,
when it is at once removed from the fire and
stirred until it is cool enough to be poured
into the moulds. This method leads to trouble
and loss, without any corresponding advantage,
These crayons are used to draw designs on
lithographic stones.
Crayons for Writing on Glass. Prep. 1.
From French chalk cut into suitable pieces,
Marks made with these crayons, when ob.
scured or rubbed out, may be several times
revived by simply breathing on the glass.
2. (Brunquelle.) Spermaceti, 4 parts, tallow,
3 parts, wax, 2 parts, are melted together in
a cup.; and red lead, 6 parts, and carbonate of
potassa (in fine powder), 1 part, stirred in;
the mass is kept melted and stirred for about
half an hour longer, then poured into glass
moulds (tubes) of the thickness of a common
pencil, and cooled as rapidly as possible. The
mass may be screwed up and down in the
tube, and cut to a point with a knife. A
crayon is thus obtained which will readily
write upon clean, dry glass.
CREAM. Syn. CREM'oR, C. LAC'TIs, FLOS
LACTIS, L. The oleaginous portion of milk,
which collects in a thin stratum upon the sur-
face, when that fluid is left undisturbed for
some time. By violent agitation, as in the
From pure clay and

CREAM.
375
process of churning, the fatty globules unite
together, forming butter; whilst the liquid
portion, consisting of caseum, serum, and a
little butter, constituting the residuum, is
called butter-milk. This separation is effected
the most readily when the cream has become
partially sour and coagulated by being kept a
few days, a change which occurs in conse-
quence of the conversion of some of the sugar
of the serum into lactic acid, which precipi-
tates the caseous matter contained in the
small portion of the milk with which the
cream is mixed. On these simple facts chiefly
depend the successful manufacture of butter.
The cream intended for churning should there-
fore be kept until it turns slightly sour, and
assumes the condition above referred to, as
then the butter will readily ‘come.” If
churned while quite sweet, the operation will
be tedious, and will frequently fail. When
this happens, the dairy maids declare the milk
is “charmed’ or ‘bewitched, and reluctantly
proceed with the operation. The addition of
a little rennet, or vinegar, is the proper remedy
in this case, and will cause the almost imme-
diate separation of the butter.
When cream is suspended in a linen bag, and
allowed to drain, it gradually becomes drier
and harder, by the separation of the liquid
portion, and then forms what is known by the
name of cream cheese. By the application
of slight pressure, the separation of the whey
is more completely effected, and the product is
not only better, but will keep longer.
Qual. Cream, in a dietetic point of view,
may be regarded in the same light as butter,
as it is converted into butter in the process of
digestion. On this account much cream should
never be taken at once by persons of delicate
stomachs. In eating cream with fruit, per-
sons are hardly aware of the large quantity
they consume, until they find it disagree with
the stomach, when the condiment is blamed
for the indiscretion of those who take it. See
MILK, BUTTER, &c.
Cream, Al'mond. Prep. From sweet almonds,
2 oz. ; bitter almonds, 4 in no.; blanched and
beaten in a mortar to a smooth paste, adding a
teaspoonful of water to prevent oiling; and,
afterwards, a pint of cream, and enough pow-
dered lump sugar to sweeten; the whole is
then wisked to a froth, the glasses filled with
the liquor, and some of the froth placed on
the top of each. Some persons add the juice
of a lemon. -
Cream, Bran'dy. Prep. To the last, add the
yolks of 6 eggs; heat it gently over the fire
until it thickens, keeping it well stirred,
then further add 2 or 3 glassfuls of brandy,
and pour it into small cups or shallow
glasses.
Cream, Burnt. Prep. Cream, 1 quart; cassia,
a small stick; peel of half a lemon; boil for 5
minutes, cool a little, take out the spice, and
add the yolks of 9 eggs, and sugar, q. S. to
sweeten; stir until cold, put it into a dish,
strew pounded sugar over it, and bake it until
brown.
Cream, Chocolate. Prep. Chocolate, scraped
fine, 1 oz. ; thick cream, 1 quart ; sugar (best),
6 oz. ; heat it nearly to boiling, then remove
it from the fire, and mix it well; when cold,
add the whites of 8 or 10 eggs; whisk rapidly,
and take up the froth on a sieve; serve the
cream in glasses, and pile up the froth on the
top of them.
Cream, Coffee. Prep. 1. As the last, omitting
the chocolate, and using a pint of the strongest
made coffee.
2. Add a teacupful of very clear, concen-
trated, made coffee to 1 pint each of clarified
calf's feet jelly and good cream ; sweeten with
lump sugar, give it one boil up, and pour it
into shapes or glasses when nearly cold.
Cream, Cold. See CoSMETIC CERATE and
GRANULATED CREAM (below).
Cream, CostOrph’in. After a village near
Edinburgh, where it is commonly made.
Prep. The milk of 3 or 4 consecutive days,
together with the cream, are allowed to
remain until sour and coagulated; the whey
is then drawn off, and fresh cream added. It
is eaten with sugar and fruit, especially with
strawberries and raspberries.
Cream, Dev’onshire. Prep. 1. (DEVONSHIRE
RAW CREAM.) From sour cream mixed with
an equal quantity of fresh cream, and sweet-
ened with sugar. Eaten with fruit.
2. (DEVONSHIRE SCALDED CREAM, D.
CLOUTED C.) The milk of yesterday is set in
a polished, shallow, brass pan, over a clear fire
free from smoke, and gradually heated until
very hot, care being taken not to let it boil;
when the undulations on the surface look
thick, and form a ring round the top of the
fluid, the size of the bottom of the pan, it is
removed from the fire and allowed to cool;
the next day it is skimmed off for sale. Used
with either tea or coffee, and excellent with
both ; it is also eaten with sugar and fruit,
and is made into butter. See CREAM (above).
Cream, D'Illotte's. Syn. CRYSTALLISED
CREAM, WEGETABLE C. The ingenious manu-
facturer whose anagrammatic powers have
converted his patronym of Elliott into one
less familiar to vulgar English ears, prepares
this really elegant hair cosmetic as follows:–
Oil of almonds, 3 oz., and spermaceti, , oz.,
are melted together; and bergamot, neroli,
and verbena, of each, 5 drops, and huile au
jasmin, 10 drops, are then stirred in, and the
mixture is at once poured into small, wide-
mouthed bottles, to crystallise. If preferred
harder, 3. dr. more spermaceti may be used,
but the precise quantity to produce the best
crystalline appearance depends greatly on the
season of the year, more being required in
winter than in summer. -
Cream, Facti"tious. Syn. MoCK CREAM.
Prep. 1. Beat 3 eggs, with 2 oz. of sugar,
and a small piece of butter, until the combi-
nation is complete; then add, warm milk, 1



376 CREASOTE–CRINUM ASIATICUM.
pint; put the vessel into another containing
hot water, and stir it one way until it acquires
the consistence of cream.
2. Arrow-root, 1 spoonful; wet it with a
little cold milk, then add, gradually, boiling
milk, 4 pint; mix well, and further add, of
fresh butter, 1 oz. ; sugar, 1% oz. ; cold milk, #
pint; and continue stirring until the whole is
quite cold.
Cream, Ice. See ICE.
Cream, Fruit. Prep. From pulped or pre-
served fruit, 1 lb.; cream, or good raw milk,
1 quart; sugar, q. S.; boil for 1 minute; cool,
and add a glassful of brandy. A froth is
raised on these creams with a chocolate mill.
It is taken off, and placed on a hair sieve, and
some of it, after the glasses are filled with the
cream, placed on the top of each. The ex-
pressed juice of raspberries, of currants, and
several other kinds of fruit, also make delicious
creams. In winter, raspberry jelly, jam, or
syrup, may be used. A glass of good brandy
improves these creams.
Cream, Fur'niture. See PoEISH.
Cream, Granulated. Syn. GRANULATED
CoLD CREAM. Prep. (Owen.) Almond oil,
6 oz., white wax and spermaceti, of each, 2 oz.,
are melted together, and a little otto of roses
added; the liquor is then poured into a large
Wedgwood-ware or marble mortar, previously
warmed, and containing 1% to 2 pints of warm
water; brisk agitation with the pestle is then
had recourse to, until the oleaginous portion
is well divided, when the whole is suddenly
thrown into a vessel containing a gallon or
two of clean cold water; lastly, the granulated
cream is thrown on a muslin filter; and as much
water as possible is shaken (gently) out of it;
after which it is put up for use.
Cream, Lem'on. Prep. From cream, 1 pint;
yolks of 3 eggs; powdered sugar, 6 oz. ; the
yellow rind of 1 lemon (grated), with the juice;
mix, apply a gentle beat, and stir until cold.
If desired white, the whites of the eggs should
be used instead of the yolks.
Cream, Or'ange. Similar to lemon cream,
but using oranges.
Cream, Pista"chio. From the kernels of
pistachio nuts, as almond cream.
Cream, Raspberry. See FRUIT CREAM.
Cream, Satſurmine. Syn. CREM'OR PLUM'BI
ACETA(TIs, L. Prep. (Dr. Kirkland.) Cream,
1 oz. ; solution of diacetate of lead, 1 dr. ; mix.
Cooling, sedative, and astringent; a useful
application in certain cases to irritable ulcers,
sore nipples, &c. It is poisonous.
Cream, Scotch Sour. Prep. (Gray.) Skimmed
milk is put over night into a wooden tub, with
a spigot at the bottom, and this tub is put
into another filled with hot water; in the
morning the small tub is taken out and the
thin part of the milk (“wigg’) drawn off until
the thick, sour cream begins to come. This
process requires practice as to the heat of the
water; when it succeeds, skimmed milk yields
nearly one half of this cream, which is eaten
with sugar as a delicacy; it is only distin.
guishable from cream by its taste, and sells
for double the price of fresh milk.
Cream, Stone. Syn. CREAM BLANCMANGE,
Prep. From isinglass, # oz., dissolved in
boiling water, a teacupful, adding cream, 1
pint, and sugar, 4 oz. ; stirred until nearly
cold, and then poured over fruit or preserves,
placed on the bottom of glass dishes.
Cream, Taraxacum. Syn. CREM'oR TARAX'.
ACI, L. Prep. (Dr. Collier.) From washed
dandelion roots (sliced), sprinkled with spirit
of juniper, and then pressed for their juice.
—Dose. A table-spoonful twice or thrice daily,
as a stomachic and tonic, in dyspepsia, &c.
Cream, Vanilla. Prep. 1. Boil a stick of
vanilla (grated), and isinglass, # oz., in milk,
1 pint, until the latter is dissolved; strain,
add sugar, 6 oz., and cream, 1 pint; stir till
nearly cold, then pour it into moulds like
blancmange.
2. Cream and strong isinglass jelly, of each,
1 pint ; sugar, 6 oz.; essence of vanilla, # 07.;
mix as before.
Cream, Velvet. Prep. As the last, but, in-
stead of vanilla, flavour with the rind and
juice of a lemon, and about a teacupful of white
WIIle.
Cream, Whipped'. Prep. From the whites
of 12 eggs; cream, 1 quart; pale sherry, #
pint ; essence of musk and ambergris, of each,
10 drops; essences of lemon and orange peel, of
each, 3 or 4 drops; whisk to a froth, remove
the latter on to a sieve, fill the glasses with
the cream, and then pile the froth on the top
of them.
CRE/ASOTE. See KREASOTE.
CREATINE. See KREATINE.
CREAT'ININE. See KREATININE.
CREME. [Fr.] Syn. CREAM. This name
is applied to several compound spirits and
cordial liquors, especially by the French
liqueuristes, who pride themselves on the su-
perior quality and cream-like smoothness of
their manufactures. Like the cordials of the
English, they are mostly dilute spirit, aroma.
tised, and sweetened. See LIQUEURs.
CREN’IC ACID. A brown substance dis-
covered by Berzelius in certain mineral waters,
It is a modification of HUMUs, and is produced
by the decay of vegetable matter.
CRICKETS. These insects may be de-
stroyed by putting Scotch snuff into their
holes, or by placing some pieces of beetle
wafers for them to eat.
CRINUM ASIATICUM. (Ind. Ph.) Ha-
bitat. Low humid localities in Bengal, the
Concans, and other parts of India; also cul-
tivated in gardens; Ceylon, the Moluccas, and
Cochin China.-Qfficinal part. The fresh
root (Crini Radia); bulbous, with a terminal
stoloniferous fusiform portion issuing from the
crown of the bulb ; emits an unpleasant nar-
cotic odour; readily dried in a stove, and
reducible to powder after desiccation.—Pro-
perties. Emetic; in small doses nauseant and
CROTON OIL–CRUCIBLE.
377
diaphoretic.—Therapeutic uses. Analogous to
those of squill.
Juice of Crinum (Succus Crini; Infusum
Crini, Beng. Ph.). Take of the fresh root of
crinum, # an ounce ; cold water, 2 ounces.
Bruise the root in a stone mortar, gradually
adding the water. Strain, with pressure,
through calico.—Dose. From 2 to 4 fluid
drachms, every twenty minutes, until the
desired effect is produced.
Syrup of Crinum (Syrupus Crini). Take
of the fresh root of crinum, sliced, 8 ounces;
boiling water, 1 pint ; refined sugar, 1 pound.
Macerate the root in the water for two hours,
bruise in a mortar, press through calico, add
the sugar, and dissolve with the aid of gentle
heat.—Dose. About 2 fluid drachms, repeated
as required. Used as a nauseant and emetic
for children.
CROTON OIL. Syn. OLEUM CROTo'NIs
(B. P.), O. TIGLII (Ph. L. & D.), L. The
“oil expressed from the seeds of Croton
tiglium” or purging croton. This oil is
a drastic purgative, and a powerful local irri-
tant and rubefacient. Rubbed on the skin,
it produces a pustular eruption, and frequently
purges. In this way (diluted with thrice its
weight of olive oil) it is occasionally used as a
counter-irritant.—Dose (as a purge). 1 to 2
drops; in obstinate constipation, lead colic,
C.
CROUP. Syn. CYNAN'CHE LARYN"GEA, C.
SUFFOCATIVA, C. TRACHEA'LIS, L. An in-
flammatory disease affecting the larynx and
trachea.
Symp. A permanently, laborious and suf-
focative breathing, accompanied by wheezing,
cough, a peculiar shrillness of the voice, and
more or less expectoration of purulent matter,
which continually threatens suffocation. There
are two varieties, acute croup and chronic
croup. The latter is very rare.
Treat. Bleeding by leeches or cupping,
over the region of the trachea, should be
immediately had recourse to, when the symp-
toms are urgent; or violent local irritants, as
pieces of lint dipped in strong acetic acid, or
blisters, may be applied to the same part.
In weakly subjects of irritable constitution,
bleeding should be avoided. Dr. Larroque
recommends repeated vomiting, in the croup
of children; and M. Marotte and M. Boudet
have adopted this plan with great success.
The treatment consists in making the patient
attacked with croup vomit a great number of
times within the day, so as to detach the
pseudo-membrane from the larynx nearly as
fast as it is formed. For this purpose, M.
Marotte employs one or other of the following
formulae:—
1. Tartar emetic, 1% gr.; syrup of ipecacu-
anha, 1 oz. ; water 2 oz.
2. Impure emetime, 3 grs. ; syrup of ipeca-
cuanha and water, of each, 1% oz.
These draughts are administered by spoon-
fuls every ten minutes, until there has been
a sufficient number of vomitings. In this
manner he says he has been always able to
make the patient expectorate a certain quan-
tity of false membrane. This treatment is
accompanied by the use of small doses of
calomel, leeches to the throat, and blisters to
the nape of the neck; but it is the opinion of
M. Marotte that the vomitings alone effect the
cure. Out of 25 cases that occurred at the
Hôpital des Enfans, the only authenticated
case of cure among all these was effected by
emetics. (M. Boudet.)
The croup is a very dangerous disease, and
medical aid should be immediately sought
wherever it can be procured. It is princi-
pally confined to infancy, or to children under
9 years of age; but occasionally attacks
adults. One of our early friends, a young
medical practitioner of great promise, died
of it, prematurely, after only about 20 hours'
illness.
CRU'CIBLE, Syn. MEITING Pot; CRUCI-
BULUM, L.; CREUSET, Fr. A vessel used by
metallurgists and chemists for holding sub-
stances whilst they are exposed to a high
temperature. The crucibles commonly used
for fusing metals are formed of clay, or a
mixture of plumbago and clay. For certain
purposes, crucibles of platinum, gold, silver,
iron, porcelain, and lime, are employed.
Crucibles, Earth'em. Syn. CLAY CRUCIBLEs.
From fire-clay, mixed with silica, coke, burnt
clay, or other infusible matter.
Manuf. The materials, having been ground
and kneaded, are generally moulded by hand
upon a wooden block of the shape of the cavity
of the crucible. Another method of shaping a
crucible consists in ramming the ingredients
into a suitable mould, formed of steel or gun-
metal. (See engr.)
a a, External steel
mould.
e
b b, Clay or compo-
sition for forming the
crucible.
c, Internal steel
mould.
d d, Wooden stand.
e, Cord or chain to
withdraw the internal
mould or plug.
Small crucibles are sometimes formed by
pouring “slip,” that is, clay mixed with suffi-
cient water to give it the consistence of cream,
into porous moulds, made of a species of
stucco. A series of these moulds are placed
upon a table and filled with the semifluid
composition. By the time the whole (say 50
or 60) are filled, the “slip may be poured out
of the one first filled, leaving only a very small
quantity behind to give the requisite thick-
ness to the bottom. The second and third
may then be treated in the same way, until
the whole number have been attended to. In


378 CRUCIBLE.
each mould a perfect crucible is formed, by
the abstraction of the water of that portion
of the “slip” in immediate contact with the
stucco, and the crucible is either thicker or
thinner in proportion to the time this absorb-
ent action has been allowed to go on. 70 or
80 crucibles may thus be easily made in less
than 15 minutes. The moulds and their con-
tents are next placed in a stove or slow oven.
In a short time, from the contraction of the
clay in drying, the crucibles may be removed,
and the moulds, as soon as they have become
dry, may be again filled; by care they will last
for years.
Earthen crucibles are used both in the
burnt and unburnt state. Small crucibles are
generally kiln-burnt before they are used, but
the large Stourbridge clay ‘casting-pots,’
which are extensively employed in brass foun-
dries, are never previously burnt.
The following kinds of earthen crucibles are
much used in the arts:—
Crucibles, Cormish. From Teignmouth
clay, 1 part; Poole clay, 1 part ; sand from
St. Agnes’s Beacon, Cornwall, 2 parts. When
smaller and less refractory crucibles are
needed, the same mixture is employed, with
the addition of an eighth part of China clay,
or Kaolinite from St. Austell. These crucibles
are generally made round, and of two sizes,
of which one fits into the other; the larger
being 3 inches in diameter at the top, and
3% inches high outside measure. They are
coarse in grain, and of a grayish-white colour,
spotted with dark specks. They are always
kiln-burnt. Of all crucibles, none are more
generally useful for metallurgical experi-
ments.
Crucibles, Hessian. From a mixture of
equal weights of Almerode clay and sand.
They are generally triangular in shape, so that
the melted metal may be conveniently poured
out from each corner. They are usually sold
in “nests’ of six crucibles, fitting one in another.
In the character of their body, and in compo-
sition and qualities, they closely resemble the
Cornish.
Crucibles, London. From a very refrac-
tory clay. They have a reddish-brown colour,
and are close in grain. They are exceedingly
useful in assaying, as they resist the action of
fused oxide of lead much better than most clay
crucibles. Being very liable to crack, they
require to be used with care.
WHITE FLUXING-PoTs. From a peculiar
kind of foreign clay. They are manufactured
by the Patent Plumbago Crucible Company,
and are much esteemed by metallurgists, being
well moulded and very refractory. They have
a smooth surface, and withstand the action of
fluxes satisfactorily.
Crucibles, Stourbridge-clay. From Stour-
bridge clay, 4 parts; burnt clay, obtained
by pounding and grinding old glass pots,
2 parts; pipeclay and coke-powder, of each,
1 part.
Anstey's Patent. From Stourbridge clay
2 parts; hard gas-coke (previously ground
and sifted through a sieve of 4th-inch mesh),
1 part. -
Obs. These crucibles of Stourbridge clay
are made large enough to hold forty pounds
or more of melted brass. They are only dried,
and not baked. For use, they are warmed,
placed on the furnace, bottom upwards, the
burning coke gradually heaped round them,
and the firing continued until they acquire a
full red heat. They are then quickly taken
out of the furnace, and put in again with the
mouth upwards. If placed in the furnace with
the mouth upwards at first, they are sure to
crack. After they have been once used, and
allowed to become cold, they are worthless,
Crucibles, Plat'imum. These are indispen.
sable instruments in the laboratory of the
analytical chemist. They are chiefly employed
in the ignition of precipitates, and in the
fusion of silicates with carbonated alkalies to
render them soluble, a preliminary step to
their analysis. The most ordinary form of the
platinum crucible is that of a cup with a flat
bottom. They are always provided with lids,
which are sometimes so constructed that they
may be used, when separated from the cruci.
bles, as capsules for ignitions and evaporations,
Platinum crucibles are not acted on by car.
bonated alkalies at a high temperature, but
they are liable to be seriously damaged by the
caustic alkalies. Precipitates of the more re.
ducible metals must never be ignited in these
crucibles, as the reduction of the metals would
infallibly destroy the vessels.
Crucibles, Gold, are exceedingly useful for
many operations, on account of the way which
they stand caustic and carbonated alkalies, and
nitric acid, which destroy platinum or silver
crucibles respectively. Their drawbacks are
their great expense and ready fusibility.
Crucibles, Silver. These are much used
for fusions of alkalies, being much less acted
on than platinum crucibles, and also for water
analyses, from their cheapness and light
weight. They are easily destroyed, however,
by acids.

Crucibles, Plumba'go. Syn. GRAPHITE C,
BLACKLEAD C., BLUE POTS. From graphite,
ground and sifted, mixed with sufficient re.
fractory clay to render it plastic. They are
shaped by hand on an ordinary potter's wheel,
or by moulds of metal like that figured above
under the head of EARTHEN CRUCIBLES.
Prop., &c. Good blacklead crucibles, even
when of the largest size, support the greatest
and most sudden alternations of temperature
without cracking, and may be used after re-
peated heating and cooling. Their surface,
within as well as without, may be made very
smooth, so that particles of melted metal will
not hang about the sides. They are now
almost universally used for melting the pre-
cious metals.
Crucibles, Por'celain. These beautiful ves:
CRUMPET_CRYSTALLISATION.
379
sels are now made in Germany and France of
all shapes and sizes. They are formed of the
most exquisitely white, thin, and hard por-
celain, which does not crack when heated, and
which is but little acted on by the most
emergetic chemical reagents. For some opera-
tions they supersede platinum crucibles, par-
ticularly in the ignition of the precipitates
of the more reducible metals. They do not
retain colouring matter, and are not porous.
Their covers are excellently adapted for deli-
cate cases of testing, the whiteness of the
porcelain showing the changes of colour in a
single drop of liquid most distinctly.
Crucibles, Iron. Used chiefly for preparing
common reagents, as sulphide of iron, calcic
chloride, &c., and also for preparing pure
caustic potassa from the nitrate.
CRUMP'ET. A sort of muffin or tea-cake,
very light and spongy. Prep. From flour, 2
lbs., made into a dough with warm milk-and-
water, adding a little salt, 3 eggs (well beaten),
and 3 teaspoonfuls of yeast, mixed to the con-
sistence of thick batter; after standing before
the fire for a short time, to rise, it is poured
into buttered tins, and baked slowly to a fine
yellow. For the table, crumpets are toasted
lightly on both sides, buttered, piled on a hot
dish, and cut into halves.
CRUST. The paste with which pies, tarts,
&c., are made, or covered.
1. (FINE.) From flour, 1 lb.; sugar 4 lb.;
melted butter, # lb.; 3 eggs; milk, q. s.
Requires little baking.
2. (RAISED CRUST, FOR MEAT PIES, &c.)
As the last, but using 6 oz. of lard for the
butter, and 2 instead of 3 eggs.
3. (SHORT.) From flour, 1 lb. ; butter and
sugar, of each, 2 oz. ; eggs, 2 in no. ; made
into a stiff paste.
Obs. The quality is improved if the whole
or a portion of the butter is employed in the
way directed under PUFF PASTE. For further
information hereon, consult the cookery books
of Acton, Beeton, Rundell, and Soyer.
CRYOPHORUS. See REFRIGERATION.
CRYSTAL. A solid body, having a regular
geometrical form. The plane surfaces by
which a crystal is bounded are termed faces;
these intersect in straight lines or edges; and
these again meet in points, and form angles.
The axis of a crystal is an imaginary line
passing through its centre, and terminating
either in the middle of two faces or of two
edges, or in two angles; and axes terminating
in similar parts of a crystal are named similar
axes. When the axes of a crystal are pro-
perly chosen, and placed in a right position,
the various faces are observed to group them-
selves in a regular and beautiful manner
around these axes, and to be all so related to
them as to compose a connected series, pro-
duced according to definite laws. The multi-
tudinous forms of crystals have been distri-
buted by mineralogists and chemists into six
primary classes or systems, distinguishable
from one another by the relative positions
and lengths of the three axes about which
the planes or faces are arranged; while the
different figures of any particular system are
distinguishable by the arrangement of the
planes in respect to the axes. Thus, the cube
or hexahedron, the rhombic dodecahedron, and
the octahedron, all belong to the regular sys-
tem, which is characterised by 3 equal axes
cutting one another at right angles. But in
the cube each plane cuts 1 axis, and is parallel
to 2 axes; in the dodecahedron each plane
cuts 2 axes, and is parallel to a third; while
in the octahedron each plane cuts the 3 axes.
The names and definitions of the six crystal-
line systems are given below:—

- The 3 axes
1. REGULAR SYSTEM. equal and rec-
tangular.
2. SQUARE PRISMATIC S.
2 equal axes.
3. RIGHT PRISMATIC S.
The 3 axes un-
equal and rec-
All unequal. tangular.
The 3 axes
4. RHOMBOHEDRAL S. equal, but not
- rectangular.
5. OBLIQUE PRISMATICS.
1 axis rectangular to 2.
6. Dou BLY O. P. S.
None rectangular.
CRYSTALLISATION. The act or process
by which crystals are formed. The frequent
reference to this subject in the pages of this
work, and the constant employment of the
process of crystallisation in the manufacture
of salts, &c., in the laboratory, seem to point
out the necessity of a few explanatory remarks
thereon under this head. When fluid sub-
stances are suffered to pass with adequate
slowness to the solid state, or when solutions
of solids are slowly concentrated by evapora-
tion, or the solvent powers of the menstruum,
gradually lessened by cooling, the ultimate
particles of matter frequently so arrange them-
selves as to form regular geometrical bodies,
familiarly known by the name of crystals.
This wonderful property, which is possessed by
a great variety of substances in the mineral
kingdom, and by nearly all saline bodies, is
resorted to for many useful and important
purposes in the chemical arts. It is by means
of crystallisation that the majority of salts are
obtained in a state of purity; for in the act of
passing into the crystalline state, the foreign
substances with which they are united are left
behind in the mother-liquor.
Salts are crystallised, either by allowing
their hot and saturated solutions to cool slowly,
or by simply evaporating the menstrua as long
as crystals form. In the first case, the liquid
is commonly evaporated until a pellicle appears
on the surface, when the vessel is set aside in
some sheltered situation until cold, at which
time the crystals are collected, and the process
repeated for fresh crystals. In the second
The 3 axes not
equal, and not
rectangular.


380 CRYSTALLOID—CUPPING.
case, the crystals are usually removed from the
liquid as soon as they are deposited. The first
method is adopted for those salts that are con-
siderably more soluble in hot than in cold
water, as carbonate of soda, Epsom salts, &c.;
the last method, for those that possess nearly
equal solubility in both cases, and also for
many salts which are not required in handsome
crystals; thus common salt and chromate of
potash are crystallised in this way. Many of
the alkaloids, and their salts, are obtained in
crystals, by allowing their solutions (generally
alcoholic or ethereal) to evaporate sponta-
necusly. By repeating the processes of solu-
tion and crystallisation two or three times with
the same body, the crystals obtained by the
last operation will usually be found to be quite
Ulre.
p Many solids may be readily obtained in a
crystalline state by melting them, and allowing
them to cool very slowly. Thus, iodide of
sulphur is crystallised by melting it in a flask
placed in a salt-water bath, and allowing it to
remain in the water until the whole becomes
cold. Sulphur and many metals are crystal-
lised by pouring them, in a state of fusion,
into a hot vessel, having a plug in the bottom,
which is withdrawn as soon as the surface
becomes cool, when the liquid portion runs
out, and leaves the under surface in the form
of a mass of agglomerated crystals. Perfectly
pure wax, stearine, and spermaceti, have a very
pleasing appearance when treated in this way.
CRYSTALLOID. See DIALYSIs.
CU'BEBIN. A peculiar substance obtained
from cubebs.
Prep. From cubebs (from which the oil has
been expelled by distillation), by digestion in
alcohol, evaporating the resulting tincture to
one fourth, filtering, and then evaporating the
remaining fluid almost to dryness. The resi-
duum is left in a cold place until it assumes a
semi-crystalline appearance, when it is thrown
on a filter, and the fluid portion (the “cubebine’
of M. Cassola) allowed to drain off. In 24
hours, the substance left on the filter is dis-
solved in 4 times its weight of boiling alcohol
(sp. gr. 90), the solution allowed to deposit
its undissolved resin (still maintaining it near
the boiling temperature), after which the clear
portion is decanted. The crystals deposited
as the liquid cools are cubebin. It is purified
by redissolving it in boiling concentrated alco-
hol, and the addition of a little boiling water
and animal charcoal, when long, white needles
will be deposited, if the solution is allowed to
cool very slowly.
Prop., &c. It is insoluble in water, and
nearly so in cold alcohol, but very soluble in
boiling alcohol. It strikes a fine crimson
colour with sulphuric acid, which remains un-
altered for some hours; a property which dis-
tinguishes it from piperin. Its physiological
action has been but little studied. According
to Dr. Görres, this for the most part resembles
that of cubebs.
CU’BEBS. Syn. CUBEB PEPPER; CUBEBA
(B. P. & U. S.), CUBEBAE (B. P.), L.
The immature and stalked fruit of Piper
cubeba or Cubeba officinalis. Cubebs are
stimulant, stomachic, and aromatic, like the
other peppers; they are also diuretic, and
appear to possess a specific influence over
the urino-genital organs.—Dose. 10 to 20 grs,
in affections of the bladder and prostate gland,
and in gleet and leucorrhoea; 1 to 3 drs, in
the early and inflammatory stages of gonor-
rhoea, in piles, &c. They may be taken in
water, milk, or bitter ale.
CU’CUMBER. The fruit of the Cucumis
sativus (Linn.). Used as a salad vegetable,
It is somewhat indigestible, but when properly
dressed, with plenty of oil, it may be eaten
without the slightest fear of evil consequences,
The practice of pouring off the natural juice
extracted from the cucumber by salt can-
not be too strongly condemned. See ELATE-
RIUM.
CUD’BEAR. Syn. PERSIo. A dye-stuff ob.
tained from Lecanora tarfarea and other
lichens, by a process nearly similar to that
used in making ARCHIL. The lichen is watered
with stale urine or other ammoniacal liquor,
and suffered to ferment for 3 or 4 weeks, after
which the whole is poured into a flat vessel,
and exposed to the air until the urinous smell
has disappeared, and it has assumed a violet
colour. It is then ground to powder. Its use
is confined to a few cases of silk dyeing, where
it is employed to yield shades of ruby and
maroon; upon wool it gives deep-red shades,
The colours produced by it are very fugitive,
Like archil, there are two varieties of this
dye-stuff—BLUE CUDBEAR and RED CUDBEAR,
See ARCHIL.
CULM. In mineralogy, a slaty kind of AN.
THRACITE, occurring in Wales and North
Devon. The term is also applied to any im:
pure, shaly kind of coal.
CU’MARIN. See Couſ MARIN.
CU'MIN. Syn. CYMINI SEM.INA, CYMINUM,
L. The fruit (seed) of Cuminum cyminum,
It is carminative and aromatic, like the cara.
way and anise. See PLASTER.
CU'MINOL. A colourless, transparent oil, of
powerful odour. It exists with CYMOL in OIL
of CUMIN. See CUMIC ACID and CYMOL.
CU'MOL. See CUMIC ACID.
CU'PELLATION. The process of assaying
gold and silver and their alloys by means of
the CUPEL. See ASSAYING.
CUP'PING. This method of topical bleeding
is performed as follows:–
The skin being softened by means of a
sponge and warm water, and the hair and other
extraneous substances being previously re-
moved, one of the small bell-like glasses (CUP-
PING-GLASSES; CUCURBITU'LE), having the
air contained in it rarified by being passed
over the flame of a spirit-lamp, is immediately
applied to the part. From the formation of a
partial vacuum beneath the cup, the pressure
|

CURARINE–CURRY.
381
of the air on the surrounding surface causes
that portion immediately under the cup to
swell, and the vessels to become turgid. When
this has taken place, the cup is removed, and
several incisions are instantly made by means
of a scarificator, an instrument containing
numerous lancets, which, by means of a spring,
make a number of incisions at the same mo-
ment; the depth of these incisions being regu-
lated by means of a screw which protrudes or
withdraws the lancets, according to the vascu-
larity of the part, or the quantity of blood to
be abstracted. The cupping-glass is now again
applied. When a sufficient quantity of blood
has been collected in the cup, it is removed by
gently introducing the mail of one of the fin-
gers under the upper edge, by which means,
air being allowed to enter, the cup becomes
detached. The part being washed with warm
water to remove any clots of blood, another
cup is applied as before, and the operation
continued until a sufficient quantity of blood
is withdrawn. Sometimes, especially when
applied to the scalp, the cups fill so rapidly
with blood as to become detached almost im-
mediately on being applied. This method of
local bleeding is frequently called ‘CUPPING
WITH SCARIFICATIONS.’
When cupping-glasses are applied without
the use of the lancet or scarificator, the ope-
ration is called ‘DRY CUPPING, and is much
used to cause a speedy irritation of the skin
and reaction, for the relief of oppressive
breathing, local pains, &c. To obtain the full
benefit from this operation, the cups should be
suffered to remain upon the part until they
cause an exudation of a small quantity of
serum, or a considerable amount of irritation
of the part. Dry cupping has been found ex-
tremely beneficial in poisoned wounds; as it
acts not only by abstracting the poison, but
also, by the pressure the glasses exercise on and
around the part, in preventing the absorption
of it.
Obs. For the operation of cupping, a basin
of hot water, sponges, and clean, soft towels,
should be provided. In clumsy hands, cup-
ping is occasionally a severe and painful opera-
tion; but this is not the case with the skilful
operator. A good cupper does not exhaust
much of the air in the cup before applying it,
but simply passes its mouth rapidly over the
flame of the lamp. When it is held over the
flame even for a few seconds, the compression
of the edge of the cup upon the skin is so
great, that it checks the flow of the blood to
the scarified part. A good cupper also removes
the cups without spilling the contents, and
completes the whole operation quickly and
neatly. There are, however, few persons, who
are not professional cuppers, who are suffi-
ciently expert to exhaust the air in the cup by
means of the common lamp; although it is by
far the best. A good plan is to rarify the air
in the cup by means of a small cone of paper,
dipped in spirits of wine, or strong brandy;
this is ignited and thrown in the cup, which
is instantly to be applied to the proper spot.
Where cupping-glasses and the scarificator are
not to be had, wine-glasses, or any very small
tumblers, may be substituted for the first; and
small incisions by means of a thumb lancet
will answer the purpose of the other.
The cicatrices of the scarifications leave per-
manent marks on the skin; on which account,
when blood is to be drawn from the head or
neck, the glasses should be applied behind the
ears, and a portion of hair removed in such a
manner that the part may be covered by what
remains.
A most convenient cupping apparatus is
manufactured by Mr. Bigg, the eminent sur-
gical-instrument maker of Leicester Square,
consisting of cups and an exhausting syringe,
so arranged that the use of the spirit-lamp is
rendered unnecessary, and the operation of
cupping may be performed nearly as expertly
by an inexperienced nurse as by the most
accomplished professional operator. It is in-
valuable in places remote from town.
CURAR'INE. The vegeto-alkaline base of
curara, urari, woorara, woorali, or wourali, the
arrow-poison of Central America.
CURCU'MIN. The yellow colouring mat-
ter of turmeric, obtained by digesting the
alcoholic extract of the powder in ether, and
evaporating the clear ethereal solution to dry-
ness. A brownish-yellow mass, yielding a
bright-yellow powder. It is scarcely soluble
in water, but very soluble in both alcohol and
ether. Boracic and hydrochloric acids redden
it; alkalies turn it reddish brown.
CURD. Coagulated casein. See CHEESE.
CUR/RANTS. The currants of our garden
are varieties of the Ribes rubrum and Ribes
nigrum. (Linn.) The first includes RED CUR-
RANTS and WHITE CURRANTS; the fruit of both
of which are gently acidulous, cooling, and
wholesome. The juice makes excellent wine.
The fruit of the last (BLACK CURRANTs,
QUINSY-BERRIES) is aperitive, and has been
used in calculous affections; the juice is made
into wine, jellies, jams, lozenges, &c. The
young leaves are used as a substitute for tea;
one or two buds, or half a small leaf, impart to
black tea the flavour and fragrance of green.
The currants of the grocers (ZANTE CURRANTs)
are a small variety of dried grapes.
CUR'RY. Syn. CURRIE. A noted dish in
Indian cookery, much esteemed throughout
the East. Curries are simply stews, of which
rice usually forms a characteristic ingredient,
highly flavoured with fried onions and curry
powder, to which sliced apples and lemon juice
are sometimes added. They are made from
every variety of fish, meat, poultry, game,
&c., according to the fancy of the parties.
Cur'ry Powder. Prep. (Kitchener.) From
coriander-seed, 3 lb.; turmeric, 4 lb.; cinna-
mon-seed, 2 oz. ; cayenne, 3 oz. ; mustard, 1
oz. ; ground ginger, 1 oz. ; 'allspice, 3 oz. ;
fenugreek-seed, 2 oz.; all dried thoroughly,



382 CUSCONINE–CUTTLE-FISH.
pounded in a mortar, rubbed through a sieve,
and mixed together.
Obs. The above must be regarded as merely
a substitute for Indian curry powder, which
contains many ingredients not to be obtained
in England. It should be kept in a bottle
closely corked or stoppered. The curry pow-
der sold at the present time consists of cori-
ander seed, turmeric, cayenne, fenugreek-seed,
and a large proportion of sago-flour.
CUS'CONINE. See ARICINE.
CUSPA"RIA. Syn. CUSPARIA BARK (B.P.),
ANGOSTU"RA. B.; CoR'TEX ANGOSTU"RE, C.
CUSPA"RIAE, CUSPARIA (Ph. L. & E.), L.
“The bark of Galipea cusparia” (Ph. L.), or
Galipea officinalis (Ph. E.). A valuable drug,
imported directly or indirectly from South
America.--Dose. 10 grs. to 30 grs., as a tonic,
stomachic, and febrifuge, in similar cases to
those in which CASCARILLA, CALUMBA, and
CINCHONA, are commonly given.
Angostura or cusparia bark has fallen into
comparative disuse, in consequence of nux
vomica or false angostura bark having for-
merly, in several instances, been mistaken for
it, and administered with fatal results. The
leading characteristics of these two barks have
been pointed out by M. Gibourt, and are as
follows:—
-
True
Characters. Angostura.
False Angostura.
Flat or rolled
{"; rugous, rolled up, little
Form . upon itself. Edges wrinkled,
cut perpendicularly. edges be-
veled.
ſ Brown, or greenish-Y
yellow, presenting
protuberances or ex-
crescences, produced -
Colour . . by the great deve- º:
lopment of the corky yellow.
layer, which has a
still more yellow co-
U lour. .
Taste . . . . Wery bitter . . . . . . Bitter.
Reaction - r
- :/.4. U Red colour when drop- Yellow
º,"ins) ped upon the bark. colour.
CUSPAR/IN. Syn. ANGOSTU"RIN, ANGos-
TU"RA. The bitter principle of Cusparia-
bark. It is neutral; crystallises in tetrahe-
drons; is easily fusible; soluble in rectified
spirits, in acids, and in alkaline solutions. It
is precipitated of a whitish colour by tincture
of galls.
CUSTARD. A composition of milk, or
cream, and eggs, sweetened with sugar, and
variously flavoured. Custards may be cooked
either in the oven or stew-pan.
Prep. 1. (Soyer.) Milk (boiling), 1 pint;
sugar, 2 oz. ; thin yellow peel of half a lemon;
mix, and set it aside for a short time; then
take eggs, 4 in no., beat them well in a basin;
add, gradually, the milk (not too hot), pass
the mixture through a colander or sieve, and
fill the custard cups with it; these are then
to be placed over the fire in a stew-pan, con-
taining about one inch of hot water, and left
there for 12 minutes, or till sufficiently set.
The above is for PLAIN CUSTARDs; but it
forms a good basis to receive any of the usual
flavouring ingredients, as fresh or stewed fruit,
peels, essences, orange-flower-water, brandy or
other spirits, &c.
2. (Rundell.) As the last, but using cream
instead of milk, or equal parts of the two,
with 2 additional eggs. Very rich; like the
last, any suitable flavouring matter may be
added to it.
3. (ALMOND CUSTARDs, - Rundell.) As
either of the above, adding blanched sweet
almonds, 4 oz. ; bitter do., 6 in no.; beaten to
a smooth paste.
4. (BAKED CUSTARDS,-Rundell.) From
cream, 1 pint, with 4 eggs; flavour with mace,
nutmeg, and cinnamom, and add a little white
wine, rose-water, and sugar; bake in cups.
5. (COFFEE CUSTARDS,-Soyer.) Hot milk
and strong-made coffee, of each, ; pint; sugar,
2 oz. ; dissolve, and add it, gradually, to 4
eggs (well beaten), and proceed as in No. 1,
Chocolate custards and cocoa custards are
made in the same way.
6. (CoLD CUSTARD, for invalids,-Dewees.)
1 egg; sugar, a table-spoonful; beat well to-
gether; and add, gradually, constantly stir-
ring, cold water, , pint; rose-water, 2 tea-
spoonfuls; and a little grated nutmeg. An
agreeable and nutritious demulcent. A wine-
glassful every 2 or 3 hours, or ad libiţum.
7. (LEMON CUSTARDs, Rundell.)—a. As
No. 1 (nearly), using a little more lemon peel.
In the same way orange custards are made,
but using orange peel.
b. From candied lemon peel and lump sugar,
of each, 2 oz., beaten in a mortar quite fine,
and added to either No. 1 or No. 2. Orange
and citron custards may be made in the same
manner. A little orange-flower-water, or mar-
sala, or sherry, may be also added at pleasure,
They are best baked.
8. (ORANGE CUSTARDS.) As above, No. 7,
a and b.
9. (RICE CUSTARDs, Rundell.) Boil a
cupful of the best ground rice in a pint of
milk until dissolved, then mix it with a quart
of cream ; flavour with nutmeg, mace, and a
little brandy, and put it into a cup, or a
dish.
CUTCH. See CATECHU.
CUTTLE-FISH. The bone of the Sepia
officinalis of Linnaeus, or common cuttle-fish
(CUTTLE-FISH BONE ; OS SE'PIAE), is used by
the law-stationers to erase ink-marks from
paper and parchment, an application familiar
to most schoolboys of the present generation,
Reduced to powder (PUI/VIS SE/PIE), it forms
a valuable dentifrice and polishing powder,

CUTS-CYMIDINE.
383

and is used for forming the moulds for small
silver castings.
CUTS. These are incised wounds of greater
or less extent, and must be treated accord-
ingly. The divided parts should be drawn
close together, and held so with small pieces of
strapping or adhesive plaster stretched across
the wound. If the part is covered with blood,
it should be first wiped with a damp sponge.
When the wound is large, and it is much ex-
posed, a good method is to sew the parts up.
The application of a little creasote or a spirit-
uous solution of creasote, will generally stop
local bleeding, provided it is applied to the
clean extremities of the wounded vessels. A
good way is to place a piece of lint, moistened
with creasote, on the wound, previously wiped
clean, or to pour a drop or two of that liquid
on it. An excellent method is to cover the
part with a film of collodion. Friar's balsam,
quick-drying copal varnish, tincture of galls,
copperas water, black ink, &c., are popular
remedies applied in the same way. A bit of
the fur plucked from a black beaver hat is an
excellent remedy to stop the bleeding from
a cut produced by the razor in shaving.
A cobweb is said to possess the same pro-
perty.
CY'ANATE. Syn. CYANAs, L. A salt in
which the hydrogen of cyanic acid is replaced
by a metal or other basic radical.
CYAN’IC ACID. HCNO. Syn. ACIDUM
CYAN’ICUM, L. Prep. 1. Cyanuric acid, de-
prived of its water of crystallisation, is dis-
tilled in a retort, and the product collected in
a well-cooled receiver.
2. (Liebig.) A current of sulphuretted
hydrogen gas is passed through water in which
cyanate of silver is diffused, the process being
suspended before all the cyanate of silver is
decomposed.
Prop., &c. Cyanic acid is a limpid, colour-
less liquid; it reddens litmus ; is sour to the
taste; possesses a modified sulphurous odour,
similar to that which is always perceived when
any of its salts are decomposed by an acid;
it forms salts with the bases, called CYANATES ;
when in contact with water, it suffers decom-
position in a few hours, and is converted into
bicarbonate of ammonia; it cannot be pre-
served for any time, as shortly after its pre-
paration it spontaneously passes into a white,
opaque, solid mass, to which the name CY-
AMELIDE has been given. By distillation,
this new substance is reconverted into cyanic
acid.
CY'ANIDE. Syn. CYAN'URET; CYAN'IDUM,
CYANURE'TUM, L. The compound formed by
the union of cyanogen with a metal or other
radical. See CYANOGEN, HYDROCYANIC ACID,
and the respective bases.
Cyanide, Alkaline. Syn. CRUDE CYANIDE
OF POTASSIUM AND SODIUM. Prep. (R. Wag-
ner.) Dry ferrocyanide of potassium, 4 parts,
dry carbonate of soda, 1 part, are melted to-
gether in an iron crucible at a red heat, and
continually stirred until the iron rod comes
out covered with a white crust, when the
heat is withdrawn, and after a few moments’
repose the supernatant liquid portion is poured
out on a clean iron slab. This crude mixed
cyanide is quite as useful as the more ex-
pensive one of Liebig, and is equally fit for
technical applications, as electrotyping, gild-
ing, silvering, &c. See CYANIDE OF POTAS-
SIUM. -
CYANINE. A base discovered by Mr. G.
Williams in CHINOLINE BLUE. See below.
Cyamine, I'odide of. Syn. CHIN'oDINE BLUE.
The action of iodide of amyl upon chinoline
gives rise to iodide of amylchinoline. Addition
of excess of soda to an aqueous solution of this
iodide produces a black resinous precipitate,
which dissolves in alcohol with a magnificent
blue colour. This precipitate is the IoDIDE OF
CYANINE, or CHINOLINE BLUE. Many attempts
have been made to use it in dyeing; they
have, however, failed on account of the insta-
bility of the colour.
CYAN'0GEN. CN or Cy. A highly im-
portant compound radical or quasi element,
discovered by M. Gay Lussac in 1815.
Best obtained by carefully igniting dry cya-
mide of mercury in a small retort, and collecting
the gas over mercury.
Prop., &c. A colourless gas, possessing a
pungent and peculiar odour, resembling that
of peach-kernels or prussic acid; under a
pressure of about 4 atmospheres, at a tem-
perature of 45°, it assumes the liquid form
(Faraday), and this fluid again becomes
gaseous on withdrawal of the pressure; water
absorbs nearly 5 times its bulk of cyanogen at
60° Fahr., and alcohol about 23 times its
volume; with hydrogen it forms hydrocyanic
acid, and with the metals a most interesting
and important class of bodies called cyanides
or cyanurets; when kindled, it burns with a
beautiful purple flame, carbonic acid and nitro-
gen being evolved. Sp. gr. 1806. See HY-
DROCYANIC ACID, &c.
Forms a bromide and iodide when the cya-
mide of mercury is distilled with bromine or
iodine, and which are colourless, volatile, highly
poisonous solids; and two isomeric chlorides,
one a very volatile liquid, prepared by passing
chlorine over moist cyanide of mercury, and
the other in white volatile needles, prepared
by exposing aqueous hydrocyanic acid to chlo-
rine in sunshine.
CYANU.’’RIC ACID.
PYRO-U"RIC AQIDf. A peculiar acid, dis-
covered by Scheele. It is a product of the
decomposition of the soluble cyanates by
dilute acids, or of urea by heat, &c.
CYDER. See CIDER.
CY'DONINE. The peculiar gum of quince
seed. It resembles bassorin in most of its pro-
perties.
CY'MIDINE. An oily base, homologous
with aniline, obtained by the action of iron
filings and acetic acid on nitro-cymol.

HaCaM303. Syn.


384
CYMOL–DAMP.
CY'MOL. A peculiar hydrocarbon found in
oil of cumin, in admixture with cuminol. The
two bodies are separable in a great measure by
distillation, cymol being the most volatile
portion of the oil.
CYNAPINE. An alkaloid obtained from
AEthusa cynapium, or fool's parsley. It pos-
sesses no practical interest.
CYST'INE. CANH,SO, Syn. CYST/IC
OXIDE. Obtained from cystic oxide calculi
(in powder) by digestion in solution of am-
monia. By spontaneous evaporation the am-
moniacal solution deposits small, colourless
crystals of cystic oxide. It forms a saline
compound with hydrochloric acid, and is de-
composed by the strong alkalies.
CY'TISINE. A purgative bitter principle,
extracted from the Cytisus Laburnum (Linn.),
or common laburnum, and some other plants.
DAGUERRE/OTYPE. See PHOTOGRAPHY.
DA"HLIA DYE (dāle'-y'ā). The shade of
colour which is commonly termed ‘dahlia' is a
reddish lilac. It is produced by combining a
blue or purple with red when a compound
colour is used. Upon wool and silk it can
be obtained directly by means of archil or
cudbear, either alone or ‘blued' by a small
quantity of sulphate of indigo. Upon cotton
indifferent shades of dahlia are obtained by
macerating in sumac liquor, working in tin
solution, and dyeing in logwood mixed with
some red wood.
DA"HLINE. A species of fecula obtained
from the tubers of the dahlia. It is iden-
tical with inuline. It is not employed in
the arts.
DAIR'Y. The place where milk is kept, and
cheese and butter made. The best situation
for a dairy is on the north side of the dwelling-
house, in order that it may be sheltered from
the sun during the heat of the day. Ample
means should be provided to ensure venti-
lation, and at the same time to exclude flies
and other insects. The temperature should be
preserved, as much as possible, in an equable
state, 1anging from 45° to 55° Fahr. To
lessen the influence of external variations of
temperature, the walls should be double, or of
considerable thickness, and the windows pro-
vided with shutters or doors. In summer the
heat may be lessened by sprinkling water on
the floor, which will produce considerable cold
by its evaporation. Dairies built of mud or
‘cob’ are preferred in the West of England;
and this preference arises from the uniform
temperature they maintain, on account of the
great thickness of the walls, and their being
very bad conductors of heat. In large dairy-
farms, where butter and cheese are made, the
dairy is generally a separate building, and
divided into 3 or 4 apartments; one of which
is called the “milk-room;’ a second, the ‘churn-
ing-room;’ a third, the ‘cheese-room, contain-
ing the cheese-press, &c.; and a fourth, the
‘drying-room,’ where the cheeses are placed to
dry and harden. To these may be added a
Scullery, furnished with boiler, water, &c., for
scalding and cleaning the dairy utensils.
Cleanliness is very essential in all the ope:
rations of the dairy, and in none more so than
in the milking of the cows. The hands and
arms of the milkmaid should be kept scrupu.
lously clean, and should be well washed with
soap and water after touching the udder of a
sick cow, as without this precaution the SOres
may be conveyed to the healthy ones. The
milk-cans should be scalded out daily, and, as
well as all the other dairy utensils, should be
kept clean and dry. Before placing the milk
on the shelves of the dairy, it should be strained
through a hair sieve or a searce covered with
clean cheese-cloth, as by this precaution any
stray hairs that may have fallen into the milk-
pail will be taken out.
The average produce of a milch cow, sup:
plied with good pasturage, is about 3 gallons
daily from Lady-day to Michaelmas, and from
that time to February about 1 gallon daily,
Cows of good breed will be profitable milkers,
to 14 or 15 years of age, if well fed. See
BUTTER, CHEESE, CREAM, &c. -
DAMAS/CUS BLADES. See STEEL.
DAMP, under any form, should be avoided.
A humid atmosphere or situation is one of the
commonest causes of agues, asthmas, rheuma.
tism, and numerous other diseases.
Damp Limen is very injurious, and should be
especially avoided. In travelling, when it is
expected that the bed has not been properly
aired, a good plan is to sleep between the
blankets. To ascertain this point, the bed may
be warmed, and a cold, dry, glass tumbler,
immediately afterwards introduced between
the sheets, in an inverted position. After it
has remained a few seconds, it should be
examined, when, if it is found dry, and un-
dimmed by steam, it may be fairly presumed
that the bed is well aired; but if the reverse
should be the case, it should be avoided. When
it is impossible to prevent the use of damp
linen, as articles of dress, the best way to
obviate any ill effects is to keep constantly in
motion, and avoid remaining near the fire, or
in a warm apartment, or in a draught of cold
air, until sufficient time has elapsed to allow
of the escape of the moisture. The effect of
evaporation is the reduction of the temperature
of the body; hence the depressing action of
damp linen.
Damp Walls. Ivy planted against the sound
wall of a house is said to exclude dampness,
If a wall is already damp, ivy planted against
it will, when grown up, cause it to become dry,
provided the brickwork is sound, and the damp-
ness does not arise from moisture attracted
upwards from the foundation. Sometimes,
when ivyis propagated from flowering branches,
it will not adhere to a wall at all; the way to
get over this difficulty is to cut it back to near
the surface of the ground. The young wood

|
DAMSON.—DEAFNESS.
385
which will then form will take hold and cling
immediately to almost anything.
DAM'SON. A species of small black plum,
much used in the preparation of tarts, &c.
Damsons are rather apt to disagree with deli-
cate stomachs, and also to affect the bowels.
See PLUM.
DAN/CING. The practice of dancing as an
amusement or exercise must be almost as old
as the human race itself. Yet, notwithstand-
ing its antiquity and prevalence amongst all
nations, both barbarous and refined, the pro-
priety and advantages of its cultivation are of
a very questionable character. In a hygienic
point of view it can claim no preference, as an
exercise, over the more simple ones of walking
and running; whilst, from the associations it
frequently induces, and the heated and con-
fined atmosphere in which its votaries com- | (
monly assemble to indulge in it, it becomes
the fertile parent of immorality and con-
sumption. A celebrated cyclopædist has, per-
haps, harshly, but truthfully, defined dancing
to be “a silly amusement for the idle and
thoughtless.”
DANDELI'0N. Syn. PISS-A-BED ; TARAX'A-
CUM (Ph. L. E. & D.), L. A common British
plant of the natural order Compositae. It is
known among botanists by the names Tarawa-
cum ºfficinale, T. dens leonis, and Leontodon
Tarawacum (Linn.). Its root (Tarawaci Radia,
B. P.) is employed in medicine, being diuretic
and tonic. It is roasted and used as coffee,
and when mixed with an equal weight of
foreign coffee constitutes the article once so
much puffed under the name of “dandelion
coffee.' A similar mixture prepared with cho-
colate forms the “dandelion chocolate” of the
shops. The blanched leaves are used in salads,
and the inspissated juice, extract, and decoc-
tion, are employed in medicine, and are con-
sidered as detergent, aperitive, and deob-
struent. Ground roasted dandelion root can-
not now be sold under the name of “dandelion
coffee’ or mixed with coffee unless it has pre-
viously paid the chicory duty. See' DECOC-
TION, EXTRACT, &c.
DANIELL’S BATTERY. See WOLTAIC ELEC-
TRICITY.
DAPH/NIN. A peculiar bitter principle,
discovered by Vauquelin in the Daphne meze-
reum or inezereon. It is procured by sepa-
rating the resin from the alcoholic tincture of
the bark by evaporation; afterwards, diluting
the residue with water, filtering, and adding
acetate of lead. A yellow substance falls
down, which, when decomposed by sulphuretted
hydrogen, yields daphnin, under the form of
small, colourless, transparent, radiated needles.
It is bitter; volatile; sparingly soluble in cold
water; freely soluble in hot water, and in
alcohol and ether. It possesses basic proper-
ties. See MEZEREON.
DATURA. Syn. THORN-APPLE: STRAMo'-
NIUM (Ph. L. E. & D.), L. A genus of plants
belonging to the nightshade order, or ‘Atro-
pacedº.’ The species Datura Stramonium is an
important medicinal plant, the leaves and seeds
being officinal in B. P. It is anodyne and seda-
tive, but not hypnotic, though it will often
induce sleep by relieving pain. It affects the
constitution in much the same way as bella-
donna.--Dose. 1 to 4 or 5 grs., in asthma, gout,
headache, neuralgic and rheumatic pains, &c.
In spasmodic asthma Smoking the leaf often
gives instantaneous relief, but must be ex-
hibited with care, as the whole plant is in-
tensely poisonous. No antidote is known.
Another species, namely, Datura tatula, is
now preferred for cigars or cigarettes.
Cigars are made from Datura Stramonium
more frequently than from Datura tatula.
They are recommended for asthma. See
ASTHMA, CIGARS (Stramonium), DATURIA
below).
DATU'RIA. Syn. DATU'RINE, DATURIN'A,
HYOSCY'AMINE. An organic alkali, disco-
vered by Geiger and Hesse in Datura Stra-
monium or thorn apple. It occurs also in
Hyoscyamus niger or henbane. It is best ob-
tained from the seeds. Daturia dissolves in
280 parts of cold and 72 parts of boiling
water; it is very soluble in alcohol, less so in
ether. It tastes bitter, dilates the pupil
strongly, and is very poisonous. It may be
sublimed unaltered, and may be obtained in
prismatic crystals by the addition of water to
its alcoholic solution. With the acids it forms
salts, which are mostly crystallisable. ,
DEAF/NESS. An imperfection or absence of
the sense of hearing. When deafness is present
in infancy and childhood, it is accompanied with
dumbness, or imperfect articulation, in conse-
quence of the impossibility of conveying a
knowledge of the sounds necessary for the
exercise of the imitative faculty of speech.
Deafness frequently arises from some imper-
fection or obstruction of the passage leading to
the membrane of the tympanum or drum of
the ear. In some cases this passage is totally
occluded by a membrane, or some malforma-
tion of the tube, which may frequently be
removed by a surgical operation. Even in-
stances of partial obliteration of this passage
have occurred, which have been successfully
treated. The researches of Mr. Yearsley have
established the fact, that enlarged tonsils are
a very common cause of deafness; and when
such is the case, their excision will generally
effect a cure. To this form of the affection
Mr. Yearsley applies the term “throat deaf-
ness.” Another cause of deafness is the pre-
sence of foreign bodies in the aural passages,
or the accumulation of hardened wax. In
these cases the best treatment is to inject
warm water into the ear by means of a proper
syringe. When deafness arises from imper-
fection of the tympanum or drum of the ear,
the effects of the application of the artificial
membrana tympani invented by Mr. Yearsley
(moistened cotton wool) are generally imme-
diate and truly wonderful. By its aid persons



25

386 DEATH–DECIMALS.
º
previously so deaf as to be incapable of bearing
their share in conversation have been enabled
to hear an ordinary whisper. Insects may be
destroyed by pouring a spoonful of warm olive
oil, or camphorated oil, into the ear over night,
retaining it there until the next morning by
means of a piece of cotton wool, when it may
be washed out with a little mild soap and warm
water. When there is a deficiency of the
natural secretion of wax, or a dryness of the
aural passage, mild oleaginous stimulants may
be employed. For this purpose a little olive or
almond oil, to which a few drops of oil of tur-
i. oil of juniper, or camphor limiment,
ave been added, may be used with advantage.
A piece of cotton wool moistened with glyce-
rine is an excellent application in such cases.
When deafness is accompanied with continued
acute pain, or a discharge of purulent matter,
inflammation of the tympanum, or some other
portion of the internal ear, probably exists,
and medical advice should be sought as soon as
possible. The deafness that frequently accom-
panies a violent cold is generally caused by
obstructions in the Eustachian tubes, and goes
off as soon as the secretions return to a healthy
state. In some forms of deafness blisters
behind the ears are useful. A clove of garlic
wrapped in cotton or gauze, or a few drops of
the juice introduced into the ear, is extremely
efficacious in nervous deafness. When imper-
fect hearing depends upon obtundity of the
auditory nerve, or an extensive obliteration or
malformation of the internal ear, it scarcely
admits of cure.
Deafness, Taylor's Remedy for. Prep. From
oil of almonds, 1 lb.; garlic, bruised, 2 oz. ;
alkanet root, 3 oz. ; digest for a week, and
strain. A little is poured into the ear in
deafness.
DEATH. In cases of sudden death inter-
ment should be deferred till signs of putre-
faction begin to appear, especially when no
gradation of disease has preceded, as in
cases of apoplexy, hysterics, external injuries,
drowning, suffocation, &c. No sooner has
breathing apparently ceased, and the visage
assumed a ghastly or a death-like hue, than
the patient, after his eyes are closed, is too
often hurried into a coffin, and the body,
scarcely yet cold, is precipitated into the
grave. So extremely fallacious are the signs
of death, that the semblance has been fre-
quently mistaken for the reality. By prompt
means and judicious treatment, many persons,
when in such a condition, have been happily
restored to their families and friends. The
effects of sound upon animal life is astonishing.
The beat of a drum, for instance, has had a
very beneficial effect upon persons in a state
of suspended animation. At one time, a
scream, extorted by grief, proved the means
of resuscitating a person who was supposed
to be dead, and who had exhibited the usual
recent marks of the extinction of life. In
cases of catalepsy or trance, having the sem-
blance of death, the action of the lungs and
heart continues, though in a nearly imper-
ceptible degree. By placing a cold mirror or
piece of highly polished metal immediately
over the mouth of the patient, symptoms of
moisture will appear upon the surface if the
most feeble respiration takes place. -
DEBILITY. Syn. DEBII/ITAs, L. Weak.
ness; languor; feebleness. When this arises
from a diseased action of the stomach, the
occasional use of mild aperients, followed by
bitters and tonics, may be had recourse to,
When from a general laxity of the solids, and
there are no symptoms of fever, nor a tendency
of blood to the head, a course of chalybeates
generally proves advantageous. See ANIEMIA,
ATROPHY, &c.
DECANTA"TION. The operation of pouring
or drawing off the clear portion of a liquid
from the impurities or grosser matter that has
subsided. It is commonly performed, either
by gently inclining the vessel, or by the use
of a syphon or pump. In the laboratory it is
much resorted to in the purification of pre-
cipitates, or other similar operations, where
repeated edulcoration or washing is required,
for which purpose it is preferable to filtration,
from being less troublesome and more econd-
mical. In these cases, after a sufficient time
having been allowed for the subsidence of the
precipitate or powder, or for the clearing of
the supernatant fluid, the latter is decanted,
and its place supplied by a fresh portion of
water, which, after sufficient agitation, is simi.
larly treated, and the whole operation repeated
as often as necessary.
DECANT/ERS. There is often much diffi.
culty experienced in cleaning decanters, espe:
cially after port wine has stood in them for

some time. The best way is to wash them
out with a little pearlash and warm water,
adding a spoonful or two of fresh-slaked lime,
if necessary. To facilitate the action of the
fluid against the sides of the glass, a few small
cinders or pieces of raw potato may be used.
A spoonful of strong oil of vitriol will also
rapidly remove any kind of dirt from glass
bottles. Decanters which have become furred
by holding hard water may be cleaned with a
spoonful of hydrochloric acid (“spirits of salt),
diluted with 3 or 4 times its weight of water.
See STOPPERS.
DECARBONISA/TION. This operation is
performed on cast iron, to convert it into
soft iron. The articles to be decarbonised
are packed in finely powdered hamatite, or
native oxide of iron, to which iron filings are
often added, and exposed for some time to a
strong red heat, by which the excess of carbon
is abstracted or burnt out. The process some.
what resembles annealing or cementation.
DECAY. See EREMACAUSIS.
DEC'IMALS. Syn. DECIMAL FRACTIONS.
Fractions which have for their denominator
10, or some power of ten; as 100, 1000, &c.;
the number of ciphers in the denominator

DECOCTION.
387
being always equal to the number of figures
in the numerator. Thus, 2, 25, 125, re-
spectively represent-Ér, Hº, #7. The denomi-
nator of decimals is never written, the dot
placed before the first figure of the numerator
expressing its value. Ciphers placed on the
right hand of a decimal fraction do not alter
its value; for '5, 50, 500, are each equal to
# ; but ciphers placed on the left hand of a
decimal diminish its value in a tenfold pro-
portion; thus, 3, '03, '003, respectively answer
to the common fractions fºr, Tân, and Túry.
Every figure on the left hand side of the dot
or decimal sign is a whole number.
ADDITION and SUBTRACTION OF DECIMALS
are performed in the same manner as with
common numbers, care being taken to place
the numbers under each other according to
their several values; as, tens under tens,
hundreds under hundreds, &c.
MULTIPLICATION OF DECIMALS is performed
in precisely the same manner as with whole
numbers, merely pointing off as many figures
in the product as there are decimals in the
multiplier and multiplicand put together.
DIVISION OF DECIMALs. As the last, but
pointing off as many figures in the quotient
as the decimal places in the dividend exceed
those of the divisor. If there are not figures
enough in the quotient, the deficiency must be
supplied by prefixing left-hand ciphers. Ciphers
are also added to the right hand of the dividend,
or to a remainder, when there are more figures
in the divisor than in the dividend, by which
the quotient may be carried on to any extent.
A vulgar fraction is reduced to a decimal
by dividing the numerator (increased suffi-
ciently with ciphers) by the denominator.
Thus, # = 5, , = 125, &c.
The value of a decimal, of any denomination,
is found by multiplying it by the number of
parts in the next less denomination, and
cutting off as many places to the right hand
as there are decimals, and so on until the
terms are exhausted. Thus, '634 oz. is −
"634.
8
5-072 drachms.
60
4'320 grains.
or, 5 drs. 4% grs. (nearly).
The constant use of decimals in the labo-
ratory, in the surveys of the Excise, and in
numerous chemical calculations, induces us to
press the subject on the attention of operatives
and others of neglected education. An atten-
tive perusal of the above, and a few hours'
application, will make the matter familiar
to them.
DEC00'TION. Syn. DECOCT'UM, L. An
aqueous solution of the active principles of any
substance obtained by boiling; also the pro-
cess of preparing such solutions.
The effect of decoction in water differs
greatly from that of infusion. At the tem-
perature of 212° Fahr., the essential oils and
aromatic principles of vegetables are dissipated
or decomposed; while by infusion in hot
water, in covered vessels, they remain for the:
most part uninjured. The solvent powers of
boiling water are, however, much greater than
those of hot water; and many vegetable prin-
ciples scarcely acted on by the one are freely
soluble in the other. This is the case with
many of the alkaloids, on which the medicinal
virtues of several vegetables depend. On the
other hand, the solutions of many substances,
though more readily made by boiling, are
speedily weakened or rendered inert by ebul-
lition, in consequence of the active principles
being either volatilised along with the steam,
or oxidised or decomposed by exposure to the
atmosphere. This is particularly the case.
with substances abounding in extractive or
astringent matter. When the medicinal pro-
perties of vegetables are volatile, or are injured
by a strong heat, infusion should be had
recourse to, in preference to boiling; but
when a solution of the fixed constituents is
alone sought, decoction is preferable.
The substances employed for making decoc-
tions should be well bruised, or reduced to a
very coarse powder, or, if fresh and soft, they
should be sliced small. In the former case,
any very fine powder or adhering dust should
be removed with a sieve, as its presence tends
to make the product thick and disagreeable,
and also more troublesome to strain. The
vessel in which the ebullition is conducted
should be furnished with an accurately fitting
cover, the better to exclude the air ; and the
application of the heat should be so conducted
that the fluid may be kept simmering, or
only gently boiling, as violent boiling is not
only quite unnecessary, but absolutely injurious
to the quality of the product. In every case
the liquor should be strained whilst hot, but
not boiling, and the best method of doing this
is to employ a fine hair sieve, or a coarse flannel
bag. In general, it is found that, as decoctions
cool, a sediment is formed, in consequence of
the boiling water dissolving a larger portion
of vegetable matter than it can retain in so-
lution when cold. This deposit for the most
part consists of the active principles of the
solution, and, unless when otherwise ordered,
should be mingled with the clear liquid by
agitation, when the decoction enters into
extemporaneous compositions, or when the
dose is taken.
The length of time occupied by the ebullition
is another point demanding some attention.
Long boiling is in no case necessary, and should
be avoided, especially in decoctions prepared
from aromatic vegetables, or those abounding
in extractive. The Colleges, in such cases,
direct the ingredients “to be boiled for a
short time,” or “for 10 minutes;” or they
limit the period of the ebullition by stating



388 DECOCTION.
the quantity that must be volatilised, as-“boil
to a pint, and strain.” The last method is
generally employed for those substances that
do not suffer by lengthened boiling.
In preparing compound decoctions, those
ingredients should be boiled first which least
readily give up their active principles to the
menstruum, and those which most readily
part with them should be added afterwards.
In many cases it is proper simply to infuse the
more aromatic substances in the hot decoction
of the other ingredients, by which means their
volatile principles will be the better preserved.
Distilled water, or perfectly clean rain water,
should alone be used for decoctions, extracts,
and infusions. Spring and river water, from
containing lime, have much less solvent power.
The aqueous solutions of organic matter,
from the nature of their constituents, rapidly
ferment or putrefy, at the ordinary tem-
perature of the atmosphere. Neither decoctions
nor infusions are fit to be used in dispensing,
unless made the same day. They should, con-
sequently, be only prepared in small quantities
at a time, and any unconsumed portion should
be rejected, as it would be imprudent for the
dispenser to risk his own reputation, and the
welfare of the patient, by employing an article
of dubious quality.
It has of late years become a general prac-
tice for the wholesale houses to vend prepa-
rations under the name of ‘Concentrated De-
coctions, which, with the exception of the
compound decoction of aloes, are stated to be
of 8 times the pharmacopoeial strength; so
that one drachm of these liquids added to
seven drachms of water, forms extemporaneous
decoctions, professedly resembling those of the
pharmacopoeia. The decoction of aloes is
made of only four times the usual strength,
as the nature of its composition would not
permit of further concentration. Such pre-
parations are, however, very imperfect sub-
stitutes for the freshly made decoctions. The
extreme difficulty of forming concentrated
solutions of vegetable matter with bulky
ingredients, too often leads to the omission of
a portion of the materials, or to the practice
of concentrating the liquid by long evaporation.
In the first case, the strength is, of course, less
than it should be ; and in the second, the
quality is injured, and perhaps the preparation
is rendered nearly inert by the lengthened
exposure to heat, and the consequent volatili-
sation or decomposition of its active con-
stituents. The common practice of adding a
considerable portion of spirit to these prepa-
rations, which is absolutely necessary to pre-
serve them, is also objectionable, as, in many
of the cases in which decoctions are prescribed,
this article, even in small quantities, exerts a
prejudicial action. Some concentrated decoc-
tions have been recently offered for sale which
do not contain alcohol, being preserved by the
addition of sulphurous acid, or sulphite of
lime.
Decoction of Al'oes. Syn. COMPOUND D, OR
A., BALSAM of LIFE ; BAUME DE VIE, Fr.:
DEcoCTUM AI/oßs (Ph. E.), D. A. COMPOSI:
TUM (B. P. & Ph. D.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.)
Extract of liquorice, 1 oz. ; extract of Socotrine
aloes, powdered myrrh, and saffron, of each,
1} dr.; carbonate of potassa, 1 dr.; tincture of
cardamoms, 8 ozs.'; water, a sufficiency. Coarsely
powder the extract of aloes and myrrh, and
put them, together with the carbonate of pot-
ash and extract of liquorice, into a covered
vessel, with a pint of distilled water; boil
gently for five minutes, then add the saffron;
let the vessel with contents cool, then add the
tincture of cardamoms, and, covering the vessels
closely, allow the ingredients to macerate two
hours, finally strain through flannel, pouring
as much distilled water over the contents of
the strainer as will make the product measure
30 oz.
2. (Ph. E.) Aloes, myrrh, and Saffron, of
each, 1 dr. ; extract of liquorice, 3 oz.; car.
bonate of potassa, 40 grs. ; water, 16 fl. OZ, ;
boil to 12 fl. oz. ; strain, and add of compound
tincture of cardamoms, 4 fl. Oz,
3. (Ph. D.) As No. 1 (nearly), but using
hepatic aloes.
A warm cathartic.—Dose. } to 1%. OZ, ; in
habitual costiveness, dyspepsia, jaundice, &c.
Obs. By boiling the saffron as ordered by
the Dublin and Edinburgh Colleges, nearly the
whole of its fragrance is dissipated. A better
plan is to macerate it in the tincture for a few
days, previously to adding the latter to the de.
coction of the other ingredients. After the
tincture has been strained off from the saffron,
the latter may be washed with a little water, to
remove any adhering colour and odour, and this
may be added to the decoction. The addition
of the tincture produces a deposit of mucila.
ginous and feculent matter, which has been
dissolved out of the liquorice, for which reason
some houses omit the latter altogether, and sup:
ply its place with an equal quantity of sugar Or
treacle, and a little colouring. By this method
the liquid, after being once obtained clear, will
continue so for any length of time.
4. (Wholesale.) Solazzi juice, 1% lb.; kali
(carbonate of potassa), 4 oz. ; hepatic aloes,
5% oz. ; myrrh (small), 5 oz. ; water, 4% galls;
boil to 3 galls., strain through flannel, cool,
and add, of compound tincture of cardamoms,
10 pints; previously digested for 10 days on
saffron, 2% oz. ; mix well, and add, essential
oil of nutmeg, 15 drops; oils of cassia and cará.
way, of each, 10 drops; and oils of cloves and
pimento, of each, 5 drops; in a week decant
the clear portion from the sediment, and pre:
serve it in a cool place.
5. (Concentrated; D. A. CONCENTRATUM,
L.)—a. Lump sugar, 8 oz. ; colouring, 4 pint;
carbonate of potash, 2 oz. ; aloes, 3} 07.;
myrrh and Saffron, of each, 2% oz.: compound
tincture of cardamoms, # a gal.; water, 3
pints; boil the first five in the water, until
reduced to nearly one half; cool, and add the

DECOCTION.
389
tincture, previously digested for a week, on the
saffron; and proceed as above. 14 oz. of ex-
tract of liquorice may be used instead of the
sugar and colouring.
b. Aloes, myrrh, liquorice, and potassa (all
in powder), and saffron, as last; compound
tincture of cardamoms, 5% pints; digest a
fortnight, and filter. In this way a very
Odorous and beautiful preparation is produced,
which has been much admired. The above
are said to possess four times the strength of
the College preparation.
Decoction, Anticolic. Syn. ANTICOLIC
AP'oZFM, DEGLAND’s COLIC MIXTURE; APOZ'-
EMA ANTICOI/ICUM, L. Prep. Senna leaves,
2 oz. ; boiling water, 1 pint ; simmer gently
to 16 fl. Oz. ; press out the liquor, add sulphate
of soda, 1 oz., syrup of buckthorn, 2 oz., and
strain through flannel. Used by glassfuls in
lead colic, or after poisoning by lead.
Decoction, Antidar'trous, Decoction of
Bitter Sweet (see below).
Decoction of Arnica. Syn. DECOCTUM
ARNICE, L. Prep. 1. (Swediaur.) Flowers
of Arnica montana, 1 oz. ; water, 3 pints;
boil fo a quart ; filter, and add of syrup of
ginger, 3 oz.-Dose. 1 to 2 fl. oz., every two
or three hours; in aphonia, paralysis of the
voluntary muscles, rheumatism, &c.; and as a
substitute for bark, in putrid fever, agues, &c.
2. (Ph. Cast. Aust., 1841.) Arnica root,
2 drs. ; water, 9 oz. ; boil to 6 oz., and strain.
—Dose. 1 oz. ; as the last.
Decoction, Astringent. Syn. DECOCTUM
ASTRIN/GENS, L. Prep. (Swediaur.) Oak-
bark, pomegranate peel, and tormentil root, of
each, 2 drs. ; water and milk, of each, 1 lb. ;
boil 12 minutes, add of cinnamom, 2 drs. ; boil
2 or 3 minutes longer, and strain.—Dose. A
wine-glassful.
Decoction of Bark. Syn. DECOCTION OF
CINCHO'NA; DECOCTUM CINCHO'NAE, L. Prep.
1. Ph. L. :-a. (D. OF YELLOW. B. ; D. CIN-
CHONAE, B. P.) Yellow cinchona or calisaya
bark (bruised), 14 oz. ; distilled water, 1 pint;
boil for 10 minutes in a lightly covered vessel;
when cold, strain and pour on the marc sufi-
cient water to make up 1 pint.
b. (D. of PALE B. ; D. C. PALLIDAE, Ph. L.)
From pale cinchona or loxa bark, as above (a.).
c. (D. OF RED B.; D. C. RUBRAE, Ph. L.)
From red bark, as above (a.).
2. (Ph. E.) Brown, gray, yellow, or red
cinchona (bruised), 1 oz. ; water, 24 fl. oz. ;
boil for 10 minutes; when cold, filter the
liquor, and evaporate it to 16 fl. oz.
3. (Ph.D.) From pale or loxa bark, similar
to the ‘Decoctum cinchonae pallidae of Ph.
L. (1.6., above).
Dose, &c. 1 to 2 fl.oz., 3 or 4 times daily,
as a tonic, stomachic, and febrifuge, when the
stomach will not bear the administration of
bark in powder; in fevers, dyspepsia, conva-
lescence, &c. The plan recommended by the
Edinburgh College, of filtering the decoction
when cold, is absurd. According to Soubeiran,
146 grs, of the deposit thus removed contained
86 grs. soluble in alcohol, and rich in the cin-
chona alkaloids. This liquid should, therefore,
be well shaken before pouring it out for use,
instead of being filtered. The addition of a
few drops of either sulphuric or hydrochloric
acid to the water greatly increases its solvent
power, and also, consequently, the medicinal
value of this preparation. (See below.)
Decoction of Bark (Acid'ulated). Syn. DE-
COCTUM CINCHONE ACIDULATUM, L. Prep.
1. To the water for any one of the above, add
dilute sulphuric acid, 1}; fl. dr.; boil 10
minutes, and strain whilst hot.
2. (Sir J. Wylie.) Cinchona bark, 1 oz.;
water, 16 fl. Oz.; diluted sulphuric acid, 1 dr.;
as last.
Decoction of Bark (Facti"tious). Syn. DE-
COCTUM CINCHONE FACTITIUM, L. Prep.
(Ph. Bor.) Willow bark and horse-chestnut
bark, of each, 3 oz. ; calamus root and cloves,
of each, # oz. ; water, 16 fl. Oz.; boil to one
half. Used as a substitute for decoction of
cinchona bark, but is vastly inferior.
Decoction of Bark and Ser'pentary. Syn.
DEcoCTUM CINCHONE CUM SERPENTA'RIA,
L. Prep. (Sir J. Pringle.) Peruvian bark,
3 drs.; water, 1 pint; boil to one half, and
infuse in the hot decoction, serpentaria root,
3 drs. As a diaphoretic stimulant, and tonic,
in fevers, and as a gargle in sore throat.
Decoction of Bar’ley, Syn. BARLEY-WATER ;
DEcoCTUM HoR'DEI (B. P.), L. Prep. 1. (B.
P.) Pearl barley, 1 oz. (washed clean); boil
for twenty minutes in 15 oz. of water, and
strain.
2. (Ph. D.)
below.)
Decoction of Barley (Compound). Syn. PEC'-
TORAL DECOCTION, FE'VER DRINK ; DECOCTUM
PECTORA'LE, PTISAN/A CoMMU'NIs, DEC.
HoR'DEI compos’ITUM (Ph. L.), MISTU'RA
HOR/DEI (Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.)
Decoction of barley (simple), 1 quart; figs
(sliced) and raisins (stoned), of each, 2% oz. ;
fresh liquorice (sliced), 5 drs.; water, 1 pint;
boil to a quart, and strain.
2. (Ph. E.) Pearl barley, 2% oz. ; water,
4; pints; boil to 3 pints; add figs and raisins,
of each, 2% oz. ; liquorice root, 5 drs.; water,
1 pint; and boil to 2 pints, as before.
Obs. The above are used as demulcents
in fevers, phthisis, strangury, &c., taken ad
libitum. They are slightly laxative, and when
this would be an objection to their use, a few
drops of laudanum may be added. Mixed with
an equal quantity of decoction of bark, barley-
water forms an excellent gargle in cynanche
maligna (ulcerated sore throat), and, with a like
quantity of milk and a little sugar, a good
substitute for the breast in dry nursing infants.
It is, also, often acidulated with lemon juice
or sulphuric acid, and sweetened (Decoctum
hordei acidulatum). Gum arabic, 4 drs.,
and nitre, 1 dr., to each pint, is a common
addition in gonorrhoea. Cream of tartar,

Similar to above. (See Obs.



390 DECOCTION,
1 dr., is occasionally added to render it more
aperient.
Decoction, Bitſter. Syn. DECOCTUM AMA'-
RUM, L. Prep. 1. Dried tops of lesser cen-
taury and wormwood, and leaves of germander,
of each, 3 drs. ; water, 1% pint; boil to a pint.
2. Gentian root, # oz. ; water 14 pint; boil
10 minutes, take out the root, slice it, and add
it again to the decoction with dried orange
peel, # oz. ; boil to 1 pint, and strain.
Decoction of Bitter Sweet. Syn. ANTI-
DAR/TROUS AP'oZEM; APOZ'EMADULCAMA’’RE,
L. Prep. (Trousseau and Reveille.) Dulca-
mara, 1 dr. ; water, 16 oz. ; boil to 9 oz., and
strain. To be taken in three doses during the
day. Every other day the quantity is to be
increased until 12 drs. or even 2 oz. are taken
daily, “so that the patient may begin to feel
dryness of the throat, and some disorder of
vision and digestion; ” and “continue at this
quantity for several weeks in succession.” In
obstinate skin diseases. See DECOCTION OF
DULCAMARA.
Decoction of Blue Cardinal Flowers. Syn.
DECOCTUM LOBEI/IME, D. L. SYPHILIT/ICAE, L.
Prep. 1. (P. Cod.) Root of Zobelia syphilitica,
1 handful; water, 12 lbs. ; boil to 7 lbs., and
strain.
2. (Swediaur.) Dried root, 5 oz. ; water,
12 lbs. ; as last. Alterative, purgative, and
diuretic.
Obs. This decoction was strongly recom-
mended by Swediaur in certain complaints.
He gave half a pint, at first, twice daily, and
afterwards 4 times a day, unless it acted too
strongly on the bowels, when the frequency of
the dose was diminished, or it was discontinued
for 3 or 4 days, and then had recourse to again,
until the cure was effected.
Decoction of Bram. Syn. DECOCTUM FUR-
FURIs, L. Prep. 1. From bran, 4 lb. ; water,
14 pint ; boil to a pint. In diabetes; and
sweetened with sugar, as a demulcent and
laxative in cough and sore throat.
2. Bran, 1 quart; water, 1% gal.; boil 5
minutes, and add, cold water, q. S. to bring it
to the proper temperature. As an emollient
foot-bath.
Decoction of Broom, Syn. DECOCTUM
SPARTIE CACUMIN'IUM ; D. scopa"RII (Ph.
D.), L. Prep. (Ph. D.) Broom-tops (dried),
# oz. ; water, 3 pint; boil 10 minutes, and
strain. (See below.)
Decoction of Broom (Compound). Syn. DE-
COCTUM SPARTII CACUMINIUM. C., D. SCO-
PA’’RII (Ph. E.), D. s. COMPOS/ITUM (Ph. L.),
L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Tops of broom (recent
and dried), juniper berries (bruised), dandelion
root (bruised), of each, 3 oz. ; distilled water,
13 pint; boil to a pint, and strain.
2. (Ph. E.) Tops of broom and juniper, of
each, ; oz.: cream of tartar, 2% drs. ; water,
# pint; boil to a pint, as last. The above
are diuretic and laxative.—Dose. to 1 wine-
glassful, 3 or 4 times a day; in dropsy, espe-
cially of the belly (ASCITEs).
Decoction of Bur'dock, Syn. DECOCTUM
ARC'TII, D. BARDA/NE, L. Prep. 1. Bardana
root, 6 oz. ; water, 5 pints; boil to 3 pints,
and strain.
2. (Wood.) Dried root, 2 oz. ; water, 3
pints; boil to 2 pints, and strain. As an
alterative; a pint, or more, daily, in all those
cases in which Sarsaparilla is recommended.
Decoction of Cabbage-tree Bark. DECOC.
TUM GEOFFROYE (Ph. E. 1817), D. G. INER.
MIS (Ph. D. 1826). Prep. (Ph. D.) Bark
of the cabbage tree (bruised), 1 oz. ; water, 1
quart; boil to a pint, and strain. Cathartic,
narcotic, and anthelmintic.—Dose. 2 to 4
table-spoonfuls, for an adult; 1 to 2 teaspoon.
fuls, for a child, followed by demulcents and
castor oil; in worms, &c.
Decoction of Calumba (Compound). Sh,
DECOCTUM CALUM'BE COMPOS'ITUM, L. Prep,
(Ph. U. S. 1831.) Calumba and quassia, of
each, 2 drs. ; orange peel, 1 dr.; rhubarb, 20
grs. ; carbonate of potassa, 30 grs. ; water, 20
fl. oz. ; boil to 16 fl. oz., strain, and, when cold,
add of compound tincture of lavender, , fl. 07
Bitter, tonic, and stomachic.—Dose. i to 2
table-spoonfuls, 3 or 4 times daily.
Decoction of Cey'lon Moss. Syn. DECOCTUM
FU"CIAMYLA/CEI, D. PLOCA"RIE CANDI'DE,L,
Prep. From Ceylon moss, 2 drs. ; water, milk,
or whey, 1 pint ; boil to 16 fl. Oz., and strain,
It may be sweetened and flavoured. In irri.
tation of the mucous membranes and in
phthisis. -
Decoction of Cham’omile. Syn. DECOCTUM
ANTHE/MIDIs, D. CHAMEMELI, L. From chá.
momiles, 1 oz. ; boiling water, 1 pint; digest
for 10 minutes, simmer gently for 2 or 3
minutes longer, and strain with pressure. (Sº
below.)
Decoction of Chamomile (Compound). Sh,
DECOCTUM CHAMEMELI COMPOSITUM, I.
Prep. (Ph. D. 1826.) Chamomile flowers
(dried), oz. ; fennel seed, 2 drs. ; water, 16
oz. ; boil a short time, and strain. Both the
above are bitter, stomachic, and tonic; the last
is vermifuge. They are chiefly used as fomen.
tations and clysters.
Decoction of Chiretta. Syn. DECOCTUV
CHIRAYTE, L. Prep. From chiretta or chy.
rata, 5 drs. ; water, 1 pint; boil 8 or 10 min.
utes and strain.—Dose. # to 1 wine-glassful,
2 or 3 times daily, as a stomachic tonic; in
flatulency and acidity, especially in the dys.
pepsia of gouty persons.



Decoction of Cincho'na. See DECOCTION OF

BARK.
Decoction of Col'ocynth. Syn. DECOCTUM
CoLoCYNTH'IDIs, L. Prep. (Ph. Bat.) Colo:
cynth pulp, 1 dr.; water, 8 oz.; boil 10 min:
utes, and when quite cold, add of syrup of
orange peel, 1 oz. ; sulphuric ether, 1 drº-
Dose. 2 to 6 drs., 2 or 3 times a day; in
dropsy, &c.
Decoction of Colts'foot. Syn. DECOCTUM
TUSSILAG'INTs, L. Prep. (Pereira.) Fresh
leaves of coltsfoot, 2 oz. (or, flowers, 1 oz.);
HDECOCTION.
391
water, 2 pints; boil to a pint and strain. A
popular remedy in chronic coughs and chest
diseases. It is emollient and demulcent.—
Dose, , a teacupful, ad libiţum. (See
below.)
Decoction of Coltsfoot (Compound). Syn.
DECOCTUM TUSSILAGINIS COMPOSITUM, L.
Prep. (Taddei.) Coltsfoot flowers, 6 oz. ; figs,
waisºns, and jujubes, of each, 2 oz. ; water, 12
\\\\\s; bol\ \own to 4 pints; add liquorice
Toot, 2 oz. ; again boil, and strain. As the last.
Com/mon Decoction, See DECOCTION OF
MALLOWs.
Decoction of Cor'sican Moss. Syn. DECOCTUM
HELMINTH'OCORTI, L. Prep. From the moss,
5 drs.; water, 1} pint; boil to a pint.—Dose.
A wine-glassful, three times a day; as a ver-
mifuge. In 1822, Mr. Farr brought it for-
ward as a remedy for cancer.
Decoction of Cotton Root. Syn. DECOCTUM
GOSSYP'II, L. Prep. (Dr. Bouchelle.) Inner
part of the root of the cotton plant, 4 oz. ;
water, 1 quart; boil to a pint.—Dose. A wine-
glassful, occasionally, as an emmenagogue; or,
every 30 or 40 minutes, to produce uterine
contractions, for which purpose it is said to be
as effectual as ergot of rye.
Decoction of Dandeliſon. Syn. DECOCTUM
TARAX/ACI (B. P.), L. Prep. 1. (B.P.) Fresh
dandelion root (bruised), 1 oz. ; water, 13 pint;
boil to a pint, and strain.
2. (Ph. E.) Herb and root (fresh), 7 oz. ;
water, 1 quart; boil to a pint. A perient, sto-
machic, and tonic.—Dose, 1 to 2 fl.oz., or more,
2 or 3 times daily.
Diaphoretic Decoction. Syn. DECOCTUM
DIAPHORETICUMI, L. Decoction of bark, 1
pint; liquor of acetate of ammonia, 4 oz. ;
aromatic confection, 1 oz.-Dose. 2 or 3 table-
spoonfuls every 3 hours.
Decoction of Dog-grass. Syn. DECOCTUM
GRAMIN'Is, L.; PTISANE CHIENDENT, Fr. Prep.
From dog-grass root (Triticum repens), 1 oz. ;
liquorice root, oz. ; water, 1 quart; boil 20
minutes, and strain. Aperient and pectoral;
by cupfuls, ad libiţum. (See below.)
Decoction of Dog-grass (ſoduretted). Syn.
DECOCTUM GRAMINIs IoDURE'TUM, L. Prep.
(Magendie.) Decoction of dog-grass, 32 fl.oz. ;
syrup of peppermint, 2 oz.; iodide of potassium,
# dr. ; mix. By cupfuls, ad libiţum.
Decoction of Dog-wood, Syn. DECOCTUM
COR/NUS FLORIDAE, L. Prep. (Ph. U.S.) Dog-
wood bark (bruised), 1 oz.; water, 1 pint; boil
10 minutes, and strain whilst hot. Tonic and
astringent; recommended as a substitute for
bark.-Dose. A wine-glassful.
Decoction of Dulcama"ra. Syn. DECOCTION
OF BITTER. SWEET, D. OF WOODY NIGHTSHADE;
DECOCTUM DULCAMA"RE (Ph. L. E. & D.), L.
Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Woody nightshade or bitter
sweet (the new shoots), 10 drs. ; water, 1}
pint; boil to a pint, and strain.
2. (Ph. E.) Dulcamara (chopped small),
1 oz. ; water, 24 fl. Oz, ; boil to a pint, and
strain. -
3. (Ph. D.) Twigs of woody nightshade,
1 oz. ; water, 1 pint; boil 10 minutes in a
covered vessel, and strain. It should measure
about 16 fl. oz. Alterative, diaphoretic, and
diuretic.—IDose. A wine-glassful, or more, 2 or
3 times a day; in chronic coughs and chronic
skin diseases, and in most of those cases wherein
sarsaparilla proves useful. See DEcoCTION OF
BITTER SWEET, also below.
Decoction of Dulcama"ra (Compound). S/m.
DECOCTUM DULCAMA’’RE COMPOSITUM, L.
Prep. 1. (Augustin.) Dulcamara (bitter sweet),
4 drs.; burdock root, liquorice root, Sassafras
chips, and guaiacum wood, of each, 2drs.; water,
2 lbs.; boil to 16 fl.oz., and strain.—Dose. 1 to
2 wine-glassfuls, 2 or 3 times a day.
2. (Foy.) As the last, but using dulcamara,
2 oz.-Dose. # to 1 wine-glassful; in similar
cases to those in which the simple decoction is
given; especially in chronic rheumatism and
venereal affections.
Decoction of Elder Bark. Syn. DEcoCTUM
SAMBU"CI, D. s. CORTICIS, L. Prep. 1. (Sy-
denham.) Inner bark of elder, 1 oz. ; water
and milk, of each, 1 pint; boil to one half, and
strain. -
2. (Collier.) Bark, 1 oz. ; water, 16 fl. oz. ;
boil to ; pint, and strain. -
3. (Pereira.) Bark, 1 oz. ; water, 1 quart;
boil to one half—Dose. One wine-glassful 2 or
3 times a day; as an aperient and resolvent
in various chronic disorders, in dropsy, and
in certain cutaneous affections; or, 2 wine-
glassfuls, as before, as a hydragogue cathartic
in dropsies.
Decoction of Elecam'pame. Syn. DEcoCTUM
HELEN”II, D. INU/LAE, L. Prep. (Ph. U. S.)
Elecampane root, oz. ; water, 1 pint; boil a
few minutes, and strain. Tonic and expecto-
rant, and, in some cases, diuretic and diaphore-
tic.—Dose. A wine-glassful every hour or two.
(See below.)
Decoction of Elecampame (Compound). Syn.
DECOCTUM HELENII COMPOSITUM, D. INULAE
C., L. Prep. (Rotier.) Elecampane, 1 oz. ;
hyssop and ground ivy, of each, 2 drs. ; water,
1 pint; boil 15 minutes, strain, and add of
honey, 2 oz.--Dose. I to 3 table-spoonfuls; as
the last.
Decoction of Elm Bark. Syn. DECOCTUM
UI/MI (B.P.), L. Prep. Elm bark (cut in small
pieces), 1 oz. ; distilled water, 16 oz. ; boil to
8 oz., and strain. — Dose. 2 to 4 oz., three
or four times a day, as a cheap substitute
for sarsaparilla in scaly skin diseases. (See
below.)
Decoction of Elm Bark (Compound). Syn.
DECOCTUM ULMI COMPOSITUM, I. Prep.

(Jeffrey). Simple decoction of elm bark, 8.
pints; liquorice root, Sassafras, and guaiacum
chips, of each, 1 oz.; mezereon root, 3 drs.; boil
for one hour, and strain. More active than
the last.
Decoction of Er'got. Syn. DECOCTUM ER-
GOT’A., D. SECA/LIS CORNU'TI, L. Prep. (Pe-
reira.) Ergot of rye (bruised), 1 dr.; water,
392 DECOCTION.
6 fl. oz. ; boil 10 minutes, and strain.—Dose.
One third, at intervals of half an hour, until
the whole is taken; as a parturifacient.
Decoction of Fern Root. Syn. DECOCTUM
FILI'CIS; D. RADICIS F., L. Prep. (Dr. Wood.)
Dried fern-root, 1 oz. ; water, 1 pint; boil to 16
fl. oz., and strain. By wine-glassfuls, fasting,
until it excites slight nausea; as a vermifuge,
more particularly for tapeworm.
Decoction of Figs. Syn. DECOCTUM FICI, L.
Prep. (Cadet.) Figs (chopped), 1 oz. ; water,
1 pint; boil, and strain. Demulcent and pec-
toral; taken ad libitum. (See below.)
Decoction of Figs (Compound). Syn. DE-
COCTUM FICT COMPOSITUM, L. Prep. (Foy.)
Figs and raisins (chopped), of each, 2 oz. ;
liquorice root, 3 oz. ; boiling water, 1 quart;
boil 15 minutes, and strain. As the last.
Decoction for Eme'mas. Syn. DECOCTUM PRO
ENEMA'TE, L. Barley-water, or thin gruel, is
commonly used under this name. See DECOC-
TION OF MALLOWs, &c.
Decoction for Fomentations. Syn. DECOC-
TUM PRO FOMENTo, L. Prep. (Ph. L. 1788.)
Dried leaves of southernwood, tops of sea worm-
wood, and chamomile flowers, of each, 1 oz. ;
laurel or bay leaves (dried), 3 oz. ; water, 1
pint, boil a few minutes, and strain.
Decoction of Galls. Syn. DECOCTUM GAT'LAB,
(Ph. L.) Prep. From galls (bruised), 2% oz. ;
water, 1 quart ; boiled to one half, and
strained. As an astringent, fomentation,
enema, or injection, in prolapsus ani, piles, and
leucorrhoea.
Decoction of Guaiac'um. Syn. DECOCTUM
GUAIAC/I (Ph. E.), D. G. COMPOSITUM (Ph. D.
1826), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. E.) Guaiacum shavings,
3 oz. ; raisins (chopped), 2 oz.; water, 8 pints;
simmer down to 5 pints, adding towards the
end, Sassafras (rasped or sliced), and liquorice
root (bruised), of each, 1 oz.
2. (Ph.D.) Guaiacum wood, 3 oz.; Sassa-
fras, 10 drs. ; liquorice root, 2% oz. ; water, 10
pints; as the last; to strain 5 pints.
Obs. The above form the once celebrated
‘Decoction of the Woods.”—Dose. A teacupful,
3 or 4 times daily, or oftener, in chronic
rheumatism, cutaneous diseases, after a course
of mercury, &c. Although its virtues are of a
very dubious kind, there is no doubt that it
frequently does good, especially when perse-
vered in with a sudorific regimen.
Decoction of Hairy Horehound. Syn. DE-
COCTUM BALLOTE LANATE, L. Prep. (Reh-
mann.) Siberian or woolly horehound (Bal-
lota), 1% oz. ; water, 1 quart; boil to one
half.--Dose. A tumblerful, or more, twice a
day; in rheumatic, gouty, and dropsical affec-
tions, especially the latter. See DECOCTION
OF HOREHOUND. -
Decoction of Harts/horn. See MIXTURES.
Decoction of Helſlebore. 1. (DEcoCTION OF
BLACK HELLEBORE; DECOCTUM HELLEBORI
NIGRI, L.) Prep. 1. (A. T. Thomson.) Black
hellebore root, 2 drs. ; water, 1 pint; boil 15
minutes.—Dose, 1 fl. oz., every 4 hours; in
dropsy, worms, chronic skin diseases, &c., Occur.
ring in non-irritable habits.
2. (DECOCTION OF WHITE HELLEBORE; DE.
CoCTUM VERATRI, Ph. L. & D.) Prep. (Ph.L.
1836.) White hellebore (bruised), 10 drs.;
water, 1 quart; boil to a pint, and when cold,
add of rectified spirit, 3 fl.oz. Used as a lotion
in itch, lepra, psoriasis, scald-head, &c.; and to
destroy pediculi. In most cases it should be
diluted with water, and should never be applied
to the unsound skin.
Decoction of Horehound. Syn. CoMPOUND
DECOCTION OF HOREHOUND ; DECOCTUM MA.
RUBIT COMPOSITUM, H. Prep. (Dr. R. E.
Griffith.) Dried horehound (Marrubium vul.
gare), 1 oz. ; liquorice root and flax seed
(bruised), of each, 3 oz.; boiling water, 1}
pint; macerate for 3 or 4 hours (boil a minute),
and strain. An excellent demulcent and peć.
toral.—Dose. I to 2 fl. OZ, as required, in
coughs, &c.
Decoction of Horse-chest/nut Bark. Sh,
DEcoCTUM HIPPOCASTANET, L. Prep. (Dr.
Wood.) Horse-chestnut bark (coarsely pow.
dered), 10 drs. ; water, 1 pint; boil 10 minutes,
and strain. Used for decoction of cinchona
bark. A little liquorice root is frequently
added. (See below.)
Decoction of Horse-chestnut Bark (Compound)
Syn. DECOCTUM HIPPoCASTANET COMPOSITUM,
L. Prep. 1. (Phoebus.) Horse-chestnut bark,
1% oz. ; water, 18 fl. oz. ; boil to one half,
strain, and when quite cold, add of sulphuric
ether, 1 to 2 drs. ; syrup of Orange peel, 107,
To be used during the intermission of an ague,
in wine-glassfuls at a time.
2. (Spielman.) Horse-chestnut bark and
willow bark, of each, oz. ; calamus aroma:
ticus and root of water avens, of each, 2 drs.;
water, 16 fl. oz. ; boil to one half. As the
last.
Decoction of Iceland Moss. Syn. DECOCTION
OF LIVERWORT; DEcoCTUM CETRARIE (Ph.L.);
D. LICHENIS ISLANDICI (Ph.D.); D. LICHENIS
(Ph. L. 1824). Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Liverwort
(Iceland moss), 5 drs. ; water, 1}; pint; boil to
a pint, and strain.
2. (Ph.D.). Iceland moss, 1 oz. ; water,
13 pint ; boil for 10 minutes in a covered
vessel, and strain. Nutritious, demulcent,
pectoral, and tonic.—Bose. 1 to 4 fl. oz., every
3 or 4 hours; in chronic affections of the chest
and stomach, especially pulmonary consump.
tion, old coughs, dyspepsia, chronic diarrhoea,
and dysentery. It may be flavoured and
sweetened; milk is frequently added to it.
The bitter matter may be removed by steeping
the moss for some time in pretty warm water,
or in cold water to which a very little car.
bonate of potash has been added. With:
out this is done, it is intensely bitter and
InauSeOuS.
Decoction of Indian Baſel. Syn. DECOCTION
OF AFGLE MARMELOS ; DECOCTUM BAEL, L.
From the dried unripe fruit of Ægle marmelos
(Indian baei), 2 oz. ; water, 1 pint; boil to one

DECOCTION.
393
third, and strain.—Dose. 2 fl. Oz. two or
three times a day; in dysentery, diarrhoea,
and English cholera.
Decoction of Indian Pink. Syn. DECOCTUM
SPIGELLE, L. Prep. Indian pink root, 5
drs. ; water, 1 pint ; boil 5 minutes; add Senna,
4 drs. ; digest 15 minutes, strain, and add of
manna, 1 oz.-Dose. A small teacupful, 3
times a day, for an adult; # oz. to 1 oz., or
less, for children; as an althelmintic purge.
Decoction of Indian Sarsaparilla. Syn. DE-
COCTUM HEMEDES'MI, L. Prep. (Pereira.)
Root of Indian sarsaparilla (Hemedesmus In-
dicus), 2 oz. ; water 1% pint; boil to a pint.
Diuretic, alterative, and tonic.—Dose. By
wine-glassfuls, as decoction of sarsaparilla.
Decoction of I"rish Moss. Syn. DECOCTUM
CHON'DRI. Prep. (Pereira.) Carrageen or
Irish moss, 1 oz.; macerate in lukewarm water
for 10 minutes, take it out and drain it, and
then boil it in water (or milk), 3 pints, for 15
minutes, and strain through linen.
Obs. If twice the above weight of moss is
employed, a mucilage (mucilago chondri) is
produced, which may be flavoured with lemon
juice, spices, &c., and forms a most nutritious
article of spoon diet. It is taken in the same
cases as decoction of Iceland moss; and is fre-
quently employed in cookery, as a substitute
for animal jelly, in the preparation of blanc-
manges, soups, &c.
Decoction of I"singlass.
DRINK.
Decoction of Ju'miper Berries (Compound).
Syn. DECOCTUAT JUNIPERI COMPOSITUM, L.
Prep. (St. B. Hosp.) Juniper berries 2 oz. ;
cream of tartar, 3 drs. ; water, 4 pints; boil
to a quart, strain, and add compound spirit of
juniper, 2 fl. Oz. Diuretic.—Dose. 2 or 3
wine-glassfuls, 3 times a day, warm.
Decoction of Lin'seed (Compound). Syn.
DECOCTUM LI'NT COMPOS/ITUM (Ph. D.), L.
Prep. (Ph. D.) Linseed, 1 oz. ; liquorice root
(bruised), 3 oz. ; water, 1% pint; boil for 10
minutes in a covered vessel, and strain whilst
hot. Emollient and demulcent.—Dose. A
wine-glassful ad libiţum ; in gonorrhoea, dys-
entery, pulmonary affections, &c. It may be
flavoured with lemon peel, and sweetened.
See INFUSIONs.
Decoction of Liquorice. Syn. DECOCTUM
GLYCYRRHIZE, L. Prep. (Ph. D. 1826.)
Liquorice root (sliced), 1% oz.; water, 16 fl.
0Z. ; boil 10 minutes and strain. A mild de-
mulcent; it is taken either alone, by wine-
glassfuls, or is used as a vehicle for more ac-
tive remedies.
Decoction,
DRINK.
Decoction of Liv'erwort,
OT ICELAND MOSs.
Decoction of Log'wood. Syn. DECOCTUM
IIEMATOXYLI (Ph. L. E. & D.), L. Prep. 1.
(Ph. L.) Logwood chips, 10 drs. ; water, 1}
pint; boil to a pint, and strain.
2. (Ph. E.) Logwood, 1 oz. ; water, 1 pint;
See LISBON DIET
Lisbon, See LISBON DIET
See DECOCTION
Astringent and tonic.—Dose.
boil to 10 fl. Oz., adding towards the last, cin-
namon (in powder), 1 dr.
3. (Ph. D.) Logwood, 1 oz. ; water, , pint.
1 table-spoon-
ful to a wine-glassful; in diarrhoea, as re-
quired.
Decoction of Madder. Syn. DECOCTUM RU-
BIAE, D. R. TINCTORIA, L. Prep. 1. (Dewees.)
Powdered madder, 1 oz. ; boiling water, 1
pint ; simmer for 15 minutes, and add of
cloves (bruised), 1 dr. ; when cold, strain-
Dose. A wine-glassful, 2 or 3 times daily; in
amenorrhoea, chlorosis, &c.; or every 3 hours,
a short time previous to the expected men-
strual discharge.
2. (W. Cooley.) To the last add ammonio-
citrate of iron, 3 drs.
3. (St. Marie.) Powdered madder, oz.;
hops, 1 dr. ; English walnut leaves, 3 drs. ;
water, 1 quart; boil to 1% pint, strain, and
when cold, add of tincture of tartrate of iron,
1 dr.—Dose. 2 fl. oz., night and morning; in
scrofula, &c.
Decoction of Mal'lows. Syn. CoMMON DE-
CoCTION ; DECOCTUM COM/MUNE, D. PRO
ENEMA'TE (Ph. L. 1787), D. MALVE Com-
POSITUM (Ph. L. 1836), L. Prep. (Ph. L.
1836.) Common mallows (dried), 1 oz.: cha-
momile flowers (dried), 4 oz. ; water, 1 pint;
boil 15 minutes, and strain. Used chiefly for
formentations and enemas.
Decoction of Malt. Syn. DECOCTUM BI'NE,
D. BYNES, D. MALTI, L. Prep. (Swediaur.)
Ground malt, 3 oz. ; water, 1 quart ; boil to a
pint, and strain. An oz. of syrup of lemons,
or of saffron, may be added to the cold decoc-
tion; or, a little liquorice root, with the malt.
Demulcent and laxative. A cupful ad libitum.
Infusion of malt (sweet wort) is a more con-
venient and elegant preparation.
Decoction of Marshmal/low. Syn. DECOC-
TUM ALTHE'E (Ph.D. 1826 and Ph. E. 1813),
L. Prep. (Ph. D. 1826.) Dried root and
herb of marshmallow, 4 oz. ; raisins (stoned),
2 oz. ; water, 7 pints (wine measure); boil
down to 5 pints, strain, allow it to deposit the
sediment and decant the clear liquid. Demul-
cent.—Dose. A cupful ad libitum, in coughs,
colds, calculous affections, and other diseases
of the urinary organs. See MIXTURES.
Decoction of Mat'ico. Syn. DECOCTUM MA-
TICO'NIs, L. Prep. (Dr. Jeffreys.) Matico
leaves, 1 oz. ; water, 1 pint ; boil 12 minutes,
and strain. Astringent.—Dose. 1 fl. oz., 2
or 3 times a day; in haemorrhagic and other
discharges.
Decoction, Mercu"rial. Syn. DEcoCTUM
HYDRARGYRI, D. MERCURIALE, L. Prep. 1.
Quicksilver, 4 oz. ; water, 1 pint; boil in a
glass or earthen vessel for an hour, adding
water to replace that lost by evaporation.—
Dose. A teacupful.
2. Mercurial pill, 1 oz. ; water, 1 quart;
boil to a pint-Dose. A wine-glassful. Both
were formerly taken for worms and the itch.
3. Corrosive sublimate, 1 gr.; (dissolved in)


394 DECOCTION.
spirit of wine, 30 drops; extract of Sarsa-
parilla, 3 drs. ; decoction of sarsaparilla, 8 fl.
oz.; mix-Dose. One large table-spoonful,
3 times a day; in syphilis and obstinate skin
diseases.
Decoction of Mezere'om. Syn. DECOCTUM
MEZEREI (Ph. E. and Ph. D. 1826), L. Prep.
(Ph. E.) Root-bark of mezereon, 2 drs. ; li-
quorice root, 4 drs. ; water, 1 quart ; simmer
to 1% pint, and strain. Stimulant and sudo-
rific.—Dose. A wine-glassful, or more, three
or four times a day; in chronic rheumatism,
scrofula, secondary syphilis, lepra, and some
other cutaneous affections. Much boiling in-
jures the virtues of mezereon. (See below.)
Decoction of Mezere'on (Compound). Syn.
DECOCTUM MEZEREI COMPOSITUM, L. Prep.
(Van Mons.) Mezereon, 2 drs. ; bitter sweet,
4 drs. ; burdock, 2 oz. ; water, 2 quarts; boil
to 3 pints, add of liquorice root, 2 drs., and
strain. As the last, and in obstinate diseases
of the skin.
Decoction, Narcotic. Syn. DECOCTUM ANO-
DYNUM, D. NARCOTICUM, L. Prep. (Hosp.
Form.) Common nightshade (dried), 1 oz. ;
poppy heads, 3 in no. ; water, 1 pint ; boil 10
minutes, and strain. As an anodyne formenta-
tion, used warm.
Decoction of Ni‘ire. Syn. DECOCTUM NI-
TROSUM, D. NITRATUM, D. POTASSAE NITRATIS,
L. Prep. 1. Nitre, Oz. ; white sugar, 2
Oz. ; cochineal, 20 grs.; water, 1% pint; boil a
few minutes, and strain.
2. (Hosp. Form.) Barley-water, 1 pint ;
nitre, 5 drs. ; dissolve. Diuretic, diaphoretic,
and refrigerant. A wine-glassful, frequently ;
in gonorrhoea, sore throat, acute rheumatism,
scurvy, &c.
Decoction of Oak Bark. Syn. DECOCTUM
QUERCús (Ph. L. E. & D.), L. Prep. 1.
(Ph. L. & E.) Oak bark (bruised), 10 drs. ;
water, 1 quart ; boil down to a pint, and
strain.
2. (Ph. D.) Oak bark, 1% oz. ; water, 1}
pint; boil 10 minutes, and strain. Astrin-
gent. Used as a gargle in ulcerated sore
throat, relaxation of the uvula, &c., and as a
wash, and as an injection in piles, leucorrhoea,
haemorrhages, prolapsus ani, &c.
Decoction of Oats. Syn. WATER GRUEL;
DECOCTUM AVENAE, L. Prep. 1. (Cullen.)
Oatmeal, 1 oz. ; water, 3 quarts; boil to a
quart, strain, and when cold, decant the clear
liquid from the sediment.
2. (A. T. Thomson.) Washed groats, 4 oz. ;
water, 4 pints; boil to a quart. Nutritious
and demulcent. Taken ad libiţum, to promote
the action of purgatives, and as an enema,
either alone, or as a vehicle for more active
substances. It is too thin for food. See
GRUEL.
Decoction of Pareira. Syn. DECOCTUM
PAREIRAE (Ph. L.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.)
Jareira brava root (sliced), 10 drs. ; water, 1}
pint; boil to a pint, and strain.
2. (Sir B. Brodie.) Pareira, 4 drs. ; water,
3 pints; boil to a pint, as last. The above are
given in gonorrhoea, leucorrhoea, and chronic
inflammation of the bladder.--Dose. Of the
first, to 1 wine-glassful, 3 or 4 times a day;
of the second, about twice that quantity, or
more. It is commonly combined with some
tincture of hyoscyamus; and when the triple
phosphates are present in the urine, dilute
hydrochloric or nitric acid may be added. Sº
PAREIRA.
Decoction, Pectoral. See DECOCTION OF
BARLEY.
Decoction of Pellitory. DECOCTUM PYRE".
THRI, L. Prep. (Guy’s Hosp.) Pellitory root,
1 oz. ; water, 1% pint; boil to a pint, and
strain. Used as a gastric stimulant, and as a
gargle in the relaxation of the uvula.
Decoction of Pome'gramate. Syn. DECOC:
TUM GRANA''TI (Ph. L.), L. Prep. (Ph. I.)
Pomegranate rind (fruit-bark), 2 oz.; distilled
water, 1% pint ; boil to a pint, and strain,
Astringent. Used as a gargle and injection, in
sore throat, leucorrhoea, &c.; and internally,
in diarrhoea, dysentery, &c.—Dose. 1 fl. OZ,
Ol' Inn Ol'e.
Decoction of Pomegranate Root, Syn. DE.
COCTUM GRANATI RADICTS (Ph. L.), L. Prep,
1. (Ph. L.) Root-bark of pomegranate (sliced)
2 oz. ; water, 1 quart; boil to a pint, and
strain.
2. (Collier.) Bark of the root, 2 oz. ; water,
1 pint ; boil to one half. This is the common
form used in India. -
Dose, &c. A wine-glassful, half-hourly,
until the whole is taken, a light diet and a
dose of castor oil having been taken the day
previously. In tapeworm, Dr. Collier recom.
mends the whole of the last preparation to be
given at 2 doses, at the interval of 2 hours,
It purges, and in 5 or 6 hours frequently ex-
pels the worm; if this does not take place, it
should be persevered in. “Look for the head
of the taenia (tapeworm); for if that is not
expelled, you have done nothing.” (Collier)
Oil of turpentine and kousso are now more
frequently given in taenia in this country.
Decoction of Pop'pies. Syn. DECOCTION OF
POPPY-HEADS, FOMENTATION OF P.-H.; DE:
CoCTUM PAPAVERIs (Ph. L. E. & D.), L.
Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Poppy-heads (bruised), 4
oz, ; water, 2 quarts; boil for 15 minutes, and
strain. ".
2. (Ph. E. & D.) As the last, but using only
3 pints of water. Used as an emollient fomen.
tation, in painful swellings, excoriations, &c.
The addition of a 4 pint of vinegar is said to
promote its efficacy.
Decoction of Quas'sia. Syn. DECOCTUM
QUASSIA, L. Prep. From quassia chips (small)
1 dr.; water, 1+ pint; boil to a pint, and add
syrup of orange peel, 2 oz.-Dose. A wine.
glassful, occasionally, as a stomachic tonic,
See INFUSIONS.
Decoction of Quince. Syn. DECOCTION OF
QUINCE SEED, MUCILAGE OF Q. S.; DECOCTUM
CYDONII (Ph. L.), L. Prep. From quince seeds,
DECOCTION.
395
2 dr. ; water, 1 pint; boil for 10 minutes, and
strain. Used as an emollient and sheathing
application to abraded or wounded surfaces, as
cracked lips, nipples, &c.; and to the skin in
erysipelas, to painful hamorrhoidal tumours,
and the like. Prepared with a little less
water, it is used by the hairdresser as ‘bando-
line' or ‘fixateur.”
Decoction of Rice. Syn. RICE WATER, RICE
DRINK ; DECOCTUM ORY'ZE, L. Prep. Rice,
2 oz. ; water, 1 quart ; boil to one half, and
strain, Demulcent. A good drink in fevers,
coughs, &c., either alone or sweetened and
flavoured with a little lemon peel.
Decoction of Sarsaparil’la. Syn. DECOCTUM
SAR'ZE (Ph. L. & E.), D. SARSAPARILLE (Ph.
D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Sarsaparilla (sliced),
5 oz. ; water, 2 quarts; boil to a quart, and
strain. -
2. (Ph. E.) Sarsaparilla, 5 oz. ; boiling dis-
tilled water, 4 pints; macerate for 2 hours, in
a vessel lightly covered, and placed in a warm
situation ; then take out the root, bruise it,
return it again to the liquor, boil down to a
quart, and strain. -
3. (Ph. D.) Sarsaparilla, 2 oz. ; boiling
water, 1% pint ; digest an hour, boil 10 minutes,
cool, and strain.
Obs. The medicinal virtues of sarsaparilla
root reside wholly in the bark, or cortical por-
tion; it is therefore quite unnecessary to bruise
it, as directed in the Ph. E. By those houses
which do largely in decoction of sarsaparilla,
the root is seldom split or cut ; the bundles in
which it is made up being simply untied and
spread open, to allow of the free exposure of
every part to the solvent action of the water.
By this plan the whole of the soluble portion
of the bark is extracted, whilst the feculent
matter that pervades the wood is only partially
dissolved out. According to Soubeiran, a mere
infusion is preferable. The dose is a teacupful
to half a pint, 3 or 4 times a day.
An extemporaneous docoction of sarsaparilla
is made by dissolving # oz. of the simple extract
in 1 pint of hot water. See SARSAPARILLA,
and below.
Decoction of Sarsaparilla (Concentrated).
Syn. DECOCTUM SARZAE CONCENTRATUM, L.
Prep. 1. (Wholesale.) Sarsaparilla (Jamaica),
10% lbs., is placed in a large and well-cleaned
copper boiler, and enough boiling water added
to cover it ; it is then left to macerate, without
boiling, for 3 or 4 hours, after which it is
boiled for about an hour, and the clear liquor
drawn off into another clean copper pan ; the
root (after it has well drained) is then washed
or ‘sparged” with boiling water, until the
latter runs off scarcely coloured ; the washings
are added to the decoction, and the whole
evaporated as quickly as possible to 6 pints;
it is then set to cool, and rectified spirit of
wine, 1% pint, further added; after agitation,
the whole is set aside in a well-corked bottle,
1 For an explanation of the operation of ‘sparging see
page 262.
in a cool place, for a week. In a few days it is
usually found as clear and brilliant as brandy,
with very little sediment, and will keep for
any length of time uninjured. Some manu-
facturers, instead of washing the root, give it
a second and third water, boiling it each time
and evaporating the mixed liquors.
2. (Extemporaneous.) Extract of Sarsa-
parilla, 6% oz. ; water, 12 fl. Oz. ; dissolve, add
rectified spirit, 2% fl. oz., and water, q. S. to
make the whole exactly measure a pint.
Obs. 1 drachm of this decoction, mixed with
7 drachms of water, forms a similar prepara-
tion to the Decoctum Sarzae of the Ph. L., and
is now very frequently substituted for it in
dispensing. See SARSAPARILLA, EXTRACTS,
and below.
Decoction of Sarsaparilla (Compound). Syn.
DECOCTUM SARZE COMPOSITUM (Ph. L. & E.),
D. SARSAPARILLA. C. (Ph.D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph.
L.) Decoction of Sarsaparilla (boiling), 4 pints;
Sassafras chips, guaiacum wood (rasped), and
fresh liquorice root (bruised), of each 10 drs. ;
mezereon (root-bark), 3 drs. ; boil for 15
minutes, and strain.
2. (Ph. E.) As the last, but using 4 drs, of
lmeZereon. -
3. (Ph. D.) Sarsaparilla (sliced), 2 oz. ;
Sassafras, guaiacum turnings, and liquorice root
(bruised), of each, 2 dr. ; mezereon root-bark,
1 dr. ; boiling water, 1% pint ; digest for an
hour, then boil for 10 minutes, cool, and
strain.
4. (Extemporaneous.) Compound extract of
Sarsaparilla, 7% drs. ; boiling water, 1 pint ;
dissolve,
Obs. This decoction is an imitation of the
once justly celebrated ‘Lisbon Diet Drink.”
It is alterative and diaphoretic.—Dose. A tea-
cupful, or more, 3 or 4 times a day, either
along with, or after, a mercurial course; and
in syphilis, scurvy, scrofula, chronic rheuma-
tism, lepra, psoriasis, and several other skin
diseases, and especially in cachexia, or general
bad habit of body. During its use the skin
should be kept warm. See SARSAPARILLA and
below.
Decoction of Sarsaparilla (Concentrated Com-
pound). Syn. DECOCTUMSARZE COMPOSITUM
CONCENTRATUM, D. SARSAPARILLE C. C., L.
There is a very considerable trade done in this
article, in consequence of compound decoction
of Sarsaparilla being taken in large doses, both
alone and in combination with other remedies,
and the pharmacopoeial preparation spoiling if
kept longer than about 12 hours, in warm
weather. Like the concentrated simple decoc-
tion, it is said to be of 8 times the usual
strength, so that when mixed with 7 times its
weight of water, it forms a similar preparation
to the Decoctum Sarzae Compositum,_Ph. L.;
for which it is very generally substituted in
dispensing.
Prep. 1. (Wholesale.) Sarsaparilla (red Ja-
maica), 96 lbs. ; mezereon root (not root-bark),
9 lbs. ; liquorice root (bruised), 16 lbs. The me-






396
DECOCTION.
zereon and liquorice are first laid (loosely) on
the bottom of a clean copper pan, and the bun-
dles of sarsaparilla (untied and loosened) packed
over them, in horizontal layers, alternately at
right angles with each other. Three or four
boards, with as many iron #-cwt. weights, are
next placed on the top of the whole. Water
is now run in, to about ten inches higher than
the ingredients, and heat is applied until
ebullition commences. The materials are now
allowed to macerate, without boiling, for 3
or 4 hours, after which the liquor is gently
boiled for about an hour, care being taken
to add fresh water from time to time, so as
to keep the whole well covered. The decoction
is next run off, and set evaporating as quickly
as possible. The ingredients are then washed
with successive portions of boiling water,
by allowing it to descend from a species of
shower-bath, after the manner of ‘sparging,”
described under BREWING." This is repeated
until the water runs off nearly colourless, the
smallest quantity being employed that will
effect the object in view. The whole of the
liquid is now evaporated without delay, until
reduced to 8% galls., when, after cooling, 2 drs.
of essential oil of Sassafras, dissolved in 2 galls.
of rectified spirit of wine, are added, and after-
wards, 1 pint of essence of guaiacum. The
liquid is then placed in a suitably sized barrel,
set upon its head, and fitted with a small cock
(not placed too near the bottom), and allowed
to repose for a week, by which time it becomes
clear and brilliant, and fit for sale. This is
the form adopted by the large metropolitan
drug-houses most celebrated for this prepara-
tion. The product that may be drawn off fit
for sale is something over 10 galls. The re-
siduum, forming the ‘bottoms,” consists chiefly
of fecula. The latter is well stirred up with
3 or 4 galls. of cold water, and allowed to settle.
The clear decanted “washings’ are used as
water or liquor in making the next batch of
decoction. -
2. (Extemporaneous.) Compound extract of
Sarsaparilla, 7% oz. ; boiling water, 12 fl. Oz. ;
dissolve, then add of rectified spirit of wine, 2%
fl. oz. ; mix well, and further add of water,
q. S. to make the whole measure a pint.
Obs. To conduct this process successfully,
several large copper pans are required; one of
which (to boil the ingredients in) must be
capable of containing from 140 to 150 gallons
at the least, and the others must be sufficiently
large to receive the liquors as they are drawn
off. Those for the evaporation should be very
shallow, in order that it may proceed rapidly;
and the whole should be heated by steam. An
excellent plan is, to employ large wooden vats,
and to apply the heat by means of pipes laid
along the bottom, and supplied with high-
pressure steam. This method is less expensive
than the use of double steam pans, as above.
When essence of guaiacum is not used, 24 lbs.
of guaiacum shavings, from which the dust has
* See page 262.
been sifted, are boiled with the other ingre.
dients, instead. Those desirous of using the
proportions of the ingredients ordered by the
Colleges, may do so by taking eight times the
given quantities, and proceeding as above. The
following are special preparations:—
FELTz's DECOCTION OF SARSAPARILLA. Syn.
AP'oZEM OF FELTZ; DECOCTUM SARZE CUM
ICHTHYoCOI/LA, L.; PTISANE DE FELTZ, Fr.
Prep. From sarsaparilla (sliced), 3 oz. ; isin.
glass and crude antimony (in powder), of each,
# oz. ; water, 5 pints; boil to one half, and
strain. Used in skin diseases.
JAUPERAND'S DECOCTION OF SARSAPARILLA.
Syn. DECOCTUM SARZA, CUM RADICE CHINA, L.;
PTISANE DE JAUPERAND, Fr. Prep. (Bories.)
Sarsaparilla and China root, of each, 2 OZ,;
senna and Sassafras chips, of each, 1 oz. ; rhu-
barb and Peruvian bark, of each, 3 oz.; car.
bonate of potassa, 1 dr. ; water, 2 galls.; sim-
mer, gently, for several hours, and strain 12
pints; when cold, decant the clear.—D086,
2 fl. oz., two or three times daily; in scrofula,
&c.
WINACHE'S DECOCTION OF SARSAPARIIIA,
Syn. DECOCTUM SARZA, CUM SENNA, L.; PTI-
SANE DE WINACHE, Fr. Prep. (Foy.) Sarsa.
parilla, China wood, and guaiacum wood, of
each, 1% oz. ; crude antimony (tied in a rag),
2 oz. ; water, 6 pints; macerate for 12 hours
(7 in hot weather), boil to one half, add
Sassafras chips and senna, of each, # Oz, in-
fuse 1 hour longer, and strain; when cold,
decant the clear. Recommended in scrofula,
secondary syphilis, and various cutaneous
affections.
ZITTMANN’s DECOCTION OF SARSAPARILLA,
Syn. DECOCTUM ZITTMANNI, L.; PTISANE DE
ZITTMANN, Fr. Prep. 1. (STRONGER DECOC.
TION ; D. Z. FoETE, Ph. Bor. 1847.) Sarsa.
parilla, 12 oz. ; water, 72 lbs. (say, 5% galls);
digest 24 hours, then add (suspended in a bag),
white sugar and alum, of each, 6 drs, ; calomel,
4 drs. ; cinnabar, 1 dr. ; boil to 24 lbs., adding
towards the end of the process, senna, 3 oz.;
liquorice root, 1% oz. ; aniseed and fennel seed,
of each, 3 oz. ; finally strain, with pressure and
after some time decant the clear portion. The
formula in the ‘ Ph. Suec.’ 1845 is similar;
that in the ‘Hamburg Codex' directs only
24 lbs. of water to be used, and the whole to
be reduced to 16 lbs.
2. (WEAKER DECOCTION; D. Z. TENUE,-
Ph. Bor. 1847.) Add to the residuum (waste)
of the last preparation, Sarsaparilla, 6 oz. ;
water, 72 lbs. (say, 5% galls.); boil to 24 lbs.;
adding towards the end of the process, lemon
peel, cinnamon bark, liquorice root, and carda.
moms (all bruised), of each, 3 drs.; press, strain,
&c., as before. In the ‘ Ph. Suec. 1845 double
the above weights of lemon peel and liquorice
root are ordered; and in the ‘Hamburg Codex'
(1845) 24 lbs. of water only are ordered, and
the whole is to be boiled down to 16 lbs.
Obs. Both the above are used in Germany
and on the Continent generally, in the same
DECOCTION.
397
cases as those in which compound decoction of
Sarsaparilla is administered in England. They
may be drunk almost ad libitum. A trace of
mercury may be detected in the stronger
decoction, when properly prepared. See SAR-
SAPARILLA.
Decoction of Senega Root. Syn. DECOCTION
OF AMERICAN SNARE ROOT, D. OF RATTLE-
SNAKE ROOT; DRCOCTUM POLYGALAE, D. SE-
NEGE (Ph. L.), L. Prep. (Ph. L.) Senega or
semeka root, 10 drs. ; water, 1 quart; boil to a
pint, and strain.— Dose. } to 2 wine-glassfuls,
three or four times daily; in humoral asthma,
chronic cough, dropsy, &c. It is stimulant,
expectorant, and diuretic, and, in large
doses, emetic and cathartic. It is fre-
quently conjoined with ammonia. It is the
antidote employed by the Senega Indians
against the bite of the rattlesnake. (Dr.
Tennant.)
Decoction of Simaru'ba Bark. Syn. DECOC-
TUM SIMARU’BAE, L. Prep. (Dr. Wright.)
Simaruba bark, 2 drs. ; water, 24 fl. oz. ; boil
to one half, and strain. Tonic.—Dose. 1 to 2
fl. Oz, ; in chronic dysentery and diarrhoea.
Decoction of Squills (Compound). Syn. DE-
COCTUM SCILLAE COMPOSITUM, L. Prep. (Ph.
U.S. 1841.) Squills, 3 drs. ; juniper berries,
4 oz.; snake root, 3 oz. ; water, 4 lbs. ; boil to
one half, strain, and add of sweet spirits of
nitre, 4 fl. Oz. In chronic coughs and other
chest affections, unaccompanied with active
inflammatory symptoms.--Dose. 1 to 3 fl. oz.,
twice or thrice daily.
Decoction of Starch. Syn. DEcoCTUM AM/XLI
(Ph. L.), MUCILA/Go AM'YLI (Ph. E. & D.),
L. Prep. (Ph. L. & E.) Starch, 3 oz. ; add,
gradually, water, 1 pint, and boil for a short
time. The Dublin preparation is nearly
twice as strong. Used as an enema in
dysentery, diarrhoea, and excoriations of the
rectum.
Decoction, Sudorific. Syn. DECOCTUM SU-
DORIF'ICUM, L. The old name of the com-
pound decoctions of sarsaparilla and guaiacum.
Decoction of Su'et. Syn. ARTIFICIAL GOAT's
MILK ; DECOCTUM SE'VI, L. Prep. Suet, 1
oz. ; tie it loosely in a piece of muslin and
simmer it in cow’s milk, 13 pint; adding
towards the last, white sugar, 3 oz. In scrofu-
lous emaciation and phthisis ; taken ad
libiţum.
Decoction of Tam'arinds. Syn. DECOCTUM
TAMARIND/ORUM, L. Prep. Tamarinds, 1}
Oz. ; water, 1 pint ; boil for 5 minutes, and
strain. A pleasant drink in fewers, asthma,
chronic coughs, &c.
Decoction of Tamarinds and Sen’ma. Syn.
DEC. TAMARINDORUM CUM SENNA (Ph. E.
1744), L. Prep. Tamarinds, 6 drs.; cream of
tartar, 2 drs. ; water, 1% pint; boil in a glazed
earthen vessel until reduced to 16 oz. ; then
infuse therein for 12 hours, senna, 4 drs. ;
strain, and add of syrup of violets, 1 oz. A
gentle aperient.—Dose. A wine-glassful, or
InOre.
Decoction of Tar. Syn. TAR WATER ; DE-
COCTUM PI/CIS LIQUID.E., L. Prep. Tar, 1 oz. ;
water, 1% pint ; boil to 1 pint.—Dose. A pint,
or more, daily; in chronic catarrh; and as a
wash in chronic skin diseases, especially those
of the head, in children.
Decoction, Tonic. Syn. STRENGTHENING
DECOCTION: DECOCTUM ROBORANs, L. Prep.
1. Peruvian bark (bruised), 3 oz. ; Virginian
Snake root, 2 drs. ; water, 1 pint ; boil to one
half, strain whilst hot, and add, spirit of
cinnamon, 1}; fl. oz. ; diluted sulphuric acid,
1} dr.—Dose. 2 oz., two or three times a day.
2. Decoction of bark, 5 oz. ; tincture of
bark, 6 drs. ; aromatic confection, , dr.; sal-
volatile, 1 dr.—Dose. 1 or 2 table-spoonfuls
night and morning ; especially in diarrhoea.
Decoction of Tor’mentil. Syn. DECOCTUM
TORMENTILLE (Ph. L.), L. Prep. (Ph. L.)
Tormentil root (bruised), 2 oz. ; water, 1}
pint; boil to a pint, and strain. Astringent.
— Dose. 1 to 2 fl. oz., in chronic diarrhoea,
&c.
Decoction of Tur’meric. Syn. DEcoCTUM
CURCU'MAE, L. Prep. From turmeric root (in
powder), 1% oz. ; water, 1 pint; boil for 5
minutes, and strain. A mild aromatic stimu-
lant and stomachic.—Dose. A wine-glassful,
ad libitum. It is principally used as a test for
alkalies, which turn it brown. Unsized paper
dipped into it and dried forms the turmeric
test-paper of the chemist.
Decoction of Werbena. Syn. DECOCTUM
VERBE'NE, L. From verbena (vervain), 2 oz. ;
water, 13 pint ; boil to 1 pint, and strain.
Obs. The Verbena officinalis was formerly
highly recommended by Etmuller, Hartman,
De Haën, Morley, and others, in scrofula,
cephalalgia, &c., but afterwards fell into
neglect. More recently, a decoction of the
plant has been highly extolled by Boshanov,
and others, as an anti-febrile.
Decoction, Wul'nerary. Syn. DECOCTUM
VULNERA"RIUM, L. Prep. From ground ivy
and broad-leaved plantain, of each, 3 oz. ;
water, 3 pints; boil to 1 quart, strain, and
add sugar, 1 oz. A popular pectoral and
tonic, especially in old coughs; also to heal
wounds.--Dose. a teacupful or more, twice
a day.
Decoction of Wal'nut Bark. Syn. DEcoC-
TUM JUGLAND'Is, L. Prep. (Ph. Gen.) Green
bark of walnuts, 1 oz. ; water, I pint; boil for
15 minutes, and strain. As an anti-syphilitic.
Before the general introduction of sarsaparilla,
it was much esteemed in most cases in which
that drug is now taken.—Dose, &c. The same
as those of comp. dec. of sarsaparilla. Pearson
says, that “when the putamen (green rind) of
the walnut has been omitted, either intention-
ally or by accident (from Decoctum Lusitani-
cum), the same good effects have not followed
its use as when it contained this ingredient.
Decoction of Walnut Leaves. Syn. DEcoC-
TUM JUGLAND'Is FoEIO"RUM, L. Prep. (Ne-
grier.) Walnut leaves, 1 handful; water, 1




398 DECOLORATION-DELIRIUM TREMENS.
quart; boil 15 minutes, and strain. Deter-
sive, diaphoretic, and alterative.—Dose, &c.
As the last, especially in chronic rheumatism,
secondary syphilis, &c.
Decoction of Waſterdock. Sym. DECOCTUM
RUMI/CIS, D. R. AQUAT/ICI, L. Prep. (A. T.
Thomson.) Root of common waterdock
(Rumea, obtusifolius), 1 oz. ; water, 1 pint ;
boil for 10 minutes, and strain.
Obs. This decoction is astringent, and was
once much celebrated as a remedy for scurvy
and some other cutaneous affections. “It is
the only remedy which proves efficacious in
that disease, when the ulcers are healed, and
the patient is attacked with asthma.” (Lin-
naeus, on the scurvy of the Laplanders.)
White Decoction (Sydenham’s). Syn. HARTS-
HoRN DRINK ; MISTURA COR'NU USTI. Prep.
Prepared burnt hartshorn, 2 oz. ; gum arabic,
1 oz. ; water, 3 pints; boil to 1 quart, and
strain. Mucilaginous; demulcent. Taken ad
libiţum.
Decoction of Whor’tleberry. Syn. DECOC-
TION OF BEAR-BERRY, D. OF UWA-URSI; DE-
COCTUM UVF URSI (Ph. L. & D.), L. Prep.
1. (Ph. L.) Whortleberry leaves, 1 oz. ; water,
13 pint ; boil to a pint, and strain.
2. (Ph. D.) Uva-ursi (the leaves), 3 oz. ;
water, , pint ; boil 10 minutes, and strain.
Dose, &c. 1 to 3 fl. oz., two or three times
daily; in phthisis and purulent affections of
the urinary organs, unaccompanied with active
inflammation; especially in chronic affections
of the bladder.
Decoction of Wilſlow Bark. Syn. DECOCTUM
SALICIS, D. S. CORTICIS, L. Prep. 1. (Wil-
kinson.) Willow bark (Salia, latifolia),
bruised, 1% oz. ; macerate in water, 2 lbs., for
6 hours, then boil for 15 minutes, and strain.
Tonic, astringent, and febrifuge.—Dose. A
wine-glassful.
2. (Nieman.) Willow bark (Salia, alba), 1}
oz. ; water, # pint ; boil to one half—Dose. 1
to 2 fl. oz. Both are used as substitutes for
decoction of cinchona bark.
Decoction of Winter-green. Syn. DECOc-
TION OF PYROLA, D. OF UMBELLATED WINTER-
GREEN, D. OF PIPSISSEWA; DECOCTUM CHIMA-
PHILE (Ph. L.), D. PYROLE (Ph. D.), L.
Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Chimaphila (dried herb),
1 oz. ; water, 1% pint ; boil to a pint, and
strain.
2. (Ph. D.) Winter-green (dried leaves),
# oz. ; water, , pint ; boil 10 minutes in a
covered vessel, and strain. Tonic, stomachic,
alterative, and diuretic.—Dose. 1 to 2 fl. oz. ;
in dropsies, scrofula, debility, loss of appetite,
&c.; and in those affections of the urinary
organs in which uva-ursi is commonly given.
Decoction of Worm'seed. Syn. DEcoCTUM
SANTONICI, L. Prep. 1. Wormseed, bruised,
2 oz. ; water, 1 pint; boil down to 16 fl. oz.,
and strain.
2. (Dr. R. E. Griffith.) Fresh leaves of
wormseed (Chenopodium anthelminţicum,_
Linn.), 1 oz. ; water, 1 pint ; orange peel, 2
drs. ; boil (10 minutes), and strain. The
above are bitter, stomachic, and vermifuge
— Dose. A wine-glassful twice a day; in
worms. It is also used as an injection against
ascarides. -
Decoction of Yar'row. Syn. DECOCTUM
MILLEFOLII, L. Prep. From milfoil or yarrow
tops, 1% oz. ; water, 1% pint ; boil to a pint,
and strain. Astringent, tonic, and vulnerary,
—Dose. A wine-glassful, thrice daily; in
dropsies, &c. It is also used as a fomentation
to bruises, &c. -
DECOLORATION. The blanching or re.
moval of the natural colour of any substance,
Syrups, and many animal, vegetable, and
saline solutions, are decoloured or whitened
by agitation with animal charcoal, and sub-
sequent subsidence or filtration. Many fluids
rapidly lose their natural colour by exposure
to light, especially to the direct rays of the
sun. In this way castor, nut, poppy, and
several other oils, are whitened. Fish oils are
partially deodorised and decoloured by filtrá.
tion through animal charcoal. Cottons and
linens are still commonly bleached by the
joint action of light, air, and moisture. The
peculiar way in which light produces this
effect has never been satisfactorily explained.
The decoloration of textile fabrics and solid
bodies generally is called bleaching. See
BLANCHING, BLEACHING, OILS, TALLOW,
SYRUPS, SUGAR, &c.
DECOMPOSI"TION (-zish'-un). In cle.
mistry, the resolution of compounds into their
elements, or the alteration of their chemical
constitution in such a manner that new pro-
ducts are formed.
DEFECATION. The separation of a liquid
from its lees, dregs, or impurities, by Sub-
sidence and decantation. It is commonly em.
ployed for the purification of saline solutions,
and glutinous or unctuous liquids, on the large
scale, in preference to filtration; than which
it is both more expeditious and inexpensive.
See CLARIFICATION, DECANTATION, FILTRA.
TION, &c.
DEFLAGRATION. The sudden combustion
of any substance, for the purpose of producing
some change in its composition, by the joint
action of heat and oxygen. The process is
commonly performed by projecting into a red.
hot crucible, in small portions at a time, a
mixture of about equal parts of nitre, and the
body to be oxidised. -
DELIQUE3/CENCE. Spontaneous liquefac.
tion by absorption of the moisture of the at-
mosphere. Deliquescent salts are those which
by exposure gradually assume the liquid state,
They should all be kept in well-closed bottles
Ol' Tal'S. -
iBLIR/IUM TRETIENS. [L.] The mad.
ness of drunkards; a disease of the brain re-
sulting from the excessive and protracted use
of intoxicating liquors, particularly of ardent
spirits. The early symptoms are extreme
irritability and fretfulness, with unusual

DELPHINIC ACID–DENTIFRICES.
399
mobility of the body. Sleeplessness and un-
pleasant dreams soon follow. At length fright-
ful dreams and visions harass the patient. He
sees remarkable sights, hears extraordinary
Sounds, and labours under all the strange de-
lusions of insane persons, which, however
vague and unfounded, operate on him with all
the force of realities till he becomes furiously
mad. The fit almost always comes on after
hard drinking; and the hands are usually,
but not always, tremulous. A similar affec-
tion is occasionally produced by the abuse of
opium, excessive mental anxiety, night watch-
ing, or depletion. According to Dr. Arm-
strong, even respiring the fumes of ardent
spirits will, under some circumstances, pro-
duce this disease. Persons who have under-
gone surgical operations under the influence of
chloroform are more liable to attacks of this
kind than other persons.
The treatment of delirium tremens consists
mainly in the judicious use of opium, laudanum,
or morphia, in rather large doses, frequently
repeated. 30 to 60 drops of laudanum may
be given every hour or two during the fit, its
effects being carefully watched. The object
is to produce quiet sleep, from which the
patient usually wakes free from the worst
symptoms of the disease. Diaphoretics and
mild aperients may also be given, and a light,
nutritious diet adopted throughout. Deple-
tion, especially bleeding, should be particu-
larly avoided. Alcoholic stimulants and wine,
in certain cases, have proved useful. Under
this treatment, the patient, unless of a very
bad habit of body, or much debilitated by pre-
vious excesses, usually recovers. He is, how-
ever, very liable to relapses and subsequent
attacks, which are best prevented by judicious
moral management.
DELPHIN'IC ACID. Syn. PHOCE'NIC ACID.
A fatty acid, obtained by saponifying the oil
of the delphinus or porpoise. According to
recent experiments, it is identical with valeric
acid.
DELPHIN’INE.
PHIA, DELPHIN'IA. An alkaloid discovered by bulks.
dilute sulphuric acid; the colouring matter
precipitated by a few drops of nitric acid, the
alkaloid by potassa. The alkaloid is then dis-
solved in absolute alcohol, and the solution
thus formed is evaporated; one pound yields
about one drachm.
Prop., &c. A light-yellowish or white,
odourless powder; extremely acrid and bitter;
scarcely soluble in water; dissolves in ether,
and readily in alcohol; and has an alkaline
reaction. Its alcoholic solution produces a
burning and tingling sensation when rubbed
on the skin, and a similar sensation is pro-
duced in various parts of the body when it is
taken in doses of a few grains. It has been
exhibited in neuralgia and rheumatism by Dr.
Turnbull.— Dose. Th; gr. every three hours,
made into a pill with 1 gr., each, of the ex-
tracts of henbane and liquorice. It is also
used externally under the form of ointment
and lotion.
DEMUL(CENTS. In medicine, substances
which are calculated to soften and lubricate
the parts to which they are applied. Though
having the same signification as the word
EMOLLIENTS, it is desirable to restrict the
latter term to such as are intended for exter-
nal application, and to include under the above
head only such as are intended for internal ex-
hibition. The principal demulcents are gum
arabic, gum tragacanth, liquorice, honey,
arrow-root, pearl barley, isinglass, gelatine,
milk, almonds, spermaceti, almond and olive
oils, and most other mucilaginous, amylaceous,
saccharine, and oily substances. For use,
these are made into MUCILAGES, DECOCTIONS,
EMULSIONS, or MILKS, with water, and form
suitable beverages in dysentery, diarrhoea,
catarrh, diseases of the urinary organs, and all
other diseases where diluents are useful. See
EMOLLIENTS.
DENS/ITY. Comparative masses of equal
weights, or the quantity of matter contained
in a given space. It is commonly used synony-
mously with SPECIFIC GRAVITY, which, how-
Syn. DEL/PHINE, DEL/- ever, refers to comparative weights of equal
Thus, quicksilver is said to have a
Lassaigne and Feneulle in Delphinium staphy- density greater than that of copper, and alco-
Sagria or Stavesacre.
Prep. 1. The husked seeds
boiled in a little water, and pressed in a cloth;
a little pure magnesia is then added to the
filtered decoction, the whole is boiled for a
few minutes, and refiltered; the residuum,
after being well washed, is digested in boiling
alcohol, which dissolves out the alkaloid, and
gives it up again by gentle evaporation and
cooling.
2. The bruised, but unshelled, seeds are
digested in dilute sulphuric acid, the filtered
liquor precipitated with carbonate of potassa,
and the precipitate digested in alcohol as
before.
3. (Parrish.) An alcoholic extract of the
seeds is treated with dilute sulphuric acid,
precipitated with an alkali, again dissolved in
hol one less than that of oil of vitriol.
(in powder) are DENTIFRICEs.
| Substances applied to the teeth, to cleanse and
Syn. DENTIFRICIA, L.
beautify them. The most useful form of den-
tifrices is that of powder (Toot.II PoWDER);
but liquids (TOOTH WASHES), and electuaries
(TOOTH ELECTUARIES, TOOTH PASTES), are
also employed. The solid ingredients used in
dentifrices should not be so hard or gritty as
to injure the enamel of the teeth; nor so soft
or adhesive as to adhere to the gums, after
rinsing the mouth out with water. Pumice-
stone (in fine powder) is one of those sub-
stances that acts entirely by mechanical attri-
tion, and is hence an objectionable ingredient
in tooth powder intended for daily use. It is,
however, very generally present in the various
advertised dentifrices, which are remarkable


400
DENTINE–DEPILATORY,
for their rapid action in whitening the teeth.
Bath brick is another substance of a similar
nature to pumice, and, like that article, should
be only occasionally employed. Cuttle-fish
bone, coral, and prepared chalk, are also com-
monly used for the same purpose, but the last
is rather too soft and absorbent to form the
sole ingredient of a tooth powder. Charcoal,
which is so very generally employed as a den-
tifrice, acts partly mechanically, and partly
by its chemical property of destroying foul
smells and arresting putrefaction. For this
purpose it should be newly burnt, and kept in
well-closed vessels, until used, as by exposure
to the air it rapidly loses its antiseptic powers.
Powdered rhatany, cinchona bark, and catechu,
are used as astringents, and are very useful
in foulness or sponginess of the gums. Myrrh
and mastic are employed on account of their
odour, and their presumed preservative action,
and power of fixing loose teeth. Insoluble
powders have been objected; to on account of
their being apt to accumulate between the
folds of the gums and in the cracks of the
teeth, and thus impart a disagreeable appear-
ance to the mouth. To remedy this defect, a
reddish or flesh-coloured tinge is commonly
given to them with a little rose pink, red coral,
or similar colouring substance, when any
small portion that remains unwashed off is
rendered less conspicuous. Some persons em-
ploy soluble substances as tooth powders, which
are free from the above objection. Thus, sul-
phate of potash and cream of tartar are used
for this purpose, because of the grittiness of
their powders and their slight solubility in
water. Phosphate of soda and common salt
are also frequently employed as dentifrices,
and possess the advantage of being readily
removed from the mouth by means of a little
water. Among these substances that chemi-
cally decolour and remove unpleasant odours,
the only ones employed as dentifrices are
charcoal and the chlorides of lime and soda.
The first has been already noticed; the others
may be used by brushing the teeth with water,
to which a very little of their solutions has
been added. A very weak solution of chloride
of lime is commonly employed by smokers to
remove the odour and colour imparted by to-
bacco to the teeth. Electuaries, made of honey
and astringent substances, are frequently em-
ployed in diseases of the gums. The juice of
the common strawberry has been recommended
as an elegant natural dentifrice, as it readily
dissolves the tartareous incrustations on the
teeth, and imparts an agreeable odour to the
breath. See PASTE and PoWDER (Tooth), also
WASHES (Mouth).
DENT"INE. The tissue of which the teeth
are composed.
DENTI"TION. See TEETHING.
DEOB'STRUENT. In medicine, a substance
which removes obstructions, and opens the
natural passages of the fluids of the body, as
the pores, lacteals, and glands. Iodine, mer-
cury, sarsaparilla, and aperients, are deOb-
struents.
DEO'D0RISER. Any substance having the
power of destroying fetid effluvia. Chlorine,
chloride of lime, chloride of zinc, nitrate of
lead, sulphate of iron, and freshly burnt char.
coal, are the most effective and convenient
deodorisers. Peat charcoal has been highly
recommended for deodorising manure, &c., On
the large scale. When it is mixed with these
substances, their fetor is immediately destroyed,
and a compost produced, which may be sub-
stituted for guano for agricultural purposes,
See DISINFECTANT.
DEOX'IDATION. See REDUCTION.
DEPII/ATORY. A cosmetic employed to
remove superfluous hairs from the human
skin. Depilatories act either mechanically
(MECHANICAL DEPILATORIES), or chemically
(CHEMICAL DEPILATORIES). To the first class
belong adhesive plasters, that, on their removal
from the skin, bring away the hair with them,
The second class includes all those substances
which destroy the hair by their chemical
action.
Lime or orpiment, and generally both of
them, have formed the leading ingredients in
depilatories, both in ancient and modern
times. The first acts
causticity, and also, when an alkali is present,
by reducing that also, either wholly or in part,
to the caustic state. The action of the Orpi.
ment is of a less certain character, and its use
is even dangerous when applied to a highly
sensitive or an abraded surface. The addition
of starch is to render the paste more adhesive
and manageable.
In using the following preparations, those
which are in the state of powder are mixed up
with a little warm water to the consistence of
a paste, and applied to the part. Sometimes
soap lye is used for this purpose, and some
persons spread the pulpy mass on a piece of
paper, and apply it like a plaster. In 12 or
15 minutes, and sooner, if much smarting
ensues, the whole should be washed off with
warm water, and a little cold cream, lip-salve,
or spermaceti cerate, applied to the part. The
application of the liquid preparations is gene.
rally accompanied with gentle friction, care
being taken to prevent them extending to
the adjacent parts. All the following effect
the object satisfactorily, with proper manage.
ment ; but some are much more effective than
others. A small wooden or bone knife is the
best for mixing them with. They must all
be kept in well-stoppered bottles, and no
liquid must be added to them until shortly
before their application; and then no more
should be mixed than is required for imme.
diate use.
Depilatory, Arsen'ical. Orpiment (sulphide
of arsenic) forms the principal ingredient in
many fashionable depilatories, but its use is
not free from danger. The following are well-
known preparations:—
by its well-known

DEPOSITION.—DEW-POINT.
401
1. (CoLLEY’s D.) From nitre and sulphur,
of each, 1 part; orpiment, 3 parts; quicklime,
8 parts; soap lees, 32 parts; boil to the con-
sistence of cream. Very caustic.
2. (DELCROIx’s D.; “Poup RE SUBTILE.”)
Orpiment, 1 oz. ; quicklime, 10 oz. ; starch,
14 oz.
3. (ORIENTAL D.; ORIENTAL RUSM.A.)—
a. Quicklime, 3 oz. ; orpiment, dr. ; strong
alkaline lye, 1 lb.; boil together in a clean
iron vessel until a feather dipped into the
liquor loses its flue.
b. From pearlash, 2 oz. ; orpiment, 3 drs. ;
liquor of potassa, ; pint; boil together as
before. One of the most caustic and conse-
quently the most certain of depilatory prepara-
tions; but, with the rest of its class, open to the
objections of containing orpiment. (See No. 7.)
4. (PASTE D.; ‘PATE ÉPILATOIR.E.") To No.
1 add of orris root, 3 parts.
5. (PLENCK’s D.; ‘PASTA EPILATORIA.") Orpi-
ment, 1 part; quicklime and starch, of each,
12 parts.
6. So AP D.; ‘SAvon £PILATOIR.E.") Turk-
ish depilatory and soft soap, equal parts. Must
not be mixed until about to be applied. (See
No. 7.)
7. (TURKISH D.; TURKISH RUSM.A.) Orpi-
ment, 1 part; quicklime, 9 parts. For use, it
is mixed up with soap lees, and a little pow-
dered starch. "
Depilatory, Boudet's. Prep. Sulphide of
sodium (crystallised), 3 parts; quicklime (in
fine powder), 10 parts; starch, 10 parts; mix.
To be mixed with water, and applied to the
skin, and scraped off in 2 or 3 minutes with a
wooden knife. Very effective and safe.
Depilatory, Cazenave's. Syn. MAHON's D.;
POMMADE ÉPILATOIRE DE CAZENAVE, Fr.
Prep. Quicklime, 1 part ; carbonate of soda,
2 parts; lard, 8 parts; mix. Applied as an
ointment.
Depilatory, Chinese. Prep. 1. Quicklime,
8 oz. ; pearlash (dry) and liver of sulphur, of
each, 1 oz. ; all reduced to a fine powder;
mixed, and kept in a close bottle.
2. (ROSEATE D.) As No. 1., but coloured
with a little rose pink or light red.
These preparations are applied in the same
manner as Boudet's Depilatory.
Depilatory, Colley's. See ARSENICAL DE-
PILATORY (above).
Depilatory, Hydrosul/phate of Lime. Prep.
(Beasley.) Mix quicklime and water to a thick
cream, and pass into the mixture 25 or 30
times its volume of sulphuretted hydrogen gas.
When the gas ceases to be absorbed, stop the
process. The pulpy mass is spread on paper,
and applied for 12 or 15 minutes. It is very
effective, but has a most disgusting smell.
Spolasco's depilatory is a very similar prepa-
ration (see below).
Depilatory, Mechanical. Syn. DEPILATORY
PLASTER. Prep. From pitch and resin, equal
parts, melted together and spread on leather.
Applied as a plaster.
Depilatory, Rayer's. Prep. Quicklime, 2 oz. ;
Salt of tartar, 4 oz. ; charcoal, # oz. Less
active than Chinese Depilatory.
Depilatory, Redwood's. Prep. A strong so-
lution of sulphide of barium, made into a
paste with powdered starch, and applied im-
mediately. Mr. Redwood says this is “the
best and safest depilatory.”
Depilatory, Ro'seate. See CHINESE DEPIL-
ATORY (above). -
Depilatory, Spolasco's. Prep. Freshly pre-
pared sulphide of calcium and quicklime, equal
parts. Almost equal to Redwood's (above).
DEPOSITION (of Metals). See ELECTRo-
TYPE.
DER/BYSHIRE NECK. See GOTTURE.
DESICCANTS. Syn. DESICCAN'TIA, L. In
pharmacology, substances that check secretion
and dry sores of abraded surfaces, without
acting as styptics, or constringing the fibres
of the parts to which they are applied. See
ASTRINGENTS.
DESICCATION. Syn. ExSICCATION. The
evaporation or drying off of the aqueous
portion of solid bodies. Plants, and chemical
preparations are deprived of their humidity
by exposure to the sun, a current of dry air,
an atmosphere rendered artificially dry by
sulphuric acid, or by the direct application of
heat by means of a water bath, a sand bath,
or a common fire. Planks and timber are
now seasoned, on the large scale, in this way,
by which a condition may be produced, in 2
or 3 days, which on the old system is barely
attainable in as many years. “Endeavours
were made to enforce the importance and value
of the desiccation of woods to the builder,
cabinet maker, architect, and civil engineer,
so long back as 1843, but without success.
Since that period, certain persons have availed
themselves, commercially, of our ideas and
experiments on the subject, without any
acknowledgment, either verbal or pecuniary.”
Cooley.
DESTEMPER. Syn. DISTEMPER. Colours
ground up with size, gum, or white of egg, and
water, as in scene painting. The art of execu-
ting work in distemper, is called “distemper
painting.’
DETER/GENT. An agent having the power
of removing offensive matter from the skin.
The name is now generally restricted to appli-
cations that tend to cleanse foul wounds and
ulcers.
Detergent, Collier's. Prep. From liquor of
potassa, 2 fl. drs. ; rose water, 5% fl. oz. ; spirit
of rosemary, , fl. oz. ; mix. One of the best
applications known to free the head from
scurf, when the hair is strong and healthy.
The head should be afterwards sponged with
clean, soft water.
DETONATION.
POUNDS.
DEUTOX'IDE. See OxIDEs.
DEW-POINT. The temperature at which
dew begins to form, as observed by a ther-



See FULMINATING CoM-
2

402
DEXTRIN–DIALYSIS.
mometer. It varies with the humidity of the
atmosphere.
DEX"TRIN. C. HoOº. Syn. STARCH. GUM,
DEXTRINA, DEXTRINUM, BRITISH GUM. A so-
luble substance resembling gum, formed by the
action of dilute acids at the boiling temperature,
and by infusion of malt, at about 160°Fahr., on
starch. It is also formed when potato starch
and some of the other farinas are exposed to a
heat of about 400°. See DIASTASE and GUM
(British).
DEX"TR0–RACE/MIC ACID. See RACEMIC
ACID.
DIABETES. See URINE.
DIACH/YLON. See PLASTERS.
DIALY'SER. In practical chemistry, an
instrument for separating “crystalloids’ from
“colloids,’ introduced by the late Prof. Gra-
ham. In its most convenient form it consists
of a hoop of gutta percha, over which a
circular piece of parchment-paper is stretched.
The paper is applied to the hoop while wet,
and is kept stretched by a second hoop, by an
elastic band, or by a few turns of string. The
instrument, when complete, resembles an ordi-
nary tambourine. It is distinguished as the
* Hoop DIALYSER.' The fluid to be “dialysed
is poured into the hoop upon the surface of the
parchment-paper, to a small depth only, such
as half an inch, and the dialyser is then floated
upon water in a large glass basin. Another
form of dialyser, termed the “BULB DIALYSER,”
consists of a small glass bell-jar, the mouth of
which is covered by a piece of parchment-paper.
This is suspended or otherwise supported in a
large vessel of water in such a manner that
the parchment-paper septum just dips below
the surface. See DIALYSIS (below), PARCH-
MENT-FABER.
DIALYSIS. In practical chemistry, the
method of separating substances by “diffusion’
through a septum of gelatinous matter. When
a solution having a sp. gr. greater is introduced
into a cylindrical glass vessel, and then water
very cautiously poured upon it, in such a
manner that the two layers of liquid remain
unmoved, the substance dissolved in the lower
liquid will gradually pass into the supernatant
water, though the vessel may have been left
undisturbed, and the temperature remain un-
changed. The gradual passage of a dissolved
substance from its original solution into pure
water taking place, notwithstanding the higher
sp. gr. of the substance which opposes this
passage, is called the “diffusion of liquids.”
From the investigation of the phenomena of
this diffusion, the late Prof. Graham derived
the remarkable results upon which the method
under notice is based. Different substances,
when in solution of the same concentration,
and under other similar circumstances, diffuse
with very unequal velocity. “The range in
the degree of diffusive mobility,” says Prof.
Graham, “exhibited by different substances,
appears to be as wide as the scale of vapour-
tensions. Thus, hydrate of potassa may be said
to possess double the velocity of diffusion of
sulphate of potassa, and sulphate of potassa
again double the velocity of sugar, alcohol,
and sulphate of magnesia. But the substances
named belong, as regards diffusion, to the more
volatile class. The comparatively fixed class,
as regards diffusion, is represented by a different
order of chemical substances (marked out by
the absence of the power to crystallise), which
are slow in the extreme. Among the latter
are hydrated silicic acid, hydrated alumina, and
other metallic peroxides of the aluminous class,
when they exist in the soluble form; with
starch, dextrine, and the gums, caramel, tan-
nin, albumen, gelatin, vegetable and animal
extractive matters. Low diffusibility is not
the only property which the bodies last enu.
merated possess in common. They are dis.
tinguished by the gelatinous character of their
hydrates. Although often largely soluble in
water, they are held in solution by a most
feeble force. They appear singularly inert in
the capacity of acids and bases, and in all the
ordinary chemical relations. But, on the other
hand, their peculiar physical aggregation, with
the chemical indifference referred to, appears
to be required in substances that can intervene
in the organic processes of life. The plastic
elements of the body are found in this class,
As gelatin appears to be its type, it is proposed
to designate substances of this class as ‘COIſ.
LOIDS,” and to speak of their peculiar form as
the ‘colloidal condition of matter.' Opposed
to the colloidal is the “crystalline condition.'
Substances affecting the latter form will be
classed as ‘CRYSTAL'LOIDS.’ The distinction
is, no doubt, one of intimate molecular c0m.
stitution.” A certain property of colloidal
substances comes into play most opportunely
in assisting diffusive separations. The jelly
of starch, that of animal mucus, of pectin, of
vegetable gelose, and other solid colloidal hy.
drates, all of which, strictly speaking, are
insoluble in cold water, are themselves per-
meable when in mass, as water is, by the more
highly diffusive class of substances. But such
jellies greatly resist the passage of the less
diffusible substances, and cut off entirely other
colloid substances like themselves that may
be in solution. A mere film of the jelly has
the separating effect. Now, parchment-paper,
when wetted, acts just like a layer of animal
mucus or other hydrated colloid, by permitting
the passage of crystalloids, but not of colloids,
consequently this substance may be used for
dialytic septa (see DIALYSER, above). The
following experiments recorded by Graham
will give some idea of the results which may
be obtained by dialysis :—
1. Half a litre of urine was placed in a
hoop dialyser, which was then floated on a
considerable quantity of pure water. Dialysed
for 24 hours, the urine gave its crystalloidal
constituents to the external water. The latter,
evaporated by a water bath, yielded a white

1 “Philosophical Transactions” for 1861.
DIAMOND–DIAPHRAGM.
403

saline mass. From this mass urea was ex-
tracted by alcohol in so pure a condition as to
appear in crystalline tufts upon the evapora-
tion of the alcohol.
2. By pouring silicate of soda into diluted
hydrochloric acid (the acid being maintained
in large excess), a solution of silica is obtained.
But in addition to hydrochloric acid, such a
solution contains chloride of sodium, a salt
which causes the silica to gelatinise when the
solution is heated, and otherwise modifies its
properties. Now, such a solution, placed for
24 hours in a dialyser of parchment-paper, was
found to lose 5% of its silicic acid (silica)
and 86% of its hydrochloric acid. After 4
days on the dialyser, the liquid ceased to be
disturbed by nitrate of silver. All the chlo-
rides were gone, with no further loss of silica.
What remained was a pure solution of silicic
acid, which could be boiled in a flask, and
considerably concentrated, without change.
3. Half a litre of dark-coloured porter, with
'05 gramme of arsenious acid added (rºwth
part of arsenious acid), was placed on a hoop.
dialyser, 8 inches in diameter, and the whole
floated in an earthenware basin containing 2
or 3 litres of water. After 24 hours the latter
fluid had acquired a slight tinge of yellow.
It yielded, when concentrated and precipitated
by sulphuretted hydrogen, upwards of one half
of the original arsenious acid in a fit state for
examination.
DI’AMOND. The diamond is pure carbon,
and differs from the carbon of charcoal and
lampblack simply in being limpid, colourless,
and highly refractive of light, properties which
are generally referred to its crystalline form.
The weight, and, consequently, the value of
diamonds, is estimated in carats, one of which
is equal to 4 grains; and the price of one
diamond, compared to that of another of equal
colour, transparency, purity, form, &c., is as
the squares of the respective weights. The
average price of ROUGH DIAMONDS, that are
worth working, is about £2 for the first carat;
that of a CUT DIAMOND is equal to that of a
rough diamond of double weight, exclusive of
the price of workmanship. “To estimate the
value of a wrought diamond, ascertain its
weight in carats, double that weight, and mul-
tiply the square of this product by £2.” (Ure.)
Thus, a cut diamond of-
1 carat is worth £8
2 carats , £32
3 72 >> 3672
4 , ,, £128
&c., &c. See CARBON, GEMs.
Diamond Dust. Genuine diamond dust is
the powder produced by the abrasion of dia-
monds against each other in the process of
cutting and polishing them. It possesses the
valuable property of polishing the gems, and
giving “ the finest edge to every kind of
cutlery.” The discovery of the latter fact, a
few years since, led certain dishonest persons to
extensively advertise spurious preparations, con-
sisting chiefly of emery powder or powdered
quartz, under the name of diamond dust. The
factitious articles acquired a very short and
bad notoriety. Instead of sharpening cutting
instruments, they infallibly destroyed their
edge, and were particularly unfortunate in con-
verting razors into saws.
DIAPEN’TE. Syn. PULVIS DIAPENTE. Prep.
1. (Ph. E. 1744.) Bay-berries, birth-wort,
gentian, ivory dust, and myrrh, equal parts.
An excellent warm tonic, especially useful in
the debility and rickets of children. The sub-
stance sold under this name in the shops is an
inferior mixture, used principally as a tonic
in veterinary practice. The following are the
forms commonly adopted in its preparation :-
2. Turmeric, 4 lbs. ; laurel berries and
mustard, of each, 3 lbs. ; gentian, 2 lbs. (all in
fine powder); mix.
3. Bay-berries, gentian, mustard, and tur-
meric, equal parts.
4. Gentian, 6 lbs. ; bay-berries, 1 lb. This
is the formula generally used by the farriers.
Sometimes mustard, 1 lb., is added.
DIAPHORETICS. Syn. SUDoRIFICs; DIA-
PHORETICA, SUDORIFICA, L. Medicines which
promote or increase the perspiration. Those
that produce this effect in a very marked
degree are more particularly called ‘sudorifics.”
The principal diaphoretics are:—warm dilu-
ents, as barley-water, gruel, tea, &c.; salts of
the alkalies, as the citrates of potassa and soda,
acetate of potassa, acetate and carbonate of
ammonia, sal-ammoniac, nitre, &c.; prepara-
tions of antimony, as antimonial powder, tartar
emetic, &c.; also alcohol, camphor, Dover’s
powder, ipecacuanha, opium, wine, &c.
The use of diaphoretics is indicated in nearly
all diseases accompanied by fever and a dry
skin, and particularly in febrile and pectoral
affections.
DI’APHRAGM (främ). A partition through
or across; a dividing substance. In anatomy,
the term is applied to the midriff, a muscle
separating the chest or thorax from the ab-
domen or lower belly. In astronomy and
optics, the term is applied to a circular ring
placed in a telescope or other instrument to
cut off the marginal portions of a beam of
light. In electricity, the name is commonly
used to denote the porous partition, cell, or
vessel, that separates the fluid containing the
positive plate from the fluid which surrounds
the negative plate, in a constant voltaic bat-
tery. Thin partitions of sycamore, or other
porous wood, are accasionally used, but cells
made of thin biscuit ware are the most con-
venient and durable diaphragms. Plaster of
Paris, animal membrane, coarse and tightly
wove canvas, &c., are used also for the purpose.
Plaster cells are also formed by surrounding an
oiled cylinder of wood with a hoop of paper,
and pouring plaster of Paris, mixed up with
water, into the space between the two. See
ELECTROTYPE.
t
404 DIARRHOEA–DIGESTION.
DIARRHOE'A. A purging or looseness of
the bowels. The causes of diarrhoea are
various, but among the most common are the
presence of irritating matter, worms, or
acidity in the stomach or bowels; and exposure
to cold (especially cold to the feet) or sudden
changes of climate or temperature.
Treatm. In general, it will be proper to
administer a mild aperient, for which purpose
rhubarb or castor oil is usually preferred. The
dose of the first may be from 20 to 30 grains
in sugar, or made into a bolus; that of the
second, from # oz. to # oz., with a little mint
or peppermint water. After the due operation
of this medicine, opium, astringents, and ab-
sorbents, may be taken with advantage, but
not in excessive doses, as is commonly the
practice. The first and second are indicated
when great irritability exists, and the third,
in cases of diarrhoea arising from the presence
of acidity. Chalk mixture, to which a few
drops of laudanum have been added, or the
compound powder of chalk and opium, are
excellent medicines, and will generally quiet
the bowels. A small piece of catechu or hard
extract of logwood, sucked in the same way as
a lozenge, is a pleasant method of taking
either of these powerful astringents, and will
generally cure cases of simple diarrhoea arising
from excessive peristaltic motion, or want
of tonicity of the muscular coats of the in-
testimes.
In bilious diarrhoea, characterised by the
bright yellowish-brown colour of the dejec-
tions, a dose of blue pill or calomel, assisted by
mild diluents and demulcents, and warmth,
generally proves efficacious. Small doses of
opium are also useful in some cases.
In catarrhal diarrhoea, chylous diarrhoea,
and the like varieties, characterised by the de-
jections being nearly colourless, and consisting
chiefly of water and mucus; or white and
milky, showing the entire absence of bile; or,
being entirely liquid, limpid, and serous (in
some cases resembling the washings of flesh),
opinions are divided as to the treatment. The
majority of the best authorities regard purg-
ing as injurious in these varieties, and rely
chiefly on warm baths and warm fomentations,
with the internal administration of mild
salines and diaphoretics, followed by astrin-
gents, tonics, and occasional doses of opiates.
Choleraic diarrhoea demands a nearly similar
treatment.
The diet in every variety of diarrhoea should
be light and non-irritating. Glutinous broths,
beef-tea and arrow-root, are among the best
articles which can be taken. To these may
be added a little dry toast. Arrow-root
(genuine), either with or without a spoon-
ful of port wine or brandy (preferably the
former), will of itself cure all ordinary cases
of diarrhoea, if accompanied with repose and a
recumbent posture.
Among external remedies, warm and stimu-
lating formentations, liniments, &c., to the epi-
gastrium and abdomen, will be found useful
adjuncts to other treatment. A spoonful or
two of laudanum, used as a friction, will gene.
rally allay pain, and in many cases settle the
bowels when all other remedies have been tried
in vain.
DIASTASE. A peculiar azotised substance,
contained in malt, which effects the conversion
of starch, first into dextrin, and then into
grape sugar.
Prep. A cold infusion of malt is heated to
158° Fahr. (to coagulate in albumen); it is
then allowed to cool, and alcohol is added to
the filtered liquor, when diastase is precipi.
tated, under the form of a tasteless white
powder, which is freely soluble in water.
Prop., &c. Diastase seems to resemble
vegetable albumen, but very little is known
respecting it, as it has never been got in a
state of purity. One part of diastase is ca.
pable of converting 2000 parts of starch into
grape sugar. Malted barley is said to contain
ºnth part of this substance; yet this small
portion is quite sufficient to convert the starch
of the malt into sugar during the operation of
mashing, in the manufacture of beer. See
BREWING, DEXTRIN, &c.
DICTA/MIA. A nutritious, dietetic article,
Prep. (Beasley.) Sugar, 7 oz. ; potato arrow.
root, 4 oz. ; flour of brent barley (Triticum
monococcum), 3 oz. ; Trinidad and Granada
chocolate, of each, 1 oz.; vanilla, 15 grs.; tri.
turate together.
DIDYM'IUM. Di. A rare metal, found
associated with cerium and lanthanium in the
Swedish mineral cerite. See CERIUM.
DI’ET. Food or victuals. In medicine, food
regulated by certain rules, or prescribed for
the cure or prevention of disease. The dietetic
part of medicine is no inconsiderable branch,
and deserves a much greater share of regard
than it commonly meets with. A great variety
of diseases might be removed by the observ-
ance of a proper diet and regimen, without the
assistance of medicine, were it not for the im:
patience of the sufferers. On all occasions it
may come in as a proper assistant to the cure,
which sometimes cannot be performed without
a due observance of the non-naturals.
Writers on dietetics (DIETETICA, L.) have
taken much trouble to divide and classify the
numerous articles of food suitable to the
various conditions of the body in health and
disease; but little practical advantage has
resulted from their labours. Low diet, middle
diet, full diet, milk diet, farinaceous diet, fruit
diet, and vegetable diet, are terms which, under
most circumstances, are sufficiently simple to
be almost self-explanatory.
DIGESTION. In chemistry and pharmacy,
the operation of exposing bodies to a gentle
and continuous heat. The best digesters are
thin glass flasks and beakers, and the most
convenient source of heat is the sand bath.
Digestion is often performed to soften and
otherwise modify bodies that are to be distilled.

DIGESTIVES – DISINFECTANT. 405
In physiology, the term is applied to the con-
version of food into chyme, or the process of
dissolving aliment in the stomach, and prepar-
ing it for circulation and mourishment. In
surgery, digestion signifies a method of treat-
ing ulcers, wounds, &c. See DIGESTIVES
(below).
DIGESTIVES. In surgery, substances which,
when applied to wounds or tumours, induce or
promote suppuration. All stimulating appli-
cations are of this class. Heat is a most
powerful digestive agent. The action of
digestives is opposed to that of DISCUTIENTS,
which repel or resolve tumours and indura-
tions.
DIGITALIN. Syn. DIGITA'LIA. A vege-
table principle discovered by M. Royer in
Digitalis purpurea, or purple foxglove.
Prep. 1. (Majendie.) Foxglove leaves (pow-
dered), 1 lb., are digested in ether, first in the
cold, and then heated under pressure; when
the whole has again become cold, the liquor is
filtered (rapidly), and the ether is distilled off
in a water bath; the residuum is dissolved in
water, the filtered solution treated with hy-
drated oxide of lead, the whole gently evapo-
rated to dryness, and the dry residuum again
digested in hot ether; from this solution the
alkali is obtained, by evaporation and repeated
resolutions, in a crystalline form.
2. (Homolle and Henry.) Foxglove leaves
(carefully dried and powdered), 2% lbs., are
digested in rectified spirit, and the tincture
expressed in a tincture press; the spirit is
then distilled off, and the residual extract
treated with distilled water, 3 pint, acidulated
with about 2 fl. drs. of acetic acid, a gentle
heat being employed; some animal charcoal is
then added, and the whole filtered; the filtrate
is then diluted with water, and partly neutra-
lised with ammonia; a fresh-made, strong de-
coction of galls is next added; a copious preci-
pitation of tannate of digitalin ensues; the
precipitate is washed with water, and mixed
with a little alcohol, after which it is triturated
with litharge (in fine powder) and exposed to a
gentle heat; the whole is now digested in
alcohol, the tincture treated with animal char-
coal, and evaporated; the dry residuum is,
lastly, treated with cold sulphuric ether, which
takes up some foreign matter, and leaves the
digitalin. 2 lbs. 8 oz. of the dried leaves yield
140 to 150 grs. of the digitalin.
Prop., &c. White, inodorous, porous masses,
or small scales; it crystallises with difficulty,
is intensely bitter, and excites violent sneezing
when smelled to ; dissolves freely in alcohol;
scarcely soluble in cold ether; and takes 2000
parts of water for its solution; it is neither
basic nor alkaline; concentrated colourless
hydrochloric acid dissolves it, forming a cha-
racteristic solution which passes from yellow
to a fine green. (Homolle.) It is one of the
most powerful of known poisons, being fully
100 times stronger than the powdered leaves
of the dried plant. It is used in the same
cases.—Dose. I'm to sº; gr. ; either made into
pills or dissolved in alcohol and formed into a
mixture. Owing to the difficulty and uncer-
tainty connected with dispensing such small
quantities, it is now seldom employed in this
country.
DILL. Syn. ANETHUM (Ph.L. & E.), L. The
fruit (seed) of Anethum graveolens, or garden
dill, Amethi fructus, B. P. Dill is an aromatic
stimulant and carminative. The Cossacks
employ it as a condiment; and in this country
it is frequently employed to heighten the
relish of soups and pickles, especially cu-
cumbers. DILL WATER is a favorite remedy
of nurses to promote the secretion of milk,
and to relieve the flatulence and griping of
infants.--Dose. Of the powder, 10 grs. to , dr.,
or more. Oil of dill (oDEUM ANETHI) and
dill water (AQUA ANETHI) are officinal in the
pharmacopoeias.
DIL'UENTS. Syn. DILUENTIA, L. Aqueous
liquors; so named because they increase the
fluid portion of the blood. Tea, barley-water,
water-gruel, and similar articles, are the most
common diluents, after pure water. The
copious use of diluents is recommended in all
acute inflammatory diseases, not of a congestive
character, and to promote the action of diure-
tics and sudorifics.
DINNER PILLS. See PILLS.
DIOS/MA. Syn Bookoo, BURU ; FoEIA
BARoSME, F. DIOSME, L.; BUCHU (Ph. L.),
BUCKU (Ph. E.), DIOSMA (Ph.L. 1836). “The
leaves of Barosma serratifolia, B. crenulata,
and B. crenata.” (Ph. L.) These species
were all included by De Candolle in the genus
Diosma. Buchu is principally employed in
chronic affections of the urino-genital organs,
especially that of the mucous membrane of
the bladder, attended with copious discharge
of mucus.--Dose. 20 grs. to # dr. of the pow-
der, taken in wine; or made into an infusion
or decoction.
The officinal buchu leaves are “glabrous,
glandular; either linear-lanceolate with small
serrations, or ovato-oblong, obtuse, crenated,
ovate or obovate, serrated.” (Ph. L.) Their
odour somewhat resembles that of rue, and
their taste is warm and mint-like.
DIOS/MINE. A bitter extractive matter
obtained by Brande from buchu leaves. It is
very soluble in water, but not in alcohol and
ether.
DISCU'TIENTS. In surgery, substances or
agents which disperse or resolve tumours, &c.
See DIGESTIVES.
DISINFECT/ANT. An agent which absorbs,
neutralises, or destroys, putrescent effluvia
and miasmata, and thus removes the causes of
infection. The principal disinfectants are
chlorine, the so-called chlorides of lime and
soda, chloride of zinc, ozone, carbolic acid, the
alkaline manganates and permanganates, peat
charcoal, the fumes of nitric, nitrous, and
sulphurous acids, heat, and ventilation. The
last two are the most efficient and easily


406
DISLOCATION_DISTILLATION.

applied. The clothing, bedding, &c., of
patients labouring under contagious diseases
may be effectually disinfected by exposure to
a temperature a little higher than that of
boiling water, for about an hour. Neither the
texture nor colour of textile fabrics is injured
by a heat of even 250° Fahr. (Dr. Henry.)
It is a practice at some of the workhouses to
bake the clothes of the paupers who have the
itch, or who are infested with vermin. Quick-
lime rapidly absorbs carbonic acid, sul-
phuretted hydrogen, and several other noxious
gases, and is therefore commonly used as a
wash for the walls of buildings. Acetic acid,
camphor, fragrant pastiles, cascarilla, brown
paper, and other similar substances, are fre-
quently burnt or volatilised by heat, for the
purpose of disguising unpleasant odours. The
sulphates of iron and lime have the property
of rapidly destroying noxious effluvia.
quantity of either of these sulphates thrown
into a cesspool, for instance, will in a few
hours render the matter therein quite scent-
less. Of gaseous disinfectants, “ sulphurous
acid gas (obtained by burning sulphur) is pre-
ferable, on theoretical grounds, to chlorine.
No agent checks so effectually the first de-
velopment of animal and vegetable life. All
animal odours and emanations are immediately
and most effectually destroyed by it.”
(Graham.) See ANTISEPTIC, DEODoRISER,
FUMIGATION, INFECTION, OzoNE, also the
DISINFECTING COMPOUNDS given below.
Disinfecting Compounds. 1. (SIR. W.M.
BURNETT's DISINFECTING LIQUID.) A con-
centrated solution of chloride of zinc. See
ZINC.
2. (COLLINs' DISINFECTING PowdER.) A
mixture of dry chloride of lime, 2 parts, and
burnt alum, 1 part. Used either dry or moist-
ened with water. See LIME.
3. (CoNDY's DISINFECTING FLUIDs.) So-
lutions of the alkaline manganates and per-
manganates. See MANGANESE.
4. (ELLERMAN's DEODoRISING FLUID.)
This is said to consist chiefly of the per-
chlorides and chlorides of iron and manga-
IlêSe.
“In a report addressed to the Metropolitan
Board of Works in 1859, Drs. Hofmann and
Frankland stated that the perchloride of iron
was the cheapest and most efficient deodoriser
that could be applied to sewage.” (Beasley.)
5. (LABARRAQUE's DISINFECTING SOLU-
TION ; LIQUOR SODAE CHLORINATAE, Ph. L. &
D.) A solution of chlorinated soda, or, as it
is commonly called, ‘ chloride of soda.” M.
Labarraque made known this valuable disin-
fectant in 1822, and obtained the prize of the
French “Society for Encouraging National
Industry’ for its introduction.
6. (LEDOYEN’s DISINFECTING FLUID.) A
solution of nitrate of lead, 1 part, in about 8
parts of water; or, of litharge, 13% oz., in
nitric acid (sp. gr. 138), 12 oz., previously
diluted with water, 6 pints. Sp. gr. 1:40.
A.
7. (SIRET's DISINFECTING COMPOUNDS)
—a. A mixture of sulphate of lime, 53
lbs., sulphate of iron, 40 lbs., sulphate of
zinc, 7 lbs., and peat charcoal, 2 lbs., made
into balls.
b. Sulphate of iron, 20 parts; sulphate of
zinc, 10 parts; tan or waste oak-bark (in
powder), 4 parts; tar and oil, of each, 1 part;
as before. Used for deodorising cesspools,
&c.
DISLOCATION. Syn. LUXATION: DISIO.
CATIO, L. The forcible displacement of a
bone from its socket, either by violence Or
disease. The latter happens when the textures
forming the joint have been destroyed by
some independent organic affection. “A com:
siderable share of anatomical knowledge is
required to detect the nature of these acci.
dents; and it is much to be lamented that
students neglect to inform themselves suffi.
ciently on the subject.”
(Sir A. Cooper)
In common cases, the bones may be frequently
replaced by forcibly extending the limb. This
should be done as early as possible, and before
inflammation sets in. The latter should be
combated by aperients, local bleeding, refrig.
erant lotions, &c. Dislocations frequently
exist without the fact being suspected, the
swelling and inflammation being referred tº
other causes.
DISPLACE’MENT. See PERCOLATION.
DISTEM'PER. A disease among dogs,
usually characterised by a running from the
nose and eyes, and a short dry cough; fol.
lowed by wasting of the flesh, and loss of
strength and spirits. At length the brain
suffers, and fits, paralysis of the extremities,
or convulsions come on. Laxatives and
emetics are the best remedies. If there is
much diarrhoea, astringents may be afterwards
given. The violence of the fits may be miti.
gated by the administration of antispasmodics,
and by the warm bath. The distemper is a
contagious disease, and is generally fatal tº
weakly and very young dogs. Fits in the
advanced stages of the disease are seldom fol.
lowed by recovery. Impatience of light, red
eyes, obstinate diarrhoea, spasmodic twitchings,
a yellow colour of the skin, and a pustular
eruption, are also bad symptoms.
Distemper Powders (Blane’s). The basis
of these is said to be “aurum musivum, or
bisulphide of tin. That of another advertised
nostrum is a mixture of mercury and chalk,
with a little rhubarb and ipecacuanha.
DISTILLATION. The evaporation and sub.
sequent condensation of the vapour of fluids,
by means of a still and refrigerator, or other
similar apparatus. DRY DISTILLATION is a
term applied to the distillation of substances
per se, or without the addition of water Or
other volatile fluid. DESTRUCTIVE DISTIILA.
TION is the distillation of substances at tem.
peratures sufficiently high to decompose them,
by which their elements are separated, or
evolved in new combinations. FRACTIONAL
DISTILLATION.
407
DISTILLATION is the separation of substances
having different boiling-points, by distilling
the mixture with a gradually increasing heat,
and collecting the products which come over at
different temperatures in separate receivers.
See HYDROCARBON, STILL, &c.
Distillation. The art of the distiller ; the
manufacture of spirituous liquors as practised
On the large scale.
The process of distillation, as carried on in
the distilleries of Great Britain, may be divided
into four general operations, viz.:-1. The
mashing, or formation of a saccharine infusion
from certain vegetable matters, as malt,
barley, oats, rye, &c. 2. The cooling of this
wort or liquor. 3. The fermentation, or pro-
cess by which the sugar of the cooled wort is
converted into alcohol. 4. The separation of
the spirit so formed by means of a still and
refrigerator. By the first operation, the
materials for the formation of the alcohol are
obtained; by the second, they are brought to
a temperature most favorable to the transfor-
mation that takes place in the third, after
which it only remains to free the product of
the last operation from the foreign matter with
which it is associated; this is done in the
fourth, which, correctly speaking, constitutes
the only part of the process which can be
called distillation.
The general principles of the first three of
the preceding operations are noticed in the
articles BREWING, FERMENTATION, &c. It
will there be seen, that the amylaceous or
starchy matter of the grain is first “sacchari-
fied,’ and afterwards converted into alcohol,
and that certain precautions are necessary to
render the process successful and economical.
In many of the distilleries of Great Britain
molasses and analogous saccharine substances
are employed, in which case the vegetable
principle (sugar) essential to the formation of
alcohol, is already present, and merely requires
simple solution in water of a proper tempera-
ture, to be ready to be subjected to immediate
fermentation. In general, however, the
sources of spirit in England are the various
kinds of grain; barley, rye, maize, and rice
are those commonly employed. These are
ground and mixed with bruised malt, in
various proportions, and are mashed in a
similar manner to malted grain. The fermen-
tation is carried on until the density of the
liquor ceases to lessen or ‘attenuate,’ which
is determined by an instrument called a
saccharometer. When this point is arrived at,
the ‘wash ’ is submitted to distillation, to
prevent the access of the acetous fermentation,
which would lessen its alcoholic value.
During the process of distilling off the spirit
of the fermented “wash' or ‘wort, a hydro-
meter is employed to ascertain the “strength
of the liquor that passes over. As soon as this
has fallen to a certain point, the operation is
stopped, and the “spent wash” removed. The
spirits obtained by the first distillation are
generally called “low wines,” and have a spe-
cific gravity of about 975. By rectification
or ‘doubling,” a crude milky spirit, abounding
in oil, at first comes over, followed by clear
spirit, which is received in a separate vessel.
The process is continued until the alcoholic
content of the distilled liquor has considerably
diminished, when the remaining weak spirit
that distils over, called “faints,’ is caught
separately, and mixed with the low wines, pre-
paratory to another distillation. The strongest
spirit passes over first, and the condensed
liquor gradually becomes weaker, until it ceases
to contain alcohol. By receiving in separate
vessels any given portion of the product, spirit
of any required strength, within certain limits,
may be obtained. The same object is more
conveniently effected by surrounding the top
of the capital of the still with a water bath, of
a temperature corresponding to that of alco-
holic vapour of the strength it is desired to
obtain. Thus, if we keep the temperature of
the water at about 198° Fahr., we shall obtain
proof spirit; if at 192°, a spirit 20 o.p.; and
so on for other strengths. -
It is found from experience, and is readily
accounted for by theory, that the lower the
temperature at which the distillation is con-
ducted, the stronger will be the product, and
the less quantity of oil or other volatile matter
will come over along with it. To promote
this, it has been proposed to carry on the
process in vacuo, but on the large scale this
has never been adopted. The distillation of
the wash is usually performed in a separate set
of stills to those employed for the rectification
of the low wines. For very strong and taste-
less spirit, a third and even a fourth rectifica-
tion is employed, conjointly with other
methods, to abstract the water, and to remove
any foreign matter that vitiates its odour or
flavour. A portion of soap is generally put
into the still with the wash, to prevent excessive
frothing.
We have said that the processes of mashing,
&c., in the distillery, are similar to those
adopted in brewing beer. We may add, that
as richness in alcohol, and not flavour, is the
object aimed at in the distiller's wash, not
only is a large quantity of unmalted grain em-
ployed, but the process of boiling the wort
with hops is omitted altogether. The wort is
commonly “set’ at 70°Fahr., and the fermen-
tation and attenuation of the liquor pushed as
far as possible by large and repeated doses of
the best “top-yeast’ of the porter brewers.
It often happens that raw spirit preparcd
from damaged grain is contaminated with a
highly acrid and volatile fatty substance, which
is powerfully intoxicating, and irritating to the
eyes and nostrils, and possesses an odour very
similar to that of an alcoholic solution of cya-
nogen. This may be got rid of by dilution with
water and skilful rectification, when most of it
passes over with the first and last “runnings,”
the intermediate portion being less loaded with


408
DISTORTIONS-DOSE.
it. Another plan is to filter the spirit succes-
sively through 6 or 7 separate vessels containing
pine or willow charcoal, before rectifying it.
In some distilleries the contaminated spirit is
well agitated with a considerable quantity of
olive oil, and after repose decanted, diluted
with water, and rectified as before. The ordi-
nary corn oil or fusel oil of raw spirit is gene-
rally, for the most part, intercepted by a self-
regulating bath arranged between the still-head
and the refrigeratory,
The quantity of spirit obtained from various
substances, and even from pure sugar, depends
upon the skill with which the several opera-
tions are conducted. By theory, pure sugar
should yield 51% of alcohol; but in practice
11.925 galls. of proof spirit is the largest quan-
tity which has yet been obtained from 112 lbs.
of sugar. By the revenue authorities this
weight of sugar is estimated to afford 11% galls.
of proof spirit. The average product is, per-
haps, about 1 gal. of spirit of this strength for
every 10 lbs. of sugar. According to Harm-
städt, 100 lbs. of starch yield 35 lbs. of alcohol,
or 7-8 galls. of proof spirit; and 100 lbs. of the
following grains produce the accompanying
quantities by weight of spirit of sp. gr. 9427,
or containing 45% of pure alcohol:—wheat, 40
to 45%; rye, 36 to 42%; barley, 40%; oats, 36%;
buckwheat, 40%; maize, 40%; the mean benig
3:47 galls. of proof spirit. It is found that a
bushel of good maltyields 2 galls. of proof spirit,
and that the largest quantity of proof spirit
obtained from raw grain, mashed with #
or # of malt, does not exceed 22 galls. per
quarter.
The distiller is allowed to produce worts
from any substance, and at any specific gra-
vity, provided such gravity can be correctly
ascertained by the saccharometer approved of
by the Board of Inland Revenue. He is not,
however, allowed to mash and distil at the same
time. See ALCOHOL, BRANDY, FERMENTA-
TION, FUSEL OIL, GTN, STILL, &c.
DISTOR/TIONS. See SPINE, STRABISMUs,
SURGERY (Popular), &c.
DIURE/SIS. See URINE. -
DIURETICS. Syn. DTURETICA, L. Medi-
cines which promote the secretion of urine.
The principal diuretics are—aqueous fluids,
which act by increasing the watery portion of
the blood, and—substances which promote the
action of the lidneys. Most of the first pro-
duce copious diuresis, if the skin is kept cool.
Among the last are acetate, bitartrate, and
nitrate of potassa; oils of juniper, turpen-
tine, cajeput, and copaiba; dilute spirit, and
sweet spirits of nitre; decoction of common
broom, &c.
DIVIDIVI. An astringent substance im-
ported from Jamaica. It contains above 5%
of tannin; whilst gall-nuts contain less than
3.5%, and the best oak-bark only 1.35%. Hence
its value in tanning.
DOBEREINER'S LAMP. A portable appa-
ratus for obtaining instantaneous light by the
action of a jet of hydrogen on a small piece of
spongy platinum.
D0C/IMACY or DOCIMASTIC ART. See
ASSAYING.
D00RS, Much annoyance is sometimes ex-
perienced from the creaking of doors. This
may be prevented by rubbing a little soap, or
a mixture of tallow and black-lead on the
hinges; or by applying to them with a feather
a little sweet oil, once or twice a year. The
trifling trouble and expense (a penny or two a
twelvemonth) will be amply repaid by their
noiselessness and greater durability. To pre-
vent the noise of doors slamming, a small piece
of vulcanised India rubber, cork, or leather,
may be placed so as to receive the shock.
D0SE. In medicine the quantity taken or
prescribed at one time.
cinals vary with the sex, age, temperament,
constitutional strength, habituation, and idio-
syncrasies of individuals. Different circum-
stances, especially of climate, exercise an im-
portant influence on the activity of medicines,
Thus, the inhabitants of England and the
northern countries of Europe bear much larger
doses in their own climates, than when they
remove to warmer latitudes. Warmth, indeed,
appears to promote the action of most medi.
cinals, whilst cold acts in a contrary way,
Nor does the same rule apply to all medicines,
Calomel, for instance, is generally borne better
by children than by adults; while opium affects
them more powerfully, and requires the dose
to be diminished considerably below that indi.
cated by mere calculation or analogy with other
medicines.
Prescribers ought not to forget that the
action of medicines is not simply proportioned
to the amount, but that each remedy has a
dose below which it either produces no effect
or one contrary to that which we desire it to
produce. Dr. Paris remarks, “that powerful
doses are disposed to produce local rather than
general effects;” and Dr. Barlow gives it as his
opinion that “practitioners often err, espe:
cially in the treatment of chronic maladies,
from requiring an obvious effect from each dose
administered.” Adult women are said to re-
quire only three fourths the full dose for men.
The following rules and tables have been
framed, chiefly with reference to age; but, as
Dr. R. E. Griffith correctly observes, “no
scheme can be devised, founded on age alone,
to which there are not many exceptions.”
I. Formula of Dr. YoUNG.
For children under 12 years, the doses of most
medicines must be diminished in the proportion
of the age to the age increased by 12. Thus, at
2 years, the dose will be 1-7th of that for an
adult,
2
2 + 12
for = 1-7th.
The doses of medi-
DOUCHE—DRAUGHT.
409
II. Posological Table of GAUBIUs.
For an adult, suppose the dose to be 1, or
1 drachm.
Under 1 year will require # or 5 grains.
, 2 years 25 # or 8 grains.
» 35 25 # or 10 grains.
» 4 », 35 # or 15 grains.
» 7 s. >> # or 1 scruple.
» 14 , 55 # or # drachm.
xx 20 » 55
,, 21 to 60, the full dose, or
Above this age an inverse gradation must be
observed.
# or 2 scruples.
1 or 1 drachm.
- III. Posological Table of PHOEBUs.
Age—Years 80 65 50 25-40 20 16 12 8 52
Doses # # # 1 # # , ; } }
, Months 12 6 2 1
Doses # * * *
75
DOUCHE. [Fr.] Syn. DoucHE BATH. A
species of bath much employed by hydro-
pathists, both for the relief of local affections,
and to give a healthy stimulus to the whole
system. The douche consists of a single jet of
cold water, varying in size from the thickness
of a quill to that of a man’s arm ; it is pro-
jected with great force, either from above,
below, or on one side, upon a particular part of
the body. See BATH (Shower). -
DOVER'S POWDERS. See PowdER.
DRAC0/NINE. Syn. DRA/CINE, RED RESIN
OF DRAGON's BLOOD. A peculiar vegetable
principle discovered by M. Melandre in dra-
gon's blood.
Prep. Dragon's blood is dissolved in alcohol,
the solution filtered, concentrated, and pre-
cipitated with cold water; the red, spongy pre-
cipitate is well washed, neutralised with dilute
sulphuric acid, again liberated, and well washed
with water.
Prop., &c. Draconine has a fine red colour;
is tasteless, inodorous, and flexible ; it fuses
at 131°Fahr. The smallest quantity of car-
bonate of lime in filtering paper may be de-
tected by sulphate of draconine, the yellow
colour instantly turning red.
DRAGON'S BLOOD. Syn. SANGUIs DRA-
CONIS, L. A rich red-coloured resin, obtained
from various species of the genus Calamus. Its
colour, in the lump, is a dark brownish-red;
in powder, bright red. It is friable, breaks
with a shining fracture, and has a sp. gr. not
higher than 1196 or 1197. When pure, it
readily dissolves in alcohol, ether, and oils,
yielding rich red, transparent solutions. Adul-
terated and factitious dragon’s blood is only
partly soluble, and lacks the rich colour of the
genuine article. Dragon’s blood is chiefly
used to tinge varnishes and lacquers.
Dragon's Blood, Factitious. Prep. 1. Shell-
lac, 4 lbs. ; melt, remove from the fire, and add,
Canada balsam, 6 oz., and gum benzoin, 2 oz. ;
mix well, stir in red sander's wood, 13 lb., and
Venetian red, # lb. (both in fine powder); and
form the mass into sticks.
2. As the last, omitting the red Venetian.
DRAUGHT. Syn. HAUSTU's, L. A single
dose of liquid medicine, usually dispensed in one-
and-a-half-ounce or two-ounce phials. Draughts
are almost exclusively extemporaneous com-
pounds, and differ from “mixtures’ only in
containing one dose; whereas mixtures contain
several. The latter have now very generally
superseded draughts among all but the higher
classes, when the dose is to be frequently
repeated. Draughts possess the advantages of
extreme convenience, and, from only one phial
being opened at a time, of preserving the pre-
paration better than when it is exposed to the
air by the frequent removal of the cork. They
are usually taken from a wine-glass, which
they about £rds fill.
In the preparation of draughts the same pre-
cautions are observed as are pointed out under
MIXTURE ; regard being had to the increased
volume of the dose. The ingredients of a six-
ounce mixture, for example, containing (say)
12 doses, may be equally distributed among a
dozen draught-phials, after which each may be
filled up with distilled water, or any other
simple vehicle. In most cases, a little syrup
may be advantageously added. In many in-
stances no addition will be required, the doses
of each form of preparation being the same.
The following are useful formulae, which will
serve as examples for others of the class. The
number might be easily multiplied, and, in-
deed, might be extended so as to include #ths
of the whole materia medica; but such a
plan would lead to useless repetitions, and
occupy much space. See MIXTURE, PRE-
SCRIBING, &c.
Draught, Abernethy's. See ABERNETHYME-
DICINES and MIXTURE.
Draught, Ace'tate of Ammo"nia. Syn.
HAUSTU's AMMONIAE ACETATIs, L. Prep. 1.
(St. B. Hosp.) Solution of acetate of ammonia,
4 fl. drs. ; water to make 1; fl. oz.
2. (Dr. Paris.) Camphor mixture, 1} fl.oz. ;
liquor of acetate of ammonia, 4 fl. drs. ; anti-
monial wine, 20 drops; mix. As a refrigerant
and diaphoretic in febrile affections; taken
late in the evening.
Draught, Ac'etate of Potas'sa. Syn. HAUS-
TUs POTASSE ACETATIs, L. Prep. (Mid.
Hosp.) Acetate of potassa, 30 grs. ; bicarbo-
nate of potassa, 20 grs. ; peppermint water,
1 fl. oz. Diuretic, antacid, and laxative.
Draught, Ammoniacal. Syn. HAUSTUS
AMMONIACALIS, H. AMMONIE, L. Prep.
(Brande.) Liquor of ammonia, 20 to 30 drops;
compound tincture of cardamoms and tinc-
ture of gentian, of each, ; fl. dr.; camphor
mixture, 1% fl. oz. An aromatic absorbent
and stomachic; in heartburn, acidity, low
spirits, &c.
Draught, An'odyne. Syn. HAUSTUS ANO-
DYNUs, L. Prep. 1. Tincture of opium, 15



410
DRAUGHT.
drops; pimento water and syrup of poppies,
of each, 2 drs. ; water, 1 fl. Oz.
2. (Copland.) Nitre, 6 grs. ; laudanum, 12
drops; compound spirit of ether, 1 fl. dr.;
syrup of poppies, 2 fl. drs. ; camphor mixture,
... drs.
3. (Ellis.) Tincture of opium, 15 to 25
drops; syrup of poppies, 2 fl. drs. ; spirit of
cinnamon, 1 fl. dr. ; distilled water, 1% fl. oz.
4. As the above, but substituting a like
quantity of solution of either acetate or hy-
drochlorate of morphia in lieu of the lauda-
num. All the above are given as soothing
draughts to allay pain and produce sleep,
especially the last thing at night. No. 4 is
to be preferred if there are febrile symptoms
present.
Draught, Antac'id. Syn. HAUSTUS ANT-
ACIDUs, L. Prep. 1. Bicarbonate of soda,
20 grs. ; tincture of calumba, 3 fl. drs. ; tinc-
ture of hops, 1 fl. dr.; syrup of orange peel,
2 fl. drs. ; water, 6 fl. drs. To improve the
appetite in heartburn and dyspepsia; taken 1
hour before a meal.
2. Liquor of ammonia, 16 drops; syrup of
saffron, 2 fl. drs.; infusion of gentian, 3 fl.
drs. ; water, 7 fl. drs. As the last, taken
occasionally, especially in debility, low spirits,
&c.
3. (Collier.) Compound tincture of carda-
moms, 1 fl. dr. ; solution of bicarbonate of
magnesia (fluid magnesia), 9 fl. drs. ; simple
syrup, 2 fl. drs. Twice a day; in dyspepsia,
heartburn, &c., especially in gouty patients.
4. (A. T. Thomson.) Magnesia, 1 dr.; pep-
permint water, 1} fl. oz. ; tincture of orange
peel, 1 fl. dr. In dyspepsia, &c., with acidity
or diarrhoea.
5. As No. 1, but using bicarbonate of po-
tassa for bicarbonate of soda. In acidity,
diarrhoea, &c., accompanied by great irrita-
bility of the coats of the stomach.
6. Prepared chalk, 30 grs. ; spirit of nut-
meg and tincture of opium, of each, 12 to 20
drops; syrup of saffron, 3 drs. ; cinnamon
water, 1 fl. oz. In acidity, with extreme loose-
ness of the bowels. -
Draught, Anti-arthritic. Syn. HAUSTUS
ANTI-ARTHRITICUs, L. Prep. 1. Tincture of
colchicum seeds (Ph. L.), 1 to 1; fl. dr. ; syrup
of orange peel 2+ fl. drs. ; water, 1 fl. Oz. In
gout; taken over-night, followed by another
in the morning.
2. (Brande.) Wine of colchicum, fl. dr. ;
carbonate of magnesia, 15 grs.; cinnamon
water, # fl. oz. ; water, 1 fl. oz. As the last.
3. (Sir C. Scudamore.) Magnesia, 18 grs. ;
Epsom salts, 1% dr. ; vinegar of colchicum,
1} fl. dr.; simple syrup, 1 fl. dr. ; cinnamon
water, 9 fl. drs. As the last.
4. (Sir H. Halford's GouT PREVENTIVE.)
From compound infusion of gentian, 1% fl. oz. ;
tincture of rhubarb, 1 fl. dr. ; bicarbonate of
potassa, 15 grs.
Draught, Anti-asthmat'ic. Syn. HAUSTUS
ANTI-ASTHMATICUS, L. Prep. Winegar of
squills, 3 fl. dr.; ipecacuanha wine, 15 drops;
cinnamon water, 1} fl. oz. Expectorant. One
to be taken three times daily during the
attack.
Draught, Anti-emet'ic. Syn. HAUSTUS AN-
TI-EMETICUS, L. Prep. 1. Juice of 1 lemon;
liquor opii sedativus, 10 drops (or laudanum,
15 drops); ether, 20 drops; simple syrup, 2
drs. ; water, q. S.
2. (HAUSTUs ANTI-EMETICUs RIVERII-
P.C.) Bicarbonate of potassa, 30 grs. ; lemon
juice, 4 drs. ; syrup of lemon, 1 oz.; water, 3
oz. ; mix quickly, and tie down the cork. To
check nausea and vomiting. The last is best
given effervescing.
Draught, Anti-hyster'ic. Syn. HAUSTUS
ANTI-HYSTERICUs, I. Prep. Cyanide of po-
tassium, 1 gr. ; lettuce water (distilled), 2 fl.
Oz. ; syrup of orange flowers, 1% oz. ; water,
5% fl. oz. ; for 6 draughts. One to be taken
when the fit is expected, and a seecond in half
an hour. Should the fit come on, the dose
may be repeated at intervals of about 15
minutes until 3 or 4 have been altogether
administered. The symptoms, however in-
tense, are generally either at once arrested, Or
greatly alleviated by this treatment.
Draught, Antilith'ic. Syn. HAUSTUS ANTI-
LITHICUS, L. Prep. 1. (Venables.) Borax,
8 grs. ; bicarbonate of soda, 10 grs. ; ačrated
water, 8 fl. oz. For a draught; in red gravel.
2. (Dr. Paris.) Carbotiate of soda, 12 grs.;
tincture of calumba, 1 fl. dr. ; infusion of
quassia, 1 fl. Oz. ; water, 3 fl. drs. In dyspep.
sia and gravel, attended with the lithic acid
diathesis.
Draught, Anti-neural'gic. Syn, HAUSTUS
ANTI-NEURALGICUs, H. NARCOTINE, L. Prep.
(Jeston.) Narcotine, 2 grs. ; diluted sulphuric
acid, 20 drops; infusion of roses, 1% fl. OZ,
One every 2 hours in the intermissions of neu-
ralgia.
Draught, Antiseptic. Syn. HAUSTUs ANTI-
SEPTICUs, L. Prep. (Dr. Collier.) Decoc-
tion of yellow bark, 1 fl. oz. ; tincture of
opium, 5 drops; spirit of pimento and water,
of each, 2 fl. drs. In putrid fevers, gangrene,
&c.
Draught, Antispasmodic. Syn. HAUSTUS
ANTISPASMODICUS, L. Prep. 1. (Dr. Collier.)
Tincture of castor, 1 fl. dr. ; sulphuric ether,
10 drops; peppermint water, 11 fl. drs.; mix,
In hysteria, and that species of irregular mus-
cular action dependent on debility.
2. (Dr. Gregory.) Fetid spirit of ammonia,
# to 1 fl. dr.; camphor mixture, 10 fl. drs.;
syrup of saffron, 1.fl. dr. In cases complicated
with low spirits, debility, &c.
3. (A. T. Thomson.) Musk mixture, 14 fl.
drs. ; liquor of ammonia, 16 drops; tincture
of castor, 1 fl. dr. ; syrup of poppies, # fl. dr.;
mix. Three or four times daily, in hysteria
and convulsive affections, after the bowels have
been well cleared by some aperient.
4. (A. T. Thomson.) Oil of aniseed, 10
drops; magnesia, 20 grs.; tincture of Senna,

DRAUGHT.
4.1.1
2 fl. drs. ; peppermint water, 10 fl. drs. ; mix.
In flatulence and spasms of the stomach.
Draught, Ape"rient. Syn. HAUSTUS APE-
RIENS, L. Prep. 1. (Paris.) Infusion of
senna, 1 fl. oz. ; tincture of senna, tincture of
jalap, and syrup of senna, of each, 1 fl. dr.;
tartrate of potassa, 1 dr. ; mix.
2. (Ryan.) Epsom salts, 4 drs.; tincture of
Senna, 1} fl. dr. ; syrup of ginger, 1 fl. dr. ;
spirit of sal-volatile, 20 drops; infusion of
Senna, 1% fl. Oz.
3. (Thomson.) Tartrate of potassa, 3 drs. ;
tincture of senna and syrup of saffron, of each,
1 dr.; infusion of senna, 1% oz. The above
are good aperients, and in their composition
and action resemble the ordinary “black
draught.” " .
4. (EFFERVESCING A. D.)—a. (Dr. Barker.)
Bisulphate of potassa, 73 grs.; carbonate of
soda, 72 grs. ; water, q. S.; dissolve the two in
separate glasses, mix the solutions, and drink
whilst effervescing, in the same way as soda
water.
b. (W. Cooley.) Bicarbonate of soda, 1 dr.;
potassio-tartrate of soda, 2 drs. ; dissolve in
about 1-3rd of a glassful of cold water; and
pour it on another like quantity of water,
holding in solution tartaric acid, 40 grs., and
syrup of orange peel, 1% fl. dr.; and drink it
instantly.
c. (Paris.) Potassio-tartrate of soda, 2 drs. ;
bicarbonate of soda, 40 grs. ; dissolve, and add
lemon juice, 1 or 2 table-spoonfuls.
d. (Young.) Cream of tartar, 3 drs.; car-
bonate of soda, 2% drs. ; throw them into a
soda-water bottle three parts filled with cold
water, cork immediately, and wire down the
cork. The last three are examples of FAC-
TITIOUS EFFERVESCING SEIDLITZ WATER, and
are good saline aperients. The method of
taking them may be varied by mixing the dry
ingredients (in fine powder) on a piece of paper,
and throwing the mixture suddenly into a
tumbler 2-3rds filled with water, and drinking
the liquid whilst effervescing. See CATHARTIC
D. (below).
Draught, Appetite. See DINNER DRAUGHT.
Draught, Aromatic. Syn. AROMATIC ANT-
ACID DRAUGHT ; HAUSTUS AROMATICUS, L.
Prep. 1. Aromatic confection, 1 dr. ; spirit
of sal-volatile, § dr. ; syrup of saffron, 2 drs. ;
pimento water, 9 fl, drs. Excellent in dys-
pepsia, with acidity, and in diarrhoea, preceded
by an aperient.
2. (H. AROM. CUM RHEO. — St. B. Hosp.)
Aromatic confection, 1 dr.; infusion of rhubarb
and cinnamon water, of each, 6 fl. drs. In
diarrhoea and dyspepsia, especially when there
is acidity and deficiency of bile.
Draught, Astrim"gent. Syn. HAUSTUS A-
STRINGENS, L. Prep. 1. Tannin, 3 grs. ; rec-
tified spirit, 1 fl. dr. ; simple syrup, 2 fl. drs. ;
water, 6 fl. drs. -
2. (Dr. Paris.) Chalk mixture, 1} fl. oz. ;
tincture of catechu, 1 fl. dr.; laudanum, 15
drops.
3. (Thomson.) Extract of logwood, 12 grs.;
tincture of catechu, 1 fl. dr.; cinnamon water,
15 fl. drs. The above are excellent remedies
in diarrhoea (preceded by a purgative), and in
dysentery, &c. One may be taken after each
motion.
Draught, Black. See MIXTURE.
Draught, Cam'phor. Syn. HAUSTUS CAM-
PHORE, L. Prep. (Guy’s Hosp.) Camphor,
6 grs. ; rectified spirit, q. S. to powder; white
sugar, 1 dr.; mucilage, 3 drs. ; water, 1} fl.
oz. Anodyne and diaphoretic, &c.
Draught, Castor Oil. Syn. HAUSTUS OEEI
RICINI, L. Prep. (Guy’s Hosp.) Castor oil,
4 drs. ; yelk of egg, q. s. (2 in no.); simple
syrup, 1 fl. dr. ; cassia or cinnamon water, 1
fl. oz. Aperient.
Draught, Cathar’tic. Syn. HAUSTU's CATHAR-
TICUS, L. The following are given as addi-
tions to those under APERIENT D., and other
heads:—Prep. 1. (Dr. Thomson.) Tartrate
of potassa, 5 drs. ; tincture of senna, 1 fl. dr.;
infusion of senna, 14% fl. drs. ; syrup of saffron,
# fl. dr. ; mix. In acute diseases, taken early
in the morning.
2. (Thomson.) Epsom salts and manna, of
each, 2 drs. ; infusion of roses, 14 fl. drs. ; di-
lute sulphuric acid, 10 drops. In inflamma-
tory affections, and to check vomiting in low
fevers.
3. (Thomson.) Carbonate of magnesia, 1
dr. ; powdered rhubarb, 20 grs. ; peppermint
water, 12 fl. drs. In dyspepsia, attended with
costiveness and acidity, taken an hour before
dinner.
4. (Thomson.) Castor oil, 5 fl. drs.; powdered
gum, 20 grs.; rose water, 1 fl. oz.: compound
tincture of lavender, 8 drops; syrup of poppies,
1 fl. dr. In colic and calculus. The above
differ from aperient draughts simply in their
greater strength.
Draught, Chalk. Syn. HAUSTUS CRETE,
L. Prep. 1. From powdered gum, chalk,
and simple syrup, of each, 1 dr.; aromatic
water (as that of caraway, cinnamon, nutmeg,
pimento, or peppermint), 1% fl. oz.
2. (CHALYBEATED C. D.; HAUSTUS CRETA ET
FERRI, L.-Paris.) Chalk mixture, 7 fl. drs.;
compound mixture of iron, 3 fl. drs.; sesqui-
carbonate of ammonia, 5 or 6 grs. In diar-
rhoea, particularly in that arising from debility
and anaemia.
3. (C. D. WITH RHUBARB ; HAUSTU's CRETE
CUM RHEO, L.)—a. Simple chalk mixture (see
above), 1}; fl. oz. ; powdered rhubarb, 12


rS.
9. b. (Lond. Hosp.) Commercial powder of
chalk with opium, 12 grs. ; rhubarb, 15 grs.;
syrup of saffron and compound tincture of
cardamoms, of each, 1 dr.; caraway water, 10
fl. drs. In heartburn, dyspepsia, and certain
forms of diarrhoea.
Draught, Chlo"rime. Syn. HAUSTUS CHIO-
RINII, L. Prep. (Copland.) Chlorine water,
} fl. dr. ; water, 1} fl. oz. ; mix, and add of
syrup of poppies, 3 fl. dr. One every 6 hours;

412
DRAUGHT.
in the worst form of typhus fever, and other
putrid diseases, &c.
Draught,Cit'rate of Ammo"nia. Syn. HAUSTU's
AMMONIAE CITRATIS, H. A. SESQUICARBONATIS
EFFERVESCENs, L. Prep. (Guy’s Hosp.)
Sesquicarbonate of ammonia, 20 grs. ; water,
1 fl. oz. ; dissolve, and add of lemon juice, 3 fl.
oz. An agreeable, cooling, saline draught in
febrile cases.
Draught, Cit'rate of Potas'sa. Syn. HAUSTU's
POTASSAE CITRATIS, L. Prep. From carbonate
of potassa, 24 grs. (or bicarbonate, 29 grs.);
water, 1 fl. oz. ; dissolve, and add of lemon
juice, 5 fl. drs. As the last. 20 grs. of
citric acid may be used instead of the lemon
juice.
Draught, Col'chicum. See ANTI-ARTHRITIC
I)RAUGHT.
Draught, Copai'ba. Syn. HAUSTUS COPAIBAE
L. Prep. (St. B. Hosp.) Balsam of copaiba,
# fl. dr.; mucilage (thick), 4 fl. drs. ; pimento
water, 3 fl. drs. ; water, 5 fl. drs. In gonor-
rhoea, &c. º
Draught, Cough. See MIXTURE.
Draught, Diaphoretic. Syn. HAUSTUS
DIAPHORETICUS, L. Prep. 1. (Collier.) In-
fusion of serpentary, 1} fl. oz. ; tincture of
serpentary, 1 fl. dr. Tonic and diaphoretic.
2. (Thomson.) Sesquicarbonate of potassa,
20 grs. ; fresh lemon juice, 4 fl. drs.; tartrate
of antimony, # gr. ; water, 11, fl. drs. ; syrup
of poppies, 1 fl. dr. Antifebrile and diapho-
retic. - -
3. (Thomson.) Liquor of acetate of ammo-
nia, 6 fl. drs.; camphor mixture, 10 fl. drs. ;
nitrate of potassa, 10 grs.; syrup of tolu, ; fl.
Oz. Anodyne and diaphoretic. All the above
are used in inflammatory affections.
Draught, Dinſmer. Syn. APPETITE DRAUGHT;
HAUSTUS DICTUS ANTE CIBUM. Prep. 1.
Tinctures of cascarilla, hops, and rhubarb, of
each, 1 fl. dr. ; spirit of sal-volatile, § fl. dr. ;
tincture of capsicum, 20 drops; syrup of orange
peel, 2 drs. ; water, 1; fl. Oz.
2. Compound tincture of gentian, ; fl. Oz. ;
sal-volatile, a teaspoonful; cinnamon water,
1 fl. Oz. ; compound tincture of cardamoms, 1
teaspoonful. Either of the above to be taken
an hour before a meal.
Draught, Diuret'ic. Syn. HAUSTUS DIU-
RETICUs, L. Prep. 1. (Collier.) Tincture of
jalap, 2 fl. drs.; vinegar of squills, 1 fl. dr.;
peppermint water, 10 fl. drs. ; mix.
2. (Copland.) Acetate of potassa, ; dr. ;
infusion of quassia and cinnamon water, of
each, 6 fl. drs.; vinegar of squills and sweet
spirits of nitre, of each, ; fl. dr.
3. (Thomson.) Nitre, 8 grs. ; tincture of
digitalis, 16 drops; infusion of roses, 13 fl.
drs. ; syrup of roses, 1 fl. dr.
4. (Turner.) Nitre and powdered gum, of
each, 15 grs. ; almond mixture, 1} fl. Oz. The
above are used as diuretics in dropsy; the last,
also in scurvy, and in the incontinence of urine
of children.
Draught, Donovan's.
Syn. DRAUGHT OF
HYDRIODATE OF ARSENIC AND MERCURY;
HAUSTUS HYDRIODATIS ARSENICI ET HYDRAR.
GYRI, L. Prep. (Donovan.) Liquor of hy.
driodate of arsenic and mercury (Donovan's),
2 fl. drs. ; distilled water, 3} fl. oz.; syrup of
ginger, fl. oz. ; mix for 4 draughts. One,
night and morning; in lepra, lupus, psoriasis,
and some other obstinate cutaneous affections,
It must not be allowed to touch anything
metallic.
Draught, Efferves’cing. Prep. (Lond. Hosp)
Sesquicarbonate of soda, 30 grs. ; water Or
peppermint water, 1} fl. Oz. ; syrup of Orange
peel, 2 fl. drs. ; tincture of calumba, ; fl. dr.;
tartaric or citric acid, 25 grs. ; add the acid
last, and drink whilst effervescing. Stomachic,
tonic, and anti-emetic ; in acidity, dyspepsia,
&c. (See antë.)
Draught, Emetic. Syn. HAUSTU's EMETICUS,
L. Prep. 1. Sulphate of zinc, 15 grs, to 30
grs. ; water, 9 fl. drs. ; dissolve. In cases of
poisoning, and at the commencement of all
attack of ague.
2. (Copland.) Ipecacuanha, 30 grs.; Sès.
quicarbonate of ammonia, 20 grs. ; tincture of
capsicum, 30 drops; oil of chamomile, 10
drops; mint water, 2 fl. oz. As a stimulant
emetic in cases of poisoning by laudanum Or
other narcotics. . .
3. (Guy’s Hosp.) Antimonial wine, 2 fl.
drs.; ipecacuanha wine, 6 fl. drs. ; water, 4 i.
drs. For unloading the stomach in ordinary
Ca,SeS.
4. (Mid. Hosp.) Tartar emetic, 1 gr;
ipecacuanha, 20 grs. ; syrup, 2 fl. drs. ; water,
10 fl. drs. As the last.
5. (Dr. Pickford.) Sulphate of zinc, 20 grs.;
sulphate of magnesia, 4 drs. ; water, 13 01.
When it is also desired to act rapidly on the
bowels.
6. (Rodier.) Sulphate of copper, 10 grs;
water, 2 fl. oz. In poisoning by laudanum,
7. (Sprague.) Ipecacuanha, 30 grs. ; ses:
quicarbonate of ammonia, 20 grs. ; tıncture ºf
capsicum, 1 fl. dr. ; peppermint water, 3 fl. 0.
In poisoning by narcotics.
8. (A. T. Thomson.) Ipecacuanha, 20 grs.;
ipecacuanha wine, 2 fl. drs. ; water, 10 fl.
drs. For unloading the stomach in ordinary
CaSeS.
9. (Trousseau.) Ipecacuanha, 8 grs.; syrup
of ipecacuanha, 1 ff. oz. ; water, q. S. for 4
draughts. One every 10 minutes, until V0.
miting occurs.
Draught, Ether. Syn. HAUSTUS ETHEREUS,
L. Prep. (Neligan.) Sulphuric ether, 1 fl.dr.;
spermaceti, 3 grs. ; rub together (experty)
and add of peppermint water, 10 fl. drs. All
excellent stimulant and antispasmodic, febrile
symptoms being absent.
Draught, Expectorant. Syn. HAUSTUS EX:
PECTORANs, L. Prep. 1. (Collier.) Mixture;
of ammoniacum and almonds, of each, 6 fl.
drs. ; tincture of squills, 12 drops. In hoarse:
ness, chronic coughs, &c.
Draught, Henſbane. Syn. HAUSTUS HYOS.
DRAUGHT-DRAWINGS.
413
CYAMI, L. Prep. 1. Tincture of henbane, 30
to 60 drops; syrup of saffron, 1 fl. dr.; water,
10 fl. drs. Anodyne and soporific. Used to
allay nervous excitement, and induce sleep,
when laudanum is inadmissible.
2. (HENBANE AND SQUILLs D. ; HAUSTU's
HYOSCYAMI CUM scILLA, L.--Dr. Bree.) Ex-
tract of henbane, 3 grs. ; tincture of squills, 10
drops; dilute nitric acid, 6 drops; water, 1}
fl.oz. Anodyne and expectorant; in asthmas,
chronic coughs, &c.
Draught, Hydrocyan'ic. Syn. HAUSTUS HY-
DROCYANICUs, L. Prep. 1. (Donovan.) Cy-
amide of potassium, 1 gr. ; syrup of lemons, #
fl.oz.; distilled water, 7} fl. oz. For 8 draughts.
One for a dose.
2. (Dr. S. Dickson.) Medicinal hydrocyanic
acid (Ph. L.), 15 drops; liquor of ammonia,
20 drops; syrup of orange flowers (or simple
syrup), 3 fl. drs. ; water, 8% fl. oz. ; mix, and
divide into 6 draughts. One, two, or three
times a day; in gastrodynia, and all those
nameless nervous and hysterical affections
arising from excessive irritability, mental
anxiety, &c. In a case that came under our
notice, in which life was an absolute burden
to the patient, relief was afforded by the first
draught, and 4 or 5 effected a comparative
cure, although almost every other remedy had
been tried in vain.
Draught, Laemmec's. Syn. LAENNEC's CON-
TRA-STIMULANT DRAUGHT; HAUSTUS CONTRA-
STIMULANs, L. Prep. From tartar emetic,
2 grs. ; syrup of poppies, 2 fl. drs. ; orange-
flower water, 1} fl. oz. Every two hours in
pneumonia, &c.
Draught, Lax'ative. Syn. HAUSTUS LAXANS,
L. Prep. 1. See APERIENT DRAUGHTS.
2. (Dr. Copland.) Infusion of senna and
compound infusion of gentian, of each, 6 fl.
drs. ; sulphate of potassa, 20 to 30 grs. ; ex-
tract of taraxacum, 30 to 40 grs. ; compound
tincture of cardamoms, 1% fl. dr. Aperient,
stomachic, and alterative.
Draught, Mor'phia. Syn. HAUSTUs MoR-
PHIAE, L. Prep. (Brera.) Morphia, + gr. ;
syrup of poppies, 1 fl. dr. ; water, 11 fl. oz.
Two or three drops of acetic acid may be
advantageously added. At bed-time, as a
soporific.
Draught, Narcot'ic. Syn. HAUSTUs NAR-
coticUs, H, op.1ATUS, L. Prep. 1. (St. B.
Hosp.) Laudanum, 12 to 20 drops; syrup of
red poppies, 1 fl. dr. ; pimento water, 3 fl. drs. ;
water, 1 fl.oz. To induce sleep in slight cases,
when fever is absent.
2. (A. T. Thomson.) Camphor mixture,
1} fl.oz. ; laudanum, 35 drops; sulphuric ether
and syrup of saffron, of each, 1 fl. dr. In in-
termittent headache.
3. (Thomson.) Carbonate of ammonia, 15
grs. ; fresh lemon juice, , fl. oz. ; water, 1 fl.
0Z. ; spirit of nutmeg, 1 fl. dr.; syrup of
orange peel, , fl. dr.; tincture of hemlock, 10
drops. In diseases of increased irritability.
4. (Thomson.) Carbonate of potassa, 20 grs. ;
fresh lemon juice, 3 fl. oz. ; peppermint water,
1 fl. Oz. ; laudanum, 25 drops; syrup of tolu,
# fl. dr. To procure sleep in the majority of
diseases. (See above.)
Draught, Nux Wom'ica. Syn. HAUSTU's
NUCIS WOMICAE, L. Prep. (Dr. Joy.) Nux
vomica (in fine powder), 3 grs. ; powdered
gum, 2 drs. ; compound tincture of cardamoms,
1 fl. dr. ; cinnamon water, 10 fl. drs. Diuretic,
narcotic, stimulant, and tonic; in paralysis,
impotence, debility, &c., unaccompanied by
inflammation of the nervous centres. See
STRY CHNIA.
Draught, Refri"gerant. Syn. HAUSTUS RE-
FRIGERANs, L. Prep. 1. Carbonate of potassa,
20 grs. ; syrup of orange peel, 1 fl. dr. ; spirit
of nutmeg, fl. dr.; water, 1} fl. oz.
2. (Thomson.) Nitre, 12 grs. ; almond mix-
ture, 1} fl. oz. ; syrup of tolu, 1 fl. oz.
3. (Collier.) Carbonate of potassa, 20 grs. ;
antimonial wine, 20 drops; syrup of orange
peel, 1 fl. dr.; tincture of orange peel, ; fl. dr. ;
water, 1} fl. Oz. ; mix, and add a large table-
spoonful of lemon juice. In inflammatory
diseases, &c.
Draught, Salime'.
DRAUGHT, &c.
Draught, Stomach'ic. See DINNER DRAUGHT,
&c.
Draught, Tom'ic. Syn. STRENGTHENING:
DRAUGHT ; HAUSTUs Ton ICUs, L. Prep. 1.
(Collier.) Disulphate of quinine, 2 grs. ; tinc-
ture of orange peel, 1 fl. dr.; diluted sulphuric
acid, 5 drops; laudanum, 10 drops; infusion
of cascarilla, 1% fl. oz. In pyrosis, &c., 1 hour
before dinner.
2. (A. T. Thomson.) Infusion of yellow
bark, 1} fl. oz. ; compound tincture of cin-
chona, 1 fl. dr. ; powdered cinchona, 40 grs. ;
syrup of orange peel, ; fl. dr. In intermittents
and acute rheumatisms.
3. (Thomson.) Infusion of cascarilla, 1}
fl. oz. ; tincture of cascarilla and ginger, of
each, 1 fl. dr. In dyspepsia, arising from
intemperance.
4. (Walton.) Infusion of cascarilla, 9 fl.
drs.; tinctures of rhubarb and ginger, of each,
1 fl. dr.; syrup of saffron, ; fl. dr.; ammonio-
citrate of iron, 6 grs. ; tincture of capsicum, 5
drops. In anaemia, and debility accompanied
by paleness and relaxation.
Draught, Wer'mifuge. Syn. HAUSTUs VER-
MIFUGUs, H. ANTHELMINTHICUS, L. Prep.
(M. Levacher.) Castor oil, 4 drs. ; essence of
turpentine, 2 drs. ; mint water, 2 fl.oz. ; syrup,
1 fl. oz. ; powdered gum, 2 drs.; for an emul-
sion. In tapeworm.
DRAW'INGS. Chalk and pencil drawings
may be fixed, so as not to suffer from slight
abrasion, by washing them with skimmed milk,
or with water holding in solution a little
isinglass or gum. When the first is used, great
care must be taken to deprive it of the whole
of the cream, as the latter substance would
cause the drawing to look streaky. An easy
way of applying these fluids is to pour them
See EFFERVESCING-



414 DRENCHES-DROPS.
into a shallow vessel, and to lay the drawing
flat upon the surface of the liquid; after which
it should be gently removed and placed on
white blotting-paper, in an inclined position,
to drain and dry.
DRENCHES. Syn. DRINKs. In veterinary
practice, these terms are applied to liquid me-
dicines or mixtures which are administered to
horses and neat cattle, and chiefly to the latter.
A drench for a HORSE should not be less than
half a pint, nor more than a quart; about a
pint is, perhaps, the best quantity; that for a
COW or OX should measure about a quart, and
not more than about 5 half-pints. See WETE-
RINARY MEDICINE. -
DRESSING. In the industrial arts, a pre-
paration of gum, starch, size, &c., employed in
stiffening or ‘finishing off’ textile fabrics and
paper. In surgery, the term is appropriated
to any application to a wound or sore, made
by means of lint, linen, or leather. SIMPLE
DRESSING is simple cerate or spermaceti cerate.
Among cooks, the stuffing of fowls, pork, veal,
&c., is commonly called “dressing.’
DRINKS (Summer). See GINGER BEER,
LEMONADE, SHERBET, &c.
DROP. See MEASURES.
DROPS (Confectionery). These are confec-
tions of which the principal basis is sugar.
They differ from lozenges chiefly in the ingre-
dients being combined by the aid of heat.
Occasionally, they are medicated.
Prep. Double refined sugar is reduced to
powder, and passed through a hair sieve (not
too fine), and afterwards through a gauze
sieve, to take out the fine dust, which would
destroy the beauty of the drop. It is then
put into a clean pan, and moistened with any
favorite aromatic, as rose or orange-flower
water, added slowly, stirring it with a paddle
all the time, from which the sugar will fall as
soon as it is moist enough, without sticking.
The colouring (if any) is next added, in the
liquid state, or in very fine powder. A small,
polished copper, or tinned-copper pan, fur-
nished with a lip, is now one half or three
parts filled with the paste, and placed over the
fire, or over the hole of a stove, or preferably
on a sand bath, and the mixture stirred with
a little bone or glass spatula until it becomes
liquid. As soon as it almost boils, it is taken
from the fire, and if it is too moist, a little
more powdered sugar is added, and the whole
stirred, until it is of such a consistence as to
run without too much extension. A tin plate,
very clean and smooth, and very slightly oiled,
being now ready, the pan is taken in the left
hand, and a bit of bright iron, copper, or silver
wire, about 4 inches long, in the right. The
melted sugar is next allowed to fall regularly
on the tin plate, the wire being used to remove
the drop from the lip of the pan. In two or
three hours afterwards the drops are taken off
with the blade of a knife, and are at once put
into bottles or tins. On the large scale, ‘con-
fectionery drops’ are moulded by a machine
consisting essentially of two metal rollers
covered with hollows. A sheet of the warm
and soft composition, on being passed between
the rollers, is at once converted into a batch of
symmetrical drops, the upper and lower halves
being moulded by the corresponding hollows
of the upper and lower rollers. See CANDY.
ING, CONFECTION, ESSENCE, STAINS (Confe.
tioner's), SUGAR PLUMS.
The following are a few of the principal
confectionery drops kept in the shops:–
Drops, Acid'ulated. Syn. ACID DROPS,
Prep. Tartaric acid, 3 oz., dissolved in a very
little water, is added to each lb. of sugar, as
above; with essence of lemon, orange, or jar.
gonelle pear, to flavour, as desired.
Drops, Chocolate. Prep. Chocolate, 107,
is reduced to fine powder by scraping, and
added to powdered white sugar, 1 lb.; when
the mixture is made into drops as above, care
being taken to avoid heating it a second time,
Drops, Coffee. Prep. A clarified, concen:
trated infusion of coffee, 1 oz., is used for each
lb. of sugar.
Drops, Fruit.
to the general description.

These are prepared according
(See above.) The
flavouring essences (volatile oils or essences ºf

lemon, orange, citrom, raspberry, jargonelle
pear, &c.) not being added until the sugar is
melted, to avoid, as much as possible, loss by
evaporation. The colouring matter may be
any of the transparent ‘stains’ usually em.
ployed for cakes, jellies, and confectionery. In
this way are made the majority of the first.
class fruit drops and bon-bons of the Sugar.
bakers. In some cases the plan is varied by
adding the clarified concentrated juice, orjelly
of the fruit, to the sugar. One variety of
raspberry and currant (red and black) drops
are made in this way.
Drops, Ginger. Prep. From essence Or
tincture of ginger, as above. An inferior kind
is made in the way described under GINGER
CANDY.
Drops, Jargonelle'. Fruit drops flavoured
with essence of jargonelle pear (SOLUTION OF
ACETATE OF AMYLE).
Drops, Lem'on. Acidulated drops flavoured
with essence of lemon. They are usually
stained with an infusion of turmeric. (See
above.)
Drops, Pep'permint. From the whitest re.
fined sugar, flavoured with English oil of

peppermint or its spirituous solution (essence

of peppermint), or with peppermint water.
Drops, Raspberry.
(above).
See FRUIT DROP$
DRöPs (Medicated). Syn. GUTTE, L. Thi
term is commonly applied to compound medi.
cines that are only taken in small doses. At
the present time they are almost exclusively
confined to empirical and domestic medicine.
The plan of directing liquids to be measured by
dropping is objectionable, because the drops ºf
different fluids vary in size, and are also fur;
ther influenced by the size of the bottle and
DROPS.
415
the shape of its neck, as well as the quantity
of liquid it is poured from. See ESSENCE, and
below.
Drops, Acoust'ic. Syn. ACOUSTIC BALSAM;
GUTTE ACOUSTICAE, BALSAMUM ACOUSTICUM,
L. Prep. 1. Oil of almonds, 1 oz. ; lauda-
num and oil of turpentine, of each, 1 dr. ; mix.
For hardened wax, and to allay pain.
2. Tinctures of benzoin, castor, and opium,
of each, 1 fl. oz. ; essential oil of assafoetida, 5
drops. As the last, and in deafness arising
from debility of the organism.
3. (Baumé's.) Tinctures of ambergris, assa-
foetida, castor, and opium, of each, 1 oz. ; tere-
binthinated balsam of sulphur and oil of rue,
of each, 15 drops. In atonic deafness.
4. (Bouchardat.) Compound spirit of balm,
2} drs. ; oil of almonds, 5 drs.; ox-gall, 10 drs. ;
creasote, 10 or 20 drops. In cases compli-
cated with hardened wax, fetid discharges,
&c.
5. (Dr. Hugh Smith.) Ox-gall, 3 drs. ; bal-
sam of Peru, 1 dr. In fetid ulcerations of the
ear. One or two drops of the above are poured
into the ear; or a piece of cotton wool moist-
ened therewith is introduced instead. The
last is the safest plan.
6. Glycerin, either alone or diluted with
water. In deficiency of the natural secretions
of the ear; used in sufficient quantity to
moisten the first passages. See DEAFNESS,
GLYCERIN.
Drops, Ague. Prep. From white arsenic,
1 gr. ; hot water, 1 oz. ; dissolve.—Dose. # to
1 teaspoonful, twice a day. See SOLUTION
(Arsenite of Potassa).
Drops, Amºodyme. Syn. GUTTE ANODYNAE,
L. The solutions of acetate and hydrochlo-
rate of morphia are commonly vended in the
shops under this name.
Drops, Ant'acid. Syn. GUTTE ANTACIDE,
L. Prep. (U. C. Hosp.) Liquor of potassa,
3 fl. Oz. ; powdered myrrh, 1 oz. ; triturate
together until thoroughly incorporated, add of
liquor of ammonia, 1 fl. oz., mix well, place the
mixture in a stoppered bottle, and the next
day decant the clear portion. Antacid, tonic,
and stomachic ; useful in various indications.
—Dose. 10 to 20 drops, or more, in water.
Drops, Antihyster'ic. Syn. GUTTE ANTI-
HYSTERICAE, L. Prep. Cyanide of potassium,
2 grs. ; rectified spirit, 5 fl. drs. ; syrup of
orange flowers, 3 fl. drs.—Dose. 10 drops to
# teaspoonful, when the attack is expected,
and repeated occasionally as required; in hys-
terical affections, gastrodynia, &c.
Drops, Amtiscorbuſtic. Syn. GUTTE ANTI-
SCORBUTICE, L. Prep. 1. Expressed juice of
water-cress, 2 fl. oz. ; salt of tartar, 1 oz. ;
agitate together occasionally for a few hours,
and in 2 or 3 days decant the clear.—Dose.
12 or 15 drops, to a teaspoonful, twice a day,
in a cupful of new milk.
2. Citrate of potassa, 4 drs. ; ammonio-
citrate of iron, 2 drs. ; water, 10 fl. drs.-
Dose. As the last, in water.
3. (GREEN's ANTISCORBUTIC DROPs.)
Merely a disguised solution of corrosive sub-
limate. Most of the other ‘antiscorbutic' and
“anti-venereal drops’ advertised by quacks
have a like composition.
Drops, Antiscrof'ulous. Syn. GUTTE ANTI-
SCROFULOSE, L. Prep. 1. Iodine, 10 grs. ;
iodide of potassium, 1 dr. ; water, 1 fl. oz.
2. (Augustin.) Chlorides of iron and barium,
of each, # dr. ; distilled water, 1 fl. oz.-Dose.
10 to 30 drops, 2 or 3 times a day.
Drops, Antispasmodic. Syn. GUTTE ANTI-
SPASMODICE, L. Prep. Tinctures of castor,
valerian, and assafoetida, of each, 2 drs. ; tinc-
ture of capsicum and balsam of Peru, of each,
1 dr. ; camphor, 20 grs. ; acetate of morphia,
3 grs.--Dose. 10 to 20 drops, as required.
Drops, Bateman's. See PECTORAL DROPs.
Drops, Battley’s. See LIQUOR OPII SEDA-
TIWUS.
Drops, Bitter. Syn. GUTTE AMARE, L.;
GouTTES AMERES, Fr. Prep. From nux vo-
mica (rasped), 1 lb.; liquor of potassa, ; fl.oz.;
bistre, 1 dr.; compound spirit of wormwood,
32 fl. oz. ; digest 10 days, express the tincture,
and filter. A most unscientific preparation;
said to be tonic and stomachic, Dose. 1 to
8 drops in water or any bitter infusion. In
large doses it is poisonous.
Drop, Black. Syn. ARMSTRONG's BLACK
DROP, LANCASTER’s B. D., QUAKER's B. D.,
ToUSTALL’s B. D., BRAITHWAITE's GENUINE
B. D.; GUTTA NIGRA, L. This celebrated pre-
paration was originally prepared nearly a cen-
tury and a half ago by Edward Toustall, a
medical practitioner, in the county of Durham,
and one of the Society of Friends. The for-
mula passing into the possession of a relative
of his (John Walton, of Shildon), was found
among his brother's papers, and, by the per-
mission of Thomas Richardson, of Bishop's
Wearmouth, one of his executors, was handed
to Dr. Armstrong, who subsequently published
it in his work on typhus fever.
Prep. 1. (Original formula.) Opium
(sliced), 3 lb.; good verjuice, 3 pints; nut-
megs, 1% oz.; saffron, 3 oz. ; boil them to a
proper thickness; then add, of sugar, 4 lb.,
and yeast, 2 teaspoonfuls. Set the whole in a
warm place, near the fire, for 6 or 8 weeks,
then place it in the open air until it becomes
of the consistence of a syrup; lastly, decant,
filter, and bottle it up, adding a little sugar
to each bottle. To yield 2 pints of strained
liquor.
2. (ACETUM OPII, L.-Ph. U. S.) Opium
8 oz. ; nutmeg 1% oz. (both in coarse powder);
saffron, # oz. ; distilled vinegar, 24 fl. oz.;
digest on a sand bath with a gentle heat for
48 hours, and strain; digest the residuum
with an equal quantity of distilled vinegar for
24 hours; then put the whole into a percolator,
and return the filtered liquid as it passes until
it runs clear; afterwards pour on the material
fresh distilled vinegar, until 48 fl. oz. of filtered
liquor shall be obtained; in this dissolve sugar,




416 DROPS.
12 oz., and gently evaporate the whole to 52
fl. oz.
3. (Wholesale.) Opium, 10 oz., and dis-
tilled vinegar, 1 quart, are digested together
for about a fortnight, and after sufficient
repose the clear portion is decanted. This is
the form commonly adopted by the wholesale
trade in England.--Dose. 5 to 10 drops. It
is usually considered to be of fully 4 times the
strength of laudanum.
Drops, Carminative. Syn. GUTTE CARMI-
NATIVAE, L. Prep. (Radius.) Oil of mace,
1 dr.; mitric ether, 3 drs.—Dose. 6 to 10 drops
on sugar; in flatulent colic, &c." -
Drops, Chamomile. See ESSENCE. "
Drops, Dalby's. See PATENT MEDICINES
(Dalby’s Carminative).
Drops, Durande's. Syn. GUTTE ETHERIS
TEREBINTHINATE, L. Prep. (M. Durande.)
Rectified sulphuric acid, 3 parts; oil of tur-
pentine, 1 part.—Dose. 20 to 30 drops, or
more ; in the passing of gall-stones.
Drops, Dutch. Syn. HAERLEM DROPs, TUR-
PENTINE DROPs ; BALSAMUM TEREBINTHINAE,
L. The genuine or imported ‘Dutch Drops
is the residuum of the rectification of oil of tur-
pentine. It is also prepared by distilling resin,
and collecting the product in different por-
tions. At first a white, then a yellow, and
lastly a red oil, comes over. The last is the
balsam. The article commonly sold under the
name in this country is prepared by one or
other of the following formulae :-
1. Oil of turpentine, tincture of guaiacum,
and sweet spirit of nitre, of each, 1 oz. ; oils of
amber and cloves, of each, 15 drops.
2. Balsam of sulphur, 1 part; oil of tur-
pentine, 5 parts. This last is the form most
generally employed. They are all regarded
by those who use them as detergent, diuretic,
stimulant, and vulnerary.
Drops, Female. Syn. EMMENAGOGUE DROPs;
GUTTE EMMENAGOGAE, L. Prep. (Brande.)
Compound tincture of aloes and tincture of va-
lerian, of each, 2 fl. oz. ; tincture of sesqui-
chloride of iron, 1 fl. oz.-Dose. A teaspoonful
in water or chamomile tea; in obstructed
menstruation, &c.
Drops, Fit. Syn. Soo'ſ DROPs; TINCTURA
FULIGINIS, GUTTE F., L. Prep. From wood-
soot, 2 oz. ; sal-ammoniac, 1 oz. ; salt of tartar,
# lb.; soft water, 4 lbs. ; digest a week and
filter. Reputed antispasmodic, and also useful
in scurvy and certain skin diseases.—Dose. A
teaspoonful or more, occasionally, in water.
Drops, Golden. Syn. DE LA MoTTE's G. D.;
BESTUCHEFF's NERVoUs TINCTURE; GUTTE
AUREAE, L.; ELIXIR D’or, GouTTEs D’or DU
GéN£RAL LAMOTTE, Fr. Prep. 1. (Original.)
Chloride of iron (obtained by distilling iron
pyrites with twice its weight of corrosive sub-
limate), 3 oz. ; alcohol, 7 oz. ; expose the mix-
ture in a closely stoppered bottle to the rays
of the sun until it becomes decoloured.
2. Chloride of iron, 1 part; alcohol and
ether, of each, 3 parts. These drops have the
remarkable property of losing their yellow
colour in the sun, and recovering it in the
shade. They are taken in gout, hypochon.
driasis, and nervous complaints, in doses of
from 10 to 60 drops.
Drops, Hooping-Cough. Syn. GUTTE ANTI.
PERTUSSICAE, L. Prep. 1 (Dr. Graves)
Tincture of assafoetida and compound tincture
of camphor, of each, ; fl. Oz. ; compound tint.
ture of bark, 5 fl. oz.-Dose. A teaspoonful,”
or 3 times a day.
2. (Potestates Succini.) Oil of amber, 107;
carbonate (not sesquicarb.) of ammonia, # 07;
strongest rectified spirit (alcohol), # pint; digest
3 or 4 days, and decant the clear portion.
Dose. 10 drops to 1 dr., applied as a frić.
tion.
Drops, Infantile. Several anodyne, carmi.
native, and absorbent preparations, which pass
by this name, will be found under MIXTURES
&c.
Drops, Jesuits’. Syn. ELIXIR ANTIVENE.
REUM, L. Prep. 1. Gum guaiacum, 7 07:
balsam of Peru, 4 drs. ; root of sarsaparilla,
oz. ; rectified spirit of wine, 1 quart; diges:
for 14 days.
2. (Quincy.) Copaiba, 1 oz. ; gum guaiacum.
2 drs. ; oil of sassafras, 1 dr. ; salt of tartar,
# dr. ; rectified spirit, 5 fl. oz. ; digest
week.
3. (Walker's.) Copaiba, 6 oz.: gum guai.
cum, 1 oz. ; chio turpentine and salt of tartar,
of each, 3 oz. ; cochineal, 1 dr. ; rectified spirit,
1 quart; digest a week. See TINCTURE OF
BENZOIN (Comp.).
Drops, Koechlin’s. Prep. (Augustin.) So.
lution of ammonio-chloride of copper and me!
cury, 1 fl. dr. ; water, 10 fl. drs. In obstinate
venereal affections, scrofula, &c.—Dose. A teå
spoonful after each meal.
Drops, Lav'ender. Syn. RED DROPs; GUTTE
LAVENDULE, L. The same as compound tint.
ture of lavender.
Drops, Life. Syn. SALMON's DROPS OF LIFE;
GUTTE VITA., L. Prep. Tincture of castor
8 fl. oz. ; antimonial wine and water, of each
1 lb.; opium, 3 oz. ; saffron, # oz.: cochinel
camphor, and nutmegs, of each, 2 drs. ; digest
for 10 days and filter. Anodyne and diaphy
retic.—Dose. 20 to 60 drops.
Drops, Mercu"rial. Syn. GUTTE HYDRAR.
GYRI BICHLORIDI, L. Prep. 1. Bichloride ºf
mercury, 2 grs. ; hydrochloric acid, 3 drops;
rectified spirit and distilled water, of each,
} fl. Oz.-Dose. 12 to 20 drops.
2. Bichloride of mercury, 2 grs. ; sal-ammo.
miac, 3 grs. ; compound decoction of Sarsapa.
rilla, 2 fl. Oz.-Dose. A teaspoonful.
3. (Sir A. Cooper.) Corrosive sublimate,
1 gr. ; dilute hydrochloric acid, 3 dr. ; dissolve,
and add, tincture of bark, 2 fl. oz.-Dose. As
the last. They are all taken 2 or 3 time;
daily, as alteratives in scrofula, syphilis, cancer,
&c. It should not be measured in a metal
Spoon.
Drops, Norris's.
An aqueous solution ºf
DROPS–DROPSY.
417
tartar emetic, mixed with spirit of wine, and
coloured.
Drops,0domtal!gic. Syn. Tooth-ACHE DROPs;
GUTTE ODONTALGICE, L. Prep. 1. (Dr.
Blake.) Alnm (in fine powder), 1 dr.; sweet
spirit of nitre, 7 fl. drs. ; agitate together occa-
sionally for an hour.
2. (Dr. Copland.) Powdered opium and
Camphor, of each, 10 grs.; oils of cloves and
cajeput, of each, 1 dr. ; highly rectified spirit
and sulphuric ether, of each, ; fl. Oz.
3. (Cottereau.) A saturated ethereal solu-
tion of camphor, to which a few drops of liquor
of ammonia is added.
4. (Dr. R. E. Griffith.) Wine of opium,
Hoffman’s anodyne, and oil of peppermint,
equal parts. Used as a friction on the cheek
or gum, as well as applied to the teeth.
5. (Perry’s.) A concentrated ethereal tinc-
ture of camphor and pellitory.
6. (Righini.) Creasote, 6 drs. ; rectified
spirit, 4 drs. ; tincture of cochineal, 2 drs.; oil
of pepermint, 3. dr.
Obs. The above are applied to the tooth
with a camel-hair pencil, or a little wad of
lint or cotton wool is moistened with them,
and placed in or against the tooth.
Drops, Pectoral. Syn. BATEMAN’s P. D.;
GUTTE PECTORALEs, L. Prep. 1. Paregoric,
10 fl. Oz. ; tincture of castor, 4 fl. Oz. ; lau-
danum, 1 fl. Oz.; tincture of saffron or of cochi-
neal, ; fl. oz. ; oil of aniseed, 15 drops.
2. Castor, 1 oz. ; oil of aniseed, 1 dr. ; cam-
phor, 5 drs. ; cochineal, 1% dr. ; opium, # oz. ;
treacle, 1 lb. ; proof spirit, 1 gal.; digest for a
week.
3. (Phil. Coll. of Pharm.) Camphor, catechu,
powdered opium, and red sanders wood, of
each, 2 oz. ; oil of aniseed, 4 fl. drs. ; proof
spirit, 4 old wine-gallons; digest 10 days,
and filter.— Dose. A teaspoonful, or more, in
coughs, colds, hoarseness, &c., assisted by an
aperient.
Drops, Rheumatic. Syn. GUTTE RHEUMA-
TICE, L. Prep. 1. Iodide of potassium, 1 dr. ;
tincture of guaiacum, 2 fl. oz. ; dissolve.—Dose.
20 to 30 drops. In both chronic and occa-
sional rheumatism, assisted with the copious
use of lemon juice.
2. (Lampadius.) Bisulphuret of carbon and
ether, of each, 2 fl. drs.--Dose, 6 to 12 drops,
on sugar, or in milk.
3. (Wutzer.) Bisulphuret of carbon, 1 fl. dr.;
alcohol, 2 fl. drs.—Dose. As No. 2. The last
two are sudorific, alterative, resolvent, and
emmenagogue, and, besides rheumatism, have
been used with advantage in amenorrhoea, in
Some cutaneous affections, in glandular swell-
ings, &c.
Drops, Rousseau's.
(by Fermentation).
Drops, Sed’ative. Syn. GUTTE SEDATIVAE, L.
The solutions of acetate and hydrochlorate of
morphia, black drop, Rousseau's drop, and
Battley’s liquor opii sedativus, are frequently
sold under this name by the druggists. The
See WINE OF OPIUM
anti-hysteric drops (antë) is also an excellent
sedative.
Drops, Spilbury's. Prep. 1 (Dr. Paris.)
From bichloride of mercury, gentian root, and
dried orange peel, of each, 2 drs.; precipitated
sulphuret of antimony and red sanders wood,
of each, 1 dr.; proof spirit, 16 fl. Oz.; digest
ten days, and strain.
2. Levigated crocus metallorum (“crocus of
antimony”), 6 drs. ; corrosive sublimate, 45 grs.;
red sanders, # dr.; gentian root and dried
orange peel, of each 2 drs. ; brandy (or equal
parts of rect. sp. and water), 16 fl. Oz. ; digest
as before.—Dose. 5 to 30 drops; as an anti-
scorbutic, &c.
Drops, Steel,
CHLORIDE OF IRON.
Drops, Tonic. Prep. (Collier.) Elixir of
vitriol, 2 fl. dr. ; tincture of calumba, 6 fl. drs.
A teaspoonful three times daily, in a wine-
glassful of cold water.
Drops, Torrington's.
BENZOIN (Comp.).
Drops, Wan Swieten’s. An aromatised solu-
tion of corrosive sublimate.
Drop, Ward's White. Prep. From quicksil-


See TINCTURE OF SESQUI-
See TINCTURE OF
| ver, 4 oz. ; nitric acid, 16 fl. oz. ; dissolve, add
sesquicarbonate of ammonia, 7 oz, ; evaporate
and crystallise; then dissolve the resulting
salt by the heat of a sand bath, in 4 times its
weight of rose-water. Very poisonous.--Dose.
5 to 15 drops, as an antiscorbutic, antivenereal,
&c.
Drops, Worm. Syn. GUTTE ANTHELMIN-
TICE, G. VERMIFUGE, L. Prep. 1. Creasote,
1 dr. ; oil of turpentine, 7, fl. drs.—Dose. A
teaspoonful, 3 or 4 times a day.
2. (Peschier.) Oil of male-fern, 3 fl. drs. ;
rectified oil of turpentine, 5 fl. drs. As the last;
in tape-worm.
3. (Schwartz'.) Barbadoes tar, 1 fl. oz.;
tincture of assafoetida, 1} fl. Oz. — Dose.
30 to 40 drops, three times a day; in tape-
WOrm.
DROPS (Scouring). Prep. 1. Oil of tur-
pentine and oil of lemons, equal parts. Both
of the ingredients should have been recently
distilled or rectified.
2. Oil of lemon bottoms, 13 lb.; oil of tur-
pentine, 1 quart; mix well, and distil by the
heat of a sand bath, until 3 pints have come
over, or as long as the distillate is clear, pale,
and sweet. Used to remove paint, grease,
&c., from cloth.
DROPSY. Syn. HYDROPs, L. An unna-
tural collection of aqueous fluid in any part of
the body. Dropsy has received different
names, according to the part of the body
affected by the disease. When it occurs in the
cellular membrane it is called ANASARCA; when
in the cavity of the abdomen, ASCITES; in the
cavity of the cranium, HYDROCEPHALUs; in the
scrotum, HYDROCELE ; in the uterus, HYDRO-
METRA; and in the chest, HYDROTHORAX.
Dropsy is mostly a symptom of extreme de-
bility and a broken-down * and
2

418
DROWNING—DRUGS.
frequently follows lengthened attacks of ex-
hausting chronic diseases.
The treatment of dropsy, perhaps, more than
any other disease, depends upon the circum-
stances with which it is connected, and, more
especially, upon those which have caused it.
The acute inflammatory forms of dropsy gene-
rally require depletion. In most other cases,
tonics may be advantageously administered.
To promote the absorption of the accumulated
fluids, diuretics are commonly resorted to.
Confirmed dropsy (especially HYDROCEPHALUs
and HYDROTHORAX), occurring in patients
either much debilitated by previous disease
or of a bad habit of body, is seldom curable.
DROWNING. The cause of death from
submersion in water is the entire seclusion
of air from the lungs, by which the aëration
of the venous blood is prevented. In conse-
quence of this deprivation of air, venous blood
circulates through the arterial system, whilst
the pulmonary vein ceases to convey oxygenated
blood to the heart. Under ordinary circum-
stances, in the course of 4 or 5 minutes after
the access of air has been cut off,"life becomes
extinct. Many cases have, nevertheless, oc-
curred of persons being submerged for 15 or
20 minutes, and even longer, and where per-
fect insensibility has existed, in which recovery
has taken place.
Prev. The specific gravity of the human
body is less than that of water, so long as the
lungs are partially filled with air; and this
difference is sufficient to keep the body float-
ing with the mouth and nostrils free for
respiration, provided the face is turned up-
wards by throwing the head back on the
shoulders, by which the weight of the head
is sustained by the water. When a person
throws himself into the water, the body rises
rapidly to the surface and assumes nearly the
erect position, the upper part of the head,
down to a little below the eyes, remaining
above the surface of the water. This arises
from the greater density of the legs and thighs
compared to that of the chest, which acts as a
species of float or buoy to the rest of the body.
In this situation the head may be thrown
back, so that the face may form the exposed
portion, as before mentioned, when respiration
may be carried on without inconvenience in
still water, and regularly, but sufficiently, so
as to sustain life for some time, even in a
rough sea. The adoption of this simple pre-
caution would have saved thousands of valu-
able lives.
Another point which should be remembered
by every person in danger of drowning is,
that there is always a considerable amount of
residual air in the lungs, in a nearly deoxidised
state, and that if this air is expelled by two
or three forced inspirations, and a deep inspi-
ration is then taken, a larger quantity of vital
air will be introduced into the lungs, and the
blood will continue aërated for a proportionally
longer time; and, consequently, a longer
periodwill elapse before another inspiration will
berequired. If we prepare ourselves by taking
two or three forced inspirations, and then take
a full inspiration, we may remain for 1% or 2
minutes before a second attempt at respiration
need be made. This is the plan adopted by the
pearl fishers, and other divers who are remark-
able for remaining beneath the surface of the
water for some time. A person in danger of
shipwreck, or expecting immediate submersion,
in any other situation, should have recourse
to this expedient, which would prevent the
dreadful effects of attempting respiration
whilst under water.
Treat. The first object is the restoration of
the animal heat. For this purpose, the wet
clothes should be removed, and the body, after
being well dried, surrounded with warm air.
In the absence of a warm-air bath, the body
may be laid between well-heated blankets, and
bottles of hot water applied to the feet and
armpits. Gentle friction with warm flannel
or the hands should also be assiduously em.
ployed. Meanwhile attempts should be made
to excite respiration artificially; and when the
apparatus is at hand, slight shocks of electri.
city should be kept up at the same time. On
the appearance of returning life, such assighing
or convulsive twitching, a vein may be opened,
The throat may be tickled with the finger or
a feather, to excite vomiting, and a teaspoonful
of warm water administered. If the power of
swallowing exists, a table-spoonful of warm wine
or brandy-and-water may be given. Even if
no symptom of returning animation appear,
these means of recovery should be persisted in
for three or four hours.
In the treatment of this species of asphyxia,
nasal stimulants, as ammonia, aromatic vinegat,
&c., should be avoided, as well as the injection
of tobacco smoke, both of which have been
found highly prejudicial. The practice of
holding the body with the head downwards
which is sometimes adopted by the vulgar and
ignorant, under the idea of allowing the Water
to run out by the mouth, is still more dam.
gerous and absurd. The supposition that water
is inhaled by drowning persons, instead of air,
is perfectly fallacious. The peculiar mechanism
of the glottis, or upper portion of the wind.
pipe, is such as to prevent, by the spasmodit
closure of the epiglottis, the entrance of more
than a very trifling and accidental quantity of
water, which is altogether too insignificant to
produce any very injurious effects. See AS:
PHYYTA.
DRUGS. Substances used in medicine, sºld
by druggists, and compounded by apothecaries
and physicians. Our continental neighbours
wiser than ourselves, not merely require that
persons engaged in selling and dispensing
drugs and pharmaceutical preparations shall
be fully qualified by previous education and
training for the task, but also that the various
articles they sell and use shall be commercially
pure and of the proper quality. In the United

DRUMMOND LIGHT-DUMBNESS.
419
States of America this subject has also engaged
the attention of the government and legisla-
ture. Under the Act of the 26th June, 1848,
inspectors were appointed to examine the
quality of imported articles of this class, before
allowing them to pass the Customs for home
use. An abridged copy of the order addressed
to the “ collectors and other officers under this
act” is appended, and will be useful to the
reader, as assisting to establish a standard
by which the value of the substances named
therein may be estimated.
TREASURY DEPARTMENT, June 4th, 1853.
The following articles are to be entitled to entry when
ascertained by analysis to afford the per-centages as
under, viz.:-
ALOEs, 80% of pure aloetic extract.
Assa FCETIDA, 50% of its peculiar bitter resin, and 3% of
volatile oil.
CINCHONA BARK,11% of pure quinine, or 2% of the several
alkaloids, as quina, cinchona, quinidine, aricine, &c.
BENZOIN, 80% of benzoin resin. - -
Do. 12% of benzoic acid.
CoLocyNTH, 12% of colocynthine.
ELATERIUM, 30% of elaterine.
GALBANUM, 60% of resin.
Do. 10% of gum, and 6% volatile oil.
GAMBoGE, 70% of pure gamboge resin, and 2% of gum.
GUAIACUM, 80% of pure guaiacum resin.
GUM AMMONIACUM, 70% of resin, and 18% of gum.
JALAP,” 11% of pure jalap resin.
MYRRH, 30% of pure resin, and 50% of gum.
OPIUM, 9% of pure morphia.
RHUBARB,340% of soluble matter.
sº 50% of resin, 30% of gum, and 30% of volatile
0!!.
SCAMMONY, 70% of pure scammony resin.
SENNA, 28% of soluble matter.
Medicinal leaves, flowers, barks, roots, extracts, &c.,
not specified above, must be, when imported, in perfect
condition, and of as recent collection and preparation as
practicable.
Pharmaceutical and chemical preparations, whether
crystallised or ortherwise, used in medicine, to be pure,
and of a proper consistence and strength, as well as of
perfect manufacture, conformably with the standard au-
thorities named in the Act; and must, in no instance
contain over 33 of excess of moisture or water of crystal-
lisation. -
Essential or volatile oils, and expressed oils used in
medicine, must be pure and of the standard sp. gr. noticed
and declared in the dispensatories named in the above Act.
“Patent” or “Secret Medicines” are by law subject to
the same examination as other medicinal preparations,
and cannot be permitted to pass the Custom-house for
home consumption, but must be rejected and condemned,
unless the special examiner is satisfied, after due investi-
gation, that they are fit and safe to be used for medical
purposes.
An appeal from the examiner to the collector to be
admitted within 10 days,
JAMES GUTHRIE,
Secretary to the Treasury.
DRUM'MOND LIGHT. See LIGHT (Arti-
ficial).
DRUNK'ENNESS.
TEMPERANCE, &c.
DRY'ERS (Painter's). Prep. 1. Litharge
(best) ground to a paste with drying oil. For
dark colours.
2. From white copperas and drying oil; as
the last.
3. From sugar of lead and drying oil.
last two are for pale colours.
* Of whatever denomination.
* Root or powder. - -
* Only Turkey, East Indian, and Russian, admissible.
See ABSTINENCE, IN-
The
4. From white copperas and sugar of lead, of
each, 1 lb.; pure white lead, 2 lbs. For ‘whites,’
and opaque light colours, grays, &c. Dryers
are employed, as the name implies, to increase
the drying and hardening properties of oil
paints. A little is beat up with them at the
time of mixing them with the oil and turpen-
time for use.
DRY'ING. See DESICCATION, &c.
DRY'ING-OIL. See OILS.
DRY-R0T. A peculiar disease that attacks
wood, and renders it brittle and rotten. It is
generally caused by dampness and the subse-
quent development of the spores of fungi, par-
ticularly those of Merulius lacrymans and vas-
tator and Polyporus destructor. The dry-rot
principally attacks “ill-seasoned’ timber, and
more particularly that of ships and badly ven-
tilated buildings.
Prev. Various means have been proposed to
prevent the attacks of dry-rot, and to arrest
its progress when it has commenced, among
which the process called ‘KYANIZING.' (Kyan's
patent) is that most generally known and most
extensively adopted. It consists in immersing
the timber in a bath of corrosive sublimate.
The process termed ‘PAYNIZING ! (Payne’s
patent) consists in first filling the pores with a
solution of chloride of calcium, under pressure,
and next forcing in a solution of sulphate of
iron, by which an insoluble sulphate of lime is
formed in the body of the wood, which is thus
rendered nearly as hard as stone. Wood so
prepared is now largely employed in our public
works and railways. Sir W. Burnett's pro-
cess (patented in 1836) consists in impregnating
the timber with a solution of chloride of zinc.
Mr. J. Bethell’s process (patented in 1838)
consists in thoroughly impregnating the wood
with oil of tar containing creasote and a crude
solution of acetate of iron, commonly called
‘pyrolignite of iron.” The impregnation is
effected in a strong cylindrical vessel, connected
with a powerful air-pump, so that in the first
instance, a vacuum being formed, and sub-
sequently a pressure of several atmospheres
applied, the liquid may as much as possible be
forced into all the pores of the wood. The
above processes for “seasoning’ preserve the
timber not only from dry-rot, but from the
influence of the weather and the attacks of
insects and worms.
DUB'BING. Prep. 1. By boiling the waste
cuttings of sheep-skins in crude cod oil. 2.
Black resin, 2 lbs. ; tallow, 1 lb.; crude cod oil
or train oil, 1 gal. ; boil to a proper consist-
ence. Used by the curriers to dress leather,
and by shoemakers and others to soften leather,
and to render boots and shoes waterproof.
DUCK. See POULTRY.
DUCTIL'ITY is the property of being drawn
out in length without breaking. See METALS.
DULCAMARA. See NIGHTSHADE (Woody).
DUMB/NESS. Syn. APHONIA, L. As speech
is an acquired and imitative faculty, persons
who are either born deaf or become so in early



-

420
DUNGING—DYE-STUFFS,

infancy are also, necessarily, dumb. The first
step in treating dumbness must therefore be
directed to the removal of the deafness on
which the imperfection rests. The exertions
of modern philanthropists have, however, been
so far successful in such cases, as to enable
the deaf-mute to converse with those around
him by signs. Those interested in the sub-
ject may consult an admirable treatise on
“Deaf-dumbness,” by M. E. Hubert-Valleroux,
of which an excellent translation appeared in
the ‘Medical Circular,’ vol. ii, for 1853. See
DEAFNESS.
DUNG'ING. Syn. CLEANSING. One of the
principal processes in the arts of calico print-
ing and dyeing, its object being to free the
cloth from loose matters, which would interfere
with the dyeing. After the thickened mor-
dants have been applied to the fabric, and pro-
perly fixed, it is necessary to remove the now
useless thickening matter, together with the
excess of mordant, which has not come into
actual contact with the cloth. Formerly, a
bath formed of cow-dung, diffused through hot
water (130° to 212°Fahr.) was always used to
wash away these loose matters; but now
various manufactured substances are success-
fully employed for the purpose. The best
dung substitutes are the arsenite and arseni-
ate of soda, the silicate of soda, and phosphate
of lime. Experience proves that, in the case
of these substitutes, a final wince in cow-dung
before dyeing is advantageous. A process
very similar to ‘dunging” is employed after
dyeing, to clear and give purity to the undyed
parts. This subsequent process is distinguished
by the term “clearing.” Cow-dung has been
used in “clearing’ operations, but its employ-
ment is not to be recommended. Bran scalded
and mixed with water is employed for certain
goods, but bleaching powder is the most gene-
rally used “clearing agent.”
DUTCH LIQ/UID. See OLEFIANT GAS.
DYE/ING. The act of tinging or colouring
absorbent materials, by impregnating them
with solutions of colouring matters or dye-
stuffs. The colouring matters which impart
their tints without the intervention of other
substances are called “substantive colours;’
while those which require such aid are called
“adjective colours.” The bodies employed
to fix and develop the latter class are called
‘mordants.” The exact way in which dye-
stuffs act upon fibrous materials has not yet
been investigated as fully as it deserves; the
generally received opinion is that the fibre
has a chemical affinity for the colouring matter
in the case of substantive dyes, and likewise
for the mordant, which, in its turn, has an
affinity for the colouring matter of adjective
dyes. Another opinion is that the fibres have
pores, which, when expanded by heat or che-
mical agents, admit particles of colouring
matter. However this may be, it is certain
that different materials ‘take' dyes in differ-
ent proportions; thus, silk and wool take the
coal-tar dyes in the most perfect manner, but
cotton requires the intervention of a most
powerful mineral or animal mordant. W0OL
takes the colouring matters of most dye-stuffs
so well that the deepest tints can readily be
produced. SILK and COTTON are dyed with
greater difficulty, whilst LINEN shows still less
disposition to take dyes. The operations which
take place in dyeing are ‘mordanting,” “ageing,'
‘dunging,” “dyeing,” and ‘clearing.' The first
of these operations is noticed under MORDANT,
After the fabric has been mordanted, it is
generally hung up in a room through which a
current of steam and air is passing, by means
of which the union between the fibre and the
mordant is quickened very considerably. This
exposure to moist air is the step in the process
to which the term “ageing' is applied. The
operations of ‘dunging’ and “clearing' are
noticed above (see DUNGING). The ‘dyeing'
proper, which follows the ‘dunging,’ is effected
by running the fabric through the solution of
the dye-stuff, the colour being modified more
or less by the nature of the mordant used
Under the names of the different colours the
means used to dye such colours are minutely
described. See BLACK DYE, BLUE DYE, &c.
The following particulars respecting the
production of the more common colours may
prove interesting to the reader who merely
requires some general information on the sub-
ject:-
BLACK is usually produced by logwood Or
galls with an iron mordant. Common black
silks are dyed with logwood and fustic, iron
being used as a mordant. The best silks are
dyed black on a blue ground. Woollen goods
are first dyed blue with indigo, and afterwards
with Sumac, logwood, and green or blue cop.
peras. Cotton and linen goods are dyed black
in a very similar manner.
BLUE is commonly produced from indigº,
either in the form of sulphate or in aqueous
solution. Prussian blue, with a persalt of iron
or tin as a mordant, gives a very splendid dark
blue. Of late several blues of novel shades
have been produced from coal-tar.
RED is obtained in various shades by using
cochineal, safflower, lac-dye, madder, or log.
wood, with a tin mordant.
PURPLE. Until the last few years the dyer
was dependent for his purples on orchil Or
cudbeer, but he has now at his disposal the
magnificent series of aniline, or coal-tar, colours,
ranging from the most delicate violet, Or
‘ mauve,’ to the full crimson-purple, known as
‘magenta.’ See PURPLE DYE.
YELLOW. The most important yellow dyes
are made from quercitron, fustic, turmeric,
armotto, and French and Persian berries. For
further information, see BLEACHING, CALIC0.
PRINTING, &c.
DYER'S SPIRITS. See TIN MORDANTS,
DYES. See DYEING, and the names of the
principal colours.
DYE-STUFFS. The colouring materials
DYSENTERY-DYSPEPSIA,
421
used in dyeing are so called. The more im-
portant of them are noticed under the re-
spective names.
DYSENTERY. Syn. BLOODY FLUx; DY-
SENTERIA, L. A disease arising from inflam-
mation of the mucous membrane of the large
intestines, and characterised by stools con-
sisting chiefly of blood and mucus, or other
morbid matter, accompanied with griping of
the bowels, and followed by tenesmus. There
is generally more or less fever, and the natural
faces are either retained or discharged in
small, hard balls (seybala). The common
causes of this disease are marsh miasma, im-
proper diet, excessive exhaustion, and fatigue,
and, above all, exposure to the cold and damp
air of night after a hot day.
Treat. The common dysentery of this
country generally gives way to gentle aperi-
ents (castor oil or salts-and-manna), to cleanse
the bowels, followed by mild opiates or mor-
phia, to allay irritation. The chronic symp-
toms, which frequently hang about for some
time, are best combated by mild tonics and
vegetable bitters (bark, calumba, cascarilla).
Occasionally, chalybeates (ammonia-citrate of
iron, lactate of iron, wine of iron, saccharine
carbonate of iron) will be found useful during
convalescence. Throughout, the diet should
be light and nutritious.
The contagious dysentery, of camps and hot
climates, is a severe and often fatal disease, in
which the preceding symptoms are complicated
with remittent or typhoid fever. Its treat-
ment is tedious and difficult, and depends
chiefly on judiciously meeting the several
symptoms as they develop themselve. Aperi-
ents, diaphoretics, and nauseants, followed by
tonics, are the remedies generally relied on.
The febrile symptoms must be treated accord-
ing to their inflammatory or putrid tendency.
This variety of the disease frequently gives
rise to organic diseases of the abdominal vis-
cera, dropsy, &c. It is regarded by some as
contagious, but without sufficient reason.
DYSMENNORHOE’A. See MENSTRUATION.
DYSPEP'SIA. [L.] Syn. DYSPEP'sy, IN-
DIGESTION. This complaint pervades every
rank of society, and is, perhaps, of all others,
the most general. Few indeed are there who
wholly escape it, in one or other of its forms.
The common symptoms of dyspepsia are—
want of appetite, sudden and transient dis-
tensions of the stomach, frequent eructations,
heartburn, stomachic pains, occasional vomit-
ing, and, frequently, costiveness or diarrhoea.
Sometimes the head is affected, and dimness
of sight, double vision, muscae volitantes, and
slight vertigo, are experienced, along with a
multitude of other symptoms, depending on a
derangement of the functions of the nervous
system.
The causes of dyspepsia are numerous. In
the higher ranks of society it is a common
consequence of over-indulgence in the luxuries
of the table, of late hours, or of the want of
proper exercise, both of body and mind. In
the studious, and those who lead a sedentary
life, it is usually caused by excessive mental
exertion or anxiety, or by the fatigues of busi-
ness, and the want of sufficient bodily exer-
tion and of pure air. In the lower orders of
society it generally results from inebriety, or a
deficiency of proper food and clothing, bad
ventilation, &c.; and is not unfrequently occa-
sioned by the physical powers being over-taxed,
especially soon after meals.
The treatment of dyspepsia depends less on
medicine than on the adoption of regular
habits of life. Moderation in eating, drinking,
and the indulgence of the passions; early
rising, due exercise, and retiring to rest at an
early hour, will do much to restore the tone
both of the stomach and nerves. Excessive
study and mental exertion should be avoided,
and recourse should frequently be had to
society and amusements of a lively and inte-
resting character. If the bowels are confined,
mild aperients should be taken, and if diar-
rhoea is present, antacids and absorbents may
be had recourse to with advantage. The sto-
mach may be strengthened by the use of mild
bitters, tonics, and stimulants, and sea bathing,
or the shower or tepid bath, may be taken,
when convenient, to strengthen the nervous
system. When dyspepsia is a secondary or
symptomatic disease, the cause should be
sought out, and the treatment varied accord-
ingly. Among the aperient medicines most
suitable to dyspepsia may be mentioned—
Epsom salts, phosphate of soda, and Seidlitz
powders, each of which should be taken largely
diluted with water. An occasional dose of the
‘Abernethy Medicines’ (which see) has also
been recommended. Among antacids, are the bi-
carbonates and carbonates of potassa and soda,
either of which may be taken in doses of half
a teaspoonful dissolved in water; or if the
spirits are depressed, one or two teaspoonfuls
of spirit of sal-volatile will be more appro-
priate; and in cases accompanied by diarrhoea,
a little prepared chalk. As bitters, the com-
pound infusion of orange peel, or of gentian,
are excellent. As tonics, small doses of bark,
or of sulphate of quinine, to which chalybeates
may be added, if there is pallor of countenance,
or a low pulse, with no disposition to fever or
headache.
When dyspepsia is complicated with hysteria,
hypochondriasis, or chlorosis, the treatment
noticed under those heads may be conjoined to
that above recommended. When it depends
on constipation, or a deficiency of bile, the
mildest and most effective of all remedies will
be found supplied in inspissated ox-gall. “In
all cases of incipient constipation, ox-gall is
a remedy of undoubted efficacy; and even in
protracted cases, when hope has almost fled—
but where evidences of strangulation are not
unequivocally manifested—it should never be
omitted by the practitioner. In habitual or
chronic constipation, accompanied by indi-





422 DYSPN(EA—EBULLITION,

gestion, clay-coloured stools, and a feeling of
oppression after food has been taken, it acts
with almost specific certainty. When, how-
ever, the liver begins to assume its healthy
action, its employment should be discontinued,
and it will then produce all the symptoms of
regurgitation of bile into the stomach. This
state will be readily recognised as a favorable
omen of returning power.” (Dr. Allmatt.)
DYSPNGEA. Difficulty of breathing. It is
generally symptomatic of some other affections.
When it occurs in persons of a nervous or irri-
table habit of body, perfect quiet, a semi-
recumbent posture, fresh air, and some small
doses of ether, ammonia, or opium, will gene-
rally effect a cure. Those of a full habit
require aperients and depletion. To prevent
attacks of the kind, excess in eating and
drinking, and the use of stimulants, should be
avoided.
DYSU"RIA. [L] Syn. Dys'URY. Difficult
urination. It is generally symptomatic of
disease of the kidneys, bladder, or urethra.
The treatment depends on the exciting cause.
EAR (Inflamma(tion of). Syn. OTITIS, L.
This affection, when it attacks the internal
part of the ear, is generally accompanied with
confusion of sound, deafness, and more or less
fever. It is most frequent among children,
and is commonly produced by exposure to
draughts of cold air, and, occasionally, by
foreign matters, as cherry-stones, insects, &c.,
having got into the external ear. In such
cases, the removal of the offensive matter, and
due attention to warmth and cleanliness, with
a dose of laxative medicine, will be all the
treatment required. The pain may generally
be relieved by throwing warm water into the
ear by means of a syringe, and fomenting the
surrounding parts with decoction of poppy-
heads and chamomile flowers. Should this
treatment not succeed, a drop or two of lauda-
num, with one drop of oil of cloves and a
little oil of almonds, may be dropped in the
ear, and a piece of cotton wool introduced
afterwards. Cases of acute inflammation of
the internal ear are occasionally met with in
adults, which assume a very serious character,
and demand the most careful treatment. See
DEAFNESS.
Earache. Pain in the ear may arise from
various causes, amongst which, in the absence
of organic disease, cold, and that peculiar
derangement of health popularly called ‘ner-
vousness,’ are the most common. In the one
case, the proper remedy is warmth; in the
other, the attention should be directed to the
restoration of the body to the healthy standard.
EARTHS. In chemistry, a group of metallic
oxides. The principal earths are baryta,
strontia, lime, magnesia, alumina, berylla or
glucina, yttria, zirconia, and thoria. The first
four are termed ALKALINE EARTHS ; the re-
mainder, together with the oxides of the very
rare metals erbium, terbium, norium, cerium,
lanthanum, and didymium, constitute the
EARTHIS PROPER.
The term earth was very loosely applied by
the older chemical and pharmaceutical writers,
and the practice is still common among the
vulgar at the present day. Thus, ABSORBENT
EARTH (chalk); ALUMINoUs E., ARGILLAGEOUS
E. (alumina); BOLAR E. (bole); BONE-E, (phos.
phate of lime); FULLER’s E. (an absorbent
clay); HEAVY E. (baryta); JAPAN E., or TERRA
JAPONICA (catechu); SEALED E. (bole), &c.,
are names even now frequently encountered
both in trade and in books.
EAU. (Fr.) Water. This word, like its
English synonym, is applied to numerous sub-
stances, differing in their composition, sensible
properties, and uses, of which the following
are a few useful examples:—EAU DOUCE, fresh
or river water ; EAU DE MER, sea or salt
water; EAU DE FONTAINE, EAU DE SOURCE,
spring water; EAU DE PUITs, well or pump
water; EAU DE RIVIłRE, river water; EAU
DISTILLáE, distilled water; EAU DE ROSE,
rose water; EAU DE VIE, brandy; EAU DE
COLOGNE, Cologne water; EAU D'Hong RIF,
Hungary water; EAU BáNITE, holy water;
EAU FORTE, aquafortis; EAU DE SAVON, SOap.
suds; EAU DE SENTEUR, scented water, &c,
Eaux, in perfumery, are solutions of the
fragrant essential oils in spirit, as eau de Co.
logne, eau de bouquet, &c.; or they are distilled
waters, largely charged with the odorous prin.
ciples of plants, as eau de rose, eau de fleurs
d’oranges, &c.
Eaux, of the liqueuriste, are aromatised
spirits or cordials.
Eau Medicinales are either simple watery
solutions (HYDROLís, HYDROLATURES, SOIU.
TIONS PAR L’EAU), or distilled water (EAUX
DISTILLíEs); or they are vinous or alcoholic
tinctures or solutions of essential oils, ar).
matics, or more active drugs. See CORDIAIS,
HAIR DYES, PERFUMERY, SPIRITS, TINCTURES
WATERS, &c.
EB'LANINE. The yellowish-red, crystal.
lisable, solid substance, which is left behind
in the retort, when wood spirit is rectified
from quicklime. It is insoluble in water, and
Sublimes without fusion at 273° Fahr.
EB'0NY. The wood of the Diospyrus Melan.
oaylon, an East Indian tree, of the natural
order Ebenaceae. Two other species of the
same genus, namely, Diospyrus Ebenus and
D. Ebemaster, yield respectively MAURITIUS
EBONY and the BASTARD EBONY of Ceylon,
Pale-coloured woods are stained in imitation
of ebony (FACTITIOUS EBONY), by washing
them with or steeping them in a strong de.
coction of logwood or of galls, and, when dry,
washing them over with a solution of sulphate
or acetate of iron. They are then rinsed in
clean water, and the process is repeated, if
required. The wood is lastly polished or var.
nished.
EBRI’ETY. See INTOxICATION.
EBULLI”TION. The state of boiling, or
EBULLITION,
423
the agitation of a liquid arising from its rapid
conversion into vapour by heat. Ebullition
occurs in different liquids at very different
temperatures, such temperatures being called
their “boiling-points.” Under the same cir-
cumstances the boiling-points are constant,
and by observing them the chemist is often
able to distinguish liquids which much re-
semble each other. The boiling-point of the
same liquid may, however, vary considerably
under different circumstances. The causes
which induce variation are increased or dimin-
ished atmospheric pressure, the greater or less
depth of the liquid, and the character of the
containing vessel. Thus, boiling water is
colder by some degrees when the barometer
is low, in bad weather, or at the top of a hill,
than when the barometer is higher, in fine
weather, or at the bottom of a valley or mine.
There is a very simple and beautiful experi-
ment, illustrative of the effect of diminished
pressure in lowering the boiling-point of a
liquid. A little water is made to boil for a
few minutes in a flask or retort placed over a
lamp, until the air has been expelled, and the
steam issues freely from the neck. A tightly
fitting cork is then inserted, and the lamp at
the same moment withdrawn. When the
ebullition ceases, it may be renewed at plea-
sure for a considerable time by the affusion of
cold water, which, by condensing the vapour
within, occasions a partial vacuum. Liquids in
general boil from 60° to 140° lower than their
ordinary boiling-points when heated in vacuo,
The following table furnishes very exact
information respecting the effect of increasing
pressure upon the boiling-point of water:—
TABLE I.-Boiling-points of Water at different
Pressures. By Mr. C. GREVILLE WILLIAMS.
Boiling-point | Barometer | Boiling-point Barometer
° Fahr. Inches. 9 Fahr. Inches.
184 16.676 200 23.454
185 I7-047 201 23.937
186 17:421 202 24'441
187 17.803 203 25'014,
188 18-196 204 25'468
189 18:593 205 25'992
190 18-992 206 26'529
191 19.407 207 27-068
192 19:822 208 27.614
193 20-254. 209 28'183
194 20.687 210 28-744,
195 21:124, 211 29-331
196 21:576 212 29'922
197 22-030 213 30'516
198 22'498 214 31:120
199 22:965 215 31-730
Boiling water contained in a deep vessel is
hotter than that in a shallow one, on account
of the greater resistance in the one case than
the other to the escape of the steam. It is
also found that fluids boil at a lower tempe-
rature and more quietly in vessels with rough
and spicular surfaces, than in those with
smooth or polished ones. The boiling-point
of water, as marked on the scale of the ther-
mometer, is 212° Fahr., but in glass vessels,
under common circumstances, it varies from
212°54° to 215.6°; whilst in perfectly pure
and smooth glass vessels water may be heated
to 221° Fahr. without boiling. That the
elevation of the boiling-point in this case is
due to the nature of the surface, may be at
once demonstrated by throwing into water,
about to boil in a glass matrass, a little iron
filings or coarsely powdered glass, when ebul-
lition will commence with almost explosive
violence, at the same time that the temperature
of the fluid will sink about 2°Fahr.
The boiling-point of water contained in
ordinary vessels may be raised considerably
above 212° Fahr., by the addition of saline
matter, as will be seen in the following table,
extracted from Mr. C. G. Williams's excellent
‘Handbook of Chemical manipulation:’—
TABLE II.-Boiling-points of Saturated Solu-
tions of various Salts at the ordinary Atmo-
spherie Pressure. By C. G. WILLIAMs.
Name of Salt. Boiling-point.
Chloride of calcium . 355° Fahr.
Acetate of soda . 256 ,
Nitrate of soda . . 246 ,,
Sal-ammoniac . 236 ,
Common salt. . 224 ,
Cream of tartar . 214 ,
The above solutions are suitable for chemical
baths. With the exception of the first, they
furnish in their boiling-points temperatures,
as nearly as can be obtained, 10° above each
other. They were chosen by Mr. Williams
because, in “fractionating’ volatile substances,
it is usual to separate the distilled products
by differences of temperature equal to 10°
Fahr. In long operations it is found inconve-
nient to employ a saturated saline solution for
a bath (by which the highest temperature
would be obtained), as the constant evapora-
tion of the water induces the crystallisation of
the salt. It is hence usual to keep it con-
siderably below that point.
The following table, compiled chiefly from
the pages of Dr. Miller's ‘Elements of Che-
mistry,” gives the boiling-points of several in-
teresting substances.

TABLE III.-Boiling-points of various Liquids
at the ordinary Atmospheric Pressure.
Name of Substance. Boiling-point.
Liquid carbonic acid . . —108°Fahr.
Liquid sulphurous acid ... + 17-6,
Chloric ether . - - 519 ,
Aldehyd 69'4.,,
Ether - 94.8 ,
Bisulphuret of carbon . 118'5,
Bromine . - - 1454,

424
EBULLIOSCOPE.
Name of Substance. Boiling-point.
Wood spirit - - . 149.9 Fahr.
Alcohol (sp. gr. 815). 1731 ,
Benzol - - - 176.8 ,
Dutch liquid . 1847,
Acetic acid - 243:1 ,,
Sulphur (melted) 609. ,
Mercury . - 662 ,
EBUL'LIOSCOPE. Syn. EBULLITION ALCO-
HOLOMETER, THERMO-ALCOHOLOMETER. “This
instrument is essentially a thermometer, and
its application to alcoholometry is based upon
the fact that the boiling-point of a spirituous
liquid is scarcely altered by the presence,
within certain limits, of the substances which
may be dissolved in it, and which, by increasing
its specific gravity, render the ordinary alco-
holometers or hydrometers useless for the
purpose of indicating its alcoholic richness.
The ebullioscope was invented by the Abbé
Brossard-Vidal, of Toulon, and in its original
form consisted of a spirit-lamp surmounted by
a small boiler, into which a large cylindrical
glass bulb was plunged, having an upright stem
of such calibre that the quicksilver contained
in them, by its expansion and ascent when
heated, raised before it a little glass float in
the stem, which was connected by a thread
with a similar glass bead, hanging in the air.
This thread passed round a pulley, which,
turning with the motion of the beads, caused
an index to move along a graduated circular
scale, which represented on its face the per-
centage of absolute alcohol in spirituous
liquors of different boiling-points. This form
of the apparatus being found inconvenient and
liable to get disarranged, various improvinents
were made in it by MM. Conaty, Lerebour,
and others. The modification of the instru-
ment now in use, and known as Field’s PATENT
ALCOHOLOMETER, was made by the late Dr.
Ure, and can scarcely be improved on. It
consists of a thermometer having a very
minute bore and a large bulb, similar to that
employed to determine the height of moun-
tains from the boiling-point of water, but in-
stead of thermometric degrees being marked
upon the scale the per-centage under proof is
placed on the left-hand side of the stem, and
the per-centage content of proof spirit on the
right-hand side. These commence at 178'5°
Fahr., the temperature at which ‘proof spirit”
boils, and which here forms the bottom of the
scale. The succeeding numbers are based upon
the boiling-points of mixtures of alcohol and
water. The little boiler being charged, and
about a teaspoonful of salt (35 grs.) being
added, to prevent loss of alcohol by evapora-
tion, the thermometer is set in its place, and
the spirit-lamp lighted. When the mercury
begins to rise out of the bulb of the ther-
mometer, the ‘damper-plate’ is pushed in a
little way, to moderate the heat. The eye is
now kept steadily on the instrument, and as
soon as the liquor boils freely, and the mercury
*
becomes stationary in the stem, the indication
is carefully noted, and the damper-plate pushed
home to extinguish the flame.
“The ebullioscope is adjusted to the mean
boiling-point of water under an atmospheric
pressure of 29-5 inches. When the pressure
is either higher or lower, both water and
alcohol boil at a somewhat different tempera.
ture, to meet which a barometrical equation
is attached to the thermometer by means of
a small subsidiary scale. It is therefore me.
cessary, prior to commencing the operation of
testing any liquor, to charge the little boiler
with pure water only, and to fix the thermo.
meter in its place. When the water boils
freely, the mercury becomes stationary in the
stem, exactly opposite the true barometrical
indication at the time. Should this be against
the line 29'5, no correction will be required;
but should it stand at any other line, above Or
below, then the various boiling-points will bear
reference to that boiling-point only. In the
latter case, the boiling-point of the water on
the barometrical indicator must be set against
the boiling-point of the liquid on the scale,
when opposite the line —29-5 will be found the
true strength. Thus:–the barometer being
at 30 inches, and the indication or boiling.
point being 72 u. p., 30 on the indicator must
be placed against 72 u. p. on the thermo.
meter, when against the line of 29:5 will be
seen 69-6 u.p., the real strength of the sample
tested.
“When a spirit is stronger than the ‘excise
proof,” its boiling-point varies too little with
its alterations of strength to render the ebul.
lioscope of much practical value. To make it
applicable to the stronger spirits, it is there.
fore necessary to dilute them with exactly
their own bulk of pure water before testing
them, and then to double the resulting indi.
cation, as suggested by Dr. Ure. Our own
plan is always to do this when the spirit is
stronger than 20 u.p.
“By means of the ebullioscope the alcoholic
content of beer, wines, and spirits, of every
variety and class, may be readily determined
with sufficient accuracy for all practical pur.
poses; and by methods which we shall here.
after point out, the amount of saccharine ex:
tractive, or sugar, in cordialised spirit, malt
liquors and wines, may also be ascertained.
“The ebullioscope (Field's ALCOHOLOMETER)
employed by us in numerous and extensive
investigations connected with public hygiène,
was made by Mr. Long, of Little Tower Street,
and is an instrument which should be in the
hands of every wine and spirit merchant and
licensed victualler, as well as every private
gentleman who feels interested in the quality
of the liquors in his cellar. The instrument
is accompanied by a useful little pamphlet
of directions and tables, which has been very
accurately got up, as we understand, by the
late Dr. Ure, expressly for Mr. Long.” (A. J.
Cooley.)

EDULCORATION.—EGG.
425
EDULCORATION. The affusion of water on
any substance for the purpose of removing the
portion soluble in that fluid. Edulcoration is
usually performed by agitating or triturating
the article with water, and removing the
latter, after subsidence, by decantation or fil-
tration. It is the method commonly adopted
to purify precipitates and other powders which
are insoluble in water. The washing-bottle is
a most useful instrument for the edulcoration
of precipitates. In its simplest form, it is a
bottle fitted with two bent glass tubes, one
drawn to a fine point and reaching to the
bottom of the bottle, the other only entering
the cork a few inches. By blowing down the
latter tube, the water is forced out of the
former in a fine stream.
EEL. Syn. ANGUILLA, L. A family of
fishes belonging to the “apodal’ section of the
malacopterygii. At least three species of eels
are found in this country—the ‘sharp-nosed,’
the ‘broad-nosed,’ and the ‘snig.” The first,
which is common in streams and lakes, attains
the greatest size—sometimes 25 lbs. or even
30 lbs. The ‘snig" is considered superior to
other kinds for the table. As articles of food,
eels are said to be laxative and far from whole-
Some. The fat (EEL FAT; ADEPS ANGUILLE,
OLEUM. A.) is among the simples of the Ph. L.
1618, and was formerly considered ‘good
against stripes,’ and is even now used by the
vulgar as a friction for stiff joints. For the
table, eels are generally dressed by stewing,
frying, baking, or potting, which is done in the
usual way, the fish being cut into pieces 2 or
3 inches long, and melted butter, onions, sweet
herbs, and anchovy sauce, added at will. The
CONGER EEL is a distinct and gigantic species
of the same family. Its flesh is coarse and
oily, but is much esteemed by the inhabitants
of the southern coast of Devon, on which it
abounds.
EFFERVES/CENCE. The rapid escape of
gas in small bubbles from a liquid. See
DRAUGHT, POWDER, &c.
EFFLORES/CENCE. The spontaneous con-
version of a crystalline solid into a dry pul-
verulent form. Crystals which in a dry atmo-
sphere lose their water of crystallisation, and
become crusted over with a mealy powder, are
said to be EFFLORESCENT.
EGG. Syn. Ovu M, L. A body produced in
the females of birds and certain other animals,
containing an ‘embryo’ of the same species, or
body, from which a similar animal may ulti-
mately be produced. The eggs of the common
domestic fowl are nutritious and easily di-
gestible; and when lightly cooked by boiling,
and eaten with a little salt, are admirably
adapted as an aliment for the sick and delicate.
When boiled hard or fried, they are rendered
less digestible, and possess no advantage in
this respect over butcher's meat. A new-laid
egg, beaten up in a cup of tea, coffee, or choco-
late, is an excellent ingredient in the breakfast
of a person with a poor appetite, and is very
supporting. A glass of wine, beer, or porter,
similarly treated, along with a biscuit, has been
recommended as a light and nutritious lun-
cheon or supper, well suited to the debilitated
and dyspeptic. Raw eggs may be advantage-
ously substituted for cod-liver oil in all the
cases in which this last is ordered, occurring
in persons with delicate or irritable stomachs.
The addition of fresh salad oil vastly increases
their medicinal virtues. A fresh egg is said to
contain about the same amount of nourishment
as 1% oz. of fresh meat and 1 oz. of wheaten
bread, but in a more digestible form.
Egg, White of (ALBUMEN Ovi), is officinal in
the B. P. Yelk of egg (vitellus ovi) is an in-
gredient in the BRANDY MIXTURE (MISTURA
SPIRITUS VINI GALLICI) of the London College.
It is also a popular application to chaps, cracked
nipples, abrasions, &c., and is largely used to
render oleaginous substances miscible with
water, in the preparation of emulsions.
The average weight of the new-laid egg of a
hen is about 2% oz., and its sp. gr. is 1.080 to
1090; the white generally weighs about 1% oz. ;
the yolk, a little under ; oz.; and the shell
and skin, # oz. Dr. Prout found that an egg,
on being kept for 2 years in a dry situation,
lost 544 ºr grs., from the evaporation of a
portion of its water through the shell. By
boiling in water an egg loses from 2% to 3% of
its weight.
Choice. The larger end of a new-laid egg
feels cold when placed against the tongue.
New-laid eggs appear semi-transparent when
placed between the eye and a strong light, and
have a small and perceptible division of the
skin from the shell, which is filled with air.
This mode of examination among the trade is
called “candling.” When they shake they are
stale. The eggs of turkeys and pea-hens are
much esteemed for some purposes; those of
ducks and geese are coarse and inferior.
Pres. Eggs may be preserved for any length
of time by excluding them from the air. One
of the cleanest and easiest methods of doing
this is to pack them with the small end down-
wards, in clean dry salt, in barrels or tubs, and
to place them in a cool and dry situation. We
have eaten eggs thus preserved that were more
than a twelvemonth old, and that had been
for some months on shipboard, in a tropical
climate, and which yet retained all the peculiar
sweetness of new-laid eggs. With a like in-
tention, eggs are placed in vessels containing
milk of lime, or strong brine, or are rubbed over
with butter, lard, or gum water, all of which
act by excluding the air. Eggs for keeping
should never be laid on their sides, and when
kept in the air should be occasionally turned
to prevent the yolk attaching itself to the
side, instead of floating in the albumen. Some
persons place the eggs in a netting, or on a
sieve or colander, and immerse them for an
instant in a caldron of boiling water, before
packing them away. The practice of packing
eggs in damp straw, or anything else that can


426
ELAIDINE–ELATERIUM.
convey a flavour, should be carefully avoided.
The shells of eggs are porous, and readily
admit the passage of gaseous substances, espe-
cially of fetid odours. It is from inattention
to this point that a large portion of the eggs
imported from the coast of France have a less
delicate flavour than those of our poultry
yards. Damp chopped straw, as well as most
other organic substances exposed to warmth
and moisture, readily ferment or putrefy ; and
during fermentation a considerable increase of
temperature takes place, as any one may
readily perceive by examining the common
hotbeds in our gardens, which are merely
masses of organic matter in a state of decom-
position. Eggs, as long as they retain the
embryo of the future chick, in a vital state,
possess in themselves a certain degree of
warmth, which tends materially to promote
the decomposition of the substances they are
packed in, particularly in the presence of
moisture.
Egg, Elastic. Take a good and sound egg,
place it in strong vinegar, and allow it to
remain for 12 hours; it will then become
quite soft and elastic. In this state it can be
squeezed into a tolerably wide-mouthed bottle;
when in, it must be covered with water,
having a little soda dissolved in it. In a few
hours the egg will be restored to nearly its
original solidity; after which the liquid may
be poured off, and the bottle dried, the whole
being kept as a curiosity to puzzle one’s
friends for an explanation how the egg got
there. (“Parlour Pastime.”)
Egg Flip. Prep. 1. Beer, 1 pint; eggs, 3
in no. ; sugar, 2 oz. ; nutmeg and ginger, q. S.
to flavour; the eggs are broken into one half
of the beer, the sugar added, and the whole
beaten well together; the mixture is then
placed in a clean warmer. and heated over
the fire to nearly the boiling-point, and stirred
one way all the time, care being taken not to
let it either boil or curdle; the other portion
of the beer and the spices are then added, and
the whole mixed well together. -
2. As above, but adding a glass of spirit.
Some persons also add a little lemon peel.
Egg, Glaire of Prep. Separate the whites
from the yolks, and whisk them to a froth,
let them stand 24 hours, and strain them
through muslim.
by bookbinders and others.
Egg, Liquid. Prep. (Jayne.) From lime,
1 bushel (slaked with water); common salt,
2 or 3 lbs.; cream of tartar, lb. ; water, q. s.
to form a mixture strong enough to float an
egg. Used to preserve eggs, which it is stated
it will do for two years, by simply keeping
them in it. Once patented. Simple milk of
lime answers quite as well.
Egg Wine, As egg flip, but using equal
parts of white wine and water, instead of
beer.
ELA'IDINE. A fatty compound of elaidic
acid and glycerin, formed by the action of
Used as a glaze or varnish |#
nitrous acid or nitrate of mercury on olive oil.
It is neutral; melts at 90°Fahr. ; and is very
soluble in ether, scarcely so in alcohol. It is
one of the components of CITRINE OLNTMENT,
By saponification it is resolved into its two
constituents.
ELA'IN. See OLEIN.
ELAIOM'ETER. Syn. OLEOM'ETER. An
instrument for ascertaining the specific gravity
of oils. See HYDROMETER and OIL.
ELAL/DEHYD. A peculiar crystalline
substance which forms in ALDEHYD when
kept for some weeks at a temperature of 82°
Fahr. It melts into a colourless liquid at
about 38°, in which state it is miscible with
water, alcohol, and ether. It is isomeric with
aldehyd, but its vapour has about three times
the density of that substance, whilst it neither
combines with ammonia nor comports itself
with potassa and solution of silver like aldé.
hyd.
ELAOPTENE. See OIL (Volatile).
ELAT'ERIN. Syn. MoMoRDICINE. The
active principle of ELATERIUM. It was dis.
covered by Dr. Clutterbuck in 1819, but first
obtained in a state of purity in 1830, by the
late Mr. Hennel.
Prep. 1. (Dr. Morries.) Elaterium is di.
gested in hot alcohol, the resulting tincture
filtered, evaporated to the consistence of thin
oil, and then thrown into boiling distilled
water. When the whole is cold, the precipi.
tate is collected and purified by redissolving
it in alcohol and precipitation by water, as
before.
2. (Hennel.) The alcoholic extract of ela.
terium is digested in ether, and the residuum
dissolved in hot alcohol; crystals form as the
solution cools.
3. An alcoholic tincture is evaporated to
the consistence of a syrup, and thrown into a
mixture of equal parts of liquor of potassa and
water at a boiling temperature. Almost pure
elaterin separates as the liquid cools,
Obs. Elaterin forms delicate, white, silky
crystals, having a bitter taste ; it is fusible at
about 365° Fahr.; tastes bitter; odourless;
neutral; insoluble in water ; and dissolves
readily in hot alcohol. Its medicinal action
is similar to that of elaterium, differing
only in its greater activity.—Dose. Tº gr, to

ºr gr. ".
ELATER/IUM. Syn. SQUIRTING CUCUMBER
In pharmacy, “the fresh unripe fruit' of the
wild cucumber, Ecbalium officinarum —
Richard,” Ph. L. (Momordica Elaterium,
Linn.). According to present usage, the word
is more generally applied to the feculence de-
posited from the juice of the wild cucumber,
It is thus applied in Ph. E. & D. (See
below.)
Elaterium. B. P. Syn. ExTRACT OF ELATE-
RIUM, E. OF SQUIRTING CUCUMBER; EXTRAC-
TUM ELATERII (Ph. L.), ELATERIUM (Ph. E.
& D.), L. The feculence of the juice of the
above fruit."
ELDER—ELECTRIC.
427
Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Slice wild cucumber
before it is quite ripe in the long direction,
and strain the juice, very gently expressed,
through a fine hair sieve; then set it aside for
Some hours, until the thicker part has subsided.
The thinner supernatant fluid being rejected,
dry the thicker portion with a gentle heat.
The processes of the other colleges are essen-
tially the same."
2. (Dr. Clutterbuck.) The cucumbers (fully
ripe) are cut longitudinally, and sprinkled
with cold water, and the juice allowed to strain
through a fine sieve into an earthenware vessel.
The seeds and surrounding pulp are next placed
on the sieve, with the split fruit, and washed
repeatedly with cold water. The washings
being received in the same vessel with the
juice, the whole is allowed to repose for a few
hours, when the clear portion is decanted and
the sediment spread thinly on fine linen, and
dried by exposure to the air and a gentle heat,
avoiding the sunshine or a bright light.
Quality very fine. Forty fruits, by this pro-
cess, yield only 6 grs. of elaterium.
3. (Apothecaries’ Hall.) The fruit, slit
into halves, is placed in hempen or horsehair
bags, and submitted to slight pressure in a
tincture press. The juice, as it runs off, passes
through a fine hair sieve into a cylindrical
glass jug or jar, where it is allowed to remain
for two hours, when the clear supernatant
liquor is poured off, and the thick portion con-
taining the sediment is poured on a paper
filter, supported on linen, and allowed to drain,
after which it is dried by a gentle heat in a
stove. The product has a green colour, and
constitutes the finest elaterium of commerce.
A darker and inferior article is obtained from
the liquor, poured from the first sediment by
placing it in shallow pans, and allowing it
again to deposit.
Prop., &c. Flaterium is sold in thin cakes,
and when pure has a pale-gray or greenish-
gray colour, floats on water, is easily pulverised
by pressure, and forms with rectified spirit a
rich, green-coloured tincture. Elaterium ob-
tained as a second deposit (ELATERIUM NI-
GRUM), is dark and inferior. Alcohol dissolves
from 50% to 60% of good elaterium. “When
exhausted by rectified spirit, the solution,
concentrated, and poured into hot dilute so-
lution of potassa, deposits, on cooling, minute
silky, colourless crystals (of ELATERIN),
weighing from ºth to 4th of the elaterium
operated on.” (Ph. E.)
Obs. To procure a fine sample of elaterium,
it is necessary to remove it as soon as it is
deposited, as a heavy mucilage falls down soon
afterwards, which materially injures its quality
and appearance. English elaterium is the
1. At the Mitcham Gardens, elaterium is manufactured
in much the same way, only that considerable force is
used in the expression of the juice, and the product there-
fore less potent, though more in quantity. The manu-
facture usually commences about the second Week in
September. (Dr. Royle.)
best. The foreign is uniformly adulterated
with chalk or starch, and coloured with sap
green.
Dose. # gr. to # gr., formed into a pill with
extract of gentian and liquorice powder; as a
hydragogue and cathartic in dropsies, twice a
day, repeated every other day for a week or
ten days. Its use must be avoided when there
is much debility or any inflammatory symp-
toms. Larger doses than . gr. of pure ela-
terium are poisonous. The antidotes are
emetics, followed by demulcents, opium, and
stimulants.
EL/DER. Syn. SAMBUCUs (Ph.L. & E.), L.
A large shrub or small tree belonging to the
natural order Caprifoliaceae. It is indigenous
in Europe, and has long been valued for its
medicinal properties. “The recent flowers of
the Sambucus migra” (Ph. L.) or common elder
are regarded as diaphoretic and pectoral, and a
distilled water (ELDER-FLOWER WATER; AQUA
SAMBUCI) is made of them. The inner bark
of the same tree is purgative and emetic, and
is used in dropsy; the leaves are purgative;
the juice of the fresh berries is made into wine
(ELDER WINE), and is largely used to make
FACTITIOUS PORT WINE, and to adulterate the
real wine. See WATERS (Distilled).
ELECAMPANE'. Syn. INULA (Ph. L.), L.
“The root of Inula Helenium” (Ph. L.). A
plant of the nat. order Compositae. Tonic,
diaphoretic, and expectorant.—Dose. 20 grs. to
1 dr., or more, either in the form of powder or
decoction; in catarrh, dyspepsia, &c. It is now
seldom used.
ELECTRIC. Syn. ELECTRICAL. Exhibit-
ing the effects of ELECTRICITY when ‘excited ”
by friction; pertaining to, derived from, or
produced by electricity.
Electric. Syn. INSULATOR, NON-CONDUC-
TOR. A substance which may under ordinary
circumstances be readily made to evince elec-
trical properties by friction. Electrics do not
transmit, or conduct, electricity; whilst, on
the other hand, ANELECTRICS are good trans-
mitters or conductors of electrical action. The
most perfect electrics are shell-lac, sulphur,
amber, jet, resinous bodies, gums, gun-cotton,
glass, silk, diamond, agate, and tourmaline;
dry fur, hair, wood, feathers, and paper; tur-
pentine and various oils; dry atmospheric air
and other gases, steam of high elasticity, and
ice at 0°Fahr. The most perfect anelectrics
or conductors are the metals, charcoal, and
saline fluids.
Electric Eel. The Gynotus electricus, a fish
having the power of giving violent electric
“shocks'; which power it exerts for killing or
stunning its prey. It is an inhabitant of the
fresh-water lakes and rivers of the warmer
regions of America, Africa, and Asia.
Electrical Machine. An instrument for the
excitation and collection of electricity. The
term is only applied to contrivances in which
friction is the immediate cause of the electrical
disturbance; those which act through chemical



428
ELECTRICITY –ELECTROPHORUS.
force, magnetism, or heat, being known by
various distinctive names, as ‘voltaic battery,’
‘electro-magnetic machine,’ ‘induction-coil,’
“thermo-electric pile,’ &c.
The electrical machines in common use are
composed of a hollow glass cylinder, or circular
plate of glass, turning on an axis, and rubbing
against two or more leather rubbers covered
with silk, the electricity being collected by
sharp points fixed in a metal rod standing on
a glass pillar. A description of these instru-
ments, however, would be out of place in the
present work, which does not aim at giving
information that may be easily obtained from
other sources.
Cylinder machines are seldom made of
greater size than 13 inches by 9, and are about
as powerful as an 18-inch plate machine. The
latter are commonly made up to 3 and 4 feet
diameter, and will, with a suitable condenser,
give 15-inch sparks in air.
ELECTRI''CITY(-tris'-it-e). The name given
primarily to one of the great forces of nature,
and secondarily to that department of physical
science which embraces all that is known re-
specting this particular force. Many theories
respecting the nature of electricity have been
advanced for the purpose of explaining elec-
trical phenomena. The theory of Dr. Frank-
lin supposed the existence of a single homo-
geneous, imponderable fluid, of extreme tenuity
and elasticity, in a state of equable distribution
throughout the material world. This fluid is
assumed to be repulsive of its own particles,
but attractive of all other matter. When dis-
tributed in bodies, in quantities proportionate
to their capacities or attraction for it, such
bodies are said to be in their “natural state.’
When we increase or diminish the natural
quantity of electricity in any substance, excita-
tion is the result, and the substance, if “over-
charged,” is said to be electrified “positively;’
or if ‘undercharged,” “negatively.” These
theories, and all others based upon the assump-
tion that electricity is a form of matter, have
been found to be inadequate for the elucidation
of electrical phenomena.
At the present day, however, two kinds of
electric forces are recognised, and distinguished
as negative and positive, but they are both
assumed to be analogous in principle, and very
generally assumed to be simply due to different
analogous motions of matter. For a full expo-
sition, however, the reader must refer to some
of the especial works on the subject.
ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. That branch of
chemistry which treats of the agency of elec-
tricity in effecting chemical changes.
ELECTRO-ETCH/ING. See ETCHING.
ELECTROL'YSIS (-tröl'-e-sis). Electro-che-
mical decomposition. The voltaic current has
the power of loosening and separating the
constituents of certain compound bodies when
these are interposed in the circuit. The sub-
stances which are thus susceptible of decom-
position are termed electrolytes, They are all
binary compounds, containing single equiva.
lents of their components, which are held toge.
ther by very powerful affinities. The amount
of electrical power required to effect decompo-
sition varies greatly with different electrolyſes:
solution of iodide of potassium, melted chloride
of lead, hydrochloric acid, water mixed with a
little sulphuric acid, and pure water, demand
very different degrees of decomposing force,
the resistance increasing from the first-men.
tioned substance to the last, which latter it
has been denied can be decomposed. One of
the indispensable conditions of electrolysis is
fluidity. When a liquid is electrolysed its
components are disengaged solely at the limit.
ing surfaces, where, according to the usual
figurative mode of speech, the current enters
and leaves the liquid, all the intermediate por.
tions appearing quiescent. The terms ‘anode
and “cathode’ have been proposed respectively
for the surfaces which are supposed to receive
and let out the current of positive electricity,
The anode is therefore directly against or oppº.
site the positive pole of the battery, or, accord.
ing to the improved nomenclature, the positive
electrode; and the cathode against the nega.
tive pole, or electrode. The bodies which are
set free by the action of the current are termed
ions; those which go to the anode and appear at
the positive electrode being distinguished by
the term anions, and those which go to the
cathode and appear at the negative electrode
by the term cathions. This nomenclature has
however, been but partially adopted, and is
making but slow way, if any, many preferring
the old terms of electro-positive for anions,
and electro-negative for cathions.
The relative decomposing effects produced
by the same current in different electrolytes
are exactly expressed by the chemical equiva.
lents of the electrolytes. Thus, if a current
be made to traverse acidulated water, iodide of
potassium, and chloride of lead, these three
electrolytes will suffer decomposition at the
same time, but by no means to the same ex:
tent; for the current which decomposes but!
parts of water will separate into their elements
166 parts of iodide of potassium and 139 parts
of chloride of lead. The electrolysis of metal.
lic salts is now carried out on a large scale in
the beautiful arts, which we notice under the
general head of ELECTROTYPE.
ELECTRO-PIA/TING and GILD’ING, Seº
ELECTROTYPE.
ELECTROPH'ORUS. A simple instrument
for exciting electricity, generally used in the
chemical laboratory for charging small Ley.
den jars when gases have to be exploded by
the electric spark. To construct it, a plate of
tinned iron is made into a circle of about 12
inches diameter; a raised border is then turned
up for about half an inch, and the extreme
edge is turned outwards over a wire to avoid
a sharp border. A mixture of equal parts by
weight of shell-lac, Venice turpentine, and
resin, is made by gently heating them together
ELECTROTYPE.
429
with stirring until well fused and thoroughly
incorporated. This composition is poured into
the plate, to quite fill it, and kept melted
until all bubbles have disappeared. Another
portion of the instrument, serving the same
purpose as the conductor of an electric ma-
chine, is a circle of wood, rather smaller than
the resinous plate, rounded at the edge, and
neatly covered with tin-foil. An insulating
handle, formed of a piece of stout glass rod, is
cemented into the centre of this wooden disc.
Before using the instrument it must be care-
fully dried and slightly warmed. The re-
sinous surface is excited by beating it ob-
liquely with a folded piece of warm flannel.
When this has been done for about a minute,
the warm, dry cover of the instrument is to
be placed upon the resinous plate, and touched
with the finger. If the cover is then raised
a few inches, and the knuckle approached, a
powerful spark of positive electricity will
pass; and if the cover be again replaced,
touched, and raised, a second spark will pass.
This may be repeated many times without
again exciting the resinous plate. By receiving
the sparks with the knobs of a Leyden jar,
a charge strong enough to give a powerful
shock, or explode a gaseous mixture, may be
rapidly obtained. Other forms have been
given to the instrument, but the essential part
of every one is a plate of some resinous sub-
stance.
ELECTROTYPE. Syn. ELECTRO-MET’AL-
LURGY, GALVAN'o-PLASTIC. The art of work-
ing in metals by the aid of electricity. Strictly
speaking, the term electrotype is only appli-
cable to one branch of ‘electro-metallurgy —
that which relates to the production of copies
of engraved plates, medals, coins, and other
works—but it is now commonly employed in the
sense indicated by our definition. According
to this extended signification of the term, the
art of electrotype includes ELECTRO-PLATING
and ELECTRO-GILDING.
General principles.—If a current from a
voltaic battery be passed, by means of plati-
num electrodes, through water to which some
sulphuric acid has been added, electrolysis
takes place, hydrogen appearing at the cathode,
and oxygen at the anode. If into the acid
liquid some crystals of sulphate of copper be
now thrown, electrolysis will still go on, but
only one of the elements of the water, namely,
Oxygen, will be evolved; for the hydrogen, on
being released, will take the place of the copper
in the solution, and the copper thus liberated
will be deposited on the platinum plate or
wire which constitutes the negative electrode.
This experiment may be continued until all
the copper is abstracted from the solution.
Let this experiment be repeated with a copper
plate for the positive electrode, and it will be
found that neither of the gases will be evolved.
The hydrogen, as before, will take the place of
the copper in the solution; the oxygen, instead
of escaping at the anode, will combine with
the copper of the electrode and the sulphuric
acid to form sulphate of copper. The chemical
forces called into action by the current are so
beautifully balanced, that in the last experi-
ment the quantity of copper supplied by the
positive electrode exactly equals the quantity
withdrawn from the solution and deposited
upon the negative electrode. The whole art of
electrotype consists in applying the metals
thus released from their solutions to artistic
or useful purposes. To obtain compact and
brilliant deposits, many precautions have to be
observed. The solutions must be kept satu-
rated, or nearly so; the mould to be copied, or
object to be coated, must not be too small in
proportion to the size of the zinc plate of the
battery; in fine, the power employed must be
carefully regulated according to the work to
be done. In all arrangements the moulds or
objects which receive the deposits act as ne-
gative electrodes, and are consequently in
connection with the zinc of the battery or
generating cell.
Blectrotype processes. Although reguline de-
posits of many metals can be obtained through
the agency of voltaic electricity, we shall only
treat of those of copper, silver, gold, and
platinum. When copper is deposited, the
object is generally to produce a substantial
copy of a medal, an engraved plate, or other
work of art ; but when solutions containing
the precious metals are electrolysed, the de-
posits are nearly always used for covering the
surface of inferior metals. We shall notice
the operations connected with the deposition
of copper, and those relating to electro-plating
under separate heads.
1. DEPOSITION OF COPPER:-
The moulds or models intended to receive
the deposited metal may be formed of various
materials. For medals and similar small
works, moulds of fusible metal, white wax,
stearine, stearic acid, and gutta percha, are
commonly used. The first are formed by
dropping or pressing the medals to be copied
upon the melted metal, taking care that
the former are quite cold, and that the
surface of the metal is bright or free from
oxide. To make a mould in gutta percha,
the material must be softened in warm
water, and then pressed upon the medal by
means of a strong screw press. With the
other materials the manipulation is very
easy. A ribbon of cardboard or thick paper
is placed round the medal, so as to form a
rim ; the material, which has been melted
in an earthen vessel, is then poured on, and
allowed to remain until quite cold and hard,
when it is cautiously removed. For large
works, moulds of plaster of Paris are usually
employed ; these require to be saturated
with wax or tallow, by standing them in
a shallow vessel containing these substances
in a melted state. For copying seals and
small coins, impressions in ordinary sealing-
wax may be used as electrotype moulds. Non-

430
ELECTROTYPE.
metallic moulds must be coated with some
substance which has the property of con-
ducting electricity, before they can be used as
negative electrodes. The substance commonly
employed is plumbago or black-lead. It must
be in the condition of an impalpable powder.
It is rubbed briskly over the surface of the
mould (wax, stearine, plaster, &c.) by means
of a strong, fine camel-hair brush, till the whole
presents the well-known black-lead polish. The
adhesion of the plumbago may be often pro-
moted by breathing slightly on the mould.
To cause it to adhere to sealing-wax impres-
sions, the wax may be slightly moistened with:
spirits of wine, or exposed to the vapour of
ether. Delicate moulds and objects, which
cannot well be black-leaded, may becovered with
a conducting film of silver, by first dipping them
in bisulphuret of carbon holding about ºf th
part of phosphorus in solution, and then, after
a few seconds, immersing them in a weak
solution of nitrate of silver, and allowing them
to dry in the light. Metallic moulds require
no preparation.
The voltaic apparatus used may now be
described. The single-cell arrangement, used
for small works, is formed on the principle of
Daniell’s Constant Battery. It consists of a
vessel of glass, earthenware, or wood, containing
a smaller cell of thin biscuit ware, or other
porous material; a rod or plate of amalgamated
zinc, placed within the porous cell, and a wire
connecting the zinc with the mould to be
copied; the latter being placed in the outer
vessel. The annexed figure represents a con-
venient form of the single-cell:—
a. An oval vessel of salt-glazed earthenware or wood
nearly filled with a saturated solution of sulphate of
copper.
b. A porous diaphragm, containing the cylinder or plate
of zinc (c), and filled with dilute sulphuric acid.
d. A small bar of brass or copper, fastened to the vessel
by the binding screws (e, e), and supporting the plate
of zinc (c), by the hook of copper wire (f), and the
mould (g), by the hook (h).
i. A small shelf or partition to support crystals of sul-
phate of copper, to keep up the strength of the solu-
tioni.
The battery arrangement has many advan-
tages over that described above, and should
always be employed when large objects are to
be electrotyped, or when a number of small
moulds are to be operated upon. In this
arrangement the copper solution is electrolysed
in a separate vessel, termed the decomposition
cell, and the current generated by one or more
cells of a Daniell’s or Smee's battery. This
arrangement is shown in the following en.
graving :—
a. A constant battery cell.
b. Decomposition cell; a cubical vessel made of wood or
earthenware, and filled with a mixture of 1 part of
dilute sulphuric acid (1 acid + 9 water), and 2 parts
of saturated solution of sulphate of copper, by
measure. -
c, c, c. Moulds suspended to the brass rod (f), and COm.
nected with the zinc or positive element of the battery
(a), by means of the screw (g).
d, d. Pieces of sheet copper suspended on the brass rol
(h), and connected with the zinc end of the battery,
by means of the screw (i), employed to keep up the
* of the cupreous solution in the decomposi.
tion cell.
To connect the moulds with the zinc or
positive element, stout copper wires or strips
of thin sheet copper are employed. In the
case of a non-metallic mould, the wire must
lead directly to the plumbagoed surface, Or,
what amounts to the same thing, the plum.
bago must be extended to the point of attach:
ment. The connecting wires, and the backs
and edges of metallic moulds, must be covered
with sealing-wax varnish, or other non-COM.
ducting substance, to prevent them receiving
the deposit. Before a mould is placed in the
copper solution it is advisable that everything
should be arranged, so that the immersion
may occasion immediate voltaic action. If
the connection between the zinc and the mould
is not effected until after the immersion, the
solution may act chemically on the surface of
the mould, and cause the deposit to appear
dark and dirty. When a mould has remained
in the solution long enough to receive a com:
plete coating of copper, it may be lifted out
with impunity for examination. If every.
thing is going on well, the deposited metal will
present a brilliant, light, copper-coloured sur.
face. When sufficiently thick, the deposit is
removed with care, washed, and placed to dry,
Etlectrotype medals may be polished with
wash-leather and the plate brush, or bronzed.
Various natural objects, such as insects, fruits,
&c.; small works of art, such as busts and
statuettes; chemical vessels, particularly glass
flasks and retorts; and numerous classes of
articles, may be rendered less fragile by coat.
ing them with copper by the electrotype
process.
II. DEPOSITION
TALS -—
The solutions generally employed as elec.
trolytes from which silver and gold are respec.
tively separated, are those of the argent}
OF THE PRECIOUS ME-


ELECTROTYPE.
431
º
cyanide and the auro-cyanide of potassium.
These compounds are what chemists call double
salts; for instance, cyanide of potassium is
simply a compound of potassium and cyanogen;
but argento-cyanide of potassium is cyanide
of silver united with cyanide of potassium.
When a solution of this double salt is electro-
lysed silver appears at one electrode and cya-
nogen at the other, while a proportionate
amount of the simple cyanide of potassium is
formed in the solution. But if the positive
electrode is of silver, the cyanogen combines
with it, and forms cyanide of silver, which
unites with the liberated cyanide of potassium,
and so keeps up the strength of the solution.
As in the deposition of copper, the appa-
ratus used for plating or gilding may be the
single cell or the decomposition cell and bat-
tery. The necessity of economising solutions
of silver and gold has, however, led to certain
modifications in the apparatus. The single-
cell arrangement consists, as before (see above),
of an outer vessel of glass or earthenware,
containing a cell of porous biscuit ware; but
the object to be silvered or gilded is placed,
with the cyanide solution in the latter, while
the zinc is placed in the outer vessel, with the
dilute sulphuric acid." The zinc is usually em-
ployed in the form of a cylinder, completely
surrounding the porous cell. In the battery
arrangement the decomposition cell may be of
porcelain or glass; the silver or gold employed
to keep up the strength of the solution may
be in plates, wires, or ingots. . For plating
small objects, a single cell of a Daniell’s battery
will afford ample decomposing power; gilding
may be better accomplished by using 3 such
cells. The battery arrangement is much more
convenient, effective, and economical than the
single-cell arrangement.
On a large scale, electro-plating is carried
out in oblong vats, occasionally holding from
200 to 250 gallons of solution. Silver plates,
connected with a powerful voltaic or magneto-
electric battery, are placed at intervals in the
vats; they form the positive electrodes, and
correspond in extent of surface with the articles
to be coated, and face them on both sides.
The articles (tea-pots, cruet-frames, forks,
Spoons, &c.) act as the negātive electrodes,
and are suspended by copper wires from brass
rods laid lengthways over the vats, and con-
nected with the battery. The articles plated
are usually formed of nickel silver or German
silver, which is chosen on account of its silvery
whiteness, a quality of great importance when
portions of the coating of noble metal have
been worn away by use.
To prepare the articles for plating, they are
first boiled in a solution of potassa, to free them
from grease; they are then quickly dipped in
1 The strength of the acid water acting upon the zinc
must be regulated according to the work to be done. If
the action between the acid and the zinc be too emergetic,
the electricity developed will be more than sufficient to
red nitrous acid, to remove any oxide that may
have formed on the surface, and after this
well washed in water, to remove every trace of
acid. They are then suspended from copper
wires, and dipped into a solution of mercury in
cyanide of potassium, or some other mercurial
solution, and afterwards washed in water, as
before. The amalgamation of the surface
effected by the last operation promotes the
adhesion of the film of silver. The articles
having been weighed, are now immersed in the
silvering solution, and left until a sufficient
amount of silver has been deposited on them.
Their condition at any time may be ascertained
by weighing a test-object removed from the
solution. In some electro-plating establish-
ments the silvering solution is kept constantly
stirred by simple mechanical arrangements;
in others, continual motion is given to the sus-
pended articles. On being removed from the
vats the plated articles are well brushed with
brushes of fine brass wire attached to a lathe,
and cleaned with fine Calais sand; they are
afterwards polished on revolving brushes with
rottenstone, then by hand with soft leather and
rouge, and, lastly, with the naked female hand.
A lasting polish is given to some articles by
burnishing with a burnisher formed of highly
polished hardened steel, bloodstone, agate, or
flint. The process of electro-gilding on the
large scale is nearly the same as that of electro-
plating or silvering, but, of course, plates of
gold are suspended in the solution instead of
silver plates.
Various solutions for silvering, plating, and
platinising, have been recommended. We give
below those generally employed.
1. Solvent solution. Cyanide of potassium,
2 oz. ; distilled water or rain water, 1 pint ;
dissolve. Other proportions may be employed.
Used as a general solvent for salts of silver,
gold, and platinum.
2. Silver solution. Oxide of silver ?” (not
dried), 1 oz. ; the solvent solution (No. 1), 1
pint. Used for the single-cell apparatus; its
strength being maintained as the deposition
proceeds by a fresh supply of oxide from time
to time.
Cyanide of silver dissolved in solvent solu-
tion (No. 1). This is the solution generally
employed for plating with a separate decompo-
sition cell.
3. Gold solution. Add to a pint of No. 1
oxide of gold, 3 oz. Used in the same manner
as the second silver solution.
Cyanide of gold dissolved in solution of
cyanide of potassium (No. 1). Used as last.
4. Platinum solution. The double chloride
of platinum and potassium, dissolved in solu-
tion of caustic potassa. Other solutions have
been proposed, but this appears to be decom:
posed with the greatest ease.
The above sketch of the electrotype art is
* Precipitated from pure solution of nitrate of silver by

release pure metal, and hydrogen will be evolved, which
will interfere with the deposition.
exeess of lime water. It should be well washed, and pre-
served in bottles with distilled water.

432
ELECTUARY.
necessarily very imperfect. For minute de-
tails respecting manipulation, the reader is
referred to the excellent treatises on the subject
that have been written.
ELECTUARY. Syn. ELECTUARIUM, L.
Electuaries (ELECTUARIA) are formed of light
powders, generally vegetable, mixed up with
honey, syrup, or sugar, to the consistence of a
stiff paste. In the present Pharmacopoeia they
are included under the title Confection, but
this arrangement is manifestly improper, as
the words are not synonymous. In Conserves
and Confections, the addition of the saccha-
rine matter is in much larger proportion,
and is designed to preserve the vegetable
matter; in Electuaries, the syrup is designed
merely to communicate the required form.
(Dr. Murray.)
The preparation of electuaries is similar to
that of confections and conserves, and the
same precautions must be observed to reduce
the dry ingredients to very fine powder before
adding them to the syrup or other substances
used to give them form. Care must also be
taken to diffuse the ingredients equally through
every portion of the mass, by patient and
laborious stirring. The neglect of this point
has often led to disagreeable consequences,
from some portion of the electuary being
nearly inert, while another portion has pos-
sessed increased activity. See CoNFECTION,
CONSERVE, LINCTUS, &c.
Electuary of Ac'etate of Potassa. See CoN-
SERVE.
Electuary of Al'um. Syn. ELECTUARIUM
ALUMINIS, L. Prep. 1. (Phoebus.) Alum,
1 dr. ; extract of logwood, 4 drs. ; balsam of
Peru, 6 drops; water of sage, q. s. Astringent
and antiseptic; in diarrhoea, sponginess of the
gums, &c.
2. (St. Marie.) Alum, 1 dr. ; catechu and
extract of bark, of each, 2 drs. ; conserve of
roses, 6 drs. ; simple syrup, q. S.—Dose. A tea-
spoonful, every 4 hours; in chronic diarrhoea,
leucorrhoea, haemorrhages, &c. See CONFEC-
TION. -
Electuary, Anſodyne. Syn. ELECTUARIUM
ANODYNUM, L. Prep. See CoNFECTION OF
OPIUM.
Electuary, Arabic. Syn. ELECTUARIUM
SARZAE COMPOSITUM, E. ARABICUM, L.; ELEC-
TUAIRE ARABIQUE, Fr. Prep. From Sarsa-
parilla, 5 oz. ; senna and China root, of each,
3 oz. ; dried walnut peel, 1 oz. (all in fine pow-
der); honey, q. s.-Dose. 1 to 4 drs. See
TRAITEMENT ARABIQUE.
Electuary, Aromatic. Syn. ELECTUARIUM
AROMATICUM (Ph. E.). This preparation differs
from the aromatic confection of the other
British colleges, in mot containing chalk. It
is aromatic and stomachic, but not antacid or
absorbent. See CONFECTION.
Electuary, Bath. Syn. ELECTUARIUM ANTI-
CACHECTICUM, E. MARTIALE, E. FERRI com-
POSITUM, L. Prep. From blacksmiths' clinkers,
reduced to an impalpable powder, and made
into an electuary with honey or treacle, q, S.;
afterwards adding powdered ginger and car.
bonate of magnesia, of each, 1 oz., to every lb.
of the mixture.—Dose. A teaspoonful night
and morning every day, for 3 or 4 days, and
again, after an equal interval, as long as
thought necessary; as a chalybeate tonic, and
in worms.
Electuary of Bitar/trate of Potas'sa, Sſº,
ELECTUARIUM POTASSE TARTRATIS, L. Prep,
(Monro.) Cream of Tartar, 1 oz. ; powdered
ginger and conserve of roses, of each, 1 dr.;
syrup of orange peel, q. S.–Dose. 1 to 3 drs;
as a hydragogue purge. It is also a useful
laxative in common cases. See CONFECTION
OF CREAM OF TARTAR.
Electuary, Black. Syn. TROUSSEAU's ELEC.
TUARY, TROUSSEAU’s BLACK TONIC; ELEC.
TUARIUM NIGRUM, E. FERRI TANNATIS, L,
Prep. From sesquichloride of iron, 4 dis;
tannin, 1 dr. ; confection of roses, 2 oz. ; syrup
of orange peel, 1 oz. Tonic and astringent,
—Dose. 5 to 30 grs.
Electuary of Black Pep'per.
TION OF PEPPER.
Electuary of Burnt Sponge. Syn. ELECTU:
ARIUM SPONGLE USTAE, L. Prep. (Hulse)
Burnt sponge, 10 grs.; rhubarb, 4 grs.; conserve
of roses, q. s. For a dose, to be taken night
and morning; in scrofula, glandular swelling;
&c. See CONFECTION OF SPONGE,
Electuary of Cas'sia. Syn. ELECTUARIUM
CASSIAE (Ph.D. 1826.), E. C. FISTULE (Ph.B.)
L. Prep. (Ph. D. 1826.) Fresh cassia pulp
and syrup of orange, of each, 3 lb.; mann,
2 oz. ; tamarind pulp, 1 oz. ; mix, and evapº.
rate to a proper consistence.—Dose. 2 drs, to
1 oz. ; as a gentle laxative for children, Or is
a vehicle for other cathartics. That of the
shops is commonly made with equal parts ºf
tamarind and cassia pulps, mixed with ºth of
manna, and flavoured with a few drops ºf
tincture of orange peel, without any evaporã.
tion. See CONFECTION.
Electuary of Cat'echu. Syn. ELECTUARIUM
CATECHU, CoNFECTIO C., C. JAPONICA, I,
Prep. (Ph. E.) Powdered catechu and kin)
of each, 4 oz. ; cinnamon and nutmegs, of each
See CONFEC.

1 oz. ; opium (dissolved in a little sherry), l;
dr. ; syrup of red roses (evaporated to the CON
sistence of honey), 1% pint.
and below.
See CoNFECTION,
Electuary of Catechu (Compound). Sº,
ELECTUARIUM CATECHU CowPosLTUM (Ph.D.)
See CoNFECTIONS. Both the above are astrin,
gent, aromatic, and anodyne.—Dose. 15 gr;
to 1 dr., or more; in diarrhoea, dysentery, &c.
Electuary, Cathar’tic. Syn. ELECTUARIUM
CATHARTICUM, L. Prep. 1. Confection ºf
senna, 1% oz. ; flowers of sulphur, 3 oz.; syrup
of roses or of orange peel, q. S.—Dose. A tº:
spoonful, 3 or 4 times a day, in piles; or, 2 to
3 teaspoonfuls, as a gentle laxative for females
and in skin diseases, gonorrhoea, &c. A mild
and excellent medicine. It may be safely
given in larger doses.
ELECTUARY.
433
2. (Brera.) Aloes, 8 grs. ; cream of tartar,
2 drs. ; honey, q. s. For a dose. In amenor-
rhoea, attributed to abdominal engorgement.
Electuary, Cephalic, Syn. ELECTUARIUM
CEPHALICUM, E. VALERIANE COMPOSITUM, L.
Prep. (Hosp. F.) Valerian root and mistletoe
of the oak, of each, 1 oz. ; honey, 1% oz. ; tinc-
ture of henbane, q. S. to make an electuary.
In nervous and rheumatic headache, &c.;
assisted by an aperient.
Electuary of Char'coal. Syn. ELECTUARIUM
CARBONIS, E. CARBONII, CONFECTIO C., L.
Prep. 1. (Hosp. F.) Confection of senna, 2
0Z.; fresh burnt charcoal, oz. ; carbonate of
Soda, # Oz. ; syrup of orange peel, q. S.
2. (Radius.) Electuary of senna, 2 oz. ;
powdered charcoal and carbonate of soda, of
each, 1 dr. Both the above are given in
obstinate constipation.—Dose. 1 to 3 teaspoon-
fuls twice a day. See Tooth ELECTUARY.
Electuary for Chol'era. Syn. ELECTUA-
RIUM ANTI-CHOLERICUM, L. The preparations
that come under this name are numerous, in-
cluding aromatic confection, and several like
absorbent or astringent preparations. This
name has been given to the American remedy
for cholera, noticed at page 335.
Electuary of Cincho'na Bark. Syn. ELEC-
TUARY OF BARK; ELECTUARIUM CINCHONE,
L. Prep. 1. From yellow bark and simple
syrup, of each, 1 oz. ; conserve of red roses
and confection of orange peel, of each, ; Oz,
Tonic and febrifuge.—Dose. 1 to 4 drs. ; in
debility, agues, &c.
2. (Radius.) Peruvian bark, 1 oz. ; syrup
of Orange peel, q. s.
teaspoonful or more, 3 or 4 times daily. (See
below.)
Electuary of Cinchoma (Compound). Syn.
ELECTUARIUM CINCHONE COMPOSITUM, L.
Prep. 1. (ACIDULATED,-Copland.) Yellow
bark, 1 oz. ; confection of roses, oz. ; diluted
sulphuric acid, 1 dr. ; syrup of ginger, 1};
0Z.
2. (ASTRINGENT, Saunders.) Powdered Pe-
ruvian bark, orange peel, and conserves of roses
and hips, of each, 6 drs. ; crabs’ eyes (or pre-
pared chalk), 2 drs. ; syrup of catechu, q. s.-
Dose. A teaspoonful, 2 or 3 times daily; in
chronic diarrhoea, &c.
3. (WITH CATECHU,-Pierquin.) Peruvian
bark, 1 oz. ; catechu and balsam of tolu, of
each, 1 dr. ; syrup of comfrey (Symphytum
ºfficinale, Linn.), q. S.–Dose. As the last;
in spitting of blood, haemorrhages, &c.
4. (WITH CLOVES,-Dewees.) Peruvian
bark, 2 oz. ; cloves, 1 dr. (better, 4 drs.); q
simple syrup, q. s. A piece the size of a walnut,
every hour or two, during the intermission of
an ague.
5. (WITH IRON,+Cadet.) Peruvian bark,
6 drs. ; oxide of iron and confection of opium,
of each, 2 drs. ; syrup of cinnamon, q. s.—
Dose. A teaspoonful, or more, twice a day;
in dropsy of the belly, after the evacuation of
the fluid, and as a tonic in debility, accom-
As the last.—Dose. A q
panied by nervous excitement, &c., in the
absence of fever.
6. (Quarin’s.) Red bark, 1 oz. ; ammoniated
iron, 1 dr. ; made into an electuary with equal
parts of oxymel of squills and syrup of the
‘ five roots’ (diuretic). Tonic, febrifuge, and
pectoral.
7. (WITH SAL-AMMONIAC, P. Cod.) Gray
bark, 2% oz. ; hydrochlorate of ammonia, 1 dr.;
honey and syrup of wormwood, of each, 2 oz.
In intermittents occurring in scrofulous sub-
jects.
8. (WITH SODA, P. Cod.) Powdered cin-
chona, 1 oz. ; carbonate of soda, 2 drs. ; thin
mucilage, q. S. to mix. Tonic, febrifuge, and
stomachic.—Dose. 2 drs., 2 or 3 times a day;
in agues, complicated with acidity and dys-
pepsia.
9. (WITH SULPHUR,-Cadet.) Peruvian
bark, 1 dr. ; sulphur, crabs’ eyes (chalk), and
spermaceti, of each, 2 drs.; extract of opium,
4 drs.; conserve of roses, 4 drs. ; syrup of mil-
foil, q. s. Highly praised in debility from
phthisis.-Dose. A teaspoonful, 2 or 3 times a
day, assisted with the liberal use of raw or
lightly boiled eggs and cod-liver oil.
10. (WITH TIN,-Cadet.) Peruvian bark,
1 oz. ; tin filings and Valerian root, of each,
# oz. ; syrup of saffron, q. s. In epilepsy,
worms, &c.—Dose. A teaspoonful, morning and
evening. See CONFECTION OF BARK.
Electuary of Copai'ba. Syn. ELECTUARIUM.
COPAIBAE, L. Prep. 1. Copaiba and powdered
cubebs, equal parts; conserves of roses and
orange peel, of each (in equal quantities),

. S.
2. (Caspar.) Blanched almonds, 6 drs. ;
powdered marsh-mallow root, 1 dr.; catechu,
# dr. ; balsam of copaiba, 3 drs.
3. (Ricord.) Confection of almonds, 1 oz. ;
copaiba, 3 oz. ; hard extract of rhatany, 3 drs.;
syrup of orange peel, q. s. All the above are
excellent in gonorrhoea, gleets, &c. The last
two agree better with the stomach than most
other like preparations.—Dose. 1 teaspoonful,
or more (rapidly increased to 2 or 3 drs.), 3 or
4 times daily. See CoNFECTION.
Electuary of Cow'hage. Syn. ELECTUARIUM
DOLICHOs, E. MUCUNE, L. Prep. 1. Dip the
pods of dolichos in treacle, allow them to drain
a moment, and then scrape off the hairs for
llS0.
2. (Chamberlain.) As the last, nearly.
3. (Correa.) Cowhage (the hairs or setae),
40 grs. ; syrup, 3 oz.
4. (Ellis.) Cowhage (hairs), 1 dr.; honey,

. S.
5. (Guy’s Hosp.) Cowhage (hairs), any
quantity, made into an electuary with treacle,
q. s. In worms.-Dose. For a child, a tea-
spoonful; for an adult, a table-spoonful; in
the morning, fasting, and at night, for 3 or
4 days; followed by a dose of castor oil, to
which a teaspoonful of turpentine may be ad-
vantageously added. See COWHAGE.
Electuary of Cu’bebs. Syn, ELECTUARIUM

434
ELECTUARY.
CUBEBAE, L. Prep. 1. See ELECTUARY OF
COPAIBA.
2. (Beral.) Cubebs and copaiba, of each,
2 oz. ; powdered alum, 1 oz. ; extract of opium,
5 or 6 grs. ; mix.
3. (Bouchardat.) Cubebs, 1% oz. ; copaiba,
1 oz. ; sweet spirit of nitre, 3, fl. dr.; oil of
peppermint, 8 or 10 drops; powdered sugar,
Q. S.
4. (Radius.) Cubebs, 3 oz. ; honey, 1 oz.
In gonorrhoea, mucous discharges from the
vagina, bladder, &c.—Dose. 1 teaspoonful,
afterwards increased to 2 or 3 teaspoonfuls,
twice or thrice daily. See CoNFECTION OF
CoPAIBA, ELECTUARY OF C., &c.
Electuary, Demul'cent. Syn. ELECTUARIUM
DEMULCENS, L. Prep. From spermaceti,
syrup of poppies, and syrup of tolu, of each,
2 drs. ; powdered gum tragacanth, 1 dr. ; con-
fection of roses, 6 drs. ; nitre, dr.—Dose. A
piece the size of a small filbert, frequently;
as a pectoral and demulcent in coughs, hoarse-
ness, &c.
Electuary, Deob'struent. Syn. ELECTUARIUM
DEOBSTRUENS, L. Prep. (Copland.) Confec-
tion of senna, 1% oz. ; cream of tartar, 1 oz. ;
sulphur and syrup of ginger, of each, 6 drs. ;
borax, 3 drs. ; syrup of poppies, 2 drs.--Dose.
A teaspoonful, or more, nightly; in the obsti-
nate constipation of females, painful and sup-
pressed menstruation, &c.
Electuary for Dysſentery. Syn. ELECTUA-
RIUM ANTI-DYSENTERICUM (Ph. E. 1744), L.
Electuary of catechu, mixed with halfits weight
of Locatel's balsam.
Electuary, Emmen'agogue. Syn. ELECTUA-
RIUM EMMENAGOGICUM, L. Prep. From
myrrh, 1 dr. ; ammoniated iron, 1 scrup.;
syrup of ginger, q. S. to mix.-Dose. # dr. to
1 dr., night and morning; in deficient or sup-
pressed menstruation.
Electuary for Epilep’sy. Syn. ELECTUARIUM
ANTI-EPILEPTICUM, L. Prep. 1. See ELEC-
TUARY OF CINCHONA (Comp.), No. 10.
2. (Dr. Mead.) Powdered cinchona, 1 oz. ;
valerian and tin (both in powder), of each,
# oz. ; syrup, q. S. to mix-Dose. A tea-
spoonful, night and morning.
Electuary, Feb’rifuge. See ELECTUARY OF
CINCHONA, &c.
Electuary of Im'digo. Syn. ELECTUARIUM
INDIGI, E. PIGMENTI INDICI, L. Prep. (Phoe-
bus.) Powdered indigo, 4 drs. ; aromatic pow-
der, # dr. ; syrup, 1 fl.oz. or q. s. In spasmodic
diseases, especially in epilepsy, chorea, and
hysteria, and the convulsions of children. It
has also been used with advantage in that
species of impotence in which strychnia is
useful. The above quantity is to be all taken,
in divided doses, during the day. To be of
permanent advantage, it should be continued
for several weeks.
Electuary of Ipecacuanſha.
TION.
Electuary of Jal'ap. See CoNFECTION.
Electuary of Kermes. MARMELADE DE ZA-
See CoNFEC-
NETTI; ELECTUARIUM. KERMETIS, E, K, MI.
NERALIS, L. Prep. From manna, 40Z, ; pulp
of cassia and oil of almonds, of each, 2 07.;
butter of cacao, ; oz. ; Kermes mineral, 10 grs.;
syrup of marsh-mallow, 3 fl. OZ, ; syrup of
orange flower, q. s. A diaphoretic laxative-
Dose. 1 to 4 teaspoonfuls, or more.
Electuary of Laurel Ber'ries. See CONFEC-
TION OF RUE.
Electuary, Lenſitive.
SENNA.
Electuary, Mahomed’s. Prep. 1. From gro.
cer’s currants, 2 oz. ; powdered senna, # 07, ;
powdered ginger, 1 dr. ; finely powdered Cap-
sicum and cloves, of each, 20 grs. ; croton Oil,
3 drops; conserve of roses and syrup of Saffron,
of each, in equal parts, q. S. to mix.
2. (Bateman.) Currants, 1 oz.; Senna,
# oz. ; ginger, dr. ; syrup of roses, q, S.;
croton oil, 1 drop.–Dose. 1 or 2 teaspoonfuls,
early in the morning; in dyspepsia and habitual
constipation. The first formulary produces a
most useful medicine, particularly for free.
livers.
Electuary of Male Ferm. Syn. ELECTUA.
RIUM FELICIS MARIs, L. Prep. 1. Powder
of male fern, 3 drs. ; conserve of roses, 107.
2. (Radius.) Ethereal extract of male fern,
# dr. ; honey of roses, 1 oz. The half of either
to be taken at night, and the remainder the
next morning. In worms.
Electuary of Ni‘tre. Syn. ELECTUARIUM
POTASSE NITRATIS, L. Prep. (Hosp, F)
Nitre, 3 drs. ; confection of roses, 2 oz.-D086,
A piece of the size of a filbert, where the use
of nitre is indicated. See CoNFECTION.
Electuary of 0'pium. See CoNFECTION OF
OPIUM.
Electuary, Pectoral. Syn, ELECTUARIUM
PECTORALE, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. E. 1744)
From conserve of roses, 2 oz. ; compound pow-
der of tragacanth, 4 drs. ; flowers of benzoin,
1 dr. ; syrup of tolu, q. S.–Dose. A little, ad
libiţum.
2. Oxymel of squills, syrup of marsh-mallows,
mucilage of gum arabic, and syrup of tolu, of
each, # oz. ; powdered lump sugar, 2 oz. As
the last.
Electuary of Pepper. See CoNFECTION, and
above.
Electuary for Piles. Syn. ELECTUARIUM
HAEMORREIOIDALE, L. Prep. 1. See CON:
FECTION and ELECTUARY OF PEPPER.
2. (Dr. Copland.) Cream of tartar, 1 07.;
precipitated sulphur (pure), 3 drs. ; confection
of Senna, 2 oz. ; syrup of orange peel or ginger,
q. S. to mix.
3. (Dr. Graves.) Confection of senna and
sulphur, of each, 1 oz. ; balsam of copaiba and
cream of tartar, of each, 3 oz.; jalap and
ginger, of each, 1 dr. ; syrup of orange peel,
See CONFECTION OF
(I. S.
4. (Hosp. F.) Confection of Senna 2 07.;
black pepper and precipitated sulphur, of each,
# oz. ; oil of cubebs, 1 dr. ; syrup, q, S. The
last three are useful laxatives in piles, and by
ELECTUARY.
435
their preventing the accumulation and hard-
ening of the faeces, often remove the affection.
—Dose. A teaspoonful, three or four times a
day. From the difficulty experienced in pro-
curing pure precipitated sulphur, washed sub-
limed sulphur may be advantageously substi-
tuted.
Electuary of Pomegram’ate. Syn. ELECTU-
ARIUM GRANATI, L. Prep. 1. From the
root-bark, 1 dr. ; assafoetida, dr. ; croton oil,
6 drops; conserve of roses, 1 oz.-Dose. A
teaspoonful, might and morning.
2. (Radius.) Extract of the root-bark, 6 drs. ;
lemon juice, 2 fl. drs. ; linden water, 3 fl. drs. ;
gum tragacanth, q. S. to make an electuary.
One half to be taken at once; the remainder
in an hour. Both are given in tape-worm.
Electuary of Rhubarb. Syn. ELECTUARIUM
RHEI, L. Prep. (Saunders.) Powdered rhu-
barb, 1% dr. ; sulphate of potassa, 1 dr. ; cream
of tartar, 4 drs. ; pulp of tamarinds, 2 oz.-
Dose. A teaspoonful, as a mild stomachic
laxative.
Electuary of Scam'mony. See CoNFECTION.
Electuary for Scurvy. See CoNSERVE (Anti-
scorbutic).
Electuary of Sen’na.
SENNA.
Electuary of Squills. Syn. ELECTUARIUM
SCILLE, L. Prep. 1. Oxymel of squills, 2
fl.oz. ; cream of tartar and powdered sugar, of
each, 1% oz.-Dose. 1 to 2 teaspoonfuls, as a
laxative and expectorant; in old coughs, &c.
2. (Radius.) Squills, nitre, gum ammoni-
acum, and tartrate (bitartrate) of potassa, of
each, 2 drs. ; sal-ammoniac, 20 grs. ; syrup of
cinnamon, q. S.—Dose. 2 drs, three times a day;
in dropsies. See CoNSERVE OF SQUILLS.
Electuary of Steel. Syn. ELECTUARIUM
FERRI, E. CITALYBEATUM, L. Prep. 1. (Dr.
Collier.) Potassio-tartrate of iron, , oz. ;
confection of roses, 1 oz. ; syrup, q, S. to
IIllM.
2. (Collier.) Precipitated sesquioxide of
iron, 1 oz. ; honey, 2 oz. ; ginger syrup, , fl.oz.
Both the above are tonic and emmenagogue.
—Dose. One teaspoonful, thrice a day. See
CONFECTION.
Electuary, Stim'ulant. Syn. ELECTUARIUM
STIMULANS, L. Prep. From gum ammoni-
acum (strained), 1 oz. ; vinegar of squills, 4 oz. ;
mixed with a gentle heat, and spread on leather.
Applied to the chest or pit of the stomach, as
a mild counter-irritant and antispasmodic;
and as a discutient to tumid glands and indo-
lent tumours. It is wrongly called an elec-
tuary.
Electuary, Stomach'ic. Syn. DINNER ELEC-
TUARY ; ELECTUARIUM STOMACHICUM, CoN-
FECTIO STOMACHICA, L. Prep. 1. Rhubarb,
ginger, and extract of chamomile, of each, 1
dr. ; confection of orange peel, 4 drs. ; syrup,
. S.
2. Rhubarb and gentian, of each, 1% dr. ;
extract of hops and powdered capsicum, of
each, dr.; oil of chamomile, 12 drops; con.
See CONFECTION OF
ſection of hips and syrup of orange peel, of
each, ; oz.
3. Green peppermint, lump sugar, and con-
fection of orange peel, equal parts.--Dose. A
teaspoonful, an hour before a meal. They are
all excellent stomachics, and are useful to im-
prove the appetite, and in dyspepsia.
Electuary of Sulphur. See CoNFECTION
OF SULPHUR, and below.
Electuary of Sulphur (Compound). Syn.
ELECTUARIUM SULPHURIS COMPOSITUM, L.
Prep. 1. Sulphur, 3 oz. ; cream of tartar,
1 oz. ; confections of Senna and black pepper,
of each, 2 oz. ; syrup of ginger, 1 fl. oz. An
excellent medicine in piles.—Dose. A tea-
spoonful, twice a day. -
2. (WITH BoRAX.) Flowers of sulphur, 1
oz. ; cream of tartar, 1% oz. ; borax, oz. ;
confection of senna, 2% oz. ; syrup of orange
peel, q. S. to mix-Dose. 1 to 3 teaspoonfuls,
in diseases of the uterine organs and lower
bowels. See CoNFECTION.
Electuary for the Teeth. Syn. ELECTUARIUM
DENTIFRICUM, L. See TOOTH PASTE, DEN-
TIFRICE, &c.
Electuary of Tim.
and below.
Electuary of Tim (Compound). Syn. ELEC-
TUARIUM STANNI COMPOSITUM, L. Prep. 1.
Powdered tin, 1 oz. ; confection of oil of tur-
pentine, 2 oz.
2. (Dr. Cheston.) Tin filings, 4 drs.; car-
bonate of iron (sesquioxide), 1 dr.; conserve
of wormwood, 3 drs.
3. (Foy.) Powder of tin, 1 oz.; extract of
wormwood and powdered jalap, of each, 1 dr.;
compound syrup of chicory, q. s. In worms.
—Dose. A table-spoonful, or more, for 2 or 3
successive mornings, fasting; followed by a
purge.
Electuary of Tur'pentime. Syn. ELECTU-
ARIUM TEREBINTHINAE, L. Prep. 1. (St. B.
Hosp.) Common turpentine, 1 oz. ; honey, 2
oz.—Dose. 1 to 2 teaspoonfuls; in complaints
of the urinary organs, worms, &c.
2. (Radius.) Turpentine, soap, and rhubarb,
of each, 1 dr. ; syrup of wormwood, q. S.–Dose.
Three teaspoonfuls a day; in dropsy, worms,
&c.
3. (E. OLEI TEREBINTHINE, -Copland.)
As Confection of Turpentine,—Ph. D. See
CONFECTION.
Electuary, Wer'mifuge. Syn. ELECTUARIUM
ANTHELMINTICUM, E. VERMIFUGUM, L. Prep.
1. (Bresmer.) Worm-seed and tansy-seed, of
each, 4 drs. ; powdered valerian root, 2 drs.;
jalap and sulphate of potassa, of each, 1% to
2 drs. ; oxymel of squills, q. s. to mix.-Dose.
A teaspoonful, or more; repeated night and
morning, followed by a brisk purge.
2. (Rosenstein.) Worm-seed, 10 grs.; sul-
phate of iron, 4 grs. ; jalap and honey, of each,
20 grs. For two doses, as the last. 2 or 3 drs.
of confection of senna are often substituted for
the jalap and honey.
3. (Foy.) Aloes, 3 oz. ; common salt, 3 drs. ;
See CoNEECTION OF TIN,


436
ELEMENTS.–ELIXIR.

flour, 2 oz.; honey, q. S. to form a stiff paste.
Used as a suppository in ascarides.
4. Flowers of sulphur, 4 oz. ; powdered
jalap, 1 oz. ; powdered bark, 1 oz. ; syrup of
buckthorn, q. S.–Dose. Two or three tea-
spoonfuls, every morning early. See CON-
FECTION and ELECTUARY OF TIN, TURPEN-
TINE, WoRM-SEED, &c.
Electuary for Worms.
ELECTUARY (above).
ELEMENTS, Syn. ELEMENTARY BODIES,
SIMPLE B.; ELEMENTA, L. In chemistry,
those substances or bodies which have hitherto
resisted every attempt which has been made
to decompose them, or to resolve them into
simpler forms of matter. Earth, air, fire,
and water, were regarded by the ancients as
simple bodies, of which all others are com-
posed, and they still constitute the ‘four
elements’ of the vulgar. The imaginary prin-
ciples or elements of the alchemists were termed
salt, sulphur, and mercury. About sixty-four
different kinds of matter are at present recog-
nised as elementary bodies. They are sub-
stances having the most diverse characters.
The great majority exist in the solid state;
bromine and mercury are liquid; while oxygen,
hydrogen, nitrogen, and chlorine, are gaseous.
About four fifths of the elements are metallic,
as instanced by gold, silver, copper, iron, &c.;
the remainder are non-metallic, as instanced
by carbon, sulphur, phosphorus, &c. A list of
the known elements is given under the head of
ATOMIG WEIGHTS (which see).
EL/EMI. Syn. GUM ELEMI; ELEMI (B.P.).
“A terebinthinate concretion, from an un-
certain plant.” (Ph. L.) MEXICAN ELEMI
is known to be the produce of a species of the
genus Elaphrium. MANILLA ELEMI is pro-
bably the product of Canarium commune.
Prop., &c. The elemi of commerce is of a
pale-yellow colour, brittle without, but soft
and tough within; it has a warm bitter taste,
and a fragrant aromatic smell, partaking of
fennel and juniper. It is only partially trans-
parent even in thin plates, is very fusible, and
has a density a little greater than that of
water. It contains 12% per cent. of volatile
oil (oil of elemi). It is used to give toughness
to lacquers and varnishes, and in medicine in
the preparation of ELEMI OUNTMENT.
Pur. The elemi of the shops is often adul-
terated, but more frequently a factitious kind
is sold for the genuine gum. This fraud may
be detected by exposing the suspected article
to heat, along with a little water, when the
factitious fragrance of the spurious article
evaporates, and the coarse terebinthinate smell
of the resin used to adulterate it, or which is
sold for it, becomes readily distinguishable.
Elemi, Factiºtious. Prep. 1. Yellow resin,
8 lbs. ; melt, add Canada balsam, 2 lbs. ; with-
draw the vessel from the heat, and further
add, of oil of juniper, 2 drs. ; oil of sweet fennel,
1 dr. ; oil of nutmeg, \, dr.
2. Yellow resin, 7 lbs. ; Canada balsam, 1 lb.;
See WERMIFUGE
juniper oil bottoms, 4 drs. ; oil of mace, 3 drs.;
mix as before.
EL/EMIN. The crystalline resin of gum
elemi.
ELIX'IR. In pharmacy, a name formerly
applied to various compound tinctures, and to
preparations supposed to contain the quintes.
sence of other substances. (It is still applied
to several popular remedies.) The elixirs of
the alchemists were solutions employed in
their fruitless attempts to transmute the baser
metals into gold.
Elixir, Acid. Syn. ELIXIR ACIDUM, I.
Prep. 1. (Dippell's.) Sulphuric acid, 1 part,
dropped gradually into rectified spirit of wine,
5 parts; placed in a large flask, and afterwards
coloured by digestion on animal kermes and
saffron, of each, 1 part.
2. (Haller's, Ph. Sax. 1837.) From Sul.
phuric acid and rectified spirit, of each, 1 part;
as before.
3. (Vogler’s.) From sulphuric acid and
nitrous ether, equal parts, as above. Astrin.
gent and antiseptic.—Dose. A few drops, in
water.
Elixir of Al'oes. Syn. COMPOUND TINCTURE
OF ALOES; ELIXIR ALOñS, L. See TINCTURE.
Elixir of Aloes (Compound). Syn. ELIXIE
ALoís COMPOSITUM, L. Prep. (Dr. Copland)
Acetate of potassa, inspissated ox-gall, socotrine
aloes, and myrrh, of each, 2 drs. ; hay saffrom
1 dr. ; brandy (or proof spirit), 2} fl. 0%;
digest a week, and strain. Stomachic and
laxative.--Dose. A teaspoonful, or more; in
dyspepsia, constipation, &c.
Elixir, Anti-asthmatic. Syn. ELIXIR ANTI.
ASTHMATICUM, L. Prep. 1. Oil of anisted
camphor, and balsam of tolu, of each, 1 07:
cochineal, 1 dr. ; proof spirit, 1 gal.; digest:
week, and filter.
2. As the last, adding powdered opium, 1}0.
— Dose. A teaspoonful, to allay irritation, as
sisted by an occasional dose of aperient medi.
cine; in asthma, chronic coughs, &c.
3. (Boerhaave’s.) Aniseed, asarabacca, elº.
campane, liquorice root, orris root, and sweet
flag (calamus), of each, equal parts; made
into a tincture, with brandy.—Dose. 20 tº
40 drops.
Elixir, Anti-scrofºulous. Syn. ELIXIR ANTI.
sCROFULOSUM, L. Prep. 1. (P. Cod.) The
ammoniated tincture of gentian. See TING:
TURE.
2. (Desforges.) Guaiacum, 5 oz. ; cinchond
bark and pellitory, of each, 3 oz. ; cloves,
5 drs. ; orange peel and benzoin, of each, 2drs.
hay saffron, dr. ; rectified spirit and brandy,
of each, ; pint; digest a week, and filter.
Used as an application to scorbutic gums.
Elixir, Boerhaave's Asthmatic. See ANTI.
ASTHMATIC ELIXIR (above).
Elixir, Boerhaave's Wisceral. Syn. ELIXI.
BoERHAAVII, E. B. VISCERALE. L. Prep. (Ph.
Han.) Aloes, myrrh, and saffron, of each, 1
oz.; tartrate of potassa, 2 oz.; alcohol (stronges:
rectified spirit), 14 oz.; water, 1 oz.; macera”

ELIXIR.
437

3 days, and filter. This preparation “has
been highly praised in visceral obstruction.”
(Dr. Griffith.)—Dose. 1 to 3 teaspoonfuls.
Elixir, Clauder's. Syn. ELIXIR CLAUDERI,
L. 1. (Pideret.) Salt of tartar, sal-ammoniac,
strained aloes, and myrrh, of each, 1 oz. ;
elder-flower water, 1% pint, digest, with agi-
tation, for 24 hours, and filter. .
2. (Parrish.) Carbonate of potassa, 1 oz. ;
aloes, guaiacum, myrrh, Saffron, and rhubarb
(contused), of each, 2 drs. ; water, 18 fl. Oz.
Macerate a few days, and decant.—Dose. 1 to
2 teaspoonfuls; in amenorrhoea, constipation,
scurvy, visceral obstructions, &c.
Elixir, Cough. Syn. ELIXIR ANTI-CATAR-
RHALE, L. Prep. 1. See ANTI-ASTHMATIC
ELIXIR.
2. (Hufeland.) Extracts of blessed thistle
and dulcamara, of each, 1 dr.; cherry-laurel
water, 1 fl. dr. ; fennel water, 1 fl. oz.-Dose.
1 to 2 teaspoonfuls, 3 or 4 times a day. It is
a most useful remedy in coughs occurring in
nervous, hysterical, or irritable patients. See
ELIXIR OF IPECACUANHA, LETTSOM’s ELIXIR,
&c. (below).
Elixir, Daffy's. Syn. ELIXIR SALUTIs, E.
SENNAE COMPOSITUM, TINCTURA SENNAE COM-
POSITA, L. This is an aromatised and sweet-
ened tincture of senna, to which other cathar-
tics are generally added. Nearly every drug-
house has its own formula for this article.
The following are those employed in the Lon-
don trade:–
Prep. 1. East India senna, 1% lb.: jalap,
5 oz.; coriander seed and aniseed, of each, 3 lb. ;
rhubarb, # lb. ; red sanders wood, 2 oz. ; salt
of tartar, 2 oz. ; treacle, 7 lbs. ; rectified spirit
of wine, 2% galls. ; water, 3} galls. All the
Solids are well bruised, and macerated in the
mixed fluids for 14 days, when the whole is
pressed, and strained through a flannel bag.
It is too glutinous to run through filtering
paper.
2. Senna, rhubarb, and aniseed, of each,
2 lbs. ; jalap and caraways, of each, 1 lb. ; red
Sanders wood, 3 lb.; brown sugar, 7 lbs. ; proof
spirit, 10 galls. ; as the last.
3. Senna, 56 lbs. ; aniseed, 7 lbs. ; rhubarb
(East India), 14 lbs. ; coriander seed, 6 lbs. ;
caraway seed and red sanders wood, of each,
5 lbs. ; cassia bark and jalap, of each, 3 lbs. ;
proof spirit, 100 galls.; digest for 14 days,
press, strain, and add molasses, 84 lbs. ; mix
well, and either clarify or strain through
flannel. -
4. For proof spirit in the last two formulae,
equal parts of spirit of wine and water are
employed by the smaller houses.
5. (Redwood.) Senna, 3 lb.; aniseed, cara-
ways, and jalap, of each, 1 oz. 2 drs.; juniper
berries, 2% oz. ; proof spirit, 6 pints; mace-
rate for 14 days, then add of treacle, 10% oz. ;
water, 1 lb. 5 oz. ; mix and strain. -
6. (Dicey’s.) Senna, 1 lb.; guaiacum shavings,
elecampane root (dried), aniseed, caraway seed,
coriander seed, and liquorice root, of each,
# lb.; stoned raisins, 2 lbs. ; proof spirit or
brandy, 9 quarts; macerate for 10 days.
7. (Swinton’s.) Senna, 1 lb.; jalap, 3 lbs. ;
coriander seed, caraway seed, liquorice root,
and elecampame root, of each, 4 oz. ; moist
sugar, 2 lbs. ; rectified spirit of wine and
water, of each, 1 gal.; as the last.
Obs. Daffy's elixir is a favorite purge with
drunkards, and is a common and very popular
remedy in flatulent colic, dyspepsia, diarrhoea,
&c.—Dose. 1 to 4 table-spoonfuls, or more.
Elixir, Devil's. Syn. ELIXIR CAPSICI COM-
POSITUM, L. Prep. From pods of capsicum,
and cloves (bruised), of each, 1 oz. ; ginger
and saffron, of each, 3 oz. ; cantharides, 5 drs. ;
proof spirit, 7 lbs. ; digest for 10 days.-Dose.
# dr. to 3 drs., in mixtures. It is stimulating,
anti-choleraic, and aphrodisiac.
Elixir of Garlic. Syn. ELIXIR ALLII, L.
Prep. From garlic roots (bruised), 80 in no. ;
rectified spirit, 1 pint; digest, distil to dryness,
and repeat the process with the same spirit
from fresh roots, a second and a third time;
lastly, add camphor, 2 dr. Diaphoretic and
pectoral.—Dose. A teaspoonful, twice a day;
in asthma, old coughs, diarrhoea from debility,
&c.
Elixir, Garus's. Syn. ELIXIR GARI, L.;
ELIXIR DE GARUs, Fr. Prep. 1. Myrrh,
1 oz. ; aloes and saffron, of each, 3 oz. ; cinna-
mon, cloves, and nutmeg, of each, 1 dr.; proof
spirit, 1 quart; digest a week, add water,
5 fl. oz., and distil over 1 quart; to the distil-
late (ALCOOLAT DE GARUS) add of syrup of
maidenhair, 2 lbs. ; orange-flower water, 1}
fl. oz.
2. (Foy.) Compound tincture of saffron,
8 pints; syrup of maidenhair, 10 pints; mix;
add caramel, q. S. to colour, dissolved in orange-
flower water, , pint.
3. (P. Cod.) Aloes and saffron, of each, 1 oz.;
myrrh, cinnamon, and cloves, of each, # oz. ;
nutmeg, \, dr. ; proof spirit, 12 pints; orange-
flower water, 16 fl. oz. ; macerate 2 days, distil
6 pints, and add to the distillate (ALCOOLAT
DE GARUS), of syrup of capillaire, 7% pints;
and colour with saffron, q. s.
4. (Soubeiran.) Socotrine aloes and saffron,
of each, 1 oz. ; myrrh, canella alba, citron, and
nutmegs, of each, 3 oz. ; spirit (sp. gr. 1923),
20 lbs.; orange-flower water, 16 fl. oz. ; mace-
rate as last, distil 10 lbs., and add to the distil-
late (ALCOOLAT LE GARUS), of syrup of capil-
laire, 12% lbs. ; orange-flower water, 8 fl. oz. ;
with saffron q. S. to colour.
5. (Thierry.) Aloes, myrrh, and saffron, of
each, 2 drs.; nutmeg, 4 drs.; canella alba and
cloves, of each, 1 oz. ; spirit (864), 13 lbs. ;
draw over 12 lbs. of “alcoolat ;’ add to the re-
sidue of the distillation, rose water, 10 lbs. ;
distil 6 lbs., and add as much of this aromatic
water to the alcoolat as will raise its sp. gr.
to 890. Then to every 11 lbs. of the above
mixed liquor, add of simple syrup, 15 lbs. ; tinc-
ture of vanilla and orange peel, of each, 2} fl.
oz.; fresh milk (skimmed), 1 lb, ; and tincture



4.38 ELIXIR.
of saffron, q. S. to colour; digest with agitation
for two days, and filter. Used as a stomachic,
carminative, and stimulant, in doses of a wine-
glassful. That prepared without distillation
forms an excellent stomachic purge. With
the exception of that from the 2nd formula, the
products may be regarded as agreeable cordial
liquors, rather than medicines. It is much
employed on the Continent.
Elixir of Gold. Syn. ELIXIR AURII, L.;
ELIXIR D'OR, Fr. Prep. 1. De la Motte's
Golden Drops.
2. Terchloride of gold, 20 grs. ; rectified
spirit, 6 fl. drs. ; ether, 3 fl. drs. ; dissolve.—
Dose. 5 to 15 drops, taken in distilled water;
in gout, scrofula, nervous diseases, cancer,
indurated glands, secondary syphilis, &c. This
last preparation is often confounded with the
gouttes d'or du Général de la Motte ; but the
two are evidently distinct articles. See DROPS.
Elixir, Haller's. See ACID ELIXIR (above).
Elixir, Hoffman’s Wisceral. Syn. ELIXIR
HOFFMANNI, E. H. VISCERALE, L. Prep. 1.
As ELIXIR OF ORANGE-PEEL,~Ph. Bor. 1847.
2. Thin outside peel of orange (dried),
myrrh, and centaury, of each, 2 drs. ; extracts
of carduus benedictus, cascarilla, and gentian,
of each, 1 dr.; white wine (sherry), 1 quart.
Aromatic and stomachic.—IDose. A dessert-
spoonful, or more.
Elixir of Ipecacuanha, Syn. ELIXIR IPE-
CACUANHF, L. Prep. (Cadet.) Powdered
ipecacuanha and balsam of tolu, of each, 4 drs. ;
flowers of benzoin, opium, and saffron, of each,
2 drs. ; oil of aniseed, 1 dr. ; camphor, 40 grs. ;
alcohol (rectified spirit), 1% pint; digest a
week, and filter.—Dose. 1 to 2 drs., as a sti-
mulant, diaphoretic, expectorant, and sto-
machic ; in chronic coughs, asthmas, and old
colds, and in certain forms of deficient appe-
tite, dyspepsia, diarrhoea, &c.
Elixir of Jalſap. Syn. ELIXIR JALAPE
COMPOSITUM, L. Prep. From jalap, 4 oz. ;
scammony, 4 drs. ; gamboge, 2 drs. ; proof
spirit, 1 quart.—Dose. # dr. to 3 drs., as a
purgative; especially in worms. -
Elixir, Lettsom’s. Prep. (Augustin.) Oil of
aniseed, 1 dr.; camphor, 1% dr. ; benzoic acid,
opium, and saffron, of each, 2 drs. ; ipecacuanha
and balsam of tolu, of each, 4 drs. ; rectified
spirit, 2 lbs. ; digest 10 days, and filter.—Dose.
5 to 15 drops, for a child; } to 1 teaspoonful,
for an adult ; in ordinary coughs, hooping-
cough, &c.
Elixir, Live-long. Syn. ELIXIR OF LONG
LIFE ; E. LONGIE VITA., L. Prep. 1. See
TINCTURE OF RHUBARB AND ALOES.
2. (ELIXIR WITHE MATTHIOLI.) A mixture
of several aromatics and stimulants, made with
rectified spirit.
Elixir of Myrrh. Syn. ELIXIR MYRRHAE,
T. See TINCTURE OF SAVINE (Comp.), Ph.
L. 1788.
Elixir d'Or. See ELIXIR OF GOLD.
Elixir of Orange Peel. Syn. ELIXIR AU-
RANTIORUM COMPOSITUM, L. Prep. l. (Ph.
Bor. 1847.) Orange peel, 6 oz.; cinnamon,
2 oz.; carbonate of potassa, 1 oz.; Madeira
wine, 4 lbs. ; macerate 6 days, express the
tincture, and add of extracts of buckbean, cas.
carilla, gentian, and wormwood, of each, 107.;
dissolve, and after repose for subsidence,
decant and filter. An excellent aromatic
bitter and stomachic.
2. (Moscati.) Orange peel, 1 oz. ; casca.
rilla, , oz. ; waters of citron peel and worm.
wood, and rectified spirit, of each, # pint;
digest a week. Resembles the last.—Dose (of
either). A table-spoonful to a wine-glassful.
Elixir, Paregor'ic, Syn. ELIXIR PAREGORI,
CUM, L. See TINCTURE OF CAMPHOR
(Comp.).
Elixir, Paregoric (Scotch). Syn, ELIXIE
PAREGORICUM SCOTICUM, L. See TINCTURE
OF OPIUM (Ammoniated).
Elixir, Pectoral. Syn. ELIXIR PECTORATE,
L. (Ph. E. 1745) Balsam of tolu, 2 07.;
gum benzoin, 1% oz. ; saffron, ; Oz. ; rectified
spirit, 32 fl. Oz. ; digest in a gentle heat for 4
days, and filter.—Dose. # to 1 teaspoonful,
(See above.)
Elixir, Polychrest. Syn. ELIXIRPOLYCHRES:
TON, L. Prep. (Ph. E. 1745.) Guaiacum
(gum), 6 oz. ; balsam of Peru, ; oz.; rectified
spirit, 23 fl. Oz. ; digest as last, strain, and add
oil of Sassafras, 2 fl. drs. Pectoral and anti-
rheumatic.—Dose. 10 to 60 drops, or more,
Elixir, Paracelsus's. See ELIXIR PROPRIF:
TATIS (below).
Elixir Proprietaſtis. [L.] Syn. PARACEI.
SUS’s ELIXIR OF PROPRIETY; ELIXIR DE
PROPRIíTÉ DE PARACELSE, Fr. An old pre:
paration, nearly corresponding to the com:
pound tincture of aloes of modern pharmacy,
and which is now sold for it. Prep. 1. (Sol.
beiran.) Tincture of myrrh, 4 oz. ; tinctures
of aloes and saffron, of each, 3 oz. (“Trait.
Pharm.’ 1847.)
2. (ELIXIR PROPRIETATIS CUM ACIDO)—d.
The last, slightly acidulated with oil of vitriol,
and filtered.
b.-Ph. Bor. 1847.-Aloes and myrrh, of
each, 2 oz. ; saffron, 1 oz. ; spirit (sp. gr. 900)
2 lbs. ; dilute sulphuric acid (1 to 5), 2 07;
macerate 4 days, and filter.
3. (ELIXIR PROPRIETATIS TARTARIZATUM;
E. P. ALKALIZATUM.) From elixir proprietà.
tis, alkalised with salt of tartar, and filtered
The last two are old preparations, now seldon
inquired for in this country, except in places
remote from London.
Elixir, Radcliffe's. Prep. 1. From S000.
trine aloes, 6 drs. ; rhubarb, 1 dr.; cinnamom
(cassia), cochineal, and Zedoary root, of each,
# dr. ; syrup of buckthorn, 2 fl. Oz.; brandy,
14 pint; digest 10 days, and strain.
2. As the last, but substituting proof spirit
1 pint, and water, # pint, for the brandy.
Aromatic, stomachic, and aperient.—Dose. 1
to 4 drs.; in similar cases to those in which
“DAFFY'S ELIXIR’ is taken.
Elixir of Roſses, Syn, ELIXIR ROSE, L.
ELLAGIC ACID–ELUTRIATION.
439
Prep. 1. Eau de rose, 2 fl. oz.; spirits of
horseradish and scurvy grass, of each, 1 fl.oz. ;
otto of roses, 3 drops; camphor and cochineal
(both in powder), 12 grs. ; powdered sugar-
candy, # oz. ; digest, with frequent agitation,
for a week, and after repose decant the clear,
and strain through a piece of muslin. Used
as an elegant application in scurvy of the
gums, and also to perfume the breath.
2. (Beasley.) Cinnamon, 3 oz. ; ginger, 2 oz. ;
cloves, 1 dr. ; essence of peppermint, 1 oz. ;
oil of orange peel, 1 dr. ; otto of roses, 15
(* 25) drops; rectified spirit, 2% pints; digest
15 days, and filter. Used as a tooth cosmetic.
Elixir Sacrum. Tincture of aloes and rhu-
barb.
Elixir Saluſtis, Syn. ELIXIR OF HEALTH.
The compound tincture of senna of old phar-
macy. See DAFFY's ELIXIR.
Elixir of Scam'mony. Syn. ELIXIR SCAM-
MONII, L. Prep. (Guibourt.) Scammony
(pure), 2 drs. ; proof spirit, 8 fl. oz. ; mix in a
suitable vessel, apply heat, set the spirit on
fire, and add of sugar, 4 oz. ; when the whole
is dissolved (melted down), extinguish the
flame, and further add of syrup of violets, 2
fi, Oz.; mix well, and after sufficient repose
decant the clear portion from the dregs. The
product should be 12 oz., containing 12 grs.
of Scammony per Oz.-Dose. 1 to 2 dessert-
spoonfuls in milk or aromatised water; or
made into an emulsion with aromatics; in
Worms, &c.
Elixir, Squire's. Prep. 1. (Original For-
mula.) Aurum musivum, 3 oz. ; opium, 2 oz. ;
camphor, 1 oz. ; cochineal, ; oz. ; sweet fennel,
# oz. ; tincture of serpentary, 1 pint (old
meas.); spirit of aniseed, 1 gal. (old meas.);
Sugar, 1 lb. ; dissolved in water, I pint (old
meas.); digest 10 days, and filter.
2, Powdered opium, 2 oz. ; ginger, red San-
ders wood, and camphor, of each, 1 oz. ; oil of
aniseed, } oz. ; oil of sweet fennel, dr. ; tinc-
ture of serpentary, 1 pint; proof spirit, 5
pints; water, 1 quart; as last. Stimulant,
anodyne, diaphoretic, and pectoral,—Dose. 1
to 2 teaspoonfuls; in chest affections, nervous
headaches, &c., in the absence of inflammatory
symptoms.
Elixir, Stomach'ic. Compound tincture of
gentian was formerly so called.
Elixir, Stoughton’s. Prep. 1. Raisins
(stoned and bruised), 1 lb.; gentian root, #
lb.; dried orange peel, 6 oz. ; serpentary, +1b.;
calamus aromaticus, 1% oz. ; cardamoms, 3 oz. ;
Sugar colouring, + pint; brandy or proof spirit,
2 galls. ; digest a week, and strain.
2. Tincture of gentian (compound), and
brandy or proof spirit, of each, 1 quart; tinc-
ture of serpentary and syrup of saffron, of
each, 1 pint ; tinctures of aloes and rhubarb,
of each, + pint; bitter almonds (bruised), 8 in
no.; digest as before.
3. (Foy.) Aloes and cascarilla, of each, 1
dr.; rhubarb, 4 drs.; gentian, germander, dried
orange peel, and wormwood, of each, 6 drs, ;
rectified spirit, 32 fl. oz. ; as before. Stimu-
lant, tonic, and stomachic.—Dose. 20 drops to
a teaspoonful.
Elixir, Tom'ic. Syn. ELIXIR ROBORANs.
See TINCTURE OF CROWN BARR (Comp., -Ph.
Bor. 1847).
Elixir, Tooth. Syn. ELIXIR DENTIFRICUM,
L. Prep. 1. (Lefandinière's.) Guaiacum
raspings and cloves, of each, 1 oz. ; pellitory
of Spain and nutmeg, of each, 2 drs. ; oil of
rosemary, 20 drops; bergamotte, 10 or 12
drops; brandy, 1 quart ; macerate a fortnight,
and filter.
2. Cinnamon, cloves, and nutmeg, of each,
1 dr.; vanilla, dr.; camphor, 10 grs. ; tinc-
ture of pellitory, 2 fl. Oz, ; brandy or proof
spirit, , pint; digest as before. See ANTI-
SCORBUTIC and ROSE ELIXIRS (above).
Elixir, Wisceral. Syn. ELIXIR WISCERALE,
L. SeeBOERHAAVE's and HoFFMAN’s ELIXIRS
(above).
Elixir of Wit’riol. 1. The old name for
aromatic SULPHURIC ACID (which see).
2. (Mynsicht's.) See TINCTURE (Acid
Aromatic).
3. (Scourer's.) Dilute sulphuric acid (1 to
5). Used to scour metals.
4. (SWEET E. of W.; E. VITRIOLI DULCI,
L.) The old name for aromatic SPIRIT OF
ETHER (which see).
5. (Virgani’s.) Prep. From spirit of sul-
phuric ether, 2 lbs. ; aromatic tincture, 3 lbs.
Elixir, Woroneje, Capsicum, 1 oz. ; mitre,
# oz.; sal-ammoniac, 2 drs.; nitro-hydrochloric
acid, 2 fl. drs.; vinegar, 1% pint; native white
or rose naphtha, or petroleum, 1} fl. dr.; oliv
oil, 1 fl. Oz. ; oil of peppermint (Mitcham), 1
fl. Oz. ; strongest rectified spirit, 6 quarts; di-
gest 12 days, with constant agitation, and
filter.—Dose. 2 teaspoonfuls, every 15 mi-
nutes; in cholera, diarrhoea, &c.
ELLAGIC ACID. H.C.H.O.. Aq. When
an aqueous infusion of nut-galls is left for
some time exposed to the atmosphere, the
tannic acid gradually disappears, and is re-
placed by gallic acid, and an insoluble gray
powder, to which the term ellagic acid was
applied by Chevreul. It is soluble in alkalies,
forming salts, and is precipitated by acids.
ELM. Syn. ULMUS, L. A genus of trees
forming the type of the natural order Ulmaceae.
The interior bark of the Ulmus campestris, or
common small-leaved elm (Ulmi cortea), is
officinal in B. P. This substance is demul-
cent, diaphoretic, and diuretic, and slightly
febrifuge, astringent, and tonic. It has been
employed in agues, and as a substitute for
sarsaparilla in cutaneous eruptions, but is now
little used. The leaves of the elm tree are re-
ported to be vulnerary. See DEcoCTION and
ULMINE.
ELUTRIA"TION. Cleansing by washing.
The term is commonly applied to the operation
of washing insoluble powders with water, to
separate them from foreign matter, or the
coarser portion. It is usually performed by


440 ELYDORIC PAINTING—EMERY.
grinding or triturating the mass with a little
water, until reduced to a very fine powder, and
this paste is suddenly diffused through a large
quantity of water, contained in a deep vessel,
from which, after the subsidence of the grosser
portion, the liquid is poured into another
vessel, and allowed to deposit the fine powder
it still holds in suspension. When this has
taken place, the clear supernatant liquor is
decanted, and the sediment drained and dried.
The coarse sediment deposited in the first
vessel is now submitted to a fresh grinding
and diffusion through water, and the entire
operation is repeated, until the whole of the
pulverisable portion is washed over. The
proper length of time for the liquid to remain
in the first vessel depends solely on the density
of the powder and the degree of fineness re-
quired in the product; heavy powders sub-
siding almost immediately, while light ones
often take several minutes to deposit the
coarser portion. Sometimes three or more
vessels are employed, and the muddy liquor,
after remaining a short time in the first, is
poured into the next one, and this, in a short
time longer, into the third, and so on, until
the last vessel is filled, by which means pow-
ders of different degrees of fineness are ob-
tained, that deposited in the last vessel being
in the minutest state of division. The elu-
triated paste or moist powder is then drained,
and dried. On the small scale, the trituration
is performed with a stone and muller, or in a
mortar; on the large scale, in a mill, driven
by either horse or steam power. Antimony,
chalk, bistre, and other pigments, as well as
various other substances insoluble in or un-
acted on by water, are commonly obtained in
the state of an impalpable powder by elutria-
tion, or ‘washing over,” as it is called by
amateurs and operatives.
ELYDOR/IC PAINTING. A method of
painting invented by M. Vincent, of Mont-
petit, in which the pigments are mixed up
with an emulsion of oil and water. It is said
to add the fresh appearance of water colours,
and the finish of miniature painting, to the
mellowness of oil colours.
EMBALM'ING. Syn. MUMMIFICATION.
The preservation of the dead bodies of ani-
mals. See MUMMY and PUTREFACTION.
EMBOS/SING. The formation of ornamental
figures in relief on cloth, leather, paper, and
wood, has now been brought to such perfec-
tion, as to place this species of decoration
within the reach of almost every class of so-
ciety. EMBOSSED CLOTH and PAPER are now
employed by the bookbinder to cover even the
low-priced volumes that pass through his
hands; whilst the EMBOSSED LEATHER that
encloses the album or ornaments our furni-
ture, frequently bears the richest patterns of
the arabesque or moresque. Cloth and paper
are usually embossed by machinery; leather
and wood, more frequently by hand labour.
EMBR00A"TION. Syn. EMBROCATIO, L.
A fluid medicine for external and local use,
Embrocations do not differ, materially, from
liniments and lotions, and are applied in the
same manner. (See those preparations, and
below.)
Embrocation, Guestonian. Syn. EMBR0.
CATIO TEREBINTHINE CUM ACIDO, L. Prep,
(Dr. Paris.) Oil of turpentine and olive oil,
of each, 1% oz. ; dilute sulphuric acid, 3 fl.
drs.; agitate together until mixed. Used in
rheumatism, &c.
Embrocation, Lynch’s. Olive oil (coloured
with alkanet root), 5 fl. Oz.; oils of amber,
rosemary, and turpentine, of each, 1 dr. In
bruises, rheumatism, &c.
Embrocation, Roche’s. Prep. 1. (Dr. Paris)
Olive oil, mixed with half its weight of the
oils of cloves and amber.
2. Olive oil, 2 oz. ; oil of amber, 1 oz.; oils
of cloves and lemons, of each, 1 dr. For hoop.
ing-cough.
Embrocation, Ward's. See ESSENCE.
EMBROID'ERY. Gold and silver fancy
work of this description may be cleaned with
a little spirit of wine, either alone or diluted
with an equal weight of water. Gin is fré.
quently used for the same purpose. The com:
mon practice of using alkaline or acid liquors
is very injurious, and frequently destroys
the beauty of the articles instead of cleaning
them.
EMI’ERALD. Syn. SMARAGDUs; EMERAUDE,
Fr. This beautiful deep-green gem ranks
next to the diamond in value. The finest are
brought from Peru, but fair varieties are
found in Bavaria, Siberia, and India. A fine
emerald weighing 4 or 5 grs. is worth as many
pounds; one of 10 grs, about £2 per gr.; One
of 15 grs., £3 to £4 per gr. ; and so on in pro:
portion to the increase in size. One of 24gſ,
if of pure water, is worth about £100. AC.
cording to the analysis of Vauquelin, the
purest specimens consist of 65 parts silica, 14
alumina, 13 glucina, 2.56 lime, and 3:50 oxide
of chromium, to which last the gem owes its
rich green colour. See BERYL, GEMs, PASTER,
&c.
Emerald Green. See GREEN PIGMENTS,
EMICRY is an impure, amorphous, compact,
and opaque variety of corundum, and consists
of alumina, with a small per-centage of silica
and peroxide of iron. It occurs in Spain, the
isles of Greece, and other localities, and derives
its name from Cape Emeri, in the island of
Naxos. Its hardness is so great, that it
scratches and wears down nearly all minerals
except the diamond; hence the use of its
powder for cutting and polishing glass and
various other hard substances. For commer.
cial purposes, the lumps of emery, as taken
from the mine, are broken into pieces about
the size of a hen’s egg, which are then crushed
under stampers, similar to those used fºr
pounding metallic ores. The coarse powder is
then sifted through sieves covered with wire.
cloth of different degrees of fineness, by which
EMETIA—EMETICS.
441
it is sorted into different sizes. In this state
it forms the emery of the shops, or flour emery.
For delicate purposes, it is afterwards prepared
by elutriation.
Emery Cakes are formed by melting emery
flour with a little bees' wax, and after thorough
admixture, forming it into solid lumps of suit-
able sizes. Used to dress the edges of buff and
glaze wheels.
Emery Cloth is prepared by brushing the
surface of thin cotton cloth over with liquid
glue, and sifting the emery powder over the
surface while still warm.
Emery Paper is made in the same way as
emery cloth. Both are used either with or
without oil, in the same way as glass paper.
Emery Sticks are made of pieces of wood in
the same way, and are used for the same pur-
poses, as emery paper.
Emery Stones are formed of emery, of the
requisite coarseness, mixed with about half
its weight of good Stourbridge loam, and water
q. S. to make a stiff paste, which is forced into
metallic moulds by a powerful press. The
pieces, when thoroughly dry, are exposed in a
muffle for a short time to a temperature just
under a full white heat. In this way discs’
and ‘laps’ are generally made. For ‘wheels,'
only 4th of loam is used. Another method,
applicable for ‘cutting-stones' generally, is to
press the flour emery, previously moistened
with water, into moulds, with strong pressure,
as before, without any other addition, and
then to fire it at nearly a full white heat.
EMETIA, Syn. EMETIN, EMETINA. A
feebly basic or alkaloidal body, existing in and
forming the active principle of ipecacuanha.
Prep. 1. (Medicinal—EMETIC EXTRACT.)—
a. Ipecacuanha (in coarse powder) is digested
first in ether, and then in rectified spirit for 3
or 4 days; the alcoholic tincture is next ex-
pressed and evaporated (distilled) to dryness;
the residuum is dissolved in distilled water,
and the solution precipitated with acetate of
lead; the precipitate is then diffused through
distilled water, in a tall glass vessel, and sul-
phuretted hydrogen is passed through it, to
throw down the lead; after which the liquor
is decanted, filtered, evaporated to the con-
sistence of a thick syrup, and spread in a thin
layer on warm plates of glass, and allowed to
dry in a current of warm air, or by a gentle
heat in a stove. The maceration in ether is
frequently omitted.
b. Ipecacuanha, 1 part; rectified spirit
(835), 7 parts; make a tincture, distil off the
spirit, dissolve in cold distilled water, 5 parts;
filter the solution, and evaporate, &c., as before.
Inferior to the last.
c. (P. Cod.) As the last, nearly.
Obs. Medicinal or impure emetia is brown-
ish red, deliquescent, and emetic in doses of
# to # gr.
2. (Pure.)—a. Ipecacuanha (in coarse pow-
der), 1 part, is digested for 24 hours in dis-
tilled water, 10 parts; together with calcined
magnesia, added in slight excess; the deposit
is then thrown on a filter, washed carefully
with very cold water, and dried; it is next dis-
solved in rectified spirit and neutralised with
dilute sulphuric acid; the filtered solution is
decoloured with animal charcoal, again filtered,
and again precipitated by digestion with mag-
nesia; the last deposit forms a colourless
solution with rectified spirit, which, by gentle
evaporation, gives up its emetia as a yellow-
ish-white pulverulent mass, which may be ren-
dered perfectly white by redissolving it in
alcohol, &c., as before. The process is ren-
dered easier by first digesting the powdered
ipecacuanha in ether.
b. (P. Cod.) Alcoholic extract of ipecacu-
anha, 1 part; water, 10 parts; dissolve, filter;
add calcined magnesia, 1 part; evaporate to
dryness, wash the product on a filter with very
cold water, 5 parts; dry it again, and dissolve
it in boiling alcohol; evaporate the filtered
tincture to dryness, redissolve the residuum in
a little water, acidulate (slightly) with dilute
sulphuric acid, decolour with animal charcoal,
filter, precipitate with liquor of ammonia, and
dry the precipitate by a gentle heat.
c. (Ph. Suec. 1845.) Powdered ipecacuanha,
1 part; water acidulated with sulphuric acid, 6
parts; digest, filter; add lime, 1 part, and evapo-
rate to dryness over a water bath; the re-
siduum is then exhausted with boiling recti-
fied spirit, and otherwise treated as in the last
formula.
Prop., &c. Pure emetia is white, pulveru-
lent, imodorous, and bitter; fusible at 122°
Fahr. ; very soluble in alcohol and boiling
water, but only slightly so in ether, oils, and
cold water. It restores the blue colour of
reddened litmus, and partially neutralises the
acids, forming scarcely crystallisable salts. It
is reddened by nitric acid, and this red colour
is deepened by ammonia. Tincture of iodine
produces a reddish precipitate in an alcoholic
solution of emetia. With tincture of galls
this solution behaves like morphia; but, unlike
the last substance, the salts of iron produce no
change of colour in it. These reactions, com-
bined with its emetic properties, are sufficient
for its identification.—Dose. White and pure
emetia is emetic in doses of ºn to # gr. The
large doses ordered in certain pharmaceutical
compilations, evidently in error of the dif-
ference between the strengths of the pure and
the impure or medicinal emetia, have, in
several cases which have been reported on,
produced very serious consequences.
EMETICS. Syn. VoyſITs, ANACATHARTICs;
ANACATHARTICA, EMETICA, WOMITORIA, L.
Medicines which induce vomiting. The prin-
cipal emetics are ipecacuanha and tartarised
antimony, and their preparations; and the
sulphates of zinc and copper. Of these the
first is commonly employed either in substance
or infused in wine (ipecacuanha wine), when
it is merely wished to evacuate the contents
of the stomach, when that organ is in a dis-





442 EMETINE–EMULSION.
ordered state or overloaded with food; and
is the one most adapted, in ordinary cases, for
children and females. Tartar emetic (tarta-
rated antimony) (dissolved in water) and anti-
monial wine, either alone or combined with
ipecacuanha, are preferable at the commence-
ment of fevers and other inflammatory disor-
ders, in consequence of the nausea, relaxation,
and depression of the muscular power and
circulation which commonly follow their use.
When poison has been taken, sulphate of zinc
is generally preferred as an emetic, on account
of the promptness and completeness of its
action, and its effects ceasing as soon as it is
ejected from the stomach. Sulphate of copper
is employed in the same cases as sulphate of
zinc, but its action is more violent and dis-
agreeable, whilst its intense metallic taste is a
great objection to its use. 25 to 30 grs. of
either of the above sulphates are dissolved in
3 or 4 fl. oz. of warm water, and a fourth of
the solution is given every ten minutes, until
copious vomiting ensues. In the absence of
other substances, when an immediate emetic is
required, a teaspoonful of flour of mustard (an
article always at hand), stirred up with half a
pint of warm water, and drank at a draught,
will generally act easily and effectively, and
relieve the stomach before other remedies can
be obtained and applied.
The operation of emetics is powerfully pro-
moted by drinking copiously of diluents, espe-
cially of warm or tepid water. The latter, in
fact, is itself an emetic, when taken in quan-
tity. Its use will also prevent that dreadful
straining and retching, which make emetics
so much dreaded by the nervous and deli-
cate.
The timely administration of an emetic at
the commencement of fevers and other inflam-
matory affections, will frequently cause copious
diaphoresis, and produce a cure, or at least
greatly mitigate the severity of the symptoms.
Dropsies have also been cured by vomiting;
and swelled testicle, bubo, and other glandular
swellings, have occasionally been dispersed by
the action of emetics. Visceral obstructions,
in both sexes, have also yielded to the same
treatment. Small and repeated doses of
emetics are frequently administered, with ad-
vantage, to produce nausea, in many diseases
of the lungs and stomach. Certain chronic
and obstinate diseases, as rheumatism and
asthma, are sometimes relieved by emetics,
when every other line of treatment has
failed.
Emetics should be avoided in plethoric habits,
in hernia, pregnancy, and whenever visceral
inflammation is suspected. They should also
be given with great caution to young children
and females, and to the nervous and delicate.
In such cases, wine or powder of ipecacuanha
should alone be employed.
Emetic Cups. Syn. ANTIMONIAL CUPS ;
Pocul, A. EMETICA, CALICES VOMITORII, L.
Small cups made of metallic antimony. Wine
left in them for 10 or 12 hours becomes
emetic.
Emetic Tartar. See ANTIMONY, TARTAR.
ATED.
EMI’ETINE, See EMETIA.
EMMEN’AGOGUES. Syn. EMMENAGOGA,
L. Medicines which are considered to have
the power of promoting the menstrual dis.
charge when either retained or suspended.
There are, probably, few remedies which exert
this specific power on the uterus, the majority
of repeated emmenagogues acting rather by
their influence on the system generally, or Ol
parts contiguous to the uterus, than in the
uterus itself. Among the substances usually
arranged under this class are—aloes, black
hellebore, birthwort, borax, cubebs, ergot, gam:
boge, gin, iodide of potassium, iodine, madder,
mercurials, the peppers, rue, savine, stimulants
(generally), stimulating diureties, stinking
goosefoot, stinking orache, wine, &c.
Of the above, ergot and madder are the
only articles which exercise a direct power On
the uterus, and that rather in increasing its
expulsive energy than in promoting the mell.
strual function, though they are advantagº.
ously employed for the latter purpose. Several
of the other substances named are drastic
purgatives, or possess cerebro-spinal properties,
or local powers of irritation, by which they
increase the pelvic circulation, or produce ex
citement in the neighbouring parts, in many
cases of a dangerous and irreparable charactºr.
Hence many writers on pharmacology deny the
existence of emmenagogues.
To ensure the successful administration of
this class of medicines, the system must be
previously prepared for their use by invigº.
rating it, if there is either relaxation Or
debility; and an opposite course should be
pursued when there is an undue degree ºf
arterial action. In the majority of cases, the
restoration of the discharge is rather attri.
butable to a proper regulation of the system
than to any specific power in the medicine
administered.
EMOLLIENTS. Syn. EMOLLIENTIA, L. In
pharmacy and therapeutics, demulcents of an
oleaginous, Saponaceous, or emulsive character,
applied to surfaces (generally external), tº
soften and relax their fibres. See DEMUI.
CENTS. -
EMIUI/SIN. Syn. SYNAPTASE. An azotised
substance, forming a large proportion of the
white pulp of both bitter and sweet almonds,
It is yellowish-white, soluble in cold water, and
coagulated by heat and alcohol. Its most re.
markable property is its action on amygdalin,
by which the volatile oil of almonds and hydro.
cyanic acid, with other products, are formed
It has never been obtained in a state of
purity.
EMIUI/SION. Syn. EMULSIo, L. A milky
fluid, formed by the mechanical admixture of
oil and water, by means of some other sub-
stance that possesses the power of combining

EMUISION.
443
yolk of egg.
with both. The emulsions of the Pharma-
copoeia are in the ‘British Pharmacopoeia' in-
cluded in the class Mistura (which see).
In the preparation of emulsions, the oily or
resinous ingredients are usually suspended by
means of mucilage of gum arabic, almonds, or
1 dr. of the first, made with equal
parts of gum and water; 1 oz. of the second
(usually 26 in number); and one in no. of the
last, will form 2 drs. of any oil into an emulsion
with about 1 oz. of water, gradually added. In
Some cases, instead of the above substances, a
little liquor of potassa is employed, by which a
Saponaceous emulsion is formed. In all cases,
the mucilage or other viscid substance should
be put into the mortar before anything else.
The oil or resinous matter may then be very
gradually rubbed in, taking care not to add it
more quickly than it can be subdued by the
pestle; and if, during this part of the manipu-
lation, the mixture should begin to assume a
breaking or curdling appearance at the edges,
a few drops of water must be immediately
incorporated with it, before adding the re-
mainder of the oil. From the want of this
precaution, it is common for an emulsion Sud-
denly to lose its tenacious consistence in the
mortar, and it is then in vain to endeavour to
restore it. After the oil is thoroughly incor-
porated, some care is requisite to avoid sepa-
rating it again by too hasty an effusion of the
Water or other fluid of the mixture. If any
alcoholic or acid liquid is to be added, it must
be at the very end of the process. Indeed, the
addition of an acid liquid, even a slightly
acescent syrup, will often entirely destroy an
emulsion. Mixtures of copaiba are frequently
spoiled by the addition of spirit of nitric
ºther; a misfortune which might be avoided
by first diluting it with one or two parts of
Water.
An excellent method of preparing emulsions
of resins and gum-resins, is to put the article
into a marble or wedgwood mortar, and to
pour over it about 4 times its weight of recti-
fied spirit, which is then to be ignited, and the
mixture triturated until an equal consistence
is obtained. The liquid is then to be added
gradually, and the whole patiently triturated
or shaken until cold. Yolk of egg or mu-
cilage may be added to the fluid resin or
gum-resin, if desired, as in the common method,
but an excellent emulsion may be made without
them.
The presence of soluble salts in an emulsion
is apt to occasion the separation of the oleagi-
nous portion. Spirit produces the same effect
in those which are made with yolk or mucilage;
and acids in those made with an alkali. The
addition of these substances to emulsions
should be therefore avoided as much as pos-
sible. Emulsions of wax, spermaceti, oil of
turpentine, and balsam of copaiba, are the most
readily and completely formed with yolk of
egg. Wolatile oils are more readily made into
emulsions if mixed with an equal volume of
Some simple fixed oil, before proceeding to
operate on them. Scammomy is generally
formed into an emulsion with milk; and resin
of jalap, with almonds and water.
The following formulae, for certain emul-
sions, are merely given here for examples.
Various others will be found under MIXTURE,
LOTION, WASH, &c.
Emulsion of Al'monds. Syn. MILK OF AL-
MONDS, ALMOND MIXTURE; EMULSIO AMYG-
DALE, MISTURA. A., L. Prep. 1. Blanched
almonds, 1 oz. ; beat them to a smooth paste,
add, gradually, water, pint ; and when the
whole isthoroughly incorporated, strainthrough
a piece of gauze.
2. As the last, adding sugar, 1 oz. ; or syrup
(either simple or flavoured), 1} fl. oz. See
EMULSION OF OIL OF ALMONDS (below).
Emulsion of Assafoet'ida. Syn. EMULSIO
ASSAFCETIDE, MISTURA A., L. Prep. (Duclow.)
Assafoetida, 1 oz. ; powdered gum, 2 oz. ; oil of
almonds, 3} fl. oz. ; water, 6 fl. oz. Anti-
spasmodic.—Dose. 1 or 2 table-spoonfuls; in
hysterical affections, &c.
Emulsion of Cam'phor. Syn. EMULSIO CAM-
PHORAE, E. CAMPHORATA, MISTURA CAM-
PHORAE (Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. Castr.
Ruth. 1840.) Camphor, dr. ; triturate with
milk, ; fl. oz., gradually added; then further
add of water, 7% fl. oz.
2. (Ph. E.) Camphor, 20 grs. ; lump sugar,
# oz. ; triturate together, and add of blanched
almonds, 3 oz. ; again triturate, then gradually
add of water, 1 pint. Stimulant, antispas-
modic, and diaphoretic.—Dose. 1 fl. Oz. to 2
fl. Oz.
Emulsion of Castor Oil. Syn. EMULSIo
OLEI RICINI, MISTURA o. R., L. Prep. 1.
Castor oil, 1 oz. ; thick mucilage, 1% oz.;
syrup of orange peel, 1 fl. oz. ; water, 6 fl. Oz.
2. As the last, but using milk instead of
water.—Dose. One third; as an aperient for
females who object to taking the unprepared
oil.
Emulsion of Copai‘ba, Syn. EMULSION OF
CAPIVI; EMULSIO COPAIBAE, MISTURA. C., L.
Prep. 1. Balsam of copaiba and syrup of orange
peel, of each, 2 oz. ; yolks of 5 eggs; milk, 14
fl. Oz.
2. (Beral.) Copaiba and mucilage, of each,
2 oz. ; water, 12 fl.oz.-Dose. # oz. to 1 oz., 2
or 3 times a day; where the use of copaiba is
indicated.
Emulsion of Gum. Syn. EMULSIO ACACIAE,
MISTURA ACACIAE (Ph. E.), L. Prep. From
sweet almonds (blanched), 10 drs.; white
sugar, 5 drs. ; mucilage, 3 fl. Oz. ; water, 1
quart. Demulcent. In coughs, &c., ad
libiţum.
Emulsion of Oil of Almonds. Syn. EMULSIo
OLEI AMYGDALE, L. Prep. From oil of al-
monds, 3 drs. ; thick mucilage and simple syrup,
of each, 5 drs. ; rose water, 1 fl. oz. ; distilled
water, 3 or 4 fl. oz. An elegant and efficient
substitute for almond milk. See EMULSION
of ALMONDS (above).


444
ENAMEL.
Emulsion of Peru'vian Balsam. Syn.
EMULSIO BALSAMICA, E. BALSAMI PERUVIANI,
L. Prep. 1. As emulsion of copaiba.
2. (Hosp. F.) Balsam of Peru, 3 oz. ; oil
of almonds, 6 drs. ; powdered gum, 1 oz. ; tri-
turate together, and add, gradually, rose
water, 4 fl. oz.-Dose. 1 or 2 table-spoonfuls;
in old asthmas, chronic coughs, winter coughs,
&c.
Emulsion of Scam'mony. Syn. EMULSIO
SCAMMONII, MISTURA s. (Ph. E.), L. Prep.
1. (Ph. E.) Resin of scammony, 7 grs. ; new
milk, 3 fl. oz. For a dose.
2. (Planche.) Aleppo scammony, 7 grs. ;
sugar, 2 drs. ; new milk, 3 fl.oz. ; cherry-laurel
water, 5 drops. For a dose. Purgative;
in torpor of the intestines, dropsy, worms,
&c. The formula of the Paris Codex is
similar.
Emulsion of Spermaceti. Syn. EMULSIO
CETACEI, MISTURA C., L. Prep. As emulsion
of wax. Demulcent.
Emulsion of Tur'pentine. Syn. EMULSIO
TEREBINTHINAE, MISTURA. T., L. Prep. 1.
Chio turpentine, 2 drs. ; white sugar, 1 oz. ;
yolk of 1 egg ; milk of almonds, 4 fl. Oz. In
gleets.--Dose. 2 table-spoonfuls, 3 or 4 times
a day.
2. (Clossius.) Venice turpentine, 1% dr. ;
yolk of 1 egg; peppermint water, 4% fl. Oz.
(See below.)
Emulsion of Oil of Turpentime. Syn.
EMULSIO OLEI TEREBIN THINAE, MISTURA. O.
T., L. Prep. (Carmichael.) Rectified oil of
turpentine, 1 fl. Oz. ; yolk of 2 eggs; emulsion
of almonds, 4 fl. Oz. ; syrup of orange peel, 2
fl. Oz. ; spirit of lavender, 4 fl. drs. ; oil of
cinnamon, 5 or 6 drops.--Dose. 1 fl. oz., twice
or thrice a day; in nephritic pains, and that
variety of ophthalmia termed iriditis. (See
above.)
Emulsion of Wax. Syn. EMULSIo CERAE,
E. CERAE ALBE, MISTURA. C., LAC C., L. Prep.
(Guibourt.) White wax, 1 oz. ; powdered gum,
1} dr. ; water, 24 fl. oz. ; simple syrup, 4 fl.
oz. ; put the syrup and gum into a warm
mortar, add the wax, and triturate with a
warm pestle until united; then add the water
(warm) gradually, and continue the agitation
till the whole is quite cold. Demulcent. Ad
libiţum,
ENAMEL. A species of vitreous varnish,
coloured with metallic oxides, applied in a thin
stratum to brightly polished metallic surfaces
(copper or gold), on which it is fused by the
flame of a lamp urged by the blowpipe, or by
the heat of a small furnace.
The basis of all enamels is a highly trans-
parent and fusible glass, called ‘frit,’ ‘flux,"
or “paste,’ which readily receives a colour on
the addition of metallic oxides. It may be
made by one or other of the following for-
mulae :—
Prep. 1. Red lead, 16 parts; calcined
borax, 3 parts; powdered flint glass, 12 parts;
powdered flints, 4 parts; fuse in a Hessian
crucible for 12 hours, then pour it out into
water, and reduce it to a powder in a biscuit.
ware mortar.
2. Tin, 3 parts; lead, 10 parts; mix, calcine
in an iron pot at a dull cherry-red heat, and
scrape off the oxide as it forms, observing to
obtain it quite free from undecomposed metal;
then reduce it to fine powder by grinding and
elutriation. In this state it is known among
enamellers as ‘flux’ or ‘ calcine.’ 4 parts of
this ‘ calcine” are next mixed with an equal
weight of pure sand or powdered flints, and
1 part of sea salt, or other alkaline matter;
the mixture is then partially fused in a Hes.
sian crucible, by which it undergoes semi-
vitrification.
3. (Chaptal.) Lead and tin, equal parts;
calcine as above, and take of the mixed oxides
or ‘ calcine’ and ground flints, of each, 1 part;
pure carbonate of potash, 2 parts; and pro-
ceed as before.
4. (Wynn.) Flint glass, 3 oz. ; red lead, l
Oz. ; as last.
5. (Wynn.) Red lead, 18 parts; borax (not
calcimed), 11 parts; flint glass, 16 parts; as
last.
6. (Wynn.) Powdered flints, 10 parts; nitre
and white arsenic, of each, 1 part; as last,
Obs. The precise qualities of the products
of the above processes depend greatly upon
the duration and degree of heat employed.
By increasing the quantity of sand, glass, Or
flux, the enamel is rendered more fusible, and
the opacity and whiteness is increased by the
addition of oxide of tin. The use of borax
should be avoided, or it should be used spar.
ingly, as it is apt to make the enamel effloresce
and lose colour.
Enamel, Black. Prep. 1. Calcined iron
(protoxide), 12 parts; oxide of cobalt, 1 part;
mix, add an equal weight of white flux, and
fuse, as before.
2. (Clouet.) Pure clay, 3 parts; protoxide of
iron, 1 part. A fine black.
3. Peroxide of manganese, 3 parts; Zafre,
1 part; mix, and add it, as required, to white
flux.
Emamel, Blue. Prep. 1. White ‘frit' or
“flux,” coloured with oxide of cobalt.
2. Sand, red lead, and nitre, of each, 10
parts; flint glass or ground flints, 20 parts;
oxide of cobalt, 1 part, more or less; depend:
ing on the desired depth of colour.
Emamel, Brown. Prep. 1. Manganese, 5
parts; red lead, 16 parts; flint powder, 8
parts; as before.
2. (Wynn.) Manganese, 9 parts; red lead,
34 parts; flint powder, 16 parts.
... 3. Red lead and calcined iron, of each, 1
part; antimony, litharge, and sand, of each 2
parts. To be added in any required proportion
to white ‘frit,” according to the colour desired.
A little oxide of cobalt or zaffre is frequently
added to alter the shade. -
Emamel, Green. Prep. 1. ‘Flux' or ‘frit,'
2 lbs. ; black oxide of copper, 1 oz.; as before,
ENAMEL.
445
2. As the last, but adding red oxide of iron,
# dr. Less decisive.
3. Copper dust and litharge, of each, 2 oz. ;
nitre, 1 oz. ; sand, 4 oz. ; * flux' or ‘frit,”
. S.
4. From transparent ‘frit,’ any quantity;
Oxide of chromium, q. S. to colour. Colour
Superb; it will stand a great heat; in common
hands, however, it frequently turns on the
dead-leaf tinge.
5. Transparent ‘flux, 5 oz.; black oxide of
copper, 20 to 40 grs. ; oxide of chromium, 2
grs. Resembles the emerald.
6. From blue and yellow enamel mixed in
the required proportions.
Emamel, Olive. Prep. Blue enamel, 2 parts;
black and yellow enamel, of each, 1 part. See
BROWN ENAMEL.
Enamel, Or'ange. Prep. 1. Red lead, 12
parts; red sulphate of iron and oxide of anti-
mony, of each, 1 part; flint powder, 3 parts;
calcine together, powder, and melt with ‘flux,”
50 parts.
2. (Wynn.) Red lead, 12 parts; oxide of
antimony, 4 parts; flint powder, 3 parts; red
Sulphate of iron, 1 part; calcine, then, add
‘flux, 5 parts, to every 2 parts of this mix-
ture.
Enamel, Purple. Prep. 1. ‘Flux' or ‘frit,”
coloured with oxide of gold, purple precipitate
of cassius, or peroxide of manganese.
2. Sulphur, nitre, green vitriol, antimony,
and oxide of tin, of each, 1 lb. ; red lead, 60
lbs. ; mix, fuse, cool, powder, and add rose
copper (red oxide), 19 oz. ; Zafire, 1 oz. ; crocus
martis, 1% oz. ; borax, 3 oz. ; and of a com-
pound formed of gold, silver, and mercury,
1 lb.; fuse, stirring the melted mass with a
copper rod all the time, then place it in cru-
cibles, and submit them to the action of a
reverberatory furnace for 24 hours. This is
said to be the purple enamel used in the mo-
saic pictures in St. Peter's at Rome.
Enamel, Red. Prep. 1. ‘Paste’ or ‘flux,’
coloured with the red oxide or protoxide of
copper. Should the colour pass into the green
or brown, from the partial peroxidation of
the copper, from the heat being raised too
high, the red colour may be restored by the
addition of any carbonaceous matter, as tallow,
or charcoal.
2. By tinging the glass or ‘flux’ with the
Oxide or salts of gold, or with the purple pre-
cipitate of cassius. These substances produce
shades of red, inclining to crimson or purple
of the most exquisite hue. The enamel often
comes from the fire quite colourless, and after-
wards receives its rich hue at the lamp.
3. (Wynn.) Sulphate of iron (calcined
dark), 1 part; a mixture of 6 parts of ‘flux’
(No. 5), and 1 of colcothar, 3 parts. Dark
red.
4. (Wynn.) Red sulphate of iron, 2 parts;
‘flux' (No. 1), 6 parts; white lead, 3 parts.
Light red.
Enamel, Rose-coloured. Prep. Purple enamel
(or its elements), 3 parts; * flux,” 90 parts;
mix, and add silver leaf or oxide of silver, 1 part,
or less.
Enamel, Transpa"rent.
described above.
Enamel, Wiſolet. Prep. 1. Purple enamel, 2
parts; red enamel (No. 2), 3 parts; ‘frit, 6
parts.
2. Saline or alkaline ‘frit' or ‘flux,’ any
quantity; peroxide of manganese, q.s. to colour.
As the tint depends on the metal being at the
maximum of oxidation, contact with oily or
carbonaceous substances should be particularly
avoided.
Emamel, White. Prep. 1. ‘Calcine' (from 2
parts of tin and 1 part of lead), 1 part; fine
crystal glass or ‘frit,' 2 parts; manganese, a few
grains; powder, mix, melt, and pour the fused
mass into clean water; again powder, and fuse,
and repeat the whole process 3 or 4 times,
avoiding contamination with smoke, dirt, or
oxide of iron. A fine dead white.
2. Washed diaphoretic antimony, 1 part;
fine glass (free from lead), 3 parts; mix, and
proceed as before. Very fine.
3. Lead, 30 parts; tin, 33 parts; calcine as
before, then fuse 50 parts of this ‘ calcine '
with an equal weight of flints, in powder, and
100 parts of salt of tartar. A fine dead white
enamel.
Obs. For white enamel, the articles must be
perfectly free from foreign admixture, as this
would impart a colour. When well managed,
either of the above forms will produce a paste
that will rival the OPAL.
Enamel, Yellow. Superior yellow enamels
are less easily produced than those of most other
colours; they require very little flux, and that
mostly of a metallic nature. The following
come highly recommended by experienced
artists:—
Prep. 1. From ‘frit' or “flux,’ fused with
oxide of lead, and a little red oxide of iron.
2. Lead, tin ashes, litharge, antimony, and
sand, of each, 1 oz. ; nitre, 4 oz. ; mix, fuse,
and powder; and add the product to ‘flax’ or
“frit,’ q. s.
3. White oxide of antimony, alum, and sal-
ammoniac, of each, 1 part; pure carbonate of
lead, 1 to 3 parts, or q. s. (all in powder); mix,
and expose them to a heat sufficiently high to
decompose the sal-ammoniac. Used as the
last. Very bright coloured.
4. (Wynn.) Red lead, 8 oz. ; oxide of anti-
mony, and tin, calcined together, of each, 1 oz.;
mix, and add of ‘flux' (No. 5), 15 oz. ; mix
well and fuse.
5. Pure oxide of silver added to the metallic
‘fluxes.” The salts of silver are also used, but
are more difficult to manage. If a thin film
of oxide of silver be spread over the surface of
the enamel to be coloured, exposed to a mo-
derate heat, then withdrawn, and the film of
reduced silver on the surface removed, the
part under will be found tinged of a fine
yellow. (Clouet.)
The ‘frit,” or “flux”


446 ENCAUSTIC–ENEMA.
ENCAU'STIC. See PAINTING (Encaustic).
ENE/MA. Syn. CLYSTER, EN/EMA (pl.
ENEM’ATA), L. A medicine, usually liquid
(sometimes gaseous), thrown into the rectum
or lower bowels.
Clysters usually consist of some weak gluti-
nous or mucilaginous fluid, to which the active
ingredients are added; or a decoction or infu-
sion is made of the medicaments, which is then
used, either alone, or after the addition of a
little gum, starch, or sugar. The proper vehicle
for astringent vegetable matter, metallic salts,
and the mineral acids, is pure water. Olea-
ginous and resinous substances are made into
emulsions before being employed for enemas.
In all cases the fluid is administered warm.
The quantity of fluid forming a clyster, for an
adult, may vary from # to # pint; that for
an infant within a month old, should be about
1 fl. Oz. ; for a child of one year, about 2%
fl. Oz, ; from one to seven years, from 3 or 4
fl. oz. ; and from seven to twelve or fourteen,
6 or 7 fl.oz.; after that age to puberty, , pint
may be employed.
The quantity or dose of the active ingredients
in a clyster should be 4 or 5 times as great as
that of the same medicines when taken by the
mouth; as it is generally regarded that the
susceptibility of the rectum is only #th that of
the stomach, and that to exert a like absorbent
action it occupies 5 times as long as the latter
viscus. The dose, and the interval between its
repetition, should, therefore, be proportionately
increased. Narcotics, as opium, tobacco, &c.,
should, however, be given in only twice or
thrice the quantity that would be exhibited in
the usual manner.
Enemata are usually administered by means
of a syringe, bladder, or elastic bag, furnished
with a rectum tube; but many ingenious and
elegant pieces of mechanism, adapted for self-
administration, are made by the instrument
makers. Great care should be taken to avoid
injuring the coats of the rectum by the use of
a rough or improperly shaped pipe, or one that
is too long. The extremity of the pipe or tube
should also be perfectly smooth and well rounded
(rather spherical than pointed), and in using it
no force should be employed. A neglect of
this point often produces very serious conse-
quences, especially in young children.
Tobacco smoke may be administered by
means of a double pair of bellows, supplied with
air from a small funnel under which the herb
is burning, and gaseous matter, by connect-
ing the rectum tube with a small gasometer,
exerting a trifling pressure on the confined
aS.
The number of substances employed in the
preparation of enemata is very great. The
following are some of them, arranged according
to their effects:–
1. (Anodyne and Narcotic.) Opium, henbane,
&c., are employed to allay spasms of the bowels,
stomach, uterus, bladder, &c.
2. (Aperient or Cathartic.) Aloes, colocynth,
senna, various purging salts, gruel, decoction ºf
marshmallows, decoction of linseed, warm
water, &c., are commonly employed to promote
the peristaltic action of the bowels, or tº
destroy worms.
3. (Demulcent and Emollient.) Decoction
of starch, gum, isinglass, glue, &c., either along
or combined with opium, are used to prote:
the coats of the intestines, and to allay irrità.
tion; and also to restrain diarrhoea, especially
when combined with astringents, as logwood,
catechu, or oak bark.
4. (Nutrient.) Animal jelly, soups, broths,
milks, &c., are frequently used as injections tº
convey nourishment to the body.
5. (Sedative.) Tobacco infusion or smoke,
and tartar emetic (in solution), are employed
to relax the powers of the body, to remove
spasms, depress the circulation, and to produć
syncope.
Enemata or clysters are now very frequently
employed in our large towns, especially among
the higher classes; but a great prejudice exists
among many persons against their use, arising
from a fastidious and mistaken delicacy. The
introduction of improved apparatus of late
years, by which the administration of thes:
remedies is attended with less difficulty and
exposure than formerly, has removed much of
the repugnance which previously existed.
Clysters are invaluable when it is necessary
to evacuate the bowels as speedily as possible,
and when the stomach will not bear the ad.
ministration of a purgative by the mouth, is
well as in cases requiring a direct medication
of the lower bowels, as in dysentery, colic, &,
As a mere laxative, an injection of tepid water,
milk-and-water, or water gruel, will generally
be found sufficient. By the addition of 1 or "
table-spoonfuls of common salt, Epsom Sălts
salad oil, or molasses, to this laxative enema, it
will form an excellent purgative one, which will,
in most cases, induce a full discharge. In all
cases, the patient should be directed to retain
the injection for as long a time as possible, and
not to attempt to empty his bowels immediately
after the reception of the medicine. “In irri.
tation of the bladder, rectum, or uterus, all
anodyne injection or enema often affords much
relief. In diseases of the lower bowels, clystºs
are also of almost indispensable utility, as alsº
in the dislodgment of ascarides seated in the
rectum; nor are they less beneficial in those
cases of sudden sinking of the powers of liſt
where deglutition is impossible, and yet à
prompt stimulating impression is requisite tº
save the patient ; under such circumstances
clysters of some of the diffusible stimuli have
proved of the greatest benefit.”
The injection of large quantities of liquid
matter into the bowels, as well as the constant
use of clysters (even of warm water only), is
deemed by the highest medical authorities tº
be injurious, and, occasionally, dangerous. The
practice should not, therefore, be allowed tº
grow into a habit. The bowels continually
ENEMA. - 447
accustomed to a stimulant cease to act without
one. The same remarks apply to aperients
taken by the mouth.
The following formulae embrace the whole
of the enemas (ENEMATA) of the ‘British Phar-
macopoeia,’ as well as a few others in common
uSe :—
Enema of Albu’men, Syn. ENEMA ALBU-
MINIS, L. Prep. (Ricord.) Infusion of linseed,
12 oz.; whites of 2 or 3 eggs; mix. In
chronic diarrhoea, and as a nutrient clyster in
debility from stomach diseases. The reason
for rejecting the yolks of the eggs is not very
obvious, as the preparation is much more effec-
tive with them.
Enema of Al'oes. Syn. ENEMA ALoïs (B.P.),
L. Prep. From aloes, 2 scrup.; carbonate of
potassa, 15 grs. ; mucilage of starch, ; pint.
In ascarides, atonic amenorrhoea, &c. It should
not be employed when irritability of the rec-
tum, bladder, or genitals, exists; nor in piles,
Or when there is a tendency to prolapsus ani or
prolapsus uteri.
Enema, An’odyne. See ENEMA OF OPIUM.
Enema, Antispasmodic. Syn. ENEMA ANTI-
SPASMODICUM, L. Prep. From tincture of
assafoetida, 3 fl. drs. ; laudanum, 30 to 60
drops; water gruel or barley water, 3 pint.
In spasmodic affections of the bowels. (See
below.)
Enema of Assafoet/ida. Syn. FETID CLYSTER,
ANTISPASMODIC C.; ENEMA ASSAFOETIDA (B.
P.), E. FOETIDUM (Ph. E. & D.), L. Prep. 1.
(B. P.) Assafoetida, 30 grs. ; water, 4 oz. ; rub
together until mixed.
2. (Ph. E.) To cathartic enema (Ph. E.), add
of tincture of assafoetida, 2 fl. drs.
3. (Ph.D.) Warm water, 12 fl. oz. ; tincture
of assafoetida, 2 fl. drs.
4. (St. B. Hosp.) Assafoetida, 2 drs. ; yolk
of an egg; barley water, 7 fl. Oz. Stimulant,
antispasmodic, and carminative. An excellent
remedy in hysteria, flatulent colic, hooping-
Cough, infantile convulsions, worms in the
lower bowels, &c. See HooBING-COUGH
ENEMA.
Enema, Astrin"gent. Syn. ENEMA ASTRIN-
GENs, L. Prep. 1. Tincture of catechu, 1
fl. Oz.; barley water, 9 fl. Oz.
2. Extract of rhatany, 2 drs. ; syrup, or made
starch, 2 oz. ; water, 7 fl. oz.
3. Decoction of galls, oak-bark, pomegranate,
or other like astringent substance, 3 or 4 fl. Oz. ;
water or barley water, 6 or 7 fl. oz.
4. (Hosp. F.) Electuary of catechu, 2 drs. ;
Water and lime water, of each, 4} fl. oz. In
diarrhoea, &c., arising from a relaxed condition
of the coats of the lower bowels; and in
fissures of the anus, &c.
Enema of Camphor. Syn. ENEMA CAM-
PHORE, L. Prep. 1. Camphor limiment, 4 fl.
drs. ; yolks of 2 eggs; water gruel, 7 fl. oz.
2. Camphor, 1 dr. ; rectified spirit, 2 drs. ;
triturate till dissolved, then add, gradually,
of simple syrup, 1 oz. ; when thoroughly in-
corporated, further add of thin gruel, 7 fl. Oz.
Anodyne, antispasmodic, and diuretic. In
difficult or obstructed micturition.
Enema of Castor Oil. Syn. ENEMA OLEI
RICINI, L. Prep. 1. (Hosp. F.) Castor
oil and mucilage, of each, 1 oz. ; gruel, §
pint.
2. Castor oil, 1 oz. ; liquor potassa, 2 fl. dr.;
triturate, and add of honey, 1 oz. ; when
mixed, further add of hot gruel, , pint; and
agitate until cool enough to be adminis-
tered.
Enema, Cathar’tic. Syn. PURGATIVE CLYS-
TER ; ENEMA CATHARTICUM (B. P., Ph. E. &
D.), E. LAXATIVUM, E. PURGATIVUM, L. These
have been already alluded to. By increasing
the quantity of the active ingredients, a mild
laxative or aperient clyster is converted into
an active purgative or cathartic one.
Prep. 1. (Ph. E.) Senna, oz. ; boiling
water, 16 fl. oz. ; infuse an hour, then add of
Epsom salts, # oz. ; sugar, 1 oz. ; when dis-
solved, further add of olive oil, 1 oz. ; and mix
them by agitation.
2. (Ph. D.) Epsom salts, 1 oz. ; olive oil,
1 fl. Oz. ; mucilage of barley, 16 fl. oz. Same
as enema of sulphate of magnesia, B. P., ex-
cept that in the latter mucilage of starch is
substituted for mucilage of barley.
3. (Ph. D. 1826.) Manna, 1 oz. ; com-
pound decoction of chamomile, 3 pint ; dis-
solve, and add, of olive oil, 1 oz.; Epsom salts,
# Oz.
4. Compound decoction of mallows, # pint;
Epsom salts, # oz. ; sweet oil, 2 fl. Oz. ; mix, as
above.
Obs. The above are employed in all ordinary
cases where the use of an immediate carthartic
is indicated.
Enema of Chlo"ride of Lime. Syn. ENEMA
CHLORIDI CALCIS, E. ANTIPUTRESCENS, L.
Prep. 1. Chloride of lime, 10 grs. ; tepid water,
1 fl. oz. ; triturate, then add of barley water,
or plain tepid water, 7 fl. oz.
2. (Pereira.) Chloride of lime, 10 to 15 grs.,
added to a common enema. As a deodoriser,
when the alvine evacuations are unusually
fetid.
Enema for Col'ic. Syn. ENEMA ANTICOLI-
CUM, L. Prep. From oil of cajeput or pepper-
mint, 15 drops; dissolved in sweet spirit of
nitre, 60 drops; laudanum, 35 drops; infusion
of chamomile, 3 pint.
Enema of Colocynth. Syn. ENEMA COLO-
CYNTHIDIS (Ph. L.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.)
Extract of colocynth, ; dr. ; soft soap, 1 oz. ;
triturate, and add of water, 1 pint.
2. (Ph. L. 1836.) As the last, but using
compound extract of colocynth.
3. (Guy’s Hosp.) Colocynth pulp, 1 dr.;
water, 3 pint; boil so as to strain ; pint; and
add of common salt, oz. ; syrup of buckthorn,
1 fl. oz. An efficient enema in colic and obsti-
nate constipation, in the absence of spasms and
inflammatory symptoms.
Enema, Common. Syn. ENEMA COMMUNE,
L. Gruel or barley water, either with or

448 ENEMA.
without the addition of a little common salt or
oil, are generally so called. The first are
simply laxative ; the latter, purgative. De-
coction of mallows, linseed tea, or water gruel,
are also commonly used as the vehicle.
Prep. 1. (St. B. Hosp.) Barley water,
1 pint; common salt, 1 oz. ; dissolve.
2. (Guy's Hosp.) Water gruel, 10 to 15
fl. Oz. ; common salt, 1 oz.
3. (U. C. Hosp.) Water gruel, 8 to 12 fl. oz. ;
salt, 1 oz. ; linseed oil, 2 fl. oz.
Enema of Copai'ba. Syn. ENEMA COPAIBAE,
L. Prep. 1. From balsam of copaiba, 2 drs. ;
liquor opii sedativus, 15 drops; yolk of egg,
q. s. ; barley water, 7% fl. oz.
2. (Collier.) To the last add, of extract of
opium, 1 gr. ; oil of turpentine, 4 fl. drs.
3. (Welpeau.) Copaiba, 2 drs. ; laudanum,
20 drops; yolk of 1 egg; water gruel, 8 fl. oz.
In ascarides, gonorrhoea, and some affections
of the lower bowels and bladder, when the
stomach rejects the balsam.
Enema, Domestic. Syn. ENEMA DOMESTI-
CUM, L. This name has been applied to an
enema of warm water, either with or without
the addition of a little sugar, honey, or milk.
The effect is laxative.
Enema, Emoll'ient. Syn. ENEMA EMOLLIENS,
E. DEMULCENs, L. Prep. From decoction of
linseed, barley, or starch, 1 pint; linseed or
olive oil, 1 oz. Soothing and laxative; in ex-
coriations of the lower bowels. 20 to 40 drops
of laudanum may be added when there is much
pain or looseness.
Enema, Feb’rifuge. Syn. ENEMA FEBRIFU-
GUM, I. Prep. 1. (Collier.) Water gruel, 12
fl. Oz. ; sugar, 1 fl. Oz. In low fevers.
2. (Brande.) Winegar, 2 fl. oz.; infusion of
chamomile, 5 or 6 fl. oz. In typhus.
Enema, Feſtid. See ENEMA of ASSAFCETIDA.
Enema for Hooping-cough. Syn. ENEMA
PERTUSSICULARE, L. Prep. 1. See ASSAFCE-
TIDA ENEMA.
2. (M. Reiken). Assafoetida, 8 grs. ; yolk of
1 egg; water, 3 pint.
Obs. This quantity is sufficient for 10 or
12 clysters for children under 1 year; 5 or
6 for those under 3 years; and 2 or 3 for those
under 7. Two clysters are prescribed daily in
hooping-cough. According to M. Reiken, this
is more successful in removing hooping-cough
than any other remedy. To ensure success, it
should not be administered until the feverish
symptoms have passed. M. Reiken sometimes
uses an ointment of assafoetida as well as the
clyster.
Enema, Laxative. See ENEMAS (Cathartic,
Common, &c.).
Enema of Lead. Syn. ENEMA PLUMBI, L.
Prep. (Dr. Newbold.) Acetate of lead, 6 grs. ;
tepid distilled water, 6 fl. oz. In strangulated
hernia; repeated in two or three hours.
Enema, Nutrient. Syn. FEEDING CLYSTER ;
ENEMA NUTRIENs, L. Prep. 1. Strong beef
tea, 12 fl. oz. ; thickened a little with arrow-
root or hartshorn shavings.
2. (M. Nasse) Strong meat soup, ; pint;
dilute hydrochloric acid, ; fl. dr.
3. Yolks of 2 eggs; brown sugar and salad
oil, of each, 1 oz. ; mutton broth, 12 fl.oz. To
nourish the body, when aliments cannot be
taken or retained by the stomach.
Enema, Oi"ly. See ENEMA (Emollient).
Enema of 0'pium. Syn. ENEMA OPIATUM,
E. OPII (B. P. and Ph. L.), E. OPII vel ANO.
DYNUM (Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Mu,
cilage of starch, 2 fl, oz.; tincture of opium }
dr.
2. (Ph. E.) Starch, 3 dr. ; water (boiling)
2 fl. oz. ; mix, and when cool enough add of
tincture of opium, # to 1 fl. dr.
3. (Ph.D. 1826.) Laudanum, 1 dr.; warm
water, 6 fl. Oz. -
Obs. The above are the orders of the Col.
leges, but in practice the quantity of laudanum
is frequently doubled; this should, however,
be done with great care. Opium clysters are
used in dysentery, colic, cholera, and various
painful affections of the intestines, bladder,
&c. The bowels should be emptied before
their administration, and in inflammatory com:
plaints they should not be used for the first 48
hours. Clysters containing opium, even in
small quantities, are dangerous remedies for
young children; yet there are cases in which
they sometimes succeed when every other re.
medy has failed. This is particularly so in
the low chronic diarrhoea of infancy and early
childhood. A case of this kind occurred in
the family of the writer. The family medical
attendant, as well as the physician he consulted,
abandoned the little sufferer to apparently
inevitable death, as beyond the reach of fur.
ther assistance. A small opium clyster was
given, and the child recovered.
Enema of 0x-gall. Syn. ENEMA FELLIS, E,
F. BOVIs, L. Prep. (Dr. Allnatt.) Fresh Ox
gall, 2 fl. Oz. ; water gruel, 8 fl. oz.
2. (Dr. Clay.) Ox-gall, 2 fl. oz. ; water,
4 or 5 fl. oz. To soften indurated faces,
and in costiveness arising from deficiency of
bile.
Enema of Pop'pies. Syn. ENEMA PAPAVERIS
L. Prep. 1. DECOCTION OF Pop PIES.
2. Poppy-heads (with the seeds), 5 drs;
water, # pint; boil to 12 fl. oz., and strain.
Anodyne; as a substitute for opium clyster,
Enema, Pur’gative. See CATHARTIC ENEMA
(above). -
Enema, Sim'ple. Barley water, rice water,
thin-made starch, and decoction of mallows,
are frequently so called, from being used either
for simple laxative enemas, or as the vehicle
for more active substances.
Enema of Soap. Syn. ENEMA SAPONIS, L.
Prep. (St. B. Hosp.) Soft soap, 6 drs.; hot
water, 1 pint; dissolve. To soften indurated
faeces, &c.; and as a detergent in certain
ulcerations of the rectum.
Enema of Starch. Syn. ENEMA AMYII, L.
See SIMPLE ENEMA (above).
Enema, Stimulant. Syn. ENEMA STIMU:
ENGRAVING—EPIDEMIC.
449
LANS, ſ. The ordinary cathartic clysters are
often so called. The following belong to a
different class:—
Prep. 1. Tincture of capsicum, 1 fl. Oz. ;
barley water or thin arrow-root, # pint; mix.
In cholera, especially the cold stages.
2. To the last add, of ether, 2 fl. drs. ; lauda-
num, 30 drops.
3. Decoction of poppies, # pint; tincture of
capsicum, 3 fl. drs. ; oil of nutmeg, 10 drops.
In diarrhoea.
Enema of Tobacco. Syn. ENEMA TABACI
(Ph. L. E. & D.), INFUSUM TABACI (Ph. D.
1826), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Tobacco leaf, 20
grs. ; boiling water, 8 oz, ; infuse half an hour,
and strain.
2. (Ph. E.) Tobacco, 15 to 30 grs. ; boiling
water, 8 fl. oz. ; as last.
3. (Ph.D.) Tobacco, 1 scrup.; boiling water,
8 fl. Oz.
4. (Ph. L. 1836.) Tobacco, 1 dr. ; boiling
water, 1 pint.
Obs. Tobacco clyster is used in strangulated
hernia, obstinate constipation, retention of
urine, &c. It is violently depressing and re-
laxing; producing fainting, and even death,
when improperly or injudiciously adminis.
tered. “It is not to be forgotten that 2 drs.,
1 dr., and even ; dr., of tobacco, infused in
water, have proved fatal.” “The cautious
practitioner, therefore, will not use more than
15 or 20 grs.” (Pereira.) Three parts of Vir-
ginia tobacco are equal to seven parts of any
other kind. (Davy.)
Enema of Turpentime. Syn. TURPENTINE
CLYSTER; ENEMA TEREBINTHINAE (Ph. L.),
E. OLEI T., L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Oil of tur-
pentine, 1 oz. ; mucilage of starch, 15 oz.
2. (Ph. L.) Oil of turpentine, 1 fl. oz. ; yolk
of 1 egg; triturate together, then add of de-
COction of barley, 19 fl. Oz.
3. (Ph. E.) As the last, but using simple
water instead of barley water.
4. (Ph. D.) Oil of turpentine, 1 fl. oz. ;
mucilage of barley, 16 fl. oz.
5. (Dr. Neligan.) Oil of turpentine, , fl. oz.;
syrup of garlic, 1 fl. oz. ; barley water, 6 or 7
fl. Oz. In ascarides, and as an antispasmodic
and purgative in colic, obstinate constipation,
calculus, peritonitis, tympanitis (DRUM-BELLY),
&c.
Enema, Ver'mifuge. Syn. ENEMA ANTHEL-
MINTICUM, E. VERMIFUGUM, L. Prep. 1. Cas-
tor oil, 1 oz. ; mucilage, # oz.; decoction of the
root of male fern, 7 fl. oz. In worms; espe-
cially tape-worm. -
2. (Collier.) Oil of turpentine, 1 fl. oz. ;
olive oil (warm), , pint. In ascarides.
3. (Dr. Darwall.) Tincture of sesquichlo-
ride of iron, 1 dr.; water, 7 or 8 fl. oz. In
ascarides, especially when occurring in child-
hood; the quantity used being proportionately
lessened. See ENEMAs of ALOEs, ASSAFCETIDA,
TURPENTINE, &c.
Enema of Wine, Syn. ENEMA VINOSUM, L.
Prep. From sherry wine and hot water, of
each, 7 fl.oz. In suspended animation. Some-
times a wine-glassful of brandy is added.
ENGRA"WING. The art of producing de-
signs or figures on metal, wood, &c., by incision
or corrosion, usually for the purpose of being
subsequently printed on paper, calico, or other
materials. The mechanical operations of the
engraver do not come within the province of
this work. Several of the materials which he
employs in his trade will, however, be found
noticed under their respective heads.
There is this important difference between
engraving on metal plates and wood-engrav-
ing : in the former all the lines and dots that
are to print black are hollowed out with a
graving-tool, or “bitten in by acid; in the
latter all the parts that are to appear white in
the impression are cut away, and the lines
which produce the imprint are left on the face
of the block.
Casts of wood-blocks, or “stereos,” are often
used instead of the original blocks when a great
number of impressions is required. To pro-
duce them stucco moulds are prepared, and
from these the casts in type metal are taken.
The casts are usually about $ in. thick, and
have to be screwed upon wooden blocks to
bring them to the height of the types which
are printed with them. As soon as one cast is
worn out another may be taken, and the ori-
ginal block is thus preserved in the state in
which it left the engraver’s hands.
For the reproduction of engraved metallic
plates the ELECTROTYPE PROCESS is commonly
employed. Woodcuts are also copied, though
less frequently, by this process. The mode
by which the postage-stamp plates are mul-
tiplied is as follows:–240 queen’s heads”
or stamps (a pound's worth) are engraved on
one steel plate. This plate is then hardened,
and an impression of it taken on a softened
steel roller. This roller, in its turn, is also
hardened, and softened steel plates being
passed under it, an impression precisely like
that of the original plate is produced on each
of them. These plates are then hardened and
employed for printing the penny postage
stamps for sale. They last a long time; and
when they are worn out they are destroyed,
and their place is supplied by fresh ones, which
are produced by the cylinder before referred to,
which continues ready to supply any number
that may be required. Bank-note plates are
reproduced in the same manner. See ELEC-
TROTYPE, ETCHING, &c.
ENTERITIS. See INFLAMMATION OF THE
BOWELS.
ENT020'A. Parasitic animals which infest
the bodies of other animals. See WoRMS.
ENURE/SIS. See URINE.
EPHIAL/TES, See NIGHTMARE.
EPIDEMIC. Common to many people. In
pathology, an epidemic disease (EPIDEMIC ;
EPIDEMY) is one which seizes a number of peo-
ple at the same time and in the same place,
but which is not dependent on any º Cause,



450
EPIGASTRIC–EPITHEM.
but on some extraordinary condition of the
air. When a disease is peculiar to a people or
nation, and appears to depend on local causes,
it is said to be ‘ENDEMIC * or ‘ENCHORIAL.”
Thus, Asiatic cholera may be taken as an
example of the first, and the agues of low
countries, and the goitre of the Alps, as exam-
ples of the other.
EPIGASTRIC. In anatomy, pertaining to
the EPIGASTRIUM, or the part of the abdomen
over the stomach.
EPILEP'SY. Syn. FALLING SICKNESs; EPI-
LEPSIA, MORBUS CADUCUS, L. The popular
name of this disease arises from the patient,
when attacked by it, suddenly falling to the
ground. The other leading symptoms consist
of convulsions, stupor, and, generally, frothing
at the mouth. It comes on by fits, which after
a time go off, leaving a certain amount of
lassitude and drowsiness behind. Sometimes
certain peculiar symptoms precede the attack.
Among these, a sensation of coldness or of
a current of cold air from the extremities of
the body towards the head (AURA EPILEPTICA),
palpitation, flatulency, stupor, and an inde-
scribable cloud or depression, are the most
common. The occurrence of these symptoms
are not, however, uniform, even in the same
patient ; but it generally happens that the
party falls down suddenly, and without the
slightest warning.
Epilepsy is often symptomatic of other
affections, as excessive irritation of the primae
via from worms, indigestible or noxious food,
or poison; or it depends on local injuries, parti-
cularly those of the head, accompanied with
lodgments of water on the brain, tumours,
pressure, &c. Violent affections of the nervous
system, sudden frights or fits of passion,
violent mental emotions, the sudden suppression
of old evacuations, and in childhood difficult
teething, are also common causes of sym-
pathetic epilepsy. Occasionally it arises from
mobility of the sensorium, induced by plethora,
or by excessive debility. In such cases the
treatment must be energetically directed to the
removal of the exciting cause. -
When epilepsy occurs as an idiopathic or
primary affection, or cannot be referred to any
apparent cause, more especially when the
attack commences about the age of puberty,
and the fits are frequent, it is generally
hereditary, and there is great danger of its
terminating either in apoplexy, or lunacy, or
imbecility.
The treatment of idiopathic epilepsy is
principally directed to the improvement of the
general health, and the diminution of nervous
irritability by sedatives and tonics. Among
the first, camphor, ether, henbane, hemlock,
musk, oil of cajeput, opium, and morphia, and,
more recently, hydrocyanic acid, have been
principally relied on. Among the second,
bark, cascarilla, quinine, Strychnia, Valerian,
the sulphate of iron, zinc, and copper, arsenious
acid, and nitrate of silver, have each their
zealous advocates. The objection against the
last preparation is the danger of its disfiguring
the patient, by tinging the skin of a permanent
dull, leaden hue. In cases accompanied with
plethora, a low diet, daily out-of-door exercise,
and the frequent use of aperients, with occa-
sional blistering, cupping, and other depletive
measures, are indicated; whilst in those
marked by inanition and debility, an entirely
opposite course must be adopted. When the
disease is complicated with syphilis, a mild
course of mercury may be given; and when
with scrofula, iodine, iodide of potassium, or
cod-liver oil, assisted by sea-bathing, will be
proper.
Among other methods of treatment may be
mentioned the administration of an active
emetic or purgative, twice weekly, in the
morning, when the stomach is empty. The
first has now few supporters; but the second
is said to be often productive of great
benefit.
During a fit of epilepsy the only thing that
can be done for the patient is to prevent the
sufferer injuring himself, and to loosen every
part of his dress that presses on his head, neck,
or chest. When premonitory symptoms occur,
a brisk emetic, a large dose of laudanum and
ether, a cold plunge or shower bath (when not
contra-indicated), or anything else which
gives a sudden shock to the system or raises
its tone, frequently prevents the accession of
the fit.
Epilepsy more frequently attacks children
than adults, and boys than girls. “Its re.
turns are (frequently) periodical, and its pa.
roxysms commence more frequently in the
night than in the day, being somewhat con.
nected with sleep.” It is sometimes counter-
feited by street impostors in order to excite
the charity of the passers-by.
EPIPAS/TICS. See BLISTER and WESICANT
EP'ITHEM. Syn. EPITHEMA, L. Any
external liquid medicine for local application;
as an embrocation or lotion. Some writers
confine the term to those preparations which
are intended to be applied by means of a cloth
dipped into them. See LINIMENT, LOTION, &C,
Epithem, Astrin"gent. Syn. EPITHEMA A
STRINGENS, L. Prep. 1. Powdered ice, 7 dr.;
powdered catechu, 1 dr.; mix.
2. (Brera.) Powdered bole and rhatany, of
each, 1 oz. ; vinegar of roses, q. S. to form 3
paste. Both are applied to the nostrils and
forehead to stop bleeding at the nose.
Epithem, Gly"cerin. Syn. EPITHEMA GIY.
CERINE, L. Prep. (Mr. Startin.) Glycerin,
1 oz. ; rose water and lime water, of each, 3 or
4 fl. oz. ; powdered gum tragacanth, q. S. tº
form a thin mucilage. In scalds, burns, and
excoriations.
Epithem, Vesicaſting. Syn. EPITHEMA
VESICATORIUM, L. Prep. 1. (Alibert.) Rye or
barley meal, made into a paste with vinegal,
and 30 to 40 grs. or more of powdered Spanish
flies sprinkled over the surface, -

EQUISETIC ACID—ERGOT. 451
2. (Ph. L. 1746.) Spanish flies (in fine EQUISE"TIC ACID. In chemistry, a sub-
powder) and wheat flour, equal parts, made into stance identical with ACONITIC ACID (which
a paste with vinegar, q. s. As a blister. see).
Epithem, Wolſatile. Syn. EPITHEMA vo-| EQUIV’ALENT. (EQUIVALENCY.) In mo-
LATILE, E. AMMONIAE, L. Prep. (Ph.L. 1764.) dern chemistry, the equivalent of a body is that
Common turpentine and water of ammonia, weight of it which will exactly replace in a
equal parts. An excellent counter-irritant; compound 1 atom of hydrogen or 1 atom of
either with or without the addition of a little either of the other monivalent elements (see
olive oil. Table, below).
Table of the Elements, arranged according to their Equivalency.
Monivalent. Divalent. Trivalent. Tetrivalent. Pentivalent. Hexivalent,
Hydrogen Oxygen Boron Carbon Nitrogen Sulphur
Fluorine Barium Gold Silicon Phosphorus | Selenium
Chlorine Strontium Tin Vanadium Tellurium
Bromine Calcium Titaneum Arsenic Tungsten
Iodine Magnesium Thorinum Antimony Molybdenum
Caesium Zinc Niobium Bismuth Osmium
Rubidium Didymium Tantalum Iridium
Potassium Lanthanium Zirconium Ruthenium
Sodium Yttrium Aluminium Rhodium
Eithium Glucinum Platinum Chromium
Thallium Cadmium Palladium Manganese
Silver Mercury Lead Iron
Copper Cobalt
Nickel
Uranium
Cerium

Monivalent elements are those which re-
place one atom of hydrogen in chemical com-
binations in the ratios of their atomic weights.
One atom of a divalent, trivalent, tetrivalent,
pentivalent, and hexivalent element replaces
respectively, or is equivalent to, two, three,
four, five, or six atoms of hydrogen or of any
other monivalent element. (For further in-
formation on this subject consult the works on
chemistry by Fownes, Miller, Kay-Shuttle-
worth, &c.)
ERB'IUM. According to Prof. Mosander,
the substance usually called yttria is a mixture
of the oxides of three metals—yttrium, erbium,
and terbium, which differ in the character of
their salts, and in some other important par-
ticulars. The first is a powerful base; the
others, very weak ones. The latter are sepa-
rated with extreme difficulty, and possess no
practical importance.
EREMACAU'SIS. Slow burning; decay.
This expression was applied by Liebig to
the peculiar decomposition which moist or-
ganic matter undergoes, when freely exposed
to the air, by the oxygen of which it is
gradually burned or destroyed, without any
sensible elevation of temperature. See PU-
TREFACTION.
ER'GOT, Syn. ERGOT of RYE, SPURRED
RYE, HORNED R., COCKSPUR R., OBSTETRICAL
R.; ERGOTA (B.P.), L. The diseased seeds of
Secale cereale (Linn.), or common rye.
Ergot of rye deteriorates greatly by age,
being subject to the attacks of a description
of acarus resembling the cheese mite, but
much smaller, which destroys the whole of
the internal portion of the grain, leaving
nothing but the shell, and a considerable
quantity of excrementitious matter. To pre-
vent this, the ergot should be well dried, and
then placed in bottles or tin canisters, and
closely preserved from the air. The addition
of a few cloves, or drops of the oil of cloves,
or strong acetic acid, or a little camphor, or
camphorated spirit of wine, will preserve this
substance for years in close vessels. M. Martin
proposes to steep the dry ergot in strong mu-
cilage, and then to dry it on a sheet of white
iron. This operation he repeats once or
oftener, and finally preserves the prepared
and thoroughly dried ergot in a well-corked
glass flask. (“Jour. de Chimie Méd.") The
wholesale druggists generally keep it in well-
covered tin canisters or tin boxes.
Ergot of rye is much used to restrain uterine
hemorrhage, and to accelerate the contraction
of the uterus in protracted labour. It is also
much used as an emmenagogue.—Dose. To
facilitate labour, 20 to 30 grs., either in powder
or made into an infusion; repeated at intervals
of 20 or 30 minutes until 3 or 4 scruples have
been taken. In other cases (leucorrhoea, hæ-
morrhages, &c.) the dose is 5 to 12 grs, three
times daily, for a period not longer than a
week or ten days at a time. See DECOCTION,
ExTRACT, INFUSION, OIL, TINCTURE, &c.


4.32
FRGOTINE–FRUPTIONS.
ER'GOTINE. Syn. ERGOTINA, L. Prep.
1. (Bonjean's.) Powdered ergot is exhausted
with cold water, by displacement, and the
resulting solution is heated in a water bath
to about 200° Fahr., and filtered; the filtered
liquor is then evaporated to the consistence of
a syrup, and when cold, is treated with recti-
fied spirit, in considerable excess, to precipi-
tate its gummy matter; after repose, the clear
portion is decanted, by the heat of a water
bath, to the consistence of a soft extract.
Prod. 15%. According to M. Bonjean, this
preparation possesses all the ‘haemostatic’
without any of the ‘poisonous’ qualities of
ergot. It has a reddish-brown colour, a bitter
taste, and an odour somewhat resembling
that of roasted meat. Its aqueous solution is
red, limpid, and transparent. Dose. 4 to 10
grs., either made into a pill or dissolved in
water.
2. (Wigger's.) Powdered ergot is first di-
gested in ether, to remove the fatty matter,
and then in boiling alcohol; the alcoholic tinc-
ture is evaporated, and the resulting extract
treated with water; the undissolved portion,
dissolved in hot alcohol and filtered, yields
pure ergotine by gentle evaporation. Prod.
#4. It has a brownish-red colour; is resi-
nous, acrid, bitter, insoluble in water and
ether, soluble in alcohol, and poisonous. It
evolves a peculiar odour when warmed. Its
therapeutical action has not been determined.
See EXTRACT.
ER/RHINES. Syn. ERRHINA, L. Substances
applied to the pituitary membrane of the nose,
for the purpose of producing an increased dis-
charge of nasal mucus. When they are given
to excite sneezing, they are called STERNU-
TATORIES or PTARMICs. Asarabacca, euphor-
bium, several of the labiatae (herbae vel flores),
sal-ammoniac, powdered sugar, subsulphate of
mercury, tobacco, and white hellebore, are the
principal substances of this class.
Errhines act as local irritants, and are
occasionally employed in chronic affections of
the eyes, face, ears and brain; as in amau-
rosis, ophthalmia, deafness, weak sight, head-
ache, &c.
Errhine, Al'um. Syn. ERRHINUM ALUMINIS,
L. Prep. (Radius.) Alum and Armenian bole,
of each, 1 dr. ; kino, ; dr. ; red oxide of iron,
2 drs. ; (all in powder;) mix and triturate. In
bleeding at the nose. A little is snuffed up
the nostrils.
Errhine, Haemostatic. Syn. ERRHINUM HAE-
MOSTATICUS, L. Prep. From powdered cate-
chu, 1 dr. ; opium, 5 grs. ; sugar, 2 drs. As the
last.
ERUPTIONS (of the Skin). For brevity and
convenience, these cutaneous affections may be
divided into 5 classes:–
Eruptions, Animal'cular. These are due to
the presence of minute parasites (ACARI), which
burrow and breed in the scarf-skin, and occa-
sion much local irritation. See ITCH.
Eruptions, Pap'ular. Syn. DRY PIMPLEs.
In these the surface is raised into little ele.
vations or pimples, which sometimes show
themselves on the surface, and at others are
only appreciable by the touch... They are
usually accompanied with a greater or less
degree of cutaneous irritation and troublesome
itching, in attempting to relieve which they
are frequently converted into disagreeable and
painful sores and excoriations, which are often
difficult to heal.
Treat. In simple cases, where there is not
much disarrangement of the general health,
these eruptions commonly yield to the OCCa:
sional use of mild saline aperients, and warm
or tepid bathing, or frequent ablution with
warm soap and water. Sea-bathing is also a
powerful remedy. Stimulants of all kinds
should be avoided, and ripe fruit and vege.
tables should form a prominent part of the
diet. Lemonade, made by squeezing a lemon
into a tumbler of water, and sweetening the
mixture with a little sugar, is one of the best
beverages on these occasions. To relieve the
itching, brisk friction with a soft flesh-brush
may be had recourse to, followed by the use of
a lotion formed by adding the juice of a lemon
or a wine-glassful of distilled vinegar, to # of a
pint or a pint of water, either with or without
the addition of a table-spoonful of glycerine,
Occasional single pimples, depending on local
causes, generally require no particular treat.
ment. See LICHEN, PRURIGO, RED GUM, and
TOOTHRASH.
Eruptions, Pus’tular. Syn, MATTERY PIM.
PLES. These are distinguished by the pimples
(pustules) containing an opaque yellow fluid
or matter (pus, lymph). “They are gene.
rally developed on a ground of inflamed skin;
and the degree of this inflammation of the
skin is the basis of their division into two
groups, termed technically “IMPETIGO’ and
‘ECTHYMA.’ The former presents the slighter
degree of inflammation, and, sometimes, there
is scarcely any redness of the skin; the latter
is always accompanied by considerable inflam.
mation and redness.” “The little bubbles
attain their full size in the course of two or
three days, and either dry up without breaking,
or more frequently burst and then dry, form.
ing a hard crust, which offers considerable
variety of colour, being sometimes yellowish,
sometimes brownish, and sometimes almost
black.” The latter form is popularly known
as ‘crusted tetter.” In ecthyma the pustules
“are generally of the size of a split pea, and
surrounded at their base by a broad halo of
redness. They are usually separate, not clus.
tered like impetigo, scattered over various
parts of the body, and followed either by a
hard black crust or by a sore.”
Treat. The inflammation and pain may be
generally alleviated by the application of a
lotion formed of rectified spirit of wine, 1
part; and water, 5 or 6 parts; to which a
table-spoonful of distilled vinegar is often
added. The crusts or scabs, when they be:
ERWALENTA—ERYSIPELAS. 453
come hard or troublesome, may be removed by
a warm fomentation or an emollient poultice;
a little simple cerate being afterwards applied
to allay irritation. When the constitution is
full and inflammatory (as it usually is in im-
petigo), a depletive treatment may be adopted;
when it is low and debilitated (as it usually is
in ecthyma), tonics and a more liberal diet,
with the free use of lemon juice diluted with
water, as a beverage, should be had recourse
to, Sea-bathing is also highly useful. See
TETTERS.
Eruptions, Sca'ly. Syn. DRY TETTER. This
is a form of inflammatory condition of the
true skin (DERMA), which commonly makes its
appearance as a small dull red, salmon-red, or
liver-coloured spot, slightly raised above the
level of the surrounding skin, constituting a
broad, flat, pimple-like prominence, about the
size of a split pea. Upon the surface of this
prominence the scarf-skin becomes slightly
roughened, and after a little while a very
distinct but circular scale is produced, which
increases in thickness by the addition of fresh
layers, and after assuming various colours in
different varieties of the disease, ultimately
Separates and falls off, either leaving a perma-
nently bare surface, or being followed by crops
of other like scales, which also fall off, and
are replaced in rapid succession. This class of
eruptions is more obstinate than any of the
other varieties, and often defies medical skill.
Each particular form generally requires special
treatment. In all, however, endeavours should
be made to restore the general health of the
body in the manner which existing circum-
stances may indicate. The red meats, ripe
fruit, and antiscorbutic vegetables, should form
a large portion of the diet; and sea-bathing,
or shower, sulphuretted, or ioduretted baths,
should be taken daily, if possible. Dry fric-
tion with a flesh-brush, and daily exercise to
perspiration, are also highly recommended.
See LEPROSY, PSORIASIS, TETTERS, &c.
Eruptions, Wesic'ular. Syn. WATERY PIM-
PLES. These consist of little vesicles or blad-
ders, filled with a small quantity of a trans-
parent and colourless liquid. They result from
a similar action to that which produces ordi-
nary blisters. Inflammation is excited in the
sensitive skin by an inward or outward cause,
and the inflamed vessels pour out the watery
part of the blood, and so raise the scarf-skin
from off the sensitive layer, in the form of a
small dome, which in some situations is conical,
in others a segment of a sphere.” They pre-
sent great variety in point of number and size;
some are so minute as to be scarcely discernible
without close inspection, whilst others increase
to the magnitude of a hen’s egg. They are
numerous in the inverse ratio of their size;
the smaller ones being very abundant, and the
larger ones scanty and few. .
Treat. This consists chiefly in the due at-
tention to the general principles of health—
cleanliness, exercise, food, and rainent, as
already pointed out, assisted by such special
remedies as the particular case or circum-
stances may demand. Antiphlogistics or tomics
must be had recourse to, according to the
condition of the system, and local irritation
allayed by the usual means. Simple cases fre-
quently yield to a dose or two of some saline
aperient and a change of dict. See ERY-
SIPELAS, PEMPHIGUS, RUPIA, TETTERs, and
SKIN.
ERWALEN'TA. The meal of lentils (Ervum
lens,—Linn.), variously doctored with other
substances. In some cases the article sold
under the name does not contain a particle of
lentil meal.
Prep. 1. (Paris Ervalenta.) Indian-corn
meal (fine), and bean flour, of each, 14 lbs. ;
salt and sugar, of each, 1 lb.; mix, and pass
the compound through a sieve.
2. (Warton’s.) Lentil powder, 1 part; durra
or Turkey millet flour (Sorghum vulgare), 2
parts. Some persons assert that it contains
a large quantity of the flour of Indian corn.
See REVALENTA and LENTILS.
ERYN"G0. Syn. ERYNGIUM, L. The root
of the Eryngium campestre, a plant common
in middle and southern Europe. It is sweet,
aromatic, and tonic, and formerly enjoyed
much repute in gonorrhoea, suppressed men-
struation, and visceral obstructions generally,
especially those of the gall-bladder, liver, and
uterus. Candied eryngo (ERYNGIUM CONDI-
TUM, ERYNGII RADIX CONDITA), according to
Lindley, “has the credit of being a decided
aphrodisiac,” and has a considerable sale.
Eryngium aquaticum (bitter snake-weed) and
E. maritimum (sea eryngo, sea holly) furnish
the eryngo of the Ph. U. S. See CANDY.
ERYSIP'ELAS, Syn. ST. ANTHONY's FIRE,
THE ROSE. A peculiar form of inflammation,
which chiefly attacks the skin, and is gene-
rally accompanied or followed by an eruption
of a very red colour, sometimes vesicular, and
by tumefaction. It commonly attacks the
head and face, and is at its height from the
third to the sixth day, but the duration and
progress of the symptoms are variable. From
the eighth to the twelfth day the eruption
usually scabs or scales off. Sometimes suppu-
ration occurs, especially of the eyelids and
scalp, and during the latter stages of the
disease there is, in general, a tendency to de-
bility. In many cases erysipelas is attended
by typhoid symptoms, and is then a dangerous
and often fatal disease.
Treat. Aperients and diaphoretics, assisted
by a cooling diet. When the inflammatory
symptoms run high, blistering and cupping
are frequently had recourse to. Local irrita-
tion may be subdued by milk-and-water, or
cooling or evaporating lotions, or by sprinkling
starch, hair-powder, or arrow-root, on the part.
The tendency to debility in the latter stages
should be combated with bark, quinine, or
other like tonics. When shiverings, sickness,
and delirium, attend the height of the dis.


454.
ERYTHORETIN–ESSENCE.
order, wine, bark, ammonia, and other stimu-
lants, are usually prescribed, and depletion
must be avoided. The same treatment is also
adopted in the gangrenous forms of the dis-
ease, to which doses of opium and calomel are
also commonly added. When suppuration and
sloughing of the cellular membrane have
taken place, it is usual to make incisions to
give exit to the discharge, and relieve the ten-
sion of the limb. These may be about 1% inch
in length, and from 2 to 4 inches apart, and
should be made in the direction of the long
dimensions of the limb. Mr. Higginbottom,
of Nottingham, applies (freely) lunar caustic
to the inflamed skin, and also to the healthy
skin, to the extent of an inch or more beyond
it. The result, in many cases, is a complete
change of action in the part, and a resolution
of the disease. Iodine paint is often success-
fully used in the same way.
Erysipelas is generally symptomatic of a
debilitated or bad constitution. It is also a
common sequel of surgical operations in
crowded and ill-ventilated hospitals, where it
often appears to be contagious. In these cases
cleanliness, ventilation, and change of air, are
the only remedies. We need scarcely add,
that this disease should never be tampered
with, but the best medical advice sought,
whenever it can be procured.
ERYTHORETIN. Syn. RED RESIN OF
RHUBARB. A yellow or reddish-yellow sub-
stance, forming one of the three resins found
by Schlösberger and Doepping in rhubarb. It
is very soluble in alcohol; less so in ether;
with ammonia and potassa it forms soluble
compounds of a rich purple colour. See RHU-
IBARB.
ERYTH'RIC ACID. Prep. The lichen
Roccella tinctoria (Canary or herb-archil) is
boiled with milk of lime, and the filtered solu-
tion precipitated with hydrochloric acid; the
dried precipitate is dissolved in warm alcohol,
and filtered; as the solution cools, crystals of
erythric acid are deposited.
Prep., &c. Feebly acid; colourless; in-
odorous; scarcely soluble in water; soluble in
alcohol and ether; chloride of lime turns its
solutions of a blood-red colour.
ERYTH/RINE, AMARYTHRINE, ERYTHRI-
TINE, PSEUDO-ERYTHRINE, and TELERYTH-
RINE. Substances obtained by Kane and
Heeren from Roccella tinctoria, Parmelia
Toccella, Leconara Tartarea, &c. They are
of little practical importance.
ESCHAROT'ICS. Syn. EscHAROTICA, L.
Substances that destroy the texture of living
organic bodies, with the production of an
‘ eschar’ or ‘scab.” Escharotics have been
divided into two classes—mechanical and che-
mical. Among the former are actual cauteries,
as a heated iron, moxas, &c.; among the latter
are all those substances commonly known as
caustics. Some writers have subdivided che-
mical escharotics into ERODING ESCHAROTICS,
as blue vitriol, red precipitate, burnt alum,
&c.; and into CAUSTIC ESCHAROTICS, as lunar
caustic, pure potassa, strong sulphuric acid,
nitric acid, &c.; but these distinctions possess
little practical value. “In cauterising with a
heated iron, this should be at a white heat, as,
at this temperature, it occasions less pain to
the patient, from its causing an immediate
death of the parts to which it is applied.”
“The surrounding surface should be protected
by some non-conductor of heat, but not by
wet paper or cloth, as the sudden extrication
of steam will produce a blistered surface
around the burn, and will much increase the
pain.” (Dr. R. E. Griffith.) See CAUSTIC,
SOLUTION, &c.
ES'CUIENTS. Substances used for food,
The more important esculents are noticed
under their respective heads.
ESCU'LIC ACID. A peculiar acid foundby
M. Bussy in the bark of the horse-chestnut,
It is but little known, and has not been applied
to any use.
ESPRIT. [Fr.] SPIRIT. This term is
commonly applied to alcoholic solutions of
the essential oils, and to various odorous and
aromatic essences sold by the perfumers and
druggists as articles of the toilet. See
ESSENCE, SPIRIT, &c.
ES'SENCE. Syn. ESSENTIA, L. The active
and characteristic portion of a substance, Or
that on which its most remarkable properties
depend. The term has been very loosely
applied to various preparations presumed to
contain these essential principles or qualities,
disencumbered of grosser matter. Modern
systematic writers generally restrict its appli.
cation to the volatile oils obtained from vege.
table substances by distillation, or to a strong
solution of them in alcohol. In pharmacy and
perfumery, the word ‘essence’ is applied to con.
centrated preparations that differ vastly from
each other. Thus, concentrated effusions, de-
coctions, liquors, solutions, and tinctures, are
frequently called ‘essences’ by those who vend
them; but the term “fluid extracts’ would be
more appropriate, if those already mentioned
are not deemed sufficiently showy and attrac.
tive. We shall here confine ourselves to a
brief notice of the principal compound essences,
or those that undergo some preparation beyond
being merely extracted from vegetables by
distillation along with water. The latter will
be considered under the article OIL.
The concentrated preparations of the phar.
maceutist, termed ‘essences,’ are mostly pre-
pared by digesting the active ingredient or
ingredients in rectified spirit of wine, either
with or without the addition of a certain
portion of water; or they are extemporaneously
formed by dissolving a portion of the essential
oil of such substances in the spirit. In this way
are made the essences of lavender, musk, gin-
ger, &c. When it is desired only to obtain the
aromatic and volatile portion of the ingredients,
the latter are usually digested in the spirit for
a few days, and then submitted to distillation,



ESSENCE.
455
when the alcohol comes over loaded with aroma-
tic essential oil, or other volatile matter. In this
way are prepared most of the fragrant essences
of the perfumer and druggist, when simple
solution of the essential oils in alcohol is not
resorted to. In many cases the active princi-
ples of the ingredients are partly volatile and
partly fixed, or at least do not readily volatilise
at the temperature at which alcohol distils
over. This is the case, for instance, with the
active portion of ergot and Jamaica ginger.
In such cases digestion alone should be adopted.
When the principle of organic substances, of
which it is desired to obtain a concentrated
Solution, are resinous or oily, or little soluble
in weak spirit (which is mostly the case), the
strongest rectified spirit of wine should alone
be employed. In the preparation of essences
without distillation, the method by percolation
or displacement is preferable to that of simple
maceration and expression, when the nature
of the ingredients and other circumstances
render it applicable, as it is not only more
economical, but a more concentrated solution
may thereby be obtained. At the same time,
however, the reader should remember, that
this mode of operating requires much greater
experience and skill to ensure success than the
former method. This clumsiness of manipu-
lation is the common cause of the failures
which are so frequently met with in the pre-
paration of these articles.
The ingredients for the preparation of
essences must undergo the same operations of
bruising, powdering, or slicing, as directed
under ‘TINCTURE,’ previous to digestion in the
spirit, or other menstruum ; and the length of
time they should be allowed to infuse, when
this method alone is adopted, should not be
less than ten days; but this time may be ad-
Vantageously extended to a fortnight, or even
longer. During the whole of this period fre-
quent agitation should be employed, and when
the ingredients are so bulky as to absorb the
whole of the fluid, the vessel which contains
them should be securely fastened by a bung
or stopper covered with bladder, and inverted
every alternate day. By this means every
portion of the ingredients will be equally ex-
posed to the action of the menstruum. In all
such cases the method of displacement, or per-
colation, is preferable. For .the essences used
as perfumes and for flavouring, not only must
the spirit be perfectly tasteless and scentless,
but it must be also quite devoid of colour.
The following formulae embrace most of the
essences met with in the shops. Those not
found among them may be readily prepared
by applying the general directions given above,
or by employing the formula given for the
preparation of the essence of some similar sub-
stance, merely varying the characteristic in-
gredient. Thus, were it desired to form an
essence of ambergris or of myrrh, and no
formulae could be found for these preparations,
the tyro would consider in what menstruum
the active principles of these substances were
most soluble. This, he would immediately see
by reference to their properties, is rectified
spirit of wine. He would next have to decide
on the proper strength of his essence. In this
he must be guided, either by the strength of
the like preparations of other makers, or by
his own judgment of what would be useful,
novel, or convenient. Suppose he decided that
his essence should represent 1-10th of its
weight of the solid ingredient. He would
then take 2 oz. of ambergris or myrrh, and
20 oz. of rectified spirit, which he would digest
together for 10 days or a fortnight in the
manner described above. Had the required
preparation been an essence of senna, (for
example), he would probably recollect, or might
easily ascertain by reference, that the active
properties of senna are soluble in both water
and weak spirit. Then, to make an essence 4
times as strong as the tincture of the pharma-
copoeia, 7 oz. of Senna, and 1 pint of proof
spirit, should be employed, with due digestion,
as before." The same applies to other prepara-
tions. See ConCENTRATION, DECOCTION, IN-
FUSION, LIQUOR, SPIRIT, TINCTURE, &c.
Essence of Ac'onite, Syn. ESSENTIA ACO-
NITI, L. Prep. From aconite (herb, dried and
powdered), 8 oz. ; rectified spirit, 16 oz. ; ma-
cerate for 4 days at a temperature of 68°Fahr.,
press, and strain; the marc or residuum is
again macerated with (a little) spirit, and
pressed as before, so that the weight of the
mixed tinctures may amount to double that of
the herb.--Dose. 3 to 6 drops. See TINCTURE.
Essence of All'spice. Syn. ESSENCE OF PI-
MENTO ; ESSENTIA PIMENTE, L. Prep. From
essential oil of pimento or allspice, 1 fl. Oz. ;
strongest rectified spirit of wine, 1 pint; agi-
tate until perfectly united, and the next day
decant the clear portion, if there is any sedi-
ment. Used to make pimento water, and by
cooks and confectioners as a “flavouring.”
Essence of Al'monds. Syn. ESSENCE OF
BITTER ALMONDS, E, OF PEACH KERNELS, E.
OF RATAFIA, E. OR NOYEAU, QUINTESSENCE OF
N., ALMOND FLAVOUR ; ESSENTIA AMYGDALE,
E. A. AMARAE, L. Prep. 1. From essential oil
of almonds, as the last.
2. (Pereira.) Essential oil of almonds, 1 fl.
oz.; rectified spirit, 7 fl. oz.
Uses, &c. It is added to wine, cordials, per-
fumery, pastry, &c., to impart an agreeable
nutty flavour or aroma. It is also employed
to prepare cherry-laurel, peach-kernel, and
bitter-almond water. A large quantity is con-
sumed by the confectioners, and by wine mer-
chants to “improve’ their sherries, and to give
Cape wine a sherry flavour. It should be used
in very small quantities, as it is very powerful,
and, in quantity, poisonous. A few drops are
sufficient for several pounds of pastry. The
first formula is that used in trade. The second
is sometimes used by the druggists, and is oc-
casionally vended under the name of ‘CON-
* See directions given under TINCTURE.


436
ESSENCE,
CENTRATED TSSENCE OF BITTER ALMONDs,”
&c. The directions for purifying the almond
oil from hydrocyanic acid before dissolving it in
the spirit, given in more than one recent book
of receipts, are absurd, as in this way the oil
loses much of its characteristic odour and
flavour, and by keeping gradually becomes
nearly destitute of both. See ESSENTIAL OIL.
Essence of Amſbergris. Syn. ESSENTIA AM-
BRAE-GRISEE, E. A. SIMPLEX, TINCTURA A.
CONCENTRATA, L. Prep. 1. Ambergris (cut
very small), 5 drs. ; rectified spirit, 1 pint;
place them in a strong bottle or tin can, secure
the mouth very firmly, and expose it to the
heat of the sun, or in an equally warm situa-
tion, for 1 or 2 months, frequently shaking it
during the time; lastly, decant, and filter
through paper.
2. (Guibourt.) Ambergris, 1 dr. ; rectified
spirit, 3 oz. ; digest 10 or 12 days.
3. (Redwood.) Ambergris, 2% drs. ; rectified
spirit, 1 pint ; macerate for 14 days. Chiefly
used as an element in other perfumes. The
first is the formula employed by the London
houses.
Essence of Ambergris and Musk. Syn. CON-
CENTRATED TINCTURE OF A. AND M.; E.AMIBRAE-
GRISEE (ODORATA), E. A. ET MOSCHI, E. REGIA,
L.; ESSENCE ROYALE, Fr. Prep. 1. Ambergris
(cut small), # oz. ; 1 or 2 fresh-emptied musk-
pods (or musk, 12 grs.); rectified spirit, 1 pint ;
proceed as in No. 1 (above).
2. Ambergris, 2% oz. ; bladder musk, Oz. ;
spirit of ambrette (purple sweet sultan), 1 gal. ;
as last.
3. Ambergris, 2% oz. ; bladder musk, 1 oz. ;
spirit of ambrette, 1 gal.; as before. The fra-
grance of the above, especially of the last two,
is very powerful, and is much esteemed.
4. Ambergris, 3 oz. ; musk and lump sugar,
of each, 4 oz. ; triturate together in a wedg-
wood-ware mortar, adding oil of cloves, 20
drops; true balsam of Peru, 30 drops, and
enough essence of jasmine or tuberose to con-
vert it into a perfectly smooth paste; then put
it into a strong bottle with rectified spirit, 1
quart; observing, before adding the whole of
the last, to rinse the mortar out well with it,
that nothing may be lost ; lastly digest for 6
or 8 weeks, as directed in No. 1 (above).
5. Ambergris, 4 drs. ; musk, 1% dr.; sand, 3
Oz. ; triturate, then add, of oil of cinnamon, 1
dr. ; oil of rhodium, . dr. ; essence of roses and
eau fleurs d’orange, of each, 4 pint; rectified
spirit, 1% pint ; digest as before (or not less
than 14 days), and decant and filter. The last
two are very fine, though inferior to Nos. 2
and 3.
6. To the last (No. 5), add civet, 1 dr.; salt
of tartar, 3 drs.; and an additional pint of
rectified spirit. Inferior to the above, but
cheaper. -
Obs. Essence of ambergris is used as a per-
fume, and is added in small quantities to
sweet-scented spirits and wines, to improve
their flavour and aroma. A very small quan-
tity of any one of them added to lavender
water, eau de Cologne, tooth-powder, hair.
powder, wash-balls, or a hogshead of claret,
communicates a delicious fragrance. See AM.
BERGRIs and ESSENCE ROYALE (below).
Essence d’Ambrette. [Fr.] Syn. ESSENCE
OF MUSIK SEED, SPIRIT OF M. S.; ESPRIT D’AM.
BRETTE, Fr. Prep. 1. Musk seed (ground in
a clean pepper-mill), 14 lb. ; rectified spirit, 3
pints; digest for 3 or 4 weeks in a warm
place, and filter.
2. Musk seed, 4 lbs. ; rectified spirit, 1 gal;
digest 10 days, add water, 2 quarts, and distil
over 1 gal. Very fine.
Essence of Ammoni'acum. Syn. CONCEN.
TRATED TINCTURE OF AMMONIACUM ; ESSENTIA
AMMONIACT, TINCTURA A. CONCENTRATA, II,
Prep. 1. Ammoniacum (in tears), 1 lb., is
bruised in a very cold marble mortar with half
its weight of coarse and well-washed siliceOus
Sand or powdered glass, and rectified spirit,
# pint, gradually added; the trituration is
continued until the whole is reduced to a
smooth paste, and is then placed in a wide.
mouthed bottle, and spirit of wine, 1% pint, fur.
ther added; the whole is then digested toge.
ther for a week with constant agitation, and
after sufficient repose to settle, the supernatant
transparent liquid is decanted into another
bottle for use.
2. Gum ammoniacum, 1 lb., is reduced to a
cream with boiling water, 3 pint; as soon as
the mixture has cooled a little, it is placed in a
strong bottle, and rectified spirit of wine, 1}
pint, is cautiously added; the mixture is then
corked down close, and the whole macerated
for a few days; the bottle is next placed in a
moderately warm situation, that the sediment
may subside, after which the clearer portion is
poured off through flannel into another bottle,
Obs. This preparation is used as a substitute
for the gum in substance, for extemporaneously
preparing emulsion of ammoniacum, mixture
of a., &c. It is represented to possess fully the
same amount of medicinal virtue as an equal
weight of the solid gum, on which account it
has a considerable sale. The product of the
first formula, when well managed, is a beauti.
ful pale brownish-coloured, transparent tint.
ture; that of the second is milky and less
sightly. The preparation generally sold under
the name of ‘CONCENTRATED ESSENCE OF AM.
MONIACUM (ESSENTIA AMMONIACI CONCEN.
TRATA, L.), and represented as twice as strong
as the gum in substance, is generally prepared
by the first formula given above for ESSENCE
OF AMMONIACUM. A stronger article may be
prepared by a similar process, by using 1 lb, of
ammoniacum to a pint of the strongest rectified
spirit. As, however, a clear liquid at this
strength is somewhat difficult to produce, it is
very seldom attempted by the druggists; they
therefore generally content themselves with
sending out the liquid at half the professed
strength, leaving the label to confer the addi.
tional concentration, See AMMONIACUM,

ESSENCE,
4:7
Essence of Ancho'vies. Sym. ESSENTIA
CLUPEAE, L. Prep. 1. Anchovies, 1 lb., are
‘boned,’ reduced to a pulp in a wedgwood-
ware or marble mortar, and passed through a
clean hair or brass-wire sieve ; meanwhile the
bones and other portion that will not pass
through the sieve are boiled with water, 1
pint, for 15 minutes, and strained; to the
strained liquor, salt and flour, of each, 2% oz.,
together with the pulped anchovies, are added,
and the whole simmered for 3 or 4 minutes,
when the vessel is removed from the fire, and
as soon as the mixture has cooled a little,
strong pickling vinegar, 3 pint, is mixed in ; it
is then bottled, and the corks tied over with
bladder, and either ‘waxed’ or ‘capsuled.”
Product, 3 lbs. (nearly).
2. Anchovies, 7 lbs. ; water, 9 pints; Salt and
flour, of each, 1 lb. Product, 20 lbs.
3. To the last, add of Cayenne pepper, 3 oz.;
the peel of a lemon (grated), and mushroom
catsup, 4 oz. Very savoury.
4. From British anchovies (pickled sprats)
Or young pilchards, along with herring liquor,
or the drainings of anchovy barrels.
Use, &c. As a sauce and condiment; when
well prepared, it has a fine flavour. That of
the shops is usually coloured with Venetian red
or Armenian bole. An infusion of cochineal, or
a little annotta, would form a more appropriate
colouring, and would be perfectly harmless.
See ANCHOVY and SAUCE.
Essence of Angelica. Syn. ESSENTIA AN-
GELICE, L. Prep. (Van Mons.) Angelica root
(bruised), 1 part ; rectified spirit, 8 parts;
water, 16 parts; digest, and distil over 6 parts;
Stomachic, carminative, and alexipharmic.—
l)0se, 1 to 2 teaspoonfuls.
Essence of An'iseed. Syn. ESSENTIA ANISI
(B. P.), L.; ESPRIT D’ANISE, Fr. Oil of anise,
1 part; rectified spirit, 4 parts; mix (B. P.).
Stimulant, aromatic, and carminative.—Dose.
10 to 20 minims. Used also to flavour liqueurs,
and to make aniseed water. See SPIRIT.
Essence, An’odyne. Syn. ESSENTIA ANODYNA,
L. Prep. 1. Hard aqueous extract of opium
(in powder), 1 dr.; powdered cinnamon, ; dr. ;
rectified spirit, 1 fl. Oz. ; digest a week.-Dose.
5 to 20 drops.
2. Extract of henbane (recent), 5 drs. ; rec-
tified spirit, 2 fl. oz. ; as last.—Dose. 10 to 30
drops. Narcotic, sedative, and antispasmodic.
Both are excellent preparations.
Essence, Antihyster'ic. Syn. EssENTIA ANTI-
HYSTERICA, L. Prep. 1. Cyanuret of potas-
sium, 3 grs. ; powdered sugar, 1 dr.; rectified
spirit and eau d’orange, of each 4 fl. drs. ; agi-
tate together until dissolved.—Dose. 10 to 20
drops, in pure water; in hysteria, gastrodynia,
&c. See DRAUGHT (Antihysteric).
2. (P. Cod.) Resembles FETID SPIRIT OF
AMMONIA (which see).
Essence of Apple. Syn. Solution of VALE-
RIANATE OF AMYL ; ESSENTIA POMI ODO-
RATA, L. Prep. From apple oil (valerianate
ºf oxide of amyl), as ESSENCE OF AL-
MONDs. Used to flavour liqueurs and confec-
tionery.
Essence of Ar’mica. Syn. ESSENTIA ARNICE,
E. A. FLORUM, TINCTURA A. E. CONCENTRATA,
L. Prep. (Ph. Baden, 1841.) From armica
flowers, as ESSENCE OF ACONITE. It represents
half its weight of herb.
Essence, Aromatic. Syn. ESSENTIA ARO-
MATICA, L. Prep. From hay saffron, 1 dr.;
and rectified spirit, 6 fl. drs.; digested together; .
to the filtered tincture is added oil of cinnamon
and powdered white sugar, of each, 1 dr.; ether
(rect.), 2 fl. drs. ; oil of nutmeg and essence of
ginger, of each, ; dr.; after agitation and a
few days’ repose, the clear portion is decanted
into a stoppered phial,—IOose. 5 to 15 drops,
on sugar or in a glass of wine or weak spirit;
in cholera, diarrhoea, spasms, &c.
Essence of Bark. Syn. ESSENTIA CINCHONE,
E. CORTICIS C., L. Prep. 1. Resinous extract
of yellow bark, 4 drs. ; rectified spirit, 1} fl.oz.;
tincture of orange peel, , fl. Oz, ; acetic acid
(Ph. L.), 1 fl. dr.; digest a week.
2. Disulphate of quinine, # dr.; resinous ex-
tract of bark, 2 drs. ; rectified spirit, 2 fl. oz.;
as before.—Dose. 12 drops to a teaspoonful;
as a febrifuge and tonic.
Essence of Beef. Syn. EssENCE OF RED
MEATs, &c. Prep. 1. From lean beef (chopped
small), 1 lb.; water, 3 pint; place them in a
bottle, which they will only half fill, and agi-
tate them violently for half an hour; then
throw the whole on a sieve, and receive the
liquid in a jug ; next boil the undissolved por-
tion in water, 1 pint, for 20 minutes; strain,
mix the decoction with the cold infusion, eva-
porate the liquid to the consistence of a thin
syrup, adding spice, salt, &c., to taste, and pour
the essence, whilst boiling hot, into bottles,
jars, or (still better) tin cans, which must then
be at once hermetically corked, sealed, or sol-
dered up, and stowed away in a cold place. In
this state it will keep a long time. -
2. (Ellis.) Take of lean beef (sliced), a
sufficient quantity to fill the body of a porter
bottle; cork it up loosely, and place it in a pot
of cold water, attaching the neck, by means of
a string, to the handle of the pot; boil for 1%
to 2 hours, then decant the liquid and skim it.
Spices, salt, wine, brandy, &c., may be added
as before. Highly nutritious and sustaining.
Essence of Bergamot. See OIL (Volatile).
Essence, Bitter. Syn. ESSENTIA AMARA, L.
Prep. (Ph. Den.) Wormwood, 4 parts; gen-
tian root, bitter orange peel, and blessed thistle,
of each, 1 part ; rectified spirit, 45 parts;
digest a week. Tonic and stomachic.—Dose,
# dr. to 2 drs.
Essence of Calum'ba. Syn. ESSENTIA CA-
LUMBE, L. See INFUSION OF CALUMBA.
Essence of Cam'phor. Syn. CAMPHOR DROPS,
LIQUOR OF CAMPHOR, CONCENTRATED ESSENCE
OF C., CONCENTRATED SOLUTION OF C., CONC.
CAMPHOR JULEP ; ESSENTIA CAMPHORAE,
LIQUOR. C., L. C. CONCENTRATUS, L. Prep,
1, Camphor (clean), 4} oz, ; rectified spirit, 1


458
ESSENCE.
gal.; dissolve. This forms the ‘ESSENCE OF
CAMPHOR” and ‘LIQUOR CAMPHORAE’ of the
wholesale houses. About ; fl. dr., added to
7; fl. drs. of cold distilled water, forms (by
agitation) a transparent aqueous solution of
camphor, fully equal in strength to the filtered
‘MISTURA CAMPHORE’ (camphor julep) of the
Ph. L. The above made with weaker spirit
forms the ‘spirit of wine and camphor” of the
shops.
2. Camphor, 1 oz. ; rectified spirit, 10 oz.
(by weight); dissolve. This forms the ‘CON-
CENTRATED ESSENCE OF CAMPHOR of the
wholesale druggists. 10 or 12 drops, added to
1 fl. oz. of pure cold water, make a transparent
camphor julep, as before. There is a large
quantity of these solutions of camphor sold by
the London houses, who charge a considerable
price for them. They are very convenient for
preparing extemporaneous camphor julep or
camphor mixture in dispensing.
3. (Fordred.) Tincture of camphor, 13 fl.
drs.; tincture of myrrh, ; fl. dr.; rectified
spirit, 18; fl. drs. ; mix. 1 fl. dr., added to 4
fl. oz. of water, forms camphor julep. It has
been proposed to bleach the tincture of myrrh
with animal charcoal, but this interferes with
its proper action.
4. (Homoeopathic.) See CHOLERA REMEDIES,
Nos. 6 & 7, page 335.
5. (Houlton.) Spirit of camphor (Ph. L.),
1 fl. oz. ; proof spirit, 7 fl. oz. 1 fl. dr., to 3
fl. oz. of water, forms “CAMPHOR JULEP.’
6. (Redwood.) Camphor, 1 dr. ; rectified
gpirit, 2% oz. ; dissolve, and add of water, 4 oz.
7. (Swediaur.) Powdered camphor, 1 dr.;
water saturated with carbonic acid gas, 12 fl.
oZ. ; dissolve. 1 part of this solution, added to
4 parts of water, forms “CAMPHOR MIXTURE.”
See CAMPHOR.
Essence of Cap'sicum,
CAYENNE.
Essence of Car’away. Syn. ESSENTIA CARUI,
L. Prep. From oil of caraway, as ESSENCE OF
ALMONDS. Its applications and uses are similar.
An inferior kind is prepared by macerating the
seeds in proof spirit.
Essence of Car'damoms. Syn. ESSENTIA
CARDAMOMI, E. C. CONCENTRATA, L. Prep.
From lesser cardamom seeds (ground in a
pepper mill), 5% lbs. ; rectified spirit of wine,
1 gal.; digest for a fortnight, press, and filter.
Obs. This preparation is very convenient
for flavouring cordials, pastry, &c., and is very
powerful. In the laboratory, it is frequently
substituted for powdered cardamoms in making
compound extract of colocynth, and has the ad-
vantage of adding no inert matter to the pre-
paration, whilst it imparts the characteristic
odour of the seeds in a remarkable degree.
When used in this way, it is not added to the
extract until it is nearly cold and about to be
taken from the pan. The testae or shells of the
seed should be separated from the kernels, as
the former are quite inert, and if used occasion
a loss of spirit for no purpose.
See ESSENCE OF
Essence of Cascarilla. Syn. ESSENTIA CAS.
CARILLE, L. Prep. 1. Cascarilla (bruised),
12 oz. ; proof spirit, 1 pint; proceed either by
digestion or percolation. The product is 8
times the strength of the infusion of cascarilla
(Ph. L.).
2. See INFUSION (Concentrated).
Essence of Cas'sia. Syn. ESSENTIA CASSIF,
L. Prep. From oil of cassia, as essence of .
allspice or almonds.
Essence of Cayenne'. Syn. ESSENCE OF
CAYENNE PEPPER, E. OF CAPSTCUM, CONCEN.
TRATED E. OF C.; ESSENTIA CAPSICI, TINCTURA
CAPSTCI CONCENTRATA, L. Prep. 1, Capsi.
cum (recent dried pods, bruised), 3 lbs.; recti.
fied spirit, 1 gal.; digest 14 days, press, and
filter. Some persons prepare it by the method
of displacement.
2. Capsicum, # lb.; proof spirit, 1 pint;
digest, as before. Weaker than No. 1.
3. (Kitchener’s.) Cayenne pepper, 1 07:
brandy, 1 pint ; digest, &c., as before.
Obs. The product of the first formula is a
transparent, dark-coloured liquid, having an
intensely burning taste. One drop is sufficient
to deprive a person of the power of speech for
several seconds; and a few drops will impart
the rich pungency of cayenne to a large quan:
tity of soup, sauce, or any other article. It
forms the ‘ESSENCE OF CAYENNE’ and the
* CONC. ESS. OF CAYENNE PEPPER” of the LOn.
don houses. It is principally used as a ‘flavour.
ing,” and to make SOLUBLE CAYENNE PEPPER;
also in dispensing. It is fully 8 times as
strong as the ‘TINCTURA CAPSICI’ (Ph. I).
The product of the third formula is used exclu.
sively for culinary purposes. The pods or
fruit of Capsicum annuum (capsicum, chilly),
C. baccatum (bird pepper), and C. fructescens
(Guinea pods, red pepper), are indiscriminately
used for this preparation, but the first are
those preferred for medicinal purposes; the
others have similar properties, but are more
pungent and acrimonious; hence the preference
given to them in the preparation of Cayeme
pepper. See PEPPER.
Essence of Ce'drat. See OIL (Volatile).
Essence of Cel'ery. Syn. ESSENCE OF CELERY
SEED ; ESSENTIA APII, ESS. A. SEM.INIS, I,
Prep. 1. From celery seed (bruised or ground)
4% oz. ; proof spirit, 1 pint; digest a fortnight,
and strain.
2. (Concentrated.) Celery seed, 7 oz, ; Teº.
tified spirit, 1 pint; digest as before, Very
fine. Both are used for flavouring.
Essence, Cephal'ic. See HEADACHE ES:
SENCE.
Essence of Cham’omile. Syn. CHAMOMII.
DROPS ; ESSENTIA ANTHEMIDIs, E. CHAME.
MELI, E. C. ALBA, L. Prep. 1. From essential
oil of chamomile, as essence of allspice. Sto:
machic and stimulant.—Dose. 5 to 30 drops;
# fl.oz., shaken with about 1 pint of pure water,
forms an excellent extemporaneous chamomile
water.
2. Gentian root (sliced or bruised), 1 lb.;

ESSENCE.
459
dried orange peel, 4 lb.; proof spirit, 1 gal.;
essential oil of chamomile, 3% fl. oz.; macerate
a week. Slightly coloured. Some persons use
# lb. of quassia wood, instead of the gentian
and Orange peel. Both the above are sto-
machic and tonic, and are favourite remedies
in loss of appetite, dyspepsia, &c.—Dose. As
the last, on sugar, or in a wine-glassful of wine
or beer.
Essence of Chiretta,
centrated).
Essence of Cinnamom. Syn. ESSENTIA CIN-
NAMOMI, SPIRITUS C. CONCENTRATUS, L. Prep.
1. From oil of cinnamon, as ESSENCE OF ALL-
SPICE Ol' ALMONDS. -
2. Cinnamon, 5 oz.; rectified spirit, # pint;
water, 4 pint; digest a week, and strain. In-
ferior to the last. Essence of cassia is com-
monly sold for it. ,
Essence of Civ'et. Syn. ESSENTIA ZIBETHI,
L. "Prep. 1. Civet (cut small), 1 oz. ; rectified
spirit, 1 pint; as ESSENCE OF MUSK.
2. Instead of rectified spirit use spirit of
ambrette. Both are used in perfumery;
chiefly in combination with other substances.
Essence of Cloves. Syn. ESSENTIA CARYo-
PHILLI, L. Prep. 1. (White.) From oil of
cloves, as ESSENCE OF ALLSPICE. Used as a
‘flavouring.”
2. (Coloured.) Cloves (bruised), 3% oz. ;
proof spirit, # pint; water, 4 pint; digest a
week, and strain. Inferior to the last. It is
8 times as strong as INFUSION OF CLOVES (Ph.
L.). Chiefly used in dispensing.
Essence of Coffee. See COFFEE.
Essence of Coºgnac. (köne'-yāk). Syn.
BRANDY ESSENCE. Prep. From brandy oil,
2 fl. Oz, ; rectified spirit, 18 fl. oz. For fla-
ºns malt spirit to imitate brandy. See
II,
Essence of Cologne. Syn. CoNCENTRATED
EAU DE COLOGNE ; ESSENTIA COLONIENSIS,
AQUA C. CONCENTRATA, L. Prep. 1. By
taking 8 times the quantity of the ingredients
Ordered for CoIOGNE WATER, and using the
strongest rectified spirit.
2. Oils of lemon and cedrat, of each, 2 drs. ;
oil of rosemary, 1 dr. ; oil of bergamotte, 1 oz. ;
spirit of neroli, 2 fl. oz. ; purest rectified spirit,
5 fl. Oz.-Used as a condensed perfume.
Essence of Colts'foot. Prep. 1. (Ryan,)
Balsam of tolu, 1 oz. ; rectified spirit and com-
pound tincture of benzoin, of each, 3 oz. ; dis-
solve, and in a few days decant the clear
portion.
2. (Paris.) Equal parts of balsam of tolu
and compound tincture of benzoin, with double
the quantity of rectified spirit.
3. Tincture of tolu, 5 fl. oz. ; compound
tincture of benzoin, 3 fl. oz. ; powdered sugar
(quite dry), 1 oz. ; hay saffron, 1 dr. ; digest a
week, with frequent agitation.
Obs. Pectoral and stimulant. A quack
remedy for consumption and most other
diseases of the lungs, but unless assisted by
Occasional aperients, and in the absence of
See INFUSION (Con-
fever, it is more likely to kill than cure.
in these complaints. The last is the best
formula.
Essence of Cu’bebs. Syn. CoNCENTRATED
ESSENCE OF CUBEBS; ESSENTIA CUBEBAE, E. C.
CONCENTRATA, L. Prep. 1. Cubebs (bruised,
or preferably ground in a pepper mill), 3 lb.;
rectified spirit, 1 pint ; digest 14 days, press,
and filter.
2. (Wholesale.) Cubebs, 44 lbs. ; rectified
spirit, 1 gal. This essence has a very large
sale, and if carefully prepared from a good
sample of the drug, is a most excellent pre-
paration. Every fl. oz. represents 2% drs. of
cubebs.—IDose. 1 to 3 drs.
Essence of Cubebs (Oleo-resinous). Prep.
(Dublanc.) Oleo-resinous extract of cubebs,
1 oz. ; rectified spirit, 3 oz. ; dissolve. A very
active and concentrated form of administering
cubebs, which must not be confounded with
the preceding preparation, which is the one
always meant when ‘Essence of Cubebs’ is
ordered.—Dose. # dr. to 1 dr.
Essence of Dill. Syn. DIII, DROPs; ESSEN-
TIA ANETHI, L. Prep. 1. From oil of dill, as
ESSENCE OF ADISPICE.
2. Oil of dill, extract of dill, and salt of
tartar, of each, ; oz. ; rectified spirit, 1 pint;
digest, and strain. Both the above are aro-
matic and anti-flatulent. The first is commonly
used as an adjunct to other medicines, espe-
cially to purgatives for children. The second
is a popular tonic and stomachic in the flatu-
lent colic, dyspepsia, &c., of women and chil-
dren.—Dose. A few drops, on sugar.
Essence of Er'got. See LIQUOR OF ERGOT
OF RYE.
Essence of Ergot (Ethereal). Syn. ESSENTIA
ERGOTAE ETHEREA, E. SECALIS CORNUTI E., L.
Prep. 1. (Mr. Lever.). Ergot (powdered), 2 oz.;
rectified sulphuric ether, 2 fl. oz. ; digest a
week, express the tincture, filter, and abandon
the liquid to spontaneous evaporation; lastly,
dissolve the residuum in ether, 1 fl. oz. This
is an expensive and troublesome formula. The
following modification of it is both simpler and
less expensive.
2. Ergot (ground), 8 oz. ; ether, 16 fl. oz. ;
prepare a tincture as before, and by a gentle
heat distil off the ether in a retort connected
with a well-cooled refrigerator, until 15 fl. oz.
shall have passed over; continue the eva-
poration at a reduced heat until the re-
mainder of the ether has passed off; lastly,
dissolve the residuum, as soon as cold, in ether,
4 fl. oz.
Obs. Each fl. Oz. represents 2 oz. of ergot.—
Dose. 10 to 30 drops as a parturifacient, taken
on sugar; 3 to 5 drops as a haemostatic and
emmenagogue, in haemorrhages, floodings, &c.
It possesses all the acrid, narcotic principle of
the ergot, but less of the ha-mostatic principle
than the ordinary essence, whilst it is much
more costly.
Essence of Fennel. Syn. ESSENCE OF SWEET
FENNEL; ESSENTIA FOENICULI, L. Prep. From




460
ESSENCE,
oil of fennel (Feniculum dulce), as ESSENCE
OF ADLSPICE.
Essence of Gentian.
GENTIAN (Concentrated).
Essence of Gin'ger. Syn. CoNCENTRATED
TINCTURE OF GINGER, ESSENTIA ZINGIBERIs,
TINCTURA z. CONCENTRATA, L. Prep. 1. Un-
bleached Jamaica ginger (bruised), 5 oz. ; rec-
tified spirit, 1 pint ; digest a fortnight, press,
and filter.
2. (Oxley’s “CONCENTRATED ESSENCE OF
JAMAICA GINGER.?) The same as the pre-
ceding. with the addition of a very small quan-
tity of essence of cayenne. The above possess
only about 4 times the strength of tincture
of ginger (Ph. L.); and though vended in the
shops as essence of ginger, scarcely deserve the
Ingllme.
3. As No. 1 (next article, below), but using
double the quantity of spirit. Very fine.
4. (Kitchener's.) Ginger (grated), 3 oz. ;
yellow peel of lemon (fresh), 2 oz. ; brandy,
1} pint; digest 10 days. For culinary pur-
See INFUSION OF
poses, &c. See below.
Essence of Ginger (Concentrated). Syn.
ESSENTIA ZINGIBERIS CONCENTRATA. Prep.
1. Jamaica ginger (best unbleached, in coarse
powder) and siliceous sand, equal parts, are
sprinkled with rectified spirit of wine, q. S. to
perfectly moisten them, and after 24 hours the
mass is placed in a ‘percolator,’ and after re-
turning the first runnings 2 or 3 times, the
receiver is changed, and more rectified spirit
poured on gradually, and at intervals, as re-
quired, until as much essence is obtained as
there has been ginger employed.
Obs. The quality of the product of the
above formula is excellent, but the process
is somewhat difficult to manage. The mass
remaining in the percolator is treated with
fresh spirit until exhausted, and the tincture
so obtained is employed, instead of spirit, for
making more essence with fresh ginger. The
last portion of spirit in the waste mass may
be obtained by adding a little water. Coarsely
powdered charcoal is frequently used instead
of sand, in which case the product has less
colour; at the same time, however, a little of
the flavour is lost.
2. (Wholesale.)—a, Best unbleached Jamaica
ginger (as last), 12 lbs. ; rectified spirit, 2}
galls., are digested together for 14 days, and
the expressed and strained tincture reduced by
distillation, in a steam or water bath, to exactly
1 gal.; it is next cooled, and transferred as
quickly as possible into stoppered bottles, and
the next day filtered.
Obs. The product of the last formula is a
most beautiful article, of immense strength,
and the richest flavour. The assertion made
by a recent writer on pharmacy, that “the
product is very strong, but has lost some of
the flavour of the ginger,’ is evidently made
in ignorance of the preparation. “We were
the first to introduce and publish this formula,
and have employed it for years on the most
| AMMONIAE,
extensive scale, and can conscientiously assert
that, for inexpensiveness, and the quality of
the essence produced by it, it is unequalled by
any other. The process, though apparently
complicated is, in reality, easily performed,
The spirit distilled over contains none of the
fragrant or aromatic principles of the ginger;
on the contrary, the little flavour it has re-
ceived (apparently from a species of ethereal
oil) is rather disagreeable than otherwise, and
is better got rid of than retained in the
essence. The spirit is used with advantage
for preparing the common tincture of ginger,
and several other articles. The cause of failure
when this process is adopted is careless or
awkward manipulation. When possible, hy.
draulic pressure should be employed to express
the tincture. 2 oz. of this essence are regarded
as equivalent to 3 oz. of the finest ginger, being
fully twenty times as strong as the ‘TINCTURE
OF GINGER' (Ph. L.). A single drop, swal.
lowed, will almost produce suffocation.”
Cooley.
b. From ginger (as last), 24 lbs. ; rectified
spirit, 6 galls.; make a tincture, as before,
and reduce it by distillation to 1 gal.; then
cool as quickly as possible out of contact with
the air and add, of the strongest rectified spirit
of wine, 1 gal.; lastly, filter, if required,
Quality resembles No. 2, a (nearly). “We are
in the habit of applying the method developed
in the last two formulae to the preparation of
the essences of several other substances, the
active principles of which are not volatile at a
low temperature.” Cooley.
Essence of Grape. Prep. From grape oil,
as ESSENCE OF ALMONDS. It is used to flavour
brandy and wines. See OIL (Volatile).
Essence of Guaiac'um. Syn. FLUIDEXTRACT
OF GUAIACUM ; ESSENTIA GUAIACI, EXTRAC-
TUM GUAIACI FLUIDUM. L. Prep. Recent
guaiacum shavings, from which the dust has
been sifted, 3 cwt., are exhausted by c0ction in
water, as in the preparation of an extract,
using as little of that fluid as is absolutely me.
cessary; the decoction is evaporated to exactly
13 gal.; it is next stirred until cold, to prevent
the deposit of resinous matter, when it is put
into a bottle, and spirit of wine, 5 pints, is
added; the whole is then repeatedly agitated
for a week, after which it is allowed to settle
for 7 or 8 days, and the clear portion is de-
canted into another bottle.
Obs. This preparation is frequently substi.
tuted for guaiacum shavings in the prepara.
tion of compound decoction of Sarsaparilla,
1 pint of this essence is considered equivalent
to 19 lbs. of guaiacum in substance. See DE.
COCTION OF SARSAPARILLA (Comp).
Esssence for the Handkerchief. See ESSEN-
TIA ODORATA, &c.
Essence for the Headache. Syn. CEPHAIIC
ESSENCE, EMBROCATION OF AMMONIA, DR,
HAWKINS’ EMBROCATION, WARD's E., WARD's
ESSENCE FOR THE IIEADACHIE ; EMBROCATIO
IſINIMENTUM. A., ESSENTIA CE.

£SSENCE.
461
PHALICA, L. Prep. 1. Oil of lavender
(Mitcham), 1 dr. ; camphor, 1 oz. ; liquor of
ammonia, 4 oz. ; rectified spirit, I pint ; dis-
solve. Very fragrant and powerful. -
2. (Beasley.) Spirit of camphor, 2 lbs. ;
strong water of ammonia, 4 oz. ; essence of
lemon, 3 oz.
3. (Redwood.) Camphor and liquor of am-
monia, of each, 2 oz. ; oil of lavender, 4 drs. ;
rectified spirit, 14 oz. Very fragrant. Stimu-
lant and rubefacient. Used as a counter-
irritant lotion in local pains, as headache, ear-
ache, colic, &c. Compound camphor liniment
is usually sold for it. See LINIMENT.
Essence of Henbane. Syn. ESSENTIA HY-
OSCYAMI, L. See ESSENCE (Anodyne), No. 2.
Essence of Hop. Syn. ESSENTIA IUPULI,
E. HUMULT, TINCTURA LUPULI CONCENTRATA,
L. Prep. 1. New hops (rubbed small), 26%
0Z.; proof spirit, 1 quart; digest 24 hours,
then distil over (quickly) 1 pint, and set the
distillate (spiritus lupuli) aside in a corked
bottle; to the residuum add water, 1 pint ;
boil 15 minutes, cool, express the liquor, strain,
and evaporate it as quickly as possible to dry-
ness by the heat of a water bath, powder the
residuum, and add it to the distilled spirit;
digest a week, and filter.
2. Lupulinic grains (yellow powder or lu-
pulin of the strobiles), 5 oz. ; rectified spirit, 1
pint; digest 10 days; express, and filter.
Both the above are powerfully bitter, and
loaded with the aroma of the hop. They are
fully 8 times as strong as the ‘TINCTURA LU-
PULI' of the Ph. L. A few drops added to a
glassful of ale or beer render it agreeably bit-
ter and stomachic.
3. (BREWER's E. OF HOPs.) Several noxious
preparations under the name of extract of hops
are sold by the brewer’s druggist. They are
mostly semi-fluid extracts of quassia, gentian,
and like powerful bitters. Of three of these
articles which we have examined, one (for
PALE ALE) consisted of the mixed extracts of
quassia and chamomile; another was a prepa-
ration of picric acid; whilst a third (“strongly
recommended for PORTER’) consisted of about
equal parts of the extracts of bitter aloes, coc-
culus indicus, and wormwood. A few years
ago one of these vile compounds was publicly
advertised, and “warranted” as being equal to
100 times its weight in hops (1 oz. to 5% lbs.).
Essence of Jargonelle' Pear. Syn. PEAR
ESSENCE, ESPRIT DE JARGONELLE, &c. Prep.
From pear oil (acetate of oxide of amyl), as
ESSENCE OF ALMONDs. This is now largely
employed to flavour confectionery and liqueurs,
See AMYL and OIL (Volatile).
Essence of Jas'mine. See SPIRIT and OIL
(Volatile).
Essence of Jes'samine,
Essence of Jon'quil, See SPIRIT and OIL.
Essence of Lavender. Syn. ESSENTIA LA-
WANDULE (ODORATA), L. Prep. 1. Oil of
lavender (Mitcham), 2 oz. ; rectified spirit
(strongest), 1 pint. -
See SPIRIT and OIL.
2. As the strongest Eau de lavende. See
SPIRIT.
Essence of Lavender (Red). See SPIRIT and
TINCTURE.
Essence of Lem'on. Syn, ESSENTIA LIMONIS,
L. Prep. 1. See OIL (Volatile).
2. (W. Procter.) Fresh oil of lemons, 1 fl.
oz. ; deodorised alcohol (strongest flavourless
rectified), 8 fl. oz. ; exterior yellow rind of
lemons (fresh, 3 oz. ; digest 48 hours, and
filter. Used for flavouring mixtures, pastry,
&c.
3. From oil of lemons, as ESSENCE OF ALL-
SPICE. Used as the last.
Essence of Lemon Peel, Syn. ESSENCE OF
LEMON RIND, QUINTESSENCE OF L. P.; ES-
SENTIA CORTICIS LIMONIS, L. Prep. 1. Yel-
low peel of fresh lemons, 3 lb.; spirit of wine,
1 pint; digest for a week, press, and filter.
Very fragrant.
2. Yellow peel of fresh lemons, 1 lb.; boil-
ing water, 3 gal.; infuse 1 hour, express the
liquor, boil down to # pint, cool, and add oil
of lemon # oz., dissolved in spirit of wine,
1% pint; mix, and filter. Used as the pre-
ceding.
Essence of Lov'age. Syn. ESSENTIA LE-.
VISTICI, L. Prep. (Ph. Wurt.) Lovage root
(levisticum officinale), 2 oz.; lovage seeds, 1
oz. ; rectified spirit, 10 oz. ; digest a week, and
filter. Aromatic, stomachic, and diaphoretic.
—Dose. # dr. to 1 dr. ; in dyspepsia, dropsies,
&c.
Essence, Madden's.
of roses.
Essence of Malt. See COLOURING.
Essence of Mint. Syn. ESSENCE OF SPEAR-
MINT; ESSENTIA MENTHAE, E. M. SPICATAE,
E. M. VIRIDIs, L. Prep. As ESSENCE of
PEPPERMINT.
Essence of Musk. Syn. ESSENTIA MOSCHI,
TINCTURA M. CONCENTRATA, L. Prep. 1,
Grain musk, 2 oz., and boiling water, 1 pint,
are digested together in a close vessel until
cold, when rectified spirit of wine, 7 pints, is
added; the vessel (preferably a tin bottle)
being corked close, and tied over with bladder,
the whole is digested, with frequent agitation,
for 2 months, in the sunshine (in summer), or
in an equally warm situation in winter. At
the end of the time the essence is decanted
and filtered.
2. Grain musk, 4 oz.; rectified spirit of wine,
2 pints; essence of ambergris, 1 fl. oz. ; digest
as before.
3. Musk (from the bladder, rubbed very
small), 5 oz. ; civet, 1 oz. ; essence of amber-
gris, 1 pint; spirit of ambrette, 1 gal.; as
before.
Obs. All the preceding formulae yield supe-
rior essences, but the product of the last is of
the very finest quality, and such as is seldom
sold, except by the most celebrated houses,
when it fetches a very high price. It is
powerfully and deliciously odorous, and has
received the approval of royalty itself, both in

Concentrated infusion

462
ESSENCE,
these kingdoms and on the continent. The
second formula also produces a very fine ar-
ticle, but less choice than that just referred to.
The digestion should be long continued, and
on no account less than 3 weeks, as otherwise
much fragrant matter is left undissolved. The
addition of 1 fl. dr. of either liquor of ammo-
nia or liquor of potassa (the first is best) to
each pint of the essence, vastly increases its
fragrance. The essence of musk of the whole-
sale London druggists is generally made by
merely digesting the freshly emptied musk
pods in rectified spirit. Sometimes a little (a
very little) grain musk is added. See ESSENCE
ROYALE and ESSENCE OF AMBERGRIS.
4. (Guibourt.) Musk, 1 part; proof spirit,
12 parts; digest a fortnight, or longer. Used
in dispensing, &c.
Essence of Musk Seed. See ESSENCE D’AM-
IBRETTE.
Essence of Mustard. Syn. ESSENTIA SINA-
PIs, L. Prep. (Whitehead’s.) Black mustard
seed (bruised), and camphor, of each, 2 oz. ;
oil of rosemary, 3 drs. ; balsam of tolu, 1 dr.;
annatto, # dr.; digest a week, and filter.
Essence of Myrtle. Syn. ESSENCE OF MYR-
TLE BLOSSOMS; ESSENCE DE MYRTE, ESPRIT
DE M., Fr. Prep. Myrtle tops (in blossom),
2% lbs. ; proof spirit, 9 pints; digest 3 days,
then distil 1 gal. A pleasant perfume. See
OIL (Volatile).
Essence of Nero'li. Syn. ESSENCE DE
FLEURS D’ORANGES, ESPRIT DE F. D’O., Fr.
Prep. 1. Neroli, 3 drs. ; rectified spirit of
wine, 1 pint; mix. A delicious perfume.
2, Oil of orange, 2 drs. ; orris root (bruised),
# Oz. ; ambergris, 10 grs.; neroli, 35 drops;
spirits of wine, 1 pint ; digest 14 days, and
filter. Very fragrant, but less “chaste’ than
the last.
Essence of Nut'meg. Syn. ESSENTIA MY-
RISTICAE, E. M. MOSCHATAE, E. NUCIS M., L.
Prep. From essential oil of nutmeg, as ES-
SENCE OF ALLSPICE. Used as a flavouring or
Zest by cooks, liqueuristes, and confectioners.
Essence, Odontal'gic. See TOOTHACHE ES-
§ENCE.
Essence d'OEillets. [Fr.] Prep. From
cinnamon, 3 oz. ; cloves, 1% oz. ; (both well
bruised;) rectified spirit, 1 quart; digest for a
week. Oil of cloves and spirit of cloves also
bear this name in some places.
Essence of Opium. See ANODYNE ESSENCE,
No. 1. BLACK DROP and RoussEAU’s LAU-
DANUM have also been sometimes so called.
Essence of 0'range. Syn. ESSENTIA AU-
RANTII, L. Prep. As ESSENCE OF LEMON.
Essence of Orange Peel. Syn. ESSENTIA
CORTICIS AURANTII, L. Prep. 1. (Golden.)
Fresh yellow rind of orange, 4 oz. ; rectified
spirit and water, of each, ; pint ; digest for a
week, press, filter, and add of sherry wine, 1
quart. A pleasant liqueur.
2. (Saccharated.) See OLEO-SACCHARUM.
Essence d’Orient. [Fr.] A pearly looking
substance, found at the base of the scales of
the blay or bleak, a small fish of the genus
cyprinus.
Prep. The scales are scraped from the fish
into a tub containing water, and after agita-
tion and repose the fluid is poured off, and its
place supplied with fresh water, and this in its
turn, after agitation and repose, is also poured
off. This part of the operation is repeated
till the ‘essence’ and scales are perfectly freed
from impurities, when the whole is thrown on
a sieve, which retains the latter, but allows
the former to flow through. After repose for
a short time, the essence is obtained as a de-
posit at the bottom of the vessel. -
Obs. Essence d'Orient has a bluish-white
and pearly aspect, and is employed to cover
the interior of glass bubbles and beads, in
imitation of pearls and mother-of-pearl. Its
tendency to putrefaction, while in the moist
state, may be obviated by the addition of a
little liquor of ammonia.
Essence of Patch'ouli. Syn. ESSENCE DE
PATCHOULIE, ESPRIT DE Pouchá PAT, Fr.
Prep. 1. Indian patchouli (leaves or foliaceous
tops), 2% lbs. ; rectified spirit, 9 pints; digest
for a week; add, of water, 1 gal.; oil of lavender
(Mitcham), 3 drs.; common salt, 2 lbs.; agitate
well together, distil over (rapidly) 1 gallon,
and add of essence of musk, 3} fl. drs. A very
fashionable perfume. Essence of patchouli,
thus prepared, has been largely used, both at
court and by the nobility generally.
2. Patchouli, 3 oz. ; rectified spirit, 1 pint;
digest a week, press, and filter. A still com:
moner kind is made with proof spirit.
Essence of Pear. Syn, ESSENCE OF JAR.
GONELLE.
Essence of Pennyroyal, See ESSENTIA PU:
LEGII, E. MENTHE P., L. Prep. From penny.
royal (Mentha pulegium), as ESSENCE OF PEP-
PERMINT. Stimulant, carminative, and em.
menagogue. Used in dispensing, especially to
make extemporaneous pennyroyal water.
Essence of Peppermint. , Syn. ESSENTIA
MENTHAE PIPERITE (B.P.) L. Prep. 1. (B. P.)
Oil of peppermint, 1 part; rectified spirit, 4
parts. Mix,−1}ose. 10 to 20 minims,
2. To the last add of herb peppermint, pars:
ley leaves, or spinach leaves (preferably one of
the first two), 3 oz., and digest for a week, Or
until sufficiently coloured. Sap green (100r
12 grs., rubbed up with a teaspoonful of hot
water) is also used for the same purpose. A
delicate light green.
3. (Ph. U. S.) Oil of peppermint, 2 fl. OZ, ;
rectified spirit, 16 fl. Oz.
Obs. Essence of peppermint is not com:
ceived to be good by the ignorant, unless it
has a pale-greenish tint, which they take as a
proof of its being genuine. The most harm.
less way of tinging it is that indicated above,
A little green mint or parsley will, indeed, be
found to improve the flavour. These additions
are quite harmless, The practice of using
cupreous salts, adopted by some lazy and un-
principled makers, is unpardonable, and admits
ESSENCE.
463
of no excuse, even a lame one, as not the least
advantage, either of convenience, cost, or ap-
pearance, results from such a practice, while
the colouring matter, though small in quan-
tity, is nevertheless sufficient to impart a
noxious quality to the liquid. This fraud
may be detected by the addition of liquor of
ammonia in excess, which will strike a bluish
or greenish-blue colour when copper is pre-
sent.
Essence of peppermint (like that of most of
the other aromatic oils) is cordial, stimulant,
and stomachic. A few drops (10 to 30) on
sugar, or mixed with a little water or wine, is
an excellent remedy in flatulence, colic, nausea,
sickness, &c. It is also extensively used as a
flavouring ingredient by cooks, confectioners,
and druggists. A few drops, well agitated
with half a pint of cold water, form an excel-
lent extemporaneous peppermint water.
The formulae 1 and 2, generally the latter,
are those employed by the respectable portion
of the London trade. The various published
receipts for this and similar essences, ordering
the essential oil in a larger proportion than
that directed above, are never adopted in prac-
tice, and their products (often impossible com-
binations) exist only in the imaginations of the
writers.
Essence of Pimento.
SPICE.
Essence of Pine-apple. From pine-apple oil
(butyric ether, butyrate of ethyl), as ESSENCE
OF ALMONDS. It forms a delicious flavouring
for liqueurs, confectionery, rum, &c. See
ETHER and OIL (Volatile).
Essence of Quas'sia. Syn. ESSENTIA QUAS-
SIE, L. Prep. 1. From quassia (sliced), 1%
0Z.; proof spirit, 1 pint ; digest 10 days, and
filter. , fl. dr. added to 7% fl. drs. of water,
forms the infusion of quassia of the Ph. L.-
Dose. # dr., in water or wine, an hour before
a meal, as a stomachic tonic, in dyspepsia, loss
of appetite, &c., particularly when complicated
with gout; 1 to 2 drs, three or four times daily,
as a febrifuge and antiseptic, in intermittents,
putrid fevers, &c.
2. (BREWER's.)—a. From powdered quassia
(sprinkled with a little rum) and “foots”
(coarse moist Sugar or sugar bottoms), equal
parts, reduced to the consistence of a semi-
fluid extract by the addition of a few spoon-
fuls of water. For ale.
b. From powdered quassia, 1 part ; burnt
sugar colouring, 2 parts; well stirred together.
For porter and stout. Both are used by frau-
dulent brewers as substitutes for hops.
Essence of Quin’ime. Syn ESSENTIA QUINE,
Prep. From disulphate of quinine, 1% oz.;
rectified spirit, pint; digest with warmth,
gradually dropping in a little dilute sulphuric
acid (avoiding excess), and employing constant
agitation, until the whole is dissolved. 1 fl. dr.,
added to 7 fl. drs. of proof spirit, forms the
‘TINCTURE OF QUININE’ (Ph.L.). Every fl. dr.
contains 8 grs. of disulphate of quinine, or
See ESSENCE OF ALL-
about 10 grs. of the neutral sulphate. If more
sulphuric acid is added than is sufficient to
dissolve the salt (i.e. convert it into a neutral
sulphate), the solution is apt to deposit part of
it on keeping, owing to the gradual formation
of ether, by the action of the excess of acid on
the alcohol.
Essence of Rat'afia. The same as Essence of
Almonds. So called from being used to flavour
ratifias, noyeau, and other liqueurs.
Essence of Rhubarb. Syn. ESSENTIA RHEI,
L. Prep. From rhubarb (in powder) and sili-
ceous Sand, of each, 5 oz. ; proof spirit, 1 pint;
by the method of displacement. Every fl. oz.
represents the active virtues of 2 drs. of rhu-
barb.
Essence of Rondeletia. Prep. 1. Essence
(oil) of bergamotte, essence (oil) of lemon, and
oil of cloves, of each, 1 dr.; otto of roses, 10
drops; rectified spirit, 1 pint.
2. To the last add, of oil of lavender, 1 dr.;
meroli, 15 drops. A very fashionable and agree-
able perfume.
Essence of Ro'ses. Syn. ESSENTIA ROSAE
(ODORATA), L. Prep. 1. Attar of roses (genuine),
2 drs.; alcohol, 1 pint; agitate frequently until
they unite.
2. Attar of roses, 1 oz. ; rectified spirit, 1
gal.; mix in a close vessel, and assist the so-
lution by placing it in a bath of hot water.
(See ESSENCE OF MUSK.) As soon as the
spirit gets warm, take it from the water and
shake it till quite cold; the next day filter.
—Obs. Unless the spirit of wine is of more
than the common strength, it will not retain
the whole of the otto in solution in very cold
weather.
3. To each pint of either of the preceding,
add, of oil of bergamotte, 30 drops; meroli and
essence of musk, of each, 20 drops.
4. Petals of roses, 3 lbs., digest in spirit of
wine, 5 quarts, for 24 hours; distil to dryness
in a water bath; digest the distilled spirit on
2 lbs. of fresh rose petals, as before, and repeat
the whole process of maceration and distilla-
tion a third, fourth, fifth, and sixth time, or
oftener, the last time only drawing over 1
gal., which is the essence. Each of the above
is very superior. The last has a peculiar deli-
cacy of flavour, when the spirit used to make
it is pure. -
Essence of Roses (Red). Syn. ESSENTIA ROSAE
(RUBRA), TINCTURA. E. CONCENTRATA, L. Prep.
From rose leaves, 1 lb.; proof spirit, 1 gal. ;
digest for 14 days, press, strain, add concen-
trated acetic acid, 2} fl. drs.; mix well, and the
next day filter. Used to make extemporaneous
SYRUP and HONEY OF ROSES, &c. Smells, co-
lours, and tastes, strongly of the flower. CoN-
CENTRATED INFUSION OF ROSES is sold under
the same name.
Essence of Rose'mary, Syn, ESSENTIA
ROSEMARINI, L. Prep. From oil of rosemary,
as ESSENCE OF ALLSPICE. Used as a per-
fume; also to make extemporaneous rosemary
water.


464
ESSENCE.
Essence Royale. [Fr.] Prep. 1. (Soubei-
ran.) Ambergris, 40 grs.; musk, 20 grs.; civet
and carbonate of potassa, of each 10 grs. ; oil
of cinnamon, 6 drops; oil of rhodium and otto
of roses, of each, 4 drops; rectified spirit of
wine, 4 fl. oz. (say # pint); macerate for 10
days or longer. Antispasmodic and aphrodisiac.
A few drops on sugar, or in syrup of capillaire.
2. See ESSENCE OF AMBERGRIs.
Essence of Sarsaparilla. Syn. CoNCENTRATED
ESSENCE OF SARSAPARILLA; ESSENTIA SARSAE ;
E. SARSAPARILLE, L. Prep. 1. Sarsaparilla
root (best red Jamaica), 23 lbs., is carefully
decorticated, the bark reduced to coarse pow-
der, and digested for a week or 10 days in
sherry, # pint, and rectified spirit, 4 pint, with
frequent agitation; after which the essence is
expressed, and in a week the clear portion is
decanted from the sediment. A very elegant
preparation. # fl. dr., added to 7 fl. drs. of
water, forms 1 fl. oz. of a solution of equal
strength to decoction of sarsaparilla of the
Ph. L. Every fl. oz. represents the active
principles of 2 oz. (= 2 oz. 85 grs., avoir.) of
sarsaparilla root. In other words, it is twice
as strong as the root, and 16 times as strong
as the decoction.
2. Alcoholic extract of sarsaparilla, 7 oz. ;
sherry, # pint; rectified spirit, # pint; dissolve,
and filter. Strength as the last.
3. (Beral.) Alcoholic extract, 4 oz. ; sherry
wine, 1 pint; dissolve and filter. About 3 fl. drs.,
added to water, 1 pint, form an extempora-
neous decoction.
4. (Guibourt.) Alcoholic extract, 4 oz. ;
white wine, 1 lb. Strength the same as Nos. 1
and 2 (nearly).
5. (Hening.) Sarsaparilla (bruised, 10 oz. ;
distilled water, 6 pints; macerate at a tempera-
ture of 120° Fahr, for six hours, and strain;
repeat with the same quantity of fresh water;
mix the liquors, and evaporate in china vessels
at 160°Fahr. If reduced to 10 fl. oz. (or to 9
fl. oz., with 1 fl. Oz, of rectified spirit added),
1 fl. dr., mixed with 7 fl. drs. of water, will be
equal to the decoction of the usual strength.
If reduced to 5 fl. oz., 1 fl. dr. will be equal to
2 fl. oz. of the decoction.
6. The bark separated from sarsaparilla root,
2% lbs., is exhausted with water as last ; the
liquid is evaporated, as quickly as possible, in
a water bath, to 16 fl. oz., and when cold,
mixed with rectified spirit, 4 fl. Oz. Strength
same as No. 1.
7. The infusion in No. 6 is evaporated to
10% fl. oz., and when cold mixed with sherry,
# pint; in a week the clear portion is de-
canted from the sediment. Strength same as
No. 1.
Obs. The formulae No. 1, 2, 6, and 7, have
each in turns been extensively employed by us
in the laboratory, with the most satisfactory
results. See LIQUOR OF SARSAPARILLA.
Essence of Sarsaparilla (Compound). Syn.
ESSENTIA SARSAPARILLE COMPOSITA, E.
SARSAE C., L. Prep. 1. One pint of No. 1, 2,
6, or 7 (above), is tiitiirated with the extrad
prepared from mezereon bark, 3% oz., and ex-
tract of liquorice, 4 oz. ; when mixed, it is re.
turned to the bottle, and essence of guaiacum,
1} fl. dr., and oil of Sassafras, 20 drops, are
added; the whole is then well agitated for at
least 15 minutes, and after a week's repose the
clear portion is decanted, as before. fl, dr,
with 7% fl. drs. of water, forms extemporaneous
compound decoction of Sarsaparilla.
2. (Cadet.) Sarsaparilla (bruised), 8 OZ.; hot
water, q. s. ; exhaust the root by successive
macerations; unite the liquors, and evaporate
to 10 fl. oz. ; strain, and add, when cold, of
alcohol ('842) and tinctures of guaiacum and
mezereon, of each, 4 fl. drs.; white wine, 1 fl,07;
oil of sassafras, 12 drops; extract of liquorict,
2 drs. ; agitate, and after repose decant as be:
fore. This is nearly 8 times as strong as ‘DEC,
SARSAE Co.,”—Ph. L. The first is the best
formula. See LIQUOR OF SARSAPARIIIA
(Compound).
Essence of Sa'vory Spices. Prep. 1. Black
pepper, 4 oz. ; powdered turmeric, 3 drs. ; (0.
riander seeds, 1% dr. (all ground and genuin);
oil of pimento, 1% fl. dr.; oils of nutmeg, cloves
cassia and caraway, of each, ; dr.; rectified
spirit, 1 pint; digest, with agitation, for a ſort.
night. Very fine.
2. Black pepper, 3 oz.; allspice, 13 Oz, ; mut.
megs and burnt sugar, of each, 3 oz.; cloves
cassia, coriander, and caraway seeds, of each
1 dr. (all bruised or ground); rectified spirit,
1 pint ; digest, with agitation, as before, for
14 days, press, and filter. Used as a flavour.
ing. When made with proof spirit or brandy,
and only ¥ the above weight of spice, it is
called ‘TINCTURE OF SAVORY SPICES.”
Essence of Sen'na. See LIQUOR and INFU.
SION (Concentrated).
Essence of Smoke.
SENCE.
Essence of Soap. Syn. SPIRIT OF SOAP,
SHAVING FLUID ; ESPRIT DE SAVON, ESSENCE
DE SAVON, ESSENCE ROYALE POUR FAIRE LA
BARBE, Fr. ; ESSENTIA SAPONIS, TINCTURA
SAPONIS CONCENTRATA, L. Prep. 1. Castilt
soap (in shavings), 4 oz. ; proof spirit, 1 pint;
dissolve, and add a little perfume.
2. Venetian soap, # lb. ; salt of tartar, 101.
benzoin, 3 oz. ; spirit of wine, 1 gal.
3. Best soft soap, # lb.; boiling water, 1 pint;
dissolve, cool, and add, oils of cinnamon (cassi)
verbena, and neroli, of each, 6 drops; dissolved
in rectified spirit, 1 pint ; mix well, and if nºt
perfectly transparent, add a little more strong
spirit, or filter through blotting paper.
Obs. This alcoholic solution of soap is chiefly
used for shaving, and is very convenient in
travelling, as a good lather may be instantly
produced without the trouble of employing 3
soap-box. Instead of the above perfumes, 1%
drops of essence of musk or ambergris, or 30
drops of any of the perfumed spirits, or 3 drops
of attar of roses, or 6 drops of any of the ar.
matic essential oils, may be added, when a C01.
See WESTPHALIAN Es:
ESSENCE. 4ö5
responding name is given to the preparation,
as esprit de Savon, de la rose, &c.
4. (P. Cod.) White soap, 3 oz. ; carbonate of
potassa, 1 dr. ; proof spirit, 12 oz. ; dissolve.
Used medicinally. They are all used as fric-
tions, &c.
5. (CAMPHORATED,-Guibourt.) White soap,
3 parts; camphor, 1 part ; spirit of rosemary,
16 parts; dissolve. A variety of opodel.doc.
Used as an embrocation in rheumatic pains,
Sore throat, &c.
Essence of Soup Herbs. Syn. SPIRIT OF SOUP
HERBS, CONC. TINCTURE OF 5. H., &c. Prep.
(Kitchener’s.) Lemon thyme, winter savory,
sweet marjoram, and sweet bazil, of each 1 oz. ;
lemon peel (grated), and eschalots, of each,
# 0Z.; bruised celery seed, 3 oz. ; proof spirit or
brandy, 1 pint; digest for 10 days or a fort-
might. A superior flavouring essence for soups,
gravies, &c. See ESSENCE OF SAVOURY
SPICES.
Essence of Spear'mint, See ESSENCE OF
MINT.
Essence of Sprats. Syn. ESSENCE OF
BRITISH ANCHOVIES. From pickled sprats
(British anchovies), as ESSENCE OF ANCHO-
VIES, for which it is commonly sold.
Essence of Spruce. Sym. FLUID EXTRACT
OF SPRUCE ; ESSENTIA ABIETIS, EXTRACTUM
A, FLUIDUM, L. Prep. A decoction of the
young tops of the black spruce-fir (Abies
migra), evaporated to the consistence of a
º syrup. Used to make spruce beer,
JC.
Essence, Toothache. Syn. ESSENTIA ODON-
TALGIA, L. Prep. 1. Acetate of morphia,
# dr.; tincture of pellitory of Spain (made
with rectified spirit), 2 fl. oz. ; acetic acid (gla-
º 4 fl. drS. ; dissolve, and add of oil of cloves,
fl. dr.
2. (Redwood.) Pellitory, 3 lb.; extract of
belladonna, 2 drs.; rectified spirit, 1 pint; digest
14 days, strain, and add, of hyponitrous ether,
10Z, ; oil of wine, 3 oz.; oil of cloves, 2 drs.
See DROPS (Odontalgic).
Essence of Tu’berose. Prep. The flowers
are stratified with sheep's or cotton wool, im-
pregnated with the purest oil of ben or of olives,
in an earthen vessel, closely covered, and kept
for 12 hours in a water bath; the flowers are
then removed, and fresh ones substituted, and
this is repeated until the oil (HUILE AU TUBE-
ROSE) is sufficiently scented. The wool or
Cotton is then mixed with the purest spirit of
wine, and distilled in a water bath; or it is
first digested in a warm situation, and in a
well-closed vessel, for several days, during the
whole of which time frequent agitation is
had recourse to. A similar plan is followed
for the preparation of essences of jasmine,
violets, and other like flowers. See SPIRIT.
Essence of Turtle. Syn. ESSENCE OF
GREEN TURTLE. Prep. From essence of
anchovies and shallot wine, of each, 3 oz. ; basil
wine, pint; mushroom ketchup, 4 pint; the
juice of 2 lemons; the yellow peel of 1 lemon;
curry powder, 4 oz. ; digest for a week. Used
to impart the flavour of turtle to soups and
gravies.
Essence of Tyre. See HAIR DYE.
Essence of Wamil’la. Syn. ESSENTIA VANILLE,
TINCTURE v. CONCENTRATA, L. Prep. 1. Wa-


milla (cut small), 2 oz. ; rectified spirit, 1 pint,
digest a fortnight.
2. (Wholesale.) Vanilla, 21bs.; rectified spirit,
1 gal.; proceed as for ESSENCE OF MUSK. Very
Superior.
3. Vanilla (best), 3 lb. ; spirit of ambrette, 1
quart; cloves, 30 grs. ; grain musk, 7 grs. ; as
last. Much esteemed. It is chiefly used as a
perfume and for flavouring.
Essence of Werbena. Syn. ESSENCE OF
LEMON-GRASS, E, OF CITRONELLE ; ESSENTIA,
VERBENAE, L. Prep. 1. From oil of lemon
grass or verbenae (Andropogon citratum), as
ESSENCE OF AILSPICE.
2. To the last add, of essences of ambergris
and bergamotte (oil), of each, 1 fl. dr. ; neroli,
; fl. dr.
3. To No. 1 add, of oils of lavender and ber-
gamotte, of each, ; dr. ; essence of vanilla, 2 fl.
drs. A powerful and refreshing perfume.
Essence of Violet. Sym. ESSENTIA VIOLAF,
L.; ESSENCES DES VIOLETTEs, Fr. See Es-
SENCE OF TUBEROSE and SPIRIT. -
Essence of Vittie Wayr. Sym. ESSENCE OF
VETIVER ; ESSENCE DE WITTIE WAYR Dou PLE,
Fr. Prep. 1. Wittie vayr or cuscus (the root of
Andropogon muricatus, cut small and bruised),
3 lbs. ; proof spirit, 9 pints; digest a week, add
of water, 5 pints, and the next day distil over 1
gal. of essence.
2. To the last, before distillation, add, of
otto of roses, dr.; eau de melisse (spirit of
balm), 3 pint; and proceed as before. Used
as a perfume. In 1831 it was much employed
in Paris as a prophylactic of cholera.
Essence, Wolatile (Acetic). Syn. PUNGENT
ACETIC ESSENCE; ESSENTIA VOLATILIS ACE-
TICA, L. Aromatic vinegar.
Essence, Wolatile (Ammoniacal). Syn. PUN-
GENT AMMONIACAL ESSENCE, AROMATIC AM-
MONIACAL E.; ESSENTIA VOLATILIS, E. W. AM-
MONIACALIS, E. W. AROMATICA, &c., L. Prep.
1. Oil of cinnamon, 6 drops; otto of roses, 12
drops; oil of cloves, 1 fl. dr. ; essence of berga-
motte, 2 fl. drs.; oil of lavender (Mitcham), 4 fl.
drs.; essence of musk, 5 fl. drs. ; liquor of am-
monia (strongest), 1 pint; mix in a cold place,
and shake the bottle until the whole is com-
bined.
2. Essence of violets and oil of cinnamon, of
each, 12 drops; neroli, essence of jasmine, and
otto of roses, of each . dr. ; oil of lavender, 1
dr. ; essence royale and essence (oil) of berga-
motte, of each, 2% drs. ; liquor of ammonia
(strongest), 1 pint; as the last.
3. Oils of lemon and bergamotte, of each, 5 fl.
drs. ; oil of lavender, 1} fl. dr. ; otto of roses, 1
fl. dr.; oils of cassia neroli, cloves, and cedrat,
of each, ; fl. dr. ; oil of sandal wood, 15 drops;
liquor of ammonia (strongest), 1 pint.

30

466
ESSENCE.
4. Essence of bergamotte, 6 fl. drs. ; oil of la-
vender, 4 fl. drs. ; oil of cloves, 3 fl. drs.; oil of
cassia, 1} fl. dr. ; oil of verbena (lemon grass),
1 fl. dr.; otto of roses, 30 drops; liquor of am-
monia, 18 fl. oz.
5. (Redwood.) Oil of bergamotte, 3 oz. ; es-
sence of lemons, 2 oz. ; oil of lavender, 6 drs. ;
essence of jasmine, 4 drs.; oil of Sassafras, 3 drs. ;
oil of neroli, 2 drs. ; otto of roses, 1% dr. ; oil of
origanum and essence of ambergris, of each, 1
dr. ; musk, 20 grs.; macerate for a week, and
decant the clear portion. It is added to the
strongest liquor of ammonia in proportion of 1%
Oz. to the pint.
Obs. The above are used to fill smelling-
bottles. They are all very fragrant and re-
freshing.
Essence, Ward’s. See HEADACHE ESSENCE.
Essence of Water-fen'nel. Syn. ESSENTIA
PHELLANDRI AqLATICI, E. FOENICULIS A., L.
Prep. (Cottereau.) Water-fennel seeds (fine-
leaved water-hemlock, bruised), 1 oz. ; proof
spirit, 4 fl.oz. ; digest. Narcotic and pectoral.
—Dose. 5 to 25 drops, combined with bark;
in phthisis, &c.
Essence, Westphalian. ESSENCE OF SMOKE,
E. OF WOOD-SMOKE, CAMBRIAN ESSENCE,
SMORING FLUID ; ESSENTIA FULIGINIS, &c.,
L. Prep. 1. Crude or empyreumatic pyrolig-
neous acid, 1 pint; sugar colouring, 2 oz. ;
dissolve, and in a week decant the clear
portion.
2. Tar, 3 drs. ; sugar colouring, 2 oz. ; hot
crude pyroligneous acid, 1 pint ; agitate con-
stantly for 1 hour, and after repose decant the
clear portion.
3. Acetic acid (Ph. L.), 1 pint; creasote, 5
drs. ; mix. White.
4. Barbadoes tar, 3 oz. ; burnt sugar and
common salt, of each, 1 oz. ; strong pickling
vinegar, pint; port or elder wine, 4 pint; di-
gest as before. Inferior to the preceding.
Used to impart a smoky flavour to meat, fish,
&c., by brushing it over them, or adding a
little to the brine in which they are pickled.
Essence of Worm"wood. Syn. ESSENTIA
AMARA, E. ABSINTHII, L. Prep. 1. Extract of
wormwood, 4 oz. ; oil of wormwood, 1 oz. ; rec-
tified spirit, 1 pint; digest a week, and filter.
Tonic, stomachic, and vermifuge.—Dose. 10
drops to a teaspoonful.
2. (Van Mons.) Tincture of wormwood, 1
pint ; salt of wormwood, 5 drs. ; extract of
wormwood, 1 dr. ; digest as before.—Dose. }
to 1; fl. dr.
Fla”vouring Essences. Syn. CULINARY ES-
SENCES, SPICE. E., ESSENCES FOR THE TABLE,
&c. Those used by cooks, confectioners, liqueur-
ists, &c., are all made by either dissolving 1 fl.
oz. of the essential oil of the particular sub-
stance in 1 pint of rectified spirit, or by di-
gesting 4 to 6 oz. of the bruised spice, or 5 to
10 oz. of the dried herb, in a like quantity (1
pint) of spirit. The first method is preferable,
from being the least troublesome, and yielding
the finest product. They are commonly la-
belled ‘CONCENTRATED ESSENCE OF —." An
inferior article, vended under the names of
* ESSENCES OF CULINARY HERBs,’ ‘CULINARY
TINCTURES,” “TINCTURES FOR KITCHEN USE,”
&c., are prepared from half the above quantity
of oil or spice, infused in a pint of proof spirit
or British brandy. The principal compounds
of this class are the essences of allspice, cara-
way, cardamoms, cassia, cayenne, celery seed,
cinnamon, cloves, coriander seed, fennel, garlic,
ginger, lemon peel, mace, marjoram, nutmegs,
orange peel, peppermint, spearmint, sweet
basil, and the like. The whole of these are
employed to flavour soups, gravies, sweet-
meats, pastry, wines, mulled wines, liqueurs,
&c.
Essences, Flower. Those for which separate
formulae are not given in this work, may most
of them be made from the essential oil of the
flowers and rectified spirit, as the last; or by
digesting the flowers (crushed or bruised), 3 to
5 lbs., in proof spirit, 2 galls., for a few days,
and then drawing over, by distillation, 1 gal,
For the essences of those flowers which are not
strongly odorous, the spirit thus obtained is
distilled from a like quantity of flowers, a
second, and a third time, or even oftener. The
essences of other organic substances, whose fra-
grant principles are volatile, may be prepared
in the same manner. A small quantity of some
other odorous essence is frequently added to
the product, to enrich or modify the fragrance,
See FLOWERS and ESSENCES BY INFUSION.
Essences, Fragrant. See FLOWER ESSENCES
(above), ESSENTIA ODoRATA, PERFUMERY, &c.
Essences, Fruit. See ESSENCES OF APPLE,
PINE-APPLE, JARGONELLE, &c.
Essences by Infu'sion. This term, among
perfumers, is commonly applied to those es:
sences, eaux, and esprits, which are prepared
by digesting the ingredients in the spirit used
as the vehicle for the aroma, in opposition to
those obtained by “distillation,” or by ‘contact.'
or “pressure.” Thus, the ESSENCES OF AMBER:
GRIS, MUSIK, and VANILLA, are of this class,
Essences, Wiſmous. Sym. ESSENTIA WINOSA,
L. These are prepared in a similar way to the
wines (VINA) of the pharmacopoeia, by using 8
times the usual quantity of ingredients, and
the very strongest sherry wine. .1 fl. dr., added
to 7 fl. drs. of wine or water (properly the first
only), forms an extemporaneous imitation of
the officinal WINA MEDICATA. Some of the
above are largely used in dispensing, and by
travellers. See LIQUOR and WINE.
Essentia Biſma. See CoIOURING.
Essentia Odora'ta. Prep. 1. Oil of lavender,
1 dr. ; oils of cloves, cassia, and bergamot, of
each, ; dr. ; meroli, 20 drops; essence royale, 2
fl. drs. ; rectified spirit, 3 pint; mix.
2. (Redwood.) English oil of lavender, 48
drops; oil of cloves, 32 drops; oil of Orange
peel, 16 drops; oil of bergamotte and sweet
spirit of nitre, of each, 8 drops; oil of yellow
sandal-wood, neroli, and otto of roses, of each,
2 drops; oil of cinnamon, 1 drop; rectified
ESSENTIAL OIL-ETCHING.
467
spirit, and essence of ambergris and musk, of
each, 1 oz. ; honey water, 8 oz. ; mix. Used
as a perfume for the handkerchief, &c. The
last form seems unnecessarily complicated and
minute.
Essentia Odorifera, Prep.
and balsam of Peru, of each, 10 grs. ; civet, 4.
grs. ; oil of cloves, 5 drops; oil of rhodium, 3
drops; salt of tartar (dried by a dull-red heat
and cooled), dr. ; rectified spirit (strongest),
2; fl. Oz. ; macerate for 14 days, and pour off
the clear.
2. Oil of rhodium and balsam of Peru, of
each, ; dr. ; oil of cloves, 1 dr.; spirit of am-
monia, 2 fl. drs. ; essence of civet and vanilla,
of each, 2 fl. Oz. ; essence of musk, 5 fl. Oz. ;
neroli, oils of lavender, verbena, and cassia, of
each, 6 drops. As last. Both are very plea-
Sant, durable, and powerful perfumes for per-
sonal use.
ESSENTIAL OIL. See OIL (Volatile).
ESSENTIAL SALT OF BARK, See BARR
and EXTRACT.
ESSENTIAL SALT OF LEMONS. Syn.
SALT OF LEMONS ; SAL LIMONUM, L. The pre-
paration sold under this name is made by
mixing cream of tartar (bitartrate of potassa)
with twice its weight of salt of sorrel (quad-
roxalate of potassa), both in fine powder. It
is used to remove fruit stains, &c., from linen,
by rubbing a little of it on the part moistened
with warm water. It is poisonous, if swallowed
in quantity.
ETCHING. A species of engraving, in
which the design is formed on the plate by the
action of an acid, or some other fluid, instead
of being cut out by the graver.
Proc. In the ORDINARY PROCESS OF ETCHING
the plate is covered with etching ground” (an
acid-resisting varnish), and the design is
scratched on the metal through the ground,
by means of a pointed tool of steel called the
‘etching needle’ or “point.” A border of wax
is then placed round the plate, and the ‘biting'
fluid poured on, and allowed to remain till the
“lights’ or finest portions of the design are
sufficiently “bitten in.” The etching fluid is
then poured off, the plate washed, and the
light parts ‘stopped out” with Brunswick black
or other varnish; the solvent is again poured
on, and allowed to remain until the finest por-
tion of the exposed lines are sufficiently deep,
when the acid is again poured off, and the
whole process is repeated till the very darkest
lines or shadows are sufficiently “bitten in.”
The plate is then cleaned, and is ready to be
printed from. Occasionally the etched design
receives a few finishing touches with the
‘graver.’
There are several varieties of etching, of
which the following are the principal:—
ETCHING WITH A soft GROUND, when a coat-
ing of lard or tallow is employed, and the de-
sign is drawn on a piece of paper, laid evenly
on the ground, by which means the fatty
matter adheres to the paper, on the parts
1. Grain musk.
pressed on by the point or pencil, and the
copper beneath becomes exposed, and is then
acted on by the acid. The effect resembles
that of chalk or pencil drawings.-STIPPLING,
or executing the design in dots instead of
lines.—AQUATINTA or AQUATINT, a mode of
etching on copper for producing an effect re-
sembling a drawing in Indian ink. It is per-
formed by sifting powdered asphaltum or lac
resin on the plate, previously slightly greased,
and, after shaking off the loose powder, gently
heating it over a chaffing dish; on cooling, the
lights are covered with turpentine varnish
coloured with lampblack, by means of a hair
pencil, and a rim of wax being placed round
the plate, a mixture of ‘aquafortis' and water
is poured on it, and allowed to remain for 5 or
6 minutes, when it is poured off, the plate
dried, and recourse had to the pencil as before.
The process of ‘stopping' and etching’ is
repeated again and again, until the darkest
shades are produced. Sometimes, instead of
using asphaltum, an alcoholic solution of shell-
lac or gum mastic is poured over the plate,
placed in a slanting direction; this varnish
forms a film, which, on drying, leaves innu-
merable cracks or minute fissures through
which the acid acts on the plate. The fine-
ness or coarseness of the grain depends en-
tirely upon the condition of the powdered
asphaltum, or on the quantity of matter dis-
solved in the spirit employed to form the
ground.
The fluids employed for “biting in the de-
signs vary considerably, almost every artist
having his own receipt. Aquafortis, more or
less diluted, is, however, generally employed
for COPPER, and this, with the addition of
pyroligneous acid, for etching on STEEL; but
any fluid that rapidly dissolves the metal may
be used for the purpose. The “etching ground?
may be formed of any substance capable of
resisting the action of the etching fluid, and
which is, at the same time, sufficiently soft to
allow of the free use of the needle or point, and
sufficiently solid to prevent an injury to the
design during the “scratching in.”
In ETCHING ON GLASS, the ground is laid
on, and the design “scratched in in the usual
way, when liquid hydrofluoric acid is applied,
or the glass is exposed to the action of hydro-
fluoric acid gas. The former renders the sur-
face of the etching transparent, the latter
opaque. A simple modification of the process
is to wet the design with sulphuric acid, and
then to sprinkle on some finely pulverised
fluor spar (fluoride of calcium), by which
means hydrofluoric acid is set free and attacks
the glass. This method may be very easily ap-
plied to the graduation of glass vessels, ther-
mometer tubes, &c.
A RAPID METHOD OF ETCHING ON IRON OR
STEEI, capable of very general application, is
as follows:– “The metal is warmed until it is
capable of melting a piece of bees' wax, or
‘etching ground,” which is then carefully



468
ETCHING-ETHER.
rubbed over it, so as to form a thin and even
coating; when cold, the design is “scratched
in in the common way; a little powdered
iodine is then sprinkled on the exposed parts,
and at the same time a few drops of water are
added, and the two worked into a liquid paste
with a camel-hair pencil. The paste is then
moved about over the intended etching, for a
period varying from one to five minutes, ac-
cording to the depth of the lines required to
be produced. Afterwards the whole is removed,
and reapplied, &c., as with the usual etching
fluids. The same etching-paste, by being kept
for a few days, again acquires the property of
dissolving iron, and may be used again and
again; but independently of this, the iodide of
iron formed during the process, if rapidly
evaporated to dryness in a clean iron vessel by
a moderate heat, and placed in stoppered bot-
tles, will sell for more than the original cost of
the iodine. To travellers and amateurs who
amuse themselves with the delightful art of
etching, iodine, from its portability and con-
venience, will, doubtless, prove invaluable.
We have adopted it with considerable success,
and have found it especially useful in marking
surgical instruments, razors, and other edge
tools. We published this method many years
ago. Several parties have since availed them-
selves of our suggestions and formulae, but
without the slightest acknowledgment of the
source from which they obtained them.”
(A. J. Cooley.)
Etching, Electro-. This mode of etching,
which is in many respects superior to the
ordinary mode, is based upon the destructive
action of certain ‘anions’ during ‘electrolysis.”
If two plates of copper be connected with the
opposite ends of a voltaic battery, and placed
in a vessel containing very dilute sulphuric
acid, the plate connected with the copper of
the battery will be attacked by the anion oxygen
which is released during the decomposition of
the acid. This destructive action can be
localised at pleasure by covering certain parts
of the plate with a protecting stratum of var-
nish, ordinary “etching ground for instance.
In the practice of electro-etching, the drawing
is “scratched in in the usual way through an
ordinary ground; a stout wire is then soldered
to the plate, and this, as well as the back of
the plate, is coated with sealing-wax varnish.
Thus prepared, the plate is placed in a suitable
“decomposition cell’ opposite a plate of some-
what similar size, and the two are connected
respectively with the copper and zinc of a
* Daniell’s cell,” or the silver and zinc of a
* Smee’s cell.’” After about ten minutes the
plate is removed, washed, and dried; and when
the “fine work’ has been stopped out with
Brunswick black, it is returned for another
space of ten minutes. By alternately exposing
the plate to the action of the decomposing
1 See ELECTROLYSIs and ELECTRo? YTF, pages 428 and
29
* See VoI, TAIC ISLECTRICITY,
fluid, and ‘stopping out' parts of the work,
the required gradation in tints is obtained,
The exact duration of the various exposures, as
well as their number, must, of course, be regu-
lated by circumstances. See ETCHING FIUIDS
(below).
Etching Fluids. 1. (For COPPER.)—a. From
‘aquafortis,’ 23 fl. Oz. ; water, 5 fl. Oz.; mix.
b. To the last add of verdigris, 1 oz.; water,
2} fl. oz. ; dissolve. For light touches. -
c. (EAU FORTE,-Callot and Piranesi.) Alum,
sal-ammoniac, sea salt, and verdigris, of each,
4 oz. ; vinegar (pyroligneous acid), 8 fl. OZ, ;
water, 16 fl. oz. ; mix, dissolve, boil for 1 or 2
minutes in a glazed or stoneware vessel, cool,
and decant the clear portion. Used as the
last.
d. Water acidulated with sulphuric acid,
Used in the process of electro-etching.
2. (For STEEL.)—a. From iodine, 1 oz. ; iron
filings or wire, , dr.; water, 4 fl. Oz. It must
be kept in a stoppered bottle, until required
for use.
b. From iodine, 3 drs. ; iodide of potassium,
1 dr.; proof spirit, 1 fl.oz.; water, 2 fl. Oz. As
the last.
c. (Mr. Turrel.) Pyroligneous acid, 4 fl.oz.;
alcohol (rectified spirit), 1 fl. oz. ; mix, and add
of nitric acid or double aquafortis (sp. gr. 1:28),
1 fl. oz.
d. From hydrochloric acid, 5 parts; water,
95 parts; mix, and add the liquid to a so-
lution of chlorate of potassa, 1 part, in water,
50 parts.
e. A solution of common salt.
process of electro-etching.
Etching Ground. Syn. ETCHING WARNISI,
Prep. 1. Bees’ wax, 5 parts; linseed oil, 1
part; melted together.
2. (Callot's HARD WARNISH, FLORENTINE
V., FLORENCE v.) From linseed oil and mas.
tic, equal parts, melted together.
3. (Callot's SoFT WARNISH.) From linseed
oil, 4 oz. ; gum benzoin and white wax, of each,
} oz. ; boil to two thirds.
4. (Lawrence.) White wax, 2 oz.; black
pitch and Burgundy pitch, of each, 07.;
melt, add by degrees, of powdered asphaltum,
2 oz. ; and boil together, until a piece, when
thoroughly cold, will break by being bent
double 2 or 3 times between the fingers; next
pour it into warm water, make it into small
balls, and place each of them in a piece of
taffety for use.
Obs. The preceding compositions are ap:
plied to the surface of the plates, previously
made sufficiently warm to melt them easily,
their even diffusion being promoted by dab-
bing them with a wad of cotton. Those that
are white are then generally blackened on the
surface by skilfully passing them over the
smoky flame of one or more candles, by which
the marks of the etching point on the bright
metal are rendered the more visible.
ETHER. Syn. OxIDE of ETHYL. De:
scribed under ETHYI, OxIDE of. Several
Used in the

E''HERIN-ETHIC) PS.
469
substances are known under the name of ethers
besides the true ethers, or salts of ethyl, and
are given below.
Ether of Canthar'ides. Syn. AETHER CAN-
THARIDALIS, L. Prep. (CEttinger.) From
powdered cantharides, 1 part; ether, 2 parts;
digested together for 3 or 4 days, and the
tincture expressed. Used as a vesicant, &c.
Ether, Chlo"ric. This name was applied by
Dr. T. Thomson to the CHLORIDE OF OLEFIANT
GAs, or ‘DUTCII LIQUID ;' and afterwards, by
Guthrie and Silliman, to CHILOROFORM, which
they took for an alcoholic solution of chloride
of olefiant gas. It now forms one of the syno-
nyms of chloroform. The medicinal ‘CHLORIC
ETHER’ of the shops is a solution of chloro-
form, 1 part, in rectified spirit, 8 parts; of
which the dose is 20 or 30 drops, in water,
as an antispasmodic and anodyne. See CHLO-
IROFORM. -
Ether, Chlorimet'ted. Formed by the action
of dry chlorine on pure ether. When the
action is long continued, a heavy, oily pro-
duct (BICHLORINETTED ETHER), smelling
like fennel, is formed. By the still further
action of chlorine, aided by sunlight, a white,
crystalline substance (PENTACHLORINETTED
ETHER), a compound resembling sesquichloride
of carbon, is obtained.
Ether, Cu"preous. Syn. TINCTURA CUPRI
CHLORIDI FTHEREA, L. Prep. (Van Mons.)
Sulphate of copper, 6 parts, and chloride of
barium, 5 parts, are triturated together, and
the mixture digested in ether, 3 or 4 parts,
until all the chloride of copper is dissolved.—
Dose, 2 to 5 drops; in epilepsy, &c.
Ether, Methy'lic. Syn. OXIDE OF METHYL,
WOOD-ETHER, METHYL-ETHER ; AETHER ME-
THYLICUS, L. Prep. From wood-spirit, 1
part; concentrated sulphuric acid, 4 parts;
mix in a retort, apply heat, pass the evolved
gas (methylic ether) through a little strong
solution of potassa, and then collect it over
mercury. See METHYL.
Ether, Spirits of Nitrous. See SPIRITS.
Ether, Washed. Sym. AETHER LOTUS, L.
Ordinary ether, agitated first with 2 or 3
times its volume of distilled water, and a few
grains of carbonate of potassa, or a few drops
cfmilk of lime; and after decantation, again
agitated with a like quantity of water only.
Used for inhalations. For other purposes the
washed ether is afterwards digested on chloride
of calcium, to deprive it of retained water.
ETHERIN. Syn. CAMPHOR OF or L of
WINE. A volatile, white, crystalline substance,
deposited by light oil of wine when left in a
cold situation for some time. It is isomeric
with etherole, and received its name from the
assumption of its being the base of the
ethereal compounds. According to this hy-
pothesis, ether is a hydrate of etherin.
Etherin forms brilliant prisms and plates; is
tasteless; soluble in alcohol and ether; fuses
at 230°Fahr., and boils at 500°Fahr. ; and is
A little lighter than Water. The crystals are
purified by pressure between the folds of
bibulous paper, solution in ether, and evapora-
tion.
E"THER0LE. The yellowish, oily liquid,
forming the residual portion of light oil of
wine, after it has deposited its etherin. It
is lighter than water; is freely soluble in both
alcohol and ether; and has a rather high boil-
ing-point. See I.THERIN and OIL OF WINE.
ETHION’IC ACID. Prep. An alcoholic so-
lution of the crystals of sulphate of carbyle is
diluted with water, the whole neutralised with
carbonate of baryta, the filtered liquid evapo-
rated by a very gentle heat to a small bulk,
and a large quantity of alcohol added; the
precipitate (ethionate of baryta) is treated
(cautiously) with dilute sulphuric acid (avoid.
ing excess), by which the baryta is withdrawn,
and ethionic acid left in solution.
Prop., &c. Ethionic acid closely resembles
sulphovinic acid. It is decomposed by heat.
Its salts (ethionates), however, differ com-
pletely from the sulphovinates. They are all
soluble in water, and are said to be anhydrous.
The ethionates of ammonia, potassa, and soda,
crystallise readily; those of lead, baryta, lime,
and the other earths, are uncrystallisable. See
ISETHIONIC ACID, and below.
ETHION’IC ANHYDRIDE. Prep. Pure
and dry olefiant gas is passed over anhydrous
sulphuric acid (‘sulphuric anhydride’) con-
tained in a U-shaped tube.
Prop., &c. When thus produced, it is in
white, milky crystals, which speedily deliquesce
in the air, giving rise to ethionic acid. It
is similar in appearance, and probably iden-
tical with, ‘sulphate of carbyle, which results
from the absorption of the vapour of anhy-
drous sulphuric acid by absolute alcohol.
E"THIOPS. Syn. AETHIOPs, L. A name
given by the older chemists to several black
powders, on account of their colour, and still
occasionally employed in medical works.
Ethiops, Graphiºtic. Syn. ETHIOPS OF PLUM-
BAGo; ABTHIOPS GRAPHITICUS, L. From
plumbago, 2 parts; quicksilver, 1 part; tri-
turated together until the globules disappear.
—Dose. 5 to 10 grs.; in herpes, and some
other obstinate skin diseases.
Ethiops, Martial. Black oxide of iron, pre-
pared by keeping iron filings under water,
and occasionally shaking them. It is washed
with water, dried as quickly as possible, and
preserved from the air, to prevent further
oxidation. Formerly much esteemed as a
tonic.
Ethiops, Min'eral, Syn. ETHIOPS MINERAL;
AETHIOPS MINERALIS, HYDRARGYRI SULPHU-
RETUM CUM SULPHURE, L. Black sulphuret
of mercury, with excess of sulphur.
(Tyson's.) Oxide of mercury (prepared
by decomposing calomel with an equivalent
proportion of liquor of potassa to which a
little liquor of ammonia has been added) and
flowers of sulphur, equal parts, triturated to-
gether. This is recommended as an efficient





470
ETHYL.
substitute for the old and uncertain prepara-
tion commonly sold under the name of Ethiops
mineral. It is, however, of more than double
the usual strength, and should therefore be
taken in proportionate doses. See MERCURY
(Sulphuret).
Ethiops, Vegetable. Syn. AETHIOPS VEGETA-
BILIS, PULVIS QUERCöS MARINAE, L. Bladder
wrack (Fucus vesiculosus), burned in a close
vessel till it becomes black and friable. Used
in bronchocele, scrofula, &c. Like burnt
sponge, it owes its virtues to the presence of a
very minuteſquantity of iodine,—Dose. 20 grs.
to 1 dr., or more, made into an electuary with
honey or sugar.
ETHYL. C.H. Sym. ETHYLE. The hydro-
carbon assumed to be the radical of the ether-
compounds (ethyl-series). A body containing
carbon and hydrogen in the proportions indi-
cated by the formula of ethyl, 2003H5), has
been obtained by exposing dry iodide of ethyl
in sealed tubes for several hours to the action
of finely divided zinc, at a temperature of from
320° to 338° Fahr. In this reaction the iodine
of the iodide of ethyl combines with the zinc,
and the hydrocarbon supposed to be ethyl is set
free. On opening the sealed tubes and allow-
ing the gas (which is a mixture of the “ethyl’
and certain secondary products) to pass into a
freezing mixture, the temperature of which is
kept below —9°Fahr., the “ethyl condenses
to a colourless, mobile liquid. Hitherto no
compound ether has been produced from the
‘ethyl” thus prepared.
According to the beautiful theory of Liebig,
ethyl is a “salt-basyle, forming ‘haloid salts'
with chlorine, iodine, and bromine ; its oxide
is ether, and the hydrate of this oxide alcohol.
The compound ethers may be compared with
ordinary salts in which the metal is replaced
by the radical ethyl.
Ethyl, Oxide of. (C.H.),O. Sym. ETHER,
SULPHURIC ETHER, AETHER (B. P.), AETHER
SUIPHURICUS (Ph. E. D. & U.S.), A. RECTIFI-
CATUS, AE. VITRIOLICUS, AE. SPIRITUS VITRIOLI
DULCIS, L. A colourless, highly volatile,
fragrant, inflammable liquid, obtained by dis-
tilling a mixture of sulphuric acid and alcohol.
It was not known before the 13th century.
Prep. There are two methods employed for
the preparation of ether. The one is by mix-
ing the whole of the ingredients at once, and
immediately subjecting them to distillation at
a proper temperature; the other is by adding
the alcohol in a slender streamlet to the acid,
previously heated to the etherifying point.
The former, though less economical, is the one
more generally employed.
1. Rectified spirit, 3 lbs.; sulphuric acid, 2 lbs.;
carbonate of potassa (previously ignited), 1 oz. ;
pour 2 lbs. of the spirit into a glass retort, add
the acid, and place the vessel on a sand bath,
so that the liquor may boil as quickly as pos-
sible, and the ether, as it forms, pass over into
a well-cooled receiver; continue the distillation
until a heavier fluid begins to pass over, then
lower the heat, add the remainder of the spirit,
and distil as before ; mix the distilled liquors
together, pour off the Supernatant portion, add
the carbonate of potassa, and agitate Occa-
sionally for one hour; finally, distil the ether
from a large retort, and keep it in a well-stop-
pered bottle. Sp. gr. 750.
2. The strongest oil of vitriol, 3 parts, are
mixed with alcohol, q. S. (about 2 parts at 830)
to reduce its sp. gr. to 1780; an object which
may be easily obtained by distilling off some
of the ether, if required. The still or retortis
then connected with a vessel full of alcohol, of
at least 90%, by means of a small syphon tube,
furnished with a stop-cock; the longer limb of
which should be of glass, and so arranged that
it just dips into the mixture of acid and alco-
hol. Heat is next applied, and the contents of
the still raised to the boiling-point as rapidly
as possible, and as soon as full ebullition Com-
mences the stop-cock of the syphon is cautiously
turned, so as to allow the alcohol to flow down
in such a manner as to keep the boiling liquid
exactly at the same level; or, in other words,
to supply a quantity of alcohol exactly equal
to that of the liquid which distils over. By
careful manipulation the whole of the alcohol
which enters the retort passes over as ether and
water, and this decomposition proceeds for some
time, and would continue for an unlimited
period, did not the sulphuric acid ultimately
become too weak to form ether, from the
gradual absorption of the superfluous water
contained in the alcohol. Were it convenient
or practicable to use absolute alcohol, a given
weight of sulphuric acid, of the proper strength,
would maintain the power of producing ether
for an indefinite period. In practice, the
quantity of alcohol that may thus be etherified
is twice or thrice as much as by the common
process, while neither sulphurous acid, sulpho-
vinic acid, nor sweet oil of wine, is generated,
and the residual liquid of the distillation con-
tinues limpid, and has only a pale-brown colour,
This is termed the ‘continuous,” or ‘Boullay's
method. (This process is similar to that given
in the B. P.)
3. Alcohol of 90%, five parts, are mixed with
oil of vitriol, 9 parts, in a vessel of copper or iron,
immersed in cold water; the mixture is next
introduced into a still or retort, and raised to a
state of ebullition as rapidly as possible, as
before. A fresh quantity of alcohol, equal in
bulk to the liquid distilled over, is then added
to the liquid in the still, and distillation again
had recourse to. As much concentrated alco-
holic solution of potassa as will give it a per-
ceptible alkaline reaction is next added to
distilled liquor, which is then rectified by the
heat of a water bath, as long as the ether which
distils over has the sp. gr. 720 to 725 at 80°
Fahr. Instead of the potassa, a little milk of
lime may be used, along with its own bulk of
water. By allowing the product to stand for
some days over chloride of calcium or quick-
lime, and again rectifying it along with one


ETHYL.
471
-
-
of these substances, perfectly pure other may Obs. The mixture of alcohol with sulphuric
be obtained.
a. Condenser tube,
h, c. Glass tube.
d. Funnel by which cold water rums in from the water
bottle h.
e. Pipe by which water escapes through f into the
bottle g.
i. Retort.
K. Adapter, connecting the retort with the condenger,
l, Adapter, connecting the condenser with the bottles
t.
> A. Wooden tressel, with movable arms n, o, for sup-
porting and adjusting the heights of the condenser.
introducing the alcohol into a suitable vessel,
and imparting to it a rapid whirling motion,
by which a considerable conical cavity is formed
in the centre, and into which the acid may be
gradually poured with perfect safety. The
mixed fluids should be brought to a state of
rapid ebullition, as quickly as possible, as with-
out this precaution much of the alcohol distils
over before the liquor acquires the proper
temperature for etherification. On the small
scale, a tubulated retort, connected with a
Liebig’s condensing tube, and two globular
receivers surrounded with a freezing mixture,
or ice-cold water, may be employed as the
distillatory apparatus. The second receiver
should be connected with the first one by means
of a bent glass tube, reaching nearly to the
bottom of the former; and the whole of the
joints should be securely luted, as soon as the
expanded air has been allowed to escape. We
have employed the following convenient little
apparatus for the preparation of small quan-
tities of ether, and it will be found very suit-
able for the distillation of most other highly
volatile liquids, and particularly for boiling
mixtures of alcohol and organic acids. By
connecting the neck of a flask or digester con-
taining volatile fluids with the lower instead
of the upper end of the refrigerator, ebullition
may be carried on without loss, as the vapour
will be condensed, and run back into the vessel
from which it has distilled.
For the rectification of ether, a water bath
is employed along with the above simple refri-
gerator, and the receivers surrounded by ice
or a freezing mixture.
Chem. comp., &c. Ether is generally regarded
as the oxide of ethyl, and alcohol as the hydrate
of this base. This view is borne out by analysis,
which proves that ether differs from alcohol
acid requires some caution. It is best done by
B. Wooden stool for supporting the water bottle,
q. Turnace.
r. Support for the furnace.
p. Gutter for carrying off water that overflows the
funnel d, and preventing its escape along the pipe c.
s, Leg of syphon connected with bottle containing
alcohol.
t, t, Glass globes, placed in the basins w, v, and sur-
rounded with pounded ice or ice-cold water.
w, Safety tube, containing a little mercury at a.
by the elements of water. Recent experiments
have also shown that the relation existing
between the two compounds is—if alcohol be
expressed by the formula C3H8O, the true for-
mula of ether will be (C3H5)2O. We cannot
describe these experiments here, but we may
remark that ether cannot be made to combine
with water directly, nor can alcohol be con-
verted into ether by the abstraction of water,
pure and simple, without the aid of other
substances.
The compound ethers may be compared to
ordinary salts in which the metal is replaced
by a radical termed ethyl, having the for-
mula C3H5. This view is, of course, in accord-
ance with the theory which regards ether as
the oxide of ethyl.
According to theory, 1 equivalent, or 46 parts
of absolute alcohol, should produce 1 eq., or
37 parts, of pure ether; but in practice, the
greatest product obtained by operating accord-
ing to Boullay’s method, which produces more
ether than any other, does not exceed 33%
parts for the preceding quantity of alcohol, or
71.5%. A mixture of 9 parts of oil of vitriol,
and 5 parts of alcohol of 90%, ceases to produce
ether after 31 parts of such alcohol have been
added.
The most economical method of etherifica-
tion is that known as the continuous ether
process, or the process of Boullay. When this
is adopted, the retort or flask should be fitted
with a sound cork, perforated by an aperture
to receive a thermometer, and the application
of the heat, and the flow of alcohol, should be
so managed, that a temperature of 300°Fahr.
and a state of rapid and violent ebullition
(points of essential importance) are main-
tained.
Prop., Uses, &c. Pure ether is a colourless,


472
ETHYL.
transparent, and very limpid fluid, having a
penetrating and agreeable smell, and a burning,
sweetish taste; its evaporation produces the
sensation of extreme cold; when prevented, a
sensation of heat is experienced. Its specific
gravity varies between 712 and ‘724. If it
contains water it begins to crystallise in bril-
liant white plates when cooled to —24°Fahr.,
and become a white crystalline mass at —46°
or —47° Fahr.; but if absolutely pure, ether
cannot be solidified by any degree of cold that
can be produced, it remaining fluid when
placed in contact with solid carbonic acid, at
a temperature of about –148°Fahr. Boils
at 96° or 97° Fahr.; is very combustible; is
soluble in about 10 parts of distilled water,
and mixes with alcohol in all proportions. It
abstracts corrosive sublimate, terchloride of
gold, sesquichloride of iron, and many of the
alkaloids, from their watery solutions, and is
hence invaluable in analysis and pharmacy.
It readily dissolves the volatile and fixed oils,
and most fatty matters, as well as sulphur and
phosphorus in small quantities. By exposure
to light and air it absorbs oxygen, and water
and acetic acid are gradually formed. It is
decomposed by exposure to a high tempera-
ture. Its evaporation occasions intense cold.
The greatest degree of cold yet produced
(–166° Fahr.) has resulted from the admix-
ture of ether with solid carbonic acid. Ether
is powerfully stimulant, narcotic, and anti-
spasmodic, and externally refrigerant, if al-
lowed to evaporate, or stimulant and counter-
irritant if its evaporation is prevented, and is
used in various diseases. Applied to the forehead
by means of the fingers or a strip of linen, it
generally relieves simple cases of nervous head-
ache. In pharmacy, it is largely employed in
the preparation of tinctures, alkaloids, spirits,
&c.; and in chemistry is invaluable in organic
analyses. Its principal commercial application
is as a solvent for pyroxyline, in the manufac-
ture of collodion. It is also employed as a
solvent of resins, India rubber, &c., in the
preparation of varnishes, and for several other
useful purposes.—Dose. 20 drops to 2 fl. drs. ;
in water or wine. Excessive doses of ether
produce intoxication resembling that from
alcohol, and require similar antidotes. Shortly
before the discovery of chloroform, it was
found that when the vapour of ether was in-
haled it gradually produced insensibility to
pain. It was therefore employed as an anaes-
thetic in surgical operations. Having been
found less efficient than chloroform, and more
troublesome to administer, its use for this pur-
pose has been abandoned.
Tests. Ether may be recognised by its vola-
tility, odour, taste, sparing solubility in water,
admixture with alcoholin all proportions, great
inflammability (burning with a yellowish-white
flame), and its power of dissolving fats and
resins. Its further identification can only be
effected by ultimate analysis.
Pur, The ether of the shops, generally, con-
tains alcohol, water, or acetic acid, and some.
times all of them. Its usual specific gravity
fluctuates between 733 and ‘765. Exposed to
the air, it volatilises entirely. It turns litmus
paper red; sometimes very slightly, and occa.
sionally even not at all. # fl. OZ, mixes com-
pletely with # pint of water. Pure ether
should, however, be neutral to test-paper,
although seldom so. When shaken in a minim
measure with half its volume of concentrated
solution of chloride of calcium, its volume
should not lessen. 10 fluid ounces of water
should only dissolve 1 fluid ounce of ether, and
remain transparent.
Preserv. Ether rapidly evaporates at com-
mon temperatures when kept in corked bot-
tles, and even in bottles secured with ground.
glass stoppers and tightly tied over with
bladder and leather; it also becomes sour by
age. To prevent this, waste, the stoppers
should fit accurately, and the bottles should be
placed in as cool a situation as
possible. Bottles furnished with
ground-glass caps, as well as stop-
pers, are frequently employed.
(See engr.) Dewar's “ether phial' is
formed on a similar principle. We
have seen bottles of ether accu-
rately stoppered, tied over with
bladder, and thickly coated with
wax, which have yet become quite
empty by a voyage to the tropics, though they
still appeared to be as closely secured as when
they were first filled.
Caution. The vapour of ether is very in.
flammable, and when mixed with atmospheric
air, it forms a violently explosive mixture. The
density of this vapour is 2:586, that of air
being 1; hence it rapidly sinks, and frequently
accumulates in the lower parts of buildings,
especially cellars which are badly ventilated,
in the same way as water does. The only
remedy is thorough ventilation. Many serious
accidents have arisen from this cause, for no
sooner is a light carried into an apartment
where such vapour is present, than an explo:
sion takes place.
Ethyl, Acetate of CŞH.C.H.0, S/m.
ACETATE OF OXII).E OF ETHYI, ACETIC ETHER,
PYROLIGNEOUS ETHER ; AETHER ACETICUS, L,
A compound discovered by the Count do
Lauraguais in 1759.
Prep. 1. Acetate of potassa, 3 parts (or an
equiv. quant. of acetate of soda), alcohol (85%),
3 parts, oil of vitriol (strongest), 2 parts, are
mixed together and distilled, by the heat of a
sand bath, from a glass or earthenware retort
into a well-cooled receiver; the distillate is
agitated with a little water to remove unde.
composed alcohol, and then digested first with
a little chalk, to remove acidity, and after-
wards with fused chloride of calcium, to absorb
water; it is, lastly, rectified by a gentle heat.
2. Rectified spirit (sp. gr. 84), 50 parts,
acetic acid (sp. gr. 1075), 33 parts, are mixed
together, and oil of vitriol (strongest), 10 parts,

ETHYL, 473
added; the distillation is continued until 65
parts have passed over, and the distillate, after
digestion for some hours on a little dry carbo-
nate of potassium, is rectified as before, the
first 50 parts only being kept for use.
Prop., &c. Acetic ether is colourless, and
bears a considerable resemblance to ordinary
ether, but it has a much more agreeable and
refreshing odour. It boils at 165°Fahr.; has
a sp. gr. of '89 at 60°Fahr.; dissolves in about
7 parts of water; and mixes in all proportions
with alcohol and ether. It is decomposed by
alkalies and the strong acids.
Acetic ether is diaphoretic, stimulant, anti-
spasmodic, and narcotic.—Dose. # to 2 fl. drs.;
in similar cases to those in which sulphuric
ether is employed, and especially in nervous
and putrid fevers, spasmodic vomitings, and
diseases of the bowels and stomach, arising
from debility, and not of an inflammatory cha-
racter. Its principal consumption is in the
manufacture of British brandy.
Ethyl, Benzoate of C3H5C, H3O3. Syn.
BENZOIC ETHER, BENZOATE OF ETHER, B. OF
0XIDE OF ETHYL.; ABTHER BENZOICUS, L.
Prep. Alcohol (sp. gr. 830), 4 parts, benzoic
acid (cryst.), 2 parts, concentrated hydro-
chloric acid, 1 part, are distilled together;
as soon as the product turns milky when mixed
with water, the receiver is changed, and the
liquid that distils over collected; to this liquid
water is added, and the supernatant ether is
decanted, and boiled with water and a little
Oxide of lead (to separate benzoic acid); it is,
lastly, freed from water by allowing it to stand
over chloride of calcium.
Prop., &c. A colourless, oily liquid, slightly
heavier than water, and possessing an aromatic
Odour and taste. It boils at 410° Fahr., and is
miscible with alcohol and ether.
Ethyl, Bromide of. C.H. Br. Syn. AETHER
HYDROBROMICUS, L. A volatile, ethereal
liquid, discovered by Serullas.
Prep. Bromine, 8 parts; alcohol, 32 parts;
dissolve, place the mixture in a retort, add of
phosphorus, 1 part, and distil by a gentle heat
as soon as the liquid becomes cold. The ether
is separated from the distillate by the addition
Of water.
Prop., &c. A very volatile liquid, with a
penetrating taste and smell; boiling at 105°
Fahr., and heavier than water.
Ethyl, Butyrate of. CŞH3CH,0s. Syn.
BUTYRIC ETHER, PINE-APPLE or I, ; AETHER
BUTYRICUs, L. Prep. By passing hydrochloric
acid gas into an alcoholic solution of butyric
acid, and purifying the product from free acid.
Commercially, from crude butyric acid sapo-
nified with caustic potassa or baryta, and the
resulting soap distilled along with alcohol and
Oil of vitriol.
Uses, Crude butyric ether forms the ‘pine-
apple oil” of commerce, and when largely di-
luted with rectified spirit, the ‘pine-apple
essence’ so much employed as a flavouring
substance by confectioners, liqueuristes, &c.
It imparts a delicious flavour to sweetmeats,
rum, arrack, punch, &c. The Germans add it
to common rum, to form the flavouring for
their ‘pine-apple ale.”
Ethyl, Carbonate of (CH3)2CO3. Syn.
CARBONIC ETHER, CARBONATE OF OxTDE of
ETHYL.; ABTHER CARBONICUs, L. Prep. Frag-
ments of potassium are added to Oxalic ether,
gently warmed, as long as bubbles of gas are
formed ; the excess of metal is removed from
the semi-solid mass, some water added, and
the whole distilled. The carbonic ether floats
on the surface of the liquid in the receiver,
and is collected, dried by contact with chlo-
ride of calcium, and rectified along with some
potassium or sodium, till it ceases to yield
acetate of potassa when acted on by caustic
potassa.
Prop., &c. Colourless, limpid, and aromatic ;
tastes pungent and burning; boils at 25.9° to
260° Fahr. It greatly resembles oxalic ether.
It is decomposed by alkalies.
Ethyl, Chloride of C3H3Cl. Syn. LIGHT
HYDROCHLORIC E., CHLORIDE OF ETHYI, ;
AETHER HYDROCHLORICUS, L. A highly vola-
tile compound, formed of ethyl and chlorine.
Prep. Rectified spirit of wine is saturated
with dry hydrochloric acid gas, in the cold,
and the product is distilled in a retort con-
nected with a Woolfe’s apparatus, the first
bottle of which should be two thirds filled with
tepid water (70° to 75° Fahr.), and the re-
mainder surrounded with a mixture of ice and
salt. To render it perfectly anhydrous, it must
be digested on a few fragments of fused chloride
of calcium.
A mixture of oil of vitriol, 3 parts, and alco-
hol, 2 parts, is poured upon common salt (dried),
4 parts; and the whole distilled as before.
Prop., &c. This ether has a sweetish taste;
is soluble in about 15 parts of water, and mis-
cible in all proportions with alcohol; boils at
54° Fahr. ; burns with a flame edged with
green; is neutral to test-paper; and does not
affect a solution of nitrate of silver. Sp. gr.
‘921, at 32° Fahr.—Dose. 10 to 30 drops, as
an antispasmodic and a powerful diffusible
stimulant. Owing to its extreme volatility, it
can only be taken dissolved in spirit.
Ethyl, Cy'amide of C3H3CN. Syn. AETHER
HYDROCYANICUs, L. Prep. Cyanide of potas-
sium and sulphovinate of baryta, equal parts, are
mixed and distilled in a glass retort by a mode-
rate heat. The product separates into two
strata; the lighter one is impure hydrocyanic
ether; this is decanted and agitated with 4 or
5 times its bulk of water at 120° to 140°Fahr.,
and the operation is repeated with about 2 parts
of water; the ether is again decanted, and
placed in contact with chloride of calcium for
24 hours, and them rectified.
Prop., &c. It boils at 190°Fahr. Sp. gr.
‘788. In its therapeutical effects it resembles
hydrocyanic acid, but is less active. Its odour
is, however, more penetrating and offensive.—
Dose, 2 to 6 drops, in mucilage or emulsion ;


474
ETHYL.
in obstinate or convulsive coughs, gastrodynia,
hysterical affections, &c.
Ethyl, Cy'anate of. C., H3CNO. Syn. CY-
ANIC ETHER, CYANATE OF OXIDE OF ETHYL.
Prep. By distilling a dry mixture of cyanate of
potassa and sulphovinate of potassa, in nearly
equivalent proportions. A mixture of cyanic
and cyanuricethers passes overinto the receiver.
By distilling this mixture the two are readily
separated; that which passes over by the heat
of a water bath being the first, and the re-
siduum in the retort the second.
Prop., &c. An ethereal, very mobile liquid,
boiling at 140°Fahr.
Ethyl, Cyan’urate of: (C5H5)3CN3O4. Syn.
CYANURATE OF OXIDE OF ETHYL. Prep. See
CYANIC ETHER.
Prop., &c. Tasteless, inodorous, colourless,
transparent needles and prisms; fusing at
185° Fahr.
Ethyl, I'odide of C3H5I. Syn. AETHER
HYDRIODICUS, L. Prep. Phosphorus, 4 parts,
alcohol (sp. gr. 84), 70 parts, and iodine, 100
parts, are gradually and cautiously mixed
together, and distilled.
Prop., &c. A colourless liquid, possessing
a strong ethereal odour, and boiling at 158°
Fahr. ; sp. gr. 1-92. It is reddened and de-
composed by exposure to air and light.
Ether, Methy'lic. Syn. OxTDE OF METHYL,
WOOD-ETHER, METHYL-ETHYL. See METHYL.
Ether, Muriatic (Heavy). Syn. AETHER MU-
RIATICUS PONDEROSUS, L. Prep. Alcohol, of
80 to 85%, is saturated, in the cold, with
chlorine gas, water is next added, and the oily
fluid that separates collected and washed with
water, as long as any of it is dissolved.
Prop., &c. Heavy muriatic ether is a vola-
tile, oily, colourless liquid, boiling at about
245° Fahr., and heavier than water. Its pre-
cise constitution is undetermined. This ether
enters into the composition of the SPIRITUS
MURIATICO-ETHEREUS, a remedy occasionally
used on the Continent.
Ethyl, Nitrate of. C., H3NO3. Syn. NITRIC
ETHER, NITRATE OF OXIDE OF ETHYL ;
AETHER NITRICUS, L.
Prep. Nitric acid (sp. gr. about 1.375), 50
parts; nitrate of urea, a little (say 2 or 3 parts);
dissolve, add alcohol, 50 parts, and distil with
the usual precautions, until 7-8ths of the
whole (of the liquid portion) have passed over;
agitate the distillate with a little water to sepa-
rate the ether, and preserve the heavier portion.
Prop., &c. Nitric ether possesses an agree-
able sweetish taste and odour; it is insoluble
in water; the alcoholic (but not the aqueous)
solution of potassa decomposes it rapidly; sp.
gr. 1'112. Its vapour is very apt to explode
when strongly heated, and, therefore, a small
quantity only should be prepared at a time.
Ethyl, Nitrite. CŞH5NO2. Syn. NITRIC
ETHER, HYPONITROUS ETHER, NITRITE OF
ETHER, NITRITE OF OXIDE OF ETHYL, HYPO-
NITRITE OF E.; AETHER NITROSUs, AE. HYPo-
NITROSUS, L, This is a compound, of which
“sweet spirit of nitre’ is an impure alcoholic
solution.
Prep. Starch (potato farina), 1 part; nitric
acid (sp. gr. 1:30), 10 parts; mix in a capa-
cious retort, connected with a wide tube 2 or
3 feet long, bent at right angles, and termi.
nating near the bottom of a two-necked bottle,
containing a mixture of alcohol (of 85%), 2
parts, and water, 1 part, and surrounded with
a freezing mixture, pounded ice, or very cold
water; the other neck of the bottle being con-
nected by a long glass tube with a good refri.
gerator or condenser. All elevation of tempe-
rature must be avoided. The heat of a water
bath only must be cautiously applied to the
retort. The gas liberated passes into the
alcohol, causing the ether to distil in a gentle
stream. The tube connecting the retort and
bottle must be cooled by means of rag or moist
paper, kept wetted with ice-cold water; as, if
the temperature of the tube and the alcohol
rises only a little, the latter becomes sponta.
neously hot, and boils violently, by which the
product is vitiated. This process is very pro-
ductive and economical, and yields pure nitrous
ether. -
A mixture of oil of vitriol, 8 parts, and alco.
hol, 9 parts, is poured upon crystallized nitrate
of ammonia, 11 parts, contained in any suit.
able distillatory vessel connected with a well.
cooled receiver. Nitrous ether gradually distils
over on the application of a gentle heat. An
admirable process, but more expensive than
the preceding. Even a common fire may be
employed without danger, as the liberation of
the ether proceeds gradually, and not almost
instantaneously, as in operating in the usual
way. Sulphate of ammonia is left in the retort,
The product is scarcely inferior to that of the
last formula.
Rectified spirit, 46 fl. oz. ; pure nitric acid
(sp. gr. 1:500), 7 fl. Oz. ; put 15 fl. Oz. of the
spirit, with a little clean sand, into a quart
matrass, fitted with a cork, and a safety tube
reaching to within an inch of the spirit, and a
second tube leading to a refrigeratory. Fill
the safety tube with pure nitric acid, then
add through it, gradually and cautiously, 3}
fl. Oz. of the acid. When the violent action
that ensues is nearly over, gradually add the
remaining portion of the acid, fl. OZ, at a
time, and at intervals. Agitate the ether that
distils over, first with a little milk of lime, till
it ceases to redden litmus paper, and then with
half its volume of concentrated solution of
chloride of calcium. The pure hyponitrous
ether thus obtained should have a density
of '899.
Prop., &c. Pure nitrous ether has a pale.
yellow colour, an agreeable odour of apples,
and boils at 62° Fahr. ; sp. gr. 1947 at 60°
Fahr. Commercial nitrous ether contains
aldehyd, boils at 70° Fahr., has a more or less
suffocating odour combined with that of the
pure ether, has a sp. gr. of 886 at 40°Fahr,
and turns brown when mixed with alcoholic

ETHYLAMINE–EWAPORATION. 475
solution of potassa, while the latter remains
unaltered. It also acidifies by age, whilst pure
mitrous ether remains neutral. They are both
very inflammable, and burn with a white flame.
Ordinary nitrous ether dissolves in about 48
parts of water, and mixes in all proportions
with alcohol and sulphuric ether.
Nitrous ether is refrigerant, diaphoretic,
and diuretic, but is seldom employed alone,
though, when largely diluted with alcohol
(sweet spirits of nitre, spirit of nitric ether),
it is a common remedy in several diseases.
It is also used to flavour malt spirit, in imi-
tation of brandy (British brandy), although
for this purpose it is vastly inferior to acetic
ether. See SPIRITS (Medicinal).
Ethyl, (Enanthate of. Sym. (ENANTHIC
ETHER, PELARGONIC ETHER, (ENANTHATE OF
OxIDE OF ETHYL. Prep. 1. The oil obtained
towards the end of the distillation of fermented
liquors, especially wines, consists, in a great
measure, of the crude ether. It is purified by
agitation with a weak solution of carbonate of
potassa, freed from water by a few fragments
of chloride of calcium, and then re-distilled.
Prop., &c. (Emanthic ether is colourless;
lighter than water; boils at about 500°Fahr.;
and has a powerful intoxicating vinous odour,
resembling that of an empty wine cask or
bottle that has been exposed to the air for
Some time. It is very sparingly soluble in
Water, but freely soluble in alcohol. Its sp. gr.
is 862. As obtained by distillation, it is
united with a little CENANTHIC ACID. 2200
imperial gallons of wine (about 35 hogsheads)
only yielded 24 lbs. of the mixed oil.
Ethyl, Oxalate of. (CºHº),C>0. Syn. OXALIC
ETHER, OXALATE OF OXIDE OF ETHYL.; AETHER
OXALICUS, L. Prep. Alcohol and dry oxalic acid,
equal parts, are digested together in a glass
flask furnished with a very long glass tube of
small bore, so that the spirit, volatilised by the
heat, may be condensed, and flow back into
the flask. After 6 or 8 hours the process is
generally complete, and the liquid contains
merely a trace of free acid, from which it may
be separated.
Prop., &c. A colourless, oily liquid, slightly
heavier than water, boiling at 363° Fahr.,
Only slightly soluble in water, and having an
aromatic smell. Alkalies decompose it. Sp.
gr. 1:09.
Ethyl, Sulphate of: (C5H5)2SO4.
Prep. The vapour of pure anhydrous sul-
phuric acid is passed (with the usual precau-
tions) into perfectly anhydrous ether; the re-
sulting syrupy liquid is agitated with a mixture
of 4 volumes of water, and 1 volume of ether,
and after repose the upper stratum, which is
an ethereal solution of the sulphate of ethyl,
is decanted, and the oxide of ethyl volatilised
by a very gentle heat. The colourless liquid
forming the residuum is the true sulphuric
ether or sulphate of ethyl just referred to. It
is a very unstable compound, and cannot be
distilled without suffering decomposition,
Ethyl, Valerianate of. C.H.C.H.0, Syn.
WALERLANTC ETHER, WALERATE OF OXIDE OF
ETHYL.; ABTHER VALERIANICUs, L. Prep. By
passing dry hydrochloric acid gas into an alco-
holic solution of valeric acid. It is a fragrant,
volatile liquid, lighter than water, having a high
boiling-point, and a rich fruity odour, said to
closely resemble that of butyric ether or pine-
apple oil. It is used to flavour liqueurs, &c.
ETHYL'AMINE, NH3(C.H.). Syn. ETHYL-
AMMONIA. One of the bases of the ethyl-series,
obtained by substituting one atom of hydrogen
in ammonia NH3 by ethyl C3H5.
EUCALYPTIN. A peculiar substance ex-
isting in Botany Bay kino. It has been em-
ployed medicinally in diarrhoea.
EUCHI,0"RINE. A bright-yellow gas, pre-
pared by gently heating chlorate of potassa
with hydrochloric acid. It is probably a mix-
ture of chlorous acid and free chlorine.
EUPHOR/BIUM. Syn. GUMEUPHORBIUM ;
EUPHORBIUM (Ph. E.), L. The concrete resi-
nous juice of the Euphorbia canariensis, and
other species of the same genus. It is a pow-
erful acrid, purgative, rubefacient, sternu-
tatory, and vesicant, and the violence of its
action has led to its disuse.
EU'PIONE. An ethereal liquid forming the
chief portion of the light oil of wood-tar, and
which also exists in the tar obtained during
the destructive distillation of animal substances,
and in the fluid product of the distillation of
rape oil. It is separated from these sub-
stances by agitating them with oil of vitriol,
or a mixture of oil of vitriol and mitre, and
subsequent cautious distillation. Pure eupione
is tasteless, exceedingly thin, limpid, and
aromatic ; boils at 116° Fahr.; and is the
lightest fluid known; sp. gr. 655. It is
very inflammable, burns with a very bright
flame, and gives a transient greasy stain to
paper. It is isomeric with hydride of amyl.
Other volatile hydrocarbons of like origin are
often confounded with eupione by chemical
writers.
EUPYR/ION. Any contrivance for obtain-
ing instantaneous light; as a lucifer match,
&c.
EVAC/UANTS. Syn. EVACUANTIA, L. Me-
dicines which augment the secretions or excre-
tions. CATHARTICS, DIAPHORETICS, DIURET-
ICS, EMETICS, ERREIINES, EXPECTORANTS, and
SIALOGOGUES, belong to this class.
EWAPORATION. The conversion of a fluid
into vapour by means of heat, diminished
atmospheric pressure, or exposure to a dry
atmosphere. Evaporation is had recourse to
—1. For the vapour as a source of heat or
power, as in the case of steam-boilers, &c.;
–2. To separate volatile fluids from impurities
or other bodies, which are either fixed or less
volatile;—3. To recover solid bodies from their
solutions, as in the preparation of extracts,
chemical salts, &c.;-4. To concentrate or
strengthen a solution by the expulsion of some
of the fluid matter that forms the menstruum ;




476
EXCIPIENT—EXCORIATIONS.
—5. To purify liquids by the dissipation of
the volatile matters which may contaminate
them. -
It is found that, under ordinary circum-
stances, evaporation is confined to the surface
of the heated liquid, and is therefore slower or
quicker, in proportion to the extension of that
surface. Hence has arisen the adoption of
wide, shallow vessels for containing fluids during
their exposure to heat for this purpose. Eva-
poration proceeds most rapidly when a current
of air (especially hot and dry air) is made to
pass over the surface of the fluid ; as, in this
case, the vapour is prevented resting upon the
surface, and impeding the process by its pres-
sure. For a similar reason, liquids evaporate
more rapidly in vessels partially covered than
in open ones. In the former case the cool in-
cumbent air condenses and throws back a
portion of the vapour, which thereupon, be-
sides its cooling action, offers mechanical re-
sistance to the diffusion of the vaporous par-
ticles as they arrive at the surface of the
liquid. In the latter case these obstacles are
avoided, and the impetus of the vapour pour-
ing forth from a contracted orifice (or pipe),
not only readily overcomes the pressure of the
atmosphere, but offers less surface for its
cooling action, until it has passed much be-
yond the points at which it can exert any
influence on the fluid from which it has es-
caped. In this way the chemical action of the
atmosphere on the liquid operated on is also
considerably lessened. On the small scale,
shallow capsules of glass, wedgwood-ware,
porcelain, or metal, are commonly employed
as evaporating vessels, and these are exposed
to heat by placing them over a lamp, or
naked fire, or in a water bath, or sand bath,
according to the temperature at which it is
proper to conduct the process. On the large
scale, high-pressure steam is usually employed
as the source of heat. The term ‘spontaneous
evaporation * is applied to the dissipation of a
fluid by mere exposure in open vessels, at the
common temperature of the atmosphere, and
without the application of artificial heat. The
celerity of this species of evaporation wholly
depends on the degree of humidity of the sur-
rounding air, and differs from the former, in
which the rate of evaporation is proportionate
to the degree of heat at which the process is
conducted, and the amount of pressure upon
the surface of the liquid. Evaporation ‘in
vacuo' (as it is called) is conducted under the
receiver of an air-pump, or in an attenuated
atmosphere, produced by filling a vessel with
steam, by which means the air is expelled,
when all communication with the external
atmosphere is cut off, and the vapour con-
densed by the application of cold. Fluids are
also evaporated in air-tight receivers over
sulphuric acid, by which they are continually
exposed to the action of a very dry atmo-
sphere. When such a receiver is connected
with an air-pump in action, evaporation pro-
ceeds with increased rapidity, and intense cold
is produced. It appears, from the experi-
ments of Dr. Ure, that “if the bottom of a
pan, and the portion of the sides immersed in
a hot fluid medium (solution of chloride of
calcium, for example), be corrugated, so as to
contain a double expanse of metallic surface,
that pan will evaporate exactly double the
quantity of water, in a given time, which a
like pan, with smooth bottom and sides, will
do, immersed equally deep in the same bath,
If the corrugation contain three times the
quantity of metallic surface, the evaporation
will be threefold in the above circumstances,
But if the pan, with the same corrugated
bottom and sides, be set over a fire, or in an
oblong flue, so that the current of flame may
sweep along the corrugations, it will evapo.
rate no more water from its interior than a
smooth pan of like shape and dimensions placed
alongside it in the same flue, or over the same
fire.”
In the laboratory, steam heat is now almost
exclusively employed. Copper, or tinned,
glazed, or silvered coppered pans, boilers, and
stills, are surrounded by a jacket' of cast iron,
and high-pressure steam admitted between
the two. By due management of the supply.
cock, a range of temperature may be thus
obtained extending from about 90° to 325°
Fahr.
It is found that, under ordinary circum.
stances, 10 square feet of heated surface will
evaporate fully 1 lb. of water per minute; and
that a thin copper tube exposing 10 feet Sur.
face will condense about 3 lbs. of steam per
minute, with a difference of temperature of
about 90° Fahr. This is equal to 30°Fahr,
per lb. ; and, consequently, the heat of the
steam employed to produce the evaporation
should be 212° -- 30° = 24.2° Fahr.
An attention to the facts and principles thus
briefly explained above will be found of great
value in the laboratory.
EXCIP/IENT. See PRESCRIPTION.
EXCITANTS. See STIMULANTs.
EXCORIATIONS. Syn. SPRAYS, CHARINGS,
In surgery and pathology, superficial injuries or
affections of the skin, consisting of the removal
of the scarf-skin or cuticle, accompanied with
more or less irritation and slight inflamma-
tions. When arising from rough friction or
attrition, they are more commonly called
abrasions. Young children are very apt to be
chafed under the arms, behind the ears, between
the thighs, and in the wrinkles and folds of
the skin generally, unless great attention is
paid to cleanliness, and wiping the skin per-
fectly dry after washing them. Whenever
there is a tendency to excoriations of this kind,
either in adults or children, a little finely pow-
dered starch, or violet powder, applied by means
of a puff, or a small bag of muslin, once Or
twice a day, will generally remove them, and
prevent their occurrence in future. Mild un-
guents, as cold cream, or spermaceti cerate or
EXERCISE.
47?
ointment, may also be used with advantage.
The preference should, however, be given to
the remedies first named, from their not soiling
the linen. See ABRASION.
EXERCISE is essential to the healthy per-
formance of the functions of both body and
mind, Without it, the stomach acts feebly,
the bowels become inactive, and the circulation
of the blood languid and imperfect; the chest
contracts, the respiration becomes impeded,
the brain is insufficiently supplied with pure
arterial blood, the mind grows lethargic, the
complexion assumes a sickly and effeminate
hue, and the whole features lack the energy
and expression which they possess in perfect
health. With exercise, the bodily functions
are performed with vigour and regularity, by
which the constitution is strengthened, and
the attacks of disease repelled. By exercise
the mind too is excited to healthy action, its
gloomy reveries are dispelled, and the fair face
of creation is presented to the mind's eye in its
proper hues. It robs undue mental exertion
of half its injurious effects upon the body,
whilst it stimulates and directs it in its proper
course. It improves the temper, and humanises
the character. The disposition is refined, the
passions restrained, violent emotions checked,
the habits improved, and the personal charms
promoted under the stimulus of judicious
CX01'C1S6. -
To females, bodily exercise is even more
necessary than to males. The disposition and
education of females are such as to tend to pro-
duce habits of sloth and indolence to a greater
degree than in the other sex. Hence to them
exercise is doubly important—it is inseparable
from health. The more retiring dispositions
of females lead them almost unconsciously
into habits of inactivity, which, above all, they
should endeavour to shake off and avoid. By
so doing—by replacing habits of indolence and
inactivity by liveliness and moderate exercise,
the development of the body will be promoted,
additional grace and elegance imparted to its
natural movements, and the enjoyments arising
from both mental and bodily health increased,
whilst disease and deformity will be prevented
by the removal of their cause.
The necessity of exercise exists equally in
every grade of society and age of life. Those
who are engaged in sedentary employments or
in-door occupations, should particularly seek
refreshing out-door exercise, during the periods
of relaxation from their diurnal duties. To
the studious and delicate of both sexes, this is
absolutely necessary to preserve the health and
vigour of the body.
In infancy, exercise of a suitable kind
should be almost the constant occupation of
the little beings that claim our protection and
care. It should, however, be always borne in
mind, that the muscular exercise of very young
children must be of the gentlest class. Preju-
dice and ignorance frequently induce nurses
and parents to teach their children to walk, as
they falsely call it, and thus their feeble limbs
are urged to make premature efforts to totter
along, before the bones and muscles have
acquired sufficient strength to support the
body in an erect position. From this course
the legs and joints frequently become bent and
misshapened, and severe injuries are often in-
flicted on the head and body by blows and
falls. It should never be forgotten, that
crawling and rolling are their first modes of
progression, and require the least exertion.
Next comes the sitting posture; from this the
child gradually advances to the erect one; then
to walk by slight assistance; and, lastly, to
walk safely alone. All this should come na-
turally, and never be promoted, further than
by laying the infant on the carpet or floor, for
the full exercise of its little strength. As soon
as a healthy child is able to walk instead of
crawl, its own disposition induces it to do so.
The faculty of imitation, the spirit of enter-
prise, and the pride of doing what others do,
present even in infancy, is rather apt to lead
the infant to over-exertion than the contrary.
The practice of constantly ‘dolling’ children
in the arms is most prejudicial to the early
development of their feeble powers.
In childhood the exercise should be regu-'
lated according to the constitution and age of
the parties; avoiding inactivity, on the one
hand, and excessive exercise on the other. The
out-door plays and pastimes of BOYS will
generally be found sufficient, and in some cases
will even require to be curbed, to prevent
fatigue and the overtasking of the young
frame. With girls, it is frequently difficult
to find sufficient exercise without trespassing
on the prejudices of the ignorant, or the rou-
time of their daily education. With them,
walking, and some healthy amusement, as
skipping, hooping, or the like, should be indulged
in for some hours daily. When this is impos-
sible or inconvenient, they may be habituated
to the practice of the more simply and cleanly
portion of the domestic duties. In the per-
formance of the latter, the health will be pro-
moted, whilst the care and attention which is
always due by a female to herself and others,
at all periods of her life, will become an easy
acquisition, and assist the cultivation of the
best feelings of her nature.
In youth exercise matures and promotes
the development of the frame; and in man-
hood it is equally necessary, as already no-
ticed, to keep it in healthy action. In age it
will be found to assist the vital functions, and
put off decay. In fact, to all—young, old,
rich, and poor, physical exercise is essential to
the permanent enjoyment of health.
In a medical point of view, “exercise, em-
ployed moderately, has a tonic and stimulating
influence on the system, and is calculated to
prove beneficial in a great variety of com-
plaints. Used immoderately, it exhausts both
the mental and bodily powers, and produces
great debility.” (Pereira.) Well-directed ex-


478
EXPANSION.—EXPERIMENTS.
ercise favours the preservation of the general
health, by calling into direct action the ma-
jority of the organs of the body; and it also
acts powerfully on the skin, by stimulating its
functions, increasing its temperature, awaken-
ing its tone, and subjecting it to a current of
atmosphere favorable to its respiratory offices.
But to be beneficial in the highest degree, ex-
ercise must be accompanied by feelings of pre-
sent interest and enjoyment. The mind must
direct and go with it ; to ensure its full bene-
fits, the “soul must be present.”
“During convalescence, properly regulated
exertion is highly serviceable; but it should
never be carried so far as to produce exhaus-
tion, and should be pursued for some time in
doors, before it be attempted in the open air;
the latter, at first, should always take place in
a carriage, that can be opened or closed at
will; the patient may then attempt short
walks in the open air; but, in all cases, it is of
importance that he is not unduly fatigued, as,
otherwise, injury instead of benefit will be the
result. One of the most serious errors, com-
mitted with regard to exertion, is that of per-
mitting a convalescent to sit up too frequently,
or for too long a time, under the mistaken no-
tion of giving him strength. A patient should
never be allowed to sit up longer than is agree-
able to his feelings, and never so long as to
produce a sense of fatigue.” (Dr. R. E.
Griffith.)
EXPAN'SION. All substances, solid, liquid,
and gaseous, when chemical change does not
take place, expand by heat, and contract by
cold. In some of them this property occurs
in a greater degree than in others, but is con-
stant for the same substance under the same
circumstances. The chemist avails himself of
this property in the construction of his ther-
mometer; the wheelwright, in fixing on the
tire of his wheels; the engineer, in restoring
to the perpendicular the leaning walls of
buildings; &c.
This expansion by heat is of great import-
ance in the manufactures, as allowance has to
be made of it in every purpose where metals
are employed.
The following is a list of the expansion of
the chief metals, &c., when heated from 32° to
212 Fahr, or from 0° to 100° Cent:-
Substance. Evpansion.
In bulk. In length,
Glass . . 1 in 384 1 in 1150
Platinum . 1 , 377 . 1 , 1311
Steel . . 1 , 309 . 1 ,, 926
Iron . . . 1 , 282 1 , 846
Gold . 1 , 227 1 , 682
Copper . 1 , 194 1 , 582
Brass . . 1. , 179 I , 536
Silver . . 1 , 175 1 , 524
Tin . . 1 , 172 1 , 516
Lead . . 1 , 117 . 1 , 351
Zinc . . 1 , 113 . 1 , 340
Of the liquids, they expand as follows, when
heated from 0° to 100° Cent, or from 32° to
212° Fahr :—
Mercury . . . 1 in 55 in bulk
Water . • 1 » 21 25 25
Gases practically all expand alike; that is to
say, for every degree Fahrenheit a gas ex-
pands fºr of its bulk at 32°, and for every
degree Centigrade #5 of their volume at
0° C.
An example will show the importance of
this. Suppose an iron bar, connecting two
sides of a building, and of a length of about 85
feet. The increase in length by heat of this
bar would make it 1 inch longer in Summer
than in winter; and it would, if no allowance
be made, pull or thrust the walls to this extent
each year.
EXPECTORANTS, Syn. ExPECTORANTIA,
I. Medicines that promote the secretion of
the trachial and bronchial mucus. According
to Dr. Good, true expectorants are “those
medicines which rather promote the separation
of the viscid phlegm with which the bronchiæ
are loaded, than simply inviscate and dilute
it ; though these are also treated as expectſ.
rants by many writers.” Ammoniacum, anti.
monials, assafoetida, the balsams of Peru and
tolu, benzoic acid, benzoin ; the fumes of vine.
gar, tar, and several of the volatile oils; garlic,
ipecacuanha, the oleo-resins, squills, tartarised
antimony, and the smoke of tobacco and stra.
monium, are among the principal substances
commonly called expectorants. Tartarised
antimony, squills, chlorine, and ammoniacal
gases, have also been used (diluted) to provoke
the coughing and favour the expulsion of
foreign bodies from the air-passages; and alsº
to favour the expectoration of mucus, pus, and
membranous concretions, when the localirrità.
tion is not sufficiently great. (Schwilgue)
Expectorants are commonly employed in pul:
monary complaints and affections of the air.
tubes, attended by a vitiated state of the
mucus, or an imperfect performance of the
natural functions of the secretory vessels,
“Of all classes of the materia medica, none
are more uncertain in their action than expeſ.
torants.” (Pereira.) The act of ejecting
matter from the chest is called EXPECTORA.
TION.
EXPER/IMENTS are acts or operations
intended to develop some unknown fact, prin.
ciple, or effect; or to establish or demonstrate
it, when discovered. Similar operations, për.
formed merely for amusement, are also often,
though incorrectly, called by this name. In
rational experiments these two objects are
combined. To experimental research is due
the present high state of advancement and
usefulness of the various sciences most inti.
mately connected with our happiness and well.
being. The danger of taking things for
granted has been thus pleasantly and instrut:
tively pointed out by Archbishop Whateley:-
“It was objected to the system of Coper.
EXPORTATION.—EXTRACT. 479
nicus, when first brought forward, that if the
earth turned on its axis, as he represented, a
stone dropped from the summit of a tower
would not fall at the foot of it, but at a great
distance to the west ; in the same manner as a
stone dropped from the masthead of a ship in
full sail does not fall at the foot of the mast,
but towards the stern. To this it was answered,
that a stone, being a part of the earth, obeys
the same laws, and moves with it ; whereas it
is no part of the ship, of which, consequently,
its motion is independent. The solution was
admitted by some, but opposed by others;
and the controversy went on with spirit; nor
was it till one hundred years after the death
of Copernicus that, the experiment being tried,
it was ascertained that the stone, thus dropped
from the head of the mast, does fall at the
foot of it.”
EXPORTATION. (EXPORTATION ON DRAW-
BACK.) By law, a certain allowance, or draw-
back of duty, is payable on certain articles,
when exported from any part of the United
Kingdom, either as merchandise or ship stores.
Thus:—
SUGAR, refined in the United Kingdom, from
48, to 6s, per cwt., according to quality.
TOBACCO, manufactured in the United
Kingdom, 3s. 3d. per lb. The full drawback
is only allowed on normal tobacco, which con-
tains 13 per cent. of moisture. If the moisture
exceeds 13 per cent., a proportionate reduction
is made in the drawback ; if it is found less
than 13 per cent, a proportionate increase is
granted.
SNUFF is entitled to drawback at 3s. 3d.
per lb., subject, however, to an increase, if the
moisture is less than 13 per cent., and the in-
organic matter not over 18 per cent, and to a
decrease, if the moisture in organic matter
exceeds these per-centages.,
BEER. The amount of this drawback is
proportional to the quantity of malt or sugar
used in the brewing of the beer, and is nearly
equivalent to the duty originally paid on such
malt or sugar. It is computed according to
the following scale:–For every barrel, or 36
gallons of beer, the original gravity of which
was not less than 1040°; a drawback of 4s. 3d.,
and for every additional 5 degrees, from 1040°
to 1125° inclusive, a further sum of 6d. per
barrel.
SOLIDIFIED WORTS, made by a licensed
brewer, from malt or sugar, or malt and sugar,
a drawback of 2s. 10+}rd. per 28 lbs.
MALT. Under certain restrictions, a draw-
back of the duty charged, after deducting 7%
per cent. of the measured quantity.
SPIRITS, from 10s. to 10s. 3d. per proof
gallon.
In all cases samples are taken by the Custom
House officer, and forwarded to the Inland
Revenue laboratory, where they are examined
previous to the payment of the drawback.
EXPRESSION. In the useful arts, the me-
chanical operation by which a fluid contained
in the pores or cells of a solid is pressed out or
expelled. Many of the fluid substances em-
ployed in pharmacy and chemistry are obtained
by expression. Thus, the unctuous vegetable
oils, as those of almonds, linseed, &c., are pro-
cured by submitting these substances to pow-
erful pressure between iron plates, which are
either made warm, or the bruised seeds are
previously exposed in bags to the steam of
boiling water. The juices of fresh vegetables
are also obtained by expression. The sub-
stances are first bruised in a marble mortar,
or, on the large scale, in a mill, and imme-
diately submitted to the press, to prevent
them passing into a state of fermentation,
which would injure the quality of the product.
Fruits which contain highly flavoured or fra-
grant seeds, or which have rinds containing
essential oil, are generally deprived of them
before being sent to the press. The subacid
fruits are also allowed to lay together for
some days before pressing them, as the quantity
and quality of the product is thereby increased.
The fluid matter absorbed by the ingredients
employed in the preparation of tinctures, infu-
sions, decoctions, extracts, &c., is generally ob-
tained by powerful pressure. Expression is
also frequently had recourse to for the purpose
of obtaining solids in a state of purity, as in
the expulsion of oleine from stearine, water
from bicarbonate of soda, &c. On the small
scale, the common screw-press, or one of like
construction, is usually employed; but the
power thus obtained is insufficient to expel
the whole of a fluid diffused through the pores
of a solid. Hence has arisen the use of the
hydraulic press, which is now almost alone em-
ployed on the large scale. In all these cases
the substances are placed in bags made of
haircloth, or coarse canvas, previously to their
being submitted to pressure. For tinctures
and like pharmaceuticals, a small screw-press
(TINCTURE PRESS) made of ‘galvanised' or
tinned iron, and varying in capacity from 1
quart to several gallons, is employed.
EXSICCATION. See DESICCATION.
EXTRACT. Syn. EXTRACTUM, L. Among
chemists, this term is understood to apply to
the residuum of the evaporation of aqueous
decoctions or infusions of vegetable matter.
In medicine and pharmacy, it has a less definite
signification, being applied to various prepa-
rations obtained by evaporating the expressed
juices, or the decoctions, infusions, or tinctures
of vegetable substances, until a mass, of a solid
or semi-solid consistence, is formed. Extracts
vary in their nature and composition with the
substances from which they are prepared, and
the fluids employed as solvents. When water
is employed as the menstruum, the products
(AQUEOUS EXTRACTS, WATERY E.; EXTRACTA
AQUOSA, E, SIMPLICIORA, L.) usually consist
of gum, starch, sugar, albumen, extractive,
and saline and other matter, along with the
peculiar principles on which the medicinal
virtue of the vegetable depends. When spirit


480
iXTRACT.
is employed as the solvent, the products (AL-
COHOLIC EXTRACTS; EXTRACTA ALCOHOLICA,
L.) contain most of the substances above enu-
merated, except the gum and starch, together
with several other substances which are soluble
in spirit, but which are either wholly or nearly
insoluble in water; as resins, essential oils, and
the proximate principles of vegetables. These
preparations, with scarcely an exception, are
considerably more powerful than the aqueous
extracts of the same vegetables. In some
cases proof spirit or under-proof spirit is em-
ployed, when the extracts (SPIRITUOUS Ex-
TRACTS; EXTRACTA SPIRITUOSA, L.) generally
possess properties between those of the above.
In other cases, dilute acetic acid or acidulated
water is employed as the menstruum, when
the products (ACETIC EXTRACTS; EXTRACTA
ACETICA, L.) possess much greater activity
than when prepared with water; and would
in many cases prove fatal, if exhibited in doses
as large as those of the aqueous extracts. Still
more active extracts are obtained by a com-
bination of the last two menstrua. According
to Ferrari, plants treated with rectified spirit
of wine, mixed with ºth part of acetic acid,
yield extracts of remarkable activity. On the
Continent, ether is sometimes used as the men-
struum for the active principles of certain sub-
stances, as cantharides, cubebs, worm-seed, &c.
(ETHEREAL EXTRACTS; EXTRACTA ETHEREA,
L.). The term “simple extract’ is applied
to an extract prepared from a single plant or
vegetable substance, and the term ‘compound
extract ' to one prepared from two or more
of such substances. The FLUID EXTRACTS
(EXTRACTA FIUIDA, L.) of modern pharmacy
are those which are only evaporated to the
consistence of a thin syrup, and then mixed
with 1-10th to 1-8th of their volume of recti-
fied spirit.
Prep. The preparation of medicinal extracts
may be conveniently considered under two
divisions, viz. –1. The production of a solu-
tion of the soluble portion of the substances
operated on; and, 2. The reduction of this
solution by evaporation to the consistence of
an extract.
I. PREPARATION OF SOLUTIONS:-The pre-
liminary operations in the manufacture of ex-
tracts are similar to those employed in the
preparation of DECOCTIONS, INFUSIONS, and
TINCTURES. The proper quantity of the in-
gredients being taken, the whole is well bruised
or reduced to coarse powder, or otherwise
divided by slicing with a knife, that every por-
tion may be fully exposed to the solvent action
of the fluid. In some few cases (as with gen-
tian, &c.) the “slicing,” or reduction to frag-
ments, is often conveniently deferred until
the action of the menstruum shall have so far
softened the ingredients as to render them of
easy division by the knife. Those substances
(as Sarsaparilla, chamomiles, &c.) whose medi-
cinal principles reside in the cortical portion,
or which are of easy solubility, are commonly
subjected to the action of the menstruttii,
without being subjected to any particular pre-
paration.
In the preparation of AQUEOUS EXTRACTS,
the ingredients are treated with water until all
the soluble matter that it is desirable to obtain
is dissolved out. There are several methods
of effecting this object, depending upon the
mature of the substances acted on. In some
cases, maceration in cold water is resorted to;
in others, percolation with that fluid in a
‘displacement apparatus.” More generally,
however, boiling water is poured on the sub-
stance, and is digested on it for some time, as
in the preparation of infusions; or the sub-
stance is exhausted by boiling it in water, as
in the preparation of decoctions. After the
ebullition or infusion has continued a sufficient
time, the heat is removed, and the liquid por.
tion drawn off. The ingredients are then
pressed to extract the remaining liquid; Or
they are washed or ‘sparged’ with hot water,
which expels it by displacement. According
to the usual practice in the majority of cases,
a second quantity of water is poured on after
the first has been thoroughly drained off, and
the infusion or decoction is repeated a second
and even a third time, or until the ingredients
are perfectly exhausted of their soluble portion,
The liquor or liquors thus obtained being
allowed to repose for 15 or 20 minutes, for the
purpose of depositing the sand or other gritty
and heavy matter that is mechanically mixed
with them, are carefully decanted from the
sediment, and, after being run through a
fine hair-sieve, or flannel bag, are ready for
concentration. In some instances, however,
this method proves insufficient to render the
liquid clear. In such cases, the solution may
generally be rendered transparent by clarifica.
tion with a little white of egg, removing the
scum as it rises, straining the liquid through
flannel, as before; or the liquid may be filtered
through a bag made of fine ‘Welsh flannel, or
of ‘tweeled cotton cloth’ (Canton flannel), both
of which should be soaked in clean water for
at least an hour before use. In the small way,
filters of linen or paper are sometimes em.
ployed; but as all media sufficiently fine to
render vegetable solutions transparent S00m
choke up, this filtration is objectionable, from
the length of time it occupies. In some houses,
the aqueous infusion or decoction is allowed to
repose for 24 hours, and then decanted and
evaporated; but such a plan is objectionable,
as, however smooth and glossy extracts so pre-
pared may appear, their medicinal virtues are
lessened by the lengthened exposure to the
atmosphere.
When about one half of an aqueous solution
has evaporated, it is often advantageous to
repass it through a flannel or horsehair
strainer, to remove the flocculi that generally
form by the action of the heat and air. This
is especially necessary with vegetable solutions
prepared without boiling, and should be


EXTRACT,
481
adopted whenever a smooth and sightly ex-
tract is desired.
II. REDUCTION OF SOLUTIONS:—The reduc-
tion of the solution to the proper consistence is
effected by evaporation. The mode in which
this is performed varies for different extracts.
The London College directs that, “unless
otherwise ordered, the evaporation should be
Conducted as quickly as possible, in a broad,
shallow pan, placed in a water bath, until
a proper consistence is acquired for forming
pills; stirring assiduously with a spatula to-
wards the end of the operation.” The Dublin
College orders that “all simple (aqueous) ex-
tracts (EXTRACTA SIMPLICIORA), unless other-
wise ordered, are to be prepared by boiling the
vegetable matter in 8 times its weight of water,
till the liquid is reduced to one half; the liquor
is then to be expressed, and, after a short time
allowed for defecation, to be decanted, filtered,
and evaporated in a steam or water bath, until
it begins to thicken, and then finally inspis-
Sated by a reduced heat, with continual stir-
ring, until a consistence for forming pills be
attained.” The instructions of the Edinburgh
College are similar, with the one important
exception, however, of ordering the evapora-
tion to be conducted in a water bath saturated
with chloride of sodium.
Though the water bath has the sanction of
the London College, it is ill adapted for the
purpose to which it is here ordered to be ap-
plied, as, from its low evaporative power, the
advantages which are derived from its equable
temperature are vastly overbalanced by the
lengthened exposure of the solution in a heated
state to the action of the atmosphere. It has
been shown that a vegetable extract so pre-
pared is inferior in quality to a similar one
formed by rapid evaporation in a shallow pan
Over a naked fire, or placed in a sand bath,
provided proper care is taken, and assiduous
stirring is adopted during the whole time of
the exposure to heat. In practice, however,
the use of a naked fire is perfectly inadmissible,
as the least neglect on the part of the operator
would probably lead to the incineration of the
whole. These objections are obviated by the
addition of the ºth part of salt to the water of
the bath, which raises its boiling-point to 2.18%
Fahr., when the temperature of the contained
extract is fully 212°; the remaining 6° being
lost by the interposition of the substance of
the evaporating vessel.
ON THE LARGE SCALE, the evaporation of
infusions or decoctions for extracts is usually
conducted in very wide, shallow, copper or
tinned-copper pans, having steam-tight jackets
of cast iron, and heated by steam playing'
between the two.
The rapid deterioration which vegetable
juices and solutions undergo by exposure to the
air, especially at high temperatures, has led to
the introduction of apparatus, by which they
may be concentrated without contact with the
atmosphere, and at a less degree of heat than
is required for that purpose in open vessels.
Such is the method, commonly called ‘Barry’s
process,’ in which the air is removed from cer-
tain air-tight refrigerators by the introduction
of steam, which is then condensed by the appli-
cation of cold, by which means a partial vacuum
is obtained. Another process for attenuating
the atmosphere over the surface of fluids dur-
ing evaporation is by the action of an air-
pump. This plan was introduced by Howard,
and is commonly applied to the concentration
of syrups in the sugar refineries. Extracts
obtained by either of these methods are said to
be prepared ‘in vacuo,’ and are found in prac-
tice to be immensely superior to the common
extracts of the shops, and consequently re-
quire to be exhibited in proportionably small
doses.
Obs. When water, acidulated with acetic acid,
is employed in the preparation of extracts, the
vegetable substances are usually macerated in
it, in the cold, or the dilute acid is sprinkled
over the bruised plant in the fresh or recent
state, and the whole is then submitted to
strong pressure, to expel the juice, which is
strained and evaporated in the usual way, but
preferably in a well-tinned or plated-copper
pan.
ALCOHOLIC and SPIRITUOUS EXTRACTS are
prepared by evaporating a filtered concen-
trated tincture of the ingredients in any suit-
able vessel, by which the volatilized spirit may
be saved. In general, rectified spirit is used
as the menstruum; but in some cases proof
spirit is employed; and, in others, the sub-
stances are first digested in proof spirit, and
afterwards in water, and the mixed tincture
and infusion evaporated in the usual manner.
ETHEREAL EXTRACTS are obtained in a si-
milar manner to alcoholic ones; but being
merely prepared in small quantities at a time,
the process may be conveniently performed in
glass vessels. When it is required to boil
either of the above fluids (alcoholic or ethe-
real), or any other volatile liquid on the in-
gredients, a vessel fitted with a long tube, or a
Liebig’s condenser reversed, as noticed under
ether, may be used to prevent any loss of the
menstruum.
The INSPISSATED VEGETABLE JUICES (JUICES,
E.; SUCCI, L.) of the British Pharmacopoeia
are obtained by expressing the juices from the
fresh plants, and preserving them by the ad-
dition of spirit. “By thus preserving the
juice of the plant its properties are not im-
paired by the action of the air during the time
necessary to dry the leaf for tincture, nor by
the action of both air and heat during the
time necessary to evaporate the juice to the
consistence of an extract.”—Squire. The di-
rections of the Edinburgh College for pre-
paring their inspissated juices (SUCCI SPIS-
SATI, L.) are—“Beat the fresh substance,
and press it strongly through a canvas
bag, in order to obtain the juice; which,
being put into a wide, shallow vessel, and


31
482
EXTRACT.
heated by means of boiling water saturated
with sea-salt, is to be reduced to the consis-
tence of honey. The mass, when cold, is
to be put into glazed earthen vessels, and
moistened with strong alcohol.” By ope-
rating in this way a considerable portion of
the activity of narcotic vegetables is lost.
Some of their juices, as that of aconite, are
impaired in so short a time as scarcely to com-
pensate for the trouble of preparing them.
This deterioration does not, however, take
place in any remarkable degree, if the ex-
pressed juice from the recent vegetable be
evaporated by exposing it in a thin stratum to
a current of very dry air, as adopted by Mr.
Squire. This may be managed by putting
the juice into small, flat trays or dishes,
placed on shelves in a suitably arranged appa-
ratus, alternated with similar vessels of con-
centrated sulphuric acid; or by causing a
current of very dry air, at the common tem-
perature of the atmosphere, to pass over them.
It has been shown that 10 grs. of extract, thus
prepared, were more than equal to 20 grs. pre-
pared in vacuo ; and to more than 60 grs., and,
in some cases, 90 grs., of those prepared by the
common process of boiling down the juice to
an extract.
The concluding portion of the process of
extract-making, technically termed ‘finishing-
off,” requires the most scrupulous attention.
As the evaporation advances, the heat should
be lessened, and as soon as the extract acquires
the consistence of thick treacle it should be
removed altogether, and the remainder of
fluid matter evaporated by the heat retained
by the copper pan, the escape of vapour being
promoted by assiduous and laborious stirring
with a suitably shaped wooden spatula. This
part of the process should be continued until
a proper consistence is attaiſed and the
extract is nearly cold. When high-pressure
steam or a chloride of calcium bath is employed,
care must be taken to withdraw the heat
before stirring the semi-liquid mass; as, if an
extract having a temperature of about the
boiling-point of water, or even a few degrees
below it, is agitated, it becomes full of bubbles,
and appears rough and puffy, and this appear-
ance cannot be removed by subsequent stir-
ring, or by any method but redissolving it in
water and re-evaporation. This is especially
the case with the extracts of sarsaparilla (sim-
ple and compound), gentian, liquorice, and
most others of a similar class. A good labo-
ratory man knows from experience the proper
time for the removal of the heat, but unprac-
tised persons often fail in this particular. In
such cases, should the heat retained by the
evaporating pan, and by the extract, prove
insufficient to complete the process, a little
more may be cautiously applied. Withou?
assiduous and laborious stirring in the way
described, a very smooth and glossy extract
cannot be produced. To promote this artificial
appearance, some persons add 3} or 4% each of
olive oil and gum arabic, dissolved in water,
with about 1% or 2% of spirit of wine.
The consistence of the ordinary extracts of
the shops is the same as that of electuaries
and confections, and is described in the Ph. E.
as equal to that “ of thick honey.” The in-
structions of the Ph. L. and D., to evaporate
the mass “until it acquires a consistence proper
for making pills,” except in 2 or 3 cases (as
Fact. Colocynth. Comp., &c.), is not adopted,
and, indeed, would be found inconvenient in
practice. Extracts evaporated to such a con-
sistence are commonly termed ‘pilular ex-
tracts; and when evaporated so that they
are quite dry, and brittle when cold, they are
called ‘hard extracts (EXTRACTA DURA, L.).
Pres. Extracts should be put into pots as
soon as taken from the pan, and, after being
carefully and securely tied over with bladder,
should be ‘stored in a dry situation. The
London College orders “a small quantity of
rectified spirit to be sprinkled upon all the
softer extracts, to prevent them becoming
mouldy.” A better way is to employ a little
spirit, noiding in solution a few drops of oil of
cloves, or a still less quantity of creasote. This
should be added to them the last thing before
removing them from the evaporating pan, and
when they are nearly cold. The same object
is effected by moistening the inside of the
bladder (used to tie them over) with a few
drops of oil of cloves or creasote. Hard ex-
tracts should be kept in bladders or gut skins,
placed in stone pots, and well covered over.
With care, extracts prepared from recent ve-
getable substances may be preserved twelve
months, or from season to season; and those
from dry ingredients, or such as are less in-
clined to spoil, for perhaps double that time;
but beyond these periods their virtues cannot
be relied on, and they should consequently be
disearded, if remaining unused or unsold.
Pur., &c. The quality of an extract cannot
be ascertained by mere inspection, nor is it
readily discovered by chemical tests. A know-
ledge of these facts has induced the merce-
nary and fraudulent manufacturer to employ
damaged and inferior drugs in their prepara-
tion, alike regardless of the welfare of the
patient and the credit of the practitioner. A
common practice with some manufacturers is,
not only to pick out the least expensive variety
of every drug for the preparation of their
extracts, but the most inferior and often
damaged and worthless portion of this already
inferior article. The production of a smooth,
bright, and glossy extract is all that is usually
attempted by these individuals, and all that
is sought after by the mass of purchasers, who
mistake the simulation of the mere external
signs of good quality for its actual existence.
It is a fact, which we can verify from extensive
experience in the laboratory, and from years
of practical observation on this point, that
extracts faithfully prepared from good ma-
terials do not possess the sightly and pleasing

s
EXTRACT, 483
appearance of those commonly vended by the
wholesale druggists. On comparing the ex-
tracts prepared by different metropolitan
houses, we have found that those which have
exhibited a remarkably bright and glossy ap-
pearance have been uniformly inferior, and
sometimes nearly inert ; whilst others, with a
less prepossessing appearance, have been gene-
rally of good quality. These facts are well es-
tablished by reference to the extracts of those
houses and institutions that are remarkable
for the superior quality of their preparations,
and by comparing them with the common
extracts of the shops supplied by the whole-
sale trade.
A good extract should be—1. Free from
grit, and wholly soluble in 20 parts of the
menstruum employed in its preparation, form-
ing a nearly clear solution.—2. It should have
a uniform texture and colour, and be of a
proper consistence.—3. If a narcotic or active
extract, it may be exhibited in proper doses,
and its effects watched. Its activity may also
be tested on any small animal.-4. An assay
for the proximate vegetable principle (alkaloid,
&c.) contained in the plant from which it has
been prepared may be made. The extracts
prepared from the expressed juices of plants,
without straining off the coagulated albumen,
are, of course, exceptions to the first test. Un-
fortunately, these tests are not always easily
performed, and the last two are inapplicable
to those extracts that exercise no very marked
physiological action, unless when taken in re-
peated doses, long continued. This want of a
ready means of accurately testing the qualities
of extracts has enabled the fraudulent manu-
facturer to sell inferior articles with impunity,
and often without the least fear or danger of
detection.
In general, an extract more than six months
old contains only half the activity of a similar
one newly made. When more than twelve
months old they should be rejected as worth-
less, and the stock renewed.
Uses, &c. The extracts of the shops are
generally acknowledged to be the most vary-
ing, imperfect, and uncertain class of medi-
cines belonging to modern pharmacy. They
are mostly used in the same cases as the
plants from which they are prepared, but in
Smaller doses.
Concluding remarks. In the preparation of
extracts the great desiderata to be aimed at
are—to suit the menstrua and the methods of
manipulating to the peculiar characteristics of
the active constituents of the vegetable sub-
stances operated on. The pharmaceutist should
always bear in mind that a perfect extract
should be a concentrated, solid mass, repre-
senting, as near as possible, in medicinal effi-
cacy, the materials from which it has been pre-
pared, and capable of being redissolved, so as
to form a solution closely resembling that from
which it has been derived. An extract pos-
Sessing equal strength to the whole mass of the
ingredients from which it has been prepared is
almost next to an impossibility, however de-
sirable such a degree of perfection may be.
The medicinal properties of all solutions of
vegetable matter are injured by being reduced
to the solid state; and this deterioration, more
or less, takes place, whether the solvent be
water, acetic acid, proof spirit, or alcohol. The
volatile portions (the essential oils, the aroma,
&c.) are nearly or wholly dissipated; and
though these do not always form the principal
or active ingredients of the vegetables from
which extracts are prepared, yet they generally
exercise a modifying and controlling influence
over the other ingredients, which considerably
alters their therapeutical action. The loss of
aroma may often be a trifling deficiency, but in
the extracts of aconite, henbane, hemlock,
belladonna, and other narcotic plants, this is
not the case. In these cases it is well known
that the inert preparations are wholly deficient
of the odour of the recent plant, and that in
proportion as the odour is developed, so is their
activity preserved. The powerful smell of the
recently expressed juice of hemlock, with the
scarcely perceptible odour of the extract
(EXTRACTUM CONII, Ph. L.), offers an excellent
example of this fact. The dose of the one
often reaches 20 or 30 gr., whilst that of the
other seldom exceeds 5 or 10 drops, or a por-
tion equivalent in dry ingredients to consi-
derably less than ; gr.
When extracts are ordered in prescriptions,
those of the ‘Pharmacopoeia' should be alone
employed by the dispenser, as the substitution
of others for them would not only be violating
faith with the prescriber, but might also pro-
duce consequences alike injurious to the dis-
penser and the patient. Many medical gentle-
men prefer extracts prepared by particular pro-
cesses or persons, but such intention is always
indicated in their prescriptions.
Extract of Ac'onite. Syn. EXTRACT OF
WOLFSBANE, E. OF MONKSHOOD, INSPISSATED
JUICE OF ACONITE ; EXTRACTUM ACQNITI
(B. P., Ph. L. E. & U. S.), SUCCUs SPISSATUS
AcONITI (Ph.D. 1826), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.)
Take 112 lbs. of the fresh leaves and flowering
tops, bruise them, press out the juice, heat it
gradually to 130°F., and separate the green
matter by a calico filter. Heat the strained
liquor to 200°F. to coagulate albumen, and
again filter. Evaporate the filtrate by a water
bath to the consistence of a thin syrup; then
add to it the green colouring matter previously
separated, and stirring the whole together
assiduously, evaporate at a temperature not
exceeding 140°F. to a pill consistence.—Dose.
1 to 2 grs.
2. (Ph. L.) Take of fresh leaves of aconite,
1 lb. ; bruise them in a stone mortar, express
the juice, and evaporate it, unstrained, to a
proper consistence. The formulae of the Ph.
D. & U. S. are similar.
3. (Ph. E.) Beat the fresh leaves of aconite
to a pulp, and express the juice, then subject



484 EXTRACT.
the residuum to percolation with rectified
spirit until the latter passes through without
being materially coloured; unite the expressed
juice and the percolated tincture, filter, distil
off the spirit, and evaporate in a vapour or a
water bath to a proper consistence. Stronger
than the preceding.
Obs. A variable and uncertain preparation.
Numbness and tingling follow its application
to the limbs or tongue when it is of good qua-
lity.—Product. 1 cwt. of fresh leaves yield
between 5lbs. and 6lbs. of extract.—Prop. Ano-
dyne, sudorific, and narcotic; very poisonous-
Dose. A gr. to 2 grs, made into a pill with liquor-
ice powder; once or twice a day, in neuralgic
pains, chronic rheumatism, glandular swell-
ings, &c., gradually and cautiously increased
to 5 or 6 grs.
4. (Alcoholic; E. A. ALCOHOLICUM, L.)—a.
(P. Cod.) Aconite (in coarse powder), 1 lb.;
proof spirit, 3% lbs. (say 2; pints); proceed by
the method of displacement, and when all the
spirit has penetrated the powdered mass, keep
this covered with distilled water, until the
liquid begins to cause a precipitate in falling
into that which has previously passed through;
next distil the spirit from the tincture, and
evaporate the residuum to the proper consist-
eIlce.
b. (Ph. U. S.) Aconite 1 lb.; spirit sp.
gr. ‘935 (=13 u. p.), 1 quart, or q. S.; as
last.
c. (Ph. Baden.) From the tincture pre-
pared with rectified spirit, and by either ma-
ceration or displacement. Stronger than the
last two.
d. (Ph. Bor.) The juice is expressed from
the fresh herb, which is then sprinkled with
about 3 of its weight of water, and again
pressed ; the mixed and strained liquid is
evaporated in a vapour bath at 122° to 140°
Fahr., to about one half; to this, as soon as
cold, an equal weight of spirit (sp. gr. ‘900)
is added, and after frequent agitation for 24
hours, the whole is filtered, with pressure; the
marc is treated with fresh spirit (equal to
about 1-4th that first used) and again pressed;
the mixed liquors are next filtered, and are,
lastly, evaporated, as before, to the proper con-
sistence.
Obs. Resembles the simple extract, but is
much more powerful. It has been exhibited
internally in the form of pills, and used ex-
ternally, combined with ointment or spread on
simple plaster.—Lose. #3 to # gr. every three
hours.
5. (Ammoniated; E. A. AMMONIATUM, L.
—Dr. Turnbull.) Extract of aconite, 1 dr.;
liquor of ammonia (strongest), 10 or 12 drops;
1111X.
6. (Dried; E. A. SICCUM, L.-P. Cod.) The
expressed juice, strained through a sieve or
coarse linen, is at once, without depuration,
exposed in earthen dishes, in layers of about
2 lines deep, in a stove or current of dry air,
to a temperature ranging between 95° and 104°
Fahr., until reduced to dryness. The dried
extract is to be packed in bottles.
7. (Saccharated; E. A. SACCHARATUM, L.)
From extract of aconite (Ph. Bor.), 4 oz. ; sugar
of milk (in powder), 1 oz. ; mix, and dry the
mass in a warm place, adding sugar of milk,
q. S. to make the whole equal in weight that
of the extract used (4 oz.). An excellent pre-
paration, which keeps well. The other NAR-
COTIC EXTRACTS, as those of BELLADONNA,
HEMLOCK, HENBANE, &c., are to be treated in
a similar manner. See ACONITE, and below.
Extract of Aconite Root. Syn. EXTRACTUM
ACONITI RADICIS ALCOHOLICUM, L. Prep.
(Dr. Fleming; Dr. Turnbull.) From a tincture
of the root made with rectified spirit. It is
said to be 12 times as strong as the extract of
the leaves.
Extract of Ag'aric. Syn. EXTRACTUM AGA-
RICI, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) From the infusion
of white agaric (Polyporus officinalis) pre-
pared with cold water. Purgative.--Dose. 1
to 4 grs.
Extract of Alcormo'co. Syn. EXTRACTUM
ALCORNOCE, L. Prep. From a decoction of
alcornoco bark (South American). Astringent
and tonic.—Dose. 5 to 20 grs.; in phthisis,
&c.
Extract of Al'oes. Syn. PURIFIED ALOES,
WASHED A.; EXTRACTUM ALois BARBADENSIS,
(B. P.), EXTRACTUM ALoís (Ph. L.), E. A.
AQUOSUM (Ph. D.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.)
Barbadoes aloes, in small pieces, 1 lb.; treated
with 1 gal. of boiling water for 12 hours, and
the clear liquid evaporated.—Dose. 1 to 3 grs,
B. P. 2 to 6 grs.
2. (B. P.) Socotrine aloes, 1 lb., treated
with 1 gal. of boiling water for 12 hours, and
the clear liquid evaporated to dryness.
3. (Ph. D.) Aloes (hepatic), 4 oz. ; water,
1 quart; boil till dissolved; when cold, decant
the clear liquid, and evaporate as before.


4. (Ph. Bor. 1847.) By macerating pow- '
dered aloes in cold water for 48 hours, with
frequent agitation, and then evaporating in
a water bath at a temperature not exceeding
150° to 165° Fahr., until a pilular consistence
is attained.
Obs. The second is the form commonly
adopted in the laboratory. When made with
the juice of borage, burgloss, &c., it forms the
old ‘ALOES INSUCCATA.”—Dose. 5 to 15 grs.
See ALOES and EXTRACT OF BARBADOES
ALOES.
Extract of Anem'one,
PASQUE FLOWER.
Extract of Angelica. Syn. EXTRACTUM
ANGELICAE, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. Baden.) From
a tincture of the root, prepared with spirit
sp. gr. 1944 (=21% u.p.).
2. (Ph. Bor.) Angelica root and rectified
spirit, of each, 2 parts; water, 9 parts; digest,
strain, and evaporate. Inferior to the pre-
ceding.
3. (Dr. Moir.) Angelica root, 2 lbs. ; rec-
tified spirit, 1 gal.; make a tincture; to the
See EXTRACT OF
EXTRACT, 4S5
s
S
‘marc” add proof spirit, 1 gal., and repeat the
digestion; filter the two tinctures separately,
mix, distil off the spirit, and evaporate.
Balsamic, stomachic, and tonic.— Dose. 10
to 20 grs. The last is the most balsamic and
agreeable.
Extract of Apples. Syn. CHALYBEATED E.
OF A.; EXTRACTUM FERRI POMATUM, L. Prep.
(Ph. Bor.) Crab-apples (unripe), 6 lbs. ; peel
them and reduce them to a pulp; add iron
wire (in small coils), 1 lb.; digest in a vapour
bath for about a week, express, strain, decant,
and evaporate in a porcelain vessel, with con-
stant stirring, to the consistence of a soft ex-
tract; dissolve the residuum in water, 4 parts,
strain and evaporate as before.—Dose. 5 to
10 grs. ; as a chalybeate tonic. The formula
of the Ph. Baden is nearly similar.
Extract of Ar’mica. Syn. EXTRACT OF
ARNICA FLOWERS ; EXTRACTUM ARNICAF FIO-
RUM, L. Prep. 1. (P. Cod.) From the dried
flowers, as ALCOHOLIC EXTRACT OF ACONITE–
P. Cod.
2. (Ph. Graeca, 1837.) From a tincture of
the flowers, prepared with rectified spirit, 3
parts, and water, 5 parts.--Dose. 2 to 6 grs.;
as a stimulant in various diseases accompanied
with debility, deficient nervous sensibility,
paralysis, dropsies, diarrhoea, amenorrhoea, dy-
Sentery, &c. -
Extract of Arnica-Root. Syn. ExTRACT OF
ARNICA; EXTRACTUM ARNICE RADICIS, L.
Prep. 1. (Ph. Baden.) As ExTRACT OF ANGE-
LICA—Ph. Baden. /
2. (Ph. Graeca.) From tincture of the root,
prepared as No. 2 (above). The form of the
Hamburg Codex is nearly similar.—Dose, &c.
As the last. .
Extract of Artſichoke. Syn. ExTRACTUM
CYNARE. L. Prep. From the fresh leaves of
the artichoke, as ExtRACT of ACONITE—Ph. L.
-Dose, 3 to 6 grs, twice or thrice daily; in
rheumatism, &c.
Extract of Aspar'agus, Syn. ExTRACTUM
ASPARAGI, L. Prep. 1. (Soubeiran.) From
the expressed juice of the shoots, clarified and
evaporated by a gentle heat.
/2. From the juice of the roots, as No. 1.
Both are diuretic.—Dose, 15 grs. to . dr., or
Ore.
Extract of Bael. Syn. EXTRACTUM BELIE
LIQUIDUM, L. B. P. Bael, 1; distilled water,
15; rectified spirit, #; macerate for 12 hours
in 5 of the water, pour off the liquid, repeat
the operation twice for 1 hour; press, filter,
and evaporate to 1, including the spirit. A
fluid ounce is equal to a solid ounce.—Dose.
1 to 2 drs.
Extract of Bark, See EXTRACT OF CIN-
CHONA.
Extract of Belladon’ma. Syn. EXTRACT OF
*DEADLY NIGHTSHADE, INSPISSATED JUICE OF
BELLADONNA; EXTRACTUM BELLADONNE (B.
P., Ph. L. E. & D.), SUCCUS SPISSATUS BELLA-
#Don'NA., L. Prep. 1. (B.P.) Take 112 lbs.
"of fresh leaves and tender branches, bruise in
a stone mortar or other suitable apparatus, and
press out the juice, heat it gradually to 130°
F., separate the green colouring matter by a
calico filter, heat the strained liquor to 200°F.
to coagulate the albumen, and again filter;
evaporate the filtrate by a water bath to the
consistence of a thin syrup, then add to it the
green colouring matter previously separated,
and, stirring the whole together assiduously,
continue the evaporation at a temperature not
exceeding 140°, until the extract is of a suit-
able consistence for forming pills.--Dose. #
to ; gr., gradually increased to 1 or 2 grs.
2. (Ph. E.) Express the juice from the
bruised fresh plant, sprinkle the “marc” with
water, and again apply pressure; mix the ex-
pressed liquids, filter them, and evaporate the
filtered liquor in a vapour bath to the consist-
ence of an extract.
3. (Ph.D.) From the leaves, collected when
the plant begins to flower. The expressed
juice is allowed to stand for 24 hours, and the
clear portion is decanted; the sediment is
placed on a calico filter, washed with an equal
bulk of cold water, and the filtrate mixed with
the expressed juice. The mixed liquid is next
heated in a water bath, to coagulate its albu-
men, and after being skimmed, and filtered
through flannel whilst hot, the washed sedi-
ment is added, and the whole evaporated, as
before.
4. (Ph. U.S.) The expressed juice is heated
to the boiling-point, filtered and evaporated
(see below).
Obs. The P. Cod, directs this extract to be
made by two different formulae. The product
of the one resembles that of the Ph. L.; that
of the other, that of the Ph. E. That of the
Ph. L., from retaining the fecula, is the weak-
est preparation. Dose.—; gr. to 1 gr., gradu-
ally increased to 3 or 4 grs.; as an anodyne in
neuralgia, tic-douloureux, &c.; as an antispas-
modic to relieve rigidity and spasms, in various
affections of the uterus, rectum, urethra, blad-
der, &c., and in hooping-cough; in various
maladies of the eyes; and as a resolvent and
discutient in several glandular diseases. It
has been highly recommended as a preserva-
tive against scarlet fever. It is most frequently
employed externally, under the form of a plas-
ter, ointment, or lotion. It is poisonous.
5. (Alcoholic; E. B. ALCOHOLICUM, L.)—a.
(P. Cod.) As ALCOHOLIC EXTRACT OF ACONITE
—P. Cod.
b. (Ph. U. S.) As the last (nearly), using
spirit of ‘935 (= about 13 u. p.).
c. (Moir.) The expressed juice is coagulated
by heat, cautiously applied, and filtered; the
filtrate is reduced to the consistence of a syrup,
and mixed with an equal volume of nearly an-
hydrous alcohol (say of 90%); the clear portion
is lastly evaporated, as before.
Obs. The above is much more powerful than
the common extract, and is chiefly used in ex-
ternal applications. See BELLADONNA, and
below.


486 EXTRACT,
Extract of Belladonna Ber’ries. Syn, Ex-
TRACTUM BACCARUM BELLADONNE, L. Prep.
(P. Cod.) From the expressed juice of the ber-
ries, evaporated to the consistence of thick
honey.—JDose, 1 to 5 grs.
Extract of Bis'tort. Syn. ExTRACTUM BIS-
TORTÉ, L. Prep. 1. (P. Cod.) From the
dried root of bistort or snake-weed (Polygonum
IBistorta), by percolation with temperate dis-
tilled water.
2. From the infusion made with boiling
water, or from the decoction. Astringent and
tonic.—Dose. 10 grs. to , dr.
Extract of Bitter-sweet. Syn. EXTRACT OF
WOODY NIGHTSHADE; EXTRACTUM DULCA-
MARAE, L. Prep. 1. From the decoction of
the stalks.
2. (Ph. U. S.) From the dried stalks, by
percolation with temperate water. Diaphoretic,
diuretic, and narcotic.—Dose. 3 to 6 grs. ; in
chronic asthma, rheumatism, and chost dis-
eases; and particularly in chronic skin dis-
easeS.
Extract, Black, See EXTRACT OF CoCCU-
TU.S.
Extract of Black Pepper.
PEPPER.
Extract of Borſage. Syn. ExTRACTUM BO-
RAGINIS, L. Prep. 1. (P. Cod.) From the
dried herb (Borago officinalis).
2. (Ph. Lusit.) From the clarified juice of
the fresh plant. Exhilarating, restorative, and
pectoral.--Dose. 10 to 30 grs., or more.
Extract of Box. Syn. EXTRACTUM BUXI, E.
CORTICIS B., L. Prep. (P. Cod.) From the
tincture of the root bark, prepared (with proof
spirit) by displacement, as EXTRACT OF ACO-
NITE–P. Cod,
Extract of Broom. Syn. EXTRACT OF BROOM
TOPS ; EXTRACTUM SCOPARII, E. SPARTII
SCOPARII, L. From decoction of broom tops.
Diuretic and cathartic ; and, occasionally,
emetic.—Dose. 20 grs, to 1 dr. ; in dropsy, &c.
It is now seldom used.
Extract of Bry'ony. Syn. ExTRACTUM BRY-
ONIE, E. B. ALBE, E, RADICIS B. A., L. Prep.
From the infusion or decoction of the root of
white bryony (Bryonia dioica). Purgative,
diuretic, and emmenagogue.—Dose. 10 grs. to
# dr. It was once a favourite remedy in
asthma, dropsy, epilepsy, &c.
Extract of Buſchu. Syn. EXTRACTUM BU-
CHU, E. DIOSME, L. Prep. 1. From buchu
leaves, as the last.
2. (Ethereo-alcoholic; E. B. ETHERO-ALCO-
HOLICUM, L.-W. Procter.) Buchu (in coarse
powder), 1 lb. ; ether, 4 fl.oz. ; alcohol (rectified
spirit), 12 fl. oz. ; percolate without digestion,
adding dilute alcohol until a pint of ethereo-
alcoholic tincture is obtained, and suffer this to
evaporate spontaneously; treat the residue in
the displacer with dilute alcohol, till 2 pints
are obtained; evaporate to a syrup, add the
product of the first tincture, mix, and complete
the evaporation.—Dose. 5 to 10 grs. ; in dis-
eases of the urinary organs, &c.
See EXTRACT OF
PHYSOSTIGMATIs,
3. (Fluid; E. B. FLUIDUM, L.-W. Procter.)
Buchu leaves, 8 oz. ; rectified spirit, 16 fl. oz.;
for a tincture by displacement, adding water,
until 12 fl. Oz. have passed through; allow this
to evaporate spontaneously until reduced to one
half; next digest the mass in the percolator
with cold water, 1 pint, for 12 hours, express a
pint, and evaporate this to 10 fl. Oz. ; lastly,
add the 6 fl. oz. of residual tincture, agitate
together, and in a few days filter, or decant
the clear portion.—Dose. 1 to 2 teaspoonfuls.
See DIOS.MA.
Extract of Buck/bean. Syn. EXTRACTUM
MENYANTHIS, L. Prep. 1. (P. Cod.) From
the expressed juice of the fresh plant.
2. (Ph. Bor.) From the infusion made with
boiling water. Bitter, tonic, and astringent.—
Dose. 5 to 10 grs. In large doses it is purga.
tive, cathartic, aud even emetic.
Extract of Buck'thorn. Syn. EXTRACTUM
RHAMNI, E. BACCARUM. R., L. Prep. From
the filtered expressed juice of buckthorn
berries. Some persons allow it first to run
into a state of fermentation; but the quantity
of the product is thereby greatly lessened.
Hydragogue and purgative.—Dose, 15 gºs. to
1 dr., or more.
Extract of Bur'dock. Syn. ExTRACTUM
BARDANZE, L, JPrep. 1. From the decoction of
burdock root.
2. (P. Cod.) As EXTRACT OF BISTORT-
P. Cod. In gout, rheumatism, skin diseases,
&c.—Dose. 10 grs. to 1 dr. Sir Robert Wal-
pole praised burdock-root as a gout medicine;
and others have considered it an excellent sub-
stitute for sarsaparilla. (Lindley.)
Extract of Butter-nut, Sgt. ExPACTEM
JUGLANDIs, L. Prep. (Ph. U.S.S.) From the
inner bark of the root of º Ol'
white walnut (Juglanda alba), as EXTRACT OF
BITTER swºr—Ph. U. S. A mild, yet effica-
cious aperient and vermifuge.—Dosé. As a
laxative, 5 to 10 grs. ; as a purgative, 16 to
30 grs.
Extract of Calabar Beam. Syn. ExTRA&TUM
(B. P.) Calabar bean, in
coarse powder, 1; rectified spirit, 5; macºte
the bean for 48 hours in one fourth of the
spirit in a closed vessel, agitating occasionally
then transfer to a percolator, and when the
fluid ceases to pass add the remainder of the
spirit, so that it may slowly penetrate through
the powder; subject the residue of the bean to
pressure, adding the pressed liquid to the pro-
duct of the percolation; distil off the spirit,
and evaporate what is left to the consistence
of a soft extract by a water bath.-Dose,
# to # gr.
Extract of Calum’ba. Syn. ExTRACTUM CA-
IUMBE, E. RADICIS C., L. Prep. 1. (B. P.)
Calumba cut small, 1 ; water, 5; macerate in
half the water for 12 hours, strain, and press;
macerate again with the remaining water,
strain, and press; mix and filter the liquors,
and evaporate with the heat of a water bath
to pill consistency-Dose, 2 to 10 grs.
*

EXTRACT. 487
*
2. (Alcoholic—Ph. Bor.) Nearly as No. 3
(below), but using stronger spirit ; the evapo-
ration is to be conducted at a heat not above
167° Fahr., until it acquires the consistence of
a pill-mass, which, after being rendered quite
dry by a very gentle heat, is to be reduced to
fine powder. It should have a brownish-
yellow colour, and give a turbid solution with
water.—Dose. 4 to 12 grs. They are all tonic
and stomachic.
3. (Spirituous—P. Cod.) As EXTRACT OF
Box. The Ph. Baden. orders spirit of ‘944
to be used.—Dose. 5 to 15 grs.
Extract of Cannabis Indicae. See EXTRACT
OF INDIAN HEMP.
Extract of Canthar'ides. Syn. EXTRACT OF
SPANISH FLIES ; EXTRACTUM CANTHARIDES,
E. Lyttä., L. Prep. 1. (P. Cod.) From the
tincture, as EXTRACT OF BOX.
2. (Soubeiran.) From a tincture prepared
with spirit of the sp. gr. 923 (about 2 u.p.).
3. (Acetic; E. C. ACETICUM, L.) From a
tincture prepared with acetic acid sp. gr.
1-048.
4. (Ethereal; E. C. ETHEREUM, L.) From
the ethereal tincture. -
Obs. The ether, acid, and spirit distilled
from the above must be either thrown away
or used to make fresh extract, as it is highly
poisonous. They are all for external use
only, and should have the consistence of soft
butter.
Extract of Car'damoms. Syn. ETHEREAL
E, OF C.; EXTRACTUM CARDAMOMI AETHEREUM,
L. Prep. (W. Procter.) By spontaneous
evaporation of the ethereal tincture. It con-
sists of the volatile and fixed oils of the
º and is used to aromatise pills, powders,
C.
Extract of Carob Beans. Syn. ExPRACTUM
CERATONIAE, L. Prep. From the decoction
of the pods (CAROB, or ALGAROBA BEANS) of
the “Ceratonia siliqua,’ or ‘St. John's bread
tree.’ See ATGAROBA.
Extract of Carolina Pink. See EXTRACT OF
PINK-Root.
Extract of Car'rot. Syn. ExTRACTUM CA-
ROTE, E. RADICIS C., L. Prep. (Swediaur.)
From the clarified expressed juice, evaporated
to the consistence of honey. Recommended
as an application to ulcerated cancers.
Extract of Cascarilla. Syn. EXTRACTUM
CASCARILLE, E. CORTICIS C., L., Prep. 1.
(Guibourt.) From the alcoholic (rectified
spirit) tincture.
2. (Ph. Baden.) As the last, but using
spirit of the sp. gr. 1944.
3. (Ph. L. 1788.) As EXTRACT OF JAIAP
—Ph. L.
Obs. This extract is tonic, aromatic, and
stomachic.—Dose. 5 to 15 grs., or more, 2 or
3 times a day. 28 lbs. of bark yield about
5% lbs. of extract.
Extract of Cas'sia, Syn. EXTRACTUM CAS-
SIAE, L. See CASSIA PULP.
Extract of Catechu, Syn. EXTRACTUM
CATECHU, L. Prep. 1. From decoction of
catechu. -
2. (P. Cod.) From the infusion in boiling
water. Astringent and tonic.—Dose. 5 to 25
grs. See CATECHU.
Extract of Celandine. Syn. EXTRACTUM
CHELIDONII, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. Bor.) From
the herb (Chelidonium majus), as ALCOHOLIC
EXTRACT OF ACONITE—Ph. Bor.—Dose, 3 to
10 grs.
2. (Van Mons.) From the expressed juice,
coagulated by heat, filtered, and evaporated,
towards the end adding the coagulum.—Dose.
5 to 15 grs, or more. Used as a drastic hydra-
gogue in dropsies; and in scrofula, &c.
Extract of Cenſtaury. Syn. ExTRACTUM
CENTAURII, L. Extracts under this name are
prepared from ‘American centaury’ (Sabbatia
angularis), and common centaury’ (Erythraea
Centaurium). Prep. 1. By evaporating the
decoction, or the infusion made with hot water.
The dose and properties resemble those of ex-
tract of gentian.
2. (Alcoholic; E. C. ALCOHOLICUM, L.) As
ExTRACT of Box (see above).
Extract of Cevadilla. Syn. ALCOHOLIC Ex-
TRACT OF SABADILLA; EXTRACTUM SABA-
DILLE, L. Prep. (Dr. Turnbull.) From
tincture of cevadilla seeds, made with recti-
fied spirit. Employed by Dr. Turnbull as a
remedy in painful rheumatic and neuralgic
affections, and, generally, as a substitute for
VERATRIA.-Dose. Tº to # gr. It is extremely
poisonous.
Extract of Chamomile. Syn. ExTRACTUM
ANTHEMIDIS (Ph. E.), E. A. NOBILIS, L. Prep.
By evaporating the decoction of the flowers to
the proper consistence.
Obs. This extract contains only the bitter
portion of the chamomile, the aromatic vola-
tile oil being dissipated during the evaporation.
It is usually prepared from old flowers that
have lost their smell and colour, and are thus
rendered unsaleable. The extract of chamo-
mile that smells strongly of the flowers, fre-
quently vended by the druggists, is prepared
by adding 1 dr. of the essential oil of chamo-
mile to every pound of extract, when nearly
cold, and just before removing it from the
evaporating pan. This addition, unlike many
which are made in the laboratory, vastly in-
creases the medicinal virtues of this article.
The mass of extract of chamomile met with
in the shops is nothing but extract of gen-
tian scented with a little oil of chamomile.
1 cwt. of chamomiles yields about 48 lbs. of
extract.
Extract of chamomile is bitter, tonic, and
stomachic.—Dose. 10 to 20 grs., made into a
pill, either alone or combined with a little
rhubarb and ginger. See PILLs, &c.
Extract of Chenopo"dium. Syn. ExTRACT
OF STINKING GOOSE-FOOT ; EXTRACTUM CHE-
NOPODII, L. Prep. 1. From the stinking
orache or goose-foot (Chenopodium olidum), as
EXTRACT OF ACONITE,-Ph. L.


488 EXTRACT,
2. (Mr. Houlton.) From the expressed
juice by spontaneous evaporation. A better
plan is to expose it to heated air. Anti-
hysteric, emmenagogue, and vermifuge.—Dose.
5 to 20 grs.
Extract of Cincho'na. Syn. ExtRACT OF
BARK. Three simple extracts, prepared respec-
tively from YELLOW, PALE, and RED CINCHONA,
are given in Ph. L. :-Prep. 1. (From CALI-
SAYA or YETILOW. BARK :—EXTRACT OF CIN-
CHONA, E. OF YELLOW. C., E. OF HEART-LEAVED
C.; EXTRACTUM CINCHONE, L.) — a. Ex-
TRACTUM CINCHONE FLAVE LIQUIDUM (B.P.).
Yellow cinchona bark in coarse powder, 16;
distilled water, a sufficiency; rectified spirit,
1; macerate the bark in 40 of water for twenty-
four hours, then pack in a percolator, and add
water until 240 have passed through, or until
the bark is exhausted; evaporate the liquor to
20, at a temperature not exceeding 160°; then
filter, and continue the evaporation to 3, or
until the sp. gr. of the liquid is 1:200 ; when
cold, add the spirit gradually, constantly stir-
ring. Sp. gr. 1:100.-Dose. 10 to 30 minims.
b. (Ph. L.) Yellow cinchona (coarsely
bruised), 3 lbs. ; distilled water (temperate), 4
pints; macerate for 24 hours (constantly stir-
ring), and strain through linen; what remains,
again macerate in water, 1 quart, for 24 hours,
and strain; evaporate the mixed liquids to a
proper consistence. -
Obs. The aqueous extracts of cinchona bark
possess little medicinal virtue, owing to the
insolubility of the alkaloids (quinine, cincho-
nine, &c.) in water, and also from the rapid
oxidation of their extractive matter, when ex-
posed in solution to the joint action of heat
and atmospheric oxygen.—Dose. 5 grs. to , dr.,
in mixtures, faintly acidulated with sulphuric
acid. Cinchona bark yields from 24% to 30%
of aqueous extract.
2. (From PALE BARK :—EXTRACT OF PALE
CINCHONA, E. OF PALE BARK, E. OF LANCE-
IEAVED B. ; EXTRACTUM CINCHONE PALLIDAE,
L.)—a. (Ph. L.) From pale bark, as EXTRACT
of CINCHONA—Ph. L. (above).
b. (Ph. L. 1836.) From the decoction.
Obs. This forms the EXTRACT OF BARK of
the shops. The red and yellow cinchona barks
are scarcely ever used for making extracts.
Their richness in quinine leads to their almost
exclusive employment for the manufacture of
that alkaloid, by which their value is greatly
enhanced. As far as our knowledge extends,
no other extract of bark than this is either
employed or asked for.
3. (From RED BARR :—EXTRACT OF RED CIN-
CHONA, E. OF RED BARK, E. OR OBLONG-
IEAVED B. ; EXTRACTUM CINCHONAE RUBRAE,
L.)—a. (Ph. L.) From red bark, as EXTRACT
of CINCHONA—Ph. L. (above).
b. (Ph. L. 1836.) From the decoction.
Obs. These extracts are ordered to be kept
in two states, the one (SOFT EXTRACT OF CIN-
CHONA; EXTRACTUM CINCITONAE MOLLE) for
making pills, &c.; the other (HARD EXTRACT
of CINCHONA; EXTRACTUM CINCHONE DURUM)
for powdering.—The dose, &c., of all the above
are the same.
4. (Dry :—ESSENTIAL SALT OF BARK; Ex-
TRACTUM CINCHONE SICCUM, L.)—a. (P.
Cod.) From an aqueous infusion of pale bark
(prepared by displacement with water at a
temperature not above 77° Fahr.), evaporated
to the consistence of a thick syrup, and then
spread thinly and uniformly on earthenware
dishes, or sheets of glass, and dried in a stove,
by a very gentle heat. It is separated from
the plates with a knife, and preserved in well-
closed phials. Prior to spreading it out on
the plates, about 4% or 5% of thick mucilage is
commonly added.
b. (Ph. Bor.) As the above (nearly).
c. (Ph. Hann. 1831.) Similar to the above;
but the liquid, when it acquires the consistence
of treacle, is diluted with water, and again
evaporated to a like consistence; and this
dilution and evaporation is repeated until, on
the addition of water, it forms a clear solution.
—Dose. 5 to 25 grs. The product of the last
formula is nearly inert, and that of the others
possesses little activity.
5. (Fluid:—EXTRACTUM CINCHONE FLUI.
DUM, L.)—a. See LIQUOR OF CINCHONA.
b. (Dr. Neligan.) From yellow bark, as
FLUID EXTRACT OF BUCHU.
6. (Resinous –ALCOHOLIC EXTRACT OF
BARK; EXTRACTUM CINCHONE ALCOHOLICUM,
E. CINCHONE, L.)—a. (Ph. E.) From any
variety of cinchona bark (in powder), 4 oz.;
proof spirit, 24 fl. Oz. ; prepare a tincture by
displacement, distil off most of the spirit, and
evaporate the residuum to the consistence of
an extract. This is the only EXTRACTUM CIN-
CHONAE of the Edinburgh College.
b. (Ph. U.S.) Peruvian bark, 1 lb.; rectified
spirit, 4 pints; make 4 pints of tincture by
displacement; add water to the mass in the
percolator, digest, and obtain 6 pints of in-
fusion; distil off the spirit from the tincture,
and evaporate the infusion to the consistence
of syrup, then mix the two, and complete the
evaporation. More active than the aqueous
extract.— Dose. 5 to 20 grs.
c. (Ellis.) Yellow bark, 2 lbs. ; hydrochloric
acid, 4 fl. drs. ; water, 1 gal. ; boil, strain, and
repeat the decoction with fresh water and
acid; mix the decoctions, filter, and agitate it
with fresh-slaked lime, 2% oz.; filter or decant;
dry the residuum, and exhaust it with hot
alcohol, q. S.; lastly, evaporate the alcoholic
tincture to a pilular consistence.—Dose. 1 to
5 grs. Some persons have proposed to call
this ‘ESSENTIAL SALT OF BARK.’
7. (Winous:–EXTRACTUM CINCHONE VI.
NOSUM, L-Ph. Hesse.) Peruvian bark (in
powder), 1 part ; white wine (sherry), 8
parts; digest 3 days, express, filter, and
evaporate.
Extract of Coc'culus. Syn. ExTRACT OF
COCCULUS INDICUS, BLACK EXTRACT, EXTRACT
(Brewer's), BEER STRENGTHENER, HARD MUL-
º
º
EXTRACT. 489
º
TUM ; EXTRACTUM CoCCUIT, E. C. INDICI,
L. Prep. From cocculus indicus, by decoction.
It is kept in two states—one having the con-
sistence of thick treacle; the other, that of a
pilular extract. The first is “put up in
bladders; the last is made into #-lb. rolls, like
lead plaster or roll-chocolate. It is narcotic
and poisonous, and is employed by fraudulent
brewers and publicans to give a false strength
to their liquors. See CoCCULUS INDICUS,
BEER, &c.
Extract of Col'chicum. Syn. EXTRACT OF
MEADOW SAFFRON, E. OF THE CORMS OF COL-
CHICUM ; ExTRACTUM CoICHICI (B. P.).
Prep. 1. (B. P.) The expressed juice of fresh
colchicum corms, cleared of deposit, boiled,
strained, and evaporated to a proper con-
sistency at a temperature of 160° Fahr.—
Dose. I to 2 grs.
2. (Wholesale.) From the decoction of the
dried corms. Prod. 50% to 55%.
Obs. This extract is given in the usual
cases in which colchicum is employed.—Dose.
1 to 4 grs., every third or fourth hour.
(Thomson.) “A favorite remedy of Dr. Hue,
of St. Bartholomew’s Hospital, in the early
stages of acute rheumatism. The dose is 1 gr.
every four hours.” (Pereira.)
3. (Acetic ; ACETIC EXTRACT OF MEADow
SAFFRON ; EXTRACTUM COLCHICI ACETICUM
(B. P.)—a. (B.P.) Crushed fresh corms, pre-
viously peeled, 19; acetic acid, 1; stir together,
press, boil, and strain through flannel, and
evaporate to a soft extract.—Dose. 1 to 2 grs.
with an equal weight of liquorice powder.
b. (Wholesale.) Dried corms, 14 lbs. ; acetic
acid (pyroligneous), 6 pints; distilled water,
5% galls. ; digest for 14 days, express, filter,
and evaporate. Product, 2% to 3 lbs.
Obs. The above extracts are generally pre-
pared from the dried corms, and hence the
very uncertain and inferior quality of those
commonly met with. They also possess less
activity than the pharmacopoeial preparations.
They rapidly get dry and crumbly, and, un-
less a little spirit and oil of cloves are added,
will scarcely keep a week in warm weather
without becoming mouldy.—Dose. 1 to 3 grs.,
two or three times a day. It is much stronger
than the common extract, and contains the ace-
tate of colchicine. Sir C. Scudamore prefers the
acetic extract prepared by the formula b (above).
4. (Alcoholic; EXTRACTUM CoICHICI ALCO-
HOLICUM, L.-P. Cod.). As EXTRACT OF BOX.
More active than even the acetic extract. All
the preparations of colchicum are poisonous in
large doses.
Extract of Col'ocynth. Syn. ExTRACT OF
DITTER APPLE ; EXTRACTUM COLOCYNTHIDIS
(Ph. L. & E.), E. C. SIMPLEX, E. C. MOLLE,
L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) From colocynth pulp
(cut in pieces and the seeds removed), by
simple maceration in cold water, for 36 hours,
frequently pressing it with the hands, and
afterwards 'strongly pressing out the liquor,
which must be strained before evaporating it.
2. (Ph. E.) From the decoction. This is
the plan adopted at Apothecaries' Hall, and
in the laboratory generally. Many houses do
not even remove the seeds.
Obs. This extract rapidly gets hard,
crumbly, and mouldy, by keeping. For the
remedy, see observations on EXTRACT OF COL-
CHICUM, above.—Dose. 5 grs, to 20 grs.; as a
cathartic. Colocynth pulp yields about 65% of
extract.
3. (Alcoholic; ExTRACTUM COLOCYNTHIDIs
ALCOHOLICUM, L.)—a. (Ph. Baden.) As EX-
TRACT OF ANGELICA–Ph. Bad.
b. (P. Cod.) From a tincture prepared with
proof spirit. Much more active than the
simple extract.—Dose. 2 to 7 grs.
4. (Dry ; EXTRACTUM colocyNTHIDIS
SICCUM, L.-Ph. Bor.) As the last, but using
spirit of the sp. gr. 900 (about 16 o. p.),
digesting at a tepid heat, evaporating to dry-
ness, and powdering.—Dose. 1 to 6 grs.
Extract of Colocynth (Compound). Syn.
COMPOUND EXTRACT OF BITTER APPLE, CA-
THARTIC EXTRACT ; EXTRACTUM CATHARTI-
CUM, E. COLOCYNTHIDIS COMPOSITUM, B. P.
Prep. 1. (B. P.) Colocynth free from seeds,
6; extract of Socotrine aloes, 12; scammony,
or resin of scammony in powder, 4; hard soap
in powder, 3; cardamoms freed from capsules
in fine powder, 1; proof spirit, 160. Macerate
the colocynth in the spirit for four days, press
out the tincture, distil off the spirit, and add
to it the extract of aloes, the soap, and the
scammony; then evaporate the residue by a
water bath to a pilular consistence, adding the
cardamoms towards the end of the process.—
Dose. 2 to 5 grs, with 2 or 3 grs. of extract of
hyoscyamus to prevent griping.
2. (Ph. L. 1836.) Colocynth pulp (sliced,
without the seeds), 6 oz., proof spirit, 1 gal.;
digest with a gentle heat for 4 days, express,
strain, and add, of extract of aloes (Ph. L.
1836), 12 oz., powdered scammony, 4 oz.,
Castile soap (cut small), 3 oz., and evaporate
(distil) to a proper consistence; adding,
towards the last, powdered cardamoms, 1 oz.
3. (Wholesale.) The formulae adopted by
the wholesale druggists are mere modifications
of that of the Ph. L. 1809; water being used
instead of spirit as the menstruum, with
actual benefit, as we honestly believe, to the
quality of the preparation. The following are
extensively employed by those who do most in
this article, and we can speak highly of the
quality of the products obtained by their use.
a. Turkey colocynth, 18 lbs., is boiled in
about 20 times its weight of water for five
or six hours; to the strained decoction is added
hepatic aloes, 40 lbs., which are boiled until
dissolved, when the solution is decanted. In
the mean time the colocynth is exhausted with
a second quantity of water (less than the first),
and the strained liquor is added to the undis-
solved residuum of the aloes, and boiled for a
few minutes; after which it is drawn off and
mixed with the first decoction of aloes; the




490 - EXTRACT,
mixed liquors are then allowed to stand until
quite cold (commonly until the next day), to
deposit the resinous portion. The liquor is
next decanted or drawn off, and set evapo-
rating as quickly as possible; as soon as the
consistence of treacle is arrived at, the whole
is allowed to cool considerably, and moist Sugar
(clean), 4 lbs., and Castile soap, 10 lbs. (pre-
viously melted with a little water), are added;
powdered scammomy, 6 lbs., is next gradually
sifted in, the extract all the time being assidu-
ously stirred by a second person. Lastly, the
heat is further moderated, and the stirring
continued until a rather harder consistence
is acquired than is proper for the extract,
when the steam is wholly “shut off,' or the
vessel removed from the heat, and as soon as
the whole has become sufficiently cool to pre-
vent any considerable evaporation of the spirit,
essence of cardamoms, 2 lbs. (say, 1 quart), is
expertly stirred in ; and the extract at once
(whilst still warm) put into stone jars or pots,
and tied or covered over, for store or use.
The product is usually labelled “EXT. Colo-
CYNTH. COMP. OPT.’ It looks well, and smells
very aromatic, and is really an excellent pre-
paration.
b. Turkey colocynth, 24 lbs. ; hepatic aloes,
5% lbs. ; powdered scammomy, 13 lb.; powdered
cardamoms, 6 oz. (or essence, 3 pint); Castile
soap (genuine), 1 lb. 2 oz. ; pale moist sugar, #
lb. ; proceed as last. This produces a beau-
tiful article, and of unquestionable quality,
equally effective, and milder in its action than
the College preparation. It is labelled and sent
out as EXT. COLOGYNTH. CoMP. P.H. L. (1836).
4. (Ph. L. 1809.) Colocynth, 6 drs. (6 parts);
aloes, 1% oz. (12 parts); scammony, 3 oz. (4
parts); hard soap, 3 drs. (3 parts); cardamoms,
1 dr. (1 part); as No. 3, a (nearly).
Qual., &c. Compound extract of colocynth
is often adulterated with acrid cathartics to
make up for the deficiency or inferiority of
its proper ingredients, and foreign matter
often becomes mixed with it by the use of
impure scammony. The presence of cape
aloes may usually be detected by the mauseous
odour ; chalk (an article frequently present
in bad scammony), by placing a little ball of
the extract in a glass tube, and pouring over
it some dilute hydrochloric or acetic acid,
when an effervescence will ensue, if that sub-
stance be present ; jalap, scammony adulte-
rated with fecula, and other starchy sub-
stances, by the filtered decoction of the ex-
tract turning blue on the addition of tincture
of iodine; gamboge, by the decoction becoming
deep red on the addition of liquor of potassa,
and by a filtered alcoholic solution of the
extract forming a yellow emulsion with water,
which becomes transparent and assumes a
deep-red colour on the addition of caustic
potassa; and further, by this solution (if the
alkali is not in excess) giving a yellow preci-
pitate with acids and with acetate of lead, a
brown precipitate with Sulphate of copper, and
a very dark brown one with the salts of iron;
also by the ethereal solution of the extract
dropped on water yielding an opaque yellow
film, soluble in caustic potassa, if it contains
gamboge.
Dose. 3 grs. to 15 grs. It is a safe and mild,
yet certain, purgative. It may be mixed with
calomel without the latter being decomposed.
2} or 3 grs., mixed with an equal weight of
blue pill and taken overnight, forms an excellent
aperient in dyspepsia, liver complaints, &c.
See ABERNETHY MEDICINES.
Obs. There are few formulae which have
undergone so many alterations in the hands of
the College as that for compound extract of
colocynth. Before 1809, proof spirit was or.
dered to be employed as the menstruum, and,
omitting the soap, the preparation resembled
that of the Ph. L. 1836. In 1809, the College
directed water to be used instead of spirit, and
added a certain quantity of soap. In the next
edition of the Pharmacopoeia (1815), the soap
was again omitted; but in the edition of 1824,
the formula of 1809 was again adopted, sub-
stituting, however, proof spirit for the water.
These directions were also continued in the
edition of 1836. In the last London Pharma-
copoeia (1851) the formula for this extract is
omitted altogether, and in its place a pill
(PILULA COLOCYNTHIDIS COMPOSITA) is in-
serted.
The compound extract of colocynth and the
simple and compound extracts of sarsaparilla
are in greater demand in the wholesale trade,
and are sold in larger quantities at a time,
than all the other medicinal extracts put to-
gether. As a proof, if it were necessary, that
honesty is the best policy, it may be mentioned,
that a certain metropolitan druggist, remark-
able for the superiority of this preparation,
has obtained no inconsiderable fortune by its
sale alone; while the host of miserable vendors
of the evaporated decoction of musty colocynth
seed, Cape aloes, worthless scammony, and
scentless cardamoms, sold under the name,
attempt to ruin each other, by offering their
rubbish at a price that precludes the possi.
bility of a large profit, or even of the establish-
ment of a respectable connection.
Extract of Comia, See EXTRACT OF HEM-
TIOCK.
Extract of Contrayer'va. Syn. ExTRACTUM
CONTRAYERVIE, L. Prep. (Palat. Cod.) From
contrayerva root, as EXTRACT OF CINCHONA—
Ph. L-Dose. 10 grs. to , dr.; as a diapho-
retic tonic, in low conditions of the system.
Extract of Copaiºba. Syn. RESINoUs Ex-
TRACT OF COPAIBA; ExTRACTUM COPAIBE,
E. G. RESINOSUM, L. Prep. (Mr. Thorn.)
From balsam of copaiba, by distilling off the
oil, until the residuum assumes the consistence
of an extract.—Dose. 10 to 20 grs., or more.
One of the many useless preparations which
encumber modern pharmacy. It may be taken
in 3-dr. doses without any perceptible effect
beyond a fit of indigestion.


EXTRACT. 491
Extract of Copal'che. Syn. ExTRACTUM Co-
PALCHI, E. CORTICIS C., L. Prep. From co-
palchi bark (Croton pseudo-China), as EXTRACT
OF CASCARILLA, which it for the most part
resembles.—Dose. 1 to 3 grs.
Extract of Couch Grass. Syn. EXTRACT OF
DOG'S GRASS ; EXTRACTUM GRAMINIS, L.
Prep. 1. (P. Cod.) From the root of couch
grass, or dog's grass (Trifficum repens), as EX-
TRACT OF BISTORT-P. Cod.
2. From the fresh root, as EXTRACT OF
ACONITE—Ph. L.
3. (Fluid; MELLAGo GRAMINIs, ExTRACTUM
GRAMINIS FLUIDUM, L-Ph. Hann. 1831.)
From the decoction of the fresh root of couch
grass, evaporated to the consistence of new
homey. Pectoral,—JDose. 15 grs. to # dr., or
In Ol’e.
Extract of Cubebs. Syn. EXTRACTUM CU-
BEBAE, L. Prep. 1. From the alcoholic tinc-
ture evaporated by a very gentle heat.—Dose.
5 grs. to 30 grs.
2. (Mr. Toller.) To the last add a little
powdered Castile soap, when it begins to
thicken, and evaporate to a pilular consistence.
—Dose. 10 grs. to 30 grs.
3. (Fluid : LIQUOR CUBEBE, EXTRACTUM C.
FLUIDUM, L.)—a. Cubebs (ground in a coffee-
mill), 14 lb.; rectified spirit, 1 quart; prepare
a tincture, either by displacement or by di-
gestion for a week, and reduce it, by distilla-
tion at a very gentle heat, until the whole mea-
sures exactly 1 pint. Every fl. oz. represents
2 oz. of cubebs.—IDose. 20 to 40 drops.
b. (M. Puche.) From cubebs and proof spirit,
equal parts, by percolation; without subse-
quent evaporation. Represents its own weight
in cubebs.--Dose. # to 1 fl. dr.
c. (Ph. U. S. 1851.) Cubebs, 1 lb. (nearly);
ether, q. S.; make 1 quart of tincture; then
distil off 13 pint of the ether by the heat of a
water bath, and expose the residuum in a
shallow vessel until the remainder of the ether
has evaporated.
4. (Oleo-resinous; ExTRACTUM CUBEBE, E.
CUBEBARUM, E. C. OLEO-RESINOSUM, L.)—a.
(M. Dublanc.) The essential oil resulting from
the careful distillation of any given quantity
of cubebs, is mixed with the resinous extract
obtained by evaporating a tincture of the dried
residuum made with rectified spirit; the whole
being reduced to the consistence of a thick
syrup. 1 lb. of cubebs yields about 6 oz. of
this extract.
b. (Labelonge.) Cubebs are first exhausted
with ether, and then with proof spirit, in a
displacement apparatus; the alcoholic tincture
is evaporated to an extract over a water bath,
and when cold, the ethereal tincture is mixed
with it, and the mixture abandoned to spon-
taneous evaporation until the ether is vola-
tilised.
c. (W. Procter.) An ethereal tincture (by
displacement) is poured into a large retort,
and 5-6ths' is drawn over by the heat of a
water bath; the evaporation of the residuum,
to the proper consistence, is carried on at a
heat not exceeding 120° Fahr. The formula
of the Ph. Baden. is nearly similar. Said to
represent 6 to 8 times its weight in cubebs.
1 lb. yields 2 oz. of this extract.
d. (Hamb. Cod. 1845.) This resembles a
(above).
Obs. This extract has a darkish brown
colour, and tastes and smells strongly of cubebs.
It is only slightly soluble in water.—Dose. 5
grs. to 20 grs.; made into an emulsion or pills,
or enclosed in a capsule. See CUBEBs.
Extract of Cuſcumber. See ELATERIUM.
Extract of Cuspa"ria. EXTRACT OF AN-
GOSTURA BARK ; EXTRACTUM CUSPARIAE, E.
CORTICIS C., E. ANGOSTURE, L. Prep. 1.
From angostura bark, as EXTRACT OF CIN-
CHONA—Ph. L.
2. (Alcoholic.) As EXTRACT OF CINCHONA
—Ph. E. Stronger than the last. Both are
aromatic, bitter, tonic, and stimulant.—Dose.
10 grs. to # dr. ; in dyspepsia, chronic diar-
rhoea, dysentery, &c.
Extract of Daffodil. Syn. ExTRACTUM NAR-
CISSI, L. Prep. 1. From the fresh flowers of
daffodil or yellow narcissus (Narcissus pseudo-
narcissus), as EXTRACT OF ACONITE–Ph. L.
2. (Alcoholic.) From the dried flowers, as
EXTRACT OF BOX. Both are pectoral and ex-
pectorant; and in large doses nauseant and
emetic.—Dose. # gr. to 2 grs. ; in hooping-
cough, &c.
Extract of Dandeliſon.
TARAXACUM.
Extract of Digitalis. See EXTRACT of Fox-
G-LOVE.
Extract of Dog’s Grass.
COUCH GRASS. -
Extract of Dog'wood. Syn. EXTRACTUM
CORNüs, E. CORNI, L. Prep. From American
or tree dogwood (Cornus Florida), as EXTRACT
OF CINCHONA. B.A.R.R.
Obs. In its general effects, American dog-
wood approaches the cinchonas, and is said to
be not inferior to them in the cure of inter-
mittents. (Bigelow.) It contains a peculiar
bitter principle, called cormine. Several other
varieties of the genus Cornus, as round-leaved
dogwood (Cornus circinata), swamp dogwood
(Cornus sericea), &c., are used in America, but
are less valuable.
Extract of Dulcama"ra,
BITTER SWEET.
Extract of Elaterium. Syn. INSPISSATED
JUICE OF THE SQUIRTING CUCUMBER ; SUCCUS
SPISSATUS MOMORDICE ELATERII. For pre-
paration and recent synonyms, see ELATE-
RIUM.
Extract of Elder Berries. Syn. EIDER ROB;
ROOB SAMBUCI, EXTRACTUM SAMBUCI, E. S.
NIGRAE, E. BACCARUM. S., SUCCUs SAMBUCI
INSPISSATUS, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L. 1788.)
The expressed and depurated juice of elder
berries, evaporated to the consistence of honey.
2. (Ph. E. 1744.) To the above, when it
begins to thicken, add 1-5th part of sugar.
See EXTRACT OF
See EXTRACT OF

See EXTRACT OF

492 EXTRACT.
3. (Ph. Bor.) As the last (nearly), but
adding only 1 oz. of white sugar to each pound
of the extract whilst still warm.—Dose. 1 to
4 drs.; in rheumatism, gout, and various skin
affections.
Extract of El'ecampame. Syn. ExTRACTUM
INULE, E. RADICUM I. CAMPANE, E. HELENII,
L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L. 1746.) From a decoction
of the dried root.
2. (P. Cod.) As ExTRACT OF BISTORT-P.
Cod.
3. (Ph. Suec. 1845.) From a tincture pre-
pared with proof spirit and water, equal parts.
—Dose. 10 grs. to # dr. ; as a diaphoretic,
expectorant, and tonic ; in asthma, hooping-
cough, various skin diseases, &c.
Extract of Elm. Syn. EXTRACTUM ULMI,
E. CORTICIS U., L. Prep. 1. From the decoction
of the bark of the common elm (Ulmus cam-
pestris).
2. (Soubeiran.) As EXTRACT OF BOX. As-
tringent and alterative.—Dose. 20 grs. to 1
dr. ; in secondary syphilis, chronic skin affec-
tions, &c.
Extract of Er'got. Syn. AQUEOUS EXTRACT
OF ERGOT, HAEMOSTATIC EXTRACT; EXTRAC-
TUM ERGOTAE, E. E. AQUOSUM, E. SECALIS
CORNUTI, E. HEMOSTATICUM, L. Prep. 1. (B.
P.) Evtractum Ergota, Liquidum. Ergot in
coarse powder, 16; ether, 20; distilled water,
70; rectified spirit, 8. Shake the ether in a
bottle with half its bulk of the water, and,
after separation, decant the ether. Place the
ergot in a percolator, and free it from oil by
passing the washed ether through it; remove
the marc and digest it in the remainder of the
water for twelve hours at 160°F. Press out
the liquor, and evaporate it to 9, and when
cold add the 8 of spirit; allow it to stand for
an hour to coagulate, filter, and make up the
quantity to 16.-Dose. 15 to 30 minims.
According to Squire, the amount of ether
employed should be double the above, in two
percolations, and the marc should be dried in
the air before digesting with water. See ER-
GOTINE (Bonjeau's).
2. (Alcoholic; EXTRACTUM ERGOTHE ALCO-
HoDICUM, L.) See ERGOTINE (Wigger's).
Extract of Fern. Syn. EXTRACTUM FILICIS
LIQUIDUM–B. P. See EXTRACT OF MALE
FERN.
Lxtract of Flesh. See EXTRACT OF MEAT,
ESSENCE OF BEEF, TEA (Beef), &c.
Extract of Fox'glove. Syn. EXTRACTUM
DIGITALIS (Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L. 1836.)
From the leaves of Digitalis purpurea, as EX-
TRACT OF ACONITE—Ph. L.
2. (Ph. E.) From the filtered expressed
juice, either evaporated in vacuo, with the
aid of heat, or by exposure to a current of
dry air.
3. (P Cod.)—a. As EXTRACT OF BISTORT
—P. Cod.
b. As EXTRACT OF BOX—P. Cod.
4. (Ph. Baden.) As ALCOHOLIC EXTRACT OF
ACONITE–Ph. Bad,
Obs. The juice of foxglove is very readily
injured by exposure to air and heat. The
evaporation should therefore be conducted as
rapidly as possible, but at a low temperature.
It is narcotic, sedative, and is powerfully poi-
sonous.--Dose. A gr., cautiously increased to 2
or 3 grs. It is principally given in fevers,
dropsy, diseases of the heart, pulmonary con-
sumption, epilepsy, scrofula, and asthma. This
extract spoils by long keeping. The last two
are stronger than the rest, and keep better. It
is omitted in the present Ph. L.
Extract of Fu'mitory. Syn. EXTRACTUM
FUMARIAE, L. Prep. 1. From either the in-
fusion or decoction of the dried leaves of com-
mon fumitory (Fumaria officinalis).
2. (P. Cod.) From the clarified juice of the
fresh herb. Slightly aperient, diaphoretic,
and alterative. It has been given in obstruc-
tions of the liver and cutaneous affections of
the leprous kind.
Extract of Galls. Syn. ExTRACTUM GALLE,
E. GALLARUM, L. Prep. 1. From the in-
fusion by maceration or displacement with
cold water. -
2. From the hot infusion or decoction. The
first is to be preferred. Astringent. Used
chiefly in ointments and injections for piles,
foul ulcers, &c., and, internally, in hamor-
rhages, spitting of blood, &c.
Extract of Gemſtian. Syn. EXTRACTUM
GENTIANAE (B. P.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.)
Gentian root (sliced), 3 lbs. ; distilled water
(temperate), 4 pints; macerate for 12 hours,
and gently express the liquor; repeat the mace-
ration with water, 1 quart, for 6 hours; and
evaporate the mixed liquors.
2. (Ph. L. 1836.) From the ordinary infu-
sion of the root made with 10 or 12 times its
weight of boiling water, the maceration being
continued for 24 hours.
3. (Ph. E.) From an infusion prepared
by percolation with cold water. The for-
mulae of the Ph. Baden, Paris, and U. S. are
similar.
4. (B. P.) Gentian 1 lb.; water (boiling),
10; macerate for 2 hours, boil 15 minutes,
strain, and evaporate to a soft pilular consist-
ence.—Dose. 10 to 15 grs.
5. (Ph.D. 1826.) From the decoction.
Obs. On the large scale, this extract is
almost universally prepared by exhausting the
root by coction with water, as in the last
formula. When well prepared, it is one of the
smoothest and brightest extracts of the Phar-
macopoeia. Good gentian root yields by infu-
sion in hot water fully 50%, and by decoction
about 60% of extract.—Dose. 10 grs. to 30
grs, two or three times daily, as a stomachic
bitter and tonic; either alone or combined
with rhubarb, ginger, or aloes. It is, how-
ever, more especially used as a vehicle for
chalybeates and other metallic preparations.
The principal consumption of extract of gen-
tian is by the brewers, in lieu of hops.
6, (HARD E, OF G.; E, G, DURUM, L.) The .
-



EXTRACT. 493
*
º
GUAIACI, L. Prep.
last dried by a gentle heat until brittle enough
to powder.
Extract, Goulard's.
ACETATE OF LEAD.
Extract of Guaiacum. Syn. ExTRACTUM
1. (Ph. L. 1746.) From
lignum vitae shavings or sawdust, exhausted
by coction with water; as soon as the mass be-
comes thick, 1-8th of rectified spirit is to be
added. -
2. As the last, omitting the spirit. Dia-
phoretic, diuretic, and alterative; in dropsy,
gout, rheumatism, skin diseases, &c.
Extract of Guarana'. Syn. EXTRACTUM
GUARAN.A., E. PAULLINIAE, L. Prep. (Dr.
Gavrelle.) From tincture of guarana (seeds of
Paullinia sorbilis), prepared by coction with
proof spirit. Tonic and alterative.—Dose. 2
to 5 grs., twice or thrice daily.
Extract, Haemostatic. See EXTRACT OF
ERGOT.
Extract of Hedge Hyssop. Syn. EXTRACTUM
GRATIOLE, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. Bor.) From
the herb (Gratiola officinalis), as ALCOHOLIC
EXTRACT OF ACONITE–Ph. Bor.
2. (Ph. Baden.) As EXTRACT OF ACONITE
—Ph. Baden.
3. (Vinous.) As VINOUS EXTRACT OF CIN-
CHONA. Purgative, diuretic, and vermifuge.
—Dose. 2 to 5 grs., gradually increased,
watching its effects; in dropsy, jaundice, gout,
&c. It has been said to be the basis of the
celebrated “EAU MáDICINALE D'HUSSON.”
Extract of Helſlebore. The extracts pre-
pared from three different plants may be in-
cluded under this head :-
1. (EXTRACT OF BLACK HELLEBORE; Ex-
TRACTUM HELLEBORI, E. H. NIGRI, L.)—a. (Ph.
L. 1788.) From the infusion or decoction of
black hellebore (Helleborus officinalis). —
Dose. 5 to 12 grs.
b. (Alcoholic—P. Cod. & Ph. U. S.) As
ExTRACT OF Box (nearly). That of the Ph.
Bad. is similar.—Dose. 3 to 8 grs.
c. (Vino-alcoholic–Cottereau.) Powdered
black hellebore, 2 lbs. ; salt of tartar, lb.;
dilute alcohol (sp. gr. 1935), 7 pints; digest 12
hours, and express the tincture; add to the
marc, white wine, 7 pints; digest for 24
hours, express, mix the tinctures, filter, and
evaporate.—Dose. 2 to 6 grs.
Obs. When prepared by coction with water
till exhausted of soluble matter, black helle-
bore root yields about 40% of extract. In small
doses, it is alterative, purgative, and resolv-
ent; in larger ones, it is a drastic, hydragogue
cathartic, and emmenagogue, dangerous unless
combined and its effects carefully watched.
2. (EXTRACT OF GREEN HELLEBORE, E. O.F
AMERICAN H., E. OF ITCH-WOOD; EXTRACTUM
VERATRI VIRIDIS, L.) From the fresh root
(rhizome) of the green hellebore (Peratrum
viride), as EXTRACT OF ACONITE–Ph. L.-
Dose. # gr. to # gr. Used in America in the
Same cases as white hellebore.
3. (EXTRACT OF WHITE HELLEBORE; Ex-
See SOLUTION OF SUB-
TRACTUM VERATRI, E. HELLEBORI ALBI, L.)
From the root (rhizome) of the white hellebore
(Veratrum album), as EXTRACT OF BLACK HEL-
LEBORE.-Dose. T. gr. to # gr. Emetic, pur-
gative, stimulant, and highly acrid. In gout,
rheumatism, and nervous affections, mania, &c.
See WERATRINE.
Extract of Hem'lock. Syn. INSPISSATED
JUICE OF HEMLOCK ; EXTRACTUM conII (B.
P.), SUCCUS SPISSATUS CONII, L. Prep. 1.
(B. P.) The inspissated juice of the fresh
plant, prepared as directed for EXTRACTUM
BELLADONNE,-Dose. 4 to 6 grs.
2. (Ph. L.) From the fresh plant (Conium
maculatum), as EXTRACT OF ACONITE—Ph. L.
3. (Ph. E.) As EXTRACT OF FOXGLOVE—
Ph. E.
4. (Ph. D.) As EXTRACT OF BELLADONNA
—Ph. D.
Obs. Of all the inspissated juices (not even
excepting that of aconite), this is the one
most readily injured by exposure to the air
and heat, and which soonest loses its qualities
by age. Its active principle is CONINE. Ex-
tract of hemlock has a greenish colour, and a
strong odour of the fresh-bruised plant. It is
“of good quality only when a very strong odour
of conia (a ‘mouse-odour') is disengaged by
degrees, on its being carefully triturated with
liquor of potassa.” (Ph. E.) “The extracts of
hemlock may become feeble, if not inert, in
one of two ways, either by the heat being
continued after the concentration has been
carried to a certain extent, or by long keeping.
On the one hand, I have always observed that
from the point at which the extract attains
the consistence of thin syrup, ammonia begins
to be given off in abundance, together with a
modified odour of conine; and, on the other
hand, I have found extracts, which were un-
questionably well prepared at first, entirely
destitute of conine in a few years.” (Chris-
tison.) “The most active extract is that which
is procured by moderate pressure from the
leaves only.” (Brande.) “The extract of the
Ph. D., being freed from the inert albumen
and chlorophyll, contains most of the active
principle, and is nearly soluble in water.”
(Royle.) On the large scale, the whole of the
green portion of the plant is pressed for juice.
1 cwt. of hemlock yields from 3 to 5 lbs. of
extract.—Dose. 2 grs., gradually increased
to 5 grs., or more, until some obvious effect is
produced; as an anodyne, alterative, and re-
solvent in various obstinate disorders, as glan-
dular and visceral enlargements, foul and
painful ulcers, scrofula, cancer, neuralgia,
rheumatism, troublesome coughs, &c.
5. (Alcoholic; EXTRACTUM CONII ALCO-
HOLICUM, L.)—a. (Ph. Baden.) As ALCOHOLIG
EXTRACT OF ACONITE—Ph. Baden.
b. (P. Cod.) As the last, but using proof
spirit.—Dose. } to 2 grs.
6. (Dried; ExTRACTUM CONII SICOUM, L.)
cºi As the DRIED EXTRACT OF ACONITE–P,
Cod.

494.
EXTRACT.

b. (Archer.) By drying the extract of the
Dublin College with a continuous current of
warm air.
Extract of Hemp. Syn. ExTRACT OF AMERI-
CAN HEMP ; EXTRACTUM APOCYNI, E. A. CAN-
NABINI, L. Prep. From the root of the Apo-
cynum cannabinum, as EXTRACT OF GENTIAN.
A hydragogue cathartic.—Dose. 2 to 6 grs. ;
in dropsy, &c. The plant from which this
extract is prepared is called ‘INDIAN HEMP’
in the United States of America, a practice
which should be avoided, as this name is now
almost exclusively appropriated to Cannabis
Indica, a variety of the common hemp (Can-
nabis sativa, var. Indica) growing in India.
See EXTRACT OF INDIAN HEMP.
Extract of Henſbane. Syn. EXTRACT of
HYOSCYAMUs; EXTRACTUM HYOSCYAMI (B.
P.), SUCCUS SPISSATUS HYOSCYAMI, L. Prep.
1. (Ph. L.) From the fresh leaves and leaf-
stems of common henbane (Hyoscyamus niger),
as EXTRACT OF ACONITE–Ph. L.
2. (Ph. E.) As EXTRACT OF FOXGLOVE-
Ph. E.
3. (B. P.) From the fresh leaves and young
branches, as EXTRACT OF BELLADONNA.—
Dose. 3 to 6 grs.
4. (Ph. U. S.) From the expressed juice
coagulated by heat and strained.
Obs. In the Paris Codex extracts are or-
dered to be prepared from henbane both by the
processes Nos.1 and 4 above.—Product (by the
ordinary method):–1 lb. of the fresh leaves
yielded fully 8 drs. of extract (Geiger); 1 cwt.
yielded 4 to 5 lbs. (Brande); 1 cwt. of the re-
cent plant yielded, by an ordinary screw press,
59% lbs. of juice, and this, evaporated in a water
bath, gave 5 lbs. 9 oz. of extract (Squire); 1;
cwt. of the green herb yielded 11 lbs. of extract
(Gray.)—Dose. 2 to 10 grs.; as an anodyne,
hypnotic, antispasmodic, sedative, and nar-
cotic; more especially in those cases in which
the use of opium is objectionable. Laternally,
as a topical application to Sore or inflamed
parts, either made into an ointment or spread
on plaster.
5. (Alcoholic; EXTRACTUM HYOSCYAMI AL-
COHOLICUM, L.) The formulae of the Ph. Bad.,
Par. & U. S. are similar to those for ALCOHOLIC
IEXTRACT OF ACONITE.
6. (E. OF HENBANE SEEDs; EXTRACTUM SE-
MINUM HYOSCYAMI, L.-P. Cod.) An extract
of the seeds made with spirit sp. gr. 900 (=
about 16 o. p.) is dissolved in 4 parts of cold
water, and the solution filtered and evapo-
rated. Stronger than the simple extract.—
Dose. # gr. to 3 grs.
Extract of Holy Thistle. Syn. EXTRACTUM
CARDUI BENEDICTI, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. Baden.)
From holy or blessed thistle (Carduus Bene-
dictus) by displacement with cold water.
2. (Ph. Bor.) As EXTRACT OF GENTIAN–
Ph. L. (nearly). Tonic, diaphoretic, febri-
fuge, often diuretic, and occasionally emetic.
-Dose, 5 to 15 grs, as a tonic or stomachic,
chiefly.
Extract of Hops. Syn. ExTRACTUM IUPUII,
(B. P., Ph. L. & E.); E. HUMULI (Ph.D.), L.
Prep. 1. (B. P.) Hop, 8; rectified spirit,
15; distilled water, 80. Macerate the hop in
the spirit for 7 days, press out the tincture,
filter, and distil off the spirit, leaving a soft
extract; boil the residual hop with the water
for one hour, then express the liquor, strain,
and evaporate on a water bath to the consist-
ence of a soft extract. Mix the two extracts,
and evaporate at a temperature not exceeding
160° to a pilular consistence.—Dose. 5 to 10
grs.
2. (Ph. L.) From commercial hops (the
strobiles or catkins of Humulus Lupulus), 2%
lbs. ; boiling distilled water, 2 galls. ; mace-
rate for 24 hours, boil to a gallon, strain
whilst hot, and evaporate to a proper con-
sistence. The form of the Ph. E. is nearly
similar.
3. (Ph.D.) As EXTRACT OF ALOES-Ph.D.
Tonic and stomachic, and slightly anodyne
and hypnotic.—Dose. 5 grs. to 30 grs.; in
dyspepsia, and cases that do not permit of the
use of opium. 1 cwt. of ordinary hops yield
about 40 lbs. of extract." (Brande.) The drug-
gists usually employ hops 2 or more years old,
called by the dealers yearlings,’ ‘olds, or
‘old olds, because these may be purchased at
# to ; the price of those of the last season's
growth. The first of the above are estimated
to have only 3 the strength of new hops; the
second about ; ; and the last little or none, at
least in a medical point of view.
4. (Alcoholic; EXTRACTUM IUPUII ALCO-
HOLICUM, L.-Cottereau.) By displacement
with proof spirit. Stronger than the aqueous
extract. -
Extract of Hore'hound. Syn. EXTRACTUM
MARRUBII, L. Prep. 1. From the fresh herb,
aS EXTRACT OF ACONITE.
2. From the infusion or decoction. Anti-
spasmodic, pectoral, tonic, and emmenagogue,
—Dose. 10 grs. to 1 dr.
3. (Ph. Baden.) By displacement with cold

Water.
4. (Alcoholic; EXTRACTUM MARRUBII ALCO-
HOLICUM, L.)—a. From a tincture made with
proof spirit. Said by M. Thoriel to possess
considerable power as a febrifuge.—Dose, 5 grs.
to 20 grs.
b. (Ph. Lusit.) From a tincture made with
a mixture of rectified spirit, 1 part, and water,
7 parts. Inferior to the last.
Extract of Indian Hemp. Syn. CANNABINE,
HEMP RESIN, ALCOHOLIC EXTRACT OF INDIAN
HEMP ; EXTRACTUM CANNABIS INDICAE, E. C. I.
ALCOHOLICUM, RESINA CANNABIs, L. Prep.
1. (B. P.) Indian hemp in coarse powder, 1;
rectified spirit, 5 ; macerate seven days, press
out the tincture, distil off the spirit, and
evaporate.—Dose. # to 1 grain in pill.
2. (O’Shaughnessy.) The dried resinous
tops of Indian hemp (‘GUNJAH') are boiled in
rectified spirit until all the resin is taken up,
when most of the spirit is distilled off, and the
EXTRACT. 495
s
º
evaporation completed by the heat of a water
bath. 1 cwt. yields about 7 lbs.
3. (Robertson). By slowly acting on the
‘gunjah’ with the vapour of alcohol, by a spe-
cies of percolation; the spirit of the resulting
tincture is partly removed by distillation, and
the rest by slow evaporation at a temperature
not above 150° Fahr. 1 cwt. yields about
8lbs.--Dose of the last two, 1 to 3 grs., gra-
dually increased.
4. (Messrs. Smith.) The bruised ‘gunjah’ is
exhausted with tepid water, then with a solu-
tion of carbonate of soda (1 of carbonate to 2
of gunjah), and next with pure water; it is
then pressed, dried, and exhausted by displace-
ment with rectified spirit ; the tincture is agi-
tated with a milk of lime (containing 1 oz. of
lime for every lb. of gunjah), and, after filtration
or decantation, any retained lime is precipi-
tated by a little sulphuric acid in slight excess;
the tincture is next agitated with animal char-
coal, and again filtered; most of the spirit is
now removed by distillation, and 3 or 4 times
its bulk of water being added, the remaining
spirit is removed by a gentle heat; lastly, the
remaining water is poured off, and the resin
washed with fresh water, and dried. Product,
6}.—Commencing dose, # gr.
3. (Purified; EXTRACTUM CANNABIS INDICE
PURIFICATUM, L.-Ph. D.) From the crude
extract of Indian hemp, as imported (“CHUR-
RUS’), 1 oz. ; rectified spirit, 4 fl.oz.; dissolve,
and after defecation, decant, and evaporate.
Obs. The preparations of Indian hemp are
said to be anaesthetic, anodyne, hypnotic, sti-
mulant, phrenic, and aphrodisiac, and, in over-
doses, to produce catalepsy. They have been
recommended in hysteria, hydrophohia, cholera,
rheumatism, chorea, convulsions, and various
other painful spasmodic and nervous affections
of "a serious character. According to the ob-
servations of Dr. O'Shaughnessy, 1 gr. of the
extract produced catalepsy in a rheumatic
patient. The extract prepared with the plant
grown in our botanic gardens has quite a differ-
ent effect to that of the Indian plant; and it
also appears that the inhabitants of this coun-
try are less susceptible to its action than those
of India, and consequently bear the drug in
larger doses. This hemp is known in India as
the “increaser of pleasure,' the ‘exciter of
desire, the “cementer of friendship,” the
“causer of a reeling gait,” the ‘laughter-
mover,’ &c. See ExTRACT of HEMP (above),
HEMP, &c.
Extract of Ipecacuanha. Syn. EXTRACTUM
IPECACUANHA, L. Prep. 1. (P. Cod.) From
ipecacuanha, as ExTRACT OF Box—P. Cod.
2. (Ph. Bor.) As EXTRACT OF HENBANE
SEEDS. Expectorant and emetic.—Dose, 1% to
8 grs.
Extract of I'ron. Syn. ExTRACTUM FERRI,
E. MARTIS, L. Prep. 1. From tincture of
tartarised iron.—Dose. 2 to 10 grs. ; as a
chalybeaté tonic.
2. (Compound.) See EXTRACT OF APPLE,
Extract of Jalſap. Syn. EXTRACTUM JALAPHE
(B. P.), E. SIVE RESINA JALAPE (Ph. E.), L.
Prep. 1. (B. P.) Jalap in coarse powder, 1;
rectified spirit, 5; distilled water, 10; mace-
rate the jalap in the spirit for seven days,
press out the tincture, then filter, and distil
off the spirit, leaving a soft extract; again
macerate the residual jalap in the water for
four hours, express, strain through flannel, and
evaporate by a water bath to a soft extract;
mix the two extracts, and evaporate at a tem-
perature not exceeding 140°F. to a proper con-
sistence for forming pills.-Dose. 5 to 15
grs.
2. (Ph. I.) Jalap (powdered) 2% lbs. ; rec-
tified spirit, 1 gal.; digest four days, and ex-
press the tincture; boil the “marc’ in water,
2 galls. ; until reduced to 3 gal. ; filter the
tincture and decoction separately, and let the
one distil and the other evaporate until each
thickens; lastly, mix the two and complete
the evaporation.— Product. About 66% = 16%
of alcoholic and 50% of aqueous extract.
(Brande.) 18 lbs. yield 12 lbs. of extract. (Lab.
Journ.)—Dose, 6 to 15 grs.
3. (Ph. E.) From tincture of jalap prepared
by displacement with rectified spirit. It con-
sists of impure resin of jalap. It is more
active than the last-Prod. 16}.-Dose. 2 to
6 grs.
Obs. Extract of jalap is an active purgative.
It should be well beaten up with a little sul-
phate of potassa, sugar, or some aromatic pow-
der, to prevent it griping. The substance
commonly sold as extract of jalap in the shops
is prepared by boiling jalap root for 3 or 4
hours in water, when it is taken out, and well
bruised or sliced, and again boiled with water
until exhausted of soluble matter. The mixed
decoctions are then allowed 12 or 14 hours for
defecation, after which the Supernatant por-
tion is decanted and evaporated.
Extract of jalap “should be kept in the soft
state (EXTRACTUM JALAPAE, E. J. MOLLE), so as
to form pills; and in the hard state (HARD
EXTRACT OF JALAP; EXTRACTUM JALAPAE DU-
RUM), that it may be rubbed to powder.”
(Ph. L.)
Extract of Ju'niper. Syn. EXTRACTUM
JUNIPERI, E. BACCARUM J., L. Prep. (P.
Cod.) Macerate juniper berries in water at 77°
to 86°Fahr., for 24 hours, strain, repeat the
process with a fresh quantity of water, mix the
liquors, filter, and evaporate.—Dose. 20 grs. to
1 dr. ; as a stimulant diuretic, in dropsy, &c.;
and also as a pill-basis.
Extract of Kalada'na. Syn. ExTRACTUM
KALADANE, L. Prep. (Bengal Disp.) From
the tincture of the seeds of kaladana (Phar-
bitis Nil). Purgative. Said to be equal to
EXTRACT OF JALAP, and of double the
strength.
Extract of Lettuce. Syn. INSPISSATED JUICE
of LETTUCE; ExTRACTUM LACTUCAE (B. P.),
L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) The inspissated juice
evaporated to a pillular consistence, according




496 - EXTRACT.
|
to the directions given for EXTRACTUM BELLA-
IDONNAE.
2. (Ph. L.) From the fresh leaves of garden
lettuce (Lactuca sativa), as EXTRACT OF ACO-
NITE—Ph. L. Anodyne, sedative, hypnotic,
and antispasmodic.—Dose. 3 to 10 grs. 1 cwt.
of lettuce yields 4 lbs. to 5 lbs. of extract.
3. (Probait.) From the external parts of
the stalks and the old and yellow leaves, after
the plants have flowered, by maceration in
water for 24 hours, and decoction for 2 hours;
the expressed liquid is first evaporated by a
gentle heat, and afterwards spread on shallow
dishes, and dried by exposure to a current
of air. Stronger than the last.—IDose. 1 to 5
grs.
4. (E. OF WILD LETTUCE, INSPISSATED JUICE
OF W. L.; ExTRACTUM LACTUCAE VIROSE, SUC-
CUS SPISSATUS L. v.–Ph. E., L.)—a. (Ph. E.)
From the leaves of strong-scented wild lettuce
(Lactuca virosa)."
b. (P. Cod.) As ALCOHOLIC EXTRACT OF
ACONITE—P. Cod.
c. (Ph. Baden.) As EXTRACT OF FOXGLOVE
—Ph. Baden. See LACTUCARIUM.
Extract of Liquorice. Syn. EXTRACTUM
GIYCYRRHIZE (B. P.), L. Prep. 1. (SOFT E.
OF L.; EXTRACTUM GLYCERRHIZE MOLLE, L.)
—a. (Ph. L.) From fresh liquorice root, as
EXTRACT OF HOPS–Ph. L.
b. (Ph. E.) From the fresh root, cut into
slices, dried, and powdered, as EXTRACT OF
GENTIAN — Ph. E. The form of the Ph.
Baden is very similar.
c. (Ph.D.) As ordered for simple extracts
(EXTRACTA SIMPLICIORA-Ph.D.).
d. (B. P.) Liquorice root in coarse powder,
1; cold distilled water, 5; macerate the root
in half the water for twelve hours, strain, and
press; again macerate the pressed marc with
the remainder of the water for 6 hours, strain
and press, mix the strained liquors, heat to
212° F., strain, and evaporate to a pill con-
sistence.—Dose. # to 1 dr.
e. (U. S. Disp.) Crude liquorice (SPANISH
JUICE), q. S., is dissolved in water, and the so-
lution filtered and evaporated. To produce a
good article (EXTRACTUM GIYCYRREIIZE PURI-
FICATUM) in this way, the solution should be
allowed some hours for defecation, and should
not be decanted and strained until quite
cold.
Obs. Soft extract of liquorice is often em-
ployed as a pill-basis, and the hard extract
(SPANISH JUICE, &c.) is used as a lozenge to
allay tickling cough. The principal portion of
the latter is, however, consumed by the porter
brewers and brewers’ druggists. The product
of the last formula, evaporated until it is quite
solid when cold, and made into small pipes,
sticks, or rolls, forms the BEST REFINED LIQUO-
RICE or REFINED JUICE of the shops.
2. (HARD E. OFI., SPANISH JUICE, S. LIQUo-
RICE, GIYCYRRHIZIN, BLACK SUGAR ; Ex-
TRACTUM GIYCYRRHIZE SIMPLEX, E. G.
* See general instructions, page 48l.
DURUM, SUCCUS G., S. G. SPISSATUS, L.) This
is seldom prepared by the English druggists,
being principally imported in the dry state
from Spain and Italy. That from Solazzi
(SOLAZZI JUICE) is the most esteemed. A great
deal of the foreign extract is mixed with fecula,
or the pulp of plums, hence its inferior quality.
It also frequently contains copper, derived from
the boilers in which it is prepared. The ex-
tract prepared from the fresh root is usually
preferred to the best foreign, as the latter has
a less sweet and agreeable taste. REFINED
JUICE is prepared by dissolving the foreign
juice in water, filtering and evaporating. See
LIQUORICE, and above.
Extract of Lobelia. Syn. ACETIC EXTRACT
OF INDIAN TOBACCO; EXTRACTUM LOBELIE,
E. L. INFLATE, L. Prep. (W. Procter.)
Lobelia seeds (bruised), 8 oz. ; dilute alcohol
(sp. gr. 1935), 4 pints; acetic acid, 1 fl. OZ, ;
by maceration for 24 hours, and subsequent
displacement. Expectorant and diaphoretic,
in small doses; emetic and narcotic, in larger
ones. It is principally used in asthma and
other chest diseases.—Dose. # gr. to 5 gr,
Extract of Log'wood. Syn. EXTRACTUM
HAEMATOXYLI (B. P.), E. H. CAMPECHIANI,
(Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Logwood in
chips, 1 ; boiling distilled water, 10; macerate
24 hours, boil to 5, strain, and evaporate to
an extract, but not in iron vessels.
2. (Ph. L.) From cut logwood (logwood
chips), as EXTRACT OF HOPS–Ph. L.
3. (Ph. E.) As the last (nearly).
4. (Ph.D. 1826 and Wholesale.) From the
decoction.
Obs. The Ph. U. S. 1841. Orders the wood
to be rasped. The Ph. Baden directs dis-
placement with cold water. On the large scale,
this extract is prepared solely by decoction.
1 cwt. of wood yields about 20 lbs. of extract
(Brande); 80 lbs. yield 14 lbs. of extract (Gray).
It is kept in two states—hard (EXTRACTUM
HEMATOXYLI DURUM), and soft (E. H. MOLLE).
The dose of the first is 10 to 20 grs., dissolved
in wine, or any cordial water; as an astrin-
gent, after each motion in diarrhoea; the
second is often employed as a lozenge in the
same disease, and is an inexpensive and agree-
able remedy for simple relaxation of the
bowels.
Extract of Lov'age. Syn. EXTRACTUM LE-
VISTICI, L. Prep. (Ph. Baden.) From lovage
(Levisticum officinale), as EXTRACT OF BISTORT
—P. Cod. Aromatic, stomachic, and diapho-
retic.—Dose. 5 to 15 grs.
Extract of Lu'puline. Syn. ExTRACTUM LU-
PULINE, L. Prep. 1. From lupuline (the
powder separated from hops by rubbing and
sifting), by infusion in cold water, or by dis-
placement.
2. (EXTRACTUM IUPULINE COCTIONE PA-
RATUM.) From the decoction. Both similar
to extract of hops, but stronger. The first is
the most aromatic; the last the most bitter.
Extract of Madder, Syn. EXTRACTUM RUBLE,




EXTRACT. - 497
L. Prep. (Ph. Hamb.) From the tincture
of dyer's madder (Rubia tinctorum), made with
rectified spirit, 1 part, and water, 3 parts.
Dose. 10 grs. to 30 grs.; as a diuretic, emmena-
gogue, and parturifacient; and in jaundice,
&c.
Extract of Mahogamy. Syn. ExTRACTUM
SWIETENIAE, L. From the chips and sawdust
of mahogany (Swietenia Mahogoni), It is
astringent, and is frequently sold for kino.
It is also employed in tanning.
Extract of Male Fern. Syn. ALCOHOLIC
EXTRACT OF MALE FERN; EXTRACTUM FILICIS,
B. P. Prep. 1. (Dr. Ebers.) From the tinc-
ture of the dried root of male fern (Lastraºa
Filia-mas), made with rectified spirit. In
tape-worm.—Dose. 20 grs, to # dr., twice
a day, made into an electuary with powdered
sugar, and followed by a strong dose of castor
oil,
2. (Ethereal.) B. P. (EXTRACTUM FILT-
CIS LIQUIDUM.) Fern root, in coarse powder,
1; ether, 2}, or a sufficiency. Pack closely in
a percolator with 1 of the ether, add the rest
at intervals, until it passes through colourless,
distil off the ether, and the liquid extract re-
mains.—Dose. 30 to 60 minims. See OIL OF
MALE FERN. -
Extract of Malt. Syn. EXTRACTUM MAITI,
E. BYNES, L. Prep. From the infusion made
with water at a temperature ranging between
160° and 170° Fahr., drained off, without pres-
sure, and evaporated to the consistence of
honey. Nutritious and laxative.—Dose. A
table-spoonful, or more, ad libiţum.
Extract of Ma'rygold. Syn. EXTRACTUM
CALENDULE, L. Prep. 1. (Guibourt.) By
maceration of the herb and flowers of the
common marygold (Calendula officinalis) in
tepid water for 24 hours, and subsequent coc-
tion for 15 or 20 minutes.
2. (Ph. Baden.) As EXTRACT OF ANGELICA
—Ph. Baden.—Dose. 2 to 10 grs. ; cordial,
diaphoretic, alterative, and emmenagogue; in
dyspepsia, and scirrhous and cancerous affec-
tions.
Extract of May-apple. Syn. EXTRACTUM
PoDoPHYIII. L. Prep. (Ph. U. S. 1841.)
From the tincture of the root (rhizomes) of
may-apple (Podophyllum peltatum). — Dose.
5 to 15 grs. ; as a substitute for extract of
jalap. See PopoPHYLLIN.
Extract of Meadow Saffron.
OF COLCHICUM.
Extract of Meat. Syn. ExTRACT OF FLESH;
EXTRACTUM CARNIs, L. Prep. (Liebig.)
The lean of recently killed meat (chopped very
Small), 1 part ; cold water, 8 parts; agitate it
well together for 10 minutes; then heat it
gradually to the boiling-point, let it simmer
gently for a few minutes, and strain through
a hair sieve whilst still hot; lastly, evaporate
to a soft mass. 1 lb. of meat yields barely 1
oz. See ESSENCE OF BEEF, TEA (Beef), &c.
Extract of Mezere'on. Syn. MEZEREON
RESIN; EXTRACTUM MEZEREI, RESINA ME-
See EXTRACT
ZEREI, L. Prep. 1. (Alcoholic; E. M. ALCO-
HOLICUM, L.)—a, Ph. Hamb.) By distilling
off #ths of the tincture made with rectified
spirit, and filtering the residue, retaining what
is left on the filter.
b. By the simple distillation of the tinc-
ture.
Obs. Green or brownish green; insoluble
in water. 3 oz. mezereon root-bark yielded
1% oz. (Hamb. Disp.) It is chiefly used
in preparing blistering ointments and plas-
ters.
2. (Ethereal; GREEN OIL OF MEZEREON ;
ExTRACTUM MEZEREI IETHEREUM. B. P.)—a.
B. P. Mezereon bark cut small, 1 lb.; recti-
fied spirit, 8 pints; ether, 1 pint. Macerate
the mezereon in 6 pints of the spirit for 3 days,
with frequent agitation, strain, and press. To
the residue of the mezereon add the remainder
of the spirit, and again macerate for 3 days,
with constant agitation, strain, and press.
Mix and filter the strained liquors, recover the
greater part of the spirit by distillation, eva-
porate what remains to the consistence of a
soft extract, put this in a stoppered bottle with
the ether, and macerate for 24 hours, shaking
them frequently; decant the etherial solution,
recover part of the ether by distillation, and
evaporate what remains to the consistence of
a soft extract.
b. (Ph. Bor.) By digesting alcoholic ex-
tract of mezereon in ether for some days with
agitation, reducing the tincture to 1-4th by
careful distillation, and evaporating the resi-
duum by a gentle heat to the consistence of
an extract.
Obs. Both the alcoholic and ethereal ex-
tract of mezereon must be kept in stoppered
bottles. The latter, like the former, is used
as an external irritant. -
Extract of Mil'foil, Syn. ExTRACTUM
MILLEFOLII, E. ACHILLE M., L. Prep. From
the herb milfoil or yarrow (Achillea millefo-
lium), as EXTRACT OF HOPS–Ph. L. Astrin-
gent, tonic, and alterative.—Dose. 10 grs. to
} dr.
Extract of Mimo'sa Bark. Syn. EXTRAC-
TUM CoRTICIS MIMOSAE, L. Prep. From the
bark of several Australian species of Acacia or
Mimosa (Acacia mollissima, A. decurrens, A.
melanoacylon, &c.). It is chiefly imported from
Van Diemen's Land. Astringent. Said to be
superior to oak bark for tanning.
Extract of Mome'sia Bark. Syn. ExtRACTUM
MONESTE, E. M. PURIFICATUM, L. Prep.
From the monesia or buranheim bark (bark
of Chrysophyllum Buranheim); or from com-
mercial monesia, as EXTRACT OF CATECHU.
Astringent.—Dose. 4 to 8 grs.
Extract of Mugwort. Syn. ExTRACTUM
ARTEMISLE, L. Prep. From the tops of the
common mugwort (Artemisia vulgaris), as EX-
TRACT OF Box,−P. Cod. An active emmena-
gogue.
Extract of Myrrh, Syn. EXTRACTUM MYR-
RILE, L. Prep. 1. (Aqueous; EXTRACTUM
32

498 - EXTRACT.
MYRRHE AQUOSUM, L.)—a. From the strained
decoction.
b. (Ph. Bor.) As EXTRACT OF ALOES-Ph.
Bor, afterwards reducing it to fine powder.
The formula of the Ph. Baden is similar.—
Dose. 6 to 15 grs, or more.
2. (Alcoholic; RESIN OF MYRRH; EXTRAC-
TUM MYRRHAE ALCOHOLICUM, E. M. RESINO-
SUM, L.) From the tincture. Tonic and
stimulant.—Dose. 5 to 10 grs, or more.
3. (Compound; EXTRACTUM MYRRHAE COM-
POSITUM, L.-Swediaur.) Myrrh, 2 oz.: gum
arabic (in powder), 2 drs. ; triturate, add
water, q. S. to form a thick emulsion, and add
extract of couch grass, 4 oz. Much recom-
mended in phthisis and uterine ulcerations.—
Dose. 1 to 2 drs, in water, twice or thrice
daily.
Extract of Net’tles. Syn. ExTRACTUM
URTICE, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) From the juice
of nettles (Urtica dioica), as EXTRACT OF
ACONITE—Ph. L. Antiscorbutic, diuretic, and
narcotic.
Extract of Nose'gay. Syn. ESSENCE OF
NOSEGAY ; EXTRAIT DE BOUQUET, Fr. Prep.
Flowers of benzoin, 1 dr. ; essence of amber-
gris, 2 fl. oz. ; spirits of jasmine and extract
(esprit) of violets, of each, 1 pint ; spirits of
cassia, roses, orange flowers and gillyflowers,
of each ; pint; mix. A delightful perfume.
Extract of Nux Womica. Syn. EXTRACT
OF KOOCHLA NUTS ; EXTRACTUM NUCIS WO-
MICAE, B. P. Prep. 1. (Aqueous; E. N. V.
AQUOSUM, L-Ph. Bor.) From the powdered
nut, as EXTRACT OF HOPS–Ph. L. (nearly.)—
Dose. 1 to 5 grs.
2. (Alcoholic; EXTRACTUM NUCIS voyſICE
—Ph. L. E. and D., E. N. V. ALCOHOLICUM,
L.)—a. (B. P.) Soften nux vomica by steam,
dry rapidly, and reduce to fine powder; boil
with rectified spirit until exhausted, strain,
distil off the spirit, and evaporate to the con-
sistence of a soft extract.—Dose. } to 2 grs.
b. (Ph. L.) Koochla or poison nuts (seed
or fruit of Strychnos Nuw-vomica), 8 oz. ; rec-
tified spirit, 3 pints; expose them to steam
until softened, then bruise, slice, and dry them,
and macerate them in 2-3rds of the spirit for
7 days; express the tincture, and repeat the
maceration with the remaining 1-3rd of the
spirit; again express the liquid; lastly, filter
the mixed tinctures, distil off the greater part
of the spirit, and complete the evaporation by
a gentle heat. The formula of the P. Cod, is
º but using spirit sp. gr. 863 (=41
O. p.).
c. (Ph. E.) The sliced and dried nuts are
to be ground in a coffee-mill, and either ex-
hausted by percolation with rectified spirit or
by boiling the powder in repeated portions of
the menstruum. The formulae of the Ph. Baden
and U. S. are similar.
d. (Ph.D. 1826.) From a tincture of the
rasped nut made with proof spirit, observing
that the extract, whilst thickening, should be
properly stirred,
Obs. This extract consists chiefly of im-
pure igasurate of strychnia, and is exhibited
in similar cases to that alkaloid. Used as a
stimulant of the nervous system in paralysis.
—Dose. A gr., gradually and cautiously in-
creased to 2 grs. It is very poisonous. On
the large scale, the nuts are ground in a drug-
mill. -
Extract of Oak Bark. Syn. EXTRACTUM
QUERCös, E. CORTICIS QUERCús, L. Prep.
(Ph.D. 1826.) From the decoction. Astrin-
gent.—Dose. 10 grs. to # dr. Now seldom
used.
Extract of 0'pium. Prep. 1. (AQUEOUS
EXTRACT OF OPIUM, SIMPLE E. OF O.; EX-
TRACTUM OPII (B.P.), E. O. AQUOSUM (Ph.D.),
E. O. PURIFICATUM, L.)—a. (B. P.) Opium
in thin slices, 1 lb.; distilled water, 6 pints,
Macerate the opium in 2 pints of the water for
24 hours, and express the liquor. Reduce the
residue of the opium to a uniform pulp, mace-
rate again in 2 pints of the water for 24 hours,
and express. Repeat the operation a third
time. Mix the liquors, strain through flannel,
and evaporate by a water bath to a proper con-
sistence for forming pills.-Dose. to 1 gr.,
Ol' In Ore.
b. (Ph. L.) Opium (powdered), 1% lb.; dis-
tilled water (cold), 2% pints; mix gradually,
and macerate for 24 hours, frequently stirring
with a spatula; (press), strain, and repeat the
maceration for 24 hours with a fresh quantity
(2} pints) of water; lastly, evaporate the
(mixed) strained liquors to a proper consist-
ence. The formula of the Ph. E. D. and
Baden, and P. Cod., are essentially the same.
c. (Ph. D. 1826.) As the last, but using
boiling water, and exposing the mixed liquors
to the air for 2 days, before filtering, and eva-
porating them. Inferior to the last.
d. (Purified.) The extract, prepared with
cold water, is evaporated to dryness, pow-
dered, and redissolved in cold water; after 48
hours’ exposure, and defecation, it is decanted
from the dregs, filtered, and gently evaporated,
as before. Superior to any other extract of
opium made.
Obs. Good opium yields from 60% to 70% of
its weight of extract, but much depends upon
the variety used.—Dose. }. gr. to 2 grs, as
an anodyne, sedative, and hypnotic. It is less
stimulating than ordinary opium. That pre-
pared by the third formula is, indeed, scarcely
inferior in its action to the salts of morphine.
This extract is kept in both the hard and
soft state (EXTRACTUM OPII DURUM, E. O.
MOLLE). A solution of the former, in distilled
water, with the addition of a little spirit to
keep it, forms Battley’s ‘LIQUOR OPII SEDA-
TIVUs.” The Dublin formula is that adopted
by the wholesale druggists.
Besides the aqueous extract, there are the
following preparations:—
2. (EXTRACTUM OPII LIQUIDUM, B. P.; Ex-
TRACT OF OPIUM.) Distilled water, 16; recti-
fied spirit, 4. Digest the extract of opium in

EXTRACT, 499
#
the water for an hour, stirring frequently;
filter, and add the spirit. The product should
measure 20.—Dose. 10 to 30 minims.
3. (Acetic; EXTRACTUM OPII ACETICUM, L.
—Soubeiran.) Opium, 1 oz.; distilled vine-
gar, 1 quart; digest 2 days (with heat), de-
cant, filter, and evaporate.
4. (Alcoholic; EXTRACTUM OPII ALCO-
HOLICUM, L-Ph. Antwerp.) From the tinc-
ture.
5. (Aqueo-alcoholic; E. OPTI Aquo-ALCOHO-
LICUM. L.-Taddei.) The opium, exhausted
by spirit, is digested in warm water, and the
infusion and tincture, separately filtered, are
mixed and evaporated.
6. (De-narcotized; EXTRACTUM OPTIABSQUE
NARCOTINA, L.-a, (P. Cod.) The aqueous
extract is reduced with hot water to the con-
sistence of a syrup, and when cold this is
mixed with 8 times its volume of ether, and
the whole is frequently shaken for a day or
two ; the ethereal solution is then decamted,
and the process repeated with fresh ether, as
long as it dissolves anything. The original
form of Robiquet is similar. Said to consist
entirely of impure MURIATE OF MORPHINE,
GUM, and EXTRACTIVE.
b. (M. Lamousin-Lamothe.) Aqueous ex-
tract, 4 parts; resin, 1 part; beat well toge-
ther; add boiling water, 16 parts; boil to one
half; add cold water, 8 parts, filter, and eva-
porate.
7. (By Fermentation; ExTRACTUM OPII
PER FERMENTATIONEM, L.)—a. Opium and
sugar, of each, 4 oz. ; water, 1 quart; rub to-
gether, and keep the mixture, loosely covered,
in a warm situation (about 70° Fahr.), for 10
days or more; then add of cold water, 1 quart,
and the next day filter and evaporate.
b. (Deyeux.) From an unstrained mixture
of opium, 1 part, with water, 8 parts, and a
little yeast; left for a week at a temperature
of 68° to 77°Fahr., and then diluted, filtered,
and evaporated. Some parties have recom-
mended quince juice as the menstruum.
8. (Roasted; EXTRACTUM OPII TORREFACTI,
L–Guibourt.) Powdered opium is heated on
a flat dish over a moderate fire, with constant
stirring, as long as fumes are given off; it is
then exhausted by treating it twice with 6
times its weight of water, and the mixed
liquor, after filtration, is evaporated.
9. (Vinous; EXTRACTUM OPII VINo PARA-
TUM, L.-P. Cod.) From wine of opium. The
above extracts of opium (excepting the alco-
holic) are regarded as less exciting than the
other preparations of the drug. The dose of
each is similar to that of the aqueous ex-
tract.
Extract of Or'ange Peel. Syn. ExTRACTUM
CORTICIS AURANTII, L. Prep. 1. From the
thin yellow peel, as EXTRACT OF MADDER.
2. See AURANTIINE.
Extract of 0x-gall. Syn. INSPISSATED OX-
GALL; EXTRACTUM FELLIS BOVINI, L. Prep.
(P. Cod.) From ox-gall, strained, and eva-
porated in a water bath. Dose. 5 to 15 grs. ;
in pills.
2. (Hunter Lane.) As the last, but re-
ducing the gall to dryness, and them powder-
ing it. It must be preserved in well-corked
bottles.—Dose. 3 to 12 grs.
Extract of Pareira. Syn. ExTRACTUM
PAREIRA. (B. P.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Pa-
reira root in coarse powder, 1 ; boiling distilled
water, 10, or a sufficiency; digest the pareira
with 1% of water for twenty-fomr hours, then
pack in a percolator, and water till by slow
percolation 10 has passed through; evaporate
in a water bath to a pilular consistence,—Dose.
10 to 20 grs.
2. (Ph. L.) From the root of velvet leaf or
pareira brava (Cissampelos Pareira), as EX-
TRACT OF HOP8—Ph. L.
3. (P. E.) As EXTRACT OF LIQUORICE—
Ph. E. The P. Cod. formula is similar. Alte-
rative, tonic, and diuretic.—Dose. 10 grs. to
! dr.; chiefly in affections of the bladder.
4. EXTRACTUM PAREIRA LIQUIDUM (B. P.).
Pareira in coarse powder, 16; boiling distilled
water, 160, or a sufficiency; rectified spirit, 3;
macerate in 20 of water for twenty-four hours;
pack in a percolator, adding more of the water;
allow the liquor slowly to pass until 160 has
been collected, or the pareira is exhausted;
evaporate to 13, and, when cold, add the spirit;
filter and make up to 16.-Dose. # to 2 drs.
Extract of Par'sley. Syn. EXTRACTUM
PETROSELINI, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) From the
root, as EXTRACT OF BISTORT-P. Cod.
2. (M. Peraibe.) From the fresh leaves, as
EXTRACT OF ACONITE. Febrifuge and tonic.
—Dose. 5 to 10 grs.
Extract of Pasque Flower. Syn, EXTRAC-
TUM ANEMONIS, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) From
the recent or dried flower, as either of the
EXTRACTS OF ACONITE—P. Cod.--Dose. I to
4 grs.
Obs. Several species of Anemone have been
used in medicine, especially Anemone pratensis
and A. pulsatilla. According to Baron Stoerck,
the former is resolvent, and is an effectual
remedy in various chronic diseases, particu-
larly in amaurosis, cataract, opacity of the
cornea, nocturnal pains, suppressions, &c. &
to 1 gr., combined with sugar of milk, has been
highly recommended in hooping-cough.
Extract of Patience Dock. Syn. EXTRAC-
TUM PATIENTIAE, L. Prep. From the root of
Rumea, Patientia or garden patience, as Ex-
TRACT OF HOPS. Aperient and stomachic.
Used in double doses in lieu of extract of
rhubarb.
Extract of Paullin'ia.
GUARANA.
Extract of Peach Blossom. Prep. From
essence of lemons, 1 oz. ; pure balsam of Peru,
2 drs. ; essence (oil) of bitter almonds, 1 dr.;
rectified spirit, 3 pints; spirit of orange
flowers, 1 pint ; spirit of jasmin, # pint ; mix.
A pleasant and powerful perfume.
Extract of Pel'litory, Syn, EXTRACTUM

See EXTRACT of
500
EXTRACT.
PYRETHRI, E. P. ETHERO-ALCOHOLICUM, L.
Prep. (W. Procter.) Alcohol (rectified spirit),
1 pint ; ether, pint; mix, and pour it gra-
dually on root of pellitory (Anacyclus Pyre-
thrum), 1 lb., placed in a percolator; after-
wards pour on alcohol, 1 pint ; and subse-
quently, sufficient dilute alcohol (proof spirit)
to displace 2% pints of tincture (ESSENCE OF
PELLITORY, TOOTHACHE ESSENCE); the latter
is either suffered to evaporate spontaneously,
or by a very gentle heat, until a soft extract
is attained. Used to destroy the sensibility
of the nerves of teeth, previous to plugging,
and for toothache.
Extract of Pepper. Syn. ExTRACTUM PI-
PERIS, E. P. NIGRI, L. Prep. 1. From decoc-
tion of black pepper (bruised). Stimulant;
stronger tasted than the berries, but less aro-
matic.—Dose. 10 grs. to 1 dr. ; in agues.
2. (Fluid ; EXTRACTUM PIPERIS FLUIDUM,
L.-Ph. U. S.) From black pepper, as FLUID
EXTRACT OF CUBEBS—Ph. U. S., separating
the PIPERINE by expression through a cloth,
and keeping the fluid portion for use.
Extract of Pimpinella. Syn. EXTRACTUM
PIMPINELLE, L. Prep. From the root of bur-
net saxifrage (Pimpinella sawifraga), as EX-
TRACT OF HOPS. Astringent.— Dose. 10 to
20 grs.
Extract of Pink'root. Syn. EXTRACT OF
WORM GRASS, E. OF WORMSEED ROOT; EX-
TRACTUM SPIGELIAE, L. Prep. 1. From Caro-
lina pinkroot (Spigelia Marylandica), as EX-
TRACT OF BOX—P. Cod.-Dose. 5 to 20 grs.
2. (Fluid; ESSENCE OF PINKROOT, LIQUOR
OF P.; EXTRACTUM SPIGELLA, FLUIDUM,
L.) Pinkroot, 1 lb. ; proof spirit, 3 pints;
make a tincture, evaporate to 10 fl. Oz., add
sugar, #1b., and rectified spirit, q. s. to make
the whole measure exactly a pint.—Dose. For
a child, beginning with a teaspoonful.
3. (Compound; CoMPOUND LIQUOR OF
PINKROOT; EXTRACTUM SPIGELIE FLUIDUM
COM.P., L.)—a. (Estlack.) Carolina pinkroot
or spigelia (bruised), 4 oz. ; senna, 3 oz. ; savine,
1 dr. ; pour on boiling water, 1 quart; when
cold, add rectified spirit, 3 pint; digest 24
hours, express (or percolate), filter, evaporate
to 12 fl. oz., in which dissolve, manna, 1 oz. ;
sugar, 8 oz. Every fl. oz. is equal to 2 drs. of
pinkroot, and 1% dr. of Senna, Dose. For a
child, 3 to 1 teaspoonful; for an adult, a table-
spoonful.
b. (W. Procter.) Pinkroot, 16 oz. ; senna,
8 oz. (both in coarse powder); diluted alcohol
(sp. gr. 935), 2 pints; macerate for 2 days,
then proceed by displacement, adding fresh
spirit, until 4 pints have passed through; filter,
evaporate to 20 fl. oz., and add carbonate of
potassa, 1 oz. ; next add oils of caraway and
aniseed, of each, ; dr. ; (previously triturated
with) powdered sugar, 24 oz. ; lastly, apply a
gentle heat to dissolve the sugar.
c. (EXTRACTUM SPIGELIE ET SENNA. FIUT-
DUM-Ph. U.S.) As the last (nearly)—Dose,
As above. All the above preparations of pink-
root are regarded as powerful and certain an-
thelmintics; particularly the last two.
Extract of Pipsis'sewa. See ExTRACT OF
WINTER-GREEN.
Extract of Poiſson Oak. Syn. ExTRACTUM
RHOIS TOXICODENDRI, L. Prep. (P. Cod.)
From the expressed juice of the leaves of Rhus
towicodendron. Narcotic, stimulant, and alte-
rative. Dose. . gr. to 1 gr., gradually in-
creased; in chronic rheumatism, obstinate skin
diseases, &c.
Extract of Pomegranate. Syn. EXTRACTUM
GRANATI, L. Prep. 1. (Soubeiran, & P. Cod.)
From the root-bark of pomegranate, as EX-
TRACT OF BOX. In tape-worm, Dose. 10 to
20 grs. ; followed by a purgative.
2. (E. G. CORTICIS FRUCTös, L.) From the
decoction of the fruit-rind. As the last.
Extract of Poppies. Syn. EXTRACTUM PA-
PAVERIS (B. P.), E. P. ALBI, L. Prep. 1.
(B. P.) Capsules coarsely powdered, 16; rec-
tified spirit, 2; distilled water, a sufficiency;
mix the poppy capsules with 40 of the water,
stirring them frequently during 24 hours; then
pack in a percolator, and pass water slowly
through them until about 160 have passed
though ; evaporate the liquor by a water bath
to 20; when cold, add the spirit. After
24 hours, filter the liquor, and evaporate to a
pilular consistence.—Dose. 2 or 5 grains.
2. (Ph. L.) Bruised poppy-heads (without
the seeds), 15 oz. ; boiling distilled water, 1
gal.; macerate 24 hours, boil to one half, strain,
and complete the evaporation.
3. (Ph. E.) As the last, with “capsules not
quite ripe.”
Obs. The medical action of extract of pop-
pies, for the most part, resembles that of
opium; but it is considerably weaker, and is
generally regarded as less prone to produce
headache and delirium.—Dose. 2 to 12 grs. It
is usually prepared by the large manufacturers,
by exhausting the capsules, by coction with
water; hence the inferior quality of the ex-
tract of the shops, which contains a consider-
able quantity of inert matter.
The principal consumption of this extract is
among the brewers, brewers’ druggists, and
wine merchants. For this purpose it is evapo-
rated until it becomes hard on cooling, when
it is formed into half-pound rolls, and cevered
with paper, like lead plaster. One of these
rolls added to a hogshead of ale, stout, or
sherry, materially increases the ‘headiness’ or
apparent strength of these beverages.
Extract of Potaſto. Syn. EXTRACTUM So-
LANI TUBEROSI, L. Prep. (Dr. J. Latham.)
From the stem and leaves of the potato plant,
as EXTRACT OF ACONITE—Ph. L. Narcotic.
— Dose. 2 to 10 grs.
Extract of Pur’ging Flax. Syn. EXTRACTUM
LINI CARTHARTICI, L. Prep. (Dr. B. Lane.)
From the dried herb, as EXTRACT OF HOPS–
Ph. L. Aperient and diuretic.—Dose. 5 to 10
grs. ; 14 lbs, yielded 24 lbs. of extract.
Extract of Quassia, Syn. EXTRACTUM
EXTRACT, 501
º
QUASSIAF (B. P.), Ex. Q. LIGNI, L. Prep. 1.
(B. P.) Quassia scraped, 1 lb.; distilled water,
a sufficiency; macerate the quassia in 8 oz. of
water for 12 hours; pack in a percolator;
add water till the quassia is exhausted; evapo-
rate, filter before it becomes thick, and again
evaporate in a water bath to a proper consist-
ence for pills.--Dose. 2 to 5 grs.
2. From the decoction of quassia chips.
Product, 5% to 6%.
3. (Ph. E.) From the rasped wood, as EX-
TRACT OF BISTORT-P. Cod. Bitter and sto-
machic. Dose. 5 to 10 grs., or more.
Obs. This extract is almost universally pre-
pared by coction, and is principally consumed
by the brewers, who employ it as a substitute
for hops, in large quantities. The bark is fre-
quently substituted for the wood, but is con-
siderably less bitter. The Ph. Baden has an
extract prepared with spirit of 944.
Extract of Quince Seeds. Syn. EXTRACTUM
CYDONIAE, E. C. SEMINUM. Prep. From the
decoction. Sucked as a lozenge, in hoarseness,
&c.
Extract of Rhat'any. Syn. EXTRACTUM
RHATANIE; E. KRAMERIE (B. P.), L. Prep.
1. (B. P.) Rhatany in coarse powder, 1; cold
distilled water, 15 ; macerate 24 hours in 2 of
the water, then percolate the whole; evapo-
rate by water bath to dryness.--Dose. 5 to 20
grains.
2. (Ph. E. Baden and U. S.) From dried
rhatany root (Krameria triandria), as EXTRACT
OF BISTORT-P. Cod.
3. (Ph. Bor.) By two successive macerations
in boiling water of 24 hours each, and evapo-
rating at a temperature not exceeding 165°
Fahr.
Obs. Extract of rhatany is astringent and
tonic.—Dose. 10 to 20 grs. A large quantity
of this extract, of very inferior quality, is im-
ported from Brazil, and other parts of South
America. 1t is kept in two states, hard and
soft ; the former resembles KINO, and is often
sold for it; the latter is chiefly consumed by
the manufacturers and ‘improvers’ of port
wine.
Extract of Rhu'barb. Syn. ExTRACTUM
RHEI (B. P.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Rhubarb
(sliced or bruised), 8 oz. ; rectified spirit, 5 oz. ;
distilled water, 50 Oz. ; macerate 4 days, strain,
and set it aside, that the faeces may subside;
next decant the clear portion, strain, mix, and
evaporate to a proper consistence over a water
bath at 160 F.
2. (Ph. L.) As EXTRACT OF CINCHONA—Ph.
L. (nearly). “The extract is obtained of
finer quality by evaporation in a vacuum
with a gentle heat.” The Baden formula is
similar.
Obs. This extract is usually prepared by
decoction from inferior and damaged rhubarb,
picked out from the chests on purpose; hence
the inferior quality of the extract of the shops.
When made of good Turkey, or even East
India rhubarb, it is a very valuable prepara-
tion.--Dose. As a stomachic, 5 to 10 grs.; as a
purgative, 10 grs, to , dr. It is seldom exhi-
bited alone. Product. 50%.
3. (Fluid ; LIQUOR OF RHUBARB, ESSENCE
OF R. ; LIQUOR RHEI, EXTRACTUM RHEI
FLUIDUM, L.)—a. (W. Procter.) Rhubarb (in
coarse powder), 8 oz. ; mix it with an equal
bulk of coarse sand, and moisten it with dilute
alcohol (sp. gr. 935, =13 u. p.) to form a
pasty mass; in a short time introduce it into
a percolator, shake it until uniformly settled,
and cover it with cloth or paper; then pour
on the rest of the spirit (the remainder of 2
pints) until the product has little odour or
taste of the root; next gently evaporate the
tincture to 5% fl. oz., and add sugar, 5 oz.,
when the whole should measure 8 fl. oz.-Dose,
15 to 30 drops.
b. (Ph. U. S.) As the last, adding of oils
of fennel and anise, of each, 4 drops; (dissolved
in) tincture of ginger, 4 fl. drs.
4. (Compound; EXTRACTUM RHEI COM-
POSITUM, E. PANCHYMAGOGUM, L-Ph. Bor.)
Extract of rhubarb, 3 drs. ; extract of aloes,
1 dr., (softened with) water, 4 drs. ; mix, and
add of soap of jalap, 1 dr., (dissolved in) proof
spirit, 4 drs.; lastly, evaporate to an extract,
dry this in a warm place, and powder. Sto-
machic and purgative.—Lose. 4 to 20 grs.
Extract of Rue. Syn. EXTRACTUM RUTAE,
E. FoEIORUM RUTIE, L. Prep. 1. From rue
leaves (Ruta graveolens), as EXTRACT OF HOPS
—Ph. L.
2. (Alcoholic—P. Cod.) As ALCOHOLIC
EXTRACT OF ACONITE—P. Cod. (nearly.) The
formula of the Ph. Wert. is similar.
Obs. This extract is stomachic, carmina-
tive, and emmenagogue.—Dose. 10 to 20 grs.,
twice a day. It is usual to add a little of the
essential oil to the extract, just before taking
it out of the evaporating-pan, and when nearly
cold. The first is the form adopted in trade
in this country.
Extract of Saffrom. Syn. PoEYCHROITE;
EXTRACTUMI CROCI, L. Prep. 1. From hay
saffron, as EXTRACT OF COLOCYNTH-Ph. L.
2. (P. Cod.) From the tincture. Superior
to the last.
Obs. The first is used chiefly as a colour-
ing and flavouring substance by cooks, con-
fectioners, wine and cordial brewers, &c.—
Dose. 5 to 15 grs. ; as an excitant, antispas-
modic, and emmenagogue.
Extract of Sarsaparilla. Syn. EXTRACTUM
SARZAF, E. SARSAPARILLE, L.; EXTRAIT DE
SAISEPAREILLE, Fr. Prep. 1. (Ph.L. 1836.)
From sarsaparilla, as EXTRACT OF HOPs—Ph.
L. The Ph. D. 1826 is similar.—Dose, 10
grs. to 1 dr. Product. (From Jamaica sarsa-
parilla) 32% to 36%.
2. (Alcoholic; EXTRACTUM SARZAE ALCOHO-
LICUM, L.)—a. From a tincture of the root-
bark, prepared with proof spirit, either by di-
gestion or percolation.
b. (P. Cod. and Ph. U. S.) From Sarsapa-
rilla root (powdered), as ALCOHOLIC EXTRACT
502 EXTRACT,
of ACONITE–P. Cod. Superior to the aqueous
extract.—Dose. 10 to 20 grs.
3. (Fluid; LIQUOR OF SARSAPARILIA, ES-
SENCE OF S.; LIQUOR SARZAE, ESSENTIA SAR-
SAPARILLAE, EXTRACTUMI SARZAE LIQUIDUM–
Ph. L., E. S. FLUIDUM-Ph. E. & D., L.);
ExTRACTUM SARZE LIQUIDUM–(B. P.) a.
Jamaica sarsaparilla cut transversely, 16; dis-
tilled water (temp. 160° Fahr.), 280; rectified
spirit, 1. Macerate in half the water for 6
hours, and decant the liquor; digest the resi-
due in the remainder of the water for 6 hours
more, mix the liquors, express and filter; eva-
porate by water bath to 7, or until it has
a sp. gr. of 1130; when cold add the spirit.
Sp. gr. should be about 1:025.-Dose. 1 to
4 drs.
b. (Ph. L.) Sarsaparilla 3% lbs. ; distilled
water, 3 galls.; boil to 12 pints, pour off the
liquor, and strain whilst hot; again boil the
Sarsaparilla in water, 2 galls., to one half, and
strain; evaporate the mixed liquors to 18
fl. Oz, ; and when cold, add of rectified spirit,
2 fl. oz. Each fl. Oz, represents 2 oz. of the
root (nearly).
c. (Ph. E.) Sarsaparilla, 1 lb. ; boiling
water, 4 pints; digest 2 hours, then bruise
the root, boil it for 2 hours, filter, and express
the liquid; repeat the coction with water, 2
pints, as before; evaporate the mixed liquors
to the consistence of a thin syrup, and, when
cold enough, add of rectified spirit q. S. to make
up 16 fl. oz. Each fl. oz. represents 6 drs, of
the root, and 6 fl. oz. of the decoction.
d. (Ph. D.) Sarsaparilla, 1 lb. (avoir.);
proceed as before, and add of rectified spirit,
q. S. to make the product up to 20 fl. oz.
Strength, as the last (nearly). In the Ph. D.
1826 the decoction of sarsaparilla, 1 lb. (troy),
was ordered to be evaporated to 30 oz., which
with the spirit (2 oz.) made the prepara-
tion only half the strength of the present
One.
4. (Compound; EXTRACTUMI SARZA, COM-
POSITUM, E. SARSAPARILLE COMP., L.) There
is no form for this preparation in the Phar-
macopoeias, but it is nevertheless in immense
demand, from its great convenience in dis-
pensing. The following formulae are employed
by one of the wholesale houses that does
largest in this preparation:-
a. Guaiacum shavings (from which the small
has been sifted), 30 lbs., Italian juice, 24 lbs.,
mezereon root, 6 lbs., are boiled with water,
q. S., for 1 hour; the decoction is then drawn
off, and the boiling repeated with fresh water a
second and a third time; the mixed decoc-
tions are allowed to deposit for 6 or 8 hours,
or longer, and the clear portion decanted and
strained through flannel; the liquid is now
reduced to the consistence of treacle, when ex-
tract of sarsaparilla, 9 lbs., is added, and the
evaporation conducted at a considerably lower
temperature until near its completion, when
the source of heat is removed, and the remain-
ing evaporation conducted at the expense Of
that retained by the metal of the “pan;”
when nearly cold, and just before removing
the extract to the ‘pots’ or “jars,' essential oil
of Sassafras, 2 drs., dissolved in rectified spirit,
1 quart, is added, and quickly but completely
stirred in. The product is a very showy
article, if well managed, and weighs about
45 lbs., the precise quantity depending on the
quality of the juice employed. It is labelled
“EXT. SARZAE COMP.”
b. As the last, but only using 15 lbs. of
juice, and that Solazzi. Prod. About 35 lbs,
It is labelled and sent out as “EXT, SARZE
Co. OPT.”
c. By any of the forms given under COM-
POUND DECOCTION OF SARSAPARILLA, either
common or concentrated, by continuing the
evaporation.—Dose. Same as that of the
simple extract.
5. (Fluid Compound; COMPOUND LIQUOR
OF SARSAPARILLA.)—a. From any of the pre-
ceding formulae by arresting the evaporation
when the fluid has acquired the consistence of
a thin syrup, and adding to each pint, when
cold, rectified spirit, 4 fl. Oz.
b. (Alcoholic—W. Hodgson.) Sarsaparilla
(bruised), 16 oz. ; liquorice root (bruised),
guaiacum wood (rasped), and Sassafras bark
(sliced), of each, 2 oz. ; mezereon (sliced), 6
drs. ; spirit, sp. gr. 935 (=13 u. p.). 7 pints;
digest 14 days, express, filter, evaporate to 12
fl. oz., add of sugar, 8 oz., and as soon as this
is dissolved, withdraw the heat. Stronger
than the last.— Dose. 1 fl. dr.
c. (E. SARSAPARILLE FLUIDUM–Ph. U. S.)
As the last (nearly).
6. (From the root-bark; ExTRACTUM COR-
TICIS SARZE, L.) From the decoction or tinc-


ture of the root-bark. The cortical portion of
sarsaparilla yields fully 50% of aqueous ex-
tract. “Five times as much as the meditul-
lium.” (Pope,
Obs. Each of the above extracts of Sarsa-
parilla (simple, fluid, and compound), when
of good quality, dissolves in water, forming a
deep reddish-brown solution, perfectly trans-
parent, and depositing little sediment, even by
standing some days. See SARSAPARILLA. -
Extract of Scam'mony. Syn. RESIN OF
SCAMMONY; RESINA SCAMMONII, E. S. Aſ COHO-
LICUM, E. SIVE RESINA scAMMONII (Ph. E.),
L. Prep. 1. From powdered scammony, ex-
hausted with proof spirit, and the resulting
tincture distilled until little but water passes
over; the remaining water is then poured
from the resin, which is next well washed in
boiling water and dried at a temperature below
240° Fahr. Brown; impure.
2. As the last, but using either alcohol of
90% or ether, and animal charcoal. White;
pure.
Obs. Scammomy resin is translucent, fusi-
ble, and combustible ; and freely soluble iu
alcohol, ether, and oil of turpentine. It is
frequently adulterated with jalap resin, a
fraud readily detected by its insolubility in
$
EXTRACT, 503
º
the last two menstrua, -700se. 5 to 10 grs.
“When pure or virgin scammony can be
procured, it is an unnecessary preparation.”
(Pereira.)
Extract of Scurvy-grass. Syn. ExTRACTUM
COCHLEARIAE, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) From
the clarified juice of fresh scurvy-grass, by ex-
posure to warm air. Anti-scorbutic, stimu-
lant, anti-rheumatic, and diaphoretic.—Dose.
1 to 2 drs. The valuable principles of the
juice are dissipated by much heat.
Extract of Senſega, Syn. ExTRACTUM
SENEGAE, L. Prep. 1. (P. Cod.) From
Seneka or snake-root (Polygala Senega), as
EXTRACT OF Box—P. Cod.
2. (Compound; EXTRACTUM SENEGE COM-
POSITUM, E. S. ET SCILLAE, L.-Ecky.) From
equal parts of squills and Senega, as the last,
but by displacement. Both the above are
stimulant, expectorant, Sudorific, and diuretic.
—Dose. 1 to 12 grs.
Extract of Sen'na. Syn. ExTRACTUM
SENNAE, L. Prep. 1. (EXTRACTUM SENNAE
AQUOSUM, L.)—a. As EXTRACT OF COLOGYNTH
—Ph. L.
C b. (P. Cod.) As ExTRACT OF BISTORT-P.
od.
c. (Ph. Bor.) From senna leaves, by mace-
ration in tepid water (104° Fahr.) for 24
hours, and expression and filtration; the ope-
ration is repeated with fresh water, and the
strained liquors evaporated to a thick extract
(at 149° to 157° Fahr.), which is dissolved in
water, 4 parts, the solution filtered, and again
evaporated.—Dose. 10 to 20 grs. It is prin-
cipally used as a basis for purgative pills. When
prepared by decoction it is nearly inert. A
better extract is prepared from the common
tincture made with proof spirit.
2. (Alcoholic; ExTRACTUM SENNIE ALCO-
HOLICUM, L.-Guibourt.) Senna (in powder).
1 part; rectified spirit, 5 parts; heat gradu-
ally to boiling, let it cool; in 24 hours ex-
press, strain, and repeat the process with fresh
spirit; lastly, distil and evaporate. Proof
spirit answers for this purpose.
3. (Fluid; ExTRACTUM SENNE FLUIDUM,
L.—Ph. (U. S.) Senna (in coarse powder), 2}
lbs. ; spirit (at or near proof), 64 fl. oz. ; mace-
rate 24 hours, then act by displacement, sub-
sequently adding weak spirit (1 of rectified
spirit to 3 of water) until 10 pints of tincture
are obtained; evaporate to 1 pint, filter, add
sugar, 20 oz., and oil of fennel, 1 fl. dr. (dis-
solved in) compound spirit of ether, 2 fl. drs.
Every fl. Oz. represents 1 oz. of Senna.
Extract of Smoke. Syn. ExTRACTUM FULI-
GINTs, L. Prep. 1. (Aqueous.) Wood-soot,
2 oz. ; water, 1 pint; boil to 16 fl. oz., filter,
and evaporate. .
2. (Acetic.) Wood-soot, 2 oz. ; distilled
vinegar and water, of each, ; pint ; as the
last. Formerly reputed antispasmodic, altera.
tive, &c.—Dose, 3 to 6 grs., 2 three times a
day; in dyspepsia, hysteria, cancer, scrofula,
and various syphilitical affections.
Extract of Snake-root, See EXTRACT OF
SENEGA,
Extract of Soap'wort. Syn. ExTRACTUM
SAPONARIAE, L. Prep. (P. Cod. & Ph. Bad.)
From the dried roots of soapwort (Saponaria
officinalis), as EXTRACT OF BISTORT-P. Cod.
Aperient and alterative.—Dose. 15 grs. to # dr.
Extract of Spruce. See ESSENCE OF SPRUCE.
Extract of Squllls, Syn. ExTRACTUM
SCILLAE, L. Prep. 1. (Aqueous; E. S. AQUO-
SUM.—a. (Ph. Baden.) From squills, as EX-
TRACT OF COLOCYNTH-Ph. L. (nearly).
b. (Ph. Bor.) From squills, as EXTRACT OF
SENNA-Ph. Bor. (nearly), but using boiling
water, avoiding ebullition during the evapora-
tion, and powdering the residuum.—Dose. 1
to 5 grs.
2. (Alcoholic ; ExTRACTUM SCILLIE ALCO-
HOLICUM, L.-P. Cod.) From the tincture
prepared with proof spirit, by distillation and
evaporation.—Dose. } to 3 grs., as an expec-
torant and diuretic, twice or thrice a day. In
larger doses it is nauseant and emetic.
Extract of Stor'ax. See STYRAX.
Extract of Stramo'nium. Syn. ExTRACT
OF THORN-APPLE ; EXTRACTUM STRAMONII,
(Ph. L. & D.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Pack
stramonium seeds, coarsely powdered, in a per-
colator, and pass about their own weight of
washed ether slowly through them, remove
the ether, and set aside. Now pour over them
proof spirit until the seeds are exhausted;
distil off the spirit, and evaporate the residue
by a water bath to a proper pill consistence--
Dose. # gr., gradually increasing.
2. (Ph. L.) Seeds of thorn-apple (Datura
stramonium), 15 oz. ; boiling distilled water,
1 gal. ; macerate for 4 hours in a vessel lightly
covered, near the fire; afterwards take out
the seeds, bruise them in a stone mortar, and
return them to the liquor; then boil down to
4 pints, strain whilst hot, and evaporate. The
Ph. D. is similar. Product. (About) 12}.
Anodyne and narcotic.—Dose. }. gr. to # gr.,
gradually increased, twice or thrice a day; in
neuralgia, rheumatism, tic douloureux, spas-
modic asthma, epilepsy, worms, &c.
3. (P. Cod. & Ph. U. S.) From the ex-
pressed juice of the fresh leaves, heated to
boiling, and filtered. The P. Cod. also orders
it to be prepared as RXTRACT OF ACONITE—
Ph. L. Anodyne and narcotic.—Dose. . gr.
to 1 gr.
Obs. On the large scale, this extract is pre-
pared by expressing the juice of the fresh
herb, and boiling the remainder in water; the
juice and decoction are then mixed, filtered,
and evaporated. 13 cwt. of stramonium
yielded 37 lbs. of juice, and this, with the de-
coction, gave 31 lbs. of extract. (Gray.)
4. (Alcoholic; EXTRACTUM STRAMONII—
Ph. E., E. S. ALCOHOLICUM, L.)—a. (Ph. E.
& Ph. U. S.) From the seeds (ground in a
coffee-mill), by percolation with proof spirit.
Product. (About) 14:3; 1 lb, yielded 24 oz.
(Recluz.)


504
EXTRACT,
b. (P. Cod.) From the leaves, as EXTRACT
of ACONITE–P. Cod.--Dose. # gr., gradually
increased. (See above.)
Extract of Suc'cory. Syn. ExTRACTUM
CHICORII, L. Prep. (Guibourt.) From the
fresh root, as EXTRACT OF ACONITE–Ph. L.
Aperient, deobstruent, and tonic.—Dose. 10
gr. to ; dr.
Extract of Sweet Flag. Syn. EXTRACTUM
ACIDI, E. CALAMI AROMATICI, L. Prep. From
the rhizomes, as EXTRACT OF REIUBARB-Ph.
L. See SWEET FLAG.
Extract of Tan'sy. Syn. ExTRACTUMTANA-
CETI, L. Prep. 1. From the herb (Tanacetum
vulgaris), as EXTRACT OF HOP–Ph. L.
2. (Giordano). As EXTRACT OF HOREHOUND
—Ph. Lusitan. -
Obs. This extract is said to be tonic, sto-
machic, anthelmintic, emmenagogue, and fe-
brifuge. Dr. Clark says that in Scotland it
was found to be serviceable in various cases of
gout. The infusion is, however, preferable.
—Dose. 5 grs. to 20 grs.
Extract of Tarax'acum. Syn. EXTRACT OF
DANDELION; EXTRACTUM TARAXACI (Ph. L.
& E.), E. T. HERBE ET RADICIS (Ph. D.
1826), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.), Crush fresh
dandelion root, press out the juice, and allow
it to deposit; heat the clear liquor to 212° F.,
and maintain the temperature for 10 minutes;
then strain and evaporate by a water bath, at a
temperature not exceeding 160°F. to a proper
consistence.—Dose. 5 to 15 grains.
2. (Ph. L.) From the recent root of dande-
lion (Leontodon Tarawacum), as EXTRACT OF
HOP–Ph. L. The formulae of the Ph, E, &
U. S. are nearly similar,
3. (Ph.D.) From the herb and root, as the
other simple extracts (EXTRACTA SIMPLI-
CIORA).
4. (P. Cod.) From the expressed juice, as
EXTRACT OF STRAMONIUM-P. Cod.
5. (Ph. Bor.) As EXTRACT OF SENNA-Ph.
Bor. (nearly). -
6. (Ph. Baden.) By displacement with cold
water,
7. (Wholesale.) From the decoction.
8. (Fluid.) See LIQUOR OF TARAXACUM.
Obs. The extract of the shops is usually
prepared by exhausting the root by coction
with water. The products of the first two
of the above formulae, when recent, have a
faint and agreeable odour, and a sweet bitter
taste; those of Nos. 4, 5, and 6, smell strongly
of the recent root, have a pale and lively
brownish yellow colour, and a bitter acidulous
taste, without any trace of sweetness; that of
the last one is devoid of odour, and possesses a
coffee-brown colour, and a sweetish, burnt
taste, not much unlike a solution of burnt
sugar. The medicinal virtue of this extract
is greatest when the aroma and bitter taste of
the recent root is well developed; and when
sweet, its efficacy as a remedy is impaired.
(Squire.)
Taraxacum root should be gathered during
the winter months, when the quantity of the
product is looked at ; as then a given weight
of the juice yields more extract; but in
summer and autumn it possesses more bitter-
ness and aroma. 4 lbs. of juice from roots
gathered in November and December yielded
1 lb. of extract, while it took from 6 to 9 lbs.
of juice from the root, gathered in spring or
summer, to yield a like quantity. (Squire.)
The herb yields by the evaporation of its ex-
pressed juice, about 5% of extract. According
to Mr. Jacob Bell, the average yield of 1 cwt.
of root is about 7 lbs. ( Pharm. Journ, x,
446.)
Good extract of taraxacum should be wholly
soluble in water.—Dose. 10 grs. to ; dr. ; as a
resolvent, aperient, and tonic, in liver and
stomach complaints, &c.
Extract of Tea. Syn. ExTRACTUM THEE,
L. Prep. 1. From an infusion of any of the
rougher kinds of black tea. Astringent. Has
been recommended in diarrhoea; formed into
pills.--Dose. 10 grs. to , dr. A hard, black-
looking substance, smelling and tasting faintly
of tea, is imported under the same name from
China.
2. (Pidding’s.) The joint products of dis-
tillation and infusion combined, Proposed to
be made in China, and exported as a con-
densed preparation of tea. (ESSENCE OF TEA;
ESSENTIA THEE); to be used as a substitute
for the leaves, in order to save the expense of
freight, &c.
Extract of Thorn-Apple,
STRAMONIUM.
Extract of Tobacco. Syn. ExTRACTUM
TABACI, E. NICOTIANA, L. Prep. 1. (Chip-
pendale.) From decoction of tobacco. Pro-
posed as an external application in neuralgia,
&c.
2. (Alcoholic; EXTRACTUM TABACI ALCO-
HOLICUM, L.-Ph. Bor.) Tobacco leaves, 1
lb. ; spirit (sp. gr. 1900), 2 lb.; digest in a
warm place for some days, express strongly,
and again digest in a mixture of water and
spirit ('900), of each, 1 lb., for 24 hours;
again press out the liquor, and evaporate the
strained and mixed liquors in a vapour
bath, at a temperature not exceeding 167°
Fahr.
Extract of Tor’mentil. Syn. EXTRACTUM
TORMENTILLE, L. Prep. (Ph. Amst.) From
the root of Potentilla Tormentilla, as EXTRACT
OF HOPS–Ph. L. The Ph. Baden. directs its
preparation by displacement with cold water.
Astringent and febrifuge.—Dose. 15 to 30 grs.;
in diarrhoea. It was formerly regarded as a
specific in syphilis. (Lindley.)
Extract of U'wa Ur'si. See EXTRACT OF
WHORTLEBERRY.
Extract of Waler’ian, Syn. ExTRACTUM
VALERTANAE, L. Prep. 1. From valerian root,
as EXTRACT OF HOP–Ph. L.; but using a
covered vessel.
2. (Ph. Bor. and Baden.) As EXTRACT OF
CINCHONA—Ph, L. (nearly), employing strong
See EXTRACT OF


EXTRACT. 505
:
-
force in the expression of the liquor, and only
evaporating to the consistence of syrup.
Obs. It is usual to add to this extract a
little of the ESSENTIAL OIL OF WALERIAN, dis-
solved in a small quantity of rectified spirit,
just before removing it from the evaporating-
pan, and when nearly cold. Anti-spasmodic
and nervine.—Dose. 10 grs. to , dr. In hys-
teric and spasmodic diseases. Valerian yields
about 40% of soft extract.
3. (Alcoholic ; EXTRACTUM VALERIANZE AL-
COHOLICUM, L.-P. Cod.) As EXTRACT OF
BOX.—P. Cod.
4. (Fluid; EXTRACTUM VALERIANE FLUI-
DUM, L-Ph. U. S.). Rectified spirit, 12 fl.
Oz. ; mix, add of Valerian (in coarse powder),
8 oz. ; digest and percolate, adding, subse-
quently, spirit (at or near proof) until 16 fl.
Oz. of tincture have passed through ; let this
evaporate spontaneously, in a shallow vessel,
until reduced to 5 fl. Oz. ; in the mean time
add fresh spirit to the mass in the percolator,
until 10 fl. oz. more of tincture are obtained,
which add to the above residuum of the eva-
poration, observing to dissolve any oleo-resinous
deposit in a little rectified spirit, and to add it
to the rest; lastly, filter, and add of rectified
spirit, q, s, to make the whole measure 16 fl.
0Z.
Extract of Wamil'la.
NILLA.
Extract of Wall Pellitory. Syn. EXTRAC-
TUM PARIETARIAE, L. Prep. From fresh wall
pellitory (Parietaria officinalis), as EXTRACT OF
ACONITE—Ph. L. Aperient, diuretic, and
pectoral.—Dose. 10 grs. to # dr.
Extract of Walnut. Syn. ExTRACTUM
JUGLANDIS IMMATURE, L. Prep. 1. From
unripe walnuts (Juglans regia), as EXTRACT OF
ACONITE–Ph. L.
2. From the decoction of the green shells.
Vermifuge.—Dose. 20 to 30 grs. in cinnamon
Water.
Extract of Walnut Leaves. Syn. EXTRAC-
TUM JUGLANDIS FOLIORUM, L. Prep. 1. From
the decoction of dried walnut leaves.
2. (Soubeiran.) By displacement with tepid
water. Diaphoretic, and alterative.—Dose.
2 to 4 grs., twice or thrice a day; in scrofula,
Scirrhus, &c.
3. (Alcoholic; ExTRACTUM JUGLANDIs
FOLIORUM ALCOHOLICUM, L-Ph. Bor.) From
walnut leaves (cut), as ALCOHOLIC EXTRACT
OF TOBACCo—Ph. Bor. (nearly).
Extract of Waſter-dock. Syn. ExTRACTUM
RUMICIS AQUATICI, L. Prep. From the root,
as EXTRACT of HoPs, Ph. L. Astringent and
antiscorbutic.—Dose. 15, grs, to 1 dr. ; in
skin diseases, &c.
Extract of Whor’tleberry. Syn. ExTRACT
OF BEARBERRY.; ExTRACTUM UVE URSI. (Ph.
L.), L. Prep. From the dried leaves of the
bearberry (Arctostaphylos Uva-Ursi), as EX-
TRACT OF HOPs—Ph. L.--Dose. 5 to 15 grs.,
twice or thrice a day; in chronic diseases of
the bladder and kidneys, attended with in-
See LIQUOR OF WA-
creased secretion of mucus, without inflam-
mation.
Extract of Winſter Cher'ry. Syn. ExtRAC-
TUM ALKEKENGI, L. Prep. From the berries
of Physalis alkekengi, as EXTRACT OF ELDER.
Aperient, detergent, and diuretic.—Dose, 2
to 4 drs.
Extract of Winſter-green. Syn. ExTRACT
OF PIPSISSEWA; EXTRACTUM CHIMAPHILHE,
L. Prep. From the herb winter-green or
pipsissewa (Chimaphila umbellata), as EXTRACT
OF HOPS–Ph. L. —Dose. 10 grs. to , dr. ; in
dropsy, scrofula, and chronic affections of the
urinary organs.
Extract of Wood Sor'rel. Syn. ExTRACTUM
ACETOSELLE, L. Prep. (Pideret.) From the
expressed juice of the fresh herb (Oaxalis aceto-
sella). Acid, bitter, and antiscorbutic.—Dose.
15 grs. to # dr.
Extract of Worm Grass,
PINKROOT.
Extract of Worm'seed. Syn. ExTRACTUM
CINE ETHEREUM, E. SEMINUM C. AE., L.
Prep. (Hamb. Cod. 1845.) Wormseed, 1 oz. ;
ether, 4 oz. ; digest 3 or 4 days, press, filter,
distil off 4-5ths, and evaporate the residuum
to a proper consistence. Prod. 25% to 30%.
Vermifuge.—Dose, 3 to 10 grs., night and
morning, for 2 or 3 successive days, followed
by a brisk purge.
Extract of Worm"wood. Syn. EXTRACTUM
ABSINTHII; EXTRACTUM ARTEMESIAE ABSIN-
THII, L. Prep. 1. (Ph.D. 1826.) From the
dried flowering tops of wormwood, as the other
simple extracts (EXTRACTA SIMPLICIORA –Ph,
D
See EXTRACT OF
..)
2. (Ph. Bor.) As EXTRACT OF RHATANY–
Ph. Bor.
3. (P. Cod. & Ph. Baden.) By displace-
ment by cold water.
Obs. Bitter stomachic, tonic, and vermi-
fuge.—Dose...10 grs. to 20 grs., 2 or 3 times
daily; in dyspepsia, loss of appetite, gout, &c.
It is usual to add a few drops of the oil of
wormwood to the extract before taking it from
the pan.
4. (Alcoholic; ExTRACTUM ABSINTHII ALCO-
HOLICUM, L.-Guibourt.) From a tincture pre-
pared from the dried tops of wormwood boiled
in proof spirit. More active than the last.
Extract of Yew. Syn. EXTRACTUM TAXI,
L. Prep. 1. (Loder.) From the inspissated
juice of the fresh leaves of the yew (Taavus
baccata). Its action on the circulation greatly
resembles that of digitalis, but is more man-
ageable.—Dose. 1 to 7 grs.; in epilepsy, &c.
2. (Alcoholic, Ph. Baden.) From the dried
leaves, as ALCOHOLIC EXTRACT OF ACONITE–
Ph. Baden.
Obs. In addition to the preparations given
above, there are many others which are often
called “EXTRACTs.” These may be grouped
under the following heads:—
Concentraſted Extracts. Syn. RESINOIDS.
Pharmaceutical preparations of more or less
value, largely employed by the American phy-


506
EXTRACTIVE-FACE PAINTS,
sicians who style themselves ‘ECLECTICs.”
They are supposed to present in the most
concentrated form the medicinal virtues of the
plants from which they are derived. See
RESINOIDS.
Fluid Extracts. Syn. EXTRACTA FLUIDA,
EXTRACTA LIQUIDA, L. This name has been
applied in modern pharmacy to various prepa-
rations differing materially from each other in
their degree of fluidity and concentration.
Some of these have been already noticed, and
others will be found under one or other of
their synonyms. Much confusion would be
avoided by confining the name ‘FLUID Ex-
TRACT’ to those preparations only which differ
from the ordinary officinal extracts in being
in the liquid form; whilst others of a like cha-
racter, but of less consistence or concentra-
tion, might be conveniently classed under the
general denomination of ‘LIQUORs’ (LIQUOREs,
L.). The various condensed preparations of
vegetable substances, now common in trade,
professedly several times stronger than the
common DECOCTIONS, INFUSIONS, and TINC-
TURES, might be simply and advantageously
distinguished by the addition of ‘CONCEN-
TRATED’ to their names. Tinctures made with
rectified spirit, and of (say) at least 8 times
the usual strength, might be appropriately
termed “ESSENCES.” See DECOCTION, ESSENCE,
EXTRACT, INFUSION, OLEO-RESIN, SYRUP,
TINCTURE, &c.
Extracts, Perfu'matory. See ExTRAIT.
Extracts, Pulver'ulent. Syn. DRIED Ex-
TRACTs, DESICCATED E.; SACCHARATED E.;
EXTRACTA PULVERATA, E. SICCA, E. CUM
SACCHARO, L. Prep. 1. Ordinary soft ex-
tract of the drug, 4 parts; white sugar (in
powder), 1 part; mix, and dry by exposure in
a warm situation; lastly, reduce the mass to
powder, and if it weighs less than 4 parts, tri-
turate it with more powdered sugar until its
weight is equal to the original weight of the
extract used in its preparation. The strength
of the extract thus continues unchanged.
2. (Ph. Bor.) As the last, but using pow-
dered sugar of milk, in lieu of cane sugar.
.3. (Gauger.) Alcoholic extract, 3 parts,
rectified spirit, 1 part, are triturated together
in a porcelain mortar until thoroughly incor-
porated, when white sugar (in powder), 15
oz., is gradually added, and the two carefully
and completely blended together; the mix-
ture is dried as before, and more sugar added
until the whole weighs exactly 18 oz. Six
grains represent one grain of the unprepared
extract.
Obs. The above are admirable prepara-
tions, intended chiefly to render the perishable
extracts of the narcotic plants (EXTRACTA
NARCOTICA) less liable to suffer by age. See
ExTRACT OF ACONITE (Saccharated), &c.
EXTRACTIVE. Syn. ExTRACTIVE PRIN-
CIPLE. This substance was discovered by
Fourcroy, and presumed by him to be the
common basis of all extracts. It has since
been proved by Chevreul and other chemists
to be a heterogeneous compound, varying in
composition with the plant from which it is
extracted. Extractive has a brown colour, or
one becoming so in the air; it speedily putre-
fies, and becomes oxidized, and is rendered
insoluble by long exposure to air, and by re-
peated solutions and evaporations. In its
unaltered state it is soluble in water and in
alcohol, is nearly insoluble in ether, and is
precipitated from its solutions by the acids
and metallic oxides. With alumina it forms
the basis of several brown dyes.
EXTRAIT, [Fr.] Literally an extract.
Among perfumers, extraits are mostly spiritu-
ous solutions of the essential oils or odorous
principles of plants and other fragrant sub-
stances. The French commonly apply the
term to any concentrated spirit, either simple
or compound. In the shops of the Parisian
perfumers upwards of 60 preparations of the
kind are distinguished by this name. The
extracts of JASMINE, JONQUII, MAY-LILY,
ORANGE BLOSSOMS, VIOLETS, and other like
flowers of delicate perfume, are obtained by
agitating and digesting the ‘huiles' and “pom-
mades’ of the flowers with the purest rectified
spirit. in the manner described under SCENTED
SPIRITs (‘esprits'). This process is repeated
with fresh oil or pommade until the spirit is
rendered sufficiently fragrant. The other ex-
tracts (both simple and compound) are made
by the common methods of infusion and dis-
tillation. See ESSENCE, EXTRACT, SPIRIT, &c.
EYE. In anatomy and physiology, the organ
of vision. In order that vision may be dis-
tinct, it is necessary that the pencil of rays
diverging from each point of the object and
elitering the pupil should converge to a focus on
the retina. Near-sightedness (“MYOPIA, L.)
is due to the too great convexity of either the
‘lens’ or ‘cornea,’ causing the rays to con-
verge to a focus before reaching the retina. The
spectacles worn by myopic persons have con-
cave glasses, which, by increasing the diver.
gence of the rays falling upon the eye, have
the effect of carrying back each focal point to-
wards the retina. In the long sight of old
people (‘PRESBYOPIA, L.) the foci of the re-
fracted pencils are situated behind the retina,
the ‘lens' or the ‘cornea' being not sufficiently
convex. This defect is corrected by convex
glasses, which increase the cnnvergence of the
incident rays. See BLINDNESS, COLOUR
BLINDNESS, VISION, &c.
Eye Drops. See WATER (Eye).
Eye Pow'ders. See CoILYRIA.
Eye Salve. See OINTMENT (Eye).
Eye Snuff. See SNUFF.
Eye Waters, See WATER,
FACE A/GUE. The common name for the
intermittent form of facial NEURALGIA or TIC
DOULOUREUx. See NEURALGIA.
FACE PAINTS, Syn. FARDs, Fr. See

FACSIMILE-FARINA.
507
BLOOM, CARMINE, PEARL WHITE, ROUGE,
&c.
FAC-SIM'ILE. An exact imitation of an
original in all its traits and peculiarities. The
term is chiefly used in relation to copies of
old manuscripts, or of the handwriting of
famous men, or of interesting documents,
produced by engraving or lithography. See
SIGNATURES.
FACTI"TIOUS. Syn, FACTITIUS, L. Arti-
ficial; made by art, in distinction from that
produced by nature. Numerous illustrations
of the application of this word occur in the
pages of the present work.
FAC/CES. Excrement. In the laboratory,
the “settling’ or sediment deposited by a
liquor. See DEFECATION.
FAINT’ING. Syn. Swoon ING ; SYNCOPE,
DELIQUIUM ANIMI, L. In pathology, a state
in which the respiration and circulation are
apparently suspended for a time, or are ex-
tremely feeble. The symptoms are too well
known to require description. The causes are
supposed to be—diminished energy of the
brain, and organic affections of the heart
or neighbouring vessels. This has led noso-
logists to divide syncope into two varie-
ties:—
1. Occasional (SYNCOPE OCCASIONALIS, S.
ACCIDENTALIS, L.), primitively induced by
sudden and violent emotions of the mind,
powerful odours, derangement of the stomach
or bowels, constrained position of the body,
tight-lacing, pressure, loss of blood, debility
from disease, &c. This variety is frequently
followed by vomiting, and, occasionally, by
convulsions or epileptic fits. The recovery is
accelerated by the horizontal position, without
the head being the least elevated, by which
the arterial blood is more vigorously thrown
upon the brain, and thereby stimulates it to
resume its usual functions. Pungent sub-
stances (smelling-bottle, vinaigrette, &c.) may
be applied to the nostrils, and cold water
sprinkled on the face and chest. In all cases
the dress (corset, waist-band, neck-cloth, &c.)
should be instantly loosened, and indeed this
is the first assistance which should be given,
either in syncope or apoplexy. As soon as the
patient can swallow, a little brandy-and-water,
or wine, or a few drops of ether or spirit of
Sal volatile, may be given.
2. Cardiac (SYNCOPE CARDIACA, L.), arising
without any apparent cause, with violent pal-
pitation during the intervals, and altogether
of a more formidable character than the pre-
ceding. The subsequent treatment must here
be directed to the cure or alleviation of the
original disease.
FAINTS. The first and last runnings of the
whiskey-still. The one is technically termed
the ‘strong faints;’ the other, the ‘weak
faints. They are both purified by rectification,
&e. See DISTILLATION.
FAITH, Dr, Pereira remarks, that “faith
in the beneficial agency of remedies, and con-
fidence in the skill of the medical attendant,
are important adjuvants in the treatment of
disease. To them both the physician and em-
piric owe part of their success.”
FAI./LING SICK'NESS. See EPILEPSY,
FAR/CY. See GLANDERS.
FAR/INA. The flour of any species of corn,
pulse, tuber, or starchy root. The most im-
portant kinds of farina are noticed under their
respective heads. The following dietetic arti-
cles of a farinaceous character are extensively
advertised:—
BAKER's ALIMENTARY COMPOUND. Fine
flour (pastrycook’s), 2 parts; finely ground rice,
I part.
BASTER’s COMPOUND FARINA. Wheat flour,
14 oz. ; white sugar, 2 oz.
BRADEN's FARINACEOUS FooD.
Hard’s (below).
IBRIGHT's NUTRITIOUS FARINA.
and potato starch, equal parts.
BRIGHT's BREAKFAST POWDER. Choco-
late, 1 part; nutritious farina (Bright's) 2
arts.
p BULLOCK's SEMOLA. Wheat flour, from which
a portion of the starch has been removed, so as
to leave an excess of gluten.
DENHAM's FARINACEOUS FOOD. Wheat
flour, 3 parts; barley meal, 1 part; the mixture
is slightly baked, and again ground and sifted.
Said to be slightly laxative.
DURYEA’s MAIZENA. Indian corn starch
prepared for food.
GARDINER's ALIMENTARY PREPARATION.
Pure rice flour, very finely ground.
HARD’S FARINACEOUS FOOD. Wheat flour,
slightly baked, and resifted.
KINGSFORD’s OSWEGO PREPARED CORN. An
excellent preparation of Indian corn.
LEATH's ALIMENTARY FARINA. Wheat
flour (baked), with some sugar, Indian corn
meal, and tapioca. According to some, it also
contains potato starch.
MAIDMAN’s NUTRITIOUS FARINA. Potato
starch tinged with beet-root or other pink
colouring matter.
PLUMBE’s FARINACEOUS FOOD. South-
sea arrow-root, with about 1-3rd its weight of
pea flour.
POLSON'S CORN FLOUR. The starch of Indian
corn or maize prepared with great care. It is
much used as a substitute for arrow-root, and
for custards, puddings, &c.
SMITH'S NURSING FARINA.
baked wheat flour and rice flour.
Obs. Many of the above compounds are
deficient in the nitrogenous elements of nu-
trition, an I all of them nearly destitute of the
mineral and saline matters which are abso-
lutely necessary to the formation of the bones
and tissues, and the support of the body in
health, and are consequently utterly unsuitable
as an exclusive article of diet, especially for
Similar to
Rice flour


Equal parts of


508
FARMING—FATTENING.
young children. Unfortunately, it has been
too much the fashion of medical men of late
years to recommend these compounds, and
even to furnish testimonials as to their excel-
lence, apparently relying solely on the repre-
sentation of their proprietors or vendors. We
deem it, however, to be a public duty to
caution parents and nurses against their inju-
dicious use. As mere adjuvants or auxiliaries,
when the natural food supplied by the mother
may be insufficient for the nutrition of the
infant, some of them may doubtless be of
value; but in all other cases they should be
largely combined with pure cow’s milk, beef
tea, meat broths or gravies, eggs, or other sub-
stances rich in the nitrogenous and Saline
elements of nutrition.
FARMI'ING. The business or management
of a FARM. Formerly farming was looked
upon as a profession easily understood, and
successfully pursued only by an empiric. It is
now, however, regarded in a different light, and
the farmer, to succeed, not only requires
perseverance and observation, but also a sound
knowledge of natural sciences. See AGRICUL-
TURE, BUTTER, CHEESE, IMPLEMENTS, MA-
NURES, SOILS, &c.
FASTING. See ABSTINENCE.
FAT. Syn. ADEPs, L. The fat of animals
is a concrete oil contained in the cellular mem-
brane of their bodies, more especially round
the kidneys, in the folds of the omentum, at
the base of the heart, upon the surface of the
intestines, and among many of the muscles.
Fat varies in consistence, colour, and odour,
with the animal from which it is obtained.
That of the carnivora is usually soft and rank-
flavoured; that of the ruminantia solid and
nearly scentless. It is generally whitest and
most copious in the well-fed young animal, and
yellowish and more scanty in the old. That
under the skin and surrounding the kidneys
(suet) is also more solid than that in the
neighbourhood of the movable viscera. In
the cetacea, or whale tribe, the fatty secretion
assumes the form of oil. These variations in
consistency depend upon the relative propor-
tions of solid stearin and liquid olein present in
the fat.
The vegetable fats are found in various parts
of certain plants, but are generally most abun-
dant in the seeds. They are extracted by
simple pressure or else by boiling. Two kinds
of vegetable fat, namely, palm-oil and cocoa-
nut oil, are extensively employed in the useful
arts.
All fats are lighter than water. They are
all soluble in ether, benzole, and turpentine,
and may be mixed with each other in any
proportion.
In former times the fats of many animals
were employed in pharmacy, but at present
those principally used are lard and suet. In
perfumery, in addition to these, beef marrow
and bear’s grease are employed. For both
these purposes the crude material is cut into
small pieces, and freed as much as possible
from all extraneous membranes; after which
it is placed in a boiler with water, and heated
until it is completely fused, when the whole is
strained, and allowed to cool very slowly. By
this means a 'cake of cleansed fat is obtained,
which may be readily separated from any
adhering water. -
Fats and the fat oils are best preserved by
being run into glazed jars, and secluded from
the action of the air. A little benzoic acid or
gum-benzoin, dissolved in them by heat, will
generally prevent, and in all cases greatly
defer, the accession of rancidity. We intro-
duced this method into the laboratory in our
early days of manipulation, and ourselves, and
others to whom we have made it known, have
since employed it with undeviating advantage
in the manufacture of cerates, ointments, and
other preparations containing fatty matter or
the fixed oils. It has been shown by Dr.
Griesler that nitric ether, and its alcoholic
solution, act in the same manner. A few drops
are mot only sufficient to prevent rancidity,
but, it is said, will even destroy the disagreeable
odour of rancid fat. When heated to remove
the alcohol, they immediately become bright,
clear, and scentless. See OIL, GIYCERIN,
OLEIN, PALMITIN, STEARIN, TALLOW, &c.,
also below.
FATTY AC/IDS. In chemistry, compounds
having acid properties derived from the various
fats and oils. The radicals of these acids exist
in the natural fats combined with a base
called glyceryl. When fats are saponified by
an alkali, stearate, palmitate, and oleate of
potassa or soda, as the case may be, are
produced and glycerin is set free. On de-
composing either of these compounds with
sulphuric acid a sulphate of the alkali is
formed, and the fatty acid is precipitated.
Some of the fatty acids, as stearic, cerotic,
palmitic, and lauric, are solid at ordinary
temperatures; others, as oleic, are liquid.
The hard fatty acids are extensively used as
candle materials, being superior in every re-
spect to the natural fats from which they are
derived.
FATTENING. Until comparatively a recent
date, the plan used to fatten domestic animals
was to prevent their taking exercise, and to
gorge them with food. The excessive fat
produced by these means was, however, found
to be far from wholesome, and was less delicate
than that arising in the natural way. This
system was therefore gradually abandoned in
favour of the present one, which consists in
supplying the animal with abundance of
wholesome food, and with the means of taking
exercise, as far as the disposition or feelings
dictate. Hence the farmers “in the most en-
lightened districts, such as Berwickshire, East
Lothian, &c., instead of tying up their fatten-
ing cattle in stables like horses, and placing
their food before them, put two or three to-
gether in small yards with sheds attached, in

FEAR–FECULA.
509
which they can run about, eat when they
choose, and take shelter from the rain, or cold,
or the sun, at pleasure, under the open shed.
Swine are treated in the same manner, and
also spring lambs that are fattened for the
market. Poultry are no longer kept in
coops and crammed, or rabbits in hutches;
but the former are allowed to take exercise
in fields sown with various herbs, and the
latter are kept in a species of artificial warren,
where they can take exercise by burrowing.”
(Loudon.)
FEAR. Although fear is a depressing and
debilitating emotion, and sometimes acts preju-
dicially on the health, it frequently acts as a
curative or preventive of disease. It is a well-
known fact that females who are the most
faint-hearted and desponding during the period
of their sex’s trial, generally experience a more
rapid convalescence than those who are more
confident and resolute. During the raging of
an epidemic fear generally induces temperance,
cleanliness, and the adoption of other precau-
tions which tend powerfully to prevent dis-
ease. Boerhaave, according to Pereira, is said
to have prevented the occurrence of epileptic
attacks (brought on by the sight of a person
falling down in a fit in the sight of the hospital
patients), by directing a red-hot iron to be
applied to the person who should next be
affected.
FEATHERS, Ostrich feathers are those
most esteemed as articles of personal decora-
tion, and goose feathers for beds; but the fea-
thers of other birds are commonly used for
both purposes.
Feathers are prepared for ornamental pur-
poses by scouring them with white soap-and-
water (1 oz. to the pint), used hot; they are
next well rinsed in several successive portions
of pure water, and after being drained and
shaken, are, lastly, passed through water
slightly blued with pure indigo, and dried out
of the dust. When dry, the ribs are generally
rubbed with a piece of glass, having a eurved
notch in it, for the purpose of increasing their
pliancy, and the filaments are curled by
drawing them between the edge of a blunt
knife and the ball of the thumb of the hand
which holds it.
Feathers, Bleaching of:—
A new trade has sprung up within the past
ten years, by which black, brown, or grey fea-
thers are bleached sufficiently to enable them
to be dyed any required colour.
The process is as follows:—The feathers are
first thoroughly washed with soap-and-water, to
free them from any oil they may contain. They
are next transferred to a bath composed of
bichromate of potash dissolved in water, to
which has been added a few drops of nitric or
sulphuric acid. In this bath they rapidly lose
their black, brown, or grey colour, and become
almost white. On being removed from this
bath they are well rinsed in water, and are
then fit to be dyed, even the most delicate
colour. Great care is required in the process,
as the ſlue of the feather is apt to be destroyed,
if kept too long in the bath. A bleached feather
may be readily known by the yellow colour of
its stem.
Other methods have been adopted, such as a
bath of chloride of lime or sulphurous acid,
&c., but the bichromate bath gives the best
results.
BLACK. By immersion for 2 or 3 days
in a bath (at first hot) of logwood, 8 parts,
and copperas or acetate of iron, (about) 1
part.
BLUE. With the indigo wat.
BROWN. By any of the brown dyes for silk
or woollen.
CRIMSON. A mordant of alum, followed by
a hot bath of brazil wood, and afterwards by a
weak one of cudbear.
PINR or ROSE. Wtth Safflower and lemon
UllC6.
J PLUM. The red dye, followed by an alka-
line bath.
RED. A mordant of alum, followed by a
hot brazil-wood bath.
YELLOW. From an alum mordant, followed
by a bath of tumeric or weld. Other shades
may be obtained by a mixture of the above
dyes.
*; eathers may also be dyed by simple immer-
sion, for two or three minutes, in a bath of any
of the aniline colours.
Goose feathers for BEDs are generally PURT-
FIED by simply exposing them to the sun or
in a stove until perfectly dry, and then beating
them to remove loose dirt. When carelessly
collected and dirty, they are sometimes first
cleansed with lime water, or, better still, with
a weak solution of carbonate of soda, or water
to which a little solution of chloride of lime
has been added; after which they are rinsed in
clean water, and dried or stoved as before.
Old feathers are cleansed or purified in the
same way.
FEB'RIFUGES. Syn. FEBRIFUGA, L. In
pharmacy, substances or agents which cure or
alleviate fever. The term is more particularly
applied to medicines used against the ague, as
CINCHONA BARK and ARSENIOUS ACID, and
their preparations. The extreme value of
cold water, as a drink in ardent fever, has been
known in all ages. 1n 1723 Dr. Hancocke
published a work entitled—‘Febrifugum Mag-
num, or Common Water the best Cure for
Fevers, and probably for the Plague,” which
in a short time ran through several large
editions, but appears to have been over-
looked by the hydropaths of the present
day.
FEC'ULA. Syn. FECULA, L. The matter
which subsides from cold water in which
bruised or rasped vegetable substances have
been washed. The fecula obtained from the
seeds of the cereals and leguminosae, and from
tuberous or bulbous roots, consists of nearly
pure STARCH. In some cases the starch is


510
FEET-FERMENTATION.
associated with the green colouring matter
(CHLOROPHYLL) and the narcotic principles of
the vegetables which yield it. The green
fecula obtained by straining the expressed
juices of the leaves and herbaceous parts of
plants is of this character.
The fecula of all the amylaceous roots, rhi-
zomes, and tubers, may be easily obtained, on
the small scale, by rasping them, pressing, and
working the pulp in cold water, and after
straining the resulting milky liquid through a
hair sieve, allowing it to settle. The sediment
may be again washed by diffusion through
clean cold water, and must be, lastly, collected,
and dried out of the dust, and, without artifi-
cial heat.
The fecula of narcotic plants for medicinal
purposes is obtained by allowing the expressed
juice to repose for 24 hours, and then decant-
ing the clear portion, and drying the residue.
Sometimes heat is employed. See ARROW-
ROOT, STARCH, &c.
FEET (The). To preserve the feet in a
proper condition, they should be frequently
soaked, and well washed in warm or tepid
water. The nails of the toes should be pared,
soaked, and well washed in warm or tepid
water. The nails of the toes should be pared,
to prevent their becoming inconveniently
long, and from growing into the flesh. Many
persons suffer severely from TENDER FEET.
This generally arises from the use of thin cot-
ton or silk stockings, and boots or shoes that
are either too tight or stiff, or not sufficiently
porous to permit of the escape of the perspira-
tion. Waterproof boots and shoes which are
also air-tight (as those of gutta percha and
India rubber), are common causes of tender
feet, and even of headaches, dyspepsia, and
apoplexy. The best treatment of tender feet is
the immediate adoption of worsted stockings
or socks, and light, easy shoes of buckskin,
goatskin, or some other equally soft kind of
leather. It is highly necessary for the preser-
vation of health to preserve the feet DRY ; per-
sons who are, therefore, exposed to the wet, or
who are frequently passengers through the
public streets in bad weather, should regard
sound and good boots and shoes as of the first
importance. In fact, in a hygienic point of
view, a wet back should be less shunned than
wet feet. Many persons frequently experience
EXTREME COLDNESS and NUMBNESS OF THE
FEET. The best and most natural remedy for
this is active exercise or friction, the former
being always adopted when possible. In such
cases the use of warm woollen stockings is ab-
solutely necessary, and the debilitated and aged
may advantageously keep them on throughout
the night, or at all events until the feet acquire
a comfortable degree of warmth. The DIS-
AGREEABLE ODoUR which is evolved by the
feet of some individuals in hot weather may
be removed by the observance of extreme clean-
liness, and by occasionally soaking the feet in
warm water, to which a small quantity of
chloride of lime or sal ammoniac has been
added.
DISTORTION OF THE FEET is not uncommon
in childhood, being sometimes congenital, but
as frequently the result of weakness or bad
nursing. “A child with its feet turned in-
wards is called VARUS ; when they are turned
outwards it is styled VALGUS. The proper use
of bandages, early applied, will generally cor-
rect these deformities; but if they be neglected
in infancy they become incurable.” (Med. Lex.)
CLUB FOOT, of which there are several varie-
ties, may also be frequently relieved by a simple
surgical operation.
FELT'ING. This is a process by which
various species of fur, hair, and wool, are
blended into a compact texture, in many re-
spects resembling cloth. It depends on the
peculiar anatomical construction of these sub-
stances enabling them to interlace and inter-
twine with each other, by which they become
permanently matted together. Felt was for-
merly chiefly employed for hats. It is now
commonly used for mill-bands, filters, &c.;
and when varnished or japamned, or saturated
with asphalte or bitumen, as a durable sub-
stitute for japamned leather, and for roofing.
FENNEL. Syn, FCENICULUM (Ph. L.), L.
The fruit (seed) of Fæniculum dulce, or sweet
fennel; the oil distilled from the fruit (OIL
OF FENNEL; OLEUM FCENICULI, L.) as well as
a distilled water (FENNEL WATER ; AQUA FCENI-
CULI, L.), are officinal in the Pharmacopoeias.
They are stimulant and carminative; but are
now seldom employed.
FEN/UGREEK. The seeds of Trigonella
Faenum Graecum. Resolvent and stomachic,
The seeds dye yellow ; formerly roasted for
coffee; now chiefly employed in veterinary
medicine.
FER/MENT, Syn. FERMENTUM, L. A
substance which induces fermentation. Ac-
cording to one view ferments are compounds
whose decomposition proceeds simultaneously
with that of the body undergoing metamor-
phosis. They all contain albuminous or azo-
tised principles, which in a moist state putrefy
and suffer decomposition. According to Pas-
teur, however, fermentation is excited by
living organisms—fungi and infusoria. See
FERMENTATION and YEAST.
FERMENTATION. Syn. FFRMENTATIO, L.
In chemistry, a peculiar metamorphosis of a
complex organic substance, by a transposition
of its elements under the agency of an external
disturbing force. Fermentation, according to
the theory proposed by Liebig, is a metamor-
phosis, by which the elements of a complex
molecule group themselves so as to form more
intimate and stable compounds, 1t is excited
by the contact of all bodies the elements of
which are in a state of active decomposition or
fermentation. “In nitrogenised substances
of a very complex constitution, putrefaction or
fermentation is spontaneously established when
FERMENTATION. 511

water is present, and the temperature suffi-
ciently high, and it continues till the original
compounds are wholly destroyed. Substances
destitute of nitrogen, on the contrary, require,
in order to their undergoing this metamor-
phosis, the presence of a nitrogenised sub-
stance, already in a state of putrefaction (fer-
mentation).” (Liebig.) The substances which
promote this change are termed FERMENTS,
and among these the principal are gliadin,
gluten, vegetable albumen, and all nitrogenous
substances in a state of spontaneous decompo-
sion or fermentation. “It is imagined that
when these substances, in the act of under-
going change, are brought into contact with
neutral ternary compounds of small stability,
as Sugar, the molecular disturbance of the body,
already in a state of decomposition, may be, as
it were, propagated to the other, and bring
about the destruction of the equilibrium of
forces to which it owes its being. The com-
plex body, under these circumstances, breaks
up into simpler products, which possess greater
permanence.” (Fownes.) YEAST, the ferment
most commonly employed for inducing the
winous fermentation, is such a substance in
an active state of putrefaction, and whose
atoms are in continual motion. Putrefying
animal substances are equally capable of ex-
citing the same action. “If we add to a so-
lution of pure sugar an albuminous substance,
a caseous or fleshy matter, the development of
yeast becomes manifest, and an additional
quantity of it is found at the eud of the ope-
ration. Thus, with nourishment, ferment en-
genders ferment. It is for this reason that a
little fermenting must, added to a body of fresh
grape juice, excites fermentation in the whole
mass. These effects are not confined to alco-
holic (vinous) fermentation. The smallest
portion of sour milk, of sour dough, or sour
juice of beet-root, of putrefied flesh and blood,
occasions like alterations in fresh milk, dough,
juice of beet-root, flesh, and blood. But fur-
ther, and which is a very curious circumstance,
if we put into a liquid containing any ferment-
ing substance another in a sound state, the
latter would suffer decomposition under the
influence of the former. If we place urea in
the presence of beer-yeast, it experiences no
change; while if we add it to sugar-water in
a fermenting state, the urea is converted into
carbonate of ammonia. We thus possess two
modes of decomposition; the one direct, the
other indirect.” (Ure.)
A very remarkable circumstance connected
with fermentation is that it is always accom-
panied by the development of microscopic
living organisms—fungi and infusoria. “So
constantly, indeed, is this the case, that many
chemists and physiologists regard these organ-
isms as the existing cause of fermentation and
putrefaction; and this view appears to be cor-
roborated by the fact that each particular kind
of fermentation takes place most readily in
contact with a certain living organisms.”
(Fownes.) Thus the vinous or alcohol-pro-
ducing fermentation is accompanied, or caused,
by two fungi, called Torula cerevisiae and
Penicillium glaucum ; the acetous or vinegar-
producing fermentation by Torula aceti; the
lactous fermentation (souring of milk) by
Penicillium glaucum ; &c. But whether fer-
mentation is caused by a vital act of the fungi
themselves, or by a peculiar state of the
albuminous matter in which it occurs, is still
an open question, owing to the many diffi-
culties which surround investigations of this
nature.
Fermentation or putrefaction differs from
EREMACAUSIS or decay, in being limited to
changes occurring in and beneath the surface
of water, the effect being a mere transposition
of elements, or a metamorphosis of the organic
body. EREMACAUSIS, on the other hand, re-
fers to the decomposition of moist organic
matter, when freely exposed to the air, by the
oxygen of which it is gradually burned and
destroyed, without any sensible elevation of
temperature. Although the presence of oxygen
is essential to the commencement of this
change, whenever fermentation is freely es-
tablished it is no longer necessary, as it pro-
ceeds without the aid of any other substance
external to the decomposing body, unless it be
water or its elements. The entire absence of
the exciting causes—warmth, air, and moisture
—leaves even those substances which under
ordinary circumstances are most liable to
change, in a state in which they may remain
for an almost indefinite period without per-
ceptible alteration. Thus, animal substances
in a frozen or dry state do not undergo de-
composition, nor does a solution of sugar or
the juice of grapes (must) when perfectly ex-
cluded from the air; but on the mere exposure
of these substances to warmth, moistnre, or
atmospheric air, putrefaction or fermentation
immediately commences. Remove the cork
from the bottle of ‘capillaire’ on the parlour
sideboard, or pierce the skin of one of the
grapes on the dessert table with a needle, and
these bodies, which would have otherwise suf-
fered no change for weeks, or even months,
will soon exhibit symptoms of spontaneous
decomposition. The knowledge of this fact
has been practically applied to the preservation
of animal and vegetable substances for food.
Even the most putrescible of these may be
preserved for an unlimited period by enclosure
in metallic cases, or glass bottles, from which
the air has been completely removed and ex-
cluded.
The important duties which fermentation
or putrefaction performs in the economy of
our globe, and in several of the arts of life and
civilisation, have long rendered the develop-
ment of its principles an object of the highest
interest and importance, both in a scientific
and practical point of view. In its most ex-
tended sense, this subtile process of nature,
though occasionally productive of injurious



512
FERN-FEVER.
effects, may be regarded as one of the most
necessary and beneficial with which we are
acquainted. Like the labours of a scavenger,
it speedily removes from the surface of our
globe those matters which would otherwise re-
main for some time without undergoing de-
composition. It either dissipates in air, or
reduces to more fixed and useful forms of
matter, those organic substances which, by
their presence, would prove noxious, or, at all
events, useless to the animal and vegetable
kingdoms. It is the giant power that cleans
the Augean stable of nature, at the same time
that it provides some of the most esteemed
articles of utility and luxury for the well-
being and enjoyment of man.
Chemists have distinguished fermentation
into different varieties, which, in general, are
named after the more important products of
its action. Of late years, the number of these
varieties has been greatly increased by the
extension of the term to several operations
besides those formerly included under it.
See ACETIFICATION, BREAD, PUTREFACTION,
BREWING, &c.
FERN (Male). Syn. MALE SHIELD FERN ;
FILIX MAs, RADIX FILICIS, L. The root
(rhizome) of the Lastraca Filiz-mas, or male
ferm. It is bitter, astringent, or vermifuge.
—Dose. 1 to 3 drs., in powder, or made into a
decoction, repeated for 3 or 4 days, and fol-
lowed by a purge. It is chiefly given in tape-
worm. In Switzerland it is deemed almost
infallible, but has proved less successful in
these countries. See OILs.
FERRICY'ANIDE. Syn. FERRIDCYANIDE,
FERRIDCYANURET. A compound of ferri-
cyanogen with a metal or other basic radi-
cal. The FERRICYANIDE OF POTASSIUM, or
‘RED PRUSSIATE OF POTASH,” as it is often
improperly called, is a well-known example.
The ferricyanides of AMMONIUM and the
ALKALIES and ALKALINE EARTHS are soluble;
those of most of the METALS, insoluble. See
below. -
FERRICYAN'0GEN. Syn. FERRIDCYANO-
GEN, FERRIC-CYANOGEN. The peculiar salt-
radical which exists in the so-called red prus-
siate of potash. It is isomeric with ferro-
cyanogen, from which it differs in capacity
of saturation (being tribasic), and in the be-
haviour of its compounds with solutions of the
metals. It has not been isolated. See POTAS-
SIUM (Ferricyanide).
FERROCYANIDE, Syn. FERROCYANURET,
PRUSSIATE ; FERROCYANIDUM, FERROCYANU-
RETUM, L. A compound of ferrocyanogen
with a metal or other basic radical. The
principal substance of this kind is the FERRO-
CYANIDE OF POTASSIUM or ‘YELLOW PRUS-
STATE OF POTASH,” as it is often called. See
the respective bases—AMMONIUM, POTASSIUM,
SoDIUM., &c., and below.
FERROCYAN'0GEN. Syn. FERROCYANO-
GENIUM, L. A bibasic salt-radical, composed
of the elements of 3 equivalents of CYANO-
GEN and 1 equivalent of the metal IRON. It
has never been isolated. It unites with the
various bases to form FERROCYANIDES. See
CYANOGEN, HYDROFERROCYANIC ACID, IRON,
&c. -
FERRU'G0. [L.] Rust of iron. See IRON
(Sesquioxide).
FEWER. Syn. FEBRIs, PyREXIA, L. In
pathology, a condition characterised by loss of
appetite, thirst, languor, debility, unwilling-
ness to move, accelerated pulse, increased heat
of surface, and general disturbance of all the
functions. A large number of diseases in
which all or some of these symptoms appear
are called FEVERs. They have been divided
by nosologists into intermittent (INTERMIT-
TENTEs), remittent (REMITTENTES), and con-
tinued fevers (CONTINUIE). The first of these
are generally known as AGUES; the second
differ from agues in there being one or more
marked exacerbations and remissions of the
symptoms, every 24 hours, but without any
entire intermission. The terms “ hectic,’ ‘ner-
vous,’ ‘bilious,” “inflammatory,’ &c., have also
been applied to particular varieties of fever;
and names indicative of certain cutaneous ap-
pearances connected wiih them have been given
to others; as ‘scarlet” fever, “yellow' fever,
&c.
The usual symptoms of incipient fever (fe-
brile symptoms) are—chilliness (varying from
a simple shiver to a sensation of cold water
running down the back), a quick pulse, hot
and dry skin or flushing, languor, often evinced
by yawning, depression of spirits, alternate fits
of shivering and heat, hurried and uneasy re-
spiration, flying pains in various parts of the
body, as the head, back, and loins; loss of
appetite, nausea or vomiting, dry mouth, furred
tongue, costiveness, urine small in quantity,
and usually of a deep colour, &c. When any
of these symptoms appear, their progress may
often be arrested by the timely exhibition of
an emetic, followed by a saline purgative, and
diaphoretics; at the same time promoting the
action of these remedies by a low diet and
drinking copiously of diluents, and carefully
avoiding animal food, spirits, fermented liquors,
or anything at all stimulant. Whenever symp-
toms of fever become established, medical ad-
vice should be sought and implicitly followed,
In parts where it cannot be obtained the treat-
ment recommended under AGUE, INFLAMMA:
TION, REMITTENT FEVER, and TYPHUS, may
be followed with advantage.
In visiting or attending persons labouring
under fevers, it is advisable to avoid immediate
contact with them of their clothing, or stand.
ing near them in such a position as to inhale
their breath, or the effluvia evolved (in some
cases) by their bodies; and when remaining
for some time in the apartment, it is preferable
to sit or stand near the fireplace, or between
the window and door, as such parts of the
room are generally better ventilated than the

FIBRIN–FILTRATION.
513
other portions. The greatest purifier of the
atmosphere of a sick chamber is a good fire,
because it occasions a continual current of the
impure air up the chimney, and a correspond-
ing influx of fresh air from without. Chloride
of lime, or chloride of zinc, or their solutions,
are also good purifiers. The first, however,
should not be used in quantity, as the evolved
chlorine might in that case impede the respi-
ration of the patient. It is also advisable to
avoid entering the room of a patient labouring
under contagious diseases of any class when
the stomach is empty, or the spirits depressed;
and it has been recommended to clear the
mouth of the saliva immediately after quitting
the chamber. See ABLUTION, &c.
FI'BRIN. Syn. FIBRINE. An azotized
substance, forming the coagulable portion of
fresh-drawn blood, and the principal consti-
tuent of the muscular or fleshy parts of ani-
mals. It is eminently nutritious, and capable
of yielding in the animal body albumen,
caseine, and the tissues derived from them.
(Liebig.)
Prep. Fibrin is easily obtained in a nearly
pure state, by agitating or beating newly
drawn blood with a small bundle of twigs,
when it attaches itself to the latter under the
form of long reddish filaments, which become
white when worked with the hands in a stream
of cold water. It may also be procured by
washing the coagulum of blood, tied up in a
cloth, in cold water, until all the soluble por-
tions are removed. A small quantity of fat,
which it still contains, may be removed by
digesting it in ether.
Prop., &c. Pure fibrin occurs as long,
white, elastic filaments, which are tasteless,
inodorous, and insoluble in both hot and cold
water. Wetted with acetic acid, it forms,
after a time, a transparent jelly, which is
slowly soluble in pure water. Very dilute
solutions of the caustic alkalies dissolve it com-
pletely, and the new solution greatly resembles
liquid albumen. Dried by a gentle heat, it
loses about 80% of water.
FIG. Syn. FICUs (B. P., Ph. L. E. & D.),
CARICA, CARICE FRUCTUS, L. The figs of com-
merce are the dried fruit of Ficus Carica, the
common fig-tree. They are demulcent, emol-
lient, laxative, and pectoral. Roasted and
boiled figs are occasionally employed as poul-
tices to gumboils and other affections of the
mouth.
FII/BERT, Syn. FILBERD. The fruit of
the cultivated hazel or mut-tree (Corylus Avel-
land). Filberts are distinguished from com-
mon nuts by their lengthened figure and
larger size. The best are imported from
Spain.
FILES. The manufacture of these articles
do not come within the limits of this work.
It may, however, be useful to mention that
FILES, FLOATS, and RASPs, which “cut dull’
from age, dirt, or being much worn, are
greatly improved by being kept wet, immersed
in water for some hours, or even for a day or
two.
FIL'TER. Syn. FILTRUM, L. An instru-
ment or apparatus for straining or filtering
liquids.
FILTERING POWDERS. Prep. 1. Ful.
ler’s earth washed, dried without heat, and
reduced to coarse powder.
2. From pipe clay or potter’s clay, as the
last. Both the above are used to filter and
bleach oils.
3. From clay or fuller’s earth, 1 part; fine
siliceous sand, 2 parts; the two are separately
washed, after which they are drained, and
mixed together, and dried, as before. Used
for GLUTINOUS OILS.
4. Granulated animal charcoal, sifted and
fanned from the dust. Used to filter and
bleach SYRUPS and VEGETABLE SOLUTIONS.
Obs. Filtering powders are prepared of
several degrees of coarseness, and should be
chosen with reference to the degree of fluidity
of the liquid to be filtered through them. In
no case should they be reduced to fine powder,
as not only is the process of filtration thereby
rendered unnecessarily tedious, but in some
cases (as when charcoal dust is mixed with
glutinous vegetable solutions and syrups) the
filtrate carries off a portion of the powder,
which can afterwards be separated from it only
with considerable difficulty. See CHARCOAL,
FILTRATION, OIL, &c.
FILTRATION. Syn. FILTRATIO, L. The
separation of liquids from substances mecha-
nically suspended in them, by passing them
through media having pores sufficiently fine to
retain or keep back the solid matter. Filtra-
tion is one of the most common and useful of
the chemico-mechanical operations of the arts,
and its successful performance in an econo-
mical and expeditious manner is therefore a
matter of the highest importance in the labo-
ratory, and, indeed, in almost every branch of
human skill and industry, in which liquids
are employed. Simple in principle, and appa-
rently easily performed, it is, nevertheless, one
of those operations which require no less of
care than of tact and experience to conduct it
with certainty and success. The losses sus-
tained in the laboratory, by defective manipu-
lation in this particular, often exceed those
arising from ignorance and accidents in every
other department conducted in it.
Filtration is usually resorted to for the pur-
pose of freeing liquids from feculence, dirt, and
other foreign matter, and for obtaining them
in a clear or transparent state; but, in some
cases, it has for its object the collection of the
suspended substances, as precipitates, &c., and
in others both these intentions are combined.
The word ‘filtration’ is absolutely synonymous
with ‘straining,” but in the language of the
laboratory it is usually applied te the opera-
tion of rendering liquids transparent, or nearly
so, by passing them through fine media, as .
filtering paper, sand, and the like; whilst the

. 33
514
FILTRATION,
term ‘straining' is employed to designate the
mere separation of the grosser portion, by
means of coarse media, flannel, horsehair cloth,
&c., through which they flow with consider-
able rapidity. Filtration is distinguished from
“clarification’ by its mere mechanical action,
whereas the latter operates by depuration, or
the subsidence of the suspended substances or
faces, arising from their gravity being natu-
rally greater than the fluid with which they
are mixed, or being rendered so by the applica-
tion of heat, or by the addition of some foreign
substance.
The apparatus, vessels, or media, employed
for filtration, are called “FILTERS, and are
technically distinguished from ‘STRAINERS’ by
the superior fineness of their pores.
Both strainers and filters act on the same
principles as the common sieve on powders;
they all, in like manner, retain or hold back
the coarser matter, and permit the liquid or
smaller and more attenuated particles to pass
through. The term ‘medium’ (plural ‘media’)
is applied to the substance or substances
through the pores of which the liquid perco-
lates.
The forms of filters, and the substances of
which they are composed, are various, and de-
pend upon the nature of the liquids for which
they are intended. On the small scale, funnels
of tin, zinc, copper. Wedgwood-ware, earthen-
ware, glass, or porcelain, are commonly em-
ployed as the containing vessels. (See engr.)
The filtering medium may be any substance of
a sufficiently spongy or porous
(\ ÅA nature to allow of the free
Vl II/2 percolation of the liquid, and
whose pores are, at the same
time, sufficiently small to ren-
der it limpid or transparent.
Unsized paper, flannel, linen,
calico, cotton wool, felt, sand,
coarsely powdered charcoal,
porous stone, or earthenware,
and numerous other substances of a similar
kind, are employed for this purpose.
For many liquids that filter
easily, and in which the sus-
pended matter is of a coarse and
porous nature, it is often suffi-
cient merely to place a little
cotton wool or tow, or a small
piece of sponge, in neck of the
funnel, as at (a) in the above
engr. ; but such an apparatus,
from the small extent of the fil-
tering surface, acts either slowly
or imperfectly, and soon gets
choked up. Filters of unsized
paper are well suited for all
liquids that are not of a corrosive
or viscid nature, and are univer-
sally employed for filtering small
quantities of liquids in the la-
boratory. A piece of the paper
is taken of a size proportionate to the quantity
of the liquid to be filtered, and is first doubled
from corner to corner into a triangle (see
engr.), which is again doubled into a smaller
triangle, and the angular portion of the
margin being rounded off with a pair of
scissors, it constitutes a paper cone, which is
placed on a funnel of proportionate capacity,
and is then nearly filled with the liquid. A
piece of paper so cut, when laid flat upon
the table, should be nearly circular. Filter-
ing paper is now sold ready cut in circles of
various sizes, which simply require doubling
for use. Another method of forming a paper
filter, preferred by some persons, is to double
the paper once, as above (see fig. 2), and
then to fold it in a similar way to
a fan, observing so to open it and
lay it on the funnel that a suffi-
cient interval be left between the
two to permit of the free passage
of the filtered liquid on its descent
towards the receiver. The ‘plaited filter,’ as
thus formed, is exceedingly useful for general
purposes; it exposes the entire surface of the
paper to the liquid, and allows filtration to
proceed more rapidly than a ‘plain filter' does.
(See engr.)
In reference to funnels, it may be remarked,
that those employed for filtering rapidly
should be deeply ribbed on the inside, or small
rods of wood or glass, or pieces of straw, or
quills, should be placed between them and the
paper. The neck or tubular part of the funnel
should, in like manner, be deeply ribbed or
fluted on the outside, to permit of the free
passage of the air, when it is placed in a nar-
row-mouthed bottle or receiver. When this
is not the case, filtration proceeds but slowly,
and the filtered liquid is apt to be driven up
the outside of the neck of the funnel by the
confined air, and to be continually hissing and
flowing over the mouth of the vessel. The
breadth of a funnel, to filter well, should be
about three fourths its height, reckoning from
the throat (a). When deeper, the paper is
liable to be continually ruptured, from the pres-
sure of the superincumbent fluid; and when
shallower, filtration proceeds slowly, and an
unnecessarily large surface of the liquid is ex-
posed to the atmosphere, and is lost by eva-
poration. To lessen this as much as possible,
the upper edge of the glass is frequently
ground perfectly smooth, and a piece of smooth
plate-glass is laid thereon. When paper'filters
are of large dimensions, or employed for aqueous
fluids that rapidly soften the texture of the
paper, or for collecting heavy powders, or me-
tallic precipitates, it is usual to support them
on linen or calico, to prevent their breaking.
This is best done by folding the cloth up with
the paper, and cutting the filter out of the
two, in the same way as would be done with
doubled paper, observing so to place it in the
funnel that the paper and calico may re-
main close together, especially towards the
bottom.



FILTRATION.
515
The filtration of small quantities of liquid,
as in chemical experiments,
may often be conveniently
performed by merely placing
the paper on the circular top
of a recipient (see engr.), or
on a ring of glass or earth-
enware laid on the top of
any suitable vessel. A filter
of this kind that will hold
one fluid ounce will filter many
Ounces of some liquids in an hour.
Good filtering paper should contain no solu-
ble matter, and should not give more than
#m to gº of its weight of ashes. The soluble
matter may be removed by washing it, first,
with very dilute hydrochloric acid, and se-
condly, with distilled water.
For filtering a larger quantity of a liquid
than can be conveniently managed with a
funnel, and also for substances that are either
too viscid or too much loaded with feculence
to allow them to pass freely through paper,
conical bags made of flannel, felt, tweeled
cotton cloth or Canton flannel, linen or
Calico, and suspended to iron-hooks by rings
or tapes, are commonly employed. The first
two of the above substances are preferable
for saccharine, mucilaginous, and acidulous
liquors; the third for oily ones; and the re-
mainder for tinctures, weak
alkaline lyes, and similar so-
lutions. These bags have the
disadvantage of sucking up a
considerable quantity of the
fluid poured into them, and
are therefore objectionable,
except for large quantities,
or when they are to be con-
Stinued in actual use as filters
for some time. On the large
scale, a number of them are
usually worked together, and are generally
enclosed in cases to prevent evaporation, and
to exclude dirt from the filtered liquor that
trickles down their sides. These arrangements
will be noticed further on.
A simple mode of filtering aqueous fluids,
which are not injured by exposure to the air,
is to draw them off from one
vessel to another, by means of
a number of threads of loosely
twisted cotton or worsted, ar-
ranged in the form of a syphon.
- (See engr.) The little cotton
rope at once performs the operations of de-
cantation and filtration. This method is often
convenient for sucking off the water from a
small quantity of a precipitate.
When solid substances, as porous stone or
earthenware, are used as the media for fil-
tration, vessels of metal, wood, or stone-ware,
are employed to contain them and the super-
natant liquid. In these cases the filtering
medium is usually arranged as a shelf or dia-
phragm, and divides the vessel into two com-
partments; the upper one being intended to
contain the dirty liquid, and the under one to
receive the same when filtered. Such an
apparatus is set in operation by merely filling
the upper chamber, and may at any time be
readily cleared out by reversing it, and pass-
ing clean water through it in an opposite di-
rection. Small arrangements of this kind,
intended to be screwed on to the water supply-
pipe by either end, and which answer the
purpose intended in the most satisfactory man-
| ner, have been manufactured and vended un-
der the name of ‘REVERSIBLE' or ‘SELF-CLEAN-
ING FILTERS.’ When pulverulent substances,
as sand, coarsely powdered charcoal, &c.,
are employed, a similar arrangement is fol-
lowed; but in this case the shelf or dia-
phragm must consist of any convenient sub-
stance pierced with numerous holes, over
which must be placed, first a stratum of coarse
pebbles, next some of a finer description, and
on this a proper quantity of the sand, char-
coal, or other medium. Over the whole should
be placed another layer of pebbles, or a board
or plate of metal or earthenware, pierced with
a number of holes, to allow the liquid to be
poured into the filter without disturbing its
arrangement. Apparatus of this kind, of a
permanent description, and arranged for filter-
ing large quantities of liquids, are properly
denominated “FILTERING MACHINES.”
Among the liquids usually submitted to
filtration, the following may be mentioned
as the principal—water, oils, syrups, tinc-
tures, vegetable juices, infusions, and decoc-
tions.
The filtration of water may now be con-
sidered. The water of our wells is presented
by nature ready filtered to the hand of man,
and often exhibits an admirable degree of
transparency and purity. It acquires this
state by percolating through the mineral strata
of the earth, which deprive it of the organic
matter it derives from the soil and subsoil,
bnt, at the same time, it dissolves a portion of
the saline and earthy media through which it
passes, and hence acquires that peculiar “hard-
ness’ which is constantly found in spring water.
On the large scale, this natural system of fil-
tration has been imitated by some of the com-
mercial companies that supply our cities and
towns with water. Extensive beds of sand
and gravel have been employed, with variable
success, as the filtering media; and were it not
that filters gradually lose their porosity by the
accumulation of the retained matter in their
pores, such a methºd would be excellent.
But the great expense of such filters precludes
the possibility of frequently cleaning or re-
newing them, by which means they can alone
be kept in an efficient state.
A filter which possesses the advantages of
being easily and cheaply cleaned when dirty,
and which frees water from mechanical impu-
rities with immense rapidity, may be formed
by placing a stratum of Sponge between two



516 TILTRATION.
perforated metallic plates, united by a central
screw, and arranged in such a manner as to
permit of the sponge being compressed to any
required degree. Water, under gentle pres-
sure, flows with such rapidity through the
pores of compressed sponge, that it is said that
a few square feet of this substance will per-
fectly filter several millions of gallons of water
daily. This method of filtration has been
made the subject of a patent, and has been
favorably noticed by the legislature.
A few barrels or hogsheads of water may be
easily filtered daily, by the arrangement repre-
sented in the engraving.
A. A common Water-pipe or
cock.
b. A false bottom fitting in per-
fectly water tight.
c. A perforated wooden or me-
tallic vessel or box covered with
a bag of felt or other filtering
substance (not shown in the en-
graving). d. A small tube, fitting
water-tight into the false bottom,
and uniting the interior of the
filter with the lower portion of
the cask.
It is evident that when water is poured
into the upper portion, B, of a vessel so ar-
ranged, it will sink through the filter c, and
pipe d, into the lower chamber C, and this
filtration will go on as long as the supply con-
tinues, and water is drawn from the cock e.
By uniting the cock e with a tank or casks,
and by keeping the upper portion B always
full by means of a ball-cock, a considerable
quantity of water may be thus filtered. The
advantage of this plan is, that the filter c can
be always readily got at, and easily cleaned or
renewed.
For filtering water on the small scale, and
for domestic use, “alcarazzas,” diaphragms of
porous earthenware and filtering-stone, and
layers of sand and charcoal, &c., already re-
ferred to, are commonly employed as filtering
media. The filtering power
of porous stone or earthen-
ware may begreatly increased
by adopting the arrangement
represented in the margin,
which consists in making the
diaphragm of the shape of a
disc (d), supporting plates of
the same material, the whole
forming but one piece. The ‘PLATYLITHIC
WATER-FILTERs,” which are formed of porous
stone cut on this plan, present 200 to 300
square inches of filtering surface. The “PORT-
ABLE FILTERS,” set up in stone-ware, that are
commonly sold in the shops, contain a stratum
of sand, or coarsely-powdered charcoal; before,
however, having access to this, the water has
to pass through a sponge, to remove the coarser
portion of the impurities. Among the many
new kinds of portable filters now offered for
sale are two which claim special notice, viz.,
the ‘MOULDED CARBON FILTER,” consisting of a
spherical or cylindrical vessel formed of com-
pressed carbon; and the ‘SILICATED CARBON
FILTER,” in which the medium is a compact
substance, formed of animal charcoal and the
ashes of Boghead coal.
Oils are filtered, on the small scale, through
cotton-wool, or unsized paper, arranged in
a funnel; and on the large scale, through long
bags, made of tweeled cotton-cloth (Canton
flannel). These bags
are usually made
about 12 or 15 in-
ches in diameter, and
from 4 to 8 feet long
(see engr.), and are
inclosed in bottom-
less casings, or bags,
of coarse canvas,
about 5 to 6 or 8
inches in diameter,
for the purpose of
condensing a great
extent of filtering
surface into the smallest possible space. A
number of these double bags (from 1 to 50 or
60) are connected with corresponding holes
in the bottom of a block-tin or tinned-copper
cistern, into which the oil to be filtered is
poured. The mode in which these bags are
fastened to the cistern is of the utmost im.
portance, as on the joint being close and secure
depends the integrity of the apparatus. Three
methods of doing this are figured in the en-
graving, which, with the references, will ex-
plain themselves, the same letters referring to
the same parts of each.
i
i
a. Bottom of cistern.
b. Filtering-bag.
c. Screw of the comical nozzle fitting into the cistern,
d. Binding cord connecting bag and nozzle.
e. Binding cord connecting bag and lower nozzle.
f. Bayonet-catch, connecting the lower portion of the
nozzle fastened to the bag with the upper and fixed
part, ſ/.
i. The thick hem at the top of the bag (purposely male
large by enclosing a piece of thick cord therein), resting
on the shoulders, k
l. A metallic cylinder, loosely fitting the hole in the
cistern, and over which the top of the bag is drawn,
before being put into its place; when fitted, as in the
engraving, it retains the hem i securely in its place ahoyº
the shoulder k.
The second of the above arrangements is
the least expensive, and certainly the most
convenient in practice; and when the cy.
linder l fits the hole closely (allowing for the
bag), is as safe, or safer, than an ordinary
SCI'ew.
The bags are surrounded by a wooden screen
fitted up with doors for the purpose of keep-




FILTRATION.
517
ing off the dust; and the bottom of the apart-
ment is furnished with large steam-pipes, by
which a proper temperature may be kept up
in cold weather. The use of heat should,
however, never be had recourse to when it
can be avoided, as although it vastly increases
the rate of filtration, the oil so filtered is
more apt to become opaque in cold weather
than when the process is conducted at the
natural temperature of the atmosphere. This
is particularly the case with castor oil and
sperm oil. In the United States of America,
where the latter is consumed in enormous
quantities for illumination, the best is always
“winter strained,’ as it is popularly called. In
practice, it is more convenient to have a
number of small cisterns at work (say 50 or
100 galls. each), than one or two larger ones;
as any accident that may occur is more easily
remedied, and that without stopping the whole
operation.
When cotton-cloth bags are employed with-
Out being ‘creased,” or enclosed in others of
canvas, they should not be longer than about
3 or 4 feet, and not wider than about 5 or 6
inches when filled. When larger they are
dangerous.
A convenient method of filtering a single
cask of oil is, to insert the pipe of a two-way
patent filter into the cork-hole, by which
means the whole will be
- filtered as drawn off,
VW without any trouble on
T the part of the operator.
=== This filter consists of a
| porous bag stretched over
- sº a perforated metallic ves-
§ sel, nearly the shape and
† size of the exterior cas-
Y ing, and its edge is
É) tightly screwed between
the sides and bottom of
the latter, so as to be quite water-tight.
The cock communicates with the interior of
the perforated plate and filter, and the supply-
pipe with the exterior. By this means the
interior chamber, which occupies #ths of the
vessel, rapidly fills with filtered oil, and con-
tinues full as long as any liquor remains in
the cask. This arrangement is also well
adapted to the filtration of wines, beer,
cordials, porter, and various other liquors.
It is unequalled in simplicity and useful-
ness. The same filter may be removed from
. to cask, with the facility of a common
COCk.
The filtration of SYRUPS is now generally
effected on the large scale by passing them
through the ‘GREASED BAG FILTER’ just de-
scribed. On the small scale, as employed by
confectioners and druggists, they are usually
passed through CONICAL FLANNEL BAGS. (See
page 739.) The filtration of thick syrups is,
however, attended with some difficulty, and
it is therefore a good plan to filter them in a
somewhat dilute state, and afterwards to
reduce them to a proper consistence by evapo-
ration in clean vessels of tinned copper, by
steam heat. Syrups, when filtered in a heated
state, run well for a time, but the pores of the
fabric rapidly get choked, from the thickening
of the syrup and partial crystallization of the
sugar, occasioned by the evaporation of the
aqueous portion from the surface of the bag.
This may be partially prevented by enclosing
the bag in a metallic casing. On the whole,
clarification is preferable for syrups to filtra-
tion, on the small scale. They need only be
well beaten up while cold with a little white of
egg, and then heated; a scum rises, which
must bs removed as soon as it becomes con-
sistent, and the skimming continued until the
liquid becomes clear. Any floating portions
of scum that may have escaped notice are
easily removed by running the syrup through
a coarse flannel strainer, whilst hot. The
most extensive application of the process of
filtration in the arts is in the refining of
Sugars.
TINCTURES and DILUTE SPIRITs are usually
filtered, on the small scale, through BIBULOUS
or UNSIZED PAPER placed on a funnel; and
on the large scale, through thin and fine
COTTON BAGS. In general, however, tinctures
clearify themselves by the subsidence of the
suspended matter, when allowed to repose for
a few days. Hence it is the bottoms alone
that require filtering ; the supernatant clear
portion need only be run through a small hair
sieve, a piece of tow or cotton placed in the
throat of a funnel, or some other coarse me-
dium, to remove any floating substances, as
pieces of straw, &c. Spirits which are largely
loaded with essential oil, as those of ANISEED,
&c., run rapidly through paper or calico, but
usually require the addition of a spoonful or
two of magnesia before they will flow quite
clear. When possible, tinctures, spirits, and
all similar volatile fluids, are better and more
economically cleared by subsidence or clarifi-
cation than by filtration, as, in the latter
way, a portion is lost by evaporation, and the
strength of the liquid is thereby altered.
Vegetable juices should be allowed to
deposit their feculous portion before filtration.
The supernatant liquid will then be often
found quite clear. It is only when this is
not the case that filtration should be had
recourse to. A small quantity may be filtered
through coarse or woollen filtering paper,
supported on a piece of coarse calico placed
on a funnel; when the quantity is large,
one of the CONICAL BAGS before described
should be employed. The bottoms from which
the clear portion has been decanted should
be placed on a separate filter, or else not added
until the whole of the other portion has
drained through. Vegetable juices are often
rendered clear, by simply heating them to
about 180° or 200° Fahr., by which their al-
bumen is coagulated; they are also frequently
clarified by the addition of a little white of

518 FILTRATION.
egg and heat, in the same way as syrups.
Many of them (as those of hemlock, hen-
bane, aconite, &c.) are greatly injured by
heat, and must consequently be filtered, or
only simply decanted after repose. In all
cases they should be exposed to the air as
little as possible, as they rapidly suffer decom-
position.
Vegetable infusions and decoctions may
be cleared by defecation followed by fil-
tration. The conical bags of flammel before
described are usually employed for this pur-
pose. When the liquid is to be evaporated
to an extract, they are commonly suspended
by a hook over the evaporating pan. A con-
venient method of straining these fluids, prac-
tised in the laboratory, is to stretch a square
of flannel on a frame or ‘horse,” securing it at
the corners by pieces of
string. (See engr.) Such a
frame, laid across the mouth
of a pan, is more easily fed
with fresh liquid than a bag,
whose mouth is 40 or 50
inches higher. The same
purpose, for small quantities
of liquid, is effected by laying the flannel
across the mouth of a coarse hair sieve. The
concentrated infusions and decoctions, be-
ing usually weak tinctures, may be filtered
in the same way as the latter. (See above.)
Many vegetable solutions, that from the vis-
cidity of the suspended matter can scarcely
be filtered, may be readily clarified with white
of egg in the cold, or pass the filter rapidly if
a very small quantity of acetic, tartaric, sul-
phuric, or other strong acid, is previously
added.
Corrosive liquids, as the STRONG ACIDs,
are filtered through powdered glass, or
SILICEOUS SAND, supported on pebbles in the
throat of a glass funnel, or through asbestos or
gun-cotton placed in the same manner. Char-
coal has also been employed for the same pur-
pose, but is not fit for some acids. Strong
caustic alkaline lyes are also filtered through
powdered glass or sand. Weak alkaline
lyes may be filtered through fine calico,
stretched across the mouth of a funnel.
Many corrosive liquids, as solution of potassa,
&c., require to be excluded from the air
during filtration. The simplest
apparatus that can be employed
for this purpose is that figured
in the margin:-(a) is a globular
bottle fitted with the ground
stopper (d), and having a perfo-
rated neck (f) ground to the
bottle (b); (c) is a small tube,
wrapped round with as much
asbestos, linen, or calico, as is re-
quired to make it fit the under
neck of the bottle through which
it passes. The tube (c) may
also be fixed by placing pebbles
and powdered glass or sand round
it, as before mentioned. For use, the solution
to be filtered is poured into the bottle (a)
nearly as high as the top of the tube (c), and
the stopper is replaced. The liquid then
descends into (b), and a similar quantity of
air passes up the tube into (a). LIQUOR
POTASSÉ may be always obtained fine by
depuration in close vessels, when the sediment
of lime only need be filtered, which may be
effected with calico fixed across the mouth of
a funnel.
When a precipitate, or the suspended
matter in a liquid, is the object of the filtra-
tion, the filter should be of such a nature that
the powder may be easily separated from it,
when dry, and that with the least loss possible.
Linen filters are for this reason preferable
for large quantities, and those of smooth
bibulous paper for small ones. The powder
should be washed down the sides of the filter,
and collected, by means of a small stream of
water, in one spot at the bottom, assisting
the operation with a camel-hair pencil; and,
when the whole is dry, it should be swept
off the paper or cloth with a similar pencil
or brush, and not removed by a knife, as
is commonly done, when it can be possibly
avoided.
The ‘first runnings' of liquid from a filter
are commonly foul, amd are pumped back or
returned until the fluid runs perfectly limpid
and transparent, when it is ‘turned into the
‘filtered liquor cistern,” or proper receiver.
In many cases the liquid does not readily
become transparent by simply passing through
the filter; hence has arisen the use of FIL-
TERING PowDERS, or substances which rapidly
choke up the pores of the media in a sufficient
degree to make the fluid pass clear. In the
employment of these powders, care should be
taken that they are not in too fine a state of
division, nor used in larger quantities than
are absolutely necessary, as they are apt to
choke up the filter, and to absorb a large
quantity of the liquid. The less filtering
powder used, the more rapid will be the pro-
gress of the filtration, and the longer will be
the period during which the apparatus will
continue in effective action. For some liquids
these substances are employed for the double
purpose of decolouring or whitening, as well as
rendering them transparent. In such cases,
it is preferable first to pass the fluid through
a layer of the substance in coarse powder,
from which it will “run” but slightly con-
taminated into the filter; or, if the powder
is mixed with the whole body of the liquid,
as in bleaching almond oil, &c., to pass the
mixture through some coarser medium to
remove the cruder portion before allowing it
to run into the filter. Another plan is, after
long agitation and subsequent repose, to
decant the clearer portion from the grosser
sediment, and to employ separate filters for
the two. Granulated animal charcoal is used,
according to the first method, to decolour


FILTRATION.
519
syrups, oils, &c.; and filtering powder by the
second and third, to remove a portion of the
colour, and to clarify castor and other oils.
The common plan of mixing large quantities
of filtering powder with castor oil, and throw-
ing the whole into the filter, as adopted by
the druggists, is injudicious. When simple
filtration is required, it is better to use little
or no powder, and to continue returning the
oil that ‘runs’ through, until, by the swelling
of the fibres of the filter bags, it flows quite
clear. By this plan the same filters may be
used for a long period of time (for many
years), and will continue to work well;
whilst, by the usual method, they rapidly
decline in power, and soon deliver their con-
tents slowly, and after a short time scarcely
at all.
It is often of great advantage to render a
filter ‘self-acting,” or to construct it in such a
way that it may ‘feed itself, so that it may
continue full and at work without the constant
attention of the operator. On the small scale,
this may be readily effected on the principle
of the common fountain lamp (see engr.); and
on the large scale, by placing the vessel con-
taining the unfiltered liquid on a higher level
than the filter, and by having the end of the
Supply-pipe fitted with a ball-cock, to keep
the liquid in the filter
constantly at the same
height.
The rapidity of filtration
depends upon the-porosity
of the filtering medium—
the extent of the filtering
surface—the relative vis-
cidity or mobility of the fil-
tering liquid—the pressure
or force by which the liquid
is impelled through the
pores of the filter, and—
the porosity and fineness of
the substances it holds in suspension. The
most efficient filter is produced when the first
two or the first three are so graduated to the
others that the liquid filters rapidly, and
is at the same time rendered perfectly
transparent.
In the common method of filtration no
pressure is exerted beyond that of the
weight of the column of the liquid resting
on the filtering medium, but in some cases
additional pressure is employed. This is
had recourse to for the purpose of pro-
ducing a more rapid filtration, and more
especially for filtering liquids that, from
their viscidity, will scarcely pass through
the pores of substances sufficiently fine to
remove their impurities in the ordinary
way.
One of the easiest means of employing pres-
sure in filtration is to increase the height of
the column of the filtering liquid. From the
peculiar properties of fluids, by which they
transmit pressure in an equal degree in all
directions, this column need not be of equal
diameter throughout, but may
be conveniently contracted to
the size of a small pipe, as in
the accompanying engraving,
which represents a small filter
on this construction at work.
(a) is the funnel or reservoir of
foul liquid; (b) a small pipe
conveying the liquid to the
filter; (c c) a chamber, of which
the upper portion (d) is filled
with the descending liquid, and
the lower portion (e) with the
filtering media; (; ) are screws
by which the bottom plate is
fastened on, which plate is re-
moved to clean out or renew the
filter. For use, the cocks (AE)
and (l) are closed, and the liquid
poured into the funnel (a); the
cock (/) is next opened, and, in a few minutes
after, the cock (l), when an uninterrupted flow
of filtered liquor will be obtained as long as
any fluid remains in the funnel (a) and the
tube (b). The length of the tube determines
the degree of pressure. Care must be taken
first to pass the foul liquid though a hair
sieve, or some other strainer, to remove any
substance that might choke up the pipe (b).
Another method of employing pressure in
filtration is the withdrawal of the air from
the receiving vessel, as in the vacuum filter,
by which a pressure of about 14% lbs. to the
square inch becomes exerted on the surface of
the liquid by the atmosphere. The vacuum
in the receiving vessel may be produced by
the air-pump or by steam.
A commoner method of applying pressure
than either of those already mentioned is to
condense the air over the surface of the liquid
by means of a forcing-pump, or by steam.
On the small scale, pressure may be applied
to filtration by means of a syphon, whose
shorter leg has its mouth blown into the
shape of a bell or funnel, over which filtering
paper or fine calico may be stretched.
The application of pressure to filtration is
not always advantageous, and beyond a certain
limit is generally attended with inconvenience,
if not with absolute disadvantage. It is
found in practice that fluids under pressure
take a longer period to run clear than without
pressure, and that ruptures of the media more
frequently take place in the former case, or
with pressure, than in the latter. Great
pressure is in no case advantageous.
The filters already noticed are those that
act by the fluid descending through the media;
but in some cases the reverse method is em-
ployed, and the liquid filters upwards, instead
of downwards. These are called ascending
filters, and are often preferable to those on the
descending principle, because the suspended
matters that require removal by filtration
usually sink, and thus a portion escapes being


520
FININGS-FIRE.
forced into the pores of the filter. They are
also more convenient when
pressure is employed. Their
construction depends upon the
same principles as the common
filter, and merely requires that
the feeding vessel should be
higher than the upper surface
of the filtering media. OILS
are conveniently filtered in this
way, because of their little spe-
cific gravity. By fixing a small
filter on this principle into the
head of a cask, and pouring in
water through a funnel, whose
neck reaches nearly to the
bottom of the cask, the oil will float up and
pass the filter, leaving the sediment behind.
In cold weather hot water may be employed.
In some cases the upward and downward
systems of filtration are united in the same
apparatus, and this plan is advantageous where
the space for operating is limited. For this
purpose it is merely necessary to connect the
bottom of an ascending filter with the top of
a descending one, or the reverse; the proper
pressure being in either case applied. See
CLARIFICATION, DEFECATION, FININGS, &c.
FININGS. Substances used by publicans,
brewers, wine merchants, &c., to clarify their
liquors.
Prep. 1. (BREWER's FININGs ; CooBER's
F.) Isinglass (finely shredded), 1 lb., and
sour beer or cider or vinegar, 3 or 4 pints,
are macerated together, and more of the sour
liquor added as tho isinglass swells, until
about a gallon has been used, agitation with a
whisk or a small bundle of twigs being occa-
sionally had recourse to, for the purpose of
promoting the solution. As soon as the whole
of the isinglass is dissolved, the mixture is
reduced to the consistence of thin syrup, with
weak mild beer, or cider, or any other liquid
that the finings are intended for. The whole
is next strained through a tammy cloth or a
hair sieve, and at once reduced to a proper
state of dilution, by the addition of more
liquor. Product. 6% to 7 galls. “A pound of
good isinglass will make about 12 galls. of
finings.” (Ure.) Used to clarify fermented
liquors, especially beer. 1 to 1% pint is the
usual dose for a barrel of ale or porter; and a
quart for a hogshead of cider or wine.
2. (SPIRIT FININGS.)—a. Alum (ord. cryst.),
1 lb.; powder, and divide it into 12 equal por-
tions, which are to be separately wrapped in
blue paper, and marked No. 1. Next take of
carbonate of soda (sesquicarbonate of the shops),
6 oz. ; divide this as the last, wrap it in white
paper, and mark each parcel No. 2. Keeps dry
anywhere.
b. From alum, 1 lb. ; salt of tartar (dry),
} lb.; proceed as before. The white papers
containing the salt of tartar must be kept in
a dry, well-corked, wide-mouthed bottle orjar.
Both of the last two are used to clarify gin
-
-
a. Cask of oil.
b. Stand.
c. Funnel for
Water.
d. Filter.
and cordials. The contents of one of the
blue papers are dissolved in about a pint of
hot water, and the resulting solution is well
‘rummaged up' with the liquor. A solution of
the contents of one of the white papers, in
about ; pint of hot water, is then added, and
the agitation continued for some minutes
longer; after which the cask is “bunged’ close
and the whole allowed to repose until the next
day. This is sufficient for a barrel (say 30 to
36 galls.), but many persons use double the
quantity. The effect is not only to clarify,
but also to ‘blanch’ the liquor. *
Obs. Good liquors, either fermented or
spirituous, need no artificial ‘fining, as they
always clarify themselves by repose. With
those, however, which are ‘out of condition,’ or
of inferior quality, it is often necessary, as,
without such a proceeding, they remain unsale.
able. This is particularly the case with malt
liquor. “Attempts to clarify it in the cask
seldom fail to do harm. The only thing that
can be used with advantage for fining foul or
muddy beer is isinglass.” (Ure.) The disad.
vantages resulting from the artificial clarifi-
cation of fermented liquors are—that they do
not afterwards ‘stand well on draught,’ that
much of the conservative astringent matter
which they contain is precipitated with the
‘ finings,’ that their piquancy and flavour is
more or less diminished, and that they are
more than usually liable to become flat and
vapid, whether in cask or bottle. The larger
the proportion of ‘finings’ used, the more
marked are their injurious effects, and the
shorter the interval which elapses before the
accession of the several symptoms referred to,
We have seen the most disastrous consequences
follow the injudicious use of ‘finings,” more
especially in respect to those liquors in which
a certain amount of piquancy, astringency,
and briskness, is an essential condition. In
one instance which came under our notice
upwards of 30 barrels of underground' (a
very strong old ale) was thus reduced in value
to less than 1-3rd its original cost; and in
another, a large bottled stock of the “finest
old Burton’ was found to be utterly unsale.
ahle. In both cases the “spoiled liquor' was
got rid of by mixing it in and selling it with
3d. and 4d. beer.
Liquors which ‘refuse to fine’ or become
clear, when treated with “finings’ in the usual
manner, are called ‘stubborn’ by coopers and
cellarmeu. See BREWING, GIN, MALT LI-
QUORS, WINES, &c.
FIRE. The calamities resulting from this
destructive agent are of such frequent occur-
rence, as to justly claim a notice of the subject
here. The causes of fires are numerous, and
of a varied character, and, in most instances,
difficult to determine, because it is the interest
of those concerned to suppress all evidence
connected with the matter. Accident, that
convenient word given to the imaginary hack
to which so many fires are referred, if truth-

FIRE.
521
fully interpreted, will, in general, be found to
be equivalent to carelessness, recklessness, or
guilt. We believe that there are few fires
which have happened that might not have
been prevented by the exercise of common
prudence, and that a vast number have been
caused by direct negligence, arising from sheer
laziness and indifference, to use no harsher
terms. As familiar instances, may be men-
tioned—allowing sparks to fall on the ground
and remain there, without extinguishing them;
carrying a naked candle into rooms containing
inflammable substances; smoking carelessly and
in dangerous places, as workshops, warehouses,
on shipboard, &c.; keeping instantaneous light
matches in improper places, and neglecting to
pick up those that may happen to fall on the
ground, &c. &c. The list might easily be
extended, but we believe every reflecting reader
can do so for himself. The great increase in
the number of fires since the introduction of
lucifer matches, and the almost general use of
tobacco, cannot fail to have attracted the at-
tention of every one. The danger of matches
falling about might be avoided by the use of
those which can only be ignited by rubbing
them on the prepared surface of the box.
There ‘safety matches’ are coming into general
use, and must eventually supersede all the more
dangerous kinds.
I’rev. This consists of the exercise of those
ordinary precautions which the good sense
of every careful and trustworthy man, be he
taskmaster or servant, cannot fail to suggest.
It would be useless to enumerate them.
Fires might often be readily extinguished
when first discovered by the timely appli-
cation of a few buckets of water. When an
apartment is found to be on fire, the door,
chimney, and windows should be immediately
closed, if possible, and only opened for the
purpose of projecting water on the flames.
By this means the supply of air will be cut
off, and rapid combustion prevented. The
same applies to the lower doors and windows
of a house (especially the shop window), which
are often injudiciously kept open or removed,
under the pretence of rendering assistance.
The neglect of this precaution has often caused
a mere smouldering fire, that might have been
easily put out, to burst into an unextinguish-
able mass of flame.
It has been proposed at various times to
make certain additions to the water used for
the purpose of extinguishing fires, in order to
render its action more certain and effective.
It is found that sal ammoniac (5 oz. to the
gal.) exerts this property in a remarkable de-
gree. Several other articles, as common salt,
pearlash, and kitchen soda, act in the same
way, though less effectively. A few buckets
of such water will speedily arrest the progress
of a fire before it has much extended itself.
Such a plan is easily applied, by adding the
saline matter, to the buckets of water, which
are either used by hand, or to feed the engine
for the first few minutes of its working. When,
however, a fire has made much progress, the
action of such substances becomes scarcely
perceptible.
Chimneys on fire are readily extinguished
in several ways, without having recourse to
throwing water down them from the top, by
which much damage is frequently done to the
furniture in the rooms. One of the simplest
methods is, to cautiously scatter a handful of
flowers of sulphur over the dullest part of the
burning coals; the sulphurous vapours, being
incapable of supporting combustion, rapidly
extinguish the flames. Another method is, to
shut the doors and windows, and to stop up the
bottom of the chimney with a piece of wet
carpet or blanket, throwing a little water or
flowers of sulphur, or even common salt, on the
fire immediately before doing so. By this means
the draught is stopped, and the burning soot
extinguished for want of air. In many of the
first-class houses reeently erected, “fire-place
shutters’ are provided, which, when partly
drawn down, act as powerful bellows or
‘blowers;’ and which, when wholly drawn
down, so as to touch the hearth-stone, entirely
close up the fire-place, and instantly extinguish
the combustion of the fuel in the grate, or that
of the soot in the chimney. This simple ar-
rangement, the advantages of which were
pointed out in an early edition of this work,
renders fires in chimneys of little moment, as it
is only necessary to draw down the shutter to
put them out. If a chimney is stopped at top,
instead of at the bottom, the whole of the
smoke must, of necessity, be driven into the
apartment.
Escape from apartments on fire may be
best effected by creeping on the hands and
knees. In this way the window or door may
be reached. It is found that the atmosphere
of a room so full of smoke as to produce suffo-
cation to a person standing upright, may gene-
rally be safely breathed on nearly a level with
the floor. A damp cloth, or handkerchief, tied
over the mouth and nostrils, or, still better,
over the whole face and head, will enable a
person to effect a passage through the densest
smoke, and, in many cases, to escape from
buildings on fire, when otherwise it would be
impracticable. Should descent by the stair-
case be found impossible, then the window
should be immediately sought, and a ladder or
fire-escape waited for. In the absence of
either, if the danger is imminent, a rope should
be made by tying the sheets and blankets of
the bed together, one end of which should be
firmly secured to a chair or table, or preferably
to one of the bed-posts, and with this appa-
ratus descent should be cautiously attempted.
Jumping out of the window should be avoided,
as persons who have not been brought up as
clowns, or harlequins, run just as much danger
in performing such an exploit as they do by
remaining in the burning building. When it
is impossible to escape from a burning build-


522 FIRES.
ing by the stairs or windows, retreat may be
sometimes secured by a trap-door opening on
to the roof, or by a skylight, when, unless it
be an isolated house, the roof of one of the
adjoining buildings may probably be gained
with safety.
Fire-escapes of various kinds have been em-
ployed of late years in the metropolis, and
have proved of the greatest value in rescuing
persons from burning buildings.
It is said that there is no instance on record
of a person being burnt to death in a dwelling-
house in Edinburgh, where the houses are
usually high; yet in London, where fire-
engines and fire-escapes are provided in
greater numbers, deaths are very frequent
from this cause. The reason of this difference
is, that in the former city the stairs are all
made of stone, by which means a road of escape
is secured. -
The clothes of females and children, when on
fire, may be most readily extinguished by roll-
ing the sufferer in the carpet, hearth-rug,
table-cover, a great-coat, cloak, or any other
woollen article at hand. If this be expertly
done, the flames may be rapidly put out, un-
less the skirts of the dress be distended by
hoops or crinoline, when there is great diffi-
culty in staying the progress of the flames.
Should assistance not be at hand, the person
whose clothes are on fire should throw herself
on the ground, and roll the carpet round her,
as before described ; or if such a thing is not in
the room, she should endeavour to extinguish
the flames with her hands, and by rapidly
rolling over and over on the floor. In this
way the fire will be stifled, or at least the com-
bustion will proceed so slowly that less per-
sonal injury will be experienced before assist-
ance arrives. The advantage of assuming the
horizontal position is manifest from the fact,
that nine times out of ten it is the lower
parts of the dresses of females that first catch
fire.l
The extinction of fires on board ships by
means of carbonic acid gas was some years
since suggested to the Admiralty by Mr. J. R.
Hancorn. He proposes that a simple and eco-
nomical apparatus should be attached to every
decked vessel, capable of supplying this gas,
which is a well-known non-supporter of com-
bustion, and will extinguish fire at the very
instant of coming in contact with the burning
matter. Chalk with sulphuric acid diluted
with water (vinegar, or any other acid will
do) yields 44% of the gas ; hence, a tom of
chalk, and a fourth part of that quantity of
sulphuric acid, will be found sufficient to extin-
guish any fire on board a ship. Mr. Hancorn
also proposed this as a method of destroying
vermin in ships, such as rats and cockroaches,
for which purpose it is more easily applied and
more effectual than that usually adopted.
* For the mode of rendering muslin and other inflam-
mable articles of ladies' apparel fire-proof, see INCOM-
BUSTIBLE FAIBBICS.
This plan was rejected by the Admiralty, from
a fear that the destructive action of the gas
might extend to the crew as well as the fire.
But “it surely is possible by mechanical
means to expel the gas before again entering
the ship's hold. At any rate, the grand point
would be obtained of extinguishing the fire—
though the crew might have only the deck to
stand on.”
It is often difficult to get horses out of
buildings on fire, but it is said that they will
readily come out if, after being blindfolded,
the saddle and bridle, or the harness, &c., to
which they are accustomed, are thrown over
them as usual.
Fire Annihilator (Phillips's). This is essen-
tially a gaseous fire engine, which at any mo-
ment can be made to discharge a stream of
mixed gases and vapours having the power of
checking combustion. When first introduced
it was generally regarded as a most important
invention, but it has not proved an effective
substitute for the common water engine.
For extinguishing fires on board ship and in
close apartments it is undoubtedly well
adapted, but as a street engine it is compara-
tively useless, owing to the unmanageable na-
ture of its fire-annihilating vapours.
The composition with which the ‘Fire Anni-
hilator’ is charged is a mixture of dried ferro-
cyanide of potassium, sugar, and chlorate of
potassa. It is set in action by a blow on a
glass vessel containing oil of vitriol, which,
being fractured, permits the acid to flow over
the ‘charge,” when the anti-combustion gas is
liberated, and rushes forth with great impe-
tuosity.
Fire-damp, See
retted.)
Fire-engine. The common fire-engine is
a compound forcing-pump, consisting of two
“forcing-pumps' placed on opposite sides of
an air-vessel, with which both communicate.
The ‘fulcrum’ of the “lever by which both
pumps are worked is placed midway between
them ; consequently they act alternately in
charging the air-vessel. In order to obtain a
very forcible jet, it is necessary to prevent the
escape of any portion of the contents of the
air-vessel until the confined air is considerably
compressed. The lever is connected with
hand-rails on each side of the engine, and these
are alternately raised and depressed by the
workers. Engines worked by steam power
are now common in London and most of our
large towns.
Fire-proofing. See INCOMBUSTIBILITY, &c.
Fire-works. See PYROTECHNY, and below.
FIRES. (In pyrotechny.) Coloured fires
may be termed, not inaptly, the chefs-d'oeuvre
of the pyrotechnist’s art, since on their excel-
lence the attractions of most other varieties
of fire-works depend. The following forms,
under judicious management, yield fires of
remarkable beauty.
Blue Fire. Prep. 1. From metallic an-
HYDROGEN (Carbu-

FIRES.
523

timony, 1 part ; Sulphur, 2 parts; nitre, 5
parts. -
2. From realgar, 2 parts; charcoal, 3 parts;
chlorate of potassa, 5 parts; sulphur, 13 parts;
nitrate of baryta, 77 parts.
3. (Mr. A. Bird.) Charcoal and orpiment,
of each, 1 part; black sulphuret of antimony,
16 parts; mitre, 48 parts; sulphur, 64 parts.
4. (Fownes.) Tersulphuret of antimony, 1
part ; sulphur, 2 parts; dry nitre, 6 parts.
This is the composition used for the Bengal or
blue signal light, employed at sea.
5. (Prof. Marchand.) Sulphur, sulphate of
potassa, and ammonio-Sulphate of copper, of
each, 15 parts; nitre, 27 parts; chlorate of
potassa, 28 parts. For theatrical illuminations.
This may be rendered either lighter or darker
coloured, by lessening or increasing the quan-
tities of the sulphate of potassa and ammonio-
Sulphate of copper,
6. (LIGHT BLUE — Marchand.) Sulphur,
16 parts; calcined alum, 23 parts; chlorate of
potassa, 61 parts.
7. (DARK BLUE — Marchand.) Calcined
alum and carbonate of copper, of each, 12
parts; sulphur, 16 parts; chlorate of potassa,
60 parts.
8. (Marsh.) Sulphate of copper, 7 parts;
sulphur, 24 parts; chlorate of potassa, 69
parts.
9. (Ruggieri.) Nitre, 2 parts; sulphur and
zinc, of each, 3 parts; gunpowder, 4 parts.
10. From sulphur, 1 part; dried verdigris,
2 parts; chlorate of potassa, 9 parts.
Crimson Fire. Prep. 1. (Marsh.) Chlorate
of potassa, 4% parts; charcoal (alder or willow),
5% parts; sulphur, 22% parts; nitrate of stron-
tia, 67% parts. For pots.
2. (Marsh.) Charcoal, 4% parts; sulphuret
of antimony, 5% parts; chlorate of potassa, 17%
parts; sulphur, 18 parts; mitrate of strontia,
55 parts. For boxes and stars.
3. (Marchand.) Sulphur, 16 parts; chalk
(dry), 23 parts; chlorate of potassa, 61 parts.
Turns on the purple. See RED FIRE (below).
Green Fire. Prep. T. Nitrate of baryta,
77 parts; chlorate of potassa, 8 parts; fine
charcoal, 3 parts; sulphur, 13 parts.
2. From metallic arsenic, 2 parts; charcoal,
3 parts; chlorate of potassa, 5 parts; sulphur,
13 parts; nitrate of baryta, 77 parts. Very
beautiful, particularly when burnt before a
reflector.
3. (Mr. A. Bird.) Charcoal and black sul-
phuret of antimony, of each, 2 parts; chlorate
of potassa, 5 parts; sulphur, 6 parts; nitrate
of baryta, 80 parts.
4. (Fownes.) Lamp black, 1 part; chlorate
of potassa, 4 parts; sulphur, 6 parts; dry ni-
trate of baryta, 18 parts.
5. (Marchand.) Boracic acid, 10 parts;
sulphur, 17 parts; chlorate of potassa, 73 parts.
Very beautiful.
6. (Marchand.) Chlorate of potassa, 18
parts; sulphur, 22 parts; nitrate of baryta,
60 parts. For theatrical illuminations,
7. (LIGHT GREEN – Marchand.) Sulphur,
16 parts; carbonate of baryta, 24 parts; chlo-
rate of potassa, 60 parts. Extremely delicate.
8. (Marsh.) Charcoal and sulphuret of ar-
senic, of each, 1% part; sulphur, 10% parts;
chlorate of potassa, 23% parts; nitrate of ba-
ryta, 62% parts. For pots or stars.
Lilac Fire. Prep. 1. (Marsh.) Black oxide
of copper, 6 parts; dry chalk, 20 parts; sul-
phur, 25 parts; chlorate of potassa, 49 parts.
For pans.
2. (Marsh.) From black oxide of copper,
3 parts; dried chalk, 22 parts; sulphur, 25
parts; chlorate of potassa, 50 parts. For stars.
Orange Fire. See RED FIRE, No. 8 (below).
Pink Fire. Prep. (Marchand.) Charcoal,
1 part; chalk and sulphur, of each, 20 parts;
chlorate of potassa, 27 parts; nitre, 32 parts.
For theatrical illuminations. See RED FIRE,
No. 10 (below).
Purple Fire. Prep. 1. From lamp black,
realgar, and nitre, of each, 1 part; sulphur, 2
parts; chlorate of potassa, 5 parts; fused ni-
trate of strontia, 16 parts.
2. (Marsh.) Sulphuret of antimony, 2%
parts: black oxide of copper, 10 parts; sul-
phur and nitrate of potassa, of each, 22# parts;
chlorate of potassa, 42 parts. For pans.
3. (Marsh.) Sulphate of copper, 9% parts;
sulphur, 13 parts; chlorate of potassa, 77%
parts. For stars.
4. From sulphur, 12 parts; black oxide of
copper, 12 parts; chlorate of potassa, 30 parts.
See CRIMSON FIRE, No. 3 (above), and RED
FIRE, No. 9 (below).
Red Fire. Prep. 1. From sulphur, sul-
phuret of antimony, and nitre, of each, 1 part ;
dried nitrate of strontia, 5 parts.
2. (Mr. A. Bird.) Charcoal, 1 part ; black
sulphuret of antimony, 4 parts; chlorate of po-
tassa, 5 parts; sulphur, 13 parts; dried nitrate
of strontia, 40 parts.
3. (Fownes.) Lamp black, 2 parts; chlorate
of potassa, 8 parts; sulphur, 9 parts; dried
nitrate of strontia, 32 parts.
- 4. (Marchand.) Sulphur, 16 parts; carbo-
nate of strontia, 23 parts; chlorate of potassa,
61 parts. -
– 5. (Marchand.) Chlorate of potassa, 20
parts; sulphur, 24 parts; nitrate of strontia,
56 parts. For theatrical illuminations.
6. (Marsh.) Coal dust, 2 parts; gunpowder,
6 parts; sulphur, 20 parts; dried nitrate of
strontia, 72 parts.
7. (Ruggieri.) Sulphuret of antimony, 4
parts; chlorate of potassa, 5 parts; sulphur,
I3 parts; fused nitrate of strontia, 40 parts.
A little charcoal or lamp black makes it burn
quicker.
8. (ORANGE RED — Marchand.) Sulphur,
14 parts; chalk, 34 parts; chlorate of potassa,
52 parts.
9. (PURPLE RED–Marchand.) Sulphur, 16
parts; chalk, 23 parts; chlorate of potassa,
61 parts. .
10. (RosP-RED–Marchand.) Sulphur, 16
*~...~.
524 FISH,

parts; dried chloride of calcium, 23 parts;
chlorate of potassa, 61 parts. See PINK FIRE.
11. From charcoal, 2 parts; chlorate of
potassa, 6 parts; sulphur, 13 parts; dried ni-
trate of strontia, 40 parts.
Violet Fire. Prep. 1. From charcoal, 8
parts; sulphur, 10 parts; metallic copper, 15
parts; chlorate of potassa, 30 parts.
2. (DARK VIOLET-Marchand.) Alum and
carbonate of potassa, of each, 12 parts; sul-
phur, 16 parts; chlorate of potassa, 60 parts.
3. (PALE VIOLET – Marchand.) Sulphur
14 parts; alum and carbonate of potassa, 16
parts; chlorate of potassa, 54 parts.
White Fire. Prep. 1. From nitre, 60
parts; sulphur, 20 parts; black antimony, 10
* parts; meal powder, 6 parts; powdered cam-
phor, 4 parts. For either pans or stars.
2. (Mr. A. Bird.) White arsenic, 1 part;
charcoal, 2 parts; black antimony, 16 parts;
nitre, 48 parts; sulphur, 64 parts.
- 3. (Marchand.) Charcoal, 2 parts; sulphur,
22 parts; nitre, 76 parts. For theatrical illu-
minations.
4. (Marchand.) Gunpowder, 15 parts; sul-
phur, 21 parts; nitre, 64 parts. As the last.
5. (Marsh.) Gunpowder, 12% parts; zinc
filings, 18 parts; sulphur, 23 parts; nitre, 46%
parts. For pans.
6. (Marsh.) Zinc dust or filings, 15 parts;
sulphur, 28 parts; nitre, 57 parts. For stars.
7. (Ruggieri.) Sulphur, 13% parts; sul-
phuret of antimony, 174 parts; nitre, 48 parts.
8. (Ruggieri.) From realgar, 2 parts; sul-
phur, 7 parts; nitre, 24 parts.
9. (Ruggieri.) Charcoal, 1 part; sulphur,
24 parts; nitre, 75 parts.
10. (Ruggieri.) Iron or zinc borings, 25
parts; gunpowder, 100 parts.
Yellow Fire. Prep. 1. From sulphur, 16
parts; dried carbonate of soda, 23 parts;
chlorate of potassa, 61 parts.
2. (Marchand.) Gunpowder, 14 parts; sul-
phur, 16 parts; dried soda, 20 parts; nitre,
50 parts. -
3. (Marchand.) Charcoal, 1% part; sul-
phur, 17% parts; dried soda, 20 parts; nitre,
61 parts.
4. (Marsh.) Charcoal, 6 parts; sulphur,
19% parts. For pans. Very beautiful.
Obs. The ingredients in the above com-
pounds are to be separately reduced to pow-
der, and sifted through lawn, after which they
should be kept in well-corked wide-mouthed
bottles until the time of mixing them for use.
The chlorate of potassa, more especially, must
be separately treated, and cautiously handled,
in order to prevent the possibility of explosion,
from friction, whilst it is in contact with com-
bustible matter. The requisite quantity of
each of the ingredients being weighed out and
placed on a clean sheet of white paper, the
whole is to be thoroughly but carefully mixed
together with a light hand, by means of a
bone or wooden knife. The compound is next
lightly packed into small cups or pans for
illuminations, or into small pill-boxes for stars
and trains, a little priming and quick-match
being lastly attached to each. To ensure
success, the several ingredients must be dry
and commercially pure ; and though reduced
to the state of a uniform powder, care must
be taken that they are not absolutely ‘dusty,’
or too finely pulverised. The nitrate of strontia,
alum, saltpetre, carbonate of soda, &c., before
being weighed, require to be gently heated in
an iron pot or pan, until they fall to powder,
and lose their hygrometric moisture, or water
of crystallisation. To ensure the perfect ad-
mixture of the ingredients, the whole, after
they have been stirred together on paper, as
before directed, may be passed through a hair
or perforated zinc or brass sieve. Further, as
coloured fires rapidly deteriorate by keeping,
and even sometimes inflame spontaneously,
to prevent disappointment and accidents they
should not be prepared long before they will
be required for use, and should be stored in
Some situation in which their spontaneous
combustion would be productive of no disas-
trous consequences.
Of the above formulae, those bearing the
name of the late Mr. Marsh, of Woolwich,
more especially deserve the attention of the
pyrotechnist. See FLAME, PYROTECHNY, &c.
FISH. Syn. PISCES, L. Fishes form the
fourth class of vertebrate animals (VERTE-
BRATA) in the Cuverian arrangement of the
animal kingdom, and in the variety of their
genera and species are second only to the
INSECTA, whilst in prolificness and number
they probably exceed all other animated beings
that reach a size equal to that of even the
smallest member of their prodigious race. Be-
sides their value to man as food, they furnish
him with oil, isinglass, and various other arti-
cles of utility and luxury, and provide, either
directly or indirectly, an inexhaustible supply
of mauure for the fertilisation of his fields.
As food, fish are undoubtedly wholesome and
nutritious, although less so than the flesh of
animals or º of the cereals. Of all
the various substances used as aliments by
man, fish are, however, the most liable to run
into a state of putrefaction, and should there-
fore be only eaten when perfectly fresh, or, if not
recently taken, then only when their perfect
preservation has been ensured by any of the
ordinary methods employed for the purpose.
Those that are the whitest and most flaky when
cooked, as cod, flounders, haddock, hake, soles,
turbot, whiting, &c., are the most easily di-
gested; and those abounding in oily matter,
as eels, herrings, mackerel, salmon, &c., are
most nutritious, though the most likely to
offend the stomach. Salt-water fish have been
said to be more wholesome than river fish, but
without sufficient reason. Salted fish are hard
of digestion, unless when carefully cooked and
well masticated. Skin diseases are said to be
more common among those who live continu-
ally on fish than among those who abstain from

FISH.
525
it; but this probably arises from their use being
unaccompanied by a proper quantity of fresh
vegetables or fruit, both of which are scarcer
on the sea-coast than further inland. As one
of the components of a mixed diet, the value
of fish is indisputable. Acid sauces and pickles
are the proper additions to fish, from their
power of retarding the progress of putrefac-
tion, and of correcting the relaxing tendency
of large quantities of oil and butter.
Artificial Propagation. The fecundity of
fish is positively marvellous. According to
the recent observations of Mr. Frank T. Buck-
land, salmon yield about 1000 ova or eggs to
every lb. of their weight: a trout weighing 1 lb.
produced upwards of 1000; a mackerel (1 lb.),
86,120; a herring (; lb.), 19,840; a sole (1 lb.),
134,466; a turbot (8 lbs.), 385,200; and a cod
(20 lbs.), 4,872,000. The ova here spoken of
form what is commonly called the ‘hard roe’
of the female fish ; the “soft roe’ is “the milt?
of the male fish. To protect the spawn, and
the fry, when hatched, is the object of the art
of fish-culture, which has made great pro-
gress during late years. When the spawn is
not artificially protected, the greater portion
is always wasted, being swept away by the
stream, and devoured by fish, birds, and
insects. The natural enemies of the newly
hatched fish are, again, so numerous, that it is
really surprising that any should escape de-
struction. According to given data and accu-
rate calculations of the returns of fisheries
made by Messrs. Ashworth and Buist, only
one salmon egg out of every thousand depo-
sited ever becomes a fish fit for human food.
Other fish, both fresh and salt-water, suffer in
proportion. The hatching of fish by artificial
means has been carried out on a large scale in
France, and has been commenced in Scotland
and Ireland, and on a small scale in England.
The spawning fish, having been caught by a
net, is made to deposit her eggs by gently
pressing on the abdomen; these are impreg-
nated by ‘milt? º male fish
in a similar manner, and mi ith them in
a shallow tub or other vessel prepared for the
purpose. The impregnated eggs are placed
in long shallow boxes, bottomed with gravel
and pebbles, and so arranged that a small
stream of water from a reservoir may flow
from one to another. The time of hatching
depends entirely upon the temperature of the
water; from 40° to 45° Fahr. seems to be the
healthiest temperature. After about 50 days
(in the case of salmon), when all goes well, the
young fish makes its appearance as a mis-
shapen creature about an inch long, with a
bag containing the yolk of the egg attached
to its abdomen. At 3 days old the fry is
about 2 grs. in weight; at 16 months it has
increased to 2 oz. To preserve the young
fish in health, the boxes must be covered with
shades of slate or zinc. The French fish-
breeders generally feed the young fry with
boiled frogs powdered fine. The Scotch give
boiled liver. Mr. Buckland prescribes a diet
of roe of sole, or plaice, or whiting. As to he
age at which it is advisable to turn the young
fish out of the nursery, there is much difference
of opinion. Some breeders recommend turn-
ing them out as soon as the ‘umbilical bag”
is absorbed; others think they should be taken
care of till they are older and stronger, and
better able to defend themselves or escape
from attack. For full details respecting the
artificial propagation of fish, the reader is re-
ferred to Mr. Buckland’s recent work, entitled
‘Fish-Hatching.’
Choice, &c. “The flesh of any fish is always
in the highest perfection, or in season, as it is
called, during the period of the ripening of a
the milt and roe. After the fish has deposited
the spawn, the flesh becomes soft, and loses a
great deal of its peculiar flavour. This is
owing to the disappearance of the oil or fat
from the flesh, it having been expended in the
function of reproduction.” (Fleming’s “Phil.
of Zoology.") Fish should be dressed as soon
after being caught as possible, as much of
their peculiar delicacy and flavour is lost by
keeping, even for a few hours. Turbot and
salmon are said by the fishmongers to be im-
proved in flavour when 2 or 3 days old, but
this is surely a mistake, as the former, when
dressed immediately after being caught, pos-
sessses a fine creamy taste, which it afterwards
loses; whilst the latter, by the loss of a single
tide, loses a portion of the fine white curd
which is previously found between the flakes,
and by longer keeping, this curd, with the
larger flakes, disappear altogether. In the
eyes of some epicures the richness is, however,
increased by this change. Mackerel, and
some other fish, suffer so much from keeping
only a few hours, that they become quite un-
wholesome. Herrings offer a remarkable ex-
ample of the advantage of dressing fish as
fresh as possible. When cooked soon after
being caught, they possess considerable deli-
cacy and flavour. but after being kept for
only a few hours the oil separates from the
flesh, and they become soft, greasy, and strong-
flavoured.
In the choice of every kind of fish, stiffness,
brightness of the eyes, and redness of the
gills, may be regarded as invariable signs of
freshness. A peculiar elasticity will also be
perceived in fish recently caught, little or no
permanent impression being made by the or-
dinary pressure of the fingers, from the flesh
immediately rising when the pressure is with-
drawn. Fresh fish also lie in a partly curled
position, and never quite straight, as is the
case when they have been kept for some time.
Thickness and fleshiness are deemed marks of
the good condition of all fish.
Cleaning, dressing, &c. On the proper
cleaning of fish preparatory to dressing it,
depends much of its delicacy and flavour.
Ordinary cooks seldom do this well, from not
slitting the fish sufficiently open to permit the



526
FISH GLUE–FIXATURE.
inside to be thoroughly washed, and seldom
using sufficient water. The superior flavour
of fish cleaned by the fishmongers arises from
their performing the operation more com-
pletely, and from the large quantity of water
they employ about them. The flavour of all
fish is improved by adding a little salt or
vinegar to the last water in which they are
washed. The sound, milt, and roe, should be
carefully cleaned and preserved.
Fish is preferably ‘dressed’ by simple boil-
ing, broiling, or frying ; in fact, the finer kinds
of fish are often injured by the excessive in-
terference of the cook. When boiled, “all
large fish, with the skin whole, must be placed
on the fire in cold water; if crimped, or cut
* into slices or pieces, in boiling water; if whole,
it must not be covered with more than two
or three inches of water, or the skin will
crack, and not only spoil the appearance of
the fish, but will diminish the gelatine and
gluten it contains, and instead of eating firm
and full of flavour, it will be soft and woolly,
especially if over-boiled.” (Soyer.) As soon
as a scum rises from boiling, it should be
removed by the skimmer. The addition of a
little salt or vinegar to the water improves the
flavour of most fish, and renders the flesh
firmer. The proportions should be “two
teaspoonfuls of salt to every quart of water.”
“If the fish be whole, as soon as it begins to
boil remove the cover on one side, and let it
simmer gently until done.” (Soyer.) A fish
is known to be sufficiently dressed by the
flesh in the thicker parts separating easily
from the bone. “If a large fish, I generally
try it by gently pushing a wooden skewer
through the thickest part; if it goes in easily,
it is done.” (Soyer.) When this is the case
it should be removed from the kettle, as by
soaking in the water fish loses its firmness,
and becomes soddened. Sole, skate, and
mackerel, are usually put into boiling water,
whether whole or sliced. Fish for broiling
should be well washed in strong vinegar, wiped
dry with a towel, and flowered before placing
them on the gridiron; and the bars of the
latter should be hot, and well buttered.
(Rundell.) Fish for frying should be prepared
as for broiling, and the butter, oil, or lard,
should be allowed to boil for a minute or two
before putting them into the frying-pan. The
latter should be perfectly smooth and bright,
and the butter or oil in abundance, to prevent
the fish sticking to it and burning. As the
fish are cooked solely by the heat of the melted
fat, to fry them in the highest perfection
there should be enough of it to cover them.
Butter or oil is the best for the purpose. To
avoid loss, the contents of the frying-pan,
after the fish is removed, should be poured
into a clean jelly-jar or basin, and reserved for
another occasion. The fish being removed
from the pan, the superfluous fat should be
drained from them preparatory to ‘serving’
them. When fish is divided into fillets or
cutlets before being cooked, it is usual to take
out the bones, and to dress it with force-meat,
&c.
In serving fish of the finer kinds, no other
additions are required than melted butter and
the ordinary fish sauces and pickles. The
dishes are commonly garnished with raw
parsley, for the sake of appearance, but
boiled parsley, chopped small, should accom-
pany it. All kinds of fish should be served on
a napkin. - *
Caution. It sometimes happens that a fish-
bone accidentally swallowed remains in the
Cesophagus, and occasions serious inconveni-
ence; in fact, instances have been known where
so much irritation has arisen that death has
followed. In such cases it is advisable, as soon
as possible, to take of tartar emetic, 4 grs,
dissolved in warm water, 3 pint; and immedi-
ately afterwards the whites of six eggs. The
coagulated mass will not remain in the sto-
mach more than two or three minutes, and the
remedy has been known to “remove no less
than 24 pins at once.”
FISH G LUE. See GLUE and ISINGLASS.
FISH SKIN. Syn. SHARK SKIN. The skin
of the spotted dog-fish or rough hound (chien
de mer, Fr.), stretched and dried. Used for
polishing wood and ivory. Several other varie-
ties of fish skin are employed in the arts. The
dressed skin of the ‘rousette' (peau de rou-
sette, Fr.) is transparent, and very beautiful.
Cemented on green paper, and rubbed down
and polished, it is used as veneer for fancy
boxes. The skins of several varieties of Squa-
lus are also used for both the above purposes.
See SHAGREEN.
FIVE HERBS. See SPECIES.
FIX'ATURE. Syn. BANDOLINE, CLYSPHI-
TIQUE, EAU COLLANTE, FIXATEUR, Fr. This
consists of any of the simple vegetable muci-
lages, combined with a little spirit, to pre-
serve it, and with a little perfume, to render it
more agreeable.
Prep. 1. From carrageen, Irish, or pearl
moss, soaked in c . an hour or two,
and after being drained, and pressed dry in a
clean napkin, dissolved by boiling in soft
water, q. s. The decoction is strained through
cambric, and when nearly cold is mixed with
about ºrd or 4th of its volume of eau de Cologne
or other scented spirit, with the further addi-
tion of a few drops (5 or 6) of oil of cloves.
Sometimes a little brandy is added to the mu-
cilage, and when it is intended for present use,
as is common with home manufacturers, the
spirit is frequently omitted altogether. # oz.
of the prepared moss is fully enough for ; pint
of strained decoction, if rightly managed.
2. From quince seed boiled in water, as the
last. # oz. yields nearly # pint of strained
decoction.
3. Pale gum arabic (picked), 1% oz.; rose
water, 2 fl. Oz. ; pure water, 3 fl.oz. ; dissolve.
4. Gum arabic, 3% oz. ; water, , pint ; dis-
solve, and drop in eau de Cologne, gradually,

FIXED AIR.—FLANNEL.
527.
until the cloudiness at first occasioned ceases
to be removed by agitation ; the next day de-
cant the clear portion. All of the above are
very superior, and keep well.
5. (Redwood.) Gum tragacanth, 1% dr. ;
water, 7 oz, ; proof spirit, 3 ozs. ; otto of roses,
10 drops; macerate 24 hours, and strain.
6. Malt, 7 oz. ; hot water (that will barely
permit the finger to be held in it without
pain), ; pint ; infuse in a covered jug or basin,
gently press out the liquid, and as soon as cold,
add of proof spirit (or brandy or Cologne
water), 2% fl. oz. and strain.
Obs. Bandoline is used by ladies and by
hairdressers for stiffening the hair, and to
make it curl firmly and remain in place. It
is applied either by moistening the fingers and
passing the hair through them, or by means of
a small sponge. See POMMADE.
FIXED AIR. See CARBONIC ACID.
FIXED OILS. See FAT and OILS.
FLAKE WHITE. See WHITE PIGMENTS.
FLAME. Gas or vapour in an incandescent
state. The light emitted from pure flame is
exceedingly feeble; illuminating power being
almost entirely dependent upon the presence of
solid matter. See ILLUMINATION, and below.
Flame Colours. The vapours of metallic
compounds communicate colours to flames.
The characteristic colours of some metals are
very beautiful, and their exhibition forms a
favorite experiment of chemical lecturers.
The coloured flames are generally produced by
the combustion of alcohol or rectified spirit
upon certain salts in fine powder. In this
way a GREEN colour is communicated by bora-
cic acid, or chloride of copper; a RED one by
the nitrates of iron, lime, or strontia; a VIOLET,
by potassa and its salts; and a YELLOW, by
nitrate of soda. Messrs. Church and Crookes
have recently described a mode of exhibiting
the characteristic flames of the metals which
is admirably adapted for the lecture-table."
“Gun-paper, made in the same way as ‘gun-
cotton,’ is to be soaked in solutions of the chlo-
rates of the different metals, dried with care,
and kept dry. A good ‘gun-paper’ for the
purpose is prepared by soaking strips of
Swedish filtering-paper for ten minutes in a
mixture of 4 parts oil of vitriol with 5 parts
strong nitric acid, both by measure. The strips,
when taken out of the acid, should be washed
first with cold, and then with hot rain or dis-
tilled water, till the washings are no longer
Sour to the taste. The solutions of the me-
tallic salts need not be very strong; but if
they are warm, the strips of “gun-paper’ will
be more easily and completely saturated with
them. Since some of the chlorates attract
moisture from the air, it is better to dry the
papers prepared with them before the fire pre-
vious to lighting them. They are shown to
best advantage when a strip is loosely crum-
pled up into a pellet, lighted quickly at one
corner, and thrown up into the air against a
1 See ‘Intellectual Observer, April, 1863.
dark back ground. They leave after burning,
if properly prepared, no ash whatever. Paper
prepared with the salt of potassa gives a flash
of VIOLET flame, that prepared with the soda
salt the characteristic YELLOW flame, and that
with chlorate of baryta avery beautiful GREEN
light. The chlorates of strontium, lithium,
and calcium, when thus ignited, gives intense
colours. The VIOLET-BLUE flame of copper is
well seen, even with the chloride of that metal,
while paper soaked in nitrate of potassa shows
the potassium flame better than if the chlorate
be used. ‘Gun-paper’ prepared with a very
weak solution of chloride or chlorate of thal-
lium shows the characteristic SPRIG-GREEN
flame of that metal with great distinctness.
Chlorate of barium, being an article of com-
merce, may be employed for the preparation
of the other chlorates, it being merely neces-
sary to add to this salt in solution an exactly
equivalent quantity of the sulphate or carbon-
ate of the metal whose chlorate is desired.
For instance, in order to make ‘chlorate of
copper, 15.1 gr. of chlorate of barium being
dissolved in hot distilled water, a boiling solu-
tion containing 12.5 gr. of pure crystallised
sulphate of copper is to be added to it. Inso-
luble white ‘sulphate of baryta’ falls, while the
solution, filtered and evaporated, yields the
new chlorate in crystals. See FIRES, PYRO-
TECHNY, &c.
FLAN'NEL. It has been shown by the ex-
periments of Count Rumford that the conduct-
ing power of the different materials employed
for clothing varies considerably. A thermo-
meter surrounded with cotton wool, and heated
by immersion in boiling water, took 1046
seconds to lose 135°Fahr., when plunged into
a bath of melting ice; but, under the same
circumstances, when sheep's wool was em-
ployed, 1118 seconds elapsed before a like
sinking of the thermometer took place (“Phil.
Trans., 1792); thus showing the greater con-
ducting power of the former, and consequently
the superiority of the latter substance for the
manufacture of warm clothing. But the chief
advantage of wool, as an article of under-
clothing, depends less upon its actual power of
conducting heat than its peculiar texture.
Flannel acts as a gentle stimulus on the skin,
and exercises the most beneficial action, by keep-
ing the pores clean, and in a state most favor-
able to perspiration. This action is a species
of friction similar in character, although infe-
rior in degree, to that of the common flesh-
brush or horse-hair glove, so long employed as
a skin stimulant. Flannel has also the advan-
tage of absorbing the perspiration as soon as
emitted, and allowing its watery portion to
pass off into the atmosphere almost as soon as
formed, but this is not the case with cotton
and linen fabrics. The different effects of
flannel and linen are particularly susceptible
during brisk exercise. When the body is co-
vered with the former, though perspiration be

necessarily increased, the perspired matter
-
'528 FLASH-FLESH.
freely passes off through the flannel, and the
skin remains dry and warm. If the same
exercise be taken in linen shirts, perspiration,
as in the former case, is indeed also increased,
but the perspired matter, instead of being dis-
persed into the atmosphere, remains upon
the linen, and not only clogs the pores of
the skin, but gives a disagreeable sensation.
From this property of flannel, persons who
wear it next the skin seldom catch cold
from changes of temperature, even though
perspiring profusely ; but in similar cases,
when linen or calico shirts are worn, chilli-
ness immediately comes on, followed by
sniffling, sneezing, and cough, and all the other
symptoms of severe catarrh.
The common objections raised against the
use of flannel are founded on vulgar prejudices,
ignorance, obstinacy, or bravado, and are un-
deserving of the notice of sensible people. In
a fickle and moist climate like that of England,
every person should wear a robe of flannel next
the skin, or at all events a waistcoat of flaunel
reaching below the loins; and this should not
be discarded as soon as the cold weather has
passed, but its use should be continued all
the year round; for in reality, flannel is, if
possible, even more required in summer than
in winter, because persons perspire more freely
in hot than in cold weather, and are conse-
quently more susceptible of cold, while at that
period of the year their clothing is less capable
of protecting them from the effects of sudden
changes of temperature and draughts of cold
air, moisture, &c. Females, children, persons
of delicate constitutions, and all others who
from their habits of body or life perspire
freely, or are much exposed, should wear
flannel.
In washing flannels, it is recommended that
they should only be put into warm water,
by which method their colour will be pre-
served, and they will be prevented from
shrinking.
FLASH. Prep. From burnt-sugar colouring,
1 gall. ; fluid extract of capsicum or essence of
Cayenne, # pint, or enough to give a strong
fiery taste. Used to colour spirits, and to give
them a false strength. It is made by the
brewers' druggists, and labelled ‘ISINGLASS AND
BURNT SUGAR.'
FLASKS. The late lamented and ingenious
Mr. Fownes suggested the employment of
Florence oil-flasks as cheap substitutes for re-
torts, receivers, digesters, and some other
vessels used for chemical purposes. His plan
was to cut the neck smoothly round with a
hot iron, and softening it in the flame of a
good argand gas-lamp, to turn over the edge
so as to form a lip, or border. The neck will
then bear a tight-fitting cork without split-
ting.
FLAT/ULENCE. Syn. FLATULENCY, WIND.
In pathology, a morbid collection of gas in the
stomach and bowels. Its most common cause
is indigestion. When the natural fluids of the
stomach are secreted in a healthy state, they
exercise an antiseptle and digestive action on
the food, by which it is speedily reduced to a
magma that is little liable to spontaneous
change whilst in the body; but when the
reverse is the case, fermentation soon com-
mences, and the stomach and associated vis-
cera become distended with gas, and all the
well-known symptoms of flatulency are deve-
loped in rapid succession. The quantity of
gas thus accumulated in the ‘primae viae' is
often enormous. An ordinary apple during
fermentation yields about 600 times its bulk
of gas, and many vegetables yield much more.
(Dr. Hales.) It is, therefore, not at all sur-
prising that so much inconvenience should be
felt when the food, instead of being digested
and assimilated, runs into the state of active
fermentation.
The treatment of flatulency consists mainly
in the selection of proper articles of food.
Oleraceous vegetables, peas,beans, under-dressed
potatoes, and indigestible fruits, should be espe-
cially avoided, as well as the use of large quan-
tities of weak or warm liquids. The diet
should consist principally of animal food, care-
fully but not over-cooked, with a sufficient
quantity of good mealy potatoes (mashed, not
whole), and good wheaten meal-bread, mode-
rately seasoned with common salt and spices.
The most suitable beverages are toast-and-
water, and a little good brandy largely diluted
with water. The healthy tone of the stomach
may be re-established by the proper use of
tonics, bitters, and mild aperients.
To relieve the fit of flatulency, carminatives
and aromatics, as black pepper, mustard, pep-
permint, ginger, cinnamom, lavender, and most
spices, may be had recourse to. A glass of
peppermint cordial, or of brandy strongly fla-
voured with peppermint or ginger, is a popular
and efficient remedy. A few drops (15 to 30)
of ether, with a little tincture of capsicum or
spirit of sal volatile, seldom fail to give relief.
See DYSPEPSIA. -
FLAWOURING SUBSTANCES. See ES-
SENCE, OIL (Volatile), SPICE, WINE, &c.
FLAX. See LINEN, LINSEED, and OIL.
FLEA. This troublesome little animal is
the Pulea, irritans of Linnaeus, and belongs to
the Suctoria, or fourth order of the Insecta.
Its favorite haunts are our warm under-
clothing, and its most productive breeding-
places are in the ‘flue’ which careless servants
allow to accumulate underneath our beds.
Cold, light, perfumes, and ventilation, are
inimical to its propagation.
FLESH. Syn. CARO, L. The muscular
substances of animals; the softer, solid por-
tions of the body, as distinguished from the
bones and fluids. See FIBRIN, FooD, &c.
Flesh-brush. This simple instrument is used
for exciting the cutaneous circulation. Those
which have the bristles set on a leather back
are esteemed the best. The flesh-glove or hair
flesh-rubber is a useful modification of the

FLIES.–FLOUR.
529
common flesh-brush. Those manufactured by
Messrs. Savory and Moore, in imitation of the
Indian kheesah or mitten, are superior to all
others. In the absence of both flesh-brush
and glove, a rough towel wound round the hand
is no bad substitute. See FRICTION.
FLIES. See FLY.
FLIP. See EGG FILIP.
FLOUNDER. A flat fish, very like the
plaice, but smaller, and of more obscure
colour. It is very common about the British
coast, and is found in the Northern, Baltic, and
Mediterranean seas. Its flesh is very whole-
SOIme. -
FLOUR Syn. FARINA, L. The finely
ground and ‘dressed ' meal of bread corn, and
of the seeds of some of the leguminosae. That
known specifically as ‘flour’ in this country is
obtained from spring varieties of Triticum vul-
gare (the common wheat).
War., &c. Of varieties of flour there are
several, depending chiefly on the amount of
bran which they contain, and the relative fine-
ness of the sieves through which they are
passed :—
FINE WHEAT FLOUR, PASTRY FIOUR ; FA-
RINA, F. TRITICI, F. SEM.INIS TRITICI. The
finest flour, obtained from the meal produced
in the first grinding of wheat between sharp
stones, by means of a sieve of 64 wires to the
inch. Used for pastry.
MIDDLINGS. The remainder of the flour of
the first grinding, obtained by means of a
slightly coarser sieve. Used for making house-
hold bread, but is mostly reground for the
next variety.
SECONDs. The finest part of the flour, ob-
tained by regrinding ‘middlings’ between
blunt stones. Used by the bakers for their
finest wheaten bread.
POLLARD. The coarse flour, from which the
seconds has been sifted. Used for making sea
biscuits and gingerbread, and to fatten poultry
and hogs.
CountRY HOUSEHOLD FLOUR. This is usu-
ally ground only once, and sifted to #ths of
the weight of the wheat.
AMMUNITION FLOUR is ground and sifted
to nearly ºths the weight of the wheat.
According to Mr. Accum, thirty-two pecks
of wheat in the London mills yield, of flour
38% parts; pollard, 8 parts; and bran (fulfur
tritici), 12 parts; the bulk of the wheat being
doubled by grinding.
According to Mr. Hard, miller, of Dartford,
quoted by Dr. Pereira, the wheat having been
ground in the usual way, is allowed to remain
in the state of meal for some time before
“dressing,’ which removes the heat caused by
the process, and enables the miller to obtain
more flour, and the baker a better quality,
than if “dressed’ immediately it is ground.
“The process of dressing is by a wire
cylinder containing a certain number of sheets
of different texture or fineness, which cylinder
contains eight hair brushes attached to a
spindle passing through the centre of the cy-
linder, and laid out so as to gently touch the
wire. This cylinder is fed by a ‘shoe' with
the meal; then the ‘flour and ‘offal, after
passing through the wire in this way, are
divided by wooden partitions fixed close to the
outside of the cylinder.” “The produce of
the wheat-meal dressed through the wire
machine consists of 1, Flour;-2, White
Stuff, or Boxings, or Sharps;–3, Fine Pollard ;
—4, Coarse Pollard, or Horse Pollard;—5,
Bran. The 2nd product (i.e. the white stuff)
is then submitted to another ‘dressing’ through
a fine cloth machine, and produces—1, Fine
Middlings, for biscuits ;-2, Toppings, or
Specks;–3, Dustings;–4, Best Pollard, Tur-
key Middlings, or Coarse Middlings.”

TABLE of the Produce of One Quarter of Wheat
(=504 lbs.) By Mr. HARD.
Flour. - - - - - 392 lbs.
Biscuit or fine middlings 10 ,
Toppings or specks . . . . 8 ,
Best pollard, Turkey p., or
twenty-penny 15 ,
Fine pollard - 18 ,
Bran and coarse pollard 50 ,
Loss by evaporation and waste 11 ,
504 ,
-
Comp. According to Wauquelin, French
wheat flour contains about 10% of water, 11%
of gluten, 7.1% of starch, 5% of sugar, and 3% of
gum ; and the water of the dough amounts to
about 50%. The quantity of the bran in wheat
ranges under 2%.
Pur. This article of food is very frequently
adulterated both by the miller and the baker,
as has been before alluded to in the article on
bread. The principal physical characteristics
of wheat flour of good quality are the fol-
lowing:—it has a dull white colour, somewhat
inclining to yellow ;-it exhibits no trace of
bran, even when pressed smooth with the
hand, or with a polished surface;—its cohesive-
ness is so great, that on being squeezed in the
hand, the lump is some time before it loses its
shape;—it has a homogeneous appearance, and
does not lose more than from 6% to 12% by
being carefully dried in a stove. The smaller
the loss in this way the finer is the quality,
other matters being equal, and the more
economical in use. (See below.)
Tests. 1. Solution of ammonia turns pure
wheat flour yellow ; but if any other corn has
been ground with it, pale brown; or if peas or
beams have been ground with it, a still darker
brown.
2. Solution of potassa, containing about 12%
of caustic alkali, dissolves pure wheat-flour
almost completely; but when it is adulterated
with the flour of the leguminous seeds (beans,
peas, &c.), the cellulose of these substances
530 FLOUR.
remains undissolved, and its hexagonal tissue
is readily identified under the microscope.
Mineral substances (chalk, plaster of Paris,
bone dust, &c.) are also insoluble in this test,
and appear as a heavy white sediment.
3. Boiling water poured on the sample
causes the evolution of the peculiar odour of
pea or bean flour when these substances are
present. Bread made with such flour evolves
a like odour on being toasted.
4. Pure hydrochloric acid poured on potato
flour, or on wheat flour adulterated with it,
develops a smell of rushes; it also dissolves
starch, but changes the colour of pure wheat-
flour to a deep violet.
5. Nitric acid turns wheat flour of an orange-
yellow colour, but forms a stiff and tenacious
jelly with potato fecula, the colour of which it
does not alter. -
6. A portion of the suspected sample sub-
mitted to dry distillation in a stoneware retort,
and the distillate collected in a receiver con-
taining a little water, the latter is found to
remain perfectly neutral if the wheat flour is
pure, but acquires a distinctly alkaline reaction (
when beans, pulse, or pea meal is present.
(Rodrigues.) -
7. Triturate 300 grs. of the sample with an
equal weight of clean siliceous sand, and after
five minutes form a homogeneous paste with
water; afterwards further adding more water,
until about 2 fl. Oz. have been used. The fil-
tered liquid, treated with an equal quantity of
a strong and pure aqueous solution of iodine,
develops a pink colour, which gradually dis-
appears, when the specimen examined consists
of pure wheat flour; but assumes a deep-purple
colour. which disappears much more slowly, if
the flour is adulterated with even 10% of fecula
or potato flour. This test succeeds, not only
with flour and meal, but also with macaroni,
vermicelli, &c. (M. Chevallier.)
8. The milky liquid holding the starch in
suspension (see Anal., next col.) is poured into
a small conical glass, and left at rest for some
time; the clear liquid is then decânted, and
any remaining water carefully sucked up
with a pipette, and the whole left for some
time, in order that the deposit may harden.
The upper gray layer is next removed with a
teaspoon, and the harder and stiffer second
layer left undisturbed until it becomes quite
solid by drying. When in this state, it may
be upset in the form of a cone, upon a lump
of dry plaster. The fecula or potato starch
(if any is present), being heavier than that of
wheat, forms the apex of the cone, and its
quantity may be estimated in the following
manner:—The operator cuts from the apex of
the little cone above mentioned a slice, which
he triturates only for a short time in an agate
mortar (one of glass, or porcelain, or wedg-
wood-ware, will not do), and he tests that
with aqueous solution of iodine. If it turns
blue, it is fecula. Another slice is treated in
the same manner, until the operator comes to
the wheat starch, which, in the present in-
stance, is not affected by the aqueous solution
of iodine. This difference of behaviour of the
two species of starch with iodine is due to the
friction of the pestle and mortar, which is
sufficient to divide or tear the envelopes of the
particles of the potato starch, which then
become blue when treated by solution of
iodine. The particles of wheat starch, on the
contrary, are not disaggregated by that treat-
ment, and being therefore protected by their
envelope, are not acted upon by the solution of
iodine, or, at most, assume only a brown tinge.
(M. Robine.)
9. Wheat flour adulterated with plaster of
Paris, ground bones, chalk, and potato flour,
has a higher specific gravity than a sample of
the pure flour. This may be readily ascer-
tained by any person, by filling a small vessel
with some pure flour, and then with the given
sample. “A vessel which will contain 1 lb.
of wheat flour will contain 13 lb. of fecula”
(potato flour), and hence “the proportion of
this adulteration may be easily estimated.”
Ure.) -
10. If to a sample of wheat flour is added
a solution of potassa, containing about 13% of
the pure alkali, the granules of potato farina,
or of beam meal, or pea meal, present (if any),
will acquire 4 or 5 times their original volume,
whilst those of the pure wheat starch will be
scarcely affected by it. This change is very
perceptible under a microscope of small power.
2 parts of liquor of potassa (Ph. L.) and 5 parts
of distilled water form a mixture that answers
for the above purpose. - -
11. By means of the microscope the ad-
mixture of the cheaper feculas and meals
with wheat flour is readily detected by the
characteristic appearance of the starch grains;
and when the adulteration exceeds 9% or 10},
its extent may be readily estimated with con-
siderable accuracy. As the range of adultera-
tion is generally from 12% to 27%, this me-
thod is applicable in the greater number of
cases." º
Analysis. The value of wheat flour as an
aliment depends upon the quantity of gluten,
sugar, starch, and phosphate of lime, which it
contains; and its superiority over the flour of
the grains of the other cereals is referred to
its containing a larger proportion of the first
and last of these substances than they do.
The quantitative analysis of flour is, very
simple, and may be easily made by persons un-
acquainted with chemistry, by attending to the
instructions below:—
a. Make 1000 grs. of the sample into a
dough with a little water, let it rest an hour,
and then gently knead it in successive waters,
until the starchy particles are perfectly re-
moved. Collect the portion (GLUTEN) left in
the hand, drain off the water, place it on a
piece of filtering or blotting paper, several
times doubled, and set it aside.
1 See also BREAD Adult, and Ewam,
FLOUR.
531
b. Mix the several waters employed in the
preceding process, and set them aside in a
tall vessel, to deposit the suspended portion
(STARCH). After a sufficient time pour off
the clear liquid, and throw the whole of the
sediment on a weighed paper filter, placed in a
funnel, observing to remove the portion ad-
hering to the bottom of the vessel by means
of a little clean water, that none may be
lost.
c. Evaporate the decanted liquid, as well
as what runs from the filter, until it becomes
curdy, then filter it through a piece of weighed
blotting paper, and preserve the sediment
(ALBUMEN); next evaporate the residuum to
the consistence of a syrup, agitate it with 10
times its weight of alcohol, and filter, ob-
serving to wash the paper filter clean with a
little alcohol after the solution has passed
through it. The substance on the paper is
PHOSPHATE OF LIME and GUM, and must be
set aside. By subsequent digestion in water,
filtration, and evaporation, the two may be
obtained separately.
d. Evaporate or distil off the spirit from
the solution and washings, as above; the resi-
duum is SUGAR,
e. Dry the substances educed as above, by a
gentle heat, and weigh them. The weight of
the albumen may be taken with that of the
gluten, as it possesses about the same nutritive
value, and also because it has been asserted by
some persons that the foruler substance is in
reality gluten, and not albumen. By dividing
the given weights by 10, the per-centage value
of the sample is obtained. The pieces of fil-
tering paper employed should be carefully
dried and weighed before using them, and the
same degree of heat should be employed for
this purpose as that to which they will be
afterwards exposed in the drying of the sub-
stances resulting from the operations.
Obs. The above method of ascertaining the
actual value of any sample of flour as an ar-
ticle of food, though not strictly accurate, ap-
proximates sufficiently to the truth for all
practical purposes, and is well adapted to the
wants of the baker and large purchaser. In
many cases it will only be necessary to perform
the first part of the process (a), which will
give the per-centage of the most important
constituent of the flour; the rest being of
minor consequence. -
In addition to what has been already stated
in the article on BREAD, it may be useful to
mention, that a pound of the best flour, from
thoroughly dried wheat, will take 10 fl. oz. of
water to form it into ordinary dough, or 9 fl.
Oz. to form it into bread dough. Under the
old parliamentary acts, a sack of flour (280 lbs.)
was presumed to produce 80 loaves (quartern
or quarter-peck), the weight of which, within
48 hours after being baked, was to be 4 lbs.
5% oz. each. At the present time fully 92
loaves, weighing 4 lbs. each, are produced by the
London bakers from one sack of flour, when
honest weight is given; but as the latter is
rarely the case, and the bread is frequently
‘slack’ or “under-baked, and thus contains
more water than good bread ought to do, a
much larger product is commonly obtained.
The dough loses about 4th of its weight in
baking, if in batches; but fully #th, if baked
in small loaves, and placed in the oven sepa-
rately. The best bread contains about #ths of
its weight of added water; and common bread,
often much more than 4th. The proportion of
water in the London bread has greatly in-
creased during the last few years, owing to the
introduction of the fraudulent plan of making
the dough with rice jelly or moss jelly. This
is the reason why the bread of some bakers
suffers such a loss of weight in a few hours
after being taken from the oven. A 4 lbs. loaf
of bread purchased from a baker at Lambeth,
after remaining on the sideboard of a sitting-
room for 24 hours, was found to have lost no
less than 6% oz. by evaporation, and in two
days longer its interior cells were covered with
green mould, and the whole was unfit for food.
The bakers, aware of these facts, are particu-
larly careful not to bake more bread than they
can dispose of whilst ‘new,’ and are in the
habit of refusing to weigh their bread before
selling it, when it is more than 10 or 12 hours
old, although they are liable to be ‘fined’ for
such a refusal. See BREAD, CAKES, FARINA,
&c., also below.
Flour, Baked. Syn. FARINA ToSTA, F.TRI-
TICI TOSTA, L. Prep. From wheat flour,
carefully baked in a “slack’ oven, until it ac-
quires a pale-buff hue. Astringent; used to
make food for infants troubled with diarrhoea.
See FARINA.
Flour, Barley (Prepared). Syn. FARINA
HORDEI PREPARATA, L. Prep. (Ph. Bor.)
From barley flour, compressed into a tin cy-
linder until the vessel is 2-3rds full, which is
then suspended at the upper part of a still
2-3rds filled with water, and after the ‘head’
is fitted on, the water is kept boiling for 30
hours (2 days of 15 hours each). Lastly, the
upper layer being removed, the rest is reduced
to powder, and kept in a dry place.
Flour, Boiled. Syn. TRITICINA, FARINA
PREPARATA, L. Prep. From fine flour, tied
up in a linen cloth as tight as possible, and
after it has been frequently dipped into cold
water, the outside of the cloth is dredged over
with flour, until a crust is formed round it,
to prevent the water soaking into it whilst
boiling; it is then boiled for a long time, and
when cold, it is divided into small oblong
pieces. For use, it is reduced to powder, either
by grinding or grating it, and is then prepared
like arrow-root. It forms a good diet for
children, in diarrhoea, &c.; and as it may be
easily prepared at home, it has the advantage
of being free from adulteration.
Flour, Jones's Patent. Prep. From kiln-
dried flour, 1 cwt. ; tartaric acid, 10% oz. ; mix
thoroughly ; after 2 or 3 days, add, of bicar-

532
FLOWERS.
bonate of soda, 12 oz. ; lump sugar, 3 lb.;
common salt, 1% lb.; mix, and pass the com-
pound through the ‘dressing-machine.” It is
necessary that the whole of the ingredients
should be perfectly dry, and separately reduced
to fine powder before adding them to the flour.
By simply mixing it with cold water, and at
once baking it, it produces light, porous
bread.
Obs. We have already had occasion to pay a
passing tribute to the excellence and useful-
ness of Jones's Patent Flour." It is, indeed,
invaluable in every household, as furnishing
the means of producing, with great economy,
and extemporaneously, not merely cakes, pud-
dings, pastry, and fancy bread, but the ‘staff
of life’ itself, household bread, of a purity,
flavour, and lightness, seldom, if ever, met with
in that purchased of the bakers. -
Flour, Sewell's Patent.—a. (No. 1.) Flour
1 sack (280 lbs.); hydrochloric acid (sp. gr.
1:14), 45 oz. ; mix, by adding the acid in a
“spray.’—b. (No. 2.) To the last, add (expertly)
bicarbonate of soda, 39 oz. ; mix thoroughly,
and pass the whole through a sieve or ‘dress-
ing machine.’
Obs. This flour is used as the last, to which,
however, it is inferior in quality. No. 1 will
keep 5 weeks. No. 2 will keep a month.
Jones’s flour will keep good in a dry place for
years. If No. 1 is alone employed for the
dongh, to each pound of the flour, 63 grs. of
bicarbonate of soda, with salt, q. S., must be
added. The patentee claims for his invention
the merit of the soda and acid being converted
into culinary salt in the process of mixing up
the flour and baking the dough."
FLOWERS. Syn. FLOREs, L. These beau-
tiful and fragrant ornaments of our gardens
and our dwellings are too highly esteemed by
all classes of the community to require any-
thing in favour of their cultivation to be said
here. Our remarks will, therefore, chiefly
refer to their collection, improvement, and
preservation. -
‘Full’ or ‘double flowers,” or those in which
the internal organs become petals, are so much
more beautiful than the ‘single flowers’ of the
corresponding species and varieties, that their
production, with tolerable ease and certainty,
has long been a desideratum with both the
professional and amateur florist. Various plans
have been proposed having this object in view,
among which are the following:—1. The use
of the best seed only, but not before it is at
least 3 or 4 years old.—2. The selection of the
outer row of seed only, and its careful preserva-
tion intact for at least 2 seasons before sowing
it. We are assured that this method is particu-
larly successful with dahlias.-3. The removal
of the plants to a shady situation as soon as the
flower-buds begin to develop themselves, and
stinting them with water and nourishment for
a few weeks. In this method a few only of
the buds are permitted to mature; the rest
- ! See UNFERMENTED BREAD.
being snipped off with a pair of scissors as
early as possible.—4. The use of small pots and
a scanty supply of water until the flowers are
partly developed, when water is supplied in
abundance, with or without the addition of a
little liquid manure.
To hasten the ‘blooming’ of flowers, it is a
common practice with the gardeners to grow
them in as small pots as is consistent with their
healthy existence, and carefully to avoid trans-
planting them to larger pots, for several weeks
before their usual time of blossoming. A plant
on the point of flowering, if transferred to a
larger pot and a richer soil, immediately com-
mences making roots and leaves, whilst the
embryo flowers either wholly decay, or their
develepment is checked until the usual season
of their production has passed over.
The following liquid has been used with great
advantage to promote the vigorous growth and
the early flowering of plants:—Sulphate or
nitrate of ammonia, 4 oz. ; nitrate of potassa,
2 oz. ; sugar, 1 oz. ; hot water, 1 pint; dissolve
and keep it in a well-corked bottle. For use,
put 8 or 10 drops of this liquid into the water
of a hyacinth glass or jar, for bulbous-rooted
plants, changing the water every 10 or 12
days. For flowering plants in pots, a few drops
must be added to the water employed for
them. The preference should be given to
rain water for this purpose. The fluid sold
under the name of liquid guano may be used
in the same manner.
Flowers may be preserved in a fresh state for
a considerable time, by keeping them in a
moist atmosphere.
parent stem, the large amount of evaporation
from the surface of their leaves is compensated
for by an equivalent proportion of moisture
supplied by the roots; but when they are
plucked, the evaporation from the surface con-
tinues, while the supply of moisture is cut off.
To supply, in part, this loss of moisture by
evaporation, has arisen the almost universal
practice of placing flowers in water; but their
mutilated stems possess a far inferior power of
sucking up fluids to that of the roots, and thus
their decay is only deferred for a time. To
preserve them more effectually, or at least to
render their existence less ephemeral, we may
surround them with a 'moist atmosphere, by
which the loss of water from the surface of
their leaves will be reduced to the smallest
possible amount. “It is now eighteen years
ago since we first saw, in the drawing-room of
a gentleman, in the hot dry weather of the
dog-days, flowers preserved day after day in
all their freshness by the following simple con-
trivance:–A flat dish of porcelain had water
poured into it. In the water a vase of flowers
was set ; over the whole a bell-glass was placed,
with its rim in the water. This was a ‘Ward's
case” in principle, although different in its con-
struction. The air that surrounded the flowers
being confined beneath the bell-glass, was kept
constantly moist with the water that rose into

When growing on the
FLUID CAMPHOR-FLUID MAGNESIA.
533
it in the form of vapour. As fast as the water.
was condensed it ran down the sides of the
bell-glass back into the dish; and if means
had been taken to inclose the water on the
outside of the bell-glass, so as to prevent its
evaporating into the air of the sitting-room,
the atmosphere around the flowers would have
remained continually damp. We recommend
those who love to see plenty of fresh flowers
in their sitting-rooms in dry weather to adopt
this method. The experiment can be tried by
inverting a tumbler over a rose-bud in a saucer
of water.” (‘Gardener's Chron.”)
Another method by which some flowers may
be preserved for many months is to carefully
dip them, as soon as gathered, in perfectly
limpid gum water, and after allowing them to
drain for 2 or 3 minutes, to set them upright,
or arrange them in the usual manner in an
empty vase. The gum gradually forms a
transparent coating on the surface of the
petals and stems, and preserves their figure
and colour long after they have become dry
and crisp.
Faded flowers may be generally more or less
restored by immersing them half-way up their
stems in very hot water, and allowing them to
remain in it until it cools, or they have reco-
wered. The coddled portion of the stems must
then be cut off, and the flowers placed in clean
cold water. In this way a great number of
faded flowers may be restored, but there are
some of the more fugacious kinds, on which it
proves useless.
Flowers may be produced in winter by taking
up the plants, trees, or shrubs, in the spring, at
the time when they are about to bud, with
some of their own soil carefully preserved
around the roots, and placing them upright in
a cellar till Michaelmas; when, with the addi-
tion of fresh earth, they are to be put into
proper tubs or vessels, and placed in a stove or
hot-house, when they must be treated in the
usual manner. By this method, in the month
of February, fruits or roses will appear.
Flowers sown in pots about Michaelmas may
thus be made to bloom at Christmas.
The apparently instantaneous flowering of
plants, exhibited a few years ago by M. Her-
bert to an astonished audience, was, we be-
lieve, effected by the heat generated by frag-
ments of quicklime concealed in the mould
close to, but not in immediate contact with,
the roots. The plants selected by M. Herbert–
a group of geraniums and a rose tree—were
planted in two rather deep boxes of garden
mould, and were covered with glass shades.
The operator commenced by pouring over the
roots, from a small watering-pot, a liquid
which, uniting to the ingredients already in
the earth, caused a great heat, as was shown
by an intense steam or vapour, which was
evolved within the shades, and allowed, to
some extent, to escape through a small hole in
the top, which at first was kept closed. The
effect upon the geraniums was certainly almost
instantaneous: the buds beginning to burst in
about five or six minutes, and the plants being
in full bloom within ten minutes, when the
blossoms were gathered by M. Herbert, and
distributed amongst the ladies present. With
the rose tree the exhibitor was less fortunate.
The invention may prove nseful where ladies
require to decorate their drawing-rooms or
boudoirs with the beauties of the floral world
somewhat earlier in the season than they can
otherwise be obtained. It must not, however,
be forgotten that the plants are, as it were,
parboiled during the process, and die after a
few days.
The collection and preservation of flowers
for medicinal purposes and distillation, will
be found noticed under WEGETABLE SUB-
STANCES.
Flowers, Artificial. The beauty and value
of these pleasing articles of personal decoration
mainly depend upon the taste and ingenuity
of the maker. The delicate fingers of woman,
and her ready powers of imitation and inven-
tion, combined with her natural affection for
the chaste and beautiful, have enabled her the
more especially to excel in this manufacture.
The productions of the female artificial florists
of the French capital are justly admired every-
where.
The French employ velvet, kid," and fine
cambric for the petals, and taffeta for the
leaves. Very recently thin plates of bleached
whalebone have been used with great success
for some portions of artificial flowers.
As colours and stains, the following are em-
ployed in Paris:–
BLUE. Indigo dissolved in oil of vitriol, and
the acid partly neutralised with salt of tartar
or whiting.
GREEN. A solution of distilled verdigris.
LILAC. Liquid archil.
RED. Carmine dissolved in a solution of salt
of tartar, or in spirits of hartshorn.
VIOLET. Liquid archil, mixed with a little
salt of tartar.
YELLOW. Tincture of turmeric.
The above colours are usually applied to the
petals with the finger.
Flowers. Syn. FLORES, L. Among che-
mists, this term is applied to various pulveru-
lent substances obtained by sublimation, as
flowers of antimony, benzoin, zinc, sulphur, &c.
The term has been discarded from modern
chemical momenclature, but is still commonly
employed in familiar language and trade.
FLUID CAM'PHOR. Prep. (Sir J. Murray.)
From camphor (in powder), 1 dr. ; freshly pre-
cipitated carbonate of magnesia, 2 drs. ; cold
distilled water, 1 pint; the solution is effected
by forcing in carbonic acid gas under pressure.
Each fl. oz. contains 3 grs, of camphor, and
6 grs. of carbonate of magnesia. See ESSENCE
OF CAMPHOR.
FLUID MAGNE'SIA. Syn. LIQUOR MAG-
NESIAF CARBONATIS, L. M. BICARBONATIS, L.
The preparations sold under this name are
534 FLUMMERY-FLUX.
mere solutions of freshly precipitated carbonate
of magnesia in water, formed by means of car-
bonic acid gas, under powerful pressure, and
long agitation. Those best known are Sir J,
Murray’s and Mr. Dinneford's, each fl. oz. of
which are said to contain about 17% grs. of
the carbonate, but their actual richness in the
latter seldom exceeds 10 or 12 grs., and by the
time they reach the consumer is often as low
as 5 or 6 grs. Recently precipitated carbonate
of magnesia placed in a bottle or other suitable
vessel, which is then filled by means of a soda-
water apparatus with water fully charged with
carbonic acid gas, readily dissolves on slight
and cautious agitation, and the aerated water
becomes saturated with magnesia. A scruple
of carbonate of magnesia put into a soda-water
bottle, and thus treated, is all taken up in
from 20 minutes to half an hour, and the
beverage continues beautifully clear.
FLUMMERY. A species of thick hasty-
pudding made with oatmeal or rice, flavoured
with milk, cream, almonds, orange flowers,
lemons, &c., according to fancy.
Prep. 1. (DUTCH FLUMMERY.) From blanc-
mange and eggs, flavoured with lemon peel and
sweetened with sugar.
2. (FRENCH FLUMMERY.) From equal parts
of blancmange and cream, sweetened, and fla-
voured. "The above are poured into forms, and
served cold, to eat with wine, spirit, cider, &c.
3. (A.T.Thomson.) Take oatmeal or groats,
1 quart ; rub it for a considerable time with
hot water, 2 quarts; and let the mixture stand
until it becomes sour; then add another quart
of hot water, and strain through a hair sieve.
Let stand till a white sediment is deposited,
decant the fluid portion, and wash the sedi-
ment with cold water. This is now to be
boiled with fresh water, until it forms a
mucilage, stirring the whole time. A light
and nutritious food, during early convales-
CenCe.
FLUOHYDRIC ACID,
EIYDROGEN.
FIU'ORIDE OF HYDROGEN. H.F. Syn.
FLUOHYDRIC ACID ; HYDROFLUORIC ACID ; A.
HYDROFLUORICUM, L. An acid composed of
hydrogen and fluorine. It was discovered by
Scheele, but was first obtained in a pure state
by Gay-Lussac and Thénard, in 1810.
Prep. Pour concentrated sulphuric acid on
half its weight of fluor spar, carefully separated
from siliceous earth, and reduced to fine powder,
The mixture must be made in a capacious
leaden retort, and a gentle heat only applied,
and the evolved gas must be collected in a
leaden receiver, surrounded by ice.
Prop., &c. A colourless fluid below 59°Fahr.,
which speedily evaporates in dense white fumes
when exposed to the air. Its affinity for water
exceeds that of sulphuric acid, and its combi-
nation with that fluid is accompanied with a
hissing noise, and a considerable increase of
its sp. gr. up to a certain point. It attacks
See FLUORIDE OF
glass and silica, for which reason it cannot be
preserved in glass vessels. Bottles of lead,
silver, platinum, or pure gutta percha, are
used to keep it in. It is highly corrosive, in-
stantaneously destroying the skin on contact,
and producing deep and serious ulcerations;
its vapour is pungent, irritating, irrespirable,
and poisomous. With the bases it unites to
form FLUORIDES.
In the arts, hydrofluoric acid is used for
etching on glass.
FLU'ORIDES. Compounds of fluorine with
metals and other basic radicals. The fluorides
of the metals are, with the exception of those
of the alkaline metals, insoluble in water,
while the fluorides of hydrogen, boron, and
silicon, are gaseous, condensing at a low tem-
perature to volatile liquids.
FLU'ORINE. F. Syn. FIUORINTUM, L.
An element that has not yet been isolated,
owing to its attacking and coubining with
every element or compound that at present has
been exposed to it, except oxygen. It is pre-
sumably gaseous, and of a pale greenish-yel-
low colour.
FLU'0SILICIC ACID. Syn. FLUGRIDE OF
SILICON AND HYDROGEN; HYDROFLUOSILIC
ACID. Prep. From powdered fluor spar, and
siliceous sand or powdered glass, of each, 1
part; concentrated sulphuric acid, 2 parts;
mix in a glass retort, apply a gentle heat, and
pass the evolved gas into water through a
layer of mercury. Decomposition ensues, silica
being deposited in a gelatinous state, and hy-
drofluosilicic acid or fluosilic acid remains in
solution. The acid liquor is used as a test for
potassium and barium, with whose salts it
yields nearly insoluble precipitates.
FLUX. Syn. FLUXUS, FLUOR, L. In
medicine, a term formerly applied to several
diseases attended with a copious discharge, as
diarrhoea (FLUX), dysentery (BLOODY FLUX),
English cholera (BILIOUS FLUX), fluor albus
(WHITE FLUX), &c. These terms are still cur-
rent among the vulgar.
Flux. In metallurgy, &c., a term applied to
various substances of easy fusibility, which are
added to others which are more refractory, to
promote their fusion.
Prep. 1. (BLACK FLUX.) Nitre, 1 part;
crude tartar or cream of tartar, 2 parts; mix,
and deflagrate, by small quantities at a time,
in a crucible, heated to dull redness. The
product consists of carbonate of potassa, mixed
with charcoal in a finely divided state. Used
for smelting metallic ores. It exercises a re-
ducing action, as well as promotes the fusion.
It must be kept in a dry corked bottle.
2. (CHRISTISON's FLUX.) Carbonate of
soda (cryst.), 8 parts; charcoal (in fine powder),
1 part ; heat the mixture gradually to redness.
For reducing arsenic.
3. (CoRNISH REDUCING FLUX.) Crude tar-
tar, 10 parts; nitre, 4 parts; borax, 3 parts;
triturate together. º
4. (CoRNISH REFINING FLUX, WHITE
&

FLY-FOILS.
535
FLUx.) Crude tartar and nitre, equal parts,
deflagrated together. See BLACK FLUX.
5. (CRUDE FLUX.) Same as BLACK FLUX,
omitting the deflagration. Reducing.
6. (FRESENIUS's FLUX.) Carbonate of po-
tassa (dry), 3 parts; cyanide of potassium, 1
part. For the arsenical compounds.
7. (LIEBIG's FLUX.) Carbonate of soda
(dry) and cyanide of potassium, equal parts.
As the last. See ARSENIOUS ACID.
1. (MoRVEAU’s REDUCING FLUX.) Pow-
dered glass (free from lead), 8 parts; calcined
borax and charcoal, of each, 1 part ; all in fine
powder, and triturated well together. Used
aS BLACK FILUX.
9. (WHITE FLUX.) See above.
10. (FLUXES FOR ENAMELs.) See ENAMELs.
11. (Various.) Borax, tartar, mitre, sal-am-
moniac, common salt, limestone, glass, fluor
spar, and several other substances, are used as
fluxes in metallurgy.
Obs. On the large scale, crude tartar is
employed in the preparation of fluxes; on the
small scale, commercial cream of tartar or bi-
tartrate of potassa.
FLY. The common house-fly (Musca do-
mestica) causes considerable annoyance to the
person in hot weather, as well as damage to
handsome furniture, especially to picture
frames, gilding, and the like. The best way
to exterminate them is to expose on a plate
one or other of the mixtures given uuder FLY
PoſsON (below). The blow-fly (Musca vomi-
toria), and other insects, may be kept from
attacking meat by dusting it over with black
pepper, powdered ginger, or any other spice,
or by skewering a piece of paper to it on
which a drop or two of creasote has been
poured. The spices may be readily washed off
with water before dressing the meat.
It is a fact not generally known, that flies
will not pass through a netting made of fine
silk, thread, or wire, even though the meshes
may be an inch apart, unless there is a window
or light behind it. This affords us a ready
means of excluding these insects from all our
apartments which have windows only on one
side of them, without keeping the latter
closed. It is merely necessary to have an
ornamental netting stretched across the open-
ing, when, although flies may abound on the
outside, none will venture into the room so
protected. If, however, there is a window on
the other side of the room, they will fly
through the metting immediately. See below.
Fly Papers. Those papers which, a few
years ago, were sold about the streets of
London by harsh-voiced cries of “Catch 'em
alive-o!” and which might be seen in many
shop-windows covered with dead and dying
flies, were prepared by rubbing factitious bird-
lime over sheets of paper. It would be diffi-
cult to conceive a more cruel or more offensive
mode of catching flies than that of glueing their
living bodies to an adhesive surface. A pre-
ferable kind of fly-paper is that called ‘PAPIER
MOURE, which contains a large quantity of
arsenic in its substance. This paper is kept
wet when in use, and the flies, by sipping the
moisture, are poisoned.
Fly Poison. Prep. 1. A strong solution of
white arsenic (say, 1 dr. to the pint), sweet-
ened with moist sugar, treacle, or honey. Sold
under the name of ‘FLY WATER."
2. Treacle, honey, or moist sugar, mixed
with about ºth their weight of King's yellow
or orpiment.
Obs. Both the above are dangerous prepa-
rations, and should never be employed where
there are children.
3. (Redwood.) Quassia chips (small), 4 oz.;
water, 1 pint; boil 10 minutes, strain, and
add of treacle, 4 oz. “Flies will drink this
with avidity, and are soon destroyed by it.”
4. Black pepper, l teaspoonful; brown sugar,
2 teaspoonfuls; cream, 4 teaspoonfuls. See
below.
Fly Powder. The dark gray-coloured pow-
der (so-called ‘sub-oxide’) obtained by the
free exposure of metallic arsenic to the air.
Mixed with sweets, it is used to kill flies.
Fly Water. See FLY Poison (above).
F0ILS. These are thin leaves of polished
metal, placed under precious stones and pastes,
to heighten their brilliancy, or to vary the
effect. Foils were formerly made of copper,
tinned copper, tin, and silvered copper, but
the last is the one wholly used for superior
work at the present day.
Foils are of two descriptions:–white, for
diamonds and mock diamonds, and—coloured,
for the coloured gems. The latter are pre-
pared by varnishing or lacquering the former.
By their judicious use the colour of a stone
may often be modified and improved. Thus,
by placing a yellow foil under a green stone
that turns too much on the blue, or a red one
under a stone turning too much on the crim-
son, the hues will be brightened and enriched
in proportion. -
Prep. 1. (CRYSTAL, DIAMOND, or WHITE
FOIL.)—a. This is made by coating a plate of
copper with a layer of silver, and then rolling
it into sheets in the flatting mill. The foil is
then highly polished, or covered with crystal
varnish.
b. The inside of the socket in which the
stone or paste is to be set is covered with tin
foil, by means of a little stiff gum or size;
when dry, the surface is polished and the
socket heated, and whilst it is warm, filled
with quicksilver; after repose for two or three
minutes, the fluid metal is poured out, and the
stone gently fitted in its place; lastly, the
work is well-fitted round the stone, to prevent
the alloy being shaken out. -
c. The bottom of the stone is coated with a
film of real silver, by precipitating it from a
Solution of the nitrate in spirit of ammonia, by
means of the oils of cassia and cloves." This
method vastly increases the brilliancy both of
1 See SILVERING. -


536 FOMENTATION.
real and factitious gems, and the work is very
permanent.
2. (CoLou RED FOILs.) The following for-
mulae produce beautiful coloured effects, when
judiciously employed:—
a. (Amethyst.) Lake and Prussian blue,
finely ground in pale drying oil.
b. (Blue.) Prussian blue (preferably Turn-
bull’s), ground with pale, quick-drying oil.
Used to deepen the colour of sapphires.
c. (Eagle marine.) Verdigris tempered in
shell-lac varnish (alcoholic), with a little Prus-
sian blue.
d. (Garnet.) Dragon’s blood dissolved in
rectified spirit of wine.
e. (Vinegar garnet.) Orange lake finely
tempered with shellac varnish.
f. (Green.)—a. From pale shell-lac, dissolved
in alcohol (lacquer), and tinged green by dis-
solving verdigris or acetate of copper in it.
3. From sesquiferrocyanide of iron and bi-
chromate of potassa, of each, oz, ; ground to
an impalpable powder, first alone, and then
with gum mastic (clean and also in fine pow-
der), 2 oz. ; a little pyroxilic spirit is next
added, gradually, and the whole again ground
until the mass becomes homogeneous and of a
fine transparent green. The beauty increases
with the length of the grinding. The pre-
dominance of the bichromate turns it on the
yellowish green; that of the salt of iron, on
the bluish green. For use it is to be thinned
with pyroxilic spirit. (“Chem., iii, 231.)
Used for emeralds.
g. (Red.) Carmine, dissolved in spirit of
hartshorn, or in a weak solution of salt of tar-
tar, and a little gum (dissolved) added.
h. (Ruby.)— a. From lake or carmine,
ground in isinglass.
{3. Lake ground in shell-lac varnish. Both
are used when the colour turns on the purple.
y. From bright lake ground in oil. Used
when the colour turns on the scarlet or
orange.
#. (Yellow.)—a. Various shades of yellow
may be produced by tinging a weak alcoholic
solution of shell-lac or mastic, by digesting
turmeric, annotta, saffron, or socotrine aloes in
it. The former is the brightest, and is used
for topazes.
8. From hay saffron digested in 5 or 6
times its weight of boiling water until the
latter becomes sufficiently coloured, and a
little solution of gum or isinglass added to the
filtered liquor. When dry, a coating of spirit
varnish is applied.
Obs. By the skilful use of the above var-
nishes, good imitations of the gems may be
cheaply made from transparent white glass or
paste; and by applying them to foils set under
coloured pastes (FACTITIOUS GEMs), a superior
effect may be produced. The pigments em-
ployed must be reduced to the finest state
possible by patient grinding, as without this
precaution transparent and beautiful shades
cannot be formed. The palest and cleanest
mastic and lac, dissolved in alcohol, and, also
the palest and quickest drying oil should alone
be used when these substances are ordered.
In every case the colour must be laid on the
foil with a broad soft brush; and the opera-
tion should be performed, if possible, at once,
as no part should be crossed, or twice gone
over, whilst wet. If the colour turns out too
pale, a second coat may be given when the
*first one has become quite dry, but this prac-
tice should be avoided if possible.
FOMENTATION. Syn. FoMENTATIO, Fo-
MENTUM, Fotus, L. A liquid, either simple
or medicated, used for local bathing. Fomen-
tations are dlstinguished from lotions, chiefly
in being applied in a heated state, and in
larger quantities, and for a longer period at a
time.
Fomentations are chiefly employed to allay
pain or irritation, or to promote suppuration
or the healthy action of the parts. As the
intention is to convey heat, combined with
moisture, to the part fomented, the utmost
care must be taken to manage the application
so as to promote the object in view as much as
possible. Flannel cloths wrung out of the
hot or boiling liquid, by means of two sticks,
turned in opposite directions, form the best
vehicles for fomentations. If they are shaken
up, and laid lightly over the part, they involve
a considerable quantity of air, which, being a
bad conductor, retains the heat in them for a
considerable time. “In every process of fo-
menting there should be two flannels, each
(say) three yards long, with the ends sewed
together, to admit of the boiling water being
wrung out of them; and the one flannel should
be got ready whilst the other is applied. The
fineness or the coarseness of the flannel is not
a matter of indifference. The coarser it is
the less readily does it conduct heat, and the
longer it retains its warmth; therefore it is
more efficient for fomenting. White flannel
also retains the heat longer than coloured
flannel.” (Dr. R. E. Griffith.) More harm
than good is frequently done by allowing the
patient to become chilled during the appli-
cation. “If only one (flannel) is used, the
skin becomes chilled during the time occupied
in removing the flannel, soaking it in the
water, wringing it out, and reapplying it;
but if two are used, one of them is ready, and
can be applied the moment the other is taken
off, by which means the part is never exposed
to the air, no matter how long the fomenta-
tion is continued. In some diseases (rheuma-
tism, peritomitis, &c.), the patient is scarcely


nurse’s hands. In this case the formenting
flannels should be put in a towel, by which
means they may be wrung out without being
handled by the nurse, and may be applied far
hotter than can be done by any other method.”
(Dr. J. B. Nevins.)
The quantity of liquid forming a fomenta-
tion, as well as the size of the cloths employed,
conscious of a degree of heat which scalds the
FOMENTATION.
537
must entirely depend upon circumstances. In
some cases (as in slight affections of the face,
&c.), the application may be effectually made
by holding the part in the steam of the hot
liquid, and bathing it continually by means of
a sponge or cloth. In some instances , pint
to a pint of liquid may be found a sufficient
quantity; whilst in others, several quarts will
be required. Under all circumstances, care
must be taken to keep the fomentation as near
as possible at the temperature ordered, during
the whole time of its application; and, as soon
as the operation is finished, to quickly wipe the
part dry, and to cover it with ample clothing,
in order that the reaction set up may not be
prematurely checked.
Fomentations usually consist of simple water,
or the decoction of some simple vegetable sub-
stance, as chamomiles, elder flowers, or mallows;
but, occasionally, the leaves and flowers of
aromatic and narcotic plants, and saline matter,
are employed under this form. The following
formulae are given as examples:–
Fomentation, An’odyne. Syn. FOTUS ANO-
DYNUS, FOMENTATIO ANODYNA, FoMENTUM
ANODYNUM, L. Prep. 1. Simple decoction of
poppy-heads.
2. (Hosp. F.) Poppy-heads (without the
seeds), iž oz.; water, 3% pints; boil to 2% pints;
add of elder flowers, 3 oz. ; boil to a quart, and
strain. Used to allay pain.
3. (Pierquin.) Opium, 1 oz. ; wine, 1 quart;
boil to a pint and strain. Used in severe
gouty, rheumatic, neuralgic, and syphilitic
pains.
4. Opium, 1 oz. ; water, 1 quart ; boil to
# pint, add pyroligneous acid, 2 fl. oz. ; boil for
10 minutes longer, then further add of sherry
wine, # pint ; and as soon as the whole again
boils, strain it for use. Superior to the last,
and cheaper.
Fomentation, Antineural'gic. Syn. FowſEN-
TATIO ANTINEURALGICA, L. Prep. 1. (Mialhe.)
Acetate of morphia, 2 gr. ; acetic acid, 2 or 3
drops; eau de Cologne, 2 or 3 dr. ; dissolve. In
facial neuralgia.
2. (Trousseau and Reveil,) Cyanide of po-
tassium, 1 dr. ; distilled water, 6 fl.oz. ; dissolve,
and keep it in a well-closed bottle in the dark.
Used in neuralga, especially in that of the face
(tic douloureux). A compress of lint or soft
linen is dipped in it and applied to the part.
It must not be used internally or applied to a
wounded surface, as it is very poisonous. See
ANODYNE FOMENTATIONS, Nos. 3 and 4 (above),
also STIMULANT FOMENTATION.
Fomentation, Antiseptic. Syn. FoMENTATIO
ANTISEPTICA, L. Prep. 1. Decoction of mal-
lows, 4 pints; salammoniac, 2 oz. ; dissolve, and
add of disulphate of quinine, 20 gr., dissolved
in camphorated spirit, 4 fl. oz.
2. (Hosp. F.) Decoction of bark, 1 quart;
infusion of chamomile, 1 pint; camphorated
spirit, 2 fl. oz. ; hydrochloric acid, 1 fl. dr. Both
are used when there is a tendency to gangrene
or putrescence.
Fomentation of Ar’mica. Syn. FoMENTATIo
ARNICE, L. Prep. 1. Flowers of arnica, 1 oz. ;
water, 3 pints; boil to a quart, and strain.
Used in contusions.
2. (Graefe.) Flowers of arnica, 2 oz. ; rue
(leaves), 1 oz. ; boiling water, q. S. to strain
12 fl. oz. of infusion after an hour’s maceration
at nearly the boiling temperature. Used in
contusions and extravasations, especially as an
application to black eyes.
3. (Radius.) Flowers of arnica, oz. ; boil-
ing vinegar, q. s. to strain 6 fl. oz. of infusion,
in which dissolve of carbonate of ammonia, 2 dr.
Used in oedema of the scrotum.
Fomentation, Aromat'ic. Syn. FoMENTATIO
AROMATICA, FOTUS AROMATICUS, L. Prep.
1. Sea wormwood, southernwood, and chamo-
miles, of each, 1 oz. ; laurel leaves, # oz. ; water,
5 pints; boil to # gall., and strain. In rheuma-
tism, cutaneous affections, colic, &c.
2. (Augustin.) Rosemary, oz. ; red wine
and water, of each, 3 fl. oz. ; infuse and strain
with expression. In contusions, especially
black eyes.
3. (Hosp. F.) Cloves and mace, of each, 1 oz.;
opium, 20 gr. ; red wine (boiling), 1 pint;
digest at near boiling for 1 hour, and strain.
Used as both the last.
4. (Rideau.) Bay leaves, rosemary, south-
ernwood, and wormwood, of each, 1 oz. ; water,
2 quarts; boil 5 minutes, and strain. As
No. 1.
Fomentation, Astringent. Syn. Fotus A-
STRINGENS, F. ROBORANS, L. Prep. 1. Decoc-
tion of oak bark.
2. To each quart of the last, add of alum,
1 dr.
3. (Ph. Chirur.) Bruised galls, 1 oz. ;
boiling water, 2% pints; digest 1 hour, and
strain.
4. (Ricord.) Tannin, 2% dr.; aromatic wine
(hot), ; pint; dissolve.
5. Bistort and pomegranate peel, of each,
2 oz. ; sal ammonia, 3 oz.; red wine 1 pint ;
infuse at a gentle heat. The above are used in
haemorrhages, piles, prolapsus, &c.
Fomentation of Belladonna. Syn. Fotus
BELLADONNE, L. Prep. (Ophthalmic Hosp.)
Extract of belladonna, 1 dr. ; boiling water
1 pint. Used to dilate the pupil in certain
affections of the eye; it is usually applied on
the forehead.
Fomentation of Cham’omile. Syn. FoxTEN-
TATIOANTHEMIDIS, L. Prep. Chamomiles, 2 oz.;
water, 3 pints; boil 10 minutes, and strain with
expression. Emollient.
Fomentation, Diuret'ic. Syn. FoMENTATIO
DIURETICA, L. Prep. (Trousseau.) Tinctures
of squills and foxglove, of each, 2 oz.; hot water,
6 fl. Oz. ; mix. Applied by lint or linen
compresses to the insides of the thighs, in


dropsies, when the stomach will not bear
diuretics.
Fomentation of Elſder Flowers. Syn. FOTUS
SAMBUCI, L. Prep. From elder flowers, 1 oz. ;
boiling water, 2 quarts; digest in a hot
538
FOOD.
place for 1 hour, and express the liquor.
Emollient.
Fomentation, Emol/lient. Syn. FowſENTATIO
EMOLLIENs, L. Prep. 1. Marshmallow root
and poppy-heads, of each 1 oz. ; water, 3 pints;
boil to a quart, and strain.
2. (P. Cod.) Emollient herbs, 1 oz. ; boiling
water, 1 quart; infuse 1 hour, and strain with
expression. (See above.)
Fomentation, Narcot'ic. Syn. FoyſENTATIO
NARCOTICA, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) Narcotic
herbs, 1 oz. ; boiling water, 1% pint; infuse
as last. -
Fomentation, Resolvent. Syn. FoEUS RE-
solvKNS, L. Prep. (Richard.) Fomentation
of elder flowers, 8 fl. oz. ; liquor of diacetate
of lead, ; fl. dr. ; mix. Used to discuss tu-
mours, &c. - -
Fomentation, Stimulant. Syn. FOMENTATIO
STIMULANs, L. Prep. 1. Sesquicarbonate of
ammonia, 1 oz.; tincture of cantharides, 2 fl.oz.;
warm water, 1 pint. - -
2. Household mustard, 4 oz. ; hot water,
1} pint ; mix. Both the above are rubefacient
and counter-irritant, and excellent in rheuma-
tism, neuralgia, &c.
Fomentation, Wer'mifuge. Syn. FOMENTATIO
VERMIFUGA, FOTUS ANTHELMINTICUs, L.
Prep. Ileaves and flowers of tansy, wormwood,
and chamomile, of each, 3 oz. ; water, 1 quart ;
boil to 1% pint, and strain. Applied to the
abdomen, &c., in worms.
F00D. Syn. CIBUS, MATERIA ALIMENTA-
RIA, L. Anything which feeds or promotes
the natural growth of organic bodies, by sup-
plying them with materials which, by assimi-
lation, may be converted into the substances
of which they are composed; or which, by its
decomposition or slow combustion, maintains
the temperature, or some other essential con-
dition of life, at the proper standard. The
numerous articles employed as food are all
compounds; and in many cases they consist of
mechanical mixtures or chemical combinations
of two or more compounds. Organized matter,
or that which has possessed either animal or
vegetable life, or which has been produced by
living organs, seems to be alone capable of
assimilation, to any extent, by the animal
system; and hence it is from the Organic
kingdom that our aliments are necessarily
derived. Water, iron, earthy phosphates, chlo-
ride of sodium, and other salts, which form the
inorganic constituents of the body, though not
of themselves nourishing, are also assimilated
when taken in conjunction with organic ali-
ments, and then contribute essentially to
nutrition. In the animal and vegetable sub-
stances employed as food, these inorganic com-
pounds are provided in small but sufficient
quantities to meet the requirements of the
healthy body; and in this state of combination
alone can they be regarded in the light of ali-
ments. A complete consideration of this sub-
ject embraces, not only all the substances used
as food, but also those things which when
taken with them improve their flavour, pro-
mote their digestion, and render them more
wholesome and nutritive; and also their pre-
paration for the table in its various relations
with health and disease.
The following ‘BILLS OF FARE,” for which
we are indebted chiefly to Soyer, Rundell, and
others, exhibit the various articles in season at
different periods of the year.
FIRST QUARTER. January.—Poultry and
Game: Pheasants, partridges, hares, rabbits,
woodcocks, snipes, turkeys, capons, pullets,
fowls, chickens, and tame pigeons.—Fish :
Carp, tench, perch, lampreys, eels, cray-fish,
cod, soles, flounders, plaice, turbot, thornback,
skate, sturgeon, smelts, whitings, lobsters,
crabs, prawns, and oysters.-Vegetables: Cab-
bage, Savoys, colewort, sprouts, leeks, onions,
beet, sorrel, chervil, endive, spinach celery,
garlic, scorzonera, potatoes, parsnips, turnips,
brocoli (white and purple), shalots, lettuces,
cresses, mustard, rape, salsafy, and herbs of
all sorts (some dry and some green); cucum-
bers, asparagus, and mushrooms are also to be
had, though not in season.—Fruit : Apples,
pears, nuts, walnuts, medlars, and grapes.
February and March.-Meat, fowls, and
game, as in January, with the addition of
ducklings and chickens.—Fish : As the last
two months. (Cod is not thought so good
from February to July, although it is still
sold at the fishmonger's.)—Vegetables: The
same as the previous months, with the addi-
tion of kidney-beams, Fruit: Apples, pears,
and forced strawberries.
SECOND QUARTER. April, May, and June.
—Meat: Beef, mutton, veal, lamb, and venison
(in June).-Poultry; Pullets, fowls, chickens,
ducklings, pigeons, rabbits, and leverets.-
Fish : Carp, tench, soles, smelts, eels, trout,
turbot, lobsters, chub, salmon, herrings, cray-
fish, mackerel, crabs, prawns, and shrimps.-
Vegetables: As before ; and in May, early
potatoes and cabbages, peas, radishes, kidney-
beans, carrots, turnips, cauliflowers, asparagus,
artichokes, and numerous salads (forced).-
Fruit: (in June), strawberries, cherries, melons,
green apricots, and currants and gooseberries
for tarts; pears, grapes, nectarines, peaches,
and some other fruit.
THIRD QUARTER. July, August, and Sep-
tember. — Meat, as before. — Poultry, &c.:
Pullets, fowls, chickens, rabbits, pigeons, green
geese, leverets, and turkey poults. Two
former months, plovers and wheat-ears; (in
September), partridges, geese, &c.—Fish : Cod,
haddocks, flounders, plaice, skate, thornback,
mullets, pike, carp, eels, shellfish (except
oysters), and mackerel (during the first two
months of the quarter, but they are not good
in August).-Vegetables: Of all sorts, beans,
peas, French-beans, &c. – Fruit: (In July),
strawberries, gooseberries, pine-apples, plums
(various), cherries, apricots, raspberries, melons,
currants, and damsons. (In August and Sep-
tember), peaches, plums, figs, filberts, mulber-

FOOL–FORMIC ACID.
539
ries, cherries, apples, pears, nectarines, and
grapes. (During the latter months), pines,
melons, strawberries, medlars, and quinces.
(In September), Morella cherries, damsons,
and various plums.
FourTH QUARTER. October, November,
and December. — Meat, as before, and doe
venison.—Poultry and Game : Domestic fowls,
as in first quarter; pheasants (from the 1st
of October); partridges, larks, hares, dot-
terels; (at the end of the month), wild-ducks,
teal, snipes, widgeon, and grouse.—Fish :
Dories, smelts, pike, perch, halibuts, brills,
carp, salmon-trout, barbel, gudgeons, tench,
and shellfish.-Vegetables: (As in January),
French-beans, last crops of beans, &c.—Fruit:
Peaches, pears, figs, bullace, grapes, apples,
medlars, damsons, filberts, walnuts, nuts,
quinces, services, and medlars. (In Novem.
ber)—Meat, &c. : Beef, mutton, veal, pork,
house-lamb, doe venison, and poultry and
game as in the last month.-Fish: As the
last month.-Vegetables : Carrots, turnips,
parsnips, potatoes, skirrets, scorzonera, onions,
leeks, shalots, cabbage, Savoys, colewort, spinach,
chardbeats, chardoons, cresses, endive, celery,
lettuces, salad-herbs, and various pot-herbs,-
Fruit: Pears, apples, nuts, walnuts, bullace,
chestnuts, medlars, and grapes. (In Decem-
ber)—Meat, &c. : Beef, mutton, veal, house-
lamb, pork, and venison.—Poultry and Game:
Geese, turkeys, pullets, pigeons, capons, fowls,
chickens, rabbits, hares, snipes, woodcocks,
larks, pheasants, partridges, sea-fowls, guinea-
fowls, wild ducks, teal, widgeon, dotterels,
dun-birds, and grouse.—Fish : Cod, turbot,
halibuts, soles, gurnets, sturgeon, carp, gud-
geons, codlings, eels, dories, and shell-fish.-
Vegetables : As in last month. Asparagus, &c.,
forced.—Fruit : As before, except bullace.
F00L. Cooks give this name to a species of
jam made of boiled and crushed fruit, mixed
with milk or cream, and sweetened.
Apple Fool. From the peeled and cored
fruit, placed in a jar, with moist sugar, q. S. to
render it palatable, and a very little cider or
perry; the jar is set in a saucepan of water
over the fire, and the heat continued until the
apples become quite soft, when they are pulped
through a colander, and a sufficient quantity
of milk, a little cream, and some sugar, added
to bring them to the proper ‘palate.’
Goose/berry Fool. From gooseberries, as the
last. Those which are unripe are generally
preferred. These preparations, when nicely
made, are very pleasant and wholesome.
F00T (Human.) See FEET.
F00TS. Coarse moist sugar. The scrapings
of the sugar hogsheads, refuse sugar, waste,
and dirt, is also sold to the publicans under
this name, who use it in the adulteration of
their beer ; chiefly to make it stand more
water, and to impart ‘briskness.’
FORCEMEAT. Syn. FARCE, STUFFING. A
species of sausage meat, either served up alone,
or employed as an ingredient in other dishes.
Mrs. Rundell truly remarks that “at many
tables, where everything else is done well, it
is common to find very bad forcemeat or
stuffing.” To avoid this error, care should be
taken to so proportion the ingredients that
“no one flavour should predominate; yet if
several dishes be served the same day, there
should be a marked variety in the tastes of
the forcemeats, as well as of the gravies. A
general fault is, that the tastes of lemon-peel
and thyme overcome all others; therefore they
should only be used in small quantities.”
Forcemeats should be just consistent enough
to cut with a knife, but not dry and heavy.
Herbs are very essential ingredients; and it is
the copious and judicious use of them that
chiefly gives the cookery of the French its
superior flavour. “To force fowls, meat, &c.,
is to stuff them.” (Mrs. Rundell.)
FOR'CING. Horticulturalists apply this
term to the art of accelerating the growth of
plants, so as to obtain fruits or flowers at un-
usual seasons. Dung-beds, bark-beds, and
frames, pits, and houses, with glass roofs, are
commonly employed by the gardeners for this
purpose."
FORMATE. Syn. FoEMIATE. Salts, in which
one atom of hydrogen in formic acid is re-
placed by a metal or other basic radical.
They are best obtained either by direct satura-
tion of the acid, or by double decomposition;
most of them are very soluble, and are decom-
posed by hot oil of vitriol. Formate of am-
monium crystallises in square prisms; formate
of sodium, in rhombic prisms; formate of
potassium is deliquescent, and crystallises
with difficulty; the formates of barium, cal-
cium, magnesium, and strontium, form small
prismatic crystals; formate of lead assumes
the shape of small colourless needles, soluble
in 40 parts of water; the formates of cobalt,
iron, manganese, nickel, and zinc, are easily
crystallisable, whilst that of copper forms
very beautiful, large, bright-blue rhombic
prisms; formate of silver is less soluble
than the salt of lead, and is decomposed at a
gentle heat.
FORMIC ACID. HCHOs: Syn. HYDROGEN
FoEMIATE. An organic acid, obtained by
oxidizing many organic substances, and found
in the red ant.
Prep. Sugar, 1 part ; water, 2 parts; bin-
oxide of manganese, 3 parts; mix in a retort
capable of holding fully 10 times the bulk of
the ingredients, and add, cautiously, oil of
vitriol, 3 parts, diluted with an equal weight
of water; as soon as the first violent effer-
vescence has subsided, heat may be applied,
and the product collected and purified, as
below. -
Formate of lead in fine powder is introduced
into a long glass tube, one end of which is
connected with an apparatus evolving sul-
phuretted hydrogen, and the other with a
receiver. As soon as the salt is entirely de-
composed (blackened) a very gentle heat is
540
FORMULA—FRACTURE. '
applied, and the distilled liquid collected; the
product is, lastly, boiled for a minute or less,
to expel any adhering sulphuretted gas. This
furnishes chemically pure formic acid.
From wood spirit, 1 part; bichromate of
potassium and sulphuric acid, of each, 3 parts;
the sulphuric acid, diluted with an equal
weight of water, being gradually added last.
A portion of wood spirit distils over with the
acid, and may be again treated with bichro-
mate of potassium and sulphuric acid, when a
fresh portion of formic acid will be produced.
This process yields a large product.
Prop., purific., &c. The products of the
above processes are limpid and colourless; the
stronger ones fume slightly in the air, and
possess an extremely penetrating odour. The
acid obtained by the second process boils at
209°Fahr., crystallises in brilliant scales below
32°, and has the sp. gr. 12353. Its vapour
is inflammable, and burns with a blue flame.
It is extremely corrosive, and rapidly destroys
the texture of living organic substances. The
products of the other processes are very dilute,
and possess the above properties in only a
minor degree. They may all be purified and
concentrated by saturating them with pure
carbonate of sodium or of potassium, and
after subjecting the liquid to a gentle heat for
a short time, and liberating the formic acid
from the salt by means of dilute sulphuric
acid, finally submitting the mixture to distil.
lation, when the hydrated acid will come over
perfectly pure.
Formic acid reduces the salts of mercury and
silver, and forms salts with the bases termed
formiates.
Formic acid is readily distinguished from
acetic acid, which in many points it resembles,
by heating it with a little solution of oxide of
silver or mercury; the metal is reduced, and
precipitated in a pulverulent state, while car-
bonic acid is extricated. The odours of the
two acids also vary. -
FORM'ULA. [L.] In pharmacy and medicine,
a short form of prescription; a recipe. By
chemists, the term is applied to a grouping of
symbols, expressing the composition of a body;
thus, HCl (standing for 1 atom of hydrogen
united to 1 atom of chlorine) is the formula for
hydrochloric acid. A chemical formula is
termed empirical when it merely gives the
simplest possible expression of the composition
of the substance to which it refers. A rational
formula, on the contrary, aims at describing
the exact composition of molecule, or com-
bining weight of the substance, but stating
the absolute number of atoms of such of the
elements essential to that object, as well as the
mere relations existing between them. The
empirical formula is at once deduced from the
analysis of the substance, reckoned to 100
parts; the rational formula requires, in addi-
tion, a knowledge of its combining quantity,
which can only be obtained by direct experi-
ment, by synthesis, or by the careful examina-
tion of one or more of its most definite com-
pounds. Thus, the composition of acetic acid
is expressed by the formula CHO, which ex-
hibits the simplest relations of the three
elements; if we want to express the quantities
of these, in atoms required to make up one
molecule of acetic acid, we have to adopt the
formula C3H4O, or HC3H3O3.
FOR/MYL. Syn. FoEMYLE. A hypothetical
organic radical, having the composition C.H.
Its existence was inferred from the constitu-
tion of certain organic compounds which are
now referred to the methyl-series. Formic
acid was supposed to be an oxide of formyl;
and chloroform, the terchloride of formyl.
FOX GLOVE. Syn. DIGITALIS (B. P.), L.
A genus of plants belonging to the natural
order Scrophulariacae. The leaves of the
uncultivated ‘Digitalis purpurea,’ or purple
foxglove are officinal in our pharmacopoeias.
They must be gathered before the terminal
flowers have expanded. “The petiole and
midrib of the leaf being eut off, dry the
lamina.” (Ph. L.) The seeds (DIGITALIS SE-
MINA), which were ordered, as well as the
leaves, in former pharmacopoeias, are said to
be in many points preferable to them. When
good, the leaves are of a dull-green colour,
and possess a feeble narcotic odour, and a bitter,
unpleasant taste. Both the dried leaves and
the powder should be preserved in corked
bottles covered with dark-coloured paper, or
in well-closed tin canisters, and kept in a dark
cupboard; and the stock should be renewed
yearly, as age considerably diminishes the me-
dicinal activity of digitalis.
Action, uses, &c. Foxglove is diuretic, sedative,
and antispasmodic, and exerts a specific action
over the cerebro-spinal system, promoting the
functions of the absorbents, and reducing the
force of the circulation in a remarkable manner.
It is administered in ſevers and inflammations,
to reduce the frequency of the pulse, and to
allay excessive vascular excitement; in dropsy
(unless the habit is full and pulse tight and
cordy), as a diuretic, either alone, or combined
with squills, calomel, salines, or bitters; in in-
ternal haemorrhages, as a sedative, when the
pulse is full, hard, and throbbing; in diseases
of the heart and great vessels, and in phthisis,
to reduce the force and velocity of the circu-
lation; in epilepsy and insanity, to repress vas-
cular excitement; and in spasmodic asthma,
scrofula, and several other diseases, with one
or other of the above intentions.
The greatest caution is required in the use
of foxglove, as its effects accumulate in the
system, and the unwary practitioner is occa-
sionally surprised at the sudden demise of
his patient, even after he has left off the use
of this drug.—Dose. . gr. to 1% gr., in powder,
every 6 hours. See ExTRACT, INFUSION,
TINCTURE, &c.
FOXING, See MALT LIQUORS.
FRACT'URE. Syn. FRACTURA, L. The
breaking or disrupture of a bone. When the


FRANKINCENSE—FRENCH POLISH. 541
bone is nearly divided into two parts, it is logne, 3 oz. ; mix.
called a SIMPLE FRACTURE; when the integu-
ments are also lacerated, a COMPOUND FRAC-
TURE; and when the bone is splintered, a
COMMINUTED FRACTURE.
FRANK/INCENSE. Syn. CoMMON FRANK-
INCENSE: THUS (Ph. L.), L. The turpentine
which exudes from the bark of Abies earcelsa
(Norway spruce fir) and Pinus palustris (pitch
or swamp pine), hardened by the air. (Ph. L.)
The gum-resin olibanum, which is the pro-
duce of the Boswellia thurifera, is the ‘odor-
ous frankincense’ of commerce.
Prepared Frankincense. Syn. THUS PRAE-
PARATUM (Ph. L.), L. Prep. (Ph.L.) Frank-
incense, 1 lb. ; water, q. S. to cover it ; boil
until the resin is melted, and strain through a
hair sieve ; when the whole has cooled, pour
off the water, and keep the frankincense for
use. Resembles common resin in its general
properties. -
FRAX'ININ. Syn. FRAXIN; FRAXINA, L. A
peculiar bitter, neutral, and crystallizable
substance, soluble in boiling water, extracted
from the bark of Fraasinus earcelsior, or common
ash. It is febrifuge.
FREC'KLES. These are round or oval-
shaped yellowish spots, similar to stains, de-
veloped on the skin. There are two varie-
ties—FRECKLES, or SUMMER FRECKLES, re-
sulting from the action of the sun and heat
during the summer season, and disappearing
with the hot weather or exposure; and—CoID
FRECKLES, which occur at all times of the
year. The former are chiefly confined to per-
sons of fair complexion, whilst the latter attack
persons of all complexions indifferently, and
sometimes assume a lively yellow or greenish
colour.
Treatment. Common freckles may gene-
rally be removed by the frequent application
of dilute spirits, acids, or alkaline solutions ;
the last two just strong enough to prick the
tongue. Cold freckles commonly occur from
disordered health, or some general disturb-
ance of the system, to which attention should
be chiefly directed. In both varieties the
solution of bichloridc of mercury (Ph. L.), or
Gowland’s lotion, will be found a most useful
external application. See below.
Freckles, Lotion for. Prep. 1. Bichloride
of mercury, 5 gr. ; hydrochloric acid, 30 drops;
lump sugar, 1 oz. ; rectified spirit of wine,
2 oz. ; rose water, 7 oz. ; agitate together
until the whole is dissolved.
2. Petals or leaves of red roses, 1 oz. ; hot
Water, 12 fl. oz. ; infuse an hour, and strain,
with expression, ; pint; add of citric acid,
30 gr. ; dissolve, and in a few hours decant
and clear.
3. Rose leaves (dried), 3 oz. ; lemon juice
(freshly expressed) and rum or brandy, of
each, + pint ; digest 24 hours, and squeeze out
the liquor for use.
5. (Kittoe's.) Sal ammoniac, 1 dr. ; spring
water, 1 pint ; lavender water or eau de Co-
The above are applied with
the fingers night and morning, or oftener.
Freckles, Pomade for. Prep. 1. Citrine
ointment, 1 dr. ; simple ointment, 7 dr.; otto
of roses, 3 drops.
2. Elder flower ointment, 1 oz. ; sulphate of
zinc (levigated), 20 gr, ; mix by porphyriza-
tion, or by trituration in a wedgwood-ware
mortar. Both the above, applied night and
morning, are excellent for either cold or sum-
mer freckles.
FREEZ'ING MIXTURES. See ICE and RE-
FRIGERATION.
FRENCHBER/RIES, Syn. PERSIAN BERRIES,
AVIGNON B. ; GRAINEs D'AVIGNON, Fr. The
unripe berries or fruit of the Rhamnus infecto-
rius. They are imported from France and
Persia; those from the latter country being
esteemed the best. Some writers state that
the Persian berries are the product of a dis-
tinct species, namely, R. amydalinus. They are
chiefly used for dyeing morocco leather yellow.
Their decoction dyes cloth, previously mor-
danted with alum, tartar, or protochloride of
tin, of a yellow colour; with sulphate of cop-
per, an olive; and with red sulphate of iron,
an olive-green colour.
FRENCH POLISH. Several varnishes are
used undcr this name. That most generally
employed is a simple solution of pale shell-lac in
either methylated spirit or wood naphtha. Some-
times a little mastic, sandarac, or elemi, or
copal varnish, is added to render the polish
tougher.
Prep. 1. From pale shell-lac, 5% oz. ; finest
wood naphtha, 1 pint; dissolve.
2. Pale shell-lac, 3 lb.; wood naphtha, 1 gall.
Methylated spirit (68 o.p.) may be substituted
for the naphtha in each of the above formulae.
3. Pale shell-lac, 5 oz. ; gum sandarac, 1 oz. ;
spirit (68 o. p.), 1 pint.
4. Pale shell-lac, 5% oz. ; gum elemi, # oz. ;
spirit, 1 pint. -
5. Pale shell-lac, 14 lb.; mastic, #1b.; spirit,
2 quarts.
6. Pale shell-lac, 24 lb. ; mastic and san-
darac, of each, 3 oz. ; spirit, 1 gall. ; dissolve,
add copal varnish, 1 pint, and mix by roughly
agitating the vessel. All the above are used
in the manner described below.
7. Shell-lac, 12 oz. ; wood naphtha, 1 quart;
dissolve, and add of linseed oil, ; pint.
8. Shell-lac, 3 lb.; gum sandarac, 4 lb.;
spirit, 1 quart; dissolve, add of copal varnish,
+ pint; mix well, and further add of linseed
oil, pint. The last two require no oil on
the rubber.
Obs. The preparation of French polish is
precisely similar to that of other spirit or
naphthalic varnishes. Sometimes it is co-
loured, in order to modify the character of the
wood. A REDDISH TINGE is given with dra-
gon’s blood, alkanet root, or red sanders wood;
and a YELLOWISH TINGE, by turmeric root or
gamboge. When it is simply desired to DARKEN
the wood, brown shell-lac is employed to make

542 FRENCH POLISHING—FRICTION.
the polish; and when the object is to keep the
wood LIGHT COLOURED, a little oxalic acid (2
to 4 dr. to the pint) is commonly added. These
substances are either steeped in or agitated
with the polish, or with the solvent, before
pouring it on the ‘gums,” until they dissolve,
or a sufficient effect is produced. French
polish is not required to be so clear and limpid
as other varnishes, and is, therefore, never
artificially clarified. See WARNISH, and
below. -
FRENCH POLISHING. This process, now
so generally employed for furniture and cabinet
work, is performed as follows:–The surface
to be operated on being finished off as smoothly
as possible with glass paper, and placed oppo-
site the light, the ‘rubber’ being made as di-
rected below, and the polish (see above) being
at hand, and preferably contained in a narrow-
necked bottle, the workman moistens the middle
of the flat face of the rubber with the polish,
by laying the rubber on the mouth of the
bottle and shaking up the varnish against it,
once, by which means the rubber imbibes the
proper quantity to cover a considerable extent
of surface. He next encloses the rubber in a
soft linen cloth, doubled, the rest of the cloth
being gathered up at the back of the rubber
to form a handle, The face of the linen is
now moistened with a little raw linseed oil,
applied with the finger to the middle of it,
and the operation of polishing immediately
commenced. For this purpose the workman
passes his rubber quickly and lightly over the
surface uniformly in one direction, until the
varnish becomes dry, or nearly so, when he
again charges his rubber as before, omitting
the oil, and repeats the rubbing, until three
coats are laid on. He now applies a little oil
to the rubber, and two coats more are com-
monly given. As soon as the coating of var-
mish has acquired some thickness, he wets the
inside of the linen cloth, before applying the
varnish, with alcohol, or wood naphtha, and
gives a quick, light, and uniform touch over
the whole surface. The work is, lastly, care-
fully gone over with the linen cloth, moist-
ened with a little oil and rectified spirit or
naphtha, without varnish, and rubbed, as be-
fore, until dry.
The RUBBER for French polishing, is made
by rolling up a strip of thick woollen cloth
(list) which has been torn off, so as to form
a soft elastic edge. It should form a coil,
from 1 to 3 inches in diameter, according to
the size of the work.
FRES/C0-PAINTING. See PAINTING.
FRICANDEAU. [Fr.] Among cooks, a ra-
goût, or fricassée of veal. The same term is
also sometimes applied to stewed beef, highly
seasoned.
FRICASSEE. [Fr.] A dish prepared by
stewing or semi-frying, highly flavoured with
herbs, spices, or sauce. Small things, as
chickens, lamb, &c., and cold meat, are usually
formed into fricassees.
FRICTION. In a general sense, the act of
rubbing one body against another; attrition.
Friction. In mechanics, this is the resist-
ance which the surface of a moving body meets
with from the surface of the body on which it
moves. To lessen the amount of friction in
machines, various unctuous substances, as oil,
tallow, soap, black-lead, &c., are used by en-
gineers. These substances act by imparting
smoothness to the points of contact, and thus
reduce their resistance to each other. The
full consideration of the subject belongs to
engineering. -
Friction. In medicine, friction, whether
simple or conjoined with limiments, is a thera-
peutical agent of considerable power. By it,
the circulation is promoted in debilitated parts,
and medicinal substances (iodine, mercurials,
opium, &c.) are made to penetrate the pores of
the skin. “The benefit of friction, which con-
sists of motion and heat, whether or not the
same be raised by rubbing the body with a
coarse cloth or the flesh-brush, has advan-
tages inconceivable and scarcely credible, by
which the obstructions of the pores and cuta-
neous glandules are opened, their stagnating
juices broken into small particles, dissolved,
and rendered fit to be carried off in perspira-
tion, in the room of which, as my Lord Veru-
lam well observes, new juice will succeed with
new vigour to the body; and longevity, saith
that great naturalist, is this way most cer-
tainly promoted” (Daniel Turner).
Simple friction is performed by the hand
alone, or with a piece of flannel, a hair glove-
or a flesh-brush. “ If it be properly per-
formed—namely, by short, brisk strokes with
the tips of the fingers, and with great celerity,
when the naked hand is the agent; and if it
be continued for an hour or upwards, and
repeated several times a day—its influence in
reducing swelled glands and swellings of the
joints, as well as in alleviating rheumatic pains,
is very great; but, besides being well per-
formed, the friction should be continued for
(at least) half an honr, in order to render it
useful.” (Dr. R. E. Griffith.)
Gentle, slow, and equable friction, by pro-
ducing a continued repetition of an agreeable
impression on the nervous system, acts both
as an anodyne and hypnotic. For this purpose
“the operator should sit by the side of the
bed, and, introducing the hand under the bed-
clothes, rub the legs or the arms (or other
parts) gently, with equally lengthened but
slow movements. When the invalid is a child,
its influence is more powerful when aided by
a monotonous, but a soft tune, which, although
it operates upon a distinct sense, yet, by com-
bination, renders the friction more soporific.”
(Griffith.)
When the friction is accompanied with the
use of any acrid or irritating substance, or is
intended to introducc any active remedy into
the system, the rubbing should be brisk, and
of sufficient force to slightly abrade and in-

FRIGORIFIC MIXTURES.– FRUIT. 543
flame the cuticle ; and should be continued
until the substance, which is usually in the
form of an ointment, either wholly or par-
tially disappears, owing to its absorption by
the skin, The hand of the operator should,
in most cases, be guarded by a glove; other-
wise he is likely to share with the patient the
effects of the medicine, a result not always
agreeable or even safe. -
FRIGORIFIC MIXTURES. See REFRIGE-
BATION. -
FRIT. The pulverulent materials of glass,
heated until they coalesce without melting.
See ENAMEL, GLASS, &c.
FRIT'TERS. Fried batter. A species of
pancake, containing fruit, sweetmeats, poultry,
meat, or fish. -
Prep. 1. (M. Alexis Soyer.) “The following
is thirty recepts in one:” – Soak crum of
bread, 1 lb., in cold water, q. S.; take the same
quantity of any kind of boiled or roasted meat
(a little fat), and chop it into fine dice; press
the water out of the bread; put into the pan
butter, lard, or dripping, 2 oz., with chopped
onions, two teaspoonfuls; fry two minutes,
add the bread, stir with a wooden spoon until
rather dry, then add the meat, and season
with salt, 1 teaspoonful, pepper, do., and a
little grated nutmeg, if handy; stir till quite
hot; them further add two eggs, one at a time,
mix very quickly, and pour it on a dish to
cool; next roll it into the shape of small eggs,
then in flour, egg them, and bread-crum
them ; lastly, fry in abundance of fat to a nice
yellow colour, and serve either plain, or with
any sharp or other savoury sauce you fancy.
Innumerable dishes can be made in this way;
in fact, from everything that is eatable, and
at any season of the year—from the remains
of meat, poultry, game, fish, vegetables, &c.
The same can be done with chopped, dried,
or preserved fruits, simply using a 4 lb. more
bread, and sifting powdered sugar and cinna-
mon over them. Cream may also be used for
fruit, or curds.
Fritters are also (and more commonly) fried
in ordinary batter, instead of bread-crums.
“There is no end to what may be done with
these receipts.” “They can be ornamented
and made worthy the table of the greatest
epicure, if the bread be soaked in cream,
and spirits or liquor introduced into them.”
(Soyer.)
2. Mrs. Rundell:—a. (APPLE FRITTERs.)
See FRUIT FRITTERs.
b. (BUCKWHEAT FRITTERs, B. CAREs, BoCK-
INGS.) Made by beating up buckwheat flour
to a batter with some warm milk, adding a
little yeast, letting it rise before the fire for
30 or 40 minutes, then beating in some eggs
and milk or warm water, as required, and
frying them like pancakes. Buckwheat frit.
ters, when well prepared, are excellent. Made
without eggs, and served up with molasses,
they form a common dish in almost every
breakfast in North America. -
c. (CURD FRITTERs.) From dried curd,
beaten with yolk of egg and a little flour, and
flavoured with nutmeg.
d. (FRENCH FRITTERs.) Common pancakes,
beaten up with eggs, almonds, and flávouring
sugar, orange-flower water, and nutmeg), and
the paste dropped into a stew- or frying-pan
half full of boiling lard, so as to form cakes
the size of large nuts, which are cooked till
brown. - -
e. (FRUIT FRITTERs.) From the sliced fruits,
with rich batter. -
f. (Sou FFLſ. FRITTERs.) Rich pancakes,
flavoured with lemon. - -
g. (SPANISH FRITTERs.) From slices of
French rolls soaked in a mixture of cream;
eggs, sugar, and spices, and fried brown.
FR06. The esculent variety, in Europe, is
the common green or gibbous frog, the Rana
esculenta of Linnaeus. As an aliment, it is
much esteemed on the Continent. Its liver is
among the simples of the Ph. L. 1618, and was
once considered a usefnl remedy in certain
forms of ague. -
FROST-BITES. When those parts of the
body in which the circulation of the blood is
most languid are exposed to extreme cold, they
quickly become frozen, or, as it is called, ‘ frost
bitten.” The fingers, toes, ears, nose, and chin,
are most liable to this attack. The remedy is
long-continued friction with the hands or cold
flannel, avoiding the fire, or even a heated apart-
ment. .
FRUIT. Syn. FRUCTUs, L. Among bo-
tanists, this is the mature ovary or pistil, con-
taining the ripened ovules or seeds. In fami-
liar language, the term is applied to any
product of a plant containing the seed, more
especially those that are eatable.
Fruits are extensively employed as articles
of diet by man, both as luxuries and nutri-
ment. The fruit of the cereals furnishes our
daily bread; that of the vine gives us the
well-known beverage, wine, whilst other va-
rieties enrich our desserts, and provide us with
some of our most valuable condiments and
aromatics. The acidulous and subacid fruits
are antiseptic, aperient, attenuant, diuretic,
and refrigerant. They afford little nourish-
ment, and are apt to promote diarrhoea and
flatulency. They are, however, occasionally
exhibited medicinally, in putrid affections, and
are often useful in bilious and dyspeptic com-
plaints. The farinaceous fruits (grain), as
already stated, furnish the principal and most
useful portion of the food of man. The oleo-
farinaceous (nuts, &c.) are less wholesome and
less easy of digestion than those purely fari-
naceous. The saccharine fruits, or those
abounding in sugar, are nutritious and laxa-
tive, but are apt to ferment and disagree with
delicate stomachs when eaten in excess. Stone
fruits are more difficult of digestion than the
other varieties, and are very apt to disorder
the stomach and bowels. -
As a rule, fruit should never be eaten in
544 FRUMENTY-FRYING.
large quantities at a time, and only when
quite ripe. It then appears to be exceedingly
wholesome, and to be a suitable corrective to
the grossness of animal food. It also exercises
a powerful action on the skin, and is a specific
for scurvy in its early stages. Many cuta-
neous diseases may likewise be removed by the
daily use of a moderate quantity of fruit, or
other fresh vegetable food. Cases are not un-
common which, after resisting every variety
of ordinary medical treatment, yield to a
mixed fruit or vegetable diet.
Fruits should be gathered in dry weather,
and preferably about noon, because the dew
and moisture deposited on them during the
night and earlier part of the morning has
then evaporated. They should be quite ripe
when gathered, but the sooner they are re-
moved from the tree, after this point is arrived
at, the better. Immature fruit mever keeps so
well as that which has ripened on the tree;
and overripe fruit is liable to be bruised and
to lose flavour. The less fruit is handled in
gathering the better. Some of them, as
PEACHES, NECTARINES, GRAPES, PLUMS, &c.,
require to be treated with great delicacy, to
avoid bruising them or rubbing off the bloom.
Some fruit, as a few varieties of APPLES, PEARS,
and ORANGES, &c., are gathered before they
are fully ripe, in order that they may the better
undergo the perils of transit and storeage.
Pres. Ripe fruits are commonly preserved
in the fresh state by placing them in a cool
dry situation, on shelves, so that they do not
touch each other; or by packing them in
clean, dry sand, sawdust, straw, bran, or any
similar substance, with like care, to preserve
them from the action of air and moisture. An
excellent plan, commonly adopted for dessert
fruit in this country, is to wrap each separately
in a piece of clean, dry paper, and to fill small,
wide-mouthed jars or homey-pots with them.
The filled pots are then packed one upon
another (see engr.) in a dry and cold place (as
a cellar), where the frost cannot reach them.
The space (a) between the two
pots may be advantageously
filled up with plaster of Paris
made into a paste with water.
The joint is thus rendered air-
tight, and the fruit will keep
good for a long time. The
mouth of the top jar is covered
with a slate. For use, the jars
should be taken one at a time
from the store-room as wanted,
and the fruit exposed for a week or ten days
in a warm dry room, before being eaten, by
which the flavour is much improved.
Fruit is preserved on the large scale for the
London market by placing in a cool situation,
first a layer of straw or paper, then a layer of
fruit, next a layer of straw, and so on alter-
mately, to the height of 20 or 25 inches, which
cannot be well exceeded, as the weight of the
superincumbent fruit is apt to crush or injure
the lower layers. Sometimes alternate layers
of fruit and paper are arranged in baskets or
hampers, which are then placed in the cellar
or fruit-room. The baskets admit of being
piled one over the other without injury to the
fruit. The use of brown paper is inadmissible
for the above purposes, as it conveys its pecu-
liar flavour to the fruit. Thick white-brown
paper is the cheapest and the best.
Fruit Essences (Artificial). These remark-
able products first attracted attention at the
Exhibition of 1851. To speak somewhat gene-
rally, they are mixtures of amylic, butyric,
pelargonic, valerianic, and other ethers, in
alcohol. By jndicious mixture, the flavour of
almost any fruit can be more or less perfectly
imitated. The artificial essences are generally
coloured to represent the juice of the fruit
from which they are supposed to be derived.
The ESSENCE OF JARGONELLE PEAR and the
ESSENCE OF APPLE, which are, perhaps, the
best of all the artificial essences, are respec-
tively formed from the ACETATE and VALE-
RIANATE of AMYLE. See AMYLE, ESSENCE,
&c.
FRU’MENTY. Wheat boiled in water until
quite soft, then taken out, drained, thinned
with milk, sweetened with sugar, and fla-
voured with nutmeg. When currants and eggs
are added, it forms “SOMERSETSHIRE FRU-
MENTY.” Some persons boil the wheat like
rice. “Eaten with milk, in the evening, for
some time, it will often relieve costiveness.”
(Griffith.)
FRYING, “The frying-pan is, without
doubt, the most useful of all kitchen imple-
ments, and, like a good-natured servant, is
often imposed upon, and obliged to do all the
work, while its companion, the gridiron, is
quietly reposing in the chimney corner.”
“The usual complaint of food being rendered
greasy by frying is totally remedied by sauté.
ing the meat in a small quantity of fat, butter,
or oil, which has attained a proper degree of
heat, instead of placing it in cold fat, and let.
ting it soak while melting.” “According to the
(common) mode in which all objects are cooked
which are called fried, it would answer to the
French word ‘sauté,” or the old English term
“frizzle;' but to fry any object, it should be
immersed in very hot fat, oil, or butter.” “To
frizzle, sauté, or, as I will now designate it,
semi-fry, is to place in the pan any oleaginous
substance, so that, when melted, it shall cover
the bottom of the pan by about two lines; and
when hot, the article to be cooked is to be
placed therein. To do it to perfection requires
a little attention, so that the pan shall never
get too hot. It should also be perfectly clean—
a great deal depends on this.” (Soyer.)
According to the writer quoted above, a
chop or steak, for frying, should be chosen
# of an inch thick, and should “never exceed
one inch, nor be less than half an inch, and to
be as near as possible of the same thickness all
over.” “An ill-cut chop (or steak) never can

FUCUSAMIDE–FUEf. 545
|
be but ill-cooked ; you can always equalise
them (when badly cut) by beating them out
with a chopper.”
“The motive of semi-frying food is to have
it done quickly; therefore, to fry a whole fowl,
or even half (for example), is useless, as it
could be cooked in a different way in the same
time; but to semi-fry a fowl (in joints or
pieces), with the object of having it quickly
placed on the table, in order to satisfy a good,
and perhaps fastidious appetite, it should be
done in a similar way to that practised in
Egypt some 3000 years since, and of late years
for the great Napoleon—that is, cooked in oil.
In France this dish is called “Poulet à la Ma-
Tengo.” It is related that the great conqueror,
after having gained that celebrated victory,
ate three small chickens at one meal done in
this way, and his appetite and taste were so
good, and he approved of them so highly, that
he desired that they might always be served
in the same way during the campaign.”
“For many objects, I prefer the frying-pan
to the gridiron; that is, if the pan is properly
used. As regards economy, it is preferable,
securing all the fat and gravy, which is often
lost when the gridiron is used.” “This simple
batterie de cuisine,” may be employed “equally
as well in the cottage as in the palace, or in the
bachelor's chamber as in the rooms of the
poor.” (Soyer.)
FUCUSAMIDE, FUCUSINE, and FUCU.
SOL. Compounds obtained by Dr. Stenhouse
from several varieties of FUCUS by treatment
with sulphuric acid, as in the preparation of
FURFURINE (which see).
FU'EL. Matter used for the production of
heat by burning. The principal substances
employed as fuel are—ANTHRACITE, CHARCOAL,
COAL GAS, COKE, OIL, SPIRIT, PITCOAL, TURF,
and WOOD.
The heating power of almost every descrip-
tion of fuel has been determined by the direct
experiments of Lavoisier, Regnault, Andrews,
and others; the general principle of their
methods consisting in the use of an apparatus
wherein the entire heat of combustion was
absorbed by a known weight of water, the
whole arrangement being protected from the
influence of external changes of temperature,
and the increase of the temperature of the
water being known by the simultaneous indi-
cation of several delicate thermometers sus-
pended in it. The real value of such determi-
nations is simply relative. The imperfect
character of most boiler and furnace arrange-
ments, and the large quantity of fuel which
passes into the ‘ash-pit’ unconsumed, together
with the irregular ‘draught,’ and the amount
of heat absorbed by excess of cold air, result
practically in an enormous loss of heating
power, even under the most careful manage-
ment. The mechanical condition of a fuel must
be considered in estimating its value. In a
Series of trials instituted by the Government,
it was a sine quá non that the toughness of
each kind of coal must be such, for naval use,
as to resist, without crumbling, the constant
friction in the ship’s hold, at the same time
that its “fracture’ must be such that it packs
into the smallest possible space."
In the chemical laboratory, COAL GAS is now
generally employed as fuel. It is cheap and
manageable, and, with proper apparatus, may
be made to supply almost any amount of heat.
Where gas cannot be conveniently procured,
of L and SPIRIT are used as fuel for lamps. See
ANTHRACITE, CHARCOAL, COKE, FURNACE,
PITCOAL, &c., also below.
Fuel, Economical. Various mixtures have
been recommended under this name. The
following is one of the best —
Prep. Small coal, charcoal, or sawdust, 1
part; clay, loam, or marl, 1 part ; sand or
ashes, 2 parts; water, q. S.; make the mass up
wet into balls. For use, these balls are piled
on an ordinary fire to a little above the top
bar. They are said to produce a heat con-
siderably more intense than that of common
fuel, and ensure a saving of one half the quan-
tity of coals, whilst a fire thus made up will
require no stirring, nor fresh fuel for ten hours.
The quantity of the combustible ingredient in
them should be doubled, when they are in-
tended to be used with a very little founda-
tion of coal.
Obs. Of late years simple FIRE-CLAY BALLS
have been much used for radiating heat from
parlour-grates, and so effecting saving in the
consumption of fuel. They are very useful
for partially filling up those roomy, old-
fashioned, badly constructed grates, which are
still to be found in many private houses.
PEAT and TURF, both recent and charred,
are commonly used as fuel by the lower classes,
in neighbourhoods where they are plentiful.
FIR CONES or TOPS contain a great quantity
of solid woody in addition to the resinous
matter, and are well adapted for domestic
fires.
Fuel, Prepared. Syn. COMPRESSED FUEL,
PATENT F., "STEAM. F. Many artificial fuels
are now in use. The greater number have
one character in common--they are composed
of small coal cemented by some bituminous
matter. The following are the principal
kinds : —
FUEL, ABERDARE PATENT STEAM. From
the “small' of the South Wales Steam Coal
mixed with coal, pitch, and compressed by
hydraulic machinery. The pitch is broken
up, and thoroughly mixed with the small coal
over a furnace, in iron pans, in which shafts
with obliquely attached blades are continually
revolving. The mixture is afterwards pressed
into iron moulds by a force equal to about 2%
tons per inch. The weight of a cubic foot of
this excellent fuel is 80 lbs. ; the space occu-
pied by 1 ton, 28 cubic feet. -
1 For full information on coal and other fuels, refer to
Ure’s “Dict. of Arts, Manufactures, &c. ;’ Percy’s ‘Metal-
lurgy; and Watts's ‘Dict of Chemistry.” 35

546
FULIGOKALI–FULMINATING COMPOUNDS.
FUET, CASE AND MORRIS’s PATENT. From
the “small’ of the ‘best steam coal,’ ground
moderately fine, treated so as to absorb a
certain portion of liquid coal tar, and then
pressed by machinery into blocks. It is said
to occupy less space by about 10% than ordi-
mary coal.
FUET, GRANT’s PATENT. This is formed of
coal dust, 1 cwt., and coal-tar pitch, 20 lbs.,
melted together by a heat of 220° Fahr., and
moulded into blocks the size of common bricks,
under a pressure of 5 or 6 tons. These are,
lastly, whitewashed. 1t is heavier than com-
mon steam coal, and is said to go fully 1-3rd
further, by which facility of transport and
economy is combined.
FUFL, PURIFIED BLOCK. This is prepared
by the torrefaction of washed coal dust, and is
said to possess in a remarkable degree the
advantages of both coke and steam coal.
FU/LIGOKALI. Prep. (Dr. Polya.) Caustic
potassa, 1 part ; water, q. s. ; dissolve ; add of
wood soot, 5 parts; boil 1 hour, dilute with
water, filter, evaporate the filtrate to dryness,
and put the product at once into warm, dry
bottles.—Dose. 2 to 3 grs., thrice a day, made
into pills, which must be coated with gum
and kept from the air. (See below.)
Fuligokali, Sulphuretted. Syn. FULIGORALI
SULPHURETUM, L. Prep. (Dr. Polya.) Caustic
potassa, 7 parts; sulphur, 2 parts; water, q. S.;
dissolve with heat, add of fuligokali, 30 parts,
evaporate to dryness, and preserve it in well-
corked dry bottles.—Dose, &c. As the last.
Obs. M. Gibert states that he has tried
both fuligokali and sulphuretted fuligokali on
his patients at the Hospital Saint-Louis, both
internally and externally, with manifest ad-
vantage in various obstinate chronic skin
diseases. He made a pommade of 30 grammes
(say 1 oz.) of lead ointment, and 1 or 2 grammes
(say 20 to 25 grs.) of fuligokali, in which he
recognised positive resolvent, detersive, and
stimulant properties. See ANTHRACOKALI.
FULLER'S EARTH. Syn. CIMOLIA, C.
TERRA, L. A soft, unctuous, friable, greenish
or yellowish-gray species of clay, containing
53% of silica, 10% of alumina, and about 9% of
oxide of iron. After being dug out of the
earth, it is thoroughly dried in ovems, and
then thrown into cold water, where it soon
falls to powder, and is purified by the common
process of edulcoration or washing-over. It
is extensively used to extract oil and grease
from cloth in the process of ‘fulling; it forms
an excellent filtering powder for oils, and is
applied as a cooling and healing dressing
by the poor to inflamed breasts, excoriations,
&c.
FUL/MINATING COMPOUNDS. These are
numerous, and are scattered through several
distinct classes of bodies. Among the most
powerful and dangerous are the chloride and
iodide of nitrogen and the fulminates of silver
and mercury.
Fulminating Amſtimony. Syn. PXROPHO-
RUS OF ANTIMONY, L. Prep. Tartar emetic
(dried), 100 parts; lampblack or charcoal
powder, 3 parts; triturate together, put it
into a crucible that it will 3-4ths fill (pre-
viously rubbed inside with charcoal powder),
cover it with a layer of dry charcoal powder,
and lute on the cover; after 3 hours’ exposure
to a strong heat in a ‘reverberatory furnace.”
and 6 or 7 hours' repose to allow it to cool,
&c., cautiously transfer the solid contents of
the crucible, as quickly as possible, without
breaking it, to a wide-mouthed stoppered
phial, where, after some time, it will sponta-
neously crumble down into a powder.
Obs. When the above process is properly
conducted, the resulting powder contains p0.
tassium, and fulminates violently on contact
with Water. A piece the size of a pea intro-
duced into a mass of gunpowder explodes it
on being thrown into water, or on its being
moistened in any other manner.
Fulminating Bismuth. Prep. From bis.
muth, 120 parts; carburetted cream of tartar,
60 parts; nitre, 1 part. Very rich in potas.
sium.—Prop., &c., resemble those of the last,
We have been assured that this is the COm-
pound used by the late Capt. Warner for some
of his secret fusees.
Fulminating Copper. Syn. FULMINATE
OF COPPER. Prep. Digest copper (in pow-
der or filings) with fulminate of mercury or of
silver, and a little water. It forms soluble
green crystals that explode with a green
flame.
Fulminating Gold. Prep. Recently preci.
pitated peroxide of gold is digested in strong
liquor of ammonia for 24 hours, and the re.
sulting product is dried in the open air or at
a temperature below 180° Fahr., care being
taken to avoid the slightest friction, lest it
should explode. A deep olive-coloured pow-
der.
Obs. This compound can only be safely
made in very small quantities at a time, as
without great care it explodes with extreme
violence. This is caused by the slightest fric.
tion or sudden increase of heat. Its fulminat-
ing property may be destroyed by boiling it
in pearlash ley, or weak oil of vitriol; and by
heating the residuum after washing it in water,
pure gold will be obtained.
Fulminating Mer'cury. Syn. FULMINATE,
FULMINATE OF MERCURY. Prep. 1. Mercury,
1 part; nitric acid (sp. gr. 1-375), 12 parts;
dissolve, add, at intervals, to this solution, al-
cohol (sp. gr. 850), 16-3 parts; apply heat till
the effervescence and cloud of gas disappears,
adding, gradually, on the action becoming vio-
lent, 163 parts more of alcohol-Product,
1.12% of the mercury employed.
2. Mercury, 100 parts; nitric acid (sp.gr. 14),
1000 parts (or 740 parts by measure); dissolve
by a gentle heat, and when the solution has
acquired the temperature of 130° Fahr., slowly
pour it through a glass funnel tube into alco-
hol (sp. gr. 830), 830 parts (or 1000 parts by

FULMINATING COMPOUNDS.
547
measure); as soon as the effervescence is over,
and white fumes cease to be evolved, filter
through double paper, wash with cold water,
and dry by steam (not hotter than 212°) or
hot water. The fulminate is then to be
packed in 100 gr. paper parcels, and these
stored in a tight box or corked bottle.—Pro-
duct. 130% of the weight of mercury em-
ployed.
Prop., &c. Small brownish-gray crystals,
which sparkle in the sun; entirely soluble in
130 parts of boiling water, and deposited as
the solution cools under the form of beautiful
pearly spangles. It greatly resembles fulmi-
nate of silver in its appearance and general
properties. It explodes violently by both fric-
tion and percussion, but unlike the the silver-
salt, merely burns with a sudden and almost
noiseless flash when kindled in the open air.
Obs. The second formula is not only the
cheapest, but the best and safest. The first is
more expensive and dangerous. There is no
little hazard in pouring the alcohol into the
nitric solution; for at each effusion an ex-
plosive blast takes place; whereas, by pouring
the solution into the alcohol, no danger what-
ever is incurred. This preparation is used for
priming the copper percussion caps for fowl-
ing-pieces, muskets, &c. Dr. Ure, in his first
report to the Board of Ordnance, recommended
the use of a spirituous solution of gum Sanda.
rac, as the best substance for diluting the ful-
minate, and fixing it in the caps; but in a sub-
sequent report to the same Board, he stated
that a solution of mastic in spirit was to be
preferred. At the present time the following
composition is applied to the interior of per-
cussion caps in quantities varying from 2 to
3 of a grain :-Chlorate of potassium, 26 parts;
nitre, 30; fulminate of mercury, 12; sulphur,
17; ground glass, 14; gum, 1, making alto-
gether 100 parts. (Watts.)
Caution. Fulminate of mercury should only
be dried in small parcels at a time, and these
should be placed at a distance from each other.
The dreadful explosion which occurred some
years ago at Apothecaries' Hall, and by which
Mr. Hennel, the talented chemist of the Apo-
thecaries’ Company, lost his life, was occa-
sioned by the spontaneous detonation of this
Substance.
Fulminating Plat'imum. Syn. PLATINUM
FULMINANS, L. Prep. By acting on binoxide
of platinum with pure ammonia. It is analo-
gous to the gold and silver ammonio-com-
pound.
Fulminating Powder. Syn. DETONATING
POWDER; PULVIS FULMINANs, L. Prep. 1.
Nitre, 3 parts; carbonate of potash (dry), 2
parts; flowers of sulphur, 1 part; reduce them
separately to fine powder, before mixing them.
A little of this compound (20 to 30 grs.),
slowly heated on a shovel over the fire, first
fuses and becomes brown, and then explodes
with a deafening report. ,
2. Sulphur, 1 part; chlorate of potassa, 3
parts. When triturated, with strong pressure,
in a marble or wedgwood-ware mortar, it
produces a series of loud reports. It also ful-
minates by percussion.
3. Chlorate of potassa, 6 parts; pure lamp-
black, 4 parts; sulphur, 1 part. A little placed
on an anvil detonates with a loud report, when
struck with a hammer. No. 1 is the substance
commonly known as ‘FULMINATING POWDER.’
See BLASTING POWDER.
Fulminating Silver. Syn. ARGENTUM FUL-
MINANS, L. Two very distinct compounds are
known by this name, the one containing oxide
of silver and ammonia, and the other being a
true fulminate of silver.
Prep. 1. (AMMONIA-COMPOUND OF SILVER,
BERTHOLLET’s FULMINATING SILVER.) — a.
Digest oxide of 'silver (recently precipitated
and dried by pressure between bibulous paper)
in concentrated liquor of ammonia, for 12 or 15
hours, pour off the liquid, and cautiously dry
the black powder in the air, in divided por-
tions. The decanted ammoniacal liquor, when
gently heated, yields, on cooling, small crys-
tals, which possess a stilſ more formidable
power of detonation than the black powder,
and will scarcely bear touching, even whilst
under the liquid.
b. Dissolve chloride of silver in strong liquor
of ammonia, cautiously add pure potassa (in
fragments), and when effervescence ceases,
decant the fluid portion, and wash and dry the
powder, as before.
2. (FULMINATE OF SILVER, BRUGNATELLI's
FULMINATING SILVER ; ARGENTI FULMINAs,
L.)—a. Pour alcohol, 1 oz., on nitrate of silver
(in fine powder), 100 grs., previously placed in
a capacious flask or beaker glass, and shortly
afterwards add strong nitric acid, 1 oz. ; as
soon as all the powdered nitrate assumes the
form of white clouds, add cold distilled water,
q. s. to suspend the ebullition, and next col-
lect the powder on a filter, and otherwise
proceed as with the ammonia-compound
(above).
b. (Fownes.) Metallic silver, 40 to 50 grs. ;
nitric acid (sp. gr. 1:37), # fl. oz. ; dissolve by
the aid of a gentle heat, add, whilst the solution
is still hot, alcohol, 2 fl. oz., and again apply
heat until reaction commences; the fulminate
slowly separates from the hot liquid under the
form of small, brilliant, white, crystalline
plates, which, after being slightly washed with
a little cold distilled water, are to be distributed
upon separate pieces of filtering paper, in por-
tions not exceeding 1 or 2 grs. each, and left to
dry in the air. When dry, the papers are to
be folded up, and carefully preserved in a box
or bottle. A sixpence and the strongest com-
mercial nitric acid and rectified spirit answer
for the above purpose.
c. (Liebig.) Grain silver, 1 part; nitric acid
(sp. gr. 1:36 to 1:38), 10 parts; dissolve at a
gentle heat, and add the solution to alcohol of
85%, 23 parts; apply a gentle heat till the
liquid begins to boil, then remove it from 4:




548
FULMINATION.—FUMIGATION.
fire and set it aside to cool; the fulminate of
silver is deposited in lustrous, snow-white,
acicular crystals, and when washed and
dried, equals in weight that of the silver em-
ployed.
Prop., &c. The properties of both com-
pounds are very similar. Those of the true
FULMINATE OF SILVER (No. 2) need only be
considered here. This dissolves in 36 parts of
boiling water, but the solution deposits the
greater portion of the fulminate as it cools. It
is one of the most dangerous substances for
which we are indebted to modern chemistry.
It explodes with unparalleled violence by fric-
tion or percussion, or when strongly heated,
or when touched with strong sulphuric acid;
the metal is reduced, and a large volume of
gaseous matter suddenly liberated. Strange
to say, though its explosive tendency is so
great that it can be hardly made, handled or
kept, with safety, it may, when very cautiously
mixed with oxide of copper, be burned in a
tube to determine its composition, in a similar
manner to that employed in the analysis of
other organic substances. Many frightful
accidents have happened from the spontaneous
explosion of this substance. 1 or 2 grs. are
the most that can be exploded with safety in a
building or confined space.
Fulminating Zinc. Syn. FULMINATE OF
ZINC ; ZINCUM FULMINANs, ZINCI FULMINAS,
L. Prep. From fulminate of silver, zinc
filings, and a little water, digested together,
aS ITULMINATING COPPER.
FULMINATION. Syn. FULMINATIO, L.
Detonation. A sudden explosion, accompanied
with a loud report and extreme violence. Some
chemists, without sufficient reason, have en-
deavoured to confine the application of the
term to the explosion of a fulminate.
FUMIGATION. Syn, FUMIGATIO, SUFFU-
MIGATIO, L. Fumigations (FUMIGATIONES)
are vapours of gases extemporaneously extri-
cated for the purpose of destroying contagious
or noxious miasmata or effluvia, or to mask
unpleasant odours, or to produce a medicinal
action on those parts of the body with which
they are brought in contact.
I'umigations, for the purpose of obviating or
masking unpleasant odours in the sick chamber,
must never be employed to the neglect of
cleanliness and ventilation ; for most of them,
instead of purifying the air, actually render it
less fit for respiration. The common practice
of burning scented paper, pastilles, sugar,
juniper berries, benzoin, cascarilla, &c., so as to
create an odoriferous smoke, is of this character.
As disinfecting agents, they are probably use-
less; and are relics of an ancient custom of
burning frankincense and other odorous sub-
stances in vitiated air, to overcome the fetor
which is more or less present. The fumes thus
diffused through the atmosphere “disguise
unpleasant odours; but they accomplish no-
thing more. The infection remains not only
unaltered by the diffusion of the most powerful
T-
aromatic vapours, but its deleterious properties
are sometimes augmented by them.”
Among the various substances used as DIS-
INFECTING FUMIGATIONS, chlorine, by almost
general consent, holds the first place. Dr.
Carmichael Smyth recommended nitrous acid,
which is even now preferred by Dr. Christison
to chlorine; whilst Prof. Graham regards the
fumes of burning sulphur as more efficacious
than either of these substances. The vapours
of hydrochloric acid and of vinegar, and the
smoke of gunpowder, which once had their
advocates, have now justly sunk into dis-
favour.
Of all common diseases, scarlet fever appears
to be the one most requiring fumigation. For
this purpose, chlorine gas or heat should be
employed. The infectious matters of certain
diseases, especially scarlet fever, are either
dissipated or destroyed at a heat slightly above
that of boiling water. (Dr. Henry.) Con-
tagious diseases are very commonly propagated
in this metropolis by persons having their
linen washed by laundresses who perform
their operations in the same sinks of dirt and
misery in which they live. See CIGARS (in
pharmacy), DISINFECTANT, INHALATION, &c.,
and below.
Acetic Fumigation. Syn. FUMIGATIO ACE-
TICA, L. The fumes of strong vinegar or acetic
acid, obtained by heating the liquid over a
lamp, or by sprinkling it on a hot shovel.
Aromatic vinegar in this way yields very re-
freshing fumes, and was formerly thought more
efficacious than simple acetic acid.
Amºodyne Fumigation. Syn. FUMIGATIO
ANODYNA, L. Prep. (Trousseau & Reveil.)
Stramonium and sage, equal parts, sufficient
to fill a small pipe. Smoked in spasmodic
asthma, irritating coughs, &c.
Aromatic Fumigation. See BALSAMIC FU-
MIGATION.
Balsamºic Fumigation, Syn. AROMATIC TU-
MIGATION ; FUMIGATIO AROMATICA, F, BAL-
SAMICA, L. Prep. 1. From gum benzoin,
either alone or mixed with olibanum or styrax,
thrown on hot cinders or a heated shovel.
2. (Dr. Dohrn.) Gum olibanum, 4 parts;
guns benzoin, styrax, and flowers of roses and
lavender, of each, 1 part ; to be reduced to
powder, and used as before.
3. Amber, mastic, and olibanum, of each,
3 oz. ; benzoin and styrax, of each, 1 oz.;
camphor, 1 dr. As last. The above are used
in hooping-cough, asthma, &c.; a small quan-
tity only being employed at a time.
Belladon’ma Fumigation. Syn. FUMIGATIO
BELLADONNE, L. Prep. (M. Schroeder.)
From dried belladonna leaves, 1 to 2 drs.; as
before. In spitting of blood, asthma, tick-
ling cough, &c.
! We deem it right to remark that a different opinion
respecting the disinfecting power of odoriferous smoke is
now held by many scientific men. According to this
opinion, the minute particles of aromatic substancCs do
really destroy or render inert the noxious miasmata.
FUMIGATION.
549
Chlorine Fumigation. Syn. DISINFECTING
FUMIGATION, GUYTON-MORVEAU’s F.; FUMI-
GATIO CHLORINII, L. Prep. 1. (P. Cod.)
Common salt, 3 parts; water and sulphuric
acid, of each, 2 parts; black oxide of manga-
nese, 1 part; mix in a shallow vessel, placed
in the centre of the apartment. This is used
to disinfect unoccupied rooms.
2. Chloride of lime, either sprinkled on the
floor (if uncarpeted) or (if carpeted) placed
about the room in shallow dishes. An old
plate or flower-pot saucer answers for this
purpose. Used for inhabited rooms, and on
shipboard, &c.
3. A solution of chloride of lime (1 oz. of
the chloride to each quart of water). Used as
the last, but more freely.
Obs. Chlorine fumigations, although so po-
pular, and so much relied on by many medical
practitioners, are apparently useless in pre-
venting the progress of certain contagious
diseases. “In Moscow, chlorine was exten-
sively tried and found unavailing, may even in-
jurious, in cholera.” (Dr. Pereira.) “At the
time that the cholera hospital was filled with
clouds of chlorine, then it was that the greatest
number of the attendants were attacked.”
(Dr. Albers.) At the Smallpox Hospital,
where chlorine was tried, with the view of ar-
resting the progress of erysipelas, “all offen-
sive smell was removed, but the power of
communicating the disease remained behind.”
(‘Lond. Med. Gaz.”) Notwithstanding these
marked failures, the confidence of many emi-
ment members of the profession continues nn-
abated. “As a fumigation agent, disinfectant
and antiseptic, chlorine, I believe, stands un-
rivalled.” “For destroying miasmata, noxious
effluvia, and putrid odours, it is the most pow-
erful agent known.” (Dr. Pereira.) Our
own experience leads us to the conclusion that
chlorine is more useful in neutralising the
contagious or morbific matter of fevers (espe-
cially of scarlet fever) and putrid diseases ge-
nerally, than of the other diseases in which it
has been employed.
Hydrochlo"ric Fumigation. Syn. MURIATIC
FUMIGATION ; FUMIGATIO MURIATICA, F.
ACIDI HYDROCHLORICI, L. Prep. From com-
mon salt placed in a cup or saucer, and an
equal weight of sulphuric acid poured over it.
Now seldom used. It rapidly neutralises am-
moniacal fumes.
Iodine Fumigation. Syn. FUMIGATIO IO-
DINII, L. Prep. 1. From iodine, 5 to 25 grs.,
or more, according to extent of surface, placed
on a heated iron contained in a box or case
in which the limb is enclosed. In the usual
skin diseases in which the use of iodine is
indicated.
2. (Compound; FUMIGATIO IODINIT COM-
POSITA—Sellers.) Iodine, 20 grs.; red sulphide
of mercury, 40 grs.; sulphur, 6 drs. ; mix, and
divide into 12 powders. One to be used, as
the last, 3 times daily ; in lepra, psoriasis,
&c,
Mercu"rial Fumigation. Syn. FuMIGATIO
MURCURIALIS, L. Prep. (Bouchardat.) Oli-
banum (in powder), 2 parts; red sulphide of
mercury, 3 parts. A little is sprinkled on
red-hot coals or a heated shovel held beneath
the part ; or the fumes are inhaled. Obs.
Abernethy used the black oxide of mercury
(1% to 2 drs.), and applied it to the whole body,
excepting the head, in a similar way to the
sulphur bath, and continued the application
for about a quarter of an hour. See CANDLES
(Mercurial), and No. 2, (above).
Mu'riatic Fumigation. See HYDROCIII.ORIC
F. (above).
Nitrous Fumigation. Syn. FUMIGATIO NI-
TROSA. Prep. (P. Cod.) Sulphuric acid, di-
luted with half its weight of water, is placed
in a porcelain cup (any shallow vessel of glass
or earthenware will do), placed over heated
cinders, and small quantities of powdered nitre
added to it from time to time.
Obs. Heat causes the gas to be evolved
more rapidly, and thus renders the fumes more
offensive, without increasing their efficacy.
Equal weights of oil of vitriol and water are
the proportions usually employed. 4 oz. of
nitre is said to be sufficient for a small
room. (Dr. Bateman.) The vessel contain-
ing the ingredients should be placed in an
elevated position in the centre of the apart-
ment.
Dr. Carmichael Smyth, who introduced
nitrous acid gas as a fumigation (1799), re-
ceived a reward of £5000 from Parliament
for publishing his formula.
Sulphu'rous Fumigation. Syn. FUMIGATIO
SULPHUROSA, F. SULPHURIs, L. Prep. 1.
The gas produced by burning sulphur (sul-
phurous anhydride—SOs).
2. Flowers of sulphur, 7 parts ; nitre, 4
parts; benzoin and olibanum, of each, 2 parts;
camphor, 1 part; pressed into the bowls of
tobacco-pipes, and lighted with a quick-match.
See BATH and DISINFECTANT.
Tar Fumigation. Syn. FUMIGATIO PICEA,
SUFFUMIGATIO PICIS LIQUIDAE, L. Prep. 1.
Vegetable tar, 1 part; water, 7 or 8 parts;
mix, and let it simmer in an open vessel set
over a spirit lamp placed near the centre of
the apartment.
2. (Sir A. Crichton.) Norway tar, 1 lb.;
powdered carbonate of potash, ; oz. or 1 oz. ;
mix, and heat it as last. The potash is added
to neutralise any volatile acid. Formerly
highly thought of in bronchitis and pulmonary
consumption.
Tooth'ache Fumigation. Syn. FUMIGATIo
ODONTALGICA, F. ANTI-NEURALGICA, L. Prep.
1. From henbane seeds, powdered and thrown
into a basin of boiling water, and the affected
part held in the steam. Sometimes a little of
the seed is placed in a heated iron spoon, and
the part exposed to the fumes.
2. (Beasley.) A popular remedy is to throw
henbane seed on hot cinders, inverting a cup
over them to receive the smoke and empyreu-


550 FUMING LIQUORS–FUSEL OIL.
matic oil produced. The cup is then filled with
hot water, and the steam conveyed to the
affected side of the mouth.
FU’MING LIQUORS. See AMMONIUM
SULPHYDRATE, ARSENIC TRICHLORIDE, TIN
BICHLORIDE, &c.
FUNG/I. In botany, a natural order of cel-
lular plants, producing their fructification in
the air; growing in or upon decaying or living
organic substances, and nourished through
their vegetative structure called the spawn
or mycelium. Fungi have very variable pro-
perties. Some are medical, others edible,
others are deadly poisons. The various diseases
of plants known as blight, mildew, rust, Smut,
vine-mildew, potato-disease, ergot, &c., are
either caused by or accelerated by the agency
of fungi. See AGARIC, MUSHROOM, &c.
FUR/NACE. An enclosed fireplace for ob-
taining a high degree of heat. Furnaces vary
much in construction and size, according to
the particular manufacture in which they are
employed. They may be broadly divided into
two classes—WIND-FURNACES and BLAST-FUR-
NACES. In the former a high temperäture is
produced without the aid of bellows by means
of a powerful draught. In the latter heated
air is blown in through a pipe or pipes at the
bottom. For many, metallurgic and large
chemical operations REVERBERATORY FURNACES
are employed. A furnace of this kind is usu-
ally long, with a low roof to keep down the
flame and hot air upon the “hearth’ or space
between the fireplace and the flue.' For the
Smaller operations in chemistry, a variety of
furnaces have been invented, and the introduc-
tion of coal gas as a fuel by Deville, Griffin,
Gore, and others, has wrought a complete
change in the arrangements of the laboratory.
The GAS-FURNACES of Mr. J. J. Griffin are
adapted for almost every operation performed
by the aid of heat. Those more recently in-
troduced by Mr. W. Gore are very compact
and portable, and will rapidly produce a ‘white
heat,” without the help of bellows or high
chimney, by means of ordinary coal gas and
atmospheric air. The first and smallest size
consumes 33 cubic feet of gas (value seven
farthings) per hour, and is suitable for assayers,
jewellers, analytical chemists, experimentalists,
dentists, and others. It is capable of fusing
eight ounces of copper or six ounces of cast
iron; copper begins to melt in it in about
twelve minutes from the time of lighting.
The second-sized one consumes about twice
that quantity of gas, is suitable for manufac-
turing jewellers generally, and for a great va-
riety of practical persons who require to melt
Small quantities of gold, silver, copper, german
silver, brass, cast iron, glass, and other sub-
stances, or require a small crucible heated to
high temperatures. It is capable of melting
45 ounces of copper, or 40 ounces of cast iron,
and with its heat up it melts one pound of
1 For an illustration of this kind of furnace, Şee So-
DIUM, Carbonate Of.
copper in eight minutes; copper begins to
melt in about twenty minutes from the time
of lighting. See ASSAYING, CHIMNEYS, COP-
PER, CRUCIBLE, FUEL, &c.
FUR/NISHING. It is essential for the sake
of neatness, and for a pleasing effect to the
eye, that there should be a harmony of colours,
and also a similarity of style, in the main arti-
cles of furniture. The tints of the carpet,
of the paper or paint of the walls, and of the
window-curtains, should be all in harmony in
each room; that is, either possess a general
resemblance of colour, or various colours in
pleasing contrast and harmony with each other.
If the preponderating colour of the curtains is
scarlet, and the colour of the walls or carpet
blue, a most inharmonious and unpleasing effect
is produced; but brown and green, or green
and gold, will be in harmony, and may, there-
fore, be placed together. Carpets being the
most expensive articles, it is safest to buy them
first, and then to let their colour guide us in
the tone and style of the curtains, paper-
hangings, chair-covers, hearth-rugs, and the
various minor articles. It is also economical
to buy carpets of the same pattern for several
rooms, because in the event of removal to a
house with different sized apartments, a piece
of one carpet may be taken to alter the size of
another.
FUR/NITURE. See FRENCH POLISHING,
OIL, POLISH, WARNISH, &c.
FURS. Of these the most valuable are
Ermine and Sable. Fur skins, when unpre-
pared, or merely dried, go under the name of
* Peltry.' (Brande.)
Furs may be preserved from moths and other
insects by placing a little colocynth pulp (bitter
apple), or spice (cloves, pimento, &c.), wrapped
in muslin, among them; or they may be washed
in a very weak solution of corrosive sublimate
in warm water (10 or 15 grs, to the pint), and
afterwards carefully dried. As well as every
other species of clothing, they should be kept
in a clean, dry place.
FU'SEL-0II. Sym. FousPL OHL, POTATO-
OIL, OIL OF POTATO SPIRIT, GRAIN OIL, GRAIN-
SPIRIT OII, MARC-BRANDY OTL, CRUDE HY-
DRATED OXYDE OF AMYL. Source. An offen-
sive, strong-smelling oil, produced along with
alcohol during the fermentation of grain, pota-
toes, &c., on the large scale, and which gives
the peculiar and disagreeable flavour and odour
to raw whiskey. It is found chiefly in the last
portion of the spirit which passes over, called
the “faints, to which it imparts its charac-
teristic odour and flavour. By rectifying the
faints at a very gentle heat, most of the alcohol
and water first pass over together with only a
little fusel oil, whilst the latter forms the resi-
duum in the still. Various names (as above)
are given to the crude oil thus obtained,
according to its source. In each case it essen-
tially consists of hydrated oxide of amyl, but
trifling and variable quantities of other organic
compounds are mixed with it, which slightly
FUSIBLE ALLOY-GALBANUM.
551
modify its character, more particularly its odour
and flavour. The oil of potato spirit is the
purest form of crude fusel oil.
Obs. The exertions of the distiller are di-
rected, as much as possible, to lessen the forma-
tion of fusel oil during the fermentation of his
‘worts, and to eliminate, during the distilla-
tion and rectification of his liquors, the greatest
possible proportion of that with which they
may be contaminated.
Prop., &c. Fusel oil is a nearly colourless
volatile liquid, with a rather high boiling-point,
a durable, penetrating, offensive smell, and an
acrid, burning taste; when swallowed, it occa-
sions nausea, giddiness, headache, &c.; in
slightly larger quantities, vomiting, delirium,
oppressive respiration, and lessened sensibility
to pain; its vapour also produces these effects.
In quantity, it is a narcotic poison. The greater
intoxicating power of whiskey, more especially
that from raw grain, than other spirit, is due
to the larger quantity of fusel oil which it
contains. This appears to be well known to
the lower class of whiskey drinkers in these
countries, and to the consumers of corn brandy
in some of the northern parts of Europe. The
last are said to frequently demand to be
served with “a glass of good fusel.” In Eng-
land fusel oil is chiefly used for lamps and var-
nishes.
Purific. The AMYLIC ALCOHOL (ALCOHOL
AMYLICUM) of the Dublin College is thus pre-
pared. Introduce the ordinary fusel oil of the
distilleries into a small still or retort, connected
with a condenser, and apply heat; as soon as
the oil begins to flow over, unmixed with water,
the receiver should be changed, aud the distil-
lation resumed, and carried mearly to dryness;
the product in the second receiver, and the
oily matter which separates from the water in
the first receiver, are to be reserved for use.
It is employed in the preparation of VALE-
RIANATE OF SODA. See AMYL, HYDRATE.
FU'SIBLE ALLOY". Syn. FUSIBLE METAL.
Prep. 1. Bismuth, 2 parts; lead, 5 parts; tin,
3 parts. Melts in boiling water.
2. (D’Arcet's.) Bismuth, 8 parts; lead, 5
parts; tin, 3 parts. Melts below 212°Fahr.
3. (Walker.) Bismuth 8, tin 4, lead 5
parts; antimony, 1 part. The metals should be
repeatedly melted and poured into drops, until
they aré well mixed.
4. (Onion’s.) Lead, 3 parts; tin, 2 parts;
bismuth, 5 parts. Melts at 197°Fahr.
5. To the last, after removing it from the
fire, add of quicksilver (warm), 1 part. Liquid
at 172°, solid at 140°Fahr.
Obs. The first four of the above are used to
make TOY-SPOONs, to surprise children by their
melting in hot liquors. A little mercury may
be added to lower their melting-points. Nos. 2
and 3 are specially adapted for making ELEC-
TROTYPE MOULDS. The beautiful casts of the
French medals known to all electrotypers as
Clichée moulds are in the alloy No. 3. The
above alloys are also used to form PENCILS for
writing on asses’ skin, or paper prepared by
rubbing burnt hartshorn into it, &c.; also as a
METAL BATH in the laboratory. The last is
used for ANATOMICAL INJECTIONS.
FU'SION. Syn. FUSIo, L. The liquefaction
of solid bodies by the action of heat. The
term AQUEOUS FUSION has been applied to the
melting of salts in their combined water when
heated ; and the term IGNEOUS FUSION, to the
liquefaction of bodies by heat alonc.
The vessels in which substances are fused are
formed of various materials and shapes, accord-
ing to the properties of the solid operated on,
and principally with reference to the degree of
heat required for its fusion. In every case the
containing vessel should be capable of sustain-
ing the proper degree of heat, without either
melting or cracking, and should also be unacted
on by the substances melted in them. See
CRUCIBLE, FURNACE, &c.
FUSTIC. Syn. FUSTIC wooD. Two dis-
tict dye-stuffs are known by this name, but
are distinguished by the adjectives ‘old’ and
‘young.' .
Old Fustic. Syn. BoIS JAUNE, Fr. The
wood of the Maclura tinctoria. Its decoc-
tion dyes woollens yellow of different shades,
according to the “mordant.” Alum, tartar,
and spirits of tin brighten the tint; acetate
and sulphate of iron and common salt darken
it; with sulphate of iron it gives olives and
browns; with the indigo wat and sulphate of
indigo green. These colours are very perma-
ment. Its yellow turns on the lemon when
pale, and on the orange when darker. 1 lb. of
old fustic will dye 3 to 5 lbs. of wool.
Young Fustic. Syn. YELLOW FUSTIC;
FUSTET, Fr. The wood of the Rhus Cotinus
or Venice sumach. It gives a yellow turning
on the green, but its colours are not very per-
manent. It is chiefly used in combination
with other dye-stuffs,
GAI/BANUM. Syn. GUMGALBANUM; GAL-
BANUM (B.P.), L. “A gum-resin derived from
an unascertained umbelliferous plant. In irre-
gular tears about the size of a pea, usually
agglutinated into masses; of a greenish-yellow
colour, translucent, having a strong disagree-
able odour, and an acrid bitter taste.” (B. P.)
Its properties are similar to the other fetid
antispasmodic gum-resins. It ranks between
ASSAFCETIDA and AMMONIACUM.
Strained Galbanum. Syn. PREPARED GAL-
BANUM ; GALBANUM COLATUM, G. PRAEPARA-
TUM (Ph. L.), L. From crude galbanum, as
PREPAREDAMMONIACUM. Formerly the com-
mon practice was to melt it in the dry state,
by heat cautiously and quickly applied, and to
strain it through a piece of coarse canvas
stretched across a wooden frame or ‘horse.’
The ‘strained galbanum' of the shops is seldom
pure. The following forms are current in
the trade for its “reduction,” as this species of
adulteration is technically termed:

552
GALL-GALLIC ACII).
1. Galbanum (true), 9 lbs. ; strain as above,
then add, towards the end, black resin (clean),
3 lbs. ; and when the whole is melted, further
add of Venice turpentine, 2 lbs.-Product. 12
lbs.
2. Strained galbanum and black resin, of
each, 6 lbs. ; melt, and add, of strained assa-
foetida, 2 oz. ; Venice turpentine, 3 lbs,-
J’rod. 14% lbs.
Facti"tious Strained Galbanum. Syn. GAL-
BANUM COLATUM FACTITIUM, L. Prep. 1.
From black resin, 4 lbs. ; melt, and add of
Venice turpentine, 2 lbs. ; assafoetida, 2% oz. ;
oils of juniper and fennel, of each, 1% dr.;
water, # pint.
2. As the last, adding soft soap, 5 oz. Some-
times the small and “waste’ of the chests are
added to the above to improve them.
GALL, Syn. BILE ; BILIS, CHOLE, FEL, L.
A bitter fluid secreted by the liver; in part
flowing into the intestines, and in part regur-
gitating into the gall-bladder. Its uses in the
animal economy appears to be—to separate the
chyle from the chyme, to promote digestion of
oleaginous substances, and to assist in exciting
the peristaltic action of the intestines. The
faeces appear to owe their colour chiefly to the
presence of bile, since, without, they appear of
a dirty pipe-clay colour.
The gall of various animals was formerly
used in medicine. From whatever source it
was obtained, it was believed to be calefacient,
desiccant, detergent, discutient, and parturi-
facient; but besides these properties, each va-
riety was conceived to possess virtues peculiarly
its own. Thus, bear-gall (fel ursi) was reputed
anti-epileptic; eel-gall (fel anguillarum) par-
turifacient; hare-gall (fel leporis), “good in
cataract;” and ox-gall (fel bovis), “sovereign
against stiff joints, rheumatics, angry ulcers,
and stomach colics.” The gall of the bat,
goat, hen, hog, partridge, siluris, &c., were also
employed as remedies. At the present time
ox-gall is the only one used in medicine and
the arts.
Ox-gall has been recently reintroduced into
medicine by Dr. Allmatt and others, and in
certain cases of dyspepsia and biliary derange-
ment appears to be a valuable remedy.
Crude ox-gall is extensively employed by
the scourers of woollen cloth, clothes reno-
vators, &c. It rapidly extracts grease and oil
from textile fabrics, without injuring the
colour. See CONSTIPATION, DYSPEPSIA, OX-
GALL, &c.
Gall, Glass. See SANDIVER,
GAL/LATE. Syn. GALLAs, L. A salt of
gallic acid. The alkaline gallates are soluble.
They rapidly suffer decomposition in the pre-
sence of excess of the base, and the liquor
gradually acquires a blackish colour. The
gallates of most of the other metallic oxides
are insoluble.
GAL'LIC ACID. H.C.H.O.5. Aq. Syn. ACI-
DUM GALLICUM (B. P.), L. “A crystalline
acid prepared from galls.” (B. P. L.) It may
be also obtained from other vegetable sub-
stances. It appears to be a product of the
oxidation of tannic acid, and probably does not
exist ready formed in recent vegetables.
Prep. 1. (Dumas.) Nut-galls, reduced to
powder, are moistened with water, and exposed
to the action of the air, in a warm situation
(say 70° to 80°Fahr.), for two or three months,
adding more water, from time to time, to make
up for that lost by evaporation. At the end
of the above period the mouldy, dark-coloured
mass is strongly pressed in a cloth, and the
solid portion boiled in a considerable quantity
of water. The solution (filtered whilst hot)
deposits, on cooling, crystals of gallic acid,
which, after being thoroughly drained and
pressed dry between bibulous paper, are puri-
fied by boiling them along with about #th
of their weight of prepared animal char-
coal, in 8 parts of water, and filtering, &c., as
before.
2. (Graham.) A strong infusion or decoc-
tion of galls is precipitated with sulphuric
acid, in the cold; the resulting thick mass is
mixed with dilute sulphuric acid (cold), and
the liquid expressed; the “marc’ is next treated
with sulphuric acid, diluted with twice its
weight of water, and after boiling the mixture
for some minutes, the whole is allowed to
cool; the resulting crystals are purified as
before.
3. (Liebig.) A strong aqueous solution of
tannic acid (tannin) is added to sulphuric acid,
as long as a precipitate falls; the powder is
collected, washed, and dissolved by the aid of
heat in dilute sulphuric acid; the solution,
after being boiled for a few minutes, deposits,
on cooling, crystals of gallic acid in consider-
able quantity.
4. (Scheele.) A filtered decoction of galls
is exposed for some months in an open vessel;
after a time it grows mouldy, and becomes
covered with a thick, glutinous pellicle; in
two or three months the sides of the vessel
and the under portion of the pellicle are found
to be covered with small yellow crystals of
gallic acid, which are purified as directed above.
(See No. 1.)
5. (Ph. D., B. P.) The Dublin Ph. contains
two formulae for gallic acid, the one being based
on that of Dumas or Scheele, the other on that
of Graham or Liebig. — a. From galls (in
coarse powder), 1 lb. ; water, q. S. to make a
stiff paste; a porcelain dish is ordered, and
the exposure in the moistened condition is to
be continued for 6 weeks; the solution of the
first crop of crystals is to be made in 10 fl. Oz.
of boiling water, and when the filtrate has
cooled to 80° Fahr., it is to be poured off from
the crystals which have formed, which are
then to be washed with ice-cold water, 3 fl.
oz., and dried—first in blotting-paper, and
finally by a steam or water heat. By boiling
the undissolved portion of the galls with 45
fl. oz. of fresh water, more crystals may be
obtained, -

GALLIC FERMENTATION.—GALLS.
553,
b. Powdered gall-nuts, 1 lb., are steeped for
24 hours in water, 1 pint, and after being
placed in a porcelain displacement apparatus,
are treated with water, 1% pint, added in suc-
cessive portions; oil of vitriol, 5 fl. oz., diluted
with an equal volume of water, and allowed to
cool, is now added to the percolated infusion,
and after thorough admixture, the liquid is
filtered from the viscid precipitate which
forms; oil of vitriol, 5 fl. Oz. (diluted as before),
is then added to the filtrate; the precipitates,
enveloped in calico, are submitted to powerful
pressure, and subsequently dissolved in oil of
vitriol, 16 fl. oz., previously diluted with
water, 56 fl. Oz. ; the solution is boiled for 20
minutes, and set aside for a week; at the end
of this time the deposit which forms is dis-
solved in three times its weight of boiling
water, and the solution treated as before.
Prop. Gallic acid forms small, feathery,
and nearly colourless crystals, which have a
beautiful silky lustre; that of commerce is
usually of a pale-yellow colour; it is soluble in
100 parts of cold water, and in 3 parts of boil-
ing water; it is also soluble in alcohol, and
slightly so in ether; the aqueous solution is
decomposed by exposure to the air; dissolved
in hot oil of vitriol, it forms a deep, rich, red
solution, which, when thrown into water, drops
the gallic acid, deprived of some of its water.
This substance is soluble in the alkalies, and
dyes cloth like madder. When strongly
heated, gallic acid is converted into meta-
gallic acid, or into pyrogallic acid, accord-
ing to the manner in which the heat is
applied.
Tests. Gallic acid is distinguished from
tannic acid by not affecting solutions of
gelatin, the protosalts of iron, or the salts of
the alkaloids, and by giving a deep bluish-
black precipitate with the sesquisalts of iron,
which disappears when the liquid is heated.
It is distinguished from pyrogallic acid by
its inferior solubility in water, and by its not
affecting the solutions of the protosalts of iron.
To detect gallic acid mixed with tannic acid,
the latter should be removed, either by di-
gesting the substance in ether, or by im-
mersing for some time in its solution a piece of
skin depilated by lime, previously to applying
the tests.
Pur. Free from colour; decomposed by
heat; soluble in water and in rectified spirit.
It turns preparations of the sesquioxide of
iron, dissolved in water, of a bluish-black
colour, but throws down nothing from a solu-
tion of isinglass.
Uses, &c. The principal use of pure gallic
acid is in the art of photography. It has re-
cently been employed in medicine, as an in-
ternal astringent, in doses of 3 to 10 grs.,
thrice a day, or oftener; in haemorrhage and
fluxes, as well as for checking the night sweats
in phthisis. Dr. Todd says, that in all cases
of internäl haemorrhage, or ha-morrhagic ten-
dency, it is the best astringent or styptic we
possess. As an external astringent, it is greatly
inferior to tannic acid. It has been given in
doses of 15 to 30 grs. in tape-worm, “but
without any benefit.” (Pereira.)
Purification. Gallic acid, as obtained by
either of the above forms, is never quite pure;
but it may be rendered absolutely pure by com-
bining it with oxide of lead, and decomposing
the compound (gallate of lead) by sulphuretted
hydrogen. The sulphuret of lead acts like
animal charcoal in removing the colour. (Lie-
big.) Commercial gallic acid “may be ren-
dered nearly white by dissolving it in 20 times
its weight of boiling distilled water, and caus-
ing the solution to traverse a stratum of pre-
pared animal charcoal, spread upon a calico
filter. When the liquid passes through colour-
less, it should be evaporated to 1-6th its
volume, and then suffered to cool, in order
to the separation of the crystallised acid.”
Ph. D.)
GALLIC FERIMIENTATION. This name
has been given to the peculiar process by
which tannic acid is converted into gallic acid,
under the joint influence of moisture and
atmospheric oxygen. According to the re-
searches of M. Antoine Larocque, the peculiar
ferment of nut-galls which operates this
change also converts sugar into alcohol and
carbonic acid, in the same way as yeast does;
whilst beer yeast, muscular flesh, and caseous
matter, change tannin into gallic acid. The
similarity of the gallic and vinous fermenta-
tion may hence be reasonably inferred.
GALLS. Syn. GALL-NUTS, NUT-GALLs ;
GALLA (B. P.); GALLE (Ph. E.). “Excres-
cences on Quercus infectoria caused by the
puncture and deposited ova of Diplolepis
Gallae tinctoriae.” The best galls are bluish-
black, heavy, and not yet perforated; in-
tensely astringent. They are imported from
Aleppo, and are known in commerce as black
or blue galls (GALLE NIGRAE, G. CCERULAE). The
next quality is termed, from their colour, green
galls (GALLE VIRIDES). Both are gathered
before the insect has escaped, and are styptic
and powerfully astringent. White galls
(GALLE ALBAE) are lighter, less astringent, and
inferior.
Uses, &c. Galls are extensively employed in
the art of dyeing, and constitute one of the
principal ingredients in all the shades of black,
and are also employed to fix or improve several
other colours. A decoction of galls, to which
a little green copperas and gum arabic has
been added, forms common writing ink. In
medicine, they are used as an astringent, in
hamorrhages and fluxes, in doses of 10 to 20
grs. ; and topically, under the form of infusion
or decoction, as a gargle in relaxation of the
uvula ; as an injection in gleet and leucor-
rhoea; as a lotion or formentation in flabby
ulcers, prolapsus ani, &c.; and as an ointment
in piles, watery ulcers, &c. The infusion or
decoction is also used as an antidote to poison-
ing by the alkaloids, and was formerly given


554. GALLSTONE–GARGLE,
as a tonic in intermittents. See GALLIO ACID,
INK, &c.
GALL/STONE. Syn. CALCULUs BILIOSUs, C.
CYSTICUs BOVINUs, L. Formed in the gall-
bladder of neat cattle in winter, when they are
fed upon dry food. Used as a yellow pigment,
and in medicine.—Dose. 1. gr. ; in dyspepsia
and flatulency. See CALCULUS.
GAL/WANIZED IRON. See IRON and ZINC-
ING.
GAM/B06E. Sym. (CAMBOGE; CAMBOGIA, L.
B.P.) GAMBOGIA, L. “A gum-resin obtained
from Garcinia Morella.” (B. P.) Gamboge
is an active hydragogue and drastic purgative,
which occasionally proves useful in torpor of
the abdominal and pelvic viscera; but which
is highly dangerous in an irritable or inflam-
matory state of the stomach or bowels, and
during pregnancy. It is very apt to induce
nausea and vomiting. In large quantities it
is a violent poison. “The deaths which have
occurred from the use of enormous quantities
of Morrison’s pills, are mainly ascribable to
the gamboge contained in those medicines.”
(Pereira.)—Dose. I to 5 grs., made into pills
or mixture, every 4 to 6 hours; in obstinate
constipation, in dropsies, in apoplexy and like
cerebral affections, and in worms (especially
tape-worm), either alone or combined with other
cathartics. See COMPOUND EXTRACT OF CO-
LOCYNTH.
GAN'GRENE, See MORTIFICATION.
GAN’TEINE. A composition used to clean
kid and other leather gloves.
Prep. 1. (M. Buhan.) Curd soap (in small
shavings), 1 part ; water, 3 parts; mix with
heat, and stir in of essence of citron, 1 part.
2. (SAPONINE,-Duvignau.) Soap (in pow-
der), 250 parts; water, 155 parts; dissolve
with heat, cool, and add, of eau de javelle, 165
parts, solution of ammonia, 10 parts, and rub
the whole to a smooth paste. Patent. A
small portion of either of the above is rubbed
over the glove with a piece of flannel (always
in one direction), until it is sufficiently clean,
See GLOVES.
GARAN/CINE. See MADDER RED.
GAR/DENING, See HORTICULTURE.
GAR/GLE, Syn. GARGARISM, THROAT-
WASH; GARGARISMA, GARGARISMUS, GARGA-
RISMUM, L. A liquid medicine applied to the
back part of the mouth or upper part of the
throat. Gargles are applied by allowing a
Small mouthful to run as much as possible
over the affected part, by holding the head
backwards, and breathing through it, by
which means the liquid is agitated and its
action promoted.
Gargles are not to be swallowed. It often
happens, however, that patients, either by
accident or from negligence, do swallow a
certain quantity, notwithstanding the instruc-
tions given them to the contrary. Care should
therefore be taken to avoid making gargles of
such substances as may occasion unpleasant
symptoms in small doses, though they may not,
perhaps, amount to poisoning.
Gargles usually have for their basis either
simple water, or milk, wine, or vinegar, diluted
with water, to which, in both cases, sugar,
honey, or syrup, is generally added. Their
other ingredients vary with the indication,
but must, in all cases, be either in the liquid
form, or soluble in the liquid used as the
excipient.
Gargles are commonly dispensed in mixture
bottles. The quantity used at a time, under
ordinary circumstances, may be about 2-3rds
of a wine-glassful.
Gargle. Syn. GARGARISMA, G. COMMUNE,
G. SIMPLEX, L. Prep. 1. (St. B. Hosp.)
Honey or honey of roses, 1% fl. Oz. ; strong
vinegar, 2} fl. Oz. ; barley water, 1 pint.
2. (St. George's.) Oxymel, 1 fl. dr.; decoc-
tion of barley, 5 fl. drs. In common sore
throats, &c. The formulae of several other
hospitals are similar.
Gargle of Ac'etate of Ammo"nia. Syn.
GARGARISMS AMMONIAE ACETATIS, L. Prep.
(Wendt.) Solution of acetate of ammonia and
honey of roses, of each, 1 fl. oz. ; elder-flower
water, 8 fl. oz. ; mix. In the ulcerated sore
throat of scarlet fever.
Gargle of Ace/tic Acid. Syn. OXYMEL GAR-
GLE ; GARGARISMA ACIDI ACETICI, L. Prep.
1. (St. B. Hosp.) Acetic acid, 1 dr. ; oxymel,
2 fl. drs. ; water to make up 4 fl. Oz.
2. Barley water, 12 fl. oz. ; acetic acid, 1}
fl. oz. ; honey, 6 drs. Antiseptic. For sore
throat.
Gargle of Al'um. Syn. GARGARISMA AIU-
MINIS, L. Prep. 1. (Augustin.) Oak-bark
(in powder), 1 oz. ; water, 1% pint; boil to a
pint, filter, cool, and add, of alum, dr.;
brandy, 2 fl.oz. In inflammation of the mouth
and throat.
2. (Cavarra.) Alum, 3 drs. ; water, 6 fl. OZ, ;
dissolve. In offensive breath.
3. (Foy.) Alum, 1 dr. ; tincture of myrrh,
2 fl. drs.; tincture of bark, 4 fl. drs. ; honey of
roses, 2 oz.; laudanum, 20 drops; wine, # pint,
In scurvy.
4. (Grant.) Alum, 1 oz.; tincture of myrrh,
} fl.oz.; peppermint water; 7 fl.oz. In relaxa:
tion of the uvula, &c.
5. (Mid. Hosp.) Alum, 1 dr.; honey, 2 drs.;
water to make 6 fl. Oz. As No. 4.
6. (P. Cod.) Alum, 40 grs. ; honey of roses,
1 oz. ; infusion of roses, 6 fl. oz. As the last.
7. (Ratier.) Alum, 1 oz. ; infusion of red
roses and barley water, of each, 3 fl.oz.; honey
of roses, 2 oz. As No. 4.
8. (Westm. Hosp.) Alum, 1 dr.; dilute
sulphuric acid, 1 fl. dr. ; treacle, 4 drs. ; water
to 15 fl. Oz.
9. (Ph. Wirtem.) Alum and nitre, of each,
3 oz. ; cream of tartar, 4 oz. ; dilute acetic
acid, 4 lbs.; dissolve, evaporate to dryness, and
powder the residuum. For use, oz. of the
powder is dissolved in water, 8 fl. Oz. Highly
recommended in inflammation of the fauces
GARGILE.
555
-
and tonsils. This forms Zobel’s “SPECIFIC FOR
QUINSY.”
Gar'gle, Antiscorbuſtic. Syn. GARGARISMA
ANTISCORBUTICUM, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) Bitter
species, 1 dr. ; boiling water, 8 oz. ; macerate
1 hour, strain, and add, syrup of honey, 2 oz. ;
antiscorbutic tincture, 1 oz.
Gargle, Antiseptic. Syn. GARGARISMA
ANTISEPTICUM, L. Prep. (Fr. Hosp.) Decoc-
tion of bark, 6 oz. ; camphor, 20 grs. ; sal-ām-
moniac, 12 grs. In putrid sore throat, &c.
Gargle, Astringent. Syn. GARGARISMA
ASTRINGENs, L. Prep. 1. (Collier.) Tincture
of galls, 2 fl. drs. ; honey, 3 oz. ; water, 6 fl.oz.
In relaxation of the uvula and fauces.
2. (Collier.) Honey, 4 drs. ; tincture of
myrrh, 3 drs. ; powdered alum, 40 grs. ; com-
pound infusion of roses, 5%; fl. Oz. As the last,
and in fetid sore throat.
3. (Sir A. Cooper.) Alum, 2 drs. ; decoction
of bark, 12 oz. ; honey of roses, 1% oz.
4. (Dr. A. T. Thomson.) Infusion of roses,
7 fl.oz.; dilute sulphuric acid, 1 fl.dr.; tincture
of catechu, 6 fl. drs. ; laudanum, 1%; fl. dr. For
relaxation of the uvula. See GARGIE OF
ALUM.
Gargle of Bo"rax, Syn. GARGARISMA Bo-
RACIS, L. Prep. 1. (Ellis.) Borax, 1 dr. ;
tincture of myrrh, 4 fl. drs. ; clarified honey,
1 fl. oz. ; rose water, 4 fl. oz.
2. (Fr. Hosp.) Borax, 2 drs.; honey or capil-
laire, 1 oz. ; rose water, 7 fl. oz.
3. (Guy’s Hosp.) Borax, 2 drs. ; honey of
roses, 1 oz.; barley water, 7 fl. Oz.
4. (Mid. Hosp.) Borax, 1 dr. ; simple oxy-
mel, 2 drs. ; water, to make 3 fl.oz. The above
are used in thrush or aphthous sore mouth,
ptyalism, &c.
Gargle of Cap'sicum. Syn. GARGIE OF
CAYENNE PEPPER ; GARGARISMA CAPSICI, L.
Prep. 1. (Dr. Griffith.) Tincture of capsicum,
# fl. Oz. ; rose water, 8 fl. Oz.
2. (St. B. Hosp.)—a. Capsicum, 3 drs.; com-
mon salt, 1 oz. ; boiling water, 1 pint ; mace-
rate for 12 hours, strain, and add of distilled
vinegar, 1 pint.
b. Tincture of capsicum, 1 fl. dr.; compound
infusion of roses, 8 fl. oz. -
3. (U. C. Hosp.) Tincture of capsicum,
1 fl. dr.; honey 6 drs.; water to 4 fl. oz. Used
in ulcerated sore throat, scarlet fever, &c.
Gargle of Chlo"rate of Potas'sa. Syn. GAR-
GARISMA POTASSE CHLORATIS, L. Prep.
(Beasley.) Chlorate of potassa, 1 dr. ; honey
of roses, 1 oz. ; water, 7 oz. Used in malig-
nant sore throat, scarlatina, &c.
Gargle of Chlo"ride of Lime. Syn. GAR-
GARISMA CALCIS CHLORINATE, L. Prep.
From chloride of lime, 1 dr. ; water, , pint;
agitate together for 10 minutes, filter through
linen, and add of simple syrup, 1 fl. oz. Used
in putrid sore throat, scarlet fever, &c.
Gargle of Chloride of Soda. Syn. GARGA-
RISMA SODAE CHLORINATE, L. Prep. 1. (Cop-
land.) Liquor of chloride of soda, 12 fl. drs. ;
honey, oz, ; water, 6 fl. Oz.
2. (Hosp. Form.) Chlorinated Solution of
soda, 4 fl. drs. ; water to 4 fl. oz. Used as the
last.
Gargle of Chlo"rine Water. Syn. GARGA-
RISMA CHLORINII, L. Prep. 1. (Fr. Hosp.)
Chlorine water, , fl.oz. ; syrup, 1 fl. Oz.; water,
4; fl. Oz.
2. (Mid. Hosp.) Chlorine water, 2 fl. oz. ;
distilled water, 10 fl. oz. Use. As the last.
Gargle of Cincho’ma Bark. Syn. GARGA-
RISMA CINCHONE, L. Prep. 1. From decoc-
tion of cinchoma, 7 fl.oz. ; simple oxymel, 1
fl. Oz. Antiseptic and astringent in relaxa-
tion, &c.
2. (Acidulated; GARGARISMA CINCHONE
ACIDUs, L.) Hydrochloric acid, 1% fl. dr.;
honey, 1% oz. ; decoction of bark to make up
8 fl. oz.
Gargle, Com’mon, Syn. GARGARISMA COM-
MUNE, L. Prep. 1. (Ed. Hosp.) Water,
6 fl. Oz. ; nitre, 1 dr. ; honey of roses, 1 oz.
For ordinary sore throat, &c.
2. (Lond. Hosp.) Alum, 1 dr.; dilute sul-
phuric acid, 2 fl. drs.; tincture of myrrh, 4 fl.
drs. ; water to 12 fl. oz. -
Gargle of Cy'anide of Mercury. Syn. GAR-
GARISMA HYDRARGYRI CYANIDI, L. Prep. 1.
(Brera.) Cyanide of mercury, 10 grs. ; honey
of roses, 1 oz. ; barley water, 1 pint.
2. (Cullerier.) Cyanide of mercury, 10 grs.;
linseed tea, 1 pint. Used in the same cases as
mercurial gargle.
Deter'gent Gargle. Syn. GARGARISMA DE-
TERGENs, L. Prep. 1. (P. Cod.) Alcohol-
ised sulphuric acid, 1 fl. dr. ; honey of roses,
2 oz. ; barley water, 8 oz.
2. (Dr. A. T. Thomson.) Nitre, 2 drs. ;
honey of roses, 4 fl. drs. ; infusion of roses, 5%
fl. oz. In inflammatory sore throat.
Emol/lient Gargle. Syn. GARGARISMA
EMOLLIENs, L. Prep. 1. (Buchan.) Marsh-
mallow root, 1 oz. ; figs, 2 oz. ; water, 1 quart ;
boil to a pint and strain. Demulcent, sooth-
1119,
3. (Trousseau & Reveil.) Barley water,
8 oz.; honey, 13 oz. Both are used in inflam-
matory affections of the throat and mouth.
Gargle of Horserad'ish. Syn. GARGARISMA
ARMORACIE, L. Prep. (Collier.) Compound
spirit of horseradish, 1 fl. Oz. ; honey, 2 oz. ;
water, 4 fl. oz. A good gargle for scurvy of
the fauces and pharynx, vulgarly called the
‘inward scurvy.”
Gargle of Hydrochlo"ric Acid, Syn. MU-
RIATIC ACID GARGLE ; GARGARISMA ACIDI
HYDROCHLORICI, L. Prep. 1. (Guy's Hosp.)
Hydrochloric acid, 30 drops; honey of roses,
2 oz. ; barley water, 6 fl. oz.
2. (Ratier.) Hydrochloric acid, 2 fl. drs.;
clarified honey, 2 il, oz.; barley water, 1 pint.
3. (St. B. Hosp.) Red-rose leaves, 2 örs. ;
boiling Water, 1 pint; hydrochloric acid, 1} .
fl. dr. ; digest 1 hour, and strain. In inflam-
matory sore throat, ulcerations of the mouth,
scarlet fever, &c.
Gargle of Iodine, Syn. GARGARISMAIODINIT,

556
GARLIC–GAS.
L. Prep. 1. Iodine, 10 grs. ; iodide of potas-
sium, 12 grs. ; rectified spirit and simple syrup,
of each, 1 fl. Oz. ; water, 5 fl. oz. In chronic
enlargement of the tonsils, in scrofulous
habits.
2. (Dr. Ross.) Tincture of iodine, 1}; fl. dr. ;
tincture of opium, 1 fl. dr.; water, 6 fl. Oz.
3. (St. T. Hosp.) Compound tincture of
iodine, 2 fl. drs.; water, 5 fl.oz. In ulceration
of the tonsils.
Mercu"rial Gargle. Syn. GARGARISMA. Hy-
DRARGYRI, G. MERCURIALE, L. Prep. 1.
(G. HYD. BICHLORIDI.) Corrosive sublimate,
2 to 5 grs. ; barley water, 1 pint; honey of
roses, 2 fl. oz. For syphilitic ulcers in the
throat.
2. (Plenck.) Calomel, 6 grs. ; quicksilver,
30 grs. ; powdered gum, 3 drs. ; syrup of pop-
pies, # oz. ; triturate till the globules of metal
disappear, and add of decoction of clematis, 26
fl. oz. ; honey of roses, 1 oz. ; essence of myrrh,
1 dr. (or tincture of myrrh, 1 fl. oz.). In
syphilitic and putrid sore throat.
Gargle of Myrrh. Syn. GARGARISMA
MYRRHE, L. Prep. 1. (Ainslie.) Tincture
of myrrh, 6 fl. drs. ; vinegar, 1 fl. dr. ; honey of
roses, 1% fl. oz. ; barley water, 12 fl. oz.
2. (Ph. Chirur.) Tincture of myrrh, 3 oz. ;
honey of roses, 1% oz. ; lime water, 6 fl. oz.
In scarlatina and putrid sore throat. See
ASTRINGENT GARGLE, &c.
Gargle of Ni‘tre. Syn. GARGARISMA SALIS
NITRI, G. POTASSE NITRATIs, L. Prep. 1.
Nitre, 2 drs. ; honey or syrup, 3 oz.; rose
water, 5%; fl. oz.
2. (Brande.) Nitre, 2 drs.; oxymel, 1 fl.
oz. ; barley water, 7 fl. oz. In inflammatory
sore throat. See CoMMON GARGLE.
Gargle of Oak-Bark. Syn. GARGARISMA
CORTICIS QUERCús, L. Prep. 1. Oak-bark,
2 drs. ; boiling water, 6 fl. Oz. ; macerate 1
hour, and strain.
2. (Ellis.) Decoction of oak-bark, 1 pint ;
alum, # dr. ; brandy, 2 fl. Oz. In chronic sore
throat, relaxation of the uvula, &c.
Gargle of Pellitory. Syn. GARGARISMA
PYRETHRI. Prep. 1. Pellitory root, 4 drs. ;
water, 16 fl. Oz. ; boil to 8 fl. oz., and add of
liquor of ammonia, 2 fl. drs.
2. (Swediaur.) Infusion of pellitory, 1 pint ;
vinegar, 3 fl. Oz. ; sal-ammoniac, 3 drs. To
promote the maturation and healing of throat
ulcers.
Gargle of Roºses. Syn. GARGARISMA Rosłº,
G. ROSARUM, L. Prep. (Kendrick.) Con-
serve of roses, 3 oz. ; boiling water, 16 fl. oz. ;
infuse 1 hour; add of dilute sulphuric acid, 2
fl. drs, and strain. Antiseptic, astringent ;
wsed in several indications.
Spirit Gargle. Syn. GARGARISMA SPIRIT-
UOSUM, G. SPIRITús VINI, L. Prep. 1. (Dr.
Watson.) French brandy, 1 fl. oz. ; water, 4.
pint.
2. (St. George's.) Proof spirit, 1 fl. oz. ;
oxymel, 5 fl. drs. ; decoction of barley, to make
up 6 fl. Oz. In relaxations and salivation,
Stimulant Gargle. Syn. GARGARISMA
STIMULANS, L. Prep. (Dr. Copland.) In-
fusion of roses, 6; fl. oz. ; dilute hydrochloric
acid, 40 drops; tincture of capsicum, 1}; fl.
drs. ; honey, 3 drs. See GARGLE of CAP.
SICUM.
Gargle of Tanſmin. Syn. GARGARISMA
ACIDI TANNICI, L. Prep. 1. (Beral.) Tannin,
1 dr.; honey of roses, 2 oz. ; rose water, 2
fl. oz.; distilled water, 8 fl. oz.
2. (Jannart.) As the last, but using only
half the quantity of tannin. In salivation
and aphthous ulcerations.
Gargle of Verd'igris. Syn. GARGARISMA
AERUGINIS, G. CUPRI ACETATIS, L. Prep.
(Guy’s Hosp.) Oxymel of verdigris, 4 drs.;
honey of roses, 2 oz. ; barley water, 3} fl. Oz.
Used as a detergent for ulcers in the throat,
If swallowed, it produces violent vomiting.
The addition of 2% oz. of water to the above
produces a gargle sufficiently strong for most
CaS6S.
Gargle of Win'egar.
ACID.
Gargle of Zinc, Syn. GARGARISMA ZINCI,
G. Z. SULPHATIS, L. Prep. (Dr. Copland.)
Sulphate of zinc, 20 grs. ; oxymel, 1 fl. Oz.;
rose water, 7 fl. Oz. In aphthous sores, relaxa.
tions, ulceration of the tonsils, &c.
GAR/LIC, Syn. ALLIUM, L. The Allium
sativum of botanists. It is diaphoretic, diu-
retic, expectorant, stimulant, and tonic; and
externally, irritant, rubefacient, and even
vesicant.—Dose. . dr. to 1% dr. ; in enfeebled
digestion, chronic diarrhoea, old chronic coughs,
atomic dropsies, and worms. An antispas-
modic and counter-irritant liniment is made
of the juice, which was formerly esteemed in
chest diseases and infantile convulsions. A
small clove of garlic, or a few drops of the
juice, was formerly introduced into the ear in
certain forms of deafness. As a condiment, its
properties resemble those of the onion, than
which it is much more powerful.
GAR'NET. In mineralogy, one of the pre-
cious stones or gems. The finest specimens of
noble garnet (SYRIAN or ORIENTAL GARNET)
are brought from Pegu. According to chemi-
cal analysis, the garnet is a double silicate of
alumina and lime, coloured with iron and
manganese.
Garnet, Facti"tious. See PASTEs.
GA/RUM. [L.] A species of pickle or
sauce prepared of fish, in a state of incipient
putrefaction, strongly salted and seasoned
with aromatics. According to Pliny, the
Romans used a species of lobster for this
purpose.
GAS, Syn. GAZ, Fr. A permanently elastic
aëriform fluid. In English, the term “air'
is now usually restricted to the gaseous mix-
ture forming the atmosphere, but it was for-
merly used as a synonym for ‘gas.” The prin-
cipal gases are the elementary bodies hy-
drogen, chlorine, oxygen and nitrogen, and the
compounds ammonia, carbonic acid, carbonic
See GARGLE OF ACETIC
GAZOGENE–GELATIN. 557
|
oxide, carburetted hydrogen, hydrochloric acid,
phosphoretted hydrogen, protoxide of nitrogen,
sulphuretted hydrogen, and sulphurous acid.
See these substances under their respective
heads.
Gas. Syn. COAL GAS, ILLUMINATING G.
The term “gas” is popularly applied to the
important mixture of hydrocarbons produced
by the destructive distillation of pit-coal, and
now employed as a source of artificial light in
most of large towns of Europe and America.
The apparatus used in the manufacture of gas
on the large scale consists essentially of a
system of closed retorts of cast iron or fire-
clay, the exit pipes from which communicate
with an hydraulic main, in which the crude
gas deposits part of its tar and ammoniacal-
liquor. It passes thence into a series of con-
densing pipes, wherein it deposits more of those
impurities; and thence into another series of
vessels, called “scrubbers,’ in which its
mechanical purification is completed. It is
then deprived of its carbonic acid and sulphu-
retted hydrogen in lime-purifiers, and finally
is drawn by exhausting apparatus into the
gas-holders, passing on its way through beau-
tiful and delicate apparatus, whereby the
pressure and amount of gas are regulated and
registered.
Coal gas consists of a mixture of the follow-
ing bodies:
Marsh gas (light carbonetted hydrogen).
Olefiant gas (heavy , 5.x -
Hydrogen.
Carbonic oxide.
Nitrogen.
Vapours of liquid hydro-carbons.
Vapour of bisulphide of carbon.
The yield of gas, and also the illuminating
power of the product, vary greatly with
different kinds of coal. The average yield may
be roughly estimated at 10,000 cubic feet of
gas per ton of coal."
The late Charles Mansfield proposed to
increase the illuminating power of ordinary
coal gas, and to render water gas or even atmo-
spheric air luminiferous, by passing them
through sponges or over trays containing
mineral naphtha or benzole; and a patent was
taken out for this purpose. The gas so
treated imbibes or dissolves a portion of the
liquid, and burns with increased brilliancy.
The method of saturating the gas with the
liquid hydrocarbon is as follows:—“The appa-
ratus consists of a brass reservoir or chamber
attached to the end of the gas-pipe, near the
burner. This reservoir may be in the shape
of an oil-flask, made air-tight, with a screw-
joint, or other means of supplying any highly
volatile oil, turpentine, or mineral naphtha,
and should be kept about half full. Into this
reservoir the gas-pipe ascends a little above
the surface of the oil; a very small jet-pipe of
| I'or practical details respecting the manufacture of
gas, regulated by a stop-cock, is branched off
below this chamber, to supply a minute flame,
so as to cause a sufficient evaporation from
the oil to unite with the gas in the flask
receiver. The whole is, of course, surmounted
with the usual burner and lamp-glass.”
The naphthalising of gas did not work well
on a large scale. Recently, however, an
attempt was made to get up a company in
England to work a French patented process,
which differed only from that of Mansfield’s
in the substitution of another hydrocarbon
(probably a petroleum product) for benzol.
The chemical and technical journals exposed
M. Mongruel’s invention, and prevented the
sinking of capital in a worthless undertaking.
On a small scale, simple ‘naphthalisers’ appear
to work very well.
The illuminating power of gas, as well as of
other sources of light, may be directly ascer-
tained by what is termed the ‘comparison of
shadows,' or indirectly, and more con-
veniently, by chemical analysis.” See ILLU-
MINATION.
GAZOGENE. [Fr.] Syn. AñRATING MA-
CHINE. A portable apparatus for ačrating
water and other liquids. Many forms have
been given to this instrument, but in all the
principle is the same. Powders for generating
carbonic acid gas are placed in a separate com-
partment, and the liquid to be ačrated in
another. The two compartments are connected
by a suitable tube, and a second tube, furnished
with a spring tap, affords an exit for the
aêrated liquid. By the aid of the gazogene,
water, wine, ale, &c., may in a few minutes be
fully saturated with carbonic acid gas, and so
rendered brisk and piquant. By using fruit
syrups, manufactured from English and foreign
fruits, the most delicious aérated summer
beverages can be made, resembling those so
much esteemed by travellers in the South of
Europe and the sea-board cities of the Western
world. -
GEL'ATIN. Syn. GELATINE; GáLATINE, Fr.;
GELATINA, L. Animal jelly, obtained by the
action of heat on the organic tissue of the
bones, tendons, and ligaments, the cellular
tissue, the skin, and the serous membranes,
whilst in contact with water. Glue and size
are coarse varieties of gelatin, prepared from
hoofs, hides, skins, &c.; and isinglass is a purer
kind, obtained from the air-bladders and some
other membranes of fish.
Prop, &c. Gelatin is insoluble in cold
water, but dissolves with greater or less readi-
ness on the application of heat, according to
the source whence it is obtained, and in this
state forms a tremulous and transparent jelly
on cooling; it is insoluble in both alcohol and
ether, and is decomposed by the strong alka-
lies and acids; with tannic acid it forms an
insoluble compound of a buff colour, which is
the basis of leather; when acted on by cold
this product, see the article CoAL GAs in ‘Ure's Diction-
ary of Arts, Manufactures, &c.’
2 Sec • Watts's Dictionary of Chemistry, vol. i.


558 GELATIN.
concentrated sulphuric acid, it yields glycocoll
or gelatin sugar; and when boiled with strong
alkalies, it yields glycocoll and leucine. Chlo-
rine passed into a solution of gelatin occa-
sions a dense white precipitate (chlorite of
gelatin), which ultimately forms a tough,
elastic, pearly mass, somewhat resembling
fibrin.
Tests. Its aqueous solution is recognised as
follows:–1. It gelatinises on cooling.—2. It
is precipitated by alcohol.-3. Bichloride of
mercury gives a whitish flocculent precipitate.
–4. Tannic acid or infusion of galls gives a
copious yellowish-white, curdy precipitate,
which, on being stirred, coheres into an elastic
mass, insoluble in water, and incapable of
putrefaction, and which, when dried, assumes
the appearance of over-tanned leather.—5. The
gelatinising property is destroyed by nitric
acid.—6. It is not affected by either alum
or acetate of lead. In this respect it differs
from chondrin.
Qual. The goodness of commercial gelatin
intended for food is readily proved by pouring
boiling water over it, and digesting the two
together for a short time. If it is pure and
wholesome, its colour remains unaltered, and
during its solution it continues entirely free
from smell. The resulting solution and jelly
are also odourless, neutral to test-paper, free
from unpleasant taste, and perfectly trans-
parent. If it forms a yellow gluey-looking
mass, and evolves an offensive odour, it should
be rejected as of inferior quality, and unfit for
culinary purposes.
Uses, &c. Gelatin is largely employed as an
article of food, as in soups, jellies, &c.; but its
value in this respect has been, perhaps, over-
rated. Animals fed exclusively on gelatin die
of starvation. But when mixed with other
food, especially with substances abounding in
albumen, casein, or fibrin, gelatin may be
useful as an aliment, and serve directly to
nourish the gelatinous tissues. (Liebig.) Hence
gelatin is a fitting substance to form part (but
only a part) of the diet of convalescents, as it
conveys nutrition directly to these tissues,
without tasking the diminished powers of life
for its conversion; but its use should be accom-
panied by a proper quantity of azotised animal
food, to supply the elements to the blood, for
the support and increase of the muscular tissue,
or fleshy portion of the body. In France the
gelatin of bones is extracted and employed as
a part of the diet in hospitals with the best
effect, materially abridging the period of con-
valescence; but when given alone, all animals
soon become disgusted with it, and die if not
supplied with other food. (D’Arcet.) See
GLUE, ISINGLASS, and below.
Bome Gelatin. Obtained from crushed bones
by coction with water, or by the action of steam
and water successively, either with or without
pressure; or by maceration in dilute hydro-
chloric acid, to extract the phosphate of lime,
the remaining gelatinous mass being well
washed in cold water, and afterwards dissolved
in boiling water in the usual manner. A little
carbonate of soda is commonly added to the
last water. Gelatin has even been extracted
from fossil bones. “A soup was prepared from
one of the bones of the great mastodon, by the
préfet of one of the departments of France.”
(Pereira.) Butcher's meat contains, on an
average, 24% of dry flesh, 56% of water, and 20%
of bone. The last will yield, by proper treat-
ment, nearly 1-3rd of its weight of dry gela-
tin, or a quantity equal to about 6% of the
meat from which it is cut. This, as well as
other varieties of gelatin, is frequently
blanched by sulphurous acid or animal char.
cool, and tinged of various colours with the
ordinary vegetable dyes. Thus, blue is given
with sulphate of indigo or the juice of blue
berries; green, with the juice of spinach;
and red, with juice of red-beet.
French Gelatin. Syn. CAKE GELATIN,
Gelatin done up into small thin cakes, like
the finer sorts of glue. A good deal of
it is prepared in Paris from the cuttings
of the skins used in making kid gloves and
slippers.
Patent Gelatin. Various qualities of gela-
tin are manufactured from glue-pieces, or cut-
tings of the hides of beasts and skins of calves,
and from inferior isinglass. According to
Mr. Nelson’s specification, the crude materials,
freed from hair, wool, flesh, and fat, after being
thoroughly washed and ‘scored, are mace-
rated for 10 days in a ley of caustic soda ; and
are then placed in covered vessels at a tem-
perature varying from 60° to 70° Fahr., until
they become tender; they are next washed to
free them from alkali, and are then exposed to
the vapour of burning sulphur until they acquire
a sensibly acid reaction; they are now dissolved
in water contained in earthen vessels heated to
150° Fahr., and the solution, after being
strained, is put into “settling vessels, and
heated to 100° to 120°Fahr., for 8 or 9 hours;
at the end of this time the clear liquor is drawn
off, and poured on the “cooling slabs’ to the
depth of about ; an inch. As soon as the
jelly is cold, it is cut into pieces, and washed
in water until perfectly free from acid. It is
then redissolved in water at about 85°, the
solution poured out on slabs as before, and
when cold, it is cut up, and, lastly, dried on
nets. -
According to another specification (Rattray’s
Patent) glue-pieces are steeped in water until
they begin to putrefy, then washed with water,
drained, and put from 12 to 24 hours into water
strongly soured with sulphurous acid; they are
afterwards washed first with cold water, and
then in water at 120° Fahr., and are lastly
converted into size by digestion for 24 hours
in water at 120° Fahr., the resulting so-
lution being filtered through bags of double
woollen-cloth.
Patent gelatins are often sold cut up in

imitation of “picked isinglass,” to which, for
GELEE–GEMS.
559
the preparation of jellies, soups, and blanc-
manges, they are not much inferior.
Rough Gelatin. Syn. GELATINE BRUT, Fr.
From the skulls of oxen, the spongy insides of
the horns and ribs, and from several other soft
bony parts (deprived of fat), by washing them
in water, digesting in an equal weight of
hydrochloric acid of 6° Baume, in cold weather,
and 4° or 5° in summer, for 10 days, then in
acid of only 1° Baume for 24 hours longer;
afterwards soaking and washing in successive
portions of cold water until all the acid is
washed out, adding an ounce of carbonate of
soda to the last water. Used to make glue, &c.
A similar article is prepared from the bones of
sheep. The pieces, after being treated as above,
are steeped in boiling water for a few minutes,
wiped dry, and shaken together in a bag to
remove the internal pellicle; after which they
are cut into squares or dice to disguise them,
and finally dipped into a hot solution of gela-
tin to varnish them. In this state the article
is called ‘GELATINE BRUT FIN.” Used to make
soup. It keeps better than the cakes of
portable soup. When less carefully prepared,
it is also used to make glue for fine work.
See BONE GELATIN.
GELEE (pour le Goitre).
OF [ODIDE OF POTASSIUM.
GEMS. Syn. JEWELS ; GEMME, L. “Gems
are precious stones, which, by their colour,
limpidity, lustre, brilliant polish, purity, and
rarity, are sought after as objects of dress
and decoration. They form the principal
part of the crown jewels of kings, not only
from their beauty, but because they are sup-
posed to comprise the greatest value in the
Smallest bulk; for a diamond, no larger than
a nut, or an acorn, may be the representative
sign of the territorial value of a whole
country, the equivalent in commercial ex-
change for a hundred fortunes, acquired by
severe toils and privations.” “Among these
beautiful minerals mankind have agreed in
forming a select class, to which the title of
gems or jewels has been appropriated; while
the term precious stone is more particularly
given to substances which often occur under a
more considerable volume than fine stones
ever do. Diamonds, sapphires, emeralds,
rubies, topazes, hyacinths, and chrysoberyls,
are reckoned the most valuable gems;–
crystalline quartz, pellucid, opalescent, or of
various hues, amethyst, lapis lazuli, malachite,
See LINIMENT
jasper, agate, &c., are ranked in the much
more numerous and inferior class of orna-
mental stones.” (Ure.)
Tests. The only tests applicable to gems
and precious stones are the determination of
their relative hardness and their specific
gravity. By the first test, pastes or facti.
tious gems are readily detected; but beyond
this, owing to the difficulty of applying it, it
ceases to be useful to persons unconnected
with the trade. The determination of the
specific gravity is, however, of more general
application, as gems are generally dismounted
when offered for sale, or are so set that they
may be removed from their “mountings’
without injury or inconvenience. See SPE-
CIFIC GRAVITY, and below.
Obs. The relative hardness of the different
substances is measured by the power they
possess of cutting or scratching the other
substances having a smaller number attached
to them in the table. Thus, no gem but the
DIAMOND (20) will scratch either the RUBy
(17) or the SAPPHIRE (16); and, for the same
reason, a blue stone that will cut the EMERALD
or the TOPAZ can be no other than the
SAPPHIRE. The sp. gr. is ascertained in the
usual manner, and will be found sufficiently
indicative of the true nature of the stone
when considered in connection with its other
characteristics. The index of refraction is a
certain key to the quality of the stone, in the
hands of those who are capable of determining
it, and may be applied to either mounted or
unmounted gems. The most convenient in-
strument for the purpose is Wollaston’s ‘RE-
FLECTING GONIOMETER."
Gems, Facti"tious. These, with few excep-
tions, are made of very pure, fusible, highly
transparent, and dense glass, usually termed
‘PASTE’ or ‘STRASS, which is generally formed
of oxide of lead, potassa, and silica, with small
quantities of other ingredients to increase the
brilliancy and clearness. The characteristic
tints are imparted by the addition of metallic
oxides. The beauty of artificial stones and
gems depends, chiefly, upon the tint of the
real stones being exactly imitated, and upon
proper care and skill being exercised in the
cutting, polishing, and mounting them. All
the coloured glasses, and enamels, may be
worked up into artificial gems. See ENAMELS,
PASTES, &c.

569 GEMS-GENTIANIN.
TABLE of the Hardness, Specifte Gravity, and Refractive Power, of the principal GEMs and
PRECIOUS STONES, and some other MINERALs; compiled ea pressly for this work.
GENE/WA. See GIN and HOLLANDS.
GENTIAN R00T. Syn. GENTIANA, RA-
DIX, L. The dried root of Gentiana lutea,
or yellow gentian.” Dose. 10 to 30 grs. ;
as a simple bitter, tonic, and stomachic,
in dyspepsia, loss of appetite, gout, &c. It
was formerly a favourite remedy in agues.
“Joined with galls or tormentil, and given in
sufficient quantity, it has not failed in any
intermittents in which I have tried it.” (Dr.
Cullen.) In excessive doses it is apt to relax
the bowels and disturb the system. When
taken for some time, it imparts its bitter
flavour to the perspiration and urine. See
DECOCTION, EXTRACT, &c.
GENTIANIN. Syn. GENTIANINE ; GEN-
TIANINA, L. A substance obtained by MM.
Henry and Caventou from the root of common
gentian.
Name. ſº. Specific Gravity. Index of Reflection.
Agate . - - - 12 2.6
Amethyst (occidental) 11 2.7
Calcareous spar 6 2.7
Chalk 3 2.7
Chrysolite | 10 3.7
Cornelian 11 2.7
Crystal . - - | || 2’6
Diamond (bluish) . - - 19 3-3 D
, (cubic) . - - 18 3-2 |
,, (from Ormus) . 20 3-7 | • A Q
, (pink) 19 || 3'4, 2439
25 (yellowish) - 19 3.3 |
2x (average colourless . 19 to 20 3-3 to 3:55 J
Emerald 12 2.8
Fluor spar 7 3'5 1'434
Garnet 12 4'4 1815
Glass . - - % 2-3 to 3.62 I'525 to 2.028
, (crystal or flint) | | 3.0 , 3-6 1830 , 2.028
, (plate) . J : 2.5 , 2-6 l'514. , 1542
Gypsum . - - 5 2'3
Jasper (green) - - . 11 2.7
, (reddish yellow) . 9 2’6
Onyx . - - - 12 2’6
Opal 10 2’6
§º 10 2.7 1:54.8
uby - - - 17 4'2 -
, (pale, from Brazil) 16 3'5 } 1779
sº º - 13 3'4. º 1764
Sapphire (deep blue) 16 3.8 .*
22 (paler) 17 ‘8 y 1794
Sardonyx 12 2’6
Schoerl . 1() 3:6
Topaz - - 15 4'2
, (Bohemian) . 11. 2.8
,, (whitish) 14. 3'5
Tourmaline 10 3.0
Zeolite 8 2:1
Zircon - - 1961
Prep. 1. Gentian root (in powder) is di-
gested for 2 or 3 days in cold ether, with
agitation, and the filtered tincture evaporated
to dryness; the residuum is dissolved in recti-
fied spirit, and the solution is again evaporated;
the semi-crystalline mass is, lastly, redissolved
in either alcohol or ether, and crystallised by
careful evaporation.
2. (Magendie.) The ethereal extract is ex-
hausted with cold alcohol (rectified spirit), as
before, and the resulting tincture is evaporated
to dryness; the residuum is dissolved in water,
calcined magnesia added in excess, and the
whole boiled and filtered; the sediment is di-
gested in ether, and the ethereal tincture
allowed to crystallise by slow evaporation.
Prop., &c. Gentianin forms golden-yellow
needles, scarcely soluble in cold water, but
very soluble in alcohol and ether. It is a
GERMAN PASTE–GERMAN SILVER.
561
powerful bitter and stomachic.
to 2 grs.
GER/MAN PASTE. Prep. From pea-meal,
2 lbs. ; sweet almonds (blanched), 1 lb.; fresh
butter or lard, 4 lb. ; moist sugar, 5 oz. ; hay
saffron, , dr.; beat to a smooth paste, adding
cold water, q.s., granulate the mass by passing
it through a colander, and expose the product
to the air, in a warm place, until quite hard
and dry. The addition of 2 or 3 eggs im-
proves it. Used to feed larks, nightingales,
and other insectivorous birds. It will keep
good for 12 months in a dry place.
GER/MAN SIL'WER. Sgn. ALBATA, AR-
GENTAN, ELECTRUM, NICKEL SILVER, TU-
TENAG, VIRGINIAN PLATE, WHITE COPPER.
A well-known alloy, the finer varieties of
which nearly equal silver in whiteness and
susceptibility of receiving a high polish, whilst
they surpass it in hardness and durability.
The following formulae are from the highest
authorities, or are the results of actual analysis
of the finest commercial samples:–
Prep. 1. Copper, 50 parts ; nickel, 20
parts; zinc, 30 parts. Very malleable, and
takes a high polish.
2. Copper, 50 parts; nickel, 26 parts; zinc,
24 parts. Closely resembles silver; an ex-
cellent sample.
3. Copper and zinc, of each, 41 parts; nickel,
18 parts. Rather brittle.
4. (M. Gersdorff.) Copper, 50 parts; nickel
and zinc, of each, 25 parts. Very white and
malleable, and takes a high polish. Recom-
mended as a general substitute for silver.
5. (Gersdorff.) Copper, 60 parts; nickel
and zinc, of each, 20 parts. For castings, as
bells, candlesticks, &c.
6. (Gersdorff.) Copper, 60 parts; nickel, 25
parts; zinc, 20 parts. For rolling and wire.
Very tough and malleable.
7. (Sample made from the ore of Hilburgh-
ausen.) Copper, 40% parts; nickel, 31% parts;
iron, 2% parts; zinc, 25% parts. Equal to the
best Chinese sample.
8. (Pelouze.) Copper and nickel, equal parts.
Recommended by M. Pelouze as superior to
any of the alloys containing zinc. .
9. (Pelouze.) Copper, 2 parts; nickel, 1
part. Not so white as the last, but more
malleable.
10. (White Copper from China.)—a. Copper,
30 parts; nickel, 36 parts; zinc, 34 parts.
b. (Said to be prepared from native ore.)
Copper, 41 parts; nickel, 32 parts; iron, 2%
parts; zinc, 24% parts. Silvery white, takes
a high polish, very sonorous, malleable both
cold and at a dull-red heat, and may be rolled
into leaves or formed into wire.
11. (White metal spoon, sold as “German
Plate.") Copper, 55 parts; nickel, 24 parts;
zinc, 16 parts; tin, 3 parts; iron, 2 parts.
Anal. This may be briefly described as
follows:—a. 100 grs. of the alloy is digested
in nitric acid, q. S., diluted with a little water.
If the sample is unequally attacked by the
Dose. # gr.
acid, and a white external shell is observed
which dissolves more slowly than the internal
portion, it is ‘plated’ on those parts with
silver. If this silver shell or casing has a
polished surface on both sides, the article has
been ‘ electro-plated ; if the contrary is the
case, it has most probably been plated in the
usual way.
b. The solution being completed, heat is
applied to expel the excess of acid, and the
remainder is largely diluted with distilled
water; dilute hydrochloric acid is now dropped
in as long as it occasions a precipitate, and
the whole, after being moderately heated for
a short time, and cooled, is thrown upon a
small paper filter ; the precipitate on the
filter is next washed with distilled water, care-
fully dried, and ignited in a small porcelain
crucible, the filter itself being separately
burnt on the cover of the crucible, and the
ashes added to its contents prior to ignition.
Every 143% grs. of the resulting fused chloride
is equal to 108 grs. of metallic silver.
c. The filtered liquid (see b) is next treated
with a stream of sulphuretted hydrogen, and
the black precipitate is collected, washed,
and digested in strong nitric acid; when the
solution is complete, sulphuric acid is dropped
in, to precipitate the lead (if any is present);
if a precipitate is formed, the whole is evapo-
rated to dryness, and the excess of sulphuric
acid expelled by a rather strong heat applied
towards the end; the dry mass is now col-
lected on a filter, washed with a mixture of
water and alcohol, dried, and exposed to slight
ignition in a porcelain crucible. Every 152
grs. of the resulting dry sulphate is equal to
104 grs. of lead.
d. The liquor filtered from the sulphate
of lead, or (in its absence) the nitric solution
of the precipitate produced by the sulphuretted
hydrogen (see c), is next treated with po-
tassa, &c., as described under the analysis
of brass. Every 40 grs. of the dry prot-
oxide thus obtained represents 32 grs. of pure
copper.
e. The liquor which was filtered from the
precipitate produced by the sulphuretted hy-
drogen (see c) is boiled until it loses its offen-
sive odour, and is then precipitated with car-
bonate of soda, in slight excess, and again
boiled for a few minutes; the precipitate
(mixed oxides of nickel and zinc) is collected,
washed, and redissolved in dilute acetic or nitric
acid, in excess; a current of sulphuretted hy-
drogen is next passed through the solution, the
precipitate collected on a filter, washed, redis-
solved in hydrochloric acid, and the solution
again treated with carbonate of soda ; the last
precipitate (oxide of zinc) is washed, dried, and
gently ignited. Every 40 grs. of this oxide is
equivalent to 32 grs. of metallic zinc.
f. The washings of the precipitated oxides
and the liquid filtered from the precipitate
occasioned by the sulphuretted hydrogen (see e)
are mixed together, pure solution of ammonia





562
GERMAN TINDER—GILDING.
added in considerable excess, and the mixture
agitated for some time; the undissolved portion
of the precipitate is then collected on a filter,
washed with distilled water, redissolved in
dilute nitric acid, again precipitated with solu-
tion of potassa, and this last precipitate (ferric
oxide) washed, dried, ignited, and weighed.
Every 80 grs. represents 50 grs. of metallic
ll'Orl.
g. The ammoniacal solution filtered from the
precipitate of sesquioxide of iron (see f) is pre-
cipitated with pure solution of potassa, boiled
for a few minutes, and, when cold, thrown on
a filter; the precipitate is, lastly, washed with
hot water, dried, ignited, and weighed. Every
37% grs. of the oxide thus obtained is equal to
29% grs. of metallic nickel.
Obs. The manufacture of nickel or German
silver has of late acquired an importance which
is second only to that of silver plate itself.
The superior quality of this alloy, and the
graceful patterns which it is often made to as-
sume in the hands of the accomplished artist,
cannot fail to have attracted the admiration of
the majority of our readers. The value of
correct information regarding the preparation
of this alloy, and of a ready method of deter-
mining the composition of the most improved
commercial samples, will, therefore, be fully
appreciated by every metallurgist who wishes
to throw his wares into the arena of public
competition. Much that is vended under the
name of GERMAN SILVER is little better than
the BRITANNIA METAL or PLATE PEWTER
formerly so plentiful in every establishment
in this country. German silver has quite su-
perseded copper as the basis of ‘electro-plated
goods.’"
The union of the metals in the above for-
mulae is effected by heat, with the usual pre-
cautions. When iron is ordered, it is gene-
rally added under the form of ‘tin plate.’ See
ALLOY, BRASS, BRITANNIA METAL, BRONZE,
&c.
GER/MAN TIN'DER, See AMADOU,
GERMINATION. The growth or vegeta-
tion of a seed by which a young plant is pro-
duced. The conditions essential to germina-
tion are the presence of warmth, air, and
moisture. The most favorable temperature is
between 60° and 85° Fahr., according to the
habitat of the respective plants. Below 40°
Fahr. most of the more perfect seeds either
refuse to vegetate, or vegetate slowly and
feebly; and at or near the freezing-point none
of them undergo this change. At a tempera-
ture above 100°Fahr. the young germ is usu-
ally injured, and at about 125°, if it forms,
it soon withers and dies. See MALTING, SEED,
&c.
GHEE. A sort of butter used by the natives
of India. Prep. Milk is boiled in large
earthen pots for an hour or two, then allowed
After a lapse of some hours the contents of
each to the depth of 5 or 6 inches are removed
and placed in a larger earthenware utensil, in
which they are churned by means of a piece
of split bamboo for about half an hour; then
hot water is poured in, and the churning con-
tinued for half an hour longer, after which
time the butter is found to be formed. When
this becomes rancid, it is melted in an earthen
vessel, and boiled until all the water has eva.
porated; after which a little salt or betel-leaf
is put into it, and finally it is poured off intº
suitable vessels in which it can be preserved
from the air. Bottles are commonly used for
this purpose. See BUTTER.
GHER/KINS. Syn. GIR/KINs. Small cu.
cumbers adapted for pickling. See PICKLES.
GILD'ING. Syn. DoRURE, Fr. The art or
process of covering the surfaces of bodies with
a thin film of gold, for the purpose of increas:
ing their durability or improving their ap:
pearance. For the sake of brevity, we shall
briefly notice the leading varieties of gild.
ing, and their applications, in alphabetical
order.
BURNISHED GILDING. This is distemper
gilding to which a ‘face' has been given with
the ‘ burnisher.” It is chiefly employed for
the polished portions of the frames of pictures
and mirrors, the more prominent parts of sta.
tuettes, &c.
CHEMICAL GILDING. Those varieties in
which the film of gold is formed on the suſ.
face through the agency of chemical affinity, in
opposition to mechanical gilding, in which the
gold is made to adhere by the intervention of
some glutinous substance.
CoLD GILDING. The articles (copper Or
brass) to be gilded, after being softened, an:
nealed, and polished, in the usual manner, are
rubbed with a little gilding powder by means
of a piece of cork moistened with a solution of
salt in water; after which the work is bur.
mished with a piece of hematite or polished
steel. (See below.)
DISTEMPER GILDING. This is applied tº
wood, plaster, marble, &c. It is commonly
performed in this country by giving the wood,
first, a coating of good size, and next, several
successive coats of size thickened with finely
powdered whiting, Spanish white, or plaster of
Paris, until a good face is produced; obsery.
ing to let each coat begome quite dry, and tº
rub it perfectly smooth with fine glass paper,
before the application of the following one
When the proper ‘face” is obtained, the sur.
face is thinly and evenly gone over with gold
size, and when this is nearly dry, the gold leaf
is applied, and aftewards burnished with all
agate or a dog's tooth. The process, as adopted
by the Parisian artists, who greatly excel in
this species of gilding, is very complicated
and is divided into at least 17 distinct opera:
to cool, a little curdled milk called ‘dhye' being |tions, each of which they declare to be essential
added, in order to make the whole coagulate. to its excellence.
1 See ELECTROTYPE.
ELECTRO-GILDING. See ELECTROTYPE.
GILDING,
563
GRECIAN GILDING. In this variety sal-
ammoniac and corrosive sublimate, equal parts,
are dissolved in nitric acid, and a solution of
gold made with this menstruum ; after slight
concentration the liquid is applied to the sur-
face of silver, which immediately becomes
black, but on being heated exhibits a rich
gilded surface.
JAPANNER's GILDING. The surface is co-
vered with oil size thinned with spirits of tur-
pentine, and gold, in powder, is gently dabbed
on with a puff of wash leather. This gives
the appearance of ‘frosted gold.’ A coating
of varnish is next given, followed by exposure
to a gentle heat in the ‘stove.’
LEAF GILDING. This term is commonly
applied to the gilding of paper, vellum, &c., by
applying leaf gold to the surface, previously
prepared with a coating of gum water, size, or
white of egg. It is usually burnished with an
agate or a dog's tooth.
MECHANICAL GILDING. See CHEMICAL GILD-
ING (above).
MERCURIAL GILDING. See WASH GILDING
(below).
OIL GILDING. This species of gilding may
be divided into several operations. The fol-
lowing are the abridged instructions of a Pa-
risian artist on the subject:—1. The surface
is prepared by a coating of white lead in dry-
ing oil.–2. Another coat is given, made with
calcined white lead or massicot, ground in lin-
seed oil and turpentine. 3 or 4 coats of this
mixture are often given, at intervals of at least
24 hours, observing to carefully smooth off
each coat with pumice stone or shave grass be-
fore the application of the following ones.—
3. The ‘Gold Colour,” or paint, is next applied.
It is usually very adhesive gold size, or the
bottom of the pot or dish in which painters
wash their brushes. For this purpose it is
thoroughly ground and strained.—4. When
the gold colour becomes partially dry and suf-
ficiently tenacious, the gold leaf is applied, and
pressed on with a wad of cotton-wool or a
soft brush. It is now left for several days to
harden.—5. A coat of spirit varnish is next
given, and the object is cautiously passed over
a chafing-dish of charcoal, observing to avoid
stopping the motion of the piece whilst doing
so, as the work would then become discloured
and blistered.—6. The work is “finished off '
with pale oil warnish. For out-door gilding and
common work, the varnishing process is gene-
rally omitted. This species of gilding is
applied to woodwork, plaster, metal, &c.
WARNISH GILDING. This is a mere variety
of oil gilding, applied to equipages, furniture,
mirror and picture frames, &c., the surface
being highly varnished and polished before it
receives the size or gold colour; and after the
gilding has become quite dry, a coat of spirit
varnish, fumed with the chafing dish as above,
is applied, followed by 2, 3, or more coats of
the best copal varnish, at intervals of 3 or 4
days each. The whole is, lastly, carefully
polished with tripoli and water.
WASH GILDING, AMALG AM G. MERCURIAL
G., WATER G. This consists in the application
of a thin coating of amalgam of gold to the
metallic surface (brass, bronze, or copper) to
be gilded, and the subsequent volatilisation of
the mercury by heat. It is the usual method
of gilding articles of copper and its alloys,
and possesses great beauty and durability when
skilfully executed. The occupation is, how-
ever, an unhealthy one, owing to the continual
exposure of the work ºan to the fumes of mer-
cury. The furnace invented by M. D'Arcet
obviates this evil, as the whole of the volati-
lised mercury is carried off, and again con-
densed for further use. It should, therefore,
be adopted by every water-gilder who studies
economy and the health of those in his
employ.
The process of water gilding consists in
several distinct operations, and can only be suc-
cessfully performed by those who have been
schooled in the art by an apprenticeship to
the trade. It would, therefore, be waste of
space to enter into details here. Formulae for
several of the articles employed for the purpose
will be found in their alphabetical places in this
work.
WATER GILDING. See above.
Among the applications of the process of
gilding that deserve a separate notice are the
following:—
The gold letters and figures on the covers of
BOOKS are thus formed:—Gum mastic, in fine
powder, is dusted over the surface to be gilded;
an iron or brass tool bearing the design upon
its face is then heated to a proper tempera-
ture, and gently pressed upon a piece of leaf
gold, which slightly adheres to it; the two are
then transferred to the cover, and the tool is
gently pressed on it, by which means the mastic
softens and retains the gold. The loose gold
and powdered mastic are then dusted off with
a brush. Gold leaf will adhere to leather
without the use of mastic, but not so firmly
as when it is employed.
The edges of the leaves of books and paper
are first cut perfectly smooth, and then washed
over with a solution of isinglass in weak spirit,
or with a varnish made of Armenian bole, 4
parts, and powdered sugar-candy, 1 part, mixed
up to a proper consistence with strained white
of egg. The coating is allowed to dry, and is
then smoothed with a wet rag, after which the
gold leaf is applied and polished with the bur-
nisher.
BRASS BUTTONS, formerly so much in de-
mand, are covered by a rough species of wash
gilding. The buttons are polished in the lathe,
and thrown into a pan with a little amalgam
of gold, and as much aquafortis diluted with
water as will wet them all over. Here they
are well stirred up, until they assume a sil-
very appearance, when they are washed with
clean water. They are then submitted to a


564
GILDING.
sufficient heat in a suitable apparatus, until
the mercury is volatilised. The buttons are
next cooled, and well tossed and rubbed about
with a painter’s brush ; and are, lastly, bur-
nished by washing them well with beer or ale
grounds.
Twelve dozen (1 gross) of buttons, of 1 inch
in diameter, may be perfectly gilded on both
sides with only 5 grs. of gold. By an Act of
Parliament, which is still unrepealed, this is
the smallest quantity of gold permitted to be
used for a gross of buttons of the above size.
GLASS, PORCELAIN, and EARTHENWARE, are
gilded by blending powdered gold with gum-
water and a little borax, and applying the mix-
ture by means of a camel-hair pencil; the
article is then heated in an oven or furnace,
by which means the gum is burnt, and the
borax, vitrifying, cements the gold to the sur-
face. It is afterwards polished with a bur-
nisher. Names, dates, or any fancy device, may
thus be permanently and easily fixed on glass,
china, earthenware, &c.
JAPANNED WORK is gilded by the method
explained as ‘Japanner's gilding' (above).
LEATHER is gilded in the same way as the
covers of books. (See above.) For common
work, silver leaf, or even tin foil, is applied to
the surface, previously covered with size or
white of egg, and after being burnished down
and dried, is washed over with gold-coloured
lacquer.
The LETTERS of sign-boards and the orna-
mental gilding for out-door work are done by
first covering the design with yellow paint,
then with oil gold-size, and when this is nearly
dry applying the leaf-gold, observing to shield
it properly from the wind, lest it be blown
away or become crumpled before being pro-
perly attached. The work is, lastly, varnished.
POLISHED METALS may be gilded by one or
other of the methods already noticed. Ar-
ticles in silver, copper, brass, and bronze, are
usually coated by the process of wash or water
gilding; or, directly, by the application of gold
leaf, as follows: — The piece or article is
heated to a bluish tint, and gold leaf pressed
gently and carefully on it with the burnisher;
heat is again applied, and the process repeated
with fresh leaves of gold until the gilding has
acquired the proper thickness and tone. The
surface is lastly polished with the burnisher,
or is coloured in the usual manner at the
stove. This succeeds with iron, steel, silver,
copper and its alloys, &c. Another method for
polished articles in iron and steel, which, how-
ever, is less durable than the preceding, is to
apply an ethereal solution of gold to the sur-
face with a camel-hair pencil. The ether flies
off and leaves the surface coated with gold,
which is then polished as before. In this way,
any fancy device or writing may be executed
on steel or iron with extreme facility.
SILKS, SATINS, WOOLLENS, IVORY, BONE, &c.,
may be readily gilded by immersing them in
a solution of neutral terchloride of gold (1 of
the salt, and 3 to 6 of water), and then ex-
posing them to the action of hydrogen gas.
The latter part of the process may readily be
performed by pouring some dilute sulphuric
acid on zinc or iron filings, in a wide-mouthed
bottle, and placing it under a jar or similar
vessel, inverted, at the top of which the arti-
cles to be gilded are suspended. Flowers or
other ornamental designs may be produced by
painting them on the surface with a camel-
hair pencil dipped in the solution. The de-
sign, after a few minutes' exposure to the
hydrogen, shines with all the splendour of the
purest gold, and will not tarnish on exposure
to the air, or in washing.
GILDED THREAD or GOLD THREAD is merely
a thread of yellow silk covered with a very
thin flatted wire of gold, by means of a re-
volving wheel.
WIRE (copper, silver, or brass) is occasionally
gilded, in coils, by a similar process to that
adopted for BUTTONS ; but more frequently as
follows:–Rods (usually of silver) are covered
with gold foil of a thickness proportionate to
the quality of the intended wire, and the
compound bar is then drawn into wire, in the
usual way. 100 grs. of gold was formerly the
lowest legal quantity that could be employed
for 1 lb. of silver.
Patents. Among the varieties of chemical
gilding may be mentioned—
1. (Elkington's patent—GERMAN GILDING,
Bonnet's GILDING PROCESS.) The articles to
be gilded, after being perfectly cleaned from
scale or grease, and receiving a proper ‘face,’
are suspended, by means of wires, in the gilding
liquid (boiling hot), and moved about therein
for a period varying from a few seconds to a
minute, or longer; the precise time required
depending on the newness and strength of the
liquid. When sufficiently gilded, the articles
are withdrawn from the “solution of gold,’
washed in clean water, and dried; after which
they undergo the usual operation of ‘colouring,'
&c. A dead gold appearance is produced by
the application to the articles of a weak solution
of nitrate of mercury previously to the immer-
sion in the gilding liquor; or the deadening
may be given by applying a solution of the
nitrate to the newly gilded surface, and then
expelling the mercury by heat.
The gilding liquor.—Take of fine gold, 50Z,
(troy); nitro-muriatic acid, 52 oz. (avoir.
dupois); dissolve by heat, and continue the
heat until red or yellow vapours cease to be
evolved; decant the clear liquid into a suit.
able vessel; add of distilled water, 4 galls.;
pure bicarbonate of potassa, 20 lbs. ; and boil for
2 hours. The nitro-muriatic acid is made with
pure mitric acid (sp. gr. 1'45), 21 oz. ; pure
muriatic acid (sp. gr. 1:15), 17 oz. ; and dis-
tilled water, 14 oz.
This process, though patented by Mr. El-
kington in England, was in reality discovered
and first practised by M. Bonnet, a foreigner,
Articles thus gilded do not bear friction and

GILDING—GIN. 565
the operations of being put in colour (mise en
couleur) so well as those gilded by the mer-
curial process, or by the methods of cold or
leaf gilding as applied to polished metals.
2. (Talbot’s patent.) By this process polished
metallic articles are gilded by simple immersion
in a solution of gallic acid in water, ether, or
alcohol, to which a solution of gold has been
previously added. SILVERING and PLATI-
NISING may be effected in the same manner,
by using a solution of either of these metals
instead of one of gold.
*** These and other chemical processes
have been almost completely superseded by
the certain and economical process of ELECTRO-
GILDING. See ELECTROTYPE.
Gilding Amalgam. See AMALGAM.
Gilding Liquor. This name has been given
to various solutions of gold, and to other liquids
employed in gilding. The former are noticed
elsewhere. Among the latter are the following:
DEADING AQUAFORTIS. From mercury,
1 part ; aquafortis (sp. gr. 1:33), 3 parts; dis-
solve, and add of soft water, 7 parts. Used
to produce a dead-gold effect. It is applied
(diluted) to the articles, before spreading the
amalgam over them, in water gilding ; or be-
fore placing them in the ‘gilding liquor,’ in
the chemical processes. -
MERCURIAL SOLUTION. From mercury, 10
parts, dissolved in aquafortis (sp. gr. 1:33), 11
parts, and the solution diluted with 25 times
its weight of water. Used to moisten the
scratch brush before drawing it over the
amalgam, in mercurial gilding; also to deaden
the gilded surface, by moistening the latter
with it, and then exposing the piece to a heat
sufficiently high to drive off the mercury,
GILDER’s PICKLE. From alum and common
salt, of each, 1 oz. ; nitre, 2 oz. ; dissolved in
water, 4 pint. Used to impart a rich colour to
gold surfaces, especially of trinkets. Its ap-
plication should not be too long continued, as
it dissolves a small portion of the gold. For
common purposes it is best used largely di-
luted with water. -
VERMEIL, VERMEIL COATING, OR-MOLU C.
From annotta and salt of tartar, of each, 1 oz. ;
dragon's blood, 3 oz. ; water, 1 quart; simmer
down to about one fourth, add saffron, 20 grs.,
and when merely tepid, strain through fine
muslim into a bottle. Used to give lustre and
fire to distemper gilding. A little is floated
over the surface with a very soft, flat, camel-
hair brush.
Gilding Metal. The metal employed as a
base for gilding is usually brass, or a mixture
of brass and copper. The following propor-
tions have been recommended:–
1. Copper, 6 parts ; brass, 1 part.
2. Copper, 4 parts ; Bristol brass, 1 part.
3. Copper, 13 parts ; old Bristol brass, 3
parts; tin, 14 parts.
Gilding Powder. Prep. 1. Pure gold, 5
drs. ; pure copper, 1 dr. ; aqua regia, 10 oz. ;
dissolve, moisten clean linen rags with the
solution, dry them, and burn them to ashes.
The latter contain the gold in a state of
minute division, and must be carefully col-
lected.
2. Grain gold, 1 dr. ; rose copper, 15 grs. ;
aqua regia, 2 fl. Oz. ; proceed as last. Used in
* Gold Gilding.”
3. See Gold (in powder).
Gilding Shells. See GoLD SHELLs.
Gilding Size. See GoLD SIZE.
Gilding Wax. Syn. GILDING WARNISH,
GILDER’s WAx. Prep. 1. From bees' wax, 4
oz. ; verdigris and sulphate of copper, of each,
1 oz. ; melted together.
2. Bees’ wax, 4 oz. ; verdigris, red ochre,
and alum, of each, 1 oz. Used to give a red
gold colour to water gilding.
GIN. Syn. GENEVA. Corn spirit flavoured
with either oil of juniper or oil of turpentine.
Gin was originally and, for some time,
wholly imported from Holland, and was a
rich, soft spirit, flavoured, chiefly, with juniper
berries; on which account it had obtained the
name of “GENEVA, from ‘ GENIEVRE, the
French for juniper. After a time the distil-
lation of an imitation geneva sprung up in this
country, when the foreign spirit came to be
called ‘HoDLANDS,” or ‘HOLLANDS GENEVA,”
to distinguish it from the spirit of home
manufacture. The English monosyllable “GIN’
is a corruption of geneva, the primary syllable
of which, as in numerous other instances, was
seized on by the vulgar, and adopted as a
short and convenient substitute for the whole
word. -
The liquor at present known by the name
of ‘gin' in this country is a very different
article to that imported from Holland, and
consists of plain corn-spirit, flavoured with
oil of turpentine and small quantities of certain
aromatics. The thousand and one receipts
for this article, which have from time to time
been printed in books, produce a flavoured
spirit bearing no resemblance to the more
esteemed samples of English gin; and, if pos-
sible, the products are even more unlike
genuine Hollands. Any person may easily
satisfy himself of the truth of this assertion
by actual experiment on the small scale. The
cause of this incongruity has arisen chiefly
from the writers not being practically ac-
quainted with the subject, and from the disin-
clination of well-informed practical men to
divulge, gratuitously, what they conceive to
be valuable secrets. Hence the utter failure
of any attempts to produce either gin or Hol-
lands from the receipts usually published.
The authors appear to have all imbibed a
juniper-berry mania—probably from the im-
bibition of their favourite beverage. Oil of
juniper, in the hands of these gentlemen,
appears to be a perfect aqua mirabilis, that
readily converts whiskey into gin, and imparts
the rich creamy flavour of “Schiedam Hollands'
to crude corn or molasses spirit. But theory
and experiment sometimes disagree. In prac-



566
GIN.
tice, it is found that the true flavour of
foreign geneva cannot be imparted to spirit
by juniper alone, and that the English gin
of the present day depends for its flavour on
no such a substance. The following formulae
are merely given as specimens ; and it is
proper to remark, that every distiller has his
own receipt for this notorious beverage.
Hence it is that the gins of no two distillers
are of precisely the same flavour ; and this
difference is still more marked when the dis-
tillers reside in parts of the country remote
from each other. Booth’s, Smith's, and
Nicholson’s gins have each a characteristic
flavour, readily perceived by their respective
votaries; whilst the difference between ‘Ply-
mouth' or ‘Bristol gin,’ and the “gin of the
metropolis,’ is as remarkable as that between
* Barclay's XXX' and ‘Guinness’s bottled
stout.” These variations in flavour generally
depend on the use of more or less flavouring
matter, or of a spirit more or less clean or free
from taint ; and, less frequently, on the
addition of a small quantity of some peculiar
aromatic, which exercises a modifying in-
fluence on the chief flavouring ingredient.
In many cases the flavour has originated from
accident, but the consumers having become
accustomed to, and hence relishing, that par-
ticular ‘palate,’ it is found to be unwise or
commercially impossible to alter it. Any
change in these matters is therefore looked
upon in every distillery as a dangerous inno-
vation, which would prove more prejudicial
to the prosperity of its exchequer than the
repeal of the duty on French wines and
brandy, or even a frightful conflagration.
The distillers, like the brewers, are thorough
conservatives in all matters connected with
the flavour of their liquors.
In the preparation of gin, both sweetened
and unsweetened, and indeed of liquors
generally, the greatest possible care must be
taken to avoid an excess of flavouring. The
most esteemed samples are those that consist
of very pure spirit, slightly flavoured.
Prep. 1. Clean corn spirit, at proof, 80
galls.; newly rectified oil of turpentine, 14 pint;
mix well by violent agitation, add culinary
salt, 14 lbs., dissolved in water, 40 galls. ; again
well agitate, and distil over 100 gallons, or
until the faints begin to rise. Product.
100 galls. of gin 22 u. p., besides 2 galls, con-
tained in the faints. If 100 galls. at 17 u.p.
are required, 85 galls. of proof spirit, or its
equivalent at any other strength, must be
employed.
2. Proof spirit (as above), 8 galls.; oil of
turpentine, 1 fl. oz. ; salt, 1% lb., dissolved in
water, 4 galls. ; draw over 10 galls., as before.
22 u. p.
3. Clean corn spirit, 80 galls.; oil of tur.
pentine, 1 pint; pure oil of juniper, 3 fl. oz. ;
salt, 21 lbs. ; water, 35 galls. ; draw over 100
galls., as before. 22 u. p.
4. To the last, before distillation, add, of
oil of caraway, , fl. oz. ; oil of sweet femmel,
# fl. oz. ; cardamoms (ground), 8 oz.
5. To No. 3, add, of essential oil of almonds, 1
dr. ; essence of lemon, 4 drs.
6. To No. 1, before distillation, add of
creasote, 3 fl. drs.
7. To No. 3, add of creasote, 2 drs.
8. Proof spirit, 80 galls. ; oil of turpentine,
# pint; oil of juniper, 4 pint ; creasote, 2 drS.;
oranges and lemons, sliced, of each, 9 in no.;
macerate for a week, and distil 100 galls,
22 u. p.
9. To No. 1, add of rectified fusel oil, ; pint,
10. To No. 1, add of oil of juniper, 3 pint,
Concluding remarks. The oil of turpentine
for this purpose should be of the best quality,
and not that usually vended for painting,
which always contains resin and often fixed
oil. Juniper berries, bitter almonds, and the
aromatic seeds, may be used instead of the
essential oils ; but the latter are the most
convenient. Turpentine conveys a plain-gin
flavour, juniper berries or oil gives a Hol.
lands flavour, – creasote imparts a certain
degree of smokiness, or whiskey flavour-
lemon and the other aromatics, a creami.
ness, fulness, and richness. The flavour
imparted by cardamoms, when used judi.
ciously, is peculiarly agreeable and appro-
priate. That from caraways is also in general
esteem. Cassia in extremely small proportions
also tells well. Fusel oil gives a whiskey.
gin flavour; and in conjunction with creasote
or crude pyroligneous acid, a full whiskey
flavour. The only danger in the employment
of all these articles is using too much of them,
When this misfortune happens, the remedy is
to add sufficient plain spirit to reduce the
flavour to the proper standard. The creami.
ness and smoothness so much admired in
‘foreign geneva’ results chiefly from age,
The English rectifier endeavours to imitate
this by the addition of a little sugar. A rich
mellowness, that combines well with gins
turning on the ‘Hollands flavour,” is given
by a very small quantity of garlic, and with
Canadian balsam or Strasburg turpentine. The
peculiar piquancy, or the property of ‘biting
the palate,’ regarded as a proof of strength
and quality by the ignorant gin-drinker, is
imparted to the liquor by the addition of a
little caustic potassa. Sliced horseradish gives
piquancy as well as mellowness. Grains of
paradise, cayenne pepper, and sulphate of zinc,
are also commonly added by fraudulent dealers,
Although gin is always prepared on the
large scale by distillation, it may also be
made by the simple solution or digestion of
the flavouring ingredients in the spirit; but
it is, of course, better for distillation. If
made in the former way, no salt must be em.
ployed. The gin produced by the above
formulae is that denominated in the trade
“ UNSWEETENED GIN,” “GROG GIN,” &c.; but
the gin usually sold in the metropolis is a
sweetened spirit, and hence is technically dis.
GINGER—GINGERBREAD. 567

tinguished by the terms “swer TENED,” or
‘MADE UP. The generality of London gin-
drinkers prefer the latter article, even when
weaker and inferior, which it usually is, as
the addition of sugar permits adulteration
and watering to an enormous extent with
absolute impunity. Sweetened spirit cannot
be easily tested for its strength, and is taken
by the Excise at the strength which it is de-
clared to possess by the dealer. To ascertain
whether gin is sweetened or not, a little may
be evaporated in a spoon, over a hot coal or a
candle, when, if it is pure, it will leave the
spoon scarcely soiled; but if, on the contrary,
it has been sweetened, a small quantity of
syrupy liquid, or sugar, will be obtained, the
sweetness of which may be easily recognised
by tasting it.
The whole of the casks and utensils em-
ployed for gin should be perfectly clean, and
properly prepared, so as not to give colour;
as, if this spirit acquires the palest coloured
tint, its value is lessened, and if much coloured
it is rendered unsaleable. When gin has
once become much stained, the only remedy
is to re-distil it ; when it is only slightly
stained, the addition of a few lbs. of acetic acids
(B. P.) to a pipe or butt, a spoonful or two
to a gallon, or a few drops to a decanterful,
will usually decolour it, either at once or as
soon as it is mixed with water to make grog.
See ALCOHOLOMETRY, CASKS, DISTILLATION,
Holla NDS, SPIRITs, &c., and below.
Gin, Cor'dial. This is gin sweetened with
sugar, and slightly aromatised.
Prep. Good gin (22 u. p.), 90 galls ; oil of
almonds, 1 dr.; oils of cassia, nutmeg, and
lemon, of each, 2 drs. ; oils of juniper, caraway,
and coriander, of each, 3 drs. ; essences of orris
root and cardamoms, of each, 5 fl. Oz. ; orange-
flower water, 3 pints; lump sugar, 56 to 60 lbs. ;
dissolved in water, 4 galls. The essences are
dissolved in 2 quarts of spirit of wine, and
added gradually to the gin until the requisite
flavour is produced, when the sugar (dissolved)
is mixed in, along with a sufficient quantity
of soft water, holding 4 oz. of alum in solu-
tion, to make up 100 galls. When the whole
is perfectly mixed, 2 oz. of salt of tartar, dis-
solved in 2 or 3 quarts of hot water, are added,
and the liquor is again well rummaged up;
after which the cask is bunged up, and allowed
to repose. In a week, or less, it will have be-
come brilliant, and may be either ‘racked,” or
drawn from the same cask. Product. 100 galls.,
about 30 u.p.
Gin, Sweetened. Prep. From unsweetened
gin (22 u.p.), 95 galls.; lump sugar, 40 to 45 lbs.,
dissolved in clear water, 3 galls. ; mix well,
and fine it down as above. Product. 100 galls.,
at 26 u. p. This, as well as the last, is usually
‘permitted’ at 22 or 24 u. p., which is also
done when the gin has been further lowered
with water so as to be even 30 or 35 u. p.
See SPIRITs, and above.
GIN’GER. Syn. GINGER Root ; ZINGI-
BERIs RADIx, ZINGIBER (B. P.), L. “The
scraped and dried rhizome * (rootstock or
underground stem) of “Zingiber officinale.”—
(B. P.). Ginger is an aromatic stimulant and
stomachic, very useful in flatulence and spasms
of the stomach and bowels, and in loss of ap-
petite and dyspepsia, arising from debility,
or occurring in old or gouty subjects. A piece
chewed an hour before dinner tends to provoke
the appetite; as a masticatory, it often re-
lieves toothache, relaxation of the uvula, tender
gums, and paralytic affections of the tongue.
Made into a paste with warm water, and spread
on paper, it forms a useful and simple ‘head-
ache-plaster,’ which frequently gives relief
when applied to the forehead or temples. As
a condiment and flavouring ingredient, it is
perhaps one of the most wholesome of the aro-
matic kinds, and is less acrid than the peppers.
Dose. 10 grs. to teaspoonful, stirred up in
any simple liquid.
Pur., &c. The best is that known in com-
merce as “UNBLEACHED JAMAICA GINGER,”
which is an uncoated pale variety, occurring
in large, bold, fleshy pieces (“RACEs’), which cut
soft, bright, and pale-coloured. The inferior
varieties occur in smaller pieces, and are darker-
coloured, flinty, and shrivelled. The dealers
frequently ‘dress up' the common dark-co-
loured gingers by washing them in water,
drying them, and then ‘rouncing’ them in a
bag with a little calcined whiting or magnesia
(WASHED GINGER); or they bleach them by
dipping them into a solution of chloride of
lime, or by exposing them to the fumes of burn-
ing sulphur (BLEACHED GINGER); or they dip
them into a milk formed of quicklime or
whiting and water (WHITE-WASHED GINGER).
The last has a chalk-white surface, which can-
not be mistaken for the natural one. PoW-
DERED GINGER is with difficulty obtained pure
and good. The common adulterants are
wheat-flour, or East Indian arrow-root, and
plantain meal. The first may be detected by
the microscope, the others by the flavour and
action of hot water. See LozENGES, &c.
Preserved Ginger. Syn. CoNDITUM ZINGI-
BERIs, L. An excellent stomachic sweatmeat
or preserve. It is chiefly imported from the
West Indies and China. See CANDYING,
&c.
A Factitious Preserved Ginger is sometimes
met with, prepared from the stalks of lettuce
just going to seed, using a concentrated syrup,
strongly flavoured with Jamaica ginger. See
CANDY, &c.
GIN/GER BEER. See BEER.
GIN/GERBREAD. Prep. 1. (Dr. Colquhoun.)
Flour, 1 lb. ; carbonate of magnesia, 4 oz. ;
mix; add, of treacle, 3 lb.; moist sugar, 4 lb.;
melted butter, 2 oz. ; tartaric acid (dissolved in
a little water), 1 dr. ; make a stiff dough, then
add of powdered ginger and cinnamon (cassia),
of each, 1 dr. ; grated nutmeg, 1 oz. ; set it
aside for half an hour or an hour before putting
it into the oven. Obs. It should not be kept

568
GINGER CANDY-GLASS.
onger than two or three hours, at the utmost,
before being baked.
2. Flour and treacle, of each, 1 lb.; butter,
1% oz. ; carbonate of magnesia, 1 oz. ; add
spices (ginger, cinnamon, nutmeg, allspice,
cayenne, corianders, &c.) to taste; mix as last.
Obs. Fit for baking in from four to six hours.
3. Flour, 2 lbs. ; carbonate of magnesia, # oz. ;
mix; add, treacle, 1% lb. ; butter, 2 oz. ; spice,
q. s. ; tartaric acid, # oz. ; mix quickly, and
make it into forms. Obs. Ripe for the oven
in half an hour to one hour.
4. Instead of tartaric acid in the last for-
mula, use cream of tartar (dissolved in water),
2 oz. Obs. Ripens in 40 or 50 minutes.
5. Flour or fine pollard, 1 lb.; treacle, # lb. ;
salt of tartar, 3 oz., dissolved in water, q. S.;
butter, 1 oz. ; spices, to palate. Obs. Takes
several days to ripen; sometimes a fortnight.
6. (Extemporaneous.)—a. From flour, 14 lb.;
moist sugar and treacle, of each, 3 lb. ; butter,
2% oz. ; baker's salt (carbonate of ammonia),
# oz., dissolved in cold water, q. S.; ginger,
3 drs. ; nutmeg, 2 drs. ; cassia, 1 dr. ; cayenne
pepper (best), dr.
b. From flour, 6 lbs. ; powered ginger, 2% oz.:
caraway seeds, 1 oz. (and other spices to
palate); candied lemon and orange peels, of
each, 20Z.; moist sugar and melted butter, of ach,
# lb. ; treacle, 4 lbs. ; volatile salt, 2 oz. ; water,
q. s. ; mix as above. May be baked at once.
c. From Jones's patent flour, 2 lbs. ; treacle,
1 lb.; moist sugar, 3 lb. ; butter, 2% oz: ; Spice,
q. s. ; mix as quickly as possible, and bake it
instantly. If the dough is expertly mixed up.
the quality of the product is fully equal, if
not superior, to that of any of the preceding
formulae.
Obs. Gingerbread is either rolled out into
thin sheets and cut into cakes or nuts (GINGER-
BREAD NUTS) with the top of a wine-glass or
canister, or is formed into thick cakes, which
are baked in “batches’ (ordinary GINGERBREAD).
Both varieties require a pretty brisk oven;
the thinner kinds (nuts, &c.), especially, must
be baked as crisp as possible, without being
burnt. The varieties called LEMON GINGER-
BREAD, CARAWAY G., &c., have a perceptible
predominance of these flavouring ingredients.
The addition of a little alum, dissolved in
water, makes the bread both lighter and
crisper, and causes it to ripen quicker, but at
the same time lessens its wholesomeness.
GIN/GER CAN’DY. See CANDYING.
GIN'GER DROPS. See DROPs (Confec-
tionery).
GLAIRE. White of egg. See ALBUMEN
and EGG.
GLAN'DERS. Syn. FARCINOMA, L. A con-
tagious disease, generally confined to the horse,
ass, and mule, but communicable to man, in
whom it assumes a highly malignant and often
fatal character. This disease appears under
two forms—1. SIMPLE ACUTE GLANDERS,
marked by copious discharge of foul mucous
matter from the nostrils and adjacent parts;
and—2. FARCY, FARCIN, or FARCY GLANDERS,
when it attacks the lymphatics of the skin,
either generally, producing a distended ap-
pearance of the vessels, like moles or buttons
(LEAD or BUTTON FARCY), or locally, when it
takes the form of dropsical accumulations in
the legs (WATER FARCY).
Treat. Mr. Youatt considers it useless to
attempt the cure of glandered horses; but
that farcy in its earlier stages and milder
forms may be often successfully treated. “All
the mercurials have been used with benefit in
farcy; but they must be discontinued as soon
as the mouth is sufficiently affected, or sick.
ness, loss of appetite, and like symptoms, are
produced.” (Blaine.) Feeding the animal en-
tirely on green food appears to be the best
mode of treatment in both varieties. The
buttons are generally removed with caustic or
a red-hot iron,
GLASS. Syn. VITRUM, L. This well-
known substance is essentially a mixture of
silicates with an excess of silica or silicic
acid. It generally contains the silicates of
potassa, soda, lime, baryta, magnesia, alumina,
and lead, coloured by small portions of iron,
manganese, cobalt, uranium, copper, or gold. In
its usual form, it is brittle, transparent, non-
crystalline, insoluble, and fusible; but it some-
times exhibits other properties.
The manufacture of glass is one of the
highest beauty, and considering the compa-
rative worthlessness of the materials of which
it is made, and the various purposes of a use.
ful, ornamental, and scientific nature which it
subserves, it may be regarded as, perhaps, the
most important in the history of inven-
tions. The principle of its production is very
simple, although great skill and experience
are necessary to ensure its excellence. Silica
(commonly under the form of sand) is heated
with carbonate of potassa or of soda, and slaked
lime or oxide of lead, until the mixture fuses,
and combination takes place. After a time the
melted mass becomes perfectly limpid and free
from air-bubbles, when it is allowed to cool until
it assumes the peculiar tenacious condition
proper for working. The operation of fusion
is conducted in large crucibles of refractory
fire-clay, which, in the case of “lead-glass,’ are
covered with a dome, at the top, and have an
opening at the side by which the materials are
introduced, and the melted glass withdrawn.
The manufacture of glass is only conducted
on the large scale, and the precise character and
proportions of the ingredients used by the
glass-maker, must necessarily greatly depend
upon the nature of the raw materials furnished
by his locality, or otherwise at his command.
The attention of the manufacturer should be
directed to the use of his materials in such
proportions as will furnish, in the melting-pot,
the proper quantities of the essential ingre.
dients, as determined from the known compo-
sition of the best commercial samples. The
purity of the raw materials and the accuracy

GLASS.
569
of his proportions and quantities are proved
or disproved by the excellence of the product;
and the cause of error (if any) may be at
once determined by carefully ascertaining the
quality of the ingredients employed, and the
composition of the defective glass.
Prep. The following formulae exhibit the
composition of the leading commercial glasses,
as shown by chemical analysis, together with
the proportions of the raw materials used in
their production.
BOTTLE GLASS. Sp. gr. 2:700 to 2-735.-
a. Composition by analysis:–
1. Silica, 53'55#; lime, 29.22%; mixed al-
kali, 5:48}; alumina, 6.01%; oxide of iron, 5.74%.
Dark green. - -
2. Silica, 52%; baryta, 21.6%; soda, 26.1%;
oxides of iron and manganese, 3%. Pale green ;
very superior. -
b. Raw materials used :—
1. Yellow sand, 20% ; kelp, 8%; lixiviated
wood-ashes, 30%; fresh wood-ashes, 8%; pale
clay, 16%; ‘cullet' (broken glass), 18%. This
is the common mixture for coarse bottles, in
Belgium, France, and Germany. -
2. To the last add of black oxide of manga-
nese, 2% to 3%. Has a rich yellowish colour;
used for Rhenish-wine bottles.
3. Pale sand, 51%; lixiviated wood-ashes, 33%;
pearl-ashes (dried), 8%; common salt, 7% #;
white arsenic, 3 }; charcoal, q.S. Very pale
green.
4. Siliceous sand (pale), 68} {}; potash (or its
equiv.), 4%; lime, 23% #; heavy spar, 2} }; per-
oxide of manganese, 1} {}. This forms the cele-
brated ‘flask-glass of St. Etienne.
BROAD GLASS, SPREAD WINDOW GLASS.
gr. 2:642.-
a. By analysis :—
Silica, 69-70%; lime, 13:30%; soda, 15-25};
oxide of iron (and loss), 1.75%.
b. Materials used :—
1. White sand, 50% ; dried sulphate of soda,
22}; charcoal (in powder), 9%; ‘cullet,’ 41%;
peroxide of manganese, a little. Pale.
2. White sand, 60%; potashes (good), 24%;
common salt, 10%; nitre, 5%; white arsenic, 1%;
peroxide of manganese, a little (I's to #3); pale
‘cullet,” at will (10 to 30%). Very pale. This
is the “spread' or “sheet window-glass’ in
COInn) Orl use.
CHEMICAL GLASS.
a. By analysis —
1. Silica, 72.80%; potassa, 16:80%; lime (with
a trace of alumina), 9.68%; magnesia, 40%;
traces of oxide of manganese and iron (and loss),
*32%. This is the difficultly fusible “Bohe-
mian tube-glass,” so valuable in chemical mani-
pulations. -
2. Silica, 69.3%; potassa, 15.8%; soda,3}; lime,
7.6%; alumina, 1.2%; magnesia, 2}; oxide of
iron, 5%; oxide of manganese (and loss), 6%.
English chemical glass (without lead). More
fusible than the last.
b. Materials used:—
1. Quartz (hyalin, in powder), 60%; calcined
Sp.
Sp. gr. 2:390 to 2:396.-
purified pearlash, 30%; fresh-burnt lime (very
pure), 9%; nitre (dried), ##; arsenious acid or
peroxide of manganese, ##. Said to be the pro-
portions used in the production of a, 1 (above).
2. (M. Peligot.) Quartz, 71; ; ; carbonate
of potassa (or its equiv., dry), 20%; quicklime,
8% #; (manganese, a little). Said to be the for-
mula for the hardest and least fusible ‘ Bohe-
mian tube-glass.’ It is very intractable and
infusible, except at a very high temperature;
but the addition of an exceedingly small quan-
tity of boracic acid, borax, or arsenious acid,
causes it to flow into a glass possessing great
brilliancy and hardness, and capable of being
wrought at the highest heat of the ordinary
furnace. -
CROWN GLASS, WHITE WINDow-GIASS. Sp.
gr. 2:486 to 2:488.
a. By analysis:—
1. Silica, 62.8%; potassa, 22.1%; lime, 12.5%;
alumina (with traces of oxide of iron and
manganese), 2.6%. Crown-glass of Bohemia,
according to Dumas. Very beautiful.
2. Silica, 72.5%; soda, 17.75%; lime, 9.75%.
English crown-glass ; excellent quality, but
not so white as the last.
b. Materials used:—
1. Finest white siliceous sand, 64%; purified
potashes (dry), 23%; lime, 12}; white arsenic,
# $; oxide of manganese, ##. Said to be used

in Bohemia.
2. (Schweigger.) Pure sand, 5.7%; dry sul-
phate of soda, 28% $; quicklime, 11% $; pow-
dered charcoal, 3 or 4%. Corresponds to a, 2,
above (nearly). -
3. Pure sand, 40%; soda ash, 24%; lime, 5%;
white “cullet,’ 31}. Rather superior to the last.
CRYSTAL, CRYSTAL, GLASS. The “crystal
glass' of England is flint glass of superior
quality; that of Bohemia is noticed under
TABLE GLASS.
FLINT GLASS, CRYSTAL. Sp. gr. 3'000 to
3:620.-
a. By analysis:–
1. (Berthier.) Silica, 59.19%; oxide of lead,

28.68}; potassa, 12.13%; oxides of iron and
manganese, traces. Finest colourless English
crystal. -
2. (Brande; Farāday.) Silica, 52%; oxide
of lead, 34}; potassa, 34%. Crystal.
3. (Faraday.) Silica, 44.30%; oxide of lead,
43.05%; potassa, 11.75%; alumina, 50%; ox-
ides of iron and manganese, 12%; (loss 28%).
Heaviest of three samples of flint glass ex-
amined.
b. Materials used:— -
1. Finest Lynn-sand (calcined, sifted, and
washed), 51%; litharge (purest), 28% (or red
lead, 29%), refined pearlashes (calcined before
being weighed), 16}; nitre (purified), 4}}
arsenious acid and peroxide of manganese, of
each, ; }. Very fine crystal.
2. (M. Payen.) Fine sand, 46%; red lead,
31}; purified carbonate of potash, 23}. French
crystal.
3. (Geddes.) White Lynn-Sand, 51%; red



570
GLASS.
lead or litharge, 33%; refined pearlashes, 13%;
nitre, 3%; a very little arsenious acid and per-
oxide of manganese. Ordinary English flint-
glass. Crystal ‘cullet” may be added at will
to the above. This glass was originally pre-
pared from powdered flints, a fact to which it
owes its common name.
OPTICAL GLAss. 1. (Crown glass.) Purest
siliceous sand, 55%; carbonate of soda (dry),
12}; chalk (dry), 11%; carbonate of baryta,
22}.
2. (Flint glass.)—
a. By analysis:—
Silica, 44.30%; oxide of lead, 43.05%; po-
tassa, 11.75%. This is Guinand’s ‘dense
optical glass.’
b. Materials used:—
1. Purest quartz, 42%; red lead (finest),
42%; purified potash, 14+%; purified nitre,
1} }. These are the proportions used for the
last.
2. (Korner.) Finest quartz (reduced to
powder, treated with hydrochloric acid, washed,
and dried), 47% $; red lead, 38% $; cream of
tartar, 14% $. The above are used by opticians
in the construction of achromatic object-
glasses.
PLATE GLAss. Sp. gr. 2:488 to 2.600.-
a. By analysis:–
1. (Dumas.) Silica, 75.9%; soda, 17.5%;
lime, 3.8%; alumina, 2.8%. French mirror-
glass.
2. (Mitscherlich.) Silica, 60%; potassa,
25%; lime, 12.5%; (loss, 2.5% P). Finest Bohe-
mian plate.
b. Materials used :—
1. Finest siliceous sand, 45%; dried carbo-
nate of soda, 25%; lime, 5%; nitre (purified),
2}; plate-glass cullet, 23}; peroxide of man-
ganese and cobalt azure, a very little. Ordi-
nary English plate.
2. Whitish quartz sand, 60%; purified car-
bonate of soda (dried), 20%; lime (slaked by
exposure to the air), 9%; plate-glass cullet,
11% (or more). Sometimes as much cullet as
sand is used; but in all cases 1% to 1} {} of its
weight in carbonate of soda is added with it,
besides that ordered in the formula, to com-
pensate for loss of alkali by remelting. Used
at the celebrated plate-glass works at Saint-
Gobain, France. The product possesses an
amount of excellence which British manufac-
turers have yet failed to equal.
TABLE GLASS, BoHEMIAN CRYSTAL. Sp. gr.
2’6 to 2-8.- -
a. By analysis:–
1. (M. Berthier.) Silica, 71.7%; potassa,
12.7%; soda, 2.3%; lime, 10.3%; alumina, 4%;
oxides of iron and manganese (and loss), 2.6%.
Very white, hard, and beautiful table glass.
2. (Dumas.) Silica, 70%; potassa, 20%; lime,
4}; alumina, 5%; oxide of iron, 6%; peroxide
of manganese, 4%. A beautiful white wine-
glass.
b. Materials used :—
1. Finest sand, 50%; purified potashes, 25%;
chalk, 10%; nitre, 24; crystal cullet, 27%;
manganese, a little (say tº #). Used in Eng-
land recently for table glass. -
2. Quartz (hyalin, in powder), 63%; puri-
fied potashes, 26}; slaked lime (carefully
sifted), 11%; manganese, a little ; crystal cul-
let, at will. Used in Bohemia.
3. (M. Perdonnet.) Powdered quartz, 44%;
carbonate of potassa, 33}; quicklime (in fine
powder), 22%; nitre, 1%; and a very small
quantity of arsenious acid and peroxide of
manganese. Said to be the formula used at
Neuwelt for the glass a, 1 (above).
Qual., &c. These are denoted by its hard-
ness, transparency, homogeneity, strength,
and power of resisting the action of water,
air, light, and the stronger acids and alkalies.
The power of glass to resist the action of
menstrua is readily tried by exposing it to
boiling oil of vitriol, and hot but dilute solu-
tion of caustic potassa. Neither of these tests
should cause the glass to lose its transparency
or to become dim.
Swallowed glass. Glass and enamel, both
in fragments and in powder, have occasion-
ally been swallowed, with different results.
These bodies are insoluble in the fluids of the
body, and, consequently, any injurious action
they may exert upon the system whilst they
are retained in it must entirely depend upon
mechanical attrition or irritation. As treat-
ment, we must administer an emetic, and as:
sist its action by thick mucilaginous liquids,
and afterwards have recourse to antiphlogistics,
if necessary.
Anal. —a. A portion of the sample for ex-
amination is heated to dull redness, and then
suddenly thrown, whilst still hot, into a vessel
of cold water. It is next dried, and reduced
to fine powder in an agate or hardened-steel
mortar.
b. 100 grs. of the prepared powder is tho-
roughly mixed with 200 grs. of pure potassic
hydrate, and the whole is exposed to heat in a
silver or platinum crucible or capsule until
perfect fusion takes place; when cold, the cru-
cible and its contents are boiled in about half
a pint of distilled water; nitric acid is added
to the resulting solution, in excess, and the
mixture, together with any sediment, is eva-
porated to dryness, after which the heat is
gradually increased to 400° or 500°Fahr.; the
dry residuum is next reduced to powder, and
digested in water acidulated with nitric acid,
until exhausted of soluble matter; the insolu-
ble portion is then carefully dried, gently
ignited, and weighed. The weight in grains
represents the per-centage of silica in the
sample examined.
c. The mixed liquid and washings of (b) is
next acidulated with nitric acid, and treated
to a stream of sulphuretted hydrogen, which,
if it produces a precipitate, is continued for
some time; the precipitate is collected on a
very small filter, washed, and dried; the filter
with the precipitate next placed in a beaker
GLASS. 571
glass, and strong fuming nitric acid is cau-
tiously added, drop by drop, until complete
solution takes place; after boiling the solu-
tion for a few minutes, diluting with distilled
water, and allowing it to cool, it is precipitated
with sulphuric acid, in excess; this precipi-
tate (sulphate of lead) is washed, dried, slightly
ignited in a porcelain crucible, and weighed.
The weight in grains, multiplied by 7369,
gives the per-centage of oxide of lead or
litharge.
d. The filtered liquid from (c) is evaporated
to dryness, and redissolved in water acidulated
with hydrochloric acid, and treated with a
solution of ammonium chloride, and after-
wards with ammonia, in excess; the precipi-
tate (alumina and oxide of iron) is collected,
washed, and boiled in a solution of potassium
hydrate; the undissolved portion is collected
on a filter, washed with boiling water, ignited,
and weighed. This gives the per-centage of
peroxide of iron.
e. The liquid filtered from the oxide of iron
holds the alumina (if any) in solution; a solu-
tion of carbonate of ammonium is dropped in;
the resulting precipitate is washed, dried, ig-
nited, and weighed. This gives the per-cent-
age of alumina.
f. The filtrate from the alumina and oxide
of iron (see d), after being evaporated to dry-
ness, is redissolved in a large quantity of dis-
tilled water, and is treated with a solution of
oxalic acid (a solution of oxalate of ammonium
is preferable when no baryta is present); the
precipitate is washed, dried, gently ignited,
and weighed. The weight of the resulting
carbonate of calcium, in grains, multiplied by
‘56292, gives the per-centage of lime re-
quired.
g. The filtrate from (f) is now mixed with
carbonate of potassium, in considerable excess,
and boiled for a long time; the resulting pre-
cipitate (if any) is then collected on a filter,
slightly washed with hot water, dried, and ex-
posed to a full red heat for some time (say 2
hours); the residuum of the calcination is then
weighed. This furnishes the per-centage value
of the sample in magnesia.
h. The filtrate from (f) is treated with di-
lute sulphuric acid or the solution of a sul-
phate, as long as a precipitate falls; the pre-
cipitate (sulphate of barytium) is washed,
dried, gently ignited, and weighed. The
weight, in grains, multiplied by 6589, gives
the per-centage of baryta in the sample.
The above may be varied by gently concen-
trating the liquid filtered from the precipi-
tate of alumina and oxide of iron (see d), and
precipitating it with dilute sulphuric acid;
the mixed precipitate is exhausted by digestion
in water holding chloride of ammonium in so-
lution; the undissolved residuum (sulphate of
barytium) is washed, dried, and otherwise
treated as before ; whilst the solution with
the washings is treated with a solution of car-
bonate of ammonium; the precipitate is car-
bonate of calcium, which is to be washed, &c.,
as directed under (f). The liquor, &c., filtered
from the lime, is lastly tested for magnesia.
(See g.)
à. A second 100 grs. of the powdered glass
(see a) is mixed with 200 grs. of fluor spar,
also in powder; the compound is placed in a
platinum or leaden capsule, 500 grs. of strong
sulphuric acid are added, and the whole cau-
tiously stirred together with a silver stirrer
or spoon, care being taken to avoid inhaling
the fumes; the heat of a spirit lamp is next ap-
plied, and at first is kept at about 212°Fahr.,
but towards the conclusion of the process is
raised to 300° Fahr., or even higher, and is
continued for at least 2 hours, or until fumes
entirely cease to be evolved; 5 or 6 fl. oz. of
distilled water are next poured on the residuary
mass, and, after thorough agitation, the whole
is thrown on a filter, more water being at last
poured on to wash out any remains of soluble
matter; to the filtrate, carbonate of ammo-
nium is added in excess, and after a time the
earthy salts are removed by filtration; the fil-
tered liquor is now evaporated to dryness, and
ignited to dull redness for 2 or 3 minutes; the
residuum (sulphate of potassium or sodium), or
of both), after being weighed (the weight
being carefully noted down), is redissolved in
distilled water; a solution of chloride of barium
is then added as long as it disturbs the liquor,
and after a time the whole is again filtered;
the filtrate is concentrated by evaporation,
and solution of bichloride of platinum added
in excess; the whole is now gently evaporated
to dryness, mixed with alcohol, collected on a
filter, carefully washed with weak alcohol,
dried at a temperature under 212° Fahr., and
weighed. The weight, in grains, multiplied
by 1940, gives the per-centage of potassa
sought.
AE. The weight of sulphate of potassium in
the ignited residuum in (i) is calculated from
that of the potassium last found (47 parts of
the one being equal to 87 parts of the other),
and this weight is deducted from the gross
weight of the ignited sulphates; the remain-
der represents the quantity of sulphate of so-
dium present. The weight of the latter, in
grains, multiplied by 4367, gives the per-
centage of pure soda required.
Concluding remarks. One of the chief points
to which the skilful glass manufacturer directs
his attention, is the quality of the materials.


| Great care is exercised in the selection of the
sand for all the finer varieties of glass. The
usual practice is to test it before using it, by
exposing it to a very high temperature. The
purest sand is that which is the whitest and
freest from iron, and which, consequently,
suffers the least alteration by this treatment.
The alkalies (potash, soda) employed are puri-
fied by solution and crystallisation. The red
lead and litharge must be pure and absolutely
free from oxide of copper (a common con-
tamination), which gives a green tint to the

572
GLASS.
glass. The former, which is the most costly,
is preferable to the finest crystal. Care must
also be taken that the lime, clay, &c., are
respectively of proper purity; and that the
“cullet,' or broken glass, which is almost
always remelted with the other materials, is of
proper quality, and of the same kind as that
to which it is added. Potassa produces a
better glass than soda, although the latter is
now very generally employed, from its lower
price. It is, however, quite inadmissible as an
ingredient in the manufacture of the better
class of crystal and plate glass, as, however
pure it may be, it imparts to the product a
slight greenish tinge more or less destructive
of its beauty. When sulphate of soda (Glauber
salt) is used as a source of soda, it is gently
calcined to dissipate its water of crystallisa-
tion, and requires the addition of about 8% of
charcoal to effect its reduction in the melting-
pot. Common salt is also employed as a source
of soda in the same manner. Sometimes native
sulphide of lead (galena) is used to decompose
the sulphate of soda, and in lieu of part of the
oxide of lead; in which case about 5 parts of
the sulphuret are taken for every 9 parts of the
calcined sulphate.
To anticipate the results of his processes,
and to carry out with certainty his various
intentions, the glass manufacturer, perhaps
more than any other person, requires the aid
of science and experience. All his most essen-
tial operations depend on chemical principles.
The products of his furnaces are not formed
by the mere mechanical admixture of their
several ingredients whilst in the state of fusion,
but result from the play of delicate affinities
which only act under certain conditions, and
when the materials are presented to each other
in uniform and definite proportions. Chemi-
cally speaking, the glasses are mixed super-
silicates of the respective bases which enter
into their composition (potassium, calcium,
lead, &c.), and, like all other compounds which
are formed by elective attraction, obey the
common laws of combination, as developed by
Dalton, and now so successfully applied in
almost every department of industrial art. It
has been shown by the most careful analysis,
that in all the more valuable and beautiful
commercial glasses the relative proportions of
the materials are conformable to these laws,
and that several of them are true atomic com-
pounds, as perfect in this respect as the
crystalline bodies commonly denominated salts.
In some of the harder glasses of Bohemia the
number of atoms or equivalents of silica are to
each of the bases with which it is united,
nearly as 5 to 1; whilst in a softer glass of
German manufacture the proportions of the
two are found to be as 4 to 1. The celebrated
plate glass of St. Gobain is an atomic com-
pound formed of 1 equivalent of trisilicate of
soda united to 1 equivalent of trisilicate of
lime, with a small per-centage of alumina in
combination with silicic acid, also in atomic
proportion. Glasses in which the ingredients
bear no atomic ratio to each other are never
homogeneous, but always more or less striated
and of unequal colour and refractive power.
The absence of atomic proportion between the
substances entering into its composition appears
to be the only reason why the best English
plate and mirror glass is so greatly inferior to
that of France and Germany, that comparison
of the two becomes absurd. The only variety
of glass in the production of which the English
manufacturer excels is flint glass or crystal,
and here he certainly surpasses all his nume-
rous competitors. The subject is doubtless
involved in difficulty, owing to the precise
temperature necessary to effect the perfect
combination of the bases with the silicic acid,
varying with the character of the compound,
and not being satisfactorily settled by observa-
tion or experience. The modifying influence
of temperature is shown by the fact that the
lower the heat employed in the process, the
smaller the quantity of silica which enters
into the composition of the resulting glass;
whilst at higher temperatures a part of the
base is dissipated in fumes, until such propor-
tions of base and acid result as are required to
produce a permanent atomic compound corre-
sponding to the temperature employed. If
the heat is excessive or improperly continued,
the loss of base produces an opposite effect,
and an opaque, semi-vitrified mass is formed,
resembling ‘ Reaumur's porcelain.” The
quality of the resulting glass depends on this
change being more or less complete. If the
furnace yields the right temperature, and the
duration of the exposure to its action is neither
too short nor too prolonged, nature makes up
for the unskilful conduct of the operative, and
removes the stumbling blocks which his
ignorance had placed in the way of his own
attempts at excellence. The proceedings and
their results are accidental; but being once
obtained, the first are repeated without further
trouble or inquiry. This accounts for the
same mixture of materials yielding products of
different qualities at different times, and in
different works, which the operative contents
himself with referring to the ‘going of the
furnace.” The common plan in this country is
to regulate the proportions and firing by ex-
perience only, rather than by theory and
practice combined. Now, although the chemist
has much yet to learn on the precise con-
stitution of the glasses, and although theory
may not be able to ensure unvarying success,
it is nevertheless certain that, in all cases, it
can afford much valuable assistance in that
direction. Indeed, it has been asserted by one
of the leading Continental chemists, that in-
gredients that will yield the proper equivalent
proportions in the melting pot cannot produce
a bad glass, if exposed to such a temperature
as to permit of perfect combination taking
place.
It is found that those glasses which contain



GLASS.
573
a predominance of alkali are acted on by water,
and when this is in great excess they are
perfectly soluble in that fluid. Ordinary flint
glass is affected by long coction in water,
whilst crown glass, which contains less alkali,
is unaltered by that trial. Glass which con-
tains any considerable quantity of lead is acted
on by sulphuretted hydrogen. This is the
cause of the surface of flint glass, under certain
circumstances, becoming opaque and iridescent.
Glasses made of silica and alkali alone are
incapable of permanently resisting the action
of water. The addition of lime or oxide of
lead appears to be necessary to give them this
quality. Glasses that have a slight greenish
or bluish tint may be often whitened, or ren-
dered colourless, by exposure to light and air.
This arises from the peroxidation of the iron,
to whose protoxide they owe their tint. Other
glasses become purpled by exposure, owing to
the peroxidation of the manganese.
Different COLOURS are communicated to glass
by the addition of metallic oxides. Thus,
oxide of manganese gives an amethyst ; oxide
of cobalt, a blue ; oxide of iron, a brown ;
black oxide of copper, a green; oxide of gold,
a purple ; suboxide of copper, a ruby-red;
oxide of tin, a white; oxide of silver, a yellow,
&c. These substances are either added to the
melted contents of the glass-pot, as in pre-
paring artificial gems, &c., or they are applied
in a thin layer to the surface of the object,
which is then heated until fusion of the
coloured compound occurs, as in enamelling and
painting on glass.
Glass is FORMED or FASHIONED into articles
by the processes of blowing, casting, drawing,
rolling, or spreading. In the process of
BLOWING GLASS the workman begins by col-
lecting a proper quantity of glass in a soft,
pasty state, at the end of his blowpipe (an
iron tube, five or six feet in length, terminated
by a mouth-piece of wood), which he then
commences blowing through, by which the
lump is expanded into a kind of flask, sus-
ceptible of having its form modified by the
position in which it is held, and the velocity
of rotation continually given to the iron tube.
If an open-mouthed vessel is to be made, an
iron rod, called a ‘pontil or “puntil, is dipped
into the glass-pot and applied to the bottom
of the flask, to which it thus serves as a
handle, the blowpipe being removed by the
application of a cold iron to the neck. The
vessel is now re-heated, and the aperture en-
larged, and the vessel otherwise altered in
figure by the aid of a few simple tools until
completed. It is then detached, and carried
to the “annealing oven, where it undergoes
slow and gradual cooling during many hours.
In this way bottles, flasks, carboys, and an
almost infinite variety of other articles, are
formed. The larger circular tables of CROWN-
GLASS are made by a joint process of BLOWING
and SPREADING. The globular flask at first
produced, transferred from the blowpipe to
the ‘pontil,’ is suddenly made to assume the
form of a flat disc by the centrifugal force of
the rapid rotatory movement given to the
rod. SPREAD or BROAD GLASS is formed into
sheets in a nearly similar manner. PLATE-
GLASS is cast upon a flat metal table, and,
after very careful annealing, is ground and
polished by suitable machinery. TUBES are
made by rapidly drawing out a hollow cylinder;
and from these a great variety of useful small
apparatus are constructed with the help of a
lamp and blowpipe, or, still better, the bellows-
table of the barometer-maker. GLASS BEADS
are made from small tubes chopped into
pieces of suitable lengths, which are stirred
first in a mixture of sand and wood-ashes, in
the cold, and afterwards in an iron pan over
the fire until they assume a rounded form.
SMALL TUBEs are bent in the flame of a spirit
lamp or gas-jet, and cut by a file, a scratch
being made, and the two portions pulled or
broken asunder in a way easily learned by a
few trials. LARGE TUBES require the heat of
a powerful blowpipe and lamp, or that of a
furnace.
The following hints respecting the MANAGE-
MENT OF GLASS may prove useful to the inex-
perienced:—
ANNEALING. The process of annealing glass
has been briefly referred to before. The ex-
treme brittleness of imperfectly annealed
wrought glass may generally be remedied on
the small scale by immersing the articles in a
bath of oil, or a concentrated solution of chlo-
ride of calcium, or common salt, and heating
the whole gradually and cautiously to the
boiling-point, and letting it again cool—the
slower the better. By this treatment the glass
will be enabled to bear any alternations of
temperature between the two extremes to which
it has been exposed.
BLOWING. By the ingenious art of GLASS-
BLOWING and GLASS-DRAWING, as practised on
the small scale, with a blowpipe lamp furnace,
a variety of articles of ornament and utility
may be made, their number being limited only
by the ingenuity of the artist. The details of
the various operations are, however, too lengthy
to describe here.
CLEANING. Windows, looking-glasses, &c.,
may be quickly cleaned as follows:–Dip a
slightly moistened rag or flannel into whiting,
fuller's earth, wood-ashes, or rotten-stone, in
impalpable powder, with which smear the
glass, and wipe it off with a dry soft cloth.
This does well when the surface is very dirty.
In other cases, a little thumb blue, whiting, or
chalk, in fine powder, tied up in muslin, may
be dusted on the glass, which should then be
cleaned off with chamois leather. This gives
a fine polish.
CUTTING. Glass may be easily cut with a
common well-hardened steel file, provided it
be moistened with oil of turpentine, or plunged
under water. It may also be perforated with
a common steel brad-awl in the same way.

574
GLASS—GLAZE.
GLASS VESSELS, as bottles and tubes, may be
readily cut or shortened by placing a heated
iron ring over the spot, or a piece of loose
string or cotton dipped in oil of turpentine
and set on fire, and immediately on the with-
drawal of either applying cold water to the
part. Glass vessels or tubes thus treated will
generally crack round, and may be readily
divided into two parts. In this manner a
common Florence oil-flask may be converted
into an evaporating dish and a funnel. By
a little practice a crack may be led in almost
any direction, or a new one made, by the
point of a red-hot poker or a spring coal (an
ignited crayon of prepared charcoal). The
parts may then be separated by a little force
or a smart rap, and the divided edges smoothed
by the flame of a blowpipe, or by grinding
them with powdered emery and water on a flat
stone. In this way many broken articles in
glass may be converted into others scarcely
less useful.
ETCHING ON GLASS has been already noticed
under the head of ETCHING.
GRINDING. This, on the large scale, like
glass-cutting, forms a distinct occupation.
On the small scale, glass may be roughed or
ground by friction with powdered emery and
water and a flat rubber of wood ; care being
taken that the article, if a plate, is laid on a
perfectly flat surface, or, if hollow, is sup-
ported by a core of cement or plaster. The
frosted appearance of ground glass is given to
the panes of windows by gently dabbing the
glass over with a piece of glazier’s putty, stuck
on the ends of the fingers. When applied
with a light and even touch, the resemblance
is considerable. Another method is to dab the
glass over with thin white paint, or flour paste,
by means of a brush, but the effect is much
inferior to the above.
PACKING GLASS. This subject will be con-
sidered under the general head of PACKING.
WRITING ON GLASS may be performed by
a piece of French chalk or crayons prepared
for the purpose; or even with a common pen
held nearly perpendicular. Indian ink, or,
when the article will be exposed to damp,
shell-lac ink or varnish, thickened with a little
vermilion or lampblack, is best adapted to
this purpose. Common ink is not sufficiently
opaque.
Glass. This term was applied by the older
chemists to various substances to which a vi-
treous appearance has been given by heat.
Thus, we have ‘ GLASS OF ANTIMONY,” “GLASS
OF BORAX,” &c. It is now obsolete.
Glass, Pow’dered. Syn. VITRUM PULVERI-
SATUM, L. Prep. Heat the glass red hot,
throw it into cold water, dry, and powder it.
Used to filter acids, and glued upon. paper as
a polishing powder; also to wear down corns
upon the feet, after the feet have been well
soaked, and dried.
Glass, Sol'uble. Syn. WATER GLASS; VI-
TRUM SOLUBILE, L. An impure alkaline silicate.
Prep. Silica, 1 part ; carbonate of potassium
or of sodium, 2 parts; fused together.
Carbonate of sodium (dry), 54 parts; car-
bonate of potassium (dry), 70 parts; silica, 192
parts; as last. Soluble in boiling water, yield-
ing a fine, transparent, semi-elastic varnish.
Carbonate of potassium (dry), 10 parts;
powdered quartz (or sand free from iron and
alumina), 15 parts; charcoal, 1 part; fused
together. Soluble in 5 or 6 times its weight
of boiling water; and the filtered solution,
evaporated to dryness, yields a transparent
glass, permanent in the air.
Uses, &c. Soluble glass, in solution, has
been used to render textile fabrics less com-
bustible, as a varnish to preserve stone, and as
a vehicle in fresco-painting. The soda com-
pound (silicate of sodium) is largely used as a
dung-substitute in calico-printing, and by soap
manufacturers in place of the resinates for.
merly in use. 10 or 12 tons are produced
weekly in the district of South Lancashire.
The potassa compound (silicate of potassium)
has been recommended as a remedy for gouty
concretions by Mr. Ure.--Dose. 10 to 15 grs.,
in 6 or 8 fl. oz. of water, twice a day. See
DUNGING, WARNISH, &c.
GLAZ.E. Syn. GLAZING. Any coating or
warnish applied to a surface to render it smooth
and glassy; any factitious, shining exterior.
The principal applications of this term are
the following:—
Glaze. In cookery, is commonly understood
to be gravy or clarified soup boiled until it
gelatinises on cooling. It is used as a species
of varnish to cover various dishes for the table,
and may be spiced and flavoured according to
the fancy of the cook. White of egg is gene-
rally used as a glaze for pastry.
Glaze. In the porcelain and earthenware
manufacture, the vitreous coating which is so
essential to the beauty and utility of potter's
ware. Glazes are either white or coloured.
The former, by the addition of the colouring
ingredients used for enamels, are converted
into the latter.
a. For EARTHENWARE :-
Prep. 1. (With lead.) White lead (pure),
53 parts; quartz or ground flints, 36 parts;
Cornish stone or felspar, 16 parts; white flint
glass, 5 parts; reduce the whole to an impal-
pable powder. For common earthenware. *
2. (Without lead.) Fine washed sand, 10
parts; purified potash, 8 parts; nitre, 1 part;
slaked lime, 2 parts; nitre, 4} }; powder, mix,
heat the mixture in a blacklead crucible in a
reverberatory furnace, till the mass flows into
a clear glass; let this cool, then reduce it to
fine powder. For glazing pharmaceutical and
chemical vessels.
b. For PORCELAIN :—
Prep. (Rose.) Felspar, 27 parts; borax, 18
parts; finest siliceous sand, 4 parts; nitre,
soda, and purest china clay (Cornish), 3 parts;

GLIADIN–GLUCINUM.
575
mix, heat to a ‘frit,” powder, and add of cal-
cined borax, 3 parts.
c. For STONEWARE :-
1. (Ure.) White felspar, 26 parts; soda,
6 parts; nitre, 2 parts; borax, 1 part ; ‘frit'
together as last. Of the product take 13
parts; red lead, 50 parts; white lead, 40 parts;
flints, 12 parts; reduce the whole to powder
as before. For painted stoneware.
2. From common salt, which is thrown into
the heated furnace containing the ware. It
is volatilised and decomposed by the joint
agency of the silica of the ware and of the
vapour of water always present; hydrochloric
acid and soda are produced, the latter forming
a silicate, which fuses over the surface of the
ware, and gives a thin but excellent glaze.
‘SALT-GLAZED STONEWARE' is now generally
used for large chemical vessels, drain-pipes,
&c.
Obs. Glazes must be reduced to very fine
powder. For use, they are ground with water
to a very thin paste or smooth cream, into
which the articles, previously baked to the
state called ‘biscuit,’ are then dipped; they
are afterwards exposed to a sufficient heat in
the kiln to fuse the glaze. Another method of
applying them is to immerse the biscuit in
water for a minute or so, and then to sprinkle
the dry powder over the moistened surface.
GLI/ADIN. Syn. GLUTIN, VEGETABLE GE-
LATIN. One of the proximate principles of
wheat gluten, soluble in alcohol.
GLOB'ULIN. Syn. CRYSTALLIN. An albu-
menoid body existing in the crystalline lens of
the eye.
GLOVE POWDER. Prep. 1. From Castile
soap, dried by exposure to a warm dry atmo-
sphere for a few days, and then reduced to
fine powder in a mortar. Used to clean
gloves.
2. Pipe-clay, coloured with yellow ochre,
umber, or Irish slate, q. S., and afterwards
scented with a little powdered orris root or
cloves. Used to colour gloves made of doe-
skin and similar leather.
GLOWES. Syn. GANTS, Fr. Although
gloves constitute a less costly article of dress
at the present day than they did during the
Middle Ages, the following information may
nevertheless be sometimes found of value to
their wearers:—
GLOVE CLEANING. 1. (KID GLOVES.)—a.
Damp them slightly, stretch them gently over
a wooden hand of appropriate size, and clean
them with a sponge dipped in benzol, recently
rectified oil of turpentine, or camphine; as soon
as they are dry, withdraw them gently from
the stretcher, and suspend them in a current
of air for a few days, or until they cease to
smell of the cleaning liquid used. The smell
of benzol passes off very quickly. Heat
must be avoided. The cleaning liquid should
* A technical term for the half-fused mass formed by
heating, together the materials of which glass is com-
posed.
be used liberally, and the first dirty portion
should be sponged off with clean liquid.
b. By employing a saponaceous compound.
See GANTEINE.
2. (DOE-SKIN and WASH-LEATHER GLOVES.)
—a. Stretch them on a hand, or lay them flat
on a table, and rub into them a mixture of
finely powdered fuller’s earth and alum; sweep
it off with a brush, sprinkle them with a mix-
ture of dry bran and whiting, and, lastly, dust
them well off. This will not do if they are
very dirty.
b. Wash them in lukewarm soft water,
with a little Castile or curd soap, ox-gall, or
bran tea, then stretch them on wooden hands,
or pull them into shape without wringing
them; next rub them with pipe-clay and
yellow ochre, or umber, or a mixture of them
in any required shade, made into a paste with
ale or beer; let them dry gradually, and, when
about half dry, rub them well, so as to smooth
them and put them into shape; when they
are dry, brush out the superfluous colour,
cover them with paper, and smooth them with
a warm (not hot) iron.
GLOVE DYEING. LEATHER GLOVES, if not
greasy, may be dyed with any of the ordinary
dyes by brushing the latter over the gloves
stretched out smooth. The surface alone
should be wetted, and a second or third coat
may be given after the former one has become
dry. When the last coat has become thoroughly
dry, the superfluous colour should be well
rubbed out, a smooth surface given them by
rubbing them with a polished stick or piece of
ivory, and the whole gone over with a sponge
dipped in white of egg.
Gloves, Cosmetic. Syn. GANTS COSME-
TIQUES. These are mock kid or lambskin gloves
rubbed over, on the inside, with the following
composition :-Spermaceti cerate, 3 oz. ; melt,
add of balsam of Peru, ; dr., stir for 5 minutes,
and after a few minutes' repose, pour off the
clear portion; to this add of oil of nutmeg,
15 drops; oil of cassia and essense of ambergris,
of each, 6 drops; and stir until cold. Used by
ladies to soften the hands and to prevent or
cure chilblains and chaps. They are commonly
worn all night in bed.
GLUCI'NUM. Gl. Sym. BERYL'LIUM. The
metallic base of glucina. It was first obtained
by Wöhler, in 1828, by a similar process to
that adopted for aluminum, a metal which it
greatly resembles. See ALUMINUM.
Gluci'mum, Oxide of. Syn. GLUCINA,
BERYLLIA. A pulverent white substance,
found as silicate in the beryl, emerald, &c.
Prep. The beryl, in fine powder, 1 part; car-
bonate of potassium, 3 parts; expose the mix-
ture to a strong red heat for half an hour, dis-
solve the calcined mass in hydrochloric acid,
and evaporate the solution to dryness; redis-
solve the residuum in very dilute hydrochloric
acid, and precipitate with pure ammonia;
wash the precipitate well, digest it with a large
quantity of carbonate of ammonium, filter, and



576
GLUCOSE—GLUTEN.

boil the solution as long as carbonate of gluci-
num subsides. By exposure to a red heat the
carbonic acid may be expelled, and the earth
rendered anhydrous.
Prop., &c. Glucina closely resembles alu-
mina, from which, however, it is distinguished
by its solubility when freshly precipitated in
a cold solution of carbonate of ammonia, from
which it is again thrown by boiling. . Glucina
is classed with the earths. The beryl contains
14% of this substance.
GLU'C0SE. See SUGAR (Grape).
GLUE. Syn. GLUTEN, GLUTINUM, L.; CoILE,
CoLLE FORTE, Fr. Inspissated animal jelly, or
gelatine, used as a cement.
Prep. Glue is principally prepared from the
parings and waste-pieces of hides and skins,
the refuse of tanneries, and the tendons and
other offal of slaughter-houses. These sub-
stances, when intended for the glue-maker,
are steeped for 14 or 15 days in milk of
lime, then drained, and dried by exposure to
the air. This constitutes what is termed the
“cleansing” or ‘preparation, and in this state
the “glue pieces,’ as they are called, may be
kept for a long time, and transported to any
distance without suffering decomposition. Be-
fore conversion into glue, they are usually
again steeped in weak milk of lime, and next
well washed and exposed to the air for 24 to
30 hours. They are then placed in a copper
boiler 2-3rds filled with water, and furnished
with a perforated false bottom, to prevent
them from burning, and as much is piled on as
will fill the vessel and rest on the top of it.
Heat is next applied, and the whole gently
boiled or simmered together, until the liquor
on cooling forms a firm gelatinous mass. The
clear portion is then run off into another
vessel, and a very small quantity of alum (dis-
solved) added; here it is kept hot by a water
bath, and allowed to repose for some hours to
deposit its impurities, after which it is run
into the “congealing boxes, and placed in a
cool situation. The next morning the cold ge-
latinous masses are turned out upon boards
wetted with water, and are cut horizontally
into thin cakes with a stretched piece of brass
wire, and then into smaller cakes with a
moistened flat knife. The latter are placed on
nettings to dry. The dry cakes of glue are
next dipped one by one into hot water, and
slightly rubbed with a brush wetted with
boiling water, to give them a gloss; they are,
lastly, stove-dried for sale. This furnishes the
palest and best glue.
As soon as the liquor of the first boiling has
drained off, the undissolved portion of skins,
&c., left in the copper is treated with fresh
water, and the whole operation is repeated
again and again, as long as any gelatinous
matter is extracted. In this way a second
and other inferior qualities of glue are ob-
tained. The product from dried glue-pieces is
about 50%.
War. These chiefly depend on the care with
which the process is conducted. HATMAKERS'
GLUE is prepared from the tendons of the legs
of meat cattle and horses. It is brown, opaque,
and soft; and grows moist in damp weather,
but it does not render felt brittle like the other
varieties. FISH GLUE is made in like manner
from various membranous and solid parts of
fishes. PARCHMENT GLUE is prepared from
shreds or shavings of parchment, vellum, white
leather, &c., dissolved by boiling them in
water. It is scentless, and nearly colourless.
Qual. The best glue is transparent, nearly
colourless and tasteless, has very little smell,
even when melted, and is extremely adhesive.
The presence of more than a trace of alum is
objectionable; an undue quantity may be
easily detected by the usual tests. The
stongest glue is that obtained from skins,
more especially from the hides of oxen and
cows. That obtained from the bones, carti-
lages, and tendons, is weaker.
Glue, Liquid. Prep. (Dumoulins.) Soft
water, 1 quart; best pale glue, 2 lbs. ; dissolve
in a covered vessel by the heat of a water bath,
cool, and add, gradually, of nitric acid (sp. gr.
1335), 7 oz.; when cold put it into bottles.
Very strong, and does not gelatinise. For the
‘LIQUID GLUE’ sold in the shops, see CHINESE
CEMENT. -
Glue, Marine. Prep. 1. India rubber (cut
small), 1 part; coal tar or mineral naphtha,
12 parts; digest in a covered vessel with heat
and agitation, and when the solution is com-
plete, add of powdered shell-lac, 20 parts; con-
tinue the heat and stirring until perfect lique-
faction has taken place, and pour the fused
mass, whilst still hot, on slabs of polished
metal or stone, so as to form thin sheets. For
use, it is heated to its melting-point (248° to
250°Fahr.) in an iron vessel, and applied in
the liquid state with a brush. Employed in
ship-building, &c.
2. Caoutchouc, 15 to 20 grs. ; chloroform,
2 fl. Oz. ; dissolve, and add of powdered mastic,
# Oz. It must be kept well corked and in a
cool place, to prevent loss by evaporation.
Used for small, fine work.
Glue, Portable. Syn. BANK-NOTE GLUE,
MoUTH. G., INDIAN G.; COLLE A BouchE, Fr.
Prep. From the best pale glue, 1 lb. ; water,
q. s. ; dissolve in a double glue-pot or water
bath, add of pale-brown sugar, $ lb., continue
the heat until the mixture is complete, and
pour it into moulds; or pour it on a marble
slab, and when cold, cut it into small pieces
and dry them in the air. This glue is very
useful to draughtsmen, architects, &c., as it
dissolves almost immediately in warm water,
fastens paper, &c., without the process of
damping, and may be softened for many pur-
poses with the tongue. When great strength
is not required, 4 oz. more of sugar may be
used.
GLUTEN, Syn, GLUTIN. A peculiar sub-
stance found in the grain of wheat. It is
composed of true vegetable fibrin and a small
GLYCERIN.
577
quantity of gliadin. It is prepared by wash-
ing paste made of the flour of wheat or rye in
successive waters until all starchy matter is
removed. The paste may be conveniently en-
closed in a bag of fine linen during the washing.
Prop., Uses. Gluten is believed to be emi-
nently nutritious. It is the presence of gluten
in wheaten flour that imparts to it its viscidity
or tenacity, and confers upon it its peculiar
excellence for the manufacture of MACARONI,
VERMICELLI, and similar pastes. The supe-
riority of wheaten over other bread depends
upon the greater tenacity of its dough, which
during the fermentation is puffed up by the
evolved carbonic acid, and retained in its vesi-
cular texture so as to form a light loaf.
Gluten is grayish coloured, and extensible
whilst fresh and moist, like caoutchouc. It
turns blue when mixed with guaiacum resin.
Gluten Bread. Prep. 1. From wheat flour
which has been deprived of about 2-3rds of
its starch by washing it with water.
2. From gluten flour. Recommended in dia-
betes.
Gluten Chocolate. (Gentile’s.) A mixture
of cocoa and gluten flour. As a nutritious and
appropriate food in diabetes.
Gluten Flour. Prep. 1. From the waste
gluten of the starch works, washed, dried, and
ground. -
2. (Gentile’s.) From the last, mixed with
about an equal weight of wheat flour.
GLYC'ERIN. C. HsO4. Syn. GIYCERINE,
HYDRATED OXIDE OF GLYCERYL ; GLYCERI-
NUM, L. A sweet syrupy liquid formed
during the saponification of oils and fats.
Prep. 1. Olive oil (or other suitable oil),
protoxide of lead, and water, are heated toge-
ther until an insoluble soap of lead (lead
plaster) is formed. The glycerin remains in
the aqueous liquid. As this crude solution of
glycerin is produced in great quantities in the
manufacture of lead plaster, the operative che-
mist has only to purify it. This may be done
as follows:–
The water and washings from lead plaster
are mixed together, filtered, and submitted to
the action of a stream of sulphuretted hydrogen,
to throw down the lead; the supernatant
liquor is decanted from the precipitate, fil-
tered, and evaporated to the consistence of a
syrup in a water bath. To render it quite
pure it is diluted with water, decoloured with
a little animal charcoal, filtered, and again
evaporated to the consistence of a thin syrup,
after which it is further evaporated in vacuo,
or over sulphuric acid, until it acquires the
sp. gr. 1265.
2. (M. Bruère-Perrin.) From the sweet
liquor of the stearine works (a product of the
process of lime-saponification). The quantity
of lime present in the sample is first deter-
mined by means of oxalic acid, and the pro-
portion of sulphuric acid necessary for its sa-
turation at once calculated and added; the
crude liquor is then concentrated in a tinned-
copper vessel, evaporation being promoted by
brisk agitation, until the sp. gr. sinks to 10°
Baumé; it is next cooled and filtered, and
accurately neutralised (if it is required) with
carbonate of potassa, after which it is evapo-
rated to the sp. gr. 24° Baumé; on cooling, it
deposits gelatinous sulphate of potassa; the
whole is now filtered, the deposit on the filter
washed with a little very weak spirit and
water, the filtrate and washings mixed toge-
ther, and evaporated, as before, with agitation,
until the sp. gr. 28° Baumé, whilst hot (36°
cold), is attained, when the whole is allowed
to cool; the clear liquid is, lastly, decanted
and filtered. In this state it has an amber
colour, but may be rendered colourless and
odourless by rediluting it with water, treating
it with animal charcoal, filtering, and again
evaporating to a proper consistence.
3. By saponifying olive oil with caustic al-
kali, decomposing the resulting soap with

dilute sulphuric or tartaric acid, evaporating
the aqueous portion to dryness (nearly), dis-
solving out the glycerine with cold rectified
spirit, and filtering and evaporating the solu-
tion as before.
4. The residuary liquor of a soap manufac-
tory is evaporated, and treated with alcohol
to dissolve out the glycerin. The spirit is then
evaporated off, the glycerin diluted with water,
and finally boiled repeatedly with animal
charcoal until all colour and odour are re-
moved.
Obs. The products of the above processes
are nearly pure, but that of Price’s patent
process, described below, is to be preferred to
any of them.
5. (Commercial.) From sweet stearin-
liquor, by precipitating the lime by a stream of
carbonic acid gas, or by a solution of carbonate
of soda, carefully avoiding adding the latter in
excess; the liquor is then boiled a little, fil-
tered, evaporated to a syrupy consistence,
and again filtered. This is the common glyce-
rin of the shops. It may be further purified
as above.
6. (PRICE’s GLYCERIN–Patent dated 1854.)
Superheated steam of from 550° to 600° Fahr.
is introduced into a distillatory apparatus con-
taining palm oil or other fatty body. The
action of the steam effects the decomposition
of the fat, and glycerin and the fatty acids
distil over together, but no longer in combina-
tion. In the receiver the condensed glycerin,
from its higher specific gravity, sinks below
the fatty acids. Sufficient steam must be
supplied, and the temperature nicely regulated.
The glycerin is concentrated by evaporation,
and if discoloured, it is redistilled. It is usu-
ally prepared with sp. gr. 1:24, and then con-
tains 94% of anhydrous glycerin. It can, how-
ever, be concentrated to sp. gr. 1'26 when it
contains 98.
Prop. Pure glycerin is a colourless, odour-
less, uncrystallisable liquid, sweet to the taste,
and of a syrupy consistence; it mixes with

3

578 GLYCEROLE–GOLD.
water in all proportions; it is unctuous and
emollient, and softens bodies, like oil, but
without greasing them ; it does not evaporate
or change in the air at ordinary temperatures,
and is not susceptible of rancidity or sponta-
neous fermentation; mixed with yeast and
kept in a warm place, it is gradually converted
into propionic acid; a strong heat decom-
poses it, with the production of acrolein ; it
is neutral to test-paper, and possesses neither
basic nor acid properties; it is easily charged
with the aroma of the essential oils, and may
be combined with soap, and many other sub-
stances, without undergoing change. Sp. gr.,
1:27 (see above).
Uses, &c. Glycerin is extensively employed
as an excipient for medicines (see GLYCEROLES),
also, either alone, or in lotions, baths, &c., as a
soothing emollient, and is added to poultices
and dressings, instead of oil, to prevent their
hardening. Diluted with water, it often suc-
ceeds in allaying itching and irritation of the
skin when all other means fail. As a cosmetic,
either made into a lotion or added to soap
(glycerin soap), or used in small quantities
along with the water employed in washing, it
imparts a healthy clearness and a sensation of
softness and coolness to the skin, which is very
agreeable and refreshing. It is the best re-
medy known for chapped nipples, hands, lips,
&c.; all of which may be prevented by its
use as an article of the toilet. Glycerin is
sometimes used as a sweetening agent, as a
substitute for syrup.
Glycerin Cream for Chilblains. Equal parts
of glycerin, soft soap, and cherry-laurel water,
mixed together.
Glycerin Cream with Camphor. Glycerin,
2 parts; camphor, 1 part ; rectified spirit, 1
part. Mix. For chilblains.
Glycerin Ointment. Glycerin, 8 parts;
spermaceti, 4 parts; white wax, 1 part ; oil of
almonds (fixed), 16 parts. Add the glycerin
to the melted ingredients, aud stir briskly till
cold. For chaps and excoriations.
GLYCER0LE. A pharmaceutical preparation,
in which glycerin is employed as the excipient.
Glycerole of Borax. (B. P.) Syn. GIYCE-
RINUM BORACIS, L. 1 of borax in 4% of glycerin.
Glycerole of Carbolic Acid. (B. P.) Syn.
GLYCERINUM ACIDI CARBOLICI, L. 1 of acid in
4} of glycerin.
Glycerole of Gallic Acid. (B. P.) Syn.
GLYCERINUM ACIDI GALLICI, L. 1 of acid in
4% of glycerin.
Glycerole of Starch. (B. P.) Syn. GIYCE-
RINUM AMYLI, L. 1 of starch in 8% of glycerin.
Glycerole of Tammic Acid. (B. P.) Syn.
GLYCERINUM ACIDI TANNICI, L. 1 of acid in
4% of glycerin.
GLYCYR/RHIZIN. Syn. LIQUORICE SUGAR.
An uncrystallisable variety of sugar obtained
from the root of common liquorice (Glycyr-
whiza glabra). It is yellow, transparent, so-
luble in both water and alcohol, and is not
susceptible of the vinous fermentation.
GłySTER. See ENEMA. -
GNATS and MOS/QUITOES. Smoke and strong
fumes of any kind will drive away these in-
sects. If you only burn a piece of brown
paper in an enclosed space where they are,
they soon after “settle,’ and appear to become
so stupefied as to remain inactive for some
time after. In those parts of the New World
where mosquitoes abound, tobacco smoke is
commonly had recourse to in-doors, and large
fires made of brush-wood or under-wood out-
of-doors. Old travellers, when compelled to
bivouac during the season in which they are
troublesome, are very careful to keep close on
the “lee’ of these fires.
G0ITRE. Syn. DERBYSHIRE NECK ; BRON-
CHOCELE, TRACHEOCELE ; HERNIA BRONCHI-
ALIS, L. A tumour on the fore part of the
neck. It sometimes occurs in Derbyshire, and
is endemic in the Alps and several other moun-
tainous districts. Iodine and the iodides appear
to be the only substances capable of curing or
even arresting the progress of this disease.
GOLD. Au. Syn. AURUM ; OR, Fr. ; GOLD,
Ger. Gold is the most valuable and, probably,
the longest known of all the metals. From
the remotest period it has been esteemed for
its beauty and permanence, and has been taken
as the standard measure of value amongst all
civilised nations. An account of the uses of
gold in the arts, and its influence on society in
all ages, as a symbol of wealth and an article
of ornament and utility, would embrace the
whole history of mankind. At the present day
it alike contributes to the conveniences, com-
forts, and luxuries of life, as often exciting the
baser passions of the human heart as promoting
the cause of benevolence and virtue.
Gold is found almost invariably in the
metallic state. It occurs as gold dust in the
sands of various rivers, and in the alluvial soil
of auriferous districts, from both of which it
is obtained by the simple process of washing,
Traces of it are constantly found in the iron
and other pyrites of the more ancient rocks,
Sometimes it occurs beautifully crystallised in
the cubic form, associated with quartz, oxide
of iron, and other substances, in regular veins,
In the gold fields of California and Australia
lumps of nearly pure gold have been discovered
in abundance during the last few years. In
the former country a mass of gold weighing 28
pounds was found, whilst in our own colonies
one weighing 106 pounds was dug out of a
quartz rock, near Bathurst. The latter con-
tained upwards of 91% of pure gold, and nearly
8; ; of silver; being as pure as the English sove-
reign, or, in trade language, “22 carats fine.’
Prep. This consists merely in the separation
of the gold and its subsequent purification,
Formerly, the auriferous sulphides, if very
poor, were first roasted, then fused into
‘mattes’ and again roasted; they were next
melted with lead, and the alloy thus obtained
was refined by cupellation. When the ores
were very rich, the preliminary calcination


GOLD.
579
and fusion were omitted, and the alloy of
lead at once formed. This method (by fusion)
does not answer well with auriferous copper
pyrites or ores very poor in gold. At the
present time the method of amalgamation
is principally followed. When a “vein-stone’
is to be wrought for gold, it is reduced to
powder (on the small scale by hand, on the
large scale in stamping mills), and is shaken
in a suitable apparatus with water and mer-
cury; an amalgam of gold is formed, which
is then separated from the mixture, and its
mercury removed by distillation. The gold
is next cast into ‘ingots.”
Refining. Gold obtained by the first method
usually contains a little copper and silver, and
frequently tin or iron. Tin may be removed
by adding a little corrosive sublimate or nitre
to the gold melted in a crucible. The process
by amalgamation commonly leaves no other
alloy than silver. This metal is removed
either in the “dry way,” by fusing the gold
with sulphur or sulphide of antimony; or in
the ‘wet way,” by quartation’ and ‘parting.’
At the Royal Mint, “when gold ingots contain
a certain quantity of silver” (say 2% or 3%),
“instead of leaving it, as formerly, to con-
stitute a part of the standard alloy, it pays to
extract it, and to substitute copper in its
place. To get the silver out of the said
ingots, they are melted with about 3 parts of
silver—the resulting alloy is granulated and
boiled with sulphuric acid—the gold remains
untouched, and all the silver is dissolved and
converted into sulphate. The sulphate
of silver is then decomposed by the immersion
of copper plates; the silver is precipitated in
a fine, crystalline powder, washed, pressed
into masses, and melted, and so affords PURE
SILVER, which is afterwards made standard
by alloying it with copper, and is used for
coinage. The resulting sulphate of copper
(which exists in the solution) is then crys-
tallised, and sold.” (Brande.) “By first ex-
hausting the gold with nitric acid, and then
boiling it in sulphuric acid, some two or three
thousandth part of silver which escaped the
action of the nitric acid is dissolved out, and
perfectly pure gold is obtained.” (Ure.)
By a foreign invention, patented in 1851
by Mr. W. E. Newton, the operations of ‘se-
paration’ and ‘refining’ are conducted by one
process. The argentiferous substance, whether
in the state of ore or bullion, is reduced to a
granulated or spongy state, by fusion along
with zinc, or some other metal cheaper than
silver, and the zinc is subsequently removed,
by digesting the resulting granulated, lami-
nated, or pulverulent alloy, in dilute sulphuric
acid, or other acid. The zinc, &c., is recovered
by the usual means. This process, carefully
conducted, produces metal of great ductility and
purity, containing 99% to 99% of pure gold.
Chemically pure gold is obtained by dis-
solving the metal in nitro-hydrochloric acid,
adding a solution of protosulphate of iron, and
collecting and washing the precipitate. In
this state it is a brown powder, which acquires
a metallic lustre by friction or heat.
Prop. The most marked properties of gold
are its rich yellow colour, its ductility, mal-
leability, insolubility in all menstrua except
‘aqua regia' (nitro-hydrochloric acid), aqueous
chlorine, and hydrofluoric acid, and its very
slight affinity for oxygen. It melts at a bright
red heat (2016°Fahr;,-Daniell), and the fused
metal has a brilliant green colour. It forms
compounds with chlorine, iodine, oxygen, sul-
phur, &c. Sp. gr. of native gold, 13.3 to 17-7;
of pure gold, 193 (average); its greatest den-
sity is 19:5.
Tests. Metallic gold is characterised by its
yellow colour, insolubility in nitric acid, and
its ready solubility in aqua regia, forming a
rich yellow or amber-coloured liquid, which
stains the skin purple. Solutions of gold ex-
hibit the following reactions:–Protosulphate
of iron gives a brown precipitate, which ac-
quires a metallic lustre when rubbed;—Pro-
tochloride of tin (preferably containing a little
perchloride) gives a violet, purple, or blackish
precipitate, insoluble in hydrochloric acid;—
Sulphuretted hydrogen and hydrosulphide, of
ammonia give a black precipitate, insoluble in
simple acids;–Ammonia gives a reddish-yel-
low precipitate (‘fulminating gold”), with
tolerably concentrated solutions, either at once
or on boiling the liquid;—Liquor of potassa
gives a reddish-yellow precipitate with neutral
solutions of gold, insoluble in excess.
Estim. 1. In the dry way;-
The quantity of gold in an ALLOY is usually
estimated by “assaying’ the sample. Before
proceeding to the assay, it is necessary to form
some estimate of the quantity of other metals
(copper or silver, or both) in the specimen to
be examined, in order to employ the proper
proportion of lead in the ‘cupellation.” The
experienced assayer commonly does this by the
‘assay of the touch, and, in certain cases, by
a rough preliminary assay. The quantity of
lead employed may be about 16 times the
weight of the copper present in the sample,

and when the alloy contains silver an addi-
tional allowance of lead, equal to ºth of its
weight, is made on that account. When mo
silver is present, or it is not required to be
estimated, a much larger proportion of lead
may be employed. The weight taken for the
assay (“assay pound') is usually 12 or 6 grs.
The alloy and dose of lead being accurately
weighed and separately wrapped in small
pieces of paper, the assay may be at once pro-
ceeded with.
a. CUPELLATION. This operation, the most
important of the whole, has been already de-
scribed. Unlike silver, gold will bear the
highest heat of the furnace without ‘vegetat-
ing,’ ‘fuming, or being absorbed by the cupel.
The loss of weight gives the amount of copper
in the alloy.
3. QUARTATION. The cupelled sample is


580 w
GOLD.
fused with three times its weight of pure
silver (called the “witness'), by which the gold
is reduced to one fourth of the mass, or less,
and in this state may be easily removed.
Y. PARTING. The alloy, after quartation, is
hammered or rolled out into a thin strip or
leaf, curled into a spiral form, and boiled for a
quarter of an hour, in a small flask, with about
2% to 3 oz. of nitric acid (sp. gr. 13); and
the fluid being poured off, it is again boiled in
a similar manner with 1% to 2 oz. more of
nitric acid (sp. gr. 1:2), after which the gold
is carefully collected, washed in pure water,
and dried. When the operation of ‘parting’
is skilfully conducted, and the acid not too
strong, the metal preserves its spiral form;
otherwise, it falls into the state of flakes or
powder. The second boiling or digestion is
technically termed the ‘reprise.” The loss of
weight by ‘parting, after deducting that of
the “witness,’ corresponds to the quantity of
silver originally in the specimen.
6. ANNEALING. This consists in putting
the pure gold obtained by the last process into
a small porous crucible or cupel, and heating
it to redness in the muffle.
8. WEIGHING. This must be done with the
utmost accuracy. The weight, in grains troy,
doubled or quadrupled, as the case may be,
gives the number of carats fine of the alloy
examined, without calculation.
According to the ‘OLD FRENCH METHOD’
of assaying gold, the following quantities are
taken:—For the assay pound, 12 grs. ; fine
silver, 30 grs. ; lead, 108 grs. These having
been cupelled together, the (perfect) button is
rolled into a leaf (13 × 5 inches), twisted on
a quill, and submitted to parting with 2% oz.
and 1% oz. of nitric acid, sp. gr. 1:16 (20°
Baumé). The remainder of the process is
similar to that above described. Two assays
are made in the same manner, with a third on
pure gold or gold of a known fineness; and
no conclusion is drawn, unless the assay of the
latter comes out accurately, and that of the
first two correspond to each other.
For alloys containing platinum, which usu-
ally consist of copper, silver, platinum, and
gold, the method of assaying is as follows:–
The alloy is ‘cupelled’ in the usual way, the
loss of weight expresses the amount of cop-
per; and the button, made into a riband and
treated with sulphuric acid, indicates, by the
portion dissolved, that also of the silver pre-
sent. By submitting the residuum to quarta-
tion, the platinum becomes soluble in nitric
acid. The loss after digestion in this men-
struum expresses the weight of that metal,
and the weight of the portion now remaining
is that of the pure gold. Gold containing pal-
ladium may be assayed in the same manner.
2. In the wet way:-
The richness in gold of any substance,
whether liquid or solid, when the quantity is
small (and indeed in all other cases), is most
simply and economically performed by the
common method of chemical analysis. The
gold may be thrown down from its solution
by adding a solution of protosulphate of iron;
the precipitate, after being washed, dried, and
gently heated, may be weighed as pure gold.
Pois., &c. The soluble preparations of gold
(chlorides) are violent poisons. The symptoms
resemble those occasioned by corrosive subli-
mate, but are somewhat less violent. Metallic
gold in a minute state of division is also capa-
ble of producing very unpleasant consequences,
and even endangering life. The antidote is
iron filings or a solution of sulphate of iron,
given conjointly with an emetic.
Uses. The numerous applications of gold
in the arts and the daily transactions of life
need only be alluded to here. In medicine,
gold has been given in the form of powder,
in scrofula and syphilis, by Chrestien, Niel,
and others, with apparent advantage.—Dose.
# gr. to 1. gr., 3 or 4 times a day, in pills, or
as a friction on the tongue and gums. An
ointment made of 1 gr. of powdered gold and
30 grs. of lard has been applied by Niel to
the skin deprived of the epidermis (endermi-
cally), in the above diseases.
The more important chemical compounds
containing gold, the alloys and commercial
forms of the metal, together with certain fac-
titious substances popularly called ‘gold,” are
noticed in alphabetical order below —
Gold, Alloys and Preparations of:—
Gold, Dutch, MANNHEIM GOLD, MOSAIC G.,
OR-MOLU, PINCHBECR, PRINCE's METAL, RED
BRASS, SIMILOR, TOMBAC. These names are
applied to several varieties of fine gold-coloured
brass, differing slightly in tint and in the pro-
portions of copper and zinc. The terms tom-
bac, prince’s metal, similor, and Mannheim
gold, are used by some authors to designate
alloys consisting of about 85% of copper and
15% of zinc ; whereas, according to other au-
thors, prince's metal and Mannheim gold are
synonymous, and are composed of 75% copper
and 25% zinc ; according to another author,
similor consists of about 71% º copper and
28} { zinc, and Mannheim gold of 80% copper
and 20% zinc ; and, again, according to
another author, similor and Mannheim gold
are synonymous, and are applied to alloys of
copper containing from 10 to 12% zinc and
from 6 to 8% tin. Seeing that such inextrica-
ble confusion exists in the employment of the
terms above mentioned, it is desirable to dis-
card them altogether. At the celebrated
works of Hegermühl, near Potsdam, the pro-
portions copper, 11 parts, to zinc, 2 parts, are
employed to produce a metal which is after-
wards rolled into sheets for the purpose of
making Dutch leaf-gold. This alloy has a
very rich, deep gold colour. Its malleability
is so remarkable that it may be beaten out into
leaves not exceeding s sºrt, inch in thickness.
Gold, Facti"tious. Prep. From copper, 16
parts; platinum, 7 parts; zinc, 1 part; fused
together. This alloy resembles in colour gold
GOLD.
581
of 16 carats fine, or 3, and will resist the ac-
tion of nitric acid, unless very concentrated
and boiling. -
Gold, Grain. Syn. AURUM GRANULATUM,
L. Prep. From cupelled gold, 1 part; silver,
3 parts; melted together, and poured in a small
stream into water; the silver being afterwards
dissolved out by digestion in boiling nitric
acid, and the grains, after being well washed
in water, heated to redness in a crucible or
cupel. Used to make preparations of gold.
Gold, Jew’eller's. This term is applied to
alloys of gold used for trinkets and inferior
articles of jewellery, ranging from 3 or 4
carats fine upwards; or which are too inferior
to receive the ‘Hall mark. The lowest alloy
of this class is formed of copper, 16 parts;
silver 1 to 1% part; gold, 2 to 3 parts; melted
together. This is worth only from 8s. 6d. to
9s. 6d. the oz. -
It has recently been found that gold of the
quality of 12 carats, or less, if alloyed with
zinc instead of the proper quantity of silver,
presents a colour very nearly equal to that of
a metal at least 2% to 3 carats higher, or of
8s. or 10s. an ounce more value; and the con-
sequence has been that a large quantity of
jewellery has been made of gold alloyed in
this manner; and the same has been pur-
chased by some shopkeepers, very much to
their own loss, as well as that of the public;
inasmuch as a galvanic action is produced,
after a time, upon gold so alloyed, by means
of which the metal is split into several pieces,
and the articles rendered perfectly useless.
Gold, Leaf. Syn. GoLD-LEAF. Gold re-
duced to leaves by hammering it between thin
animal membrane. Its preparation constitutes
the trade of the goldbeater. These leaves
are only 1-282,000th of an inch in thickness.
Gilt silver is hammered in the same way, but
the leaves are thicker. The latter is called
party gold. Both are used by artists and
gilders, and by druggists to gild pills, &c.
Gold, Powdered. Syn. DIVIDED GoLD, GILD-
ING POWDER, GOLD BRONZE, GoLD colour ;
AURI PULVIS. Prep. Gold, 1 part; mer-
cury, 7 parts; form an amalgam, and expose
it to heat until all the mercury is volatilised;
or the mercury may be dissolved out with hot
nitric acid. In either case, the residuum is
to be powdered, washed, and dried. If the
quantity operated on is considerable, the
process should be so conducted as to save the
mercury.
From gold leaf and honey ground together,
as the last, by means of a stone and muller.
This is the plan commonly adopted in the
small way by artists. -
From a solution of gold in aqua regia pre-
cipitated by protosulphate of iron, the resulting
powder being washed, dried, and gently heated.
This gives pure gold.
Uses, &c. Powdered gold is employed in
gilding by japanners and by artists. It is
either sold in powder (gold in powder), or made
up into shells (gold in shells). Its use in medi-
cine has been already noticed.
Gold, Standard. The standard gold of this
country is an alloy of pure gold, 11 parts, with
pure copper, 1 part. Formerly the alloy con-
sisted partly of silver, as found in some of the
older coins now in circulation. It is often
spoken of as 22 carats fine.
Gold, Chlorides of:—
1. Monochloride. AuCl. Syn. AUROUS CHLo-
RIDE, PROTOCHLORIDE OF GOLD. A yellowish-
white mass, formed when a solution of trichlo-
ride of gold is evaporated to dryness, and the
residuum is exposed to a heat of about 440°
Fahr., until fumes of chlorine cease to be evolved.
It is insoluble in water, which decomposes it,
slowly when cold, but rapidly by the aid of heat,
into metallic gold and the trichloride.
2. Trichloride. AuCla. Syn. AURIC CHLO-
RIDE, TERCHLORIDE OF GOLD, TRICHLORIDE
OF GOLD, AURI CHLORIDUM. Prep. Gold, 1
part, dissolved by aid of heat in nitro-hydro-
chloric acid, 8 parts, and evaporated down to
near dryness, and allowed to crystallise.
Prop. Orange-red crystallime needles, or
ruby-red prismatic crystals; deliquescent; so-
luble in water, ether, and alcohol, forming a
deep-yellow solution; at the heat of 500°Fahr.
it suffers decomposition, chlorine being given
off and pure gold left behind. It is reduced
by ferrous sulphate, oxalic, sulphurous, formic
and phosphorous acids, as well as by most of
the metals, to metallic gold. It combines with
several of the metallic chlorides, forming a
series of double salts, which are mostly yellow
when in crystals, and red when deprived of
water.
Uses, &c. It has been employed by Duportal,
Chrestien, Niel, Cullerier, Legrand, and others,
as a substitute for mercury, in scrofula, bron-
chocele, chronic skin diseases, &c.; also as a
caustic.—Dose. # gr., dissolved in distilled
water, or made into a pill with starch; or, in
frictions on the gums, in quantities of ºn to ºr
gr. Its most important use, however, is as a
reagent in photography, large quantities being
manufactured for use as a chief agent in toning
photographic prints.
To some extent it is also used for electro-
gilding, and mixed with excess of bicarbonate
of potassium, it forms a good yielding solu-
tion for small articles of copper. These are to
be first cleaned with dilute nitric acid, and
them boiled for some time in the mixture.
The above is the salt generally referred to
under the name of the ‘chloride of gold,” or in
commerce occasionally as the ‘muriate of
gold.”
Gold, Chloride of, and Sodium. AuCl4. NaCl.
2Aq. Syn. AUROCHLORIDE OF SODIUM ; SODII
AUROCHLORIDUM. Prep. Auric chloride, 85
parts; chloride of sodium, 16 parts; dissolve in
a little distilled water, evaporate until a pellicle
forms, then put it aside to crystallise. It forms
beautiful orange-coloured rhombic prisms.
Dose, &c. 3% to H's gr., made into a pill



582
GOLD.
with starch or lycopodium, in the same cases
in which the terchloride is ordered. Mixed
with 2 or 3 times its weight of orris powder, it
has been used in frictions on the tongue and
gums; and an ointment, made with 1 gr. of
the salt, mixed with 36 grs. of lard, has been
applied to the skin deprived of the epidermis
by a blister.
Gold, Cyanide of AuCyå. Syn. AURIC CYAN-
IDE. Prep. Add a solution of pure cyanide of
potassium to a solution of pure auric chloride as
long as a precipitate forms, carefully avoiding
any excess; wash, and dry the precipitate.
Prop., Uses, &c. This salt is a pale-yellow
powder, insoluble in water, but very soluble in
a solution of cyanide of potassium, forming
the double cyanide of gold and potassium so
largely used in the electrotype process. Cy-
anide of gold is employed to a certain extent
in medicine.—Dose. Tº to ºr gr., made into
a pill, in the usual cases in which gold is ad-
ministered. The first formula is essentially
similar to that of the French Codex.
Gold, Extraction of, by Sodium Amalgam.
(Crookes’ Method, Patented.) In the extrac-
tion of gold by amalgamation serious difficul-
ties are often occurring through the ‘flouring’
or ‘sickening’ of the mercury employed, and
the prevention of the amalgamation by a coat-
ing of tarnish on the gold. So much is this
the case that losses of from 30 to 60 per cent.
of the gold are usually incurred, and, in many
cases, a still more serious loss of mercury.
When certain minerals, as tellurium com-
pounds, pyrites, &c., occur in the gold ore, the
mercury is apt, on trituration, to become sub-
divided into excessively minute globules,
which, owing to their tarnished condition, re-
fuse to unite, and are consequently washed
away, it being almost impossible to separate
them from the heavier portions of the ore.
This is technically called ‘flouring,’ ‘granulat-
ing,’ &c. Besides this, certain of these mine-
rals affect the mercury in another way, that is,
by ‘sickening’ it, or causing it to lose its bright
surface and fluidity, and prevents its amalga-
mating with the gold. Besides theinconvenience
and loss thus caused, a further loss of gold
takes place from the inability of the ordinary
mercury to touch or amalgamate tarnished
gold, unless it is ground with it, for a more
lengthy period than is found practicable in
most cases. -
Mr. Crookes, F.R.S., has, by means of the
addition of a certain proportion of sodium, in
the form of an amalgam, to the mercury, effec-
tually prevented this serious loss of gold and
mercury. By adding certain quantities of
amalgams B and C, an amount which, differ-
ing from each ore, is ascertained by experi-
ment, the ‘flouring’ and ‘sickening’ of the
mercury is effectually prevented, the mercury
remaining throughout in the best condition.
The addition of about 1-10th per-centage of
amalgam A, at intervals of some hours, in-
creases most powerfully the affinity of the
mercury for the precious metals, and secures a
more thorough amalgamation.
This invention has met with general ap-
proval, and experiments conducted at many
mines show.its great practical value, giving an
increase of from 5 to 30 per cent. in the yield
of gold, and, in fact, with many pyrites that
yielded no gold to the ordinary amalgama-
tion process, gave a considerable yield of gold
to the sodium amalgamation process. This
has led to its use in most mines, both silver
and gold, in America.
Gold, Iodide of Auis. Syn. AURIC IODIDF,
TRI-TODIDE OF GOLD, GOLD TERIODIDE, AURI
IoDUM. Prep. Add a solution of trichloride
of gold to one of iodide of potassium. The re-
sulting precipitate is at first redissolved on
agitation, a soluble double iodide being formed;
subsequently the iodide of gold is precipitated,
leaving the supernatant liquor free of colour.
Prop., Uses, &c. A dark-green powder,
easily soluble in hydriodic acid. It is occa-
sionally employed as a medicine, and, like
other preparations of gold, is of an alterative
character.—Dose. About ºr of a grain.
Gold, Oxides of:— -
1. Monoxide. AusO. Syn. AUROUS OxTDE,
PROTOXIDE OF GOLD. Prep. Formed by treat-
ing the aurous chloride with strong potassium
hydrate. Green powder, somewhat soluble in
potassium hydrate solution, and readily decom-
posing into metallic gold and auric oxide.
2. Trioxide. AugOa. Syn. AURIC OXIDE,
OXII) E OF GOLD, PEROXIDE OF GOLD, AURIC
ACID, AURI OXIDUM. Prep. Magnesic oxide, 4
parts; auric chloride, 1 part; water, 40 parts;
mix, boil, and wash the precipitate with water,
dilute nitric acid, and again with water. It
must be dried in the shade.
Reddish-yellow powder, easily decomposed
by heat; readily soluble in hydrochloric and
hydrobromic acids and strong nitric acid, but
insoluble in water and the other acids. Forms
unstable salts with the alkalies.
Uses, &c. Trioxide of gold has been given
in scrofula, &c., in doses of +3 to . gr., or 1
gr., in scrofula, syphilis, &c., made into a pill
with extract of mezereon.
Gold, Ammoniuret of”. Syn. AURATE OF
AMMONIA, BERTHOLLET’s FULMINATING GOLD ;
AURUM AMMONIATUM, AMMONIAE AURAS, L.
Prep. By adding ammonia to a solution of
gold in aqua regia (trichloride), as long as a
reddish-yellow precipitate (fulminating gold)
forms; the latter must be collected, washed,
and dried with the greatest possible caution.
Obs. Ammonia fails to precipitate trioxide
of gold from solutions which are not tolerably
concentrated, and in those containing free
acid or ammoniacal salts the precipitate only
forms upon boiling the solution. Before
adding the ammonia, it is, therefore, proper to
drive off the excess of acid, if any, by the appli-
cation of heat. See FULMINATING COMPOUNDs.
Gold, Sul’phide of AusSA. Syn. SULPHU-
RET OF GOLD, TERSULPHURET OF G.; AURI
GOLD DETERGENT - GOUT.
583

SULPHURETUM, L. Prep. Transmit a current
of sulphuretted hydrogen gas through a solution
of terchloride of gold in water; or add hydro-
sulphuret of ammonia to the same solution;
collect the precipitate, wash it with cold dis-
tilled water, and dry it in the shade.
GOLD DETER/GENT, Prep. (Upton.) Take
quicklime, 1 oz. ; sprinkle it with a little hot
water to slake it, then gradually add boiling
water, 1 pint, so as to form a milk. Next
dissolve pearlash, 2 oz., in boiling water, 1}
pint; mix the two solutions, cover up the
vessel, agitate occasionally for an hour, allow
it to settle, decant the clear, put it into flat
half-pint bottles, and well cork them down.
Use. To clean gilding, &c., either alone or
diluted with water. It is applied with a soft
sponge, and then washed off with clean water.
It is essentially a weak solution of potassa,
and may be extemporaneously prepared by
diluting solution of potassa (Ph. L.) with about
5 times its volume of water.
GOLD SHELLS. Gold leaf or powdered gold
ground up with gum-water, and spread upon
the insides of shells. Used by artists.
GOLD SIZE. Syn. GILDING SIZE, GILDER's
S., GOLD CoIOUR. Prep. 1. (OIL SIZE.)
Drying or boiled oil thickened with yellow
ochre or calcined red ochre, and carefully re-
duced to the utmost smoothness by grinding.
It is thinned with oil of turpentine. Im-
proves by age. Used for oil gilding.
2. (WATER SIZE.) Parchment or isinglass
size, mixed with finely ground yellow ochre.
Used in burnished or distemper gilding.
GOLD-BEATER'S SKIN is prepared from
the peritoneal membrane of the caecum of the
ox. It is used to separate the leaves of gold
whilst under the hammer, as a nearly invisible
defensive dressing for cuts, as a fabric for
court plaster, &c.
GONG METAL. See BELL METAL.
GONIOM’ETRY. The art of measuring the
angles of crystals, by means of a GONIOMETER:
a most important matter in chemistry and
mineralogy. The only accurate and simple
instrument of this kind is the REFLECTING
GONIOMETER invented by Dr. Wollaston.
Facility in using this instrument is readily
acquired by a few trials.
G00SE. This bird, the Anser domesticus,
is a favourite article of food almost every-
where, and may fairly claim a similar position
amongst poultry to that occupied by “good
Sir Loin” among joints of meat. The vulgar
inuendos occasionally heard to its prejudice
should be directed against the cook rather
than the bird, as it is only when it is unskil-
fully dressed and too highly seasoned that it
is apt to disagree with that “irascible mem-
ber of the interior,” a delicate or overloaded
stomach. Undue susceptibility in that quarter
may, however, be generally allayed by an
oblation, in the shape of a little ‘eau de pie,”
used as sauce or gravy. Formerly, almost
miraculous virtues were attributed to this bird.
Its flesh was said to promote longevity, to cure
hydrophobia, and to be aphrodisiac. The fat
(GOOSE GREASE; ADEPs ANSERIs), mixed with
honey, was supposed to be “good against the
bitings of a mad dog.” At the present day it
is occasionally used in clysters, and, when
scented, as a pommade to make the hair grow,
for which purpose it is said to be superior to
bear's grease. In quantity, it is an emetic of
very easy action. The large feathers of the
wings (quills) are used for writing. The small
feathers form the common stuffing of our beds.
G00SE/BERRY. The fruit or berry of Ribes
grossularis. Unripe fruit, cold and acidulous;
ripe fruit, wholesome and slightly laxative;
but the seeds and skins should not be eaten,
as they are very indigestible; the juice of the
green fruit is made into wine (ENGLISH CHAM-
PAGNE); the seeds, washed and roasted, were
formerly used as a substitute for coffec (Goose-
BERRY COFFEE). Gooseberries are preserved
by simply bottling them, and keeping them
in a very cold place. See CHEESE, FOOL,
FRUIT, &c.
GOULARD. Syn. GouTARD's EXTRACT.
SOLUTION OF DIACETATE OF LEAD.
GOUT. Syn. ARTHRITIS, L. A painful
disease that chiefly attacks the male sex, par-
ticularly those of a corpulent habit and robust
frame. Persons who live temperately and
take much exercise are seldom troubled with
gout. Indolence, inactivity, luxurious habits
of life, and free living, are the chief exciting
causes of this disease; but excessive study,
grief, watchfulness, exposure to cold, and the
too free use of acidulous liquors, also occa-
sionally bring it on. In some persons it is an
hereditary disease.
Symp. Gout is generally preceded by un-
usual chilliness of the feet and legs, and a
numbness or a sensation of prickling along
the lower extremities; the appetite fails, fla-
tulency, indigestion, torpor, and languor ensue,
and extreme lassitude and fatigue follow the
least bodily exercise; the bowels become cos-
tive, and the urine pallid. The fits usually
come on in the night; the patient is awakened
by the severity of the pain, generally in the
first joint of the great toe, or occasionally in
the heel, whole foot, or calf of the leg. The
pain resembles that of a dislocated joint,
accompanied by a sensation resembling the
effusion of cold water ; the pain increases,
rigors and febrile symptoms ensue, accompanied
with local throbbing and inflammation. Some-
times both feet and legs are attacked; at others,
only one. Towards morning the patient ge-
nerally falls asleep, and sinks into a state of
copious perspiration, from which he awakes
comparatively recovered. This constitutes what
is called a “fit of gout.” These fits or parox-
ysms are apt to return at intervals, commonly
every evening, with more or less violence;
and when frequent, the disease usually extends
its action, the joints become affected, and con-
cretions of a chalky nature (chalk stones,
See


584 - GOUTTES AMERES-GRAPES.
gout stones) are formed upon them, and they
become stiff and nearly immovable.
Treat. A plain or vegetable diet, moderate
exercise, and the use of warm laxatives, gentle
tonics, diaphoretics, and diuretics, are among
the best preventives. The moderate use of
alkaline remedies, as potassa and magnesia,
has also been recommended. To relieve the
fit of gout, or to check it at its commence-
ment, the affusion of cold water will be often
found effective. The use of the ‘eau médici-
male, or the ‘vinum colchici of the Pharma-
copoeia, may also be had recourse to ; a due
dose of which taken at bedtime will frequently
carry off the paroxysm, and nearly always
mitigate the symptoms. The effect of the
above remedies do not greatly differ from each
other. The action of both medicines is accom-
panied with great languor, and a deadly nausea
or sickness, which terminates in vomiting or a
discharge from the bowels, or both. These
symptoms have often reached an alarming
extent, and in some constitutions follow even a
moderate dose. This method of cure should
not, therefore, be unadvisedly and incautiously
adopted. -
Another remedy which has been recom-
mended for gout is lemon juice, but experience
has proved that this agent is not to be de-
pended on. The dose proposed by Dr. O.
Rees, who originated this treatment, was 2 or
3 fl. oz., twice or thrice a day.
To ensure the efficacy of lemon juice, it must
be expressed from the fruit into the glass
shortly before being taken. That purchased
at the shops is generally stale and disagreeable,
and is often worse than useless. In some cases
it is advisable to take the juice undiluted,
but the more common practice is to mix it
with about an equal quantity of water. See
RHEUMATISM, CoLCHICUM, DRAUGHT (Anti-
arthritic), LEMON JUICE, VINEGAR OF COL-
CHICUM, WINE OF COLCHICUM, &c.
Gout Cor'dial. Prep. Rhubarb, senna, cori-
ander seed, sweet-fennel seed, and cochineal, of
each, 2 oz. ; liquorice root and saffron, of each,
1 oz. ; raisins, 24 lbs. ; rectified spirit of wine,
2 galls, ; digest for 14 days, press, and filter.
Used in gout and rheumatism. Aromatic and
slightly laxative. Dose. 1 to 3 table-spoonfuls.
Gout Medicine. (Duncan’s.) A mixture of
wine of colchicum, wine of opium, and tincture
of saffron.
Gout Rem’edy. (Alexander’s.) According
to Dr. Paris, this contains—aniseed, cumin
seed, ginger, hermodactyls, pepper, and scam-
mony.
Gout Specific. (Murray’s.) A mixture of
iodide of potassium, sulphate of magnesia, and
wine of colchicum, disguised with an aromatic
tincture.
GOUTTES AMERIES.
(Bitter). -
GRAD/UATOR. See WINEGAR.
GRAFT/ING COMPOST. Clay tempered
with water, to which a little linseed oil is
[Fr.] See DROPs
sometimes added. Used to cover the joint
formed by the scion and stock in grafting.
GRAINS OF PARADISE. Syn. GUINEA
GRAINS, MALAGUETTA PEPPER. The seeds of
the Ammomum mela.guetta. Grains of paradise
are hot, acrid, and aromatic, and in general
properties similar to the other peppers. In
some parts of the world they are used as a
condiment. They are principally employed
in these countries to impart a false strength
to wine, beer, spirits, and vinegar.
GRANIL'IA. A small inferior variety of
cochineal (which see).
GRANULATION. The act or process of
forming, or breaking into, grains or small
lmaSSéS.
The granulation of MEDICINES has of late
years received considerable attention from
both foreign and British pharmaceutists. In
France, granulated powders (POUDRís GRANU-
LÉEs) are coming into general use in place
of impalpable powders, the most unpleasant of
all forms of medicine. The French process
consists in enveloping the particles of medi-
cines in syrup by means of heat and constant
stirring. Mr. Banner, of Liverpool, has lately
introduced a method of granulating medicines
far preferable to that of the French pharma-
ceutists. The powder to be granulated ls
placed in a mortar, and mucilage of gum acacia
is gradually added until a crumbly mass is
made; this is then rubbed through a wire
sieve (about 12 meshes to the inch), and the
granules produced are spread out on paper, and
left to dry spontaneously, or they are placed in
a copper pan, and kept in constant motion over
a stove until dry; when perfectly dry, they are
placed in a mortar, and sufficient quantity of
strong tincture of tolu (3 drs. to 1 oz.) is added
to them, until by constant stirring they all
appear glossy and shining; they are then
dried again by a gentle heat, being kept in
constant motion. The granules thus formed
keep well, are tasteless, and are much more
elegant and agreeable preparations than pills or
ordinary powders. Many saline substances are
granulated by the simple process of dissolving
the salt in water, and evaporating to dryness
with constant stirring.
METALs are granulated (reduced to drops,
grains, or coarse powder) by pouring them, in
the melted state, into water. In many cases
they are allowed to run through the holes of
a species of colander or sieve to produce
minute division; and in order to render the
drops spherical, they are allowed to fall from
a sufficient height to permit of their ac-
quiring the solid state before striking the
water. Lead shot is made in this way. Shot
towers are often upwards of 100 feet in height.
See CoPPER, GUNPOWDER, PowpFR, ZINC, &c.
GRAPES. Syn. UVF, L. The fruit of
Piłis vinifera, or the common grape vine,
Ripe grapes are cooling and antiseptic, and in
large quantities diuretic and laxative. They
are very useful in bilious affections and dys.
|
GRAPHITE–GREEN PIGMENTS.
585
pepsia, and in all febrile, putrid, and inflam-
matory complaints. The skin and seed, which
are indigestible, should be rejected. “Grapes
which contain a large quantity of sugar are,
if taken without the husks, the safest and
most nutritive of summer fruits.” (Cullen.)
“The subjects of pulmonary affections, who
pass the summer in Switzerland, may try the
effects of a course of grapes, ‘cure de raisins,”
a remedy held in high estimation in several
parts of the Continent.” (Sir J. Clark.)
Grapes, in bunches, are preserved by wrap-
ping them in silver paper, and packing them
in dry bran. Each bunch is suspended by the
stem with the fingers of one hand, whilst the
bran is poured round it with the other; the
jar being occasionally gently shaken as the
process of packing proceeds. Some paper is
then laid over the top of the jar, the mouth or
cover of which is, lastly, tied firmly over with
bladder, to exclude the air and moisture. See
FRUIT, &c.
GRAPH/ITE. See PLUMBAGO.
GRAVEL. A collection of small pebbles
commonly mixed with sand or clay, or both.
Gravel for garden walks is chosen for its fine
colour and binding properties. The gravel of
Kensington and Wimbledon is esteemed the
finest in the world.—Gravel walks, when once
in order, may be rendered nearly equal to
asphalt by pouring over them tar or a mixture
of tar and pitch, absorption being promoted, if
required, by the application of a hot iron.
Gravel. In pathology, a term popularly
applied to calculous matter formed in the kid-
neys, and passing off in the urine; and some-
times to distinct calculi or concretions in the
bladder itself. See CALCULUs.
GRAVIMI’ETER. See HYDROMETER.
GRAW'ITY. Syn. GRAVITATION. The at-
tractive force by which bodies fall towards
the centre of the earth. Weight is the
measure of gravity. The determination of the
relative weights of bodies with reference to a
given standard, is explained under SPECIFIC
GRAVITY.
GRA'WY. The juice or liquid matter that
drains from dressed meat after it is placed on
the dish for serving. The common practice
among cooks is to pour a spoonful or two of
boiling water or broth over the joint, to in-
crease the quantity. The natural gravy that
oozes from the meat after it is cut is the
richest and most wholesome. Made gravies
are prepared by adding spice and flavouring to
the foregoing, or to strong meat soup. See
SAUCE.
GRAY. Syn. GREY ; GRIs, Fr. A mixture
of black and white. Delicate grays result
from mixtures of the three elementary colours,
red, yellow, and blue, in which the blue pre-
ponderates to a greater or less extent.
GRAY DYE, Syn. TEINTE GRISE. Gray
is dyed with the same materials as black, but
both the bath and mordant are used in a more
diluted state. COTTON goods may be worked
in sumach and then in copperas; this gives
rather a bluish gray, which may be modified
to any particular hue by the addition of
suitable colouring matter. To make it yellow-
ish, a small amount of fustic and alum are
employed; to make it “fuller, peachwood and
Lima-wood with alum are used. The methods
of obtaining gray on SILK and WOOL are very
numerous ; they are similar in principle to the
above, all depending on the blending of the
three primary colours, or on the modification
of weak blacks. See BLACK DYE.
GREASE. A general term applied to soft
animal fats; as BEAR’s GREASE, GOOSE GREASE,
&c. -
Grease. An inflammatory affection of the
heels of horses, which produces dryness, scurfi-
ness, and stiffness. The treatment consists of
emollient poultices, accompanied with physic
and diuretic balls, to subdue the inflammation,
followed by mild astringent lotions or oint-
ments.
GREAVES. Syn. GRAVES. The sediment
of melted tallow, consisting chiefly of animal
membranes mixed with fat, made up into cakes.
Used as a coarse food for dogs.
GRE/CIAN WATER. See HAIR DYES.
GREEN. Syn. VIRIDIs, L.; VERT, Fr. Of
the colour of the leaves of growing plants;
subst, a green colour.
GREEN DYE. Syn. TEINTE VERTE, Fr.
All the green dyes in use, with the practically

unimportant exceptions of Chinese green and
oxide of chromium green, are compounded of
blue and yellow. The goods, in practice, are
generally dyed blue first, observing to regulate
the shade according to that of the intended
green ; they are then dried, rinsed, and passed
through a yellow bath, with the like precau-
tions, until the proper shade is produced. See
BLUE DYE, YELLOW DYE, &c.
GREEN PIG/MENTS. Several of the green
pigments of commerce are obtained from cop-
per. Oxide of chromium furnishes some
which are very beautiful. Many are formed
by the mere mechanical admixture of blue
and yellow pigments. The bright blues and
yellows, when mixed in this way, produce the
liveliest greens; orange, or red and blue, and
the yellowish browns and blue, the more dingy
greens. In this way are produced all the
extemporaneous greens of the artist. Nickel
and titanium also furnish green colours, but
these are not in common use. The following
list embraces all the best-known and most use-
ful green pigments:–
Green, Arsen'ical. Arsenite and aceto-
arsenite of copper. See SCHEELE's and
SCHWEINFURT GREEN (below).
Green, Barth's. From yellow lake, Prussian
blue, and clay, ground together.
Green Bice. Same as mountain green.
Green, Bremen. This is properly green ver-
diter, but other preparations are frequently
sold under the name.
Green, Brighton. A mixture of impure

586
GREEN PIGMENTS,
acetate of copper and chalk, prepared as fol-
lows : — -
To sulphate of copper, 7 lbs., add sugar of
lead, 3 lbs. ; each separately dissolved in water,
5 pints; mix the solutions, stir in of whiting,
24 lbs., set the resulting paste on chalk stones,
and when dry grind it to powder.
Green, Brunswick. This is properly a crude
chloride of copper, but a mixture of carbonate
of copper and alumina or chalk is now com-
monly sold under the name in the shops.
Prep. 1. A saturated solution of sal-am-
moniac, 3 parts, is poured over copper filings
or shreds, 2 parts, contained in a vessel capable
of being closed up, and the mixture is kept
in a warm place for some weeks, when the
newly formed green pigment is separated from
the unoxidised copper, by washing the mix-
ture on a sieve; it is then edulcorated with
water, and slowly dried in the shade. Colour
very deep and rich. The lighter shades are
produced by the addition of sulphate of
baryta.
2. A solution of crude carbonate of ammonia
or bone spirit is added to a mixed solution of
alum and blue vitriol, as long as it affects the
liquor; in a short time the precipitate is col-
lected, washed, and dried. The various shades
of green are produced by using different
quantities of alum, which pales and cheapens
it.
Green, Chrome. The superb green pigment
used by enamellers under this name is the
green oxide or sesquioxide of chromium. A
hydrated oxide of chromium forms the emerald
green of Pannetier; it is prepared by melting
in a crucible equivalent quantities of anhy-
drous boracic acid and bichromate of potassium,
and treating the fused mass with water. The
hydrated oxide thus produced is washed and
finely triturated.
The chrome green of the oil and colour
shops is a mixture of chrome yellow and Prus-
sian blue.
Green, Copper. Green bice or mountain
green, Brunswick green, emerald green, ver-
diter, and several other well-known pigments,
may be thus named. -
Green, Em’erald. This term is commonly
applied to the aceto-arsenite of copper, as pre-
pared in England. It is the same compound,
chemically speaking, as Schweinfurt green
(which see).
Prep. A pulp is formed with verdigris, 1
part, and boiling water, q. S., and after being
passed through a sieve, to remove lumps, is
added gradually to a boiling solution of arseni-
ous acid, 1 part, in water, 10 parts, the mixture
being constantly stirred until the precipitate
becomes a heavy, granular powder, when it is
collected on a calico filter, and dried on chalk
stones.
Green, Frise. Syn. FRIEZLAND GREEN. This
resembles Brunswick green.
Green, Gellart's. A mixture of cobalt blue
and flowers of zinc with some yellow pigment.
Green, Imperial. Schweinfurt green (see
below).
Green, Iris. A pigment prepared by grind.
ing the juice of the petals of the blue flag with
quicklime. It is very fugitive.
Green Lake. See LAKE.
Green, Mim'eral. This is the same as moun-
tain green.
Green, Mitis. Another of the many syno-
nyms of Schweinfurt green.
Green, Mountain. This pigment is properly
the native green carbonate or bicarbonate of
copper (malachite) ground to powder, either
with or without the addition of a little orpi.
ment or chrome yellow. That of the shops is
commonly prepared by adding a solution of
carbonate of soda, or of potassa, to a hot mixed
solution of sulphate of copper and alum,
Green verditer is commonly sold for this
article. According to Watts, mountain green
is the same as Neuwieder green.
Green, Neuwieder. Schweinfurt green mixed
with gypsum or sulphate of baryta.
Green, Prussian, The sediment of the pro-
cess of making Prussian blue from bullock's
blood or horns, before it has had the hydro-
chloric acid added to it. It is also prepared by
pouring liquid chloride upon freshly precipitated
Prussian blue. As now sold, this pigment is
generally a mixture of Prussian blue and
gamboge.
Green, Rinman's.
Gellert.
Green, Sap. A very fugitive pigment, pre-
pared from the juice of buckthorm berries. The
berries are allowed -to ferment for a week or
eight days in a wooden tub. The juice is then
pressed out, strained, a little alum added, and
the whole evaporated to a proper consistence;
it is next run into pigs’ bladders, and hung up
in a dry situation to harden. An inferior
article is made from the juice of black alder,
and of evergreen privet. It is a common prac.
tice to add # pint of lime water and 3 oz. of
gum arabic to every pint of either of the above
juices.
Green, Scheele's. This is arsenite of copper,
Prep. 1. White arsenic (in powder), 1 part;
commercial potash, 2 parts; boiling water,
35 parts; dissolve, filter, and add the solution
gradually, whilst still warm, to a filtered solu-
tion of sulphate of copper (cryst.), 2 parts, as
long as a precipitate falls; lastly, wash the
newly formed pigment with warm water, and
dry it.
2. (Ure.) Powdered arsenious acid, 11 oz. ;
carbonate of potassa, 1% lb. ; boiling water,
1 gall. ; dissolve, filter, and add the solution,
as before, to another solution of crystallised
sulphate of copper, 2 lbs., in water, 3 galls.
Prod. 14 lb. A very fine grass-green colour.
Green, Schweinfurt. This splendid green
pigment is the aceto-arsenite of copper.
Prep. 1. Acetate of copper and arsenious
acid, equal parts, are each dissolved separately
in the least possible quantity of boiling water,
This resembles that of
+
GREEN SICKNESS.–GUAIACIN.
587
and the solutions mixed whilst still as hot as pos-
sible; an olive-green precipitate falls, which,
by being boiled in the liquor 5 or 6 minutes,
changes to a dense granular powder of a superb
green colour.
2. Instead of boiling the solution contain-
ing the precipitate, it is allowed to cool and
stand for several hours, or until the powder
assumes a granular and beautiful tint. Very
rich. -
3. (Kastner.) Arsenious acid, 8 lbs., is dis-
solved in water as before, and added to ver-
digris, 9 or 10 lbs., diffused through water, q. S.,
at 120° Fahr., the pap of the latter being first
passed through a sieve ; the mixed ingredients
are then set aside till the mutual reaction pro-
duces the proper shade.
4. (Dr. Ure.) Sulphate of copper, 50 lbs., and
lime, 10 lbs., are dissolved in good vinegar, 20
galls., and a boiling-hot solution of white arsenic,
50 lbs., is conveyed as quickly as possible into
the liquor; the mixture is stirred several
times, and then allowed to subside, after which
it is collected on a filter, dried, and powdered.
The supernatant liquor is employed the next
time for dissolving the arsenic.
5. See EMERALD GREEN (above).
Obs. This is a very fine, permanent green
pigment. “A great deal of needless alarm has
been excited about its supposed deleterious
effects. It is extensively employed for staining
wall-papers, and persons inhabiting rooms thus
papered are said to have had their health seri-
ously deranged by the arsenical fumes evolved
from it. Now, it is utterly impossible that
arsenic could volatilize from such a compound
at ordinary temperatures; it does not decom-
pose at any temperature below redness.”
(Watts.) [It is, however, probable that the
air of such apartments is sometimes charged
with the poisonous pigment through its becom-
ing mechanically detached from the paper. To
breathe an atmosphere so impregnated would
be dangerous. The use of papers coloured
with Scheele's green, especially of the kind
called ‘flock,' should, therefore, be carefully
avoided.—ED.]
Werd'igris.
WERDIGRIs.
Green Verditer. This is essentially a mix-
ture of oxide and carbonate of copper, in uncer-
tain proportions, with chalk. Factitious green
bice and mountain green have a like composi-
See CoPPER (Acetates) and
tion. See WERDITER.
Green, Verona. The mineral called green
earth.
Green, Vienna. The same as Schweinfurt
green.
GREEN SICKNESS. See CHLOROSIS.
GREEK FIRE. This compound, so much
used in ancient warfare, is believed to have
had naphtha for its chief ingredient. Accord-
ing to some authorities, it was a mixture of
asphalt, nitre, and sulphur.
GREGORY'S SALT. The crude hydro-
chlorate of morphia, prepared by Gregory's
process. It is a double hydrochlorate of mor-
phia and codeia.
GRINDING. The operation of reducing
substances to powder by attrition or friction.
In the laboratory, the term is chiefly applied to
powdering by means of a mill or by mechanical
power, in opposition to simple pounding or
trituration in a mortar or with a slab and
muller. All the principal powders, paints, &c.,
sold by the druggist, drysalter, and colourman,
are reduced in the drug or colour mill. Re-
cently machinery has even been applied to the
common mortar. An ingenious and very useful
contrivance of this kind is the ‘mechanical
mortar of Mr. H. Goodhall, of Derby.
GRIND'STONES. (Artificial). Washed sili-
ceous sand, 3 or 4 parts; shell-lac, 1 part ; melt
together, and form the mass into the proper
shape whilst warm, with strong pressure. The
fineness of the sand must depend on the work
the stone is intended for. The same composi-
tion is formed upon pieces of wood, as corn
rubbers, and for the purpose of sharpening
knives, and cutting stones, shells, &c. See
EMERY. -
GR0ATS. Syn. GRITs; GRUTELLUM, AVENA
DECORTICATA, AVENE SEM.INA, AVENA (Ph.
L.), L. Common oats, deprived of their exte-
rior integuments or husks. This is generally
effected in a mill, which, at the same time,
cuts them into two or three pieces. When
crushed flat, they are denominated EMBDEN
GROATS.
GROUT. Mortar reduced to a thin paste
with water, used to fill up the joints of
masonry aud brickwork. A finer kind is used
to finish off the best ceilings.
GRUEL, Syn. OATMEAL GRUEL, WATER G.;
DECOCTUM AVENE, L. Oatmeal or groats
boiled with water to a proper consistence, and
strained. It is variously flavoured to suit the
palate ; but the addition of a little white
sugar, and finely powdered Jamaica ginger,
with or without a glass of wine, is the least
likely to offend the stomach. Nutmegs, cin-
namon, &c., frequently disagree with invalids.
Sometimes milk or butter is added. Embden
groats require less boiling than the common
groats. Of oatmeal, the Scotch is commonly
said to be the best.
The following directions for making gruel
from oatmeal are given by Dr. A.T. Thomson —
“Oatmeal, 2 oz. ; cold water, 13 pint ; rub the
meal in a basin, with the back of a spoon, in
some of the water, pouring off the fluid after
the grosser particles have subsided, but whilst
the milkiness remains; repeat this with fresh
water, unite the washings, and boil until a
soft, thick mucilage is formed.”
GUA'IACIN. Syn. GUAIACIC ACID, PURE
GUAIACUM RESIN. A substance having the
nature of an acid, discovered by Trommsdorff
in the wood and bark of Guaiacum officinale.
Prep. The tincture of guaiacum is treated
with hydrate of lime, and the guaiacate of lime
thus formed is decomposed with dilute sul-


588
GUAIACUM-GUANO.
phuric acid; it is purified by dissolving it in
alcohol.
Prop., &c. Insoluble in water; soluble in
alcohol and ether; it unites with the caustic
alkalies, forming alkaline guaiacates (guaiacum
soaps); air and light turn it green ; gluten,
mucilage of gum arabic, &c., turn it blue ;
nitric acid and chlorine turn it successively
green, blue, and brown ; tincture of guaiacin,
added to hydrocyanic acid and sulphate of
copper, produces an intense blue . colour.
(Pagenstecher.) A delicate photographic paper
may be formed by washing unsized paper with
an alcoholic solution of guaiacum resin, and
afterwards with one of neutral acetate of lead.
(Johnston.) -
GUA'IACUM. Syn. GUAIAC, GUM GUAIACUM,
GUAIACUM RESIN ; GUAIACUM (Ph. L.),
(GUAIAC RESIN, GUAIACI RESINA, B. P.), The
resin prepared by means of fire from the wood
of Guaiacum officinale, by natural exudation,
by incision, or by heat. (B. P.) This sub-
stance is often adulterated. When pure,
its “fresh fracture is red, slowly passing to
green; the tincture slowly strikes a lively
blue colour on the inner surface of a thin
paring of raw potato.” (B. P.) Adulteration
with resin may be generally discovered by the
odour evolved when the guaiacum is heated.
An alcoholic tincture of guaiacum, rendered
milky with water, recovers its transparency
on the addition of caustic potassa in excess;
but this is not the case when resin is present.
Guaiacum is stimulant, sudorific, and altera-
tive.—Dose. 10 to 30 grs., either in powder or
pills; in chronic rheumatism, gout, obstinate
chronic skin diseases, scrofula, syphilis, &c. It
forms the active ingredient of the once cele-
brated ‘CHELSEA PENSIONER,” and the “GOUT
SPECIFIC’ of Mr. Emerigon. The lattér was
made by digesting 2 oz. of guaiacum resin in
48 fl. oz. of rum, for 7 or 8 days. The dose of
this was a table-spoonful every morning, fasting,
for a twelvemonth. Its other properties are
similar to those of GUAIACIN, but are less
marked. Sp. gr., 1:20 to 1'22.
Guaiacum Wood. Syn. LIGNUM WITE,
GUAIACT LIGNUM (Ph. L.), L. The wood of
Guaiacum officinale. This is employed under
the form of shavings, raspings, and sawdust, in
decoctions only. See DECOCTION and BALSAM.
GUA/NO. Syn. HUANHo, Peruv. This sub-
stance, now so extensively used in agriculture,
is the partially decomposed excrement of cer-
tain aquatic birds, chiefly the common penguin,
which congregate in countless numbers on
the barren and uninhabited islets and rocks
on the western coasts of South America and
the coasts of Africa. It abounds in ammonia
and the phosphates, and is undoubtedly the
richest natural manure known. Under judi-
cious application, the increase of the crops of
grain, turnips, potatoes, and grass, consequent
upon its use, is said to be about 33%. “Guano
is peculiarly adapted to horticultural and flori-
cultural improvement, by its relative cleanli-
ness and facility of application.” (Ure.)
“According to Denham Smith, South Ame.
rican guano, as imported, presents itself in
three distinct states, the three varieties being
not unfrequently mixed together in the same
bag ; the first variety is damp and pulverulent;
the second exists as large concretions, present-
ing various aspects when broken; the third is
heavy and crystalline, and is termed ‘stone'
by the labourers. These three varieties differ
widely in composition, as the following com-
prehensive analysis, by Smith, will show —
1 ‘ Proceedings of the Chem.
Soluble in Wałer.
2–
- II. III.
Pulverulent. Concrete. Saline.
Water - - 222:00 250.00 97.00
Chloride of ammonium 25-50 - 30:30
Sulphate of potash 80:00 - -
55. soda traces 258'44 191-77
Oxalate of ammonia 7400 93.90 -
35 soda - - 105'63
Phosphate of ammonia 63'30 61:24 -
25 potash - 77.32 49:47
22 soda 1:20 - 3:60
Chloride of sodium . - 29-22 286.31
22 potassium - - 41-63
Organic matter 15:00 6.68 25'53
Urate of ammonia 154, 18 - -
Uric acid . - - - - 25-16 - -
Ammonia phosphate of magnesia 5-64 7.84 1.33
Animal matter. - 11.80 8.60 7.56

Soc.,’ vol. ii.

GUANO.
589
Insoluble in Water.
Oxalate of lime
Phosphate of lime
52 magnesia
Oxide of iron -
Humus and organic matters
Sand
Loss
I. II. III.
Pulverulent. Concrete. Saline.
25-60 109'58 -
199°30 62-70 132°23
20:30 8-74 25'80
- - 1:56
60-92 8:00 18:36
15-60 7-20 4:20
‘50 10:54, 7-78
1000-00 1000:00 1000-00
“Several of the South American guano beds
are now exhausted, but new varieties are con-
stantly being introduced; and although the
qualities are continually varying, guanos, on
the whole, may be divided into two classes,
the one characterised by the abundance of
ammonia, the other by that of phosphates, the
Peruvian and Angamos being characteristic of
the former, and the Saldanha Bay and Bolivian
of the latter. In selecting a guano, the fol-
lowing points (Anderson) ought to be attended
to by the farmer:-
“1st. The guano should be light coloured
and dry, colouring very slightly when squeezed
together, and not gritty.
“2nd. It should not have too powerful an
ammoniacal smell, and should contain lumps
which, when broken, appear of a paler colour
than the powder.
“3rd. A bushel should not weigh more than
from 56 to 60 pounds.
“These characters are, however, imitated
with great skill, so that they cannot be im-
plicitly relied upon, and they are applicable to
Peruvian guano only.”
Purity, Adulteration. Guano, owing to its
high price, is very commonly adulterated, or is
in an advanced stage of decomposition when
sold. Much of what is vended under the
name is altogether a fictitious article. These
artificial mixtures are made to look so like
genuine guano, that the mere practical man,
who goes only by their appearance, is very
often deceived by them, and, owing to the
failure of his crops in consequence, is led to
distrust the efficacy of guano as a manure.
A sample of pretended guano examined by
Johnston was found to contain, in the state
in which it was sold, more than half its weight
of gypsum, the rest being peat or coal ashes,
with a little common salt, crude sul- phate
of ammonia, and either dried urine or the
refuse of the glue manufactories, to give it
a smell. “I could not satisfy myself that
it contained a particle of real guano.” Ves-
* The above particulars are from an elaborate paper by
Dr. H. M. Noad, in the ‘Chemist and Druggist,’ vol. ii.
* “Elem, of Agric. Chem.”
sels which sail hence for the guano stations,
are now very commonly ballasted with rough
gypsum or plaster of Paris. This substance
is mixed with the guano as it is loaded, and
enables the importers to deliver from the vessel
a “nice-looking, light-coloured article.” Pur-
chasers of guano are very desirous of having
it delivered from the vessel, as they believe
they thus obtain it pure. The favourite ma-
terial for the adulteration of guano, at the
present moment, is a variety of umber, which
is brought from Anglesea in large quantities.
The rate of admixture is said to be about
15 cwt. of umber to about 5 cwt. of Peruvian
guano, from which an excellent-looking article
is manufactured, which is sold under the name
of “African guano.”
Pure guano has a pale-brown colour, a more
or less offensive odour, and the average sp. gr.
of 1.63 to 1:64. If the sp. gr. exceed 1.75, it
is either damaged or adulterated; and if it is
less than 1:62, it contains an undue quantity of
moisture. The best is neutral to test-paper,
and sometimes has even an acid reaction;
but that of commerce has generally an alka-
line reaction, owing to the presence of free
ammonia, and, in consequence, turns turmeric
paper brown, and gives white fumes when a
glass rod dipped in hydrochloric acid is held
over it. Triturated with quicksilver or caustic
potassa, good guano evolves a powerful odour
of ammonia; digested in water, fully one half
of it is dissolved; dried by the heat of boiling
water, it does not lose more than from 7 to
9% in weight; and burned upon a red-hot
shovel, it leaves a white ash, not a red or dark-
coloured one, (See directions for selecting
guano given above, also below.)
Analysis or assay. The quantitative analysis
of guano, so as to exhibit the names and pro-
portions of all its numerous component sub-
stances, is an extremely tedious and difficult
matter in the hands of persons unaccustomed
to chemical manipulations. As, however, its
value to the agriculturist depends chiefly
on its richness in ammonia, potassa, and
phosphoric acid, the analysis of guano for
practical purposes may be reduced to an assay
590
GUANO.
-
for these articles. Indeed, the presence of
ammonia (the most valuable of them), in the
proper quantity, may be fairly taken as evi-
dence of the presence of the rest. The fol-
lowing methods of testing guano are both
simple and accurate, and are so arranged as to
permit its per-centage richness in one or more
of its leading constituents to be determined
without much trouble or expense.
1.—a. 100 grs. of the sample for examina-
tion (fairly selected) are crushed to a powder,
and placed on a small, weighed, and perfectly
dry paper filter, and then desiccated, by expo-
sure for 2 or 3 hours to the heat of boiling
water. The loss in weight, taken in grains,
after deducting 9, indicates the quantity per
cent. of water or moisture which the sample
contains in excess of that present in good or
pure guano."
b. The paper filter, with its contents, is next
suspended for some time over concentrated sul-
phuric acid (oil of vitriol) contained in a wide-
mouthed bottle or jar, by means of a thread
attached to the cork or stopper, care being
taken to exclude the external air. The expo-
sure in this way is continued until the guano
ceases to diminish in weight, which is ascer-
tained by weighing it at intervals after the
first 3 or 4 hours. When this point is arrived
at, the filter and its contents are very care-
fully weighed. The difference between its
present weight and its original weight (before
the desiccation in a), taken in grains, gives
the gross quantity of water per cent.
c. The dried guano from (b) is next placed
in a weighed, smooth crucible or capsule, and
exposed to a low red heat until all the or-
ganic matter is completely destroyed, and the
whole is reduced to a white ash, which is
weighed as soon as it has become cold.
This weight, in grains, gives the gross weight
per cent. of non-volatile matter (fixed al-
kaline and earthy chlorides, phosphates, and
sulphates); the total loss of weight by com-
bustion denotes the gross per-centage of com-
bustible and volatile matter (urea, uric acid,
ammoniacal salts, and organic matter). The
latter should not be less than 55 to 60%.
2.—a. A second 100 grs. of the guano, se-
lected as before, is distilled along with about
75 grs. of fresh-slaked quicklime, and a little
water, in a small matrass connected with a
tubular, triple bulb-condenser, containing cold
distilled water, and immersed in a basin of
ice-cold water. (See engr.) The condenser is
charged by plunging one of its extremities
into the water, and sucking at the other, until
the liquid reaches the level indicated in the
margin. A very gentle heat only, cautiously
increased, need be employed. After the pro-
cess is over, the strength of the solution of
ammonia found in the condenser is tested,
either by taking its density in a small specific-
gravity bottle, or by determining its saturat-
1. According to Dr. Noad, the proportion of water in
genuine guanos ranges from 7 to 203.
ing power in the manner described under
ALKALIMETRY. This furnishes the per-centage
of ready formed ammonia sufficiently accu-
rate for all ordinary purposes, provided proper
care is taken.
When extreme accuracy is required, the
condenser is charged with a weighed quantity
of dilute hydrochloric acid of a known strength,
instead of water, and after the process is over,
this is tested as before. The quantity of am-
moniacal test-liquor (see ALKALIMETRY) now
taken to saturate it, deducted from what it
would have taken before the exposure in the
condenser, gives the per-centage sought.
Another method, giving very accurate re-
sults, is to use a rather strong hydrochloric
acid (sp. gr. about 1:13) for the condenser;
after the operation is over, the contents of the
latter are poured into a glass or porcelain cap-
sule, a solution of bichloride of platinum is
added, in excess, and the whole is then gently
evaporated to dryness; the residuum is rubbed
to powder, and exhausted with a mixture of
two measures of alcohol and one measure of
ether; the undissolved portion is next dried at
a heat not exceeding 212°Fahr., and weighed.
The weight, in grains, of the ammonio chloride
of platinum thus obtained, multiplied by
'0763, gives the per-centage of ready-formed
ammonia, as before. When hydrochloric acid
is used for the condenser, a
simple (U) tube and beaker
glass may be employed, if a
bulb-condenser is not at
hand. (See engr.) The ad-
vantages resulting from the
use of acid instead of water
for the condenser is, that
with the former no ammo-
nia can possibly escape being
absorbed, whilst little care
is required to keep the con-
denser cool.
b. 25 grs. of the guano are next weighed,
and after being slightly moistened with a
little dilute hydrochloric acid, are thoroughly
dried by the heat of boiling water; the dried
sample is then mixed in a warm unglazed
porcelain mortar with 10 times its weight of



GUANO. 591
a mixture of 2 parts of quicklime to 1 part of
hydrate of soda (both quite dry). This mix-
ture is introduced into a combustion tube of
hard Bohemian glass, about 16 or 18 inches
long, and # of an inch in diameter. (See engr.)
The mortar is rubbed out with a little of the
soda-lime mixture, which is also introduced
into the tube with that already put there; a
little plug of ignited asbestos is then loosely
placed over the whole, and the tube is imme-
diately connected with a tubular bulb-con-
denser, containing moderately strong hydro-
chloric acid, great care being taken that the
joints are made air-tight, which may be deter-
mined by the operator sucking a few bubbles
out of the apparatus. If, after suction, the
liquid remains at a higher level in the furthest
bulb (b), it is a sign that the connection is
sound. This being done, heat is applied to
the combustion-tube by means of spirit-lamps;
or, more conveniently, by means of the furnace
now usually employed in organic analysis. (See
engr.) The tube is next gradually surrounded
with red-hot charcoal, by shifting, by degrees,
the screen (c), and adding more charcoal, so as
to gradually expel the ammonia. The disen-
gagement of gas should take place uninter-
ruptedly, but not too rapidly, in order that the
acid may not ascend into the combustion-tube
and spoil the experiment. The non-conden-
sable volatile matters which pass off furnish a
key to the progress of the operation. The
heat is at length increased to a full red. When
gas ceases to be evolved, and the mixture in
the tube has become quite white, the experi-
ment is at an end. The point (a) of the com-
bustion-tube is broken off, and the ammonia
which remains in the tube is expelled by suck-
ing gently at the extremity (b) of the bulb-
condenser. The latter is then disconnected
with the apparatus, and emptied into a glass
or porcelain capsule, in order to be tested, as
directed under 2, a. The quantity of am-
monia, in grains, thus found, multipled by 4,
gives the WHOLE QUANTITY of AMMONIA per
cent., both actual and potential, producible
from the sample of guano examined.
c. The quantity of ready formed ammonia
(see 2, a deducted from the quantity last
found (see 2, b) gives the quantity of LATENT,
or PoſtFNTIAL AMMONIA that will be slowly
developed by the decomposition of the guano
in the soil, and become available for the food
of plants. This is the most valuable product
of this substance as a manure, and can only be
obtained in quantity from well-preserved, dry
guano.
3.—a. A third quantity of 100 grs. of the
guano, selected as before, is triturated and
digested for some time with 12 times its weight
of hot distilled water, and the whole being
thrown on a filter, the undissolved portion is
|
_I.
||||| |llllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll | ||||
washed with a little warm distilled water; the
solution and ‘washings' are then mixed toge-
ther, and acidulated with nitric acid; a solu-
tion of pernitrate of iron is next added, and
afterwards, solution of ammonia, in excess;
the liquid is next heated for a short time, and
the bulky reddish-brown precipitate is collected,
washed with hot water, dried, ignited, and
weighed. The weight, in grains, less the weight
of the peroxide of iron in the pernitrate con-
sumed, gives the weight of PHOSPHORIC ACID
present in the soluble phosphates contained in
the sample. The pernitrate of iron is made
by direct solution in hot strong nitric acid, of
twice as much pure iron wire as there is phos-
phoric acid suspected to be present in the
liquid. A slight excess will not alter the re-
sult. The number of grains of metallic iron
used to form the solution, multiplied by 1.4286,
gives the weight of the peroxide of iron which
is to be deducted from the gross weight of
the precipitate.
b. The filtrate and ‘washings' left from 3, a,
are mixed, and treated with a little oxalate of
ammonia to throw down any lime, and then
carefully evaporated to dryness and ignited;
the residuum of the ignition, when cold, after
being carefully weighed, is treated with the
smallest portion of water that will dissolve it;
the solution is acidified with hydrochloric acid,
and a solution of bichloride of platinum added,
in excess; some strong alcohol is next poured
in, the precipitate carefully collected on a
filter, washed with rectified spirit, dried at
212° Fahr., and weighed. The weight, in
grains, multiplied by 1940, gives the per-
centage of POTASSA sought. -
c. The weight of the potassa multiplied by

592
GUANO.
1852, and deducted from the weight of the
ignited residuum in 3, b, already found (see
above), gives the quantity of CHLORIDE OF
SODIUM or COMMON SALT (nearly).
4.—a. The insoluble residuum from 3, a,
dried, and ignited, or the ash from 1, c, is
digested for 10 or 12 hours in 600 times its
weight of water (to which a little common salt
or sal-ammoniac may be added), after which
the whole is thrown upon a filter; a solution
of chloride of barium is then added to the
filtrate as long as a precipitate (if any) forms;
the latter is collected, washed, dried, ignited,
and weighed. The weight, in grains, multi-
plied by 5843, denotes the quantity of GYP-
SUM or SULPHATE OF LIME which has been
used to adulterate the sample.
b. The insoluble residuum last left on the
filter is digested for some time in warm dilute
hydrochloric acid; the whole is then thrown
upon a filter, and the undissolved portion (ST-
LICA or SAND, with, perhaps, a trace of ALU.
MINA), is washed, dried, ignited, and weighed.
It should not weigh more than 3 to 3% grs. (3
to 3; #).
c. The filtrate and ‘washings' from b are
next mixed together; the mixed liquid is
acidified with dilute sulphuric acid and heated
until all the hydrochloric acid is expelled, and
the whole reduced to a soft pasty-mass; rec-
tified spirit is now poured in, and after active
stirring for some time, the mixture is thrown
on a filter, and the solid portion washed with
a little more rectified spirit; it is then dried,
ignited, and weighed. The weight, in grains,
multiplied by 7650, gives the quantity of
PHOSPHATE OF LIME per cent. required.
d. The filtrate from c is diluted with water,
and after being boiled for a few minutes, am-
monia is added in slight excess, followed by a
solution of sulphate of magnesia (previously
mixed with as much sal-ammoniac as will pre-
vent ammonia producing a precipitate in it),
slowly dropped in as long as it disturbs the
liquor; the whole is now allowed to rest for
10 or 12 hours, when the precipitate is col-
lected on a filter, and washed with water alka-
lised with ammonia, as long as the filtering
liquid is rendered turbid by chloride of ba-
rium ; it is next dried, submitted to intense
ignition for some time in a covered platinum
crucible, and when cold, carefully weighed.
The weight, in grains, multipled by 6429, in-
dicates the per-centage of PHOSPHORIC ACID
in the insoluble phosphates (phosphates of
lime, magnesia, &c.) in the sample examined.
5. A fourth 100 grs. of guano is weighed,
and exhausted by trituration and digestion
with hot water (see 3, a); the solution is eva-
porated to dryness by a gentle heat, and the
residuum of the evaporation, after being
weighed, is powdered and enclosed in a stout
phial with 8 times its volume of alcohol, sp.
gr. 825 (63 o. p.); the plant is next securely
corked and guarded, and exposed for some
time, with agitation, to the heat of 212°Fahr.,
the whole is then allowed to cool, the contents
of the phial filtered, the undissolved portion
washed with hot alcohol, and both the filtrate
and the ‘washings' gently evaporated to dry-
ness, and weighed. This gives the richness of
the sample in UREA, one of the most valuable
constituents of the best guano. Its presence
is “a certain proof of its entire soundness.”
(Ure.)
6.—a. Another 100 grs. of the guano is taken,
and after being exhausted with water, is dried
at 212° Fahr., and weighed; it is then digested
with heat in 20 times its weight of borax-
water (containing 1% of borax), or in a solution
of caustic potassa, and after a time the whole
is thrown on a weighed filter, washed with a
little cold distilled water, dried by a heat not
higher than that of boiling water, and again
carefully weighed. The loss, in grains, indi-
cates the proportion per cent. of URIC ACID.
The accuracy of the result may be verified
by adding dilute hydrochloric acid, in slight
excess, to the filtrate, collecting the bulky,
crystalline precipitate of uric acid which
forms, washing it carefully with a little recti-
fied spirit, drying it, and weighing it, as be-
fore. This weight, which in general is a very
little under that denoted above, is the more
accurate of the two. The precipitate is shown
to be uric acid by its assuming a rich crimson
colour when treated with a little nitric acid,
which turns to a rich purple (murexide) when
it is moistened with ammonia water.
b. The quantity of uric acid last obtained,
multiplied by 1-1012, gives the per-centage of
TRATE OF AMMONIA.
Obs. Amongst the numerous constituents of
guano, none are so valuable in an agricultural
point of view as the three substances referred
to in the last two sections. Indeed, almost all
the ammonia furnished by this substance to
the soil, after the latter, manured with it, has
been exposed to the air and rain, is derived
from the slow decomposition of urea, or urate
of ammonia. It is these substances from which
the store of latent, or, as Dr. Ure terms it,
potential ammonia, is derived. The ammonia
existing in the guano under the form of car-
bonate, or of soluble salts (ready formed am-
monia), is either soon dissipated in air or is
washed away by heavy rains, and, therefore,
forms the least valuable and durable portion.
of this manure. It may be even added arti-
ficially, a matter almost impossible with the
former. An assay, therefore, for the latent
ammonia, or the urea, or the urate of ammonia,
any one of them singly, at once furnishes us,
as we have already hinted, with evidence of
the quality of the guano examined, without
the expense and trouble of a complete analysis
of this substance. Urea and uric acid are only
to be found in the very best samples of guano,
and their presence is a positive proof of entire
soundness and superior quality. The other
valuable portions of guano are potassa and
phosphoric acid (phosphate of lime chiefly);
GUARANA—GUM. 593

the rest are of little importance. (See 2, c,
above.)
GUARANA'. Syn. PAULLINIA, BRAZILIAN
COCOA. An alimentary and medicinal sub-
stance prepared from the seeds of Paullinia
sorbilis, a Brazilian tree. The dried seeds,
deprived of their aril, are pounded and
kneaded into a mass, which is afterwards
made into oblong or rounded cakes (GUARANA
BREAD). These cakes are used as we use cho-
colate—mixed with water and sugar, and
drank as a beverage. In Brazil this beverage
is largely consumed, both on account of its
nutritive qualities, and for its stomachie, febri-
fugal, and aphrodisiac effects. See CHOCOLATE,
&c., also below. -
GUARANINE'. A crystalline substance
discovered by M. Martius, in guarana. It
appears to be identical with caffeine, the
active principle of coffee and tea.
GUD/GEOIN. The Cyprinus gobeo (Linn.), a
Small fresh-water fish, common almost every-
where. The white is considered the best.
It was formerly used in medicine.
GUMI. Syn. GUMMI, L. The general
term for an important class of vegetable pro-
ducts. Gums are more or less soluble in cold
water, but insoluble in alcohol, ether, and oils.
They are obtained from certain plants in amor-
phous masses; most of them exude sponta-
neously, or on punctnring the bark. The most
perfect type of this class is the substance called
GUM ARABIC, or GUM ACACIA. The gums are
employed as demulcents in medicines, and are
used as cements, and for giving stiffness and
gloss to textile fabrics. Among the vulgar
the term is often incorrectly applied to the
resins and gum resins,
Gum Acacia, Syn. GUM ARABIC ; ACACIAE
GUMMI(B.P.); G. ARABICUM, G. ACACIA, ACACIA
(Ph.L.), L. “From various species” (of Acacia)
“ yielding gum” (Ph. L. & E.), chiefly Acacia
arabica and A. vera. “Whitish or yellowish,
transparent or cracked on the surface, and
opaque; brittle; it dissolves freely in water.”
(Ph. L.) It is scentless, and may be bleached by
exposure to the Sun and air, at the temperature
of boiling water. Sp. gr. 1355. (Ure.) The
pure soluble principle of gum arabic is termed
ARABIN (which see). BARBARY or Mo-
ROCCO GUM, GUM SENEGAL, and EAST INDIA
GUM, are inferior commercial varieties of the
same substance from other species of Acacia
(see below). -
Powdered gum arabic (PULVIS ACACIAE) is
frequently adulterated with flour or farina, or
with Senegal or other inferior gums. The first
may be detected by agitating a little of the
powder with cold water; the pure gum dis-
solves rapidly, whilst the starch or flour falls
to the bottom of the vessel. Or, a little of
the powder may be mixed with boiling water,
and when cold, tested with tincture of iodine ;
if it contains starch or flour, the paste will
assume a blue colour. If it contains cherry-tree
gum or tragacanth, it will be only partly so-
luble in cold water, and the paste will be
partly coloured, and more or less interspersed
with gelatinous clots.
Much of the white gum arabic of the shops
is formed by bleaching gum Senegal, by what
is called “Picciotto's process.’ The gum is
dissolved in water, and sulphurous acid gas
passed through the solution. The liquid is
afterwards boiled to expel the sulphurous acid,
a little of which, however, still remains be-
hind. To obtain the gum in a still whiter
state, carbonate of baryta is added, and after
agitation, the mixture isfiltered; it is after-
wards shaken with gelatinous alumina, again fil-
tered, and evaporated. The product (BLEACHED
GUM) is very white, but lacks the peculiar
toughness and adhesiveness of the best gum
acacia.
Gum, Barbary. Syn. MoRocco GUM. An in-
ferior product, consisting of a mixture of several
Acacia gums. It is exported from Mogador
Gum, Bassora. A solution of yellowish gum
brought from the neighbourhood of Bassora.
It differs from most gums in being nearly in-
soluble in water. The plant yielding it is be-
lieved to be a species of Mimosa. It contains
the principle, BASSORIN, which also exists in
gum tragacanth.
Gum, Bleached. See GUM ARABIC (above).
Gum, British. Syn. DEXTRIN, STARCH
GUM. Starch converted by the action of
acids, diastase, or heat, into a soluble sub-
stance resembling gum.
Prep. 1. Malt (crushed small), 1 lb.; warm
water, 2 galls. ; mix, heat the whole to 145°
Fahr., add of potato starch, 5 lbs., raise the
heat to 160° or 165°Fahr., and mash for about
25 minutes, or until the liquid becomes thin
and clear; it must then be instantly run off,
and raised to the boiling-point to prevent the
formation of sugar; after boiling for 3 or 4
minutes, the whole must be filtered, and eva-
porated to dryness by a steam heat.
2. By exposing dry potato starch, in a stove,
to a heat of about 400° Fahr. Yellow and
inferior.
.3 (M. Payen.) Dry starch, 1 ton, is
moistened uniformly with concentrated nitric
acid, 4% lbs., (diluted with) water, q. S., and
the paste or dough is made up into small
bricks or loaves, and dried in a stove; it is next
reduced to coarse powder, and exposed in a
stove-room for some time to a current of air
at 160° to 165° Fahr. ; it is next ground,
sifted, and exposed, as before, to a heat of about
228° Fahr. ; it is, lastly, ground, and passed
through the “bolting machine.” Very white
and Superior. This process has been patented
in France by M. Henzé.
4. (Pinel.) Water, 100 galls, nitric acid,
# gall, and hydrochloric acid, ; pint, are
mixed together, and so much potato starch is
mixed as will form a thin paste; in two hours
the liquid is drained off, and the solid matter
is made up into lumps, which are dried by a
gentle heat in a stove-room ; they are next


38

594
GUM RESINS-GUNPOWDER.
coarsely pulverised, and the powder is exposed
on three successive days to the respective tem-
peratures of 100°, 150°, and 190° Fahr. ; the
whole is then sifted, and, lastly, exposed to a
heat ranging from 300° to 350°Fahr. Darker
coloured than the last. To give it the appear-
ance of gum arabic, it is made into a paste
with water containing 1% of nitric acid, and
after being spread on copper plates in layers
# to 1 inch thick, it is exposed to a stove heat
ranging from 240° to 300°Fahr.
Prop., &c. White; insipid; transparent ;
friable; soluble in cold water, and in dilute
spirit; insoluble in alcohol and ether; its
solution yields a precipitate with acetate of
lead. Iodine commonly turns commercial dex-
trin blue, but does not affect the colour of
pure dextrin. It is distinguished from ordi-
nary gum by its right-handed polarization of
light, and by yielding oxalic but not mucic
acid, when treated with nitric acid.
Dextrin is nutritive, emollient, and agglu-
tinant. In France it is largely employed by
the pastry-cooks and confectioners, and in
medicine as a substitute for gum. The French
surgeons also commonly employ it as a “stiffen-
ing’ for the splints used for fractured limbs.
In this country it is chiefly used as a fine
dressing for muslins, silk, and other textile
fabrics, and in calico pºinting. Recently it
has been made up into tear-like masses, and
sold for gum arabic, to which, however, it is
vastly inferior as an agglutinant. See DEX-
TRIN.
Gum, Cherry-tree. Syn. FRUIT-TREE GUM,
PLUM-TREE G.; GUMMI CERASI, G. PRUNI, L.
An exudation from the stems of cherry, plum,
and some other of the Rosaceae. It is only
partly soluble in water. It contains CERASIN
(which see).
Gum, East India. This product, which con-
sists of inferior kinds of gum acacia, is chiefly
sxported from Bombay, having been previously
eonveyed there from the coast of Arabia.
It waries greatly in quality. Some samples
are quite unfitted for making gum-water.
Gum, Insoluble. See BASSORAGUM, CHERRY-
TREE GUM, and GUM TRAGACANTH.
Gum, Seed. Syn. GUMMI SEMINUM, L. A
species of soluble gum extracted from the
seed of the flax (linseed), quince, &c.
Gum Senegal. This product, which is
largely exported from Portendie, Sierra Leone,
and the French settlements on the Senegal,
ranks next in quality to gum acacia, and for
many purposes, as calico-printing for instance,
it answers equally well. The transparent and
light-coloured pieces are frequently picked out
and sold as gum arabic.
Gum Trag'acanth. Syn. TRAGACANTH,
GUM DRAGON; GUMMI TRAGACANTHA, G.
DRACONIS, TRAGACANTHA (Ph. L.), L. The
gummy exudation of the Astragalus verus,
hardened by the air. When digested in water,
it swells considerably, a portion is dissolved,
and the whole combines to form a thick mu-
cilage. It is totally soluble in boiling water,
when some change is supposed to take place
in it; a great portion, however, afterwards
separates. Sp. gr. 1384. It is chiefly em-
ployed in calico-printing, and by shoemakers
and lozenge-makers; by the latter to give
toughness to the Saccharine mass. -
Powdered tragacanth is often adulterated
with flour of starch, and not unfrequently
with the commoner varieties of gum arabic.
According to M. Planche, a mixture of pul-
verised tragacanth and gum arabic forms, with
water, a thinner mucilage than the same quan-
tity of either of these gums alone. This fraud
may be detected as follows:—Make a mucilage
of the suspected gum, and add thereto a few
drops (2 or 3 to the dr.) of alcoholic tincture of
guaiacum, taking care to stir it all the while,
If the sample contains any gum arabic, the
mixture, in the course of a few minutes, as-
sumes a fine blue colour, whilst it does not
change colour if the gum tragacanth is pure,
§ of gum arabic can be thus detected. When
the quantity is very small, one to four hours
may elapse before the colour is developed.
Starch and flour are detected in the manner
noticed under GUM ARABIC.
Gum, Turkey. Various qualities of gum
acacia are sold under this name.
GUMI RES/INS. Syn. GUMMI RESINE, L,
Vegetable products in which the properties of
gum and resin are combined. They are partly
soluble in water, and partly in alcohol. Many
of them form a species of emulsion when tri-
turated with the former fluid. The principal
gum resins are AMMONIACUM, ASSAF(ETIDA,
BDELLIUM, GALBANUM, GAMBOGE, MYRRH,
OLIBANUM, OPOPONAX, SAGAPENUM, and SCAM:
IMONY.
GUN BAR/RELS. See BROWNING.
GUN COT’TON. See PyROXY.LIN.
GUN METAL. An alloy containing 90.5% of
copper and 9.5% of tin, used for casting pieces
of ordnance (erroneously termed “brass guns’),
also those parts of machinery which are sub-
jected to considerable friction. See ALLOYS,
BRONZE, STEREO-METAL, &c.
GUN'POWDER. This substance is a mecha-
nical mixture of saltpetre, charcoal, and sul-
phur. It is seldom prepared on the small
scale.
Prep. The saltpetre having been trebly re-
fined, by boiling, skimming, filtering, and
crystallising, is melted into cakes, which are
then brushed to remove any adhering grit or
dirt, broken into pieces with a mallet, ground
to a fine powder in a mill, and sifted through
a fine bolting sieve of brass wire. The char.
coal is that of the alder or willow, and is
carefully burnt, as already described, and is
then reduced to powder. The sulphur is re-
fined by distillation, and ground to the same
fineness as the charcoal and saltpetre. The
ingredients are weighed out in the proper pro-
portions, and mixed together in a machine
consisting of a wooden drum, having a shaft

GUNJAH-GUTTA PERCHA. 595
passing through its centre, to which numerous
‘flyers’ in the shape of knife-blades are at-
tached, the drum and flyers revolving in a
contrary direction. When mixed, the charge
is carried to the “incorporating mill,’ where it
is ground under vertical iron “mill-stones,'
with a small quantity of distilled water, until
the ingredients are thoroughly incorporated.
The product of this operation is then pressed
into a hard cake, which is next broken into
pieces, granulated by means of sieves, and
after being “glazed by friction, and the dust
separated, is dried, with proper precautions,
in a stove heated to about 130° by steam
pipes. -
The proportions of saltpetre, charcoal, and
sulphur, used for different kinds of powder,
differ very slightly. In ‘sporting powders’
the proportion of saltpetre is generally from
1 to 3% greater than in the Government pow-
ders. In “miners’ powders’ it is about 10%
less, an excess of sulphur being used. The
following are the proportions adopted by Eu-
ropean powers:– -
Saltpetre. Charcoal, Sulphur.
England 75 15 10
France 75 12.5 12.5
Austria 75 15 10
Prussia 75 13.5 11:5
Russia 73-78 13.59 12-63
Spain 76°47 1078 12.75
Sweden 76 15 9
(Capt. Jervis-White Jervis.)
Obs. The quality of gunpowder is best esti-
mated by actual trial of its power and clean-
liness in use. It should be dry, hard, and
free from dust; the grains should be of a
uniform size, and glossy, and the colour a
dark-gray or brownish-gray, not perfectly
black. A very little placed on a piece of
paper and fired should instantly explode with
a flash, and neither leave an appreciable resi.
due on the paper nor burn it. Dried by the
heat of boiling water, or in vacuo, it should
not lose more than , to 1% of its weight.
Damp powder rapidly “fouls’ the gun. Gun-
powder, containing more than 7% of water,
does not recover its strength by simply drying
it. The sp. gr. ranges between 1795 and
1-800.
Gunpowder, White. Syn. BLASTING POW-
DER. Prep. 1. See BLASTING PoWDER,
No. 3. -
2. Yellow prussiate of potash and white
Sugar, of each, 1 part ; chlorate of potassa, 2
parts; powder each separately, and mix them
well, but carefully, with a bone or wooden
knife. It may be granulated like gunpowder,
by making the powder into a paste with a
little water, and pressing the mass through a
parchment sieve."
GUN'JAH. See HEMP (Indian).
GUT. Sym. FISHING GUT, SILKWORM. G.
* See the precautions noticed under BLASTINc PowDER
page 230,
This is obtained from the Bombya, mori (Linn.)
or silkworm caterpillar. Prep. The silkworms,
when just ready to spin, are steeped in strong
vinegar for 12 hours in warm weather, or 2
or 3 in cold weather, and are then broken in
half, and stretched out as far as possible on a
board, furnished with slits or pegs to hold
them ; in this state they are allowed to dry
in the sum or a warm place.
Obs. Used by anglers. The worms may be
known to be going to spin by refusing food,
and by having a fine silken thread hanging
from the mouth.
GUT’TA PERCHA. The concrete juice of
the Isonandra Gułła, a tree growing only in
the Malayan Archipelago, and of other species
of the same genus. The stem of the gutta-
percha tree grows to the diameter of 5 or 6
feet, and on being notched yields a milky
juice, which, after exposure to the air for some
time, solidifies, forming the gutta percha of
commerce. It arrives in this country in ir-
regular blocks of Some pounds in weight,
usually containing a large portion of impuri-
ties in the form of pieces of wood, stones, and
earth. To prepare this crude product for
manufacturing into useful articles, the blocks
are first cut into slices, and then torn into
shreds. These are softened by hot water, and
kneaded in a “masticator,’ the stones, earth,
and other impurities, being gradually washed
away by water. After several hours the
gutta percha is found to be kneaded into a
perfectly homogeneous mass, which is rolled
or drawn into sheets, bands, or tubes, as re-
quired.
Prop., &c. Gutta percha is a tough, in-
elastic substance, becoming soft and plastic at
212° Fahr., at which temperature two pieces
may be firmly welded together. It is one of
the best insulators of electricity, is im-
pervious to moisture, and resists the action of
acids and alkalies to a great extent. Its best
solvents are benzol, chloroform, bisulphuret
of carbon, rectified mineral naphtha, and rec-
tified oil of turpentine. All these dissolve it
readily. According to the analysis of Payen,
the purified gutta percha of commerce consists
of 75 to 82% of chemically pure gutta percha,
which is insoluble in ether and alcohol, and a
white and a yellow resin, soluble in boiling al-
cohol.
Uses. These are numerous and varied. No
substance, perhaps, with the exception of
caoutchouc, has been ‘tortured’ to so many
different purposes. Its perfect plasticity when
warm, and its capability of receiving the
most delicate impressions, render it invalu-
able in many cases where India rubber would
be useless. Beautiful mouldings, picture-
frames, and a number of ornamental articles,
are made from it. To the chemist and photo-
grapher it is of great use as a material for
making bottles, carboys, photographic baths,
and voltaic battery cells. One of the most
important uses to which it has been applied






596 GYPSUM–HAIR.

is for enclosing the metallic wires used for
telegraphic purposes. Its indestructibility by
water, its plasticity, and high insulating power,
have rendered it particularly valuable for this
purpose. At the International Exhibition of
1862 the Gutta Percha, Company exhibited
one mile of covered wire perfectly insulated,
which was hardly thicker than common sewing
cotton. Gutta percha may be rolled into
thin transparent sheets, which, being perfectly
impervious to moisture, are well adapted for
surgical purposes. Again, a solution of gutta
percha in chloroform forms an excellent dress-
ing for incised wounds, and a protection for
abraded surfaces, burns, &c. It is used in the
same way as collodion.
Purified Gutta Percha, Dr. Cattell, of Lon-
don, has succeeded in purifying gutta percha
so perfectly from all extraneous matter, that
it presents the appearance of ivory. The raw
material is dissolved in a certain solvent, and
the solution most carefully filtered until it
leaves on evaporation the gutta percha in a
pure milk-white condition.
GYP'SUM. This is native sulphate of lime.
When baked, to deprive it of water, and
ground, it forms PLASTER OF PARIS. Gypsum
is an excellent manure for certain soils.
HAD/D0CK. A small sea-fish, allied to the
cod, and esteemed an excellent article of food.
It is the Gadus aeglefinus of Linnaeus. Split,
smoked, and dried, it is common in the Smaller
shops of London.
HEMATEMI'ESIS. In pathology, vomiting
of blood. See STOMACH DISEASES.
HAEMI/ATITE. Syn. HEMATITE. In miner-
alogy, one of the most important iron ores.
Two kinds are distinguished, the red, which
is an anhydrous peroxide of iron, and the
brown, which is the hydrated peroxide.
HAEMATOCRYSTALLIN. A crystalline
substance obtained by the action of oxygen
and afterwards carbonic acid on the ‘clot of
blood. -
HAEMATOS/IN. Syn. HAZMATIN, RED PIG-
MENT OF BIOOD. The red colouring principle
of the blood. It is not known in a state of
purity. It differs from the other animal prin-
ciples in containing, as an essential ingredient,
the sesquioxide of iron. - -
HAEMATOX'YLIN. A principle obtained by
Chevreul from common logwood (Haºmatoaylon
campechianum), and on which its colour appears
to depend.
Prep. 1. Infuse logwood chips in water, at
a temperature of about 130° Fahr., for 12
hours, filter, and evaporate to dryness in a
water bath; digest the residuum in rectified
spirit for 24 hours, again filter and evaporate;
then add a little water; again gently evaporate
and set aside the solution in a cold place that
crystals may form ; these must be washed in
rectified spirit and dried.
2. Digest powdered hard extract of logwood
in rectified spirit, and proceed as last.
some of its principal charms.
3. Powdered logwood is mixed with sand
and digested for several days in pure ether ;
the resulting liquid is filtered, evaporated to
a syrup, and set aside to crystallise.
Prop., &c. Brilliant reddish-white or straw-
yellow crystals, soluble in boiling water, form-
ing an orange-red solution which turns yellow
as it cools, but resumes its former colour on
being heated. Alkalies in excess change its
colour successively into purple, violet, and
brown; acids brighten it; with the metallic
oxides it forms compounds having a blue,
purple, or violet colour.
HAEMOPTYSIS. In pathology, spitting of
blood. It generally arises from extreme ful-
ness of the blood-vessels of the lungs, or the
rupture of blood-vessels, as a consequence of
ulceration; but sometimes it is induced by
excessive exertion or external violence. De-
pletion, aperients, acidulous and astringent
drinks, and nauseants, are the usual remedies.
Acetate of lead, in small doses, has been re-
commended for this affection. When this sub-
stance is given, it should be accompanied with
a sufficient quantity of free acetic acid, to
prevent its being converted into the poisonous
carbonate of lead in the system.
HAEM/0RRHAGE. Syn. HEMORRITAGE ;
HAEMORRITAGIA, L. A bleeding or flow of
blood. Bleeding may be divided into active,
passive, and accidental.—Active haemorrhage
is that arising from a full state of the vessels,
or plethora, - Passive haemorrhage, from
general debility of the system, and of the
blood-vessels in particular, Accidental hae-
morrhage, from external violence, as blows,
wounds, &c. The first generally requires de-
pletion, and the second the usual treatment to
establish the general health and vigour of the
body. The bleeding from wounds, if extensive,
should be arrested by tying the ruptured
blood-vessels; or where this cannot be done,
and in less important cases, by the application
of styptics, as creasote, sulphate of iron, in-
fusion of galls, compound tincture of benzoin,
&c.
HAIR. Syn. CAPILLUS, PILUS, L. The
hair of the human head has continually formed
a subject for the chisel of the sculptor, the
pencil of the artist, and the lay of the poet.
Nor is this surprising, since all the features of
the face, as well as the head it covers, derive
from it additional finish and unequalled grace.
The hair is, indeed, one of the greatest aux-
iliaries of personal beauty, and imparts to it
All nations, in
all ages of the world, have been unanimous in
their admiration of luxuriant and flowing or
gracefully arranged hair.
Of all organic substances, hair is the one
least liable to suffer spontaneous change. It
is also less affected by aqueous liquids than
most other substances. Hence its value in
various branches of the useful arts.
The preservation of the hair of the head,
independently of its connection with personal
HAIR, COSMETICS.–HAIR, DYES.
597
beauty, is a matter of the utmost importance
in relation to hygiene. In other parts of this
work, we have referred to its management
under various conditions, but a few observa-
tions may be added here.
When the hair is in a weakly state, and
either falls off or grows feebly, frequently
cutting it will be found of the greatest ser-
vice, “In the arrangement of the hairs on the
surface of the body, it might be inferred that
little existed to excite attention; but this is
not the fact, if we are to judge by the careful
investigations to which the subject has given
rise. The hair-tubes are not placed perpen-
dicularly, but obliquely, in the skin ; hence
the direction of the hairs, after their escape
from the tubes, is in the same sense inclined
towards the surface; and the “set’ of the hair,
from the root to the point, is governed by a
law as precise as that which regulates any
other of the secondary vital functions. Thus,
on the head, the hair radiates from a single
point, the crown, to every part of the circum-
ference, making a gentle sweep, behind to-
wards the left, and in front to the right.
The direction of this sweep is naturally indi-
cated on the heads of children, and is that in
which the hair is turned.” (Eras. Wilson.)
The same occurs on the face and other parts
of the body. In making our toilet, this natu-
ral arrangement of the hair should be inter-
fered with as little as possible. Combing it
or banding it in an opposite direction to that
which it naturally assumes, is highly preju-
dicial to its healthy growth, and if long per-
severed in, leads to its premature and rapid
decay. The practice now common among
ladies, of throwing the hair from the forehead
towards the back of the head, is of this repre-
hensible character.
In addition to our remarks elsewhere, we
may here observe, that all the various systems
proposed for strengthening or restoring the
hair depend for their efficacy upon simple
excitation or stimulation of the skin. Friction
with the hair-brush, and the use of the ordi-
nary hair-oils, pommades, and washes, are of
this kind. The various advertised nostrums
for reproducing or restoring the hair are
either stimulants or rubefacients of more or
less activity, or are emollients, which are di-
rected to be applied by friction, in such a
manner as to set up a considerable amount
of irritation. When the affection depends on
the languid circulation of blood in the part,
this treatment often succeeds; but when the
hair-bulbs are withered or decayed, or the
scalp much attenuated, the restoration of the
hair is an impossibility. See BALDNESS.
HAIR, COSMET/ICS. Under this head are
included all preparations which are used for
beautifying, preserving, or restoring the hair.
These are fully described in different parts of
this work, and we shall here merely name the
principal heads under which they will be
found, The hard pomatums used for keeping
the hair, moustache, and whiskers, in form,
and sometimes to colour them at the same
time, are noticed under CoSMETIQUE ; the mu-
cilaginous preparations for stiffening the hair,
under FIXATURE; the compounds for removing
superfluous hairs, under DEPILATORY ; the
applications for the cure and prevention of
baldness, under PolyIMADES and WASHES; and
those employed to cleanse or beautify the hair
under the last two heads, and under HAIR
DYES and OILS.
HAIR DYES. Syn. TINCTURA CAPILLORUM,
L. The practice of dyeing the hair is of
great antiquity; and though not so common as
formerly, it is still far from infrequent at the
present day. The numerous preparations
vended for this purpose have generally a basis
of lead or silver. Bismuth, pyrogallic acid,
and certain astringent vegetable juices, are
also occasionally thus employed. The fol-

lowing list embraces all those of any
value:—
Prep. 1. Litharge, 1 part ; fresh-slaked

lime and starch, of each, 2 parts; all in fine
powder, and perfectly dry; mix, and keep the
compound in well-corked bottles. This pow-
der is to be made into a thin paste or cream
with water (for black), or milk (for brown),
and applied to the hair (previously freed from
grease with soap and water, and dried), by
means of a sponge or brush, or the fingers;
observing to rub it well into the roots, and to
pass a comb for some time through it, to
ensure its coming in contact with every part.
The whole must be then covered with a moist
leaf of cotton wadding, or some brown paper
several times doubled and well damped with
hot water, and allowed to remain so for 3 or 4
hours, or even longer; or an oil-silk cap, or a
bladder, may be worn, the object being simply
to prevent the evaporation of the moisture.
After a sufficient time has elapsed, the powder
may be removed by rubbing it off with the
fingers, and afterwards washing it out with
warm soap-and-water. A little pomatum or
hair-oil will restore the usual gloss to the hair.
Another method of operating is to apply the
cream or paste as before, and then to keep
rubbing it about the hair with a brush as long
as may be required, occasionally adding a few
drops of hot water to preserve the whole
moist. In this way the action of the dye is
facilitated, and the process concluded in a
much shorter time.
2. Lime (slaked in the air), 2 parts; car-
bonate of lead (pure white lead), 1 part; mixed
and applied as the last. -
3. (AQUA ORIENTALIS.) From grain silver,
2 drs. ; steel filings, 4 drs. ; nitric acid, 1 oz. ;
soft water, 1}; fl. oz. ; digested together, the
solution being afterwards diluted with water,
3} fl. oz., and filtered. Applied by means of a
fine-toothed comb, or a half-worn tooth-brush
to the hair, previously well cleaned with soap
and water, and dried.
4. (ARGENTAN TINCTURE.) From nitrate



598
HAIR-DYES,
of silver, 1 dr. ; eau de rose, 1 fl. oz., nitrate
of copper, 2 grs., or q. S. to impart a slight
greenish tint. Used as the last.
5. (Dr. Cattell.) Nitrate of silver, 11 drs. ;
nitric acid, 1 dr. ; distilled water, 1 pint; sap
green, 3 drs. ; gum arabic, 1% dr. ; digest to-
gether. Used as No. 3.
6. (Chevallier.) Fresh-slaked lime, 5 drs. ;
water, 1% oz. ; mix, strain through gauze, and
pour the milk into a four-ounce bottle. Next
dissolve sugar of lead, 5 drs, in water, 3 fl.oz. ;
add to this solution, dry slaked lime, 1 dr., stir
well together, wash the precipitate with a
little soft water, drain off the water, then add
it to the milk of lime in the bottle, and shake
the whole well together, and again before use.
Applied as No. 1 ; but it acts much more
quickly.
7. (Delcroix.) From acetate of lead, 2 oz. ;
prepared chalk, 3 oz. ; quicklime, 4 oz. ; each
in an impalpable powder. Used as No. 1.
8. (EAU D’AFRIQUE–Hopekirk.)—a. Ni-
trate of silver (cryst.), 13 dr. ; distilled water,
2 fl. Oz. ; dissolve, and pour the solution into
the bottles labelled ‘Solution No. 1.2–6. Liquor
of potassa, 3 drs. ; sulphydrate of ammonium,
7 drs. ; water, 1 fl. oz. ; mix, and pour the
liquid into the bottles labelled ‘Solution No.
2.” For use, the hair is moistened by means
of a small-toothed comb or a tooth-brush, with
the Solution No. 1, either alone or diluted
with a little water; care being taken to avoid
touching the skin, if possible. After the lapse
of 8 or 10 minutes the Solution No. 2, diluted
with at least 5 times its measure of water, is
applied in the same manner, and any spots on
the skin removed by rubbing them with the
corner of a napkin wetted with the liquid.
The skin is then sponged clean with a little
warm water, and wiped dry, and the hair is
arranged with the comb as usual. It is better
to avoid rubbing it or washing it for a few
hours. Sometimes the process is reversed,
and the liquid No. 2 applied first. In this
way the stains on the skin are more readily
removed, but the dye is less permanent than
when the other plan is adopted.
9. (EAU D’EGYPTE) Resembles No. 4
(above).
10. (ESSENCE OF TYRE.)
last.
11. (GRECIAN WATER.) Resembles No. 3,
or 4.
12. (Dr. Hanmann.) Litharge, 275 grs.
(say, 1 part); quicklime, 1875 grs. (or 63
parts); hair powder (or starch), 930 grs.
Resembles the
(or 3% parts); all in fine powder. Used as
No. 1.
13. (Hewlet's.) Resembles Spencer’s (No.
22)
14. (INSTANTANEOUS..) Moisten the hair
first, with a solution of nitrate of silver in
water (1 to 7 or 8), and then with a weak
solution of sulphydrate of ammonium. The
colour of the hair, unaltered by the silver
solution, instantly turns black when moist-
ened with the sulphuret. See EAU D’AF.
RIQUE.
15. (La Forest’s.) See WASHES.
16. (Orfila’s.) From litharge, 3 parts;
quicklime, 2 parts; starch, 1 part. The ori-
ginal form for this article is as follows:—
Sulphate of lead, 4 parts; dry fresh-slaked
lime, 5 parts; water, 30 parts; boil 1 hour,
collect the paste on a piece of calico, and
apply it in a similar manner to No. 1.
17. (PoWTMADE DYE.)—a. Nitrate of silver,
1 part; nitric acid, 2 parts; iron filings, 2
parts; mix, and let them stand together for 4
or 5 hours, then pour them on Oatmeal, 2
parts; next add, lard, 3 parts; and mix well
together.
b. From nitrate of silver and cream of tar-
tar, of each, 1 dr. ; liquor of ammonia, 2 drs. ;
dissolve, add of lard, 4 drs, and mix well to-
gether.
18. (POUDRE D’ITALIE.) Resembles Or-
fila's (No. 16).
19. (PYROGALLIC STAIN.) A weak solution
of crude pyrogallic acid. Another article sold
under this name is prepared by distilling
nutgalls (coarsely powdered) in a retort, dis-
solving the solid acid which sublimes in a little
hot water, and after mixing this with the acid
liquid which also passes over, adding a little
rectified spirit. The floating oil is then sepa-
rated and the solution filtered.
20. (Redwood.) Litharge, 2 oz. ; slaked
lime and powdered starch, of each, 1 oz.; liquor
of potassa, 2 drs. ; water, q. S. to form a thick
cream. Used as No. 1.
21. (Redwood.) Liquor of potassa and dis-
tilled water, of each, 1 pint ; mix, and pass
sulphuretted hydrogen through the liquid until
it is saturated. Of this solution take 20 oz. ;
liquor of potassa, 4 oz. ; mix, and label it
* Solution No. 1.” Next dissolve nitrate of
silver, 1 dr., in distilled water, 2 oz.; and
label the liquid “Solution No. 2. Used in the
same manner as No. 8 & 14.
22. (Spencer's.) From sap green, dr. ;
nitrate of silver, 1. dr. ; hot water, 1 oz. Ap-
plied as No. 3.
23. (TINCTURE OF WAINUT.) A strong
tincture of the shells of green walnuts, scented
with oil of lavender.
24. (Ure.) Litharge, fresh-slaked lime, and
bicarbonate of potassa, mixed in various pro-
portions, according to the shade of colour
desired. Used like No. 1.
25. (Warren’s.) From litharge, 1 oz.
white lead, 2 oz. ; quicklime (in fine powder),
16 oz. ; mix, sift through lawn, and at once
bottle the mixture. Used like No. 1. Mixed
with water, it is said to dye the hair black;
with milk, brown.
26. White lead, 1 oz. ; fresh slaked lime,
1% oz. ; litharge and oxide of bismuth, of each,
3 oz.; water, 1 pint; mix, boil 15 minutes,
with frequent agitation, cool, pour it into a
bottle, add of solution of ammonia, + f1. oz.,
shake the whole frequently for some hours

HALL MARKS-HAMS.
599
and the next day pour off the liquid portion
from the white sediment which forms the dye.
Used like No. 1. It is applied for 8 or 10
minutes for a brown; 30 minutes, or longer,
for a black. For the first, it is washed off
with water containing a little common soda.
27. The juice of the bark or shell of green
walnuts, applied with a sponge. (Paulus
AEgineta.)
28. A leaden comb used daily is said to
darken the hair, but we have known persons
persevere in its use for months without any
perceptible change occurring. Premature
baldness is a frequent consequence of its use.
Obs. It is right to inform the reader that
all those compounds which contain nitrate of
silver stain the skin as well as the hair. These
stains may be removed, when quite recent, by
rubbing them with water containing a little
sulphydrate of ammonium (see above) or iodide
of potassium in solution; but as this is attended
with some trouble and inconvenience, the best
way is to avoid the necessity of doing so. The
hair-dressers adopt the plan of smearing hard
pomatum over the skin immediately surround-
ing the hair, to protect it from the dye. By
very skilful manipulation, and the observance
of due precautions, the hair may be thoroughly
moistened with the above fluids, without touch-
ing the adjacent skin, but this can only be
done, in the case of the hair of the head, by a
second person. This has led to a preference
being given by many to the compounds con-
taining lead, as the colouring matter formed in
them does not stain the skin. The hue given
by the latter (when pale) is very apt to possess
an unnatural redness, but all the shades of
colour given by the preparation of silver are
rich and unexceptionable. Pyrogallic acid, and
the juice of walnuts, also stain the skin, al-
though less intensely and permanently than
nitrate of silver.
The detection of dyed hair is often a matter
of importance in medico-legal research. The
presence of silver may be shown by digesting
the hair in a little weak chlorine water or
hydrochloric acid, when the resulting chloride
of silver may be dissolved out with liquor of
ammonia, and submitted to the usual tests.
Hair containing lead, when digested in dilute
nitric acid, gives a solution of nitrate of lead,
in which form it is readily detected. See
LEAD and SILVER. -
All the preceding compounds are for dyeing
living hair (human); horse-hair, bristles, &c.,
and other dead hair, may be readily stained by
steeping them in any of the ordinary liquid
dyes, more especially those employed for
wool and silk. See POMMADES, WASHES,
&c.
HALL MARKS. The Hall Marks” on
articles in gold and silver not only inform us
of their fineness, but furnish us with other
important particulars.
The Hall Mark (proper) denotes the place
of manufacture or assay, being an anchor, for
Birmingham; a dagger or 3 wheat sheaves,
for Chester; Hibernia, for Dublin; castle and
lion for Edinburgh; castle with 2 wings, for
Exeter; tree and salmon with a ring in its
mouth, for Glasgow ; leopard’s head, for
London; 3 castles, for Newcastle-on-Tyne ;
a crown, for Sheffield; and five lions’ heads
and a cross, for York. -
The Duty Mark is the head of the Sove-
reign, showing that the duty is paid.
The Date Mark is a letter of the alphabet,
which varies every year, and with the different
companies, thus: the Goldsmith's Company of
London have used from 1716 to 1755 Roman
capital letters; from 1756 to 1775, small
Roman letters; from 1776 to 1795 old Eng-
lish letters; from 1796 to 1815, Roman capital
letters, from A to U, omitting J ; from 1816
to 1835, small Roman letters, a to u, omitting
j; from 1836, old English letters.
The Standard Mark for gold is, for England,
a lion passant; Edinburgh, a thistle; Glasgow,
a lion rampant; Ireland, a harp crowned.
For silver, a figure of Britannia. If under
22 carats, gold has the figures 18.
The Manufacturer’s Mark is the initials of
the maker, as S. H., W. T., C. E., &c.
HAI/0GENS. In chemistry, a name given
by Berzelius to chlorine, bromine, iodine, and
fluorine. These elements unite with metals to
form compounds called ‘haloid salts.”
HAMS. These are usually prepared from
the legs of bacon pigs, but those of the sheep
are also sometimes used for the same purpose.
SMOKED HAM is strong eating, and rather fit
for a relish than for diet, and should be parti-
cularly avoided by the dyspeptic and by con-
valescents.
Choice. A sharp knife thrust under the
bone should have a pleasant smell when with-
drawn. The recently cut fat should be hard
and white, the lean fine-grained, and of a
lively red. Those short in the hock are the
best.
Curing. An ordinary sized ham requires
nearly three weeks, if wet salted, and about a
month if dry salted, to cure it perfectly. At
the expiration of this time they are ready
for smoking. MUTTON HAMS should not lie i
pickle longer than 12 or 14 days. -
Cooking. Hams should be put into the
water cold, and should be gradually heated.
A ham of 14 lbs. will take about 4 hours, one
of 16 lbs. will take 4! hours, and one of
20 lbs. about 5% hours, to dress it properly.
“If it is an old ham, it should be soaked for
12 hours previously.” (Soyer.)
Pres. Most grocers and dealers in hams
enclose them, after being smoked, in canvas,
for the purpose of defending them from the
attacks of the little insect, the Dermestes lar-
darius, which, by laying its eggs in them, soon
fills them with its larvae or maggots. This trou-
blesome and expensive process may be alto-
gether superseded by the use of pyroligneous
acid, applied by means of a painter's brush.




600
HANDS–HEADACHE.
HANDS, Dirty and coarse hands are no
ess the marks of slothfulness and low breed-
ing, than clean and delicate hands are those of
cleanliness and gentility. To promote the
softness and whiteness of the skin, mild emol-
lient soaps, or those abounding in oil, should
alone be used, by which means CHAPs and CHIL-
BLAINS will generally be avoided. The coarse,
strong kinds of soap, or those abounding in
alkali, should for a like reason be rejected, as
they tend to render the skin rough, dry, and
brittle. The immersion of the hands in alka-
line lyes, or strongly acidulated water, has a
like effect. When the hands are very dirty, a
little good soft soap may be used with warm
water, which will rapidly remove oily and
greasy matter. Fruit and ink stains may be
taken out by immersing the hands in water
slighly acidulated with oxalic acid or a few
drops of oil of vitriol, or to which a little pearl-
ash or chloride of lime has been added; ob-
serving afterwards to well rinse them in clean
water, and not to touch them with soap for
some hours, as any alkaline matter will bring
back the stains, after their apparent removal
by all the above substances, except the last.
The use of a little chloride of lime and
warm water, or Gowland’s lotion, imparts a
delicate whiteness to the skin ; but the
former should be only occasionally used, and
should be well washed off with a little clean
water to remove its odour. Glycerine em-
ployed in the same manner renders the skin
soft, white, and supple. The use of a little
sand or powdered pumice stone with the soap,
will generally remove the roughness of the
skin frequently induced by exposure to cold.
The hands may be preserved dry, for delicate
work, by rubbing a little club moss (IYCOPo-
DIUM), in fine powder, over them. A small
quantity of this substance sprinkled over the
surface of a basin of water will permit the
hand to be plunged to the bottom of the basin
without its becoming wet.
HANG'ING. In cases of suspended anima-
tion from hanging, theassistance must be prompt
and emergetic. The body, on its discovery,
should be instantly relieved from the state of
suspension and all pressure about the throat.
The remedial treatment chiefly consists, in the
severer cases, in cupping the temples or open-
ing the jugular vein, and so relieving the
head of the blood which is accumulated in its
superficial veins in consequence of strangula-
tion. When the body is cold, friction, and
the other means used for restoring the animal
heat in drowned persons, should be resorted
to. See ASPHY|XIA and DROWNING.
HARD'NESS. Compactness; solidity; the
power of resisting abrasion. Mineral sub-
stances are frequently distinguished and iden-
tified by their relative hardness. This is as-
certained by their power to scratch or be
scratched by one another. A valuable table
on this subject will be found in the article on
GEMS. -
HAR/MALINE. Syn. HARMALINA. An
alkaloid, forming yellow-brown crystals, dis-
covered in the seeds of Peganum harmala.
It has a bitter astringent and acrid taste, is
soluble in alcohol, and forms yellow, soluble
salts with the acids. It has been proposed as
a yellow dye. By oxidation it yields another
compound (harmine), which is a magnificently
red dye-stuff, easily prepared and applied.
The seeds are produced abundantly in Southern
Russia.
HAR/NESS POLISH. See BLACKING, &c.
HARTS' HORN. Sym. CoRNU CERVI, C.
CERVINUM, CoRNU (Ph. L.), L. The “horn
of the Cervus elephas” (Ph. L.) or stag. -
Burnt Hartshorn. Syn. CoRNU USTUM (Ph.
L.), CoRNU CERVI USTUM, L. Prep. (Ph. L.
1836.) Burn pieces of harts’ horns until per-
fectly white, then grind and prepare them in
the same way as directed for prepared chalk.
Obs. Finely powdered bone-ash is usually
sold for burnt hartshorn, and possesses exactly
the same properties. Dose. 10 to 30'grs, or
more, 2 or 3 times a day, in rickets, &c.
Hartshorn Shavings. Syn. HARTSHORN
RASPINGS ; RASURA CORNU CERVI, RAMENTA
C. C., L. Obtained from the turners. Boiled
in water, it yields a nutritive jelly. Used by
straw-plait workers to stiffen bonnets, &c.
HATCH*ING. See INCUBATION.
HATS. Those should be chosen possessing
a short, smooth, fine map, and a good black
colour; and sufficiently elastic to resist ordi-
nary wear and tear, without breaking or giving
way. The HAT BRUSH for daily use should be
made of soft hairs, but a stiffer one should be
employed occasionally, to lay the nap smooth
and close. Grease may be removed by means
of porous brown paper, and pressure with a
hot iron. -
HEAD'ACHE. Syn. CEPHALALGIA, L. In
pathology, pain in the head. The symptoms of
this very general complaint are too well known
to require any description. According to pa.
thologists, headache arises either from a sym-
pathy with the stomach and chylopoietic (chyle-
forming) viscera, or from a weakness or ex-
haustion of the power of the encephalon. The
former may be called SYMPATHETIC HEADACHE,
and the latter NERVOUS HEADACHE. When it
attacks only one side of the head it is called
HEMICRANIA. The treatment of the first
form should consist in restoring the healthy
action of the stomach, by the administration
of aperients, and by the use of proper food,
and exercise; or when that viscus is over-
loaded with undigested food, by the exhibition
of an emetic. For this purpose + to , an Oz.
of ipecacuanha wine may be taken in a cupful
of warm water, which will generally relieve
the stomach, especially if its action is assisted
by drinking copiously of warm water. Head-
ache is a common accompaniment of indiges-
tion and stomach disease, and in general it
will be found that whatever will remove the
one will also cure the other, Nervous head-
HEADING—
HEMLOCK. 601
aches are relieved by nervous tonics and sti-
mulants, as bark, cascarilla, calumba, and gen-
tian, camphor, ammonia, ether, and wine, the
latter in a state of considerable dilution. A
cup of strong coffee or strong green tea often
acts like a charm in removing this species of
headache. Small doses of tincture of henbane
have also often a like effect. 20 or 30 drops
of laudanum, or, preferably, half that number
of liquor opii sedativus, may be taken with
advantage as an anodyne, and to induce sleep.
Amongst popular remedies may be mentioned
‘ nasal stimulants, as snuff (cephalic), smelling
salts, and aromatic vinegar, the use of which
is familiar to every one; and local applications,
as very cold water, ether, vinegar, strong
spirits, Cologne water, &c., all of which are
rubbed over the part of the head affected,
with the fingers, or a linen rag dipped in them
is laid thereon instead. Pressure on the head
has also been used with advantage. Silence,
darkness, and repose, are powerful remedies,
alike suitable to every variety of headache;
and change of air, scene, and occupation, are
especially beneficial to those resulting from ex-
cessive mental anxiety or exertion. Blisters
are extensively applied behind the ears in
cases of violent headache. -
Headache is often symptomatic of other dis-
eases, especially those of the inflammatory
and nervous kind, rheumatism, &c. In all
these the primary disease should be sought
out and attempted to be cured. In many
cases these attacks rapidly yield to a few doses
of compound decoction of Sarsaparilla con-
taining a little iodide of potassium. Head-
ache in pregnancy may generally be removed
by proper attention to the bowels; observing
to assist their action, should they require it,
by the use of some mild aperient, as castor oil,
lenitive electuary, seidlitz powders, &c. When
the constitution is very robust, blood may be
taken. Headache in bed may frequently be
relieved by washing the head with cold water,
and discontinuing the use of a nightcap, at
the same time preserving the feet warm by
wearing worsted socks or stockings.
HEADING. Syn. BEER HEADING, CAULI-
FLOWER. H. Prep. 1. Alum and green cop-
peras, equal parts, in fine powder.
2. Alum, copperas, and common salt, equal
parts.
Used by brewers to make their beer keep
its head or froth.
HEALTH. That state of the living body
in which all its functions are duly performed.
See HyGIENE. .
HEAR/ING. See DEAFNESS, EAR, &c.
HEART'BURN. Syn. CARDIALGIA, L.
Anxiety and pain about the region of the sto-
mach, generally attended by a sense of gnawing
and heat; hence its popular name. Faint-
ness, nausea, and eructation of a thin, acidu-
lous, watery liquid, especially in the morning,
are common symptoms of this complaint.
The usual causes of heartburn are excess in
eating and drinking, the use of improper
food, and sedentary habits. A good remedy
is a teaspoonful of carbonate of magnesia, or
carbonate of soda, in a glass of peppermint or
cinnamon water, to which a little powdered
ginger may be added with advantage. This
dose may be taken 2 or 3 times daily until the
disease is removed. Articles of food that
easily undergo fermentation should at the same
time be avoided, and a dry diet had recourse
to as much as possible. Soda water, toast-
and-water, and weak spirit-and-water, are the
most suitable beverages in this complaint.
HEAT. Syn. CALORIC; CALORICUM, L.
The consideration of this subject belongs to
physics and chemistry. Much useful informa-
tion, in connection with it, will, however, be
found in this work under the heads EBUL-
IITION, EVAPORATION, EXPANSION, REFRIGE-
RATION, &c.
HEAVY SPAR. Native sulphate of barium
See BARYTA.
HED'ERIN. Syn. HEDERINA, L. From
the decoction of the ground seeds of ivy (He-
dera helia), boiled in water, along with a little
slaked lime or magnesia, the precipitate being
afterwards digested in rectified spirit, and the
filtered tincture evaporated. Febrifuge and
sudorific.
HEL'ENIN. See INULIN.
HELIOG/RAPHY. See PHOTOGRAPHY.
HEL/IEBORE. Syn. BLACK HELLEBORE;
HELLEBOBUS (Ph.L.), L. “The rhizome and
root” of “Helleborus niger” (Ph. L.) or black
hellebore. It is alterative and emmenagogue,
in small doses (2 to 8 grs.); and a drastic
hydragogue purgative and anthelmintic in
larger ones (10 to 20 grs.). See WHITE HEL-
TEBORE.
HELLEBORIN. Syn. SoFT RESIN OF HEI-
LEBORE. An odourless, acrid substance, ex-
tracted by alcohol from black hellebore, and on
which, according to Wauquelin, the activity of
that drug depends.
HEMI/LOCK. Syn. CoNII Fol.1.A (B. P.);
CoNIUM (Ph. L. E. & D.), L. In pharmacy,
“ the fresh and dried leaf of the wild herb
Conium maculatum,” or spotted hemlock. The
first is used to make the extract ; the last, the
tincture and powder.
Hemlock is a powerful narcotic acrid poison,
occasioning stupor, delirium, paralysis, con-
vulsions, coma, and death. In small doses it
is anodyne, alterative, resolvent, antispas-
modic, and anaphrodisiac, and has been exhi-
bited in cancer, dropsy, epilepsy, rheumatism,
scrofula, syphilis, and, other diseases.—Dose.
3 or 4 grs, of the powder, twice or thrice daily,
until some obvious effect is produced.
Hemlock, whether in leaf (conii folia) or
powder (pulvis conii) rapidly deteriorates by
keeping. When good, the powder, triturated
with solution of potassa, exhales a powerful
odour of conia. - - -
In cases of poisoning by hemlock, the treat-


602 HEMP–HERRING,
ment is similar to that noticed under ACONITE.
See CoNINE, EXTRACT, TINCTURE, &c.
HEMP. Syn. CANNABIs, L. In botany
the typical genus of the natural order Canna-
binaceae. The common hemp, from the fibres
of which cordage is made, is the species Can-
nabis sativa. The fruit of this plant (hemp
seed) is demulcent and oleaginous. It is said
that the plumage of bullfinches and goldfinches
fed on it for too long a time, or in too large
a quantity, changes from red and yellow to
black."
Hemp, Indian. Syn. HASHISH, CANNABIS
INDICA. This plant, now so largely used in
medicine, is a variety of Cannabis sativa, or,
perhaps, the same simply rendered more active
by climate. The parts employed in Asia for
the purposes of intoxication, and in Europe as
medicine, are the herb or leaves and the resin.
The “gunjah’ sold in the bazaars in the East
Indies is the plant, just after flowering, dried,
and pressed together. Bang,” “bhang,” “sub-
jee,” or ‘sidhee,” consists of the larger leaves
and capsules without the stalk. The concrete
resinous exudation from the leaves, stems, and
flowers, is called ‘churrus,” and in this country
“resin of Indian hemp.’ ‘Hashish’ seems
to be a general term for the preparation of
hemp.
Indian hemp is anaesthetic, anodyne, ex-
hilarant, antispasmodic, hypnotic, and nar-
cotic. In the East it is commonly used as an
intoxicant, either by smoking it, like tobacco,
or swallowing it. The inebriation produced
by it is of an agreeable or cheerful character,
exciting the party under its influence to laugh,
dance, sing, and to commit various extra-
vagancies. It also acts as an aphrodisiac,
augments the appetite for food, and, in some
cases, occasions a kind of reverie and catalepsy.
In this country its action is less marked. It
has here been chiefly administered under the
form of alcoholic or resinous extract. See
ExTRACT OF INDIAN HEMP,
HEN’BANE. Syn. HYOSCYAMI FOLIA (B.
P.); HYOSCYAMUs (Ph. L. E. & D.), L. In
pharmacy, “the fresh and dried stalk-leaf of
the biennial herb, Hyoscyamus niger” (Ph.
L.), or common biennial or black henbane.
The first is used for preparing the extract;
the last, for the powder and tincture.
Henbane is anodyne, hypnotic, antispas-
modic, and sedative. It differs from opium in
not being stimulant, and by not confining the
bowels; and hence may be administered in
cases in which that drug would be improper.
In large doses it acts as a powerful parcotic
poison, producing obscurity of vision, dilation
of the pupils, delirium, phantasms, coma, &c.
—Dose, 3 to 10 grs., in powder. It is usually
given in the form of extract or tincture. The
antidotes, &c., are the same as those noticed
under OPIUM. -
HE/PAR. Syn. LIVER, A name given by
the older chemists to various combinations of
1 Burnett, “Outlines of Botany,’
sulphur, from their brownish or liver colour;
as “hepar antimonii,” “hepar sulphuris,’ &c.
See ANTIMONY (Liver of), POTASSIUM (Sul-
phuret), &c.
HERBAR/IUM. [Eng., L.] Syn. HoRTUs
SICCUS, L. A collection of dried specimens
of plants; hence called HORTUS SICCUS, or dry -
garden. Plants for the herbarium should be
gathered on a dry day, and carried home in a
tin-box (“WASCULUM'), or other convenient
receptacle which will preserve them fresh for
a time. Those which have collected moisture
in their leaves should be allowed to dry, their
stalks being placed in water to keep them
alive. Plants with very thick, succulent leaves
or stems must be killed by immersion in hot
water before they can be safely placed in the
drying press. The press consists simply of
a few stout boards with a screw—or, still
better, a number of heavy weights, bricks, or
stones—for pressing them together. The spe-
cimens of plants, when all superficial moisture
has been removed, are placed between layers
of bibulous paper (BOTANICAL PAPER), care
being taken that the parts of each are ar-
ranged in a natural manner. The sheets con-
taining the specimens are then placed between
the boards, and pressure is applied. This
must be very gentle at first, and should be
gradually increased as the plants become dry.
The paper is changed every day or every
second day, and the damp sheets are dried for
use at a future time. When properly dried,
the specimens are placed on sheets of writing
paper, and fixed by a few stitches of thread, a
little gum, or strips of gummed paper. The
name of the genus and species, and the lo-
cality where found, &c., are then marked
beside each. Camphor or a little corrosive
sublimate may be used to preserve herbaria
from the ravages of insects. The preparation
of an herbarium offers an almost endless source
of amusement to the ingenious, whilst the
specimens so collected, if well preserved, are
almost as useful to the botanist as the living
plants.
HERBS, Syn. HERBE, L. The collection
and drying of herbs for medicinal purposes and
perfumery are noticed under VEGETABLE SUB-
STANCES.
Amongst cooks, several aromatic herbs,
either fresh or dried, are used for seasoning.
“In many receipts is mentioned a bunch of
sweet herbs, which consists, for some stews
and soups, of a small bunch of parsley, two
sprigs of thyme, and one bayleaf; if no parsley,
then of four sprigs of winter savory, six of
thyme, and one bayleaf.” (Soyer.)
HER/NIA. See RUPTURE.
HER/RING. A well-known small sea-fish,
belonging to the family of Clupeidae, a branch
of the order Malacopterygii. As an article of
food, herrings are of a vast importance to a
large proportion of the population of Europe.
When recently caught and dressed by broiling
or boiling, they are wholesome and agreeable;
HESPERIDIN–HOLLANDS.
603
but if fried, or long kept, they become strong
and oily, and are then apt to offend the sto-
mach. The preparation of Salted and dried
or smoked herrings (bloaters, red herrings)
furnishes employment for thousands, both in
these countries and Holland. Real Yarmouth
bloaters and Dutch herrings are highly es-
teemed by many as a relish. Salted herrings
are said to be diuretic. The pickle was
formerly used in clysters, dropsies, &c. M.
Soyer calls this fish “the poor man’s friend,”
and tells us that, after being “cleaned and
scaled, and the head removed,” it should be
“opened in the back, and the gut taken out.”
Also that “the way to ascertain if a herring is
too salt, is to take the fish in the left hand,
and pull out a few of the fins from the back,
and to taste them. You may thus find out the
quality and flavour. This plan is adopted by
the large dealers.”
HESPER/IDIN. A peculiar substance ob-
tained from the white portion of the rind of
Oranges, lemons, &c. It forms crystalline
silky needles, is odourless, tasteless, fusible,
soluble in alcohol and ether, less soluble in
Water.
HIC'COUGH (hík'-tip). Syn. HICCUP ; SIN-
GUITUS, L. A convulsive motion of the
diaphragm and parts adjacent. The common
causes are flatulency, indigestion, acidity, and
worms. It may generally be removed by the
exhibition of warm carminatives, cordials, cold
water, weak spirits, camphor julep, or spirits
of sal-volatile. A sudden fright or surprise
will often produce the like effect. An instance
is recorded of a delicate young lady that was
troubled with hiccough for some months, and
who was reduced to a state of extreme de-
bility from the loss of sleep occasioned by it,
that was cured by a fright, after medicines
and topical applications had failed. A pinch
of snuff, a glass of iced soda water, or an ice-
cream, will also frequently remove this affec-
tion. .
HI’ERA-PI'CRA,
AND CANELLA.
HIP/P0CRAS, An aromatic medicated wine,
formerly much used in England, and still
employed on the Continent.
Prep. Lisbon and Canary wine, of each, 12
pints; cinnamon, 2 oz. ; white canella, 3 oz. ;
cloves, mace, nutmeg, ginger, and galangal, or
cardamoms, of each, 1 dr. ; bruise the spices,
and digest them in the wine for three or four
days; strain, and add of lump sugar, 2% lbs.
HIPPU'RIC ACID. HCA Hs NO3. Syn. ACI-
DUM HIPPURICUM, L. A compound discovered
by Liebig in the urine of the horse, cow, and
other graminivora, in which it exists as hippu-
rate of potassium or sodium.
Prep. Concentrate fresh cow's urine by a
gentle heat to about ºth its bulk, filter from
deposit, mix the liquid with excess of hydro-
chloric acid, and set it aside to crystallise.
It may be decoloured by redissolving it in
boiling water, and treating it with animal
See POWDER OF ALOES
charcoal, or with a little chloride of lime along
with some hydrochloric acid, and re-crystal-
lising it.
Obs. Hippuric acid, when pure, forms
long, slender, milk-white, square prisms; it is
soluble in 400 parts of cold water ; it also
dissolves in hot alcohol. When strongly
heated, it yields benzoic acid, benzoate of am-
monia, and benzonitrile, with a coaly residue.
The urine of horses or cows, left to itself for
some time, or evaporated at a boiling tempera-
ture, yields not a trace of hippuric acid, but
only benzoic acid. Nitric acid and hot oil of
vitriol convert it into benzoic acid. Boiling
hydrochloric acid converts it into benzoic acid

and glycocoll. With the bases it forms salts,
which are called hippurates. See BENZOIC
ACID.
HIPS. Syn. HEPs; RoSA CANINA (Ph. L.).
The fresh fruit of the dog rose (Rosa canina),
or wild briar. Used to make a conserve.
HOL’LANDS. Syn. GENEVA, SCHIEDAM,
HOLLANDS GIN, DUTCH. G. Prep. 1. The
materials employed in the distilleries of Schie-
dam, in the preparation of this excellent spirit,
are 2 parts of the best unmalted rye and
1 part of malted bigg, reduced to the state of
coarse meal by grinding. About a barrel
(36 galls.) of water, at a temperature of from
162° to 168°Fahr., is put into the mash-tun
for every 1% cwt. of meal, after which the
malt is introduced and stirred, and, lastly, the
rye is added. Powerful agitation is next
given to the magma till it becomes quite
uniform, when the mash-tun is covered over
with canvas, and left in this state for two
hours. Agitation is then again had recourse
to, and the transparent ‘spent wash ’ of a pre-
ceding mashing is added, followed by as much
cold water as will reduce the temperature of
the whole to about 85°Fahr. The gravity of
the wort at this point varies from 33 to 38 lbs.
A quantity of the best pressed Flanders yeast,
equal to 1 lb. for every 100 galls. of the mashed
materials, is next stirred in, and the whole is
fermented in the mash-tun for about 3 days,
or until the attenuation is from 7 to 4 lbs.
(sp. gr. 1:007 to 1:004). During this time
the yeast is occasionally skimmed off the fer-
menting wort. The wash, with the grains, is
then transferred to the still, and converted
into “low wines.” To every 100 galls. of this
liquor, 2 lbs. of juniper berries (3 to 5 years
old), and about 1 lb. of salt, are added, and
the whole is put into the low-wine still, and
the fine spirit drawn off by a gentle heat, one
receiver only being employed. The product
per quarter varies from 18 to 21 galls. of
spirit, 2 to 3 o.p.
2. (BEST HollanDs.) Hollands rectified
to the strength of 24° Baumé (sp. gr. 19125,
or about 6 o. p.).
3. (ENGLISH-MADE.)—a. From juniper ber-
ries (at least a year old, and crushed in the
hands), 3 lbs. ; rectified spirit, 1% gall. (or
proof spirit, 2% galls.); digest, with agitation,

€04. HOMOEOPATHY-HONEY.
for a week, and then express the liquor; after
24 hours’ repose, decant the clear portion, add
it to good corn spirit, at 2 or 3% overproof, 90
or 100 galls., and mix them well together.
b. From juniper berries, 2% lbs. ; sweet
fennel seed, 5 oz. ; caraway seed, 3% oz. ; proof
spirit, 2 galls. ; corn spirit, 90 or 100 galls.
c. As the last, with the addition of Stras-
burg turpentine or Canadian balsam, 1 lb.
d. To either of the last two or three, add a
very small quantity of ground cardamoms or
horse-radish. Some compounders also add
4 or 5 cloves of garlic, or about 15 grs. of
assafoetida, with 1 gr. of ambergris rubbed to
a powder with a little white sand or lump
sugar. Good plain gin may be advantageously
employed in lieu of the corn spirit ordered
above, when expense is no object.
Obs. The last four forms, which are only
given as examples, produce a very pleasant
spirit, if it is kept for some time to “mellow.’
Age is one of the principal causes of the
‘creaminess’ of foreign gin, which usually
lies in bond for some time before being con-
sumed. The product is, however, much su-
perior if the ingredients are rectified along
with 20 galls. of water, and about 14 lbs. of
Salt, by a gentle heat.
It will be seen from the above that the
superior flavour of Hollands spirit depends
more on the peculiar mode of its manufacture
than on the quantity of juniper berries em-
ployed; 2 lbs. of them, when new, being barely
equivalent to 1 oz. of the essential oil; and
when old, to less than } oz., a quantity wholly
insufficient to flavour 100 gallons of spirit.
The Dutch distillers, most noted for this
liquor, add a little pure Strasburg turpentine
and a handful or two of hops to the spirit,
along with the juniper berries, before recti-
fication. The former substance has a pale
yellowish-brown colour, and a very fragrant
and agreeable smell, and tends materially to
impart that fine aroma for which the best
geneva is distinguished. At Rotterdam sweet
fennel seed is commonly added as a flavouring;
and at Weesoppe Strasburg turpentine and
fennel seeds, or the essential oil of fennel, are
frequently substituted for a large portion of
the juniper berries.
Schiedam Hollands is considered the best ;
the next quality is that of Rotterdam; after
these comes that of Weesoppe.
Attempts have been made by Mr. Robert
Moore, and others, to introduce into general
consumption in this country a home-made
liquor, resembling and prepared in the same
manner as foreign geneva, “but the palates
of our gin-drinkers were too corrupted to
relish so pure a spirit.”
HOMCEOP/ATHY. Syn. HowdeoPATHIA, L.
A medical hypothesis promulgated at the com-
mencement of the present century by the late
Dr. Hahnemann, of Leipsic, according to
which diseases may be cured by the adminis-
tration of minute doses of medicines capable
of producing in healthy persons affections
similar to those it is intended to remove.
The doctrine that “similia similibus curanțur”
had long previously been practically acted on,
to a limited extent, in certain cases, in legiti-
mate medicine (allopathy, heteropathy), al-
though not verbally recognised as belonging
to its system. The administration of infini-
tesimal doses is an absurdity which homoeo-
pathy, however, alone can claim. According
to this method, the millionth of a grain is
often an excessive dose ; whilst billionths and
decillionths, quantities so small as to be vastly
beyond human perception, form the common
doses. This reduces the whole practice of
homoeopathy to a system of doing nothing
beyond regulating the diet and habits of the
patient. “All judicious practitioners have
long been agreed that there are many cases
which are best treated in the manner just
mentioned, and in which physic does more
harm than good; in which, in short, a sen-
sible physician endeavours to amuse the pa-
tient, whilst nature cures the disorder; so
that the frequent success of homoeopathic
treatment may be explained, without admitting
the principle upon which it is presumed to be
founded.” (Brande.)
HON'EY. Syn. MEL (B. P.), L. The sweet
substance elaborated by the domestic bee from
the juices of the nectaries of flowers, and
deposited in the cells of waxforming the honey-
comb.
Par. Pure honey consists of a syrup o
uncrystallisable sugar and crystalline sac-
charine grains, resembling grape Sugar—
‘Virgin honey” is that which flows sponta-
neously from the comb.—‘ Ordinary honey,’
that obtained by heat and pressure. The
former is pale and fragrant; the latter darker,
and possessing a less agreeable taste and
smell. — ‘English honey” is chiefly collected
from furze and broom flowers, and is more
waxy than that from the South of Europe;—
“Narbonne honey,” chiefly from rosemary, and
other labiate flowers, very fine;—‘Poisonous
honey” is found near Trebizond, in Asia.
Pur. Honey is frequently adulterated with
treacle, potato-sugar syrup, potato farina,
starch, and wheat flour. The first may be
detected by the colour and odour; the second,
in the way noticed under SUGAR ; and the
others by the honey not forming a nearly clear
solution with cold water, and striking a blue
colour with iodine. When it contains wheat
flour, and is heated, it at first liquefies, but on
cooling it becomes solid and tough. The ab-
sence of starchy matter or flour is easily
proved by the following test :-Boiled with
water for five minutes, and allowed to cool, it
should not become blue with iodine water—
indicating absence of flour.
Uses, &c. Honey is nutritive and laxative,
but rather apt to gripe. It is employed in
the preparation of OXYMELS and GARGLES,



and also to cover the taste of nauseous medi-
HONEYS.–HOPS.
605
cines, which it does better than sugar. Clarified
honey is alone ordered to be used in medicine.
Honey, Clarified. Syn. REFINED HONEY,
STRAINED H. ; MEI DEPURATUM (Ph. D.),
MEL PRAEPARATUM, L. The honey is simply
melted by the heat of a water bath, and
strained whilst hot through flannel (Ph. D.);
or—it is melted as last, and the scum removed
(Ph. U. S.); or—it is melted with 1-3rd its
weight of water, skimmed, strained through
flannel, and evaporated until it reaches the
sp. gr. 1261. (P. Cod.) Honey is not to be
employed without being despumated. (Ph. L.)
Obs. Clarified honey is less agreeable than
raw honey, and has lost the crystalline cha-
racter of the latter; but it is less liable to
ferment and gripe. The use of copper and
iron vessels or implements should be avoided,
as honey acquires a dark colour by contact
with them. Berlin-ware, stone-ware, or well-
silvered or tin copper pans, should alone be
used. On the large scale, one or other of the
following plans are adopted:—
1. The honey is mixed with an equal weight
of water and allowed to boil up 5 or 6 times
without skimming; it is then removed from
the fire, and after being cooled, brought on
several strong linen strainers, stretched hori-
Zontally, and covered with a layer of clean
and well-washed sänd, an inch in depth; the
sand is rinsed with a little cold water, and the
mixed liquor is finally evaporated to the thick-
ness of syrup.
2. Dissolve the honey in water, as last,
clarify with white of egg, and evaporate to a
proper consistence.
3. Dissolve in water, add 1 lb. of animal
charcoal to every + cwt. of honey, gently
simmer for 15 minutes, add a little chalk to
saturate excess of acid, if required, strain or
clarify, and evaporate.
4. Honey, 1 cwt. ; water, 9 galls. ; fresh burnt
animal charcoal, 7 lbs. ; simmer for 15 minutes,
add a little chalk to saturate free acid (if re-
quired), strain or clarify, and evaporate as before.
HONEYS. (In pharmacy.) Syn. MELLITA,
L. These are minor preparations, now almost
superseded by ‘syrups' (SYRUPI). The mel-
lita of the Ph. L., including two oxymels,”
are only four in number.
Honey of Bo"rax, Syn. MEL BORACIS
(B. P. Ph., L. E. & D.), L. Prep. (B. P.)
Finely powdered borax, l; clarified honey, 7;
mix. Astringent, detersive, and cooling. It
is employed in aphtha of the mouth, ex-
cessive salivation, &c. A great improvement
would be to dissolve 1 of borax in 1 of glyce-
rin, and then add 6 of honey.
Honey of Col'chicum. Syn. MEL COLCHICI,
L. Prep. (Beasley.) Dried colchicum, 1
part; water (at 140°), 16 parts; infuse for 12
hours, strain, let it settle, and boil the clear
liquor with white honey, 12 parts, to the con-
sistence of a syrup. See CoICHICUM.
Honey of Liquorice. Syn. MEL GLYCYRRHI-
ZATUM, L. Prep. (Ph. Hamb.) Honey and
a strong infusion of liquorice boiled to a
proper consistence. Emollient, pectoral, and
laxative.
Honey of Male Ferm. Syn. MEL FILICIS,
L. Prep. (Dunglison.) Ethereal extract of
male fern, 30 grs. ; honey of roses, 4 drs. ; mix.
In tape-worm.—Dose. One half at bed-time,
followed by the remainder in the morning.
Homey of Mercury. Syn. MEL HYDRARGYRI,
L. Prep. , (Bell.) Mercury, 1 dr.; honey, 1
oz. ; triturate till the globules disappear.
Allard adds of oil of cloves, # dr. Properties
similar to those of mercurial pill. It is chiefly
used as an application to ulcers of the throat.
Honey of Ro'ses. Syn. MELROSAE (Ph.L. & E.),
L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Dried petals of thered
rose (the leaves separated), 4 oz. ; boiling water,
16 fl. oz. ; macerate for 2 hours, lightly press
them in the hand, and strain; then add 8
fl. oz. more of boiling water to the roses,
macerate for a short time, and again gently
express the liquor; to this add half of the
first infusion, and set aside the other half;
next add to the mixed liquors, honey, 5 lbs.,
and evaporate in a water bath, so that, the
infusion which was set aside being added, it
may become of a proper consistence.
2. (Ph. E.) Dried rose petals, 4 oz. ; boiling
water, 2} pints; infuse for 6 hours, and gently
squeeze out the liquor; after the impurities
have subsided, decant the clear, add of honey,
5 lbs., and evaporate, as before, to a proper
consistence, removing the scum which forms.
Used to make astringent gargles. It must
not be boiled in a copper or iron vessel, as
they will spoil the colour. The last form is
that commonly adopted in trade.
Honey of Squills. Syn. MEL SCILLA., L.
Prep. 1. Thick clarified honey, 3 lbs. ; tincture
of Squills, 2 lbs. ; mix.
2. (Soubeiran.) Dried squills, 1 oz. ; boiling
water, pint; infuse 2 hours, strain, add of
honey, 12 oz., and evaporate to a proper con-
sistence. Resembles OXYMEL OF SQUILLS
(nearly).
Honey of Viſolets, Syn. MEL VIOLA., L.
Prep. From clarified honey, 2 parts; expressed
and depurated juice of violets, 1 part. Re-
sembles syrup of violets.
HON'EY DEW. Syn. Ros MELLITUS, L.
A sweetish matter ejected upon the leaves of
plants by certain aphides.
H00P'ING COUGH. See WHOOPING COUGH.
HOPS. Syn. LUPULUs (B. P.), L. “The
catkins of the female plant of the Humulus
lupulus” or common hop. (B. P.) “The dried
strobiles.” (Ph.D.) The hops of commerce
are the strobiles or catkins (LUPULI STROBILI,
L. AMENTA) of the hop plant. The yellow pow-
der or small lupulinic grains or glands (LU-
PULIN), which are attached to the strobiles,
are the portion on which their characteristic
qualities chiefly depend.
The hop is tonic, stomachic, and moderately
narcotic. It is used in diseases of local debi-
lity with morbid vigilance and other nervous

606 HOREHOUND–HORSE BALLS.
derangement, producing sleep where opiates
are objectionable. Hops may be used topically
as a fomentation or a poultice, as a resolvent or
discutient in painful swellings and tumours.
The golden dust attached to the scale of the
hop is sometimes administered in doses of from
5 to 10 grains. Very freshly dried hops, made
into a pillow, procure sleep.
In the choice of hops, care should be taken
to select those that have large comes or stro-
biles, that are the most powerfully odorous,
and most free from leaves, stems, scaly frag-
ments, and sticks, and which, when rubbed
between the hands, impart, in the greatest
degree, a yellowish tint and glutinous feeling
to the skin. The tightness with which they
are packed should also be noticed; as, with-
out being very firmly pressed together, and
quite solid, they soon spoil by keeping. The
finest flavoured hops are the “GOLDINGS,’ grown
chiefly in middle and east Kent; the ‘WHITE-
BINES’ of Farnham and Canterbury; and the
WoRCESTER HOPs, grown on the red soils
of the vale of the Severn. These are princi-
pally employed for the finer class of ales.
Mid Kent and Sussex hops are also used for
ale, but have an inferior colour and flavour.
The best hops are packed in sacks of fine can-
vas, termed “pockets,’ weighing from 13 cwt.
to 13 cwt. each ; and the inferior qualities, in
coarse ‘bags,’ of about double this size. The
former are mostly purchased by the ale brewers,
and the latter by the porter brewers. When
hops are older than of the last season’s growth,
they are termed ‘yearlings,”—when of the
second season's growth, ‘olds,” — and when
three years, or older, “old olds.’ See BREW-
ING, EXTRACT, HUMULIN, LUPULIN, TINC-
TURE, &c.
HORE/HOUND. Syn. WHITE HOREHOUND ;
MARRUBIUM VULGARE (Linn.), L. This herb
has long been a popular remedy in chronic
pulmonary complaints, especially catarrh, and
in uterine and liver affections. Horehound tea
(THEA. MARUBII, INFUSUM MARUBII) is pre-
pared by infusing 1 oz. of the herb in boiling
water, 1 pint, for an hour;-syrup of hore-
hound (SYRUPUS MARUBII), by thickening the
infusion or tea with sugar;-candied horehound
(MARUBIUM CONDITUM), by mixing 1 pint of
horehound juice with 8 or 10 lbs. of white
sugar, boiling the mixture to a candy height,
and pouring it, whilst warm, into moulds, or
small paper cases, well dusted with finely
powdered lump-sugar; or by pouring it out
on a dusted slab, and cutting it into squares.
See CANDYING.
HORN. For the purposes of the turner and
comb-maker, horns of the goat and sheep are
preferred on account of their superior white-
ness and transparency. For medical purposes,
those of the stag (HARTSHORN) are ordered to
be employed.
Horn is dyed with the same dyes, and in a
similar manner to bones and ivory.
Horn is softened, bent, and moulded, by
means of heat and pressure. For these pur-
poses boiling water and a screw press are
commonly employed.
Horn is reduced to plates or sheets by saw-
ing it, and then exposing it to powerful pres-
sure between hot iron plates; the pith having
been previously removed, and its texture soft-
ened by soaking for some days in Water, and
subsequent boiling in that liquid.
Surfaces and edges may be united or ce-
mented together by softening the horn by the
heat of boiling water, placing the parts in
contact under strong pressure, and exposing
the whole thus arranged to the heat of boiling
water.
Horn is stained or party-coloured to imitate
tortoise-shell, by a solution of terchloride of
gold, for the red portion; nitrate of silver,
for the dark brown and black; and nitrate
of mercury (hot), or a paste made of red lead,
and potash or quicklime, for the brown. When
the last is used, the horn must be heated and
exposed to its action for some hours.
HORS-D’CEUVRES.. [Fr.] Syn. ASSIETTES,
Fr. Small entrées, as aiguillettes,’ ‘ragouts,’
plates of Sardines, anchovies, or other relishes,
served at dinner between the leading dishes,
‘Assiełłes volantes” (flying plates) are dishes
handed round to the guests, but not placed on
the table.
HORSE. Syn. EQUUS, L. This most useful
quadruped belongs to the family Equidae, dis-
tinguished by a single digit and hoof on each
foot. The horse can scarcely be said to exist
at the present day in its natural wild state,
as the so-called “wild-horses’ of America and
Asia are but the progeny of horses which
have escaped from the haunts of civilisation.
Of all animals the horse is most useful to
man. Independently of its value as a beast
of burden and draught, its skin, its hide, in-
testines, and bones, furnish us with leather, the
thongs of whips, gut, grease, bone-black, ma-
nure, &c. The excrement, fat, and hoof, were
included in the Materia Medica of the Ph. L.
1618. The flesh is eaten in some countries,
and was formerly esteemed to possess many
virtues.
Injuries of a serious character, and even
death, are often occasioned by horses running
away, or becoming unmanageable. Various
methods have been proposed to prevent acci-
dents of this kind, and to place the animal en-
tirely under the power of its rider or driver.
In Russia, around the horse’s neck, near the
neck strap, is placed a cord with a running
knot. To this slip-noose is attached a pair of
reins, which always lie thrown over the dash-
boards, ready to be seized at once. When the
horse starts, and becomes unruly, the gentle-
man takes up this cord, and tightens the
horse’s throat, so that he cannot take breath.
The most furious horse stops instantly, and
will not fall or kick.
HORSE BALLS. See WETERINARY MEDI-
CINE,

HORSE POWER–HUMUS.
607
HORSE POW’ER. This term was first em-
ployed by James Watt, to express a power
capable of raising 33,000 lbs. one foot high per
minute. The effective pressure on the surface
of the piston was estimated at 7 lbs. to the
square inch, and hence the area of the piston,
in square inches, multiplied by 7, gave the
gross effective moving pressure, and the space
passed over by this piston in a minute gave the
distance through which the pressure was ex-
erted, or the weight was raised. From these
data the horse-power was easily calculated.
In process of time improvements in the for-
mation of boilers and steam engines increased
the effective pressure on the piston, and, conse-
quently, the power of the engine. In modern
engines the actual power is commonly from 2
to 4 times greater than the nominal power,
which is, however, still retained as the unit of
power in commercial calculations,
HORSERAD/ISH. Syn. ARMORACIA RADIx
(B. P.). “The fresh root of Cochlearia Armo-
Tacia.” (B.P.) Horseradish is pungent, acrid,
stimulant, and rubefacient. It is also regarded
as diaphoretic, diuretic, and antiscorbutic. It
forms a useful masticatory in hoarseness, sore
throat, and toothache. As a condiment, it
provokes the appetite and assists digestion.
Reduced to shreds (scraped horseradish), it
forms a common and excellent accompaniment
to roast beef. The root of aconite or wolfsbane,
which somewhat resembles it in appearance,
has occasionally been mistaken for it, with
fatal results; the two are, however, readily
distinguished from each other, as the taste of
horseradish is warm and pungent, approach-
ing that of mustard, whilst aconite is bitter,
and its odour is earthy and disagreeable, and
after a few minutes’ contact with the lips,
tongue, and fauces, produces a sensation of
numbness and tingling. The root may be kept
fresh for some time, if buried in sand in a
cool place. Horseradish powder is prepared
from the roots gathered in November or
December, and dried by a gentle heat or ex-
posure to a current of dry air. It is used as a
condiment.
HOR/TICULTURE. Syn. GARDENING. The
art of cultivating gardens. According to
Loudon, horticulture differs from agriculture,
chiefly in the comparatively limited space over
which it extends, and in being conducted by
manual labour; whilst the latter is performed
jointly by human and animal labour, in fields,
or in an extensive tract of land called a farm.
HORTUS-SICCUS. See HERBARIUM.
HOS/PITAL GAN'GRENE. Syn. PHAGE-
DENA GANGRENOSA, L. A species of ulcer-
ating mortification, particularly characterised
by its infectious nature, and its tendency to
attack wounds and ulcers in crowded hospitals,
so that often the most trifling operation can-
not be performed with safety. Under its
influence the parts are rapidly destroyed, not
by the formation of ordinary sloughs, as in
common mortification, but by their conversion
into an ash-coloured viscid substance inter-
spersed with bloody specks. The treatment
is similar to that noticed under MORTIFI-
CATION, but here, above all things, thorough
ventilation must be established, and perse-
vered in, and, when possible, change of situa-
tion sought.
HUILE. [Fr.] Oil ; a term applied to
various substances and preparations on account
of their smoothness, consistence, or real or
imaginary emollient or oleaginous nature. See
LIQUEUR, OIL, &c.
Huile Acoustique. Prep. From garlic and
bay leaves, of each, 3 oz. ; olive oil, 3 lb.;
boiled together for 15 minutes, and strained.
Used in ear-ache and deafness. A little is
dropped on cotton wool and placed in the ear.
Huile Antique. See OILS (Hair).
Huile Liqueureuse. Prep. 1. (DE LA ROSE.)
From eau de rose, 1 part; simple syrup, 2
parts; mixed together.
2. (DES FLEURS D’ORANGES.) From orange-
flower water and syrup, as No. 1.
3. (DE VANILLE.) From essence of vanilla,
1 dr. ; simple syrup, 1 pint.
Obs. The above are kept in small decanters,
and used to flavour water, grog, liqueurs, &c.,
instead of sugar or capillaire; also to perfume
the breath. Other flavoured syrups, for the
same purposes, are prepared in a similar
In larlıder.
HU’MIC ACID.
HUMUS.
HU’MULIN. The name given to a beau-
tiful extract or essence of hops, made as fol-
lows:—
A concentrated tincture of hops is prepared
by ‘percolation’ with rectified spirit; the same
hops are then exhausted with water; the spirit
is removed from the tincture by careful distil-
lation, and the upper aqueous portion is skim-
med off, and added to the infusion, which latter
is then evaporated to the consistence of a soft
extract; the oleo-resinous residuum of the
tincture is next added, and well mixed in ;
after which the whole is put into pots and care-
fully tied over for sale. The product possesses
all the fragrant, tonic, and bitter qualities of
the hop in a highly condensed form. See
HoPS, LUPULIN, &c.
HU'MUS. Syn. ULMIN. When wood, or
woody fibre, is exposed to the joint action of
air and moisture, it suffers eremacausis or
decay, and crumbles down into a dark-brown
or black powder, commonly called “mould,”
and to which chemists have given the name of
* humus.” In this state it exists in fertile soils,
in which it is derived from the decay of
plants. A powder of similar composition is
produced by the action of powerful chemical
reagents on sugar, lignin, &c. When acted
upon by dilute boiling solution of caustic po-
tassa, this substance yields a deep-brown solu-
tion, from which acids precipitate a flocculent
brown substance generally called ‘ulmic' or
‘humic acid.” Both bodies require further
Syn. ULMIC ACID. See

608 HUNGER–HYDROGEN.
investigation, as they are supposed to vary
exceedingly in composition.
HUNGER. The peculiar sensation arising
from the want of food. When severe, it in-
creases to actual pain, the coats of the sto-
mach are acted on by its own juices, the
respiration becomes less frequent, the circu-
lation languid, and there is a general diminu-
tion of the heat of the body and of the secre-
tions. The return of hunger is accelerated
by exercise and labour, and by the exposure
of the body to a low temperature. Long
fasting is injurious, more particularly to the
young and the debilitated. See APPETITE,
NUTRITION, &c.
HUS/BANDRY, The business of the farmer;
by some the term is restricted to the joint
operations of farming and gardening on the
small scale. It is also sometimes used synony-
mously with agriculture.
HYACINTH. In botany, the English name
for the genus Hyacinthus. There are numer-
ous varieties of the garden hyacinth, all very
beautiful. The bulbs are largely imported
from Holland, and are often grown in water
contained in suitable glass vessels (hyacinth
glasses). In mineralogy, the term is applied
to crystallised yellow or brown zircon. See
GEMS.
HYDRAC'IDS. Syn. HYDROGEN ACIDs.
A name formerly given to those acids which do
not contain oxygen, as hydrochloric, &c. It is
still occasionally employed. -
HYDRAGOGUES. Syn. HYDRAGOGA, L.
Medicines which cause the removal of water
from any of the cavities of the body. Many
cathartics, as gamboge, jalap, &c., are classed
under this head.
HYDRASTIN. The name given to a con-
centrated remedy much employed by the medi-
cal eclectics of America.
Prep. Treat the powdered root of golden-
seal (Hydrastis Canadensis) with cold water by
percolation; acidulate the infusion with hydro-
chloric acid; collect the precipitate on a filter;
then dry it, dissolve the dried mass in alcohol,
filter, and set aside to crystallise.
Prop. Yellow, acicular crystals, insoluble in
cold alcohol, ether, and water.—Dose. 3 to 5
grs, 3 to 6 times a day; as a tonic in dyspepsia,
inflammation of the stomach,&c.—Obs. Accord-
ing to the most recent investigations, hydrastin
contains berberine, and another alkaloid, called
hydrastia or hydrastina.
HYDRATES. Compounds of hydroxyl (HO)
with other bodies, e. g. KHO—hydrate of
potassium. The term hydrate is also given to
chemical combinations of water (H2O) with
other substances, e.g. C.HCl2O. H.O-hydrate
of chloral.
HYDRIDE. A compound of hydrogen
with another radical, e. g. hydride of methyl—-
CH4H.
HYDRI'0DATE. A name used occasion-
ally as synonymous with iodide, See Io-
I).I.D.E.S.
HYDRIO'DIC ACID Syn. IoDHYDRIC ACID;
ACIDUM HYDRIODICUM, L. An acid com-
pound of iodine and hydrogen. See IO-
IDINE.
HYDRO'BENZANIDE. White crystalline
mass, obtained from oil of bitter almonds by
treatment with ammonia.
HYDROBR0'MIDE. Syn. BROMIDE (which
see).
HYDROBR0/MIIC ACID. See BROMINE.
HYDRUCAR/BON. Compound of carbon and
hydrogen. The hydrocarbons constitute a most
important series of organic compounds. Al-
though the term strictly embraces every com-
pound composed solely of carbon and hydrogen,
it is usually restricted to compounds in which
the carbon and hydrogen bear definite pro-
portions to each other, and usually one to
two.
HYDROCHI,0"RATE, See CHLORIDE.
HYDROCHI,0"RIC ACID, See CHLORINE.
HYDROCHL0"RIC ETHER. See ETHER.
HYDROCY''ANATE, See CYANIDES.
HYDROCYAN"IC ACID. See CYANOGEN.
HYDR00HLOR/IC ACID. See CHLORINE.
HYDR00HL0R/IC ETHER. See ETHER.
HYDROCYAN/IC ACID. See CYANOGEN.
HYDROFLU0R/IC ACID. See FIUORINE.
HYDROFLUOSILIC’IC ACID. H.F. SiFi.
FLUORIDE OF SILICON AND HYDROGEN. Prep.
From powdered fluor spar, and siliceous sand
or powdered glass, of each, 1 part ; concen-
trated Sulphuric acid, 2 parts; mix in a glass
retort, apply a gentle heat, and pass the
evolved gas (fluoride of silicon) into water.
Decomposition ensues, silica being deposited
in a gelatinous state, and hydrofluosilicic acid
remaining in solution. This acid liquor,
which is a double fluoride of silicon and hydro-
gen, is used as a test for barium and potas-
sium, with which it forms nearly insoluble pre-
cipitates.
HYDROGEN. H. Syn. HYDROGENIUM,
L. An elementary body discovered by Caven-
dish, in 1766. It has been found existing in
an uncombined state in the gases evolved from
the solfataras of Iceland. Combined with
oxygen, it constitutes water, and in this form
is extensively distributed through earth, air,
and ocean. It is an important constituent of
all organised tissues.
Prep. Hydrogen is always obtained for
experimental purposes by the deoxidation
of water, by one or other of the following
methods:—
1. A tube of iron or porcelain (a gun-barrel,
for instance) containing a quantity of iron
turnings or scraps of iron, is fixed across a fur-
nace, so that its middle portion may be made
red-hot ; to the one end is attached a retort
or other vessel containing water, and to the
other a bent tube connected with a pneumatic
trough or gasometer. The tube being now
heated to redness, and the water in the retort
brought into a state of brisk ebullition, the
evolved steam suffers decomposition ; the

HYDROGEN. 609

oxygen being absorbed by the iron, and the
hydrogen escaping into the gas receiver.
2. Sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol), diluted
with 6 or 8 times its bulk of water, is poured
on granulated zinc (or scraps of iron), placed
in a retort or gas bottle ; hydrogen is evolved
and is collected, as before.
Obs. This is the most convenient method of
preparing hydrogen, and the one usually
adopted in the laboratory. To ensure the gas
being quite pure, distilled zinc is employed,
and the gas is passed, first through a concen-
trated solution of pure potassa, then through
a solution of nitrate of silver, and, lastly,
through strong oil of vitriol or over fragments
of chloride of calcium. When hydrogen is
prepared from crude zinc, it has a slight smell;
and when from iron, its odour is often strong
and disagreeable.
Prop. Gaseous; colourless; tasteless; odour-
less (when pure); combustible; sp. gr. 06935,
being 16 times lighter than oxygen gas, and
14.4 times lighter than atmospheric air. 100
cubic inches, at 60°. Fahr. and 30 inches of
the barometer, weigh 2:1371 (say 2:14) grs. ;
1 gr. occupies 46.6 inches. 1 is very readily
inflamed, even by a red-hot wire. It burns
with a scarcely visible flame. Mixed with
atmospheric air or oxygen, it explodes with
extreme violence on the approach of flame, or
sudden compression. One measure of hydro-
gen and 5 of atmospheric air, and 2 of hydro-
gen and 1 of oxygen, are the proportions that
explode with the greatest violence. The com-
bination of hydrogen and oxygen, when mixed,
is brought about by the heat of a red-hot solid
or a flame, by the electric spark, and by the
presence of spongy platinum, the black powder
of platinum, clean platinum foil, and some
other substances. A jet of hydrogen burnt in
oxygen gas, or a jet of these gases (mixed)
burnt in the air, with proper precautions, pro-
duces a most intense heat. Water absorbs
about 2% by volume of hydrogen.
Tests. It is recognised by—its combusti-
bility;—the pale colour of its flame;—produc-
ing water only when burnt in air or oxygen;–
extinguishing the flame of other bodies;
and—exploding when mixed with half its
volume of oxygen, and fired.
Uses, &c. Pure and uncombined hydrogen
is not employed in the arts. Inhalations of
this gas have, however, been occasionally used
in medicine. Dr. Beddoes recommended them
in phthisis. In combination, the uses of hy-
drogen are almost numberless. Combined with
oxygen, it forms water; with chlorine, hydro-
chloric acid; with fluorine, hydrofluoric acid;
with cyanogen, hydrocyanic acid; with carbon,
innumerable hydrocarbons ; with nitrogen,
ammonia; with sulphur, sulphuretted hydro-
gen—in fact, an enumeration of the valuable
compounds which it enters into would occupy
many pages of this work. From its extreme
lightness, it has been used to fill balloons, but
coal gas is now commonly employed for this
purpose. On its property of inflaming in con-
tact with spongy platinum is arranged the
popular little instrument for the production of
instantaneous light (DOBEREINER's LAMP)
sold by the philosophical instrument makers.
The chemist avails himself of the great heat
developed by its combustion in oxygen in the
formation of the OXYHYDROGEN BLOWPIPE.
Some of the compounds of hydrogen are
noticed below ; the others under their respec-
tive names.
Antimo"miuretted Hydrogen. SbHå. Syn.
ANTIMONETTED HYDROGEN, HYDRIDE OF
ANTIMONY, STIBAMINE ; HYDROGENIUM ANTI-
MONIATUM, L. A gaseous compound of anti-
mony and hydrogen, prepared by dissolving an
alloy of antimony with a large excess of zinc
in hydrochloric or dilute sulphuric acid. It
has never been obtained pure, a variable pro-
portion of free hydrogen being always present.
It burns with a bluish-white flame, giving rise
to dense fumes of teroxide of antimony, and
when conducted through a red-hot tube, or the
flame is thrown on a cold surface, as a porce-
lain plate, metallic antimony is deposited.
This gas is a deadly poison when inhaled. See
ARSENIOUS ACID.
Arsen'iuretted Hydrogen. AsH3. Syn.
ARSENETTED HYDROGEN, HYDRIDE OF AR-
SENIC, ARSENAMINE; HYDROGENIUM ARSENIU-
RATUM, L. A gaseous compound of arsenic
and hydrogen.
Prep. Arsenide of zinc (made by fusing
together equal weights of zinc and arsenic) is
acted upon by strong hydrochloric acid or by
sulphuric acid diluted with three parts of
water.
Obs. This gas is produced whenever arse-
mious or arsenic acid, or any of their salts, is
in presence of nascent hydrogen. The proper-
ties of arsenetted hydrogen are fully de-
scribed in the tests for ARSENIOUS ACID. This
gas is a deadly poison when inhaled.
Carburetted Hydrogen. Syn. CARBONETTED
HYDROGEN. This term is specially applied
to two of the numerous compounds of carbon
and hydrogen (CARBIDES OF HYDROGEN, HY-
DROCARBONS):-
1. Light Carburetted Hydrogen. CH4. Syn.
MARSH GAs, FIRE-DAMP, GAS OF THE ACE-
TATES. This is often abundantly disengaged
in coal mines, and its combustion occasions
those fearful explosions which are so destruc-
tive to human life. The mud at the bottom
of stagnant pools, on being stirred, suffers
bubbles of gas to escape, which, when collected
and examined, are found to be a mixture of
light carburetted hydrogen and carbonic acid.
The latter is easily removed by passing the
gas through a solution of caustic potassa or
milk of lime.
Prep. (Dumas.) A mixture of acetate of soda
(cryst.) and hydrate of potassa (dry), of each,
2 parts, and quicklime (in powder), 3 parts,
is strongly heated in a flask or retort. The
gas, in a state of absolute purity, is lºgged




610 HYDROMEL–HYDROMETER.
in great abundance, and may be collected over
water.
Prop. Colourless; neutral; nearly inodor-
ous ; burns with a yellow flame, producing
pure water and carbonic acid; explodes when
kindled in contact with air or oxygen.
2. Heavy Carburetted Hydrogen.
See OLEFIANT GAS.
Obs. COAL GAS, OIL GAS, and RESIN GAS,
consist, for the most part, of mixtures of these
two gaseous hydrocarbons in uncertain pro-
portions, obtained respectively from coal, oil,
and resin, by the action of heat, and used for
the purposes of illumination. See GAs.
Oxides of Hydrogen. There are two well-
defined compounds of hydrogen and oxygen :-
C2H4.
1. Suboxide of Hydrogen. H2O. Water
which see).
2. Peroxide of Hydrogen. HO. Syn. HY-
TROXYL, BINOXIDE OF HYDROGEN, DEUT-
OXIDE OF H., OXYGENATED WATER ; HYDRO-
GENII BINOXYDUM, L. This singular fluid
was discovered by M. Thénard, in 1818.
Prep. (Odling.) A known quantity of
pure hydrochloric acid, diluted with 8 or 10
times its volume of distilled water, is placed in
a glass beaker surrounded with ice or a freez-
ing mixture. A quantity of binoxide of
barium rather less than sufficient to neutralise
the acid is then ground to a fine paste with
distilled water, and added gradually to the
acid, in which it should dissolve without effer-
vescence. Diluted sulphuric acid is next added
cautiously, to precipitate the barium, and re-
produce hydrochloric acid to act upon a fresh
quantity of peroxide. The liquid having been
filtered from the insoluble sulphate of baryta,
a second proportion of binoxide of barium
paste is added gradually, as before. The treat-
ment with sulphuric acid, filtration and addi-
tion of binxoide, is repeated 6 or 7 times.
Sulphate of silver is then very carefully added,
so as exactly to precipitate in the form of
chloride of silver the whole of the chlorine.
After filtration, pure baryta, first as a paste
and then in solution, is cautiously added, to
precipitate exactly the sulphuric acid set free
from the sulphate of silver. Filtration is
again resorted to, and the clear liquid (aque-
ous solution of peroxide of hydrogen) is
placed in a dish over oil of vitriol in vacuo,
in order that the water mixed with it may
evaporate.
Prop., &c. A colourless, transparent, some-
what syrupy liquid, of sp. gr. 1452. It has a
metallic taste, and corrodes the skin. It is
easily resolved into oxygen and water. It
mixes freely with water, and becomes more
permanent by the dilution. It bleaches or-
ganic substances, and acts as a powerful oxid-
ating agent. Under certain circumstances,
however, it plays the part of a reducing agent.
To the chemist, peroxide of hydrogen and its
analogue, binoxide of barium, have been of
great service as instruments of research. The
only use to which binoxide of hydrogen has
been applied in the arts, is to restore the black-
ened lights of paintings, which have become
darkened by sulphuretted hydrogen.
Phosphuret/ted Hydrogen. See PHOSPHO-
RUS.
Sul’phides of Hydrogen. See SULPHUR.
HYDROMEL. Syn. HYDROMELI, L. An
aqueous solution of honey. Prep. (P. Cod.)
Honey, 2 oz. ; boiling water, 32 oz. ; dissolve,
and strain. A refreshing and slightly laxative
drink; in fevers, hoarseness, sore throats, &c.
HYDROM’ETER. Syn. AREOMETER, GRA-
WIMETER ; HYDROMETRUM, L. An instrument
for ascertaining the specific gravities of liquids,
and hence their strength, the latter being
either in inverse or direct proportion to the
former. Hydrometers are of two kinds —
1. Those which are always immersed to the
same depth in distilled water, and the liquid to
be tried, small weights being used for the pur-
pose, as in FAHRENHEIT's and NICHOLSON's
hydrometers; and 2nd, those which are suffered
to rise or sink freely in the liquid, until they
come to a state of rest, as in SYKE’s, BAUMé's,
&c. In both cases a correction must be made
for any variation in temperature.
Of the two kinds, the first give the most
accurate results, and have the great advantage
of being applicable to liquids either lighter or
heavier than water, but the second are the
readier in practice, requiring less time, and less
skill to use them. The following are those best
known :-
BAUMá’s HYDROMETER or AREOMETER,
which is very generally employed on the Con-
tinent, consists of two distinct instruments,
the one for liquids heavier than water, the
other for liquids lighter than that fluid. The
first floats at the 0, or ‘zero,” of the scale, in
distilled water, at the temperature of 58°Fahr,

and each degree, marked downwards, indicate
a density corresponding to one per cent. Of
common salt. The hydrometer for liquids
lighter than water is poised so that the 0 of the
scale is at the bottom of the stem, when it is
floating in a solution of 1 oz. of common salt in
9 oz. of water, and the depth to which it sinks
in distilled water shows 10°; the space between
these fixed points being equally divided, and the
graduation continued upwards to the top of
the scale.
The temperature at which these instruments
were originally adjusted by Baumé was 12.5°
Centigrade (54.5°Fahr.). They are now com-
monly adjusted in this country at 58° or 60°
Fahr. Hence arise the discrepancies observable
in the published tables of the “correspondence
between degrees of Baumé and real specific
gravities.”
CARTIER’s HYDROMETER, which is much
used in France for light liquids, has the same
point for the zero of its scale as Baumé's, but
its degrees are rather smaller, 30° Baumé being
equal to 32° Cartier.
FAHRENHEIT'S HYDROMETER consists of a
hollow ball, with a counterpoise below, and a
HYDROMETRY-HYDROPHOBIA. 611
very slender stem above, terminating in a
small dish. The middle, or half-length of
the stem, is distinguished by a fine line across
it. In this instrument every division of the
stem is rejected, and it is immersed in all
experiments to the middle of the stem, by
placing proper weights in the little dish
above. Then, as the part immersed is con-
stantly of the same magnitude, and the whole
weight of the hydrometer is known, this last
weight, added to the weights in the dish, will
be equal to the weight of fluid displaced by
the instrument, as all writers on hydrostatics
prove. And accordingly, the sp. gravities for
the common form of the tables will be had by
the proportion—
As the whole weight of the hydrometer and
its load, when adjusted in distilled water, is to
the number 1000, so is the whole weight when
adjusted in any other fluid, to the number ea:-
pressing its specific gravity.
GAY-LUSSAC's ALCOHOLOMETER is used to
determine the strength of spirituous liquors.
It, at once, indicates on the stem, the per-
centage of absolute alcohol in the liquid exa-
mined. The original experiments of Gay-
Lussac having been made on liquids at a tem-
perature of 59°Fahr., all examples examined by
the alcoholometer, must either be brought to
that temperature previous to being tested, or a
correction made in the strength found.
NICHOLSON'S HYDROMETER is constructed
on the same principle as Fahrenheit's. It has,
in addition to the small dish for weights above,
a little cup attached below, for holding any
solid body whose weight in water is required.
It is chiefly intended for taking the sp. gr. of
minerals.
RICHTER’s HYDROMETER resembles, for the
most part, Gay-Lussac's.
SYKES's HYDROMETER is that adopted by
the Revenue authorities in England for ascer-
taining the strength of spirits, and has been
already fully noticed.
TRALLES's HYDROMETER resembles Gay-
Lussac’s (nearly).
TWADDELL’s HYDROMETER is much used in
the bleaching establishments of Scotland, and
in some parts of England. According to this
scale, 0 is equal to 1000 or the sp. gr. of dis-
tilled water, and each degree is equal to ‘005;
so that, by multiplying this number by the
number of degrees marked on the scale,
and adding 1", the real specific gravity is ob-
tained.
Obs. Hydrometers, unless manufactured
with great care and skill, merely afford ap-
proximate results, but which are nevertheless
sufficiently correct for all ordinary purposes.
They also require several ounces of liquid to
float them, and hence cannot be used for very
small quantities. Those of Fahrenheit, Nichol-
son, and Sykes, are the most accurate, both in
principle and application. They are all em-
ployed with a tall glass cylinder, termed a
sample, test, or hydrometer glass, in the way
already noticed; but the thermometer for
ascertaining the temperature must be covered
with a glass case, or arranged with a folding
scale, to allow of its immersion in corrosive
liquids.
ALCOHOLOMETERS, ELAIOMETERS, SACCHA-
ROMETERs, URINOMETERs, &c., are simply hy-
drometers so weighted and graduated as to
adapt them for testing spirits, syrups, urine, &c.
See ALCOHOLOMETRY, ALCOHOLMETRY, AREO-
METER, SPECIFIC GRAVITY, &c.
HYDROM’ETRY. Syn. AREOMETRY. The
art of determining the specific gravity of
liquids, and hence their strength and com-
mercial value. The instruments used are
noticed above; their action depends upon the
fact that a floating body displaces a bulk,
equal to itself in weight, of the fluid in which
it floats, and consequently that a body of a
given weight sinks deeper in a lighter than in
a heavier fluid. In hydrometric determinations
the temperature of the samples must be care-
fully attended to, for fluids expand as their
temperature is increased. The hydrometers
used in England are generally adjusted to the
standard temperature of 60° Fahr., and when
* Hydrometer Tables, giving the corrections
for the variations of the thermometer, are not
accessible, the fluids to be examined should be
brought to this standard temperature by apply-
ing heat directly to the vessel, when the tem-
perature is below the standard, or by sur-
rounding the vessel with cold water, when it
is above the standard. The principal appli-
cations of hydrometry are described in differ-
ent parts of this work. See ACETIMETRY,
ALCOHOLOMETRY, CHLOROMETRY, SPECIFIC
GRAVITY, &c.
HYDROPATHY. Syn. WATER cure; Hy-
DROPATHIA, L. A mode of curing diseases
by the copious use of pure cold water, both
internally and externally, together with dry
sweating, and the dile regulation of diet exer-
cise, and clothing. This “treatment of
diseases undoubtedly includes powerful thera-
peutic agents, which, in the hands of the edu-
cated and honourable practitioner, might be
most beneficially resorted to as remedia
agents.” (Pereira.)
HYDROPHO'BIA. Syn. CANINE MADNEss;
RABIES CANINA, L. A disease which is gene-
rally considered as the result of a morbid
poison being introduced into the system by
the bite of a rabid animal. A clear case of
idiopathic or spontaneous hydrophobia has
never yet been known to occur in the human
subject. -
The common symptoms of hydrophobia are
great excitability and horror at the sight of
water or the attempt to drink, fever, vomiting,
excessive thirst, spitting of viscid saliva,
difficult respiration, irregular pulse, convul-
sions, syncope, delirium, and death.
The whole materia medica has been, un-
fortunately, unsuccessfully sought without
the discovery of a single remedy for this

-
612 HYDROSULPHURIC ACID—ICE.
disease, or even a palliative of its severer
symptoms.
The treatment of the recent bites of venomous
animals has been fully explained, and need not
be repeated here. To prevent secondary or
constitutional effects arising, the use of lemon
juice, or arsenical solution, has long been
popular. (Graham, and others.) Dr. Buchan
remarks that “vinegar is of considerable use,
and should be taken freely.”
HYDROSULPHU/RIC ACID.
PH.U.R.
HYGIENE'. Syn. HyGIENE, Fr. Health;
its preservation, promotion, and restoration.
That department of medicine and civil govern-
ment which relates to health. See AIR, BATH,
EXERCISE, FLANNEL, FOOD, NUTRITION,
SLEEP, VENTILATION, &c.
HYOCHOLIC ACID. Cas H. oOº. Syn. GIY-
COHYOCHOLALIC ACID. A compound peculiar
to the gall of pigs, discovered by Strecker and
Gundelach.
Prep. The fresh gall of pigs is mixed with a
solution of sulphate of sodium ; the precipitate
is dissolved in absolute alcohol, and deco-
lourised by animal charcoal. From this
solution ether throws down hyocholate of
sodium, which, on the addition of sulphuric
acid, yields hyocholic acid as a resinous mass,
which is dissolved in alcohol, re-precipitated
by water, and dried. When heated with alka-
line solutions, glycocine and a new crystalline
acid (hyocholalic acid) are formed. When
boiled with acids, it yields glycocine and
hyodyslysin.
HYOSCY'AMINE. Syn. Hyoscy AMIA, Hy-
OSCYAMINA, DATURINE, DATURIA. An alka-
loid obtained from common henbane (Hyoscy-
amus niger), and also from the thorn apple
(Datura stramonium). See DATURINE.
HYPNOTICS. Syn. HYPNOTICA, L. Agents
or medicines which induce sleep, as opium,
morphia, henbane, Indian hemp, lactucarium,
&c. Agents which prevent sleep are called
agrypnotics (Agrypnotica, L.), or anthypnotics
(Anthypnotica, L.). -
HYPOCHLO'RIC ACID. See CHLORINE.
HYPOCHONDRIASIS. Syn. HYPOCHONDRI-
ACISM. The ‘hip’ or ‘hyp,’ the “vapours, de-
pression of spirits, “blue devils.” This disease
chiefly affects persons of the melancholic tem-
perament, and is commonly induced by hard
study, irregular habits of life, want of proper
social intercourse, living in close apartments,
and insufficient out-of-door exercise. The
treatment may, in most cases, be similar to
that recommended for DYSPEPSIA, observing,
however, that success depends more on amus-
ing and engaging the mind, and in gradually
weaning it from old conceits, than in the mere
administration of medicine. When the patient
is tormented with a visionary or exaggerated
sense of pain, or of some concealed disease, or
a whimsical dislike of certain persons, places,
or things, or groundless apprehensions of per-
sonal danger or poverty, or the conviction of
See SUL-
having experienced some dreadful accident or
misfortune, the better way is to avoid any
direct attempts to alter his opinions, but to
endeavour to inspire confidence in some me-
thod of relief. Greding mentions the case of
a medical man who conceived that his stomach
was full of frogs, which had been successively
spawning ever since he had bathed, when a
boy, in a pool in which he had perceived some
tadpoles; and he had spent his life in endea-
vouring to get them removed. One patient,
perhaps, fancies himself a giant; another, as
heavy as lead; a third, a feather, in continual
danger of being blown away by the wind; and
a fourth, a piece of glass, and is hourly fearful
of being broken. Marcellus Dentatus men-
tions a baker of Ferrara who thought himself a
lump of butter, and durst not sit in the sun,
or come near the fire, for fear of being melted.
The writer of this article once knew a man who
always put on his coat the wrong side in front,
because he conceived his facelooked behind him.
In such cases it is useless to argue with the
patient, as it only causes irritation, and increases
the malady. The restoration of the bodily
health, and a sudden surprise or change of
scene, will often effect a cure.
HYPONI"TRIC ACID. See NITROGEN.
HYPONI'TROUS ACID, See NITROGEN.
HYPOPHOS/PHITES. See PHOSPHORUS.
HYPOPHOSPHITE. A salt of hypophospho-
rous acid.
HYPOSULPHATE. Syn. DITHIONATE ;
HYPOSULPHAs, L. A salt of hyposulphuric
acid.
HYPOSUI/PHITE. Syn. THIOSULPHATE;
HYPOSULPHIS, L. A salt of hyposulphurous
acid.
HYPOSUL'PHUROUS ACID.
PEIUR.
HYRA/CEUM. A substance produced by the
Cape badger (Hyraw Capensis), and proposed
as a substitute for CASTOREUM. Pereira consi-
dered it to be inert and useless.
HYSTERICS. Syn. HYSTERIA, PASSTO HYs-
TERICA, L. In pathology, a nervous affection
peculiar to women, attacking in paroxysms or
fits, preceded by dejection, tears, difficult
breathing, sickness, and palpitation of the
heart. The treatment of this disease varies
with the causes and the symptoms. Bleeding,
cupping, and depletives, are generally had re-
course to in robust and plethoric habits, and
stimulants and tonics in those of a weakly or
relaxed constitution. Affusion of cold water
and nasal stimulants will frequently remove
the fit in mild cases. Exercise, proper amuse-
ments, and regular hours and diet, are the best
preventives. See DRAUGHT (Antihysteric and
Hydrocyanic), &c.
See SUL-
ICE. Syn. GLACTEs, L. Water in the solid
state. On being cooled, water gradually con-
tracts until the temperature has fallen to 39.9°
Fahr., when it begins to expand. At the
freezing-point, 32°Fahr., under ordinary con-
•


º
ICELAND MOSS—IDRIALIN. 6.13
º
ditions, water crystallises or freezes, and in
consequence of the continued expansion, the
sp. gr. of ice, as compared with that of water
at 39.9°, is as ‘94 to 1:00. Ice has the peculiar
property of reuniting by the contact of adjoin-
ing surfaces after having been broken into
fragments (REGELATION). Coloured water and
salt water, by freezing, produce colourless and
fresh ice; and clean solid ice, when thawed,
furnishes water equal in purity to that which
has been distilled.
The use of ice in the preparation of ICE-
CREAMS, ICED-LIQUORS, &c., is noticed else-
where. The confectioner collects his ice as
early as possible during the winter, and stores
it in a well-drained well or excavation, some-
what of the form of an inverted sugar-loaf,
contained in a small shed or building called an
ICE-HOUSE. This building should always be
situated on a dry sandy soil, and, if possible, on
an eminence. The door should be on the
north side, and the roof should be conical and
thickly thatched with straw.
In medicine, ice is frequently employed ex-
ternally in inflammation of the brain, to
resolve inflammation, to stop haemorrhage, to
constringe relaxed parts, and as an anodyne, to
deaden pain. For these purposes it is pounded
small, in a cloth, and placed in a bladder or
bag of gauze (ICE-CAP, ICE-PouTTICE) before
applying it. Internally, ice or ice-cold water
has been given with advantage in heartburn,
typhus, inflammation and spasms of the
stomach, to check the vomiting in cholera,
and to arrest hamorrhage, whether bronchial,
gastric, nasal, or uterine. Very recently, ice
has been proposed as a remedy in the treat-
ment of diphtheria. Small lumps of ice,
or a small glassful of pounded ice-and-water,
will often temporarily restore the tone of
the stomach and nervous system during hot
weather, when all other means fail. Ice-
creams, taken in moderation, act in the same
WaW.
; the warmer climates of Europe an ICE-
HOUSE or an ICE-SAFE (a REFRIGERATOR) is
a necessary appendage to every respectable
dwelling, not merely for the purpose of pleas-
ing the palate with iced beverages, but to
enable the residents to preserve their provi-
sions (fish, meat, game, milk, butter, &c.) in a
wholesome state from day to day. See REFRI-
G-EBATION.
ICELAND MOSS. Syn. CETRARIA (B.P.),
LICHEN ISLANDICUS, L. The lichen termed
Cetraria Islandicus. It is much employed, both
as a nutritious food and as a mild mucilaginous
tonic, in catarrh and consumption. It may be
purified from its bitter principle by a little cold
solution of potassa.
ICES. (In confectionery.) These are com-
monly composed of cream or sweetened water,
variously flavoured, and congealed by ice or a
freezing mixture. Sometimes, instead of cream,
the materials of a custard are used. The mixed
ingredients are placed in a tin furnished with
a handle at top, called a ‘freezer,' or ‘freezing-
pot,” which is then plunged into a bucket con-
taining ice broken small, and mixed with
about half its weight of common salt, and is
kept in rapid motion, backwards and forwards,
until its contents are frozen. As the cream
congeals and adheres to the sides, it is broken
down with the ice-spoon, so that the whole may
be equally exposed to the cold. As the salt and
ice in the tub melt, more is added, until the
process is finished. The “ice-pot,” with the
cream in it, is next placed in a leaden ‘ice-
stand,” is at once surrounded with a mixture
of ice and salt, and closely covered over. In
this state it is carried into the shop. The
glasses are filled as required for immediate use,
and should have been previously made as cold
as possible.
PLAIN ICE-CREAM, or CREAM FOR ICING, is
commonly made by one or other of the follow-
ing formulae:– --
1. New milk, 2 pints; yolks of 6 eggs; white
sugar, 4 oz. ; mix, strain, heat gently, and cool
gradually.
2. Cream, 1 pint ; sugar, 4 oz. ; mix, as
above.
3. Cream and milk, of each, 1 pint; white
sugar, 4 lb.
FLAVOURED ICE-CREAMS are made by mixing
cream for icing with half its weight of mashed
or preserved fruit, previously rubbed through
a clean hair sieve; or, when the flavour depends
on the juice of fruit or on essential oil, by add-
ing a sufficient quantity of such substances.
RASPBERRY and STRAWBERRY ICES are made
according to the former method; LEMON,
ORANGE, NOYEAU, and ALMOND ICES, by the
latter method. In the same way any other
article besides cream may be frozen.
CHOCOLATE FOR ICING is made by rubbing
1 oz. of chocolate to a paste with a table-
spoonful of hot milk, and then adding ‘cream
for icing,’ 1 pint.
COFFEE FOR ICING is made of cream for
icing, 1 quart, to which a small teacupful of
the strongest possible clarified coffee has been
added, together with 2 oz. of sugar and the
yolks of 3 or 4 eggs. See ICING (below).
I'CING. (For cakes.) Syn. SUGAR ICE. The
covering of concreted sugar with which the
confectioners adorn their cakes. Prep. Beat
the white of eggs to a full froth, with a little
rose or orange-flower water; then add, gradu-
ally, as much finely powdered sugar as will
make it thick enough, beating it well all the
time. For use, dust the cakes over with flour,
then gently rub it off, lay on the icing with a
flat knife, stick on the ornaments while it is
wet, and place it in the oven for a few minutes
to harden, but not long enough to discolour it.
It may be tinged of various shades by the addi-
tion of the proper ‘stains.”
ID'RIALIN. A fusible, inflammable sub-
stance, found associated with the native cin-
nabar of the mines of Idria, in Carniola. It
is extracted from the ore by means of oil of


614 IDRYL–ILLUMINATION.
turpentine. It is only slightly soluble in alco-
hol and ether. When pure, it is white and
crystalline.
ID'RYL. A hydrocarbon generally found
associated with idrialin.
IGASU'RIC ACID. Syn. ACIDUM IGASURI-
CUM, L. An acid associated with strychnine
in the St. Ignatius' bean and in nux vomica.
It may be obtained by digesting the rasped or
ground beans first in ether and then in boiling
alcohol, evaporating the latter decoction to
dryness, diffusing the residuum through water,
adding a little carbonate of magnesium, again
boiling for some minutes, filtering, washing
the powder with cold water, and digesting it
in alcohol, and filtering. The igasurate of
magnesium thus obtained is dissolved in boiling
water, the solution decomposed by acetate of
lead, and the precipitate (igasurate of lead),
after being washed and diffused through dis-
tilled water, is decomposed by sulphuretted
hydrogen. The solution thus obtained yields
crystals (igasuric acid) on being evaporated.
It is soluble in both water and alcohol.
IGNI"TION. In the laboratory, this term is
commonly applied to the act of heating to red-
ness or luminousness. See CALCINATION.
ILLUMINATION. The act of illuminating
or making luminous. For supplying artificial
light to streets and the interiors of houses coal
gas and oils and fats are generally employed.
These illuminating agents are compounds rich
in carbon, upon the presence of which the
brightness of their flames depends. Flame is
gas or vapour heated to incandescence during
the process of combustion. A flame containing
no solid particles emits but a feeble light, even
if its temperature is the highest possible.
Pure hydrogen, for instance, burns with a
pale, smokeless flame, though with the produc-
tion of considerable heat. On the other hand,
wax, paraffin, coal gas, &c., while undergoing
combustion, give out considerablelight, because
their flames contain innumerable solid particles
of carbon, which act as radiant points. To give
the greatest degree of luminosity to flame, the
supply of air must be proportioned to the cha-
racter of the burning smbstance, and be insuffi-
cient for the instantaneous combustion of the
evolved gases; in which case the hydrogen
takes all the oxygen, and the larger portion of
the carbon is precipitated, and burnt in the
solid form, at some little distance within the
outer surface of the flame. When the supply
of air is sufficient for the immediate and com-
plete combustion of the whole of the combus-
tible matter, no such precipitation takes place,
and the flame is neither white nor brilliant.
The richest coal gas, mixed with sufficient air
to convert all its hydrogen and carbon into
water and carbonic acid, explodes with a pale
blue flash ; yet the same gas, when consumed
in the ordinary way, burns with a rich white
flame. Every one must have noticed the effect
of a gust of wind upon the flaring gas-jets of
a butcher's shop; the plentiful supply of air
causes complete combustion, and so converts
the bright white flames into dull blue streaks
of fire. When the supply of air is insufficient
to cause the combustion of the newly formed
solid carbon at the instant of its development,
and whilst it is in an incandescent state, the
flame becomes red and smoky, and unburnt
sooty particles are thrown off. The same
occurs when the temperature of any portion
of the hydrogen is reduced below that in-
tensity required for the combustion of the
newly separated charcoal. Solid bodies, as
tallow, oils, and fats, which burn with flame,
are converted into the state of gas by the heat
required to kindle them, and it is this gaseous
matter which suffers combustion, and not the
substance which produces it.
The relative value of the ordinary illumi-
nating agents has been accurately determined
by Dr. Frankland. According to his experi-
ments, the quantities of various substances re-
quired to give the same amount of light as
would be obtained from 1 gallon of Young's
Paraffin oil are as follows:—
Young's Paraffin oil 1:00 gall.
American rock oil! 1'26 ,,
Paraffin candles . 18.6 lbs.
Sperm . 22.9 ,,
Wax . 26-4 ,
Stearic - . 27°6 ,,
Composite . . 29.5 ,,
Tallow . 39'0 ,
The following table exhibits the comparative
cost of the light of 20 sperm candles, each
burning 10 hours at the rate of 120 grs. per
hour; also the amount of carbonic acid pro-
duced and heat evolved per hour, in obtaining
this quantity of light:—
- Carb. acid Units of
CoSt. per hour in heat.
s, d. cub. feet. per hour.
Wax . . . 7 2} -
Spermaceti 6 8 8-3 ... 82
Paraffin candles 3 10 ... 6.7 ... 66
Tallow . . 2 8 ... 10.1 ... 100
Rock oil ... O 7% -
Paraffin oil . 0 6” 3-0 ... 29
Coal gas 0 4} ... 5-0 ... 47
Cannel gas . 0 3 ... 4-0 ... 32
These figures prove that coal-gas and the
mineral oils are the cheapest and best il-
luminating agents, producing the largest
amount of light with the least development of
heat.
The light emitted by incandescent lime
(DRUMMOND LIGHT, HYDRO-oxygłN LIGHT,
LIME LIGHT, OXYHYDROGEN LIGHT) is in-
tensely brilliant, and is often made use of to
enable workmen to continue operations at
night. It is obtained by directing the flame
produced by the combustion of a mixture of
hydrogen (or coal gas) and oxygen upon a small
cylinder of lime. In the improved form, of
| Acknowledged to be an inferior sample.
.
ILLUTATION.—INCOMBUSTIBLE FABRICS. 615
this light the lime is protected from crum-
bling by a cage of platinum wire, and is caused
to rotate slowly by means of clockwork, so as
constantly to expose a fresh surface to the
flame. When reflected from a “parabolic mir-
ror’ in a pencil of parallel rays, the Drummond
light has been recognised during daylight at a
distance of 108 miles. The lime light produced
with coal gas and oxygen is used for the MAGIC
LANTERN and GAS MICROSCOPE.
Another powerful illuminator is the ELEC-
TRIC LIGHT. It is produced by the passage of
a strong current of voltaic electricity between
two pencils of hard charcoal of coke, such as
that deposited in the retorts of gas-works.
The electric light has been successfully applied
to lighthouse illumination. It is too intense,
and its cost is too great, for its application to
domestic purposes. See CANDLES, FLAME, GAS,
PHOTOMETRY, &c.
ILLUTATION. See BATH (Mud).
IMAGINATION. The influence of the ima-
gination, both in the production and cure of
disease, has been long admitted by medical
practitioners. It is probably the most power-
ful therapeutic agent known. “Extraor-
dinary cures have been ascribed to inert and
useless means, when, in fact, they were re-
ferable to the influence of the imagination.”
(Dr. Pereira.) -
IMPERIAL. Syn. Potus IMPERIALIS,
PTISANA I., L. Prep. 1. Cream of tartar,
# oz. ; 1 lemon, sliced; lump sugar, 2 oz. ;
boiling water, 1 quart; infuse, with occasional
stirring until cold, then pour off the clear por-
tion for use.
2. A lemon, sliced; sugar, 1 oz. ; boiling
water, 1 pint.
3. Yellow rind and juice of lemon; citric
acid, 1 dr. ; sugar, 2% oz. ; hot water (which
has been boiled), 1 quart; as No. 1. Refri-
gerant and slightly diuretic. Used as a com-
mon drink in fevers, dropsy, &c., and as a
summer beverage.
IMPLEMENTS (Agricultural). “Almost
all the operations of agriculture may be per-
formed by the plough, the harrow, the scythe,
and the flail; and these are the sole imple-
ments in the primitive agriculture of all coun-
tries. With the progress of improvement,
many other implements (and machines) have
been introduced, the more remarkable of
which are the DRILL PLOUGH, the HORSE
HOE, the WINNOWING MACHINE, the THRESH-
ING MACHINE, the HAY-MAKING MACHINE,
and the REAPING MACHINE. The object of all
these implements and machines is to abridge
human labour, and to perform the different
operations to which they are applied with a
greater degree of rapidity, and in a more per-
fect manner, than before.” (Loudon.) On
the perfection of agricultural implements and
machines depends much of the improvement
of which this art is susceptible. See AGRI-
CULTURE, &c.
IMPROVING, The trade name for ‘doc-
º
--
toring,’ ‘adulterating,” or “lowering,' the
quality of any substance, with the view of
cheapening it or increasing its bulk. See
WINE, &c.
IN"CENSE. Prep. 1. Olibanum,20r 3 parts;
gum benzoin, 1 part.
2. Olibanum, 7 parts; gum benzoin, 2 parts;
cascarilla, 1 part. Placed on a hot plate or
burned, it exhales an agreeable perfume. Used
in some of the rituals of the Roman Catholic
Church.
INCINERATION. The reduction of organic
substances to ashes by combustion. See CAL-
CINATION.
INCOMBUSTIBILITY. The property of
being incapable of being kindled, or of being
consumed by fire. Substances possessing this
property are said to be “incombustible' or ‘fire-
roof.”
INCOMBUSTIBLE FABRICS, Syn, NoN-
INFLAMMABLE FABRICS. The fashion of wear-
ing light gauzy dresses extended by hoops or
crinoline has made death from fire a common
casualty. With a view of diminishing the
danger to which women expose themselves,
chemists have lately devoted considerable at-
tention to the problem of rendering muslin and
other light fabrics non-inflammable. This
object may be attained by steeping the fabric
in almost any saline solution. Thus, cotton or
linen stuffs prepared with a solution of borax,
phosphate of soda, phosphate of ammonia, alum,
or sal-ammoniac, may be placed in contact
with ignited bodies without their suffering
active combustion or bursting into flame. The
salts act by forming a crust of incombustible
matter on the surface of the fibres. They
do not, however, prevent carbonisation taking
place, when the temperature is sufficiently
high. It is by a knowledge of this property
of culinary salt, that jugglers are enabled to
perform the common trick of burning a
thread of cotton whilst supporting a ring or
a small key, without the latter failing to the
ground. The cotton is reduced to a cinder,
but, from the action of the salt, its fibres
still retain sufficient tenacity to support a light
weight.
The addition of about 1 oz. of alum or sal-
ammoniac to the last water used to rinse a
lady’s dress, or a set of bed furniture, or a less
quantity added to the starch used to stiffen
them, renders them uninflammable, or at least
so little combustible that they will not readily
take fire; and if kindled, are slowly consumed,
without flame. None of the above-named
salts are adapted for fine soft muslins, which
mostly require chemical treatment, because
they injure the texture, rendering the fabric
harsh and destroying all its beauty. The salt
which is found to answer most completely all
the required conditions is TUNGSTATE OF SODA.
“Muslin steeped in a solution containing 20%
of this salt is perfectly non-inflammable when
dry, and the saline film left on the surface is
smooth and of a fatty appearance like talc, and



616 INCOMPATIBLES-INCRUSTATION.
therefore does not interfere with the process of
ironing, but allows the hot iron to pass smoothly
over the surface. The non-fulfilment of this
latter condition completely prevents the use
of many other salts—such as sulphate or phos-
phate of ammonia, which are otherwise effi-
cacious in destroying inflammability—for all
fabrics which have to be washed and ironed.”
(Watts.)
The addition of a little phosphoric acid or
phosphate of soda to the “tungstate’ is recom-
mended, for without this addition a portion of
the “tungstate' is apt to undergo a chemical
change and become comparatively insoluble.
Messrs. Versmann and Oppenheim, the intro-
ducers of tungstate of soda, give the fol-
lowing formula for a solution of minimum
strength:-
Dilute a concentrated solution of neutral
tungstate of soda with water to 28° Twaddell
(sp. gr. 1:14), and then add 3% of phosphate
of soda. This solution is found to keep and to
answer its purpose very well; it is now con-
stantly used in the Royal Laundry.
PAPER, WOOD, &c., may also be rendered
comparatively incombustible by soaking them
in saline solutions. See ASBESTOS, FIRE, &c.
INCOMPATIBLES. In medicine and phar-
macy, substances which exert a chemical action
on each other, and cannot, therefore, with
propriety, be prescribed together in the same
formula or prescription. The principles on
which we should act to avoid prescribing or
dispensing incompatibles, are briefly deve-
loped under the heads AFFINITY and DECOM-
POSITION. To this we may add that, if a sub-
stance is endowed with well-marked thera-
peutical or poisonous properties, independent
of those which may exert a chemical effect
upon the tissues, its mode of action will
neither be changed nor destroyed by the
combinations which it forms, provided always
that the new compounds are not insoluble in
water. -
“It is not necessary to give two incom-
patible medicines at the same time, in order to
produce decomposition; it is sufficient if they
are given within a very short interval of each
other. Thus, a sick person, who has been
treated with lead externally, or even internally,
will present a discoloration of the skin, if he
takes a sulphur bath four or five days after the
lead treatment has been discontinued. If a
person is rubbed with iodide of potassium
shortly after having applied Vigo's plaster
(plaster of ammoniacum with mercury), or the
Neapolitan ointment (mercurial ointment),
iodide of mercury and caustic potash will be
formed, which will cause vesication. So also
vomiting occurs if lemonade made with tartaric
acid is taken five or six days after the adminis-
tration of white oxide of antimony.” (Trousseau
and Reveil.)
Lists of incompatibles are published in many
pharmaceutical and medical works, but are, in
reality, of little use beyond illustrating rules
and principles which are familiar to every che-
mist, and which every prescriber should also be
intimately acquainted with.
INCRUSTATION, Prevention of, in Steam
Boilers. With all qualities of water com-
monly used for feeding steam boilers there
is a tendency to the production of hard cal-
careous deposits or layers of incrustation within
the boiler, due to the separation of lime salts
(particularly the carbonate and sulphate, or
mixtures of these with a certain amount of
carbonate of magnesia) as the direct conse-
quence of the accumulation of these impurities
from large quantities of water evaporated. The
sparing solubility of the sulphate of lime
(gypsum) in hot water fully accounts for its
deposition in the boiler, and the carbonate of
lime (chalk) is thrown down, not only as the
result of direct evaporation, but by the ebulli-
tion expelling free carbonic acid, which holds
this body to some extent in solution. Rain
water, which of itself is too pure to give rise to
these incrustations, cannot be used alone for
boiler purposes, for it has been found to exert
a highly corrosive action upon the iron plates
and fittings. It can, however, be advan-
tageously employed in conjunction with ‘hard’
spring or river waters, and has the effect of
diminishing the incrustation merely as the
result of dilution. The drain pipes leading
from the roof of the factory may be placed in
connection with the tank or well from which
the supply of water is drawn for the boilers.
It will be seen, hereafter, that the self-same
remedy is efficient both as a means of prevent-
ing incrustation and obviating corrosion, and
that by using one of the alkaline substances
about to be specified this twofold advantage
may be secured. Iron will not rust when
immersed in water containing a mere trace of
caustic alkali, and it is a common observation
that the iron vessels used in the preparation of
potash and soda remain for any length of time
free from all appearance of rust. This singular
property is, no doubt, susceptible of important
applications, amongst them may be mentioned
the better protection of iron ships from the
attack of bilge water, of hydraulic.rams, mould-
ing boxes, Smiths' tools, and other objects liable
to be placed at times under the influence of
water. Some forms of surface-condensers
become quickly corroded in consequence of the
purity of the water accumulating in them by
the process of distillation, and a small dose of
caustic alkali is then useful as a means of pro-
tection; the engine-cylinders also are to some
extent preserved when alkaline anti-incrusta-
tion fluids are introduced into the boiler, for
the minute quantity which is carried forward
mechanically in the form of spray mixed with
the steam suffices to preserve the iron. Whilst
a tendency to ‘priming' undoubtedly results
from a too liberal use of soda or other alkali
in the boiler, it will in practice be found easy
to adjust the proportion of this ingredient, so
as to secure immunity from corrosion and
g
º

INCUBATION.—INCUBUS. 617
f
incrustation, and, at the same time, avoid the
tumultuous kind of ebullition known as
‘priming.” In all cases it is advisable to
carry out a rigid system of inspection, and it is
only in the way of saving fuel and labour that
the application of boiler-fluids is to be recom-
mended.
Much benefit has often resulted from a coat-
ing of coal-tar or ‘dead oil” applied to the
interior surfaces below the water line, when
the boiler is opened for cleaning and inspection.
These will tend very considerably to lessen the
adhesion of calcareous crusts, and are not in
any way affected by the boiler fluids in com-
mon use. Soda crystals and caustic soda may
be used with great success in boilers to effect
the immediate precipitation of the lime salts,
and they act by throwing down a finely divided
form of carbonate of lime, which in time fur-
nishes nuclei for the deposition of subsequent
accretions both of the carbonate and sulphate,
so that they are prevented from crystallising
upon the walls of the boiler. A granular mud
is thus formed, which subsides quickly and may
be for the most part got rid of through the
‘blow-off cock,” which should be opened for
this purpose two or three times every day, and
run out with as little water as possible.
The use of caustic soda has undergone a
thorough trial at the hands of Mr. J. Spiller,
F.C.S., in the boilers of the Royal Arsenal,
Woolwich, and we are favoured with the fol-
lowing general instructions regarding its use,
which are based upon an experience of upwards
of ten years. The caustic soda should be dis-
solved in water so as to make a concentrated
solution of specific gravity 1300. This, being
perfectly miscible with water, may be intro-
duced into the boiler with the feed-water at
any time when, from the pressure of steam, it
may not be convenient to pour it through the
safety valve or other openings in the boiler.
But when the steam is down there is no diffi-
culty in introducing the prescribed dose by
using a tin funnel with flattened aperture to
pass it through the safety valve; or a tubular
arrangement with double cocks will answer at
all times. Half a gallon per diem is the
average quantity found sufficient for a 20-
horse stationary boiler, working with Thames
water for ten hours daily. If the water should
happen to be unusually hard a larger dose may
be employed, but it would not be expedient to
addin one charge more than the amountrequired
for the day’s consumption. Locomotive and
multitubular boilers have been worked success-
fully with caustic soda, and it is here that the
importance of using anti-incrustation fluids
makes itself most apparent.
Many other methods have at various times
been proposed to prevent the formation of
deposits in steam boilers. Dr. Ritterband’s
method consists in simply throwing a little sal-
ammoniac into the boiler, by which carbonate
ôf ammonia is formed, which passes off with
the steam, and chloride of calcium, which
remains in solution. In Holland this plan has
been used with satisfaction for locomotive
boilers. About 2 oz. of the salt may be placed
in the boiler twice a week. The chloride of tin
is equal to sal-ammoniac, and is similar in its
action. Carbonate of soda has been recom-
mended by Kuhlmann and Fresenius of Ger-
many, and by Crace Calvert of England. It
is now employed generally in the boilers of
engines in Manchester. The common plan
adopted by working engineers to prevent in-
crustations from either variety of water is, on
each occasion of cleaning out the boiler, to
introduce some substance which, by its me-
chanical action, shall prevent the precipitated
earthy matter caking together, or adhering to
the boiler plates. Some common tar, bitumen,
or pitch, appears to answer well under most
circumstances. Mr. Ira Hill recommends the
use of 3 or 4 shovelfuls of coarse sawdust. He
states that, after adopting the use of this
article, he never had any difficulty from lime,
although using water strongly impregnated
with it, and has always found the inside of
his boilers as smooth as if just oiled. We have
worked a powerful boiler daily for months with-
out opening the “man-hole,” after throwing a
few pounds of potatoes into it. In all cases,
when the earthy matter can be kept in a state
of solution, or precipitated in a pulverulent
form, it is easily removed from the boiler by
what engineers term ‘priming,’ which is allow-
ing the hot water to be blown over with the
steam, so that, after a sufficient time, the
whole original contents of the boiler are re-
moved, and replaced by fresh water. Before
doing so, however, it is of consequence to cut
off the communication with the cylinders, and
to open the waste-steam cock.
INCUBATION (Artificial). The hatching
of eggs by artificial heat. This has been prac-
tised by the Egyptians from a very remote
period. M. Bonnemain has the honour of
having introduced this art to Western Europe,
in 1775, and having been the first to pursue it
successfully on the commercial scale. The
source of heat employed by him was a circu-
latory hot-water apparatus, and the tempe-
rature maintained by it 100° Fahr. His plan
was to introduce, daily, 1-20th only of the
eggs the apparatus was capable of receiving,
so that on the 21st day the first chickens were
hatched, and a like number every day after-
wards as long as the supply of eggs was kept
up. Among the trays containing the eggs he
placed saucers of water, to compensate for the
absence of moisture derived in natural incu-
bation by transpiration from the body of the
hen. The chickens, as soon as hatched, were
transferred to a “nursery' or ‘chick-room,”
also artificially heated, and were fed with
crushed millet seed. Several attempts have
been made of late years to introduce arti-
ficial incubation into this country, with vari-
able success.
INCUBUS. See NIGHTMARE.

618
INDIA RUBBER—INDIGO.
IN’DIA RUB/BER. See CAOUTCHOUC.
INDIGESTION. See DYSPEPSIA.
IN'DIG0. Syn. INDICUM, PIGMENTUM
INDICUM, L. A blue dyestuff extracted from
several plants growing in India and America,
especially from the leguminous species Indi-
gofera tinctoria and I. caerulea. It exists in
the plant as a colourless juice. The method
of manufacture consists in steeping the plant
in water until fermentation sets in ; the
colouring matter dissolves in the water, form-
ing a yellow solution, which is drawn off
from the rest of the vegetable matter, and
agitated and beaten to bring it freely into
contact with the air for about 2 hours; this
treatment causes the indigo to form and settle
down as a blue precipitate; this is cut, while
soft, into cubical cakes, and dried by artificial
heat. To hasten the formation of the indigo,
a little lime water is sometimes added to the
yellow solution. The indigo of commerce con-
tains INDIGO-BLUE or INDIGOTIN, its most
important constituent, INDIGO-RED, and many
other substances, some of which must be
regarded as accidental impurities or adul-
terations.
Prop. Tasteless; scentless; of an intense
blue colour, passing into purple; when rubbed
with a smooth hard body, it assumes a coppery
hue; insoluble in water, cold alcohol, ether,
alkalies, hydrochloric acid, dilute sulphuric
acid, and the cold fixed and volatile oils;
slightly soluble in boiling alcohol and oils;
freely soluble in concentrated sulphuric acid,
and, when decoloured or reduced by contact
with deoxidising substances, in alkaline lyes;
soluble in creasote ; its colour is destroyed
by chromic acid, nitric acid, and chlorine;
when suddenly heated, it gives off rich purple
fumes, which condense into brilliant copper-
coloured needles.
Pur. The best indigo is that which has
the deepest purple colour, and assumes the
brightest coppery hue when rubbed with the
nail; its fracture is homogeneous, compact,
fine-grained, and coppery; its powder is of an
intensely deep blue tint, and light enough to
swim on water; and it leaves only a fine
streak when rubbed upon a piece of white
paper. In general, when indigo is in hard,
dry lumps of a dark colour, it is considered of
bad or inferior quality. Indigo, when in hard
or brittle lumps, or in dust or small bits, is
often adulterated with sand, pulverised slate,
and other earthy substances.
JEstimation. Various methods for estimating
the value of samples of indigo have been pro-
posed, but none of them can be depended upon
to give perfectly accurate results. The plan
recommended by O’Neill' is perhaps the best ;
it is performed as follows:–
Weigh 25 grs. of a fair sample of the indigo
finely ground; and to soften and disintegrate
it still further, boil it for a short time with
weak caustic soda, and then, if there be any
* See ‘Dictionary of Calico Printing and Dyeing.”
soft lumps or clots, strain through calico; mix
this with 3 quarts of water in a narrow-necked
bottle which it will nearly fill, and added 400 grs.
of quicklime, which has been slaked as per-
fectly as possible ; shake well up, and add
1000 grs. measure of solution of ‘green cop-
peras' (protosulphate of iron) at 30° Twaddell;
cork the bottle closely, and leave it for three
days, frequently shaking it in the interval.
The indigo will be dissolved by this time; 1
quart of the clear solution is drawn off, shaken
up in a bottle to oxidise it, acidified with
acetic acid, and the pure indigo (INDIGOTIN)
collected upon a filter, dried, and weighed.
Four times the weight of the pure indigo is
the per-centage of indigo in the sample.
Uses. As a dye stuff, indigo is of great im-
portance, both from the beauty and permanence
of the colour it yields, and from the ease with
which it is applied to fabrics of all materials.
As a medicine, it has been employed in various
affections of a spasmodic character, as chorea,
convulsions, epilepsy, hysteria, &c. In large
quantities, it often induces giddiness, vomiting,
and diarrhoea; and when continued for some
time, muscular twitchings, resembling those
arising from strychnine.—Dose. Beginning at
about 15 grs., and gradually increased to 1, 2,
or even 3 drs., at which it should be continued
for 3 or 4 months; made into an electuary
with honey or sugar, to which some aromatic
may be added. See INDIGo DYE, INDIGOTIN,
&c.
Indigo, Sul’phate of. Syn. SULPHINDYLIC
ACID, SULPHINDIGOTIC A., SAXONY BLUE,
SOLUBLE INDIGO.
Prep. By gradually adding indigo (in fine
powder), 1 part, to fuming sulphuric acid
(Nordhausen sulphuric acid), 5 parts, or oil of
vitriol, 8 parts, contained in a stone-ware
vessel placed in a tub of very cold water, to
prevent the mixture heating ; the ingredients
are stirred together with a glass rod at short
intervals until the solution is complete, after
which the whole is allowed to repose for about
48 hours, by which time it becomes a homo-
geneous pasty mass of an intense blue colour,
which in a dull light appears nearly black.
Obs. In this state it forms ‘BARTH's BLUE,”
or the ‘CHEMIC BLUE * or ‘INDIGO COMPO-
SITION' of the dyer. Diluted with about
twice its weight of soft water, it is converted
into the ‘SAXONY BLUE' or ‘LIQUID BLUE' of
the shops, also used for dyeing. When com-
mercial sulphate of indigo is diffused through
a large quantity of water, nearly boiling, and
wool (old white flannel rags, &c.) is macerated
in it for some time, the latter absorbs the
whole of the sulphate and is dyed blue,
whilst the liquor assumes a greenish-blue
colour. Wool, so prepared, when well rinsed
in cold water, and boiled for some minutes in
a large quantity of that liquid containing 1% or
2% of carbonate of potassa, or a quantity equal
to about 1-3rd that of the indigo originally
employed, gives up its blue colour, and be-

INDIGO BLUE–INDIGO WHITE. - 619
comes of a dull brown. The liquid is now a
rich blue-coloured solution of sulphindylate
of potassa, from which the salt may be ob-
tained by cautious evaporation. This com-
pound is prepared on the large scale, by di-
luting sulphate of indigo with about 12 times
its weight of soft water, and imperfectly satu-
rating the solution with carbonate of potassa;
the sulphindylate falls down as a dark-blue
coppery looking powder, soluble in 140 parts
of cold water and in about 90 parts of boiling
water. This substance is kept both in the
moist and dry state, and is known in com-
merce under the respective names of ‘DIS-
TILLED INDIGO,’ ‘PRECIPITATED INDIGO,’
‘SOLUBLE INDIGO,' ‘INDIGO PASTE,” “BLUE
CARMINE,” “DISTILLED BLUE,' ‘SOLUBLE BLUE,”
&c. It is extensively used in dyeing; and
when mixed with starch, whilst in the moist
state, and made into cakes or knobs, it con-
stitutes the finest variety of the ‘BLUE' used by
laundresses for tinging linen. The ammonia
and soda salts may be prepared in the same
way as the potassa salt, by substituting
the carbonates of those bases for carbonate
of potassa. The ammonia salt is very solu-
ble.
INDIG0 BLUE. See INDIGOTIN.
INDIG0 DYE. There are two methods of
preparing solutions of indigo for dyeing.—1.
By deoxidising it, and then dissolving it in
alkaline menstrua.-2. By dissolving it in sul-
phuric acid. The former method is used in
preparing the ordinary INDIGO VAT of the
dyers.
1.—a. (CoLD WAT.) Take of indigo, in fine
powder, 1 lb. ; green copperas (clean cryst.),
2} to 3 lbs. ; newly slaked lime, 3} to 4 lbs. ;
triturate the powdered indigo with a little
water or an alkaline lye, then mix it with some
hot water, add the lime, and again well mix,
after which stir in the solution of copperas,
and agitate the whole thoroughly at intervals
for 24 hours. A little caustic potassa or soda
is frequently added, and a corresponding por-
tion of lime omitted. For use, a portion of
this “preparation vat ' is ladled into the
‘ dyeing vat,’ as wanted. After being em-
ployed for some time, the vat must be re-
freshed with a little more copperas and fresh-
slaked lime, when the sediment must be well
stirred up, and the whole thoroughly mixed
together. This is the common vat for
cotton.
b. (POTASH VAT.) Take indigo, in fine
powder, 12 lbs. ; madder, 8 lbs. ; bran, 9 lbs. ;
‘potash, 24 lbs. ; water at 125° Fahr., 120
cubic feet ; mix well; at the end of about 36
hours add 14 lbs. more potash, and after 10 or
12 hours longer further add 10 lbs. of potash,
and rouse the whole up well; as soon as the
fermentation and reduction of the indigo are
well developed, which generally takes place in
about 72 hours, add a little fresh-slaked lime.
This vat dyes very quickly, and the goods lose
less of their colour in alkaline and soapy so-
lutions than when dyed in the common wat.
It is well adapted for woollen goods.
c. (WOAD VAT.) As the last, but employing
woad instead of madder; the vat is “set at
160°Fahr., and kept at that temperature until
the deoxidation and solution of the indigo has
commenced. The last two are also called the
‘warm Vat.”
d. (PASTEL VAT.) This is “set' with a
variety of woad which grows in France, and
which is richer in colouring matter than the
plant commonly known as “woad.”
Obs. Wool, silk, linen, and cotton, may
each be dyed blue in the indigo wat. The
goods, after being passed through a weak
alkaline solution, are subjected to the action
of the vat for about fifteen minutes; they
are then freely exposed to the air; the im-
mersion in the vat and the exposure are re-
peated until the colour becomes sufficiently
deep. Woad and madder improve the rich-
ness of the dye. Other deoxidising substances,
besides those above mentioned, may be used
to effect the solution of the indigo ; thus a
mixture of caustic soda, grape sugar, indigo,
and water, is often employed on the Continent
for this purpose; and orpiment lime, and
pearlash are also occasionally used. When
properly prepared, the indigo vat may be kept
in action for several months by the addition
of one or other of its constituents, as required.
An excess of either copperas or lime should
be avoided.
2. Solution of sulphate of indigo is added to
water, as required, and the goods, previously
boiled with alum, are then immersed in it,
and the boiling and immersion are repeated
until the wool becomes sufficiently dyed.
Obs. With this every shade of blue may be
dyed, but it is most commonly employed to give
a ground to logwood blues. The colouring
matter has affinity for woollen and silk with
or without “mordant, but none for cotton.
A solution of soluble indigo (sulphindylate of
potassa or soda), in water very slightly acid
with sulphuric acid, imparts a very fine blue to
cloth, superior in tint to that given by the
simple sulphate. See DYEING, &c.
INDIGO PURPLE. Syn. PHOENICINE. The
name given by Mr. Crum to the purple pre-
cipitate obtained by filtration from a solution
of indigo in fuming sulphuric acid, when largely
diluted with water.
INDIG0 RED. Syn. INDIGo RESIN, RED
RESIN OF INDIGO. This is prepared by boiling
alcohol (sp. gr. 830), on powdered indigo pre-
viously exhausted by digestion in dilute acids
and in a strong alkaline solution. When heated,
it is converted into a white sublimate (deox-
idised indigo red), but recovers its red colour
by the action of nitric acid.
INDIG0 WHITE. Syn. INDIGoGENE, IN-
DICYLE, REDUCED INDIGO, HYDROGENISED I.,
HYDRATE OF I. Reduced or deoxidised indigo
blue.
Prep. The yellow alkaline solution obtained



620 INDIGOTIN–INFLAMMATION.
by one or other of the processes noticed under
INDIGOTIN is carefully protected from the air,
both before and after precipitation with hy-
drochloric acid ; and the precipitate, after
being rapidly washed with recently boiled dis-
tilled water, or with very dilute sulphurous
acid, is drained on a filter, dried in vacuo, and
then at once transferred to a well-stoppered
bottle.
Prop., &c. A grayish-white mass of minute
crystals, generally light blue on the surface,
and rapidly turning blue on exposure to the
air; soluble in alkalies, alcohol, and ether, to
which it imparts a yellow colour. These so-
lutions deposit indigo blue on exposure to the
air. A solution of this substance constitutes
the indigo vat of the dyer (see above).
INDIGO'TIN. Syn. CERULIN, INDIGo BLUE.
This is the pure blue principle of indigo. It
appears to be the oxide of the same organic
radical of which indigo white is probably the
hydrate.
Prep. 1. Indigo (in fine powder) is digested
successively in dilute hydrochloric acid, solu-
tion of potassa, and alcohol; the dried residuum
is crude indigotin.
2. Indigo (in fine powder), 1 part; green
sulphate of iron, 2 parts; hydrate of lime, 3
parts; water, 15 parts; mix, agitate occa-
sionally until the colour is destroyed, then de-
cant the clear portion, precipitate with dilute
hydrochloric acid, and wash the powder, first
with water, and then with boiling alcohol,
until the latter ceases to acquire a yellow
colour.
3. Caustic soda and grape sugar, of each, 1
part ; water, 20 parts; powdered indigo, 5
parts; mix, and proceed as last. The above
are essentially the same as the indigo vat, but
on the small scale.
4. The process for estimating the value of
indigo given under INDIGO is a good process
for obtaining indigotin.
Obs. The product from all the above exceeds
50% of the indigo operated on.
5. (Taylor.) Powdered indigo, 2 parts;
plaster of Paris, 1 part ; water, q. S. to reduce
the mixture to a thin paste; spread the mass
evenly upon an oblong iron plate to the depth
of about $ inch, and dry it by a gentle heat.
It must then be held over the flame of a spirit
lamp, when a disgusting odour will be evolved,
the mass will begin to smoke, and in a few
minutes will be covered with a heavy purple
vapour, which will condense into brilliant flat-
tened prisms or plates of an intense copper
colour, forming a thick velvety coating over
the surface immediately exposed to the heat.
Should the mass catch fire, it may be instantly
extinguished by a drop of water let fall upon
it. Prod. 15 to 18%. See INDIGO, &c.
INDURATION. In pathology, an increase
in the consistence of any portion of the body,
usually resulting from chronic inflammation,
pressure, or friction.
IN'FANCY. “The domestic treatment of
infants and children is comprised in the appli-
cation of the laws of health to the mother as
well as to the child. The position of parent is
one of serious responsibility, both morally and
physically, and the edict has gone forth that
“ the sins of the parent shall be visited on the
children.” If we could ensure good mothers,
we could vastly improve the race of men. The
nursing mother of a sick infant must, by fol-
lowing faithfully the rules of health in respect
of the four great hygienic principles—food,
clothing, exercise, and ablution—give health
with her milk to her offspring ; she must also
pay close attention to her mind, avoid all
sources of irritation and anxiety, and remem-
ber that an angry mother sours her milk, and
produces a fractious and often a diseased
infant. I am quite of opinion, that if mothers
were sound in constitution, and bestowed the
requisite care upon the maintenance of their
health, we should hear little of diseases of
children. In children, as well as in parent,
the rules of health must be carried out,” and
their neglect cannot fail to bring with it a
heavy retribution. (Eras. Wilson.) See Ex-
ERCISE, NURSING, &c.
INFANT'S PRESERVATIVE (Atkinson's).
Carbonate of magnesia, 6 drs. ; white sugar,
2% oz. ; oil of aniseed, 20 drops; compound
spirit of ammonia and rectified spirit, of each,
2} fl. drs. ; laudanum, 1 fl. dr. ; syrup of
saffron, 1 oz. ; caraway water, q.s. to make
the whole measure 1 pint. Antacid, anodyne,
and hypnotic.
INFECTION. Syn. ContAGION. The com-
munication of disease, either by personal con-
tact with the sick or by means of effluvia
arising from their bodies. Attempts have
been made to restrict the term contagion to
the former, and infection to the latter, but
this distinction is now discarded by the ma-
jority of writers. The following are the prin-
cipal diseases which are commonly regarded as
contagious:–chicken-pox, cholera, cow-pox,
dysentery, erysipelas, glanders, gonorrhoea,
hooping-cough, hydrophobia, itch, measles,
mumps, ophthalmia (purulent), plague, scald-
head, Scarlet fever, smallpox, syphilis, yaws.
See DISINFECTANT, &c.
INFLAMI'MABLE AIR. See HYDROGEN.
INFLAMMA"TION. Syn. INFLAMMATIO, L.
In pathology, a certain state of disease. The
common symptoms of inflammation are pain,
swelling, heat, and redness, attended with fever
and general constitutional derangement when
Severe.
The treatment of inflammations, whether
trifling or serious, is essentially the same in
principle, and only differs in degree. This
consists in the adoption of the usual means
for lowering the force of the circulation and
the frequency of the pulse; of which bleeding,
purging, a low diet, and the use of refrigerant
drinks and lotions, form the most important
part. The constitutional derangement or
symptomatic inflammatory fever, and inflam-

INFLAMMATORY FEVER—INFUSION.
621
matory condition of the blood, which always
accompany local inflammation, and progress
with its intensity, are usually combated by
copious bleeding from the arm, repeated a
second and even a third time, until some ob-
vious advantage is gained. In inflammations
of a more purely local character, cupping or
leeching the part immediately affected, or the
parts adjacent to it, is in general more appro-
priate and successful. In these cases the ap-
plication of refrigerant or sedative lotions,
baths, &c., generally proves of much advan-
tage. In cases in which there is induration
or dryness of the part, the use of warm embro-
cations is indicated.
Inflammation often arises from apparently
very trifling causes, particularly in persons of
a full or bad habit of body, or who indulge in
the free use of malt liquors. In some persons
a very trifling local injury, as a slight abrasion,
cut, prick, or sprain, produces a considerable
amount of tumefaction, attended with severe
constitutional excitement. Punctured wounds,
sprains, and dislocations, commonly furnish
the most serious cases of inflammation that
depend on mere external injury. See ABSCESS,
FEVER, TUMoUR, &c.
Inflammation of the Bowels. The common
causes are incautious exposure to cold, the use
of improper food, and the presence of acrid
substances or hardened faeces in the bowels.
The more constant symptoms are pain over the
abdomen, thirst, heat, and excessive restless-
ness and anxiety; sickness, obstimate constipa-
tion, and a hard, small, quick pulse. In the
later stages the pain and tenderness of the ab-
domen, especially around the navel, become
excessive, and there is difficult micturition.
In some cases the pain suddenly ceases, the
belly becomes tumid, the pulse scarcely per-
ceptible, the countenance ghastly, and the
patient dies in a few hours. The treatment
consists in very copious bleeding, leeches to
the abdomen, hot bath and fomentations,
aperient clysters, and murcurial purges; with
effervescing draughts and opium to allay sick-
ness, followed by diaphoretic salines and gentle
aperients. See STOMACH, &c.
INFLAMI'MATORY FE/WER.
and INFLAMMATION.
INFLUEN'ZA. See CATARRH.
INFU'SION. Syn. INFUSUM, INFUSIo, L.
A liquid medicine, prepared by macerating
vegetable or animal substances in water, at any
temperature below that of ebullition.
The mode of preparing infusions is, with
most substances, precisely similar to that
pursued for making the almost universal
beverage—TEA. The ingredients are com-
monly placed in a stoneware pot or vessel (an
“infusion pot'), previously made hot; boiling
water is then poured over them, and the cover
being placed on, the whole is allowed to digest
together, at first, for a short time, in a warm
situation, as on the hob or the fender, and
afterwards (the vessel being removed from the
See FEVER
heat) until the whole becomes cold. The
liquid is then poured from the ingredients, and
the latter, being slighty pressed, if necessary,
the infusion is strained through a piece of
clean linen or a hair sieve for use. During
the digestion the ingredients should be occa-
sionally stirred, an important matter often
neglected, and not even referred to by most
pharmaceutical writers.
The substances employed for making infu-
sions receive the same preliminary treatment
as those intended for making DECOCTIONS.
Shavings, leaves, and flowers, require no pre-
vious preparation beyond being pulled asun-
der; but roots, woods, and other solid sub-
stances, must be bruised or sliced, if in the
green or recent state, or bruised or coarsely
pulverised, if dry, for the purpose of exposing
as large a surface as possible to the action of
the menstruum.
The substances extracted by water from
vegetables by infusion are chiefly gum, mucus,
extractive, tannin, certain vegetable acids, the
bitter and narcotic principles, gum-resin, es-
sential oil, and alkaloids. Some of these sub-
stances are only sparingly soluble in water at
ordinary temperatures; but more readily so in
hot water, and freely soluble in boiling water.
The temperature of the water should be there-
fore proportioned to the nature of the vege-
table matter operated on. For mere ‘demul-
cent infusions,’ in which starch and gum are
the chief substances sought to be dissolved
out, and when the active principle is scarcely
soluble in water, unless at nearly the boiling
temperature, boiling water alone should be em-
ployed; but when the medicinal virtues of
vegetables are soluble in water at lower tem-
peratures, it is better to employ hot water ,
(165° to 175° Fahr.), and to allow a little
longer period for the digestion. In many cases
temperate water (from 60° to 70° Fahr.), or
tepid water (from 80° to 90° Fahr.), may be
used with advantage, especially in the prepa-
ration of ‘aromatic bitter infusions,’ and in
most cases where it is wished that the product
should contain as little inert matter as pos-
sible; but when water at low temperatures is
employed, the period of the maceration must
be proportionately increased. By adopting the
method of maceration in vacuo, or in an atmo-
sphere of carbonic acid, the menstruum may
be allowed to lay in contact with the vegetable
matter for an unlimited period, without de-
composition taking place.
Infusions, like decoctions, are liable to un-
dergo spontaneous decomposition by keeping,
especially in warm weather, when a few hours
are often sufficient for their passage into a
state of active fermentation; they should,
therefore, when possible, be prepared for use
daily, as beyond twenty-four hours they cannot
be depended on. The London College directs
a pint only to be made at a time, thus very
properly regarding them as extemporaneous
preparations.




622 INFUSION.
CONCENTRATED INFUSIONS, now so common
in the shops, and, unfortunately, so generally
used in dispensing, are either made by taking
8 times the quantity of the ingredients or-
dered in the pharmacopoeia, and then pro-
ceeding in the usual manner, or by the method
of displacement; or, by carefully and rapidly
concentrating the simple infusions, by evapo-
ration in a steam or salt-water bath, until re-
duced to about 1-7th of the original quantity.
In either case the liquid is put into a strong
bottle, without being filtered, and 10 to
12% of rectified spirit added to it, whilst still
hot. The cork is then put in and sedured
down, and the whole agitated for some mi-
nutes, after which it is set aside for a week,
when the clear portion is carefully decanted
from the sediment for sale. Another method,
which answers well with the aromatic bitter
vegetables, is to take 8 times the usual quan-
tity of the ingredients, and to exhaust them
with a mixture of rectified spirits, 1 part, and
distilled water, 3 parts; by digestion, or,
better still, by percolation. Concentrated in-
fusions made in this way keep well, and de-
posit scarcely any sediment. Many houses
that are remarkable for the ‘brilliancy’ and
beauty of these preparations, employ spirit of
wine and # water as the menstruum. It may,
however, be taken, as a general rule, that for
vegetable substances that abound in woody
fibre, and contain little extractive matter so-
luble in water (as quassia, for instance), # to
# part of spirit is sufficient for their preserva-
tion; whilst for those abounding in mucilage
or fecula, or that readily soften and become
pulpy and glutinous in weak spirit (as rhu-
barb), # to # is required.
By adopting the method originally sug-
gested by Mr. Alsop, infusions may be pre-
served, uninjured, for a year or longer, with-
out the addition of spirit or any other sub-
stance. The only precaution necessary is to
keep them in bottles, perfectly filled and her-
metically sealed.' Our own plan is to put a
few bruised cloves or seeds of black mustard
into the bottles, which must be only 2-3rds
filled, then completely fill them with a condensed
atmosphere of carbonic acid gas; and, lastly,
to stopper them and seal them over, so as to
perfectly exclude the air. A pint of decoction
of sarsaparilla and ; pint of infusion of ca-
lumba, treated in this way, kept good for fully
9 years. By simply macerating in the infu-
sion as much bruised mustard seed as can be
added without flavouring the liquor, along
with a little bruised cloves, we find that most
vegetable infusions may be preserved in bottles
which are occasionally uncorked, without
either fermenting or becoming mouldy, by the
use of very little spirit (# or ſº).
Before adding the spirit to infusions made
with cold water, or with water which is only
tepid, it is advisable to heat the liquid to about
185° Fahr., in a water bath, and after keeping
1 ‘Pharm. Journ.,’i, 57.
it at that temperature for a few minutes, and
allowing it again to become cold, to separate
it from the precipitated matter, either by fil-
tration or decantation.
It is often very difficult to render vegetable
infusions and decoctions perfectly transparent,
a quality always expected in the concentrated
preparations. Defecation by repose is always
better than filtration, owing to the more or
less viscidity of the suspended matter. When
this is not sufficient, they may be clarified
with white of egg (2 or 3 to the gall.), pre-
viously beaten up with 5 or 6 fl. oz. of water
Most of the vegetable infusions and decoctions
will readily pass the filter, after a very small
quantity of acetic, nitric, or sulphuric acid

has been added to them. The most obstinate
may be rendered ‘brilliant, or “candle bright,’
as the ‘cellarmen’ call it, by shaking them up,
first with about a drachm of dilute sulphuric
acid, and afterwards with the whites of 3 or 4
eggs, previously mixed with a few ounces of
water, for each gallon of the liquid. This
plan is, however, objectionable for many me-
dicinal preparations.
As many infusions which are occasionally
employed in medicine must necessarily escape
being separately noticed in this work, it may
be as well to remark that the infusions of all
vegetables that do not exert a very powerful
action on the human frame, as ordinary herbs
and roots, may be made by pouring 1 pint of
boiling water on 1 oz. of the vegetable matter,
and allowing it to macerate for ; an hour to
an hour. The decoctions of the same vege-
tables may be made by simply boiling the
above ingredients, in the same proportions, for
10 or 15 minutes, instead of operating by
mere infusion. With substances of somewhat
greater activity, only half the above quantity
should be taken ; whilst, with the narcotic
plants, and those possessing great activity,.1
to 2 drs. to water, 1 pint, will be the proper
quantity. The ordinary dose of such infusions
and decoctions is to 1 wine-glassful (1 to 2
fl. oz.), two, three, or four times a day, as the
case may indicate.
Infusion is preferred for all bodies of a deli-
cate texture, which readily yield their active
principles to water; and especially when these
are either volatile or liable to be injured by
the heat of ebullition.
The simple infusions are now less frequently
made by the druggist than formerly. In most
cases he merely furnishes the ingredients, and
the infusions are prepared by either the nurse
or patient, by whom they are commonly called
* TEAS.’ -
*** The following list embraces most of the
infusions used in prescribing or noticed in
books. Where the proportions of the ingre-
dients are not given, 1 oz. of the medicinal
substance and 1 pint of boiling water are to
be taken, and the dose is that referred to above.
Infusion of Agrim'omy. Syn. AGRIMONY
TEA ; INFUSUM AGRIMONII, L. From the
INFUSION. 623
fresh tops before the flowers are formed. Ver-
mifuge.—Dose. A teacupful 3 or 4 times a day;
also used as an astringent gargle and lotion.
For internal use, an equal weight of liquorice
root (sliced) is commonly added.
Alkaline Infusion. Syn. INFUSUM ALKA-
LINUM, L. Prep. (Beasley.) Hickory ash, 1
pint ; wood soot, 4 pint ; boiling water, 1 gall. ;
in 24 hours decant the clear. “A popular
remedy in America for dyspepsia with acidity.”
Infusion of Al'oes. Syn. INFUSUM ALoís,
L. Prep. 1. From hepatic or Socotrine aloes (in
powder), 2 drs. ; carbonate of potassa, 1% dr. ;
boiling water, 1 pint.
2. (Compound; INFUSUM ALois COMPO-
SITUM, L.)—a. As the COMPOUND DECOCTION
OF A. (Ph. L.), but using only a pint of boiling
water.
b. (Fothergill.) Calumba and rhubarb, of
each, 1 oz. ; aloes, 2 drs. ; lime water, 16 fl.oz. ;
spirit of horseradish, 1 fl. oz. ; macerate in
the cold for 12 hours, and strain. The last
three, like the decoction, are aperient, antacid,
stomachic, tonic, and emmenagogue.—Dose.
1 table-spoonful to a small wine-glassful, in
water. The last one is an admirable medicine
in dyspepsia, loss of appetite, and troublesome
constipation.
Infusion of American Calum'ba. Syn. IN-
FUSUM FRASERAE, L. From the dried root of
American calumba (Frasera Carolinensis). A
pure, powerful, and excellent bitter, desti-
tute of aroma, and fully equal to gentian.
(Lindley.)
Infusion of American Cen'taury. Syn. IN-
FUSUM SABATII, L. From the herb (Sabbatia
angularis). A pure bitter tonic, without a-
stringency or aroma.
Infusion of American Sen'na. Syn. INFU-
SUM CASSIAE MARYLANDICAE, L. Prep. (Mar-
tin.) Leaves of American or wild senna (Cassia
Marylandica), 1% oz. ; coriander seed, 1 dr.;
boiling water, 1 pint. Purgative.
Infusion of Angel'ica. Syn. INFUSUM AN-
GELICAE, L. From the root of garden angelica.
A warm stomachic and diaphoretic ; and, in
large doses, aperient. It is a popular remedy
in dyspepsia, flatulent colic, and heartburn.
Infusion of Aniseed. Syn. ANISEED TEA ;
INFUSUM ANISI, L. Carminative; an excel-
lent adjunct to purgatives, to prevent griping;
given to infants to relieve colic, &c. Dr.
Prout recommends the use of water at 120° or
125° Fahr.
Amtiscorbuſtic Infusion. Syn. INFUSUM
ANTISCORBUTICUM, MISTURA ANTISCORBUTICA,
L. Prep. Water trefoil (Menyanthes trifo-
liata), 1 oz.; orange peel, 2 drs.; boiling water,
1 quart; infuse for 8 or 10 hours, strain, and
add of compound spirit of horseradish, 5 fl. oz.
In scurvy.
Infusion of Ar’mica. Syn. INFUSUM AR-
NICE, L. 1. From the flowers of mountain
arnica or German leopard’s bane (Arnica mon-
tana). Cottereau orders 1 oz., Dr. Pereira
# oz., and Dr. A. T. Thomson, 4 oz. of the
flowers to the pint. The first is the usual
quantity. The dose of the first is a table-
spoonful; of the second, # to 1 fl. oz. ; of third,
# to 1 wine-glassful.
2. (Compound; INFUSUM ARNICE COMPO-
SITUM, L.-Ph. Copenh.) Flowers of armica,
1 dr. ; peppermint, 2 drs.; chamomiles, 3 oz. ;
boiling water, , pint-Dose, l fl. Oz. As the
last.
Infusion of Arnica-root. Syn. INFUSUM
ARNICE RADICIS, L. Prep. (Ph. Castr. Ruth.)
Arnica root, 40 grs.; water, 1 lb.-Dose. 1 fl.
oz. As the above.
Astringent Infusion. Syn. INFUSUM A-
STRINGENS, MISTURA A., L. Prep. 1. From
oak-bark.
2. Infusion of cusparia, 17 fl. oz.; tincture of
cateehu or kino, 1 fl.oz.; powdered ipecacuanha,
1 dr. ; powdered opium, 12 grs. ; mix. In
diarrhoea, &c. It must be well shaken before
pouring out the dose.
Infusion of Balm. Syn. INFUSUM MELISSAE,
L. Prep. (Plenck.) Fresh herb, 5 drs. ; boiling
water, 1 pint ; infuse for 15 minutes.
Infusion of Bar"berry. Syn. INFUSUM BAR-
BERIS, L. Prep. (Dr. Copland.) From the
bark of the barberry shrub (Berberis vulgaris).
In jaundice, biliary fluxes, and other cases
where heat and acrimony prevail; either alone
or combined with a little carbonate of soda or
potassa, and tincture of calumba.
Infusion of Bark. See INFUSION of CIN-
CHONA.
Infusion of Bay-leaves. Syn. INFUSUM
LAURI, I. LAURI NOBILIS, L. From the leaves
or the berries of the sweet bay (Laurus mobilis).
Aromatic, stimulant, and emmenagogue; in
very large doses, emetic and poisonous. It
is chiefly given in colic, flatulence, paralysis
of the extremities, and obstructed men-
struation.
Infusion of Beef. See ESSENCE, TEA, &c.
Infusion of Belladon’ma. Syn. INFUSUM
BELLADONNE, L. Prep. 1. (Dr. Paris.)
Leaves of deadly nightshade (dried), 4 grs.;
boiling water, 2 fl. oz.; for a dose.
2. (Compound ;-Dr. Saunders.) Leaves
(dried), 3 dr. ; boiling water, 12 fl. Oz, ; in-
fuse, strain, and to every 7 fl. oz. of the in-
fusion add of compound tincture of cardamoms,
1 fl. oz.
Infusion of Bistort. Syn. INFUSUM BIS-
ToRTÉ, L. Prep. (Radius.) Bistort or snake-
weed root (Polygonum Bistorta), , oz.; boiling
water, 1 pint; infuse 2 hours, and strain. In
passive ha-morrhages.
Infusion of Black Snake-root. Syn. IN-
FUSUM CIMICIFUGE RACEMOSAE, L. In dropsy,
rheumatism, and chest complaints.
Infusion of Bles'sed Thistle. Syn. INFUSUM
CARDUI BENEDICTI, L. From the whole herb.
In small doses it is diaphoretic; in larger ones,
tonic, stomachic, and deobstruent; taken
warm, it is occasionally given to promote the
action of emetics. The properties of carduus
benedictus “are such as to lead us to the belief



624 INFUSION.
that it has been superseded by other not more
efficacious remedies.” (Lindley.)
Infusion of Blood-root. Syn. INFUSION OF
PUCCooN ; INFUSUM SANGUINARIAE, L. Prep.
Blood-root (Sanguinaria Canadensis), 3 oz.;
boiling water, 1 pint, Stimulant and emetic.
Infusion of Blue Flag. Syn. INFUSUM
IRIDIs VERSICOLORIs, L. Prep. 1. From the
flowers of blue flag (Iris versicolor).-2. From
the root or rhizomes. The first is used chiefly
for its rich colour, as a test, &c.; the second is
diuretic and cathartic, and apt to produce dis-
tressing nausea and prostration.
Infusion of Bone'set. Syn. INFUSUM EUPA-
TORII, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. U.S.) From the dried
leaves and flowers of boneset or thoroughwort
(Eupatorium perfoliatum). Diaphoretic, nau-
seant, and emetic when warm ; tonic when
cold.
2. (Compound; INFUSUM EUPATORIT COM-
POSITUM, L.-Ellis.) Boneset and sage, of
each, 3 oz.; cascarilla, 1 dr.; boiling water,
1% pint ; infuse until cold, and strain. In
hectic fever. A wine-glassful of either of the
above, given hourly, in these diseases, until
perspiration and nausea are induced, has been
highly recommended in influenza.
Infusion of Brazil-wood. Syn. INFUSUM
LIGNI BRASILIENSIS, L. From ground or rasped
Brazil wood. When wanted to keep, rectified
spirit, 3 fl. Oz., is added to every pint. Used
for colouring, and as a test.
Infusion of Broom. Syn. INFUSUM SCOPA-
RII, L. See DECOCTION OF BROOM.
Infusion of Buſchu. Syn, INFUSUM BUCHU
(B.P.), I. BUCKU (Ph. E.), I. DIOSME, L. Prep.
1. (B. P.) From bruised buchu leaves, 1 oz. ;
boiling distilled water, 1 pint : infuse for an
hour and strain. Diuretic, sudorific, tonic;
in dyspepsia, &c.; but chiefly in chronic affec-
tions of the bladder and urethra attended
with copious secretion.— Dose. 1 to 2 oz.
2. (Compound; INFUSUM BUCHU COMPO-
SITUM, I. DIOSME C., L.-Radius.) Leaves of
buchu and whortleberry, of each, # oz.; boiling
water, 8 oz. (say , pint); digest for half an
hour, strain, and add of syrup of senega,
# fl. oz.-Dose. 1 or 2 table-spoonfuls every
hour; in atony of the bladder and mucous dis-
charges.
Infusion of Buck'bean. Syn. INFUSUM ME-
NYANTHIS, L. From the herb or root of buck-
bean or marsh trefoil (Menyanthes trifoliata).
Bitter, stomachic, tonic, and diuretic ; in large
doses, purgative, vermifuge, and emetic. It
has been recommended in agues, gout, dropsy,
scurvy, worms, &c. The chief consumption of
this plant is by the brewers; “2 oz. being equal
to 1 lb. of hops.” (Gray.)
Infusion of Bur'dock. Syn. INFUSUM BAR-
DANE, L. From the root of common burdock.
Aperient, diuretic, diaphoretic, and tonic; in
gout, rheumatism, skin diseases, &c. See DE-
COCTION and EXTRACT.
Infusion of Calum"ba. Syn. INFUSUM CA-
LUMBAE (B.P.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Calumba,
in coarse powder, 1 oz.; cold distilled water,
2 oz. ; macerate one hour, and strain. In-
fusion of calumba , is a good tonic and sto-
machic bitter.—Dose. 1 to 3 fl. oz. ; in dys-
pepsia, &c., and for restraining vomiting and
diarrhoea during pregnancy or dentition. It
is preferably joined with small doses of the
carbonates of soda, potassa, ammonia, or
magnesia, when there is acidity; or with
chalybeates, when there is paleness and a
low pulse; with all of which substances it
may be mixed without suffering any sensible
alteration.
2. (Concentrated; INFUSUM CALUMBIE CON-
CENTRATUM, L.)—a, Calumba, in coarse pow-
der, 5% oz. ; cold distilled water, 12 ft. Oz. ;
digest, with frequent agitation, for 3 or 4
hours, then express the liquor, and repeat the
digestion with 5% fl. OZ. more of tepid water;
after another hour, express this portion also,
using as much force as possible; next mix the
liquors, heat them quickly to the boiling-point
in a shallow vessel, and pour the infusion,
whilst still hot, into a strong bottle, and when
it has cooled a little add of rectified spirit, 4.
fl. Oz, secure down the stopper or cork, and
agitate well for a few minutes; the bottlemust
now be set aside for a week, after which the
clear portion is to be decanted from the dregs.
Very superior.
b. (Wholesale.) From calumba (reduced to
coarse powder), 54 lbs. ; rectified spirit, 5 pints;
(diluted with) water, 12 pints; digest for a
week, or proceed by displacement. Should
there be any difficulty in obtaining it free
from cloudiness, the whites of 4 or 5 eggs, pre-
viously mixed with about a # pint of cold
water, may be added to the infusion, which,
after being well agitated for about 10 minutes,
must be allowed to repose for 7 or 8 days, and
then decanted from the dregs. Should it not
be perfectly transparent, it may be filtered
through blotting paper.—Product. 20 lbs.
Obs. The concentrated infusion produced by
the above formulae is of very superior quality,
and has acquired an extensive sale in the
wholesale trade. 1 part added to 5% parts of
water makes a perfectly transparent liquid,
possessing exactly similar virtues to the INFU-
SION OF CALUMBA—B. P.
Infusion of Canthar'ides. Syn. INFUSION OF
SPANISH FLIES; INFUSUM CANTHARIDIS, I.
LYTTE, L. Prep. (Soubeiran.) Spanish flies
(powdered), 20 grs. ; boiling water, q. S. (about
3; fl.oz.) to yield 3 fl. oz., after expression and
filtration.
Infusion of Cap'sicum. Syn. INFUSUM CAP-
SICI, L. Prep. 1. (Pereira.) Capsicum (pow-
dered), # oz. ; boiling water, 1 pint.—Dose. #
fl. Oz.
2. (Stephen’s ‘PEPPER MEDICINE’—Pereira.)
Red pepper (Capsicum fructescens), 2 table-
spoonfuls (or 3 of cayenne pepper); common
salt, 2 teaspoonfuls; boiling water, 3 pint; to
the strained liquor, when cold, add of very
sharp vinegar, 3 pint.—Dose. 1 table-spoonful,
º

INFUSION. 625
slowly swallowed, every half hour, in cholera,
malignant sore throat, scarlatina, &c.
Infusion of Car'away. Syn. CARAWAY TEA ;
INFUSUM CARUI, L. Prep. From bruised
caraway seed, 3 drs. ; boiling water, 1 pint. In
the flatulent colic of infants, and as an adjunct
to aperient medicine.
Infusion of Carrot Seed. Syn. INFUSUM
DAUCI, I. CAROTE, L. Diuretic ; in dropsy
and nephritic complaints; # to 1 pint being
taken daily.
Infusion of Cascarilla. Syn. INFUSUM CAS-
CARILLIE (B.P.), L. Prep. 1. (B.P.) Cas-
carilla, in coarse powder, 1 oz. ; boiling
distilled water, 10 oz. ; infuse for one hour
in a closed vessel, and strain.--Dose. 1
to 2 oz., usually combined with carbonate
of soda and tincture of cascarilla. It is an
excellent medicine in dyspepsia, debility, diar-
rhoea, &c.
2. (Concentrated; INFUSUM CASCARILLE
CONCENTRATUM, L.)—a. Cascarilla (good and
fragrant, bruised), 6% lbs. ; rectified spirit of
wine, 3 pints; cold water, 6 pints; macerate
in a close vessel for 14 days, express the liquor,
and filter.
b. As the last, but proceeding by the process
of percolation.
Obs. If the preceding processes are well
managed, the product is 10 lbs., and resembles
brandy in colour and transparency, and is
delightfully fragrant. 1 part of this infu-
sion mixed with 6% parts of water makes a
preparation exactly resembling the INFUSION
OF CALUMBA—B. P.
3. (Alkaline; INFUSUM CASCARILLE ALKA-
LISATUM, L.-Ph. Palat.) Cascarilla, 3 oz. ;
carbonate of potassa, 2 drs. ; boiling water, 16
fl. oz. Antacid and tonic.—Dose. 1 table-
spoonful.
Infusion of Cas'sia. Syn. CASSIA TEA ; IN-
FUSUM CASSIAE FISTULF, L.; EAU DE CASSE,
Fr. Prep. (Soubeiran.) Cassia pods (bruised),
4 oz. ; boiling water, 13 pint. Laxative.
Infusion of Cat'echu. Syn. CoMPOUND IN-
FUSION OF CATECHU; INFUSUM CATECHU(B.P.),
L. Prep. (B. P.) Catechu in coarse pow-
der, 160 grs. ; cinnamon, bruised, 30 grs. ;
boiling water, macerate for half an hour in a
govered vessel, and strain. Astringent in
diarrhoea.— Dose. 1 to 2 oz. three or four
times a day, or after every liquid dejection.
Infusion of Cayenne Pepper. See INFU-
SION OF CAPSICUM.
Infusion of Cen'taury. Syn. INFUSUM CEN-
TAURI, L. From the flowering tops of com-
mon or lesser centaury (Erythraea centaurium).
Bitter, febrifuge, stomachic, and vermifuge.
A popular remedy in obstructions, jaundice,
debility, dyspepsia, &c.; and externally, for
the itch, and to destroy pediculi. An infusion
is also made of the root, which is about one
half more powerful than the tops. The plant
is “a valuable native medicine; in the places
where it grows it is carefully collected for use
in rustic pharmacy.” (Lindley.)
Infusion, Cephal'ic. Syn. INFUSUM CEPHA-
LICUM, L. Prep. (Edin. Hosp.) Walerian
root, 2 oz. ; rosemary tops, 4 drs. ; boiling
water, 1 quart; infuse 12 hours, strain, and
add aromatic water, 4 fl. oz. As an antispas-
modic, and in various affections of the head.
Infusion of Cham’omile. Syn. CHAMOMILE
TEA; INFUSUM ANTHEMIDIs (B. P.), I. CHA-
MAEMELI, L.) Prep. 1. (B. P.) Chamomile
flowers, 3 oz. ; boiling water, 10 oz. ; infuse
for fifteen minutes, and strain.
Tonic, bitter, and stomachic ; also emetic.
It should be drunk cold, as it is emetic when
warm.—Dose. As a stomachic, 1 to 3 oz. ;
as an emetic, 5 to 10 oz.
2. (Concentrated; INFUSUM ANTHEMIDIs
CONCENTRATUM, L. From chamomiles, 5% oz. ;
water, 1 pint; boil till the mixture weighs
exactly 21 oz. ; express the liquor by means of
a powerful tincture-press, cool, and add of
essential oil of chamomile, 15 drops, dissolved
in rectified spirit, 5 fl. oz. ; agitate well, let it
repose until the next day, then decant the
clear, and filter. Strongly bitter and odorous,
and beautifully transparent. 5% times as strong
as the ordinary INFUSION.—B. P.
Infusion of Cher'ry-laurel. Syn. INFUSUM
LAURO-CERASI, L. Prep. (Dr. Cheston.) Fresh
leaves of the common or cherry-laurel (Cerasus
Lauro-cerasus), 2% oz. ; boiling water, 1 pint;
infuse, strain, and add of clarified honey, 2% oz.
As a lotion in cancer of the lip, and as a wash
for malignant ulcers.
Infusion of Chiretta. Syn. INFUSUM CHI-
RATE, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Chiretta, cut
small, 1 oz. ; distilled water, at 120° F., 40 oz. ;
infuse half an hour, and strain.--Dose. 1 to 2 oz.
Obs. Chiretta is a pure tonic bitter, closely
allied to gentian, and has been long esteemed
in the East Indies as a remedy for acidity,
flatulence, and dyspepsia, especially when oc-
curring in gouty or debilitated habits. It is
usually given in combination with carbonate
of soda or salts of iron. The whole of the
plant is employed.
2. (Concentrated; INFUSUM CHIRETTE CON-
CENTRATUM, L.) From chiretta, 4 oz. ; for
each pint of the product, prepared as either
CONC. INFUSION OF CALUMBA Or CASCARILLA.
Eight times as strong ae the common infusion.
Infusion of Cincho'na. Syn. INFUSION of
BARK; INFUSUM CINCHONE, L. Prep. 1. (B.P.)
Yellow cinchona (calisaya) bark, in coarse pow-
der, 1 oz. ; boiling distilled water, 1 pint; in-
fuse for 2 hours in a covered vessel, and strain.
Obs. Infusion of bark is tonic and sto-
machic, and in very large doses febrifuge. It
is an extremely useful medicine in dyspepsia,
debility, and during convalescences, and is
often a valuable adjunct to more active reme-
dies. Like the decoction, it is most energetic
when strained whilst hot. The addition of 1
fl. dr. of diluted sulphuric acid to the water
before pouring it on the bark increases its
solvent power, and, consequently, the strength
of the infusion.—Dose. 1 to 3 fl.oz. -



40
626
INFUSION.
2. (Concentrated; INFUSUM CINCHONE
CoNCENTRATUM, L.)—a. Yellow bark (coarsely
powdered), 4 lbs.; boiling water, 8 lbs. ; digest
for 12 hours, express the liquid, add rectified
spirit, 2 lbs., and after 24 hours’ repose, decant
the clear portion.
b. Yellow bark (in coarse powder), 4 lbs. ;
cold water, 8 lbs. ; rectified spirit, 2 lbs;
dilute sulphuric acid, 4 fl. oz. ; mix the fluids,
and either macerate the bark in them for a
week in a closed vessel, or proceed by the me-
thod of displacement. Very superior.
Obs. 1 fl. dr. of either of the above, added
to 7 fl. drs. of water, produces an extempo-
raneous infusion of cinchona resembling that
of the pharmacopoeia. The concentrated pre-
paration of the Ph. L. being more than 8
times the usual strength, is placed amongst
LIQUORS.
3. From PALE BARK :—a. (Ph.L.; INFUSION
OF PALE CINCHONA; INFUSUM CINCHONAE
PALLIDE—Ph. L.) From pale bark, as IN-
FUSION OF CINCHONA—Ph. L.
b. (Ph. D.; INFUSUM CINCHONAE—Ph. D.)
Crown or pale bark, 1 oz. ; boiling water,
# pint; infuse 1 hour in a covered vessel, and
strain through paper.
Obs. “This infusion is inferior to the pre-
ceding” (from yellow bark) “in activity, and
is a very unnecessary one. It is said to oppress
the stomach less than that of the other cin-
chona bark; the reason is obvious—it is
weaker.” (Pereira.)
c. (Concentrated; INFUSUM CINCHONAE PAL-
LIDAE CONCENTRATUM, L.) As CONCENTRATED
INFUSION OF CINCHONA, but using pale bark.
The concentrated preparation of the Ph. L.
will be found under LIQUORS.
Infusion of Cin'namon. Syn.
TEA; INFUSUM CINNAMOMI, L.
dyspepsia, and nervous colics.
Infusion of Cloves. Syn. CLOVE TEA; IN-
FUSUM CARYOPHYLLORUM, I. CARIOPHYLLI
(B. P.), L. Prep. 1. (B.P.) Cloves (bruised),
1 oz. ; boiling distilled water, 20 oz. ; infuse
for half an hour, and strain. Aromatic, stimulant,
and stomachic, either alone or in combination;
in colic, dyspepsia, gout, &c.—Dose. 1 to 2 oz.
2. (Concentrated; INFUSUM CARYOPHYLLI
CONCENTRATUM, L.)—a. Bruised cloves, 3 oz.;
boiling water, 16 fl. oz. ; infuse as above and
strain; when cold, add of rectified spirit, #
pint, and filter.
b. Bruised cloves, 13 lb.; rectified spirit,
1 quart ; cold water, 3 quarts; macerate for
7 days, and express the liquid; sprinkle the
marc with water, 12 fl. oz., and after the lapse
of an hour, again submit it to the press; lastly,
filter the mixed liquors. Very fine. The
above are about 8 times the strength of the
INFUSION OF CIOWES-Ph. L.
Infusion of Coffee. Syn. INFUSUM CAFFEI,
L. Prep. (Dr. McBride.) Unroasted coffee
berries (bruised), 30 in no.; cold water, 1
quart; macerate 2 or 3 hours. In calculus,
&c.—Dose. A pint every morning.
CINNAMON
In flatulence,
|
Obs. Sir J. Floyer and Sir J. Pringle cured
asthma with a strong solution of roasted coffee.
M. Bouchardat prescribes a strong infusion
made by displacement (percolation), and mixed
with a little brandy, in poisoning by opium
and other like narcotics, after the administra-
tion of emetics and ioduretted water. M.
Honore also employs very strong-made coffee
in albuminuria. Clausen gives it in gout, and
Parker employs it as a nervous stimulant in
lieu of ammonia and wine, for persons of a
slightly sensitive and excitable temperament.
Infusion of Contrayer'va. Syn. INFUSUM
CONTRAYERVE, L. Prep. (Pereira.) Contra-
yerva (in powder), 1 oz. ; boiling water, 12
fl. Oz. Stimulant, tonic, and diaphoretic ; in
low fevers, &c.
Infusion of Copal'che Bark. Syn. INFUSUM
COPALCHI CORTICIS, L. Prep. (Dr. Stark.)
Bark of copalche bush (Croton pseudo-China),
# oz. ; boiling water, 1 pint ; digest 2 hours,
and strain. A warm bitter and stomachic.
Infusion of Cor'sican Moss. Syn. INFUSUM
HELMINTHOCORTI, L. Prep. (Farr.) Corsi-
can moss, 5 drs. ; boiling water, 1 pint; mace-
rate for 10 or 12 hours, and strain. Adlibitum,
in cancer. See DECOCTION.
Infusion of Cuspa’ria. Syn. INFUSION OF
ANGOSTURA BARK; INFUSUM CUSPARIE (B.P.),
I. ANGUSTURE, L. Prep. (B. P.) Cusparia,
in coarse powder, 1 oz. ; distilled water, at
120°, 20 oz.; infuse 2 hours, and strain.
Stimulant and tonic; in typhus fever, bilious
diarrhoea, dysentery, &c.
Infusion of Daffodil. Syn. INFUSUM NAR-
CISSIPSEUDO-NARCISSI, L. Prep. (Dufresnoy.)
Flowers of daffodil (Narcissus Pseudo-Nar-
cissus), 3 to 16 in no.; boiling water, 1 pint,
Expectorant, nauseantandemetic. In hooping-
cough.
Infusion of Dah"lia Pet'als. From the violet
or blue varieties. Used for its colour, and as
a test.
Infusion of Dandelion. Syn. INFUSION OF
TARAXACUM ; INFUSUM TARAXACI, L. 1.
From the sliced root. Stimulant, resolvent,
and tonic.
2. (Concentrated; INFUSUM TARAXACT CON-
CENTRATUM, L.) From the root (sliced), 1 lb.;
exposed to a current of warm dry air unti
crisp, then coarsely pulverised, and digeste
for a week in a mixture of rectified spirit, 12
fl. Oz. ; cold water, 1% pint. 8 times the usual
strength.
3. (Compound; INFUSUM TARAXACT COM-
POSITUM, L.-Meigs.) Infusion of dandelion,
4 fl.oz. ; extract of do., 2 drs. ; sesquicarbonate
of soda, # dr. ; tartrate of potassa, 3 drs.;
tincture of rhubarb, 3 fl. drs. ; tincture of hen-
bane, 20 drops. In dropsical and visceral
affections.—Dose. 1-3rd part, thrice daily. See
DECOCTION, EXTRACT, &c.
Infusion of Digita’lis.
FoxGLOVE.
Diuretic Infusion. Syn. INFUSUM DIURE-
TICUM, L. Prep. 1. Broom tops, 1 oz. ;


See INFUSION OF
s
INFUSION.
627
boiling water, 1 pint ; infuse 1 hour, strain,
cool, and add of sweet spirits of nitre, 3 fl.
drs.—Dose. A wine-glassful every other hour.
2. Infusion of foxglove, 1 fl.oz.; tincture of
foxglove, # fl. dr.; acetate of potassa, 1 dr.;
laudanum, 10 drops.--Dose. 1 table-spoonful
twice or thrice a day, carefully watching the
effects.
3. Juniper berries, 2 oz. ; aniseed, } oz. ;
boiling water, 1 pint ; infuse 1 hour; strain,
and when cold, add of compound spirit of
juniper, 2 fl. oz. ; tincture of squills, 1 fl. dr. ;
nitre, 1 dr.—Dose. # a teacupful frequently,
All the above are used as diuretics in dropsy.
See INFUSIONS OF BROOM, Foxg1.OVE, and
JUNIPER.
Infusion of Dog'wood. Syn. INFUSUM COR-
NUs FLORIDAE, L. From the bark of Ameri-
can dogwood (Cornus Florida). See DECoc-
TION.
Infusion of Elder Flowers. Syn. ELDER-
FLOWER TEA; INFUSUM SAMBUCI FLORUM, L.
From the picked flowers, 3 oz. ; boiling water,
1 pint. Pectoral, expectorant, and diapho-
retic, either alone or sweetened with honey.
Infusion of El'ecampame. Syn. INFUSUM
Infusion of Elm-bark. Syn. COMPOUND IN-
INULAE, L. Diaphoretic, expectorant, and tonic.
FUSION OF ELM-BARK; INFUSUM ULMI COM-
POSITUM, L. Prep. (Cadet.) Elm-bark, bitter-
sweet, burdock, and fumitory, of each, 2 drs. ;
boiling water, 1 pint ; digest for 4 hours,
strain, and add of syrup of sarsaparilla, 1 oz.
The whole to be taken in 24 hours, in divided
doses, in the chronic exanthemata. See DE-
COCTION.
Infusion of Er'got of Rye. Syn. INFUSUM
ERGOTE (B. P.), L. Prep. 1. (B.P.) Ergot, 1,
in coarse powder, 1 oz. ; boiling distilled water,
40 oz. ; infuse # an hour in a covered vessel,
and strain. Should be made fresh when
required.—Dose. 1 to 2 oz. every 3 hour or hour,
as a parturient. Also as an injection for
gleet.
* 2. (Concentrated.) See LIQUOR OF ERGOT.
Infusion of Fennel. Syn. FENNEL TEA ;
INFUSUM FOENICULI, L. Prep. From sweet
fennel-seeds, 3 oz. ; boiling water, 1 pint. In
griping and windy colic of infants; a few
drops to # a teaspoonful for a dose, or a little
, by way of enema.
Infusion of Flax-seed.
LINSEED.
Infusion of Fox'glove. Syn. INFUSUM DI-
GITALIS (B.P.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Digi-
talis, dried, 30 grs. ; distilled water, 10 oz. ;
infuse 1 hour, and strain.--Dose. # to # oz.
2. (Ph. E.) Foxglove (dried), 2 drs. ;
boiling water, 18 fl. oz. ; spirit of cinnamon, 2
fl. oz.
3. (Ph. D.) Foxglove (dried and reduced
to a coarse powder), 1 dr.; boiling water, 9
fl. oz. ; infuse 1 hour. The product should
measure about 8 fl. oz. The last two are of
double the strength of the infusion Ph. L.,
and the dose must consequently be only 2 to
See INFUSION OF
4 fl. drs. “I believe this, when properly
made, to be the most effectual of the prepara-
tions of foxglove.” (Pereira.) See Fox-
GLOWE.
Infusion of Fu'mitory. Syn. INFUSUM FU-
MARIAE, L. From the herbaceous portion of
common fumitory (Fumaria officinalis). Ape-
rient and diaphoretic ; in obstinate skin dis-
eases and chronic obstructions of the liver.
Infusion of Galls. Syn. INFUSUM GALLE,
L. 1. From Aleppo galls, coarsely powdered.
In diarrhoea, hæmorrhages, &c.; also freely,
in cases of poisoning by the alkaloids; and
diluted with 3 or 4 times its volume of water,
for injections, embrocations, gargles, &c.
2. (Compound; INFUSUM GALLE COMPO-
SITUM, MISTURA GALLE, L.-Ellis.) Infusion
of galls, 4 fl. Oz. ; prepared chalk, oz. ; pow-
dered gum, 1 dr. ; tincture of opium, # fl. dr.
— Dose. 1 table-spoonful every 2 hours, in
diarrhoea, &c.
Infusion of Gar’lic. Syn. INFUSUM ALLII,
L. Prep. (White.) Garlic (recent), 3 lb. ;
water, 4 lbs.; place them in a covered pot, set
it in a very slow oven for 3 or 4 hours, and
when cold, express the fluid portion.—Dose.
In epilepsy, 2 teaspoonfuls before and after
every meal; in chronic diarrhoea, a teaspoonful
after every motion.
Infusion of Gem'tian. Syn. INFUSUM GEN-
TIANAE, L. Prep. 1. (Beral.) Gentian
(bruised), 2 drs. ; boiling water, 1 pint ; infuse
5 or 6 hours, and strain. Stomachic.
2. (Compound; INFUSUM GENTIANAE COM-
PosſTUM-B. P.)
Prep. a. (B. P.) Gentian, sliced, 1 oz. ;
orange peel, cut small, 1 oz. ; lemon peel
(fresh), 2 oz. ; boiling distilled water, 1 pint ;
infuse for an hour in a covered vessel, and
strain.—Dose. 1 to 2 oz.
b. (Ph. E.) Sliced gentian root, 3 oz. ;
bitter orange peel (dried and bruised) and
coriander seeds, of each, 1 dr. ; proof spirit, 4.
fl. oz. ; digest for 3 hours, then add of cold
water, 16 fl. oz., and in 12 hours more strain.
c. (Ph.D.) Gentian and dried orange peel,
of each, 2 drs. ; boiling water, pint ; macerate
1 hour, and strain.—Dose of the last two, # to
1 fl. oz.
3. (Concentrated Compound; INFUSUM GEN-
TIANAE COMP. CONCENTRATUM, L.)—a. Gentian
root (bruised), 4} lbs. ; boiling water, q. S. to
cover it; infuse with occasional agitation for
2 hours, express the liquor, wash the marc with
a little boiling water, and evaporate to 13
quarts; when cold, strain through flannel, add
of rectified spirit, 1 gal., and pour the mixed
fluids on dried orange peel, 4% lbs., and fresh
lemon peel, 9 lbs. ; macerate for 1 week, then
express the liquor in a powerful press, and
filter through paper.
b. Gentian and dried orange peel, of each,
4% lbs. ; fresh lemon peel, 9 lbs. ; cold distilled
water, 13 quarts; rectified spirit, 1 gal. ; ma-
cerate for 14 or 15 days, with frequent agita-
tion, then express the liquid, add 1 dr. each of


628 INFUSION.
the essential oils of lemon and orange, agitate
well, and filter through paper.
c. Gentian, 14 lb.; essence of lemon, 1 dr. ;
essence of orange, }, dr.; essence of cedrat, 15
drops; rectified spirit, 1 quart; cold water, 3
quarts; digest for 10 days and filter.
4. (With RHUBARB ; INFUSUM GENTIANAE
ET RHEI, MISTURA STOMACHICA, L.) From
gentian and rhubarb (bruised), of each, 2 drs. ;
boiling water, 1 pint ; digest 1 hour, and
strain; to the cold infusion add of sesquicar-
bonate of ammonia, 1 dr. An admirable medi-
cine in dyspepsia, hysteria, loss of appetite,
constipation, chronic rheumatism, &c.
Infusion of Ginger. Syn. GINGER TEA;
INFUSUM ZINGIBERIs, IL. From the best
unbleached Jamaica ginger, freshly bruised
or grated. In flatulence, colic, and indiges-
tion.
Infusion of Gin'seng. Syn. GINSENG TEA ;
INFUSUM GINSENG, I. RADICIS G., L. Prep.
Ginseng (the root of Panaa Schinseng), 3 oz. ;
ginger (grated), 1 dr. ; boiling water, 1 pint ;
macerate 1 hour, then add of cinnamon
(bruised), , dr. ; infuse for another hour, and
strain. Ginseng tea, made according to the
above formula, has a wonderful reputation in
China, as a stimulant, restorative, and aphro-
disiac. In Europe, however, it is merely re-
garded as an aromatic demulcent.
Obs. American ginseng (the root of Panaa,
quinquefolium) may be substituted for the
Asiatic product.
Infusion of Gold'thread. Syn. INFUSUM
COPTIs, L. From the root of Coptis trifolia.
Bitter, stomachic ; in dyspepsia, and as a
mouth-wash in thrush.
Infusion of Guaſco. Syn. INFUSUM GUACO,
L. From the bruised leaves and stems of
guaco or huaco (Mikania Guaco). Sudorific
and vulnerary; reputed in South America to
be a powerful remedy for the bites of venomous
serpents and for hydrophobia, but the trials in
this country do not show it to be of any value
in such cases. .
Infusion of Guaiac'um. Syn. CoMPOUND
INFUSION OF GUAIACUM, I. OF THE WOODS ;
INFUSUM GUAIACI COMPOSITUM, AQUA BENE-
DICTA CoMPOSITA, L. Prep. (Ph. D. 1826.)
Guaiacum shavings, 6 oz. ; bruised liquorice
root, 1 oz. ; sassafras bark, ; oz. ; coriander
seeds, 3 drs. ; lime water, 96 fl. oz. (say 5
pints); infuse for 2 days, and strain.—Dose.
3 to 4 fl. oz., twice or thrice a day, in scrofula,
rheumatism, gout, eruptions, &c.
Infusion of Gum. Syn. INFUSUM ACACIAE, L.
From gum acacia and lump sugar, of each, 2
oz. ; boiling water, 1 pint ; macerate until dis-
solved, then cool, and add of orange-flower
water, , fl. oz. A pleasant demulcent in coughs,
hoarseness, &c.
Infusion of Hedge Hys'sop. Syn. INFUSUM
GRATIOLE, L. Prep. (A. T. Thomson.)
Hedge hyssop (Gratiola officinalis), dried, 2
drs. ; boiling water, 8 fl. oz. Cathartic, diu-
retic, emetic, and vermifuge.—Dose, 3 to 6 fl.
drs. ; in dropsies, gout, jaundice, &c. See
EXTRACT.
Infusion of Hem'lock. Syn. INFUSUM CoNII,
I. CONII MACULATI, L. Prep. (Guy’s Hosp.)
Dried leaves of hemlock, and coriander seeds,
of each, 2 drs. ; boiling water, 8 oz. ; infuse for
2 hours. Combined with acetate of ammonia,
tincture of henbane, and syrup of poppies, in
pulmonary complaints, &c.
Infusion of Hembane. Syn. INFUSUM HY-
OSCYAMI, L. Prep. 1. From fresh leaves, #
oz. ; boiling water, 1 pint. As a lotion for
painful ulcers, swelled face, &c.
2. (Compound ; HENBANE FOMENTATION ;
INFUSUM HYOSCYAMI COMPOSITUM, L.-Ra-
dius.) Henbane leaves, poppy heads, and mal-
lows, of each, 1 oz. ; boiling water, 2 quarts.
For painful ulcers, and in facial neuralgia, &c.
Infusion of Hops. Syn. HoP TEA; INFUSUM
HUMULI, I. LUPULI (Ph. L.), L. Prep. (Ph.
L.) Hops, 6 drs. ; boiling distilled water, 1
pint; macerate for 4 hours in a covered vessel
(press), and strain. Tonic and anodyne. Well-
hopped mild ale is a good substitute.
Infusion of Hore'hound. Syn. HoREHOUND
TEA ; INFUSUM MARRUBII, L. From the
leaves; demulcent, pectoral; a popular remedy
in coughs, colds, hoarseness, and chest affec-
tions generally, taken freely.
Infusion of Horseradish. Syn. INFUSUM
ARMORACIAE, L. 1. From horseradish alone.
Diuretic and stomachic.
2. (Compound; INFUSUM ARMORACLE COM-
POSITUM, L.-Ph. L.) Horseradish (sliced)
and mustard seed (bruised), of each, 1 oz. ;
boiling distilled water, 1 pint ; macerate for 2
hours in a covered vessel, strain, and add of
compound spirit of horseradish, 1 fl. oz. Stimu-
lant, stomachic, and diuretic ; in dropsies,
paralysis, scurvy, chronic rheumatism, &c.
Infusion of Hys'sop. Syn. HYSSOP TEA; IN-
FUSUM HYSSOPI, L. 1. From the leaves of
Hyssopus officinalis (Linn.). Stimulant, stoma-
chic, emmenagogue, and expectorant; in dys-
pepsia, flatulency, hysterical affections, &c.;
also used by boxers as a wash for black eyes.
2. (Compound ; INFUSUM HYSSOPT COM-
POSITUM, L.-Ratier). Hyssop leaves, 2% drs.;
liquorice, 2 drs. ; boiling water, 1 quart. As a
demulcent drink in catarrhal affections.
Infusion of Indian Sarsaparilla. Syn. IN-
FUSUM HEMIDESMI, L. From Indian or scented
sarsaparilla (Hemidesmus Indicus). Dr. Ash-
burner orders it to be made with lime water
(cold); but this plan is seldom followed.—
Dose and uses, same as those of infusion of
Sarsaparilla,
Infusion of I'ron (Bitter). Syn. INFUSUM
FERRI AMARUM, L. Prep. (Dr. R. E. Griffith.)
Iron filings, 3 oz. ; gentian and ginger, of each,
bruised, 1 oz. ; orange peel, § oz. ; strong old
cider, 1 pint; infuse for a month, frequently
stirring, and filter.—Dose. # to 1 dr., 3 or 4
times daily, as a chalybeate tonic.
Infusion of Ju'miper. Syn. INFUSUM JUNI-
PERI, I. BACCAE J., L. 1. From the berries

!

INFUSION.
629
alone.
&c.
2. (Compound ; INFUSUM JUNIPERI COM-
POSITUM, L.)—a. (Guy’s Hosp.) Juniper ber-
ries, 2% oz. ; boiling water, 1 pint ; to the
strained solution, when cold, add, of compound
spirit of juniper, 10 fl. drs. ; bitartrate of po-
tassa, 1 dr.
b. (Parrish.) Ginger, juniper berries, and
mustard seed, of each, bruised, } oz. ; horse-
radish and parsley root, of each, bruised, 1 oz. ;
cider, 1 quart; infuse, and strain with ex-
pression. All the above are used in dropsies.
Infusion of Kiſmo. Syn. INFUSUM KINO, L.
From kino, 5 drs. ; boiling water, 1 pint. In
diarrhoea, and diluted with 4 or 5 times its
bulk of water, as an injection in chronic
gonorrhoea.
Infusion of Lime Flowers. Syn. LINDEN-
FLOWER TEA ; INFUSUM TILIAE, L. 1. From
the flowers of the lime or linden tree (Tilia
IEuropaea). Antispasmodic, diaphoretic, and
cephalic.
2. (Compound; INFUSUM TILIAE COMPO-
SITUM, L.-Foy.) Chamomiles, linden flowers,
and orange leaves, of each, 2 drs. ; boiling water,
1 quart; infuse, strain, and add of syrup, 2 fl.
oz. In nervous headaches, &c. The above are
much used on the Continent.
Infusion of Lin'seed. Syn. LINSEED TEA,
FLAXSEED T.; INFUSUM LINI (B. P.), L.
Prep. (B. P.) Linseed (bruised), 160 grs. ;
fresh liquoricc root (sliced), 60 grs. ; boiling
distilled water, 10 oz. ; infuse for 4 hours and
strain. A cheap and useful demulcent in
pulmonary and urinary irritation ; especially
in catarrhs, gonorrhoea, &c.; ad libiţum. Dr.
Pereira recommends the addition of sliced
lemon and sugar-candy, to render it more
palatable. See DECOCTION.
Infusion of Liquorice, Syn. INFUSUM GLY-
CYRRHIZAF, L. From the fresh root, sliced.
Demulcent and laxative ; taken ad libiţum.
Infusion of Lit'mus. Syn. INFUSUM LACMI,
L. Used for its colour, and as a liquid test,
and to make test-paper.
Infusion of Lobe'lia. Syn. INFUSUM Lo-
BELLE, I. L. INFLATAE. From lobelia or Indian
tobacco. In asthmas chiefly.—Dose. 1 to 2
table-spoonfuls every half hour, until it occa-
sions nausea.
Infusion of Log'wood. Syn. LogwooD TEA;
INFUSUM HAEMATOXYLI, L. From logwood
chips. One of the best remedies known for
simple diarrhoea arising from weakness; also
used as a colour and test. See DECOCTION,
EXTRACT, &c.
Infusion (Maiden-hair). Syn. INFUSUM
ADIANTI, L. From either common maiden-
hair (Adiantum capillus Veneris), or Canadian
maiden-hair (Adiantum pedatum). They are
both slightly bitter, aromatic, and pectoral.
The infusion forms an excellent demulcent
drink in catarrhs. -
Infusion of Malam/bo Bark. Syn. INFUSUM
CORTICIS MALAMBO, L. Prep. (Ure.) Bark
As a stimulant diuretic, in dropsies,
(from Croton Malambo), 2 drs. ; boiling water
1 pint. An aromatic tonic and astringent.
Infusion of Mallow Flowers. Syn. INFUSUM
MALWAE FLORUM, L. Pectoral and laxative.
Chiefly used as a test.
Infusion of Malt. Syn. MALT TEA, SWEET
WORT ; INFUSUM BYNES, I. MALTI, L. Pre-
pared with hot water (165° to 170° Fahr.).
Demulcent and laxative. A useful drink in
sore throat, inflammatory fevers, &c. Some
persons flavour it with sliced lemon.
Infusion of Ma'rygold. Syn. INFUSUM
CALENDULE, L. From the flowers of the
common marygold (Calendula officinalis). Car-
minative, diaphoretic, and emmenagogue. It
has been recently recommended in cancerous
affections, both internally and as a lotion.
Radius adds syrup of orange peel to flavour it.
Infusion of Mat'ico. Syn. INFUSUM MATI-
CONIS, I. MATICAE, I. MATICO, L. 1. From
the leaves of the matico plant (Artanthe elon-
gata). Aromatic, bitter, stimulant, and re-
puted ha-mostatic; in internal haemorrhages
and mucous discharges. The Indians of South
America use it as an aphrodisiac. (Martius.)
2. (Compound; INFUSUM MATICONIS cow-
POSITUM, L.-Watmough.) Matico and senna,
of each, 2 drs. ; boiling water, 1 pint. In
haemorrhagic and other discharges, piles, &c.;
a wine-glassful repeatedly.
Infusion of May-weed, Syn., INFUSUM
COTULE, L. From the dried flowers of may-
weed or stinking chamomile (Anthemis cotula).
Bitter, stomachic, and diaphoretic ; in large
doses, emetic and sudorific ; chiefly in hy-
sterical affections, scrofula, &c.
Infusion of Meadow Rue. Syn. INFUSUM
THALICTRI FLAVI, L. From the herb meadow
rue (Thalictrum flavum). In hydrophobia,
taken plentifully.
Infusion of Milfoil. Syn. YARRow TEA;
INFUSUM MILLEFOLII, L. In dropsies, and
as a fomentation to bruises. See EXTRACT,
&c.
Infusion of Mint. Syn. MINT TEA. 1.
(Ph.D.—INFUSUM MENTHAE SIMPLEX.) From
the dried leaves of green or spearmint. Carmi-
native and stomachic ; chiefly used as a vehicle
for other medicines. A wine-glassful ad libi-
tum.
2. (Compound; INFUSUM MENTHE COMPOSI-
TUM.) To mint tea 6 fl. oz., add of oil of
spearmint, 3 drops, previously triturated with
lump sugar, 2 drs, and dissolved in compound
tincture of cardamoms, , fl. oz. A useful
remedy in colic, flatulence, &c.; as the last.
Infusion of Mu'dar. Syn. INFUSION OF
MUDAR-BARK; INFUSUM CORTICIS MUDARIS,
L. From the root bark of Calotropis gigantea.
Resembles infusion of ipecacuanha.--Dose. 1
to 3 teaspoonfuls, as an alterative ; a wine-
glassful as an emetic. In the East Indies it
is highly esteemed in epilepsy, hysteria,
syphilis, convulsions, and various spasmodic
diseases.


Infusion of Net’tle Seed. Syn. INFUSU
630 INFUSION.
URTICAE SEMINUM, L. Prep. (Garde.) Seed
of common nettle (Urtica dioica), 2% drs.;
boiling water, 18 fl. oz. ; infuse 3 hours, strain,
and add of syrup, 2 fl. oz. Astringent, diure-
tic, and pectoral.
Infusion of Nux Wom'ica. Syn. INFUSUM
NUCIS VONICE, L. Prep. (Hosp. F.) Nux
vomica (ground or rasped), 1 dr. ; boiling water,
1 pint; digest 3 hours, and strain. It must be
taken with caution, and the effects watched.
See ExTRACT, NUX Wom ICA, and STRYCH-
NINE.
Infusion of Or'ange Peel. Syn. INFUSUM
AURANTII, B. P. Prep. 1. Dried bitter orange
peel, cut small, 1 oz. ; boiling water, 20 Oz. ;
infuse for 15 minutes, and strain.--Dose. 1 to
2 oz. Bitter and stomachic.
2. (Compound ; INFUSUM AURANTII—Ph.
E., I. A. COMPOSITUM–Ph. L. & D., L.)
—a. (Ph. L. & E.) Dried bitter orange
peel, , oz.; fresh lemon peel, 2 drs. ; cloves
(bruised), 1 dr. ; boiling distilled water, 1 pint;
macerate for 15 minutes in a covered vessel,
and strain.
b. (Ph. D.) Dried orange peel, 3 drs. ;
cloves, # dr. ; boiling water, pint; macerate
half an hour. An agreeable stomachic. It
is chiefly employed as a vehicle for other
medicines.
c. (B. P.) Dried bitter orange peel, cut
Small, # Oz. ; fresh lemon peel, 120 grs.; cloves
(bruised), 60 grs. ; boiling water, 20 oz. In-
fuse for 15 minutes, and strain.--Dose. 1 to
2 oz.
3. (Concentrated Compound; INFUSUM AU-
RANTII CONCENTRATUM, I. A. COM. CONC., L.)
—a. Seville orange peel (dried), 34 lbs. ; fresh
lemon peel, 1% lb. ; bruised cloves, 3 lb.; boiling
water, 9 pints; infuse for 20 minutes, press
out the liquor, and, when cold, add of rectified
spirit, 1 quart, and filter.
b. Dried orange peel, 18 oz. ; fresh lemon
peel, # lb. ; bruised cloves, 4 lb.; rectified spirit,
1 pint; cold water, 3 pints; macerate for 1
week, press, and filter. Very superior.
Obs. 1 fl. dr. of either of the above, added
to 7 fl. drs. of water, makes a similar (pre-
ferable) preparation to the COMPOUND INFU-
SION OF ORANGE PEEL.-Ph. L.
Infusion of Pareira. Syn. INFUSUM PA-
REIRAE (Ph. E. & D.), I. P. BRAVE, L. Prep.
1 (Ph. E.) Velvet leaf or pareira brava root,
6 drs. ; boiling water, 1 pint; macerate for 2
hours in a lightly covered vessel, and strain.
2. (Ph. D.) Pareira (bruised and torn),
# Oz. ; boiling water, 9 fl. oz. ; macerate 1 hour,
and strain. In irritation and mucous dis-
charges from the urinary organs. The cor-
responding preparation of the Ph. L. will be
found among the DECOCTIONS.
Infusion of Pars'ley Root. Syn. INFUSUM
PETROSELINI, L. From the root of garden
parsley. Aromatic, diuretic, and slightly
aperient. It has been highly recommended by
Dr. Chapman and others in dropsy, in the
strangury arising from blisters, &c.; taken
freely, either alone or combined with a little
sweet spirit of nitre. -
Infusion of Peach Leaves. Syn. INFUSUM
PERSICAE, I. P. FoEII, L. Prep. (Pereira.)
Peach leaves (dried), 3 oz. ; boiling water, 1
pint ; macerate an hour, and strain.--Dose.
1 to 2 table-spoonfuls, twice or thrice a day;
to allay irritation of the bladder and urethra,
and as a vermifuge.
Pectoral Infusion. Syn. INFUSUM PECTO-
RALE, L. Prep. (Hosp. F.) Linseed (bruised),
# oz. ; coltsfoot leaves, # oz. ; liquorice root
(sliced) and poppy-heads, of each, # oz. ; boil-
ing water, 1 pint; digest two hours, and strain.
In coughs, colds, hoarseness, &c., accompanied
with a dose of aperient medicine. See SPECIES,
&c.
Infusion of Pennyroy'al. Syn. PENNY-
ROYAL TEA; INFUSUM PULEGII, I. MENTHE
PULEGII, L. A popular remedy for nausea,
flatulence, colds, hooping-cough, hysterical
affections, obstructed menstruation, &c.
Infusion of Pep'permint. Syn. PEPPERMINT
TEA; INFUSUM MENTHAE PIPERITAE, L. In
flatulence, colic, griping, &c., and as a vehicle
for other medicines.
Infusion of Periwin'kle. Syn. INFUSUM
VINCE MINORIS, L. From the leaves of lesser
periwinkle (Vinca minor). Astringent and
tonic ; in diarrhoea, dysentery, &c. Mr.
Weathers employs it in passive haemorrhages,
and others have recommended it as an external
tonic applied to the perinaeum, &c., in piles,
relaxation of the genitals, &c.
Infusion of Persimmon. Syn. INFUSUM
PERSIMMONIS, L. From the bark of persim-
mon (Diospyros Virginiana). Astringent; very
valuable in diarrhoea, haemorrhages, agues, &c.;
and as a gargle in ulcerated sore throat.
Infusion of Peruvian Bark. See INFUSION
OF BARK.
Infusion of Pink'root. Syn. PINKROOT TEA,
WORM. T.; INFUSUM SPIGILIAE, L. 1. From
Indian pinkroot. Wemifuge ; either combined
with or followed by a purge after the third or
fourth dose. The dose for a child 3 to 5 years
old is 1 to 2 table-spoonfuls.
2. (Compound ; INFUSUM SPIGILIAE COM-
PosLTUM, I. S. CUM SENNA, L.-Ellis.) Pink-
root, oz., senna, 2 drs. ; fennel seed, 3 drs. ;
manna, 1 oz. ; boiling water, 1 pint-Dose.
# wine-glassful to a child 2 or 3 years old; in
worms. See EXTRACT.
Infusion of Pleurisy Root. Syn. INFUSUM
ASCLEPIADIS TUBEROSE, L. From the root of
butterfly weed or pleurisy root (Asclepias tu-
berosa). Expectorant and diuretic; in large
doses, purgative ; in colds, pleurisy, pneu-
monia, &c. According to Bigelow, it is a
valuable mild tomic and stimulant.”
Infusion of Poisſon-oak. Syn. INFUSUM
RHOIS TOXICODENDRI, L. Prep. From the
dried leaves of the poisom-oak (Rhus towico-
dendron), 3 drs. ; boiling water, 1 pint. Stimu-
lant and narcotic ; chiefly in palsy and mania.
Infusion of Poppy-heads. Syn. PoEPY TEA ;


INFUSION.
631
INFUSUM PAPAVERIs, L. From poppy-heads
(capsules of Papaver somniferum). Soothing,
anodyne. Sweetened with honey, it is a popu-
lar remedy for tickling cough, restlessness, &c.;
also used hot, as an embrocation, in painful
tumours, inflammations, &c. See INFUSION OF
RED POPPY.
Infusion of Pur’ging Flax. Syn. INFUSUM
LINI CATHARTICI, L. From the dried leaves
of purging flax (Linum catharticum). Ca-
thartic. The dose should be repeated at in-
tervals of an hour or an hour and a half, until
it operates.
Infusion of Quas'sia. Syn. QUASSIA TEA ;
INFUSUM QUASSIAE (B. P., Ph. L. E. & D.), L.
Prep. 1. (B. P.) Quassia, in chips, 60 grs. ;
cold distilled water, 10 oz.; infuse for half an
hour, and strain.--Dose. 1 to 2 oz.
2. (Ph. L.) Quassia (sliced), 40 grs. ; boiling
distilled water, 1 pint; infuse for 2 hours in a
covered vessel, and strain.
3. (Ph. E.) Quassia, 1 dr.; boiling water,
1 pint.
4. (Ph. D.) Quassia (rasped), 1 dr. ; boiling
water, 8% fl. oz.
5. (Ph. U. S.) Quassia, 2 drs.; cold water,
16 fl. oz. ; macerate for 12 hours, and strain.
As a bitter tonic, in loss of appetite, dyspepsia,
&c.; either combined with alkaline carbonates
or chalybeates. Sweetened with moist sugar
or honey, it forms a common FLY-WATER or
FILY-POISON.
6. (Compound; INFUSUM QUASSIAE COM-
POSITUM, L.-Ellis.) Quassia, serpentary, and
dried orange peel, of each, 4 oz. ; boiling water,
1 pint. A stimulant stomachic.
Infusion of Red Cab'bage. Syn. INFUSION
OF BLUE CABBAGE. Used as a colour, and to
make test-paper. It will not keep without
the addition of about 1-10th of its weight of
rectified spirit.
Infusion of Red Pop'py. Syn. RED-Pop PY
TEA; INFUSUM RHOEADos, L. From the petals
of the red or corn poppy. Anodyne and pec-
toral. Sweetened with sugar or honey, it is a
popular remedy in catarrhal affections; but the
use of this, as well as of INFUSION OF POPPY-
HEADS, should be accompanied by a dose of
aperient medicine.
Infusion of Rhat'amy. Syn. INFUSUM
KRAMERIE (B. P.), INFUSUM RHATANIE, I.
KRAMERIE (Ph. L. & D.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.),
Rhatany, bruised, 1 oz. ; boiling distilled
water, 20 oz. ; infuse 1 hour, and strain.--Dose.
1 to 2 oz.
2. (Ph. L.) Rhatany root, 1 oz.; boiling
distilled water, 1 pint ; macerate for 4 hours
in a covered vessel, and strain.
3. (Ph.D.) Rhatany, 3 oz. ; boiling water,
9 fl. oz. ; macerate 1 hour, and strain. A-
stringent and tonic ; chiefly in chronic
diarrhoea.
4. (Concentrated ; INFUSUM KRAMERIE
CONCENTRATUM, L.) From 8 times the usual
quantity of ingredients, as INFUSION ON CAS-
CARILLA.
Infusion of Rhododen'dron. Syn. INFUSUM
RHODoDENDRI, L. From the leaves of yellow
rhododendron (Rhododendron chrysanthum), ,
oz.; boiling water, 3 pint. Highly recom-
mended by Pallas and Koelpin in gout, chronic
rheumatism, and syphilis. It has marked nar-
cotic properties.
Infusion of Rhubarb. Syn. INFUSUM RHEI
(B. P., Ph. L. E. & D.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.)
Rhubarb (in thin slices, 1 oz. ; boiling distilled
water, 40 oz. ; infuse for 1 hour, and strain.
— Dose. 1 to 2 oz.
2. (Ph. L.) Rhubarb (sliced), 3 drs. ; boil-
iug distilled water, 1 pint; macerate for 2
hours in a covered vessel, and strain.
3. (Ph. D.) Rhubarb, 2 drs. ; boiling water,
9 fl. oz. ; macerate 1 hour.
4. (Ph. E.) Rhubarb (in coarse powder),
1 oz. ; boiling water, 18 fl. oz.; infuse for 12
hours, add of spirit of cinnamon, 2 fl. oz.; and
strain through linen or calico. Stomachic and
purgative; along with neutral salts or aro-
matics.
Obs. The infusion of the Ph. E., being fully
double as strrong as that of the Ph. L., & D.,
must be taken in proportionate doses.
5. (Concentrated; INFUSUM RHEI ConCEN-
TRATUM, L.)—a. Rhubarb (in coarse powder),
10 oz. ; rectified spirit, 1 pint; cold distilled
water, 1 quart; digest 10 days, with frequent
agitation, then express the liquor, and filter it;
or proceed by the method of displacement.
b. Rhubarb, 3 lbs. 5 oz. ; cold distilled water,
11 pints; rectified spirit, 5% pints; as the last.
Obs. 1 fl. dr. of either of the above, added
to 7 fl. drs. of water, forms 1 fl. oz. of liquid,
resembling, and in many points preferable to,
the infusion of the Ph. L. The above is the
only way a fine, rich-coloured, and transparent
concentrated preparation can be made, that
will keep well. Should it not prove perfectly
limpid, it may be clarified in the way already
mentioned.
6. (Alkaline ; INFUSUM RHEI ALKALINUM,
I. R. CUM POTASSA, L.-Copland.) Rhubarb,
2 drs. ; carbonate of potassa, 1 dr.; boiling
water, , pint; macerate for 4 hours, strain, and
add of tincture of cinnamon, ; fl. oz. In dys-
pepsia, acidity, hearthburn, &c.
Infusion of Ro'ses. Syn. INFUSUM ROSAE, L.
1. (Simple.) From the petals of red roses. Used
as colouring and for a test ; mixed with vinegar
and sweetened with honey, it forms a popular
gargle in sore throat.
2. (Compound; INFUSUM RosâE–Ph. E.,
I. ROSAE COMPOSITUM-Ph. L., L. R. ACIDUM–
B. P., Ph. D.) Prep.–a. Red rose petals
(broken up), 1 oz. ; dilute sulphuric acid, 3 oz. ;
boiling distilled water, 40 oz. ; infuse for half
an hour with the acid and water, and strain.
—Dose. 1 to 2 oz.
b. (Ph. L.) Petals of the red or damask
rose (dried and pulled asunder), 3 drs. ; boil-
ing water, 1 pint; mix, and add of dilute
sulphuric acid, 1} fl. dr. ; macerate for 2 hours,
strain off the liquor, and dissolve in it white


632
INFUSION.
sugar, 6 drs.
similar.
c. (Ph. D.) Petals, 2 drs. ; boiling water,
# pint; infuse 1 hour, strain, and add of dilute
sulphuric acid, 1 fl. dr.
Obs. A vessel of glass or stoneware should
be used to make the infusion in, as metallic
vessels injure the colour of the liquid, and are
also attacked by the acid. The best plan is to
add the dilute sulphuric acid to the water be-
fore pouring it on the leaves. The infusion
may be squeezed out of the leaves with the
hands.
The COMPOUND INFUSION OF ROSEs is prin-
cipally used as a vehicle for sulphate of quinine,
saline purgatives, and some other medicines.
It is astringent and refrigerant, and, when
diluted with water, forms a pleasant drink in
febrile disorders, phthisical sweats, haemor-
rhages, diarrhoea, &c. It also makes a very
useful astringent gargle.—Dose. 1 to 4 fl. oz. ;
either alone or diluted with water. It is in-
compatible with the alkalies and earths, and
their carbonates and bicarbonates.
3. (Concentrated ; INFUSUM ROSAE CON-
CENTRATUM, L.)—a. Rose petals, 10 oz. ;
boiling distilled water, 3 pints; infuse for 2
hours, with frequent agitation, express the
liquid, strain through a clean hair sieve, and
add of dilute sulphuric acid, 4} fl. oz. ; after
agitation for 5 or 6 minutes, and repose for 2
or 3 hours, decant the clear portion, and filter
through paper supported on calico; next, dis-
solve in the liquid 14 lb. of the finest white
sugar, broken up into small lumps, but per-
fectly free from dust and dirt; lastly, pour the
infusion into clean, stoppered, green-glass bot-
tles, and, as much as possible, keep them from
the light, and in a cool place.
b. Rose petals, 34 lbs.; boiling water, 2 galls.;
diluted sulphuric acid, 24 fl. Oz. ; finest white
sugar, 6% lbs. ; as the last.
c. The same quantity of dilute sulphuric acid
and cold water, as before ; mix, and infuse the
rose leaves in the liquid for 48 hours, then
express, filter, and add the sugar. Product
very fine, and keeps well withput becoming
gelatinous.
Obs. This preparation is 8 times as strong
as that of the Ph. L. (2, a). Great care should
be taken that the utensils are perfectly clean,
especially the press, if one is employed; and
earthenware glazed with lead should be avoided.
The pressing should also be conducted as
rapidly as possible, to avoid the colour being
injured by the iron. Clean wrought iron does
not readily injure the colour of infusion of roses
before the addition of the acid. When the last
formula is adopted, strong pressure of the
leaves with the hands can alone be safely had
recourse to. If the infusion does not filter
quite clear though paper, it should be set
aside for a few days, when, in general, it will
be found to filter more readily and satisfactorily.
Should it be wanted for immediate sale, the
addition of the whites of 2 or 3 eggs, diluted
The Edinburgh form is nearly
with 2 or 3 ounces of water, followed by vio-
lent agitation of the liquid for a few minutes,
and repose for an hour or two, will usually
render it “fine,” when it may be either decanted,
or filtered should it require it. It will now
pass rapidly through ordinary filtering paper,
and at once run clear.
Infusion of Rue. Syn. RUE TEA; INFUSUM:
RUTHE, L. Carminative, antispasmodic, emme-
nagogue, and vermifuge. It is a popular and
useful remedy in flatulent colic, infantile con-
vulsions, epilepsy, hysteria, suppressed menstru-
ation, &c.
Infusion of Sage.
FUSUM SALVIAE, L.
Syn. SAGE TEA ; IN-
1. From the leaves of
common garden sage. Carminative and sto-
machic. In flatulence and dyspepsia, and
diluted with water as a drink, to lessen the
night sweats in phthisis and fever, and to stop
the secretion of milk after weaning.
2. (Compound; INFUSUM SALVIAE COMPO-
SITUM, L.-Ellis.) Sage and boneset, of each,
# Oz. ; cascarilla, 1 dr. ; boiling water, 14 pint;
infuse until cold. A wine-glassful every 3 or
4 hours in hectic fever.
Infusion of Sarsaparilla. Syn. INFUSUM
SARZAF, I. SARSAPARILLE (Ph. U. S.), L. 1.
From the bruised root. Dr. Hancock adds
# fl. dr. of hydrochloric acid to each pint of
the water employed, as a menstruum, by which,
he says, the efficacy of the infusion is greatly
increased. At St. George’s Hospital a little
liquorice root and solution of potassa is added
for the same purpose.
2. (Compound; INFUSUM SARSAPARILLE
COMPOSITUM, L. — Ph. D. 1826.) Sarsa-
parilla root (washed clean with a little cold
water, and sliced), 1 oz. ; lime water (cold),
16 fl.oz. ; macerate for 12 hours, and strain.
Inferior to the simple infusion, since both
earths and alkalies lessen the solvent action
of water on sarsaparilla. Use of both the
above, similar to that of the DECOCTION.
Infusion of Sas'safras. Syn. SASSAFRAS
TEA; INFUSUM SASSAFRAS, L. From Sassafras
chips. Alterative, stimulant, and sudorific; a
popular remedy in various cutaneous, rheumatic,
scrofulous, and syphilitical affections. Hufe-
land recommends the addition of a little liquo-
rice root.
Infusion of Sav'ime. Syn. SAVINE TEA ;
INFUSUM SABINE, L. Prep. (Pereira.) Fresh
savine leaves or herb, 1 dr. ; boiling water, 8
fl. Oz.; infuse in a covered vessel. Stimulant,
emmenagogue, and vermifuge; in chlorosis,
and suppressed menstruation depending on a
torpid action of the uterine vessels; in chronic
rheumatism, worms, &c.—Dose. 1 to 2 table-
spoonfuls, cautiously administered.
Infusion of Saxifrage. Syn. SAXIFRAGE
TEA; INFUSUM PIMPINELLAE, L. From the
root of burnet saxifrage(Pimpinella Saarifraga).
Astringent; in diarrhoea, and externally as a
wash to remove freckles.
Infusion of Scutella"ria. Syn. INFUSUM scu-
TELLARIAE, L. Prep. (Dr. Spalding.) Dried


INFUSION.
633
herb of Seufellaria lateriſtora, in powder,
1% teaspoonful; boiling water, 1 pint. By
teacupfuls, thrice daily, to prevent hydro-
phobia.
Infusion of Senſega. Syn. INFUSION OF
RATTLE-SNAKE ROOT, SENEKA TEA; INFUSUM
SENEGAE (B. P., Ph. E.), I. PoEYGALAE (Ph.
D.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Senega, bruised,
1 oz. ; boiling distilled water, 20 oz. ; infuse 1
hour, and strain.—Dose. 1 to 2 oz.
2. (Ph. E.) Senega snake-root (bruised),
10 drs. ; boiling water, 1 pint; infuse for 4
hours in a covered vessel, and strain.
3. (Ph. D.) Polygala root, 3 oz. ; boiling
water, 9 fl. oz. Stimulant, expectorant, and
diuretic, either alone or combined with am-
monia; in catarrhs, &c. See DECOCTION, EX-
TRACT, &c.
Infusion of Sen'na. Syn. SENNA TEA; IN-
FUSUM SENNA. (B. P., Ph. E.), I. SENNE COM-
PoSITUM (Ph. L. & D.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.)
Senna, 1 oz. ; ginger, sliced, 30 grs. ; boiled
distilled water, 10 oz.; infuse 1 hour, and strain.
—Dose. 1 to 2 oz.
2. (Ph. L.) Senna, 15 drs. ; ginger
(bruised), 4 scruples; boiling water, 1 pint;
macerate for an hour in a covered vessel, and
strain.
3. (Ph. E.) Senna, 1% oz. ; ginger, 4 scrup. ;
boiling water, 1 pint. (See No. 9, below.)
4. (Ph. D.) Senna, # oz. ; ginger, dr. ;
boiling water, 3 pint. Purgative.—Dose. 1 to
2 wine-glassfuls. It is usually given in doses
of 1 to 1; fl. oz., combined with 3 to 6 drs. of
Epsom salts, or other saline purgative, under
the name of ‘BLACK DRAUGHT.’
Obs. This infusion is very apt to spoil in
warm weather, to prevent which Mr. Squire
recommends the addition of 1 gr. of nitrate of
potassa to each ounce.
5. (Concentrated ; INFUSUM SENNE CON-
CENTRATUM, L.)—a. Senna, 2 lbs. 1 oz. ; tepid
water, 1 quart, macerate for 12 hours, fre-
quently stirring with a stick, and express the
liquor; to the “marc, add of tepid water, 1}
pint, repeat the maceration for 3 hours, and
again express the liquor with powerful pres-
sure; mix the infusions, and after 2 hours'
repose decant the clear portion, and evaporate
it as rapidly as possible, by steam or a chloride
of sodium bath, until it measures 1% pint;
pour this into a strong bottle, and when
nearly cold, add of rectified spirit, 3 pint ;
bruised ginger, 3% oz. ; macerate a week with
frequent agitation, and after repose for a few
days decant the clear portion, and add dilute
spirit (1 to 4), q. S. to make the whole measure
exactly a quart.
b. Take 8 times the quantity of senna and
ginger ordered in the Ph. L., put them into a
displacement apparatus, either alone or mixed
with clean washed sand, and transmit water,
mixed with 4th part of rectified spirit, through
the mass, until the proper quantity of infusion
is obtained.
c. (Wholesale.) Alexandrian senna (best),
7 lbs. ; unbleached Jamaica ginger (finest,
bruised), 3 lbs. ; rectified spirit and water, of
each, 1 gal.; macerate for 14 days, press out
the fluid, filter, and set it aside in a well-
corked bottle; then take of good East India
senna, 25 lbs. ; and the ‘pressings’ or ‘marc’
from the tincture, and macerate in the least
possible quantity (10 or 12 galls.) of cold dis-
tilled water, for 12 or 14 hours, employing fre-
quent agitation with a wooden spatula; next
press out the liquid, and again macerate the
‘marc’ in cold distilled water (5 or 6 galls.) for
2 hours; press, mix the two liquors, strain,
heat gradually to the boiling-point, carefully
separate the coagulated albumen, and after-
wards evaporate as quickly as possible to ex-
actly 9 quarts; put the liquid at once into a
vessel capable of holding 5 gallons, bung close
to exclude the air, and when nearly cold add
the ‘tincture’ obtained from the Alexandrian
senna and the ginger; the whole must now
be well agitated together, and allowed to
stand for a week, when the clear portion must
be carefully decanted into bottles (Winchester
quarts) for sale.
d. As the last, but employing hot water, and
limiting the period of the infusions to 2 hours
and 1 hour.
Obs. The preceding formulae are at present
employed in the wholesale trade, by nearly all
those houses that are most noted for the su-
perior quality of their CONCENTRATED IN-
FUSIONs.” The products of the whole are
excellent. That from c is very beautiful,
and contains all the valuable active matter
that it is possible to extract from the ingre-
dients, under the circumstances. It also keeps
well. The last one, like all preparations of
senna made with hot water, is apt to drop a
large deposit on standing, from which the last
portion of the infusion is obtained with diffi-
culty. They each furnish a liquid, of which
1 fl. dr. added to 7 fl. drs. of pure water forms
1 fl. oz. of a preparation precisely similar in
medicinal qualities to the INFUSUM SENNE
COMP.-Ph. L.
From the extreme bulkiness of senna, it
has become a practice with certain unprin-
cipled druggists to employ only 4 or # of the
proper quantity of that drug, and to add
burnt sugar or treacle to bring up the con-
sistence and colour, and alkaline solution of
gamboge to impart the necessary purgative
quality. CoNCENTRATED INFUSION OF SENNA,
as generally met with, is nearly worthless.
This arises from either the employment of
inferior senna, or the destruction of its active
principle, by the lengthened exposure to heat
and atmospheric oxygen during its manufac-
ture.
6. (With CoFFEE ; INFUSUM SENNA. CUM
CAFFEA, L.)—a. (Foy.) Senna, 2 drs. ; roasted
coffee (ground), 1 dr. ; boiling water and hot
milk, of each, 3 fl. oz. ; infuse for 12 hours
(4 P), and strain. For an adult ; to be taken
in the morning fasting.




634 INFUSION.
b. (Guersand and Blake.) Senna, 10 to 30
grs. (according to age); hot coffee and hot
milk, at will; infuse, and when cold, strain,
and sweeten it with sugar, q. s. As a purge
for children.
7. (With LEMON JUICE ; INFUSUM SENNA.
LIMONIATUM, L.) From senna, 1% oz. ; fresh
lemon peel, 1 oz. ; lemon juice, 1 fl. Oz. ; boiling
water, 16 fl. oz. ; infuse.
8. (With RHUBARB ; INFUSUM SENNAE ET
RHEI, L.-Ellis.) Senna, 6 drs. ; manna, 1 oz. ;
rhubarb and cardamoms, of each (bruised),
2 drs. ; boiling water, 1 pint ; infuse 1 hour
and strain.
9. (With TAMARINDs ; INFUSUM SENNAE
COMPOSITUM – Ph. E., SENNAE CUM TAMA-
RINDIS, L-Ph. E.) Senna, 3 drs. ; tamarinds,
1 oz. ; coriander seeds, 1 dr. ; sugar, 4 oz. ;
(if brown; 1 oz.); boiling water, 8 fl. oz. ; in-
fuse for 4 hours, with agitation, and then
strain through calico. Pleasanter than the
ordinary infusion of senna. -
10. (With TARTAR ; INFUSUM SENNA. TAR-
TARIZATUM, L.) From Senna, 1% oz. ; cori-
ander seeds, 4 drs. ; cream of tartar, 2 drs. ;
boiling water, 16 fl, oz.
Infusion of Ser'pentary. Syn. INFUSUM
SERPENTARIAE (B. P., Ph. L. & E.), L. Prep.
1. (B. P.) Serpentary, bruised, 1 oz. ; boiling
distilled water, 40 oz. ; infuse 2 hours, and
strain.— Dose. 1 to 2 oz.
2. (Ph. L.) Serpentary or Virginian snake-
root, # oz. ; boiling distilled water, 1 pint;
macerate for 4 hours in a closed vessel, and
strain. The form of the Ph. E. is similar. As
a stimulating expectorant and diaphoretic ; in
chronic catarrhs, low fevers, agues, &c.
3. (Compound ; INFUSUM SERPENTARIAE
COMPOSITUM, L.-Guy’s Hosp.) Virginian
snake-root and contrayerva, of each, 5 drs.;
boiling water, 1 pint ; macerate 2 hours, strain,
and when cold add of tincture of serpentary, 2
fl. oz. As the last.
Infusion of Simaru'ba. Syn. INFUSUM SI-
MARUBAE (B. P., Ph. E. & D.), L. Prep. 1.
(B. P.) Simaruba, bruised, 3 drs. ; boiling
water, 1 pint ; infuse 2 hours, and strain.—
IDose. 1 to 2 oz.
2. (Ph. E. & Ph. L. 1836.) Bark of the
bitter simaruba or mountain damson, 3 drs. ;
boiling water, 1 pint ; macerate 2 hours, and
strain.
3. (Ph. D.) Simaruba bark, 2 drs. ; boiling
water, 9 fl. oz. Tonic, and, in large doses,
emetic ; in chronic diarrhoea and dysentery,
either alone or combined with opium; and in
agues, dyspepsia, &c.
4. (Componnd; INFUSUM SIMARUBAE COM-
POSITUM, L.-Foy.) Simaruba bark and
wormwood, of each, 2 drs. ; boiling water, 1
pint; infuse for 15 minutes, strain, and add
of syrup of gentian, 1 fl. oz. In agues and
dyspepsia.
Infusion of Slip'pery Elm. Syn. INFUSUM
ULMI (Ph. U. S.), I. U. FULVE, L. Prep.
(Ph. U.S.) Inner bark of slippery elm (Ulmus
fulva), 1 oz. ; boiling water, 16 fl. Oz. ; infuse
for 2 hours, and strain. Demulcent.
Infusion of Soap-wort. Syn. INFUSUM SA-
PONARIAE, L. From soap-wort root (Saponaria
officinalis). Aperient and demulcent; also
reputed alterative and antisyphilitic.
Infusion of South'ernwood. Syn. SouTH-
ERNWOOD TEA ; INFUSUM ABROTANI, L. From
the herb southernwood or old man (Absinthium
Abrotanum). Antispasmodic, tonic, and ver-
mifuge; in hysteria, difficult and painful men-
struation, worms, &c.
Stimulant Infusion. Syn. INFUSUM STIMU-
LANs, L. Prep. (Dr. Paris.) Black mustard
seed (bruised) and dittander, of each, # oz. ;
boiling water, 16 fl. oz. ; macerate for 1 hour,
strain, and when cold add of spirit of sal-
volatile, 1 fl, dr. ; spirit of pimento, # fl. Oz.
—Dose. 2 table-spoonfuls, 3 times a day; in
palsy.
Infusion of Stink'ing Helſlebore. Syn. IN-
FUSUM HELLEBORI FOETIDI, L. Prep. (Wood-
ville.) Dried leaves of setter-wort or Hellebo-
rus foetidum, # dr. (or green herb, 2 drs);
boiling water, 16 fl. Oz. ; macerate 1 hour, and
strain. Aperient and vermifuge; and emetic,
in large doses. It is chiefly used against the
large round worms of children and females,
taken fasting.
Infusion of Suc'cory. Syn. CHICORY TEA;
INFUSUM CHICORII, L. From the dried root.
Aperient, deobstruent, and tonic; either alone
or sweetened with honey or sugar.
Infusion of Sweet Flag. Syn. CALAMUS
TEA, SWEET-FLAG. T. ; INFUSUM ACORI, I.
CALAMI AROMATICI, L. An aromatic stimu-
lant, tonic, and stomachic. See SWEET FIAG.
Infusion of Tam'arinds. Syn. INFUSUM
TAMARINDI, L. Cooling and laxative; in sore
throat, febrile affections, &c., taken ad libiţum.
See INFUSION OF SENNA.
Infusion of Tan’sy. Syn. TANSY TEA; IN-
FUSUM TANACETI, L. From the dried herb,
or the green herb, using double the quantity.
Aromatic, bitter, tonic, and vermifuge.
Infusion of Tar. Syn. TAR WATER, TAR
TEA ; INFUSUM PICIS LIQUIDAE, AQUA P. L.
(Ph. D.), L. Prep. 1. (Bishop Berkeley.)
Wood tar, 1 quart; cold water, 1 gal.; stir
with a stick for 15 minutes, then allow the
tar to subside, strain, and keep it in well-
stoppered jars.
2. (Ph. D.) As the last. Taken to the
extent of a pint daily in chronic catarrhal and
nephritic affections; also used as a lotion in
chronic cutaneous diseases, especially those of
the scalp in children. See DECOCTION.
Infusion of Taraxacum. See INFUSION OF .
DANDELION.
Infusion of Tobac'co. Syn. TOBACCOWATER;
INFUSUM TABACI, L. Prep. (Ph. D. 1826)
Tobacco leaves, 1 dr.; boiling water, 16 fl.oz. ;
macerate for an hour. Used for enemas; in
strangulated hermia, obstinate colic, &c., ob-
serving not to administer more than one half
at a time; also as a wash to kill pediculi.

INHALATION. - 635
Infusion, Tom'ic. See INFUSIONs of CA-
LUMBA, CASCARILLA, GENTIAN, &c., also MIX-
TURES.
Infusion of Tre'foil. See INFUSION OF
BUCKBEAN.
Infusion of Tuſlip-tree Bark. Syn. INFUSUM
IIRIOD ENDRI, L. From the bark of the tulip
tree (Liriodendron tulipifera). Diaphoretic,
stimulant, stomachic, and tonic ; in dyspepsia,
fevers, &c.; also used to flavour liquors.
Infusion of Tur'meric. Syn. INFUSUM CUR-
CUME, L. Used as a test and to prepare test-
paper. When required for keeping, about 1-7th
of its volume of rectified spirit must be added.
Infusion of Waler’ian. Syn. INFUSUM VA-
IERIANAE(B.L., Ph.L. & D.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.)
Valerian, bruised, 120 grs. ; boiling distilled
water, 10 oz.; infuse 1 hour and strain.—Dose.
l to 2 oz.
2. (Ph. L.) Valerian root, 3 oz. ; boiling dis-
tilled water, 1 part ; infuse for an hour in a
covered vessel, and strain.
3. (Ph. D.) Valerian, 2 drs. ; boiling water,
9 fl. oz. Antispasmodic and nervine; in hys-
teria, hypochondriasis, epilepsy, and low fevers.
4. (Compound; INFUSUM VALERIANE COM-
POSITUM, L.) Yellow cinchona bark, 1 oz. ;
valerian, ; oz. ; boiling water, 1 pint; as
before. In debilitated nervous habits.
Infusion of Wamilla. Syn. VANILLA TEA;
INFUSUM VANILLE, L. Prep. Vanilla, 1% dr.;
boiling water, 1 pint. A stimulant antispas-
modic ; in hysteria, rheumatism, anaphrodisia,
&c.; but chiefly used as a flavouring for
liqueurs, confectionery, &c.
Infusion of Wittie Wayr. Syn. WITTIE VAYR
TEA ; INFUSUM VETIVERIAE, L. From the
roots of Andropogon muricatus (VETIVER,
VITTIE VAYR, or CUSCUs). Antispasmodic,
diaphoretic, and stimulant, and, when warm,
diaphoretic and emmenagogue; in rheumatism,
gout, slight febrile cases, &c.; and as a pro-
phylactic of cholera. See ESSENCE.
Infusion of Wall-pellitory. Syn. INFUSUM
PARIETARIAE, L. From the dried herb (Parie-
taria officinalis). Aperient, diuretic, and pec-
toral; in asthmas, dropsies, calculous affec-
tions, &c.
Infusion of Wal'mut Leaves. Syn. WALNUT-
LEAF TEA ; INFUSUM JUGLANDIs, L. From
the fresh leaves of the common walnut (Juglans
regia); also from the inner wood-bark, and the
green rind of the fruit. See DECOCTION and
ExTRACT.
Infusion of Water-fen'nel. Syn. INFUSUM
PHELLANDRI, L. Prep. (Bird.) Seeds of
water-fennel, 5 drs. ; boiling water, 1 pint.
— Dose. 3 to 4 fl. dr.s., to check excessive ex-
pectoration.
Infusion of Whor'tleberry. Syn. INFUSUM
UVAE URSI, L. With alkalies, henbane, or
opium, in diseases of the urinary organs; and
with sulphuric acid and foxglove, in affections
of the lungs. See DECOCTION and EXTRACT.
Note.—Infusum Uvae Ursi of the Brit. Phar-
macopoeia.
Infusion of Wild-cherry Bark. Syn. INFU-
SUM PRUNI VIRGINIANA (Ph. U.S.), L. Prep.
(Ph. U. S.) Wild cherry-tree bark (Prunus
Virginiana or Cerasus Serotina), 3 oz.: cold
water, 16 fl. oz. ; infuse 24 hours, and strain.
A valuable tonic and febrifuge. Wild-cherry
bark also exercises a sedative action on the
circulatory and nervous system, and is much
used in America in a variety of diseases.
Infusion of Wild Ginger. Syn. INFUSUM
ASARI CANADENSIS, L. From the root of wild
ginger or Canada snake-root (Asarum Cana-
dense). A warm stimulant diaphoretic; in
the same cases as INFUSION OF VIRGINIAN
SNARE-ROOT.
Infusion of Willow Bark. Syn. INFUSUM
SALICIS, L. From the bark of the white or
common willow (Salia alba). Astringent,
tonic, and febrifuge; often used instead of
INFUSION OF CINCEIONA.
Infusion of Winter Green, Syn. INFUSUM
PYROLE, I. CHIMAPHILAE, L. Astringent,
tonic, and diuretic; in dropsy, nephritic pains,
and chronic affections of the urinary organs.
It blackens the urine, like uva ursi. See
DECOCTION.
Infusion of Wood Soot. Syn. Soot TEA;
INFUSUM FULIGINIS LIGNI, L. Antacid and
stimulant. A similar preparation is also made
from coal-soot, which is reputed antispasmodic
and vermifuge.
Infusion of Worm"wood. Syn. WoRMwooD
TEA; INFUSUM ABSINTHII, L. From the
fresh tops of the plant, or from only half the
quantity of the dried herb. In loss of ap-
petite, dyspepsia, amenorrhoea, leucorrhoea,
gout, worms, &c. See BITTERS.
INHALATION. Syn. INHALATIO, L. In
medicine, the drawing in or inspiring of vapour



with the breath. Inhalafi TIONEs)
are vapours or gases iſbibed for the purpose
of medicating the muéous membrane of the
air-passages. The substances that are tofurnish
the vapours or fumes are put into a vessel called
an “inhaler,” (see INHALER), which may be
simply a small covered pot or mug of metal or
glass, furnished with a short flexible tube,
terminating in a small mouth-piece. In many
cases even this simple apparatus may be dis-
pensed with, and the fumes inhaled by holding
the head over a vessel containing a little of
the substance furnishing them; or, as with
chloroform, a little may be dropped on a
handkerchief or napkin, which is then held to
the nose.
The following are the principal substances
that, are employed for inhalations at the
present day :-
1. Carbonic acid gas and nitrous oxide;
occasionally used in phthisis, by means of a
bladder and mouth-piece.
2. Chlorine gas; exhibited by adding 5 or
6 drops of aqueous chlorine to the water
(tºpid) of the inhaler, which should be, in
this case, of glass; employed in France for
hthisis, but seldom used in England.



636 - INJECTION.
3. Chloroform; as an anaesthetic.
4. Vapour of iodine, administered in the
same way as chlorine; occasionally used in
phthisis.
5. Oxygen and hydrogen gases, either alone
or diluted with air; employed in asthma and
phthisis, by means of a bladder and mouth-
piece.
6. Tar vapour, obtained by heating tar,
mixed with a little carbonate of potash, over
a spirit lamp, occasionally employed in bron-
chitis, and recommended by Sir A. Crighton
in phthisis, but appears of little value in the
latter.
7. Steam of hot water ; in bronchitis, and to
allay the cough in phthisis; small quantities
of the seeds of henbane, opium, poppy-heads,
&c., are frequently added to produce an anodyne
effect. See CIGARs (in pharmacy), DISIN-
FECTANTS, FUMIGATION, &c.
INJECTION. Syn. INJECTIO, L. In me-
dicine, any liquid medicine thrown into a
cavity of the body by means of a syringe or
an elastic bag. Those thrown into the rectum
are commonly called ‘clysters’ or “enemata,’
and are noticed under the head of ENEMA.
The following are the principal injections em-
ployed in medical practice at the present
day —
Injection of Ac'etate of Ammo"mia. Syn.
INJECTIO AMMONIAE ACETATIs, L. Prep.
(Ph. Chirur.) Solution of acetate of ammonia
(Ph. L.), 1 part ; water, 3 parts. Refrigerant.
Injection of Ac'etate of Cop'per. Syn. IN-
JECTIO CUPRI ACETATIS, L. Prep. From ver-
digris, 10 grs. ; oil of almonds (hot), 4% oz.;
triturate until dissolved, and strain. Deter-
gent.
Injection of Ac'etate of Lead. Syn. INTEC-
TIO PLUMBIACETATIs, L. Prep 1. Sugar of
lead, ; dr. ; distilled water, , pint.
2. (Dr. Collier.) Acetate of lead, 40 grs.;
rose water, 8 fl. Oz. Astringent and sedative.
See SEDATIVE INJECTION.
Injection of Ac'etate of Ziºc. Syn. INTEC-
TIO ZINCI ACETATIs, L. Prep. 1. (Ellis.)
Acetate of zinc, 8 grs. ; rose water, 4 fl. oz.
2. (Brodie.) Sulphate of zinc, 1 dr. ; sugar,
of lead, 80 grs. ; water, 1 pint; dissolve sepa-
rately, mix, and filter. Astringent.
Injection, Alkaline. Syn. INJECTIO ALKA-
LINA, I. LITHONTRIPTICA, L. Prep. (Che-
vallier.) Carbonate of soda, 1 dr.; Castile soap,
2 drs. ; water, 12 fl. oz. ; dissolve. In certain
forms of calculus. º
Injection of Al'um. Syn. INJECTIO ALU-
MINIS, L. Prep. 1. (Dr. Collier.) Alum,
18 grs. ; rose-water, 6 fl. Oz. ; dissolve. For
the urethra. -
2. (Collier.) Alum, 3 drs.; water, 1 quart.
For the vagina. 1.
3. (Ph. Ch.) Alum, 4 grs. ; rose-water, 4 fl.
oz. The above are all astringent. -
Injection of Ammo"nia. Syn. INJECTIO
AMMONIE, L. Prep. 1. (Dr. Ashwell.) Li-
quor of ammonia, 1 to 2 fl. drs. ; milk, 1 pint.
In obstructed menstruation.
2. (Lavagna.) Liquor of ammonia, 8 to 20
drops; milk, 2 fl. oz. As the last, thrice
daily, beginning with the least quantity of
ammonia.
3. Liquor of ammonia, 1 fl. dr.; mucilage,
1 oz. ; water, 9 fl. oz. As the last.
Injection of Ammo"mio-Sulphate of Copper.
Syn. INJECTIO CUPRI AMMONIATI, L. Prep.
(Swediaur.) Ammonio-sulphate of copper, 5grs. ;
rose water, 8 fl. oz. In chronic gonorrhoea.
Injection of Bichlo"ride of Mercury. Syn.
INJECTIO HYDRARGYRI BICHLORIDI, L. Prep.
1. Corrosive sublimate, 2 grs. ; rose water, 5 fl.
Oz.: hydrochloric acid, 1 drop.
2. Corrosive sublimate and sal-ammoniac, of
each, 5 to 10 gr. ; waters, 1 pint.
3. Sublimate, 5 grs. ; rose water, 2} fl. Oz.
Used to promote healthy action, and to pre-
vent infection.
Injection of Cal'omel. Syn. INJECTIO CALO-
MELANOS, I. HYDRARGYRICHLORIDI, L. Prep.
(St. B. Hosp.) Calomel, 1 dr.; mucilage, 1 fl.
oz. ; water, , pint. Some persons order ‘quince
mucilage.”
Injection of Car"bonate of Lead. Syn. IN-
JECTIO CERUSSE, I. PLUMBI CARBONATIS, L.
Prep. (Hosp. F.) Carbonate of lead (finely
levigated), ; dr. ; sulphate of zinc, 8 grs. ; mu-
cilage, 1 oz. ; rose water, 5 oz. Cooling and
astringent.
Injection of Chlo"ride of Lime. Syn. IN-
JECTIO CALCIS HYPOCHLORIS, L. Prep. 1.
Chloride of lime, , dr. ; water, # pint; agi-
tate well together, and filter. To prevent in-
fection.
2. (Detmold.) Chloride of lime, 2 drs. ; de-
coction of rhatany, 13 fl, oz. ; dissolve, and
filter. In foul discharges, especially in Ozaena.
or foetid ulceration of the nose.
3. (Rousse.) Chloride of lime, 20 grs.;
water, 7 fl. oz. ; wine of opium, 1 fl. Oz. In
foul discharges, and to allay irritation.
Injection of Chlo"ride of Soda. Syn. IN-
JECTIO SODE HYPOCHLORIs, L. Prep. From
solution of chloride of soda, 1 fl. dr. ; rose
water, 3 fl. oz. As the last.
Injection of Chlo"ride of Zinc, Syn. IN-
JECTIO ZINCI CHLORIDI, L. Prep. From chlo-
ride of zinc, 2 grs. ; rose water, 3 fl. Oz.; hy-
drochloric acid, 1 drop. In gonorrhoea.
Injection of Copai'ba. Syn. INJECTIO CO-
PAIBAE, L. Prep. 1. (Abernethy.) Copaiba,
2 drs. ; thick mucilage, 5 drs. ; lime water,
6 fi, oz. ; make an emulsion.
2. (Plenck.) Copaiba, 4 oz. ; yolk of egg,
q. S.; lime water, 6 fl. oz. ; honey of roses, 3 oz.
As the last.
3. (Ricord.) Copaiba, 6 drs. ; yolk of egg,
q. S.; decoction of poppies, 3 to 4 fl. Oz. In
ulcers of the rectum, vagina, and urethra;
and in gonorrhoea.
Injection of Creasote. Syn. INJECTIO CREA-
SOTI, L. Prep. (Dr. Allmatt.) Creasote, 20
drops; white sugar, 2 drs. ; liquor of potassa, 2
s

TNJTCTION.
636
fl. drs. ; triturate, and add of water, 8 fl. oz.
In leucorrhoea and piles.
Injection of Cu’bebs. Syn. INJECTIO CU-
BEBAE, L. Prep. (Soubeiran.) Cubebs (in pow-
der), 1 oz. ; extract of belladonna, 1 dr. ;
boiling water, 16 fl. oz. ; infuse in a covered
vessel, and strain. Stimulant and narcotic.
In gomorrhoea and leucorrhoea.
Injection for the Ear. Syn. INJECTIO ACOUS-
TICA, L. Prep. 1. Ox-gall, 3 drs. ; balsam of
Peru, 1 dr. ; mix. In hardened wax, dryness
of membranes, &c.
2. Oil of almonds or olives, 2 oz. ; oil of
amber, 20 drops; tincture of castor, 1 fl. dr. ;
spirit of camphor, dr.; laudanum, 3 drops;
mix. In ear-ache and chronic deafness.
3. (Alibert.) Balsam of Peru, 2 drs. ; tincture |
of musk, 4 or 5 drops; otto of roses, 1 or 2
drops; decoction of St. John’s wort (warm), 16
fl. oz. ; agitate together, and after repose
decant the clear. In discharges from the
ear.
Obs. Mr. Yearsley states that drops and
injections for the ear should be used with very
great caution, and only under proper advice,
as they otherwise often aggravate the ailment,
instead of curing it.
Injection of Er'got, Syn. INJECTIO ERGOTAE,
I. SECALIS CORNUTI, L. Prep. 1. (Boudin.)
Ergot, 1 dr. ; boiling water, 8 fl. oz. ; infuse
until cold. When the urethra is highly sen-
sitive.
2. (Descrolles.) Powdered ergot, 1 oz. ; boil-
ing water, 1 pint. Both the above are used in
chronic inflammation of the vagina, and in
gonorrhoea.
Injection of Gallic Acid. Syn. INJECTIO
ACIDI GALLICI, L. Prep. (Dunglison.) Gallic
acid, dr. ; water, 1 pint. In leucorrhoea.
Injection of Galls. Syn. INJECTIO GALLE,
L. Prep. From galls (bruised), 2 drs. ; boiling
water, 1 pint ; infuse 1 hour, and strain.
Astringent; in leucorrhoea.
Injection of Hydrochlo"ric Acid. Syn. IN-
JECTIO . ACIDI HYDROCHLORICI, L. Prep.
From hydrochloric acid, 10 drops; soft water,
5 fl. oz. To prevent and to remove recent
infection; also to remove particles of lime and
iron from the eye.
Injection of Hydrocyan'ic Acid. Syn. IN-
JECTIO ACIDI HYDROCYANICI, L. Prep. Me-
dicinal hydrocyanic acid, 1 fl. dr. ; soft water
or almond emulsion, ; pint. Anodyne; to allay
excessive irritability, both in chronic ophthal-
mia and gonorrhoea, and to relieve chordee;
but in all cases it must be used with caution,
and at first largely diluted with water.
Injection of Iodide of Iron. Syn. INJECTIO
FERRI IoDIDI, L. Prep. 1. (Ricord.) Iodide
of iron, 6 grs. ; water, 5 fl. Oz. In gonorrhoea,
gradually increasing the quantity of iodide.
2. (Soubeiran.) Iodide of iron, 3 to 4 drs. ;
water, 1 pint. In suppressed and painful
menstruation, leucorrhoea, &c. Both are a-
stringent and well adapted to scrofulous pa-
tients.
Injection of I'odide of Potas'sium. Syn. IN-
JECTIO POTASSII IODIDI, L. Prep. (Foy.)
Iodide of potassium, 3 grs. ; pure water, 1 pint.
As a stimulant to fistulous sinuses and ulcers
in persons of scrofulous habits.
Injection of Iodine, Syn. IODURETTED IN-
JECTION; INJECTIO IODURETA, I. IODINII, L.
Prep. 1. (M. Ameuille.) Tincture of iodine,
1 part; water, 5 or 6 parts. In refractory
fistulae.
2. (M. Bonnet.) Iodine, 1 part; iodide of
potassium, 2 parts; water, 10 parts. In scro-
fulous hydrarthrosis, &c.
3. (Bransby Cooper.) Compound tincture of
iodine, 2 fl. drs. ; water, 6 fl. drs. In hydro-
cele.
4. (Guibourt.) Iodine, 4 grs. ; iodide of po-
tassium, 8 grs. ; water, 1 pint. To stimulate
fistulous sinuses.
5. (Welpeau.) Tincture of iodine, 1 fl. dr.;
water, 3 fl. drs. In hydrocele.
Lithontrip"tic Injection. Syn. INJECTIO
LITHONTRIPTICA, I. VESICALIS, L. Prep. (Dr.
Hoskins.) Nitro-saccharate of lead, 1 gr. ;
saccharic acid, 5 drops; rub together, then
add of distilled water, 1 fl. oz. As a solvent for
phosphatic calculi. See ALKALINE INJECTION.
Mercu"rial Injection. Syn. INJECTIO MER-
CURIALIS, I. HYDRARGYRI, L. 1. Prep. 1. Quick-
silver, 1 dr. ; gum mucilage, 1% oz. ; triturate
until the globules disappear, and gradually add
of water, 1}; fl. oz.
2. (Hosp. F.) Quicksilver and balsam of
copaiba, of each, 4 drs. ; yoke of an egg; rose
water, , pint. An awkward and useless pre-
paration.
Injection of Mor'phia. Syn. INJECTIO MOR-
PHIAE, L. Prep. (Brera.) Morphia, 2 grs. ; oil
of almonds (warm), 1 oz. ; triturate together
until united. Anodyne and emollient. To
ease the pain in ear-ache, acute gonorrhoea,
piles, &c.
Injection of Nitrate of Silver. Syn. IN-
JECTIO ARGENTI NITRATIS, L. Prep. 1.
(Acton.) Nitrate of silver, 3 grs. ; distilled
water, pint; dissolve.
2. (Dr. Arnott). Nitrate, 12 grs. ; water,
1 fl. oz.
3. (Dr. Collier.) Nitrate, 2 grs. ; rose water,
1 fl. oz.
4. (Dr. Culverwell.) Nitrate, 20 to 30 grs. ;
water, 1 fl. oz.
5. (Dr. Jewell.)
6 fl. oz.
6. (Ricord.) Nitrate, 8 grs.; water, 1 fl. oz.
7. (West. Hosp.) Nitrate, 1. gr. ; diluted
nitric acid, 14 minim ; distilled water, 1 fl. oz.
Obs. The weaker solutions are used in
chronic gonorrhoea, gleet, and leucorrhoea;
those of an intermediate strength to prevent
an attack of gonorrhoea following the inci-
pient symptoms of that disease; and the
strongest, chiefly in spermatorrhoea. Their
use requires great caution.
Injection of Oak Bark. Syn. INJECTIO
QUERCUs. Prep. (Univ. Hosp.) Alum, 6 grs. ;
Nitrate, 12 grs.; water,


638 INK.
decoction of oak bark, 1 fl.oz. For the vagina.
Astringent.
Injection of 0"pium. Syn. INJECTIo op11,
I. OPIATA, L. Prep. 1. Tincture of opium or
wine of opium, 1 to 2 fl. drs. (according to
circumstances); water, 5 fl. oz. As an ano-
dyne, in gonorrhoea.
2. (Foy.) Extract of opium, 6 grs. ; extract
of belladonna, 1% dr. ; decoction of wild let-
tuce, 16 fl. Oz. In neuralgia and haemor-
rhages.
Sed’ative Injection. Syn. INJECTIO SEDA-
TIVA, L. Prep. (Hosp. F.) Oil of almonds,
1 oz.; solution of diacetate of lead, 20 drops.
Cooling, sedative, and emollient.
2. (Wendt.) Aqueous extract of opium,
1} gr. ; mucilage, 2 drs. ; solution of diacetate
of lead, 4 drops; water, 2 fl. oz. Cooling, se-
dative, and anodyne.
3. (Gassincourt.) Simple emulsion, 5 fl. oz. ;
decoction of poppies, 16 fl. Oz.; white of 1 egg;
mix. In acute gonorrhoea.
Stimulating Injection, Syn. INJECTIO
STIMULANS, L. Prep. (St. Marie.) Myrrh,
1 oz. ; quicklime, 2 oz. ; water, 1 quart; digest
for 2 or 3 days, and decant the clear portion.
In fistulous ulcers.
Injection of Sulphate of Copper. Syn. IN-
JECTIO CUPRI SULPHATIs, L. Prep. 1 Sul-
phate of copper, 5 grs. ; rose water, 4 fl. Oz.
In chronic gonorrhoea.
2. (Hunter.) Sulphate of copper, 3 grs. ;
water, 4 fl. oz. As the last. -
3. (Swediaur.) Sulphate of copper, 6 grs.;
water, 4 fl. oz. ; dissolve, and add solution of
diacetate of lead, 20 drops. In phimosis.
Injection of Sul’phate of Iron. Syn. IN-
JECTIO FERRI SULPHATIS, L. Prep. (Berends.)
Sulphate of iron and mucilage, of each, ; dr.;
Sage water, 4 fl. Oz. ; dissolve. In nasal and
uterine hamorrhages.
Injection of Sul’phate of Zinc, Syn. INJEC-
TIO ZINCI SULPHATIs. Prep. 1. (Hosp. F.)
Sulphate of zinc, 2 grs. ; water, 1 fl. oz.
2. (King’s Coll.—INJECTIO COMMUNIs.)—a.
Sulphate of zinc, 3 grs. ; solution of lead, 20
drops; water, 1 fl. oz. For a man. b. Sul-
phate of zinc, 10 grs. ; alum, 10 grs. ; decoction
of oak bark, 1 fl. oz. For a woman.
Injection of Sulphuret of Potas'sium. Syn.
INJECTIO POTASSII SULPHURETI, L. Prep.
(Wedekind.) Sulphuret of potassium, 1 dr. ;
water, pint. In gonorrhoea.
Injection of Tan’mic Acid. Syn. INJECTIo
TANNINI, I. ACIDI TANNICI, L. Prep. (Béral.)
Tannin, ; dr. ; distilled water, 8 fl. oz. (or
better, pint). In gleet and leucorrhoea.
Injection of Tea. Syn. INJECTIO THEAE, L.
Prep. (Hosp. F.) Green tea (or rough black
tea), 1 dr. (say 2 teaspoonfuls); boiling water,
# pint. Astringent; in gleet and fluor albus.
Winous Injection, Syn. INJECTIO VINI
RUBRI, I. VINOSA, L. Prep. (Earle.) Red
wine, 1 part; water, 2 or 3 parts. In hydro-
cele.
INK. Syn. ATRAMENTUM, L. Coloured
store-cask or jars.
liquid employed for writing with a pen. Ink
is made of various substances and colours; but
at present we shall confine our attention to the
tanno-gallic compounds, to which the term,
when standing alone, is almost exclusively
applied.
Prep. 1. Aleppo galls (well bruised), 4 oz. ;
clean soft water, 1 quart; macerate in a clean
corked bottle for 10 days or a fortnight, or
even longer, with frequent agitation, then add
of gum arabic (dissolved in a wine-glassful of
water, 14 oz. ; lump sugar, 3 oz. ; mix well,
and afterwards further add of sulphate of iron
(green copperas, crushed small), 1% oz. ; agi-
tate occasionally for 2 or 3 days, when the
ink may be decanted for use, but is better if
the whole is left to digest together for 2 or 3
weeks. When time is an object, the whole of
the ingredients may at once be put into a
bottle, and the latter agitated daily until the
ink is made; and boiling water instead of cold
water may be employed. Product. 1 quart of
excellent ink, writing pale at first, but soon
turning intensely black.
2. Aleppo galls (bruised), 12 lbs. ; soft water,
6 galls.; boil in a copper vessel for 1 hour,
adding more water to make up for the portion
lost by evaporation ; strain, and again boil the
galls with water, 4 galls.; for # an hour; strain
off the liquor, and boil a third time with water,
2% galls., and strain; mix the several liquors,
and while still hot, add of green copperas
(coarsely powdered), 4} lbs. ; gum arabic
(bruised small), 4 lbs. ; agitate until dissolved,
and after defecation strain through a hair
sieve, and keep it in a bunged-up cask
for use. Prod., 12 galls.; very fine and
durable.
3. Aleppo galls (bruised), 14 lbs. ; gum, 51bs.;
put them in a small cask, and add of boiling
soft water, 15 galls. ; allow the whole to mace-
rate, with frequent agitation, for a fortnight,
then further add of green copperas, 5 lbs., (dis-
solved in) water, 7 pints; again mix well, and
agitate the whole once daily for 2 or 3 weeks.
Prod. Fully 15 galls. Resembles No. 1.
4. Galls (bruised), 9 lbs. ; logwood chips
(best Campeachy), 3 lbs. ; boil as in No. 2; to
the strained mixed liquors, add of gum arabic
and green copperas, of each (bruised small),
4 lbs. ; simmer or digest until dissolved, and
at once strain through a hair sieve into the
Prod. 16% galls. Excellent,
but inferior to the preceding.
5. Galls (bruised), 2 lbs. ; logwood chips,
green copperas, and gum, of each, 1 lb.; water,
7 galls.; boil 2 hours, and strain. Prod, 5
galls. A superior ink for retail.
6. Galls (bruised), 1 lb.; logwood, 2 lbs.;
gum (common), 1 lb.; green copperas, # lb.;
water, 8 galls.; proceed as last, Prod. 6 galls.
Common, but fit for all ordinary purposes.
The following formulae are for some of the
advertised inks, or are those recommended by

the authorities whose names are attached to
them:—
º

INK.
639
7. (ANTI-CoEROSIVE.) Same as ‘Asiatic
Ink.”
8. (ASIATIC.) Galls, 4 lbs. ; logwood, 2 lbs.;
pomegranate peel, 1 lb. ; soft water, 5 galls. ;
boil as in No. 2, then add to the strained and
decanted liquor, when cold, of gum arabic,
1 lb.; lump sugar or sugar candy, # lb. ; dis-
solved in water, 3 pints. Prod. 4% galls.
Writes pale, but flows well from the pen, and
soon gets black.
9. (Brande.) Galls, 6 oz. ; green copperas
and gum arabic, of each, 4 oz. ; soft water,
3 quarts; by decoction.
10. (Chaptal.) As No. 4 (nearly), adding
sulphate of copper, 3 lb. Full coloured, but
less durable and anticorrosive than the pre-
ceding.
11. (Desormeaux.) Galls, 1 lb. ; logwood
chips, 4 oz. ; water, 6 quarts; boil 1 hour,
strain 5 quarts, add of sulphate of iron (cal-
cined to whiteness), 4 oz. ; brown sugar, 3 oz.;
gum, 6 oz. ; acetate of copper, 3 oz. ; agitate
twice a day for a fortnight, then decant the
clear, bottle, and cork up for use. Writes a
full black, and otherwise resembles No. 10.
12. (Elsner.) Galls (powdered), 42 oz.; gum
Senegal (powdered), 15 oz. ; distilled or rain
water, 18 quarts; sulphate of iron (free from
copper), 18 oz. ; liquor of ammonia, 3 drs.;
spirit of wine, 24 oz.; mix these ingredients in
an open vessel, stirring frequently until the
ink attains the desired blackness. This for-
mula is said to give a deep black, neutral ink,
that does not corrode steel pens.
13. (ExCHEQUER.) Galls (bruised), 40 lbs.
(say 4 parts); gum, 10 lbs. (say 1 part); green
sulphate of iron, 9 lbs. (say 1 part); soft water,
45 galls. (say 45 parts); macerate for 3 weeks,
employing frequent agitation. “This ink will
endure for centuries.”
14. (Guibourt.) Galls (in powder), 50 parts;
hot water, 800 parts; digest 24 hours, strain,
and add of green sulphate of iron and gum
arabic, of each 25 parts; when dissolved, add
the following solution and mix well:—Sal-
ammoniac, 8 parts; gum, 2 parts; oil of laven-
der, 1 part; boiling water, 16 parts. Said to
be indelible.
15. (JAPAN.) This is a black and glossy
kind of ink, which may be prepared from
either of the above receipts by calcining the
copperas until white or yellow, or by sprink-
ling it (in powder) with a little nitric acid
before adding it to the decoction (preferably
the former), by which the ink is rendered of a
full black as soon as made. The glossiness is
given by using more gnm. It flows less easily
from the pen than other inks, and is less dura-
ble than ink that writes paler and afterwards
turns black. It is unfitted for steel pens.
16. (Lewis.) Bruised galls, 3 lbs. ; gum and
sulphate of iron, of each, 1 lb.; vinegar, 1 gal.;
water, 9 quarts; macerate with frequent agi-
tation for 14 days. To produce 3 galls. Fine
quality, but apt to act on steel pens.
17. (PREROGATIVE CourT.) Galls, 1 lb. ;
gum arabic, 6 oz. ; alum, 2 oz. ; green vitriol,
7 oz. ; kino, 3 oz. ; logwood raspings, 4 oz. ;
soft water, 1 gall.; macerate as last. Said to
write well on parchment.
18. (Ribaucourt.) Galls, 1 lb.; logwood chips
and sulphate of iron, of each lb.; gum, 6 oz.;
sulphate of copper and sugar candy, of each,
1 oz. ; boil the first two in soft water, 2% galls,
to one half, then add the other ingredients.
Full coloured, but somewhat corrosive, as
No. 10.
19. (Dr. Ure.) Galls, 12 lbs. ; green copperas
and gum Senegal, of each, 5 lbs. ; as No. 2
(nearly). To produce 12 galls.
20. (Dr. Wollaston.) Galls, 1 oz. ; sulphate
of iron, 3 drs. ; gum, # oz. ; cold water, pint;
put into a bottle and shaken together every
day for a fortnight or longer. A good, durable
ink, which will bear diluting.
General commentary. According to the most
accurate experiments on the preparation of black
ink, it appears that the quantity of sulphate of
iron should not exceed ºrd part of that of the
galls, by which an excess of astringent vegeta-
ble matter, which is necessary for the durability
of the colour, is preserved in the liquid. Gum,
by shielding the writing from the action of
the air, tends to preserve the colour; but if
much is employed, the ink flows languidly
from quill pens, and scarcely at all from steel
pens. The latter require a very limpid ink.
The addition of sugar (especially of moist sugar)
increases the flowing property of the liquid,
but makes it dry more slowly, and frequently
to pass into an acetous state, in which con-
dition it acts injuriously on the pen. Vinegar,
for a like reason, is not calculated for the men-
struum, as it rapidly softens quill or horn, and
corrodes iron and steel.
To ensure the permanency of the colour of
the tanno-gallic inks, the best Aleppo or blue
nut-galls must alone be used. No second or
inferior quality should be employed. A con-
trary practice, often adopted for the sake of
economy, is nearly always followed by un-
pleasant results, and often by considerable
loss. -
The only improvement of importance which
has been made in the manufacture of writing
ink from the common materials, during the last
few years, is the practice of first roasting the
gall-nuts, which is now adopted by a few of
the houses most celebrated for their COPYING
INK. In this way a portion of pyrogallic acid .
is formed, which is very soluble in water, and
strikes an intense bluish-black colour with the
protosulphate or green sulphate of iron. From
galls so treated an ink may be made to write
black at once. Care must, however, be taken
to avoid any loss of materials by volatiliza-
tion.
To prevent any tendency to mouldiness in
ink, a few bruised cloves, or a little oil of
cloves, or, still better, a few drops of creasote
(carbolic acid) may be added. The last two
should be previously dissolved in a small quan-

640 INK.
tity of strong vinegar, or rectified spirit.
With the same intention, some of the large
makers allow the ink to become covered with
a skin of “mould' in the cask, to render it
less liable to undergo the same change when
subsequently bottled. Formerly, the practice
was to add a little spirit for the same pur-
pose.
Sumach, logwood, and oak-bark, are fre-
quently substituted for galls in the prepara-
tion of common ink. When such is the case,
only about ºth or 4th of their weight of
copperas should be employed. Inks so made
possess little durability.
The very general use of steel pens of late
years has caused a corresponding demand for
easy-flowing inks, many of which are now
vended under the titles of WRITING-FLUID,
STEEL-PEN INK, ANTICORROSIVE INK, &c.
The greater number of these are prepared
from galls in the preceding manner; but a
less quantity of gum is employed, and greater
attention is paid than heretofore to avoid every
source of ‘greasiness,” among which smoke and
dirty utensils are, perhaps, the principal. The
blue “writing fluids,” which either maintain
their colour or turn black by exposure to the
air, are, in general, prepared from ferrocyanide
of potassium, or from indigo, and are fully
noticed in another place. COPYING INK, ano-
ther variety of ink of recent introduction, is
characterised by its suitableness to metallic
pens, and by furnishing a transcript by means
of the ‘copying press’ or ‘copying machine.’
(See below.)
The inks prepared by the first four of the
above formulae are very durable and limpid,
and will bear dilution with nearly an equal
bulk of water, and still be superior in quality
to the ordinary inks of the shops. See GALLs,
IRON, WRITING FIUID, and below.
Blue and Blue-black Ink. See WRITING
FLUID.
Brown Ink. 1. A strong decoction of
catechu; the shade may be varied by the
cautious addition of a little weak solution of
bichromate of potash.
2. A strong decoction of logwood with a
very little bichromate of potash.
Chrome Ink. See GREEN INK and WRITING
FLUID.
Col'oured Ink. Inks of various colours may
be made from a strong dccoction of the in-
gredients used in dyeing, mixed with a little
alum or other substance used as a mordant,
and gum arabic. Any of the ordinary water-
colour cakes employed in drawing, diffused
through water, may also be used as coloured
ink. See BROWN, GREEN, and RED INKS,
&c. -
Copying Ink. This is usually prepared by
adding a little sugar or other saccharine matter
to ordinary black ink, which for this purpose
should be very rich in colour, and preferably
made of galls prepared by heat, as noticed
above. Writing executed with this ink may
be copied within the space of 5 or 6 hours,
by passing it through a press (COPYING PRESS)
in contact with thin unsized paper (BANK
POST), slightly damped, enclosed between two
sheets of thick oiled or waxed paper, when a
reversed transcript will be obtained, which
will read in proper order when the back of
the copy is turned upwards. In the absence
of a press, a copy may be taken, when the ink
is good and the writing very recent, by roll-
ing the sheets, duly arranged on a ruler, over
the surface of a flat smooth table, employing
as much force as possible, and avoiding any
slipping or crumpling of the paper. Another
method is to pass a warm flat-iron over the
paper laid upon the writing. The following
proportions are employed:–
1. Sugar candy or lump sugar, 1 oz. ; or
treacle or moist sugar, 14 oz. ; rich black ink,
13 pint; dissolve.
2. Malt wort, 1 pint ; evaporate it to the
consistence of a syrup, and then dissolve it in
good black ink, 14 pint.
3. Solazza juice, 2 oz.; mild ale, 3 pint;
dissolve, strain, and triturate with lampblack
(previously heated to dull redness in a covered
vessel), # oz. ; when the mixture is complete,
add of strong black ink, 1% pint, mix well,
and in 2 or 3 hours decant the clear.
Obs. After making the above mixtures, they
must be tried with a common steel pen, and if
they do not flow freely, some more unprepared
ink should be added until they are found to
do so.
Gold Ink. From gold in the state of an
impalpable powder, ground up with a little
gum water. The brilliancy of the writing
performed with this ink is considerable, and
may be increased by burnishing.
Green Ink. 1. From sap green dissolved in
very weak alum water.
2. A strong solution of binacetate of copper
in water, or of verdigris in vinegar.
3. (Klaproth.) Werdigris, 2 oz. ; cream of
tartar, 1 oz. ; water, 3 a pint ; boil to one half,
and filter.
4. (Winckler.) Bichromate of potassa, 3
parts; hot water, 8 parts; dissolve, add of
rectified spirit, 4 parts, mix, and further add
of sulphuric acid, q. S. to liberate the chromic
acid, avoiding excess; next evaporate to one
half, dilute with water, filter, and add to the
filtrate rectified spirit, 4 parts, together with
3 or 4 drops of sulphuric acid (if required), to
precipitate any remaining potash salt; lastly,
decant and preserve the liquid until it assumes
a rich green colour.
5. A solution of recently precipitated hy-
drated oxide of chromium in liquor of am-
monia, diluted with distilled water, q. s. A
magnificent dark-green liquid, perfectly anti-
corrosive.
Horticultural Ink. Prep. 1. Chloride of
platinum, # oz. ; soft water, 1 pint; dissolve,
and preserve it in glass. Used with a clean
quill to write on zinc labels. It almost imme-


iNK. 641
--Offs.
diately turns black, and cannot be removed by
washing. The addition of gum and lamp-
black, as recommended in certain books, is
unnecessary, and even prejudicial to the quality
of the ink.
2. Verdigris and Sal ammoniac, of each,
# oz. ; levigated lampblack, # oz. ; common
vinegar, pint; mix thoroughly. Used as the
last, for either zinc, iron, or steel.
3. Blue vitriol, 1 oz. ; sal ammoniac oz.
(both in powder); vinegar, 3 pint ; dissolve.
A little lampblack, or vermilion may be
added, but it is not necessary. As No. 1; for
iron, tin, or steel plate. Some of the prepa-
rations described below under ‘INCORRODIBLE
INK’ are also used by gardeners and nursery-
Inell.
Incorro"dible Ink. This name has been
given to several preparations of a resinous
character, capable of resisting the action of
damp and acids.
Prep. 1. Boiled linseed oil, ground with
lampblack and Prussian blue, of each, q. S. to
impart a deep black colour. It may be thinned
with oil of turpentine.
2. Good copal or amber varnish, coloured
with either plumbago or vermilion.
3. Trinidad asphaltum (genuine), 1 part;
oil of turpentine, 4 parts; colour (as last) q. s.
4. (Close.) Cobalt (in powder), 25 gr. ; oil
of lavender, 200 gr. ; dissolve by a gentle
heat, and add of lampback, 3 gr. ; indigo 1
gr. (both in impalpable powder); or vermil-
ion, q.S.
5. (Hausmann.) As No. 3 (nearly). Re-
sists the action of iodine, chlorine, alkalies,
and acids.
6. (Sheldrake.) Asphaltum dissolved in
amber varnish and oil of turpentine, and
coloured with lampblack. -
The above are also frequently called
‘indelible’ or ‘indestructible inks.” They are
employed for writing labels on bottles con-
taining strong acids and alkaline solutions.
The last four are very permanent, and are
capable of resisting the action of iodine,
chlorine, alkaline lyes, and acids, together
with all the operations of dyeing and bleach-
ing, and at once offer a cheap and an excellent
material for marking linen, &c., as they can-
not be dissolved off by any menstrua that will
not destroy the fabric. They must be em-
ployed with stamps, types, or stencil plates, by
which greater neatness will be secured than
can be obtained with either a brush or pen.
See HoRTICULTURAL INK, INDELIBLE INK, &c.
Indelible Ink. Syn. HNDESTRUCTIBLE INK.
Prep. 1. Lampblack (previously heated to
dull redness in a covered vessel), 4 oz. ; tritu-
rate with good black ink (gradually added),
1 pint. Resists chlorine, weak acids, and
weak alkaline lyes, in the cold.
5. (Bezanger.) Lampblack ground in a
lye of caustic soda, combined with a mixture
of gelatine and caustic soda. Said to be in-
delible, and to resemble genuine China ink.
3. (Braconnot.) Dantzic potash, 4 parts;
tanned leather parings, 2 parts; sulphur, 1
part; water, 20 parts; boil them in an iron
vessel to dryness, then raise the heat (con-
stantly stirring with an iron rod) until the
whole forms a soft mass, observing that it
does not ignite; next dissolve the mass in
water, q. S., and filter the solution through a
cloth. Flows freely from a pen, and resists
the action of many chemical substances.
4. (CARBON INK.) Genuine Indian ink,
rubbed down with good black ink until it will
flow easily from a pen. Resists chlorine,
oxalic acid, and ablution with a hair pencil or
Sponge.
5. (Coathupe.) Borax, 1 oz. ; shell-lac,
2 oz. ; water, 18 fl. oz. ; boil in a covered vessel
until dissolved, strain, add of thick mucilage,
1 oz., and triturate it with levigated indigo
and lampblack, of each, q. S. to give a good
colour. After 2 hours' repose, decant it from
the dregs, and bottle for use. Resists mois-
ture, chlorine, and acids.
6. (FRENCH.)—a. From Indian ink, diffused
through water acidulated with hydrochloric
acid. For quills.-b. From Indian ink diffused
through water slightly alkalized with liquor of
potassa. For metallic pens.
7. (Herberger.) Wheat gluten...(free from
starch), q. S., is dissolved in weak acetic acid
of good pure vinegar, 4 fl. oz. ; lampblack
(best), 10 or 12 gr. ; indigo, 2 or 3 gr. ; and
oil of cloves, 1 or 2 drops, are then added, and
the whole is thoroughly incorporated together.
The product is inexpensive, has a beautiful
black colour, and resists the action of water,
chlorine, and weak acids.
Obs. The products of the above formulae,
though called ‘indelible ink’ and ‘indestructible
ink,’ are in reality only indelible as compared
with common writing ink, as they may all be
removed with more or less facility by chemical
reagents, assisted by mechanical means. They
are intended chiefly for paper, pasteboard,
and parchment. No 5 is also used for glass
and metal. See MARKING INK.
In'dian Ink. Syn. CHINA INK ; ATRA-
MENTUM INDICUM, L. Prep. 1. Lampblack
(finest) is ground to a paste with very weak
liquor of potassa, and this paste is then dif-
fused through water slightly alkalized with
potassa, after which it is collected, washed
with clean water, and dried; the dry powder
is next levigated to a smooth, stiff paste, with
a strong filtered decoction of carrageen or Irish
moss, or of quince seed, a few drops of essence
of musk, and about half as much essence of
ambergris being added, by way of perfume,
towards the end of the process; the mass is,
lastly, moulded into cakes, which are orna-
mented with Chinese characters and devices,
as soon as they are dry and hard.
2. A weak solution of fine gelatine is boiled
at a high temperature in a Papin’s digester
for 2 hours, and then in an open vessel for
1 hour more; the liquid is next filtered and




41
642 INK.
evaporated to a proper consistence, either in
a steam or salt-water bath; it is, lastly, made
into a paste, as before, with pure lampblack
which has been previously heated to dull red-
ness in a well-closed crucible. Neither of the
above gelatinize in cold weather, like the ordi-
nary imitations. -
3. (Gray.) Pure lampblack made up with
asses’-skin glue, and scented with musk.
4. (Merimée.) Dissolve superfine glue in
water, add a strong solution of nut-galls, and
wash the precipitate in hot water; then dis-
solve it in a fresh solution of glue, filter,
evaporate to a proper thickness, and form it
into a paste as before, with purified lamp-
black.
5. (Proust.) As No. 1 (nearly).
6. Seed-lac, ; oz. ; borax, 1% drs. ; water, ,
pint; boil to 8 oz., filter, and make a paste
with pure lampblack, as before. When dry, it
resists the action of water.
Obs. The Chinese do not use glue in the
preparation of their ink, but an infusion or
decoction of certain seeds abounding in a glu-
tinous transparent mucilage, which at once
imparts brilliancy and durability to the colour.
Starch converted into gum by means of sul-
phuric acid, or ‘British gum, has been re-
commended as a substitute. (M. Merimée.)
Indian ink is chiefly employed by artists, but
it has been occasionally given as a medicine,
dissolved in water or wine, in haemor-
rhages and stomach complaints. Dose. 1 to
2 drs.
--Tithographic Ink, Prep. 1. Mastic (in
tears), 8 oz. ; shell-lac, 12 oz. ; Venice tur-
pentine, 1 oz. ; melt together; add, of wax, 1
lb.; tallow, 6 oz. ; when dissolved, further
add of hard tallow soap (in shavings), 6 oz. ;
and when the whole is perfectly combined
add of lampblack, 4 oz. ; lastly, mix well, cool
a little, and then pour it into moulds, or upon
a slab, and when cold cut it into square pieces.
2. (Lasteyrie.) Dry tallow soap, mastic
(in tears), and common soda (in fine powder),
of each, 30 parts; shell-lac, 150 parts; lamp-
|black, 12 parts; mix as last. Both the above
are used for writing on lithographic stones.
3. (AUTOGRAPHIC.)—a. Take of white wax,
8 oz., and white soap, 2 to 3 oz. ; melt, and
when well combined, add of lampblack, 1 oz. ;
mix well, heat it strongly, and then add of
shell-lac, 2 oz. ; again heat it strongly, stir
well together, cool a little, and pour it out as
before. With this ink lines may be drawn of
the finest to the fullest class, without danger
of its spreading, and the copy may be kept for
years before being transferred.
b. From white soap and white wax, of each,
10 oz. ; mutton Suet, 3 oz. ; shell-lac and mastic,
of each, 5 oz.; lampblack, 3% oz. ; mix as
above. Both the above are used for writing
on lithographic paper. When the last is em-
ployed, the transfer must be made within a week.
Obs. The above inks are rubbed down with
a little water in a small cup or saucer for use,
in the same way as common water-colour
cakes or Indian ink. In winter the operation
should be performed near the fire, or the
saucer should be placed over a basin contain-
ing a little tepid water. Either a steel pen or
a camel-hair pencil may be employed with
the ink. See LITHOGRAPHY.
Mark'ing Ink, Syn. INDELIBLE INK, PER-
MANENT I. Of this there are several varieties,
of which the following are the most valuable
and commonly used :—
H. Nitrate of silver, 3 oz. ; hot distilled
water, 7 fl. drs. ; dissolve, add of mucilage, }
Oz. ; previously rubbed with sap green or syrup
of buckthorn, q. S. to colour. The linen must
be first moistened with “liquid pounce,” or ‘the
preparation,” as it is commonly called, and
when it has again become dry, written on
with a clean quill pen. The ink will bear
dilution if the writing is not required very
black.
The POUNCE or PREPARATION. A solution
of carbonate of soda, 1% oz. ; in water, 1 pint,
slightly coloured with a little sap green or
syrup of buckthorn, to enable the spots wetted
with it to be afterwards known.
2. (WITHOUT PREPARATION.) Take of ni-
trate of silver, 4 oz. ; water, # oz. ; dissolve,
add as much of the strongest liquor of am-
monia as will dissolve the precipitate formed
on its first addition, then further add of mu-
cilage, 1% dr., and a little Sap green, syrup of
buckthorn, or finely powdered indigo, to colour.
Writing executed with this ink turns black
on being passed over a hot Italian iron, or
held near the fire.
3. Terchloride of gold, 1% dr. ; water, 7
fl. dr. ; mucilage, 2 dr. ; Sap green, q. S. to
colour. To be written with on a ground pre-
pared with a weak solution of protochloride of
tin, and dried. Dark purple.
4. (Rev. J. B. Reade.) Nitrate of silver,
1 oz., tartaric acid (pure), 3 drs, are tritu-
rated together in a mortar, in the dry state;
a little water is then added, by which crystals
of tartrate of silver are formed, and the nitric
acid set free; the latter is then saturated with
liquor of ammonia, sufficient being added to
dissolve all the newly formed tartrate of silver,
avoiding unnecessary excess; lastly, a little
gum and colouring matter is added.
5. (Rev. J. B. Reade.) To the last is added
an ammoniacal solution of a salt of gold. Mr.
Reade has used for this purpose the ‘purple of
Cassius, the hyposulphate, the ammonio-iodide,
the ammonio-periodide of gold, but any other
compound of gold which is soluble in ammonia
will do as well. This ink is unacted on by
nearly all those reagents which remove writing
executed with solutions of the salts of silver
alone, ascyanide of potassium, the chlorides
of lime and soda, &c.
6. (Redwood.) Nitrate of silver and pure
bitartrate of potassa, of each 1 oz. (or 4 parts),
are rubbed together in a glass or wedgewood-
ware mortar, and after a short time liquor of



INK.
643
ammonia, 4 oz. (16 parts, or q. s.), is added;
when the solution is complete, archil, 4 drs.
(or 2 parts; white sugar, 6 drs. (or 3 parts);
and powdered gum, 10 drs. (or 5 parts), are
dissolved in the liquor, after which sufficient
water is added to make the whole measure
exactly 6 fl. oz., when it is ready to be bottled
for use. The last three are used in the same
manner as No. 2.
7. (Dr. Smellie.) From sulphate of iron,
1 dr. ; vermilion, 4 drs. ; boiled linseed oil, 1
oz.; triturated together until perfectly smooth.
Used with type.
8. (Soubeiran.) Nitrate of copper, 3 parts;
carbonate of soda, 4 parts; nitrate of silver,
8 parts; mix, and dissolve in liquor of am-
monia, 100 parts. Used like No. 2.
9. (Ure.) A strong solution of chloride of
platinum, with a little potassa, and sugar and
gum, to thicken.
10. The fluid contained between the kernel
and shell of the cashew nut. On linen and
cotton it turns gradually black, and is very
durable. This has been called ANACARDIUM
Or CASELEW-NUT INIK.
11. Sulphate of manganese, 2 parts; lamp-
black, 1 part ; sugar, 4 parts; all in fine
powder, and triturated to a paste with a little
water. Used with types or stencil-plates;
the part, when dry, being well rinsed in water.
Brown.
12. Black oxide of manganese and hydrate
of potassa are mixed, heated to redness in a
crucible, and then triturated with an equal
weight of pure white clay, and water, q. s. to
give it due consistence. Used like the last.
(Brown.)
Obs. The products of the first two of the
above formulae constitute the marking ink of
the shops. They have, however, no claim to
the title of ‘INDELIBLE INK,” “which no art
can extract without injuring the fabric”—as
is generally represented. On the contrary,
they may be discharged with almost as much
facility as common iron-moulds. This may
be easily and cheaply effected by means of
ammonia, cyanide of potassium, the chlorides
of lime and soda, and some of the hyposul-
phites, without in the least injuring the tex-
ture of the fabric to which they may be
applied. The only precaution required is
that of rinsing the part in clean water imme-
diately after the operation. The “marking ink
without preparation’ is more easily extracted
than that “with preparation.” The former has
also the disadvantage of not keeping so well
as the latter, and of depositing a portion of
fulminating silver, under some circumstances,
which renders its use dangerous. The thinner
inks, when intended to be used with type or
plates, are thickened by adding a little more
gum, or some sugar.
Marking Ink, Syn. PACKER’s INK. Ink
bottoms. Used by packers for marking bales,
boxes, &c. -
Perpet'ual Ink. Prep. 1. Pitch, 3 lbs. ;
melt over the fire, and add of lampblack, 3 lb.;
mix well.
2. Trinidad asphaltum and oil of turpentine,
equal parts. Used in a melted state to fill in
the letters on tombstones, marbles, &c. With-
out actual violence, it will endure as long as
the stone itself.
Printer’s Ink, See PRINTING INK.
Purple Ink. Astrong decoction of logwood,
to which a little alum or chloride of tin has
been added.
Red Ink. Prep. 1. Brazil wood (ground), 4
oz, ; white-wine vinegar (hot), 14 pint; digestin
glass or a well-tinned copper or enamel sauce-
pan, until the next day, then gently simmer
for half an hour, adding towards the end gum
arabic and alum, of each # oz.
2. Ground Brazil wood, 10 oz. ; white
vinegar, 10 pints; macerate for 4 or 5 days;
then boil as before to one half, and add of
roach alum, 4% oz.: gum, 5 oz. ; and when
dissolved, bottle for use.
3. As the last, but using water or beer
instead of vinegar.
4. Cochineal (in powder), 1 oz. ; hot water,
# pint; digest, and when quite cold, add of
spirit of hartshorn, 4 pint (or liquor of am-
monia, 1 oz., diluted with 3 or 4 oz. of water);
macerate for a few days longer, and then
decant the clear. Very fine.
5. (Buchner.) Pure carmine, 20 gr. ; liquor
of ammonia, 3 fl. oz. ; dissolve, then add of
powdered gum, 18 grs. Half a drachm of pow-
dered drop lake may be substituted for the
carmine where expense is an object. Colour
superb.
6. (Henzeler.) Brazil wood, 2 oz. ; alum
and cream of tartar, of each, 3 oz. ; rain water,
16 fl. Oz. ; boil to one half, strain, add of gum
(dissolved), 3 oz. ; and when cold, further add
a tincture made by digesting powdered cochi-
neal, 1% dr., in rectified spirit, 1% fl. oz.
7. (Redwood.) Guarancine and liquor of
ammonia, of each, 1 oz. ; distilled water (cold),
1 pint; triturate together in a mortar, filter,
and dissolve in the solution, gum arabic, 3 oz.
Sepia Ink. See SEPTA.
Sil'ver Ink. From silver leaf or powdered
silver, as GOLD INK. -
Sympathet'ic Ink. Syn. DIPLOMATIC INK,
INVISIBLE I. Fluids which, when used for
writing, remain invisible until the paper is
heated, or acted on by some other chemical
agent. Sympathetic inks have been frequently
employed as the instruments of secret corre-
spondence, and have often escaped detection;
but by heating the paper before the fire until
it begins to grow discoloured by the heat, the
whole of them may be rendered visible.
The following are the most common and
amusing sympathetic inks:–1. Sulphate of
copper and sal ammoniac, equal parts, dissolved
in water; writes colourless, but turns YELLOW
when heated.—2. Onion juice; like the last
–2. A weak infusion of galls; turns BLACK
when moistened with weak copperas water.—



644. INK POWDERS–INTEMPERANCE.
4. A weak solution of sulphate of iron; turns
BLUE when moistened with a weak solution of
prussiate of potassa, and BLACK when moist-
ened with infusion of galls.-5. The diluted
solutions of nitrate of silver and of terchloride
of gold; become respectively DARK BROWN
and PURPLE when exposed to the sunlight.—
6. Aqua fortis, spirits of salts, oil of vitriol,
common salt, or saltpetre, dissolved in a large
quantity of water; turns YELLOW or BROWN
when heated.—7. Solution of chloride or nitro-
muriate of cobalt ; turns GREEN when heated,
and disappears again on cooling. If the salt
is pure, the marks turn BLUE.-8. Solution of
acetate of cobalt, to which a little nitre has
been added; becomes ROSE COLOURED when
heated, and disappears on cooling.—9. A weak
solution of the mixed chlorides of cobalt and
nickel; turns GREEN. The last three are
about the best of our sympathetic inks.-10.
Solution of acetate of lead; turns BROWNISH-
BLACK when exposed to the fumes of sul-
phuretted hydrogen.—11. A weak solution of
nitrate of mercury; turned BLACK by heat
and sulphuretted fumes.—12. Riee water or
decoction of starch ; turned BLUE by a solu-
tion of iodine in weak spirit, and by the fumes
of iodine, if the paper is first slightly moistened
by exposure to steam or damp air.
Violet Ink, The same as PURPLE INK,
but weaker.
Yellow Ink. 1. From gamboge (in coarse
powder), 1 oz. ; hot water, 5 oz. ; dissolve, and
when cold, add of spirit, # oz.
2. Boil French berries, 3 lb., and alum, 1
OZ., in rain water, 1 quart, for half an hour,
or longer, then strain and dissolve in the hot
liquor gum arabic, 1 oz.
INK POW'DERS. Prep. 1. Aleppo galls,
4 oz. ; sulphate of iron, 1% oz. ; gum arabic, 1
oz.; lump sugar, 3 oz. ; (all quite dry and in
powder); mix, and divide into 3 packets. A
pint of boiling water poured over one of them
produces, in a few hours, a pint of excellent
ink.
2. Aleppo galls, 3 lbs. ; copperas, 1 lb.; gum
arabic, 3 lb.; white sugar, 3 lb.; all in pow-
der; mix, and divide into two-ounce packets,
to be used as the last. Ink powders are very
useful in travelling. -
IN00ULATION. Syn. INOCULATIO, L. In
medicine and surgery, the application of poi-
sonous or infectious matter to any part of the
body for the purpose of propagating a milder
form of disease, and thus preventing or les-
sening the virulence of future attacks. In
this country the term is generally restricted
to the artificial propagation of smallpox. See
WACCINATION.
INOSINIC ACID. An acid said by Liebig
to exist in the juice of the flesh of animals,
sfter it has deposited its kreatine.
IN’OSITE. A species of unfermentable
sugar, discovered by Scherer in the juice of
flesh. It forms beautiful crystals.
IN'SECTS. Syn. INSECTA, L. A class of
invertebrate animals belonging to the sub-
kingdom Annulosa. The true insect is defined
as an articulated animal, having 6 legs, 2
antennae, 2 compound eyes; a small brain at
the anterior extremity of a double medullary
cord; its circulation is effected by a pulsating
dorsal vessel, provided with numerous valves;
its respiration by tracheae, which form 2
lateral trunks, and ramify through the body.
The generation of insects is oviparous. There
are two distinct sexes. The adult state is
attained through a series of metamorphoses.
In general, every insect possesses 2 pairs of
wings; the trunk in the adult animal is
usually composed of 3 chief parts—the head,
thorax, and abdomen. The trunk of an insect
may also be described as consisting of 13 seg-
ments, of which 1 constitutes the head, 3
constitute the thorax, and 9 the abdomen.
Insects are arranged in the following orders :
—1. Hymenoptera, including bees, wasps, ich-
neumon-flies, &c.—2. Coleoptera, including
all those kinds commonly called beetles.—3.
Neuroptera, dragon-flies, ephemerae, white
ants, &c.—4. Strepsiptera, the stylops, &c.—
5. Lepidoptera, the butterflies and moths.-6.
Diptera, the house-fly and other 2-winged
insects.-7. Orthoptera, crickets, grasshoppers,
locusts, earwigs, &c.—8. Hemiptera, bugs,
frog-hoppers, aphides, &c.—9. Aptera, fleas,
&c. There are several animals belonging to
the classes MYRIOPODA and ARACHNIDA which
are commonly but erroneously called “insects.'
Of these the centipedes, spiders, and acarides,
or mites, are well-known examples. Several
useful products, as SILR, WAX, HONEY, COCHI-
NEAT, LAC, CANTHARIDES, &c., are supplied by
insects. The class includes numerous creatures
which are extremely destructive, and others
which are regarded as domestic pests. In the
articles devoted to these offensive insects
various methods of exterminating them are
noticed. A powder for destroying insects has
recently been introduced into this country,
and has been found peculiarly efficacious.
This powder, which is known under various
names (INSECT-DESTROYING PoWTER, DU-
MONT'S INSECTICIDE, &c.), is produced by the
Pyrethrum roseum Caucasicum, a composite
flower growing wild in the Caucasus. The
central or tubular florets of the disc are alone
employed, and when ground furnish the
powder of commerce. This powder, though
so destructive to insect life, has no injurious
effect upon man or domestic animals. See
ACARI, ANT, BEE, BUG, BITES and STINGS,
CANTHARIDES, CoCHINEAL, LAC, PEDICULI,
SILK, &c.
INSECTICIDE POWDER. See INSECTs.
INTEMI'PERANCE. Under this head we
refer to habitual indulgence in the use of
spirituous or fermented liquors, whether accom-
panied or not by fits of intoxication or drunk-
€11116SS. -
The pernicious influence of intoxicating
liquors upon individuals and upon society has
t



INTERMITTENT FEVER.
645
been so often and ably exposed by the clergy,
judges, and magistrates, and by philanthro-
pists of every grade, that it would be folly to
do more than refer to it here. Fully one half
of the dark or disreputable deeds of those who
fill our gaols, and fully an equal proportion of
the poverty and wretchedness which pauperizes
our population and crowds our workhouses, are
traceable to this damning vice of the Anglo-
Saxon race—intemperance.
To cure HABITUAT, DRUNKENNESS various
means have been proposed, most of which are
more ingenious than useful, The following,
however, deserves respectful notice:–
Dr. Kain, an eminent American physician,
recommends tartar emetic, given in alterative
and slightly nauseating doses, for the cure of
habitual drunkenness. “Possessing,” he ob-
serves, “no positive taste itself, it communi-
cates a disgusting quality to those fluids in
which it is dissolved.” “These liquors, with
the addition of a very small quantity of emetic
tartar, instead of relieving, increase the
sensation of loathing of food, and quickly pro-
duce in the patient an indomitable repugnance
to the vehicle of its administration. My
method of prescribing it has varied according
to the habits, age, and constitution of the
patient. A convenient preparation of the
medicine is 8 grs., dissolved in 4 oz. of boiling
water; } an oz. (say a table-spoonful) of the
solution to be put into half a pint, pint, or
quart of the patient’s favourite liquor, and to
be taken daily in divided portions. If vomit-
ing and purging ensue” (which is seldom the
case), “I should direct laudanum to allay the
irritation, and diminish the dose. In some
cases the change suddenly produced in the
patient’s habits has brought on considerable
lassitude and debility, which, however, were of
short duration. In a majority of cases no
other effect has been perceptible than slight
nausea, some diarrhoea, and a gradual but very
uniform distaste to the menstruum.”
Dr. W. Marcet has chiefly described the
more or less disordered state of the brain,
nerves, muscles, and stomach, brought on by
the continual use of alcohol, even without in-
toxication being produced. The symptoms of
this state, which he terms CHRONIC ALCO-
HOLISM, are quite distinct from those of
DELIRIUM TREMENS, which is an acute and
violent disturbance of the nervous system.
From experiments on a large number of pa-
tients, Dr. Marcet has arrived at the important
conclusion, that oxide of zinc is the true anti-
dote in cases of slow alcoholic poisoning. It
seems to act as a strong tonic on the nerves,
being at the same time a powerful sedative
and antispasmodic."
The symptoms of actual intoxication, or the
disordered condition of the intellectual func-
tions and volition, produced by taking exces-
1 * On Chronic Alcoholic Intoxication.’ By W. Marcet,
M.D., 1862,
sive quantities of alcoholic liquors, need not be
described.
Among the remedies employed to remove
the ‘fit of drunkenness, the preparations of
ammonia, and the vegetable acids, are the most
common and important. About 2 or 3 fl. drs.
of aromatic spirits of ammonia (spirits of sal
volatile), or a like quantity of solution of
acetate of ammonia (mindererus spirit), mixed
with a wine-glassful of water, will in general
neutralize or greatly lessen the action of in-
toxicating liquors. In some cases these fluids
produced vomiting, which is, however, a good
symptom, as nothing tends to restore an ine-
briated person so soon as the removal of the
liquor from the stomach. Hence tickling the
fauces with the finger or a feather, until sick-
ness comes on, is a method very commonly
adopted by drunkards to restore themselves to
a sober state. The use of aromatic water of
ammonia was first suggested by Mr. Bromley.
With a like intention, some persons have
recourse to soda-water, which acts by the free
carbonic acid it contains, and also as a diluent
and, from its coldness, as a tonic on the coats
of the stomach. The carbonates and bicarbon-
ates of soda and potassa are also favourite re-
medies with habitual drunkards, Among the
vegetable acids, acetic acid is the one that
appears to possess the greatest power of re-
moving intoxication; and after this follow the
citric, tartaric, malic, and carbonic acids.
These substances are commonly taken by sol-
diers before going to parade. The usual dose
of vinegar is a small teacupful. In the West
Indies lime juice and lemon juice are had re-
course to. Both these juices act from the
citric acid they contain. The use of bitter
almonds, as a means of lessening or retarding
the effects of fermented liquors, was known to
antiquity, and is still common among heavy
drinkers at the present day. Even small doses
of medicinal prussic acid have been foolishly
taken with a like intention. See ABSTINENCE,
DELIRIUM TREMENs, &c.
INTERMITTENT FEVER. Syn. AGUE. A
disease consisting of paroxysms or periods
of fever, with perfect intermissions or periods
without fever. Marsh miasmata, or the
effluvia arising ſº ter or marshy
ground, whey -
most frequg






646
INTOXICATION-IODIDE.
as “goose-skin’; the patient shivers, his teeth
chatter, and he is glad to draw close to the fire
or envelope himself in blankets. After this
state of things has continued for a greater or
less time, the heat of the surface begins to
return, the patient has flushings and becomes
warmer and warmer, and ultimately the whole
surface is of a dry burning heat; intense thirst,
restlessness, severe headache, and sometimes
delirium, characterise this second or hot stage.
After this stage has continued for some time,
another change comes over the patient; mois-
ture appears on the face and forehead, the
harsh and hot skin becomes soft, and at last a
copious sweat breaks out over the whole sur-
face. This is the third or sweating stage, and
after it has passed, the several functions of
the system return to their ordinary condition.
The paroxysm may return daily (QUOTIDIAN
AGUE); or every other day (TERTIAA.); or every
fourth day, including that of the first attack
(QUARTAN A.).
Treatm. During the cold stage everything
should be done to bring on the hot ; the patient
should be placed in a warm bed, with warm
pans or bottles of water; he may be allowed
the free use of warm diluent drinks. In the
hot stage the opposite course should be
adopted; the coverings must be diminished,
and lemonade or other cooling drink admi-
nistered. In the sweating stage there is no
occasion for any treatment beyond care to
avoid checking the perspiration by premature
exposure. During the intermission the dis-
ease must be fought with the tonics, Peruvian
bark, or its chief alkaloid, quinine. The most
effective form of this remedy is the sulphate,
which may be given in doses of from 2 to 4 grs.
every three hours, the dose being greater for a
quartan than for a quotidian. See AGUE-CAKE,
FEVER, &c.
INTOXICATION. See INTEMPERANCE.
IN'ULIN. Syn. INULINE, ALANTINE, DAH-
LINE. A peculiar starch-like substance, first
obtained by Rose from the root of Inula He-
lenium or elecampane. It has been found in
several other vegetables.
Prep. From the rasped root, by the same
method that is adopted for arrow-root or potato
farina; or bu ‘‘‘’’-- " ``d root in 7 or 8
+" -- ~~ * “ter filtration,
to repose for
le in cold
but is
: it is
‘ing
'ue
1g
Ul-
n
s
substance intermediate between starch and
gum.
I'0DATE' Syn. IODAs, L. A salt of iodic
acid. The iodates closely resemble the chlo-
rates of the coresponding metals.
recognised by the development of free iodine
when their solutions are treated with reducing
agents; thus, sulphuretted hydrogen passed
into a solution of iodate of potassium, reduces
this salt to an iodide, iodine being liberated,
and sulphuric acid and water formed. They
deflagrate like the chlorates when heated with
combustibles. They are all of sparing solubility,
and many are quite insoluble in water. They
may be made by adding iodine to soluble hy-
drates or carbonates, and crystallizing the
sparingly soluble iodate from the very so-
luble iodide. See IODIC ACID, IODINE, and
POTASSA.
IODHYDRIC ACID. See HYDRIODIC ACID,
I0D'IC AC/ID, HIO3. Syn. ACIDUM IODI-
CUM, L. -
Prep. 1. Iodate of sodium is dissolved in
sulphuric acid in considerable excess, the solu-
tion boiled for 15 minutes, and then set aside
to crystallize.
2. Decompose iodate of barium by dilute
sulphuric acid.
3. (Boursen.) Iodine, 1 part ; nitric acid
(sp. gr. 1'5), 40 parts; mix, keep them at
nearly the boiling temperature for several
hours, or until the iodine is dissolved, then
evaporate to dryness, and leave the residuum
in the open air at a temperature of about
59° Fahr.; when, by attracting moisture, it
has acquired the consistence of a syrup, put it
into a place where the temperature is higher
and the air drier, when in a few days very
fine white crystals of a rhomboidal shape will
form.
Prep., &c. Iodic acid is a crystalline solid,
white or yellowish-white; it is decomposed
into oxygen and iodine by a heat of about 450°
to 500° Fahr., a property of which we avail
ourselves for the conversion of the salts of
this acid (iodates) into iodides. It is very
soluble in water, and is rapidly decomposed
when heated with inflammable bodies. Iodic
acid is used as a test for morphia and sulphur-
ous acid. It has been employed as a tonic,
stimulant, and alterative, in catarrhal hoarse-
ness, strumous cases, incipient phthisis, &c.—
Dose, 3 to 6 grs.
Test. When iodic acid is mixed with an
equal quantity of an alkaloid (preferably qui-
nine), on a capsule or watch-glass, and a drop
or two of water added, several distinct explo-
sions occur, accompanied by the copious evo-
lution of gas. No other substance exhibits a
similar reaction. See IODATE.
I/ODIDE. Syn. IoDURET*, HYDRIODATE*;
IODIDUM, IODURETUM, HYDRIODAs, L. A
compound of iodine with a metal or other
basic radical. The iodides belong to the same
class of bodies as the bromides and chlorides,
and may be, for the most part, made in the
They are


IODINE.
647
same manner. All the principal iodides are
noticed under the names of their respective
bases. See IODINE, &c.
I'ODINE. I. Syn. IoDUM, B.P.; IoDINIUM
(Ph. L. & D.), IODINEUM (Ph. E.), L.; IODE,
Fr.; IoD, Ger. An elementary substance
accidentally discovered in 1812, by De Cour-
tois, a saltpetre manufacturer at Paris. It was
first examined and described by M. Clement,
in 1813, and its precise nature was soon after-
wards determined by Sir H. Davy and M.
Gay-Lussac. In 1819, some six years after
its discovery, iodine was first employed in
pharmacy. The merit of the introduction of
this powerful curative agent into medicine is
due to Dr. Coindet, a physician of Geneva,
who in that year commenced a series of ex-
periments upon it as a remedy for bronchocele
or goitre. It is found in each of the three
kingdoms of nature, but exists in greatest
abundance in the vegetable family Algae
(Seaweeds).
Prep. Iodine is principally manufactured
in the neighbourhood of Glasgow, from the
mother-waters of kelp, known as iodine lye.
1. Kelp, the half vitrified ashes of seaweed, is
exhausted with water, and the solution filtered;
the liquid is then concentrated by evaporation
until it is reduced to a very small volume, the
chloride of sodium, carbonate of sodium, chloride
of potassium, and other salts, being removed
as they successively assume the crystalline
form ; oil of vitriol is now added, in excess, to
the residual dark-brown mother-liquor (iodine-
lye), and the evolved gases are either kindled
or allowed to escape by a flue; the liquid,
after standing some time, is decanted or
filtered, heated to about 140° Fahr., and
mixed with as much binoxide of manganese as
there was oil of vitriol employed; the whole
is then introduced into a cylindrical leaden
still, furnished with a very short head and
connected with 2 or 3 large globular glass
receivers, and heat is applied, when fumes of
iodine are evolved and condensed in the re-
ceivers. During the distillation very great
care is taken to watch the process, and prevent
the neck of the still becoming choked with
condensed iodine. For this purpose the head
of the still is usually furnished with a movable
stopper, by which the process may be watched,
and additions of manganese or sulphuric acid
made, if required. To render the product
pure, it should be pressed between blotting
paper, and then resublimed in glass or stone-
Walte.
2. A solution of sulphate of copper, 4
parts, and protosulphate of iron, 9 parts, are
added to the mother liquor of the soda works,
as long as a white precipitate is thrown down;
this precipitate (iodide of copper) is collected,
dried, and mixed with its own weight of finely
powdered black oxide of manganese, and dis-
tilled by a strong heat in a retort, when dry
iodine passes over. By the addition of sul-
phuric acid with the manganese, a less heat is
required, but the product is wet with water,
like that of the last formula.
3. The residual liquor of the manufacture of
soap from kelp (or other iodine lye), of the sp.
gr. of 1.374, is heated to 230° Fahr., with
sulphuric acid diluted with half its weight
of water, after which the liquor is allowed to
cool, and is either decanted or filtered; to
every 12 fl. oz. of the filtrate 1000 grs. of
black oxide of manganese, in powder, are
added; the mixture is put into a glass globe
or matrass with a wide neck, over which is
inverted another glass globe, and heat is ap-
plied by means of a charcoal chauffer, when
iodine sublimes very copiously, and condenses
in the upper vessel; as soon as the latter is
warm it is replaced by another, and the two
globes are thus applied in succession, as
long as violet fumes are evolved. The iodine
is washed out of the globes with a little cold
water. A thin disc of wood, having a hole in
its centre, is placed over the shoulder of the
matrass, to prevent the heat from acting on
the globular receiver. On the large scale, a
leaden still, as before described, may be em-
ployed, and receivers of either stoneware or
glass ; and the addition of the sulphuric acid
is made in a basin or trough of stoneware or
wood. Prod. 12 oz. yield 80 to 100 grs.
4. Another method of preparing iodine has
been patented by a Mr. Stanford, which con-
sists of compressing the wet weed, drying in
an oven, and distilling at a high temperature.
The inventor claims that double the usual
amount of iodine is obtained besides other
useful products.
Prop. Iodine is usually met with under the
form of semi-crystalline lumps having a semi-
metallic lustre, or in micaceous, friable scales,
somewhat resembling plumbago or gunpowder.
By carefully conducted sublimation, or by the
slow evaporation of its solution in hydriodic
acid, it may be obtained in rhombic-plates an
inch long. It has a grayish-black colour, a
hot acrid taste, and a disagreeable odour, not
much unlike that of chlorine. It fuses at
225° into a deep-brown liquid, volatilizes
slowly at ordinary temperatures, boils at 347°,
forming a magnificent violet-coloured vapour;
when mixed with water, it rapidly rises with
the steam at 212° Fahr. It dissolves in about
7000 parts of water, and freely in alcohol,
ether, solutions of the iodides, liquid hydriodic
acid, chloroform, petroleum, bisulphide of
carbon, &c. Most of these solutions have the
brown colour of liquid iodine, but some (par-
ticularly those formed by the last three sol-
vents named above) have the beautiful violet
colour of the vapour. It bleaches like chlo-
rine, only more feebly. Iodine has an ex-
tensive range of affinity; with the metals
it forms compounds termed iodides, of which
several are used in medicine. Its principal
compounds with oxygen are the iodic and
periodic anhydrides. Sp. gr. 4946 to 4'948.
According to Debaugne, the addition of




648
HODINE.
syrup of orange peel or tannin to water
greatly increases its power of dissolving
iodine. 2 grs. of the latter will enable 6 fl.oz.
of water to take 10 grs. of iodine. A know-
ledge of these facts may prove useful to the
pharmaceutist.
Pur. It is entirely soluble in rectified spirit,
and in a solution of iodide of potassium. On
applying heat to it, it first liquifies, and then
(wholly) sublimes in violet-coloured vapour.
The iodine of commerce is usually that of
the first sublimation, and generally contains
from 12% to 20% of water. Some of the foreign
iodine, prepared by precipitation with chlorine,
without subsequent sublimation, even contains
1-4th part of water, and has a dead leaden-
gray colour, and evolves a sensible odour of
chlorine. Coal, plumbago, oxide of manga-
nese, crude antimony, and charcoal, are also
frequently mixed with iodine to increase its
weight. Water may be detected by the loss
of weight it suffers when exposed to strong
pressure between bibulous paper; or more
accurately by drying it in the manner directed
below, chlorine may be detected by the odour;
and the other substances mentioned above, by
their insolubility in rectified spirit and in a
solution of iodide of potassium. Before use
as a medicine, it should be dried by being
placed in a shallow basin of earthenware, in a
small confined space of air, with 10 or 12 times
its weight of fresh burnt-lime, till it searcely
adheres to the side of a dry bottle, or else pre-
pared from the commercial iodine as follows:
—Place it in a deep circular porcelain capsule,
and having covered it accurately with a glass
matrass filled with cold water, apply a water
heat to the capsule for 20 minutes, and then
allow the whole to cool; should the sublimate
attached to the bottom of the matrass include
acicular prism of a white colour, and a pungent
odour, it must be scraped off with a glass rod,
and rejected; the apparatus is then to be again
exposed to a gentle and steady heat until the
whole of the iodine has sublimed; the subli-
mate is, lastly, to be collected from the bottom
of the matrass, and at once enclosed in a stop-
pered bottle. -
Tests. Free iodine may be recognised by the
violet colour of its vapour, by its imparting a
violet colour to bisulphide of carbon, and by
its striking a blue colour with starch. The
latter test is so delicate, that water containing
only Hºrroth part of iodine acquires a per-
ceptible blue tinge on the addition of starch.
Free iodine may be eliminated from solutions
of iodides by chlorine, nitric acid, concentrated
sulphuric acid and peroxide of manganese,
and may be made evident by adding starch-
paste. This reagent serves to detect minute
traces of iodine in insoluble as well as in
soluble compounds of that element. The sub-
stance under examination is mixed in a retort
with concentrated nitric acid, and a strip of
white cotton cloth moistened with a solution
of starch suspended from the stopper ; in a
few hours the cloth will become coloured blue
if the most minute trace of iodine be present.
By mixing the liquid containing the iodine
with the starch and acid, and lightly pouring
thereon a small quantity of aqueous chlorine, a
very visible blue zone will be developed at the
line of contact, even in very dilute solutions.
Iodides give a pale yellowish precipitate
with nitrate of silver, scarcely soluble in am- -
monia, and insoluble in dilute nitric acid; a
bright yellow one with acetate of lead; and a
scarlet one with bichloride of mercury. This
distinguishes them from the iodates which give -
white precipitates with the same reagents. In
solutions of alkaline iodides chloride of palla-
dium produces a black precipitate.
Fstim. The proportion of free iodine in a
mixture may be estimated: by separating it
by heat, and collecting and weighing the
sublimate; by solution in rectified spirit,
adding water, and collecting the result-
ing precipitate, which must then be dried
and weighed; by dissolving it in a solution
of iodide of potassium, and then adding a
standard solution of hyposulphite of sodium,
until the whole of the free iodine is taken up,
and the mixture no longer strikes a blue colour
with starch. 24.8 grs. of the hyposulphite
are necessary to absorb 12.7 grs. of free iodine;
by comparing the tint of a solution prepared
by chloroform with that of a standard solu-
tion containing a known quanity of iodine, as }
in Crum’s process for estimating chlorine. -
Uses, &c. Iodine is chiefly used as a medi-
cine, a chemical test, and in photography. In
small doses it appears to be both alterative and
tonic, rapidly diffusing itself through the body,
and exerting a stimulating action on the organs
of secretion. It is also said to be diuretic, and
in some cases to have produced diaphoresis and
salivation. Iodine has been exhibited in the
following diseases, as well as in most others
depending on an imperfect action of the absor-
bents, or accompanied by induration or en-
largement of individual glands or organs:—
Internally, in bronchocele, goitre, Derbyshire
neck, scrofula, ovarian tumours, enlargement
or induration of the lymphatic, prostate, and
parotid glands, amenorrhoea, leucorrhoea, dis-
eases of the muco-genital tissues, phthisis, !
chronic nervous diseases, lepra, psoriasis, chronic -
rheumatism, dropsies, hydrocele, &c. :-Earter-
nally, in scrofula, numerous skin diseases
(especially the scaly), erysipelas, diseased joints,
chilblains, burns, scalds, various wounds, to
check ulceration, to promote absorption, &c.
—Dose. . gr. dissolved in spirit, or in water
by means of an equal weight of iodide of
potassium. It is seldom exhibited alone, being
usually combined with the last-named sub-
stance, which, in fact, is now generally pre-
ferred by practitioners. It is applied exter-
1 For details of this and other methods of accurately,
determining the per-centage of iodine, free or combined,
the reader is referred to Sutton’s “Systematic Handbook
of Volumetric Analysis,”



IOIDINE AND HYDROGEN-IRIDIUM.
649
nally in the form of ointment, solution, or
tincture.
Iodine, Broºmides of Bromine and iodine
unite rapidly by mere mixture. By careful
distillation a red vapour is obtained, which, on
cooling, condenses into red crystals, of a form
resembling fern leaves. This is said to be the
protobromide (IBr). By adding more bromine,
these crystals are converted into a fluid, said to
be a pentabromide (IBr3).
Iodine, Chlo"rides of. When dry chlorine is
passed over dry iodine, at common tempera-
tures, heat is evolved, and a yellow solid ter-
chloride (ICl3) results when the iodine is fully
saturated, and an orange-red liquid protochlo-
ride (ICl) when the iodine is in excess. They
both absorb moisture in the air, are volatile,
and very soluble in water.
Iodine and Hydrogen. HYDRIODIC ACID,
HI. Syn. IoDHDYRIC ACID ; ACIDUM HYDRI-
ODICUM, L. An acid compound of iodine and
hydrogen. Prep. 1. (GASEOUS).-a. Into a
glass tube, closed at one end, introduce a little
iodine, then a small quantity of roughly pow-
dered glass moistened with water, next a few
Small fragments of phosphorus, and upon this
some more glass; this order (iodine, glass,
phosphorus, glass) is to be repeated until the
tube is one half or two thirds filled; a cork
and delivery tube are then to be fitted in, a
gentle heat applied, and the gas collected by
‘downward displacement' or over mercury. If
the gas be passed into water a solution of
hydriodic acid will be obtained.
Obs. Hydriodic acid gas can only be retained
a short time over mercury, owing to its action
on that metal.
b. Pour a little water over some pentaiodide
of phosphorus, previously put into a glass
retort, apply a gentle heat, and collect the gas
as before.
c. Heat together in a retort water, iodide of
potassium, iodine, and phosphorus, and collect
the gas as before.
d. Place pure iodide of barium in a retort,
and decompose it with sulphuric acid.
2. (SOLUTION OF HYDRIODIC ACID.) – a.
The gas prepared by either of the above
methods passed into cold distilled water.
b. Iodine, in fine powder, is suspended in
water, and a stream of wasted sulphuretted
hydrogen passed through the mixture as long
as sulphur is deposited, or until it becomes
colourless. The liquid is then gently heated,
to expel the excess of sulphuretted hydrogen,
and either decanted or filtered. A cheap and
excellent process.
c. (MEDICINAL HYDRIODIC ACID). Dr.
Buchanan.-Tartaric acid, 264 grs. ; pure
iodide of potassium, 330 grs. ; dissolve each
separately in 13 fl. oz. of water; mix the
solutions, and when the precipitate has settled
decant the clear liquid, and add a sufficiency of
water to make it up to 64; fl. oz. The liquid
retains a little acid tartrate of potassium in
Solution, but this does not interfere with its
medicinal properties. This preparation “pos-
sesses all the therapeutic powers of iodine
without its irritating properties.” (Pereira.)
— Dose. # to 1 fl. dr., gradually increased to
2 or 3 fl. dr., twice or thrice daily.
Prop., &c. Gaseous hydriodic acid is co-
lourless, fumes in the air, is very soluble in
water, and has a density of about 4.4. Liquid
hydriodic acid, when strong, is very liable to
decompose, and should be kept in well-stop-
pered bottles. Both the gas and the solution
are decomposed by potassium, zinc, iron, and
other metals, with the evolution of hydrogen
and the formation of salts called iodides.
IOD'OFORM, CHIA. Syn. IoDoFoRMUM, L.
A solid, yellow, crystallizable substance, obtained
by the action of iodine on alcohol.
Prep. An alcoholic solution of potassa
is added to tincture of iodine, carefully
avoiding excess; the whole is then gently eva-
porated to dryness, the residuum is washed
with water, and then dissolved in alcohol;
the alcoholic solution yields crystals by evapo-
ration.
Prop., &c. Nearly insoluble in water; freely
soluble in alcohol; the solution is decomposed
by caustic potassa into formic acid and iodide
of potassa.--Dose. . gr. to 3 grs. ; where the
use of iodine is indicated.
IPECACUAN'HA. Sym. (IPECACUHANA, L.;
IPECACUAN, E., B. P.) RADIX IPECACUANHAE,
IPECACUANHA (Ph. L. E. & D.), L. The dried
root of Cephaëlis Ipecacuanha, or the true
ipecacuanha plant, one of the Cinchonaceae.
“Ashy coloured, tortuous, very much cracked,
and marked in rings with deep fissures, hav-
ing an acrid, aromatic, bitterish taste.” (Ph.
L.) It occurs in pieces, 3 or 4 inches long,
and about the size of a writing quill.—Dose.
As an emetic, 10 to 20 grs., assisted by the
copious use of warm water; as a nauseant, 1
to 3 grs.; as an eaſpectorant and sudorific, # to
1 gr. It is undoubtedly the safest and most
useful medicine of its class. It has recently
been highly recommended in dyspepsia, com-
bined with other bitters or aperients.
IRIDIUM. Ir. A rare metal discovered by
Descotils in 1803, and by Tennant in 1804, in
the black powder left in dissolving crude pla-
tinum. This powder is an alloy of iridium
with osmium. The metal is also found native
and nearly pure amongst the Uralian platinum
Ol'es.
Prep. The native alloy of iridium and osmium,
remaining after dissolving crude platinum in
aqua regia, is reduced to powder, mixed with
an equal weight of dry chloride of sodium, and
heated to redness in a glass tube, through
which a stream of moist chloride gas is trans-
mitted. The further extremity of the tube is
connected with a receiver containing liquor of
ammonia. Chloride of iridium and chloride
of osmium are produced; the former remains
in combination with the chloride of sodium;
the latter, being volatile, is carried forward
into the receiver, where it is decomposed into


650
IRON.
osmic and hydrochloric acids, which combine
with the ammonia. The contents of the tube,
when cold, are treated with water to dissolve
out the double chloride of iridium and sodium ;
the solution thus formed is mixed with an
excess of carbonate of sodium, and evaporated
to dryness. The residue is ignited in a cru-
cible, boiled with water, and dried ; it then
consists of a mixture of sesquioxide of iron
and a combination of oxide of iridium with
sodium hydrate. It is reduced by hydrogen
at a high temperature, and treated succes-
sively with water and strong hydrochloric acid,
which remove the alkali and the iron, leaving
metallic iridium in a divided state. By strong
pressure and exposure to a welding heat, a cer-
tain degree of compactness may be given to
the product.
Prop., &c. Brittle, white, very hard, only
fusible by the strongest heat of Deville’s gas
furnace. In its pure state it is not acted upon
by any of the acids, but it is oxidized by fusion
and nitre, and by ignition to redness in the air.
An ingot of iridium, weighing 27# oz., melted
by Deville’s process, was displayed in Messrs.
Johnson and Matthey’s case at the Interna-
tional Exhibition of 1862. An alloy of iridium
and osmium (artificial or native) has been em-
ployed for tipping the nibs of gold pens (ever-
lasting pens).
Iridium, Chlorides of DICHLORIDE. IrCls.
An olive green powder formed by transmit-
ting chlorine over powdered iridium, heated
to a dull red, or by digesting the hydrated
protoxide in hydrochloric acid. SESQUICHLo-
RIDE, IrºCls, obtained by calcining iridium
with nitrate of potassium, digesting in nitric
acid, washing with water, and solution in
hydrochloric acid. TETRACHLORIDE, IrClt, ob-
tained in solution by adding hydrofluosilicic acid
to the tetrachloride of iridium and potassium
(formed when chlorine is passed over a heated
mixture of iridium and chloride of potassium).
HEXACHLORIDE, IrCl3, obtained in combination
with potassium, by heating iridium with nitrate
of potassium, dissolving in aqua regia, and
evaporating to dryness.
Iridium, Oxides of MONOXIDE, IrO, pre-
pared by adding potassium hydrate to the hexa-
chloride of iridium, and digesting the precipi-
tate in an acid. It is a heavy black powder,
insoluble in acid. SESQUIOXIDE, Ir,03, is best
prepared by fusing in a silver crucible a mix-
ture of carbonate of potassium and the double
chloride of iridium and potassium, and boiling
the product in water. Bluish-black TRIOXIDE,
IrO3, is produced when carbonate of potas-
sium is gently heated with hexachloride of
iridium. A grayish-yellow hydrate, containing
alkali.
I'RON. Fe. Syn. FERRUM, L.; FER, Fr. ;
EISEN, Ger. The history of this most important
metal extends to the remote past. The discovery
of an iron rod in one of the Assyrian bronzes
brought to Eugland by Mr. Layard established
the interesting fact that this metal was known
-
and commonly employed, where strength was
required, nearly 3000 years ago. Rust of iron
and scales of iron were used as medicines at a
period equally remote.
Sources. Iron in a metallic state (nativeiron)
is of very rare occurrence; but it invariably
enters into the composition of meteorites.
Combined with oxygen and other elements, as
iron ores, it occurs in nearly every part of the
earth. These ores may be divided into the
oxides and the carbonates. The oxides may be
again divided into four distinct classes, viz., L.
(1) Magnetic iron ore, consisting of 31% prot-
oxide and 69% sesquioxide, with an insignifi-
cant proportion of silica; (2) specular iron, or
iron glance, composed of the sesquioxide, with
a small admixture of magnetic oxide; (3) red
haematite, consisting of the sesquioxide nearly
in a state of purify; and (4) brown haematite,
the hydrated sesquioxide of iron. The car-
bonates are principally two, viz., (5) spathose
iron, the protocarbonate of iron in a sparry
condition, and (6) clay ironstone or black band
ironstone, which consists of the protocar-
bonates associated with clay and carbonaceous
matter.
Swedish iron is made almost entirely from
No. 1, which occurs in massive beds at Aren-
dahl and Damnemora, in Sweden. This iron
is of great purity, being perfectly free from
sulphur and phosphorus. The titaniferous iron
sand found at Taranaki, in New Zealand, con-
sists almost entirely of No. 1 and the metal
titanium. No. 2 found principally in the
island of Elba, in the form of rhombohedral
crystals. The micaceous iron ore found in
small quantities in Wales and Lancashire has
nearly the same composition, but crystallizes in
brilliant plates. No. 3 occurs in radiated fibrous
masses in different parts of the world. It is
found in large quantities in Wales and Lan-
cashire, some of the specimens from the latter
locality containing nearly 99% of the sesqui-
oxide. It makes excellent iron. No. 4 occurs
in reddish-brown masses of a botryoidal form.
It is a valuable ore, and is found in England,
Wales, and Scotland. No 5 is found chiefly at
Siegen, in Prussia. No. 6 is the principal ore
of the Staffordshire and Scotch iron districts,
where it occurs in great abundance, associated
with the fuel and the flux required for smelt-
ing it. Iron is contained in plants, and forms
an essential component of the blood of the
higher animals.
Prep., &c. Iron is only prepared on the
large scale, and an account of the manufacture
would be out of place here. Those requiring
detailed information must consult the elabo-
rate works of Percy, Hunt, Fairbairn, Phillips,
and other metallurgists.
Pure iron may be prepared by introducing
fine iron wire, cut small, 4 parts, and black
oxide of iron, 1 part, into a Hessian crucible;
covering with a mixture of white sand, lime,
and carbonate of potassium (in the proportions
used for glass-making); and, after applying a
!


IRON.
651
closely fitting cover, exposing the crucible to
a very high degree of heat. A button of
pure metal is thus obtained, the traces of
been carbon and silicon present in the wire
having removed by the oxygen of the black
oxide.
Prop., &c. The properties and uses of iron
are too well known to require description.
Its applications are almost universal. It is
remarkably ductile, and possesses great tena-
city, but is less malleable than many of the
other metals. Its sp. gr. is 7:844. It is the
hardest of all the malleable and ductile metals,
and when combined with carbon (steel)
admits of being tempered to almost any
degree of hardness or elasticity. In dry air it
does not oxidise at common temperatures; but
at a red heat it soon becomes covered with a
scaly coating of black oxide, and at an intense
white heat burns brilliantly with the produc-
tion of the same substance. Pure water, free
from air or carbonic acid, does not tarnish the
surface of polished iron, but the combined
action of air and moisture, especially when a
little acid vapour is present, causes its surface
to be soon covered with rust, which is hydrated
sesquioxide of iron (ferric hydrate). Nearly all
acids attack iron; dilute sulphuric and hydro-
chloric acid do so with considerable energy
and the evolution of hydrogen gas. At a red
heat iron decomposes water rapidly, hydrogen
being evolved, and the black oxide of iron
formed. Iron is magnetic up to a dull-red
heat, at which point it loses all traces of that
property. It melts at about 3300° Fahr.
With oxygen, chlorine, iodine, the acids, &c.,
it forms numerous important compounds. As
a remedial agent, when properly exhibited,
iron acts as a genial stimulant and tonic, and
generally proves beneficial in cases of chronic
debility, unaccompanied with organic conges-
tion or inflammation. The carbonate (ferrous
carbonate), as it exists in mineral waters, held
in solution by carbonic acid in excess, appears
to be the form most congenial to the human
body; and from its state of dilution is rapidly
absorbed by the lacteals, and speedily imparts
a ruddy hue to the wan countenance. Iron is
undoubtedly one of the most valuable articles
of the materia medica, and appears from the
antiquity of its introduction into medicine,
and the number of its preparations, to have
been deservedly appreciated.
Tests. Iron forms two classes of salts,
namely, ferrous or proto salts, in which iron
exhibits a power of combining with two
atoms of any monad element, and the ferric
or persalts in which iron has a capacity of
uniting with three atoms of any monad
element.
The ferrous or proto salts have generally a
greenish colour, but yield nearly colourless
solutions, except when concentrated. Their
solutions are known by the following re-
actions:—They are not precipitated by hydro-
sulphuric acid when acid, and but incom-
pletely when neutral. Sulphide of ammonium
produces a black precipitate, becoming brown
on exposure to the air, insoluble in alkalies,
but easily soluble in the mineral acids.
Ammonia and potassa give a greenish-
white precipitate, gradually becoming green,
and then brown in the air. This precipitate
occasionally is of a bluish-black, if excess of
potassa is used. The presence of ammo-
niacal salts interferes with the action of
these tests. Ferrocyanide of potassium gives
a nearly white precipitate, becoming gradually
blue in the air, and immediately so on the
addition of a little weak nitric acid or chlorine
water. Ferricyanide of potassium produces a
rich deep-blue precipitate, insoluble in hydro-
chloric acid. In highly dilute solutions the
effect is only a deep bluish-green coloration.
Phosphate of sodium produces a white precipi-
tute, which after a time becomes green.
The ferric salts, which are also called the
sequi or persalts of iron, have for the most
part a reddish-yellow colour, yielding deep-
coloured solutions, which exhibit the following:
reactions:—They redden litmus paper. Hy-
drosulphuric acid in acid solutions reduces
ferric to ferrous salts, giving a white or yellow
precipitate of sulphur only. In alkaline solu-
tions it yields a blackish precipitate, consisting
of sulphur and ferrous sulphide. Sulphide
of ammonium gives similar reaction. Ammonia
and potassa produce bulky reddish-brown pre-
cipitates, insoluble in excess. Ferrocyanide of
potassium gives a rich blue precipitate, in-
soluble in hydrochloric acid, and readily de-
composed by potassa. Ferricyanide of potas-
sium deepens the colour, but does not give a
blue precipitate, as it does with ferrous salts
(proto salts). Sulphocyanide of potassium gives.
an intense ruby-red colour to neutral or acid
solutions. Tincture and infusion of galls
strike a black colour. Phosphate of sodium
gives a white precipitate, which becomes
brown, and finally dissolves on the addition of
ammonia.
Estim. The iron may be thrown down in
the state of ferric hydrate or hydrated sesqui-
oxide, washed, dried, ignited, and weighed.
The weight, in grains, multiplied by '7, in-
dicates the weight of metallic iron.
50 grs. of the ore are reduced to powder,
dissolved in aqua regia, with the aid of heat,
and the solution filtered in order to separate
the silica and a little alumina which sometimes
is left in an insoluble state; an excess of am-
monia is then added to the filtered liquor,
which produces a reddish-brown precipitate of
ferric hydrate mixed with alumina, which is
collected on a filter, washed, and boiled with
a solution of potassa, in order to dissolve
the alumina; the whole is next thrown upon
a filter, washed, dried, carefully ignited, and
weighed. The above is well adapted to de-
termine the quantity of iron in clay iron-
stone, the most common ferruginous ore in
England. -




652
IRON.
Iron, Preparations of:—
Ferric Acetate. Fe(C.H.O.). Syn. PER-
ACETATE of IRON; FERRI SESQUIACETAS, L.
Prep. Ferric carbonate, 1 part; acetic acid, 6
parts; digest 3 days, and filter. A dark
brownish-red, uncrystallisable liquid, very
soluble, and powerfully astringent. The cal-
cined sesquioxide of iron of the shops, com-
monly sold as carbonate of iron, does not
answer well for this or any of the sesqui-
compounds, owing to its being with difficulty
dissolved by acids, especially by the weaker
ones.—Dose. (Of the last) 10 to 25 drops, in
water or wine.
Ferric Albuminate.
MINAs, L. Prep.
Precipitate a filtered solution of white of
egg with another of ferric sulphate or persul-
phate of iron, wash the deposit in water, and
dissolve it in alcohol holding potassium hydrate
in solution.
This preparation is highly spoken of by M.
Lassaigne, as especially adapted by its nature,
on theoretical grounds, for combining with the
tissues of the body.
Ferric Citrate. Fe(C.H.O.), Syn. PER-
CITRATE OF IRON, CITRATE OF SESQUIOXIDE OF
I., CITRATE OF I. ; FERRI CITRAS.
Prep. By saturating a solution of citric
acid in an equal weight of water with freshly
precipitated moist hydrated ferric hydrate,
evaporating at 150°Fahr. to the consistence of
a syrup, and spreading on glass plates to dry.
By either of the methods adopted for the AM-
MONIO-CITRATE, merely omitting the addition
of the ammonia. It much resembles the am-
monio-citrate, but is only slightly soluble in
water, and has a rather less agreeable taste.—
Dose. 3 to 5 grs.
Ferric and Ammonium Citrate. FeNH1.
C., H3O3. Syn. AMMONIO CITRATE OF IRON;
AMMONIO FERRIC CITRATE ; FERRI AMMONIO
CITRAS.
L. There are several preparations in which
the term “citrate of iron’ has been ap-
plied. That commonly known under this name
is really a double citrate of iron and ammonia,
and appears to be correctly called ‘ammonio-
citrate of iron.”
B.P. Liquor Ferri Persulphatis (B.P.), 8 ;
liquor ammonia, 19% ; citric acid (in crystals),
4; distilled water, a sufficiency, mix 14 of the
solution of ammonia, with 40 of water, and all
gradually; the solution of ferric sulphate stir
constantly and briskly; let the mixture stand
two hours, and put into a calico filter and
allow to drain. Wash well the precipitate
until it no longer gives a precipitate with
Barium’s chloride. Dissolve the citric acid in
8 oz. of the water, and having applied the
heat of a water bath add the precipitate of
ferric hydrate previously well drained, stir
them together until the whole or nearly the
whole of the hydrate has dissolved. Let the
solution cool, then add 5% of the ammonia,
filter through flannel, evaporate to the con-
Syn. FERRI ALBU-
sistency of syrup, and dry it in thin layers on
flat porcelain or glass plates at a temperature
not exceeding 100°.
Prep. (Ph. L.) Ferrous sulphate, 12 oz.; car-
bonate of sodium, 12% oz. ; dissolve each sepa-
rately in boiling distilled water, 6 pints; mix
the solutions whilst still hot, and allow the
precipitate to subside; after a time decant
the supernatant liquor, wash the precipitate
frequently with water (drain it), add of citric
acid (in powder), 6 oz., and dissolve by the
aid of a gentle heat; when the whole has
cooled, add of liquor of ammoniae—Ph.L. 9 fl.
oz., and gently evaporate to the consistence of
a syrup; in this state spread it verythinly on
flat earthenware dishes (or sheets of glass),
dry by a gentle heat, and when dry keep it in
well-stoppered bottles.
(Ph. D.) Citric acid, 4 oz. ; distilled water,
16 fl. oz. ; hydrated ferric oxide, obtained from
the sulphate, 5 oz. ; liquor of ammonia, 4 fl. OZ,
or q. S.
(Wholesale.) A mixture of iron filings and
citric acid, in powder, with barely sufficient
water to cover it, is kept in a warm situation
for some days, occasionally stirring the mass,
and replacing the water as it evaporates. A
Saturated solution is next made in distilled
water, there being previously added more
citric acid (about half the weight of the acid
first used), as required; it is then neutralised
with liquor of ammonia (about 1% oz. of liquor
of ammonia, sp. gr. 882, to every gallon of
the solution of sp. gr. 1025), and the solution
is concentrated by evaporation; the process is
then completed as in No. 1. The first part
of this process produces a salt of the protoxide
of iron, or ferrous citate, which is afterwards
converted, by exposure to the atmosphere, into
a citrate of the magnetic acid, or ferri, ferro-
citrate, and, lastly, into citrate of peroxide of
iron, or ferric citrate.
B. P. Liquor Ferri Persulphatis. 8. Liquor
Ammoniae 19%. Citric acid (in crystal) 4. Dis-
tilled water, a sufficiency. Mix 14 of the solu-
tion of ammonia, with 40 of water, and add
gradually the solution of ferric sulphate. Stir
constantly, let the mixture stand 2 hours, and
filter through calico, and allow to drain. Wash
until the washing ceases to precipftate barium
chloride, dissolve the citric acid in 8 of water,
add the precipitated ferric hydrate, and heat in
a water bath until dissolved. Let the solution
cool, add 5% of the ammonia, filter through
flannel, evaporate to the consistency of syrup,
and dry on flat porcelain plates in thin layers
at a temperature below 100°F.
Obs. Pharmaceutical writers have been so
diffuse in their disquisitions on the preparation
of this salt, as would lead to the inference that
there is some difficulty attending it. The con-
trary is, however, the case. The only care
necessary is to spread the syrup solution very
thinly on warm sheets of glass to dry, which it




will rapidly do if they are placed in an atmo.
sphere of warm dry air, for which purpose a

HRON. 653
‘ drying closet’ is the most convenient. The
dry salt may then be easily detached from the
glass, and will form thin scales, or lamellae, of
great brilliancy and beauty. It is also better
to use a little more oxide than the acid will
dissolve, as the remainder will be employed
in a future operation. Less water may be
used, or even a larger quantity than that men-
tioned; but in the first case the liquid will
become difficult to filter—in the latter it will
require more evaporation. Boiling water dis-
solves about twice its weight of citric acid, and
there remains ##ths of this quantity in solution
when cold, and it takes rather more than
twice the weight of the citric acid in moist
hydrated protoxide of iron to produce satu-
ration.
Prop., &c. This beautiful salt is of a rich
ruby colour, and forms glistening transparent
scales, very soluble in aqueous menstrua, and
the resulting solution is less easily decomposed
by reagents than the solutions of most of the
other salts of iron. It is “compatible with
the alkaline of carbonates and bicarbonates,
and several other salts, and is nearly tasteless,
advantages which have been perhaps overrated
by both prescriber and patient. It is doubtful
whether this article has not obtained a larger
sale from its pleasing appearance than from its
medicinal virtues. Several persons who have
prepared it in lumps or powder, by the simple
evaporation of the solution to dryness, have
been unable to sell it under that form, even at
a lower price.
Ammonio-citrate of iron is soluble in water;
the solution neither changes the colour of
litmus nor turmeric ; nor is it turned blue by
ferrocyanide of potassium ; but either potas-
sium hydrate or lime water being added, it
throws down ferric hydrate, and ammonia is
evolved. From 100 grs. dissolved in water,
potassium hydrate precipitates about 34 grs.
offerric hydrate.--Dose. 3 to 10 grs. in water,
wine, or bitter infusions.
Ferric and Magnesium Citrate. Syn. CITRIC
OF IRON AND MAGNESIA ; FERRI MAGNESIO-
CITRAS; FERRI ET MAGNESIAE CITRAs, L.
Prep. As the last, but using carbonate of
magnesium instead of ammonia to neutralize
the solution.—Dose. 2 to 10 grs. It has been
recommended as a chalybeate in the dyspepsia
of gouty and debilitated habits.
Ferric and Quinine Citrate.
OF QUININE AND IRON ;
TRAs, L. As the ammonio-citrate, but using
quinine, recently precipitated, instead of am-
monia, to neutralize the acid.
B.P. Pure ferric hydrate is prepared from
liquor ferri persulphatis, 4} pints, and liquor
ammoniae, 8 pints, as in the ferric and ammo-
nium citate. Sulphate of quinine, 1 is mixed
with water 8, and sulphuric acid 1%, and
when dissolved, ammonia added until the qui-
nine is precipitated. The precipitate is col-
lected and washed with 30 of water. Citric
acid 3 is dissolved in 8 of water by the aid of
Syn. CITRATE
FERRI-QUINIO-CI-
a water bath, and the ferric hydrate, well
drained, added; stir together until dissolved,
and add the quinine, stirring well until all is
dissolved, and allow to cool; add 1% of solution
of ammonia diluted with 2 of water, stirring
the solution briskly until the quinine at first
thrown down by the ammonia is redissolved;
filter and evaporate to a syrup, drying in thin
layers on flat porcelain or glass plates at a
temperature of 100°.
Ferric citrate, 4 parts; citrate of quinine,
1 part; distilled water, q. S.; dissolve, gently
evaporate, and proceed as directed for am-
monio-citrate of iron. Greenish golden-yellow
scales when prepared by the B.P. process, soluble
in 2 parts of water, and somewhat deliquescent;
entirely soluble in ether; taste bitter as well
as chalybeate.—Dose. 2 to 6 drs. ; in cases
where the use of both iron and quinine is indi-
cated.
Ferric and Sodium Citrate. Syn. FERRI
SODIO-CITRAS, FERRI ET SODE CITRAT, L,
Prep. From citric acid, carbonate of sodium,
and iron or the hydrate, as the ammonio-citrate
or potassio-citrate.
Ferric Chloride. Fe2Cl6 or FeCla. Syn.
SESQUICHLORIDE OF IRON, PERCHLORIDE OF
IRON, PERMURIATE OF I.; FERRI SESQUICHLo-
RIDUM, L. Prep. 1. (Anhydrous.) By pas-
sing dry chlorine over heated iron filings.
Brown scales.
(Hydrated.) Dissolve ferric hydrate in hy-
drochloric acid, evaporate to the consistence
of a syrup, and crystallize. Yellow or red
scaly crystals. The impure solution of this
Salt has been greatly used as a sewage deodo-
rizer. See TINCTURE.
Ferric and Ammonium Chloride (Fe2Cl6.
NH4C1. Aq). Syn. Dou BLE CHLORIDEs of
IRON AND AMMONIUM, AMMONIO CHLO-
RIDE OF IRON; FERRI AMMONIUM CHLo-
IRIDIUM. -
Sesquioxide of iron, 3 oz. ; hydrochloric
acid, 3 pint; digest in a sand bath, until dis-
solved, then add of ammonium 2% lbs., dis-
solved in water, 3 pints; filter the liquid,
evaporate to dryness, and reduce the mass to
coarse powder. Orange-coloured crystallime
grains readily soluble in water. -
Ammonio-chloride of iron is tonic, emmena-
gogue, and aperient.—Dose. 5 to 15 grs. ; in
glandular swellings, obstructons, &c.
Ferric Ferrocy'amide. Fe(FeCy)a. 18Aq).
Syn. SESQUIFERRoCYANIDE OF TRON, PRUs.
SIAN BLUE ; FERRI FERROCYANIDUM, F. SES-
QUIFERROCYANIDUM, L. Prep. Ferrous
sulphate, 4 oz. ; water, 1 pint; dissolve, add to
the solution of nitric acid, 6 fl. dr.s., in small
portions at a time, boiling for a few moments
after each addition; next dissolve ferrocyanide
of potassium, 4% oz., in water, 1 pint, and add
this last solution, by degrees, to the first
liquid, stirring well each time; lastly, collect
the precipitate, wash it with boiling water,
drain, and dry it.--Dose. 3 to 5 grs, three or
four times daily, as an alterative, febrifuge,


654 IRON.
and tonic, gradually increasing the quantity
until some obvious effect is produced; in
agues, epilepsy, and neuralgia. See PRUSSIAN
BLUE.
Ferric Hydrate. Fe3(HO)3. See under
Ferric Oxide.
Ferric Iodide. Fe, Ig, Syn. FERRI PERIO-
DIDUM, I. Prep. Freely expose a solution of
ferrous iodide to the air; or digest iodine, in
excess, on iron, under water, gently evaporate,
and sublime. A deliquescent, volatile red com-
pound, soluble in water and alcohol. It is
rarely employed as medicine.
Ferric Oxide. Fe2O3. Syn. SESQUIOXIDE
OF IRON, PEROXIDE OF IRON, RED OXIDE OF I. ;
FERRI SESQUIOXYDUM, F. PEROXYDUM, F.
OXYDUM RUBRUM, L. This substance is found
native under several forms, but that employed
in the arts is prepared by one or other of the
following methods:–
From metallic iron. From iron wire or
clean Iron filings cut into pieces, moistened
with water, and exposed to the air until com-
pletely converted into rust ; it is then ground
with water, elutriated, and dried, in a similar
way to that adopted for chalk. For sale, it
is usually made up into small conical loaves or
lumps.
By Calcination;–(BROWN-RED COLCOTHAR,
CRoCUS, INDIAN RED, ROUGE, JEWELLER’s R.;
FERRI OXYDUM RUBRUM, L.)—Calcine ferrous
sulphate until the water of crystallisation is
expelled, then roast it with a strong fire until
acid vapours cease to rise; cool, wash the
residuum with water until the latter ceases to
affect litmus, and dry it.
Ferrous sulphate, 100 parts; common salt,
42 parts; calcine, wash well with water, dry,
and levigate the residuum. This process
yields a cheap and beautiful product, which is
frequently sold for the ferri Sesquioxydum ;
but it is less soluble, and therefore unfitted for
a substitute for that preparation.
By Precipitation;–FERRI SESQUIOXYDUM
—B. P., FERRI OXYDUM RUBRUM-Ph. E. L.
By precipitating a solution of ferric sulphate
or chloride with ammonia, in excess, and
washing, drying, and igniting the resulting
hydrate. Pure; anhydrous.
Ferrous sulphate, 4 lbs. ; sodium car-
bonate, 4 lbs. 2 oz. ; dissolve each separately
in water, 3 gals.; mix the solutions whilst
hot, set the mixture aside, that the precipitate
may subside, and subsequently wash and dry
it as before. Contains water, and a trace of
alkali. R.
FERRIC HYDRATE, FERRI PEROXYDUM HY-
DRATUM–Ph. D., FERRUGo—Ph. E.)—a.
(Ph. E.) Ferrous sulphate, 4 oz. ; sulphuric
acid, 3} fl. drs. ; water, 1 quart; mix, dissolve,
boil, and gradually add of mitric acid, 9 fl. drs.;
stirring well and boiling for a minute or two
after each addition, until the liquor yields a
yellowish-brown precipitate with ammonia;
it must then be filtered and precipitated with
liquor of ammonia (fort.), 3} fl, oz. ; rapidly
added and well mixed in ; collect the precipi-
tate, wash it well with water, drain it on a
calico filter, and dry it at a heat not exceeding
180° Fahr. When intended as an antidote for
arsenic, it should not be dried, but kept in the
moist or gelatinous state.
Prop. Ferric oxide, prepared by precipita-
tion (1, c), is an impalpable powder, of a
brownish-red colour, odourless, insoluble in
water, freely soluble in acids, and possessing a
slightly styptic taste, especially when recently
prepared. When exposed to heat, its colour is
brightened, its sp. gr. increased, and it is ren-
dered less easily soluble in acids. The oxide
prepared by calcination is darker and brighter
coloured, less soluble, and quite tasteless. It
has either a scarlet or purplish cast, according
to the heat to which it has been exposed. The
finest Indian red, or crocus, usually undergoes
a second calcination, in which it is exposed to
a very intense heat. It is then known as
‘purple brown. The best jeweller’s rouge is
prepared by calcining the precipitated oxide
until it becomes scarlet.
The hydrate is of a yellowish-brown colour,
and though it can be dried without decomposi-
tion, it requires to be kept in a moist state.
It is best preserved in a well-stoppered bottle,
filled with recently distilled or boiled water.
Pur. Medicinal ferric oxide or sesquioxide
of iron (FERRI SESQUIOXYDUM, Ph. L. & D.) is
soluble in dilute hydrochloric acid, scarcely
effervescing, and is again thrown down by
potassa. The strained liquor is free from
colour, and is not discoloured by the addition
of either sulphuretted hydrogen or ferro-
cyanide of potassium.”
The hydrate (FERRIPEROXYDUM HYDRATUM
—Ph. D., FERRUGo—Ph. E.) is entirely and
very easily soluble in hydrochloric acid, with:
out effervescence; if previously dried at 180°
Fahr., a stronger heat drives off about 18% of
Water.
Oſses, &c. The precipitated oxide is em-
ployed in medicine as a tonic and emmena-
gogue, in doses of 10 to 30 grs. ; and as an an-
thelmintic and in tic douloureux, in doses of
1 to 4 drs, mixed up with honey. It is also
employed to make some preparations of iron.
The calcined oxide is employed as a pigment,
as an ingredient in a plaster, &c. The hydrate
is used medicinally as a tonic in doses of 10 to
30 grs. ; and in much larger, as an antidote in
cases of arsenical poisoning.
We are indebted to Bunsen and Berthold
for the introduction of this substance as an
antidote to arsenic. A table-spoonful of the
moist oxide may be given every 5 or 10
minutes, or as often as the patient can swallow
it. (Pereira.) When this preparation cannot
be obtained, rust of iron or even the dry so-
called carbonate (sesquioxide) may be given
along with water instead. According to Dr.
Maclagan, 12 parts, and to Devergie, 32 parts,
of the hydrate are required to neutralize 1 part
of arsenions acid. Fehling says that the value
-

IRON.
655
of this substance as an antidote to arsenic is
materially impaired by age, even when kept in
the moist state. The presence of potassium, so-
dium, ammonium, hydrates, sulphates, chlo-
rides or carbonates, is not of consequence,
and therefore, in cases of emergency, time
need not be lost in washing the precipitate,
which, in such cases, need only be drained
and squeezed in a calico filter. The magma ob-
tained by precipitating ferrous sulphate with
magnesia, in excess, and which contains free
magnesia and magnesium sulphate, besides
ferric hydrate, precipitates arsenious acid not
only more quickly, but in larger quantity, than
ferric hydrate does when alone. It will even
render inert Fowler’s solution, and precipitate
both the copper and arsenic from solutions of
Schweinfurt green in vinegar, which the pure
gelatinous oxide alone will not do.
Ferric Nitrate. Fe2(NO2)3. Syn. PROTO NI-
TRATE OF IRON, NITRATE OF SESQUIOXIDE OF
IRON ; FERRI PERNITRAS, L. By digesting
nitric acid (diluted with about half its weight
of water) on iron or ferric hydrate. A deep-
red liquid, apt to deposit a basic salt. It is
used in dyeing, and has been recommended in
dyspepsia, calculous affections, and chronic
diarrhoea, Dose. 5 to 10 or 12 drops.
Ferric Phosphate. Fegha(PO)3. Syn. FER-
RIC ORTHOPHOSPHATE (Odling); FERRI SES-
QUIPHOSPHAs, PHOSPHAS FERRICUS, L. A
white powder obtained by precipitating ferric
chloride by sodium phosphate. Uses and dose,
as the last.
FERRIC PYROPHOSPHATE. A salt contain-
ing sesquioxide of iron combined with pyro-
phosphoric acid.
JPrep. By precipitating a solution of ferric
sulphate with one of pyrophosphate of sodium,
taking care to operate at a temperature below
59° Fahr.
Prop., &c. A gelatinous precipitate, which
dissolves with facility in excess of pyrophos-
phate of sodium. The citrate of ammonium is
the most eligible solvent according to M. Robi-
quet, who first called attention to this salt as
a remedial agent.—Dose. 5 to 10 grs.
Ferric Sulphate. Fe3+(SO4). Syn. PERSUL-
PHATE of IRON, SULPHATE of SESQUIoxIDE
of IRON; FERRI PERSULPHAs, L. Prep. By
adding to a solution of ferrous sulphate ex-
actly half as much sulphuric acid as it already
contains, raising the liquid to the boiling.
point, and then dropping in nitric acid, until
the liquid ceases to blacken by such addition-
The solution evaporated to dryness, furnishes
a buff-coloured mass, slowly soluble in water.
Prop., &c. With the sulphates of ammonium
and potassium, it unites to form compounds to
which the name “iron alums’ has been given.
It forms the active ingredient in the “liquor
oxysulphatis ferri' of Mr. Tyson, and is said
by Dr. Osborne to be a constituent of “Widow
Welch's pills.’ This salt is also formed when
ferrous sulphate is calcined with free exposure
to the air. Dissolved in water, it is used as
a test for hydrocyanic, gallic, and tannic
acids.
Ferric Sulphide. Fessa. Syn. PERSUL-
PHURIDE OF TRON. This compound is prepared
in the hydrated state (FERRI PERSULPHU-
RETUM HYDRATUM) by adding, very gradually,
a neutral solution of ferric sulphate to a dilute
solution of potassium sulphide, and collect-
ing, &c., the precipitate, as in the case of the
hydrated ferrous sulphide. Proposed by
Bouchardat and Sandras as a substitute for
ferrous sulphide, to which, they say, it is pre-
ferable.
Ferric Tan'mate, Syn. FERRI TANNAS,
FERRUM TANNICUM, L. Prep. From tannin,
1 part; boiling water, 150 parts; dissolve,
add of freshly precipitated ferric hydrate
(dried at 212°Fahr.), 9 parts; evaporate by a
gentle heat to one half, filter, add of sugar, 1
part, complete the evaporation, and at once
put it into bottles.—Dose, 3 to 5 grs., thrice
daily; in chlorosis, internal haemorrhages,
&c.
Double Ferricand Ammonium Tartrate. Sym.
AMMONIO TARTRATE OF IRON, Dou BLE TAR-
TRATE OF IRON AND AMMONIUM ; AMMONIO
FERRIC TARTRATE, FERRI AMMONIO TAR-
TRATE ; FERRI AMMONIO TARTRAS.
Prep. (Aikin.) Tartaric acid, 1 part ; iron
filings, 3 parts; digest in a sufficient quantity
of hot water to barely cover the mixture for 2
or 3 days, observing to stir it frequently, and
to add just enough water to allow the evolved
gas to escape freely; next add ammonia, in
slight excess, stir well, dilute with water, de-
cant, wash the vndissolved portion of iron,
filter the mixed liquors, and evaporate to dry-
ness; dissolve the residuum in water, add a
little more ammonia, filter, and again gently
evaporate to dryness, or to the consistence of a
thick syrup, when it may be spread upon hot
plates of glass, or on earthenware dishes, and
dried in a stove-room, as directed for the cor-
responding citrate.
Tartaric acid, 6% oz. ; water, 7 pints; dis-
solve, neutralize the solution with sesquicar-
bonate of ammonium, and add 64 oz. more
tartaric acid; to the solution heated in a water
bath, further add moist hydrated oxide of iron
(obtained from sesquioxide of iron, 53% drs.,
dissolved in hydrochloric acid, and precipitated
by ammonia); when dissolved, filter, and eva-
porate, &c., as before.
Prop., &c., Glossy, brittle lamellae, or irre-
gular pieces, of a deep garnet colour, almost
black, very soluble in water, and possessing a
sweetish and slightly ferruginous taste. By
repeated re-solution and evaporation its sweet-
ness is increased, probably from the conversion
of a part of its acid into sugar. It contains
more iron than a given weight of the sulphate
of the same base. It is the most pleasant-
tasted of all the preparations of iron, except
the ammonio-citrate, last noticed,—Dose, 3 to
10 grs.






Ferric and Potassium Tartrate, Syn, TAR-,
656
IRON.
TRATE OF POTASSA AND IRON, FERRO-TARTRATE
OF POTASSA, FERRIC TARTRATE OF P.; FERRI
TARTARATUM (B.P.), FERRI POTASSIO-TARTRAS
(Ph. L.), FERRUM TARTARIZATUM (Ph. E.),
FERRI TARTARUM (Ph. D.), FERRI ET Po-
TASSE TARTRAS (Ph. U. S.), L. Prep. (B. P.)
Prepare ferric hydrate from 4 fl. oz. of liq.
ferri persulphas, B. P., as in making the
double citrate, and add it to 2 oz. of the acid
tartrate of potassium, dissolved in 30 oz. of
water. Digest for 6 hours at 140°, allow to
cool, and decant off the clear solution, which is
to be evaporated down and dried on glass
plates.—(Ph. L.) Ferrous sulphate, 4 oz.,
is dissolved in water, 1 pint, previously mixed
with sulphuric acid, fl. OZ, ; heat is applied
to the solution, and nitric acid, 1 fl. Oz., gra-
dually added; the solution is boiled to the con-
sistence of a syrup, and then diluted with water,
4 galls. (less the pint already used); liquor of
ammonia, 10 fl. OZ, is next added, and the pre-
cipitate washed, and set aside for 24 hours; at
the end of this time, the water being decanted,
the still moist precipitate is added, gradually,
to a mixture of bitartrate of potassium, 2 oz.,
and water, 3 pint, heated to 140°Fahr. ; after
a time the undissolved oxide is separated by a
linen cloth, and the clear solution either
gently evaporated to dryness or treated in
the same manner as the citrate (lastly, pre-
serve it in well-stopped bottles). The formulae
of the Ph. E., D., & U. S., are essentially the
same. The Ph. D. orders a heat not beyond
150°Fahr. to be applied to the mixture of the
oxide and bitartrate, with occasional stirring
for 6 hours, and the desiccation to be conducted
at the same temperature.
Obs. This preparation is a double salt of
potassium and iron; it is therefore wrongly
called ‘tartrate of iron as is commonly heard.
It is totally soluble in water; the solution is
neutral to litmus and turmeric, unaffected by
ferrocyanide of potassium, and not precipitated
by acids nor alkalies, nor acted on by the
magnet. Heated with potassa, 100 gr. throws
down about 34 gr. of sesquioxide of iron.
Entirely soluble in cold water; taste, freely
chalybeate. That of commerce has generally a
feebly inky taste, a slight alkaline reaction, is
slightly deliquescent, dissolves in 4 parts of
water, and is nearly insoluble in alcohol.
Potassio-tartrate of iron is an excellent fer-
ruginous tonic.—Dose. 10 to 20 grs., made
into a bolus with aromatics, or dissolved in
water or other convenient menstruum.
Ferric Valerianate. Syn. VALERIANATE
OF SESQUIOXIDE OF TRON, WALERTATE OF IRON ;
FERRI VALERIANAS (Ph.D.), L. Prep. (Ph.
D.) By adding a solution of sodium vale-
rianate to another of ferric sulphate, and
collecting and washing the precipitate, which
is to be dried by placing it for some days
folded in bibulous paper, on a porous brick;
after which it is to be carefully kept from the
all’
Prop., &c. A reddish-brown amorphous
powder; nearly insoluble in water; soluble
in rectified spirit, and in the dilute acids with
decomposition. Citrate or tartrate, flavoured
with oil of valerian, is frequently sold for it.—
—Dose. 1 to 3 grs. ; in anaemia and chlorosis
complicated with hysteria.
Ferroso-Ferric Hydrate, Fe3(HO)s. Syn.
HYDRATED FERROSO-FERRIC oxIDE, Hy-
DRATED MAGNETIC OXIDE. (B. P.) Liquor
ferri persulphas, 5%; ferri Sulphas, 2; solu-
tion of soda, 80; distilled water, a suffi-
ciency. Dissolve the ferrous sulphate in
40 of water, add the solution of soda, stir-
ring them well, boil the mixture, let it stand
for two hours, put in a calico filter, wash
with distilled water until the washing give
no precipitate with barium chloride, and
dry at a temperature not exceeding 120.”
Ferrous sulphate, 6 oz. ; sulphuric acid, 160
minims ; nitric acid, 4 fl. drs. ; stronger
liquor of ammonia, 4% fl. Oz, ; boiling water,
3 pints; dissolve half of the sulphate in
half of the water, add the oil of vitriol, boil,
add the nitric acid gradually, boiling after
each addition for a few minutes; dissolve the
remaining half of the sulphate in the rest of
the boiling water; mix the two solutions, add
the ammonia, stirring well (and boil for a
short time); collect the precipitate on a calico
filter, wash it with water until it ceases to
precipitate a solution of nitrate of barium,
and dry at a heat not exceeding 180° Fahr.
The formulae of Gregory and Dr. Jephson are
similar.
Ferrous sulphate, 8 oz., dissolved in a mix-
ture of water, 10 fl. oz., and sulphuric acid, 6
fl. dr.s., is converted by means of nitric acid, 4
fl. drs., diluted with water, 2 fl. oz., with ferric
sulphates; this solution is then added to
another, formed by dissolving ferrous sulphate,
4 oz., in water, , pint ; the whole is then mixed
with liquor of potassium hydrate, 2% pints, and
after being boiled for 5 minutes, is collected
on a calico filter, and washed, &c., as before;
and is to be preserved in a well-stoppered
bottle.
Prop., &c. The hydrate is a black sand-
like substance, consisting of very minute
crystals. When pure, it is attracted by the
magnet, and is entirely soluble iu hydrochloric
acid ; and ammonia added to the solution
throws down a black precipitate. The oxide
is the chief product of the oxidation of iron at
a high temperature in the air and in aqueous
vapour. It is more permanent than ferrous
oxide, but incapable of forming salts.--Dose,
5 to 20 grs. two or three times a day.
Ferros0-ferric Oxide. Fe3O4. Syn. MAG-
NETIC O. OF I.; FERRI OXYDUM NIGRUM, F. 0.
MAGNETICUM (Ph. D.), OxYDUM FERROSo-
FERRICUM, L. This occurs native, but that
used in medicine is prepared artificially.
From the black scales of iron that fall
around the Smith's anvil, by washing, drying,
detaching them from impurities by means of
a magnet, and then treating them by grinding


IRON.
657
and elutriation, as directed for prepared
chalk. The product of this process is in-
ferior as a medicine to the hydrate obtained as
below, being less easily soluble in the juices of
the stomach.
Ferrous Acetate. F(C2H3O3)2.
ACETAS, L. Prep.
tated ferrous carbonate dissolved in dilute
acetic acid.
2. By adding a solution of calcium acetate to
another of ferrous sulphate, and evaporating
the filtered liquid, out of contact with the air.
Small, colourless, or pale-greenish needles or
prisms, very soluble and prone to oxidation.
Ferrous Arsenate. Fe3(AsO4)2 Syn. FERRI
ARSENIAS, L. Prep. From a solution of sodium
arseniate, added to a solution of ferrous sul-
phate, the precipitate being collected, washed in
a little cold water, and dried.—Dose, ºr to #:
gr., made into a pill; in lupus, psoriasis, can-
cerous affections, &c. Externally, combined
with 4 times its weight of ferrous phosphate
and a little water, as a paint to destroy the
vitality of cancerous formations. An ointment
(20 to 30 grs. to the oz.) is also used for the
same purpose. They are all dangerous reme-
dies in non-professional hands.
Ferrous Arsenite. Fe(AsO3)2. Syn. FERRI
ARSENIS, L. From the potassium arsenite,
and ferrous sulphate, as the last. A yellowish-
brown powder, occasionally used in medicine
as a tonic, alterative, and febrifuge.—Dose.
Tº to H's gr.
Ferrous Bromide. Febrs. Syn. FERRI
BROMIDUM, L. Prep. (Moir.) Bromine and
iron filings, of each, 1 part ; water, 3 parts;
mix in a stoppered phial, set it aside, occasion-
ally shaking it, for 2 or 3 days, and when the
colour of the bromine has disappeared, and the
liquid becomes greenish, filter and evaporate
to dryness.--Dose. I to 6 grs., as a tonic, diu-
retic, and resolvent, in similar cases to those
in which iodide of iron is given.
Ferrous Carbonate. Fe(CO3). Syn. PRO-
Toca RBONATE OF IRON; FERRI CARBONAS, F.
SUBCARBONAS, L. This occurs in nature as
SPATHOSE ORE, as the chief constituent of
CLAY IRONSTONE, and in many CHALYBEATE
WATERS. -
Prep. (B.P.) Ferrous sulphate (sulphate of
iron), 2; ammonium carbonate, 1}; boiling
distilled water, 320; refined sugar, 1. Dis-
solve the sulphate and ammonium carbonate
each in 4 of the water, and mix; allow
to stand for 24 hours and decant, of the
clear solution, add the remainder of the
water to the precipitate, stir well, allow to
settle, and decant off. Collect the deposit
in a calico filter, press, rub in the sugar in a
porcelain mortar, and dry at a temperature
not exceeding 212°Fahr. Small coherent gray
lumps. Precipitate a solution of ferrous sul-
phate with a solution of sodium carbonate,
well wash the green powder with water which
has been boiled, and dry it out of contact with
the air. On the slightest exposure to air it is
Syn. FERRI
1. From freshly precipi-
converted into ferrous hydrate or oxide. This
change is for the most part prevented by
combining it with sugar, as in the following
preparation.
(With sugar: FERRI CARBONAS SACCARATA,
B. P.; SACCHARINE C. OF I.; FERRUM CAR-
BONICUM SACCHARATUM, FERRI CARBONAS
CUM SACCHARO—Ph. L., FERRI CARBONAS
SACCHARATUM – Ph. E. & D. L.) — (Ph.
L.) Ferrous sulphate, 4 oz.: sodium car-
bonate, 44 oz. ; dissolve each separately in
quart of boiling water, and mix the solutions
whilst hot; after a time collect the precipitate,
wash it frequently with water, and add of
sugar, 2 oz., previously dissolved in water, 2 fl.
oz. ; lastly, evaporate the mixture over a water
bath to dryness, and keep it in a well-closed
bottle.
Prop. &c. A sweet-tasted greenish mass or
powder, consisting chiefly of carbonate of iron.
It is one of the best of the chalybeates.—Dose.
5 to 10 grs. When pure, it should be easily
soluble in hydrochloric acid with brisk effer-
Wescence.
Ferrous Chloride. FeCls. Syn. PROTOCHLo-
RIDE OF IRON ; MURIATE OF IRON ; FERRI
CHLORIDUM, L. Prep. 1. (Anhydrous.) By
passing dry hydrochloric acid gas over ignited
metallic iron. The chloride sublimes in yel-
lowish crystals.
2. (Hydrated.) Dissolve iron filings or scale
in hydrochloric acid, evaporate and crystallize.
Soluble, green crystals.
Ferrous Citrate. Fea (C6H5O)2. Syn. PRO-
TOCITRATE IRON, CITRATE OF PROTOXIDE OF
IRON. This salt is easily formed by digesting
iron filings or wire with citric acid, and evapo-
rating the solution as quickly as possible out of
contact with the air. It presents the appear-
ance of a white powder, nearly insoluble in
water, and rapidly passing to a higher state of
oxidation by exposure to the air. Its taste is
very metallic. It is exhibited under the form
of pills, mixed with gum or syrup, to prevent
it from being prematurely decomposed.
Ferroso-Ferri C. Hydrate. Fea (FIO)s. Syn.
HYDRATED MAGNETIC OXIDE. See under
FERRoso FERRIC OXIDE.
Ferrous Ferricy'amide. Syn. FERRIDCYANIDE
OF IRON. Prep. By adding a solution of
potassium ferricyanide (“red prussiate of pot-
ash') to a solution of ferrous sulphate (or any
other soluble ferrous salt), and collecting and
drying and precipitate. A bright-blue powder.
(See TURNBULL's BLUE.)
Ferrous Hydrate. Fee (HO).
FERROUS OXIDE.
Ferrous Iodide. FeIs. Syn. PROTOIODIDE
OF IRON, IODIDE OF IRON ; F. IoDIDUM,
FERRI HYDRIODAs, F. IoDURETUM, L. Prep.
(B. P.) Fine iron wire, 1 ; iodine, 2; dis-
tilled water, 10. Introduce the iron, iodine
and 8 of water into a flask, heat it about ten
minutes, and boil until all the red colour is
gone. Filter through paper into a polished
iron dish, washing with the rest of the water,



See under

42
658
IRON.
and boil until a drop of the solution taken out
on iron wire solidifies on cooling. Pour on
porcelain and cool. (Ph. L. 1836.) Iodine,
6 oz. ; iron filings, 2 oz. ; water, 4% pints;
mix, boil in a sand bath until the liquid turns
to a pale green, filter, wash the residuum with
a little water, evaporate the mixed liquors
in an iron vessel at 212° Fahr. to dryness, and
immediately put the iodide into well-stoppered
bottles.
Iodine, 1 oz., and clean iron filings or turn-
ings, # oz., are put into a Florence flask with
distilled water, 4 fl. Oz., and having applied a
gentle heat for 10 minutes, the liquid is boiled
until it loses its red colour; it is then at once
filtered into a second flask, the filter washed
with water, 1 fl. oz., and the mixed liquid is
boiled down, until it solidifies on cooling.
With sugar ; SACCHARINE TODIDE OF TRON,
SACCHARUM FERRI IODIDI, FERRI IODIDUMI SAC-
CHARATUM, L. Iron (in powder), 1 dr. ; water,
5 drs. ; iodine, 4 drs. ; obtain a solution of iodide
of iron, as above, and add to it of sugar of milk
(in powder), 1% oz. ; evaporate at a tempera-
ture not exceeding 122°Fahr., until the mass
has a tenacious consistence, then further add
of sugar of milk, 1 oz., reduce the mixture to
powder, and preserve it in a well-stoppered
bottle. Every 6 grs. contain 1 gr. of iodide of
II'Oll.
From “syrup of iodide of iron” exposed in a
shallow vessel, in a warm place, until it crystal-
lizes; the crystals are collected, dried, and
powdered. A simpler plan is to gently evapo-
rate the whole to dryness, and to powder the
residuum. The saccharine iodide may be kept
for some time in a corked bottle without un-
dergoing decomposition.
Obs. The preparation of the above com-
pound, like that of the citrates, has formed a
fertile subject during some years for phar-
maceutical amateurs to dilate upon. There is
in reality not the least difficulty in the process.
As soon as iodine and iron are mixed together
under water, much heat is evolved, and if too
much water be not used the combination is
soon complete, and the liquor merely requires
to be evaporated to dryness, out of contact with
the air, at a heat not exceeding 212° Fahr.
This is most cheaply and easily performed by
employing a glass flask, with a thin broad
bottom and a narrow mouth, by which means
the evolved steam excludes air from the vessel.
The whole of the uncombined water may be
known to be evaporated when vapour ceases
to condense on a piece of cold glass held over
the mouth of the flask. A piece of moistened
starch paper occasionally applied in the same
way will indicate whether free iodine is
evolved; should such be the case, the heat
should be immediately lessened. When the
evaporation is completed, the mouth of the
flask should be stopped up by laying a piece of
sheet india rubber on it, and over that a flat
weight; the flask must be then removed, and
when cold broken to pieces, the iodide weighed,
and put into dry and warm stoppered wide-
mouth glass phials, which must be immediately
closed, tied over with bladder, and the stoppers
dipped into melted wax. -
Prop., &c. Ferrous iodide evolves violet
vapours by heat, and ferric oxide remains.
When freshly made, it is totally soluble in
water, and from this solution, when kept in a
badly stoppered vessel, ferric hydrate is very
soon precipitated; but with iron wire immersed
in it, it may be kept clear in a well-stoppered
bottle.— Dose. 1 to 3 grs., or more, as a tomic,
stimulant, and resolvent. It has been given
with advantage in anaemia, chlorosis, debility,
scrofula, and various glandular affections,
Ferrous Lactate. Fe (C3H5O)s. Syn. PRO-
TOLACTATE OF IRON ; FERRI LACTAS, FERRUM
LACTICUM, L. Prep. Boil iron filings in lactic
acid diluted with water, until gas ceases to be
evolved, and filter whilst hot into a suitable
vessel, which must be at once closely stopped;
as the solution cools, crystals will be deposited,
which after being washed, first with a little
cold water, and then with alcohol, are to be
carefully dried. The mother liquor, on being
digested, as before, with fresh iron, will yield
more crystals. -
Into sour whey, 2 lbs., sprinkle sugar of
milk and iron filings, of each, in fine powder, 1
oz.; digest at about 100°Fahr., until the sugar
of milk is dissolved, then add a second portion,
and as soon as a white crystalline powder begins
to form, boil the whole gently, and filter into a
clean vessel; lastly, collect, wash, and dry the
crystals, as before. -
Prop., &c. Ferrous lactate is a greenish-
white salt; and when pure, forms small acicular
or prismatic crystals, which have a sweetish
ferruginous taste, and are soluble in about 48
parts of cold and in 12 parts of boiling water.
It has been regarded by many high authorities
as superior to every other preparation of iron
for internal use, as being at once miscible with
the lactic acid of the gastric juice, instead of
having to be converted into a lactate at
the expense of that fluid, as it is asserted is the
case with the other preparations of iron.—
Dose. 2 to 6 grs., frequently, in any form most
convenient.
Ferrous Ma'late (Impure). Syn. FERRI
MALAS IMPURUS, L. Prep. (P. Cod., 1839.)
Porphyrised iron filings, 1 part; juice of sour
apples, 8 parts; digest for 3 days in an iron
vessel, evaporate to one half, strain through
linen whilst hot, further evaporate to the con-
sistence of an extract, and preserve it from the
air.—Dose, 5 to 20 grs, where the use of
iron is indicated.
Ferrous Nitrate. (FeNO). Syn. PROTO
NITRATE OF IRON, NITRATE OF PROTOXIDE OF
IRON; FERRI NITRAS, L. By dissolving fer-
rous sulphide in dilute sulphuric acid, in the
cold, and evaporating the solution in vacuo.
Small green crystals, very soluble, and prone
to oxidation. -
Ferrous Oxide, Fe0. Syn, PROTOxIDE OF

IRON.
659
IRON, FERRI PROTOXYDUM, L. This substance
is almost unknown in a separate state, from its
extreme proneness to absorb oxygen and pass
into the sesquioxide.
Ferrous Hydrate. Fe(HO), May be pre-
cipitated from ferrous solutions as a white
powder, by alkaline hydrates. It rapidly
absorbs oxygen, and turns first green, and
then red, by exposure to the air. Both the
oxide and hydrate are very powerful bases,
neutralising the acids and forming stable
salts, which, when soluble, have commonly a
pale green colour, and a nauseous metallic
taste.
Ferrous Phosphate. Syn. PHOSPHATE OF
IRON, NEUTRAL P. OF PROTOXII) E OF IRON,
BIMETALLIC FERROUS ORTHOPHOSPHATE
(Odling); FERRI PHOSPHAS (Ph. U. S.), L.
A salt formed from ordinary or tribasic phos-
phoric acid.
Prep. (B. P.) Ferrous sulphate, 3; so-
dium phosphate, 2% ; sodium acetate, 1 ; boil-
ing distilled water, 80; dissolve the sulphate
and sodium salts, each in half the water, mix,
and stir carefully, filter through calico, wash with
hot distilled water until it ceases to give a pre-
cipitate with barium chloride, dry at a heat not
exceeding 120° Fahr. (Ph. U. S.) Ferrous
sulphate 5 oz. ; sodium phosphate, 6 oz. ;
dissolve each separate in 2 quarts of water, mix
the solutions, and after repose for a short time,
wash, and dry the precipitate.
Prop., &c. A slate-coloured powder; inso-
luble in water ; soluble in dilute nitric and
hydrochloric acid.-Dose. 5 to 10 grs. ; in
amenorrhoea, diabetes, dyspepsia, scrofula, &c.;
and eaternally, as an application to cancerous
ulcers.
Ferrous Sulphate. FeSO4. 7Aq. Syn. PRO-
TOSULPHATE OF IRON, SULPHATE OF IRON, COP-
PERAS, GREEN VITRIOL, SHOEMAKER’s BLACK ;
FERRI suTPHAs (P. B., Ph. L. E. & D.), VIT-
RIOLUM FERRI. The crude sulphate of iron or
green vitriol of commerce (FERRI SULPHAS
VENALIS, Ph. L.) is prepared by exposing heaps
of moistened iron pyrites or native bisulphuret
of iron to the air for several months, either in
its unprepared state or after it has been roasted.
When decomposition is sufficiently advanced,
the newly formed salt is dissolved out with
water, and the solution crystallised by evapora-
tion. In this state it is very impure. The
ferrous sulphate or sulphate of iron employed
in medicine is prepared as follows:–
Prep. (B.P.) Iron wire, 4; sulphuric acid,
4; distilled water, 30. Pour the water on the
iron, add the acid, and when the disengage-
ment of gas has nearly ceased, boil for ten
minutes. Filter through paper. Allow to
stand twenty-four hours, and collect the
crystals. Sulphuric acid, 1 fl. oz. ; water, 4.
pints; mix, and add of commercial sulphate of
iron, 4 lbs. ; iron wire, 1 oz. ; digest with heat
and occasional agitation until the sulphate is
dissolved, strain whilst hot, and set aside the
liquor that crystals may form ; evaporate the
mother-liquor for more crystals, and dry the
whole. -
Dissolve the transparent green crystals of
the impure sulphate of iron in their own weight
of water, acidulated with sulphuric acid, and
re-crystallise.
The formula of the Ph. U. S. is similar.
(Dried; FERRI SULPHAS EXSICCATA, B. P. ;
FERRI SULPHAs ExSICCATUM-Ph. E., F. S.
SICCATUM–Ph. D.) From ferrous sulphate,
heated in a shallow porcelain or earthen
vessel, not glazed with lead, till it becomes a
greenish-gray mass, and then reduced to pow-
der. The heat should be that of an oven, or
not exceeding 400° Fahr. 5 parts of the
crystallised sulphate lose very nearly 2 parts
by drying.
(Granulated; FERRI SULPHAS GRANULATA,
L.) (B. P.) A solution of iron wire, 4 oz., in
sulphuric acid, 4 fl. oz., diluted with water, 1}
pint, after being boiled for a few minutes, is
filtered into a vessel containing rectified spirit,
8 fl. oz., and the whole stirred until cold,
when the granular crystals are collected on a
filter, washed with rectified spirit, 2 fl. oz., and
dried, first, by pressure between bibulous
paper, and next beneath a bell-glass over
sulphuric acid, after which they are put into
a stoppered bottle, to preserve them from the
all". -
Prop., &c. Ferrous sulphate forms pale
bluish-green rhombic prisms, having an acid,
styptic taste, and acid reaction; it dissolves in
two parts of cold aud less than one part of
boiling water ; at a duli-red heat it suffers
decomposition; sp. gr. 1-82. It is perfectly
soluble in water; a piece of iron put into
the solution should not be covered with me-
tallic copper. By exposure to the air it
effloresces slightly, and is partly converted
into a basic ferric sulphate.—Dose. } to 4
grs., in pills or solution; externally, as an
astringent or styptic. In the arts, as sulphate
of iron (copperas), it is extensively used in dye-
ing, and for various other purposes. The
dried sulphate (ferri sulphus exsiccatum) is
chiefly used to make pills.
Crude sulphate of iron is frequently con-
taminated with the sulphates of copper, zinc,
manganese, aluminium, magnesium, and cal-
cium, which, with the exception of the first,
are removed with difficulty. It also contains
variable proportions of the neutral and basic
ferric sulphates. The preparation obtained
by direct solution of iron in dilute sul-
phuric acid should, therefore, be alone used in
medicine.
In commerce, there are four varieties of
crude sulphate of iron or copperas known,
greenish-blue, obtained from acid liquors,
pale green, from neutral liquors, emerald
green, from liquors containing ferric sul-
phate, and ochry brown, which arises from
age and exposure of the other varieties to the
air. Even the first two of these contain'traces


of ferric sulphate, and hence give a bluish
660 IRON ALUM-IRON, REDUCED.
precipitate with ferrocyanide of potassium;
whereas the pure sulphate gives one which
is at first nearly white.
Ferrous Sulphide. FeS. Syn. SULPHURET
OF TRON, SULPHIDE OF I., PROTOSULPHIDE
OF I. ; FERRI SULPHURETUM (Ph. E. & D.),
L. Prep. (Ph. E. & D.) Expose a bar of
iron to a full white heat, and instantly apply a
solid mass of sulphur to it, observing to let
the melted product fallinto water; afterwards
separate the sulphide from the sulphur, dry,
and preserve it in a closed vessel.
From sublimed sulphur, 4 parts; iron filings,
7 parts; mixed together and heated in a
common fire, till the mixture begins to glow,
and then removing the crucible from the heat,
and covering it up, until the reaction is at an
end, and the whole has become cold.
Hydrated; FERRI PROTOSULPHURETUM HY-
DRATUM, L. By adding a solution of ammo-
nium sulphide or of potassium sulphide to a
neutral solution of ferrous sulphate made with
recently distilled or boiled water; the precipi-
tate is collected on a filter, washed as quickly
as possible with recently boiled water, squeezed
in a linen cloth, and preserved in the pasty
state, under water, as directed under ferric
hydrate.
Prop., &c. The sulphide prepared in the
dry way is a blackish brittle substance,
attracted by the magnet. It is largely used
in the laboratory as a source of sulphuretted
hydrogen. The hydrated sulphide is a black,
insoluble substance, rapidly decomposed by ex-
posure to the air. Proposed by Mialhe as an
antidote to the salts of arsenic, antimony, bis-
muth, lead, mercury, silver, and tin, and to
arsenious acid; more especially to white ar-
senic and corrosive sublimate. A gargle con-
taining a little hydrated sulphide of iron, will
instantly remove the metallic taste caused by
putting a little corrosive sublimate into the
mouth. (Mialhe.) On contact with the latter
substance, it is instantly converted into ferrous
chloride and mercurous sulphide, two com-
paratively inert substances. It is administered
in the same way as ferrous hydrate. When
taken immediately after the ingestion of cor-
rosive sublimate, it instantly renders it in-
nocuous ; but when the administration is
delayed until 15 or 20 minutes after the poison
has been swallowed, it is almost useless.
Ferrous Tar'trate. Syn. FERRI TARTRAs,
FERRI PROTOTARTRAs, L. Prep. 1. From
iron filings, 2 parts; tartãric acid, 1 part;
hot water, q. s. ; digest together until reaction
ceases, agitate the liquid, pour off the turbid
solution, and collect, wash, and dry the pow-
der, as quickly as possible, and keep it out of
contact with the air.
Crystallised potassium tartrate, 132 parts;
ferrous sulphate, 139 parts; dissolve each
separately, mix the solutions, and collect the pre-
cipitate as before. A nearly insoluble powder;
seldom used. º
Obs. By dissolving the corresponding hy-
drates in a solution of tartaric acid, employing
the former in slight excess, and evaporating,
both the ferrous and ferric tartrate are easily
obtained.
IRON AL/UM. See ALUMS,
IRON CENIENT'. See CEMENTS.
IRON FI"LINGS. Syn. FERRI RAMENTA
(Ph. L. 1836), FERRI LIMATURA (Ph. E.),
FERRI SCOBS (Ph.D.). The usual method of
preparing iron filings for medical purposes has
been already noticed; the only way, however,
to obtain them pure, is to act on a piece of
soft iron with a clean file. The Fr. Cod.
orders them to be forcibly beaten in an iron
mortar, and to be separated from oxide and
dust by means of a fine sieve, and from the
grosser parts by means of a coarse hair-sieve.
— Dose. 10 to 30 grs., in sugar or honey, as a
chalybeate ; in larger doses it is an excellent
vermifuge, especially for ascarides or the small
thread-worm.
IRON LIQ/UOR. Syn. PyRoDIGNITE OF
IRON, DYER's ACETATE OF I., BLACK LIQUOR,
TAR IRON L.; FERRI ACETAS VENATIS, L.
This article, so extensively used in dyeing, is
a crude mixed acetate of the protoxide and
sesquioxide of iron. It is usually prepared by
one or other of the following methods:–
1. Old scraps of iron (hoops, worn-out tin-
plate, &c.) are left in a cask of pyroligneous
acid, occasional agitation being had recourse
to, until a sufficiently strong solution is ob-
tained. By keeping the acid moderately warm
in suitable vessels it will become saturated
with the iron in a few days. With cold acid,
on a large scale, forty days or more are re-
quired to complete the process.
2. A solution of pyrolignite or crude acetate
of lime, is added to another of green copperas,
as long as a precipitate is formed; after
repose, the clear liquor is decanted.
IRON, REDUCED. Syn. QUEVENNE IRON;
FERRUM REDACTUM (B.P.), FERRI PULVIs, L.;
FER REDUIT, F. Prep. This preparation, which
consists of metallic iron in a fine state of division
mixed with a variable amount of magnetic
oxide of iron, is made by passing perfectly dry
hydrogen over peroxide of iron heated to red-
ness in a gun-barrel.
Prop. A grayish-black powder, attracted
by the magnet, and exhibiting metallic streaks
when rubbed with firm pressure in a mortar.
Rapidly absorbs oxygen, and must, therefore,
be preserved from the air in well-stoppered
bottles. It dissolves in hydrochloric acid with
the evolution of hydrogen. 10 grains added
to an aqueous solution of 50 grains of iodine
and 50 grains of iodide of potassium, and di-
gested with them in a small flask at a gentle
heat, should leave not more than 5 grains
undissolved, which should be entirely soluble
in hydrochloric acid.
Uses. In medicine, it is chiefly given to
restore the condition of the blood in all anaemic
states of the system. There is no pulveru-
lent state of iron so convenient as this for

IRON WIRE–IVORY. 661
;
children, as it has no taste, and only a very
small dose is required.—Dose. 1 to 5 grains
(children, 4 to 1 grain), in powder, pill, or be-
tween bread and butter.
IRON WIRE. Syn. FERRUM IN FILA
TRACTUM (Ph. L.), FERRI FILUM (Ph. E.),
FERRI FILA (Ph. D.), L. This is the only
form of metallic iron retained in the Ph. L.
It is used to make preparations of iron.
ISCHU'RIA. In pathology, retention, stop-
page, or suppression of the urine.
I"SINGLASS. Syn. ICHTHYoCoILA, L.
The finest kinds of isinglass are obtained from
various species of the genus Acipenser, or
sturgeon, that from the great sturgeon being
perhaps the most esteemed. It is the air-bag,
swimming bladder, or sound, dried without
any other preparation than opening, folding,
or twisting it. The picked or cut isinglass of
the shops consists of the lumps of staple isin-
glass picked in shreds by women and children,
or cut by machimes.
Prop., &c. Good isinglass is the purest
natural gelatin known. Its quality is deter-
mined by its whiteness, absence of the least
fishy odour, and ready and almost entire solu-
bility in boiling water; the solution forming
a nearly white, scentless, semi-transparent,
solid jelly, when cold. It is soluble in weak
acids, and this solution is precipitated by al-
kalies. The aqueous solution is not precipi-
tated by spirit of the common strengths. 1
part of good isinglass dissolved in 25 parts of
hot water forms a rich, tremulous jelly. It is
very commonly adulterated. See GELATIN.
ISOM'ERISM. In chemistry, identity of
composition, with dissimilarity of properties.
Isomeric compounds (isomerides) are such as
contain the same elements in the same pro-
portions, but which differ from each other in
their chemical properties; thus, formate of
ethyl and acetate of methyl are isomeric,
having precisely the same ultimate composi-
tion, though differing in the arrangement of
their elements.
ISOMOR/PHISM. In chemistry, the quality
possessed by bodies differently composed of
assuming the same crystalline form. Isomor-
phous substances are found to be closely allied
in their chemical nature; and the fact of two
bodies crystallizing in the same form has
often led to the discovery of other points of
similarity between them. The alums, for
instance, no matter what their components,
all crystallize in octahedra, and a crystal of
potassium-alum, if transferred to a solution of
chrome-alum, will continue to increase with
perfect regularity from the deposition of the
latter salt.
IS'SUE. Syn. FONICULUS, L. In surgery,
a small artificial ulcer formed on any part of
the body by means of caustic or the lancet,
and kept open by daily introducing an ISSUE
PEA covered with some digestive or stimulating
ointment; the whole being duly secured by an
appropriate bandage,
ISSUE PEAS, Syn. PIST PRO FONTICULIS,
L. Those of the shops are the immature fruit
of the orange tree (ORANGE BERRIES). They
are usually smoothed in a lathe. Issue peas
are also “turned from orris root. The fol-
lowing compound issue peas are occasionally
employed:—
1. Orris root (in powder) and Venice tur-
pentine, of each, 1 part; turmeric, 2 parts;
bees’ wax, 3 parts; melted together and made
into peas whilst warm.
2. Bees’ wax, 3 parts; melt, add of Venice
turpentine, 1 part ; mix, and further add, of
turmeric, 2 parts; orris root (in powder), 1
part; mix well, and form the mass into peas
whilst warm. More irritating than the com-
mon pea.
3. (Dr. Gray.) Bees’ wax, 12 parts; ver-
digris and white hellebore, of each, 4 parts;
orris root, 3 parts ; cantharides, 2 parts;
Venice turpentine, q. s. Used to open issues
instead of caustic, but their employment re-
quires care.
ISSUE PLASTERS. See PIASTERS.
ITCH. Syn. YoUK£, ScotCH FIDDLEf ;
PSORA, SCABIES, L.; GALE, Fr. In pathology,
a cutaneous disease, caused by a minute insect
lodging under the skin, and readily commu-
nicated by contact. There are four varieties
of itch, distinguished by nosologists by the
names—scabies papuliformis, or rank itch;--
scabies lymphatica, or watery itch; scabies
purulenta, or pocky itch ; scabies cachectica, a
species exhibiting appearances resembling
each of the previous varieties. Our space
will not permit more than a general notice of
the common symptoms, and the mode of cure
which is equally applicable to each species,
and will not prove injurious to other skin
diseases simulating the itch.
The common itch consists of an eruption of
minute vesicles, principally between the
fingers, bend of the wrist, &c., accompanied
by intense itching of the parts, which is only
aggravated by scratching. The usual treat-
ment is repeated applications of sulphur-oint-
ment (simple or compound), well rubbed in,
once or twice a day, until a cure is effected;
accompanying its use by the internal exhi-
bition of a spoonful or more of flowers of
sulphur, mixed with treacle or milk, night and
morning. Where the use of sulphur-ointment
is objectionable, a sulphur bath, or a lotion or
bath of sulphurated potash, or of chloride
of lime, may be employed instead. See
º LOTION (Itch), OINTMENT, PSORIASIS,
C.
I’WORY. The osseous portion of the .
and teeth of the male elephant, the hippopota-
mus, wild boar, &c. That of the narwhal or
seahorse is the most esteemed, on account of
its superior hardness, toughness, translucency,
and whiteness. The dust or shavings (Ivory
DUST, Ivory SHAVINGs) of the turner, form a
beautiful size or jelly when boiled in water.
VEGETABLE IVORY is the hard albumen of the



662 Ivory BLACK–JALAP.
seed of the Phytelephas macrocarpa, one of the
Palm family.
Ivory may be dyed or stained by any of the
ordinary methods employed for woollen, after
being freed from dirt and grease; but more
quickly as follows:–
1. BLACK. The ivory, well washed in an
alkaline lye, is steeped in a weak neutral
solution of nitrate of silver, and then exposed
to the light, or dried and dipped into a weak
solution of sulphide of ammonium.
2. BLUE. Steep it in a weak solution of
sulphate of indigo which has been nearly neu-
tralized with salt of tartar, or in a solution of
soluble Prussian blue. A still better plan is
to steep it in the dyer's green indigo-vat.
3. BROWN. As for black, but using a
weaker solution of silver.
4. GREEN. Dissolve verdigris in vinegar,
and steep the pieces therein for a short time,
observing to use a glass or stoneware vessel;
or, in a solution of verdigris, 2 parts; and Sal
ammoniac, 1 part, in soft water.
5. PURPLE. Steep it in a weak neutral so-
lution of terchloride of gold, and then expose
it to the light.
6. RED. Make an infusion of cochineal in
liquor of ammonia, then immerse the pieces
therein, having previously soaked them for a
few minutes in water very slightly acidulated
with aquafortis.
7. YELLOW. a. Steep the pieces for some
hours in a solution of sugar of lead, then take
them out, and when dry, immerse them in a
Solution of chromate of potassa.
b. Dissolve as much of the best orpiment in
solution of ammonia as it will take up, then
steep the pieces therein for some hours;
lastly, take them out and dry them in a warm
place, when they will turn yellow.
Ivory is etched or engraved by covering it
with an etching ground or wax, and employing
oil of vitriol as the etching fluid.
Ivory is rendered flexible by immersion in a
solution of pure phosphoric acid (sp gr. 1:13,)
until it loses, or partially loses, its opacity,
when it is washed in clean cold soft water, and
dried. In this state it is as flexible as leather,
but gradually hardens by exposure to dry air.
Immersion in hot water, however, restores its
softness and pliancy. According to Dr. Ure,
the necks of some descriptions of INFANTS’
FEEDING BOTTLES are thus made.
Ivory is whitened or bleached by rubbing it
with finely powdered pumice-stone and water,
and exposing it to the sun, whilst still moist,
under a glass shade, to prevent desiccation and
the occurrence of fissures; observing to repeat
the produce until a proper effect is produced.
Ivory may also be bleached by immersion for a
short time in water holding a little sulphurous
acid, chloride of lime, or chlorine, in solution;
or by exposure in the moist state to the
fumes of burning sulphur, largely diluted with
all’.
, Ivory is wrought, turned, and fashioned, in a
similar manner and with similar tools to those
used for bone and soft brass.
Obs. Bone for ornamental purposes is treated
in a similar way to ivory, but less carefully,
owing to its inferior value. The bones of liv-
ing animals may be dyed by mixing madder
with their food. The bones of young pigeons
may thus be tinged of a rose colour in 24
hours, and of a deep scarlet in 3 or 4 days;
but the bones of adult animals take fully a
fortnight to acquire a rose colour. The bones
nearest the heart become tinged the soonest.
In the same way logwood and extract of log-
wood will tinge the bones of young pigeons
purple. (Gibson.)
IWORY BIACK, See BLACK PIGMENTS.
JAGGERY. Syn. PALM sugAR. A coarse
brown sugar made in India, by the evaporation
of the juice of several species of palms. The
following are the principal varieties of this
product:—
1. CoCOA JAGGERY. From the juice of the
Cocoa-nut palm (Cocos nucifera).
2. MALABAR. JAGGERY. From the juice of
the Gummut palm (Saguerus saccherifer).
3. MYSORE JAGGERY. From the juice of
the wild Date-palm (Phoenia sylvestris); 17
galls, yield 46 lbs.
4. PALMYRA JAGGERY. From the juice of
the Palmyra palm (Borassus flabelliformis);
6 pints yield 1 lb.
JA/LAP. Syn. JALAPHE RADIX, JALAPA
B. P. (Ph.L. & D.) CONVOLVULI JALAPE RADIX
(Ph. E.), L. The dried tubercles of the Eao-
gonium purga, I. ſalapa–(Royle.) Jalap is a
powerful stimulant and drastic purgative,
producing copious liquid stools; but when ju-
diciously administered, both safe and effica-
cious. It appears to be intermediate in its
action between aloes and scammony.—Dose,
10 to 30 grs, in powder; in constipation, cere-
bral affections, dropsies, obstructed menstrua-
tion, worms, &c. Owing to its irritant pro-
perties, its use is contra-indicated in inflam-
matory affections of the alimentary canal, and
after surgical operations connected with the
abdomen and pelvis. It is usually adminis-
tered in combination with sulphate of potassa
or bitartrate of potassa and ginger; with mer-
curials, as the case may indicate. The powder
is very generally adulterated.
Resin of Jalap. Syn. RESINA JALAPA, L.
Prep. 1. (Ph. E.) See EXTRACT OF JALAP.
2. (Nativelle.) Jalap root is digested in
boiling water for 24 hours, and after being re-
duced to thin slices, more water is added, and
the whole boiled for 10 minutes, with occa-
sional agitation; the liquid is then expressed
in a tincture press, and the boiling and press-
ing repeated a second and third time (these
decoctions by evaporation yield AQUEOUS EX-
TRACT OF JALAP); the pressed root is next
treated with rectified spirit, q. S., and boiled
for 10 minutes, and then allowed to cool; the
JALAPIC ACID—JAMS. 663
i.
tincture is then pressed out, and the boiling
with fresh alcohol and expression is repeated
twice; a little animal charcoal is added to the
mixed tinctures, and, after thorough agitation,
the latter are filtered; the liquid is now dis-
tilled until nothing passes over, the superna-
tant fluid is poured off the fluid resin, and the
latter dried by spreading it over the surface
of the capsule, and continuing the heat. The
product is a friable and nearly colourless resin,
which forms a white powder resembling starch.
Prod. Fully 10% of pure resin.
3. (Planche.) Resinous extract of jalap is
dissolved in rectified spirit, the tincture agi-
tated with animal charcoal, and after filtration
gently evaporated to dryness.
Pur. The jalap resin of commerce is gene-
rally adulterated with scammony, gum guaia-
cum or resin, When in a state of purity, it
does not form an emulsion with milk, like scam-
mony resin, but runs into a solid mass. It is
insoluble in fixed oils and turpentine, whilst
the common resins are freely soluble in those
menstrua. Its alcoholic solution, dropped on a
piece of absorbent white paper, and exposed
to the action of nitrous gas, does not acquire a
green or blue colour; if it does, guaiacum
resin is present, 2% of this adulteration may
be thus detected. (Gobley) It is insoluble in
ether; but guaiacum resin, common resin, and
some others, are so; the decanted ether should
not become opalescent when mixed with water,
and should evaporate without leaving any re-
siduum. Powdered jalap resin placed in cold
water does not dissolve, but forms a semi-fluid,
transparent mass, as if it had been melted.
Dissolved in a watch-glass with a little oil of
vitriol, a rich crimson-coloured solution is ob-
tained, from which, in a few hours, a brown
viscid resin separates. These last two cha-
racteristics distinguish it from other resins.
Obs. Earthenware or well-tinned copper
vessels must alone be used in the above pro-
cesses, as contact with copper or iron turns
the resin black, and this tinge can only be re-
moved by redissolving the resin in alcohol,
the addition of animal charcoal, and re-evapo-
ration.
Jalap resin is an emergetic cathartic.—Dose.
1 to 5 grs. See JAL.APIN.
Jalap, Factitious Resin of. Syn. RESINE
JALAPE FACTITIA, L, A substance frequently
sold for jalap resin is made by fusing a mixture
of pale yellow resin and scammony resin, and
adding, when it has cooled a little, but still
semi-fluid, a few drops of balsam of Peru or
tolu ; the mixture is then poured into small
paper capsules or tin moulds. Its effects re-
semble those of jalap resin, but it inflames less.
(Landerer.)
Jalap, Soap of Syn. SAPO JALAPE, SAPO
JALAPINUS, L. Prep. (Ph. Bor.) Resin of
jalap and Castile soap, of each 1 part ; recti-
fied spirit, 2 parts, or q. S. to dissolve the in-
gredients softened by a gentle heat ; subse-
quently evaporate the mixture by the heat of
a water bath until reduced to 4% oz., or it has
acquired the consistence of a pill-mass.
Prop., &c. A grayish-brown mass, soluble
in rectified spirit. Said to be milder in its
action than the resin alone.—Dose. 5 to 15 oz.
JALAP'IC ACID. Syn. ODOROUS PRINCIPLE
OF JALAP—Pereira. Prep. Add an alcoholic
solution of acetate of lead to a similar solution
of jalap resin, collect the precipitate (jala-
pate of lead), and throw down the lead by
means of sulphuretted hydrogen. (See ABSIN-
THIC ACID.) A brownish, soft, greasy sub-
stance, smelling strongly of jalap, soluble in
alcohol and alkali, and slightly so in ether.
Jalap resin contains about 13% of this sub-
stance.
JAL'APIN. Cai H3006. Syn. JAL.APINA.
Jalap resin is commonly sold under this name,
but pure jalapin is prepared by one or other
of the following formulae:–
Prep. 1. The liquid filtered from the jala-
pate of lead in preparing jalapic acid is a so-
lution of acetate of jalapin, which, after any
trace of lead is removed, by adding a few drops
of dilute sulphuric acid, and filtration, yields
the whole of its jalapin, as a precipitate, on
the addition of 5 or 6 times its volume of
water; this is collected, washed with a little
cold distilled water, and dried by exposure to
a current of warm dry air.
2. (Hume.) Coarsely powdered jalap is
digested in strong acetic acid for 14 days,
the tincture filtered, ammonia added in ex-
cess, and the whole agitated strongly ; the
mixture is then filtered, the deposit washed
in cold water, redissolved in acetic acid, re-
precipitated by ammonia, and again washed
and dried.
3. (Kayser.) Pure jalap resin, in powder, is
digested for some time in boiling ether, by
which means the jalapic acid is removed, and
pure jalapin remains undissolved.
Prop., &c. A transparent, colourless, scent-
less, insipid resin, very soluble in alcohol, but
insoluble in ether. It is the active purgative
principle of crude jalap resin.
JAMAI'CINE. Syn. JAMAICINA. A pecu-
liar alkaloid obtained by Huttenschmidt from
the bark of the Cabbage-tree (Andira in-
ermis.) -
Prep. The aqueous solution of cabbage-
tree bark, treated with sulphuretted hydrogen
and evaporated.
Prop. Yellow crystals soluble in water and,
to a limited extent, in alcohol; fusible, and
very bitter tasted. It forms salts with the
acids, which, in small doses, produce restless-
ness and trembling ; and in larger ones,
purging. It is said to be vermifuge.
JAMES’S POWDER. See POWDERS.
JAMS. Syn. PRESERVES. Conserves of fruit
with sugar, prepared by boiling. In the latter
respect they differ from the conserves of the
apothecary.
Prep. The pulped or bruised fruit is boiled
along with to # of its weight of loaf sugar,

664 JAPAN–JELLY.
until the mixture jellies, when a little is placed
on a cold plate ; the semi-fluid mass is then
passed through a coarse hair sieve whilst hot,
to remove the stones and skins of the fruit,
and as soon as it has cooled a little is poured
into pots or glasses. It is usual to tie these
over, when cold, with paper which has been
dipped in brandy. The pots must then be
placed aside in a dry and rather cold situa-
tion.
The following fruits are those from which
jams are commonly prepared:—Apricots, cher-
ries (various), cranberries, currants (black, red,
and white), gooseberries (ripe and green), mul-
berrries, Orleans plums, raspberries, and straw-
berries. Red currants are commonly added to
the last, to remove insipidity.
JAPAN". See WARNISH, and below.
JAPAN'NING. The art of covering paper,
wood, or metal, with a coating of hard, bril-
liant, and durable varnish. The varnishes or
laquers employed for this purpose in Japan,
China, and the Indian Archipelago, are resin-
ous juices derived from various trees belong-
ing to the natural order Amacardiaceae, espe-
cially Stagmaria verniciflua, Holigarna longi-
folia, Semecarpus Anacardium, and species of
Rus (Sumach). For use, they are purified by a
defecation and straining, and are afterwards
mixed with a little oil, and with colouring
matter, as required. In this country var-
nishes of amber, asphaltum, or copal, or mix-
tures of them, pass under the names of ‘JAPAN'
and “JAPAN VARNISH.”
Proc. The surface is coloured or painted with
devices, &c., as desired, next covered with a
highly transparent varnish (amber or copal),
then dried at a high temperature (135° to 165°
Fahr.), and, lastly, polished. Wood and paper
are first sized, polished, and varnished. For
plain surfaces asphaltum varnish or japan is
used. See WARNISHING.
JAPON'IC ACID. Cls HoOº. When catechu
is exposed to the air in contact with caustic
alkalies, black solutions (alkaline japonates)
are formed ; with carbonated alkalies, red so-
lutions (alkaline rubates); the acid of the
former may be separated. It is a black pow-
der, insoluble in water, soluble in alkalies, and
precipitated by acids. Buric acid forms red
insoluble compounds with the earths and some
other metallic oxides.
JARAVE. The Spanish name for SARSA-
PARILLA BEER. See BEERs (in pharmacy).
JASPER. Syn. IASPIS, L. A mineral of
the quartz family, occurring in rocky masses.
1t takes various shades of red, yellow, brown,
and green, and is occasionally banded, spotted,
or variegated. It was formerly used as an
amulet against hamorrhages and fluxes. It is
now extensively worked up into rings, seals,
snuff-boxes, vases, &c., for which it is well cal-
culated from its extreme hardness and suscep-
tibility of receiving a fine polish.
JATR0'PHIC ACID. Syn. CROTONIC ACID,
IATROPHIC A. A peculiar fatty acid disco-
vered by Pelletier and Caventon, and originally
regarded by them as the cathartic principle
of croton oil and croton seeds, but since
shown by Redwood and Pereira to be nearly
inert.
Prep. The oil is saponified by caustic potassa,
and the resulting soap is decomposed by tar-
taric acid; the fatty matter which floats on
the surface of the liquid is then skimmed off
the aqueous portion, and the latter submitted
to distillation; the liquid in the receiver is a
solution of jatrophic acid.
Prop., &c. Volatile; very acid; has a mau-
Seous odour; is solid at 23°, and vaporizes at
35° Fahr. It forms salts with the bases, none
of which possess any practical importance.
JAU'MANGE. Prep. Fromisinglass, 1 oz. ;
boiling water, 12 oz. ; dissolve, add of any
sweet white wine, pint; the yolks of 2 eggs
beaten to a froth, and the grated yellow peel
of 2 lemons; mix well, and heat the whole
over the fire until sufficiently thickened, stir-
ring all the time; lasfly, serve it up, or pour
it into moulds.
JAUN'DICE. Syn. ICTERUS, MoRBUS IU-
TEOLUS, L. A disease characterised by a yel-
low colour of the eyes and skin, deep-coloured
urine, and pale alvine evacuations. It appears
to arise from a disordered action of the biliary
organs. The treatment consists of the admi-
nistration of Saline aperients, and small doses
of blue-pill, followed by tonics and diaphoretics.
The action of these remedies should be pro-
moted by the copious use of diluents (particu-
larly saline water), and exertion in the open
air, when possible. When there is much pain
and vomiting, anodynes (or opium, morphia,
&c.) may be administered. Jaundice is not
in itself a dangerous disease, but it some.
times lays the patient open to attacks of others
which are so.
JEL'ſ Y. Syn. GELATINA, L. A term now
very loosely applied to various substances which
are liquid or semi-liquid whilst warm, and be:
come gelatinous on cooling.
Jellies are coloured by the addition of the
usual stains used by confectioners, and are
rendered transparent by clarification with
white of egg.
Al'mond Jelly. Syn. GELATiNA AMYGDA-
IARUM, I. Prep. From rich almond milk,
+ pint; thick hartshorn jelly, pint; sugar,
2 oz. ; with 2 or 3 bitter almonds and a little
lemon peel, to flavour, heated together, strained,
and moulded.
Arrow-root Jelly. Syn. GELATINA MA.
RANTIE, L. From arrow-root, 1% oz., to water,
1 pint. Tous les mois jelly is made in the
same way.
Biscuit Jelly. Prep. From white biscuit
(crushed beneath the rolling-pin), 4 oz. ; cold
water, 2 quarts; soak for some hours, boil to
one half, strain, evaporate to 1 pint, and add,
of white sugar, 4 lb., red wine, 4 oz., and
cinnamon, I teaspoonful. In weakness of the
stomach, and in dysentery and diarrhoea, and


JELLY.
665
in convalescence combined with rich beef
gravy or soup.
Bread Jelly. Syn. PANADA; GELATINA
PANIS, L. Prep. Cut a French roll into slices,
toast them on each side, and boil in water,
1 quart, until the whole forms a jelly, adding
more water if required; strain, and add sugar,
milk, &c., to palate. It may be made with broth
from which the fat has been skimmed, instead
of water. Used as the last.
Broth Jelly. Syn. SoulP-JELLY. From broth
or soup from which the fat has been skimmed,
evaporated until it becomes gelatinous on cool-
ing. A few shreds of isinglass are commonly
added. See Soup (Portable).
Calves’ Feet Jelly. Prep. For each foot take
of water, 3 pints, and boil to one half; cool,
skim off the fat, and again boil for 2 or 3
minutes with the peel of a lemon and a little
spice; remove it from the fire, strain through
a jelly bag (see FILTRATION), add the juice of a
lemon and a glass of wine, and when it has
cooled a little put it into glasses or “forms.’
Obs. If this jelly is required to be very
transparent, it must be treated as follows:–
After the fat is removed, it should be gently
warmed, just enough to melt it, next well
beaten with the white of an egg and the sea-
soning, and then brought to a boil for a minute
or two, when it will be ready for straining,
&c. The calves’ feet should not be bought
ready boiled, but only scalded. Cows' feet
(“COW HEELS’) make nearly as good jelly as
that from calves' feet, and are much more eco-
nomical.
Ceylon Moss Jelly. Syn. GELATINA GRACI-
LARIAE, L. Prep. (Dr. Sigmond.) Boil Ceylon
moss (Granularia lichenoides), oz. in water,
1 quart, for 25 minutes, or till the liquid jellies
on cooling; strain and flavour. Very nutri-
tious; recommended in irritation of the mucous
membranes and phthisis.
Cor'sican Moss Jelly. Syn. GELATINA HEL-
MINTHocoRTI, D. Prep. (P. Cod.) Corsican
moss (Gracilaria Helminthocorton), 1 oz. ;
water, q. s. ; boil 1 hour, and strain 8 fl. Oz. ;
to this add of isinglass (previously soaked in
a little water), 1 dr. ; refined sugar, 2 oz. ;
white wine, a wine-glassful. Vermifuge. See
DECOCTION.
Fruit Jelly. Under this head we include
those jellies made from the juices of fruits.
Prep. The strained juice mixed with to #
its weight of refined sugar, until it ‘jellies’ on
cooling, observing to carefully remove the
scum as it rises. The process should be con-
ducted by a gentle heat, and it is preferable
not to add the sugar until the juice is some-
what concentrated, as by lengthened boiling the
quality of the sugar is injured.
Obs. Jellies are sold in pots or glasses, like
JAMs. Both jams and fruit jellies are refrige.
rant and laxative; they are, however, mostly
employed as relishes, especially during fevers
and convalescences. The principal fruit jellies
are :—APPLE, BARBERRY, CHERRY (from either
Cornelian or Kentish cherries), CURRANT (black,
white, and red), ELDERBERRY, GooseBERRY,
PLUM, QUINCE, RASPBERRY. See LEMON and
ORANGE JELLY.
Gra’vy Jelly. By evaporating meat gravies.
Harts'horn Jelly. Syn. GELATINA coRNU
CERVI, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) Hartshorn shav-
ings, 8 oz. ; wash it in water, then boilin clean
water, 3 pints, till reduced to one half; strain,
press, add of sugar, 4 oz., the juice of one
lemon, and the white of an egg beaten up with
a little cold water; mix well, clarify by heat,
evaporate till it jellies on cooling, then add
the peel of the lemon, and set it in a cool place.
It may be, flavoured with wine, spices, &c.
Very nutritious.
Iceland Moss Jelly. Syn. GELATINA II-
CHENIS, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) Iceland moss,
2 oz. ; soak for 1 or 2 days in cold water, then
boil for 1 hour in water, q. S. to yield a strong
solution; strain, decant the clear after repose,
apply heat, and dissolve therein of isinglass,
1 dr. ; evaporate the whole to a proper con-
sistence, put it into pots, and set them in a
cool place. Nutritious. Recommended in
phthisis. The jelly of Iceland moss and cin-
chona (GELATINA LICHENIS CUM CINCHONA—
P. Cod.) is made by adding to the above, syrup
of cinchona, 6 fl. oz.
I'rish Moss Jelly. Syn. GELATINA CHON-
DRI, L. Prep. From Irish or carrageen moss.
See DECOCTION.
I”singlass Jelly. Syn. ConFECTIONERS’
JELLY ; GELATINA ICHTHYoCOLLE, L. Prep.
From isinglass dissolved in water by boiling,
and evaporated till it ‘jellies’ on cooling,
adding flavouring, as desired. 1% oz. of good
isinglass makes fully a pint of very strong jelly.
See BLANCMANGE, ISINGLASS, CALVES’-FEET
JELLY, &c.
Lem'on Jelly. From isinglass, 2 oz. ; water,
1 quart ; boil, add of sugar, 1 lb., clarify, and
when nearly cold, add the juice of 5 lemons,
and the grated yellow rinds of 2 oranges and of
2 lemons; mix well, strain off the peel, and
put it into glasses.
No'yeau Jelly. As PUNCH JELLY, but
strongly flavoured with bitter almonds.
Or'ange Jelly. From orange juice, 1 pint ;
let it stand over the grated yellow rind of 3
or 4 of the oranges for a few hours, then strain,
and add, of loaf sugar, lb., or more, isinglass,
3 oz., dissolved in water, 1 pint; mix, and put
it into glasses before it cools.
Punch Jelly. From isinglass, 2 oz.; sugar,
1; lb. ; water, 1 pint ; dissolve, add of lemon
juice, , pint ; the peels of 2 lemons and of 2
oranges ; rum and brandy, of each, # pint ;
keep it in a covered vessel until cold, then
liquefy it by a very gentle heat, strain, and
pour it into moulds. A pleasant and decep-
tive way of swallowing alcohol.
Rice Jelly. Syn. CRíME DE RIZ. From
rice boiled in water, sweetened, and flavoured.
Sa'go Jelly. Prep. Soak sago in cold water
for 1 hour, strain, and boil in fresh soft water


666 JESUIT'S BARK–KALEIDOSCOPE.
until it becomes transparent; then add wine,
sugar, clear broth, milk, or spices, to flavour.
1 oz. of sugar makes a pint of good jelly.
Tapioca Jelly. As the last but using
tapioca in lieu of Sago.
JES/UIT’S BARK. See CINCHONA.
JESUIT'S DROPS. See DROPS and TINC-
TURE.
b JESUIT'S POWDER. Powdered cinchona
ark.
JET. A variety of mineral bituminous
carbon, very hard, and susceptible of a fine
polish.
JEW’ELS. See DIAMOND, EMERALD, GEMs, &c.
JEWELRY. The gold in articles of jew-
elry, whether solid or plated, which are not
intended to be exposed to very rough usage,
is generally ‘coloured, as it is called in the
trade. This is done as follows:–
1. (RED GOLD COLOUR.) The article, after
being coated with the amalgam, is gently
heated, and, whilst hot, is covered with gilder's
wax ; it is then “flamed over a wood fire, and
strongly heated, during which time it is kept
in a state of continual motion, to equalise the
action of the fire on the surface. When all
the composition has burned away, the piece is
plunged into water, cleansed with the “scratch-
brush’ and vinegar, and then washed and bur-
nished. To bring up the beauty of the colour,
the piece is sometimes washed with a strong
solution of verdigris in vinegar, next gently
heated, plunged whilst hot into water, and
then washed, first in vinegar, or water soured
with nitric acid, and then in pure water; it is,
lastly, burnished, and again washed and dried.
2. (OR-MOLU COLOUR.) This is given by
covering the parts with a mixture of powdered
hematite, alum, common salt, and vinegar, and
applying heat until the coating blackens, when
the piece is plunged into cold water, rubbed
with a brush dipped in vinegar, or in water
strongly soured with nitric acid, again washed
in pure water, and dried. During this process,
the parts not to be dried in “or-molu colour'
should be carefully protected.
The frauds practised in reference to the
‘ fimeness’ of the metal used in jewelry, is
noticed under GOLD (Jeweller's). See also
ASSAYING, DIAMOND, GEMS, GILDING LIQUOR,
GILDING WAX, &c.
JEW’S PITCH. See ASPHALTUM.
JUICE (Spanish). See EXTRACT and
LIQUORICE.
JU'JUBE. A fruit resembling a small plum,
produced by various species of Zizyphus. Com-
bined with sugar, it forms the JUJUBE PASTE
of the shops, when genuine; but that now
almost always sold under the name is a mix-
ture of gum and sugar, slightly coloured and
flavoured.
JU'LEP. Syn. JUL.AP; JULEPUM, JULEPUs,
JUL.APIUM, L. A term usually regarded as
synonymous with ‘MIXTURE’; but according
to the best authorities, implying a medicine
which is used as a vehicle for other forms of
medicine. The word comes through the
French, from a Persian expression, which sig-
nifies “sweet drink.” A julep, according to
Continental writers, is a drink of little activity,
generally composed of distilled waters, infu-
sions, and syrups, to which mucilages and acids
are sometimes added; “but never powders or
oily substances, which could interfere with its
transparency.” In England, the juleps of old
pharmacy are now classed under ‘MIXTURES.”
JU'NIPER BERRIES. Syn. JUNIPERI
BACCE, J. COMMUNIS BACCE (Ph. E.), JUNI-
PERUs (Ph. L.), L. The fruit of the Juniperus
communis, or common juniper tree. In the old
Ph. L. & D. both the tops and berries (JUNI-
PERI FRUCTUS ET CACUMINA—Ph. L. 1836;
JUNIPERUS—BACCE, CACUMINA–Ph. D. 1826)
were ordered. The berries are stomachic and
diuretic, and have been long employed in drop-
sies, either alone or combined with foxglove
and squills. The tops (SUMMITATES) have
been highly praised in scurvy and certain
cutaneous affections.—Dose 1 to 2 drs, made
into a conserve with sugar, or in the form of
infusion or tea.
JUN’KET, Syn. DEVONSHIRE JUNKET,
CURD JELLY. From warm milk put into a
bowl, and then turned with a little rennet;
some scalded cream and sugar are next added,
with a sprinkling of cinnamom on the top,
without breaking the curd. Much esteemed by
holiday folk in the western counties, during
the hot weather of summer. Sometimes, very
strangely, a little brandy finds its way into
these trifles.
KALEIDOSCOPE, Syn. FLOWER-GLASS. A
pleasing philosophical toy invented by Sir
David Brewster, which presents to the eye a
series of symmetrical changing views. It is
formed as follows:–Two slips of silvered glass,
from 6 to 10 inches long, and from 1 to 1%
inch wide, and rather narrower at one end
than the other, are joined together lengthwise,
by one of their edges, by means of a piece of
silk or cloth, glued on their back; they are
then placed in a tube of tin or pasteboard,
blackened inside, and a little longer than is
necessary to contain them, and are fixed by
means of small pieces of cork, with their faces
at any angle to each other that is an even
aliquot part of 4 right angles (as the #, , º,
&c.). The other end of the tube is then closed
with an opaque screen, or cover, through which
a small eyehole is made in the centre; and
the other end is fitted, first with a plate of
common glass, and at the distance of about ºth
of an inch, with a plain piece of slightly ground
glass, parallel to the former; in the inter-
mediate place or cell are placed the objects to
form the images. These consist of coloured
pieces of glass, glassbeads, or any other coloured
diaphanous bodies, sufficiently small to move
freely in the cell, and to assume new positions
when the tube is shaken or turned round. A
tube so prepared presents an infinite number

KALI–KERMES MINERAL.
667

of changing and symmetrical pictures, no one
of which can be exactly reproduced. This
toy is so easily constructed, is so very inex-
pensive, and at the same time so capable of
affording an almost inexhaustible fund of
amusement to the young, that we advise our
juvenile friends to try their hands at its con-
struction. Any common tube of tin or paste-
board may be used, and strips of glass smoked
on one side will answer for mirrors.
KALI. The name formerly applied to a
species of Salsola employed for making BARILLA.
It is sometimes used as a designation for the
crude alkalies, and is the Germon synonym for
‘potassa.’
Acid'ulated Kali. Syn. LEMON AND KALI,
LEMONIATED K. A common preparation of
the shops for making a pleasant effervescing
draught. It is sometimes incorrectly styled
“citrate of potash.” Prep. 1. Carbonate of
soda and tartaric acid, of each, 5 oz. ; lump
sugar, 1 lb.; all in the state of fine powder,
and separately dried by a very gentle heat,
after which they are mixed together, flavoured
with essence of lemon, 1 dr., rubbed through a
gauze sieve in a warm dry situation, put into
bottles, and corked down immediately.
2. Finely powdered white sugar, 16 lbs. ;
tartaric acid, 44 lb.; carbonate of soda, 4 lbs. ;
essence of lemon, 1 oz. ; as the last. Keeps
well. A dessert-spoonful of either thrown
into a glassful of water makes a pleasant effer-
vescing draught.
KA'LIUM. [L.] Potassium.
KAL'YD0R. A cosmetic lotion; it resem-
bles ‘GowIAND’s LOTION, but is got up in a
rather more pleasing style. See LOTION.
KA'0LIN. Syn. CHINA CLAY, PORCELAIN
C. A fine white clay, derived from the decom-
position of the felspar of granitic rocks. The
potteries and porcelain works of this country
are chiefly supplied with this substance from
extensive tracts of it which occur near St.
Austle, Cornwall. See CLAY.
KAP/NOMOR, Syn. CAPNoMoR. A colour-
less oil obtained from crude kreasote by dis-
tillation with potassa. It boils at 360° Fahr.,
has a peculiar odour, and is insoluble in water,
but readily soluble in an alkaline solution of
kreasote.
KATALYSIS. Syn. CATALYSIS, CoNTACT
ACTION. Terms applied to a class of chemical
actions in which the decompositions, and the
recombination of the elements of compound
bodies, is apparently excited by the mere pre-
sence of, or contact with, other bodies, which
do not themselves suffer such a change.
KELP. The alkaline ashes obtained by
burning various species of sea-weed, formerly
much used for the preparation of carbonate
of soda. The weeds most valued for the
purpose are the Fucus vesiculosus, nodosus, and
serratus,and the Laminariabulbosa and digitata.
Of late years, the manufacture of kelp, like
that of barilla, has been almost abandoned,
except as a source of iodine. Mr. E. C. C.
Stanford, by carefully collecting and com-
pressing the weed, and afterwards submitting
it to dry distillation, doubles the yield of
iodine and bromine, and obtains in addition
various valuable hydrocarbons. See BARILLA
IODINE, SODA, &c.
KER/MIES. Syn. KERMES-GRAINS, AL-
KERMES ; GRANUM TINCTORIUM., L. The
dried bodies of the female Coccus Ilicis of
Linnaeus, a small insect of the order Hemiptera,
which flourishes on the Ilex oak. It has been
used as a red and scarlet dye-stuff ever since
the time of Moses; but is now superseded in
this country by cochineal, which gives colours
of much greater brilliancy.
KER'MES MIN'ERAL. Syn. KERMEs
MINERALE, K. MINERALIS, L. An amorphous
tersulphide of antimony, containing a small
admixture of teroxide of animony and sul-
phuride of potassium. Prep. 1. IN THE HU-
MID WAY.-a, (P. Cod.) Carbonate of soda
(cryst.), 128 parts (say, 21 parts), is dissolved
in water, 1280 parts (say 210 parts), contained
in a cast-iron pan; tersulphide of antimony
(in fine powder), 6 parts (say 1 part), is next
added, and the whole boiled for an hour, with
constant agitation with a wooden spatula;
the boiling liquid is then filtered into a heated
earthen pan containing a small quantity of
very hot water, and the solution is allowed to
cool as slowly as possible; the red powder
which is deposited is collected on a cloth, on
which it is well washed with cold water, and
the superfluous water being removed by pres-
sure, the powder is dried by a gentle heat,
and is, lastly, passed through a fine silk-gauze
sieve, and preserved from light and air,
b. (Wholesale.) From black sulphuride of
antimony, 4 lb. ; carbonate of potassia, 1 lb. ;
boil in water, 2 galls., for half an hour, filter,
&c., as before. The undissolved portion of
sesquisulphuret of antimony may be boiled
again several times with fresh potassa and
water, until the whole is dissolved. Inferior
to the last.
c. (CLUZELL’s RERMES.) From tersulphide
of antimony, 4 parts; crystallized carbonate of
soda, 90 parts; water, 1000 parts; boil, &c.,
as in 1, a, and dry the powder, folded up in
paper, at a heat not exceeding 90°Fahr.
2. IN THE DRY WAY.-a, (P. Cod.) Car-
bonate of potassa, 100 parts; tersulphide of
antimony, 50 parts; sulphur, 3 parts; mix,
fuse in a Hessian crucible, pour the melted
mass into an iron mortar, and when cold reduce
it to powder; next boil it in water, 1000 parts,
contained in an iron vessel, filter the solution,
and otherwise proceed as before. Product :


large, but of inferior quality.
b. (Fownes.) From tersulphide of anti-
mony, 5 parts; carbonate of soda (dry), 3
parts; water, 80 parts; fuse, &c., as before.
Nearly equal to 1, a.
c. (Berzelius.) Carbonate of potassa (pure),
3 parts; tersulphide of antimony, 8 parts;
water, q. S. Resembles the last,
668
KETCHUP.
Prop., &c. An odourless, tasteless powder,
insoluble in both water and alcohol, and, when
pure and carefully prepared, entirely soluble
in hydrosulphate of ammonia. As prepared
by the formulae 1, a, and 1, c, it is a very dark
crimson powder, of a velvety smoothness; but
that from the other formulae has a brownish-
red colour, more or less deep. The secret of
preparing this compound of a fine and velvety
quality, like that imported from the Conti-
ment, consists simply in filtering the solution
whilst boiling hot, and allowing it to cool
very slowly, by placing the vessel in an appro-
priate situation for that purpose. Another
important point, according to Rose, is to em-
ploy sufficient alkali to keep the whole of the
teroxide of antimony in solution as the liquid
cools, instead of allowing a part of it to be
deposited with the kermes. This is the rea-
son of the superior quality and mildness of that
prepared according to the directions of the
French Codex. The liquor decanted from the
‘kermes mineral’ yields the golden sulphide
of antimony on the addition of an acid, for
which purpose the acetic is generally employed.
Dose. # gr, to 3 or 4 grs, as a diaphoretic,
cathartic, or emetic. It occupies in foreign
practice the place of our James's Powder.
KETCH'UP. Syn. CATCHUP, CATSUP, KATCH-
UP. The juice of certain vegetables strongly
Salted and spiced, so as to be used as Sauce;
or a simple sauce made without the natural
juice as a substitute for the true ketchup.
The following are the principal varieties:—
Camp Ketchup. Prep. Take of good old
beer, 2 quarts; white wine, 1 quart; anchovies,
4 oz. ; mix, heat it to the boiling-point, re-
move it from the fire, and add of peeled shalots,
3 oz.; mace, nutmegs, ginger, and black pepper,
of each, bruised, ; Oz, ; macerate for 14 days,
with frequent agitation, then allow it to settle,
and decant and bottle the clear portion.
Cuſcumber Ketchup. Prep. From ripe cu-
cumbers, in the same way as mushroom ketchup.
Very luscious. Mixed with cream, or melted
butter, it forms an excellent white sauce for
fowls, &c.
Marine' Ketchup. Prep. Take of strong old
beer, 1 gall. ; anchovies, 1 lb.; peeled shalots
(crushed), 1 lb.; bruised mace, mustard seed,
and cloves, of each, ; oz. ; bruised pepper and
ginger, of each, # oz. ; mushroom ketchup and
vinegar, of each, 1 quart; heat the mixture to
the boiling-point, put it into a bottle, and ma-
cerate for 14 days, frequently shaking ; then
strain through flannel, and bottle it for use.
Excellent with anything; like the last, it
makes good white sauce, and keeps well.
Mush'room Ketchup. Prep. 1. Sprinkle
mushroom flaps, gathered in September, with
common salt, stir them occasionally for 2 or 3
days, then lightly squeeze out the juice, and
add to each gallon, cloves and mustard seed,
of each, bruised, }, oz. ; allspice, black pepper,
and ginger, of each, bruised, 1 oz. ; gently heat
to the boiling-pointin a covered vessel, macerate
for 14 days, and decant or strain. Should it
exhibit any indications of change in a few
weeks, bring it again to the boiling-point,
with a little more spice, and a table-spoonful
more salt.
2. Take of mushroom juice, 2 galls.; pi-
mento, 2 oz.; cloves, black pepper, mustard
seed, and ginger, of each, bruised, 1 oz. ; salt,
1 lb., (or to taste); shalots, 3 oz. ; gently
simmer for 1 hour in a covered vessel, cool,
strain, and bottle.
3. Take of mushroom juice, 100 galls.;
black pepper, 9 lb.; allspice, 7 lb.; ginger,
5 lb. ; cloves, 1 lb. (all bruised); salt, q. S.;
gently simmer in a covered tin boiler for 1
hour.
Oyster Ketchup. Prep. Pulp the oysters,
and to each pint add, of sherry wine, or very
strong old ale, 1 pint ; salt, 1 oz. ; mace, # 07.;
black pepper, 1 dr. ; simmer very gently for
10 minutes, strain, cool, bottle, and to each
bottle add a spoonful or two of brandy, and
keep them in a cool situation. COCKLE KETCH-
UP and MUSSEL KETCHUP are made in the
same way. Used to flavour sauces when the
fish are out of season; excellent with rump
steak, &c.
Pon’tac Ketchup. Prep. Take of the juice
of elderberries and strong vinegar, of each, 1
pint; anchovies, 4 lb.; shalots and spice, q, S.
to flavour; boil for 5 minutes, cool, strain, and
bottle. Used to make fish sauces. -
Toma'to Ketchup. Prep. Prepared from
tomatoes or love apples, like mushroomketchup,
except that a little very strong Chili vinegar
is commonly added. An admirable relish for
‘high or rich flavoured viands.
Walnut Ketchup. Prep. 1. Take of the
expressed juice of young walnuts, when tender,
1 gal. ; boil 10 minutes, skim, add of ancho-
vies, 2 lbs. ; shalots, 1 lb. ; cloves and mace, of
each, 1 oz. ; 1 clove of garlic, sliced; simmer
in a covered vessel for 15 minutes, strain, cool,
and bottle, adding a little fresh spice to each
bottle, and salt, q. S. Will keep good in a
cool place for 20 years.
2. Take of green walnut shells, 16 galls. ;
Salt, 5 lbs. ; mix and beat together for a week,
press out the liquor, and to every gallon add,
of allspice, 4 oz. ; ginger, 3 oz. ; pepper and
cloves, of each, 2 oz. ; all bruised; simmer for
half an hour, and set aside in a closed vessel
and in a cool situation until sufficiently clear.
3. Take of walnut juice, 1 gal. ; vinegar, 1
quart ; British anchovies (sprats), 3 or 4 lbs.;
pimento, 3 oz. ; ginger, 3 oz. ; long pepper, #
oz. ; cloves, 1 oz. ; shalots, 2 oz. ; boil and
bottle, as before.
4. From the juice of walnut shells, 30 galls.;
salt, 1 bushel; allspice and shalots, of each,
6 lbs. ; ginger, garlic, and horse-radish, of
each, 3 lbs. ; essence of anchovies, 3 galls.; as
before.
Wine Ketchup. Prep. Take of mushroom
or walnut ketchup, 1 quart; chopped ancho-
vies, 3 lb., ; 20 shalots; scraped horse-radish,

KIBES-KCECHLIN'S LIQUID.
669
2 oz. ; spice, q. S.; simmer for 15 minutes,
cool, and add of white and red wine, of each, 1
pint ; macerate for 1 week, strain, and bottle.
General remarks. In preparing the above
articles, vessels of glazed earthenware, or stone-
ware, or well-tinned copper pans, should alone
be used to contain them whilst being boiled or
heated, as salt and vegetable juices rapidly
corrode copper, and render the ketchup poi-
sonous. Nothing in the shape of copper, lead
or pewter, should be allowed to touch them
Even a plated copper spoon left in a bottle of
ketchup for some time will render its contents
poisonous. Unpleasant and even dangerous
fits of vomiting, colic, and diarrhoea, have re-
sulted from the neglect of this precaution.
See SAUCE, &c.
KIBES. The vulgar name for ulcerated
chilblains.
KID'NEYS. Syn. RENES, L. (In anatomy.)
The kidneys, as almost every one knows, are
abdominal viscera which secrete the urine, and
form the great channels by which the effete
nitrogenous matter is removed from the blood.
They are subject to various affections, both
functional and organic, chronic and acute, of
which some are imperfectly understood, and
others only admit of alleviation, but not of
being cured. See URINE and URINARY AF-
FECTIONS.
Kidneys. (In cookery.) Soyer recommends
kidneys to be dressed by gently broiling them,
having previously split them, “so as nearly to
divide them, leaving the fat in the middle,”
and “run a skewer through them, that they
may remain open.” After being rubbed with
a little butter, and seasoned with salt and
pepper, “they may be served on toast, or with
any sauce.” “You may also egg and bread-
crumb them.” “Five minutes suffice for a
sheep or lamb’s kidney of common size.”
(Soyer.) One or two lamb’s kidneys, plainly
broiled and served up with the gravy in them,
eaten along with a little dry-toasted bread,
form a most excellent and appropriate
luncheon or dinner for a dyspeptic or conva-
lescent.
KING'S CUP. Prep. Yellow peel of 1
lemon; lump sugar, 1% oz. ; cold water, 1 pint;
infuse 8 or 10 hours, and strain. The addition
of a teaspoonful of orange-flower water is a
great improvement. Used as a diluent in
cases where acid liquors are inadmissible. See
LEMONADE.
KING'S EVIL. See SCROFULA.
KING'S YELLOW. See YELLOW PIG-
MENTS.
KI'NIC ACID. H.C.H.I.O. Syn. QUINIC
ACID, CINCHONIC ACID. A peculiar dibasic
acid occurring in the cinchona barks, in
which it exists associated with the alkaloids.
Prep. It is readily obtained from kinate of
lime, by the action of dilute sulphuric acid;
the filtered solution evaporated to the con-
sistence of a syrup, gradually deposits large
crystals resembling those of tartaric acid,
Prop., &c. It is soluble in 2 parts of water,
and in alcohol; and forms salts called kinates.
Kinate of lime is obtained from an acidulated
infusion of cinchona bark, by adding an excess
of lime, filtering, evaporating to a syrup, and
setting the liquid aside to crystallise. These
crystals are purified by redissolving them,
treating the solution with a little animal
charcoal, and crystallising the salt as before.
The liquid from which the bark-alkaloids have
been precipitated by hydrate of lime affords an
almost inexhaustible supply of this salt. See
KINONE.
KIN0. Syn. GUM KINo ; KINO (B. P., Ph.
L. E. & D.) The juice flowing from the in-
cised bark of the Pterocarpus Marsupium or
Indian, hardened in the sun.--Dose. 10 to 30
grs., in powder; as an astringent in chronic
diarrhoea, &c.
Factitious Kino, met with in the shops, is
made as follows:–Logwood, 48 lbs. ; tormentil
root, 16 lbs. ; madder root, 12 lbs. ; exhaust by
coction with water, q. S.; to the liquor add of
catechu, 16 lbs. ; dissolve, strain, and evapo-
rate to dryness. Prod. 24 lbs. Extract of
mahogany is also commonly sold for kino.
KIRSCHWASSER (-vás ser) [Ger.]. Syn.
KIRSCHENWASSER. A spirituous liquor dis-
tilled in Germany and Switzerland from
bruised cherries. From the rude manner in
which it is obtained, and from the distillation
of the cherry-stones (which contain prussic
acid) with the liquor, it has frequently a
nauseous taste, and is frequently poisonous.
When properly made and sweetened, it re-
sembles moyau.
KISH. An artificial graphite occasionally
produced in iron-smelting furnaces. It occurs
in brilliant scales, and is said to possess pecu-
liar efficacy in certain forms of anaemia and
chlorosis.
KITCHEN. The late Alexis Soyer set down
as one of the crying faults of our countrymen,
the employment of an apartment for the
kitchen which is either too small or inconve-
niently situated, and which, in general, is not
sufficiently provided with ‘kitchen requisites.”
“As a workman cannot work properly without
the requisite tools, or the painter produce the
proper shade without the necessary colours, in
like manner does every person wishing to
economise his food, and to cook it properly, re-
quire the proper furniture wherewith to do it.”
The neglect of these matters, which is so
general, is, undoubtedly, a mischievous and
deceptive economy.
KNOX’S POW'ſ ER. Prep. From common
salt, 8 parts; chloride of lime, 3 parts; mixed
together. An ounce of it dissolved in a
tumblerful of water furnishes a solution
which is similar to Labarraque's disinfecting
fluid.
KQECHLIN'S LIQUID. Prep. From copper
filings, 96 grs. ; liquor of ammonia, 2 fl. oz. ;
digested together until it turns of a full blue
colour, and then mixed with hydrochloric acid,



670
KOOCHLA NUT-KREASOTE.
5 fl. drs. ; distilled water, 5 lbs.--Dose. 1 to 2
teaspoonfuls daily; in scrofula. It is poison-
ous in large doses.
K000Hſ LA NUT. See NUx WOMICA.
KOU"MISS. A liquor prepared by the Cal-
mucs, by fermenting mare's milk, previously
kept until sour, and then skimmed. By dis-
tillation, it yields a spirit called rack, racky, or
araka. 21 lbs. of fermented milk yield about
# pint of low wines, and this, by rectification,
gives fully 4 pint of strong alcohol.
KOUS'S0. Syn. Cusso, Kosso. This sub-
stance is the dried flowers of the Brayera an-
thelmintica, an Abyssinian tree which grows to
the height of about 20 feet, and belongs to
the natural order Rosaceae. It is one of the
most effective remedies known for both va-
rieties of tape-worm. The dose, for an adult,
is 3 to 5 drs, in powder, mixed with about
half a pint of warm water, and allowed to
macerate for 15 or 20 minutes. The method
prescribed for its successful administration is
as follows:—The patient is to be prepared by
a purgative or a lavement, and the use of a
very slight diet the day before. The next
morning, fasting, a little lemon juice is to be
swallowed, or a portion of a lemon sucked,
followed by the dose of kousso (both liquid and
powder), at 3 or 4 draughts, at short intervals
of each other, each of which is to be washed
down with cold water acidulated with lemon
juice. The action of the medicine is subse-
quently promoted by drinking weak tea with-
out either milk or sugar, or water flavoured
with lemon juice or toasted bread; and if it
does not operate in the course of 3 or 4 hours, a
dose of castor oil or a Saline purgative is taken.
The flavour of kousso is rather disagreeable
and nauseating. Its operation is speedy and
effectual; but at the same time it is apt to
produce, in large doses, great prostration of
strength, and other severe symptoms, which
unfit it for administration to the delicate of
both sexes, or during pregnancy or affections
of the lower viscera. Care should be taken
not to purchase it in powder, as, owing to its
high price, it is uniformly adulterated. The
powdered kousso of the shops is, in general,
nothing more than the root-bark of pomegra-
nate, coloured and scented.
KREASOTE. Syn. CREASOTE, CREOSOTE,
KREOSOTE; CREASOTUM (B. P., Ph. L. & D.),
CREAZOTUM (Ph. E.), L. A peculiar substance,
discovered by Reichenbach, and so named on
account of its powerful antiseptic property. It
is a product of the dry distillation of organic
bodies, and is the preservative principle of wood
smoke and pyroligneous acid.
Prep. Kreasote is manufactured from wood-
tar, in which it is sometimes contained to the
amount of 20% to 35%, and from crude pyrolig-
neous acid and pyroxilic oil.
1. (P. Cod.) Wood-tar is distilled in a
wrought-iron retort until white vapours of
paraffin appear; the heavy oily matter which
forms the lower layer of the product is col-
lected, washed with water slightly acidulated
with sulphuric acid, and then distilled in a
glass retort, rejecting the first portions, which
are chiefly eupion; the distillate is treated with
a solution of potassa (sp. gr. 1:12), the mixed,
liquids being shaken strongly together; after
it is settled, the layer of eupion which forms is
removed from the surface, and the potash-
solution of kreasote exposed to the air until it
becomes black; it is then saturated with dilute
sulphuric acid, the watery liquid rejected, and
the remainder (consisting of crude kreasote)
submitted to distillation in glass; the treat-
ment by exposure, potassa, sulphuric acid, and
distillation, is repeated three times or oftener,
until the combination of kreasote and potassa
ceases to become coloured by the action of the
air; it is, lastly, satnrated with concentrated
phosphoric acid, and again distilled, rejecting
the first portion that comes over.
2. (M, Simon.) A copper still, capable of
containing 80 Berlin quarts, is filled to one
third with the oil of wood-tar, and heat is
applied; first, the more volatile matters pass
over; these do not contain kreasote, and are,
therefore, rejected; but when, by gradually
increasing the temperature, there passes over a
very acid liquid, which becomes turbid, and at
the same time an oil separates from it when
mixed with water, the product is collected, and
the distillation continued until the operator
notices a squirting in the still, when this part
of the process is complete; the distilled pro-
duct is then nearly saturated with potassa,
and returned to the still, which, in the mean
time, has been well cleaned out, and about half
filled with water, and the distillation is recom-
menced; at first an oil comes over, which floats
on water, and which consists chiefly of eupion,
and is, therefore, rejected; as soon, however,
as the oil begins to sink in the water which
comes over with it, it is charged with kreasote,
and is carefully collected; the distilling aque-
ous fluid being reintroduced, from time to
time, into the still, and the distillation con-
tinued so long as any oil continues to come
over with it ; the heavy oily distillate is now
agitated with liquor of potassa, sp. gr. 1120;
the portion which remains undissolved is eu-
pion, and is skimmed off; the potassa-solution
of kreasote still, however, contains a consi-
derable quatity of eupion, the greater portion
of which may be separated by dilution and
distillation with an equal quantity, or with at
least ºths of its volume of water, fresh water
being added from time to time, as long as any
eupion comes over with the distilled liquor;
when this has ceased to pass over, sulphuric
acid is poured into the still in quantity exactly
sufficient to saturate ºrd only of the potassa
formerly employed, and the distillation is
again renewed; kreasote now distils over, the
first portions of which, however, still contain
eupion, after which pure kreasote follows; that
is to say, “a kreasote which, when mixed with
6 or 8 times its quantity of a solution of pure


KREATINE.
671
potassa, furnishes a mixture which, by the ad-
dition of any further quantity whatever of
water, does not become turbid.” The combi-
nation of kreasote remaining in the still is
now mixed with sulphuric acid in slight excess,
and the distillation renewed, the water coming
over with it being from time to time returned
into the still; and when no further oil passes
over with the water, the process is complete.
The kreasote thus obtained is redistilled with
the water which has passed over with it, whilst
the distilled water, as before, is allowed from time
to time to run back into the still. The kreasote
thus obtained is then colourless; but it con-
tains a considerable quantity of water in so-
lution, which is separated by distillation in a
glass retort. The water distils first, and then
kreasote, which, after cleaning the neck of the
retort from the water, must be received in
another dry receiver. If the kreasote assumes
a red colour after being exposed for some time
to the air, it must be re-distilled, and then it
keeps very well. Korne found that tar pre-
pared from turf furnishes much more kreasote
than that from fir-wood, &c.
3, (Ure.) In operating upon pyroligneous
acid, if we dissolve effloresced sulphate of soda
in it to saturation, at the temperuture of 267°
Fahr., the kreasote separates, and floats upon
the surface; it is then decanted, and left in
repose for some days, during which it deposits
a fresh portion of salt and vinegar; it is next
Saturated whilst hot with carbonate of potassa,
and distilled along with water; a pale yellow
oily liquid passes over, which is rectified with
phosphoric acid, &c., like the crude product of
kreasote from tar.
Prop. Kreasote is a colourless, transparent
liquid, heavier than water, of a peculiar un-
pleasant, penetrating odour, resembling that
of smoked meat, and a very pungent and
caustic taste; its vapour irritates the eyes; it
boils at 400 Fahr., and is still fluid at — 16:6°
Fahr. ; it produces on white filter paper greasy
spots, which disappear if exposed to a heat of
212° Fahr. ; dissolves in 80 parts of water, and
mixes in all proportions with spirit of wine,
the essential and fatty oils, acetic acid, naph-
tha, disulphide of carbon, ammonia, and po-
tass; it dissolves iodine, phosphorus, sulphur,
resins, the alkaloids, indigo blue, several salts
(especially the acetates and the chlorides of
calcium and tin); reduces the nitrate and ace-
tate of silver; is resinified by chlorine, and
decomposed by the stronger acids. The aque-
ous solution is neutral, and precipitates solu-
tions of gum and the white of eggs. It kin-
dles with difficulty, and burns with a smoky
flame. When quite pure, it is unaltered by
exposure to the air. Sp. gr. 1071, at 68°Fahr.
A slip of deal dipped into it, and afterwards in
hydrochloric acid, and them allowed to dry in
the air, acquires a greenish-blue colour. It
turns a ray of polarised light to the right,
* carbolic acid does not affect polarisa-
1011.
Pur. The fluid commonly sold in the shops
for kreasote, is a mixture of kreasote, pica-
mar, and light oil of tar; in many cases
it is little else than impure carbolic acid,
with scarcely a trace of kreasote. Pure krea-
sote is perfectly soluble in both acetic acid and
liquor of potassa; shaken with an equal vo-
lume of water in a narrow test-tube, not more
than the 1-80th part disappears; otherwise it
contains water, of which kreasote is able to
assume 1-10th without becoming turbid.—Ifit
can be dissolved completely in 80 parts by
weight of water, at a medium temperature, it
then forms a perfectly neutral liquid.—An oily
residue floating on the surface betrays the
presence of other foreign products (EUPION,
KAPNOMOR, PICAMAR), which are obtained at
the same time with the kreasote during the
dry distillation of organic substances.
Kreasote is “devoid of colour, has a pecu-
liar odour, and is soluble in acetic acid. When
it is dropped on bibulous paper, and a boiling
heat is applied for a short time, it entirely es-
capes, leaving no transparent stain.” (Ph. L.)
“Entirely and easily soluble in its own weight
of acetic acid.” (Ph. E.) Sp. gr. 1046 (Ph.
L.), 1-066 (Ph. E. & D.). The density and
boiling-point of absolutely pure kreasote is
given above. When prescribed in pills with
oxide of silver, the mass will take fire unless
the oxide be first mixed with liquorice or other
powder. (Squire.)
Uses. Kreasote has been recommended in
several diseases of the organs of digestion and
respiration, in rheumatism, gout, torpid mer-
vous fever, spasms, diabetes, tape-worm, &c.;
but its use has not, in general, been attended
with satisfactory results. It is given in the
form of pills, emulsion, or an ethereal or spi-
rituous solution. Evternally, it has been em-
ployed in various chronic diseases of the skin,
sores of different kinds, mortifications, scalds,
burns, wounds (as a styptic), caries of the
teeth, &c.; mostly in the form of an aqueous
solution (1 to 80); or mixed with lard (5 drops
to 1 dr.), as an ointment ; dissolved in rectified
spirit, it forms a useful and a popular remedy
for toothache arising from decay or rottenness.
In the arts, kreasote is extensively employed
to preserve animal substances, either by wash-
ing it over them, or by immersing them in its
aqueous solution. A few drops in a saucer, or
on a piece of spongy paper, if placed in a
larder, will effectually drive away insects, and
make the meat keep several days longer than it
otherwise would. A small quantity added to
brine or vinegar is commonly employed to im-
part a smoky flavour to meat and fish, and its
solution in acetic acid is used to give the fla-
vour of whiskey to malt spirit. See CARBOLIC
ACID.
KREATINE. C. HaN.O.'Aq. Syn. CREA-
TINE. A crystallisable substance obtained
from the juice of the muscular fibre of animals.
It was first observed by Chevreul, but has re-
cently been carefully studied by Liebig.


672
KREATININE–LABORATORY.
Prep. (Liebig.) Lean flesh is reduced to
shreds, and then exhausted with successive
portions of cold water, employing pressure;
the mixed liquid is heated to coagulate the
albumen and colouring matter of the blood,
and is then strained through a cloth; pure
baryta water is next added as long as a pre-
cipitate forms, the liquid is filtered, and the
filtrate is gently evaporated to the consistence
of a syrup; after repose for some days in a
warm situation, crystals of kreatine are de-
posited; these are purified by redissolving
them in water, agitating the solution with
animal charcoal, and evaporatiug, &c., so that
crystals may form.
Prop., &c. Brilliant, colourless, prismatic
crystals; readily soluble in boiling water,
sparingly so in cold water and in alcohol; the
aqueous solution is neutral, bitter tasted, and
soon putrefies.
KREAT'ININE, C.H.N.O. This substance
exists in small quantities, both in the juice of
flesh and in conjunction with kreatine in urine.
It is also produced by the action of the stronger
acids on kreatine. It forms colourless prisma-
tic crystals, which are soluble in water, and the
solution has a strongly alkaline reaction. It
is a powerful organic base, and produces crys-
tallisable salts with the acids.
|KRE/NIC ACID. See CRENIC ACID.
KRYSTALLINE. The name originally ap-
plied by Unverdorben to ANILINE.
KUSTITIEN'S METAL. Prep. Take of
malleable iron, 3 parts; beat it to whiteness,
and add of antimony, 1 part; Molucca tim, 72
parts; mix under charcoal, and cool. Used to
coat iron and other metals with a surface of
tin; it polishes without a blue tint, is hard,
and has the advantage of being free from lead
and arsenic.
KYANIZING. A method of preserving
wood and cordage from decay, long known and
practised, but patented by Mr. Kyan, a few
years since. It consists in immersing the
bodies in a solution of corrosive sublimate, 1
part, and water, 50 or 60 parts, either under
strong pressure or the contrary, as the ur-
gency of the case or the dimensions of the
bodies operated on may require. See DRY
ROT.
KY'ANOI. A substance obtained from coal-
tar oil, and at first thought to be an indepen-
dent principle, but since shown to be identical
with ANILINE.
LABARRAQUE'S FLUID. See SOLUTION
OF CHLORIDE OF SODA.
LAB'DANUM. Syn. LADANUM. An odo-
rous, resinous substance found on the leaves
and twigs of the Cystus creticus, a plant
growing in the island of Candia and in Syria.
It was formerly much used for making stimu-
lating plasters. The following compound is
often vended for it :—
Labdanum, Facti"tious. Prep. From gum
anime, resin, Venetian turpentine, and sand, of
each 6 parts; Spanish juice and gum arabic, of
each (dissolved in a little water), 3 parts;
Canada balsam, 2 parts; ivory black, 1 part;
balsam of Peru, q, S. to give a faint odour.
LA/BELS capable of resisting the action of
OILS, SPIRITS, WATER, SYRUPS, and DILUTE
ACIDS, may be obtained as follows:–Lay a
coat of strained white of egg over the label (an
ordinary paper one), and immediately put the
vessel into the upper portion of a common
steam-pan, or othewise expose it to a gentle
heat till the albumen coagulates and turns
opaque, then take lt out and dry it before
the fire, or in an oven, at a white heat of about
212° Fahr.; the opaque white film will then
become hard and transparent. The labels on
bottles containing STRONG ACIDS or ALKALINE
SOLUTIONS should be either etched upon the
glass by means of hydrofluoric acid, or be
written with incorrodible ink. See ETCHING
and INK.
LAB'ORATORY. Syn. LABORATORIUM, L.
A place fitted up for the performance of expe-
rimental or manufacturing operations in che-
mistry, pharmacy, and pyrotechny. For full
information respecting the best mode of fitting
up a chemical laboratory, the reader is referred
to works specially devoted to chemical mani-
pulation.' Almost any well-lighted spare room
may be fitted up as a small laboratory at very
little expense. The gas-furnaces and im-
proved lamps introduced of later years have to
a certain extent rendered chemists independent
of brick furnaces. A strong working bench,
fitted with drawers and cupboards, and
having gas-pipes at intervals for attaching
different kinds of jets, is an indispensable
fixture. A close cupboard or closet, which is
connected by a pipe with the chimney or the
external air, is required to receive vessels
emitting corrosive or evil-smelling vapours;
the door of this closet should be of glass. A
sink, with a copious supply of water, must be
at hand, for washing apparatus. A glass, a
stoneware barrel, with a tap of the same mate-
rial, is required for holding distilled water.
Shelves, supports for apparatus, and drawers,
should be provided in abundance. The fine
balances and other delicate instruments should
be kept in a separate apartment. With regard
to apparatus, we may state that the articles
most frequently required in a laboratory are
the gas or alcohol lamps; iron pans for sand
bath and water bath; evaporating dishes; pre-
cipitating jars, funnels, and wash-bottles; re-
torts, flasks, and test-tubes ; mortars and
pestles; retort- and filtering-stands; rat-tail
and triangular files, and glass rod and tubing.
The principal philosophical - instrument-
makers sell chests or cabinets filled with
apparatus and chemicals, under the name of
‘PORTABLE LABORATORIES.” Those sold by
Mr. J. J. Griffin and by Messrs. Jackson and
1 The latest and best work is the “Handbook of Chemi-
cal Manipulation,” by Greville Williams. Faraday's famous
work on the same subject has long been out of print,
LAC-LACTIC ACID.
673
Townson are, perhaps, the most complete.
They are well adapted for illustrating all the
more valuable facts of chemical science, and
performing all the ordinary operations of
qualitative analysis.
LAC. Syn. LACCA, L. A resinous substance
combined with much colouring matter, pro-
duced by the puncture of the female of a small
insect, called the Coccus lacca or ſicus, upon
the young branches of several tropical trees,
especially the Ficus Indica, Ficus religiosa, and
Croton lacciferum. The crude resinous exuda-
tion constitutes the STICK-LAC of commerce.
SHELL-LAC or SHELLAC is prepared by spread-
ing the resin into thin plates after being
melted and strained. SEED-LAC is the residue
obtained after dissolving out most of the
colouring matter contained in the resin.
Shell-lac is the kind most commonly em-
ployed in the arts. The palest is the best, and
is known as ‘orange lac. The darker varieties
—‘liver-coloured,’ ‘ruby,” “garnet,’ &c.—re-
spectively diminish in value in proportion to
the depth of their colour.
Uses, &c. Lac was formerly much used in
medicine; its action, if any, is probably that
of a very mild diuretic. It is now chiefly used
in DENTIFRICES, WARNISHES, LACQUERS, and
SEALING-WAX.
Bleached Lac. Syn. WHITE LAC ; LACCA
ALBA, L. By dissolving lac in a boiling lye
of pearlash or caustic potassa, filtering and
passing chlorine through the solution until all
the lac is precipitated; this is collected, well
washed and pulled in hot water, and, finally,
twisted into sticks, and thrown into cold water
to harden. Used to make pale varnishes and
the more delicate coloured sealing-wax.
LAC DYE, Syn. LAC, LAC-LARE, INDIAN
CoCHINEAL. A colouring substance used to
dye scarlet, imported from India.
Prep. By dissolving out the colour of ground
stick-lac by means of a weak alkaline solution,
and then precipitating it along with alumina
by adding a solution of alum.
Obs. To prepare the lac for dyeing, it is
ground and mixed with diluted “ lac spirit,” and
the whole allowed to stand for about a week.
The ‘cloth’ is first mordanted with a mixture
of tartar and ‘lac spirit,” and afterwards kept
near the boil for three quarters of an hour, in
a bath formed by adding a proportion of the
prepared lac dye to the mixture used for mor-
danting. Lac dye is only applicable to
woollen and silk. The colours it yields are
similar to those obtained from cochineal, but
less brilliant.
LAC SPIRIT. See TIN MORDANTS.
LAC/QUER. A solution of shell-lac in
alcohol, tinged with saffron, annotta, aloes, or
other colouring substances. It is applied to
wood and metals to impart a golden colour.
See WARNISH.
LACTALBU’MEN. See CASEIN.
LACTATE, Syn. LACTAs, L. A salt of
lactic acid. The lactates are characterised by
yielding an enormous quantity of perfectly
pure carbonic oxide gas when heated with 5 or
6 parts of oil of vitriol. Most of these salts
may be directly formed by dissolving the
hydrate or carbonate of the metal in the dilute
acid.
LACTATION.
&c.
LACTIC ACID. H.C. Hiſ Og. Syn. ACID of
MILK; ACIDUM LACTICUM, L. A sour, syrupy
liquid, discovered by Scheele in whey. It is
also found in some other animal fluids, and in
several vegetable juices, especially in that of
beet-root.
Prep. 1. Dissolve lactate of barium in
water, precipitate the barium with dilute sul-
phuric acid, carefully avoiding excess, and
gently evaporate to the consistence of a syrup,
or until it acquires the density 1215. Lactate
of calcium may be used instead of lactate of
barium, in which case a solution of oxalic acid
must be employed as the precipitant. Pure.
(See No. 5.)
2. Milk (skimmed or stale), 1 gal. ; bicar-
bonate of sodium, 3 lb.; dissolve, and expose
the liquid to the air for some days, until it
becomes sour, then saturate the excess of acid
with some more bicarbonate of sodium, and
again expose it to the air; repeat this as often
as the liquid becomes sour; next heat the
liquid to the boiling-point, filter, evaporate to
dryness (or nearly), and exhaust the residuum
with rectified spirit; filter the alcoholic solu-
tion, which contains lactate of sodium, add
sulphuric acid as long as it causes a precipitate
to form, again filter, and concentrate the clear
liquid by evaporation.
3. (Boutron and Fremy.) Milk, 3 or 4
quarts; sugar of milk, 200 to 300 grs. ; mix,
and expose for 2 or 3 days in an open vessel at
70° to 80° Fahr., then saturate with bicarbon-
ate of sodium, again expose at a moderate
temperature, saturate with more bicarbonate of
sodium, and repeat the process until the whole
of the sugar of milk is decomposed; then
coagulate the casein by heat, filter, evaporate,
extract the acid lactate of sodium by alcohol of
sp. gr. 810, and decompose it by the cautious
addition of dilute sulphuric acid ; again
filter, distil off the alcohol, and evaporate as
before.
4. (Scheele.) Evaporate sour whey to ºth
of its bulk, saturate with slaked lime, filter,
add 3 or 4 times the quantity of water, cau-
tiously precipitate the lime with a solution of
oxalic acid, filter, and gently evaporate to
dryness in a warm bath; digest the residuum
in strong rectified spirit, and again filter and
evaporate.
5. (Wackenroder.) Sugar of lead, 25 parts;
finely powdered chalk, 20 parts; skimmed
milk, 100 parts; water, 200 parts; digested
together at about 75° Fahr. In six weeks the
chalk will be dissolved; the whole is then
heated, but not to boiling; the cheese is
strained off, pressed, and the decanted liquid is
See INFANCY, NURSING,

43

674 LACTIC FERMENTATION.
clarified by albumen and evaporated, to let the
lactate of calcium crystallise; the salt is re-
crystallised and decomposed, either by Sul-
phuric acid or by the exact quantity of oxalic
acid. This is, perhaps, the most effective mode
of preparing lactic acid.
6. (Wholesale.)—a. Good raw cane-sugar,
7 lbs., is dissolved in milk (skimmed or stale),
2 galls., and cheese (in a moist or putrescent
state), # lb., and chalk, 4 lbs., previously
rubbed to a cream with water, 1% gal., is then
added; the mixture is next exposed in a
loosely covered jar, at a temperature of 80° to
86°Fahr., with occasional stirring, for 2 or 3
weeks, or until the whole is converted into a
semi-solid mass of crystals of lactate of calcium ;
this is purified either by draining off and ex-
pressing the liquid portion, dissolving the
residue in water, and evaporating the solution
for crystals; or the whole is put into a
stoneware vessel and heated to the boiling-
point, by which the casein is coagulated, and
the lactate of calcium is dissolved; the solu-
tion, filtered whilst hot, furnishes the salt in
crystals on cooling; these crystals are sub-
sequently dissolved in water, and the filtered
solution decomposed by oxalic acid, as before.
b. From cane-sugar, 4 parts; moist cheese,
1 part ; chalk, 3 parts; water, 20 parts; as
the last.
Obs. Lactic acid prepared by any of the
usual formulae may be rendered quite pure by
dilution with water, saturation with baryta,
evaporation, crystallisation, re-solution in
water, and the careful addition of dilute sul-
phuric acid, as in No. 1; the liquid is, lastly,
again filtered and evaporated. Another plan
is to convert the acid into lactate of zinc, by
the addition of commercial zinc-white, and to
redissolve the new salt in water, and then de-
compose the solution with a stream of sul-
phuretted hydrogen. In all cases the evapora-
tion should be conducted at a very gentle heat,
and, when possible, finished over sulphuric
acid, or in vacuo. For particular purposes,
this last product may be dissolved in ether,
filtered, and the ether removed by a very
gentle heat. Care must also be taken to
remove the solid lactate of calcium at the
proper period from the fermenting liquid, as
otherwise it will gradually redissolve and dis-
appear, and on examination the liquid will be
found to consist chiefly of a solution of buty-
rate of calcium. -
Prop. The product of the above formulae
is a solution of lactic acid. It may be concen-
trated in vacuo over a surface of oil of vitriol
until it appears as a syrupy liquid of sp. gr.
1.215; soluble in water, alcohol, and ether;
exhibiting the usual acid properties, and form-
ing salts with the metals, called LACTATEs.
Heated in a rºtort to 266°Fahr., a small por-
tion distils over, and the residuum on cooling
concretes into a yellowish, solid, fusible mass,
very bitter, and nearly insoluble in water.
This is lactic acid, which has lost half (1 equiv.)
of its basic water. By long boiling in water,
this substance is reconverted into lactic acid.
Heated to 480° Fahr., it suffers decomposition,
lactide (the anhydrous, concrete, or sublimed
lactic acid of former writers) and other pro-
ducts being formed. This new substance may
be purified by pressure between bibulous paper
and solution in boiling alcohol from which
it separates in dazzling white crystals on
cooling. By solution in hot water and evapo-
ration to a syrup, it furnishes common lactic
acid.
Uses. Lactic acid has been given in dyspep.
sia, gout, phosphatic urinary deposits, &c.
From its being one of the natural constituents
of the gastric juice, and from its power of
dissolving a considerable quantity of phos-
phate of calcium, it appears very probable that
it may prove beneficial in the above complaints,
Dose. 1 to 5 grs. ; in the form of lozenges, or
solution in sweetened water.
LACTIC FERMENTA"TION. The peculiar
change by which saccharine matter is con-
verted into lactic acid. Nitrogenous sub-
stances which in an advanced state of putre-
factive change act as alcohol-ferments often
possess, at certain periods of their decay, the
property of inducing an acid fermentation in
sugar, by which that substance is changed into
lactic acid. Thus, the nitrogenized matter of
malt, when suffered to putrefy in water for a
few days only, acquires the power of acidifying
the sugar which accompanies it; whilst in a
more advanced state of decomposition it con-
verts, under similar circumstances, the sugar
into alcohol. The gluten of grain behaves in
the same manner. Wheat flour, made into a
paste with water, and left for four or five
days in a warm situation, becomes a true lactic
acid ferment; but if left a day or two longer,
it changes its character, and then acts like
common yeast, occasioning the ordinary pa-
nary or vinous fermentation. Moist animal
membranes, in a slightly decaying condition,
often act energetically in developing lactic
acid. The rennet employed in the manufac.
ture of cheese furnishes a well-known example
of this class of substances.
In preparing lactid acid from milk, the acid
formed, after a time, coagulates and renders
insoluble the casein, and the production of
the acid ceases. By carefully neutralizing
the free acid by carbonate of sodium, the casein
becomes soluble, and, resuming its activity,
changes a fresh quantity of sugar into lactic
acid, which may be also neutralized, and by
a sufficient number of repetitions of this pro-
cess all the sugar of milk present may, in
time, be acidified. This is the rationale of
the common process by which lactic acid is
obtained. Cane-sugar (probably by previously
becoming grape-sugar) and the sugar of milk
both yield lactic acid; the latter, however,
most readily, the grape-sugar having a strong
tendency towards the alcoholic fermentation.

If the lactic fermentation be, allowed to pro-
*
-
LACTIDE—LAKE.
675
ceed too far, the second stage of the process
of transmutation commences, hydrogen gas and
carbonic acid gas are evolved, and the butyric
fermentation, by which oily acids are formed,
is established.
LAC"TIDE. See LACTIC ACID.
LAC'TIN. See SUGAR OF MILK.
LAC/TOMETER. Syn. GALACTOMETER. An
instrument for ascertaining the quality of milk.
The best way of testing milk is to place it in a
long graduated tube or lactometer, and to allow
it to remain until all the cream has separated,
then to decant off the clear whey, and to take
its specific gravity; the result of the two ope-
rations, when compared with the known quan-
tity of cream and the density of the whey of
an average sample of milk, gives the value of
the sample tested.
A little instrument called a “milk tester’ is
sold in London at a low price. It is essen-
tially a hydrometer which sinks to a given
mark on the stem in pure water, and floats at
another mark at the opposite end of the scale
in pure milk. The intermediate space indi-
cates the quantity of water (if any) employed
to adulterate the article. As the sp. gr. of
pure milk varies, the indications of the “tester’
cannot be depended on.
LAC'TUCA. (B.P.) Syn. LETTUCE. The
leaves and flowering tops of the wild indigenous
plant Lactuca Virosa. They are sedative,
marcotic, and powefully diuretic; also mildly
laxative and diaphoretic. Given in dropsy and
visceral obstructions. See LETTUCE, ExTRACT
OF.
LAC/TOSE. See SUGAR OF MILK.
LACTUCA"RIUM. Syn. LETTUCE opium,
THRIDACE; LACTUCARIUM (Ph. E. & D.).
The inspissated milky juice of the Lactuca
sativa (common garden lettuce), or the Lac-
tuca virosa (strong scented wild lettuce), ob-
tained, by incision, from the flowering stems,
and dried in the air. The latter species yields
by far the greater quantity. M. Arnaud, of
Nancy, adopts the following method of pro-
curing this substance, which appears to be the
most productive and simple of any yet pub-
lished:—Before the development of the lateral
branches, the stems of twelve plants are cut,
one after another, a little below the com-
mencement of these branches; returning to
the first one, a milky exudation is found on
the cut portion, and on that which remains
fixed in the earth; this milky exudation is
adroitly collected with the end of the finger
(or with a bone knife), which is afterwards
scraped on the edge of a small glass; the same
operation is performed on twelve other heads,
and so on; on the third day it is repeated on
every portion of the plant remaining in the
ground, a thin slice being first cut off the top;
this is done every day until the root is reached.
As soon as the lactucarium is collected, it coagu-
lates; the harvest of each day is divided into
small pieces, which are placed on plates, very
near each other, but without touching, and
allowed to dry for two days, after which they
are set aside in a bottle. In this way 15 or
20 times the ordinary product is obtained.
Prop., &c. Lactucarium is anodyne, hyp-
notic, antispasmodic, and sedative, allaying
pain and diminishing the force of the circula-
tion. It has been recommended in cases in
which opium is inadmissible, and has been ad-
ministered with advantage in chronic rheuma-
tism, cholic, diarrhoea, asthma, and troublesome
cough of phthisis, the irritability and watch-
fulness in febrile disorders, &c, Dose. 2 to
5 grs. ; made into pills, lozenges, or tincture.
LACTU/CIN. Syn. LACTUCINUM, L. This
is the active principle of lactucarium, and is
found in the juice of several species of lettuce.
Prep. Exhaust lactucarium with hot recti-
fied spirit, agitate the tincture with a little
animal charcoal, filter, add a little milk of
lime, and evaporate to dryness; digest the
residuum in hot rectified spirit, filter, and
evaporate by a gentle heat, so that crystals
may form.
Prop., &c. A nearly colourless, odourless,
fusible, neutral, bitter substance; sparingly
soluble in cold water and in ether; but freely
soluble in alcohol. It possesses feeble basic
properties. Good lactucarium contains fully
20% of this substance.
LAD'ANUMI. See LABDANUM.
LAENNEC’S CONTRA-STIMULANT.
DRAUGHT. -
LAKE. Syn. LACCA, L. Animal or vegetable
colouring matter, precipitated in combination
with oxide of tin or alumina; usually the
latter. The term was formerly restricted to
red preparations of this kind, but is now in-
discriminately applied to all compounds of
alumina and colouring matter. The term
‘LAKE, when unqualified by an adjective, is,
however, understood to apply exclusively to
that prepared from cochineal.
Prep. Lakes are made—1. By adding a
solution of alum, either alone or partly satu-
rated with carbonate of potassa, to a filtered
infusion or decoction of the colouring substance,
and after agitation precipitating the mixture
with a solution of carbonate of potash.-2. By
precipitating a decoction or infusion of the
colouring substance made with a weak alkaline
lye, by adding a solution of alum.—3. By agi-
tating recently precipitated alumina with a
solution of the colouring matter, prepared as
before, until the liquid in nearly decoloured,
or the alumina acquires a sufficiently dark
tint. The first method is usually employed
for acidulous solutions of colouring matter, or
for those whose tint is injured by alkalies;
the second, for those that are brightened, or at
least uninjured, by alkalies; the third, for
those colouring matters that have a great
affinity for gelatinous alumina, and readily
combine with it by mere agitation. By atten-
tion to these general rules, lakes may be pre-
pared from almost all animal and vegetable
colouring substances that yield their colour to
See


676
LAKE,
water, many of which will be found to possess
great beauty and permanence. The precise
process adapted to each particular substance
may be easily ascertained by taking a few
drops of its infusion or decoction, and observ-
ing the effects of alkalies and acids on the
colour. The quantity of alum or of alumina
employed should be nearly sufficient to de-
colour the dye liquor; and the quantity of
carbonate of potassa should be so proportioned
to the alum as to exactly precipitate the alumina
without leaving free or carbonated alkali in
the liquid. The first portion of the precipitate
has the deepest colour, and the shade gradually
becomes paler as the operation proceeds. A
beautiful ‘tone of violet, red, and even purple,
may be communicated to the colouring matter
of cochineal by the addition of perchloride of
tin ; the addition of arseniate of potassa (neu-
tral arsenical salt) in like manner gives shades
which may be sought for in vain with alum or
alumina. After the lake is precipitated, it
must be carefully collected, washed with cold
distilled water, or the purest rain water, until
it ceases to give out colour, and then carefully
dried in the shade. In this state it forms a
soft velvety powder. That of the shops is
generally made up into conical or pyramidal
drops (drop lake), which is done by dropping
the moist lake through a small funnel on a
clean board or slab, and drying it by a gentle
heat as before. A very little clear gum water
is commonly added to the paste, to give the
drops consistence when dry.
Blue Lake. Syn. LACCACCERULEA, L. Pre-
pared from some of the blue-coloured flowers;
fugitive. The name is also applied to lump
archil (lacca coerulea), to moist alumina coloured
with indigo, and to mixed solutions of pearlash
and prussiate of potash, precipitated with
another solution of sulphate of iron and alum.
These are permanent and beautiful, but are
seldom used, in consequence of indigo and
Prussian blue supplying all that is wanted in
this class of colours. -
Brazil-wood Lake. Syn. DROPLAKE ; LACCA
IN GLOBULIS, L. Prep. 1. Take of ground
Brazil-wood, 1 lb.; water, 4 galls.; digest for
24 hours, then boil for 30 or 40 minutes, and
add of alum 13 lb. ; dissolved in a little water;
mix, decant, strain, and add of solution of tin,
# lb.; again mix well and filter; to the clear
liquid add, cautiously, a solution of salt of
tartar or carbonate of soda, as long as a deep-
coloured precipitate forms, carefully avoiding
excess; collect, wash, dry, &c., as directed above.
Obs. The product is deep red. By col-
lecting the precipitate in separate portions,
lakes varying in richness and depth of colour
may be obtained. The first portion of the
precipitated lake has the brightest colour.
An excess of alkali turns it on the violet,
and the addition of cream of tartar, on the
brownish-red. The tint turns more on the
violet red when the solution of tin is omitted.
Some persons use less, others more, alum.
2. Add washed and recently precipitated
alumina to a strong and filtered decoction of
Brazil wood. Inferior to the last.
Carminaſted Lake. Syn. CoCHINEAT LAKE,
FLORENCE L., FLORENTINE L., PARIS L.,
VIENNA. T.; LACCA FLORENTINA, L. Prep.
1. The residuum of the cochineal left in making
carmine is boiled with repeated portions of
water, until it is exhausted of colour ; the
resulting liquor is mixed with that decanted
off the carmine, and at once filtered; some
recently precipitated alumina is then added,
and the whole gently heated, and well agita-
ted for a short time ; as soon as the alumina
has absorbed sufficient colour, the mixture is
allowed to settle, after which the clear portion
is decanted, the lake collected on a filter,
washed, and dried, as before. The decanted
liquor, if still coloured, is now treated with
fresh alumina until exhausted, and thus a lake
of a second quality is obtained. Very fine.
2. To the coloured liquor obtained from the
carmine and cochineal as above, a solution of
alum is added, the filtered liquor precipitated
with a solution of carbonate of potassa, and the
lake collected and treated as before. Scarcely
so good as the last.
Obs. Some makers mix a little solution of
tin with the coloured liquor before adding
the alum or alumina; this brightens the
colour. The above lake is a good glazing
colour with oil, but has little body. It may
be made directly from a decoction of cochineal.
(See below.)
Lake, Coch’ineal. Prep. 1. Cochineal (in
coarse powder), 1 oz. ; water and rectified
spirit, of each, 2% oz. ; digest for a week,
filter, and precipitate the tincture with a few
drops of solution of tin, added every two hours,
until the whole of the colouring matter is
thrown down; lastly, wash the precipitate in
distilled water, and dry it. Very fine.
2. Digest powdered cochineal in ammonia
water for a week, dilute the solution with a
little water, and add the liquid to a solution
of alum, as long as a precipitate falls, which
is the lake. Equal to the last.
3, Coarsely powdered cochineal, 1 lb.; water,
2 galls. ; boil 1 hour, decant, strain, add a so-
lution of salt of tartar, 1 lb., and precipitate
with a solution of alum. By adding the
alum first, and precipitating the lake with
the alkali, the colour will be slightly varied.
All the above are sold as CARMINATED or
FLORENCE LAKE, to which they are often
superior. -
Lake, Green. Made by mixing blue and
yellow lake together. Seldom kept in the
shops, being generally prepared extempora-
neously by the artist on his palette.
Lake, Lac. Prep. Boil fresh stick-lac in a
solution of carbonate of soda, filter the solution,
precipitate with a solution of alum, and pro-
ceed as before. A fine red.
Lake, Li'chen. See ORCEIN.
Lake, Madder. Syn. LACCARUBIE, L. Co-
i
>

LAMB—LAMP.
677
LUMBINA, L. Prep. 1. (Sir H. C. Inglefield.)
Take of Dutch grappe or crop madder, 2 oz. ;
tie it in a cloth, beat it well in a pint of water
in a stone mortar, and repeat the process with
fresh water (about 5 pints) until it ceases to
yield colour; next boil the mixed liquor in an
earthen vessel, pour it into a large basin, and
add of alum 1 oz., previously dissolved in
boiling water, 1 pint ; stir well, and while
stirring, pour in gradually of a strong solution
of carbonate of potassa (“oil of tartar'), 1% oz. ;
let the whole stand until cold, then pour off
the Supernatant yellow liquor, drain, agitate
the residue with boiling water, 1 quart (in
separate portions), decant, drain, and dry.
Product. oz. The Society of Arts voted
their gold medal to the author of the above
formula.
2. Add a little solution of acetate of lead to
a decoction of madder, to throw down the
brown colouring matter, filter, add a solution
of tin or alum, precipitate with a solution of
carbonate of soda or of potassa, and otherwise
proceed as before.
3. (Ure.) Ground madder, 2 lbs. ; water,
1 gal.; macerate with agitation for 10 mi-
nutes, strain off the water, and press the re-
mainder quite dry; repeat the process a second
and a third time; then add to the mixed
liquors, almm, 3 lb., dissolved in water, 3
quarts; and heat in a water bath for 3 or 4
hours, adding water as it evaporates; next
filter, first through flannel, and, when suffi-
ciently cold, through paper; then add a solu-
tion of carbonate of potassa as long as a pre-
cipitate falls, which must be washed until the
water comes off colourless, and, lastly, dried.
If the alkali be added in 3 successive doses, 3
different lakes will be obtained, successively
diminishing in beauty. See MADDER, MAD-
DER RED, &c.
Or'ange Lac. Prep. Take of the best
Spanish annotta, 4 oz. ; pearlash, ; 1b. ; water,
1 gall, ; boil for half an hour, strain, precipi-
tate with alum, 1 lb., dissolved in water, 1 gall.,
observing not to add the latter solution when
it ceases to produce an effervescence or a pre-
cipitate; strain, and dry the sediment in
small squares, lozenges, or drops. The addi-
tion of some solution of tin turns this lake on
the LEMON YELLOW; acids redden it. See
YELLOW LAKE.
Lake, Red. Prep. Take of pearlash, 1 lb.;
clean shreds of scarlet cloth, 3% lbs. ; water, 5
galls. ; boil till the cloth is decoloured, filter
the decoction, and precipitate with a solution
of alum, as before. See the LAKES noticed
above (Brazil-wood, Carminated, Cochineal,
and Madder).
Lake, Yellow. Prep. 1. Boil French ber-
ºries, quercitron bark, or turmeric, 1 lb., and
salt of tartar, 1 oz., in water, 1 gal., until
reduced to one half, then strain the decoction,
and precipitate with a solution of alum.
2. Boil 1 lb. of the dye-stuff with alum, ,
lb.; water, I gal., as before, and precipitate
the decoction with a solution of carbonate of
potash. See LAKE, ORANGE (above).
LAMB in its general qualities closely re-
sembles mutton, of which, indeed, it is merely
a younger and more delicate kind. It is well
adapted as an occasional article of food for the
convalescent and dyspeptic; but it is unequal
for frequent use, more especially for the
healthy and robust, to the flesh of the adult
animal.
LAMIBS, DISEASE OF. Among other dis-
eases, these animals are particularly prone to
one affecting the lungs in consequence of the
existence of parasites (Strongylus bronchialis)
in the air-passages. See PARASITES.
LAMP. A contrivance for producing arti-
ficial light or heat by the combustion of in-
flammable liquids. The term “lamp' is also
applied to a portable gas-burner (GAS-LAMP),
and to a tubular candle-holder, which, by the
aid of a simple mechanical device, keeps the
flame at one height (CANDLE-LAMP).
OIL LAMPS were employed for illumination
among the nations of antiquity, at the earliest
period of which any record exists. The As-
syrian, Greek, and Roman lamps preserved
in our museums are generally noble specimens
of art-workmanship. Though elegant inform,
and rich in external embellishment, the ancient
lamp was simply a vessel to contain the oil,
with a short depression or spout on the one
side, in which the wick is laid. Lamps of
this rude construction are still in common use
in many countries.
No important improvement in the principle
and construction of lamps as a source of light
occurred until a comparatively recent date;
the smoke, dirt, and disagreeable odour of the
common lamp having previously led to its
disuse among the superior classes in favour of
candles. At length, in 1789, M. Argand
made a revolution in illumination by the in-
vention and introduction of the well-known
lamp which bears his name. In the ARG AND
LAMP a hollow tubular wick of woven cotton
replaces the solid bundle of fibres, and is so
arranged that air passes through it into the
interior of the flame. Over the burner is
placed a cylindrical glass chimney, open at the
bottom, and surrounding the flame at a short
distance from it, by which another current of
air is made to act on the exterior portion of
the flame. In this way a due supply of oxygen
is secured, and sufficient heat generated for
the perfect combustion of the gaseous products
of the oil, and the smoke and soot which
escape from the ordinary lamp are converted
into a brilliant and smokeless flame.
The earliest table-lamps constructed on
Argand's principle had one serious defect—
the oil vessels had to be placed almost on a
level with the burners, in a position which
caused them to cast objectionable shadows.
This defect was almost entirely removed by
making the oil vessel in the form of a flattish
ring, connected by slender tubes with the


678 LAMP.
burner. The more elegant contrivances, known
as the MODERATOR LAMP and CARCEL LAMP,
which are now so much used for burning colza
and similar oils, cast no shadow. In these the
oil, instead of being sucked up by the wick,
or descending to it by the force of gravity, is
driven up by mechanical means from the oil-
reservoir contained in the foot or pedestal. A
spiral spring, acting upon a piston, elevates
the oil in the ‘moderator,” while a little pump
worked by clockwork does the same duty in
the ‘Carcel.” The burner and wick in each
are formed on Argand’s principle.
For burning the hydrocarbon oils distilled
from coal and petroleum, lamps of very simple
construction are used. These oils, in conse-
quence of their diffusive character, rise to a
considerable height up a wick, and therefore
do not require mechanical lamps. The wicks
of HYDRO-CARBON LAMPS are usually flat, but
sometimes circular. To cause perfect com-
bustion, a strong draught of air is created by
placing over the flame a tall glass chimney,
usually much contracted above the flame. A
metallic cap, with an orifice the shape of the
flame, is placed over the burner, its use being
to deflect the currents of air upon the flame,
The reservoirs of hydro-carbon lamps ought
always to be constructed of some bad con-
ductor of heat, as glass or porcelain.
For chemical operations, many forms of lamp
are used. The ordinary glass SPIRIT-LAMP,
fitted with a ground-glass cap, is quite indis;
pensable for minor experiments. (See engr. 1.)
Stoneware wick-holders are preferable to those
of brass, which become greatly heated, and
endanger the splitting of the glass. “An
effective spirit-lamp may at any time be con-
structed out of a vial having a glass tube
passing through the cork, a cover being formed
from a test-tube inverted over the wick, and
fitting with moderate tightness on the su-
perior extremity of the cork,” (Greville Wil-
liams.) Alcohol or wood spirit is the fuel
used.
The ARGAND LAMP, when intended as a
Source of heat for chemical purposes, is so
modified as to adapt it to burn either oil,
Spirit of wine, or wood-spirit, and the com:
bustion is greatly aided by the chimney, which
in this case is made of copper. (See engr. 2 and
3.) The lamp itself is also made of metal
and furnished with ground caps to the wick.
holder and aperture by which the spirit is
introduced, in order to prevent loss of spirit
by evaporation when the lamp is not in use.
When in use this aperture must always be left
open, otherwise an accident is sure to happen,
as the heat expands the air in the lamp, and
the spirit is forcibly expelled.
In those situations in which coal-gas is
cheap, it may be used with great economy
and advantage as a course of heat in mºst
chemical operations. Retorts, flasks, capsulº
and other vessels, can be thus exposed to *
easily regulated and constant temperature for
many successive hours. Small platinum Cºlº
cibles may be ignited to redness by placing
them over the flame on a little wire triangle.
Of the various gas-lamps now used in tº
laboratory, the first and most simple consis”
of a common Argand gas-burner fixed ºn *
heavy and low foot, and connected with *
flexible gas-tube of caoutchouc or other mº,
terial. (See engr. 4.) With this arrangement
it is possible to obtain any degree of heat,
from that of the smallest blue flame, to that
which is sufficient to raise a moderately largº
platinum crucible to dull redness. When gº
mixed with a certain proportion of air .
burnt, a pale blue flame, free from smoke,”
possessing great heating power, is obtain".
A lamp for burning the mixture may easily be
made by fitting a close cover of fine W*
gauze over the top of the chimney of the last-
mentioned contrivance. The gas is turned ºn
and after a few minutes ignited above the W".
gauze. The ingenious and useful burners "

LAMP BLACK–LARD.
679
Bunsen and Griffin are so constructed that gas
and air mixed in any proportions, or gas alone,
may be burnt at pleasure. See ILLUMINATION,
FUEL, FURNACE, GAS, LABORATORY, &c.
Flame'less Lamp. Syn. GLOW LAMP. A
coil of fine platinum wire is slipped over the
wick of a spirit lamp, the greater part being
raised above the cotton; the lamp is supplied
with ether or alcohol, lighted for a moment,
and then blown out. The coil continues to
glow in the mixed atmosphere of air and com-
bustible vapour, until the liquid in the lamp
is exhausted.
Monochromatic Lamp. A lamp fed with a
mixture of a solution of common salt and spirit
of wine. It gives a yellow light, and makes every
object illuminated by it appear either yellow
or black. The human features are changed in
a remarkable degree; the countenance appear-
ing truly ghastly and unearthly.
Safety Lamp. Syn. MINER'S LAMP, DAVY,
GEORDY. The safety lamp of Sir H. Davy
and George Stephenson are similar in prin-
ciple, and were independently invented about
the same time. That of Sir H. Davy consists
of a common oil lamp, surmounted with a
cylinder of wire gauze, the apertures of which
are not greater than the ºth
of an inch square, and the
wire of which it is made of
the ºth to the ºth of an inch
in diameter. (See engr.) The
fire-damp (carbonetted hydro-
gen) along with air passes
through the meshes into the
interior of the gauze cylinder.
Here it ignites, but the flame
which is produced by its com-
bustion cannot explode a mix-
ture of fire-damp and air by
which the lamp may be sur-
rounded. The flame is pre-
vented from passing to the
exterior of the gauze by the
cooling action of the metal of
which it is constructed. When
this lamp is taken in to an
explosive atmosphere, although
the fire-damp may burn within
the cage with such energy as sometimes to
heat the metallic tissue to dull redness, the
flame is not communicated to the mixture on
the outside. These appearances are so remark-
able, that the lamp becomes an admirable
indicator of the state of the air in different
parts of the mine, and if its admonitions are
attended to, gives the miner time to withdraw
before an explosion takes place.
Telescope Lamp. Thisingenious contrivance,
invented by Messrs. Murray and Heath, is
intended for microscopic illumination. It con-
sists of three brass tubes sliding one within
the other, the oil vessel being contained in the
inner tube. The height of the lamp is regu-
lated to the greatest nicety by simply turning
one tube in the other, interior spiral guides
preventing all chance of slipping. The great ad-
vantages of this arrangement is absence of the
stand and bar usually employed for raising and
lowering the lamp, which enables it to be used
onallsides, and to be brought much closer to the
microscope than other lamps. Seelºngr., p.680.
LAMP BLACK. See BLACK PIGMENTS.
LAMP'REY. Syn. GREAT LAMPREY, SEAL.
This fish is the Petromyzon marinus of Linnaeus.
It generally quits the sea in the spring, for the
purpose of spawning, and remains in our rivers
for a few months. Its flesh is soft and glu-
tinous, and though esteemed a delicacy, is ex-
tremely difficult of digestion, if not otherwise
unwholesome. Potted lampreys are usually
so highly seasoned, as to become a dangerous
article of food. Henry I is said to have
lost his life from the effects of a surfeit of
lampreys.
LANTHA'NIUM. La. A rare metal, dis-
covered by Mosander, associated with oxide of
cerium. Oxide of lanthanium is a pale sal-
mon-coloured powder, unaffected by ignition
in open vessels. See CERIUM.
LA/PIS, [L.] A stone. The term was much
employed by the old chemists, and is still com-
monly applied to several preparations used in
medicine.
Lapis Causticus. See POTASSA.
Lapis Diviſmus. Syn. DIVINE STONE; LAPIs
oPHTHALMICUs, L.; PIERRE DIVINE, Fr. Prep.
1. (Beer.) Verdigris, nitre, and alum, equal
parts, melted together.
*2. (P. Cod.) Alum, nitre, and blue vitriol,
of each 3 oz. ; camphor, 1 dr.; as last.
3. (Woolfuss.) Blue vitriol, nitre, alum, and
camphor, equal parts, melted together, adding
the camphor last. Astringent and detergent.
1 oz., dissolved in water, 1 pint, formed a once
celebrated lotion. 1 dr. in water, 1 pint, is
still used as a collyrium.
Lapis Infernalis. See NITRATE OF SILVER.
Lapis Lazuli. See ULTRAMARINE.
Lapis Lydius. Syn. LYDIAN STONE. A sili-
ceous slate, used as a touchstone by jewellers.
Lapis Medicamento'sus. Syn. MEDICINAL
STONE; LAPIS MIRABILIS, L. Prep. (Ph. L.
1746.) Alum, litharge, and Armenian bole, of
each, 6 oz. ; colcothar of green vitriol, 3 oz. ;
vinegar, 4 fl. oz. ; mix. and evaporate to dry-
ness. Formerly used to make an astringent
and detergent lotion :-1 oz. to water, 1 pint.
Once a popular application to ulcers, and in
other cases; now disused.
Lapis Vulnerar'ius, Very similar to LAPIs
DIVINUS.
LARD. Syn. Hog's LARD, AXUNGE ; ADEPs
(Ph. L.), AXUNGIA (Ph. E.), A. SUILLUS (Ph.
D.), A. PORC1, A. PREPARATUS, (B.P.), L. The
fat of the pig (Sus scrofa–Linn.) melted by a
gentle heat, and strained through flannel or a
hair sieve. The fat about the loins yields the
whitest and hardest lard. “That which has
been cured with chloride of sodium is not to be
employed.” (Ph. L.) “It is not to be used
without being first carefully washed with



680
LARDING—1AUDANUM.
water.” (Ph.L. 1866.) Used, chiefly, to make
ointments, and in cookery. See ADEPs.
LARD'ING. By many this is regarded as
belonging to the higher style of cookery only,
and too troublesome and extravagant to be
adapted to the kitchens of the middle classes
and the poor. This, we are assured, is not the
case. “On the contrary, “it is an economical
process, and will make lean meat go much
farther than without it.” The process of lard-
ing is a follows:—“Get what is called a lard-
ing needle, that is, a piece of steel from 6
to 9 inches long, pointed at one end, and
Galen and Dioscorides, eaten either roasted or
boiled, “helps the colic.” The heart, applied to
the thigh, was also regarded to possess the
same virtue.
LAUDA'NUM. This name is now under-
stood to denote, exclusively, the common
tincture of opium of the Pharmacopoeia; but
formerly the term was applied to several pre-
parations of opium differing greatly from each
other, both in their strength and mode of pre-
paration. (See below.)
Laudanum, Dutchman's. From the flowers
of bull’s hoof or Dutchman’s laudanum (Passi-
jlora merucuffa—Linn.) infused in rum. Nar-
having four slits at the other to hold a small
strip of bacon when put between them. It
will, perhaps, cost tempence. Cut the bacon
into pieces 2 or 3 inches long, and # to ; an
indh square; put each one after the other in
the pin, insert it in the meat, and leave only
about half an inch out ; using 8 pieces to each
pound.” (Soyer.)
LARK. The Alauda arvensis (SKYLARR) and
the Alauda crisłata (FIELD-LARK), with several
other species of the same genus, form a light
and nutritious article of food, by many es-
teemed a delicacy.
The last, according to
cotic. Used as a substitute for tincture of
opium in the West Indies. -
Laudanum, Ford’s. This is merely the com-
mon tincture of opium aromatized with a little
cloves and cinnamon.
Laudanum, Houlton's. Prep. From opium
# oz. ; distilled vinegar, 1% pint; digested
together for a week, the filtered tincture gently
evaporated nearly to dryness, and then redis-
solved in weak spirit (1 of rectified spirit to 7
of water), 1 quart.—Dose 10 to 60 drops.
Laudanum, Neumann’s. A fermented in-
fusion of opium evaporated to the consistence
of honey. - -


LAUGHING-GAS–LEAD. 681
Laudanum, Quince. Syn. EXTRACTUM OPII
CYDONIATUM, LAUDANUM CYDONIATUM, L.
Prep. 1. Extract of opium made with quince
juice; a few drops of the oils of cinnamon,
cloves, and mace, being added before the mass
cools. Now seldom used.
2. LAUDANUM LIQUID-QUINCE; LAUDANUM
LIQUIDUM CYDONIATUM, L. L. C. PARATUM
FERMENTATIONE, L.) A fermented infusion
of opium prepared with quince juice, aromatized
with cloves, cinnamon, aloes wood, and yellow
sandal wood, and evaporated so as to possess
about twice the strength of the ordinary tinc-
ture. Now obsolete.
Laudanum, Rousseau's. Wine of opium
prepared by fermentation. See WINE.
Laudanum, Smith’s Concentrated. Resem-
bles Battley's LIQUOR OPII SEDATIVUS, but
possesses about 6 times its strength.
Laudanum, Swediaur's. Prep. From extract
of opium, 2 parts, dissolved in a mixture of
alcohol, 1 part, distilled water, 8 parts. Every
5 drops contain 1 gr. of opium.
Laudanum, Sydenham's Liquid. Syn. LAU-
DANUM LIQUIDUM SYDENHAMI, L. Similar to
WINE OF ORIUM.–Ph. L., but rather stronger,
and aromatized with a little cloves and cinna-
mon. Wine of opium is now always sold for it.
Laudanum, Tartarized. Syn. LAUDANUM
LIQUIDUM TARTARIZATUM, L. A tincture of
opium prepared with spirit alkalized with salt of
tartar, and flavoured with aromatics. Obsolete.
LAUGH’ING GAS. See NITROUS OxIDE.
LAUR/EL. See CHERRY LAUREL, SWEET
BAY, OIL, &c.
LA/VA. The matter thrown out by vol-
canoes, The beautiful ornamental vases, jugs,
and other objects sold under the name, are a
superior sort of unglazed coloured porcelain.
IAWE/MENT. See ENEMA.
LAW'ENDER. The flowers or flowering tops
of Lavandula vera or common garden lavender.
An essential oil, spirit, and tincture, prepared
from it, are officinal in the Pharmacopoeias.
Lavender, Red. See TINCTURE.
Lavender, Smith's British. Prep. From
English oil of lavender, 2 oz. ; essence of amber-
gris, 1 oz. ; ean de Cologne, 1 pint ; rectified
spirit, 1 quart. Very fragrant. See WATER
(Lavender.)
LAX(ATIVES. Syn. LENITIVES; LAXA-
TIVA, LAXANTIA, LENITIVA, L. Mild purga-
tives or cathartics. The principal of these
are—almond oil, cassia pulp, castor oil, con-
fection of Senna, cream of tartar, figs, grapes,
honey, phosphate of soda, prunes, salad oil,
tamarinds, &c.
LAYERS. Among gardeners, a mode of
propagating plants, by laying down the shoots
of young twigs, and covering a portion of
them with the soil, without detaching them
from the parent plant. To facilitate the
rooting of such layers, the part beneath the
soil is fractured by twisting or bruising it, or
it is partly cut through with a sharp knife,
immediately under a bud. When the layer has
taken root, it is divided from the parent stem,
and transplanted or potted. In this way with a
little care, nearly all plants may be multiplied.
LEAD. Pb. Eq. 207. Syn. PLUMBUM.
This metal, like gold, silver, and iron, appears
to have been known in the most remote ages
of antiquity. The ore from which it is almost
exclusively extracted, as being the only one
found in abundance, is the native sulphide or sul-
phuret of lead, called by mineralogists galena.
Prep. On the large scale lead is obtained by
roasting galena in a reverberatory furnace,
and smelting the residue along with coal and
lime. The lead thus obtained generally con-
tains small quantities of both silver and gold,
which it often pays to extract, by a method
termed ‘Pattinson’s process.’ This process
is founded on the circumstance that when
melted, lead containing silver is allowed to
cool. The lead crystallises out first, leaving an
alloy of lead and silver still fused. By re-
moving the crystals of lead, as formed, until
about four fifths are removed; the residue is
an alloy of lead and silver much richer than
the original. Repeated several times, this
yields a rich alloy of silver and lead that is
expelled and the silver obtained.
Pure lead for chemical purposes may be ob-
tained as follows, although the lead of com-
merce is nearly pure :
By reducing nitrate of lead with charcoal.
By heating the oxide left by igniting pure
acetate of lead with black flux.
Prop., &c. The general properties of lead
are too well known to require notice here,
The sp. gr. of that of commerce is about
11:35; but in a state of absolute purity its
greatest density is 11:45. It melts at about
600°Fahr., and when very slowly cooled, crys-
tallises in octahedrons. At a white heat it
boils, and is volatilised. When exposed to
moist air, it soon becomes covered wiih a gray
film. It is scarcely acted on by hydrochloric
or sulphuric acids, although, after some time,
both coat it with a film of chloride or sulphate.
It is rapidly acted on by nitric acid, with for-
mation of the nitrate. Pnre water, put into a
leaden vessel, and exposed to the air, soon cor-
rodes it, and dissolves the newly formed
oxide; but river and spring water have little
action upon lead, provided there is no free
carbonic acid present, the carbonates and sul-
phates in such waters destroying their solvent
powers. It has been found that a very small
amount of phosphate of sodium or of iodide of
potassium, dissolved in distilled water prevents
its corrosive action on this metal. The lead in
contact with such water gradually becomes
covered with a superficial film of an insoluble
salt of lead, which adheres tenaciously, and
prevents further change. From this it appears
that ordinary water (“hard water’), which
abounds in mineral salts, may be more or less
safely kept in leaden cisterns; but distilled
water and rain water, and all other varieties
that contain scarcely any saline matter, speedily


682 LEAſ).
corrode, and dissolve a portion of lead, when
kept in vessels of that metal. When, how-
ever, leaden cisterns have iron or zinc fasten-
ings or braces, a galvanic action is set up, the
preservative power of saline matter ceases, and
the water speedily becomes contaminated with
lead, and unfit for consumption as a beverage.
Water containing carbonic anhydride also acts
on lead; and this is the reason why the water
of some springs (although loaded with saline
matter), when kept in leaden cisterns, or raised
by leaden pumps, possesses unwholesome pro-
perties.
Free carbonic acid is evolved during the
fermentation or decay of vegetable matter,
and hence the absolute necessity of preventing
the leaves of trees falling into water-cisterns
formed of lead. The ‘eau de rose’ and the
“eau d'orange’ of commerce, which are pure
distilled water holding in solution small quan-
tities of essential oil, and are imported in
leaden canisters, always contain a small quan-
tity of lead, and deposit a sediment, which is
not the case when they are kept in glass or
incorrodible vessels.
Lead and all its preparations are highly
poisonous; and whether imbibed in almost
infinitesimal quantities with our daily bever-
ages and food, or swallowed in larger and ap-
preciable doses, is productive of the most dis-
astrous consequences, the real cause being
unfortunately seldom suspected.
With the acids lead or its oxides form salts,
usually white in colour, and in the majority
nearly insoluble in water, but readily soluble
in acids.
Tests. The oxides and salts of lead, mixed
with a little carbonate of soda, and exposed
on a charcoal support to the reducing flame of
the blowpipe, readily yield a soft and ductile
globule of metallic lead, and the charcoal, at
the same time, becomes covered with a yel-
lowish incrustation of oxide of lead. Both
metallic lead and its oxides are soluble in
nitric acid, furnishing a solution which may
be examined with ease.
Selection of lead salts may be recognised by
the following reactions:—Sulphuretted hy-
drogen, hydrosulphide of ammonium, and the
alkaline sulphides, give black precipitates, in-
soluble in the cold dilute acids, alkalies, alka-
line sulphides, and cyanide of potassium.
Potassium and sodium, hydrates give a white
precipitate, soluble in excess. Ammonia (ex-
cept with the acetate) gives a white precipi-
tate, insoluble in excess. The carbonates of
potassium, Sodium, and ammonium, give a
white precipitate, insoluble in excess. Dilute
sulphuric acid (in excess), and solutions of the
sulphates give a white precipitate, sparingly
soluble in dilute acids, but soluble in a hot
boiling solution of potassium carbonate. Chro-
mate and bichromate of potassium give yellow
precipitates insoluble in dilute nitric acid, and
soluble in solution of potassium hydrate.
Iodide of potassium gives a yellow precipitate,
soluble in great excess by heat, and separating
in small, brilliant, golden-yellow scales, as the
liquid cools. A piece of polished zinc precipi-
tates metallic lead in an arborescent form,
hence called the lead tree. To prepare for these
tests, a solid supposed to contain lead should
be digested in nitric acid, when the solution,
evaporated to dryness and redissolved in water,
may be tested as above.
Fstim. This has been already referred to
under previous heads. The ores of lead (ga-
lena) may be digested in nitric acid, when
the solution may be treated with sulphuric
acid, and the lead estimated from the weight
of the precipitated sulphate. This is called
an assay in the wet way. The method
adopted by practical mineralogists is an assay
in the dry way, and is conducted as follows:–
A small but powerful air-furnace, charged
with coke, is brought to as high a tempera-
ture as possible, and a conical wrought-iron
crucible plunged into the midst of it; as soon
as the crucible has attained a dull-red heat,
1000 grs. of the galena, reduced to powder,
are thrown into it, and stirred gently with
a long piece of stiff iron wire flattened at the
one end, in order to expose as large a surface
of the powdered ore to the air as possible,
observing now and then to withdraw the wire,
to prevent it becoming red-hot, in which case
some of the ore would permanently adhere to
it, and be reduced before the intended time;
the roasting is completed in 3 or 4 minutes,
and any portion of the ore adhering to the
stirrer being detached by a knife, and re-
turned into the crucible, the latter is covered
up, and allowed to attain a full cherry-red
heat, when about 2 or 3 spoonfuls of reducing
flux are added, and the whole brought to a
finll white heat ; in 12 to 15 minutes, the
portiou of metal and scoria adhering to the
sides of the crucible are scraped down into
the melted mass with a small stick of moist
green wood, after which the crucible is again
covered, and the heat urged for 2 or 3 minutes
longer, so as to keep the mass in a perfectly
liquid state during the whole time; the crucible
is then removed from the fire with the cru-
cible-tongs, and adroitly tilted so as to dis-
charge its contents into a small ingot-mould
of brass, observing to rake the scoria from the
surface to the sides of the crucible, so as to
allow the molten lead to be poured out without
it ; the scoria is then reheated in the crucible
with about ; spoonful of flux, and after being
cleansed with a piece of green wood, as before,
is at once poured into a second mould, which
is instantly inverted; the little button of lead
thus obtained is added to the lead in the other
mould, and the whole is accurately weighed.
The weight, divided by 10, gives the per-
centage of lead (including sllver, if present)
in the ore examined.
One half of the lead thus obtained is put
into a dry cupel of bone ash, and placed in the
cupelling furnace, and treated as described in

LEAD. 683
the article on assaying; the metallic button
left on the cupel is then detached and weighed.
The weight, divided by 5, gives the per-centage
of pure silver.
Obs. The flux commonly employed in the
above assay is composed of red argol, 6 parts;
nitre, 4 parts; borax, 2 parts; fluor spar, 1
part ; well pulverised and thoroughly mixed
together. When the ore is very refractory,
about a spoonful of carbonate of potassium
should be added for each 1000 grains of ore,
in which case the roasting may be dispensed
with. The quantity of silver in argentiferous
galena varies from Tržm to # part of the
whole. Whenever this ore contains above 2
parts of silver in the 1000, it is found to be
profitable to extract the latter. Indeed, by
Pattison’s process it is found that as small a pro-
portion as I in 8000 can be extracted with profit.
Uses. The uses of lead in the arts are well
known. It enters into the composition of many
important alloys (pewter, type-metal, shot-
metal, solder, &c.), it furnishes us with several
valuable pigments (chrome yellow, &c.), and it
is extensively used in dyeing. Some of its pre-
parations are employed in medicine.
Ant., &c. Administer an emetic of sulphate
of zinc or sulphate of copper, and, if necessary,
tickle the fauces with the finger or a feather,
to induce vomiting. Should this not succeed,
the stomach-pump may be had recourse to.
Epsom or Glauber's salts, or alum, dissolved in
water, or water acidulated with sulphuric acid,
followed by tea, water gruel, or barley water,
are the proper antidotes, and should be taken
as soon after the poison has been swallowed as
possible. In poisoning by white lead, Dr.
Alfred Taylor recommends the administration
of a mixture of sulphate of magnesium and
vinegar, as preferable to the sulphate alone.
When the symptoms are those of painter's
colic, the treatment recommended under that
head should be adopted. In paralysis arising
from lead, small doses of strychnine, brucine,
and their preparations, may be cautiously ad-
ministered. A symptom of poisoning by lead
is the formation of a narrow leaden blue line,
from ºth to ºth of an inch wide, bordering
the edges of the gums, attached to the neck of
two or more teeth of either jaw. (Dr. Burton.)
This decoloration may often be detected or ren-
dered more conspicuous by rinsing the mouth
out with water holding a little sulphuretted
hydrogen or hydrosulphide of ammonium in
solution. Chevallier and Rayer recommend the
use of sulphurous or hepatic mineral waters, or
of artificial solutions of sulphuretted hydrogen
or alkaline sulphides in water, both in cases of
acute and chronic poisoning by lead; but the
practical success of this plan does not appear
to have been in proportion to theoretical antici-
pations. The hydrated sulphides of iron are
said by their advocates to be infallible, if taken
sufficiently early.
Lead, Acetate of Pb(CSH2O)s. Syn.
PLUMBIC ACETATE, SUGAR OF LEAD, PLUMBI
ACETAs. (B. P.) Prep. Lithage (in fine pow-
der) 24; acetic acid, 40; distilled water, 20;
mix the acetic acid and the water, add the
litharge, and dissolve with the aid of a gentle
heat, filter, evaporate until a pellicle forms and
crystallise. Drain and dry the crystal.
Acetic acid (sp. gr. 1-0843), 23 parts, is
gently heated in a copper boiler rendered
electro-negative by means of a large flat piece
of lead soldered within it, and litharge (pure,
and in fine powder), 13 parts, is sprinkled in ;
the heat is then continued, with constant stir-
ring, until the acid is saturated, when the
mother-waters of a former process, if any, are
added, and the whole is heated to the boiling-
point, and allowed to settle until cold; the
clear portion is now decanted, and evaporated
in a similar vessel until the liquor has the sp.
gr. 1266 or 1267, when it is run into salt-
glazed stoneware vessels (the edges of which
have been well smeared with candle grease),
and allowed to crystallise. The product is 38
to 38% parts of crystallised sugar of lead. It
is found to be advantageous to preserve a very
slight excess of acid during the boiling and
crystallisation, to prevent the formation of any
basic acetate, the presence of which impedes
the formation of regular crystals.
From litharge, 112 lb.; acetic acid (sp. gr.
1.057), 128 lb. Prop. 180 to 184 lb.
Prop. Pure acetate of lead forms colourless,
transparent, prismatic crystals, slightly efflor-
escent in dry air; it is soluble in 8 parts of
alcohol and in 14 part of cold water; the
aqueons solution has a sweet astringent taste,
and feebly reddens litmus, but turns turmeric
and the juice of violets green; when gently
heated, it melts in its water of crystallisation;
by continuing the heat, the whole of the water
is expelled, and the dry acetate obtained; at a
higher temperature the salt suffers decomposi-
tion, and acetic acid, acetone, &c., is given off.
Commercial acetate of lead is in general a
confused crystalline mass, somewhat resembling
broken lump-sugar. It is powerfully astringent
and poisonous.
When, pure it is completely soluble in dis-
tilled water acidulated with acetic acid form-
ing a transparent colourless solution, “38 grains
dissolved in water require for complete preci-
pitation, 200 grains measures of the volumetric
solution of oxalic acid.” (B. P.)
Uses, &c. Acetate of lead is extensively em-
ployed in dyeing and calico-printing. In me-
dicine, it is used as an astringent, styptic, and
haemostatic; in pulmonary, uterine, and intes-
timal haemorrhage, colliquative diarrhoea, phthi-
sical sweats, &c. It is usually combined with
morphia or opium, and with acetic acid to pre-
vent it passing into the state of the poisonous
carbonate in the stomach,-Dose. # gr. to 2
grs. (Collier); 1 to 2 grs. to 8 or 10 grs, twice
or thrice a day (Pereira); 3 grs. to 10 grs.,
every 6 or 8 hours (A. T. Thomson). Erter-
mally, as a collyrium, 10 grs. to water, 8 fl. oz.
(A. T. Thomson); as a lotion, 20 grs. (A, T,



684.
LEAD.
Thomson), 1 dr. (Collier), to water, 8 or 10 fl.oz.;
as an injection, 40 grs. to rose water, pint. The
lotion is cooling and sedative, and is commonly
used in excoriations, local inflammations, &c.
Basic Acetates. There are several of these
salts, but only one is of any importance.
Tribasic Lead Acetate, or Double Plumbic
Acetate, and Dioxide. Pb (C2H5O), 2 Pb O.
Syn. SUBACETATE OF LEAD ; BASIC LEAD CI-
TRATE; GouTARD’s ACETATE OF LEAD ; PLUMBI
SUBACETAS (B.P.) Prep. Litharge, 7; acetate
of lead, 10; and distilled water, 40; are boiled
half-an-hour, and evaporated down, and allowed
to crystallise out of contact with air.
Used under the form of “Plumbi subacetas
liquor” v. (B. P.)
Lead, Arse"miate of Pb(AsO4)3. Syn. ARSE-
NATE OF L.; PLUMBI ARSENIAS, L. Prep.
Gradually add a solution of acetate of lead to
another of arseniate of sodium. A white, in-
soluble powder. Proposed as an external ap-
plication in certain forms of cancer.
Lead, Bromide of Pb Brs. Syn. PLUMBI
BROMIDUM, L. Prep. By precipitating a solu-
tion of neutral acetate or nitrate of lead with a
solution of bromide of potassium. A white,
crystalline powder, sparingly soluble in water.
It fuses by heat into a red liquid, which turns
yellow when cold. It has been used in the
same cases as iodide of lead.
• Lead, Car"bonate of PbCO3. Syn. PLUMBI
CARBONAS, L. Prep. by precipitating a cold
solution of either acetate or nitrate of lead with
a solution of an alkaline carbonate, observing
to well wash the precipitate and dry it in the
shade. This preparation is seldom employed,
the commercial carbonate (whitF LEAD) being
substituted for it. See WHITE PIGMENTS.
Lead, Chloride of PbCls. Syn. CHLORIDE
LEAD; PLUMBI CHLORIDUM (Ph. I. 1836).
Prep. (Ph. L. 1336.) Dissolve acetate of lead,
19 oz., in boiling water, 3 pints; next dissolve
chloride of sodium, 6 oz., in boiling water, 1
pint; mix the two solutions, and when cold,
wash and dry the precipitate. A white, crys-
talline powder.
Dissolve finely powdered litharge in boiling
dilutehydrochloric acid, and set aside the filtered
solution to cool. Brilliant colourless needles.
Prop. Soluble in 135 parts of cold and in 22
parts of boiling water; it melts when heated,
and solidifies on cooling, forming a horn-like
substance (horn lead; plumbi corneum).
Uses, &c. In the Ph. L. 1836 chloride of
lead was ordered to be employed in the prepa-
ration of “hydrochlorate of morphia.” Mr.
Tuson highly recommends it in cancerous affec-
tions, to allay pain and restrain morbid action,
either in the form of a lotion or ointment.
Various mixtures of lead chlorides and oxide
are employed as a white pigment under the
name of ‘Pattison's white.” It is prepared by
rapidly mixing a boiling solution of lead
chloride with an equal volume of lime water.
Another similar compound is called ‘patent
yellow’ or “Turner's yellow.”
Lead, Chromate of PbCrO4. Syn. LEMON
YELLOW, LEIPZIG YELLOW, PARIS YELLOW
Prep. By adding a filtered solution of acetate
or nitrate of lead to a like solution of chromate
of potassium, as long as a precipitate forms,
which is collected, washed with water, and
dried. For information respecting the manu-
facture of this substance on the large scale,
as a colouring substance (chrome yellow), see
YELLOW. PIGMENTS.
Lead, Dichromate of. Syn. CHROME ORANGE,
CHROME RED. PbCrOſ. PbO. Prep. By add-
ing to a solution of nitrate or acetate of lead a
solution of chromate of potassium, to which an
equivalent of potassa has been added. This
compound, is of a splendid scarlet colour. See
RED PIGMENTS. •
Lead, Cy'anide of. PbCys. Syn. PLUMBI
CYANIDUM, L. Prep. By adding hydrocyanic
acid to a solution of acetate of lead, as long as
a precipitate forms, which, after being washed
with distilled water, is dried by a very gentle
heat, and preserved from the light and air.
Sometimes used as a source of medicinal
hydrocyanic acid.
Lead, Iodide of Pbis. Syn. LEAD TODIDE;
PLUMBI IODIDUM, (B. P., Pho. L. E. D.) Prep.
(B. P.) Nitrate of lead, 4; iodide of potas.
sium, 4; distilled water, a sufficiency. Dis-
solve with the aid of heat the nitrate of lead
in 30 of water, and the iodide of potassium
in 10 of water, mix, collect the precipitate,
wash, and dry at a gentle heat.
Prop., &c. A rich yellow-coloured powder,
soluble in acetic acid, alcohol, and boiling
water ; when heated, it fuses and volatilizes in
yellow vapour, but with a higher degree of
heat, violet vapours of iodine are evolved,
leaving a residuum (lead) which is wholly
soluble in nitric acid.—Dose. # gr. to 4 grs.
or more, made into a pill; as a deobstruent and
resolvent, in enlargements of the cervical,
axillary, and mesenteric glands, and in scrofu-
lous affections and schirrous tumours.
Lead. Nitrate of Pb (NO). Syn. PLUMBI
NITRAS, L. (B. P., Ph. E. D.)
Prep. (Ph. D.) Litharge (in fine powder),
1 oz. ; pure nitric acid, 2 fl. oz., diluted with
water, , pint ; mix, apply a sand-heat, and
evaporate to dryness, occasionally stirring;
boil the residuum in water, 2% pints; filter,
acidulate with a few drops of nitric acid, eva-
porate to a pellicle, and set the liquid aside to
cool; lastly, dry the deposited crystals on
bibulous paper, and preserve them in a well-
closed bottle.
(Commercial). By dissolving while lead
in dilute nitric acid, and crystallising.
Uses, &c. This salt is extensively used in
calico printing, and in the preparation of the
iodide and other salts of lead. It was for-
merly much esteemed in asthmas, haemor-
rhages, and epilepsy. It is now often used in
an external application in cancer, ulcers,
wounds, and various cutaneous affections. It
is the basis of Liebert’s celebrated ‘cosmé-


LEAD, GRANULATED–LEAD IDUST. 685
tique infallible,” and of Ledoyen’s ‘dis-
infecting fluid.’ A very weak solution is
an excellent application to chapped nipples,
lips, hands, &c.—Dose. , to 1 gr. ; in the
form of pill or solution, washed down with a
table-spoonful of water very slightly acidu-
lated with nitric acid.
Lead, Nitro-saccharate of. Syn. PLUMBI
NITROSACCHARAS, L. Prep. (Dr. S. E. Hos-
kins.) Nitric acid, 1 part ; water, 19 parts;
mix; in this dilute acid saccharate of lead (in
fine powder) is to be dissolved, and set aside
that crystals may form, which are to be dried
by pressure between the folds of bibulous paper.
A weak solution of the salt, acidulated with
saccharic acid, has been employed by Dr. Hos-
kins as a solvent for phosphatic calculi, with
apparent success.
Lead, 0xide of PbO. Syn. MoMOXIDE OF
LEAD, PROTOXIDE OF LEAD, YELLOW OXIDE
OF LEAD, PLUMBI oxy DUM (B. P.) Prep.
This substance is obtained perfectly pure by
expelling the acid from nitrate of lead, by
exposing it to heat in a platinum crucible ;
or, still better, by adding ammonia to a cold
solution of nitrate of lead until the liquid
becomes faintly alkaline, washing the precipi-
tate with cold water, drying it, and heating
it to moderate redness for 1 hour.
Prep., &c. Pure protoxide of lead has a
lemon-yellow colour, and is the best of all the
salts of lead. It is very heavy, slightly so-
luble in water, and freely so in acids, particu-
larly when in the hydrated state; the aqueous
solution has an alkaline reaction; at a red
heat it melts, and assumes a semi-crystalline
form on cooling; in the melted state it ra-
pidly attacks and dissolves siliceous matter,
with which it unites to form glass (flint
glass); when heated along with organic sub-
stances of any kind, it is easily reduced to the
metallic state.
On the commercial scale, this oxide is pre-
pared by heating the gray film or dross that
forms on the surface of melted lead when
freely exposed to the air. When the process
is arrested, as soon as the oxide acquires a
uniform yellow colour, it is called massicot;
when the heat is still further increased, until
it fuses or partially vitrifies, it forms litharge
of which there are several varieties. See
LITHARGE, MASSICOT.
Lead, Red Oxide of. Syn. RED LEAD, MINIUM.
Prep. This is prepared by exposing unfused pro-
toxide of lead to the air for a long time, at a
dull red heat. It is a very heavy powder, of a
fine red colour, decomposed by a strong heat
into protoxide of lead, and oxygen gas, which
is evolved. Somewhat uncertain in its com-
position, but is generally of the composition
PbO, or PbO2PbO. See RED PIGMENT.
Lead, Dioxide. PbO2. Syn. BINIODIDE OF
LEAD, PEROXIDE OF LEAD, PUCE OXIDE OF
LEAD. Prep. By digesting red oxide of lead
in dilute nitric acid; or by infusing a mixture
of protoxide of lead and chlorate of potassium
at a heat a little below redness, and washing
the powdered mass in water; or by transmit-
ting a current of chlorine gas through a solu-
tion of neutral acetate of lead. This oxide
gives up half its oxygen at a red heat; acids
also decompose it. Its chief use is in chemical
analysis, to separate sulphurous acid from
certain gaseous mixtures, which it converts
into sulphuric acid, which it at the same time
absorbs, forming sulphate of lead. It has
recently been employed as an oxidizing agent
in the manufacture of the ANILINE DYES.
Lead, Pyroligºnite of. Sugar of lead made
with rough pyroligneous acid. Used in dyeing,
chiefly for the preparation of acetate of alumina.
Lead, Sac'charate of. Syn. PLUMBI SAC-
CHARAS, L. Prep. (Dr. S. E., Hoskins.)
Nitric acid, 2 parts; water, 10 parts; mix in
a porcelain capsule, add of sugar, 1 part; and
apply heat until reaction ceases; then dilute
the liquid with distilled water, neutralize it
with powdered chalk, filter, and add to the fil-
trate a solution of acetate of lead, as long as a
precipitate (saccharate of lead) forms; lastly,
collect the precipitate on a filter, wash and
dry it. Used to make nitro-saccharate of lead,
and as a source of saccharic acid.
Lead, Sul’phate of PbSO4. Syn. PLUMBI
SULPHAS, L. This salt occurs native in trans-
parent octahedra (lead vitriol), and is obtained
in large quantities as a by-product in the pre-
paration of acetate of aluminum for dyeing.
Prep. By adding dilute sulphuric acid to a
solution of a soluble salt of lead. It is very
sparingly soluble in water and in dilute sul-
phuric acid, soluble in strong hydrochloric acid
and bitartrate of ammonium.
Lead, Sulphide of PbS. Syn. PLUMBI
SULPHIDE. This occurs abundantly in nature
in the form of GALENA.
Prep. By fusing metallic lead with sul-
phur or by passing sulphuretted hydrogen
through a solution of a salt of lead.
Lead, Tan'mate of. Syn. PLUMBI TANNAS,
L. Prep. Precipitate a solution of acetate of
lead with an infusion of galls, and wash and
dry the precipitate. Astringent, sedative, and
haemostatic.—Dose. 1 gr. and upwards, made
into a pill. It has been highly recommended
in the form of ointment and cataplasms, in
bed-sores, chronic ulcers of the feet, white
swellings, &c.
Lead, Tar'trate of. Syn. PLUMBI TARTRAs,
L. Prep. By precipitating acetate of lead,
by tartrate of ammonium, washing and drying.
LEAD, GRANULATED. Prep. By melting
new lead, and pouring it in a small stream, from
an iron ladle with a hole drilled in its bottom,
into a pail of water. Used to make solutions
and alloys.
LEAD, RED. See RED PIGMENTS.
LEAD, WHITE. See WHITE PIGMENT.
LEAD DUST. Syn. PULVIS PLUMBI, PLUM-
BUM DIVISUM, I. Prep. By melting new lead,
adding bruised charcoal, mixing by violent
agitation, which must be continued until the


686
LEAD PYROPHORUS–LEECH.
metal “sets,” and then pounding and washing
away the charcoal. Used by potters.
LEAD PYROPH/ORUS. See PyROPHORUS.
LEATH'E.R. Syn. CoRIUM, CoRIUS, L.
Leather is the skin of animals which has been
prepared by one or other of several processes
adopted for the purpose, having the common
object of preventing its spontaneous destruc-
tion by putrefaction, besides other objects,
which are more or less peculiar to each variety
of this useful substance.
Leather is only prepared on the large scale,
and primarily either by the process of ‘TAN-
NING’ or ‘TAWING, in the manner briefly de-
scribed under these heads.
CURRIED LEATHER is leather which has been
tanned, and sold to the currier, who, after
soaking it in water, and rubbing it to soften it,
pares it even with a broad, sharp knife, rubs
it with a piece of polished stone or wood,
and, whilst still wet, besmears it with oil or
grease (DUBBING), which gradually penetrates
the leather as the moisture evaporates. It
next undergoes the operation of ‘waxing,”
which consists of first rubbing it on the flesh
side with a mixture of oil and lamp black; it
is then ‘black-sized’ with a brush or sponge,
and, when dry, is lastly “tallowed with a
proper cloth, and “slicked upon the flesh side
with a broad and polished lump of glass.
Leather curried on the hair or grain side,
termed ‘black on the grain,’ is blackened by
wetting it with iron liquor, and rubbing it
with an iron “slicker’ before applying the oil
or grease. The grain is finally raised by the
‘ pommel’ or ‘graining board' passed over it
in various directions. .
Leather is dyed or stained by the appli-
cation, with an ordinary brush, of any of the
strong liquid dyes, in the cold or only gently
heated, to the surface of the skin previously
stretched on a board. The surface, when dry,
is commonly finished off with white of egg and
the pommel or smoothing stick. Bookbinders
generally employ copperas water as a black
stain or sprinkle; a solution of indigo as a blue
one; and a solution of salt of tartar or common
soda, as a brown one.
Leather, before being japanned or varnished,
as in the preparation of what is called “ENA-
MELLEo’ and ‘PATENT LEATHER,” is carefully
freed from grease by the application of ab-
sorbent substances or hard pressure between
rollers, and the surface is nicely shaved,
smoothed, and polished by appropriate tools,
the varnish is then applied to the grain side
- for the former, and the flesh side of the skin
for the latter, which is previously stretched
out tight on a board to receive it. The whole
is, lastly, submitted to a gentle stove-heat to
harden the varnish; and the process is re-
peated, if necessary.
Uses, &c. These are well known, and are all
but universal. The leather manufacture of
Great Britain is equal in importance and utility
to any other department of our industry, and
inferior in point of value and extent only to
those of cotton, wool, and iron. “If we look
abroad on the instruments of husbandry, on
the implements used in most of the mechanic
trades, on the structure of a multitude of
engines and machines; or if we contemplate
at home the necessary parts of our clothing—
breeches, shoes, boots, gloves—or the furni-
ture of our houses, the books on our shelves,
the harness of our horses, or even the sub-
stance of our carriages; what do we see but
instances of human industry exerted upon
leather ? What an aptitude has this single
material in a variety of circumstances for the
relief of our necessities, and supplying conve-
niences in every state and stage of life P
Without it, or even without it in the plenty
we have it, to what difficulties should we be
exposed ?” (Dr. Campbell.) Leather is a kind
of natural felt, but of much closer and firmer
texture than that of artificial origin. “The
thinner and softer kinds of leather are some-
times used as body-clothing; but its special
and proper purpose is the manufacture of
coverings for the feet, to protect them from
cold and water.” (Eras. Wilson.) See JAPAN-
NING, WARNISH, &c.
LEAVEN. Dough which has become sour
or run into a state of incipient putrefaction.
When a small quantity of it is added to recent
dough, it excites fermentation, but is apt to
produce a disagreeable taste and odour in the
bread. It is now superseded by yeast. Both
these substances are used in the same way.
LEAVES (Medicated). Syn. FoEIA MEDI-
CATA, L. On the Continent several prepara-
tions of this kind are in use. In many cases
the leaves of tobacco deprived of nicotine, by
soaking them in water, are dried, and then
moistened or steeped in a tincture or infusion
of the medicinal substance. In this way bel-
ladonna, camphor, and henbane, are often
administered. Cruveillier recommends opiated
belladonna leaves for smoking in troublesome
coughs, phthisis, spasmodic asthmas, &c., to be
prepared as follows:—Belladonna leaves, 1 oz.,
are steeped in an infusion of opium, 10 grs.,
in water, 1 fl. oz. (or less), and are then care-
fully dried in the shade. “MUSTARD LEAVES
(Riggollot's) consist of mustard moistened
with water, spread on paper, and dried.”
(Squire.) See CIGARS (in pharmacy), and
WEGETABLE SUBSTANCES.
LECANOR/IC ACID. See ORSELLINIC ACID.
LEECH. Syn. HIRUDo (B. P., Ph. L. &
D.), L. The officinal leech of the Pharma-
copoeias is the Sanguisuga medicinalis (Hirudo
medicinalis—Cuv.), familiarly known as the
‘old English ’ or ‘speckled leech.” It is also
occasionally called the ‘Hamburg gray’ or
“Russian leech,” from being imported from
those parts. Its characteristics are—Back,
greenish or olive-green, sometimes almost
black or intense brown, with 6 rusty-red or
yellowish longitudinal stripes, which are mostly
spotted with black—Belly, dirty yellow or

LEECHING—LEMON JUICE. 687
.
light olive-green, spotted more or less with
black. The spots are very variable in size and
number ; in some cases few, in others so
numerous as to form the prevailing tint of the
belly. This variety, which is the most valu-
able of the commercial leeches, is chiefly im-
ported from Hamburg.
Another variety of leech, the Sanguisuga
officinalis, familiarly known as the ‘Hamburg’
or “French green leech,” are imported from
|Bordeaux, Lisbon, and Hamburg. Its charac-
teristics are—Back, brownish olive-green,
with 6 reddish or rusty-yellow longitudinal
bands.-Belly, light dirty pea-green, or yel-
lowish-green, free from spots, but exhibiting
two lateral stripes. This leech is vastly in-
ferior to the preceding variety, and some of
those imported from France and Portugal are
absolutely useless, from their indisposition to
bite, arising from the fraud practised by the
collectors and dealers, of gorging them with
blood to improve their appearance before
sending them to market. The above are the
species of leech commonly employed in medi-
cine in this country, but many others are
noticed by writers on the subject.
Leeches are best preserved in water ob-
tained from a pond, and occasionally changed;
when kept in spring water, they soon die.
The introduction of a hand to which an
ill-flavoured medicine or odour adheres into
the water in which they are kept, is often
sufficient to poison them. The application of
saline matter to the skin of leeches, even in
very small quantities, immediately occasions
the expulsion of the contents of the stomach ;
hence a few grains of common salt are fre-
quently sprinkled over them, to make them
disgorge the blood which they have swallowed.
The frequent changing of the water in which
leeches are kept is injudicious. Once a month
in winter, and once a week in summer, is
deemed sufficiently often by the large dealers,
unless the water becomes discoloured or
bloody, when it should be changed every day,
or every other day. When clean pond water
cannot be obtained, clean rain water that has
been well exposed to the air should alone be
employed. Mr. J. R. Kenworthy recommends
placing in the water a few balls of irregular
lumps of pure clay, about 2% inches in dia-
meter; a method which we can recommend as
both simple and successful. The plan adopted
by M. Fée is as follows:–Place 7 inches of a
mixture of moss, turf, and charcoal, in a
marble or stone trough, over which sprinkle
some small pebbles. At one end of the
trough, and about half way up, place a thin
shelf of stone or, marble, pierced with small
holes, on which put first some moss, or por-
tions of marsh horse-tail (Equisetum palustre),
and on this a layer of pebbles to keep it down;
then pour in water sufficiently high just to
moisten the moss and pebbles, put in the
leeches, and tie over the mouth of the trough
with a cloth. Another plan consists in keep-
ing the leeches in a glass tank, cr aquarium,
provided with a pebbly bottom and a few
healthy aquatic plants.
Propag. According to Dr. Wagner, an
annual feast on living blood is necessary to
render leeches able to grow and propagate.
These conditions can only be fulfilled by re-
storing to the breeding cisterns those which
have been already employed. All artificial me-
thods of feeding them, by bladders or sponges
of blood, have been found to fail. He recom-
mends the employment of two tanks, with the
bottom formed of loam, clay, or turf, sur-
rounded by an inner border of a similar sub-
stance, and an outer one of sand—the one for
leeches fit for medical use—and the other for
breeding, or for such leeches as have been
applied. No leeches are to be taken from the
breeding tank until a year has elapsed after
their having been applied and fed with human
blood; and their removal to the first tank
should take place in September or October, as
by this time the breeding season is over. By
this plan all leeches that have been applied
are to be carefully restored to the breeding
tank, without making them disgorge the blood
they have swallowed.
LEECHING. This consists in the applica-
tion of leeches to any vascular part of the
body, for the purpose of withdrawing blood
from it, and thus allaying local inflammation,
distension of vessels, &c. Leeches are most
conveniently applied by means of a common
pill-box or a wine-glass. The part should be
previously washed perfectly clean, and if
covered with hair should be closely shaved.
Sometimes leeches are indisposed to bite; in
such cases, allowing them to crawl over a
piece of dry linen or calico, rolling them in
porter, moistening the part with a little milk
or sweetened milk, or drawing a little blood
by a slight puncture or scratch, will usually
make them bite freely. To stop the bleeding
from leech-bites, various plans are adopted,
among which the application of nitrate of
silver or creasote, or genrtle pressure for some
hours with the finger, are the most successful.
Of late years a piece of matico leaf or soldier's
herb, applied in the same manner as a piece of
lint, has been commonly adopted to stop the
bleeding of leech-bites.
LEEK. Syn. PORRUM, L. The Allium porrum
(Linn.). Its general properties are intermediate
between those of the onion and garlic. The
juice is said to be powerfully diuretic, and
capable of dissolving phosphatic calculi.
LEGU'MIN. Vegetable casein. It is found
most abundantly in the seeds of leguminous
(podded) plants, e.g., beams, peas, &c.
LEM'0N. Syn. LIMO, L. The fruit of
the Citrus limonum or lemon tree. The juice,
peel, and essential oil, are officinal. See OIL,
and below.
LEMI/ON AC/ID. See CITRIC ACID.
LEMI'ON FLA’WOUR. See ESSENCE OF LEMON.
LEMI'0N JUICE, Syn. LIMONIS SUCCUS


688
LEMON PEEL–LEMONADE.
(B. P.), SUCCUS IIMONUM (Ph. L. & D.), L.
The juice of the lemon, obtained by squeezing
and straining. When freshly expressed, it is
turbid, owing to the presence of mucilage and
extractive matter. These substances render
the juice liable to decomposition, and various
methods have from time to time been proposed
for preserving it. Amongst these may be
mentioned the addition to the fresh juice of
One per cent. of bisulphite of calcium, or ten
per cent. of proof spirit.
“We have examined the juice expressed
from two varieties of lemons, viz., Palermo
and Messina, with the following results:
Palermo. Messina,
Ounces of juice yielded
by 100 lemons . 108 96
Specific gravity of juice 1044-85 1038-56
Per centage of citric acid 8-12 7:04
Per centage of ash 0.289 0.301
100 parts of the ash of the juice of Palermo
lemons gave :
Sulphuric acid. . 10.59
Carbonic acid . . T6:33
Chlorine . 0.81
Phosphoric acid 6-74
Ferric phosphate 1:32
Lime - - 8-89
Magnesia. . 3'02
Potash . 47-84,
Soda 3'32
Silica 0.72
Toss 0.42
- 100.00
If lemons are kept a few months before
Squeezing, the yield of juice is slightly in-
creased, but its specific gravity and per centage
of citric acid remain unaltered. It is erroneous
to suppose that the acid of the lemon is, by
keeping, changed into sugar. We have kept
lemons for 12 months, and found that the per
centage of acid was not diminished. A certain
proportion of sugar was formed, but at the
expense of the soluble starch, contained in the
cell-walls of the lemon. Lemon juice on being
kept is found to decrease in density, but the
amount of acid remains the same.” (Hark-
ness.)
Lemon juice may be preserved by heating it
to 150°Fahr., filtering, and setting it aside in
bottles completely filled. If this process be
performed in the winter, the juice, it is said,
may be kept perfectly good for 12 months.
Fresh lemon juice is prevented from decomposi-
tion and rendered fit for exportation by mix-
ing it with Tºth of alcohol. (Schweitzer.)
Adult. Lemon juice is frequently adulte-
rated, the adulterants being water, sugar or
gum, and sulphuric or acetic acid. The modus
operandi is, to dilute the genuine juice with
water, and then bring up the density with the
sugar or gum, and the per centage of acid with
one or other of the above acids. The examina-
\
\
tion of lemon and lime juice supplied to the
navy is now conducted in the Inland Revenue
Laboratory, Somerset House, and it speaks
well for that department when we say that
cases of scurvy on board ships are now of
very rare occurrence. No juice is passed un-
less it comes up to a certain standard in
specific gravity, and per centage of citric acid,
and any sample containing any other acid is
at once rejected.
Prop. Lemon juice is refrigerant and anti-
scorbutic, and has long been extensively em-
ployed in the preparation of cooling drinks
and effervescing draughts, which are justly
esteemed as wholesome summer beverages, as
well as palliatives in fevers, nausea, &c. In
scurvy, there is no remedy equal to freshly
expressed lemon juice; and in acute rheuma-
tism and gout, according to the united testi-
mony of Dr. Owen Rees, Dr. Babington, and
numerous Continental practitioners, it has been
exhibited with considerable success. In agues,
dysentery, English cholera, nausea, and vomit-
ing, heartburn, putrid sore-throat, hospital
gangrene, syphilis, and numerous skin diseases,
it has proved most serviceable. See CITRIC
ACID, GOUT, &c.
Lemon Juice, Facti"tious. Syn. SOLUTIO
ACIDI CITRICI, SUCCUS LIMONUM FACTITIUS,
L. Prep. 1. Citric acid, 14 oz. ; carbonate of
potassa, 45 grs. ; white sugar, 2% oz. ; cold
water, 1 pint; dissolve, add the yellow peel of
a lemon, and in 24 hours strain through a hair
sieve or a piece of muslin.
2. As the last, but using 15 or 16 drops
of oil of lemon, to flavour, instead of the lemon
peel.
Obs. The above is an excellent substitute
for lemon juice, and keeps well in a cool
place. Tartaric acid, and even vinegar, are
sometimes used instead of citric acid; but it
is evident that it then loses all claim to being
considered as an imitation of lemon juice, and
to employ it in lieu of which would be absurd.
IEM'0N PEEL. Syn. CoRTEx LIMONUM,
(B. P., Ph. L.), L. “The fresh outer part of
the rind.” (B. P.) “The fresh and the dried
exterior rind of the fruit ;” the latter dried
“in the month of April or May.” (Ph. L.)
Candied lemon peel (CORTEX LIMONUM CON-
DITUS) is employed as a dessert, and as a fla-
vouring ingredient by cooks and confectioners.
It is reputed stomachic. See CANDYING.
LEMI'ON PIC/KLE. See SAUCE.
LEMONADE'. Syn. LEMON SHERBET,
KING's CUP ; LIMONADUM, L.; LIMONADE,
Fr. Prep. 1. Lemons (sliced), 2 in no.; sugar,
2% oz. ; boiling water, 1% pint; mix, cover up
the vessel, and let it stand, with occasional
stirring, until cold, then pour off the clear
through a piece of muslin or a clean hair sieve.
2. Juice of 3 lemons; yellow peel of 1 lemon,
sugar, 4 lb.; cold water, 1 quart; digest for 5
or 6 hours, or all night, and decant or strain
as before. - -
3, Citric acid, 1 to 1% dr.; essence of lemon,


LEMONADE POWDERS–LENTIL.
689
10 drops; Sugar, 2 oz. ; cold water, 1 pint;
agitate together until dissolved.
Obs. Lemonade is a pleasant, cooling sum-
mer beverages, and when made as above, may
be drank in large quantities with perfect
safety. It also forms an excellent refrigerant
and antiseptic drink in fevers and putrid dis-
eases generally. Tartaric acid is commonly
substituted for citric acid, from being cheaper;
it is, however, much inferior, being less whole-
some and less agreeable. Lemonade for
icing is prepared as above, only using a little
more sugar. Orange sherbet, or orangeade
for icing, is made in a similar way from
Oranges.
Lemonade, Aera/ted. Syn. LIMONADUM
AERATUM, L.; LIMONADE GAZEUSE, Fr. Prep.
1. (P. Cod.) Water, charged with 5 times its
volume of carbonic acid gas, 1 pint; syrup of
lemon, 2 oz. ; mix.
2. (Without a bottling machine.)—a. Into
each bottle put lemon syrup, 1 to 1% oz. ;
essence of lemon, 3 drops; sesquicarbonate of
soda, dr. ; water, q. S. to nearly fill the
bottle; have the cork fitted and ready at
hand, then add of tartaric acid (cryst.), 1 dr.;
instantly close the bottle, and wire down the
cork; it should be kept inverted in a cool
place, and, preferably, immersed in a vessel of
ice-cold water.
b. As the last, but substituting lump sugar,
# oz., for the lemon syrup.
c. From lump sugar, 1 oz. ; essence of lemon,
3 drops; bicarbonate of potassa, 25 grs.; water,
q, s, as No. 1; then add citric acid (cryst.),
45 grs., and cork, &c., as before. The last is
most wholesome, especially for the scorbutic,
dyspeptic, gouty, and rheumatic.
Obs. The best aerated lemonade of the
London makers is prepared by putting 1%
fl. oz. of rich lemon syrup into each bottle,
which is then filled up with aerated water at
the bottling machine.
Lemonade, Antimo"niated. Syn. LIMONA-
DUM ANTIMONIATUM, L. Prep. By adding
tartar emetic, 1 gr., to each pint of ordinary
lemonade.—Dose. A wine-glassful, every #
hour or hour; as a diaphoretic and expectorant.
See ANTIMONY (Potassio-tartrate).
Lemonade, Ape"rient. Syn. LIMONADUM
LAXATIVUM, L. Prep. 1. Sugar. 1 oz. ;
lemon juice, # fl. Oz. ; sulphate of soda, 3 drs.;
water, 8 fl. Oz. ; put them into a soda-water
bottle without shaking, have the cork ready
fitted, add of sesquicarbonate of soda (in cryst.),
# dr., and instantly cork the bottle, wire it
down, and keep it in a cool place, inverted.
For a dose.
2. Heavy carbonate of magnesia, 1% dr.;
refined sugar, 1 oz. ; essence of lemon, 5 or 6
drops; water, 8 fl. oz. ; bottle as last, then
add of citric acid (cryst.), 3 drs., and in-
stantly cork, &c., as before. For a dose. It
should be kept for at least 24 hours before
being taken.
Lemonade, Lactic. Syn, LIMONADUM LAC-
TICUM, L. Prep. (Magendie.) Lactic acid, 1
to 4 drs. ; syrup, 2 oz. ; water, 1 pint; mix.
Recommended in dyspepsia, &c.
Lemonade, Milk. Syn. LIMONADUM LACTIs,
L. Prep. Take of sugar, lb.; water, 1 pint;
dissolve, add the juice of 3 lemons; milk or
whey, 3 pint ; stir the whole together and
strain through a hair sieve. Some persons add
a glassful of sherry.
Lemonade, Mineral. Syn. LIMONADE MI-
NERALE, Fr. On the Continent this name is
applied to various drinks consisting of water
acidulated with the mineral acids and sweet-
ened with sugar. Thus we have limonade
chlorhydrique, nitrique, phosphorique, sul-
phurique, &c., all of which are used as cool-
ing drinks in fevers, inflammations, skin
diseases, &c.
Lemonade, Port'able. See POWDERS.
LEMONADE POWDERS. See POWIDERS.
LEMONATED KALI. See KALI, PotASSA
(Citrate), &c.
LEN’ITIVES. In medicine, purgatives which
act in a gentle manner, and have a soothing
effect. See LAXATIVES.
LENS. In optics, a piece of glass or other
transparent medium, having one or two curved
surfaces, either convex or concave. A descrip-
tion of the different kinds of lenses belongs to
a work on optics. It may, however, be useful
to the chemical student to remark here that
the CODDINGTON and STANHOPE LENSES, which
may now be bought at any of the opticians,
neatly mounted and of great power, for a few
shillings, will be found of the greatest service
in examining minute crystals, precipitates,
&c.; and for all ordinary purposes offer a cheap
and efficient substitute for more complicated
microscopes. An extemporaneous instrument,
possessing considerable power, may be made
by simply piercing a small circular hole in a
slip of metal, and introducing into it a drop of
water, which then assumes a spherical form on
each side of the metal, while the latter is held
in a horizontal position. The ingenious little
TOY MICROSCOPES sold about the streets of
London, under the form of a perforated pill-
box, at one penny each, consist of such a lens
made with Canada balsam instead of water,
which has the property of hardening without
losing its transparency after exposure for a
few hours to the air. A still simpler substitute
for a lens is a piece of blackened card-paper,
with the smallest possible needle-hole pierced
through it. Any very small object held in a

strong light, and viewed through this hole at
the distance of about an inch, will appear
quite distinct, and from 10 to 12 times larger
than its usual size. We have often found this
little instrument of incalculable service in
situations and under circumstances in which a
more powerful or complicated apparatus was
unattainable or could not be applied.
LEN'TIL. Syn. LENS, L. The seed of the
Ervum Lens, a plant of the natural order
Leguminosae. The lentil is considerably smaller
690
LETHARGY-LICHEN.
than an ordinary pea, and is of the shape of a
double convex lens. Several varieties are cul-
tivated on the Continent of Europe and in
many parts of Asia, where they are largely
consumed as human food. Lentils are more
nourishing than any other description of pulse,
but are reputed difficult of digestion, apt to
disorder the bowels, and injurious to the eyes.
Several alimentary preparations, sold at high
prices as cures for dyspepsia, constipation, &c.,
contain lentil flour as the principal ingredient.
See ERVALENTA and REVALENTA.
LETH'ARGY. Syn. LETHARGUS, L. A
heavy, unnatural sleep, sometimes bordering
upon apoplexy, with scarcely any intervals of
waking, from which the patient is with diffi-
culty aroused, and into which he again sinks
as soon as the excitement is withdrawn. It
frequently arises from plethora, in which case
depletion is indicated; or from the suppression
of some usual discharge or secretion, which it
should then be our business to re-establish. It
also often arises from over mental fatigue and
nervous debility, when relaxation from busi-
ness, the use of a liberal diet, and ammoniacal
stimulants and antispasmodics, are found use-
ful. When depending on a determination of
blood to the head, cupping may be had re-
course to, and all sources of excitement avoided.
In all cases the bowels should be moved as
soon as possible by means of mild purgatives.
LETTUCE. Syn. LACTUCA, L. The early
leaves or head of the Lactuca sativa, or garden
lettuce, forms a common and wholesome salad.
They are reputed as slightly anodyne, laxative,
hypnotic, and antaphrodisaic, and have been
recommended to be eaten at supper by those
troubled by watchfulness, and in whom there
exists no tendency to apoplexy. The leaves and
flowering tops of L. virosa are officinal in the
B. P., the “flowering herb” (LACTUCA) in the
Ph.L.; the “inspissated juice,” in the Ph. E.;
and the “inspissated juice and leaves,” in the
Ph. D. The “inspissated juice” of Lactuca
virosa, or strong-scented wild lettuce, is also
officinal in the Ph. E.; and both the “leaves
and inspissated juice” of the same variety are
ordered in the Ph.D. The last species is more
powerful than the cultivated lettuce. See Ex-
TRACT and LACTUCARIUM.
LEUCORREIGE'A. Syn. WHITES; CATAR-
RHUS WAGINAE, FIUOR ALBUS, L. The symp-
toms of this disease are well known to most
adult females. The common causes are de-
bility, a poor diet, excessive use of hot tea,
profuse menstruation or purgation, late hours,
immoderate indulgence of the passions, fre-
quent miscarriages, protracted or difficult
labours, or local relaxation. Occasionally it
is symptomatic of other affections. The treat-
ment must be directed to the restoration of
the general health, and imparting tonicity to
the parts affected. Tepid or sea bathing, or
shower baths; bark, chalybeates, and other
tonics; with local affusions of cold water, and
mild astringent injections, as those of black tea
or oak bark, are generally found successful in
ordinary cases.
LEWANT’ NUT. See CoCCULUS INDICUS.
LEWIGA/TION. Syn. LEVIGATIO, L. The
process of reducing substances to fine powder,
by making them into a paste with water, and
grinding the mass upon a hard smooth stone
or slab, with a conical piece of stone having a
flat, smooth, under surface, called a ‘muller.”
Levigation is resorted to in the preparation of
paints on the small scale, and in the elu-
triation of powders. The term is also, some-
times, incorrectly applied to the lengthened
trituration of a substance in a marble or wedg-
wood-ware mortar.
LEWORACE/MIC ACID.
ACID.
LEY/DEN JAR. Syn. LEYDEN PHIAI,
ELECTRICAT, JAR. An instrument for the
accumulation of the electric fluid. Its sim-
plest form is that of a wide-mouthed jar of
rather thin glass, coated on both sides with
tin-foil, except on the upper portion, which is
left uncoated, and having a cover of baked
wood, through which passes a brass wire, ter-
minating in a metallic knob, and communi-
cating with the inner coating. To charge the
jar, the outer coating is connected with the
earth, and the knob put in contact with the
conductor of an electrical machine. The inner
and outer surfaces of the glass thus become
respectively positive and negative, and the
particles of the glass become strongly polarised.
On making connection between the two coat-
ings with a conducting substance, discharge
takes place by a bright spark and a loud snap;
and if any part of the body be interposed in
the circuit, a shock is felt.
LIBAVIUS’S LIQUOR,
ride).
LI'CHEN. In pathology, a dry papulous or
pimply eruption of the skin, terminating in
scurfy exfoliations. “Lichen exhibits great
variety in its outward characters in different
individuals; in one, the pimples are brightly
red; in another, of debilitated constitution,
they are bluish and livid; in a third, they are
developed around the base of hairs; in a
fourth, they appear as circular groups, and
increase by their circumference, while they
fade in the centre, forming so many rings of
various size; in a fifth, a modification of the
preceding, they have the appearance of flex-
uous bands; while in a sixth, they are remark-
able for producing intensity of suffering, or
unusual disorganization of the skin. They
are all occasioned by constitutional disturbance,
sometimes referable to the digestive, and some-
times to the nervous system. In some in-
stances, however, they depend upon a local
cause. I have had a crop of lichenous pimples
on the backs of my hands from rowing in hot
weather; and in hot climates that annoying
disorder called prickly heat is a lichen.” (Eras.
Wilson.) The treatment of this affection is
noticed under ERUPTIONS (Papular).
See RACEMIC
See TIN (Bichlo-
º


IICHENS-LIME. 691
-
LI'CHENS. Syn. LICHENES-Juss., LTCHEN-
ALES–Lind., L. In botany, these are cryptoga-
mous plants, which appear under the form of
thin, flat crusts, covering rocks and the barks
of trees. Some of them, like Iceland moss
(Cetraria Islandica), are esculent and medi-
cinal, and employed either as medicine or food;
and others, when exposed in a moistened state
to the action of ammonia, yield purple or blue
colouring principles, which, like indigo, do
not pre-exist in the plant. Thus, the Rocella
tinctoria, the Variolaria orcina, the Lecanora
tarfarea, &c., when ground to a paste with
water, mixed with putrid urine or solution of
carbonate of ammonia, and left for some time
freely exposed to the air, furnish the archil,
litmus, and cudbear of commerce, very similar
substances, differing chiefly in the details of
their preparation. From these the colouring
matter is easily extracted by water or very
dilute solution of ammonia. See ARCHIL, CUD-
BEAR, and LITMUS.
LIG/ATURE. In surgery, a small waxed
piece of cord or string formed of silk or thread,
employed for the purpose of tying arteries,
veins, and other parts, to prevent haemorrhage,
or to cause their extirpation. To be safe and
useful, they should be round, smooth, and suffi-
ciently strong to permit of being tied with se-
curity without incurring the danger of break-
ing or slipping. There are many cases re-
corded in which emigrants, soldiers, and
travellers, have lost their lives, from the
simple inability of those around them to apply
a ligature.
LIGHT. Syn. LUMEN, LUX, L. Light
acts as a vivifying or vital stimulus on organ-
ised beings; just as privation of light, or
darkness, disposes to inactivity and sleep. “In
maladies characterised by imperfect nutrition
and sanguinification, as scrofula, rickets, and
anaemia, and in weakly subjects with oede-
matous (dropsical) limbs, &c., free exposure to
solar light is sometimes attended with very
happy results. Open and elevated situations
probably owe part of their healthy qualities to
their position with regard to it.” On the
contrary, “in diseases of the eye, attended
with local vascular or nervous excitement, in
inflammatory conditions of the brain, in fever,
and in mental irritation, whether attended or
not with vascular excitement, the stimulus of
light proves injurious, and, in such cases, dark-
ness of the chamber should be enjoined. After
parturition, severe wounds, and surgical ope-
rations, and in all inflammatory conditions,
exclusion of strong light contributes to the
well-doing of the patient.” (Pereira.)
LIG/NIN. C. Hio Og. Syn. CELLULOSE. This
is woody fibre deprived of all foreign matter.
It forms about 95% of baked wood, and
constitutes the woody portion of all vegetable
substances. Fine linen and cotton are almost
entirely composed of lignin, the associated
vegetable principles having been removed
by the treatment the fibres have been sub-
jected to during the process of their manu-
facture.
Pure lignin is tasteless, inodorous, insoluble
in water and alcohol, and absolutely innutri-
tious; dilute acids and alkaline solutions
scarcely affect it, even when hot; oil of vitriol
converts it into dextrin or grape sugar, ac-
cording to the mode of treatment. When
concentrated sulphuric acid is added very gra-
dually to about half its weight of lint, linen
rag, or any similar substance shredded small,
and contained in a glass vessel, with constant
trituration, the fibres gradually swell up and
disappear, without the disengagement of any
gas, and a tenacious mucilage is formed, which
is entirely soluble in water. If, after a few
hours, the mixture be diluted with water, the
acid neutralized by the addition of chalk, and,
after filtration, any excess of lime thrown
down by the cautious addition of a solution of
oxalic acid, the liquid yields, after a second
filtration, and the addition of alcohol in con-
siderable excess, a gummy mass, which pos-
sesses all the characters of pure dextrin. If,
instead of at once saturating the diluted acid
solution with chalk, we boil it for 4 or 5 hours,
the dextrin is entirely converted into grape
sugar, which, by the addition of chalk and
filtration, as before, and evaporation by a
gentle heat to the consistence of a syrup, will,
after repose for a few days, furnish a concrete
mass of crystallised sugar. By strong pressure
between folds of porous paper or linen, redis-
solving it in water, agitation with animal char-
coal, and recrystallisation, brilliant colourless
crystals of grape sugar may be obtained.
Hemp, linen, or cotton, thus treated, yield
fully their own weight of gum, and 1% of their
weight of grape sugar. During the above
transformation, the sulphuric acid is converted
into sulpholignic acid, and may be procured in
a separate state. A solution of oxide of copper
in ammonia, or solution of basic carbonate of
copper in strong ammonia, dissolves cotton,
which may then be precipitated by acids in
colourless flakes.
LIGNITE. Syn. BROWN COAL. Wood
and other matter more or less mineralised and
converted into coal. The lignites are gene-
rally dark brown, and of obvious woody struc-
ture. They are distinguished from true coals
by burning with little flame and much smoke.
Those of Germany are largely used as a source
of paraffin and burning oils.
LIG/NUM WITAF. See GUAIACUM WooD.
LIME. CaO. Syn. OxIDE OF CALCIUM ;
CHAUX, Fr.; KALK, Ger. Lime, when pure, and
as a chemical and medical reagent, will be found
treated of under CALCIUM (Oxide of). It is
prepared on the large scale for commerce by
calcining chalk, marble or limestone, in kilns,
and is called quicklime, caustic lime, burnt
lime, stone lime, &c. The lime kilns are usually
of the form of an inverted cone, and are packed
with alternate layers of limestone and fuel,
and the burnt lime raked out from the bottom.


6)3 LIME –LIME JUICE.
The lime thus obtained is a pale yellow powder,
combining eagerly with water, and crumbling
to a light white powder, “slaked lime,” with
the evolution of much heat. Lime which
slakes well is termed “fat lime,” while if it
slakes badly is termed “poor lime.”
Iime, Salts of. See under CALCIUM.
Lime, Pyrolignite of. An impure acetate
of calcium used for making mordants in dyeing
and calico printing, as a substitute for the
more expensive acetate of lead.
Lime, Chloride of. Syn. BLEACHING Pow-
DER, CHLORINATED LIME, HYPOCHLORIDE OF
CALCIUM.
A compound of hypochloride, chloride, and
hydrate of lime in varying proportions, and
most extensively used for bleaching, thou-
sands of tons being made near Newcastle alone
every year.
Prep. Hydrate of calcium is thinly spread
out in a proper vessel and exposed to an atmo-
sphere of chlorine gas until it is saturated.
Now included in the Materia Medica.
Hydrate of calcium, or slaked lime (fresh), 20
parts, common salt, 1 part, are mixed together,
and the powder placed in long earthenware ves-
sels into which chlorine is passed until the mix-
ture begins to grow damp, or until one part of
it, dissolved in 130 parts of water, is capable of
decolouring 4% parts of sulphate of indigo,
when the whole is transferred to dry bottles.
(Wholesale.) The chlorine is generated
from the usual materials mixed in leaden
vessels, heated by steam, and the gas, after
passing through water, is conveyed by a leaden
tube into an apartment built of siliceous sand-
stone, and arranged with shelves or trays, con-
taining dry fresh slaked lime, placed one above
another, about an inch asunder. The process,
to produce a first-class article, is continued
for 4 or 5 days. During this time the lime
is occasionally agitated by means of iron rakes,
the handles of which pass through boxes of
lime placed in the walls of the chamber, which
thus act as valves.
Prop., &c. Chloride of lime is a pale yellowish,
white powder, generally more or less damp, and
evolving a chlorine-like odour of hypochloric
acid. Soluble in about 20 parts of water, and
decomposed by acids with the evolution of
chlorine and a little oxygen. Good chloride of
lime should contain from 32% to 36% of chlo-
rine, of which, however, but 25% to 30% can
be easily liberated by an acid.
Jºsłłm. See CHIOROMETRY.
Uses. Chloride of lime is employed in medi-
cine as an antiseptic and disinfectant. An
ointment of chloride of lime has been used in
‘scrofula, and a lotion or bath, moderately
dilute, is one of the cleanest and readiest
ways of removing the ‘itch,” and several other
skin diseases. It is also in great use as a disin-
fectant, and may be used either in substance or
solution. A small quantity of the powder
spread on a flat dish or plate, and placed on
the chimney-piece, and a like quantity in an
opposite part of the room, will continue to
evolve sufficient chlorine or hypochlorous acid
to disinfect the air of an apartment for several
days. The evolution of chlorine is promoted
by occasionally renewing the exposed surface,
by stirring it with a piece of stick, and, after
it becomes scentless, by the addition of a little
acid, as strong vinegar, or hydrochloric acid, or
oil of vitriol, largely diluted with water. Of late,
however, it has been partly superseded by the
antiseptics, carbolic acid, &c. The most ex-
tensive consumption of chloride of lime is,
however, for bleaching textile fabrics. When
employed for this purpose, the goods are first
immersed in a dilute solution of this compound,
and then transferred to a vat containing dilute
sulphuric acid. The chlorine thus disengaged
in contact with the cloth, causes the destruc-
tion of the colouring matter. This process is
generally repeated several times, it being un-
safe to use strong solutions. White patterns
may thus be imprinted upon coloured cloth;
the figures being stamped with tartaric acid
thickened with gum water, the stuff is im-
mersed in the chloride bath, when the parts
to which the acid has been applied remain
unaltered, while the printed portions are
bleached white.
Concluding remarks.-Chloride of lime is now
scarcely ever made on the small scale, as it can
be purchased of the large manufacturer of
better quality and cheaper than it could pos-
sibly be made by the druggist. The only
secret in the manufacture of good bleaching
powder is maintaining the temperature of the
ingredients rather low.
LIME. The fruit of Citrus timeffa. It re-
sembles the lemon, but is smaller and has a
smoother skin. It is imported into Great
Britain in a preserved state for use as a dessert.
Its juice is also largely imported for the pre-
paration of CITRIC ACID, and for the preven-
tion of scurvy on board ship (see below).
LIME JUICE. Syn. LEMON JUICE. The
juice of the fruits of various species of Citrus,
principally LIMES, is known in commerce un-
der these names. It is very variable as to
quality, which depends upon the method of
extraction, the quality of the fruit, and the
honesty of the shipper.
We have examined the juice expressed from
limes sent from the West Indies, from Ja-
maica, and from South Africa, with the follow-
ing results:
W. Indies, Jamaica. S. Africa,
Specific gravity -
of juice ... 1041:30 1044:18 1044-90
Per cent. of
citric acid . 7.96 8'66 8'50
Per cent. of ash 0.321 0°401 0.364
The yield from limes is very small, and the
freshly expressed juice contains a large amount
of pulp. This, however, on standing a few
weeks, separates, and a clear sherry-coloured
liquid is obtained.


H.IMESTONE – LINCTU.S. 693
º
A concentrated lime or lemon juice is used
by calico printers. It is a “dark, treakly
looking fluid, marking from 48° to 54° Twad-
dell,” and contains about 30 per cent. of pure
citric acid.
Adult. See LEMON JUICE.
Estim. Lime juice is only valuable on ac-
count of the citric acid it contains. If of
good quality, 100 grs. will neutralise from 70
to 76 grs. of pure crystallised carbonate of soda.
“For commercial purposes, each grain of car-
bonate of soda neutralised may represent a
half grain of crystallised citric acid (equal to
'38 gr. of dry acid), and the value of the lime
juice be calculated in proportion.” (O'Neill.)
As commercial lime juice contains variable pro-
portions of vegetable extractive matter, the
indications of the hydrometer cannot be de-
pended upon. See ACIDIMETRY, CITRIC ACID,
&
C.
LIME'STONE. A general term applied to
a great variety of rocks in which carbonate of
lime is the principal constituent.
F'słim. The value of chalk, limestone, marble,
&c., for hydraulic mortars and cements, may
be determined as follows:
A given weight (say 100 grs.) of the
sample is reduced to powder and digested in
hydrochloric acid diluted with about an equal
weight of water, with frequent agitation for
an hour or longer; the mixture is then di-
luted with thrice its volume of water, thrown
upon a filter, and the undissolved portion
washed, dried, ignited, and weighed. This
weight indicates the per-centage of clay and
silica or sand; and the loss that of the lime
or calcium oxide, magnesium oxide, and ferric
oxide, present in the substance examined. In
most cases these results will be sufficient to
show the quality of the limestone for the pur-
pose of making mortar or cement.
The filtrate and the washings are mixed
together, and ammonia is added in excess; the
bulky, reddish-brown precipitate is collected,
washed, dried, ignited, and weighed. This
gives the per-centage of ferric oxide.
The filtrate, &c., from last is then treated
with oxalate of ammonium, and the quantity
of lime determined in the manner described
under the head of CALCIUM.
The liquid filtered from the precipitate in
last is boiled for some time with carbonate of
potassium until ammoniacal fumes are no
longer evolved; the precipitate is then col-
lected on a filter, washed with hot water, dried,
and strongly ignited for 3 or 4 hours, and,
lastly, weighed. This gives the per-centage of
magnesium. -
LINCTUS. [L., Eng.] Syn. LoCH, Lo-
TIOCH, LINCTURE, LAMBATIVE ; Looc H, Fr. A
medicine of the consistence of honey, intended
to be licked off a spoon. This form of medi-
cine is well adapted to females and children,
but is not much used in England at the pre-
sent time. Those employed in modern phar-
macy and prescribing are included under the
heads CoNFECTION, CONSERVE, or ELECTUARY.
—The dose, when it is not otherwise stated, is
a teaspoonful occasionally.
Linctus, Cacao. Syn. LINCTUS CACAO, L.;
CREME DE TRONCHIN, Fr. Prep. From
cocoa-butter, 2 oz. ; white sugar (in powder),
syrup of capillaire, and syrup of tolu, of each,
1 oz. ; mix. Demulcent and pectoral; in
coughs, sore throats, hoarseness, &c.
Linctus, Common. Prep. From oil of al-
monds and syrup of tolu, of each, 1 oz. ; pow-
dered white sugar, 2 drs. As the last.
Linctus, Cough. Syn. PECTORAL LINCTUS ;
LINCTUS PECTORALIS, L. Prep. 1. (Dr. Latham.)
Compound ipecacuanha powder (Dover's pow-
der), dr.; compound tragacanth powder, 2
drs. ; syrup of tolu, confection of hips, and sim-
ple oxymel, of each, 1 oz.-Dose. I teaspoon-
ful, 3 or 4 times a day. “This linctus has
been extensively used, as a remedy for coughs,
in the West-end of London, having been found
to be a safe and generally efficacious remedy.”
(Redwood.) The preceding as well as the fol-
lowing are also useful preparations.
Linctus, Demul'cent. Syn. LINCTUS DE-
MULCENS, L.; LOOCH DE TRONCHIN, Fr.
Prep. From oil of almonds, syrup of capillaire,
manna, and cassia pulp, of each, 2 oz. ; pow-
dered gum tragacanth, 20 grs. ; orange-flower
water, 2 fl. oz. As the last. The above is
the quantity for two days, which is as long as
it will keep.
Linctus, Emol/lient. Syn. OILY EMULSION:
LOHOCH OLEOSUM, EMULSIO OLEOSA, L.;
Looch HUILEUx, Fr. Prep. (P. Cod.) Oil of
almonds, powdered gum, and orange-flower
water, of each, 4 drs. ; syrup of marshmallow,
1 oz. ; water, 3 fl. oz. or q. s. ; for an emulsion.
In troublesome coughs.
Linctus, Expectorant. Syn. LINCTUs Ex-
PECTORANS, LoIIOCH E., L. Prep. 1. Oxymel
of squills, confection of hips, syrup of marsh-
mallow, and mucilage of gum arabic (thick),
equal parts. Demulcent and expectorant. -
2. (Dr. Copland.) Oil of almonds and syrup
of lemons, of each, 1 fl. oz. ; powdered ipecacu-
anha, 6 grs. ; confection of hips, 1 oz. ; com-
pound powder of tragacanth, 3 drs.
3. (Zanetti.) Kermes mineral, 4 grs. ; manna,
6 oz. ; oil of almonds, syrup of squills, and
syrup of Senega, of each, 2 drs. Laxative, de-
mulcent, and expectorant. The above are
useful in hoarseness, tickling coughs, sore
throats, &c.
Linctus, Pectoral. Syn. Fox LUNGs; LINC-
TUS PECTORALIS, LOHOCH & PULMONE VUL-
PIUM, L. Prep. From spermaceti and Spanish
juice, of each, 8 oz. ; water, q. S. to soften the
liquorice; make a thin electuary, and add of
honey, 3 lbs. ; oil of aniseed, 1 oz. ; mix well.
A popular and excellent demulcent in coughs.
It formerly contained the herb ‘fox lungs,”
but spermaceti is now substituted for that
article.
Linctus, Turpentine. Syn. LINCTUS STIMU-
LANS, L. TEREBINTHINE, LOHOCH ANTHEL-
694 LINEN.
MINTTCUM, L. Prep. (Recamier.) Oil of
turpentine, 2 drs. ; honey of roses, 3 oz. ; mix.
— Dose. A teaspoonful, night and morning,
followed by a draught of any weak liquid; in
worms, more especially tape-worm.
Linctus, White. Syn. LINCTUS ALBUS, MIS-
TURA ALBA, LOHOCH ALBUM., L.; LOOCH
BLANC, Fr. Prep. (P. Cod.) Jordan almonds,
4} drs. ; bitter almonds, dr. ; blanch them by
steeping them in hot water and removing the
skins; add of white sugar, 3 oz.: gum traga-
canth, 20 grs. ; beat to a smooth paste, and
further add, of oil of almonds and orange-flower
water, of each, 4 drs. ; pure water 4 fl. Oz. A
pleasant demulcent in tickling coughs.
LIN’EN. Syn. LINTEUM, L. Linen is a
textile fabric made of the liber-fibres of the
Linum usitatissimum, or common flax, a plant
which from time immemorial has been culti-
vated for this purpose. It is remarkable for
the smoothness and softness of its texture, and
is hence highly esteemed in temperate climates
as an elegant and agreeable article of clothing
to be worn next the skin. Its fibres are better
conductors of heat, more porous, and more at-
tractive of moisture, than those of cotton,
which render it less adapted for body linen in
cold weather, as well as in hot weather and
hot climates, than calico. The latter, however,
lacks the luxurious softness and freshness of
linen, whilst the peculiar twisted and jagged
character of its fibres render it apt to excite
irritation in extremely delicate skins. The
common prejudice in favour of old linen and
flax lint for dressing wounds is thus shown to
have reason on its side, and, like many other
vulgar prejudices, to be supported by the in-
vestigations of science.
Identif. Linen fabrics are commonly sophis-
ticated with cotton, which is a much less
costly and a more easily wrought material.
Various plans have been proposed to detect
this fraud, many of which are too complicated
and difficult for practical purposes. The fol-
lowing commend themselves for their sim-
plicity and ease of application :-
1. A small strip (a square inch, for instance)
of the suspected cloth is immersed for 2 or 3
minutes in a boiling mixture of about equal
parts of hydrate of potassium and water,
contained in a vessel of silver, porcelain, or
hard glass; after which it is taken out and
pressed between the folds of white blotting
paper or porous calico. By separating 8 or
10 threads in each direction, their colour may
be readily seen. The deep yellow threads
are LINEN, the white or pale yellow ones are
COTTON.
2. A small strip of the cloth, after having
been repeatedly washed with rain water,
boiled in the water, and dried, is immersed for
1 to 2 minutes in sulphuric acid; it is then
withdrawn, carefully pressed under water
with the fingers, washed, immersed for a few
seconds in ammonia, solution of carbonate of
potassium, or solution of carbonate of sodium,
-
º-
w
N-
again washed with water, and dried between
filtering paper. By this treatment the cotton
fibres are dissolved, while the linen fibres are
merely rendered thinner and more translucent,
according to the duration of the experiment;
after a short immersion, the cottom fibres
appear transparent, while the linen fibres re.
main white and opaque.
3. (By the MICROSCOPE.) The indications
afforded by both the previous tests, although
quite visible to the naked
eye, are rendered still
more palpable by the use
of a magnifying glass of
Small power, as the com- -
mon pocket lens. Under 4
a good microscope the
presence of cotton in a º
linen tissue is very per-
ceptible. The fibres of
cotton present a distinctly |
flat and shrivelled ap-
pearance, not unlike that
of a narrow, twisted rib- |-
bon, with only occasional
joints; whilst those of flax are round, straight,
and jointed. The fibres of cottom, after being
exposed to the action of strong alkaline lyes,
untwist themselves, contract in length, and
assume a rounded form, but still continue dis--
tinct in appearance from the fibres of linen.
The engraving represents a fibre of linen (1)
and a fibre of cotton (2), as they appear when
magnified 155 diameters. The difference be-
tween the two may be perceived, although less
distinctly, through a good Stanhope or Cod-
dington lens, provided the object be well
illuminated.
Dyeing. Linen and cotton, from the simi-
larity of their behaviour with dye-stuffs, are
treated in nearly the same manner. The
affinity of their fibres for colouring matter is
very much weaker than that of the fibres of
silk and woollen. On this account they are
dyed with greater difficulty than those sub-
stances, and the colours so imparted are, in
general, less brilliant and permanent under
similar conditions. Linen shows less disposi-
tion to take dyes than cotton. The yarn or
cloth, after being scoured and bleached in the
usual manner, requires to have an additional
tendency given to it, by chemical means, to
condense and retain the materials of the dye-
bath in its pores. This is effected by steeping
the goods in solutions (mordants) which have
at once an affinity for both the fibres of the
cloth and the colouring matter. A similar
process is employed in dyeing most other sub-
stances; but with cotton and linen, attention
to this point is essential to the permanency of
the dye. These matters are more fully ex-
plained under the heads DYEING and MoR-
TXANT. -
The domestic management of linen may here
receive a few moments’ attention. Fruit
stains, iron-moulds, and other spots on linen,



HING—LINIMIENT. 695
may, in general, be removed by applying to
the part, previously washed clean, a weak
solution of chlorine, chloride of lime, spirits of
salts, oxalic acid, or salts of lemons, in warm
water, and frequently by merely using a little
lemon juice. When the stain is removed, the
part should be thoroughly rinsed in clear
warm water (without soap) and dried. Recent
iron-moulds or ink spots on starched limen,
as the front of a shirt, may be conveniently
removed by allowing a drop or two of melted
tallow from a common candle to fall upon them
before sending the articles to the laundress.
The oxide of iron combines with the grease,
and the two are washed out together. If the
spot is not entirely removed the first time, the
process should be repeated. Linen that has
acquired a yellow or bad colour by careless
washing, may be restored to its former white-
mess by working it well in water to which
some strained solution of chloride of lime has
been added, observing to well rinse it in clean
water, both before and after the immersion in
the bleaching liquor. The attempt to bleach
unwashed linen should be avoided, as also
using the liquor too strong, as in that case the
linen will be rendered rotten.
LING. The Gadus molua (Linn.), an inferior
species of the cod-fish tribe, common in the
Northern seas, and used as a coarse article of
food by the poor.
LIN’IMENT. Syn. LINIMIENTUM, L. A
semifluid ointment, or soapy application to
painful joints, swellings, burns, &c. The
term is also occasionally extended to various
spirituous and stimulating external applica-
tions. A medicine of a thinner consistence,
but similarly employed, is called an ‘EMBRO-
CATION.” These terms are, however, fre-
quently confounded together, and misapplied.
Liniments are generally administered by fric-
tion with the hand or fingers, or with some
substance (as a piece of flannel) capable of
producing a certain amount of irritation of the
skin. Sometimes a piece of linen rag dipped
in them is simply laid on the part. In most
cases in which liniments are found beneficial,
the advantage obtained from them is attri-
butable rather to the friction or local irritation
than to any medicinal power in the preparation
itself. The greater number of cerates and
ointments may be converted into liniments by
simply reducing their consistence with almond
or olive oil, or oil of turpentine.
Limiment, Acid. Syn. LINIMENTUM ACI-
DUM, L. ACIDI SULPHURICI, L. Prep. 1.
(Sir B. Brodie.) Salad oil, 3 oz.; oil of vitriol,
1 dr. ; mix, then add of oil of turpentine, 1
oz., and agitate the whole well together. As
a counter-irritant, in rheumatism, stiff joints,
&c. It closely resembles the ‘GUESTONIAN
EMBROCATION.”
2. (Hosp. F.) Olive oil, 3 oz.; oil of tur-
pentine, 2 oz. ; sulphuric acid, 1 fl. dr. An
excellent alterative, stimulant, discutient, and
counter-irritant, in chronic rheumatism, stiff
-
joints, indolent tumours, and various chronic
diseases of the skin.
Limimentum Aconitii. (B. P.) Aconite root,
in powder, 20; camphor, 1; rectified spirit,
to percolate, 30. Moisten the root for 3 days,
then pack in a percolator, and pour sufficient
rectified spirit upon it to produce with the
camphor 20.
Strength, 1 in 1. Applied with a camel-
hair pencil, alone or mixed in equal propor-
tions, with a soap limiment or compound cam-
phor liniment, and rubbed on the part. 7
parts of this, and 1 part of chloroformum
belladonna, and sprinkled thinly on imperme-
able piline, is the best application for neural-
gia or lumbago. -
Limiment of Amber-oil. Syn. LINIMENTUM
SUCCINI, L. Prep. 1. From olive oil, 3 parts;
oils of amber and cloves, of each, 1 part. Re-
sembles “ROCHE’s EMBROCATION.”
2. (Opiated ; LINIMENTUM succINI opLA-
TUM, L.) From rectified oil of amber and
tincture of opium, of each, 2 fl. oz. ; lard, 1 oz.
Anodyne, antispasmodic, and stimulant. A
once popular remedy in cramp, stiff joints,
&c.
Limiment of Ammo"nia. Syn. AMMONIACAL
LINIMENT, VOLATILE I., OIL AND HARTSHORN;
LINIMENTUM AMMONIAE (B. P., Ph. L. E. &
D.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Solution of am-
monia, 1; olive oil, 3; mix.
2. (Ph. L. & E.) Liquor of ammonia (sp.
gr. 1960), 1 fl. oz. ; olive oil, 2 fl. oz. ; shake
them together until they are mixed.
3. (Ph. D.) To the last add of olive oil,
1 fl. oz. Stimulant and rubefacient. Used in
rheumatism, lumbago, neuralgia, sore throat,
spasms, bruises, &c. When the skin is irri-
table, more oil should be added, or it should be
diluted with a little water.
4. (Camphorated ; LINIMENTUM AMMONIAE
CAMPHORATUM, EMBROCATIO AMM. CAMPHO-
RATA, L.)—a. (Hosp. F.) Olive oil, 3 oz. ;
camphor, oz. ; dissolve by a gentle heat,
and when cold, add of liquor of ammonia,
1 fl. oz.
b. Soap liniment, 2 oz. ; olive oil and liquor
of ammonia, of each, 2 drs. As the last ;
more especially for sprains, bruises, chilblains,
&c. -
5. (Compound; D.R. GRAN VILLE'S COUNTER-
IRRITANT OR ANTIDYNOUS IOTION ; LINI-
MENTUM AMMONIAE COMPOSITUM, L.-Ph. E.)
—a. (STRONGER.) From liquor of ammonia
(sp. gr. 880), 5 fl. oz. ; tincture of camphor,
2 fl. oz. ; spirit of rosemary, 1 fl.oz. ; mix. It
should be kept in a well-stoppered bottle and
in a cool situation. -
b. (WEAKER.) Solution of ammonia ('880),
5 fl. oz. ; tincture of camphor, 3 fl. oz. ; spirit
of rosemary, 2 fl. oz.
Obs. The above formulae are nearly identi-
cal with the original ones of Dr. Granville;
the principal difference being in his ordering
liquor of ammonia of the sp. gr. 872, instead
of ‘880. They are counter-irritant, rubefacient,


696
LINIMENT.
vesicant, and cauterising, according to the
mode and length of their application. The
milder lotion is sufficiently powerful to pro-
duce considerable rubefaction and irritation in
from 1 to 5 or 6 minutes; vesication, in 8 or
10 minutes; and cauterisation, in 4 or 5
minutes longer. For the latter purpose, the
stronger lotion is generally employed. Accord-
ing to Dr. Granville, these lotions are prompt
and powerful remedies in rheumatism, lum-
bago, Cramp, neuralgia, sprains, swollen and
painful joints, headache, sore throat, and nu-
merous other affections in which the use of a
powerful counter-irritant has been recom-
mended. They are ordered to be applied by
means of a piece of linen, 6 or 7 times folded,
or a piece of thick, coarse flannel wetted with
the lotion, the whole being covered with a
thick towel, and firmly pressed against the
part with the hand. The stronger lotion is
only intended to be employed in apoplexy, and
to produce cauterisation. See CountER-IRRI-
TANTS.
6. (From SESQUICARBONATE OF AMMONIA;—
LINIMENTUM AMMONIAE SESQUICARBONATIS-
Ph. L.) Solution of sesquicarbonate of ammo-
nia, 1 fl. oz. ; olive oil, 3 fl. oz. ; shake them
together until mixed. This preparation re-
sembles ordinary limiment of ammonia in its
general properties, but it is much less active,
owing to the alkali being carbonated. It is
the “oil and hartshorn’ and the “volatile lini-
ment’ of the shops.
Limiment, Amodyne. See LINIMIENTS OF
BELLADONNA, MORPHIA, OPIUM, SOAP, &c.
Limiment, Antispasmodic. Syn. LINIMEN-
TUM ANTISPASMODICUM, L. CAJEPUTT COM-
POSITUM, I. Prep. (Hufeland.) Oils of caje-
put and mint, of each, 1 part; tincture of
opium, 3 parts; compound camphor liniment,
24 parts. Anodyne, stimulant, and rube-
facient.
Limiment, Arceus’s. Compound elemi oint-
ment.
Liniment of Belladon'na. Syn. LINIMIENTUM
BELLADONNE, B.P. L. Prep. 1...(B.P.) Prepared
the same as LINIMENTUM ACONITII. A fluid
ounce is equal to a solid ounce. Prescribed
with equal parts of soap limiment, or compound
camphor liniment, and is an excellent topical
application for neuralgic pain.
2. Extract of belladonna, 1 dr.; oil of almonds,
2 oz.; lime water, 4 fl.oz, ; In eczema, and some
other cutaneous affections, to allayirritation, &c.
3. (Cutan. Hosp.) Extract of belladonna,
4 drs. ; glycerine, 1 oz. ; soap liniment, 6 oz.
As the last.
4. (Guy’s Hosp.) Extract of belladonna,
1 oz. ; soap limiment, 8 fl. oz.
5. (Phoebus.) Extract of belladonna, 40 grs.;
rectified ether, 1 dr. ; cherry-laurel water,
2 fl. oz. As a friction to the abdomen in lead
colic.
Obs. The above are reputed excellent sti-
mulants, anodynes, antispasmodics, and re-
solvents, in various diseases, as rheumatism,
neuralgia, painful affections of the skin and
joints, tumours, &c. &c.
Limimentum Calcis. (B. P.) Solution of
lime, 1 ; olive oil, 1 ; mix. The best liniment
for burns and scalds.
Liniment of Caj'eput Oil. Syn, LINIMENTUM
OLEI CAJEPUTI, L. Prep. 1. (Dr. Cop-
land.) Compound camphor liniment and soap
liniment, of each, 1% fl. Oz. ; oil of cajeput,
1 fl. Oz.
2. (Dr. Williams.) Oil of cajeput, , fl. dr.;
castor oil, 1 fl. dr.; olive oil, 4% fl. drs. A warm,
antispasmodic, diffusible stimulant and rube-
facient; in spasmodic asthma, colic, chronic
rheumatism, spasms, chest affections, &c. See
ANTISPASMODIC. L. (above).
Limiment of Cam'phor. Syn. CAMPHORATED
OIL, CAMPHOR EMBROCATION ; LINIMENTUM
CAMPHORE (B. P., Ph. L. E. & D.), OLEUM
CAMPHORATUM, L. Prep. 1. (B.P.) Camphor, 1;
olive oil 4; dissolve.
2. (Ph. L. & E.) Camphor, 1 oz.; olive oil,
4 fi. Oz. ; gently heat the oil, add the camphor
(cut small), and agitate until dissolved. The
Dublin College orders only ; the above camphor.
Stimulant, anodyne, and resolvent; in sprains,
bruises, rheumatic pains, glandular enlarge-
ments, &c.
3. (Compound; LINIMIENTUM CAMPHORE
COMPOSITUM-B. P., Ph. L. & D.)—a. (B. P.)
Camphor, 5; English oil of lavender, 4; strong
solution of ammonia, 10; rectified spirit, 20.
Dissolve the oil and camphor in the spirit and
gradually add the ammonia.
b. (Ph. L.) Camphor 2% oz.; oil of lavender,
1 fl. dr. ; rectified spirit, 17 fl.oz.; dissolve, then
add of stronger liquor of ammonia, 3 fl.oz., and
shake them together until they are mixed.
c. (Ph. L. 1836.) Liquor of ammonia, 7}
fl. oz. ; spirit of lavender, 1 pint ; distil off
1 pint, and dissolve in it camphor, 2% oz.
The formula of the Ph. D. 1826 was nearly
similar. -
d. (Wholesale.) Camphor (clean), 21 oz.;
English oil of lavender, 3% oz. ; liquor of am-
monia, 23 lbs. ; rectified spirit, 7 pints;
mix, close the vessel, and agitate occasionally,
until the camphor is dissolved. Powerfully
stimulant and rubefacient. It closely resem-
bles, and is now almost universally sold for,
Ward’s ‘Essence for the Headache.”
Limiment of Canthar'ides. Syn. LINIMENT
OF SPANISH FLIES ; LINIMENTUM LYTTE,
LIN. CANTH ARIDIS (Ph. D. & U.S.), L. Prep.
1. (Dr. Collier.) Tincture of cantharides and
Soap liniment, equal parts. -
2. (Ph. D.) Cantharides (in fine powder),
3 oz. ; olive oil, 12 fl. Oz, ; digest for 3 hours
over a waterbath, and strain through flannel,
with expression.
3. (Ph. U. S.) Spanish flies, 1 oz. ; oil of
turpentine, .8 fl. oz. ; proceed as last. The
above are irritant and rubefacient ; but
should be used cautiously, lest they produce
strangury. - -
Limiment of Chlo"ride of Lime, Syn, LI-

LINIMENT. - 697
NIMENTUM CALCIS CHLORINATE, L. Prep.
1. Chloride of lime, 1 dr. ; water (added gradu-
ally), 3 fl. Oz. ; triturate together in a glass
mortar for 10 minutes, pour off the liquid por-
tion, and add of oil of almonds, 2 fl. oz.
2. (Kopp.) Solution of chloride of lime (ordi-
nary), 1 part ; olive oil, 2 parts.
3. (Waller.) Chloride of lime (in fine pow-
der), 1 part ; soft soap, 2 parts; soft water, q.s.
to make a limiment.
Obs. The above are cleanly and excellent
applications in itch, scald head, herpes, lepra,
foul ulcers, &c.
Limiment of Chlo"roform. Syn. LINIMENTUM
CHILOROFORMI, B. P. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Chloro-
form, 1; liniment of camphor, 1; mix. The
oil in the camphor liniment prevents the eva-
poration of the chloroform. Stimulating on
application to a tender skin.
2. Chloroform 1 fl. dr. ; almond oil, 7 fl. drs. ;
mix in a phial, and agitate it until the two unite.
3. (Tuson.) Chloroform, 1 fl. dr.; soap
liniment, 2 fl. oz. ; as the last. Used as an
application in neuralgic pains, rheumatism,
&c.
Liniment of Cod-liver Oil. Sym. LINIMENTUM
OLEI MORRHUE, L. O. JACORIS ASELLI, L.
Prep. (Dr. Brach.) Cod-liver oil, 2 fl. oz. ;
liquor of ammonia, 1 fl. Oz. ; mix. Resolvent,
dispersive; applied to glandular tumours, scro-
fulous enlargements, &c.
Limiment of Croton Oil. Syn. LINIMENTUM
CROTONIS (B. P., Ph.D.), L. olf I CROTONIS, L.
o. TIGLII, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Croton oil, 1;
oil of cajeput, 3}.; rectified spirit, 3% ; mix.
2. (Ph. D.) Croton oil, 1 fl. oz. ; oil of
turpentine, 7 fl. oz. ; mix by agitation.
3. (J. Allen.) Croton oil and liquor of po-
tassa, of each, 1 fl. dr.; agitate until mixed,
then add of rose water, 2 fl. oz.
4. (Pereira.) Croton oil, 1 part; olive oil,
5 parts.
Obs. The above are used as counter-irri-
tants; in rheumatism, neuralgia, bronchial
and pulmonary affections, &c. When rubbed
on the skin, redness and a pustular erup-
tion ensue, and in general the bowels are
acted on.
Liniment, Diuret'ic. Syn. LINIMENTUM
DIURETICUM, L. Prep. 1. (Dr. Calini.) Squills
(in fine powder), 1 dr. ; gastric juice of a calf,
2 oz. ; mix. -
2. (Dr. Christison.) Soap liniment, tincture
of foxglove, and tincture of squills, equal parts.
In dropsies; rubbed over the abdomen or loins
twice or thrice a day.
Limiment, Emoll'ient. Syn. LINIMENTUM
ALBUM., L. EMOLLIENS, L. Prep. From cam-
phor, 1 dr. ; Peruvian balsam, dr. ; oil of al-
monds, 1 fl.oz. ; dissolve by heat, add of glyce-
rin, ; fl. Oz., agitate well, and, when cold,
further add of oil of nutmeg, 15 drops.
Excellent for chopped hands, lips, nipples,
&c.
Linimant of Gar’lic. Syn. LINIMENTUM
ALLII, L. Prep. From juice of garlic, 2 parts;
olive oil, 3 parts; mix.
infantile convulsions, &c.
Limiment of Ginger. Syn. LINIMENTUM
ZINGIBERIS, L. Prep. (Dr. Turnbull.) Ginger,
1 part ; rectified spirit, 2 parts; make a tinc-
ture or essence. For short-sightedness. A few
drops are occasionally rubbed on the forehead
for 8 or 10 minutes at a time. How this tinc-
ture came to be called a limiment we are at a
loss to determine.
Limiment, Hunga’’rian. Syn. LINIMENTUM
HUNGARICUM, L. Prep. (Soubeiran.) Pow-
dered cantharides and sliced garlic, of each,
1 dr. ; caumphor, bruised mustard seed, and
black pepper, of each, 4 drs. ; strong vinegar,
6 fl. Oz. ; rectified spirit, 12 fl. oz. ; macerate a
week, and filter. An excellent rubefacient and
counter-irritant.
Limiment of Hydrochlo"ric Acid. Syn. LI-
NIMENTUM MURIATICUM, L. ACIDI MURI-
ATICI, L. A. HYDROCHLORICI, L. Prep. 1.
(Hosp. F.) Olive oil, 2 oz. ; white wax, 2 drs. ;
dissolve by a gentle heat, add of balsam of
Peru, 1 dr.; hydrochloric acid, 2 drs. ; mix well.
An excellent application to chilblains before
they break. -
2. (W. Cooley.) Olive oil, 4 pint; white
spermaceti (pure) and camphor, of each, 3 oz. ;
mix with heat, add of hydrochloric acid, ; fl.
oz., and proceed as before. Equal to the last, and
cheaper. This was extensively employed among
the seamen of the Royal Navy by Mr. Cooley
with uniform success.
Liniment of Iodide of Potas'sium. Syn.
LINIMENTUM IODURETUM GELATINOSUM, L.
GELíE POUR LE GoitRE, Fr. Prep. (Foy.)
Iodide of potassium, 4 drs. ; proof spirit, 2 oz. ;
dissolve, and add the liquid to a solution of
curd soap, 6 drs, in proof spirit, 2 oz., both
being at the time gently warm ; lastly, aro-
matise with rose or neroli, pour it into wide-
mouthed bottles, and keep them closely corked.
In goitre, &c.
Limimentum Potassii Iodidi cum Sapone. (B.
P.) Hard soap, in powder, 1}; iodide of potas-
sium, 1%; glycerin, 1; oil of lemon, #: water,
1. Dissolve the soap in 7 of water, by heat
of a water bath; dissolve the iodide of potas-
sium in the remainder of the water, and mix
by trituration the two solutions, and when cold
add the oil of lemon, and mix thoroughly.
Limiment of Iodine. Syn. LINIMENTUM
IODI (B. P.); IoDURETTED LINIMENT; LINI-
MENTUM IODINII, L. IoDURETUM, L. Prep.
1. (B. P.) Iodine, 5; iodide of potassium, 2.;
camphor, 1; rectified spirit, 40; dissolve.
2. (Cutan. Hosp.) Compound tincture of
iodine and laudanum, equal parts.
3. (Dr. Copland.) Soap liniment, 1 oz. ;
iodine, 8 to 10 grs.
4. (Guibourt.) Iodide of potassium, 1 dr. ;
water, 1 fl. dr. ; dissolve, and add it to white
soap (in shavings) and oil of almonds, of each,
10 drs., previously melted together. Some per-
fume may be added. In scrofula, glandular
enlargements, rheumatism, &c.
In hooping-cough,



698
LINIMIENT.
Limiment of Lead. Syn. LINIMENTUM
PLUMBI, L. Prep. (Gaozey.) Acetate of lead,
40 grs. ; soft water, 12 fi. oz.: olive oil, 6 oz. ;
mix, and agitate well. Astringent and refrige-
rant. Useful in excoriations, especially when
accompanied with inflammation.
Liniment of Lime. Syn. LINIMENT FOR
BURNS, CARRON OIL; LINIMIENTUM CALCIS
(Ph. L. E. & D.), L. AquE CALCIS, OLEUM LINI
CUM CALCES, L. Prep. 1. From olive oil
(linseed oil—Ph. E.) and lime water, equal
parts, shaken together until they are mixed.
Very useful in burns and scalds.
2. (Compound; LINIMENTUM CALCIS COM-
PoSITUM, L.)—a. (Camphorated—W. Cooley.)
Camphor liniment and lime water, equal parts.
b. (Opiated—W. Cooley.) Lime water and
camphor liniment, of each, 1 oz. ; extract of
opium, 5 grs. ; mix. Both are used as anodynes
to allay pain and irritation in severe burns,
chilblains, &c., for which purpose they are ex-
cellent. All the above liniments with lime
water should be used as soon as possible after
being prepared, as the ingredients separate by
keeping.
Liniment of Mercury. Syn. MERCURIAL
LINIMENT ; LINIMENTUM HYDRARGYRI (B.
P., Ph. L.), LIN. H. COMPOSITUM (Ph.L. 1836),
L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Ointment of mercury,
l; solution of ammonia, 1 ; limiment of cam-
phor, 1. Melt the ointment in the liniment,
add the ammonia, and shake them together.
2. (Ph. L.) Camphor, 1 oz. ; spirit of wine,
1 fl. dr.; sprinkle the latter on the former,
powder, add of lard and mercurial ointment
(stronger), of each, 4 oz. ; rub them well to-
gether, then gradually add of liquor of am-
monia, 4 fl. oz. ; and mix well. Stimulant
and discutient. It resembles mercurial oint-
ment in its effects; but though milder in its
operation, it more quickly produces salivation.
Limiment of Morºphia. Syn. LINIMIENTUM
MORPHIE, L. Prep. (W. Cooley.) Pure mor-
phia, 3 grs. ; put it into a warm mortar, add
very gradually, of oil of almonds (warm), 1
fl. oz., and triturate until the morphia is dis-
solved, then add of camphor liniment, 1 oz.
An excellent topical anodyne and antispas-
modic, which often allays pain when other
means have failed.
Liniment of Mustard. Syn. LINIMENTUM
SINAPIs, L. Prep. 1. Flour of mustard (best),
1 oz. ; water, tepid, 2 fl. oz. ; mix, and add of
glycerin, liquor of ammonia, and olive oil, of
each, 1 fl. oz.
2. (Béral.) Carbonate of ammonia (in fine
powder), 1 part; camphor (in powder), 2
parts; oil of lavender, 4 parts; tincture of
mustard, 6 parts; mix, dissolve by agitation,
add of simple liniment (warm), 56 parts, and
again agitate until the whole is perfectly
incorporated.
3. Black mustard seed (ground in a pepper-
mill or otherwise well bruised), 4 lb.; oil of
turpentine, 1 pint; digest, express the liquid,
filter, and dissolve in it camphor, 3 lb. Stimu-
lant and rubefacient. A popular and useful
remedy in rheumatic pains, lumbago, colic,
chilblains, &c. The last is a close imitation of
Whitehead’s ‘Essence of Mustard.”
4. (LIN. OLEIVOLATILIS SINAPIs.)—a. From
volatile oil of black mustard seed, ; dr. ; oil of
almonds, 1 fl. oz. As a rubefacient.
b. From volatile oil, 1 part; alcohol (sp. gr.
'815), 1 to 2 parts. As a vesicant.
Limiment of Mustard (Compound). LINI-
MENTUMI SINAPIs CoMPOSITUM (B. P.). Oil of
mustard, 1 dr.; etherial extract of mezereon,
40 grs. ; camphor, 2 drs. ; castor oil, 5 drs. ;
rectified spirit, 32 drs. ; dissolve.
Liniment of Niſtrate of Mercury. Syn. CI-
TRINE LINIMIENT ; LINIMENTUM HYDRARGYRI
NITRATIs, L. Prep. (Sir H. Halford.) Oint-
ment of nitrate of mercury and olive oil, equal
parts, triturated together in a glass mortar, or
mixed by a gentle heat. This liniment is
stimulent, discutient, and alterative, and in its
general properties resembles the ointment of
the same name. For most purposes the quan-
tity of oil should be at least doubled.
Limiment of Nux Wom'ica. Syn. LINIMEN-
TUM NUCIS VOVIICE, L. Prep. (Magendie.)
Tincture of nux vomica, 1 fl. Oz.; liquor of
ammonia, 2 fi, drs.; mix. As a stimulating
application to paralysed limbs. The addition
of , fl. dr. each of glycerin and salad oil ren-
ders it an excellent application in chronic
rheumatism and neuralgia.
Limiment of 0'pium. Syn. ANODYNE LINI-
MENT ; LINIMENTUM opti (B. P., Ph. L. & E.),
L. OPII or L. ANODYNUM (Ph.D.), L. SAPONIS
CUM opio, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Tincture of
opium, 1 ; limiment of soap, 1 ; mix.
2. Tincture of opium, 2 fl. Oz.; soap lini-
ment, 6 fl. oz. ; mix.
3. (Ph. E.) Castile soap, 6 oz. ; opium,
1% oz. ; rectified spirit, 1 quart; digest for
three days, then filter, add of camphor, 3 oz.,
oil of rosemary, 6 fl. dr.s., and agitate briskly.
4. (Ph. D.) Soap liniment and tincture of
opium, equal parts.
5. (Wholesale.) Soft soap, 13 lb.; powdered
opium and camphor, of each 4 lb. ; rectified
spirit, 1 gall. ; digest a week.
Obs. This preparation is an excellent ano-
dyne in local pains, rheumatism, neuralgia,
sprains, &c.
Limiment of Phosphorus. Syn. LINIMEN-
TUM PHOSPHORATUM, L. Prep. (Augustin.)
Phosphorus, 6 grs. ; camphor, 12 grs. ; oil of
almonds, 1 oz. ; dissolve by heat; when cold,
decant the clear portion, and add of strongest
liquor of ammonia, 10 drops. A useful fric-
tion in gout, chronic rheumatism, certain ob-
stinate cutaneous affections, &c.
Simple Liniment. Syn. LINIMENTUM SIM-
PLEx (Ph. E.), L. Prep. (Ph. E.) White
wax, 1 oz. ; olive oil, 4 fl. oz. ; melt together,
and stir the mixture until it is cold. Emol-
lient; resembles spermaceti ointment in all
except its consistence. -
* See page 462.
LINIMENT. 699
Limiment of Soap. Syn. OPODELDOC, CAM-
PHORATED TINCTURE OF SOAP, BALSAM OF S. ;
LINIMENTUM SAPONIS (B. P., Ph. L. E. & D.),
L. SAPONACEUM, TINCTURA SAPONIS CAMPHO-
RATA, BALSAMUM SAPONIS, L. Prep. 1. (B.
P.) Hard soap (cut small), 2% oz. ; camphor,
1% oz. ; English oil of rosemary, 3 drs. ; recti-
fied spirit, 18 oz. ; distilled water, 2 oz. ; mix
the water and spirit, add the other ingredients,
digest at a temperature not exceeding 70°
Fahr., agitating occasionally for seven days,
and filter.
2. (Ph. L.) Castile soap (cut small), 2% oz. ;
camphor (small), 10 drs. ; spirit of rosemary,
18 fl. Oz. ; water, 2 fl. Oz. ; digest with fre-
quent agitation until the solid substances are
dissolved.
3. (Ph. E.) Castile soap, 5 oz. ; camphor,
2% oz. ; oil of rosemary, 6 fl. drs.; rectified
spirit, 1 quart.
4. (Ph. D.) Castile soap (in powder), 2 oz. ;
camphor, 1 oz. ; proof spirit, 16 fl. Oz.
5. (LINIMIENT SAVONNEAU-P. Cod.) Tinc-
ture of soap (P. Cod.) and rectified spirit
('863 or 41 o. p.), of each, 8 parts; olive oil,
1 part.
Obs. This article, prepared according to the
directions of the Pharmacopoeia, from “soap
made of olive oil and soda' (Castile soap), is
apt to gelatimise in cold weather, and to deposit
crystals of elaidate and stearate of lime. This
may be avoided, when expense is not an objec-
tion, by first well drying the soap, employing
a spirit of at least 85%, and keeping the pre-
paration in well-closed bottles. A cheaper and
better plan is to substitute the “soft soap' of
the Ph. L. (‘soap made with olive oil and po-
tassa’) for the Castile soap ordered by the
College. The soft soap of commerce imparts
to the limiment an unpleasant smell. The fol-
lowing formula, one of those commonly
adopted by the wholesale druggists, produces
a very good article, though much weaker than
that of the Pharmacopoeia.
6. (Wholesale.) Camphor (cut small), 1% lb.;
soft soap, 7 lbs.; oil of rosemary, 3 fl. oz. ;
rectified spirit of wine and water, of each,
3% galls.; digest with occasional agitation for
a week, and filter. This is the ‘opodeldoc' or
‘soap liniment’ of the shops.
Uses. Soap liniment is stimulant, discutient,
and lubricating, and is a popular remedy in
rheumatism, local pains, swellings, bruises,
sprains, &c.
7. (With Opium.) See LINIMENT OF OPIUM.
tº 8. (Sulphuretted ; LINIMENTUM SAPONIs
SULPHURETUM, L. SULPHURO - SAPONACEUM
—Jadelot, L.) Sulphuret of potassium, 3 oz. ;
soap, 12 oz. ; water, q. S.; melt together, and
add, of olive oil, 12 oz. ; oil of origanum, 1 fl.
dr. ; mix well. An excellent remedy for the
itch, and some allied skin diseases.
Liniment of Sul’phide of Carbon. Syn.
HINIMENTUM CARBONIs SULPHURETI, L. Prep.
1. From bisulphide of carbon, 1 dr. ; cam-
phorated oil, 1 oz. ; mix.
2. (Lampadius.) Camphor, 2 drs. ; bisul-
phuret of carbon, 4 fl. drs. ; dissolve, and add
of rectified spirit, 1 fl. Oz. In rheumatism,
gouty nodes, &c.
Limiment of Sulphu'ric Acid.
LINIMENT.
Liniment, Tripharmſic. Syn. LINIMENTUM
TRIPHARMICUM (Ph. L. 1746), L. Prep.
Take of lead plaster and olive oil, of each, 4
oz. ; melt, add of strong vinegar, 1 fl. oz., and
stir until cold. Cooling and desiccative; in
excoriations, burns, &c.
Liniment of Tur/pentime. Syn. KENTISH's
LINIMENT ; LINIMENTUM TEREBINTHINE (B.
P., Ph. L. & D.), L. TEREBINTHINATUM (Ph.
E.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Oil of turpentine,
16; camphor, 1; soft soap, 2; dissolve the
camphor in the turpentine, then add the soap,
and rub till thoroughly mixed.
2. (Ph. L.) Soft soap, 2 oz. ; camphor, 1 oz. ;
oil of turpentine, 10 fl. oz. ; shake them to-
gether until mixed. Stimulant; in lumbago,
cholera, colic, &c.
3. (Ph. L. 1824.) Resin cerate, 6 oz. ; oil
of turpentine, 4 fl.oz. ; mix. An excellent ap-
plication to burns.
4. (Ph. E.) Resin ointment, 4 oz.; camphor,
4 drs. ; dissolve by a gentle heat, and stir in
oil of turpentine, 5 fl. oz.
5. (Ph. D.) Oil of turpentine, 5 fl. oz. ;
resin ointment, 8 oz. ; mix by a gentle heat.
This forms Dr. Kentish’s celebrated applica-
tion to burns and scalds. The parts are first
bathed with warm oil of turpentine or brandy,
and them covered with pledgets of lint, smeared
with the liniment.
6. (Compound—a. LINIMENTUM TEREBIN-
THINE ACETICUM.) Oil of turpentine, 1 ;
acetic acid, 1 ; limiment of camphor, 1;
In 1X. -
b. (LINIMENTUM TEREBINTHINAE COMPOSI-
TUM, L.) (Acetic; ST. JoHN LONG's LINIMENT;
LINIMENTUM TEREBINTHINAE ACETICUM, L.)
Oil of turpentine, 3 oz. ; rose water, 2} fl. oz. ;
acetic acid, 5 drs. ; oil of lemons, 1 dr.; yolk
of egg, 1; make an emulsion. As a counter-
irritant in phthisis.
c. (Ammoniated—Debreyne.) Lard, 3 oz. ;
melt, and add, of oil of turpentine and olive
oil, of each, 1 oz. ; when cold, further add of
camphorated spirit, 4 fl. drs. ; liquor of am-
monia, 1 fl. dr. In sciatica, lumbago, &c.
d. (Opiated—Recamier.) Oil of turpentine,
1 fl. Oz. ; oil of chamomile, 2 fl. Oz. ; tincture
of opium, 1 fl. dr. In neuralgia, &c.
e. (Sulphuric—Ph. Castr. Ruthena.) Oil
of turpentine, 2 oz. ; olive oil, 5 oz.; mix, and
add of dilute sulphuric acid, 1% dr. See ACID
LINIMENT.
Liniment of Vera'trine. Syn. LINIMENTUM
VERATRIE, L. Prep. (Brande.) Veratrine,
8 grs.; alcohol, ; fl. oz. ; dissolve, and add of
soap liniment, 3 fl.oz. In neuralgic and rheu-
matic pains, gout, &c.
Limiment of Wer'digris. Syn. OXYMET OF
VERDIGRIS; LINIMENTUM ARUGINIS (Ph. L.),
See ACID


700
LINSEED–LIQUEFACTION.
OxyMEI. TRUGINTs (Ph. L. 1738), OXYMEL
CUPRI sub ACETATIs (Ph. D. 1826), L. Prep.
(Ph. L.) Verdigris (in powder), 1 oz. ; vinegar,
7 fl. oz. ; dissolve, filter through linen, add of
honey, 14 oz., and evaporate to a proper con-
sistence.
Obs. This preparation is wrongly named
a ‘liniment.’ The College, after ‘beating
about the bush’ for nearly a century, found
a right name for it in 1788; but, as in many
other cases, soon abandoned it for another less
appropriate. -
Oxymel of verdigris is stimulant, detergent,
and escharotic. It is applied to indolent
ulcers, especially of the throat, by means of a
camel-hair pencil; and, diluted with water, it
is used as a gargle. Care must be taken to
avoid swallowing it, as it occasions vomiting
and excessive purging.
Limiment, Wer'mifuge. Syn. LINIMENTUM
ANTHELMINTICUM, L. VERMIFUGUMI, L. Prep.
Castor oil, 1 oz. ; essential oils of wormwood
and tansy, of each, 3 oz. ; Dr. Peschier’s ethe-
real tincture of pennyroyal buds, 20 drops;
mix. Employed in frictions on the abdomen
in cases of worms in children. Its activity
may be still further increased by the addition
of a little garlic juice. (“Journ. de Méd.") An
excellent medicine.
Limiment, Ware's. Prep. From camphor
liniment, 1 oz. ; solution of carbonate of po-
tassa, 1 dr. In amaurosis.
Limiment, White's. The old name for sper-
maceti ointment.
Liniment, Wilkinson's. Prep. (Phoebus.)
Prepared chalk, 20 grs. ; sulphur, lard, and
tar, of each, # oz. ; mix, and add of Boyle’s
fuming liquor, 10 or 15 drops. In certain
chronic skin diseases, neuralgia, &c.
LIN'SEED. Syn. FIAx SEED ; LINI SEM.INA,
L. The seed of Linum usitatissimum (Linn.),
or common flax. (Ph. L.) Oily, emollient,
demulcent, and nutritive. Ground to powder
(linseed meal; farina lini), it is used for poul-
tices. The cake left after expressing the oil
(linseed cake; lini placenta) is used for feeding
cattle. Under the form of tea or infusion, it
is used as a diluent, and to allay irritation in
bronchial, urinary, and other like affections.
See INFUSION, LINEN, &c.
LINT. Syn. LINTEUM, L. White linen-
cloth, scraped by hand or machinery, so as to
render it soft and woolly. The hand-made lint
is now little used; it was prepared from pieces
of old linen-cloth. The machine-made lint is
prepared from a fabric woven on purpose. A
lint made from cotton (cotton-lint) is now
largely manufactured; it is much inferior to
the true lint, being a bad conductor of heat.
Lint is used for dressing ulcers, either alone
or smeared with some suitable ointment or
cerate.
Medicated Lint. Syn. LINTEUM MEDICA-
TUM, L. NIGRUM, L. INFERNALE, L. Prep.
1. Nitrate of silver, 20 to 30 grs. ; distilled
Water, 1 fl. Oz. ; dissolve, Saturate dry lint, #
oz., with the solution, and expose it in a saucer
or capsule to the light and air, until it has
become black and dry.
2. From nitrate of silver and nitrate of
copper, of each, ; dr. ; lint, 1 oz. ; water, 1}
fl. oz. ; as the last. Used to dress old and
indolent ulcers.
LIP SALVE. See SALVE.
LIQUA"TION. The process of sweating out
by heat the more fusible metals of an alloy.
Metallurgists avail themselves of this method
in assaying and refining the precious metals,
and procuring antimony and some other metals
from their ores.
LIQUEFA"CIENTS. Syn. RESOLVENTs ;
LIQUEFACIENTIA, RESOLVENTIA, L. In phar-
macy, substances or agents which promote
secretion and exhalation, soften and loosen
textures, and promote the absorption or re-
moval of enlargements, indurations, &c. To
this class belong the alkalies, antimony, bro-
mine, chlorine, iodine, mercury, sulphur, &c.,
and their preparations.
LIQUEFACTION. The assumption of the
liquid form. It is usually applied to the con-
version of a solid into the liquid state, which
may arise from increase of temperature (fu-
sion), absorption of water from the atmo-
sphere (deliquescence), or the action of a body
already fluid (solution).
Liquefaction"of Gases. Under the combined
influence of pressure and cold, nearly all the
gases may be liquefied. The first experiments
in this direction were made by Faraday, who
succeeded in reducing to the liquid condition
8 bodies which had hitherto been regarded as
permanent gases, namely, ammonia, carbonic
anhydride, chlorine, cyanogen, hydrochloric
acid, nitrous oxide, sulphuretted hydrogen,
and sulphurous anhydride. His method of
proceeding was very simple; the materials
were sealed up in a strong, narrow, glass tube,
bent so as to form an obtuse angle, together
with a little ‘pressure gauge,’ consisting of a
slender tube closed at one end, and having
within it, near the open extremity, a globule
of mercury. The gas, being disengaged by
the application of heat or otherwise, accumu-
lated in the tube, and by its own pressure
brought about liquefaction. The force re-
quired for this purpose was judged of by the
diminution of volume of the air in the pressure
gauge. By employing powerful condensing
syringes, and an extremely low temperature,
Faraday has since succeeded in liquefying
olefiant gas, hydriodic and hydrobromic acids,
phosphuretted hydrogen, and the gaseous
fluorides of silicon and boron. Oxygen, hy-
drogen, nitrogen, nitric oxide, carbonic oxide,
and coal gas, refused to liquefy at the tempera-
ture of –166°Fahr., while subjected to pres-
sures varying in different cases from 27 to 58
atmospheres. Since then an even greater
degree of cold has been obtained from liquefied
nitric oxide and ether. -
CARBONIC ANHYDRIDE is liquefied on the

LIQUEUR. 701
!fº
*
large scale by condensing it in strong vessels
of gun-metal or boiler-plate. It requires a
pressure of between 27 and 28 atmospheres
at 32°Fahr. (Adams.) The liquefied acid is
colourless and limpid, lighter than water, and
four times more expansible than air; it mixes
in all proportions with ether, alcohol, naphtha,
oil of turpentine, and sulphuret of carbon; and
is insoluble in water and fat oils. When a jet
of liquid carbonic anhydride is allowed to issue
into the air from a narrow aperture, such an
intense degree of cold is produced by the
evaporation of a part, that the remainder
freezes to a solid (solid carbonic anhydride),
and falls in a shower of snow. This substance,
which may be collected, affords a means of
producing extreme cold. Mixed with a little
ether, and poured upon a mass of mercury, the
latter is almost instantly frozen. The tempe-
rature of this mixture in the air was found to be
—106°Fahr.; when the same mixture was placed
beneath the receiver of an air-pump, and ex-
haustion rapidly performed, the temperature
sank to —166°. This degree of cold was em-
ployed in Faraday’s last experiments on the
liquefaction of gases.
LIQUEUR. [Fr.] Syn. CoRDIAL. A stimu-
lating beverage, formed of weak spirit, aro-
matised and sweetened. The manufacture of
liqueurs constitutes the trade of the ‘com-
pounder,’ ‘rectifier,” or “liquoriste.”
The materials employed in the preparation
of liqueurs or cordials are rain or distilled
water, white sugar, clean flavourless spirit, and
flavouring ingredients. To these may be
added the substances employed as ‘finings,’
when artificial clarification is had recourse to.
The utensils and apparatus required in the
business are those ordinarily found in the
wine and spirit cellar; together with a copper
still, furnished with a pewter head and a
pewter worm or condenser, when the method
‘ by distillation’ is pursued. A barrel, hogs-
head, or rum puncheon, sawn in two, or simply
‘ unheaded,’ as the case may demand, forms
an excellent vessel for the solution of the
sugar; and 2 or 3 fluted funnels, with some
good white flannel, will occasionally be found
useful for filtering the aromatic essences used
for flavouring. Great care is taken to ensure
the whole of the utensils, &c., being per-
fectly clean and “sweet,” and well “seasoned,’
in order that they may neither stain nor
flavour the substances placed in contact with
them.
In the preparation or compounding of liqueurs,
one of the first objects which engages the
operator's attention is the production of an
alcoholic solution of the aromatic principles
which are to give them their peculiar aroma
and flavour. This is done, either by simple
solution or maceration, as in the manufacture
of tinctures and medicated spirits, or by ma-
ceration and subsequent distillation. The
products, in this country, are called ESSENCES
or SPIRITs, and by the French INFUSIONs,
/*
and are added to the solution of sugar (SYRUP
or CAPILLAIRE) or to the dulcified spirit, in
the proportions required. Grain or molasses
spirit is the kind usually employed for this
purpose in England. As before observed, it
should be of the best quality; as, if this is
not the case, the raw flavour of the spirit is
perceptible in the liquor. Rectified spirit of
wine is generally very free from flavour, and
when reduced to a proper strength with clear
soft water, forms a spirit admirably adapted
for the preparation of cordial liquors. Spirit
weaker than about 45 o. p., which has been
freed from its own essential oil, by careful rec-
tification, is known in trade under the title of
‘pure,’ ‘flavourless,’ ‘plain,” or “silent spirit.”
Before macerating the ingredients, if they
possess the solid form, they are coarsely
pounded, bruised, sliced, or ground, as the
peculiar character of the substance may indi-
cate. This is not done until shortly before
submitting them to the action of the men-
struum ; as, after they are bruised they
rapidly lose their aromatic properties by ex-
posure to the air. When it is intended to
keep them for any time in the divided state,
they should be preserved in well-corked bottles
or jars. The practice of drying the ingredients
before pounding them, frequently adopted by
ignorant and lazy workmen, for the sake of
lessening the labour, is, of course, even more
destructive to their most valuable qualities
than mere exposure to the air. The length of
time the ingredients should be digested in the
spirit should never be less than 5 or 6 days,
but a longer period is preferable when distil-
lation is not employed. In either case the
time may be advantageously extended to 10
days or a fortnight, and frequent agitation
should be had recourse to during the whole
period. When essential oils are employed to
convey the flavour, they are first dissolved in
a little of the strongest rectified spirit of wine,
in the manner explained under ESSENCE:
and when added to the spirit, they are mixed
up with the whole mass as rapidly and as per-
fectly as possible. In managing the still, the
fire is proportioned to the ponderosity of
the oil or flavouring substance, and the re-
ceiver is changed before the faints come over;
as these are unfitted to be mixed with the
cordial. In many cases the addition of a few
pounds of common salt to the liquor in the
still facilitates the process and improves the
product. Ingredients which are not volatile
are, of course, always added after distillation.
The stronger spirit is reduced to the desired
strength by means of either clear soft water
or the clarified syrup used for sweetening.
The sugar employed should be of the finest
quality, and is prererably made into capil-
laire or syrup before adding it to the aro-
matised spirit; and not until this last has
been rendered perfectly ‘fine” or transparent,
by filtration or clarification, as the case may
| demand. Some spirits or infusions, as those

702 LIQUEUR.
of aniseed, caraway, &c., more particularly
require this treatment, which is best performed
by running them through a clean wine bag,
made of rather fine cloth, having previously
mixed them with a spoonful or two of mag-
nesia; but in all cases clarification by simple
repose should be preferred. Under proper
management, liqueurs or cordials prepared of
good materials will be found perfectly “clear’
or “bright’ as soon as made, or will become so
after being allowed a few days for defecation;
but in the hands of the inexperienced operator,
and when the spirit employed is insufficient in
strength or quantity, it often happens that
they turn out “foul” or “milky.’ When this
is the case, the liquid may be ‘fined down’
with the whites of 12 to 20 eggs per hogshead;
or a little alum, either alone or followed by a
little carbonate of sodium or potassium, both
dissolved in water, may be added, in the
manner described under FININGs.
An excellent and easy way of manufacturing
cordial liquors, especially when it is inconve-
nient to keep a large stock on hand, is by
simply ‘aromatising’ and ‘colouring,” as cir-
cumstances or business may demand, spirit 60
or 64 u.p., kept ready sweetened for the pur-
pose. To do this to the best advantage, two
descriptions of sweetened spirit should be pro-
vided, containing respectively 1 lb. and 3 lbs.
of sugar to the gallon. From these, spirit of
any intermediate sweetness may be made,
which may be flavoured with any essential oil
dissolved in alcohol, or any aromatised spirit or
“infusion’ (see below), prepared either by di-
gestion or distillation. As a general rule, the
concentrated essences, made by dissolving 1 oz.
of the essential oil in 1 pint of the strongest
rectified spirit of wine, will be found admirably
adapted for this purpose. These essences,
which should be kept in well-corked bottles,
are employed by dropping them cautiously
into the sweetened spirit until the desired fla-
vour is produced. During this operation, the
liquor should be frequently and violently
shaken to produce complete admixture. If
by any accident the essence is added in too
large a quantity, the resulting ‘milkiness’ or
excess of flavour may be removed by the ad-
dition of a little more spirit, or by clarifica-
tion. In this way the majority of the liqueurs
in common use may be produced extempo-
raneously, of nearly equal quality to those
prepared by distillation. For those which are
colouréd, simple digestion of the ingredients
is almost universally adopted. The “process
--~~~ by distillation” should, however, be always
employed to impart the flavour and aroma of
volatile aromatics to the spirit, when expense,
labour, and time, are of less importance than
the production of a superior article.
The French liquoristes are famed for the pre-
paration of cordials of superior quality, cream-
like smoothness, and delicate flavour. Their
success chiefly arises from the employment of
very pure spirit and sugar (the former in a
larger proportion than that adopted by the
English compounder), and in the judicious
application of the flavouring ingredients. The
French liquoristes distinguish their cordials
as “eaux’ and “extraits’ (waters, extracts),
or liqueurs which, though sweetened, are en-
tirely devoid of viscidity; and “baumes,”
‘ crèmes,’ and ‘huiles' (balms, creams, oils),
which contain sufficient sugar to impart to
them a syrupy consistence. The greatest pos-
sible attention is given to the preparation of
the aromatised or flavouring essences, in France
called ‘infusions.” These are generally made
by macerating the aromatic ingredients in
spirit at about 2 to 4 u. p. (sp. gr. 922 to
‘925), placed in well-corked glass carboys,
or stoneware jars or bottles. The maceration
is continued, with occasional agitation, for 3,
4, or even 5 weeks, when the aromatised spirit
is either distilled or filtered; generally the
former. The outer peel of cedrats, lemons,
oranges, limettes, bergamottes, &c., is alone
used by our Continental neighbours, and is
obtained either by carefully peeling the fruit
with a knife, or by ‘oleo-saccharum,” by rub-
bing it off with a lump of hard white sugar.
Aromatic seeds and woods are bruised by pound-
ing before being submitted to infusion. The
substances employed in France to colour li-
queurs are, for—blue, soluble Prussian blue,
sulphate of indigo (nearly neutralised with
chalk), and the juice of blue flowers and ber-
ries;–amber, fawn, and brandy colour, burnt
sugar or spirit colouring;-green, spinach or
parsley leaves (digested in spirit), and mixtures
of blue and yellow ;-red, powdered cochineal
or brazil wood, either alone or mixed with a
little alum;-violet, blue violet petals, litmus,
or extract of logwood;—purple, the same as
violet, only deeper;-yellow, an aqueous in-
fusion of safflower or French berries, and the
tinctures of saffron and turmeric.
A frequent cause of failure in the manſac-
ture of liqueurs and cordials is the addition
of too much flavouring matter. Persons un-
accustomed to the use of strong aromatic es-
sences and essential oils, seldom sufficiently
estimate their power, and, consequently, are
very apt to add too much of them, by which
the liqueur is rendered not only disagreeably
high flavoured, but, from the excess of oil pre-
sent, also “milky, or “foul,” either at once, or,
what is nearly as bad, on the addition of
water. This source of annoyance, arising
entirely from bad manipulation, frequently
discourages the tyro, and cuts short his career.
as a manufacturer. From the viscidity of cor-
dials, they are less readily “fined down than
unsweetened liquor, and often give much
trouble to clumsy and inexperienced operators.
The most certain way to prevent disappoint-
ment in this respect is to use too little rather
than too much flavouring; for if the quantity
proves insufficient, it is readily ‘brought up’
at any time, but the contrary is not effected
without some trouble and delay.

LIQUEUR.
703
A careful attention to the previous remarks
will render this branch of the rectifier’s art
far more perfect and easy of performance than
it is at present, and will, in most cases, pro-
duce at once a satisfactory article, “fine, sweet,
and pleasant.”
The cordials of respectable British “com-
pounders’ contain fully 3 lbs. of white lump
sugar per gallon, and are of the strength of 60
to 64, u. p. The baumes, crèmes, and huiles
imported from the Continent are richer both
in spirit and sugar than ours, and to this may
be referred much of their superiority. Mere
sweetened or cordialised spirits (eaux, of the
Fr.) contain only from 1 to 1% lb. of sugar per
gallon.
The purity of liqueurs is determined in the
manner noticed under BRANDY, WINE, &c.
The following list embraces nearly all the
cordials and liqueurs, both native and im-
ported, met with in trade in this country:-
Absinthe. Syn. EXTRAIT D’ABSINTHE DE
SUISSE; SWISS EXTRACT OF wormwood. Prep.
From the tops of Absinthum majus, 4 lbs. ;
tops of Absinthum minus, 2 lbs. ; angelica root,
calamus aromaticus, Chinese aniseed, and leayes
of dittany of Crete, of each, 15 grs. ; brandy or
spirit at 12 u. p., 4 galls. ; macerate for 10
days, then add water, 1 gall. ; distil 4 galls, by
a gentle heat, and dissolve in the distilled
spirit, of crushed white sugar, 2 lbs. Tonic
and stomachic.
Alker'mes. This liqueur is highly esteemed
in some parts of the South of Europe.
JPrep. 1. Bay leaves and mace, of each 1 lb.;
nutmegs and cinnamon, of each 2 oz. ; cloves,
1 oz. (all bruised); cognac brandy, 3% galls. ;
macerate for 3 weeks, frequently shaking,
then distil over 3 galls., and add, of clarified
spirit of kermes, 18 lbs. ; orange-flower water,
1 pint ; mix well, and bottle, This is the ori-
ginal formula for the ‘alkermes de Santa
Maria Novella,” which is much valued.
2. Spice, as last ; British brandy, 4 galls.;
water, 1 gall. ; macerate as before, and draw
over 4 galls., to which add, of capillaire, 2
galls., and sweet spirit of nitre, 4 pint, Cassia
is often used for cinnamon. Inferior to the last.
An'iseed Cordial. Prep. 1. From aniseed,
2 oz. (or essential oil, 1% dr.), and sugar, 3 lbs.
per gallon. It should not be weaker than
about 45 u. p., as at lower strengths it is
impossible to produce a full-flavoured article
without its being milky, or liable to become
SO.
2. (ANISETTE DE BORDEAUx.)—a. (Foreign.)
Aniseed, 4 oz. ; coriander and sweet fennel
seeds, of each, 1 oz. (bruised); rectified spirit,
3 gall. ; water, 3 quarts; macerate for 5 or 6
days, then draw over 7 pints, and add of lump
sugar, 2% lbs.
b. (English.) Oil of aniseed, 15 drops; oils
of cassia and caraway, of each, 6 drops; rub
them with a little sugar, and then dissolve it
in spirit (45 u. p.), 3 quarts, by well shaking
them together; filter, if necessary, and dis-
solve in the clear liquor sugar, 13 lb. See
PEPPERMINT (below). -
Balm of Molucca. Prep. From mace, 1 dr.;
cloves, oz. ; clean spirit (22 u. p.), 1 gall. ;
infuse for a week in a well-corked carboy or
jar, frequently shaking, colour with burnt
sugar, q. S., and to the clear tincture add of
lump sugar, 4% lbs., dissolved in pure soft
water, , gall. On the Continent this takes
the place of the ‘cloves’ of the English re-
tailer.
Bitters. These have generally from 1 to
1} lb. of sugar per gallon."
Car’away Cordial. Prep. Generally from
the essential oil, with only 2% lbs. of sugar per
gall. 1 fl. dr. of the oil is commonly reckoned
equal to 4 lb. of the seed. The addition of a
very little oil of cassia, and about half as much
of essence of lemon or of orange, improves it.
See BRANDY (Caraway).
Ce'drat Cordial. Prep. From essence (oil)
of cedrat, 3 oz. ; pure spirit (at proof), I gall. ;
dissolve, add of water, 3 pints, agitate well;
distil 3 quarts, and add an equal measure of
clarified syrup. A delicious liqueur. See
CRíME and EAU (below).
Cin'mamon Cordial. Prep. This is seldom
made with cinnamon, owing to its high price,
but with either the essential oil or bark of cas-
sia, with about 2 lbs. of sugar to the gall. It
is preferred coloured, and therefore may be
very well prepared by simple digestion. The
addition of 5 or 6 drops, each, of essence of
lemon and orange peel, with about a spoonful
of essence of cardamoms per gall., improves it.
1 oz. of oil of cassia is considered equal to 8 lbs.
of the buds or bark. 1 fl. dr. of the oil is
enough for 2% galls. It is coloured with
burnt sugar.
Cit'ron Cordial. Prep. From the oil or
peel, with 3 lbs. of sugar per gall, as above.
(See below.)
Citromelle. Syn. EAU DE BARBADES. Prep.
1. From fresh orange peel, 2 oz. ; fresh lemon
peel, 4 oz. ; cloves, # dr. ; corianders and cin-
namom, of each, 1 dr. ; proof spirit, 4 pints;
digest for 10 days, then add of water, 1 quart,
and distil gall. ; to the distilled essence add
of white sugar, 2 lbs., dissolved in water, 1
quart.
2. Essence of orange, }, dr.; essence of
lemon, 1 dr. ; oil of cloves, and cassia, of each,
10 drops; oil of coriander, 20 drops; spirit
(58 o. p.), 5 pints; agitate until dissolved,
then add of distilled or clear soft water, 3
pints; well mix, and filter it through blotting
paper, if necessary; lastly, add of sugar (dis-
solved), q. s.
Clairet. Syn. ROSSALIS DEs SIx GRAINEs.
Prep. From aniseed, fennel seed, coriander
seed, caraway seed, dill seed, and seeds of the
candy-carrot (Athamantia cretensis—Linn.),
of each (bruised), 1 oz. ; proof spirit, 3 gall. ;
digest for 1 week, strain, and add of loaf sugar,
I lb., dissolved in water, q. s.
1 See article, BITTERs.


704 LIQUEUR.
Cloves. Syn. CLOVE CORDIAL. Prep. From
bruised cloves, 1 oz., or essential oil, 1 fl. dr., to
every 3 galls. of proof spirit. If distilled, some
common salt should be added, and it should
be drawn over with a pretty quick fire. It
requires fully 3 lbs. of sugar per gall., and is
generally coloured with poppy flowers or burnt
sugar. The addition of 1 dr. of bruised pi-
mento, or 5 drops of the oil for every oz. of
cloves, improves this cordial. See BALM of
MoIUCCA (above).
Coriander Cordial. Prep. From corianders,
as the last. A few sliced oranges improve it.
Crème d'Amis. As ANISEED CORDIAL, only
richer.
Crème des Barbades. As CITRONELLE, adding
some of the juice of the oranges, and an addi-
tional lb. of sugar per gall.
Crème de Cacao. Prep. Infuse roasted
caracca cacao nuts (cut small), 1 lb., and va-
nila, 3 oz., in brandy, 1 gall, for 8 days;
strain, and add of thick syrup, 3 quarts.
Crème de Cedrat. Syn. HUILE DE CEDRAT.
Prep. From spirit of citron, 1 pint; spirit of
cedrat, 1 quart ; proof spirit, 3 quarts; white
sugar, 16 lbs., dissolved in pure soft water,
2 galls.
Crème de Macarons. Prep. 1. From cloves,
cinnamon, and mace, of each (bruised), 1 dr. ;
bitter almonds (blanched and beaten to a
paste), 7 oz. ; spirit (17 u, p.), 1 gall. ; digest
a week, filter, and add of white sugar, 6 lbs.,
dissolved in pure water, 2 quarts.
2. Clean spirit (at 24 u, p., sp. gr. 1945), 2
galls. ; bitter almonds, # lb.; cloves, cinnamon,
and mace, of each, in coarse powder, 1% dr. ;
infuse for 10 days, filter, and add of white
sugar, 8 lbs., dissolved in pure water, 1 gall.;
lastly, give the liqueur a violet tint with infu-
sion or tincture of litmus and cochineal. An
agreeable, nutty-flavoured cordial, but, from
containing so much bitter almonds, should be
only drank in small quantities at a time. The
English use only one half the above quantity
of almonds.
Crème de Naphe, Prep. From sweetened
spirit (60 u.p.) containing 3% lbs. of sugar per
gall, 7 quarts; orange-flower water (foreign),
1 quart. Delicious.
Crème de Noyeau. See NoyEAU.
Crème d’Orange. Prep. From oranges
(sliced), 3 dozen; rectified spirit, 2 galls. ;
digest for 14 days; add, of lump sugar, 28 lbs.
(previously dissolved in water, 4% galls.);
tincture of saffron, 1} fl. oz.; and orange-
flower water, 2 quarts.
Crème de Portugal. Flavoured with lemon,
to which a little oil of bitter almonds is added.
Curaçao. Prep. From sweetened spirit (at
56 u.p.), containing 3% lbs. of sugar per gall.,
flavoured with a tincture made by digesting
the ‘oleo-saccharum’ prepared from Seville
oranges, 9 in number ; cinnamon, 1 dr. ; and
mace, à dr., in rectified spirit, 1 pint. It is
coloured by digesting in it for a week or 10
days Brazil-wood (in powder), 1 oz., and after-
wards mellowing the colour with burnt sugar,
Q. S.
Delight of the Mandarins. From spirit (22
u. p.), 1 gall. ; pure soft water, gall. ; white
sugar (crushed small), 4% lbs. ; Chinese aniseed
and ambrette or musk seed, of each (bruised),
# oz. ; safflower, 4 oz. ; digested together in a
carboy or stone bottle capable of holding
double, and agitated well every day for a fort-
night.
Eau de Cedrat. Syn. CEDRAT WATER. As
CRíME DE CEDRAT, but using less sugar.
Eau de Chasseurs. See PEPPERMINT (below).
Eau de Vie d’Amdaye. Syn. EAU DE VIE
D’ANIS; ANISEED LIQUEUR BRANDY. Prep.
From brandy or proof spirit, 1 gall.; sugar,
# Ib.; dissolved in aniseed water, I pint.
Gold Cordial. Prep. From angelica root
(sliced), 1 lb. ; raisins, 3 lb ; coriander seeds,
2 oz. ; caraway seeds and cassia, of each, 1% oz.;
cloves, Oz. ; figs and sliced liquorice root, of
each, 4 oz. ; proof spirit, 3 galls.; water, 1 gall.;
digest 2 days, and distil 3 gallons by a gnetle
heat; to this add of sugar, 91b., dissolved in
rose water and clean soft water, of each, 1
quart; lastly, colour the liquid by steeping in
it of hay saffron, 1% oz. This cordial was once
held in much esteem. It derives its name
from a small quantity of gold leaf being for-
merly added to it. --
Huile d’Amis. See CRíME D’ANIS (above).
Huile de Wamille. Flavoured with essence or
tincture of vanilla. It is kept in a decanter,
and used to flavour liqueurs, grog, &c.
Huile de Venus. Prep. From the flowers
of the wild carrot, 2% oz., and sugar, 3 lbs. to
the gal. It is generally coloured by infusing
a little powdered cochineal in it.
Jargonelle. Syn. JARGONELLE CORDIAL.
Flavoured with essence of jargonelle pear (ace-
tate of amyl). Pine-apple cordial and liqueurs
from some other fruits are also prepared from
the new fruit essences. See ESSENCE.
Lem'on Cordial. Prep. Digest fresh and
dried lemon peel, of each 2 oz., and fresh
orange peel, 1 oz., in proof spirit, 1 gal., for
a week; strain with expression, add of clear
soft water, q. S. to reduce it to the desired
strength, and lump sugar, 3 lbs. to the gallon.
The addition of a little orange-flower or rose
water improves it.
Liquodilla. Flavoured with oranges and le-
mons, of each, sliced, 3 in number; with sugar,
2% lbs. per gal.
Lov'age Cordial. Prep. From the fresh roots
of lovage, 1 oz. to the gallon. A fourth of this
quantity of the fresh roots of celery and sweet
fennel are also commonly added. In some
parts a little fresh valerian root and oil of
savine are added before distillation. It is much
valued by the lower classes in some of the pro-
vinces for its stomachic and emmenagogue
qualities.
Oil of Ce'drat. See CR£ME DE CEDRAT
(above). -
0'range Cordial. Like LEMON CORDIAL or


LIQUEUR DE LA
MOTTE–LIQUOR. 705
CREME D'ORANGE, from fresh orange peel, lb.
to the gallon.
Parfait Amour. Syn. PERFECT LOVE. Prep.
Flavoured with the yellow rind of 4 lemons, and
a teaspoonful of essence of vanilla to the gal-
lon, with sugar, 3 lbs., and powdered cochineal,
q. S. to colour.
Peppermint. Syn. PEPPERMINT CORDIAL,
SPORTSMAN’s C., X. MINT ; EAU DE CHAS-
SEURS, Fr. This well-known compound
is in greater demand in every part of the
kingdom than all the other cordials put
together.
Prep. 1. From peppermint water and gin or
plain spirit (22 u. p.), of each, 1 pint; lump
sugar, #1b.
2. (Wholesale.) English oil of peppermint,
5 oz., is added to rectified spirit of wine, 3 pints,
and the mixture is agitated well together for
some time in a corked bottle capable of holding
4 pints or more; it is then emptied into a cask
having a capacity of upwards of 100 galls., and
perfectly white and flavourless proof spirit, 36
galls., is poured in, and the whole well agitated
for 10 minutes; a solution of the best double
refined lump sugar, 2% cwt., in about 35 galls. of
pure filtered rain water, is then added, and the
contents of the cask well “rummaged up,” in
the usual manner, for at least 15 minutes;
sufficient clear rain water to make up the whole
quantity to exactly 100 gallons, and holding in
solution alum, 5 oz., is next added, and the
whole is again well agitated for at least a quar-
ter of an hour, after which the cask is bunged
down, and allowed to repose for a fortnight
before it is ‘broached’ for sale.
Obs. The last formula produces a beautiful
article, provided the ingredients are of good
quality. Care on this point is particularly
necessary in reference to the essential oil, which
should only be purchased of some known re-
spectable dealer. The sugar should be suffi-
ciently pure to dissolve in a wine-glassful of
clear soft water without injuring its trans-
parency, and the cask should be a fresh-
emptied gin pipe, or one properly prepared for
gin, as, if it gives colour, it will spoil the cor-
dial. When these particulars are attended to,
the product is a bright transparent liquor
as soon as made, and does not require fining.
Should there be the slightest opacity, the
addition of 2 oz. of salt of tartar, dissolved
in a quart of hot water, will have the effect
of “clearing it down” in the course of a few
days. The product is 100 galls. of cordial at
64 u. p.
Pimento. Syn. PIMENTO CORDIAL, PIMENTo
DRAM. Rather strongly flavoured with allspice
or pimento. It has obtained a great repute in
the West Indies in diarrhoea, cholera, and
bowel complaints generally.
Raspberry Cordial. Prep. From raspberry
brandy, capillaire, and water, equal parts. A
similar article is prepared by flavouring
sweetened spirit with the new “raspberry
essence.”
Ratifia. The numerous liqueurs bearing
this name are noticed in another part of this
volume. See RATIFIA.
Shrub. See the article SHRUB in another
part of this work.
Sighs of Love. Prep. 1. From proof spirit
flavoured with otto of roses and capillaire,
equal parts.
2. From sugar, 6 lbs. ; pure soft water q. s.
to produce a gallon of syrup, to which add, of
eau de rose, 1 pint ; proof spirit, 7 pints. It
is stained of a pale pink by powdered cochineal.
A very pleasant cordial. A drop or two (not
more) of essence of ambergris or vanilla im-
proves it.
Tears of the Widow of Malabar. Prep. As
BALM OF MOLUCCA, but employing cloves
(bruised), 3 oz., mace (shredded), 1 dr., and
a teaspoonful of essence of vanilla for fla-
vouring. Some add of orange-flower water,
# pint. It is slightly coloured with burnt
Sugar.
Tent. From plain spirit (22 u. p.) and port
wine, of each, 1 quart; sherry and soft water,
of each, 1 pint ; orange-flower water and lemon
juice, of each, 3 pint ; essence of ambergris,
2 drops (not more); sugar, 2 lbs. See
WINE.
Us’quebaugh. See the article USquEBAUGH
in another part of this work.
LIQUEUR DELA MOTTE. [Fr.] See DROPs
(Golden) and TINCTURE.
LIQUEUR DORÉE. [Fr.] Prep. Take of
cinnamon, bitter orange peel, and Peruvian bark,
of each, 3 oz. ; hay saffron, 4 oz. ; brandy and
Malaga wine, of each 3 quarts; digest for a
week, strain, and add of lump sugar, 2 lbs.
Tonic, stomachic, and stimulant; chiefly used
as an agreeable alcoholic dram.
LIQUEUR DE PRESSAVIN. [Fr. Prep.
From oxide of mercury (freshly precipitated)
and cream of tartar, of each, 1 oz. ; hot water,
1 quart; dissolve and filter. For use, 2 spoon-
fuls of this liquor are added to 1 quart of
water.—Dose. A wine-glassful 3 or 4 times a
day, avoiding the use of common salt. This
is simply a solution of potassio-tartrate of mer-
cury, and may be taken in the usual cases in
which mercury is administered.
LIQUODIL'IA. See LIQUEUR.
LIQUID-AMBAR. Syn. COPALM BALSAM.
A fluid balsamic juice obtained from the Liquid-
ambar styraciſtwa, an American tree. It closely
resembles LIQUID STORAX in its properties,
and may be applied to the same purposes. See
STYRAX.
LIQ/UOR. Syn. LIQUOR, L.; LIQUEUR, Fr.
This term is given in the London Pharma-
copoeia to those aqueous solutions commonly,
though improperly, called “WATERs;' ammo-
niae liquor potassae, &c. It is now more cor-
rectly applied to the “WATERs’ of the British
Pharmacopoeia. See SoLUTION.
The term “liquor' has also, of late years,
been applied to certain concentrated prepara-

tions, most of which would be more correctly
45

706 LIQUOR.
termed ‘FLUID EXTRACTs,’ as they merely
differ from good extracts in their consistence,
and from ordinary extracts in containing less
starchy matter, albumen, and gum. There is
also usually a little spirit added to them, to
prevent decomposition. Liquors of this kind
may be prepared of the finest quality, by the
same processes that are required for the pre-
paration of good soluble extracts; observing to
stop the evaporation as soon as the consistence
of treacle is acquired, and when cold, to add
1-4th or 1-5th part of their weight (after eva-
poration) in rectified spirit. The addition of
3 or 4 drops of the oils of cloves and mustard
seed, dissolved in the spirit, will secure them
from any risk of “moulding’ or fermenting;
in fact, with this addition many of them will
keep well without spirit, provided they are
evaporated sufficiently, and kept in a cool
place. The liquors, which are merely con-
centrated infusions or decoctions, and which,
in their consistence, do not even approximate
to extracts, may be made in the manner directed
under those heads.
Much confusion would be prevented if the
terms “ concentrated decoction’ ‘concentratcd
infusion,’ &c., were adopted for those vegetable
preparations possessing 8 times the usual
strength; “liquors' for those of a higher
strength, but still sufficiently liquid to be
treated as such in dispensing, &c.; and “fluid
extracts,’ for those possessing considerable
consistence, and approaching the common ex-
tracts in their degree of concentration and
mode of preparation. See DECOCTION, IN-
FUSION, ESSENCE, EXTRACT, SOLUTION, &c.
*** The following formulae present some
illustrations of the preparation of this class of
medicines.
Liquor, Amodyne, See SPIRIT OF ETHER.
Liquor, Antimephritic. Syn. LIQUOR ANTI-
NEPHRITICUS, L. Prep. (Adams.) Poppy
heads, 6 oz. ; water, 1% pint; boil to one third,
strain with pressure, and add of nitrate of
potassa, 1 oz.-Dose. 1 to 2 teaspoonfuls night
and morning; in gravel and painful affections
of the kidneys and bladder.
Liquor, Antipodag"ric (Beguin’s). Syn. HOFF-
MANN’s GOUT LIQUID ; LIQUOR ANTIPODAG-
RICUS HoFFMANNII, L. Prep. From Boyle's
fuming liquor, 1 part ; spirit of wine, 3 parts.
Sudorific.—Dose. 20 to 30 drops; or exter-
nally, in gout, and other painful affections,
either alone or combined with camphor. See
AMMONIA (Perhydrosulphate).
Liquor, Antipsor'ic. Syn. LIQUOR ANTI-
PSORICUS, LOTIO A., L. Prep. (Van Mons.)
Sulphuret of sodium, 1% dr. ; hydrochlorate of
ammonia, 75 grs. ; dissolve each separately in
water, , pint, mix the solutions, and filter. In
itch, and other moist skin diseases.
Liquor, Bleaching. See SOLUTION OF CHLo-
RIDE OF LIME.
Liquor, Boyle's Fu'ming.
sulphate of ammonia.
Liquor of Calum"ba.
The perhydro-
Syn. LIQUOR CA-
LUMBE, L. Same as CONCENTRATED INFUSION
OF CATIUMIBA.
Liquor of Cam'phor. See ESSENCE.
Liquor of Chiret/ta. Same as CONCEN-
TRATED INFUSION OF CHIRETTA.
Liquor of Cincho'na. Syn. LIQUOR OF
BARK, CONCENTRATED INFUSION OF BARK,
INSPISSATED I. OF B. ; INFUSUM CINCHONE
SPISSATUM (Ph. L.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.)
Yellow cinchona bark (bruised), 3 lbs., is mace-
rated in distilled water, 6 pints, at two suc-
cessive operations, as directed under EXTRACT
OF CINCHONA—Ph. L.; the mixed infusions
are evaporated by the heat of a water bath to
one fourth, and placed aside to settle; the
clear portion is decanted, the remainder
strained, and the mixed liquid again evapo-
rated until its sp. gr. reaches 1-200; to this,
when cold, rectified spirit is dropped in, by
degrees, “so that 3 fl. drs, may be added
to each fl. oz. of the liquor;” lastly, allow it to
repose for 20 days, that the dregs may subside,
Obs. It is not at all clear whether the Col.
lege means 3 fl. drs. of spirit to be added to
each fl. oz. of the liquid before its addition, or
that it is to be added so that each fl. oz. of the
product shall contain that quantity. We pre-
sume the former. 1 fl. dr. of this preparation
is said to represent fully 4 fl. oz. of the IN-
FUSION OF CINCHONA–Ph. L.; but it is ob-
vious that it must be liable to great variations
in strength. “In a general way, 1 fi, dr. may
be considered equal to 3 fl. oz. ºf the infusion.”
(Pereira.) As commonly met with, this pre-
paration is nearly destitute of the cinchona
alkaloids.
2. Yellow cinchona bark, bruised, 561bs., and
water holding in solution sulphuric acid, 13 lb.,
are macerated together, with occasional agi-
tation, in a covered earthen vessel, for 48 hours,
after which the liquid is expressed, and the
residuum or marc is treated with fresh water;
the mixed strained liquid is then evaporated
as rapidly as possible in earthenware, to
exactly 6 lbs. ; to this, rectified spirit, 14 lb., is
added, and the whole is set aside for a week or
10 days; the clear portion is, lastly, decanted
and preserved in well-closed bottles. The
product is very rich in quinine. It is 96 times
as strong as the DECOCTION OF CINCHONA—
Ph. L., and 12 times as strong as the above
preparation of the Ph. L. This preparation
resembles the ‘LIQUOR CINCHONAE’ sold by
certain houses in the trade, at 24s. per lb.,
wholesale. -
3. Exhaust the bark as above, by macera-
tion in 3 successive waters without acid, filter,
evaporate the mixed liquors to 7 lbs., and pro-
ceed as before. Inferior to the last, and less
rich in the cinchona alkaloids. Very thick;
scarcely liquid.
4. From PALE BARK :—(LIQUOR CINCHONE
PALLIDAE ; INFUSUM CINCHONAE SPISSATUM-
Ph. L.) From pale bark, as the last. See
INFUSION OF CINCHONA. -
Disinfect'ing Liquor. See SoLUTION (Chlo-


LIQUOR.
707
rides of Lime, Soda, and Zinc), and DISIN-
FECTING COMPOUNDS.
Liquor of Er'got. Syn. ESSENCE OF ERGOT
OF RYE, CONCENTRATED INFUSION OF E. ;
ESSENTIA SECALIS CORNUTI, XIIQUOR ERGOTAE,
INFUSUM ERGOTE CONCENTRATUM, L. Prep.
Recent ergot of rye (reduced to coarse powder
by pounding, or preferably by grinding it in a
pepper-mill), 1% lb., and boiling distilled water,
4 lbs., are digested together in a closed vessel,
with frequent agitation, until cold, and then
put into a wide-mouthed bottle, along with
rectified spirit, 2 lbs. ; the whole is then allowed
to macerate for a week, after which the liquor
is expressed and filtered. Obs. 4 fl. drs. of
this essence are equal to 1 dr. of ergot in sub-
stance. It is 8 times the strength of the
INFUSION (as usually prepared according to the
formula of Pereira and others), and 2% times
the strength of the TINCTURE OF ERGOT of the
London Apothecaries' Hall. This is the only
ESSENCE or LIQUOR OF ERGOT. known in the
wholesale trade.
Liquor of Flints. See SoLUTION.
Libavius's Liquor. Bichloride of tin,
Liquor of Mat'ico. Syn. ConCENTRATED
INFUSION OF MATICO ; LIQUOR MATICONIS,
INFUSUM MATICONIS CONCENTRATUM, L.
Prep. From matico leaves, 1 lb. ; rectified
spirit, 4 pint; distilled water, 32 fl. oz. ; digest
10 days, express, and filter. I fl. dr. added to
7 fl. drs, of water is equal to 1 fl. oz. of the com-
mon INFUSION. -
Liquor of Myrrh. Syn. SOLUTION OF MYRRH ;
LIQUOR MYRRHAE, LOCO LIQUAMINIS MYR-
RHAE, L. Prep. (Ph. Bor.) Extract of myrrh
(Ph. Bor.), 1 oz. ; distilled water, 5 fl. oz. ;
mix thoroughly, decant, and strain. It should
be of a brownish-yellow colour, and turbid.
— Dose. } to 1 fl. dr.
Liquor of 0'pium. Syn. LIQUOR OPII, L. O.
CONCENTRATUS, L. OPIATUS, L. See BLACK
DROP.1
1. (Messrs. Smith.) . Opium, 4 oz., is made
into an extract, and ‘demarcotized by ether;
it is then dissolved in alcohol, filtered, evapo-
rated nearly to dryness, and redissolved in
water, q. s. to furnish 12 oz. of solution; to this
is added, of rectified spirit, 2% oz., with water,
q. s. to make the whole up to 16 oz.-Dose.
3 to 12 drops.
2. (Acetic; LIQUOR OPII ACETICUS, L.) See
LAUDANUM (Houlton’s).
3. (Citric ; LIQUOR OPII CITRICUS, L.)—a.
Powdered opium, 1% oz. ; lemon juice, 1% pint;
evaporate to one half, cool, add of rectified
spirit, 5 fl. oz., and the next day decant or
filter; same strength as ‘LAUDANUM.’
b. (LIQUOR MORPHIAE CITRATIS-Dr. Por-
ter.) Opium, 4 oz. ; citric acid, 2 oz. ; tritu-
rate, and add of boiling water, 15 fl. oz. ;
digest with agitation for 24 hours, and filter.
This last has above three times the strength of
LAUDANUM. It is sadly misnamed.
4. (Hydrochloric ; SoLUTION OF MIURIATE OF
Under DROPs, page 415.
OPIUM ; LIQUOR OPII HYDROCHIORICUS, L,~
Dr. Nichol.) Powdered opium, 1% oz. ; dis-
tilled water, 1 pint; hydrochloric acid, 1}; fl.
oz. ; digest a fortnight, and strain with ex-
pression. Same strength as ‘LAUDANUM.’ Ac-
cording to Dr. Nichol, this is preferable to
every other preparation of opium.
5. (Sedative; BATTLEX’s SEDATIVE solu-
TION OF OPIUM ; LIQUOR OPII SEDATIVUS, L.)
—a. Hard aqueous extract of opium (bruised),
3 oz., is boiled in water, 1% pint, until dis-
solved; to the solution, when cold, rectified
spirit, 6 oz., is added, together with water, q.
s, to make the whole measure exactly 1 quart ;
the liquor is, lastly, filtered.
b. From hard extract of opium, 22 oz. ;
boiling water, 13 pints; rectified spirit, 3 pints;
as the last. -
c. From extract of opium—Ph. L., 4% oz. ;
water, 1 quart ; boil till reduced to 34 fl. oz. ;
cool, filter, and add of rectified spirit, 5 fl. oz.,
and water, q. S. to make up exactly 1 quart.
Obs. The first two formulae, which vary only
in their quantities, are identical with that em-
ployed by Mr. Battley. As hard extract of
opium is not always at hand, we have intro-
duced a formula in which the ordinary extract
is ordered. It gives a precisely similar pro-
duct to the others, provided the cold aqueous
decoction is filtered before adding the spirit.
Battley's LIQUOR OPII SEDATIVUS is an excel-
lent preparation, less exciting than opium or
laudanum.—Dose. 10 to 30 drops. Dr. Chris-
tison states that 20 drops of Battley’s solution
are equal to 30 drops of the common tincture.
Liquor of Rhubarb. Syn. LIQUOR RHEI,
INFUSUM RHEI CONCENTRATUM, L. Prep. 1.
Rhubarb (well bruised), 6% oz. ; water, q. s. ;
rectified spirit, , pint ; proceed as for INFUSION
OF CALUMBA (conc.); to produce a quart. 8
times the usual strength.
2. See INFUSION OF RITUBARB (Concen-
trated).
3. See ExTRACT OF RHUBARB (Fluid).
Liquor of Sarsaparilla. Syn. FIUID EX-
TRACT OF SARSAPARILLA; LIQUOR SARZAE, ES-
SENTIA SARSAPARILLE, L. Prep. Either the
simple of the compound liquor or sarsaparilla
may be made from the corresponding decoc-
tion, or, preferably, the infusion prepared with
water at 125° Fahr., by carefully evaporating
it until sufficiently concentrated, and then
straining it through flannel, and adding a
little spirit. Jamaica sarsaparilla should be
alone employed, as the other varieties, espe-
cially the Honduras, not only possess less me-
dicinal virtue, and yield less extract, but are
very liable to ferment and get mouldy, unless
an undue proportion of spirit is added to
them. See EXTRACT OF SARSAPARILLA
(Fluid).
Liquor of Sen'na. Syn. LIQUOR SENNE, L.
Both the FLUID EXTRACT and the CONCEN-
TRATED INFUSION of SENNA are called by this
name, but more generally the former. The
following are additional formulae:–



705 LIQUORICE–LITHARGE.
1. (Duncan.) Senna, 15 lbs. ; boiling water,
5 galls. ; proceed by the method of displace-
ment, evaporate the product to 10 lbs., add of
molasses, 6 lbs. (previously concentrated over a
water bath until it begins to congeal on cool-
ing), dissolve, and further add of rectified
spirit, 14 pint, together with water, q. S. to
make the whole measure exactly 12 pints.
Every fl. Oz. represents 1 oz. of Senna.
2. (Dr. Tweedy.) As the last, but using
tincture of ginger (prepared with rectified
spirit), 1% pint, instead of the spirit there
ordered.
Iiquor of Soap. Syn. LIQUOR SAPONIS, L.
See TINCTURE.
Styp’tic Liquor. Syn. LIQUOR STYPTICUS,
L. Prep. (Ph. Slevico-Holsat. 1831.) Alum
and sulphate of copper, of each, 1% oz. ; sul-
phuric acid, 1 oz. ; water, 1 lb. ; dissolve, and
filter.
Liquor of Taraxacum. Syn, FLUID EX-
TRACT OF DANDELION ; EXTRACTUM TARAXACI
FLUIDUM, LIQUOR TARAXACT, L. Prep. 1.
Dandelion roots, (dried), 28 lbs., are rinsed in
clean cold water, to remove dirt, and then
sliced small, and macerated in enough cold
water, to cover them, for 24 hours; the liquid
is next pressed out, and after the fecula has
subsided, the clear portion is decanted, and
heated to 180° or 190° Fahr., to coagulate the
albumen; the liquid is then filtered while hot,
and evaporated by steam, or preferably by a
current of warm air, until it is reduced to
22% lbs. ; to this, rectified spirit, 6 lbs., is added,
and after thorough agitation, the vessel is set
aside for a week or a fortnight, after which
the clear portion is gently poured from the
sediment and preserved in well-closed bottles
in a cool place. A very fine article. It re-
presents an equal weight of the root.
2. The expressed juice of dandelion is heated
to near the boiling-point, strained, and evapo-
rated, as the last, to a proper consistence; }th
or ºth of rectified spirit is then added, and the
liquid is otherwise treated as before. Very
odorous and pale coloured.
3. Dried root (coarsely powdered), 1 lb. ;
water, 1} pint ; rectified spirit, , pint ; digest
a week, express the liquor, pass it through a
hair sieve into a bottle, and in 10 days decant
the clear portion.
4. (Ph. Bor.) Extract of dandelion, 3
parts; water, 1 part (or q. S.); triturated
together. -
5. (W. Procter.) Fresh root, 2 lbs., is sliced
and reduced to a pulp, and macerated with 4th
of its bulk of rectified spirit for 24 hours; it
is then subjected to strong pressure, the marc
is treated with water containing a little spirit,
1 pint, and the liquid is again expressed; the
mixed product is evaporated to 12 fl. oz., and
when cold, rectified spirit, 4 fl. oz., is added,
and the whole filtered.
Obs. Liquor of taraxacum has a very large
sale. The dose is 1 to 2 fl, drs. See Ex-
TRACT.
, Liquor of Waler'íam. See ExIRACT OF
VALERTAN (Fluid).
Iiquor of Vanilºla. Sym. FLUID EXTRACT
OF VANILLA; LIQUOR, VANILLE, EXTRACTUM
v. FLUIDUM, L. Prep. 1. Vanilla (sliced),
1 lb. ; rectified spirit, 3 pints; prepare a tinc-
ture either by displacement or maceration,
and reduce it, by distillation at the lowest
possible temperature, to 1; 1b.; put this into
a strong bottle whilst hot, add of white sugar
candy (in powder), ; lb., cork down, and agi-
tate the whole until it is nearly cold. Very
fine. Used chiefly for its odour and flavour,
It represents half its weight of vanilla.
2. (W. Procter.) Vanilla (cut into thin
transverse slices), 1 oz. ; sugar, 3 oz. ; tritu-
rate, until reduced to fine powder, put it into
a strong pint bottle, along with syrup, ; pint;
water, 2 oz. ; tie down the cork, and set the
bottle for half an hour in boiling water; cool,
strain, and treat the residue in a like manner
with a mixture of water, 6 fl. oz., and rectified
spirit, 1 fl. Oz. ; lastiy, mix the two products.
Greatly inferior to the last.
IIQ/UORICE. Syn. STICK LIQUORICE ; LI.
QUORITIA, GLYCYRRHIZE RADIx (B. P.), GIY-
CYRRHIZE RADIX, GLYCYRRHIZA (Ph.L. & D.),
G. GLABRA (Ph. E.), L. “The root or under-
ground stem of the Glycyrrhiza glabra, fresh
and dried, cultivated in Britain.” “The recent
and the dried root of Glycyrrhiza glabra,” or
common liquorice. “The fresh root is to be kept
buried in dried sand for use.” (Ph. L.) It has a
sweetish taste, and is slightly aperient, expec-
torant, and diuretic. It is a popular demul-
cent and pectoral. Its extract and solution
are much used as a domestic remedy for cough,
As a masticatory, it allays thirst and irritation.
Its extract is the common LIQUORICE, SPANISH
LIQUORICE, or SPANISH JUICE, of the shops,
See EXTRACT, &c. -
IIST. The border or selvage torn off a
piece of cloth. It is used by the French
polishers and law stationers to form their
rubbers, and for numerous other purposes.
LITH/ARGE. Syn. SEMI-VITRIFIED OXIDE
OF LEAD ; PLUMBI oxy DUM (Ph. L.), PLUMBI
OXYDUM SEMI-VITREUM (Ph.D.), LITHARGY-
RUM (Ph. E.), L. The litharge of commerce
is semi-vitrified protoxide of lead, obtained
chiefly by scraping off the drops that form
on the surface of melted lead exposed to a
current of air (dross of lead; plumbum ustum),
and heating it to a full red, to melt out any
undecomposed metal. The fused oxide, in
cooling, forms a yellow or reddish semi-crystal-
line mass, which readily separates into scales;
these, when ground, constitute the ‘powdered
litharge of the shops. Litharge is also pre-
pared by exposing red lead to a heat suffi-
ciently high to fuse it, and ‘English litharge'
is obtained as a secondary product by liquefac-
tion, from argentiferous lead cre, when it is
often called ‘silver stone.’
JPur. “Entirely, or almost entirely, soluble
in dilute nitric acid. This solution is black-
LITHIUM.
709
ened by sulphuretted hydrogen. Potassa
throws down a white precipitate, which is re-
dissolved by adding the same in excess. If
sulphate of soda be added to 100 grs. of this
oxide dissolved in nitric acid, 135 grs. of sul-
phate of lead is precipitated.” (Ph. L.) “50
grs. dissolve entirely, and without effervescence,
in 1; fl. oz. of pyroligneous acid, and the solu-
tion precipitated by 53 grs. of phosphate of
soda remains precipitable by more of the test.”
(Ph. E.) The solution in both acetic and nitric
acid should be colourless. It is of great im-
portance to the pharmaceutist to obtain pure
litharge, as the slightest impurity will often
colour and spoil his lead plaster (EMP, PLUMBI),
and solution of diacetate of lead (LIQ. PLUMBI
DIACETATIS).
Uses. Litharge is employed in pharmacy, to
make plasters and several other preparations of
lead; by painters as a “ drier' for oils; and
for various other purposes in the arts.
Obs. The litharge of commerce is distin-
guished by its colour as LITHARGE OF GOLD
(LITHARGY RUM AURI, L. AURIUM, T. CHRY-
SITIS), which is dark coloured and impure, and
LITHARGE OF SILVER (SILVER STONE ; LI-
THARGY RUM ARGENTI, I. ARGENTEUM, L. AR-
GYRITIS), which is purer, and paler coloured.
The dark colour of the former is generally said
to be owing to the presence of red lead. Fo-
reign litharge generally contains copper and
iron; and, not unfrequently, a little silver
and silica. These are readily detected by the
usual tests. In grinding litharge, about 1 lb.
of olive oil is usually added to each 1 cwt., to
prevent dust. The best solvents of litharge
are nitric acid and acetic acid. As it slowly
absorbs the carbonic acid of the air, it gene-
rally effervesces slightly when treated with
acids, and this effervescence is stronger in
proportion to its age. See LEAD.
LITHIUM. Li. The metallic base of LI-
THIA, first obtained by Sir H. Davy by exposing
hydrate of lithium in contact with mercury
to galvanic action, and decomposing the re-
sulting amalgam by distillation. It is now ob-
tained by fusing pure chloride of lithium in a
small, thick, porcelain crucible, and decompos-
ing it while in a fused state by a current of
electricity. It is a white metal, like sodium,
very oxidizable, fusing at 356°, and having a
sp. gr. of 59. It is the lightest metal known.
It belongs to the ‘ alkaline group,’ of which
potassium, sodium, caesium, and rubidium,
are the other members,
Lithium forms salts analogous to those of
sodium, but usually somewhat less soluble.
They can be distinguished from those of potas-
sium and sodium by the phosphate and carbo-
nate being only sparingly soluble in water,
—from those of barium, strontium, and cal-
cium, by forming crystallisable and soluble
salts with sulphuric acid and oxalic acid, and
from those of magnesium, by the solution of
its carbonate exhibiting an alkaline reaction.
Heated on platinum, they tinge the flame of
the blowpipe carminered. The salts of lithium
may generally be formed by dissolving the
hydrate or carbonate in dilute acids.
Lithium, Car"bonate of. Li2CO3. Syn. CAR-
BONATE OF LITHIA; LITHIE CARBONAs (B. P.).
Prep. To an aqueous solution of sulphate of
łithium, add a strong solution of carbonate of
ammonium, collect the precipitate, drain, and
press, wash with a little rectified spirit, and
dry. By dissolving it in boiling water, and
slowly evaporating the solution, crystals may
be obtained. -
Prop., &c. It resembles carbonate of mag-
nesium in appearance; is soluble in about 100
parts of cold water, and in considerably less of
boiling water, and is insoluble in alcohol. The
tests for its purity given in the B. P. are—in
giving no precipitate with oxalate of calcium
or lime water, and leaving, when 10 grains are
neutralised with sulphuric acid and ignited,
1486 grains of dry sulphate. It has been
proposed by M. Lipowitz, Dr. Garrod, and
others, as a solvent for uric acid calculi. Ac-
cording to Biswanger, 1 part of carbonate of
lithia in 120 parts of water takes up, at blood-
heat, nearly 4 parts of uric acid. Mr. Alex-
ander Ure recommends a dilute solution of this
substance as an injection in lithic calculus, as
it is a better solvent of uric acid than either
borax or the alkaline carbonates. “Of all the
various menstrua hitherto recommended, none
appear to promise more favourably than the
carbonate of lithia.” “If by means of in-
jections” (of this solution) “we can reduce a
stone at the rate of a grain or more an hour,
we shall not merely diminish the bulk of the
calculus, but further loosen its cohesion, disin-
tegrate it, so to speak, causing it to crumble
down, and be washed away in the stream of
urine.” (Mr. A. Ure.)—Dose. 2 to 5 grs,
twice or thrice a day; as an injection, 1 gr. to
water, 1 fl. oz.
Lithium, Citrate of, Li2C6H5Oz. Syn. LI-
THIAE CITRAS (B. P.). A white deliquescent
amorphous powder, made by acting on 50 grains
of lithium carbonate with 100 of citric acid,
and is readily soluble in 2% parts of water.
Test., &c. 20 grains burnt at a low red heat
until white leave 10:6 grains of carbonate of
lithium. Its medical properties are similar to
those of the carbonate.—Dose. 5 to 16 grains,
largely diluted.
Lithium, Oxide of LigO. Syn. LITHIA.
An alkaline earth found in petalite, &c., and in
small quantities in most mineral waters.
Prep. Petalite (a silicate of aluminum
and lithium) in powder mixed with twice
its weight of fluor spar is heated with strong
sulphuric acid as long as acid vapours are
given off. The residue is treated with am-
monia, boiled, and filtered, evaporated to dry-
ness, and heated to redness. The residue con-
sists of sulphate of lithium, from which the
oxide is obtained by decomposing it with ace-
tate of barium, filtering and heating after
having evaporated the solution to dryness,




710 LITHOGRAPHY-ILIVER,
This yields the so-called oxide, which is in
reality the hydrate, LiHO, and is a white, non-
volatile, soluble, caustic solid. The true oxide
is a white powder decomposed by water forming
the hydrate, and obtainable by igniting the
metal in oxygen.
Lithia, Effervescing Solution of. Syn. LI-
QUOR LITHIE EFFERVESCENS. Comp. Water
charged with carbonic acid and holding in so-
lution carbonate of lithium.—10 fl. oz. contain
5 grains of the carbonate.—Props. Colourless
liquid, possessing powerful diuretic properties.
—Use. Antilithic, for dissolving calculi of uric
acid.—Dose. 5 to 10 fl. Oz.
IITHOGRAPHY. The art of tracing letters,
figures, and other designs, on stone, and trans-
ferring them to paper by impression. Our
notice of this beautiful and useful art must
necessarily be brief.
There are two methods of lithography in
general use. In the one, a drawing is made
on the stone with a lithographic crayon, or
with lithographic ink; in the other method,
the design is made on lithographic paper,
which, on being moistened and passed through
the press, leaves its design on the surface of
the stone, reversed. In either method, water
acidulated with nitrous acid, oil of vitriol,
or hydrochloric acid, is poured over the stone,
and this, by removing the alkali from the chalk
or ink, leaves the design on it in a permanent
form, at the same time that it “etches’ away a
portion of the lights, and renders the surface
more absorbent of water.
The process of lithographic printing is as
follows:–Water is thrown over the stone, the
roller charged with printing ink is passed
over the surface, the paper is applied, and a
copy is obtained by the action of the lithogra-
phic press. The same process must be had
recourse to for each copy. The nature of the
stone is such that it retains with great tenacity
the resinous and oily substances contained in
the ink or crayon employed to form the design,
and also absorbs water freely; this, combined
with the peculiar affinity between resinous and
oily substances, and their mutual power of re-
pelling water, occasions the ink on the print-
ing roller to adhere to the design, and to leave
untouched the lights.
The stones are prepared for lithography by
polishing in the ordinary way; the style of
work for which they are intended determining
the degree of labour bestowed upon them.
For crayon drawings, the surface should have
a fine grain, but the finish of the stone must
depend upon the desired softness of the in-
tended drawing; for writing or drawing on in
ink, the surface must receive a higher polish,
and must be finished off with pumice-stone
and water
The best lithographic stones are obtained
from Solenhofen, near Munich, and from Pap-
penheim, on the banks of the Danube. The
white lias which lies immediately under the
blue, near Bath, also yields good lithographic
stones, and furnishes the principal portion of
those employed in this country. See CRAYONS,
INK, and PAPER.
IITHONTRYPTICS. Syn. LITHOTRYPTICs;
LITHONTRYPTICA, L. Under this head are
intended numerous substances (LITHICS; LI-
THICA, L.) used to prevent the formation of
urinary calculi, or to dissolve them when al-
ready formed. Those employed with the
former intention are more correctly termed
ANTILITHICs (ANTILITHICA, L.), and those with
the latter, LITHONTRYPTICS, or LYTHONLYTICS
(LITHONTRYPTICA, LITHONLYTICA, L.).
The following are the principal substances
included under this head by pharmacological
writers :-Alkalies and their carbonates, ben-
zoic acid, borax, carbonate of lithia, efferves-
cing solution of lithia, carbonic acid, cinna-
mic acid, diluents (generally), diuretics (gene.
rally), juniper, malic acid, Malvern waters,
mineral acids, nitrosaccharate of lead, opium,
phosphate of soda, phosphoric acid, poppies,
turpentines, uva ursi, vegetable acids, vege-
table astringents, vegetable bitters, Vichy
waters, wall pellitory, water (pure).
IIT'MUS. Syn. TURNSOLE ; LACMUS, LACCA
CERULEA, L. MUSIVA, L. MUSCI, L. A blue sub-
stance prepared by the united influence of water,
air, ammonia, and either potassa or soda,
from Rocella tinctoria, Lecanora tartarea, or
any of the other tinctorial lichens capable of
yielding archil, by a process essentially similar
to that adopted for the latter substance, except
that chalk is generally used to form the paste,
which is moulded into cakes and dried.
Pur., &c. “Soluble in both water and
alcohol. Its blue colour is reddened by acids,
and is restored by the addition of alkalies.”
(Ph. L. 1836.) It is extensively used by the
dyer as a red and crimson colouring matter,
and by the chemist as a test for acids. See
ARCHIL, CUDBEAR, &c.
IIVE-LONG. Digestive candy. See CAN.
IDYING.
LIV’ER. Syn. HEPAR, L. A large abdo-
minal viscus, the exclusive duty of which,
until recently, was stated by physiologists to
be to secrete bile; but the secretion of sugar
for combustion in the lungs or capillaries is
now said to be one of its chief duties. The
liver is subject to several diseases, both func-
tional and organic, among which inflammation
(hepatitis) holds the most prominent place.
The acute form of this disease is ushered in
with pain in the region of the liver, with sick-
ness, costiveness, and a strong, hard, and fre-
quent pulse, with great pain about the clavicle
and shoulders. There is cough, oppressed
breathing, and often vomiting of bilious matter.
The urine is scanty, and of a saffron-yellow
colour, and the skin and eyes are also tinged
yellow. The treatment consists chiefly in
purging with salines accompanied with mer-
curials, the use of antimonials, and a blister
applied over the region of the liver. Bitter
tonics, as calumba, cascarilla, and gentian,

LIXIVIATION-LOGWOOD.
711
may afterwards be had recourse to ; and if the
patient resides in a hot climate a change to a
temperate one should be made, if possible.
Chronic hepatitis requires similar treatment,
but of a less active character. The more usual
causes of diseases of the liver, besides those
common to the other viscera, are residence in
a hot climate, and the excessive use of highly
seasoned food and alcoholic liquors.
Liv'er. Syn. HEPAR, L. In chemistry and
pharmacy, a term formerly applied to nume-
rous substances, on account of their colour; as
liver of antimony (HEPAR ANTIMONII), liver of
sulphur (HEPAR SULPHURIS), &c.
LIXIVIATION. The process of dissolving
out or extracting the saline matter of bodies,
more especially of ashes, the residua of distil-
lations, &c., by means of ablution or digestion
in water. The solution so obtained is called a
‘LYE,’ ‘LEY,” or ‘LIXIVIUM,” and the salts re-
sulting from the evaporation of such solutions
‘LIXIVIAL SALTs.’
LLA/M.A. Syn. GUANACO ; LAMA, L. A
genus of animals of the family Bovida and
tribe Camelina. The llama is confined to South
America, and may be regarded as the repre-
sentative of the camel in the New World. The
most important species are Zama vicuſ/na (the
VICUNA) and L. Guanacus (the GUANACo). The
wool of llamas is woven into stuffs for ponchos,
and made into cords, sacks, &c. See ALPACA.
L0AD/STONE. Syn. LoDESTONE, MAGNESIAN
STONE, MAGNETIC IRONSTONE. Native magnetic
oxide of iron (Fe3O4). It is often found
massive, frequently crystallised, and occasion-
ally in beds of considerable thickness. Its
colour varies from reddish-black to deep gray.
Native magnets from Arabia, China, and Ben-
gal, are commonly of a reddish colour, and are
powerfully attractive. Those found in Ger-
many and England have the colour of un-
wrought iron; those from Macedonia are more
black and dull.
L0AM. A native mixture of clay, sand, aud
oxide of iron, with more or less chalk. Loamy
soils are of this description. They are called
heavy or light, according to the proportion of
clay; and sandy, calcareous, or gravelly, just as
sand, gravel, or chalk, form a characteristic
portion of them.
LOBEL'IA. Syn. INDIAN TOBACCO; Lo-
BELIA (B. P., Ph. L. E. & D.), L. “The flow-
ering herb of Zobelia inflata” (B. P., Ph. L.),
or bladder-podded lobelia. The herb has an
unpleasant odour, and an acrid, burning, nau-
seous taste, somewhat resembling that of to-
bacco. In small doses (1 to 3 grs.), it is ex-
pectorant and diaphoretic; in larger doses (5
to 15 grs.), nauseant and emetic ; and in ex-
cessive doses, poisonous. According to Dr. Pe-
reira, its principal value is that of an anti-spas-
modic. It has been highly recommended by
Dr. Elliotson in spasmodic asthma. He com-
mences with small doses, and gradually in-
creases them, unless headache or nausea occurs.
Others give a full dose at or before the com-
mencement of the fit. It has been also tried in
croup, hooping-cough, and other diseases of
the respiratory organs, with variable effect.
Lobelia is the panacea of Dr. Coffin, the
author of the pretended system of medicine
irreverently called ‘Coffinism.’
LOBELIC ACID. The acid existing in de-
coction of lobelia. It closely resembles gallic
acid. It reddens litmus, and is precipitated by
several metallic salts.
LOBEI/INE. Syn. LoBELINA, L. A light
yellowish-brown oily substance, found by
Calhoun of Philadelphia in Lobelia inflata. It
is volatile, soluble in alcohol, ether, and water;
and in oil of turpentine, oil of almonds, and
some other fixed oils; with the acids it forms
crystallisable salts, which are soluble. It may
be obtained from the seeds by the action of
alcohol acidulated with acetic acid, evapo-
rating, treating with magnesia and then with
ether, and again evaporating. 1 oz. of the seeds
furnishes 2 grs. When perfectly pure, 1 gr, will
kill a large dog.
LOB/STERS. See SHELL FISH.
L00K/SOY. Rice boiled to a paste and drawn
into threads. Used to thicken soups. It is
imported from China.
},06/W00D. Syn. CAMPEACHY wooD; HE-
MATOXYLUM (Ph. L. E. & D.), HAEMATOXYLI
LIGNUM (B.P.), LIGNUM CAMPECHENSE, L.
CAMPECHIANUM, L. The heart-wood of Haº-
matoaylon Campechianum, a native of the
coast of Campeachy, but now common in the
West Indies and India. It is a valuable
astringent, and its decoction, extract, and in-
fusion, are useful remedies in chronic diarrhoea
and dysentery, and in haemorrhages, &c. The
extract is an efficient substitute for catechu
and kino.
Logwood is extensively employed in dyeing
and calico printing, for the production of reds,
violets, purples, blacks, drabs, &c. It readily
yields its colour both to spirit and boiling
water. The colouring matter requires a large
quantity of water to dissolve it, but when dis-
solved can be concentrated to any degree by
boiling down. The infusion is of a fine red,
turning on the purple or violet; acids turn it
on the yellow, and alkalies deepen it. To
stuffs mordanted with alum, it gives various
shades of violet and purple, according to
the proportions of the materials. By using
solution of tin as the mordant, various shades
of red, lilac, and violet, may be obtained.
The addition of a little Brazil wood is com-
monly made to brighten the red. With a
mordant of sulphate or acetate of iron, it dyes
black; and with the addition of a little sul-
phate of copper, grays of various shades. It
is, however, chiefly employed, in conjunction
with gall-nuts, for blacks, to which it imparts
a lustre and velvety appearance. Silk is
usually turned through the cold decoction,
but for wool the decoction is used either hot
or boiling. Logwood is one of the cheapest
and most easily managed of the dye stuffs. It



712 LOHOCH-LOTION.
is also used to make ink. See HEMATOXYLIN,
INK, &c.
L0'H00H. See LINCTUs.
I,0R/ICA. A species of lute applied as a
coating to chemical vessels before exposing
them to the fire. Its application is called
LORICATION. See LUTE.
L0'TION. Syn. LOTTO, L. An external ap-
plication, or wash, consisting of water holding
in solution medicinal substances. Lotions may
be prepared of any soluble medicaments that
are capable of exerting their action by contact
with the skin. Writers on pharmacology have
arranged them in classes, as sedative, anodyne,
stimulant, &c., according to their effects. Se-
dative and refrigerant lotions are commonly
employed to allay inflammation;–anodyne and
narcotic lotions, to relieve pain;–stimulant
lotions, to induce the maturation of tumours,
&c.;-detergent lotions, to clean foul ulcers;–
repellent and resolvent lotions, to discuss tu-
mours, remove eruptions, &c.;-counter-irritant
lotions, to excite a secondary morbid action,
with the intention of relieving one already
existing. Lotions are usually applied by wet-
ting a piece of linen with them and keeping it
on the part affected; or, in slight cases, by
moistening the part with the fingers pre-
viously dipped into them. Lotions are more
agreeable if made with rose water, but are not
thereby rendered more efficacious. In all cases,
distilled water, or filtered soft water, is alone
admissible as the solvent.
As lotions are, in general, mere extempora.
neous or magistral preparations, it will, of
course, be only necessary here to give the for-
mulae for a few of those which are the most
useful or the most frequently employed. These
will serve as examples from which others may
be prepared. As a general rule, the me-
dium dose of any substance dissolved in a fluid
ounce of distilled water, forms a lotion of the
proper strength, under all ordinary circum-
stances; or, what is the same thing, the me-
dium dose in grains, taken in scruples, is suffi-
cient for a pint of such a lotion. Thus,
the dose of sulphate of zinc is 1 to 3 grs.,
1 -- 3
therefore— = 2 grs., which is the pro-
+
2
portion of sulphate of zinc, to be taken for
1 fl, oz. of water, or 40 grs. for 1 pint. Again,
the dose of bichloride of mercury is to ; gr. ;
I 3.
therefore— º = 1. gr. ; or nearly . gr. per
fl. oz., and 8% grs. per pint. In this method
extreme or unusual doses, as, for instance,
those of sulphate of zinc, as an emetic, in
poisoning, &c., are not taken into the calcu-
lation. In all cases in which lotions are in-
tended for extremely susceptible parts, it is
proper to dilute them with an equal bulk of
water. When intended for eye-waters (COL-
LYRIA), they should be diluted with at least 3
to 4 times their bulk of water. See EMBRO-
CATION, LINIMENT, &c,
Lotion of Ac'etate of Ammo"nia. Syn.
LOTIO AMMONIAE ACETATIS, L. Prep. 1.
Solution of acetate of ammonia, 1 part; water,
2 parts.
2. (Hosp. F.) Solution of acetate of am-
monia, rectified spirit, and water, equal parts.
Discutient and refrigerant. In ordinary in-
flammations.
Lotion of Ac'etate of Lead. Syn. LOTIO
PLUMBI ACETATIs, L. Prep. 1. (Collier)
Acetate of lead, 1 dr. ; distilled water, 8 fl. Oz.
Sometimes a little vinegar is added. In ex-
coriations, burns, sprains, contusions, &c. See
SOLUTION OF DIACETATE OF LEAD.
2. Acetate of lead, 2 grs. ; distilled water,
1 oz. (Ophthalmic Hospital.)
Iotion of Ac'etate of Zinc. Syn. LOTIO
ZINCI ACETATIS, L. Prep. 1. (Béral.) Acetate
of zinc, 1% dr. ; water, 1 pint. Astringent;
similar to lotion of sulphate of zinc.
2. Acetate of zinc, 1 to 2 grs. ; water, 1 oz.
An astringent collyrium in ophthalmia, and as
injection in gomorrhoea after the acute stage
has passed. Neither tincture nor wine of
opium gives a precipitate with this lotion.
Lotion, Acetic. Syn. LOTIO ACETI, L.
Prep. 1. Vinegar, 1 part; water, 2 or 3 parts.
For bruises, contusions, &c., and as a general
refrigerant application to sound parts.
2. Vinegar, 1 fl. Oz. ; cold water, pint ; as
a wash in chronic ophthalmia, &c. --
Lotion, Acid. See Lot IONS OF ACETIC, NI-
TRIC, and PHOSPHORIC ACID, &c.
Lotion of Aconſitine. Syn. LOTIO ACONI-
TINAE, L. Prep. (Turnbull.) Aconitine, 8 grs.;
rectified spirit, 2 fl. oz. In neuralgia; applied
by means of a small piece of sponge mounted
at the end of a stick. It must never be em-
ployed when the skin is broken or abraded;
and it would be wise, in most cases, to dilute
it with double its volume of proof spirit.
Lotion, Al'kaline. Syn. LOTTO ALKALINA, L.
POTASSE CARBONATIS, L. Prep. (P. Cod.)
From salt of tartar, 1 oz. ; water, 1 pint,
Stimulant and detergent. Diluted with an
equal bulk of water, it forms an excellent c0s.
metic wash to remove scurf from the hair.
Sometimes it is made with almond milk instead
of water.
Lotion of Al'um. Syn. LOTTO ALUMINIS, L.
Prep. From alum, 1% dr. ; distilled or rose
water, 1 pint. Astringent. For sore gums,
nipples, excoriations, &c.
Lotion, Ammoniacal. Syn. LOTIO AMMO.
NIE, L. AMMONIACALIS, L. Prep. 1. Liquor
of ammonia, 3 fl. drs. ; cold water, 5 fl. Oz.
As a stimulant to indolent ulcers, and in cer-
tain skin diseases.
2. (Swediaur.) Liquor of ammonia, spirit
of thyme, and spirit of camphor, equal parts.
In headaches; applied to the forehead and
temples, and in other cases, as a counter-
irritant. In most cases it should be used di-
luted. -
3. (Opiated—Dr. Kirkland.) Sal volatile,
3} fl, Oz, ; tincture of opium, # fl. OZ, ; water,
LOTION. 713
4 fl. Oz,
vent.
Lotion, Antiphlogis’tic. Syn. LOTTO ANTI-
PHLoGISTICA, L. Prep. 1. (Copland.) Solu-
tion of diacetate of lead, 3 fl. drs. ; solution of
acetate of ammonia, 2 fl. Oz. ; distilled water,
1 pint. Refrigerant, sedative, and repellent.
Used to allay inflammation, &c.
2. (A. T. Thomson.) Opium, 2 drs, dis-
tilled vinegar, pint. Anodyne and refrige-
rant ; in swelled joints, &c.
Lotion of Ar’mica. Syn. LOTTO ARNICE, L.
Prep. 1. Tincture of arnica, 1 fl. dr. ; rose
water, 2} fl. Oz. In contusions, bruises, extra-
vasations, &c.
2. (Niemann.) Arnica flowers, oz. ; hot
vinegar, 3 fl. oz. ; boiling water, 5 fl. Oz. ; in-
fuse until cold, and strain. In acute hydro-
cephalus; or with water, q. S. to measure a
pint, as a common lotion.
Lotion, Arsen'ical. Syn. LOTTO ARSENICALIS,
I. ACIDI ARSENIOSI, L. Prep. 1. Arse-
nious acid, 5 grs. ; water, 1 pint. In psoriasis,
&c.
2. (Compound—M. le Febre.) Arsenious
acid, 8 grs. ; boiling water, 16 fl. Oz. ; dissolve,
and add, of extract of hemlock, 1 oz. ; solution
of diacetate of lead, 3 fl. oz. ; tincture of
opium, 1 fl. dr. Every morning, in cancer.
Astringent Lotion. Syn. LOTTO ASTRIN-
GENS, L. . See LOTIONS OF ALUM, SULPHATE
OF ZINC, &c.
Lotion, Barlow’s. Prep. From sulphuret of
potassium (in powder), 3 drs. ; soap (sliced),
1} dr. ; lime water, 7} fl. oz. ; proof spirit, 2
fl. oz. ; dissolve. In itch, ringworm, &c.
Jotion, Bateman's. Prep. From bichloride
of mercury, 2 grs. ; compound spirit of laven-
der, 1 fl. oz. ; dissolve, and add of distilled
water, 4 fl. oz. In obstinate cutaneous erup-
tions, more especially those of a papular cha-
racter.
Lotion of Belladon’ma. Syn. LOTTO BELLA-
DONNAE, L. Prep. (Graefe.) Extract of bel-
ladonna, , dr. ; dilute solution of diacetate of
lead, ; pint. Applied to tumours and glam-
dular enlargements.
Lotion of Benzoin. LOTTO BENZOINI. Tinc-
ture of benzoin, 1 ; rose water, 40. A nice
lotion to protect the face from the heat of the
Sun.
Lotion of Bichlo"ride of Mercury. Syn.
LOTIO HYDRARGYRI BICHLORIDI, L. H. CHLo-
RIDI CORROSIVI, L. Prep. 1. Corrosive sub-
limate, 5 to 10 grs.; distilled water, 1 pint.
The addition of 5 or 6 grs. of hydrochlorate of
ammonia, or as many drops of hydrochloric
acid, increases the solvent action of the water,
and renders the preparation less liable to
change. Some persons dissolve the sublimate
Anodyne, stimulant, and resol-
in 1 or 2 fl. drs. of rectified spirit before adding
it to the water; but this is unnecessary. In ob-
stinate eruptions, glandular swelling, obstinate
Sores, &c.; also as an injection.
2. (Good.) Corrosive sublimate, 1 dr. ; sal
ammoniac, 2 drs. ; nitre, 4 drs, ; water, 6 fl.
oz. ; dissolve. In itch, &c. For use, it should
be diluted with about 3 times its bulk of
Water.
3. (LOTIO HYDRARGYRI AMYGDALINA—St.
B. Hosp.) Blanched bitter almonds, 1 oz. ;
water, 1 pint; make an emulsion, and add of
bichloride of mercury (dissolved in a little
rectified spirit), 10 grs. This resembles Gow-
LAND’s LOTION, and may be used for it.
Lotion of Bismuth. LOTIO BISMUTHI. Ni-
trate of bismuth, 6 grs. ; corrosive sublimate, ;
gr. ; spirits of camphor, 1% minim; water, 1.
oz. A soothing lotion in chronic skin affec-
tions. -
Lotion, Black. See MERCURIAL LOTION.
Lotion of Bo"rax. Syn. LOTIo BoPACIS, L.
BORACICA, L. Prep. 1. (Dr. Abercrombie.)
Borax, 2% drs. ; distilled vinegar, 4 pint. In
ringworm.
2. (Copland.) Borax (in powder), 1 dr.;
rose water and orange-flower water, of each,
3 fl. oz. ; dissolve. A fragrant and effective
application to Sore gums, sore nipples, exco-
riations, &c.
3. (Dr. Johnson.) Borax, 2 drs. ; precipi-
tated chalk, 1 oz. ; rose water and rectified
spirit, of each, 3 oz. For sore nipples.
4. (Dr. Meigs.) Borax, 3 oz. ; sulphate of
morphia, 6 grs. ; rose water, 8 fl. oz. To
allay itching and irritation, especially pruritus
vulvae.
5. Borax, 1; rose water, 24. Cosmetic.
Lotion, Broºmine. Sym. LOTIO BROMINII,
L. Prep. (Dr. Glover.) Bromine, 1 dr. ;
water, 1 pint. As an application to scrofulous
ulcers.
See LINIMENT.
See EVAPORATING
Lotion for Burns.
Lotion, Camphora'ted.
LOTION.
Lotion of Cap'sicum. Syn. LOTIO CAPSICI,
L. Prep. (Griffith.) Tinctures of capsicum
and camphor, of each, 4 fl. oz. ; liquor of am-
monia, 2 fl. oz. A powerful rubefacient and
counter-irritant.
Lotion of Car"bonate of Soda. Syn. LOTTO
SODAE CARBONATIs, L. Prep. From carbonate
of soda, 3 oz. ; water, 1 pint. To allay itching
and irritation. See ALKALINE LOTION.
Lotion of Cher'ry Laurel. Syn. LOTIo
LAURO-CERASI, L. Prep. 1. Cherry-laurel
water (distilled), 1}; fl. oz. ; distilled water,
# pint. Anodyne; useful to allay irritation,
&c. Some persons with delicate skin employ
it as a wash after shaving.
2. Cherry-laurel water (distilled), 4 oz. ;
rectified spirit and ether, of each, 1 fl. oz. ;
extract of belladonna, 2 drs. ; agitate well toge-
ther in the cold. An excellent application in
neuralgia, painful tumours, &c.
Lotion for Chilblaims. See CHILBLAIN, LI-
NIMENT, &c.
Lotion of Chlo"rate of Soda. Syn. LOTIO
SoDE CHLORATIs, L. Prep. (Darling.) Chlo-
rate of soda, 5 drs.; water, 3 pint. In pru-
ritus, &c.


Iotion of Chlo"ride of Ammonium, LOTIO
714.
LOTION.
AMMONIT CHLORIDI. Chloride of ammonium,
1 oz. ; rectified spirit, 1 oz, ; water, 10 oz. To
this vinegar is sometimes added. Used as a
dressing for bruises. See also LOTION OF
HYDROCHLORATE OF AMMONIA.
Iotion of Chlo"ride of Lead, Syn. LOTIO
PLUMBI CHLORIDI, L. Prep. (Tuson.) Chlo-
ride of lead, 1 dr. ; hot distilled water, 1 pint;
dissolve. In cancerous ulcerations, painful
neuralgic tumours, &c.
Lotion of Chloride of Tin, Syn. LOTTO
STANNI CHLORIDI, L. Prep. (Nauche.) Chlo-
ride of tin, 1 gr. ; distilled water, 2 to 3 fl. Oz.
In cancerous ulcerations.
Lotion of Chloride of Zinc. Syn. LOTIO
ZINCI CHLORIDI, L. Prep. 1. Chloride of
zinc, 10 grs. (or solution, ; fl. dr.); water, 1
pint. As a disinfectant and preventive lotion.
2. (Voght.) Chloride of zinc, 8 grs. ; extract
of aloes, 40 grs. ; distilled water, 4 fl oz. In
atonic and foul ulcers.
Lotion, Chlorinated. Syn. LOTTO CHLO-
RINATA, L. Prep. 1. (LOTIO CALCIS CHIO-
RINATE.)—a. From chloride of lime, 3 drs. ;
water, 1 pint ; agitate together for some time,
and strain through muslim.
b. (Derheims.) Chloride of lime, 1 oz. ;
water, 1 quart; triturate and filter.
2. (LOTIO SODAE CHLORINATE.) From chlo-
ride of soda, as the last. They are both ex-
cellent washes for foul ulcers, the itch, &c.;
and, when diluted, for the teeth, to sweeten
the breath, remove the smell of tobacco smoke,
to prevent infection, and for various purposes,
When intended for application to very tender
or abraded surfaces, they must be largely
diluted with water.
Lotion of Chlo"roform. Syn. LOTTO CHILo-
ROFORMI, L. Prep. Chloroform (pure), 1}
fi. Oz. ; rectified spirit and cold distilled water,
of each, ; pint. Anodyne. A piece of oiled
silk should be laid over the rag to prevent
evaporation. The lotion made with water, as
commonly prescribed, is inert.
Iotion for Corns. See CORN.
Lotion of Creasote. Sym. LOTIO CREASOTI,
L. Prep. 1. Creasote, 2 fl. drs. ; liquor of
potassa, 3 fl. drs. ; water, pint.
2. Creasote, 3 fl. drs. ; vinegar and water,
of each, ; pint. In burns, itch, phagedemic
ulcerations, ringworm, chancre, &c.
Lotion of Cy'amide of Potas'sium. Syn.
LOTIO POTASSI CYANIDI, L. Prep. 1. (Caze-
nave.) Cyanide of potassium, 10 grs.; emul-
sion of bitter almonds, 6 fl. oz. In chronic
eruptions and other cases attended with much
itching or irritation.
2. (Foy.) Cyanide of potassium, 8 grs. ; dis-
tilled water, 1 fl. Oz. In neuralgia, acute
rheumatism, &c.; applied by means of com-
presses of linen. Both the above are poisonous
if swallowed.
Lotion of Delphin'ine. Syn. LOTTO DEL-
PHINIE, EMBROCATIO D., L. Prep. (Dr.
Turnbull.) Delphinine, 20 to 60 grs. ; rectified
spirit, 2 fi, oz. Used as LOTION OF VERATRIA.
Lotion of Diac'etate of Lead. Syn. GOU-
LARD’s LOTION ; LOTIO PLUMBI DIACETATIS,
L. The dilute liquor of diacetate of lead
(LIQ. PLUMBI DIACETATIS DILUTUs—Ph. L.),
See SOLUTION. Also Solution of subacetate of
lead (B.P.), 3 minims, with 7 minims to 1
Oz. water.
Lotion, Evap'orating. Syn. LOTTO EVAP0-
RANs, L. WAPORANs, L. SPIRITUS DILUTI, L.
Prep. 1. (Copland.) Sulphuric ether, rectified
spirit, and solution of acetate of ammonia, of
each, 1% fl. Oz. ; rose water, 3% fl. Oz.
2. (Guy’s Hosp.) Rectified spirit, 1 part;
water, 5 parts. -
3. (Erasmus Wilson.) Rectified spirit, 1
part; water, 4 to 6 parts.
4. (CAMPHORATED — Ware.) Camphor, #
dr. ; elder flowers, 3 oz. ; rectified spirit, 4 OZ, ;
digest 24 hours, and strain.
Obs. The above are soothing and refrigerant,
if allowed to evaporate by free exposure;
stimulant, if the evaporation is prevented by
covering the part with the hand, or a piece of
oiled silk. They are useful applications in
nervous headaches, restlessness, itching and
irritability of the skin, &c. “A little rose
water added to the simple water makes an
agreeable addition, and sometimes camphor
water (julep), or a little Goulard's extract,
may be deemed advantageous, when a greater
degree of calming effect is required.” (Eras,
Wilson.) Eau de Cologne, diluted with an
equal quantity of water, is often used as an
evaporating lotion.
Lotion of Gall-nuts. Syn. LOTIO GALLE, L.
Prep. From gall-nuts (bruised), 3 oz. ; boiling
water, 1 pint; infuse until cold, and strain.
Astringent. An excellent application to sore
nipples, or to strengthen them before suck.
ling ; spirit of wine, 3 fl. oz., may be advan-
tageously added to the cold infusion, and a
like portion of water omitted. See DECOCTION,
Lotion of Glycerin. Syn. LOTIO GIY-
CERINI, L. GIYCERINIE, L. Prep. 1. Gly-
cerin, 1 oz. ; water, 1 pint. To allay itching,
and remove dryness, &c., in various skin dis.
eases; also in chaps of the nipples, lips, and
hands. For the latter purpose the addition ºf
2 to 3 drs of borax is recommended by some
writers.
2. Glycerin, 1 oz. ; thick mucilage, 2 oz.
lime water, 7 oz. In burns, scalds, chaps, ex-
coriations, &c.
3. (Startin.) Glycerin, 1 oz. ; extract of
belladonna, 1 dr. ; soap liniment, 3 oz. ; tri-
turate together. In bruises, sprains, and
swelled joints; gouty, neuralgic, and rheu-
matic pains, &c. -
4. (Startin.) Trismitrate of bismuth, dr.;
tincture of foxglove and dilute mitric acid, of
each, 1 fl. dr. ; glycerin, 4 drs. ; rose water,
8; fl. oz. To allay the itching in prurigo,
and some other skin diseases.
Obs. Various lotions may be prepared by
dissolving active medicinal substances in gly-
Cel’in. -

LOTION.
715
Lotion, Goulard's, See LOTION OF DIACE-
TATE OF LEAD.
Lotion, Gout. Syn. LOTTO ANTARTHRITICA,
L. Prep. 1. Glycerin, 1 oz. ; extract of
belladonna, 3 drs. ; veratrine, 10 grs., dissolved
in rectified spirit, 2 fl. oz. ; mix, and further
add of water, 17 fl. oz.
swallowed.
2. (“SCUDAMORE’s G. L.'). From camphor
mixture, 9 fl, oz. ; rectified spirit, 3 fl. Oz.
The above are applied on rags or compresses,
or are poured on the surface of poultices.
Iotion, Gowland’s. This celebrated nostrum
is prepared as follows:—Take of Jordan al-
monds, 1 oz. ; bitter almonds, oz. ; blanch
them, and make an emulsion in soft water, 1
pint; to this add of bichloride of mercury,
15 grs., previously dissolved in rectified spirit, 2
fl.dr.s., together with enough water to make the
whole measure 1 pint, and put it into bottles.
Obs. This preparation is chiefly used as a
cosmetic to improve the complexion; and also
as a wash for obstinate eruptions and minor
glandular swellings and indurations. As a
beautifier of the complexion, it is employed by
simply wetting the skin with it, either by
means of the corner of a napkin or the fingers
dipped into it, after which it is gently wiped
off with a dry cloth. Dr. Paris represents this
nostrum to contain . dr. of corrosive subli-
mate in every pint, which is not the case.
Lotion, Granville's Counter-irritant.
LINIMIENT OF AMMONIA (Compound).
Lotion, Hemlock. Sym. LOTII CONII, L.
Prep. (Mid. Hosp.) Extract of hemlock, 3
drs.; opium, 1 dr. ; boiling water, 1 pint;
digest until cold, and strain. Anodyne and
resolvent; in glandular enlargements, painful
ulcers, cancer, indurations, rheumatism, neu-
ralgia, &c.
Lotion, Hooping Cough. (Struve's). LOTTO
ANTIPERTUssTCA, L. Prep. (Paris.) Potassio-
tartrate of antimony, 1 dr. ; tincture of can-
tharides, 1 oz. ; water, 2 oz. This is a powerful
counter-irritant, and should be used with cau-
tion, as it is apt to induce a troublesome erup-
tion on the parts to which it is frequently
applied.
Lotion of Hydrochlo"rate of Ammonia. Syn.
LOTIO AMMONIAE HYDROCHLORATIs, L. Prep.
1. (WEAKER.) From sal ammoniac, 1 to 4 drs. ;
water, 1 pint. As a wash in itch, ulcers,
tender feet, swelled joints, &c.
2. (STRONGER.) From sal ammoniac, 1 to
2 oz. ; water, 1 pint. In contusions, chronic
tumours, extravasations, chilblains, &c., when
the skin is not broken. Both are stimulant
and resolvent or discutient. Vinegar is often
substituted for the whole or part of the water,
and sometimes a fifth or sixth part of rectified
spirit is added. See also LOTION OF CHLORIDE
OF AMMONIUM.
Lotion, Hydrochlo"ric. Syn. LOTIO ACIDI
HYDROCHLORICI, L. Prep. 1. Hydrochloric
acid, 1 fl. Oz. ; water, 1 pint. In lepra, and
Several other skin diseases.
It is poisonous if
See
2. (Foy.) Hydrochloric acid, 1 part ; water,
16 parts. In chilblains, when the skin is un-
broken.
Lotion, Hydrocyanic. Syn. LOTIO HYDRO-
CYANICI, L. ACIDI HYDROCYANICI, L. Prep.
1. (Magendie.) Medicinal hydrocyanic acid,
1 to 2 fi, drs. ; lettuce water, 1 pint. In he-
patic affections.
2. (Sneider.) Medicinal acid, 1}; fl. dr. ;
rectified spirit and water, of each, 6 fl. oz.
3. (A. T. Thomson.) Medicinal acid and
rectified spirit, of each, 2 fl. drs.; acetate of
lead, 16 grs. ; distilled water, 7% fl. Oz. In im-
petigo, &c. -
Obs. Lotions of prussic acid are employed
to allay pain and irritation in various chronic
skin diseases, especially the scaly and itchy
eruptions; and in cancer, &c., with variable
success. See HYDROCYANIC ACID.
Iotion of Hyposul/phite of Soda, Syn. LoTIo
SODA. HYPOSULPHITIS, L. Prep. (Startin.)
Hyposulphite of soda and alum, of each, 1% dr. ;
eau de Cologne, , fl. Oz, ; rose water, 7} fl, oz.
In the advanced stages of acne.
Lotion of Iodide of Ar'semic and Mercury,
Syn. LOTIO ARSENICI ET HYDRARGYRI HY-
DRIODATIS, L. Prep. From Donovan’s solu-
tion, 1 part; water, 9 parts. In lepra,
psoriasis, and other scaly skin diseases. See
SOLUTION.
Lotion of Iodide of Potas'sium. Syn. H.OTIO
POTASSII IODIDI, L. Prep. 1. From iodide of
potassium, 1 to 2 drs.; water, 1 pint. In the
usual cases in which ioduretted preparations
are employed.
2. (Dr. O. Ward.) Iodide of potassium, 1
dr. ; water, pint. In itch. (See below.)
Lotion of Iodide of Zinc, Syn. Loſ Io ZINCI
IODIDI, L. Prep. (Ross.) Iodine, 1% dr. ; zinc
filings, 1 dr. ; water, 8 fl. oz. ; digest with heat
until the liquid becomes coloured, then filter.
In enlarged tonsils.
Lotion of Iodine, Syn. LOTIO IODINII, L.
Prep. From iodine, 2 grs. ; rectified spirit, 1 fl.
dr. ; dissolve, well agitate the solution with
distilled water, 1 pint, and filter. An ex-
cellent wash for scrofulous ulcers, and in
chronic ophthalmia, cutaneous scrofula, and
several chronic skin diseases, particularly in
highly sensitive habits.
Lotion, Compound, of Iodine. Syn. LOTIO
IODI COM.P., L. Prep. 1. Iodide of potassium,
80 grs. ; iodine, 60 grs. ; water, 1 oz.
2. (Cazenave.) Iodide of potassium and
iodide of sulphur, of each, 1 dr. ; water, 1 pint.
In itch; either alone or diluted with an equal
bulk of water. -
3. (Dauvergne.) Iodine, 3 drs.; iodide of
potassium, 6 drs. ; water, 3 fl.oz. ; dissolve, and
label the bottle No. 1. Sulphuret of potassium,
4 oz. ; water, 8 fl. oz. ; dissolve. For use, a tea-
spoonful of No. 1, and a table-spoonful of No.
2, are to be added to about a pint of water.
In itch, and several other skin diseases.
4. (Lugol.) Iodine, 1 to 2 grs. ; iodide of
potassium, 3 to 6 grs. ; water, 1 pint. In scro-



716
LOTION,
fulous ophthalmia, fistulas, &c.; and as a wash
in numerous skin diseases.
5. (Righini.) Chloride of lime, 4 drs. ; water,
2} fl. oz. ; triturate together, filter into a
stoppered bottle, and add of tincture of iodine,
1 dr. With a pint of water, it forms an
effective application in itch.
6. (Soubeiran.) Iodide of patassium, 1 oz. ;
iodine, oz. ; water, 6 oz. ; dissolve. Used as
iodine paint ; also as a caustic to touch the
surfaces of scrofulous ulcers, and the eyelids in
scrofulous ophthalmia.
7. Iodide of potassium, . dr. ; iodine, 16
grs. ; water, 1 pint. This is the common and
best form of iodine lotion, but for certain
purposes it is used much stronger. (See
above.)
Lotion of Iron with Comium, LOTIO FERRI
CUM CONIO. Sulphate of iron, 8 grs. ; extract
of conium, 8 grs. ; water, 1 oz.
Lotion, Itch. Syn. LOTIO ANTIPSORICA, L.
Prep. (Cazenave.) Sulphuret of potassium, 1
dr.; soft soap, 2 drs. ; water, 8 fl. Oz. ; dissolve.
An excellent remedy for the itch. It leaves
little smell behind, and does not soil the linen.
(See above.)
Lotion, Kirkland’s. See LOTION OF MYRRH.
Lotion of Lemon Juice. Syn. LOTTO SUCCI
LIMONIS, L. Prep. From the freshly ex-
pressed juice of lemon, diluted with 4 or 5
times its bulk of water. To render it more
agreeable, rose water may be employed, or a
few drops of eau de Cologne added. It is cool-
ing and detergent, and forms an excellent ap-
plication to foul ulcers, and to allay the itching
in numerous cutaneous affections.
Lotion of Lime Waſter. Syn. LOTTO CALCIS
SPIRITUOSA, L. Prep. (Ph. Chirur.) Rectified
spirit, 4 oz. ; lime water, 8 fl. Oz. See EVAPO-
RATING LOTION (above).
Lotion, Mammillary. Syn. LOTIO BALSAMI
PERUVIANT COMPOSITA, L. Prep. (Iverg.)
Balsam of Peru, I dr. ; yolk of 1 egg; make
an emulsion, and add of spirit of wild thyme,
3 fl. oz. For sore nipples; to be followed,
whilst still wet, by a ‘dusting’ with a powder
composed of Peruvian bark, 1 dr. ; gum arabic,
2 drs.
Lotion, Mercu'rial. Prep. 1. (BLACK WASH,
BLACK IOTION, MILD PHAGEDENIC L.; LOTIO
NIGRA (B.P.), L. HYDRARGYRI CINEREA, L. H.
NIGRA, L. H. CHLORIDI CUM CALCE, L. MER-
CURIALIS N., AQUA PHAGEDENICA MITIS, L.)
—a. (B.P.) From calomel, 3 grs. ; lime water,
1 oz. ; well shaken together.
b. (Mid. Hosp.) To the last add of thick
mucilage, 1 fl. oz.
c. (Guy’s Hospital.)
to lime water, 8 fl. oz.
Obs. Black wash is a favourite application to
all kinds of syphilitic and scrofulous sores.
The bottle should be well shaken before the
lotion is applied.
2. YELLOW WASH, Y. LOTION, PHAGEDENIC
L.; LOTIO FLAVA, L. PHAGEDAENICA, AQUA P.,
LOTIO HYDRARGYRI FLAVA, L. H. BICHLORIDI
From calomel, 1 dr.,
CUM CALCE, L.)—a. (B. P.) Corrosive subli.
mate, 18 grs. ; lime water, 10 oz, ; well shaken
together.
6. (St. B. Hosp.) Corrosive sublimate, 20
grs. ; lime water, 6 fi, oz. Used as the last,
but it is stronger and more active, from con-
taining a little undecomposed bichloride.
Lotion of Myrrh. Syn. KTRKLAND’s LOTION:
LOTIO MYRRHAE, L. Prep. 1. (Dr. Kirkland.)
Tincture of myrrh and lime water, equal parts.
In scorbutic ulcers and gums.
2. (Compound; LOTIO MYRRHAE COMPO-
SITA, L.-Ph. Chirur.) Honey of roses and
tincture of myrrh, of each, 2 fl. drs. ; lime
water, 2.; fl. oz. As No. 1; also used as a den-
tifrice.
Lotion of Ni‘trate of Bis'muth. Syn. LoII0
BISMUTHI NITRATIS, L. Prep. (Cutan. Hosp)
Submitrate or trisnitrate of bismuth, dr.;
corrosive sublimate, 12 grs. ; spirit of camphor,
} fl. dr. ; water, 1 pint. In itch, and some
other eruptions.
Lotion of Nitrate of Silver. Sym. LOTIO
ARGENTI NITRATIS, L. Prep. 1. Nitrate of
silver, 15 grs. ; nitric acid, 10 drops; distilled
water, , pint. As a wash for indolent ulcers,
sore legs, &c.
2. (Jackson.) Nitrate of silver, 10 grs.;
water, 1 fl. oz. For bed-sores; applied, at first,
twice or thrice a day.
3. (Schreider.) Nitrate of silver, dr. ;
nitric acid, 10 drops; water, 1}; fl. oz. In chil.
blains, soft corns, &c.
Lotion of Nitrate of Silver (Strong.) LOTIO
ARGENTI NITRATIS FORTIS. Nitrate of silver,
60 grs. ; distilled water, 1 oz.
Lotion, Etherial, of Nitrate of Sil'ver. LOTIO
ARGENTI NITRATIS AETHERE.A. Nitrate of
silver, 20 grs. ; distilled water, 1 dr. ; spirit of
nitrous ether, 1 oz.
Lotion of Ni‘tre. Syn. LOTTO POTASSE NI-
TRATIS, L. Prep. 1. Nitre, 3 drs. ; vinegar,
# pint ; water, pint.
2. Nitre, 2 drs. ; sal ammoniac, 1 dr. ; vine.
gar and water, of each, ; pint. In sprains,

contusions, extravasations, tender feet, chil.
blains, &c. Diluted with an equal bulk of
water, it is a popular application to ‘black
eyes.”
Lotion of Niſtric Acid.
L. ACIDI NITRICT, L. Prep. 1.
Nitric acid, , fl. oz. ; water, 1 pint,
and other scaly skin diseases.
2. (Phoebus.) Nitric acid, 1 fl. dr. ; lauda-
num, 1}; fl. dr.; rose water, , pint. For vene-
real ulcers.
Loºtion of Nitromuriatic Acid. Syn. Lo-
TION OF AQUA REGIA. Prep. (Copland.) Ni-
tromuriatic acid, 1% dr.; water, 1 pint. In
gangrene and mortification.
Lotion of Nux Wom'ica. Syn. LoIIo NUCIS
voMICE, L. Prep. 1. Alcoholic extract of nux
vomica, 10 grs. ; rectified spirit and water, of
each, 2} fl. Oz. In amaurosis.
2. (Radius.) Alcoholic extract of Lux
vomica, 8 grs. ; liquor of ammonia (stronger),
Syn. LOTIO ACIDI,
(Collier.)
In lepra,
LOZENGE.
717
* fl. oz. ; rectified spirit, 2 fl. cz.
limbs.
Lotion of 0'pium. Syn. LOTTO OPII, L. OPI-
ATA, L. Prep. 1. (Christison.) Opium, 40 grs. ;
water, 4 pint ; infuse, add to the filtered liquid
a solution of sugar of lead, 40 grs., in water,
+ pint, and filter.
2. (St. B. Hosp.) Opium, 1% dr. ; boiling
water, 1 pint; triturate and strain. Ano-
dyne; the first is also refrigerant and dis-
cutient.
Lotion of 0x"ide of Zinc, Syn. LOTTO ZINCI
OXYDI, L. Prep. 1. (Augustin.) Oxide of
zinc, 1 dr. ; elder-flower water, 1}; fl. oz. In
pustular erysipelas.
2. (Hosp. F.) Oxide of zinc, & dr. ; muci-
lage, 2 fl. drs. ; water, 6 fl. drs. As an astrin-
gent and desiccant, in scrofulous eruptions,
excoriations, moist chaps, &c.
Lotion, Phageden'ic. See MERCURIAL Lo-
TION (above).
Lotion of Phosphor’ic Acid. Syn. LOTIO
ACIDI PHOSPHORICI, L. Prep. (Pereira.) Di-
lute phosphoric acid (Ph. L.), 1 fl. oz. ; water,
# pint. In caries and fistula.
Lotion of Potas'sa. See. LOTTO POTASSAE,
L. Prep. From liquor of potassa, 1 fl. Oz. ;
water, 1 pint. Detergent; in scorbutic erup-
tions, and foul ulcers, and to prevent infec-
tion. -
Lotion of Potas'sio-tar'trate of An'timony.
Syn. LOTTO ANTIMONIALIS, L. ANTIMONII Po-
TASSIO-TARTRATIs, L. RUBEFACIENs, L. Prep.
1. Tartar emetic, 1 dr. ; tincture of camphor,
2 fl. drs. ; water, 1 pint. As a local stimulant.
Diluted with twice or thrice its weight of water,
it is employed as a collyrium in chronic oph-
thalmia, and in specks on the cornea.
2. (Sir Wm. Blizard.) Tartar emetic, 20 grs.;
boiling water, 1 fl. oz. Used to cleanse foul
ulcers, to repress fungous growths and warts,
and in ring-worm, &c.
3. (Pereira.) Tartar emetic, 1 dr. ; boiling
water, 1} fl.oz.; dissolve. Employed as a local
irritant instead of the ointment. All the above
are rubefacient and counter-irritant. See
ANTIMONY.
Lotion of Quin’ime. Syn. LOTIO QUINE,
EMBROCATIO Q., L. Prep. From disulphate
of quinine, 1 dr. ; rectified spirit, 5 fl. oz. Ap-
plied over the spine in intermittents.
Lotion, Sapona'ceous. Syn. LOTTO SAPONIS,
L. SAPONACEA (Ph. L. 1746), L. Prep. From
liquor of carbonate of potassa, , oz. ; olive oil,
4 oz. ; rose water, 12 oz. ; agitate together.
Emollient; chiefly as a cosmetic.
Lotion, Saviard's. Prep. (Foy.) Caustic
potassa, 1 dr. ; camphor, 20 grs. ; sugar, 1 oz. ;
water, 1 pint. As a wash for indolent ulcers.
Lotion, Struve's, See HOOPING COUGH
LOTION.
Lotion of Sulphate of Copper. Syn. IOTIO
CUPRI SULPHATIS, L. Prep. J. Blue vitriol,
1 dr. ; camphor julep, 1 pint. For phagedemic
ulcers, and in itch, &c.
2. (Dr. Graves.) Sulphate of copper, 10
In paralysed
grs. ; water, 1 ſl.oz.
&c.
3. (Lloyd.) Sulphate of copper, 1 oz. ;
water, 1 pint. In itch; either alone or di-
luted. -
Lotion of Sul’phate of Iron. Syn. LOTIo
FERRI SULPHATIS. Sulphate of iron, 2 grs. ;
water, 1 oz.
Lotion of Sul’phate of Zinc, Syn. LOTIo
ZINCI SULPHATIs, L. Prep. 1. Sulphate of
zinc, ; dr. ; water, 1 pint. Astringent; in
some chronic skin diseases, as a wash for loose,
flabby granulations, and for ulcers that dis-
charge profusely, &c.
2. (Collier.) Sulphate of zinc, 2 drs. ; water,
1 pint. As a counter-irritant in pains of the
joints, periosteum, old sprains, &c.
Lotion of Tar. Syn. Lotro PICIS LIQUIDE,
L. Prep. (Saunders.) Quicklime, 6 oz. ; water,
2} pints; slake, add of tar, 4 oz., and boil to
one half. This liquid may be advantageously
employed in various chronic skin diseases,
especially those affecting the heads of children.
See INFUSION OF TAR, &c.
Lotion of Valerian. Sym. LOTIO VALERTANAE,
EMBROCATIO ANTIHYSTERICA, E. EMMENA-
GoGA, L. Prep. From tincture of valerian
and proof spirit, equal parts. In hysteria,
suppressions, &c.
Lotion of Vera/trime. Syn. LOTIO VERA-
TRIZE, L. Prep. (Dr, Turnbull.) Veratrine,
20 to 60 grs. ; rectified spirit, 2 oz. In gout,
rheumatism, &c. It is extremely poisonous,
and must only be used where the skin is sound,
and then with great caution.
Lotion of Verdigris. Syn. LOTIO ERUGINTs,
L. CUPRI CITRATIs, L. Prep. From verdigris,
3 drs. ; vinegar, 4 pint ; water, pint. As a
wash for indolent scrofulous and venereal
In chilblains, ring-worm
ulcers.
Lotion of Winegar. See ACETIC LoTION
(above).
Lotion, Yellow. See MERCURIAL LOTION
(above).
L0Z'ENGE. Syn. TRochE ; TROCHISCUS,
TABELLA, L.; TABLETTE, Fr. A small cake,
often medicated, consisting principally of pow-
dered sugar, made into a mass with some glu-
tinous liquid, without the aid of heat, and dried.
The form given to lozenges (TROCHES; TABEL-
LE, TROCHISCI, TABLETTES) is generally that of
a small round tablet or flattened cylinder; but
originally they were exclusively made in the
shape of a lozenge or rhomb, from which cir-
cumstance their familiar name is derived. Lo-
ZENGES are distinguished from DROPS or PAS-
TILLES by the non-employment of heat in
their preparation; and from PASTEs, by the
latter being formed of vegetable juice or pulp,
and having a softer consistence.
In the preparation of lozenges the dry
ingredients, separately reduced to a very fine
powder, are first perfectly mixed together, and
then beaten into a stiff paste with the glu-
tinous liquid employed to give them form; the
mass is next rolled out to a desired thickness,

718
LOZENGE.
and cut into pieces of the proper shape by
means of a small cylinder or punch of steel or
tin-plate, called a ‘lozenge-cutter.” The newly
formed lozenges are lastly dried by placing
them on an inverted sieve or frame covered
with paper in a dry, warm, and airy situation,
and are frequently turned until they become
hard and brittle, due care being taken to pre-
serve them from dust and dirt. To prevent
the mass adhering to the fingers and utensils
during the process of manufacture, a little
finely powdered starch, or a very little olive oil,
scented with the same aromatic as that con-
tained in the lozenges, may be used. Mucilage
of gum arabic or of gum tragacanth, thin
isinglass size, or the strained white of egg, are
the substances usually employed to make the
pulverulent materials adhere together. A
strained decoction of Irish moss is now fre-
quently used for the same purpose, for infe-
rior qualities. The larger the proportion of
gum which enters into the composition of
lozenges, the slower they dissolve in the mouth ;
hence powdered gum is frequently added to
the other materials to increase their quality
in this respect, as well as to give additional
solidity to those which, like chalk, for instance,
are of a peculiarly dry or crumbly nature.
Starch and potato flour are often added to
lozenge-masses in lieu of a portion of the sugar,
and even plaster of Paris is not unfrequently
employed to give them weight ; frauds which
are readily detected in the manner noticed
under GUM and SUGAR.
As a general rule, MEDICATED LOZENGES
should weigh from 8 to 10 grs. each, and a
medium dose of their active ingredient should
be distributed through the bulk of 6 to 8 of
them, in which case 3 to 5 of them may be
safely taken as a dose, or sucked during the
lapse of 3 or 4 hours. This will be useful in
the preparation of those for which no esta-
blished proportions are given. In ‘sending
out compounds of this class containing active
medicaments, as morphia or opium, the retailer
as well as the manufacturer should be careful
that the quantity contained in each lozenge is
plainly marked on the label.
In lozenges intended for MOUTH COSMETICS,
or to perfume the breath, ambergris is gene-
rally regarded as the most appropriate per-
fume; but hard smokers frequently prefer
cloves and cinnamon, and some ladies give the
preference to roses, orange flowers, and orris
or violets. ".
Lozenges are coloured with the same stains
as are used for liqueurs and sweetmeats.
Lozenges, as well as all other similar articles
of confectionery, should be preserved in well-
closed glass bottles, or jars, or in tin canisters,
so as to be perfectly excluded from the air and
damp. -
Lozenges, Absor"bent. TROCHISCI ANTACIDI,
L. Prep. 1. Take of precipitated chalk, 4 lb.;
gum arabic, 2 oz. ; double refined white sugar,
14 oz. ; all in impalpable powder; oil of nut-
meg, fl. dr. ; pass the mixture through a fine
sieve, beat it up with mucilage, q, S., roll the
mass into a thin sheet, and cut it into lo-
Zenges; lastly, dry them by exposing them on
a sheet of white paper to the air, out of con-
tact with dust.
2. As the last, but substituting heavy car-
bonate of magnesia, 1% oz., for an equal weight
of chalk. In diarrhoea, heartburn, acidity,
&c. See CHALK LOZENGES, MAGNESIA L.,
SODA L., &c.
Lozenges, Aca'cia. See GUM LOZENGES.
Lozenges, Acid'ulated. Syn. ACIDULATED
LEMON LOZENGES, TARTARIC ACID L.; TR0-
CHISCI ACIDI TARTARICI (Ph. E.), L. Prep,
From tartaric acid, 2 drs. ; oil of lemon, 10
drops; white sugar, 8 oz. ; mucilage, q. S. to
make a lozenge-mass. The same ingredients
mixed with heat form ACIDULATED or ACID
DROPS. Both are useful in coughs, hoarseness,
sore throats, &c. See CAYENNE LOZENGES,
CITRIC ACID L., ROSE L., &c.
Lozenges, A1(kaline. See SODA LOZENGES,
VICHY L., &c.
Iozenges, Alum. Syn. TROCHISCI ALU-
MINIS, L. Each lozenge contains 1% gr. of
alum. As an astringent. See ASTRINGENT
LOZENGES. -
I.0Zenges, Aniseed. Syn. TROCHISCI ANISI, -
L. Prep. From oil of aniseed, 1} fl. dr. ; finest
white sugar, 1 lb. ; mucilage, q. S. Carmina-
tive and stomachic. In colic, griping, &c.;
and as a pectoral.
Lozenges, Anthelmin'tic.
I.N.G.E.S.
Jozenges, Antimonial. Syn. TROCHISCI AN-
TIMONIALES, MORSULT STIBII KUNRELII, L.;
TABLETTES DE KUNKEL, Fr. Prep. (P. Cod.)
Levigated sulphuret of antimony and car-
damom seeds, of each, 1 oz. ; almonds (blanched),
2 oz. ; cinnamon, Oz. ; sugar, 13 Oz. ; muci-
lage of tragacanth, q. s. ; to be divided into
15-gr. lozenges. As an alterative.
Lozenges, Ape"rient. Syn. TROCHISCI APE.
RIENTES, L. Each lozenge contains 1 gr. each
of calomel and scammomy, and 2 grs. of jalap;
or, instead of the last, gr. of jalapine. 2
to 3 for a dose.
Lozenges, Astringent. Syn. TROCHISCI
ASTRINGENTES, L. Each lozenge contains 1}
gr. of alum and 2 grs. of catechu. In spitting
of blood, relaxed uvula, sore throat, &c. See
ALUM LOZENGES.
Iozenges, Bark. Syn. TROCHISCI CINCH0.
NIE, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) Cinchona, 2 oz.;
cinnamon, 2 drs. ; white sugar, 14 oz. ; muci-
lage of gum tragacanth, q. S. ; mix, and divide
into 16-gr. lozenges. Tomic.
Lozenges, Bath. Syn. DAWSON's LozPNGES.
From extract of liquorice and gum arabic, of
each, 1% oz. ; sugar, 17 oz. It is both rolled
See WORM LOZ-
into lozenges and formed into pipes. Demul-
cent; in tickling coughs, &c.
Lozenges, Bicarbonate of Soda. TROCHISCI
SODAF BICARBONATIS. Bicarbonate of soda, in
powder, 3600 grs. (84 oz.); refined sugar, 25
LOZENGE.
19
oz. ; gum acacia, in powder, 1 oz. ; mucilage,
2 oz. ; distilled water, 3 oz. ; mix, and form in
720 lozenges. Each lozenge contains 5
grs. of bicarbonate of soda.--Dose. 1 to 6
lozenges.
Lozenges, Bis'muth, Syn. TROCHISCI BIS-
MUTHI, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Submitrate of
bismuth, 346 grs. ; carbonate of magnesia, 4
oz. ; precipitated chalk, 6 oz. ; sugar, 29 oz. ;
gum acacia, 1 oz. ; mucilage, 2 oz. ; rose water,
a sufficiency; make 720 lozenges. Each
lozenge contains 2 grains of submitrate of bis-
muth.-Dose. 1 to 6 lozenges.
2. (Trousseau.) Each lozenge contains 1
gr. of submitrate of bismuth. Tonic and anti-
spasmodic ; in chronic dyspepsia, gastrodynia,
nausea, cramp of the stomach, &c.
Lozenges, Black Currant. TROCHISCI RIBIS
NIGRI, L. Prep. From inspissated juice of
black currants and sugar, of each, in powder,
1 lb.: tartaric acid, 4 oz. ; mucilage, q. S. In
hoarseness, &c.
Lozenges, Bo"rax. Syn. TROCHISCI BORA-
CIS, L. Each lozenge contains 3 grs. of borax.
One occasionally in aphthous sore mouth, sore
throat, &c.
Lozenges, Bromide of Ammonium. Each
lozenge contains 2 grs. of bromide of ammo-
nium.—Dose. 1 to 3 lozenges.
Lozenges, Burnt Sponge. Syn. TROCHISCI
SPONGLE, T. S. USTAL, L. Prep. (P. Cod.)
Burnt sponge, 4 oz. ; sugar, 12 oz. ; mucilage
of tragacanth, q. s. ; divide into 12-gr.
lozenges. In scrofula, glandular enlargements,
&c.
Lozenges, Cacao. Syn. TROCHISCI BUTYRI
CACAO, L. Each lozenge contains 1-3rd of its
weight of pure cacao butter. In habitual con-
stipation; and in phthisis, scrofula, &c., instead
of cod-liver oil; taken ad libiţum. They are
usually scented with roses.
Lozenges, Caffe'ime. Syn. TROCHISCI CAF-
TEINAE, L. Each lozenge contains 4 gr. of
caffeine and 3 gr. of citric acid. In hemicrania,
hypochondriasis, &c.
Lozenges, Cal'omel. Syn. WoRM LOZENGES;
TROCHISCI CALOMELANOS, T. HYDRARGYRI
CHLORIDI, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) Each lozenge
contains 1 gr. of calomel. Alterative, &c. They
afford a simple way of introducing mercury
into the system. During their use, salt food
and acid liquors should be avoided. When
given for worms, they should be followed, in a
few hours, by a purge.
Lozenges, Camphor. Syn. TROCHISCI CAM-
PHORE, L. Each lozenge contains # gr. of
(finely powdered) camphor. They must be kept
in a well-corked bottle.
Lozenges, Carbonate of Lime.
LozENGES.
Lozenges, Cat'echu, Syn. CACHOU LOZENGES ;
TROCHISCI CATECHU (B. P.), T. DE TERRA
JAPONICA, L.; TABLETTES DE CACHOU, Fr.
Prep. 1. (Ph. E. 1744.) Catechu, 2 oz. ;
tragacanth, # oz. ; white Sugar, 12 oz. ; rose
Water, q. s.
See CHALK
2. (P. Cod.) Extract of catechu, 4 oz. ;
sugar, 16 oz. ; mucilage of gum tragacanth,
q. S.; for 10-gr. lozenges.
3. (TRo. CATECHU ET MAGNESTE–P. Cod.)
Magnesia, 2 oz. ; powdered catechu, 1 oz. ;
sugar, 13 oz. ; mucilage of gum tragacanth
(made with cinnamon water), q. S. to mix.
4. (PERFUMED.) See CACHOU AROMATISá
and PASTILs.
5. (B. P.) Pale catechu, in powder, 720
grs. ; refined sugar, in powder, 25 oz. ; gum
arabic, in powder, 1 oz. ; mucilage, 2 oz. ; dis-
tilled water, a sufficiency; divide into 720
lozenges. Each lozenge contains 1 gr. of
catechu, Dose. 1 to 3 lozenges.
Obs. All the above are taken in diarrhoea,
in relaxation of the uvula, in irritation of the
larynx, and as cosmetics to fasten the teeth,
and disguise a fetid breath. The one con-
taining magnesia (No. 3) is also sucked in
dyspepsia, acidity, and heartburn.
Lozenges, Cayenne'. Syn. TROCHISCI CAP-
SICI, L. Flavoured with essence or tincture
of capsicum or cayenne, with a very concen-
trated Chili vinegar, or a little pure soluble
cayenne pepper.
2. (ACIDULATED.) To each lb., add of tar-
taric acid, oz. Both are used in dyspepsia,
and to promote digestion and create an appe-
tite. They have also been recommended in
temporary deafness arising from exposure to
cold. They are generally tinged of a light
pink or red colour.
Lozenges, Chalk. Syn. HEARTBURN LOz-
ENGES ; TROCHISCI CRETE (Ph. E.), T. CARDI-
ALGICI, TABELLAE CARDIALGICE, L. Prep. (Ph.
E.) Prepared chalk, 4 oz. ; gum arabic, 1 oz. ;
nutmeg, 1 dr. ; white sugar, 6 oz. ; rose or
orange-flower water, q. s. Antacid and ab-
sorbent. 3 or 4 sucked ad libiţum ; in heart-
burn, dyspepsia, diarrhoea, acidity of the sto-
mach and bowels, &c.
Lozenges, Char'coal. Syn. TROCHISCI CAR-
BONIS, L. Prep. 1. (P. Cod.) Prepared
charcoal, 4 oz. ; white sugar, 12 oz. ; mucilage,
q. s. to mix. In diarrhoea, cholera, dyspepsia,
&c.
2. (TRo. CARBONAS CUM CHO.COLATA—M.
Chevallier.) Charcoal and white sugar, of
each, 1 oz.: chocolate, 3 oz. ; mucilage of gum
tragacanth, q. S. to mix. Nutritious; used as
the last. -
Lozenges, Ching’s Worm, Prep. 1. (YEL-
LOW.) From saffron, oz. ; boiling water, 1
pint ; infuse, strain, add of calomel, 1 lb.;
powdered white sugar, 28 lbs. ; mix well, make
a mass with mucilage of tragacanth, and divide
it into 7000 lozenges. Each lozenge contains
1 gr. of calomel.
2. (BROWN.) From calomel, 7 oz. ; resinous
extract of jalap, 3% lbs. ; white sugar, 10 lbs. ;
mucilage of tragacanth, q. S.; mix, and divide
into 6125 lozenges. Each lozenge contains
# gr. of calomel and 3% grs. of resinous extract
of jalap. 1 to 6 of the yellow lozenges over
night, as a vermifuge, followed by an equal

720
LOZENGE.
number of the brown ones the next morning
fasting.
Lozenges, Chlo"rate of Potassa. Syn. TRO-
CHISCI POTASSE CHLORATIS, L. Prep. 1.
Each lozenge contains 1% gr. of chlorate of
potassa. In phthisis, sore throat, &c. 6 to 12
a day.
2. (B. P) Chlorate of potash, in powder,
3600 grs. (84 oz.); refined sugar, in powder,
25 oz. ; guin, acacia, in powder, 1 oz. ; muci-
lage, 2 oz distilled water, 1 oz., or a suffi-
ciency; mix the powders, and add the muci-
lage and w er to form a proper mass; divide
in 720 lozenges.
grs. of chlorate of potash.--Dose. 1 to 6
lozenges.
Lozenges, Chloride of Ammonium. Each
lozenge contains 2 to 3 grs. of chloride of
ammonium. Used in bronchitis.--Dose. 2 to
4 lozenges.
Lozenges, Chlo"ride of Gold, 1. (TROCHISCI
AURI CHLORIDI, L.) Each lozenge contains
ºr gr. of neutral chloride of gold. 2 to 4
daily; in scrofula, cancer, &c.
2. (With sopA ; TROCHISCI AURI ET SODII
CHLORIDI, T. SODII AURO-CHLORIDI, L.-
Chrestien.) Each lozenge contains Tºth gr.
of soda-chloride of gold. Two daily; as the
last.
Lozenges, Chloride of Lime. Syn. TRO-
CHISCI CALCIS CHLORIDI, T. C. CHLORINATE,
L. Each lozenge contains # gr. of dry chlo-
ride of lime. They are frequently tinged
with a little carmine. Used to sweeten the
breath, and whiten the teeth. They do not
keep well. -
Lozenges, Choc'olate. Syn. TROCHISCT CHO-
COLATAE, L. From vanilla chocolate pressed
into sheets, and cut into pieces whilst hot.
Lozenges, Cincho'na. Syn. TROCHISCI CIN-
CHONE EXTRACTI, L. Each lozenge contains
1. gr. of dry extract of bark. A little cinna-
mon or nutmeg is often added. See BARK
LOZENGES.
Lozenges, Cin'namon. Syn. TROCHISCI CIN-
NAMOMI, L. From cinnamon (in fine powder),
1 oz., or the essential oil, 1 fl. dr., to each lb.
of sugar. Carminative and stomachic. CASSIA
LozRNGES are made in the same way, and are
frequently substituted for them.
Lozenges, Citrate of Iron, Syn. TROCHISCI
FERRI CITRATIS, L. Each lozenge contains
1% gr. of ammonio-citrate of iron. As a mild
chalybeate tonic. They are sometimes made
with equal parts of sugar and vanilla choco-
late.
Lozenges, Citrate of Magne'sia. Syn. TRO-
CHISCI MAGNESLE CITRATIs, L. Each 15-gr.
lozenge contains 5 grs. of pure citrate of mag-
nesia. Laxative.
Lozenges, Cit'ric Acid, Syn. TROCHISCI
ACIDI CITRICI, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) Citric
acid, 3 drs. ; sugar, 16 oz. ; essence of lemon,
16 drops; mucilage of tragacanth, q. S. ; mix,
and divide into 12-gr, lozenges. In coughs,
hoarseness, &c.
Each lozenge contains 5
Lozenges, Clove. Sym. TROCHISCI CARYO-
PHILLI, L. From cloves (powdered along with
sugar), 2 oz., or essential oil, 1 fl. dr., to each
lb. of sugar. They are frequently coloured.
Carminative and stomachic ; also used as a
restorative after fatigue, added to chocolate
to improve its flavour, and sucked to sweeten
the breath.
Lozenges, Cough. Syn. PECTORAL LOZENGES,
PULMONIC L.; TROCHISCI ANTICATARRHALES,
L. Prep. 1. (Black-currant lozenge-mass, 1
lb. ; ipecacuanha (in very fine powder, 2 drs.
For 12-gr. lozenges.
2. To the last add of powdered opium and
camphor, 1. dr.
3. To either No. 1 or 2 add of oil of aniseed,
13; fl. dr.
4. (TABLETTES DE TRONCHIN.) From pow-
dered gum arabic, 8 oz. ; oil of aniseed, 16
drops; extract of opium, 12 grs. ; kermes mi-
neral, 1 dr. ; pure extract of liquorice, 2 oz.;
white sugar, 32 oz. ; water, q. s. ; mix, and
divide into 10-gr. lozenges.
5. (TABLETTES DE VANDAMME.) From ben-
zoic acid, 1 dr. ; orris powder, 2 drs. ; gum
arabic (powdered), 1 oz. ; starch, 2 oz. ; sugar,
16 oz. ; water, q. S.; mix and divide into 15-gr,
lozenges.
6. Each lozenge contains ; gr. of lactuca.
rium, ... gr. of powdered ipecacuanha, and #gr.
of powdered squills, together with ºrd of their
weight of pure extract of liquorice. -
Obs. To render the above serviceable in
coughs, hoarseness, &c., the bowels should be
kept gently open with some mild aperient, and
a light diet adopted, with abstinence from
stimulating liquors. See EMETINE LOZENGES,
IPECACUANHA L., &c.
Lozenges, Croton Oil. Syn. TROCHISCICRO-
TONIS, L. Prep. (Soubeiran.) Croton oil, 5
drops; powdered starch, 40 grs. ; white sugar,
1 dr. ; chocolate, 2 drs. ; divide into 30
lozenges; 5 or 6 generally prove cathartic.
Lozenges, Cu/bebime. Syn. TROCHISCI CUBE-
BINI, L. Prep. (Ph. Hamb.) Copaiba and
extract of cubebs, of each, 6 oz.: yolks of 3
eggs; mix, add of powdered marshmallow root,
6 oz. ; make it into pipes of 12 grs. each, and
roll them in sugar. In gleet, &c., and in affec-
tions of the mucous membranes of the throat
and fauces. Lablonye orders them to be
made of sugar, and flavoured with oil of pep.
permint.
Lozenges, Cu’bebs. Syn. TROCHISCI CU-
BEBE, L. Prep. (Spitta.) Cubebs, 2 drs. ;
balsam of tolu, 6 grs.; mix, and add of extract
of liquorice, 1 oz. ; syrup of tolu, 1 dr.; pow-
dered gum, q. S.; divide into 10-gr. lozenges,
One of these, allowed to melt gradually in the
mouth, is said to alleviate the obstruction in
the nose, in coryza. -
Lozenges, D'Arcet's, See WICITY LOZENGES,
Iozenges, Digestive, See RHUBARB
LOZENGES, GINGER. L., DIGESTIVE CANDY,
&c.
Lozenges, Edinburgh, Prep. From extract

LOZENGES.
721
of poppies, 2 oz. ; powdered tragacanth, 4 oz. ;
sugar, 10 Oz. ; rose water, q. S. to form a
lozenge mass.
Lozenges, Em’etime. Syn, TROCHISCI EME-
TINE, L. Prep. (Magendie.)—1. From im-
pure or coloured emetime, 32 grs. (or pure eme-
time, 8 grs.); white sugar, 2 oz. ; mucilage, q.
s. to mix; divide into 64 lozenges. Emetic.
— Dose. 1 for a child, and 4 for an adult.
They are generally tinged of a pink colour
with carmine.
2. From impure or coloured emetime, 32 grs.
(or pure emetime, 8 grs.); sugar, 4 oz.; muci-
lage, q. S.; divide inio 256 lozenges. Pecto-
ral. 1 every hour, or oftener, for an adult.
The last are intended to take the place of ipe-
cacuanha lozenges, but are rather stronger.
Lozenges, Escharotic. Syn. TROCHISCI Es-
CHAROTICI, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) Corrosive
sublimate, 2 drs.; starch, 4 drs. ; mucilage of
tragacanth, q. s. ; mix, and divide into 3-gr.
oat-shaped granules. For external use only.
See CAUSTIC (Zinc).
Lozenges, Ferrocy'amide of Iron. Syn. TRO-
CHISCI FERRI FERROCYANIDI, T. CAERULEI, L.
Each lozenge contains 1% gr. of pure Prussian
blue. Alterative, febrifuge, and tonic; in
epilepsy, intermittents, diseases of the gan-
glionic system, &c.
Lozenges, Fruit. Prep. From juice of black
currants (boiled to the consistence of an
extract), 1 lb. ; juice of red currants (similarly
treated), 3 lb. ; powdered gum tragacanth, 4
lb.; sugar, 3 lbs. ; raspberry syrup, q. s. ; pear
essence, a few drops. Resemble black currant
lozenges, but are more agreeable.
Lozenges, Garama'. See PAULLINIA LOZ-
IENGES.
Lozenges, Ginger. Syn. TROCHISCI ZINGI-
BERIs, L. Prep. From the best unbleached
Jamaica ginger and gum arabic, of each, in
very fine powder, 1% oz. ; double refined lump
sugar, 1 lb. ; rose water (tinged with saffron),
q. s. A still finer quality may be made by
using an equivalent proportion of essence of
ginger, instead of the powder. Inferior quali-
ties are prepared with coarser sugar, to which
some starch is often added. Ginger lozenges
are carminative and stomachic, and are useful
in flatulency, loss of appetite, dyspepsia, &c.
Lozenges, Gold. Syn. TROCHISCI AURI, L.
Each lozenge contains ºr gr. of pulverulent gold.
Lozenges, Gum. Syn. TROCHISCI ACACIAE
(Ph. E.), T. GUMMI ARABICI, T. GUMMOSI, L.
Prep. 1. (Ph. E.) Gum arabic, 4 oz. ; starch,
1 oz. ; white sugar, 12 oz. ; (all in very fine
powder;) rose water, q. s.
2. (P. Cod.) Gum arabic, 1 lb.; sugar, 3
lbs. ; orange-flower water, 2 fl. Oz.
3. (Transparent) From the same materials,
but employing a gentle heat. Demulcent ;
used to allay tickling coughs.
Lozenges, Gum Tra/gacanth. Syn. TRO-
CHISCITRAGACANTHE, T. GUMMIT., L. Prep.
(Ph. E. 1744.) Compound powder of tragacanth,
3 oz. ; sugar, 12 oz, ; rose water, 4 fl oz. Re-
semble the last, but are more durable in the
mouth.
Lozenges,
ENGES, &c.
Lozenges, Iceland Moss. Syn. TROCHISCI
LICHENIS, L. (P. Cod.) Contain half their
weight of dried and powdered lichen jelly.
Resemble gum lozenges.
Lozenges, Indian Hemp. Syn. TROCHISCI
CANNABIs, T. C. INDICI, L. (Ebriard.) Each
lozenge contains tº gr. of extract of Indian
hemp.
Lozenges, I'odide of Iron. Syn. TROCHISCI
FERRI IODIDI, L. Each lozenge contains .
gr. of dry iodide of iron. 12 to 20 daily; in
amenorrhoea, chlorosis, scrofulous debility, &c.
They are generally flavoured with a little nut-
:meg or cinnamon.
Lozenges, Iodide of Potassium. Syn. TRO-
CHISCI POTASSII IODIDI, L. Each lozenge
contains I gr. of iodide of potassium, flavoured
with nutmeg or cinnamon. 10 to 15 daily; in
scrofula, indurations, &c. One of the best
ways of taking iodide of potassium.
Lozenges, Ipecacuanſha. Syn. TROCHISCI
IPECACUANHAE, L. Prep. 1. (P. Cod., Hamb.
do., and Ph. U. S.) Each lozenge contains 4
gr. of ipecacuanha.
2. (TR0. IPECAC. CUM CAMPHORA.) Each
lozenge contains ; gr. of camphor, and # gr.
of ipecacuanha.
3. (TR0. IPECAC. CUM CHOCOLATA—P. Cod.)
Each lozenge contains 1 gr. of ipecacuanha, and
12 grs. of chocolate à la vanille. The above are
pectoral and expectorant, and are very useful in
tickling and chronic coughs, hoarseness, &c.
Lozenges, Ipecacuanha and Morphia. Syn.
TROCHISCIIPECACUANHF ET MORPHIE. (B.P.)
Each lozenge contains tº gr. ipecacuanha and
a's gr. hydrochlorate morphia-Dose. 1 to 6
lozenges. See MORPHIA AND IPECACUANHA
LOZENGES. -
Lozenges, I'ron. Syn. TROCHISCI FERRI, T.
CIIALYBEATI, L. 1. Each lozenge contains 1 gr.
of Quevenne’s iron. See LozBNGES, REDUCED
IRON, p 724.
2. (TRo. FERRI CARBONATIS.) Each lozenge
contains 1% gr. of saccharine carbonate of iron.
They are both mild and excellent chalybeates.
See STEEL LOZENGES.
Lozenges, Jujube. See JUJUBE PASTE.
Lozenges, Kermes Mineral. Syn. TROCHISCI
KERMETIS, L. Prep. 1. (P. Cod.) Each
lozenge contains . gr. of kermes mineral, and
about ; gr. of gum, made up with sugar and
orange-flower water. Diaphoretic and expec-
torant. -
2. (Compound.) As the last, but with the
addition of . gr. of opium, # gr. of squills, and
A gr. of ipecacuanha. Anodyne and expec-
torant ; both are very useful in catarrhs.
Lozenges, Lactate of Iron. Syn. TROCHISCI
FERRI LACTATIS, L. Prep. (Cap.) Each
lozenge contains 1 gr. of lactate of iron. Tonic.
Useful in debility, accompanied with a diseased
state of the organs of digestion. 46
Heart"burn. See CHALK Loz-

722
LOZENGES.
Lozenges, Lactic Acid. Syn. TROCHISCI
ACIDI LACTICI, L. Each lozenge contains 1
gr. of lactic acid to about 12 grs. Of Sugar.
They are best flavoured with vanilla or nutmeg.
In dyspepsia, &c., especially in gouty subjects.
Those prepared by Magendie’s formula;contain
a larger proportion of acid, but are much too
sour for frequent use.
Lozenges, Lactuca'rium. Syn. TROCHISCI
TACTUCARII, L. Prep. (Ph. E.) Prepared
with lactucarium in the same manner as the
opium lozenges, Ph. E. Each of these lozenges
contains from # to . gr. of lactucarium. Ano-
dyne and demulcent. Used to allay tickling
coughs, &c.
Lozenges, Lavender. Syſt. TROCHISCI IA-
WANDULAE, L. From ; fl. dr. of Mitcham oil
of lavender to each lb. of sugar, and tinged
red with liquid lake or carmine; or violet,
with litmus or indigo. Used chiefly to scent
the breath. Those of the shops are generally
deficient in odour.
Iozenges, Lem'on. Syn. TROCHISCI LIMONIS,
T. LIMONUM, L. Prep. 1. From 1; fl. dr. of
oil of lemon to each 1 lb. of double refined
white sugar.
2. (Acidulated.) See CITRIC and TARTARIC
ACID LOZENGES.
Obs. Lemon lozenges and drops are agree-
able sweetmeats, and those that are acidulated
are often very useful to promote expectoration
in coughs, &c. The last are also made into
drops as well as lozenges, when they form the
‘ACIDULATED LEMON DROPS of the shops.
Those that are made of citric acid are by far
the most wholesome. Both lemon lozenges and
drops are generally coloured with infusion of
Saffron or turmeric.
Lozenges, Lettuce. Syn. TROCIIISCI LAC-
TUCAE, L. Prep. From extract of lettuce, ex-
tract of liquorice, gum, and sugar, equal parts.
Anodyne aud demulcent; in obstinate cough
without expectoration. See JACTUCARIUM
LOZENGES.
Lozenges, Li'chen. See ICELAND MOSS LOZ-
ENGES.
Lozenges, Liquorice, Syn. BLACKLOZENGES;
TROCHISCI GLYCYRRHIZE, T. G. GLABRE, T
BECHICI NIGRI, L. Prep. (i. Ph. E.) Ex-
tract of liquorice and gum acacia, of each, 6 oz.;
white sugar, 12 oz. ; dissolve in water, q, S.;
evaporate to a paste, and form into lozenges,
Pectoral and demulcent. Useful to allay
tickling coughs and remove hoarseness.
2. (With op|UM.) See OPIUM LozRNGES.
Lozenges, Magne'sia. Syn. HEARTBURN LOZ-
ENGES; TROCHISCI MAGNESIAE (Ph. E.), L.
Prep. 1. (Ph. E.) Carbonate of magnesia,
6 oz. ; powdered white sugar, 3 oz. ; oil of nut-
meg, 20 drops; mucilage of tragacanth, q. S. to
mix.
2. (Ph. U. S.) Calcined magnesia, 4 oz. ;
sugar, 12 oz. ; nutmeg, 1 dr. ; mucilage of tra-
gacanth, q, S.; for 10-gr. lozenges.
3. (Wholesale.) Calcined magnesia, 3 oz. ;
powdered gum tragacanth, 1 oz. ; double refined
lump sugar, $1b.; rose or orange-flower water,
q. S. to make a lozenge mass.
Obs. Magnesia lozenges are very useful in
heartburn, acidity, and indigestion. The con-
fectioners generally omit the nutmeg, and
make their mucilage with either rose or orange-
flower water, or else add the dry gum to the
mass, and then mix mp the powders with one
or other of these liquids. It is also an im-
provement to use calcined magnesia, which is
about twice as strong as the carbonate, and
consequently less need be employed.
Lozenges, Manila. Syn. TROCHISCIMANNE,
L. Prep. (Van Mons.) Powdered tragacanth,
1 dr. ; white sugar, 12 oz. ; manna, 3 OZ.;
Demulcent,
orange-flowcr water, q. S. to mix.
and in large numbers slightly laxative.
Lozenges, Marsh-Mallow. Syn. TROCHISCI
ALTHAEE, L.; TABLETTES DE GUIMAUVE, Fr.
Prep. (P. Cod.) Marsh-mallow root (decor-
ticated and finely powdered), 2 oz. ; sugar,
14 oz. ; mucilage of tragacanth (made with
orange-flower water), q. S. Demulcent and
expectorant.
cough, &c.
by the vulgar.
Lozenges, Minſium.
(Ph. E. 1744), L. Prep. From red lead, 1
dr. ; corrosive sublimate, 2 drs. ; crum of bread,
1 oz. ; rose water, q. S.; to be made up into
oat-like grains. For external use only.
I0Zenges, Morphia.
Prep. 1. (Ph. E.) Hydrochlorate of morphia,
20 grs. ; tincture of tolu, ; fl. Oz. ; powdered
white sugar, 25 oz. ; dissolve the hydrochlorate
in a little warm water, mix it with the tincture
and the sugar, make a mass with mucilage of
gum tragacanth, q. S., and divide it into 15-gr.
lozenges. Each lozenge contains about ºf gr.
of hydrochlorate of morphia. Used as opium
lozenges, but are pleasanter. The morphia lo/-
enges of the shops generally contain # gr. of
hydrochlorate of morphia. (Pereira.)
2. (With IPECACUANHA; TROCHISCI MOR.
PHIE IT IPECACUANHAE—Ph. E.) As the last,
adding of ipecacuanha, 1 dr. Each lozenge
contains about ºf gr. of hydrochlorate of mor-
phia, and 's gr. of ipecacuanha. Anodyne and
expectorant; in tickling coughs, &c., and to
allay pain.
3. Hydrochlorate of morphia, 20 grs. ; tinc.
ture of tolu, 3 oz. ; refined sugar, in powder,
24 oz. ; gum arabic, in powder, 1 oz. ; mucilage,
2 oz., or a sufficiency; boiling distilled water,
! oz. Divide the mass into 720 lozenges. Each
lozenge contains ºr gr. of hydrochlorate of
morphia.--Dose. 1 or 2 occasionally, for
cough.
L0Zenges, Morphia and Ipecacuanha. Sym.
TROCHISCI MORPHIA. ET IPECACUANHAE (B.P.)
Hydrochlorate of morphia, 20 grs. ; ipecacu-
anha, in fine powder, 60 grs. ; tincture of tolu,
# oz. ; refined sugar, in powder, 24 oz. ; gum
arabic, in powder, 1 oz. ; mucilage, 2 ozs, or a
Useful to allay the irritation in
The preparations of marsh-mallow
have always been highly esteemed as pectorals
Syn. TROCHISCI MINII
Syn. TROCHISCI MOR.
PHIE (B.P., Ph. E.), T.M. HYDROCHLORATIS, L.


LOZENGES.
723
sufficiency; distilled water, 3 oz. ; divide the
mass into 720 lozenges. Each lozenge con-
tains ºr grs. of hydrochlorate of morphia and
*; gr. of ipecacuanha.--Dose. 1 or 2 occasion-
ally, for cough.
Lozenges, Nitre. Syn. TROCHISCI NITRICI,
L. Prep. 1. (Ph. E. 1783.) Nitre, 3 oz. ; white
sugar, 9 oz. ; mucilage of tragacanth, q. S. to
mix. Diuretic ; but chiefly sucked, without
swallowing, to remove incipient sore throat.
2. (Camphorated; TROCHISCI NITRI CAM-
PHORATI, L.-Chaussier. Each lozenge con-
tains . gr. of opium, . gr. of camphor, and 1 gr.
of nitre. In hoarseness, sore throat, &c.
Lozenges, Nut’meg. Syn. TROCHISCI MY-
RISTICE, L. From oil of nutmeg, 1 fl. dr., to
each lb. of sugar, and coloured with infusion
of saffron. Carminative and stomachic ; in
colic, &c.
Lozenges, 0'pium. Syn. ANODYNE LOZ-
ENGES ; TROCHISCI OPII (Ph. E.), T. GLYCYR-
RHIZE CUM opio, L. Prep. 1. (B. P., Ph.
E.) Opium (strained), 2 drs. ; tincture of tolu,
3 oz. ; triturate together, add of powdered
sugar, 6 oz. ; extract of liquorice (soft) and
powdered gum acacia, of each, 5 oz. ; mix, and
divide into 10-gr. lozenges. Each lozenge con-
tains to 3 gr. of opium. Used to allay tick-
ling cough and irritation of the fauces, and as
an anodyne and hypnotic.
2. (Ph. U. S.) Opium (in fine powder),
2 drs. ; extract of liquorice, gum arabic, and
Sugar, of each, 5 oz. ; oil of aniseed, ; fl. dr. ;
water, q. S.; divide into 6-gr. lozenges. Each
lozenge contains tº gr. of opium. As the
last.
3. Extract of opium, 72 grs. ; tincture of
tolu, 3 oz. ; refined sugar (in powder), 2 oz. ;
extract of liquorice, 6 oz. ; distilled water, a
sufficiency. Divide the mass into 720 lozenges.
Each lozenge contains ºf gr. of extract of
opium,_-Dose. 1 to 2 lozenges.
Lozenges, Or'ange. Syn. TROCHISCI AU-
RANTII, L. From oil of orange, 1}; fl. dr. to
each lb. of sugar, and infusion of saffron for
colouring. By adding nitric or tartaric acid,
3 drs., ‘ACIDULATED ORANGE LOZENGES’ will
be formed.
Lozenges, Orange-flow'er. Syn. TROCHISCI
AURANTII FLORUM, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) Pow-
dered sugar, 1 lb. ; neroli, 1 dr. ; orange-flower
water, q. S.; make it into drops (pastilli); or,
omit the water, and make it into lozenges with
mucilage of tragacanth made with orange-
flower water. Delightfully fragrant.
Lozenges, Or'ris-root. Syn. TRocłIISCI IRI-
DIS, L. Prep. From orris-root (in very fine
powder), 1 oz. ; sugar, 1 lb. ; mucilage of tra-
gacanth, q. S. to mix. Used to perfume the
breath.
Lozenges, 0x'alate of Potassa. Syn. TRO-
CHISCI POTASSE OXALATIS, T. P. SUPER-OXA-
TATIS, L. As ACIDULATED TOZENGES, but
using quadraoxalate of potassa (salt of sorrel)
instead of tartaric acid. (See below.)
Lozenges, Oxalic Acid. Syn. TROCHISCI
ACIDI OXALICI, L. As ACIDULATED TOZENGES,
but using oxalic acid instead of tartaric acid.
The last two are refrigerant, but their use is
objectionable, especially for patients who la-
bour under the oxalic diathesis. In large
quantities they are poisonous. -
Lozenges, Paregoric. Syn. TROCHISCI PA-
REGORICI, L. Medicated with 2 fl. oz. of
paregoric, and 2 drs. of tartaric acid, to each
lb. of sugar, and tinged of a pink colour with
lake or cochineal. As a pectoral in catarrhs,
&c.
Lozenges, Paullinºia. Syn. TROCHISCI PAUL-
LINIAE, T. GUARANE, L. Prep. (Dr. Gavrelle.)
Each lozenge contains nearly . gr. of extract
of garana or paullinia, and is flavoured with
vanilla. 12 to 20 daily, as an alternative and
tonic ; in chlorosis, diarrhoea, &c.
Iozenges, Pectoral. Syn. TROCHISCIPEC-
TORALES, T. BECHICI, L. Prep. 1. (Dr.
Grunn.) Powdered squills, 4 parts; extract of
lettuce, ‘8 parts; ipecacuanha, 18 parts;
manna, 125 parts; sugar, 250 parts; mucilage
of tragacanth, q. S. to mix.
2. (Magendie.) See EMETINE LOZENGES.
3. (BLACK ; T. BECHICI NIGRI.) See LI-
QUORICE LOZENGES.
4. (WHITE : T. BECHICI AIBI.) Orris root,
4 drs. ; liquorice powder, 6 drs. ; starch, 1% oz. ;
sugar, 18 oz. ; mucilage of tragacanth, q. S. to
make a lozenge-mass.
5. (YELLow ; T. BECHICI FIAv1.) Pow-
dered orris root, 6 drs. ; starch, 4 drs. ; liquo-
rice powder, 3 drs.; Saffron, 2 drs.; sugar, 8 oz.;
mucilage of tragacanth, q. S. to mix.
Obs. All the above are used as demulcents
in coughs, colds, &c. Nos. 1 and 2 are ano-
dyne as well as demulcent. For other for-
mulæ, see COUGH LozENGES, LIQUORICE L.,
OPIUM. L., &c.
Lozenges, Pellitory. Syn. TROCHISCI PY-
RETHRI, L. Prep. From pellitory, mastic,
and tragacanth, of each, in fine powder, equal


parts; orange-flower water, q. S. to mix. In
toothache.
Lozenges, Peppermint. Syn. TROCHISCI
MENTHAE PIPERITAF, L. Prep. 1. (P. Cod.)
Oil of peppermint, 1 dr. ; powdered sugar,
16 oz. ; mucilage of tragacanth, q. s.
2. (Ph. U. S.) Oil of peppermint, 1 fl. dr. ;
sugar, 12 oz. ; mucilage of tragacanth, q. S.
3. (Wholesale.) 1.fl. dr. of the finest Mitcham
oil of peppermint to each lb. of the finest double
refined white sugar, with mucilage of either
gum arabic or tragacanth to mix.
Obs. The best peppermint lozenges are
made of the very finest double refined sugar,
and of English oil of peppermint only; care-
fully mixed up with very clean mucilage. The
commoner qualities are made by employing
inferior lump sugar and foreign oil of pepper-
mint, or, what is better, English oil of pepper-
mint, but in a less proportion than for the
better sorts. The addition of starch, in quan-
tity varying from to ; of the whole mass
is also commonly made to them ; and in the
724 LOZENGES.
cheapest varieties even plaster of Paris or
chalk is occasionally introduced by unprincipled
makers. The addition of a very small quan-
tity of blue smalts, reduced to an impalpable
powder, is commonly made to the sugar, to
increase its whiteness. “TRANSPARENT’ or
“SEMI-TRANSPARENT PEPPERMENT LOZENGES ’
are made from the same materials as the opaque
ones; but the sugar is not reduced to quite so
fine a powder, and the cake is rolled thinner
before cutting it. A little oil of almonds or
of olives is also occasionally mixed with the
ingredients, to promote the transparency; but
it tends to render the lozenges less white.
Peppermint lozenges and drops are useful
in flatulency, nausea, and griping; and judging
from the enormous and constantly increasing
demand for them, they are more highly es-
teemed by the public than all other lozenges
and confections.
Lozenges, Pontefract. These are made of
the purest refined juice or extract of liquorice,
and have long been esteemed as a demulcent.
Lozenges, Pop'py, Syn. TROCHISCI PAPA-
VERIS, L. Prep. From extract of poppies,
3 oz. ; sugar, 15 oz. ; powdered gum traga-
canth, 2 oz. ; rose water, q. S. to mix. Gºed
in coughs as an anodyne and demulcent, in
lieu of opium lozenges.
Lozenges, Pulmon'ic. See COUGH LOZENGES,
PECTORAL L., WAFERS, &c.
Lozenges, Quimine'. Syn. TROCHISCI QUI-
VINAE SULPHATIS, L. Prep. (Soubeiran.) Each
lozenge contains about I'm gr. of sulphate
(disulphate) of quinine. Tonic, and stoma-
chic, in dyspepsia, &c.; but to render them
useful, the quantity of the alkaloid should be
doubled.
Lozenges, Reduced Iron. Syn. TROCHISCI
FERRI REDACTI. (B.P.) Reduced iron, 720
grs. ; refined sugar, in powder, 25 oz.: gum
arabic, in powder, 1 oz. ; mucilage, 2 oz. ;
distilled water, 1 oz., or a sufficiency. Mix the
iron, sugar, and gum, and add the mucilage
and water to form a proper mass. Divide
into 720 lozenges, and dry them in a hot-air
chamber with a moderate heat. Each lozenge
contains 1 gr. of reduced iron.—Dose. 1 to 6
lozenges.
Lozenges, Rhubarb. Syn. DIGESTIVE LOZ-
ENGES; TROCHISCI RHEI, L. Prep. (P. Cod.)
Powdered rhubarb, 1 oz. ; sugar, 11 oz. ; muci-
lage of tragacanth, q. S.; divide into 12-gr.
lozenges. Stomachic and laxative. Sucked
before dinner, they excite the appetite, and
after it promote digestion. They are fre-
quently aromatized with a little cinnamon or
vanilla. See Candy (Digestive).
Lozenges, Rose. Syn. TROCHISCI ROSA., L.
Prep. 1. (ACIDULATED ; T. R. ACIDAE.) From
otto, 5 to 10 drops; citric or tartaric acid,
3 drs. ; sugar, 1 lb. ; mucilage, q. s.
2. (Ph. E. 1746.) Red-rose leaves (pow-
dered), 1 oz. ; sugar, 12 oz. ; mucilage, q. s.
3. (PATE DE ROSE LOZENGES.) As No. 1,
omitting one half of the acid.
4. (RED ; T. R. RUBRI.) As No. 1; but
coloured with liquid lake, or infusion of
cochineal.
Obs. Some makers add of starch, 4 0Z,
substitute oil of rhodium for otto of roses, and
use mucilage made with rose water; but the
quality of course suffers. They are chiefly
used to perfume the breath. -
Lozenges, Saffrom. Syn. TROCHISCI CROCI,
L. Prep. From hay saffron (in fine powder),
1 oz. ; white sugar, 1 lb. ; mucilage of gum
tragacanth, q. S. to mix. Anodyne, pectoral,
and emmenagogue; but chiefly used to raise
the spirits in hypochondriasis.
Lozenges, Santomime. Syn. TASTELESS WORM
LOZENGES; TROCHISCI SANTONINI, L. Each
lozenge contains ; gr. (nearly) of Santonine,
5 to 10 daily, as a vermifuge. -
Lozenges, Soda. Syn. TROCHISCI SODE
BICARBONATIS (Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph.
E.) Bicarbonate of soda, 1 oz. ; powdered
gum arabic, , oz. ; sugar, 3 oz. ; mucilage,
. S.
Q. 2. (Wholesale.) From bicarbonate of soda
and powdered gum tragacanth, of each, 20Z, ;
double refined lump sugar, $ lb. ; rose water,
q. s. to mix. In acidity, heartburn, &c. See
WICHY LOZENGES.
3. (With GINGER ; TROCHISCI SODE IT.
ZINGIBERIS, L. To the last, add of ginger
(in very fine powder), 1% oz. ; powdered gum,
# 0Z. -
Lozenges, Squills. Syn. TROCHISCI SCILLE,
L. 1. Each lozenge contains gr. of powdered
squills and 2 grs. of extract of liquorice.
2. (With IPECACUANHA; TROCHISCI scILLE
ET IPECACUANHAE, L. As the last, adding for
each lozenge # gr. of powdered ipecacuhanà,
Both the above are useful cough lozenges.
Lozenges, Starch. Syn. TROCHISCI AMYII,
T. BECHICI ALBI, L. See PECTORAL LOZ.
IENGES.
Lozenges, Steel. Syn. TROCHISCI FERRI, T,
CHALYBEATI, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) Levigated
iron filings, 1 oz. ; sugar, 10 oz. ; cinnamon,
2 drs. ; mucilage of tragacanth, q. s. ; mix, and
divide into 480 lozenges. Tonic. See IRON
LOZENGES.
Lozenges, Sul’phur. Syn. TROCHISCI SUI.
PHURIs, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) From sulphur
(pure precipitate), 2 oz. ; sugar, 16 oz, ; mu-
cilage of tragacanth (made with rose water),
q. S. to mix. Useful in piles and some skin
diseases.
Lozenges, Tammic Acid. Syn. TROCHISCIACIDI
TANNICI (B.P.) Tannic acid, 360 grs.; tinc.
ture of tolu, ; oz. ; refined sugar, 25 oz. ; guin
acacia, 1 oz. ; mucilage, 2 oz. ; distiiled water,
1 oz. Dissolve the tannic acid in the water;
add first the tincture of tolu previously mixed
with the mucilage, then the gum and the
sugar, also previously well mixed. Form the
whole into a proper mass, divide into 720
lozenges, and dry them in a hot-air chamber
with a moderate heat. Each lozenge contains
A gr. of tannic acid.--Dose, 1 to 6 lozenges,



LUCIFERS–LUTE. 725
Lozenges, Tarta'ric Acid. See ACIDULATED
LOzENGES.
Lozenges, Tolu'. Syn. BALSAMIC LOZENGES :
TROCHISCITOLUTANI, T. BALSAMICAE, L. Prep.
1. (P. Cod.) Balsam of tolu and rectified
spirit, of each, 1 oz. ; dissolve, add of water,
2 fl. oz., heat the mixture in a water bath, and
filter; make a mucilage with the filtered
liquid, and gum tragacanth (in powder), 80 gr.;
add of sugar, 16 oz. ; make a mass, and cut it
into lozenges.
2. (Wholesale.) As the last, but using only
one half the weight of balsam of tolu. Pectoral
and balsamic.
Iozenges, Tronchin's. Syn. TABLETTES DE
TRONCHIN, Fr. See Cou GH LOZENGES.
Lozenges, Vanilla. Syn. TROSCHISCI VA-
NILLAE, L. Prep. 1. Essence of vanilla, 3 fl. dr.,
to each lb. of sugar.
2. (Guibourt.) From vanilla triturated to a
fine powder with 7 times its weight of sugar.
Antispasmodic, nervine, and stomachic. Used
to sweeten the breath, to flavour chocolate,
&c.
Lozenges, Vichy. Syn. D'ARCET's LozRN-
GES; TROCHISCI sopæ, L.; PASTILLES DE
VICHY, Fr. Prep. 1. (P. Cod.) Bicarbonate
of soda, 1 oz. ; powdered sugar, 19 oz. ; muci-
lage of gum tragacanth, q. s. ; mix, and divide
into 20-gr. lozenges.
2. (D’Arcet.) As the last, adding a little
oil of pepperment to give a slight flavour.
Antacid or absorbent; in heartburn, &c.
Lozenges, Violet. Syn. TROCHISCI VIOLAE,
T. VIOLARUM, L. Prep. Orris lozenges co-
loured with the juice of violets.
Lozenges, Wistar's Cough. Prep. Gum
arabic, extract of liquorice, and sugar, of each,
2} oz. ; powdered opium, 1 dr. ; oil of aniseed,
40 drops; for 60 lozenges. One, three or four
times a day.
Lozenges, Worm. Syn. TROCHISCI ANTHEL-
MINTICI, MoRSULI CONTRA VERMES, L. Most
of the advertised nostrums under this name
have a basis of calomel (about 1 gr. per lozenge),
and require to be followed by a purge a few
hours afterwards.
1. (Ph. Austr. 1836.) Ethereal extract of
wormseed, 1 dr.; jalap, starch, and sugar, of
each, 2 drs. ; mucilage of gum tragacanth, q. s. ;
divide into 60 lozenges.
2. (Ph. Dan. 1840.) Wormseed, 1 oz. ;
ethiops mineral and jalape, of each, 3 drs. ;
cinnamon, 2 drs. ; sugar, 7 oz, ; rose water,
q. s. See CALOMEL, CHING.'s, SANTONINE
LozENGES, &c. (above).
Lozenges, Zinc, Syn. TRocIIISCI ZINCI, T.
z. SULPHATIs, L. Prep. (Dr. Copland.) Each
lozenge contains & gr. of sulphate of zinc. An-
tispasmodic, expectorant, and tomic ; and in
quantity emetic.
LU'CIFERS. See MATCHES.
LUMIBA'G0, Rheumatism of the loins. It
s distinguished from nephritis, or inflamma-
tion of the kidneys, by the pain being aggra-
wated on stooping. The treatment consists of
strong stimulant embrocations or limiments, or
of blisters over the part affected, with active
aperients, warmth, and diaphoretics (as Dover's
powder) at bedtime. The hot or vapour bath
often gives almost immediate relief, See RHEU-
MATISM.
LU/MINOUS PHIAL. See PHOSPHORUS.
IU'NA CORNEA. [L.] Syn. HoRN SILVER,
Fused chloride of silver.
LU'NAR CAUSTIC. Fused nitrate of silver.
See CAUSTIC and SILVER, -
LUNGS. In anatomy, the organ of re-
spiration occupying the thorax or chest. See
RESPIRATION. -
IU'PULIN. Syn. LUPULINA, LUPULINE.
Under this mame two products are known,
namely—1. (LUPULINIC GRAINs, L. GLANDs.)
The yellow powder obtained from the dried
strobiles or catkins of the hops, by gently rub-
bing and sifting them.—Dose. 5 to 10 grs. ;
as an anodyne, tonic, &c.
2. The aromatic bitter principle of hops.
Prep. The aqueous extract of the yellow
powder or lupulinic grains of the strobiles, along
with a little lime, are treated with rectified
spirit; the filtered tincture is evaporated to
dryness, redissolved in water, and the solution
is again filtered, and evaporated to dryness;
the residuum is, lastly, washed with ether, and
allowed to dry.
Prop., &c. The latter product is a yellow-
ish-white, bitter, uncrystallisable substance,
soluble in 20 parts of water, very soluble in
alcohol, and slightly so in ether. The yellow
powder above alluded to (No. 1) is improperly
called lupulin; a name which appears more
appropriate to the pure bitter principle than
to the lupulinic grains.
Adult. The lupulin sold to brewers is
largely adulterated with quassia. In some
samples, lately examined, the quassia amounted
to 70 per cent.
LU'PUS. In pathology, a disease affecting
the skin, remarkable for eating away the
parts which it attacks with extreme rapidity.
It is generally confined to the face, and com-
mences with small, spreading ulcerations,
which become more or less concealed beneath
bran-like scabs, and end in ragged ulcers,
which gradually destroy the skin and muscular
tissue to a considerable depth.
LUSTRE. See PLUMBAGO.
LUTE. Syn. LUTING ; LUTUM, CEMEN-
TUM, L. A composition employed to secure
the joints of chemical vessels) or as a covering
to protect them from the violence of the fire.
Prep. 1. Linseed meal, either alone or
mixed with an equal weight of whiting, and
made into a stiff paste with water. It soon
becomes very hard and tough.
2. Ground almond cake, from which the oil
has been pressed, mixed up as the last. Both
the above are much used for stills, retorts,
and other vessels that are not exposed to a
heat higher than about 320° Fahr. They are
capable of resisting the action of the fumes of



726
LYCOPODIUM-MAIDDER,
volatile oils, spirits, weak acids, &c., for some
time.
3. Fresh-slaked lime made into a paste with
strained bullock’s blood or size. As the last.
4. Plaster of Paris made into a paste with
water, and at once applied. It bears a nearly
red heat, but becomes rather porous and
£riable. -
5. Powdered clay or whiting made into
putty with water and boiled linseed oil. This
is commonly known as ‘fat lute.”
6. A mixture of powdered clay and ground
bricks, made up with water or a solution of
borax. For joining crucibles, &c., which are
to be exposed to a strong heat.
7. Pipe-clay and horse-dung, made into a
paste with water. As a coating for glass ves-
sels, to preserve them from injury from ex-
posure to the fire. This composition is used
by the pipe-makers, and will stand unharmed
the extremest heat of their kiln for 24 hours.
It is applied by spreading it on paper.
8. As the last, but employing shredded tow
or plumbago for horse-dung.
Obs. For the joints of small vessels, as tubes,
&c., especially those of glass or earthenware,
pieces of vulcanized Indian tubing, slipped over
and tied above and below the joint, are very
convenient substitutes for lutes, and have the
advantage of lasting for a long time, and
bearing uninjured the heat at which oil of
vitriol boils. Flat rings or “washers” of vul-
canised rubber are also excellent for still heads,
&c., whenever the parts can be pinched to-
gether by screws or clamps.
LYCOPO'DIUM. The fine powder known in
commerce under this name consists of the
minute spores of the common club moss, or
Lycopodium clavatum. It is exceedingly com-
bustible; thrown suddenly from a powder-puff
or bellows across the flame of a candle, it pro-
duces the imitation flashes of lightning of our
theatres. The powder is also employed as a
‘dusting powder” in excoriations, and to roll
up boluses and pills.
MIACARO'N'I. This only differs from VER-
MICELLI in the size of the pipes, which are
about as large as a goose-quill. When pro-
perly dressed, it is very wholesome and nutri-
tious. A pleasant dish may be made by boiling
macaroni in water until soft, either with or
without a little salt, draining off the water, and
then stewing it with a little butter, cream, or
milk, and grated cheese, adding spice to palate.
It may be made into a “form and browned
before the fire. -
MAC'AR00NS (English). Prep. Take of
sweet almonds, 1 lb.; blanch and beat them to
a paste, add of lump sugar 14 lb. ; whites of 6
eggs; the grated yellow peel of 2 lemons; mix
well, make it into ‘forms, cover with wafer
paper, and bake in a moderate oven.
MACE. Syn. MACIS, L. The tough mem-
branous, lacerated, covering (ariliode) of the
NUTMEG. It has a flavour and odour more
agreeable than that of nutmeg, which in its
general properties it resembles. It is used as
a flavouring by cooks, confectioners, and liquor.
istes; and in medicine as a carminative,
OIL, &c.
MACERATION. Syn. MACERATIO, L. The
steeping of a substance in cold water, for the
purpose of extracting the portion soluble in
See -
that menstruum. The word is also frequently
applied to the infusion of organic substances
in alcohol or ether, or in water, either alka.
lised or acidulated.
MACK'EREI. The Scomber scombrus (Linn),
a well-known spiny-finned sea-fish, much es.
teemed at certain seasons for the table. Though
nutritious, it is very apt to disagree with deli.
cate stomachs, and occasionally induces symp-
toms resembling those of poisoning.
MAD/DER. Syn. RUBIA, RUBLE RADIX, L.
The root of Rubia tinctorum (Linn.), or dyer's
madder. The best madder has the size of a
common goose-quill, a reddish appearance, and
a strong odour. As soon as the roots are
taken from the ground they are picked and
dried; and before use they are ground in a
mill.
is imported whole; French, Dutch, and Zea.
land madder, ground. The finest quality of
Levant, Turkey, and Smyrna madder,
ground madder is called ‘crop' or ‘grappe;’
‘ombro' and ‘gamene’ are inferior sorts, and
* mull’ the worst.
Madder contains several distinct principles,
as—madder red, or alizarin;–madder purple,
or purpurin;–madder orange, or rubiacin;–
madder yellow, or xanthin, &c. The first of
these (noticed below) is by far the most
important.
Pur. Madder is frequently adulterated with
logwood, Brazil wood, and other dye-stuffs of
inferior value; and also, not unfrequently,
with brick-dust, red ochre clay, Sand, maho.
gany saw-dust, bran, &c. These admixtures
may be detected as follows: -
1. When dried at 212° Fahr., and then
incinerated, not more than 10% to 12% of ash
should be left. -
2. It should not lose more than 50% to 56%
by exhaustion with cold water.
3. When assayed for alizarin (see below), the
quantity of this substance obtained should be
equal to that from a sample of the same kind
of madder which is known to be pure, and
which has been treated in precisely the same
manner. The operation may be conducted as
follows:–500 grs. of the sample are weighed,
and, after being dried by the heat of boiling
water or steam, are gradually added to an equal
weight of concentrated sulphuric acid, con-
tained in a glass vessel, and stirred with a glass
rod; after a few hours the charred mass is
washed with cold water, collected on a filter,
and dried by the heat of boiling water; the
carbonised mass (‘garacine') is next powdered,
and treated with successive portions of recti-
fied spirit, to which a little ether has been
added, at first in the cold, and afterwards
MADDER RED-MAGISTERY. 727
with heat, until the liquid is no longer coloured
by it, when the mixed tincture is filtered, and
evaporated (distilled) to dryness; the weight of
the residuum, divided by 5, gives the per-cent-
age of red colouring matter present. Or,
The dried carbonized matter is exhausted by
boiling it in a solution of 1 part of alum in 5
or 6 parts of water, and the decoction, after
being filtered whilst in the boiling state, is
treated with sulphuric acid as long as a preci-
pitate falls, which is washed, dried, and weighed
as before.
Uses, &c. Madder has been given in jaun-
dice and rickets, and as an emmenagogue,
Dose. . dr. to 2 drs., twice or thrice a day. It
is principally employed as a dye-stuff. See
RED DYES, IWORY, PURPURIN, &c., also
below. - -
MADDER RED. Syn. ALIZARIN. C. HsO4.
2 Aq. The red colouring principle of madder,
first obtained in a separate form by Robiquet.
Prep. 1. The aqueous decoction of madder
is treated with dilute sulphuric acid as long as
a precipitate falls, which, after being washed,
is boiled in a solution of chloride of aluminum
as long as it gives o ut colour; the liquid is
then filtered, precipitated with hydrochloric
acid, and the precipitate washed and dried.
It may be purified from a little adhering pur-
purin, by dissolving it in alcohol, again throw-
ing it down with hydrate of aluminum, boil-
ing the precipitate with a strong solution
of soda, and separating the alizarin from its
combination with alumina by means of hy-
drochloric acid; it is lastly crystallised from
alcohol.
2. (Meillet.) Alum, 3 parts, is dissolved in
water at 140°Fahr., 30 parts, and madder, 13
parts, added to the solution; the whole is then
gently boiled for 30 or 40 minutes, after
which it is thrown upon a filter, and sub-
mitted to strong pressure; this treatment is
repeated with fresh solutions a second and a
third time; the mixed filtrates are then de-
canted, and when nearly cold, oil of vitriol, I
part, diluted with twice its bulk of water, is
added, care being taken to stir the liquid all
the time; the supernatant fluid is next de-
canted, and the residuum well washed, and,
lastly, dried in the air. Ifrequired quite pure,
it is dissolved, whilst still moist, in a solution
of 1% times its weight of carbonate of potassa
in 15 parts of water, and, after reprecipitation
with sulphuric acid, is washed and dried as
before.
3. (Robiquet & Colin.) Powdered madder
is exhausted with water of a temperature not
exceeding 68°Fahr., and, after being dried, 1
part of it is boiled for I5 or 20 minutes in a
solution of alum, 8 parts, in water, 40 parts;
the liquid is filtered whilst boiling, the marc
well washed with a fresh solution of alum, the
mixed liquids precipitated with sulphuric acid,
and the precipitate washed and dried, as before.
Obs. Alizarin has recently been produced
artificially by Graebe and Liebermann from
anthracene (CºHo), a liquid hydrocarbon
existing in coal-tar. For a description of the
process see the ‘Journal of the Chemical
Society.”
4. Madder exhausted by 2 or 3 macerations
in 5 or 6 times its weight of cold water, is
submitted to strong pressure, to remove ad-
hering water, and the marc, whilst still moist,
is mixed with # its weight of oil of vitriol di-
luted with an equal quantity of water; the
whole is kept at the temperature of 212° for
an hour, and after being mixed with cold
water is thrown on a linen strainer, well
washed with cold water, and dried.
5. From powered madder and oil of vitriol,
equal parts, without heat, as described under
MADDER. -
6. (F. Steiner.) The ‘used madder’ of the
dye-works is run into filters, and precipitated
with sulphuric acid; the matter thus obtained
is put into bags and rendered as dry as pos-
sible by hydraulic pressure; the pressed cake
is next crumbled to pieces, placed in a leaden
vessel, and treated with 1-5th of its weight of
oil of vitriol, afterwards assisting the action of
the acid by introducing steam to the mixture;
the resulting dark hrown carbonized mass is,
lastly, well washed, dried, powdered, and mixed
with about 5% of carbonate of soda, when it is
ready for sale.
Obs. The last three formulae produce the
* GARANCE' or ‘GARANCINE’ of commerce, now
so extensively used in dyeing.
Prop., &c. Pure anhydrous alizarin crys-
tallises in magnificent orange-red crystals,
which may be fused and sublimed; it is freely
soluble in alkaline solutions, which it colours
purple or violet; and in oil of vitriol, giving
a rich red colour; water throws it down from
the last unchanged; it is also soluble in hot
alcohol, a hot solution of alum, and, less freely,
in hot water. Hydrated alizarin occurs in
small scales resembling mosaic gold. When
impure, it generally forms shining reddish-
brown scales. Commercial ‘garancine' is a
deep brown or puce-coloured powder, and will
probably, ere long, entirely supersede crude
madder for dyeing. The properties of garan-
cine as a dye-stuff are precisely similar to those
of madder. A solution of alum added to a
solution of alizarin, and precipitated by car-
bonate of potassa, furnishes a rose lake;
which, after being washed with water and
dried, possesses a most charming tint.
MAGILP'. Syn. MEGELLUP. A mixture of
pale linseed oil and mastic varnish, employed
by artists as a ‘vehicle' for their colours. The
proportions vary according to the work. It
is thinned with turpentine.


MAGISTERY. Syn. MAGISTERIUM, L. The
old name of precipitates. The following are
the principal substances to, which this term
has been applied:–MAGIST|,IY or ALUM, hy-
drate of alumina; M. OF BISMUTH, sub-ni-
trate of bismuth ; M. OF DIAPHORETIC AN-
TIMONY, washed diaphoretic antimony; M. of
728
MAGNESIA—MAGNESIUM.
OPIUM (Ludolph's), crude morphia; M. OF
LAPIs CALAMINARIs or M. OF ZINC, hydrated
oxide of zinc.
MAGNESIA. See MAGNESIUM, OXIDE OF.
MAGNESIAN APE"RIENT (Éffervescing).
Prep. 1. Heavy carbonate of magnesia,
2 lbs.; tartaric acid and double refined lump
sugar, of each 1} lb.; bicarbonate of soda
(dried without heat), 1 lb.; each separately
dried and in very fine powder; essential oils of
orange and lemon, of each, ; fl. dr. ; mix well
in a warm, dry situation, pass the whole through
a sieve, put it into warm, dry bottles, and keep
them well corked.
2. As the last, but substituting calcined
magnesia, 1 lb., for the heavy carbonate, and
adding sugar, #.lb. The preceding furnish a
very pleasant effervescing saline draught.
3. (Moxon’s.)—a. Take of sulphate of mag-
nesia, 2 lbs. ; dry it by a gradually increased
heat, powder, add of tartaric acid (also dried
and powdered), 14 lb.; calcined magnesia, 3 lb.;
finely powdered white sugar, 3 lbs.; bicarbonate
of soda (dried without heat), 1 lb.: essence of
lemon, 1 dr. ; mix, and proceed as before.
b. (Durande.) Carbonate of magnesia, 1
part; bicarbonate of soda, tartrate of soda and
potassa (sel de Seignette), and bartaric acid, of
each, 2 parts; mix as before.
c. (Pharm. Journ.) Sulphate of magnesia
and bicarbonate of soda, of each, 1 lb.: tar-
taric acid, 3 lb. ; mix as before. The last two
are much less agreeable than the others.
4. Carbonate of magnesia, 2 parts; calcined
magnesia, 4 parts; citric acid, 13 parts; lump
sugar, 25 parts; essence of lemon, q. S. to fla-
vour. Very agreeable. This is known as
* ROGjá’s PURGATIF.”
Obs. The above are very useful and popu-
lar medicines in indigestion, heartburn, nausea,
habitual costiveness, dyspepsia, &c.—Dose.
# to 2 dessert-spoonfuls, thrown into tum-
bler 3 parts filled with cold water, rapidly
stirred and drunk whilst effervescing, early in
the morning fasting, or between breakfast and
dinner.
MAGNESIAN LEMIONADE'. See CITRATE OF
MAGNESIA (above) and LEMONADE (Aperient).
MAGNE'SIUM. Mg. Syn. MAGNIUM, TAL-
CIUM. The metallic radical of magnesia. The
existence of this metal was demonstrated by
Sir H. Davy, in 1808; but it was first ob-
tained in sufficient quantity to examine its pro-
perties by Bussy, in 1830.
* Prep. 5 or 6 pieces of sodium, about the size
of peas, are introduced into a test-tube, and
covered with small fragments of chloride of
magnesium; the latter is then heated to near
its point of fusion, when the flame of the lamp
is applied to the sodium, so that its vapour
may pass through the stratum of heated chlo-
ride; when the vivid incandescence that fol-
lows is over, anºhe whole has become cold,
the mass is throw," ºnto water, and the insoluble
metallic portion cóllected and dried.
Commercial magnesium is prepared by eva-
porating solution of the chlorides of sodium and
magnesium, in the proportion of 1 to 3, to dry-
ness, mixing with one quarter of its weight of
fluor spar and a like amount of sodium, and
heating to bright redness in an iron crucible of
proper construction.
On a larger scale it is prepared by heating
to redness a mixture of chloride of magnesium,
9 parts; fused chloride of sodium, 1% parts;
fluoride of calcium, 1% parts; and sodium in
slices, 1% parts.
Prop., &c. In colour and lustre it resembles
silver, but in chemical properties is more like
zinc ; its sp. gr. is only 1743; it is malleable;
fusible at a red heat, and can be distilled like
zinc ; unaffected by dry air and by cold water;
burns with brilliancy when heated to dull red.
ness in air or oxygen gas, yielding oxide of
magnesium; inflames spontaneously in chlorine,
yielding chloride of magnesium ; it dissolves
in the acids with the evolution of hydrogen
gas, and pure salts of magnesium result.
illuminating
night, and also for the purpose of affording a
brilliant light for microscopic and magic lantern
effects.
Magnesium, Carbonate of (Light). Syn,
LIGHT CARBONATE OF MAGNESIA; CARBONATE
OF MAGNESIA; MAGNESIA ; MAGNESIE CAR-
BONAs LEVIS (B.P.) Prep. 1. (Ph.L.) Sulphate
of magnesium, 4 lbs., and carbonate of sodium,
4 lbs. 9 oz. ; boiling distilled water, 4 galls.;
dissolve the salts separately in one half the
water, filter, mix the solutions, and boil for
2 hours, constantly stirring with a spatula,
and dry it. The formulae of the Ph. E. & D.
are essentially the same, except that the ebul.
lition is limited to from 10 to 20 minutes.
2. (B.P.) Similar to the foregoing except
that precipitation takes place in the cold. The
formula of this compound is (Mg. CO);
Mg(HO)s.4H2O).
3. (HENRY's.) Ordinary carbonate of mag:
nesia, the washing of which has been finished
with a little rose water.
4. Add a solution of carbonate of potassium
or sodium to the bittern or residuary liquor of
the sea-salt works, and well wash and dry the
precipitate as before. This is known in com-
merce as ‘Scotch magnesia.”
Obs. The carbonate of magnesia of com-
merce is usually made up into cakes or dice,
while drying; or it is permitted to drain and
dry in masses, which are then cut into squares
with a thin knife. It is powdered by simply
rubbing it through a wire sieve. The pre-
sence of iron in the solution of the sulphate of
magnesium, when the crude salt is employed,
and which is destructive to the beauty of the
preparation may be got rid of by the addition
of lime water until the liquor acquires a slight
It has been used somewhat extensively as an .
agent for photographing at
distilled water being frequently added to com.
pensate for that lost by evaporation; lastly,
the solution being poured off, wash the pre-
cipitated powder with boiling distilled water,



MAGNESIUM. - 729
alkaline reaction and subsequent decantation
after repose.
Magnesium, Carbonate of (Heavy). Syn.
HEAVY CARBONATE OF MAGNESIA; MAGNESIAE
CARBONAs (B. P.). Prep. 1. Apothecaries'
Hall.
magnesium, 1 part, is diluted with water,
3 parts, and the mixture heated to the boil-
ing-point; a cold saturated solution of car-
bonate of sodium, 1 part (all by measure), is
then added, and the whole is boiled with con-
stant agitation until effervescence ceases; boil-
ing water is next freely poured in, and after
assiduous stirring for a few minutes, and re-
pose, the clear liquid is decanted, and the pre-
cipitate thrown on a limen cloth and tho-
roughly washed with hot water; it is, lastly,
drained, and dried in an iron pot.
2. (Ph.D.) Dissolve sulphate of magnesium,
10 oz., in boiling distilled water, , pint; and
carbonate of sodium (cryst.), 12 oz., in boiling
distilled water, 1 pint; mix the two solutions,
and evaporate the whole to dryness by the
heat of a sand bath; then add of boiling water,
1 quart, digest with agitation for half an hour,
and wash the insoluble residuum as before ;
lastly, drain it, and dry it at the temperature
of boiling water.
3. (B. P.) White granular powder precipi-
tated from a boiling solution of sulphate of
magnesium by a solution of carbonate of
sodium, the whole evaporated to dryness, and
the dry residue digested in water, collected on
a filter, and washed.
them together whilst very hot, a very heavy
precipitate is obtained, but it is apt to be
gritty or crystalline. The same occurs when
cold solutions are mixed, and no heat is em-
ployed. The lightest precipitate is obtained
A saturated solution of sulphate of from cold, highly dilute solutions, and sub-
sequent ebullition of the mixture.
Mr. Pattinson, a chemist of Gateshead, pre-
pares a very beautiful and pure heavy carbonate
from magnesian limestone. The latter is cal-
cined at a dull red heat (not hotter) for some
time, by which the carbonic anhydride is expelled
from the carbonate of magnesium, but not from
the carbonate of calcium, which hence con-
tinues insoluble. The calcined mass is next re-
duced to a milk with water in a suitable cistern,
and the carbonic anhydride resulting from its
own calcination forced into it under powerful
pressure. The result is a saturated solution of
carbonate of magnesium, the lime remaining
unacted on so long as the magnesia is in ex-
cess. The solution by evaporation yields the
heavy carbonate, whilst carbonic anhydride is
expelled, and may be again used in the same
manufacture. 154 to 160 grs. of the heavy
carbonate are required to fill an ounce measure
when lightly placed in it, by which it appears
to be fully thrice as dense as the light car-
bonate. The bicarbonate of magnesium (mag-
nesiae bicarbonas, L.) exists only in solution.
The so-called “fluid magnesias’ of Murray,
Dinneford, Husband, &c., are solutions of this
salt. The small prismatic crystals which are
deposited when “fluid magnesia’ is exposed to
Prop. The ordinary or light carbonate of the air for some time consist of hydrated neu-
magnesia is a white, inodorous, tasteless pow-
der, possessing similar properties to calcined
magnesia, except effervescing with acids, and
having less saturating power. An ounce mea-
sure is filled by 45 to 48 grs. of the powder
lightly placed in it. The heavy carbonate is
sometimes fully thrice as dense (see below), but
in other respects is similar.
Dose. As an antacid, to a whole teaspoonful,
3 or 4 times daily; as a laxative,ſ} dr. to 2 drs.
It is commonly taken in milk. It is apt to
produce flatulence, but in other respects is
preferable to calcined magnesia.
General remarks. Although commonly
called ‘carbonate of magnesia,” the above
substance, whether in the light or heavy form,
appears to be a compound of carbonate with
hydrate, in proportions which are not per-
fectly constant. (For B. P. formula see pre-
ceding article.) On account of the excess of
base in its composition, it was formerly re-
garded as a subsalt (subcarbonate of mag-
nesia). A great deal has been written use-
lessly respecting the preparation of these
carbonates, about which, however, there is
neither mystery nor difficulty, as some writers
would lead their readers to suppose. If the
solutions are very dilute, the precipitate is
exceedingly light and bulky; if otherwise, it
is denser. By employing nearly saturated
Solutions, and then heating them and mixing
tral carbonate, and not bicarbonate, as is some-
times stated.
Magnesium, Chloride of MgCl2. Syn. MAG-
NESII CHLORIDUM, L. Prep. (Liebig,) By
dissolving magnesia in hydrochloric acid, eva-
porating to dryness, adding an equal weight
of chloride of ammonium, projecting the mix-
ture into a red-hot platinum crucible, and
continuing the heat till a state of tranquil
fusion is attained. On cooling, it forms a
transparent, colourless, and very deliquescent
mass, which is anhydrous, and soluble in
alcohol.
Obs. Without the addition of the chloride of
ammonium, it is impossible to expel the last
portion of the water, without at the same time
driving off the chlorine, in which case nothing
but magnesia is left. The fused mass should
be poured out on a clean stone, and when
solid, broken into pieces, and at once trans-
ferred to a warm, dry bottle. The P. Cod.
orders the solution to be evaporated to the sp.
gr. 1384, and to be put, whilst still hot, into
a wide-mouthed flask to crystallise.—Dose. 1
to 4 drs. ; as a laxative.
* Magnesium, Cit'rate of Mg(C6H5O)2. Syn.
nº. CITRAs, L. Prep. There is some
difficulty in obtaining this salt in an eligible
form for medicinal purposes. When precipi-
tated from a solution, it is insoluble. The
following formulae can be highly recommended.


730 - - MAGNESIUM.
1. (Parrish.) Dissolve crystallized citric acid,
100 gr, in water, 15 drops, and its own “water
of crystallization’ by the aid of heat; then stir
in calcined magnesia, 35 gr, ; a pasty mass will
result, which soon hardens, and may be pow-
dered for use.
Obs. The chief practical difficulty in this
process results from the great comparative
bulk of the magnesia, and the very small
quantity of the fused mass with which it is to
be incorporated. A part of the magnesia is
almost unavoidably left uncombined, and the
Salt is consequently not neutral. The uncom-
bined earth should be dusted off the mass be-
fore powdering the latter. A high tempera-
ture must be avoided.
2. (Robiquet.) Citric acid, 354 parts, is
powdered and dissolved in boiling water, 10;
parts; when the solution is cold, and before it
crystallizes, it is poured in a wide earthen
vessel, kept cold by surrounding it with water;
then, by means of a sieve, carbonate of mag-
nesium, 21% parts, is distributed evenly and
rapidly over the surface without stirring; when
the reaction ceases, the mixture is beaten
rapidly as long as it retains its pasty consis-
tence. The salt should be dried at a tempera-
ture not exceeding 70° Fahr.
3. Effervescing ; MAGNESIE CITRAS EF-
FERVESCENS, L.)—a. Citric acid (dried and
powdered), 7 parts; heavy carbonate of mag-
nesium, 5 parts; mix, and preserve in well-
corked bottles.
b. (Ellis.) Mix powdered citric acid 2% oz.,
with powdered sugar, 8 oz. ; triturate to a fine
powder, and drive off the water of crystalliza-
tion by the heat of a water bath; add citrate
of magnesium (prepared by fusion), 4 oz., and
oil of lemons, 10 drops, and mix intimately;
then add bicarbonate of sodium, 3 oz., and
again triturate until the whole forms a fine
owder, which must be preserved in stoppered
bottles. From 1 to 3 table-spoonfuls, mixed in
a tumbler of water, furnishes an effervescing
draught in which the undissolved portion is so
nicely suspended, that it can be taken without
inconvenience.
c. (Extemporaneous.) Citric acid (cryst.),
20 grs. ; carbonate of magnesium, I4 grs. ;
mix in a tumbler of cold water, and drink
the mixture whilst effervescing. A pleasant
Saline.
Obs. A dry white powder, sometimes sold
as citrate of magnesia in the shops, is quite a
different preparation to the above, and does
not contain a particle of citric acid. The
following formula is that of a wholesale
London drug-house that does largely in this
article :-
Calcined magnesia, magnesium oxide, 13 lb.
(or carbonate, 2 lbs.); powdered tartaric acid,
1} lb.; bicarbonate of sodium, 1 lb.; dry each
article by a gentle heat, then mix them, pass
the mixture through a fine sieve in a warm
dry room, and keep it in well-corked bottles.
A few drops of essence of lemon and 3 lbs. of
finely powdered sugar are commonly added to
the above quantity. This addition renders it
more agreeable.
Prop., &c. Citrate of magnesium is a mild
and agreeable laxative; its secondary effects
resemble those of the carbonate.--Dose. As a
purgative, # to 1 oz. The dose of the effer.
vescing citrate must depend on the quantity
of magnesia present. A solution of this salt
in water, sweetened and flavoured with lemon,
forms magnesian lemonade.
Magnesium, Boro-citºrate of. Syn. MAGNESIE
BORO-CITRAS, L. Prep. (Cadet.) Boracic acid
(in powder), 113 grs. ; oxide of magnesium,
80 grs. ; mix in a porcelain capsule, and add
enough of a soluiion of citric acid, 260 grs,
in water, 3% pints, to form a thin paste; then
add the remainder of the citric solution, and
gently evaporate, with constant stirring, to
dryness. A cooling saline, and, in small doses,
emumenagogue and lithontriptic.—Dose. As an
aperient, 3 to 6 drs.
Magnesium, Oxide of MgO. Syn. OxTDE OF
MAGNESIUM, CALCINED MAGNESIA, MAGNESIA
(B. P., Ph. L.). -
Prep. 1. (B.P.) Magnesium carbonate, heated
in a crucible until all the carbonic anhydride
is driven off. -
Prop., &c. White heavy powder, scarcely
soluble in water, but readily soluble in acids
without effervescence. Its solution in hydro.
chloric acid, neutralised by a mixed solution of
ammonia and ammonium Chloride, gives a
copious crystalline precipitate when sodium
phosphate is added to it. See next preparation,
Magnesia levis. (B. P.) Syn. LIGHT MAG-
NESTA. Prep. (B. P.) 1. Light carbonate of
magnesium heated in a cornish crucible until
all the carbonic anhydride is driven off.
A bulky white powder, differing from the
magnesia (B. P.) only in its density, the
volume occupied by the same weight being
3} to 1.
The properties of the two varieties of mag.
nesium oxide are identical, and are used in
medicine as antacids, laaxitives, and antitithics,
and much used in dyspepsia, heartburn, &c.
— Dose. 10 to 20 grs. as an antacid and 20
to 60 grs. as a purgative.
Magnesium, Phosphate of MgHPO, 6Aq,
Syn. MAGNESIAE PHOSPHAs, L. Prep. From
the mixed solutions of phosphate of sodium and
sulphate of magnesium, allowed to stand for
some time. Small, colourless, prismatic crys.
tals, which, according to Graham, are soluble
in about 1000 parts of cold water. Phosphate
of magnesium exists in the grains of the
cereals, and in considerable quantity in beer,
It is also found in guano.
Magnesium and Ammo"mium, Phosphate of
Mg,NH4.PO4, 6 Aq. Syn. AMMONIO-PHOS.
PHATE OF MAGNESIA ; MAGNESIAE ET AMM0-
NIAE PHOSPHAs, L. This compound falls as
a white crystalline precipitate whenever am.
monia or carbonate of ammonium is added,
in excess, to a solution of a salt of magnesium


MAGNESIUM.
731
which has been previously mixed with a solu-
ble phosphate, as that of soda. It subsides
immediately from concentrated solutions, but
only after some time from very dilute ones.
Prop., &c. Ammonio-phosphate of magne-
sium is very slightly soluble in pure water;
when heated, it is resolved into pyrophosphate
of magnesium, and is vitrified at a strong red
heat. It is found in wheaten bran, guano,
potatoes, &c., and occasionally forms one of the
varieties of urinary calculi.
Magnesium, Silicates of. There are several
native silicates of magnesia, more or less pure,
of which, however, none is directly employed
in medicine. Meerschaum and steatite or soap-
stone are well-known varieties. Serpentine is
a compound of silicate and hydrate of mag-
nesium. The minerals augite and hornblende
are double salts of silicic acid, magnesium, and
calcium with some ferrous oxide. The beauti-
ful crystallized mineral called chrysolite is a
silicate of magnesium, coloured wiih ferrous
oxide. Jade is a double silicate of magnesium
and aluminum, coloured with chromic oxide.
Magnesium, Sulphate of MgSO4, 7 Aq. Syn.
EPSOM SALT, MAGNESIE SULPHAs (B. P. Ph.
L. E. & D.), SAL EPSOMENSIS, L. This com-
pound was originally extracted from the saline
springs of Epsom, Surrey, by Dr. Grew, in
1695. It is now exclusively prepared on the
large scale, and from either magnesian lime-
stone or the residual liquor of the sea-salt
works.
Prep. 1. From dolomite or magnesian
limestone.—a. The mineral, broken into frag-
ments, is heated with a sufficient quantity of
dilute sulphuric acid to convert its carbonates
into sulphates; the sulphate of magnesium is
washed out of the mass with hot, water, and
the solution, after defecation, is evaporated and
crystallized.
b. The “limestone,” either simply broken
into fragments or else calcimed (burnt), and
its constituent quicklime and oxide magnesium
converted into hydrates by sprinkling (slaking)
it with water, is treated with a sufficient quan-
tity of dilute hydrochloric acid to dissolve out
all the calcinum hydrate without touching the
magnesium hydrate; the residuum of the
latter, after being washed and drained, is dis-
solved in dilute sulphuric acid, and crystallized
as before.
2. From bittern,-a. The residual liquor or
mother-water of sea-salt is boiled for some
hours in the pans which are used during the
summer for the concentration of brine; the
saline solution is then skimmed and decanted
from some common salt which has been depo-
sited, after which it is concentrated by evapo-
ration, and, finally, run into wooden coolers;
in about 36 hours, 1-8th part of Epsom salts
usually crystallizes out. This is called “singles.’
By re-dissolving this in water, and re-crystal-
lization, “doubles,” or Epsom salts fit for the
market, are obtained. A second crop of crys-
tals may be procured by adding sulphuric acid
to the mother-liquor, and re-concentrating the
solution, but this is seldom had recourse to in
England. Bittern yields fully 5 parts of sul-
phate of magnesia for every 100 parts of com-
mon salt that has been previously obtained
from it.
b. A concentrated solution of sulphate of
sodium is added to bittern, in equivalent pro-
portion to that of the chloride of magnesium
in it, and the mixed solution is evaporated at
the temperature of 122°Fahr. (Ure); cubical
crystals of common salt are deposited as the
evaporation proceeds, after which, by further
concentration and repose, regular crystals of
sulphate of magnesia are obtained.
c. A sufficient quantity of calcined and
slaked magnesian limestone is boiled in bittern
to decompose the magnesium salts, and the
liquid is evaporated, &c., as before. This is a
very economical process.
Prop. Small acicular crystals, or (by care-
ful crystallization) large four-sided rhombic
prisms; colourless; odourless, transparent;
slightly efflorescent; extremely bitter and
nauseous; when heated, it fuses in its water of
crystailization, the larger portion of which
readily passes off, but one equivalent of water
is emergetically retained; at a high tempera-
ture it runs into a species of white enamel; it
dissolves in its own weight of cold water, and
in 3-4ths of that quantity of boiling water; it
is insoluble in both alcohol and ether. Sp. gr.
1.66.
Pur. Sulphate of magnesium is soluble in
an equal weight of water at 60° Fahr., by
which it may be distinguished from sulphate of
sodium, which is much more soluble.
An aqueous solution in the cold is not pre-
cipitated by oxalate of ammonium. The
precipitate given by carbonate of sodium from
a solution of 100 grs. should, after well wash-
ing and heating to redness, weigh 1626 grs.
(B. P.)
Digested in alcohol, the filtered liquid does
not yield a precipitate with nitrate of silver,
nor burn with a yellow flame, and evaporates
without residue, “Not deliquescent in the
air.” (Ph. L.) 100 grs. of the pure crystal-
lized sulphate yield 164 grs. of calcined
magnesium oxide. (Pereira.) 10 grs., dis-
solved in 1 fl. oz. of water, and treated with a
solution of carbonate of ammonium, are not
entirely precipitated by 280 minims of solu-
tion of phosphate of sodium. (Ph. E.)
Uses, &c. Sulphate of magnesium is an ex-
cellent cooling purgative, and sometimes
proves diuretic and diaphoretic.—Dose. 1 dr
to 1 oz., as a purgative, or an antidote in pois-
oning by lead. Large doses should be avoided.
Instances are on record of their having proved
fatal. Dr. Christison mentions the case of a
boy 10 years old, who swallowed 2 oz. of salts,
and died within 10 minutes. The best anti-
dote is an emetic. A small quantity of Epsom
salts, largely diluted with water (as a drachm
to ; pint or ; pint), will usually purge as much


732
MAGNET-MALIC ACID.
as the common dose. This increase of power
has been shown by Liebig to result rather
from the quantity of water than the salt.
Pure water is greedily taken up by the ab-
sorbents; but water holding in solution saline
matter is rejected by those vessels, and con-
sequently passes off by the intestines.
Obs. Oxalic acid has occasionally been mis-
taken for Epsom salt, with fatal results. They
may be readily distinguished from each other
by the following characteristics:–
EPSOM SALT. OXALIC ACID.
Tastes extremely bit- Tastes extremely
ter and nauseous. SOUll’.
Turns milky when Effervesces when
dissolved in water mixed with carbo-
and mixed with mate of sodium or
carbonate of sodium
or carbonate of pot-
assium ; and after a
time, a white se-
diment subsides.
carbonate of pot-
assium, and the li-
quid in a few se-
conds becomes
transparent.
Magnesium, Tar'trate of. Syn. MAGNESIAE
TARTRAS, MAGNESIA TARTARICA, L. Prep.
By saturating a solution of tartaric acid with
carbonate of magnesium, and gently evapo-
rating to dryness. It is only very slightly solu-
ble in water.—Dose. 20 to 60 grs., or more ; in
painful chronic maladies of the spleen. (Pe-
reira, ea, Radmacher.) The effervescing tar-
trate of magnesium, commonly sold under the
name citrate has already been noticed.
Magnesium and Potas'sium, Tartrate of Syn.
POTASSIO-TARTRATE OF MAGNESIA ; MAGNESIAE
POTASSIO-TARTRAS, M. ET POTASSAE TARTRAS,
L. Prep. From acid tartrate of potassium
(in powder.) 7 parts; carbonate of magnesium,
2 parts; water 165 parts; boiled until the so-
lution is complete, and then evaporated and
crystallized. A mild aperient.—Dose. 1 to 5
drs. ; in scurvy, &c.
MAGNET. Syn. MAGNES, L. Besides its
application to the loadstone, this name was
formerly given to several compounds used in
medicine.—ARSENICAL MAGNET (MAGNES ARSE-
NICALIS), a substance once used as a caustic,
consisted of common antimony, sulphur, and
arsenious acid, fused together until they formed
a sort of glass. MAGNES EPILEPSIAE was native
cinnabar.
MAHOG/ANY. This is the wood of Swietenia
Mahogoni (Linn.), a native of the hotter
parts of the new world. It is chiefly imported
from Honduras and Cuba. The extract is
astringent, and has been used in tanning, and
as a substitute for cinchona bark. The wood
is chiefly employed for furniture and orna-
mental purposes, and, occasionally, in ship-
building. -
Imitations of mahogany are made by stain-
ing the surface of the inferior woods by one
or other of the following methods:
1. Warm the wood by the fire, then wash it
over with aquafortis, let it stand 24 hours to
dry, and polish it with linseed oil reddened by
digesting alkanet root in it; or, instead of the
latter, give the wood a coat of varnish, or
French polish which has been tinged of a
mahogany colour with a little aloes and an:
notta.
2. Socotrine aloes, 1 oz. ; dragon’s blood,
# oz. ; rectified spirit, 1 pint ; dissolve, and
apply 2 or 3 coats to the surface of the wood,
previously well smoothed and polished; lastly,
finish it off with wax or oil tinged with alkanet
root.
3. Logwood, 2 oz. ; madder, 8 oz. ; fustic,
1 oz. ; water, 1 gal. ; boil 2 hours, and apply
it several times to the wood boiling hot ; when
dry, slightly brush it over with a solution of
pearlash, 1 oz. ; in water, 1 quart; dry, and
polish as before.
4. As the last, but using a decoction of log.
wood, 1 lb., in water, 5 pints. The tint may
be brightened by adding a little vinegar Or
oxalic acid, and darkened by a few grains of
copperas.
Stains and spots may be taken out of
mahogany furniture with a little aquafortis or
oxalic acid and water, by rubbing the part
with the liquid, by means of a cork, till the
colour is restored; observing afterwards to well
wash the wood with water, and to dry it and
polish it as before.
MAIZE. Syn. INDIAN CORN. The seeds of
Zea Mays (Linn.). Like the other corn plants,
it belongs to the Grass family (Graminacea),
and has albuminous grains sufficiently large
and farinaceous to be ground into flour.
Maize is extremely nutritious, and although
it is poorer in alb
it is, of all the cereal grains, the richest in
fatty oil, of which it contains about 9%
(Dumas and Payen.) It is remarkable for its
fattening quality on animals, hº
excite slight diarrhoea in those tº
to its use. Its meal is the ‘POIENTA’ of the
shops. The peculiar starch prepared from it
is known as “CORN FLOUR,’ ‘MAIZENA,' &c,
In America, the young ears are roasted and
boiled for food.
The centesimal composition of maize is as
follows:–Flesh formers (albuminoid bodies)
99; heat and fat formers (starch, dextrin,
and fat), 712, fibre, 40; ash, 14; water
13’5. -
MALAGMA. In pharmacy, a poultice Or
emollient application.
MALIC ACID. H.C.H.O. Syn. ACIDUM
MALICUM, L. This acid exists in the juice of
many fruits and plants, either alone, or ass0.
ciated with other acids, or with potassa or lime,
In the juice of the garden rhubarb, it exists in
great abundance, being associated with acid
oxalate of potassa.
Prep. (Everitt.) The stalks of common gar-
den rhubarb are peeled, and ground or grated
to a pulp, which is subjected to pressure; the
juice is heated to the boiling-point, neutralized
with carbonate of potassa, mixed with acetate
of lime, and the insoluble oxalate of lime which
buminoid matters than wheat,
£er



MALLEABILITY –MALT.
733
falls is removed by filtration; to the clear and
nearly colourless liquid, solution of acetate of
lead is next added as long as a precipitate
(‘malate of lead') continues to form; this is
collected on a filter, washed, diffused through
water, and decomposed by sulphuric acid,
avoiding excess, the last portion of lead being
thrown down by a stream of sulphuretted
hydrogen; the filtered liquid is, lastly, care-
fully evaporated to the consistence of syrup,
and left in a dry atmosphere until it becomes
converted into a solid and somewhat crystalline
mass of malic acid. If perfectly pure malic
acid is required, the malate of lead must be
crystallised before decomposing it with sul-
phuretted hydrogen. Prod. 20,000 grs. of the
peeled stalks yield 12,500 grs. of juice, of which
one imperial gallon contains 11,139% grs. of
dry malic acid.
Obs. By a similar process, malic acid may be
prepared from the juice of the berries of the
mountain ash (Sorbus aucuparia), just when
they commence to ripen, or from the juice of
apples, pears, &c.
Prop., &c. Malic acid is slightly deliques-
cent, very soluble in water, soluble in alcohol,
and has a pleasant acidulous taste. The aque-
ous infusion soon gets mouldy by keeping.
When kept fused for some time at a low heat,
it is converted into fumaric acid ; and when
quickly distilled, it yields maleic acid, while
fumaric acid is left in the retort. With the
bases malic acid forms salts called malates.
Of these the acid malate of ammonia is in
large, beautiful crystals; malate of lead is
insoluble in cold water, but dissolves in warm
dilute acid, from which it separates on cooling
in brilliant silvery crystals; acid malate of
lime also forms very beautiful crystals, freely
soluble in water ; neutral malate of lime is
only sparingly soluble in water; the first is
obtained by dissolving the latter in hot dilute
nitric acid, and allowing the solution to cool
very slowly.
MALLEABILITY. The peculiar property
of metals which renders them capable of ex-
tension under the hammer.
MALT, Syn. BINA, BYNE, BRASIUM, MAL-
TUM, L. The name given to different kinds of
grain, such as barley, bere or bigg, oats, rye,
maize, &c., which have become sweet, from
the conversion of a portion of their starch into
sugar, in consequence of incipient germination
artificially produced. Barley is the grain
usually employed for this purpose.
Var. Independently of variations of quality,
or of the grain from which it is formed, malt
is distinguished into varieties depending on
the heat of the kiln employed for its desicca-
tion. When dried at a temperature ranging
between 90 and 120° Fahr., it constitutes
“PALE MALT;' when all the moisture has ex-
haled, and the heat is raised to from 125 to
135°, ‘YELLOW, or “PALE AMBER MALT,” is
formed; when the heat ranges between 140°
and 160°, the product receives the name of
‘AMBER MALT;’ at 160° to 180°, ‘AMBER-
BROWN, or “PALE BROWN MALT,” is obtained.
ROASTED, PATENT, or BLACK MALT, and
CRYSTALLISED MALT, are prepared by a process
similar to that of roasting coffee. The malt
is placed in sheet iron cylinders over a strong
fire, and the cylinders made to revolve at the
rate of about 20 revolutions per minute if
roasted malt is required, or 120 if for crystal-
lised malt. In the former case the finished
malt has a dark brown colour; in the latter,
the interior of the grain becomes dark brown,
whilst the husk assumes a pale amber hue.
The temperature must never exceed 420°, or
the malt will become entirely carbonised.
Qual. Good malt has an agreeable smell
and a sweet taste. It is friable, and when
broken discloses a floury kernel. Its husk is
thin, clean, and unshrivelled in appearance,
and the acrospire is seen extending up the
back of the grain, beneath the skin. The ad-
mixture of unmalted with malted grain may
be discovered, and roughly estimated, by
throwing a little into water, malt floats on
water, but barley sinks in it. The only certain
method, however, of determining the value of
malt is to ascertain the amount of soluble
matter which it contains, by direct experiment.
This varies from 62 to 70%, and for good malt
is never less than 66 to 67%. If we assume
the quarter of malt at 324 lbs., and the average
quantity of soluble matter at 66%, then the
total weight of soluble matter will be fully
213; lbs. per quarter; but as this, “in taking
on the form of gum and sugar ’’ during the
process of mashing, “chemically combines with
the elements of water, so the extract, if eva-
porated to dryness, would reach very nearly
231 lbs. ; and this reduced to the basis of a
barrel of 36 gallons, becomes in the language
of the brewer, 87 lbs. per barrel, which, how-
ever, merely means that the wort from a
quarter of malt, if evaporated down to the
bulk of a barrel or 36 gallons, would weigh 87
lbs. more than a barrel of water.” (Ure.)
Assay. 1. A small quantity of the sample
being ground in a coffee or pepper mill, 100
grs. are accurately weighed, and dried by ex-
posure for about 1 hour at the temperature of
boiling water. The loss in weight, in grains,
indicates the quantity of moisture per cent.
This, in good malt, should not exceed 6% grs.
2. A second 100 grs. is taken and stirred up
with about ; pint of cold water ; the mixture
is then exposed to the heat of boiling water
for about 40 minutes; after which it is thrown
on a weighed filter, and the undissolved por-
tion washed with a little hot water ; the undis-
solved portion, with the filter, is then dried at
212°Fahr., and weighed. The loss in weight,
less the per-centage of moisture last found,
taken in grains, gives the per-centage of solu-
ble matter. This should not be less than 66
grs. The same result will be arrived at by
evaporating the filtered liquid and ‘washings’
to dryness, and weighing the residuum.




734 MALT LIQUORs.
3. A third 100 grs. is taken and mashed
with about ; pint of water at 160°Fahr., for 2
or 3 hours; the liquid is then drained off, the
residue gently squeezed, and the strained
liquid, evaporated to dryness, as before, and
weighed. This gives the per-centage of
Saccharine matter, and should not be less than
about 71 grs., taking the above average of
malt as the standard of calculation.
Uses, &c. Malt is chiefly employed in the
arts of brewing and distillation. Both roasted
and crystallised malt are merely used to colour
the worts produced from pale malt. 1 lb. of
roasted malt, mashed with 79 lbs. of pale malt,
imparts to the liquor the colour and flavour of
‘porter.” The paler varieties of malt contain
the largest quantity of Saccharine matter.
After the malt has been kiln-dried, the rootlets
may be removed by means of a sieve. Before
malt is mashed for beer, it must be broken up,
and the law requires that it be bruised or
crushed by smooth metal rollers, and not
ground by mill stones. It has also been pro-
posed to employ malt, instead of raw grain,
for fattening domestic animals, and as food
for their young and those in a sickly state.
Infusion of milk (sweet wort, malt tea) is
laxative, and has been recommended as an
antiscorbutic and tonic. It has been given
with great advantage in scurvy ; but for this
purpose good, well-hopped, mild beer is equally
serviceable and more agreeable. See BREWING,
DISTILLATION, FERMENTATION, &c.
MALT LIQ/UORS. The qualities of ale,
beer, and porter, as beverages, the detection
of their adulteration, and the methods of pre-
paring them, are described under their respec-
tive names and in the article upon ‘BREWING’;
the present article will, therefore, be confined
to a short notice of the cellar management,
and the diseases of malt liquors generally.
AGE. The appearance and flavour to which
this term is applied can, of course, be only
given to the liquor by properly storing it
for a sufficient time. Fraudulent brewers and
publicans, however, frequently add a little oil
of vitriol (diluted with water) to new beer, by
which it assumes the character of an inferior
liquor of the class 1 or 2 years old. Copperas,
alum, sliced lemons, Seville oranges, and cu-
cumbers, are also frequently employed by
brewers for the same purpose.
BOTTLING. Clean, sweet, and dry bottles,
and sound and good corks, should be had in
readiness. The liquor to be bottled should be
perfectly clear; and if it be not so, it must be
submitted to the operation of ‘fining.” When
quite fine, and in good condition, the bung of
the cask should be left out all night, and the
next day the liquor should be put into bottles,
which, after remaining 12 or 24 hours, covered
with sheets of paper to keep out flies and dust,
must be securely corked down, Porter is
generally wired over. The wire for this pur-
pose should be “annealed, and not resilient.
If the liquor is intended for exportation to a
hot climate, the bottles should remain filled
for 2 or 3 days, or more, before corking them,
The stock of bottled liquor should be stored in
a cool situation; and a small quantity, to meet
present demands only, should be set on their
sides in a warmer place to ripen. October beer
should not be bottled before Midsummer, nor
March beer till Christmas.
CLOUDINESS.
in a gallon of the beer, and in a fortnight fine
it down.
FINING. See CLARIFICATION and BREWING,
FLATNESS. When the liquor is new, or has
still much undecomposed sugar left in it, a
sufficient remedy is to remove it into a warmer
situation for a few days. When this is not
the case, 2 or 3 pounds of moist sugar (foots)
may be ‘rummaged’ into each hogshead. In
this way a second fermentation is set up, and
in a few days the liquor becomes brisk, and
carries a head. This is the plan commonly
adopted by publicans. On the small scale, the
addition of a few grains of carbonate of soda,
or of prepared chalk, to each glass, is commonly
made for the same purpose; but in this case
the liquor must be drunk within a few minutes,
else it becomes again flat and insipid. This
may be adopted for home-brewed beer which
has become sour and vapid.
FOXING or BUCKING.
souring of worts or beer during their fer.
mentation or ripening, to which this name is
applied, may generally be remedied by adding
to the liquor some fresh hops (scalded), along
with some black mustard seed (bruised). Some
persons use a little made mustard, or a solution
of alum or of catechu, and in a week or 10 days
afterwards further add some treacle, or moist
Sugar.
Frosted beer is recovered by change of
situation; by the addition of some hops boiled
in a little sweet wort; or, by adding a little
moist sugar or treacle to induce a fresh fer.
mentation.
HEADING. This is added to thin and vapid
beer to make it bear a frothy head. The
most innocent, pleasant, and effective addition
of this sort is a mixture of pure ammonio:
citrate of iron and salt of tartar, about equal
parts, in the proportion of only a few grains
to a quart. -
IMPROVING. This is the trade synonym of
‘ADULTERATION’ and ‘DoCTORING.' Never-
theless there are cases in which ‘improvement'
may be made without affecting the wholesome
character of the liquor. Of this kind is the
addition of hops, spices, &c., during the matu.
ration of beer that exhibits a tendency to de-
teriorate. For this purpose some persons cut
a half-quartern loaf into slices, and after
toasting them very high, place them in a coarse
linen bag along with # lb. of hops, and 2 0Z.
each of bruised ginger, cloves, and mustard
seed, and suspend the bag by means of a string
a few inches below the surface of the beer (a
Add a handful of hops boiled
The spontaneous
hogshead), which is then bunged close. The





MALTING. 735
addition of a little ground capsicum in the
same way is also a real improvement to beer,
when judiciously made.
MUSTINESS. To each hogshead, racked
into clean casks, add 1 lb. of new hops boiled
in a gallon of the liquor, along with 7 lbs. of
newly-burnt charcoal (coarsely bruised, and
the fine dust sifted off), and a 4-lb. loaf of bread
cut into thin slices and toasted rather black;
“rouse up’ well every day for a week, then
stir in of moist sugar 3 or 4 lbs., and bung
down for a fortnight.
RECOVERING. This is said of unsaleable
beer when rendered saleable, by giving it
* head’ or removing its ‘tartness.”
RIPENING. This term is applied to the
regular maturation of beer. It is also used
to express the means by which liquors already
mature are rendered brisk, sparkling, or fit
and agreeable for immediate use. In the
language of the cellar, malt liquors are said
to be “up' when they are well charged with
gaseous matter, and bear a frothy head. These
qualities depend on the undecomposed sugar
undergoing fermentation, which, when active,
can only be of comparatively short duration,
and should, therefore, be repressed rather than
excited in beers not required for immediate
consumption. When we desire to give ‘brisk-
ness’ to these liquors, whether in cask or
bottle, it is only necessary to expose them for
a few days to a slight elevation of tempe-
rature, by removing them, for instance, to a
warmer apartment. This is the plan success-
fully adopted by bottlers. The addition of a
small lump of white sugar to each bottle of ale
or beer, or a teaspoonful of moist sugar to each
bottle of porter, just before corking it, will
render it fit for drinking in a few days in
ordinary weather, and in 2 or 3 days in the
heat of summer. A raisin or a lump of sugar
candy is often added to each bottle with a
like intention. The Parisians bottle their
beer one day and sell it the next. For this
purpose, in addition to the sugar as above,
they add 2 or 3 drops of yeast. Such bottled
liquor must, however, be drunk within a week,
or else stored in a very cold place, as it will
otherwise burst the bottles or blow out the
corks. -
ROPINESS. A little infusion of catechu or
of oak bark, and some fresh hops, may be
added to the beer, which in a fortnight should
be rummaged well, and the next day ‘fined'
down.
SOURNESS. Powdered chalk, carbonate of
soda, salt of tartar, or pearlash, is commonly
added by the publicans to the beer, until the
acidity is nearly removed, when 4 or 5 lbs. of
moist sugar or foots per hogshead are ‘rum-
maged in, together with sufficient water to
disburse double the amount of the outlay and
trouble. Snch beer must be soon put on
draught, as it is very apt to get flat by keep-
ing. Oyster shells and egg shells are also
frequently used by brewers for the same
purpose. To remove the acidity of beer, on
the small scale, a few grains of carbonate of
soda per glass may be added just before drink-
ing it.
STORING. The situation of the beer-cellar
should be such as to maintain its contents at a
permanently uniform temperature, ranging
between 44° and 50°Fahr., a condition which
can only be ensured by choosing for its locality
an underground apartment, or one in the
centre of the basement portion of a large
building.
WAMPING. Half fill casks with the old
liquor, fill them up with some newly brewed,
and bung close for 3 weeks or a month.
MALTING. The method of converting bar-
ley, wheat, oats, or any other description of
grain into malt. There are four successive
stages in the process of malting, viz. steeping,
couching, flooring, and kiln-drying.
1. Steeping or moistening.—The grain is
placed in a large wooden or stone cistern, and
sufficient water run in to cover it. Here it
remains for a period of from 40 to 60 hours,
depending on the temperature of the weather,
or until it becomes soft enough to be easily
pierced with a needle, or crushed between the
thumb and finger without yelding a milky
juice. While in steep the grain swells, in-
creasing nearly one fifth in bulk, and about
50 per cent. in weight. The water is then
drained off, and the grain is ready for the next
operation,
2. Couching or germinating. — From the
cistern the swollen barley is thrown out into
the couch frame to the depth of from 14
or 20 inches, where heat is generated and ger-
mination induced. Here it is allowed to re-
main for from 20 to 30 hours, according to the
state of the weather, until the acrospire or
pumule shoots forth. Were the grain to re-
main long in the couch, particularly in warm
weather, it would be either unduly forced or
turn sour. Whilst in couch it rises in tem-
perature about 15 degrees, and gives off some
of its extra moisture. This is called sweating,
and as the rootlets now begin to shoot out,
means must be taken to check the germina-
tion.
2. Flooring or regulating.—This consists in
spreading the heated barley on the floor at
different depths, according as it is required to
increase or retard germination. During this
stage of the operation the art of the maltster
may be more properly said to commence, as
now all his judgment is brought into requisi-
tion. The grain must be turned three or four
times a day, and at each turning the layer is
spread out more and more, until it is reduced
to the depth of about three or four inches,
The chief object to be attained by this opera-
tion is a regular germination of the grain.
4. Kiln-drying. — The sprouted barley is
next spread in a thin layer on the malt kiln,
and heat applied. The temperature to which
the kiln is raised varies according to the pur-


736 MANGANESE.
precipitated carbonate in the acids.
pose for which the malt is required, the differ-
ence between pale, amber, and brown malt,
depending solely on the degree of heat to
which each has been subjected, and the manner
in which the heat has been applied (see MALT).
If the malt were not kiln-dried it would not
keep, but would become mouldy. By the pro-
cess of drying, the vitality of the seed is de-
stroyed, and it may then be preserved without
suffering further change.
Product.—Good barley yields about 80% by
weight and 109% by measure, of dried and
sifted malt. Of the loss by weight, 12% must
be referred to water existing in the raw
grain.
MAN"GANESE. Mn. Syn. MANGANE-
SIUM, L. A hard, brittle metal, discovered by
Gahn in the black oxide of manganese of com-
Innel"Ce.
Prep. Reduce mangamous carbonate to fine
powder, make it into a paste with oil, adding
about 1-10th of its weight of calcined borax,
place the mixture in a Hessian crucible lined
with charcoal, lute on the cover, and expose it
to the strongest heat of a smith's forge for 2
hours; when cold, break the crucible and pre-
serve the metallic button in naphtha.
Obs. The product is probably a carbide of
manganese, just as steel is a carbide of iron.
Deville has lately prepared pure manganese
by reducing the pure oxide by means of au
insufficient quantity of sugar charcoal in a
crucible made of caustic lime.
Prop. As prepared by Deville, metallic
manganese has a reddish lustre, like bismuth ;
it is very hard and brittle; when powdered,
it decomposes water, even at the lowest tem-
perature. Dilute sulphuric acid dissoves it
with great energy, evolving hydrogen. Sp.
gr. 7:13. In an oxidised state manganese is
abundant in the mineral kingdom, and traces
of it have been found in the ashes of plants
and in mineral waters.
The salts of manganese may be easily pre-
pared in a state of purity by dissolving the
Most of
them are soluble, and several are crystal-
lisable.
Tests. Manganous salts are distinguished
as follows:—The hydrates of potassium and
sodium give white precipitates insoluble in ex-
cess, and rapidly turning brown. The presence
of ammonium salts interferes with these tests.
Ammonia gives similar results.
Ferrocyanide of potassium gives a white pre-
cipitate. Sulphuretted hydrogen gives no
precipitate in acid solutions, and precipitates
neutral solutions only imperfectly; but in
alkaline solutions it gives a bright, flesh-
coloured, insoluble precipitate, which becomes
dark brown on exposure to the air. Sulphide
of ammonium in neutral solutions, also yields
a similar precipitate, which is very character-
istic. A compound of manganese fused with
borax in the outer flame of the blowpipe gives
a bead, which appears of a violet-red colour
whilst hot, and upon cooling acquires an amé,
thystine tint; this colour is lost by fusion in
the inner flame. Heated upon platinum foil
with a little carbonate of sodium, in the outer
flame, it yields a green mass whilst hot, which
becomes bluish green when cold.
Mangamous Acetate. Mn(C5H40). Sym,
ACETATE OF PROTOXIDE OF MANGANESE; MAN.
GANII ACETAS, L. Prep. 1. By neutralising
concentrated acetic acid with manganous car.
bonate, and evaporating the solution so that
crystals may form.
Prop., &c. The crystals, when pure, are of
a pale red colour; permanent in the air;
soluble in alcohol, and in 3% parts of water,
and possess an astringent and metallic taste—
Dose. 5 to 10 grs, as an alterative, hamatinic,
&c.
Mangamous Car"bonate. MnOO. Syn. CAR.
BONATE OF PROTOXIDE OF MANGANESE; MAN.
GANESII CARBONAs, L. Prep. Reduce the
black oxide of manganese of commerce to fine
powder, and after washing it in water acidu.
lated with hydrochloric acid, dissolve it in
strong hydrochloric acid, and evaporate the
resulting solution to dryness; dissolve the re.
sidue in water, and add to the solution sufficient
sodium carbonate to precipitate all the iron
present ; digest the mixed precipitate in the
remainder of the liquid, filter, add ammonium
sulphide until it begins to produce a flesh:
coloured precipitate, then filter, and add sodium
carbonate as long as a precipitate falls; lastly
well wash the newly-formed carbonate in water,
and dry it by a gentle heat.
2. By directly precipitating a solution of the
chloride with sodium carbonate, and washing
and drying the powder, as before,
Prop., &c. A pale buff or cream-coloured
powder; insoluble in water; freely soluble in
acids; exposed to a strong heat, it loses its
carbonic acid, absorbs oxygen, and is converted
into the red oxide. It is chiefly employed in
the preparation of the other salts of manga.
Ilese.
TOCHLORIDE OF MANGANESE, MURIATE OF M.;
MANGANESII CHLORIDUM, L. Prep. 1. By
saturating hydrochloric acid with manganous
carbonate; the solution is gently concentrated
by evaporation, when crystals may be obtained,
or it is at once evaporated to dryness; in
either case the product must be placed in
warm, dry, stoppered bottles, and preserved
from the air.
2. From the dark brown residual liquid of
the process of obtaining chlorine from bin.
oxide of manganese and hydrochloric acid;
this liquid is evaporated to dryness, and then
slowly heated to dull redness in an earthen
vessel, with constant stirring, and kept at that
temperature for a short time; the grayish-
looking powder thus obtained is treated with
water, and the solution separated from the
ferric oxide and other insoluble matter by
filtration; if any iron still remains, a little
Mangamous Chlo"ride. MnGl, Syn. PRO.





MANGANESE. 737
manganous carbonate is added, and the whole
boiled for a few minutes; the filtered solution
is then treated as before. This is the least
expensive and convenient source of this salt.
Prop., &c. Rose-coloured tabular crystals;
imodorous; very soluble both in water and
alcohol; very deliquescent; when gradually
heated to fusion, the whole of the water is
expelled, and at a red heat it slowly suffers
decomposition. Astringent, tonic, haematinic,
and alterative.--Dose. 3 to 10 grs. ; in scor-
butic, syphilitic, and certain chronic cutaneous
affections; anaemia, chlorosis, &c.
Mangamous Hydrate. Mn(HO)s. Syn. HY-
DRATED PROTOxIDE OF MANGANESE. Prep.
Formed by adding potassium hydrate to man-
gamous sulphate, and filtering and drying,
the precipitate in vacuo. White powder ra-
pidly absorbing oxygen and burning first green
and then brown from formation of higher
oxides.
Mangamous I'odide. Mn.Is. Syn. MANGA-
NESII IODIDUM, L. Prep. By dissolving the
carbonate in hydriodic acid, and evaporating
the filtered liquid in vacuo or out of contact
with air.—Dose. 1 to 3 grs. ; in anaemia,
chlorosis, &c., occurring in scrofulous subjects.
Mangamous Oxide. MnO. Syn. PROTOXIDE
OF MANGANESE. Prep. By passing a current
of hydrogen over manganous carbonate heated
to whiteness in a porcelain tube. Olive green
powder rapidly oxidizing on exposure to air,
and soluble in acids forming mangamous
salts.
There are four other oxides and two oxy-
hydrates that may be treated of here, but of
which only the peroxyde and the manganates
and permanganates are of practical import-
ance.
Mangamous-mangamic Oxide. Mn4O4, or
MnO, Mn2O4. Syn. RED OXIDE OF MANGA-
NESE, PROTOSESQUIOXIDE OF MANGANESE.
Found native as “Hansmanite.” It is pro-
duced by igniting mangamous carbonate, or
manganic, oxide, or manganic peroxide. Red-
dish-brown, coloured crystals or powder, and
communicates an amethyst colour to glass when
fused with it.
Mangamous-manganic Peroxide. Mn4Oz,
or MnO, Mn2O4. Syn. INTERMEDIATE
OXIDE OF MANGANESE. Found native as
“Warvicile,” as a black hard crystalline mass.
Decomposed when heated into a lower oxide
and oxygen.
Mangamous Phosphate. MnH.PO4 + 6Aq.
Syn. PHOSPHATE OF PROTOxIDE of MANGA-
NESE; MANGANESII PHOSPHAs, L. Prep. By
precipitating a solution of mangamous sul-
phate with a solution of sodium phosphate.
It must be preserved from the air-Lose. 3
to 12 grs. ; in anaemia, rickets, &c.
Mangamous Sul’phate. MnSO4. Syn. SUL-
PHATE OF PROTOXIDE OF MANGANESE ; MAN-
GANESII SULPHAs, L. Prep. 1. By dissolving
manganous carbonate in dilute sulphuric acid,
and evaporating the filtered solution so that
crystals may form, or at once gently evapo-
rating it to dryness. Pure.
2. (Commercial.) By igniting manganic
peroxide (pyrolusite) mixed with about 1-10th
of its weight of powdered coal in an iron
crucible or gas-retort, and digesting the resi-
duum of the calcination in sulphuric acid, with
the addition after a time of a little hydro-
chloric acid; the solution of manganous sulphate
thus obtained, after defecation, is evaporated
to dryness, and heated to redness as before;
the mass, after ignition, is crushed small, and
treated with water ; the solution is nearly
pure, the whole of the iron having been re-
duced into the state of insoluble peroxide.
Used by the calico-printers. Cloth steeped in
the solution, and afterwards passed through a
solution of chloride of lime, is dyed of a per-
manent brown.
Prop., &c. Pale rose-coloured crystals of
the formulae MnSO4, 7Aq; MnSOp 5Aq; or
MnSOſ, 4Aq, according to the method of
crystallizing, furnishing a solution of a rich
amethystine colour. With sulphate of potassa,
it forms a double salt (“manganese alum').-
Dose. As an alterative and tonic, 5 to 10 grs. ;
as a cholagogue cathartic, 1 to 2 drs., dissolved
in water, either alone or combined with infu-
sion of senna. According to Ure, its action is
prompt and soon over; 1 dr. of it occasions,
after the lapse of an hour or so, one or more
liquid bilious stools. In large doses it occa-
sions vomiting, and in excessive doses it de-
stroys life by its caustic action on the stomach.
(Dr. G. C.Mitscherlich.) It has been adminis-
tered with manifest advantage in torpor of the
liver, gout, jaundice, syphilis, and certain skin
diseases; and, combined with iron, in anaemia,
chlorosis, rickets, &c.
Mangamous Tar'trate. MnO, HAOg. Syn.
MANGANESII TARTRAs, L. Prep. By satu-
rating a solution of tartaric acid with moist
mangamous carbonate. Alterative and tonic.
— Dose. 4 to 12 grs.
Manganic Acid. H.MnO4. This acid has
not yet been obtained free, but some of its
salts are extensively employed as disinfectants,
as “green Condy’s fluid.” The chief com-
pounds are the following:
Mangamate of Barium. BaNInO4. Green
insoluble powder, obtained by fusing barium
hydrate, potassium chlorate, and manganic
peroxide together, and washing the product.
Mangamate of Potassium. K.MnO4. Finely
powdered manganic peroxide, potassium chlo-
rate, and potassium hydrate, made into a thick
paste with water, and heated to dull redness.
The fused product is treated with a small
quantity of water, and crystallized by evapo-
ration in vacuo.
Dark green, almost black crystals, readily
soluble in water, but decomposed by excess, or
by acids into manganic peroxide, and potassium
permanganate.
Manganate of Sodium. M2MnO4. Prepared
on the large scale by heating a * of
4.

738 1MANGANESE.
manganic peroxide and sodium hydrate to red-
ness in a current of air. Used in strong solu-
tion as a disinfectant under the name of
“Condy’s green fluid.” -
Manganic Hydrate. Mn2(HO)6. Syn. HY-
DRATED SESQUIOXII).E OF MANGANESE.
Found native as “manganite,” in reddish-
brown crystals. Prep. By passing a current
of air through recently precipitated and moist
mangamous hydrate. Soft dark brown powder
converted into the oxide by heat.
Manganic Oxide. Mn2O4. Syn. SESQUI-
OXIDE OF MANGANESE. Found native as “Brau-
mite,” and readily formed by exposing man-
gamous hydrate to the action of air, and drying,
or by gently igniting the peroxide brown or
black powder decomposed by heat.
Manganic Peroxide. MnO2. Syn. PER-
MANGANIC OXIDE, BINOXIDE OF MANGANESE,
PEROXIDE OF MANGANESE, BLACK OXIDE OF
MANGANESE, OXIDE OF MANGANESE, MAN-
GANESII ox1DUM NIGRUM (B. P.), MANGA-
NESII BINOXYDUM (Ph. L.), MANGANESE
OXYDUM (Ph. E.).
It is the only oxide of manganese that is
directly employed in the arts. It is a very
plentiful mineral production, and is found in
great abundance in some parts of the West of
England. The manganese of the shop is pre-
pared by washing, to remove the earthy matter
and grinding in mills. The blackest samples
are esteemed the best. It is chiefly used to
supply oxygen gas, and in the manufacture of
glass and chlorine; in dyeing and to form the
salts of manganese. It has been occasionally
employed in medicine, chiefly externally, in itch
and porrigo, made into an ointment with lard.
It has been highly recommended by Dr. Eri-
geler in scrofula. Others have employed it as
an alterative and tonic with variable success.
When slowly introduced into the system during
a lengthened period, it is said to produce para-
lysis of the motor nerves. (Dr. Coupar.)—Dose.
3 to 12 grs., or more, thrice daily, made into
pills. - -
Pur. Native binoxide of manganese (py-
rolusite) is usually contaminated with variable
proportions of argillaceous matter, calcium
carbonate, ferric oxide, silica, and barium
sulphate, all of which lower its value as a
source of oxygen, and for the preparation of
chlorine. The richness of this ore can, there-
fore, be only determined by an assay for its
principal ingredient.
Assay. There are several methods adopted
for this purpose, among which the following
recommend themselves as being the most ac-
curate and convenient.
1. A portion of the mineral being reduced to
very fine powder, 50 grs, of it are put into
the little apparatus employed for the analysis
of carbonates described at page 295, together
with about ; fl. oz. of cold water, and 100 grs.
of strong hydrochloric acid, the latter contained
in the little tube (b); 50 grs. of crystallized
oxalic acid are then added, the cork carrying
the chloride of calcium tube fitted in, and the
whole quickly and accurately weighed or coun.
terpoised; the apparatus is next inclined 50
that the acid contained in the small tube may
be mixed with the other contents of the flask,
and the reaction of the ingredients is prê.
moted by the application of a gentle heat;
the disengaged chlorine resulting from the
mutual decomposition of the hydrochloric acid
and the manganic peroxide converts the
oxalic acid into carbonic acid gas, which is
dried in its passage through the chloride of
calcium tube before it escapes into the air,
As soon as the reaction is complete, and the
residual gas has been driven off by a momentary
ebullition, the apparatus is allowed to cool,
when it is again carefully and accurately
weighed. The loss of weight in grains, if
doubled, at once indicates the per-centage rich.
ness of the mineral examined in mangalic
peroxide; or, more correctly, every grain of
carbonic anhydride evolved represents 1982
gr. of the peroxide.
2. (Fresenius and Will.) The apparatus
employed is the ‘ alkalimeter’ figured at page
24. The operation is similar to that adopted
for the assay of alkalies, and is a modification
of the oxalic acid and sulphuric acid test for
manganese, originally devised by M. Berthier,
The standard weight of manganic peroxide
recommended to be taken by Fresenius and
Will is 2.91 grammes, along with 6:5 to 7
grammes of neutral potassium oxalate. The
process, with quantities altered to adapt it for
employment in the laboratories of these coun.
tries, is as follows:–Manganic peroxide (in
very fine powder), 50 gr. ; neutral potassium
oxalate (in powder), 120 grs. ; these are put
into the flask A (see engr., p. 24), along with
sufficient water to about 1-4th fill it; the flask
A and B (the latter containing the sulphuric
acid) are then corked air-tight, and thus con:
nected in one apparatus, the whole is accu.
rately weighed. The opening of the tube
being closed by a small lump of wax, a little
sulphuric acid is sucked over from the flask B
into the flask A ; the disengagement of oxy.
gen from the manganese immediately com:
mences, and this reacting upon the oxalic
acid present, converts it into carbonic anhy.
dride gas, which passing through the concen:
trated sulphuric acid in the flask B, which robs
it of moisture, finally escapes from the appa-
ratus through the tube d. As soon as the
disengagement of carbonic acid ceases, the
operator sucks over a fresh portion of sulphuric
acid, and this is repeated at short intervals,
until bubbles of gas are no longer disengaged.
The little wax stopper is now removed, and
suction is applied at h until all the carbonic
acid in the apparatus is replaced by common
air. When the whole has become cold, it is
again weighed. The loss of weight, doubled,
indicates the amount of pure manganic per-
oxide, in the sample, as before.
3. (Otto.) 50 grs, of the sample reduced to

MANGE–MANNA, 739
very fine powder, are mixed in a glass flask,
with hydrochloric acid, 1}; fl. oz., diluted with
3 oz. of cold water, and portions of ferrous
sulphate, from a weighed sample, immediately
added; at first in excess, and afterwards, in
smaller doses, until the liquid ceases to give a
blue precipitate with red prussiate of potash,
or to evolve the odour of chlorine; heat being
employed towards the end of the process. The
quantity of ferrous sulphate consumed is now
ascertained by again weighing the sample. If
the peroxide examined was pure, the loss of
weight will be 317 grs. ; but if otherwise, the
per-centage of the pure peroxide may be ob-
tained by the rule of three. Thus : suppose only
298 grs. of the sulphate were consumed, then
317 : 100 : : 298 : 94,
and the richness of the sample would be 94}.
The per-centage value of the oxide for evolving
chlorine may be obtained by multiplying the
weight of the consumed ferrous sulphate by
‘2588, which, in the above case, would give
76% of chlorine. For this purpose as well as
for chlorometry, the ferrous sulphate is best
prepared by precipitating it from its aqueous
solution with alcohol, and drying it out of con-
tact with air until it loses its alcoholic odour.
Obs. Before applying the above processes,
it is absolutely necessary that we ascertain
whether the peroxide examined contains any
carbonates, as the presence of these would
vitiate the results. This is readily determined
by treating it with a little dilute nitric acid:—
if effervescence ensues, one or more carbonates
are present, and the sample, after being
weighed, must be digested for some time in
dilute nitric acid in excess, and then carefully
collected on a filter, washed, and dried. It
may then be assayed as before. The loss of
weight indicates the quantity of carbonates
present, with sufficient accuracy for technical
purposes. The determination of this point is
the more important, as these contaminations
not merely lessen the richness of the mineral
in pure manganic peroxide, but also cause
a considerable waste of acid when it is em-
ployed in the manufacture of chlorine.
Permanganic Acid. HMnO4. Obtained by
distilling cautiously potassium permanganate
and sulphuric acid. Dark violet–black liquid,
green by reflected light, and rapidly absorb-
ing water forming a violet solution. Oxidises
organic matter with explosive violence.
Permanganate of Barium. Ba (MnO)s. Black
soluble prisms, formed by decomposing silver
permanganate by means of barium chloride,
and cautiously evaporating.
Permangamate of Potassium. HMnO4. Prep.
Potassium chlorate, or nitrate, and potassium
hydrate is made into a paste with water, and
manganic peroxide added; the mass is dried
and heated to redness. The residue is boiled
with water, filled through asbestos, and eva-
porated down and recrystallized.
Dark purple, red, almost black anhydrous
long prisms, readily soluble in 16 pints of
water. Decomposed in presence of acids by
most organic matter.
Permangamate of Silver. AgMnO4. Prep.
Precipitate a strong solution of silver nitrate
by means of a concentrated solution of potas-
sium permanganate. Small black prisms,
soluble in 100 parts of water, with a purple
colour.
Permangamate of Sodium. NaMnO4. Obtained
as a dark purple liquid by passing a current of
carbonic anhydride through sodium manga-
nate. Condy red fluid is chiefly a sodium
permanganate dissolved in water. -
MANGE. An eruptive disease, correspond-
ing to the itch in man, resulting from the
burrowing into the skin of minute animalcules
(mites or acari), and common to several do-
mestic animals, more especially the dog and
horse. Like the itch, it is contagious. The
causes are confinement, dirt, and bad living.
The treatment should consist in the immediate
removal of the cause, the frequent use of soft
soap and water, followed by frictions with sul-
phur ointment or by solution of chloride of
lime, the administration of purgatives, and a
change to a restorative diet. Dun states,
that in India a very efficient remedy for mange
is employed by the native farriers, which con-
sists of castor oil seeds well bruised, steeped
for twelve hours in sour milk, and rubbed into
the skin, previously thoroughly cleansed with
soap and water. “The itchiness disappears
almost immediately, and the acari are speedily
destroyed.” A dressing consisting of 1 oz. of
chloride of zinc (Burnett's disinfectant fluid)
and 1 quart of water may also be applied with
advantage.
MAN"GEL WUR/ZEL, Syn. MANGOLD-
WURZEL, HYBRID BEET, ROOT OF SCARCITY.
The Beta vulgaris, var. campestris, a variety
of the common beet. The root abounds in
sugar, and has been used in Germany as a sub-
stitute for bread in times of scarcity. In these
countries it is chiefly cultivated as food for
cattle. The young leaves are eaten as spinach.
The per-centage composition of mangold wur-
zel is as follows:—Flesh-formers (albuminoid
bodies), 1:54; heat and fat-formers (sugar,
&c.), 8:60; indigestible fibre, 1:12; ash, 0.96;
87-78.
MANHEIM G0I.D. A gold-coloured brass.
See GoLD (Dutch).
MAN’NA. Syn. MANNA (B. P., Ph. L. E.
& D.), L. A concrete exudation from the stem
of Frawinus ornus and F. rotundifolia, ob-
tained by incision. (B. P.) “The juice
flowing from the incised bark” of “ Fravinus
rotundifolia and F. ornus, hardened by the
air.” (Ph. L.) The finest variety of this
drug is known as flake manna, and occurs in
pieces varying from 1 to 6 inches long, 1 or 2
inches wide, and , to 1 inch thick. It has a
yellowish-white or cream colour; an odour
somewhat resembling honey, but less pleasant;
a sweet, mawkish taste ; and is light, porous,
and friable. It is laxative in doses of 1 to 2 oz.


740
MANNACROUP-MANURES.
Mamma, Factitious, made of a mixture of
sugar, starch, and honey, with a very small
quantity of scammony to give it odour and
flavour, and to render it purgative, has been
lately very extensively offered in trade, and
met with a ready sale.
MAN'NACROUP. A granular preparation
of wheat deprived of bran, used as an article
of food for children and invalids. (Brande.)
MAN/NITE. C.H.I.Og. Syn. MANNA SUGAR,
MUSHROOM. S.; MANNITA, L. A sweet, crys-
tallizable substance, found in manna and in
several other vegetable productions. It has
been formed artificially by the action of sodium-
amalgam upon an alkaline solution of came
Sugar.
Prep. 1. Digest manna in boiling rectified
spirit, and filter or decant the solution whilst
hot; the mannite crystallizes as the liquid
cools in tufts of slender, colourless needles.
2. (Ruspini.) Manna, 6 lbs. ; cold water (in
which the white of an egg has been beaten),
3 lbs. ; mix, boil for a few minutes, and strain
the syrup through linen whilst hot; thestrained
liquid will form a semi-crystalline mass on
cooling ; submit this to strong pressure in a
cloth, mix the cake with its own weight of
cold water, and again press it ; dissolve the
cake thus obtained in boiling water, add a little
animal charcoal, and filter the mixture into a
porcelain dish set over the fire ; lastly, evapo-
rate the filtrate to a pellicle, and set the syrup
aside to crystallize. Large quadrangular
prisms; perfectly white and transparent.
Prop., &c. Mannite has a powerfully sweet
and agreeable taste; dissolves in 5 parts of
cold water, and about half that quantity of
boiling water; freely soluble in hot, and
slightly so in cold alcohol; fuses by heat with-
out loss of weight ; with sulphuric acid it
combines to form a new acid-compound. It
is distinguished from the true sugars by its
aqueous solution not being susceptible of the
vinous fermentation, and not possessing the
property of rotary polarization. When pure,
it is perfectly destitute of purgative proper-
ties. It is now extensively imported from
Italy, and is chiefly used to cover the taste of
nauseous medicines, and as a sweetmeat.
MANURES’. Substances added to soils to
increase their fertility. The food of vegetables,
as far as their organic structure is concerned,
consists entirely of inorganic compounds; and
no organized body can serve for the nutrition
of vegetables until it has been, by the process
of decay, resolved into certain inorganic sub-
stances. These are carbonic acid, water, and
ammonia, which are well known to be the
final products of putrefaction. But even
when these are applied to vegetables, their
growth will not proceed unless certain mineral
substances are likewise furnished in small
quantities, either by the soil or the water used
to moisten it. Almost every plant, when
burned, leaves ashes, which commonly contain
silica, potassa, and phosphate of lime; often,
also, magnesia, soda, sulphates, and oxide of
iron. These mineral bodies appear to be es:
sential to the existence of the vegetable tis.
sues; so that plants will not grow in soils
destitute of them, however abundantly sup:
plied with carbonic acid, ammonia, and water,
The carbon of plants is wholly derived from
carbonic acid, which is either absorbed from
the atmosphere, and from rain water, by the
leaves, or from the moisture and air in the soil,
by the roots. Its carbon is retained and assi.
milated with the body of the plant, while is
oxygen is given out in the gaseous form; this
decomposition being always effected under the
influence of light at ordinary temperatures
The hydrogen and oxygen of vegetables,
which, when combined with carbon, constitutº
the ligneous, starchy, gummy, saccharine,
oily, and resinous matters of plants, are dº
rived from water chiefly absorbed by the
roots from the soil. The nitrogen of vege.
tables is derived chiefly, if not exclusively,
from ammonia, which is supplied to them in
rain, and in manures, and which remains in
the soil till absorbed by the roots.
According to the celebrated ‘mineral
theory’ of agriculture, advanced by Liebig,
a soil is fertile or barren for any given plant
according as it contains those mineral sub.
stances that enter into its composition. Thus,
“ the ashes of wheat-straw contain much silicº
and potassa, whilst the ashes of the seeds Col.
tain phosphate of magnesia. Hence, if a sºil
is deficient in any one of these, it will nºt
yield wheat. On the other hand, a good cr)
of wheat will exhaust the soil of these sub.
stances, and it will not yield a second CTO)
till they have been restored, either by manuſ:
or by the gradual action of the weather in
disintegrating the subsoil. Hence the benefit
derived from fallows and from the rotation ºf
crops. -
“When, by an extraordinary supply of any
one mineral ingredient, or of ammonia,
large crop has been obtained, it is not to lº
expected that a repetition of the same indivi.
dual manure next year will produce the same
effect. It must be remembered that the um:
usual crop has exhausted the soil probably ºf
all the other mineral ingredients, and that the
also must be restored before a second crop call
be obtained. -
“The salt most essential to the growth ºf
the potato is the double phosphate of ammomi
and magnesia; that chiefly required for hiſ
is phosphate of lime; while for almost all
plants potassa and ammonia are highly bent
ficial.”
From these principles we “may deduce #
few valuable conclusions in regard to the
chemistry of agriculture. First, by examining
the ashes of a thriving plant, we discover the
mineral ingredients which must exist in a sºil
to render it fertile for that plant. Secondly
by examining a soil, we can say at once whether
it is fertile in regard to any plants the asheſ
MAPS-MARBLE. 741
of which have been examined. Thirdly, when
we know the defects of a soil, the deficient
matters may be easily obtained and added
to it, unmixed with such as are not required.
Fourthly, the straw, leaves, &c., of any plant,
are the best manure for that plant, since every
vegetable extracts from the soil such matters
alone as are essential to it. This important
principle has been amply verified by the success
attending the use of wheat-straw, or its ashes,
as manure for wheat, and of the chippings of
the vines as a manure for the vineyard. When
these are used (in the proper quantity),
no other manure is required. Fifthly, in the
rotation of crops, those should be made to
follow which require different materials; or
a crop which extracts little or no mineral
matter, such as peas, should come after one
which exhausts the soil of its phosphates and
potassa.” (Liebig.) -
The experiments of Messrs. Lawes and Gil-
bert have forced upon them opinions differing
from those of Baron Liebig on some important
points in relation to his “mineral theory,’ which
endeavours to prove that “the crops on a field
diminish or increase in exact proportion to
the diminution or increase of the mineral sub-
stances conveyed to it in manure.” The results
obtained by the English investigators appear
to prove that it is impossible to get good crops
by using mineral manures alone, and that
nitrogenous manures (farm-yard manure, guano,
ammoniacal salts, &c.) are fertilizing agents of
the highest order.
Of the chemical manures now so much used,
bone-dust is, perhaps, the most important, as
it supplies the phosphates which have been ex-
tracted by successive crops of grass and corn,
the whole of the bones of the cattle fed on
these crops having been derived from the soil;
its gelatin also yields ammonia by putrefaction.
Guano acts as a source of ammonia, containing
much oxalate and urate of ammonia, with some
phosphates. Nightsoil and urine, especially
the latter, are most valuable for the ammonia
they yield, as well as for phosphates and
potassa; but are very much neglected in this
country, although their importance is fully
appreciated in Belgium, France, and China.
Nitrate of soda is valued as a source of ni-
trogen.
All organic substances may be employed as
manures; preference being, however, given to
those abounding in nitrogen, and which readily
decay when mixed with the soil.
The analysis of manures, soils, and the ashes
of plants, for the purpose of ascertaining their
composition and comparative value, is not
easily performed by inexperienced parties; but
a rough approximation to their contents, suffi-
ciently accurate for all practical purposes, may
be generally made by such persons with proper
care and attention. See AGRICULTURE, BONE-
DUST, GUANO, &c.
Manures, Artificial. Various formulae be-
longing to this head will be found dispersed,
under their respective names, throughout this
work. The following are additional ones:—
1. (Anderson.) Sulphate of ammonia, com-
mon salt, and oil of vitriol, of each, 10 parts;
chloride of potassium, 15 parts; gypsum and
sulphate of potassa, of each, 17 parts; salt-
petre, 20 parts; crude Epsom salts, 25 parts;
sulphate of soda, 33 parts. For clover.
2. (Huxtable.) Crude potash, 28 lbs. ; com-
mon salt, 1 cwt.; bone-dust and gypsum, of
each, 2 cwt. ; wood-ashes, 15 bushels. For
either corn, turnips, or grass.
3. (Johnstone.) Sulphate of soda (dry),
11 lbs. ; wood-ashes, 28 lbs. ; common salt,
# cwt. ; crude sulphate of ammonia, 1 cwt.;
bone-dust, 7 bushels. As a substitute for
guano.
4. (Lawes' “Superphosphate.”)
IPROLITE. -
5. (Fertilizing powder.) A mixture of
very fine bone-dust, 18 parts; calcined gypsum
and sulphate of ammonia, of each, 1 part. The
seed is ordered to be steeped in the ‘drain-
ings’ from a dunghill, and after being drained,
but whilst still wet, to be sprinkled with the
powder, and then dried. See FLOWERs, LIME
(Superphosphate), &c.
MAPS. These, as well as architect’s and en-
gineer's designs, plans, sections, drawings, &c.,
may be tinted with any of the simple liquid
colours mentioned under “WELVET COLOURS,”
preference being given to the most transparent
ones, which will not obscure the limes beneath
them. To prevent the colours from sinking
and spreading, which they usually do on com-
mon paper, the latter should be wetted 2 or 3
times with a sponge dipped in alum water (3
or 4 oz. to the pint), or with a solution of
white size, observing to dry it carefully after
each coat. This tends to give lustre and
beauty to the colours. The colours for this
purpose should also be thickened with a little
gum water. Before varnishing maps after
colouring them, 2 or 3 coats of clean size should
be applied with a soft brush—the first one to
the back.
MARASCHINO (-ké'-no). Syn. MARASQUIN,
Fr. A delicate liqueur spirit distilled from a
peculiar cherry growing in Dalmatia, and after-
wards sweetened with sugar. The best is
from Zara, and is obtained from the marasca
cherry only. An inferior quality is distilled
from a mixture of cherries and the juice of
liquorice root.
MAR/BLE. Syn. LIMESTONE, HARD CAR-
BONATE OF LIME; MARMOR, CALCIS CARBONAS
DURUS, M. ALBUM (B. P., Ph. E. & D.), L.
Marbles are merely purer and more compact
varieties of limestone, which admit of being
sawn into slabs, and are susceptible of a fine
polish. White marble is employed for the
preparation of carbonic acid and some of the
salts of lime. It contains about 65% of lime.
Sp. gr. 270 to 2.85. The tests of its purity
are the same as those already noticed under
CHALK.
See Co-


742
MARBLING,
Marble is best cleaned with a little soap-and-
water, to which some ox-gall may be added.
Acids should be avoided. Oil and grease may
be generally removed by spreading a paste
made of soft soap, caustic potash lye, and
fuller’s earth, over the part, and allowing it to
remain there for a few days; after which it
must be washed off with clean water. Or,
equal parts of American potash (crude car-
bonate of potash) and whiting are made into a
moderately stiff paste with a sufficiency of
boiling water, and applied to the marble with
a brush. At the end of two or three days the
paste is removed and the marble washed with
soap and water. Any defect of polish may be
brought up with tripoli, followed by putty
powder, both being used along with water.
Marble is mended with one or other of the
compounds noticed under CEMENTs.
Marble may be stained or dyed of various
colours by applying coloured solutions or tinc-
tures to the stone made sufficiently hot to
make the liquid just simmer on the surface.
The following are the substances usually
employed for this purpose:—
BLUE. Tincture or solution of litmus, or
an alkaline solution of indigo.
BROWN. Tincture of logwood.
CRIMSON. A solution of alkanet root in oil
of turpentine.
FLESH COLOUR. Wax tinged with alkanet
root, and applied to the marble hot enough to
melt it freely.
GOLD COLOUR. A mixture of equal parts of
white vitriol, sal ammoniac, and verdigris,
each in fine powder, and carefully applied.
GREEN. An alkaline solution or tincture
of sap green, or wax strongly coloured with
verdigris; or the stone is first stained blue,
and then the materials for yellow stain are
applied.
RED. Tincture of dragon’s blood, alkanet
root, or cochineal.
YELLOW. Tincture of gamboge, turmeric,
or saffron; or wax coloured with annotta.
Success in the application of these colours
requires considerable experience. By their
skilful use, however, a very pleasing effect,
both of colour and grain, may be produced.
MAR/BLING (of Books, &c.). The edges and
covers of books are ‘marbled' by laying the
colour on them with a brush, or by means of
a wooden trough containing mucilage, as fol-
lows:—Provide a wooden trough, 2 inches
deep, 6 inches wide, and the length of a super-
royal sheet; boil in a brass or copper pan any
quantity of linseed and water until a thick
mucilage is formed; strain this into the trough,
and let it cool; then grind on a marble slab
any of the following colours in table beer.
For—blue, Prussian blue or indigo ;—red,
rose-pink, vermilion, or drop lake;—yellow,
king's yellow, yellow ochre, &c.;-white, flake
white;—black, ivory black, or burnt lamp-
black;-brown umber, burnt u., terra di
sienna, burnt s, ; black, mixed with yellow or
mixed;—purple, red and blue mixed. For
each colour provide two cups—one for the
ground colours, the other to mix them with
the ox-gall, which must be used to thin them
at discretion.
colours spread; when they keep their place on
the surface of the trough, on being moved
with a quill, they are fit for use. All things
being in readiness, the prepared colours are
successively sprinkled on the surface of the
mucilage in the trough with a brush, and are
waved or drawn about with a quill or a stick, -
according to taste. When the design is thus
formed, the book, tied tightly between cutting
boards of the same size, is lightly pressed with
its edge on the surface of the liquid pattem
and then withdrawn and dried. The covers
may be marbled in the same way, only the
red, also makes brown;–green, blue and yellow
If too much gall is used, the
liquid colours must be allowed to run over
them. The film of colour in the trough may
be as thin as possible; and if any remains
after the marbling, it may be taken off by
applying paper to it before you prepare for
marbling again.
FRENCH MARBLING.
To diversify the effect, a little sweet oil is
often mixed with the colours before sprinkling
them on, by which means a light halo or circle
appears round each spot.
of the trough, produces white spots. By
staining the covers with any of the liquid dyes
and then dropping on them, or running over
them, drops of the ordinary liquid mordants, a
This process has been called
In like manner,
spirit of turpentine, sprinkled on the surface
very pleasing effect may be produced. Winegut
black, or a solution of green copperas, thus
applied to common leather, produces black
spots or streaks, and gives a similar effect with
most of the light dyes. A solution of alum of
of tin in like manner produces bright spots 0.
streaks, and soda or potash water dark ones,
This style has been called EGYPTIAN MARBLE,
—SOAP MARBLING is done by throwing on the
colours, ground with a little white soap to :
proper consistence, by means of a brush. It
is much used for book-edges, stationery, sheets
of paper, ladies’ fancy work, &c.—THREAD
MARBLE is given by first covering the edge
uniformly of one colour, then laying pieces of
thick thread irregularly on different parts of
it, and giving it a fine dark sprinkle. When
well managed, the effect is very pleasing.—
RICE MARBLE is given in a similar way to the
last by using rice.—TREE MARBLE is done on
leather book-covers, &c., by bending the board
a little in the centre, and running the marbling
liquid over it in the form of vegetation. The
knots are given by rubbing the end of a candle
on those parts of the cover.—WAx MARBLE is .
º
given in a similar way to thread marble, but
using melted wax, which is removed after the
book is sprinkled and dried ; or a sponge
charged with blue, greem, or red, may be passed
over. This, also, is much used for stationery
work, especially for folios and quartos. The
MARGARIC ACID-MASS,
743
‘vinegar black of the bookbinders is merely a
solution of acetate of iron, made by steeping a
few rusty nails or some iron filings in vinegar.
All the ordinary liquid colours that do not
contain strong acids or alkalies may be used
either alone or thickened with a little gum,
for marbling or sprinkling books.
SPRINKLING is performed by simply dipping
a stiff-haired painter’s brush into the colour,
and suddenly striking it against a small stick
held in the left hand over the work. By this
means the colour is evenly scattered without
producing ‘blurs or “blots.”
PAPER, PASTEBOARD, &c., in sheets, are
marbled and sprinkled in a similar manner to
that above described, but in this case the gum
trough must, of course, be longer.
MARGAR/ICACID. This term was formerly
applied to a mixture of palmitic and stearic
acids, produced by decomposing the alkaline
soaps of solid fats with an acid, but it is now
given to a fatty acid which can only be ob-
tained artificially.
MAR/GARIN. Syn. MARGARATE of GLYCE-
RYLE. A constituent formerly supposed to
exist in solid fats, but now regarded as a mix-
ture of stearin and palmitin.
MARINE/ACID. See HYDROCHLoRIC ACID.
MARI. A natural mixture of clay and
chalk, with sand. It is characterised by effer-
vescing with acids. According to the pre-
dominance of one or other of its component
parts, it is called argillaceous, calcareous, or
Sandy marl. It is very generally employed as
a manure for sandy soils, more particularly in
Norfolk. See SOILS.
MAR/MALADE. Originally, a conserve made
of quinces and sugar; now commonly applied
to the conserves of other fruit, more especially
to those of oranges and lemons.
Prep. Marmalades are made either by
pounding the pulped fruit in a mortar with
an equal or a rather larger quantity of pow-
dered white sugar, or by mixing them to-
gether by heat, passing them through a hair
sieve whilst hot, and then putting them into
pots or glasses. The fruit-pulps are obtained
by rubbing the fruit through a fine hair sieve,
either at once or after it has been softened by
simmering it for a short time along with a
little water. When heat is employed in mixing
the ingredients, the evaporation should be
continued until the marmalade “jellies’ on
cooling. See CoNSERVES, CONFECTIONS, ELEC-
TUARIES, JAMS, JELLIES, and below.
Marmalade, Apricot. From equal parts of
pulp and Sugar.
Marmalade, Mixed. From plums, pears, and
apples, variously flavoured to palate.
Marmalade, Orange. Prep. 1. From oranges
(either Seville or St. Michael’s, or a mixture
of the two), by boiling the peels in syrup until
soft, then pulping them through a sieve, adding
as much white sugar, and boiling them with
the former syrup and the juice of the fruit
to a proper consistence.
2. By melting the confection of orange peel
(Ph. L.), either with or without the addition
of some orange or lemon juice, and then passing
it through a sieve.
3. (CANDIED ORANGE MARMALADE.) From
candied orange peel, boiled in an equal weight
each of sugar and water, and then passed
through a sieve.
4. (SCOTCH MARMALADE.)—a. Seville orange
juice, 1 quart ; yellow peel of the fruit,
grated; homey, 2 lbs. ; boil to a proper con-
sistence.
b. Seville oranges, 8 lbs. ; peel them as thinly
as possible, then squeeze out the juice, boil it
on the yellow peels for 4 hour, strain, add
white sugar, 7 lbs., and boil to a proper con-
sistence.
Marmalade, Quince. Syn. DIACYDONIUM.
From quince flesh or pulp and sugar, equal
parts; or from the juice (miva cydoniorum,
gelatina c.), by boiling it to , adding an
equal quantity of white wine and Érds of its
weight of sugar, and gently evaporating the
mixture.
Marmalade, Tomato. Like APRICOT MAR-
MALADE, adding a few slices of onions and a
little parsley.
MARMORATUM. Finely powdered marble
and quicklime, well beaten together; used as a
cement or mortar.
MAR/ROW (Beef). This is extensively em-
ployed by the perfumers in the preparation of
various pommades and other cosmetics, on
account of its furnishing an exceedingly bland
fat, which is not so much disposed to rancidity
as the other fats. It is prepared for use by
soaking and working it for some time in luke-
warm water, and afterwards melting it in a
water bath, and straining it through a piece of
muslin whilst hot. When scented, it is es-
teemed equal to bear's grease for promoting
the growth of the hair.
MARSH GAS. Light carbonetted hydro-
gen.
MARSH'S TEST. See ARSENIOUS ACID.
MARSH-MALLOW. Syn. ALTHEA (Ph. L.
& E.), L. The root (leaves and root—Ph. E.
of Althaea officinalis, Linn., or common marsh-
mallow. (Ph. L.) It is emollient and demul-
cent; the decoction is useful in irritation of
the respiratory and urinary organs, and of the
alimentary canal. The flowers as well as the
root are reputed pectoral.
MARTIN’S POWDER. A mixture of white
arsenic and the powdered stems of Orobanche
virginiana (Linn.), a plant common in Virginia
An American quack remedy for cancer.
MASS. Syn. MASSA, L. This term is com-
monly applied in pharmacy and veterinary
medicine to certain preparations which are not
made up into their ultimate form. Thus, we
have ‘ball-masses,’ ‘pill-masses,’ &c.; of which,
for convenience, large quantities are prepared
at a time, and are kept in pots or jars, ready
to be divided into balls or pills, as the demands
of business may require. (See newſ page.)


744
MASSES-MASTICATORIES.
MASSES (Weterinary)."
Massa Aloes. MASS OF ALOES. Syn. CATH-
ARTIC MASS. Prep. Take of Barbadoes aloes,
in small pieces, 8 parts; glycerin, 2 parts;
ginger, in powder, 1 part; melt together in a
water-bath, and thoroughly incorporate by
frequent stirring.—Use. Cathartic for the
horse.—Dose. From 6 to 8 drs.
Massa Aloes Composita. COMPOUND MASS
OF ALOES. Syn. ALTERATIVE MASS. Prep.
Take of Barbadoes aloes, in powder, 1 oz.;
soft soap, 1 oz. ; common mass, 6 oz. ;
thoroughly incorporate by beating in a mortar,
so as to form a mass.-Use. Alterative for the
horse.—Dose. 1 oz.
Massa Antimonii Tartarata Composita. COM-
PounID MASS OF TARTARATED ANTIMONY. Syn.
FEVER BALL. Prep. Take of tartarated anti-
mony, in powder, # dr. ; camphor, in powder,
# dr.; nitrate of potash, in powder, 2 drs. ;
common mass, a sufficiency; mix so as to form
a bolus.-Use. Febrifuge for the horse.—Dose.
The above mixture constitutes 1 dose.
Massa Belladonna Composita. COMPOUND
MASS OF BELLADONNA. Syn. Cough BALL.
Prep. Take of extract of belladonna, 3 to 1
dr. ; Barbadoes aloes, in powder, 1 dr. ; nitrate
of potash, in powder, 2 drs. ; common mass, a
sufficiency; mix so as to form a bolus.-Use.
For the horse in chronic cough.--Dose. The
above mixture constitutes 1 dose.
Massa Catechu Composita. CoMPOUND
MASS OF CATECHU. Syn. ASTRINGENT MASS.
Prep. Take of extract of catechu, in fine pow-
der, 1 oz. ; cinnamon bark, in fine powder, 1
oz. ; common mass, 6 oz.; mix.-Use. Astrin-
gent for the horse.--Dose, 1 oz., in the form
of bolus.
Massa Communis. COMMON MASS. Prep.
Take of linseed, finely ground, and treacle, of
each, equal parts; mix together so as to form
a mass.-Use. An excipient for medicinal
agents when they are to be administered in
the form of bolus.
Massa Cupri Sulphatis. MASS OF SULPHATE
of COPPER. Syn. ToNIC MASS. Prep. Take
of sulphate of copper, finely powdered, 1 oz. ;
ginger, in powder, 1 oz. ; common mass, 6 oz. ;
mix.- Use. Tonic for the horse.—Dose. 6 to 8drs.
Massa Digitalis Composita. COMPOUND
MASS OF DIGITALIS. Syn. COUGH BALL. Prep.
Take of Barbadoes aloes, in powder, 2 oz. ;
digitalis, 1 oz. ; common mass, 13 oz. ; mix—
Use. For the horse in chronic cough.--Dose.
1 oz. once or twice a day.
Massa Ferri Sulphatis. MASS OF SULPHATE
OF TRON. Syn. ToNIC MASS. Prep. Take of
sulphate of iron, in powder, 2 oz. ; ginger, in
powder, 1 oz. ; common mass, 5 oz. ; mix,−
Use. Tonic for the horse.—Dose. 6 to 8 drs.
Massa Resimae Composita. COMPOUND MASS
of RESIN. Syn. DIURETIC MASS. Prep. Take
of resin, in powder, nitrate of potash, in pow-
der, hard soap, of each, equal parts; mix.-
Use. Diuretic for the horse.—Dose. 1 oz.
* Reprinted from Tuson’s ‘Veterinary Pharmacopoeia.”
Massa. Zingiberis Composita. COMPOUND
MASS OF GINGER. Syn. CORDIAL MASS.
Prep. Take of ginger, in powder, gentian
root, in powder, treacle, of each, equal parts, a
sufficiency; mix so as to form a mass.-Use.
Stomachic for the horse.--Dose. 1 oz.
MAS'SICOT. Syn. MASTICOT, YELLOWPROT-
OXIDE OF LEAD ; PLUMBI OXYDUM FLAVUM,
CERUSSA CITRINA, L. The dross that forms
on melted lead exposed to a current of air,
roasted until it acquires a uniform yellow.
colour. Artists often apply the same name to
white lead, roasted until it turns yellow.
Used as a pigment.
MASTIC. Syn. MASTICH, GUM MASTIC ;
MASTICHE, L. The “resin flowing from the
incised bark of Pisłacia Lentiscus, var. Chia.”
(Ph. L.) It occurs in pale yellowish, trans-
parent, rounded tears, which soften between
the teeth when chewed, and giving out a
bitter, aromatic taste. Sp. gr. 1:07. It is
soluble in both rectified spirit and oil of tur-
pentine, forming varnishes. It is chiefly used
as a “masticatory,’ to strengthen and preserve
the teeth, and perfume the breath.
Mastic. Fine mortar or cement used for
plastering walls, in which the ingredients, in
a pulverulent state, are mixed up, either en-
tirely or with a considerable portion of limseed
oil. It sets very hard, and is ready to receive
paint in a few days. See CEMENTS.
MASTICATION. The act of chewing food,
by which it not only becomes comminuted,
but mixed with the saliva, and reduced to a
form fit for deglutition. It has been justly
regarded by the highest authorities as the
first process of digestion, and one without
which the powers of the stomach are over-
tasked, and often performed with difficulty.
Hence the prevalence of dyspepsia and bow-
elly complaints among persons with bad teeth,
or who ‘bolt' their food without chewing it.
MASTICATORIES. Syn. MASTICATORIA,
L. Substances taking by chewing them. They
are employed as intoxicants, cosmetics, and
medicinals; generally with the first intention.
The principal masticatory used in this country
is tobacco. In Turkey, and several other
Eastern nations, opium is taken in a similar
manner. In India, a mixture of areca nut,
betel leaf, and lime, performs the same duties;
whilst in some other parts of the world pre-
parations of the cacao are employed. As cos-
metics, orris root, cassia, cinnamon, and sandal
wood, are frequently chewed to scent the
breath. Among medicinals, mastic and myrrh
are frequently chewed to strengthen the teeth
and gums ; pellitory, to relieve the toothache;
and rhubarb, ginger, and gentian, to relieve
dyspepsia and promote the appetite.
Prep. 1. (Augustin.) Mastic, pellitory
(both in powder), and white wax, of each, 1
dr. ; mixed by heat and divided into 6 balls,
In toothache, loose teeth, &c.
2. (W. Cooley.) Mastic, myrrh, and white
wax, of each, 1 part; rhubarb, ginger, and

MASTICOT-MATCHES. 745
extract of gentian, of each, 2 parts; beaten up
with tincture of tolu, q. S., and divided into
boluses or lozenges of 10 grs. each. One or
two to be chewed an hour before dinner; in
dyspepsia, defective appetite, &c.
3. (Quincy.) Mastic, 3 oz. ; pellitory and
stavesacre seed, of each, 2 drs. ; cubebs and
nutmegs, of each, 1 dr. ; angelica root, dr.;
melted wax, q. S. to make it into small balls.
As a stimulant to the gums, and in toothache.
4. Opium, ginger, rhubarb, mastic, pellitory
of Spain, and orris root, of each, 1 dr. ; melted
spermaceti, q. S. to mix; for 6-gr. pills. As
the last, and in toothache and painful gums.
MASTICOT. See MASSICOT.
MATCHES (Cooper's). Syn. SwºTENING
MATCHES. These are made by dipping strips
of coarse linen or canvas into melted brimstone.
For use, the brimstone on one of them is set
on fire, and the match is then at once sus-
pended in the cask, and the bung loosely set
in its place. After the lapse of 2 or 3 hours
the match is removed, and the cask filled with
liquor. Some persons pour a gallon or two of
the liquor into the cask before “matching it.
The object is to allay excessive fermentation.
The operation is commonly adopted in the
Western Counties for cider intended for ship-
ment, or other long exposure during transport.
It is also occasionally employed for inferior and
* doctored wines.
MATCHES (Instantaneous Light). Of these
there are several varieties, of which the one
best known, and most extensively used, is the
common phosphorus match, known as the ‘con-
greve’ or “lucifer.” We need not describe
the ‘chemical matches,’ ‘phosphorus bottles,”
and ‘prometheans,’ in use during the early
part of the present century, as these are quite
obsolete. We will simply sketch the general
process of manufacture now in use for phos-
phorus matches:
Manuf. The wooden splints are cut by steam
machinery from the very best quality of pine
planks, perfectly dried at a temperature of
400° Fahr. English splints are of two
sizes—‘large” and ‘minnikins;’ the former
2% inches longer, and the latter somewhat
shorter. In the manufacture double-lengths
are used, so that each splint may be coated
with the igniting composition at both ends,
and then cut asunder in the middle to form
two matches. In England the splints are
usually cut square in form, but in Germany
they are cylindrical, being prepared by forcing
the wood through circular holes in a steel
plate. The ends of the double splints having
1 The original LUCIFERs,” or LIGHT - BEARING
MATCHEs,’ invented in 1826, consisted of strips of paste-
board, or flat splints of wood, tipped first with sulphur,
and then with a mixture of sulphide of antimony and
chlorate of potassa, and were ignited by drawing them
briskly through folded glass-paper. They required a con-
siderable effort to ignite them, and the composition was
apt to be torn off by the violence of the friction. The term
“lucifer' having become familiar, was applied to the simpler
and more effective match afterwards introduced under the
names of ‘congBEYE” and “congBEVE LIGHT.’
being slightly charred by contact with a red-
hot plate, are coated with sulphur by dipping
them to the requisite depth in the melted ma-
terial. In some cases the ends are saturated
with melted wax or paraffin instead of sulphur.
The splints are then arranged in a frame
between grooved boards in such a manner that
the prepared ends project on each side of the
frame. These projecting ends are then tipped
with the phosphorus composition, which is
spread to a uniform depth of about $ inch on
a smooth slab of stone, kept warm by means of
steam beneath. When partially dry, the
tipped splints are taken from the frames, cut
through the middle, and placed in heaps of 100,
ready for ‘boxing.”
The different compositions for tipping the
matches in use in different countries and fac-
tories all consist essentially of emulsions of
phosphorus in a solution of glue or gum, with
or without other matters for increasing the
combustibility, for colouring, &c. In England
the composition contains a considerable
quantity of chlorate of potassa, which imparts
a snapping and flaming quality to the matches
tipped with it, and but little phosphorus, on
account of the moisture of the climate. In
Germany the proportion of phosphorus used
is much larger, and nitre, or some metallic
peroxide, replaces chlorate of potassa. The
German matches light quietly, with a mild
lambent flame, and are injured quickly by
damp. The following formulae have been care-
fully selected:
1. (ENGLISH.) Fine glue, 2 parts, broken
into small pieces, and soaked in water till
quite soft, is added to water, 4 parts, and
heated by means of a water bath until it is
quite fluid, and at a temperature of 200° to
212° Fahr. The vessel is then removed from
the fire, and phosphorus, 1% to 2 parts, is gra-
dually added, the mixture being agitated
briskly and continually with a ‘stirrer' having
wooden pegs or bristles projecting at its lower
end. When a uniform emulsion is obtained,
chlorate of potassa, 4 to 5 parts, powdered
glass, 3 to 4 parts, and red lead, smalt, or other
colouring matter, a sufficient quantity (all in
a state of very fine powder) are added, one at a
time, to prevent accidents, and the stirring
continued until the mixture is comparatively
cool.
Obs. According to Mr. G. Gore, the above
proportions are those of the best quality of
English composition. The matches tipped
with it deflagrate with a snapping noise.
(See above.)
2. (GERMAN.)—a. (Böttger.) Dissolve gum
arabic, 16 parts, in the least possible quantity
of water, add of phosphorus (in powder), 9
parts, and mix by trituration; then add of
nitre, 14 parts; vermilion or binoxide of man-
ganese, 16 parts, and form the whole into a
paste, as directed above; into this the matches
are to be dipped, and then exposed to dry.
As soon as the matches are quite dry, they are



746 MATERIA MEDICA–MEASLES.
to be dipped into very dilute copal varnish or
lac varnish, and again exposed to dry, by
which means they are rendered waterproof, or
at least less likely to suffer from exposure in
damp weather.
b. (Böttger.) Glue, 6 parts, is soaked in a
little cold water for 24 hours, after which it is
liquefied by trituration in a heated mortar;
phosphorus, 4 parts, is now added, and rubbed
down at a heat not exceeding 150° Fahr.;
nitre (in fine powder), 10 parts, is next mixed
in, and afterwards red ochre, 5 parts, and
smalt, 2 parts, are further added, and the
whole formed into a uniform paste, into which
the matches are dipped, as before. Cheaper
than the last.
c. (Diesel.) Phosphorus, 17 parts; glue, 21
parts; red lead, 24 parts; nitre, 38 parts.
Proceed as above. -
Obs. Matches tipped with the above (a, b,
and c) inflame without fulmination when
rubbed against a rough surface, and are hence
termed ‘noiseless matches” by the makers.
3. (SAFETY MATCHES.) The latest improve-
ment of note in the manufacture of matches
is that of Landstrom, of Jonkoping, in Sweden,
adopted by Messrs. Bryant and May (Patent).
It consists in dividing the ingredient of the
match-mixture into two separate compositions,
one being placed on the ends of the splints, as
usual, and the other, which contains the phos-
phorus, being spread in a thin layer upon the
end or lid of the box. The following are the
compositions used by the patentee:—a. (For
the splints.) Chlorate of potassa, 6 parts; sul-
phuret of antimony, 2 to 3 parts; glue, 1 part.
—b. (For the friction surface.) Amorphous
phosphorus, 10 parts; sulphuretofantimony or
peroxide of manganese, 8 parts; glue, 3 to 6
parts; spread thinly upon the surface, which
has been previously made rough by a coating
of glue and sand.
Obs. By thus dividing the composition, the
danger of fires arising from ignition of the
matches by accidental friction is avoided, as
neither the portion on the splint nor that on
the box can be ignited by rubbing against an
unprepared surface. Again, by using the in-
nocuous red or amorphous phosphorus, the
danger of poisoning is entirely prevented.
MATE"RIA MEDICA. A collective name
of the various substances, natural and arti-
ficial, employed as medicines or in the cure of
disease. In its more extended sense it in-
cludes the science which treats of their pro-
perties, classification, and applications. The
materia medica of the Pharmacopoeia is a mere
list, with occasional notes, “ embracing the
animal, vegetable, and chemical substances,
whether existing naturally, prepared in offi-
cinal chemical preparations, or sold in whole-
sale trade, which we (the College), direct to be
used either in curing diseases or in preparing
medicines.” (Ph. L.)
MAT'IC0. Syn. SOLDIER's HERB ; MATECO
(B.P., Ph. D.); MATICA, HERBA MATICE, L.
The dried leaves of a Peruvian plant, gene-
rally believed to be the Artanthe elongata, one
of the Piperaceae. The leaves have been em-
ployed with considerable success as a mecha-
nical external styptic; applied to leech-bites,
slight cuts, and other wounds, &c., and pressed
on with the fingers, they seldom fail to arrest
the bleeding. Matico has also been much
lauded as an internal astringent and styptic, in
haºmorrhages from the lungs, stomach, bowels,
uterus, &c.; bnt as it is nearly destitute of
astringent properties, its virtues in these cases
must have been inferred from its external ac-
tion. As an aromatic, bitter stimulant, closely
resembling the peppers, it has been proposed
as a substitute for cubebs and black pepper,
in the treatment of diseases of the mucous
membranes, piles, &c.—Dose. # to 2 drs. ; in
powder ; or under the form of infusion, tinc-
ture, or boluses.
MATURATION. Growing ripe. Amongst
surgeons, this term is applied to the process of
suppuration, or that which succeeds inflamma-
tion, and by which pus or matter is collected
in an abscess. Warmth, irritation, and a
liberal diet, promote this change; cold, seda-
tives, and depletion, retard it. The maturation
of fermented liquor is noticed under BREWING,
MALT LIQUORS, WINES, &c.
MEAD. Syn. MELLINA, L. An old English
liquor, made from the combs from which the
honey has been drained, by boiling them in
water, and fermenting the saccharine solution
thus obtained. It is commonly confounded
with metheglin. Some persons add 1 oz. of
hops to each gallon; and, after fermentation, a
little brandy. It is then called sack mead.
See METHEGLIN.
MEAL. The substance of edible grain ground
to powder, without being bolted or sifted.
Barley meal and oat meal are the common
substances of this class in England. In North
America the term is commonly applied to
ground Indian corn, whether bolted or not.
(Goodrich.) The four resolvent meals of old
pharmacy (quatuor farina resolventes) are
those of barley, beans, linseed, and rye.
MEALS. The “periods of taking food,
usually adopted, in conformity with conveni-
ence and the recurrence of hunger, are those
which are best adapted to the purposes of
health; namely, the morning meal, the midday
meal, and the evening meal.” “That these
are the proper periods for meals is evident
from the fact of their maintaining their place
amid the changes which fashion is constantly
introducing.” “If we look at these periods in
another point of view, we shall find an interval
of four hours left between them for the act of
digestion and subsequent rest of the stomach.
Digestion will claim between two and three
hours of the interval; the remaining hour is
all that the stomach gets of rest, enough, per-
haps, but not too much, nor to be justly in-
fringed.” (Eras. Wilson.)
MEASIES. Syn. RUBEOLA, MORBILLI, L.
-


MEASURE,
747
This very common disease is characterised by
feverishness, chilliness, shivering, head-pains,
swelling and inflammation of the eyes, de-
fluxion of sharp tears, with painful sensibility
to light, oppressive cough, difficulty of breath-
ing, and sometimes vomiting or diarrhoea.
These are followed about the fourth day by a
crimson rash upon the skin, in irregular cres-
cents or circles, and by small red points or
spots, which are perceptible to the touch, and
which, after four or five days, go off with des-
quamation of the cuticle. The fever, cough,
&c., often continue for some time; and unless
there have been some considerable evacuations,
either by perspiration or vomiting, they fre-
quently return with increased violence, and
occasion great distress and danger.
Treat. When there are no urgent local
symptoms, mild aperients, antimonial diapho-
retics, and diluents, should be had recourse to ;
but when the inflammatory symptoms are
emergent, and the lungs are weak, especially
in plethoric habits, blood may be taken. The
cough may be relieved by expectorants, demul-
cents, and small doses of opium; and the diar-
rhoea by the administration of the compound
powder of chalk and opium; the looseness of
the bowels, however, had better not be inter-
fered with, unless it be extreme.
Measles are most prevalent in the middle of
winter, and though common to individuals of
all ages, are most frequent amongst children.
The plethoric, and those of a scrofulous habit,
or one which has a syphilitic taint, suffer most
from them.
Like the smallpox, the measles are conta-
gious, and seldom attack the same person more
than once during life. See RASH.
MEASURE. Syn. MENSURA, L. The unit
or standard by which we estimate extension,
whether of length, superficies, or volume.
The following tables represent the values and
proportions of the principal measures employed
in commerce and the arts :—

TABLE I. English Lineal Measures.
Inches, Feet. Yards. Poles. Furlongs. Miles.
-
1. •0S3 •028 •00505 •000.12626 •0000157828
12. 1. '333 •06060 •00151515 •00018939
36. 3. 1. ‘1818 ‘004.545 •00056818
198: 16-5 5'5 1. •025 •003125
7920. 660' 220- 40° 1. *125
63360. 5280° 1760. 320- 8. 1.

*** The unit of the above table is the yard,
of which no legal standard has existed since
that established by the statute of 1824 was destroyed by the fire which consumed the two
Houses of Parliament, in 1834.
TABLE II. English Measures of Superficies.
Square Feet. Square Yards. Poles. Roods Acres.
1. *1111 .00367.309 •000091827 :000022957
9. 1. '0330.57%) •000826448 || 000206612
272-25 30°25 I. •025 •00625
10890. 1210. 40. 1. 25
43560' 4840: 160. 4." 1.

748
MEASURE.
TABLE III. English Measure of Volume.—The IMPERIAL STANDARD, and the relative value
of its divisions, including those used in Medicine, with their EQUIVALENTs in avoirdupois
and troy weight.

ml f3 f3 O. Oij. C.
Minims - Equivalents in
dº s Dº diº, Pints. Quarts. Gallons. | Pecks. Bushels. Quarters. diº"
- - - rº- ->
2–~7-
Troy |Avoird.
grains. weight.
1. •01666666 •00208333 00010416 00005208 -00001302 — - - '91146
60. 1. • 125 •00625 •0()3125 '00078.125 — - - 54.6875 lb. 03.
480' 8- 1. •05 •025 •00625 - - - 437.5
9600- 160- 20° 1. ‘5 • 125 •0625 -015625 001953125 8750. I
19200 320- 40° 2. 1. “25 '125 || 03125 || 00390625 |17500. 2
76800. 1280. 160' 8. 4' 1. '5 ‘12; ‘Olă625 70000: 10
2560. 320- 16- 8. 2. 1. ‘25 •03125 - 20
1280. | 64. 32. 8. 4.' 1. ‘125 - 80
512- 256' 64' 32. 8. 1. - 640
*** The standard unit of the above table is the gallon, which is declared, by statute, to be
capable of “containing ten pounds avoirdupois weight of distilled water, weighed in the air at
the temperature of 62° Fahr., the barometer being at 30 inches.” The pound avoirdupois
contains 7000 grains, and it is declared that a cubic inch of distilled water, under the above
conditions, weighs 252'458 grains; hence the capacity of the imperial gallon and its divisions
are as follows:—
Imperial gallon = 277.274 cubic inches.
,, quarts = 69.3185 33
,, pint = 34:65925 ,
Fluid ounce = 173296 ,,
, drachm = "21662 ,
+4+ The imperial gallon is 1-5th larger than the old wine gallon, 1-60th smaller than the
old beer gallon, and—1-32nd larger than the old dry-measure gallon.
TABLE IV. French Metrical or Decimal Measures of Length.

Equivalents in
Names. Eq. in Mètres. English Inches, at English Long Measure, at
32° Fallr. 62° Eahl.
Miles. Fur. Yds. Feet. Inch.
Millimètre . . . •001 •03937
Centimétre - - •01 •39371
Décimétre - - •l - 3-93708
Mètre . . . . 1. - 39-37079 1. O 3.37
Decamétre . . 10. . . 393-70790 10 2 9.7 °
Hectomètre . . 100' . . .3937-07900 109 1. 1.078
Kilomètre - - - 1000- . . .39370-79000 4, 213 1 10:3
Myriamètre . . 10000" 393707-90000 6 1 156 0 9.17
*** The standard unit of the above table is the mêtre, which has been determined to be
39-37079 inches, at 32°Fahr. (Capt. Kater); the English foot is taken at 62°Fahr. The true
length of the mêtre, reduced to the latter temperature, is 39°3700.91 English inches; a number
which varies from that in the table only at the fourth decimal figure. It will be perceived
that the principle of momenclature adopted in applying the names, was to prefix the Greek
numerals to the decimal multiples, and the Latin numerals to the decimal subdivisions.
MEAT BISCUITS-MEAT EXTRACTS. 749
TABLE V. French Meſrical or Decimal Measures of Volume.

Names. Eq. in Litres. Eq. in #. Cubic Equivalent in English Measures.
Gall. Pints. Oz. Dr. Minims.
Millilitre . •001 •0610 16'9
Centilitre . . . . - •01 '6103 2 49.
Decilitre . . . . •1 6-102S 3 4. 10:36
Litre . . . . . 1. 61:028 1. 15 I 43.69
Decalitre . 10. 610:28 2 1. 12 L 16:9
Hectolitre . 100' 6102.8 22 0 1 4, 49.
Rilolitre - 1000' . 61028. 220 0 16 6 40°
Myrialitre . . . . 10000' . 610280 2201 (= 275, bushels).
*** The standard unit in the above table is the litre, or the cube of the ºn of a mêtre. The
French centiare contains 1 square mêtre, the are, 100 do.,-the hectare, 10,000 do.
The old
Paris pint is equal to 1:678 English imperial pint.
+4+ The capacity of solids and ačriform fluids is taken in cubic inches, or feet, in England.
In France, the stere, or mêtre cube, equal to 35-31658 English cube feet, is the standard unit. -
TABLE VI. Miscellaneous Measures, and their Equivalents :
Tea or coffee spoonful - 4. 4.
Dessert 55 -
Table 3.5
Wine-glassful - -
Tea-cupful - - - -
Breakfast-cupful
Tumblerful
Basinful
Thimbleful - -
Pinch (of leaves and flowers)
Handful 12 2x -
Cubic inch of water, at 62°Fahr.
>> foot xx 2)
Line .
Barleycorn
Hand
Chain -
, (average) 1 fl. dr.
*>
~ 33.
4. xx
2 fl. oz.
1.
i
; fl. dr.
1 dr.
10 ,
252.458 gr.
62'32106 lb.
1 :
T2. inch.
l
3.
4.
4.
>>
=
2x
poles or 22 yards.
MEAT BIS'CUITS. Prep. 1. The flour is
mixed up with a rich fluid extract of meat,
and the dough is cut into pieces and baked in
the usual manner.
2. Wheaten flour (or preferably the whole
meal), 3 parts; fresh lean beef or other flesh
(minced and pulped), 2 parts; thoroughly in-
corporate the two by hand-kneading or ma-
chinery, and bake the pieces in a moderately
heated oven. Both the above are very nutri-
tious; the last, more especially so. 1 oz. makes
a pint of good soup. -
MEAT EXTRACTS. Some preparations of
this nature have been already noticed under
the heads ESSENCE and EXTRACT; the follow-
ing are additional and highly valuable for-
mulae:—
Prep. 1. (Dr. Breslau.) Young ox-flesh
(free from fat) is minced small, and well
beaten in a marble mortar, at first alone, and
afterwards with a little cold or lukewarm
Water; the whole is then submitted to the
action of a press, and the solid residuum is
treated in the same manner, with a little more
cold water; the juice (reddish in colour) is
now heated to coagulate the albumen, strained,
and finally evaporated in a water bath to the
consistence of an extract. As ordinary flesh
contains only 1% of kreatine, while that of the
heart, according to Dr. Gregory, contains from
1.37% to 1.41%, this is the part employed by
Dr. Breslau. The product possesses an agree-
able odour and taste ; and is easily soluble in
water.
2. (Falkland.) Fresh lean beef (or other
flesh), recently killed, is minced very fine, and
digested, with agitation, in cold water, 1 pint,
to which hydrochloric acid, 6 drops, and com-
mon salt, 1 dr., have been added ; after about
an hour, the whole is thrown upon a fine hair
sieve, and the liquid portion allowed to drain
off without pressure, the first portions that
pass through being returned until the fluid, at
first turbid, becomes quite clear and trans-

750
MEAT PRESERVING.
parent; when all the liquid has passed through,
cold water, 3 pint, is gently poured on, in
small portions at a time, and allowed to drain
through into that previously collected. The
product is about ; pint of cold extract of flesh,
having a red colour, and a pleasant, soup-like
taste. It is administered cold to the invalid—
a teacupful at a time, and must on no account
be warmed, as the application of even a very
slight heat causes its decomposition and the
separation of a solid mass of coagulated albu-
men. This cold extact of flesh is not only
much more nutritious than ordinary beef tea,
but also contains a certain quantity of the red
colouring matter of blood, in which there is a
much larger proportion of the iron requisite for
the formation of blood-particles. The hydro-
chloric acid also greatly facilitates the process
of digestion. This formula is a modification of
the one recently recommended by Liebig for
the preparation of a highly nutritive and
restorative food for invalids.
3. (ExTRACTUM SANGUINIS BOVIS-Dr.
Mauthner.) Pass fresh blood (caught from
the slaughtered animal) through a sieve,
evaporate it to dryness in a water bath, and
when cold, rub it to powder.—Dose. 10 to 20
grs., or more, per diem, in a little water.
Obs. The above preparations are intended
to supersede the inefficient compounds—beef
tea, meat soups, &c., during sickness and con-
valescence. MM. Breslau and Mauthner de-
scribe their extracts of flesh and blood as
being peculiarly advantageous in scrofulous
exhaustion, exhaustion from anaemia, diar-
rhoea, &c. The extract of Falkland or Liebig
is represented as having been employed both
in the hospitals and in private practice at
Munich, with the most extraordinary success.
It is said to be capable of assimilation with
the least possible expenditure of the vital
force.
Meat, Fluid. This preparation consists of
lean meat, in which the albumen has been
changed so as to be non-coagulable by heat,
and the fibrin and gelatin from their normal
insoluble condition to one admitting of their
being dissolved in water.
In this soluble condition, the first stage
effected in stomach digestion, the several bodies
are known as peptones or albuminose, and the
proportion of their simple constituents remains
the same as in ordinary fibrin, albumen, and
gelatin.
The alteration is effected by finely mincing
meat and digesting it with peptone hydro-
chloric acid and water at a temperature of
about 100°Fahr. until dissolved.
The solution is then filtered, the bitter prin-
ciple, formed during the digestion, removed by
the addition of a little pancreatic emulsion,
and the liquor which has been neutralized by
the addition of carbonate of soda, evaporated
to a thick syrup or extractive consistence.
Fluid meat is the only preparation which
entirely represents, and yields the amount of
mourishment afforded by, lean meat; it differs
altogether from beef tea and extracts of meat,
as all of these contain only a small portion of
the different constituents of meat. A patent
has been granted to its inventor, Mr. Darby.
MEAT PRESERVING. “The Belgian Musée
de l’Industrie notes the following methods of
preserving meats as the most deserving of at-
tention amongst those communicated to the
French Academy of Sciences, and published in
the Comptes Rendus. 1. M. Bundet's method,
by which the meat is kept in water acidulated
with carbolic acid in the proportion of 1 to 5
parts of acid per 1000 of water. A series of
experiments proved that all kinds of meat could
thus be kept fresh, for lengthened periods,
without acquiring any ill taste or odour.
“The meat may be placed in barrels or air-
tight tin cases, filled with acidulated water of
the strength above specified and headed up;
or the pieces may be packed in barrels or cases
in alternate layers with charcoal, pounded
small, and saturated with water containing
itºry of carbolic acid. The charcoal serves as
a vehicle for the antiseptic fluid, and as an ab-
sorbent of any gaseous matters given off by
the meat. The latter should be wrapped in
thin linen covers to prevent the charcoal work-
ing its way into the tissues.
“This method, it is suggested, might be
employed in curing pork in place of “salting,'
or of the more lengthy and costly process of
‘Smoking;' and also for the preservation of
poultry, game, butter, eggs, &c.
“2. In the case of South American meat M.
Baudet proposes the use of large sacks of
caoutchouc. The meat should be packed in
them, with alternate layers of charcoal as above
described, and each sack, when filled, should be
hermetically closed by drawing another empty
caoutchouc sack, cap-wise, over it. The
caoutchouc, it is supposed, would fetch enough
in the market—its low price notwithstanding
—to cover expenses of packing and freight, and
so permit the meat to be sold in Europe at a
very small advance on cost price. If intended
for use a second time, the empty bags should
be steeped in boiling water for a few minutes,
to remove any organic impurities adhering to
them.
“3. M. Gorge's method, which is in use in
La Plata, consists in washing and drying the
meat, and afterwards steeping in successive
waters containing hydrochloric acid and sul-
phite of soda, and then packing it in air-tight
cases holding 1, 5, or 10 kilog, each. Meat
thus treated requires to be soaked in warm
water for about half an hour before use.
“4. M. Leon Soubeiran has recommended
braying and drying, in the fashion adopted by
the Chinese and Mongols, as described by M.
Simon, French Consul in China, in a commu-
nication made by him to the Société d'Accli-
matation. The pemmican of our Arctic
voyagers and the charqui of South America are
familias.examples of meat preserved by analo-


MECONIC ACID–MEGRIMS. 751.
gous processes. The late M. Payen, a distin-
guished member of the Academy, insisted upon
the great perfection to which this system
might be carried by the aid of hot-air stoves
and suitable apparatus.”
MECON’IC ACID. H.C.H.O. Syn. ACIDUM
MECONICUM, L. A peculiar acid, first obtained
by Sertuerner from opium, in 1804.
Prep. Meconate of lime is suspended in
warm water, and treated with hydrochloric
acid. Impure meconic acid crystallizes on
cooling, and may be purified by repeated treat-
ment in the same way with hydrochloric acid.
Its purity is ascertained by its leaving no
residue when heated in a platinum or glass
capsule.
Prop. Mecomic acid forms beautiful pearly
scales; possesses a sour astringent taste ; is
soluble in boiling water, and to a less extent in
cold; it is also soluble in alcohol. With the
acids it forms salts called ‘meconates, most
of which are crystallizable. Meconate of lime
is obtained by heating a solution of chloride of
calcium with an infusion of opium made with
cold water, and neutralised by powdered mar-
ble, and collecting the precipitate. Meconate
of potassa is prepared by direct solution of the
base in the impure acid obtained from meco-
nate of lime till the liquor turns green, heat
being applied, when the salt crystallizes out as
the liquid cools; it may be purified by pres-
sure and recrystallization.
Tests. Meconic acid is charactised by—1.
Turning ferric salts red, and the red colour
not being destroyed by the action of corrosive
sublimate.—2. Precipitating a weak solution
of ammonio-sulphate of copper green.—3. With
acetate of lead, mitrate of silver, and chloride
of barium, it gives white precipitates, which
are soluble in nitric acid.—4. It is not red-
dened by chloride of gold.
MEC'0NIN. Clo HoOº. A white, crystal-
line, odourless, neutral substance, discovered by
Couerbe in opium.
MEC0/NIUM. See OPIUM.
MED/ICINES. However skilful the medi-
cal practitioner may be, and however judicious
his treatment, both are interfered with, and
their value more or less neutralized, if the
remedies he orders are not administered pre-
cisely according to his instructions. “It is
the duty of the attendant on the sick to follow
implicitly the directions of the physician, as
well in exactly complying with his orders as
in doing nothing that she has not been ordered
to do. At the same time, there are exceptions
to this rule, in which a suspension of the
remedy, or a deviation from the order of the
physician, is not only allowable, but is abso-
lutely required. Thus, from idiosyncracy or
some other cause, the remedy in the doses or-
dered may have no effect, or may produce one
widely different from that intended or ex-
pected. In such cases it is evident that a
strict adherence to the direction of the physi-
cian would be productive of evil; but he
should be immediately apprised of the circum-
stance.” The common practice of neglecting
to administer the doses of medicine at the pre-
scribed time, or after prescribed intervals, and
then, to compensate for the omission, giving
the medicine more frequently or in larger doses,
cannot be too severely censured, as destructive
to the welfare of the patient and injurious t
the credit of the physician. -
For the purpose of disguising the taste of
medicines, or lessening their nauseating pro-
perties, Dr. Pollio has recommended a means
founded on the physiological fact that a strong
impression on the nerves (whether of vision,
hearing, or taste) renders that which follows
less perceptible than under the usual circum-
stances. Instead, therefore, of applying to
the mouth agreeable substances after swal-
lowing nauseous medicines, we should prepare
it beforehand, in order that the taste of the
medicine may not be perceived. Aromatic
substances, as orange or lemon peel,&c., chewed
just before taking medicine, effectually pre-
vent castor oil, &c., being tasted. In preparing
the mouth for bitters, liquorice is the only
sweet that should be used, the others creating
a peculiarly disagreeable compound taste. We
have noticed already the effect of oil of orange
peel in correcting the nauseating qualities of
copaiba. See DOSE and PRESCRIBING.
MEER'SCHAUM. Syn. ECUME DE MER, L.
A native silicate of magnesia. It has a sp. gr.
ranging between 2-6 to 3:4; is readily acted
on by acids, and fuses before a powerful blow-
pipe into a white enamel. The finest quali-
ties are found in Greece and Turkey. Its
principal application is to the manufacture of
tobacco-pipes. The Germans prepare their
pipes for sale by soaking them in tallow, then
in white max, and, finally, by polishing them
with shavegrass. Genuine meerschaum pipes
are distinguished from mock ones by the beau-
tiful brown colour which they assume after
being smoked for some time. Of late years
some of the pipemakers have produced a com-
position clay pipe, which closely resembles
meerschaum in appearance, and is “warranted
to colour well.” This composition, which is
comparatively valueless, is made up into pipes
of suitable patterns, which are frequently sold
to the ignorant for “meerschaums.”
ME'GRIM. Syn. MEAGRIM, HEMICRANIA,
L. A pain affecting one side of the head only,
often periodic, like an ague, and generally of a
nervious, hysterical or bilious character. It is
clavus when there is a strong pulsation, con-
veying the sensation of a mail piercing the part.
See HEADACHE.
MEG/RIMS. Syn. MEAGRIMS, VERTIGo. In
veterinary medicine this term is applied to
horses which when at work reel, then stand
for a minute dull and stupid, or fall to the
ground, and lie partially insensible for a few
minutes. “Horses subject to this affection
should be driven with a breastplate or pipe
collar, so as to prevent pressure on the veins

752
MELANCHOLY-MERCURY.
carrying the blood from the head; the bowels
should be kept in good order; an occasional
laxative is advisable, and a course, either of
arsenic or quinine, or of arsenic and iron.”
(Dun.)
MELANCHOLY.
and INSANITY.
MELIS'SIC ALCOHOL. A substance ob-
tained by Brodie from bees' wax. By oxida-
tion it yields “melissic acid.”
MELLA/G0. The old name for a medicine
having the consistence of honey, with a some-
what sweetish taste. Mellago taraxaci is fluid
extract of dandelion.
MELTING-POINT. The temperature at
which solids assume the liquid form.
MEN'STRUUM. [L.] A solvent or dis-
solvent. The principal MENSTRUA employed
in chemistry and pharmacy to extract the
active principles of bodies by digestion, de-
coction, infusion, or maceration, are water,
alcohol, oils, and solutions of the acids and
alkalies.
MERCU’RIAL BAL/SAM. See OINTMENT
OF NITRATE OF MERCURY.
MERCU"RIAL DISEASE". Syn. MoRBUS
MERCURIALIS, HYDRARGYRIASIS, L. This
results from the injudicious or excessive use of
mercury, or exposure to the fumes of this
metal. The common and leading symptoms
are a disagreeable coppery taste; excessive
salivation; sponginess, tumefaction, and ul-
ceration of the gums; swollen tongue; loosen-
ing of the teeth; exfoliation of the jaws;
remarkably offensive breath; debility; emacia-
tion; ending (when not arrested) in death
from exhaustion. Fever, cachexia, violent
purging and griping, a species of eczema (EC-
ZEMA MERCURIALE, LEPRA MERCURIALIS), and
other forms of skin disease, are also phases of
the same affection, the first of which occa-
sionally proves fatal under the influence of
sudden and violent physical exertion.
The treatment, in ordinary cases, may con-
sist in free exposure to the open air, avoiding
either heat or cold; the administration of
saline aperients, as Epsom salt, phosphate of
soda, &c.; the free use of lemon juice and
water as a common drink; with weak gargles
or washes of chloride of soda or chloride of lime
to the gums, mouth, and throat. Severe cases
often resist every variety of treatment, and
instances are recorded in the medical journals
in which the use of even small doses of mer-
curials, administered by the faculty, have,
owing to the peculiar idiosyncracy of the
patients, been followed by the most horrible
sufferings, terminating in death.
MER/CURY. Hg. Syn. QUICKSILVER,
HYDRARGY RUM (B. P., Ph. L. E. and D.);
MERCURE, WIF ARGENT, Fr. ; QUECKSILBER,
Ger. A remarkable metal, which has been
known from a very early period. The Romans
employed it as a medicine externally, as did
the Arabs; but the Hindoos were probably the
first to prescribe it internally.
See HYPOCHONDRIASIS
Sources. The most important are the mines
of Idria, in Carniola; Almaden, in New Cas-
tile ; and New Almaden, in California, where
it exists combined with sulphur, under the
form of cinnabar. From this ore the pure
metal is obtained by distilling it with lime or
iron filings, in iron retorts, by which the sul-
phur it contains is seized and retained, while
the mercury rises in the state of vapour, and
is condensed in suitable receivers. Quicksilver
is commonly imported in cylindrical iron bot-
tles, containing # cwt. to 1 cwt. each. It is
also imported in small quantities from China,
contained in bamboo bottles holding about
20 lbs. each.
Prep. Mercury, as imported, is usually
sufficiently pure for medicinal purposes without
any further preparation. Mere mechanical
impurities, as floating dust, dirt, &c., may be
got rid of by squeezing the metal through
chamois leather or flannel, or by filtering it
through a small hole in the apex of an inverted
cone of paper. It can be further cleaned by
shaking well with a little strong nitric acid,
washing with distilled water, and drying by
blotting paper, or filtering through warm
chamois leather.
Prop., &c. Mercury, at all common tem-
peratures, is a heavy liquid, possessing a nearly
silver-white colour, and a brilliant metallic
lustre; solidifies (freezes) at —40°Fahr., and
is then ductile, malleable, and tenacious; boils
at 662°Fahr., and escapes in colourless trans-
parent vapour, of great density; it also volati-
lises slowly at the ordinary temperature of
the atmosphere. The presence of minute quan-
tities of lead and zinc greatly retard its evapo-
ration at its boiling heat. It unites with
oxygen, chlorine, iodine, &c., forming numerous
compounds.
form AMALGAMS. The only acids which act
directly on metallic mercury are the sulphuric
and nitric, but for this purpose the former
must be heated and concentrated. Nitric
acid, however, even when dilute and in the
cold, dissolves it freely. Pure mercury is
unalterable in the air at ordinary temperatures.
Sp. gr. 13.59 at 60° Fahr. ; about 14 when in
the solid state.
Uses, &c. Mercury is applied to various
purposes in the arts; as the amalgamation of
gold and silver, ‘wash gilding,” the silvering
of looking-glasses, the manufacture of ba-
rometers and thermometers, and the prepara-
tion of several very valuable medicines. In
its metallic state it appears to be inert when
swallowed, unless it meets with much acidity
in the alimentary canal, or is in a state of
minute division; its compounds are, however,
all of them more or less poisonous.
Mercury has been employed in one or other
of its forms in almost all diseases; but each of
its numerous preparations is supposed to have
some peculiarity of action of its own, com-
bined with that common to all the compounds
of this metal. The mercurials form, indeed,
With the metals it unites to

MERCURY.
753
-
one of the most important classes of the ma-
teria medica.
Tests. 1. Metallic mercury is detected by
its liquid condition and volatility; and, when
in a finely divided or pulverulent state, by the
microscope, or by staining a piece of copper
white when the two are rubbed together.
Mercury, when present in combination, can
be detected as under:
When intimately mixed with anhydrous
sodium carbonate, and heated in a small
test-tube, under a layer of the carbonate, de-
composition ensues, and a crust of gray sub-
limate forms on the cooler portion of the tube.
When examined by a lens, this crust is seen to
consist of minute metallic globules. By fric-
tion with a bright glass or iron rod, these are
united into globules, which are visible to the
naked eyc.
A perfectly clean and bright piece of
copper, immersed in a slightly acid solution of
mercury, becomes in a short time covered with
a gray or whitish stain, which assumes a silvery
lustre when gently rubbed with a piece of soft
cork or leather, and is removed by the sub-
sequent application of heat. A single drop of
liquid may be tested on bright copper coin in
this way.
The plate of copper with the deposit of
mercury, obtained as above, after being washed
with a weak solution of ammonia, and in dis-
tilled water, and dried by pressure between
the folds of bibulous paper, may be cut into
small pieces, and heated in a test-tube, in
order to obtain metallic globules. When the
suspected solution contains organic matter,
bright copper filings may be employed, and
the process modified so as nearly to resemble
Reinsch's test for arsenious acid. According
to Orfila, “scraped copper plate” is capable of
detecting the presence of snºwyth purt of cor-
rosive sublimate in a solution. MM. Trousseau
and Reveil state that a plate of yellow copper
(brass) is even more susceptible than one of
red copper.
(Smithson’s electrolytic test.) This con-
sists in the use of a polished wire or plate of
gold or copper round which a strip or thread of
zinc or tin is wound in a spiral direction. The
suspected liquid is acidulated with a few drops
of hydrochloric acid, and after immersion for
a longer or a shorter period (as half an hour
to an hour or two), the gold will have become
white if any mercury is present. The coil of
zinc or tin is then removed from the gold, and
the latter, after being washed and dried be-
tween the folds of bibulous paper, is heated
in a test-tube, to obtain metallic globules, as
before.
An ingenious extemporaneous application of
the electrolytic test may be made as follows:
—Place a drop or two of the suspected liquid
on a clean and bright gold or copper coin,
and apply a bright key, so that it may at once
touch the edge of the coin and the solution.
See engr.) An electric current will then be
established as before, and a white spot of re-
duced mercury will appear on the surface of
a. A gold or copper coin.
b. Drop of suspected solution.
c. A bright key.
the metal, which may be recognised in the
manner already explained.
The salts of mercury are divided into two
classes—mercurous, where mercury is a monad
element, and unites with one atom of chlorine,
and mercuric salts, where it plays the art of
a dyad element, or unites with two atoms.
The latter of these will be taken first.
Mercuric Salts. Tests. Sulphuretted hy-
drogen and ammonium sulphide, added in very
small quantities, produce on agitation a per-
fectly white precipitate, which acquires suc-
cessively a yellow, orange, and brownish-red
colour, as more of the test is added; and, ul-
timately, when the test is added in consider-
able excess, an intensely black colour. This
precipitate is insoluble in excess of the precipi-
tant, potassium hydrate, potassium cyanide,
hydrochloric acid, or nitric acid, even when
boiling ; but it dissolves readily and completely
in potassium sulphide and in ‘aqua regia’ with
decomposition. These reactions are charac-
teristic.
Ammonia gives a white precipitate.
Potassium hydrate gives a reddish precipi-
tate, turning yellow when the test is added in
excess. The presence of ammonia causes the
precipitate to be white, and when the solu-
tion contains much acid both reactions are
imperfect.
Alkaline carbonates give a brick-red pre-
cipitate.
Potassium iodide gives a scarlet precipitate,
which is soluble in excess, and in alcohol, and
solution of sodium chloride.
The alkaline bicarbonates either do not dis-
turb the solution, or only cause a slight degree
of opalescence.
Mercuric Acetate. Hg(C2H5O)s. Syn.
PROTACETATE OF MERCURY. Prep. By dis-
solving mercuric oxide in warm acetic acid.
It crystallises in brilliant micaceous lamina,
soluble in their own weight of cold water, and
somewhat more soluble in boiling water. Ac-
cording to Robiquet, this is the basis of
Keyser’s antivenereal pills, which do not con-
tain subacetate of mercury, as has been
asserted.
Mercuric Bromide. Hg Brs. Syn. PROTO-
BROMIDE OF MERCURY, HYDRARGYRI BIBRO-
MIDUM. Prep. Two equal parts of bromine
and mercury and sublime. Soluble reddish

4S
754 MERCURY.
mass; resembles the iodide in its action.—Dose.
# to . gr.
Mercuric Chloride. HgCls. Syn. PROTO-
CHLORIDE OF MERCURY, PERCHLORIDE OF
MERCURY, BICHLORIDE OF MERCURY, COR-
ROSIVE SUBLIMATE; HYDRARGYRI PERCHLO-
RIDUM (B. P.), HYDRARGYRI BICHLORIDUM
(Ph. L.), SUBLIMATUS CORROSIVUs (Ph. E.),
SUBLIMATUM CORROSIVUM (Ph.D.), HYDRAR-
GYRI CHLORIDUM CORROSIVUM (Ph. U. S.),
HYDRARGYRI MURIAS CORROSIVUS, L. This
is the ‘corrosive sublimate” of the shops.
Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Mercury, 2 lbs. ; sul-
phuric acid, 21% fl. Oz. ; boil to dryness, and
rub the residuum, when cold, with sodium
chloride, 1% lb., in an earthenware mortar;
lastly, sublime by a gradually increased heat.
2. (Ph. E.) Mercury, 4 oz.; sulphuric acid
2 fl. oz. 3 fl. dr.; pure nitric acid, ; fl. oz. ;
dissolve, add of sodium chloride 3 oz., and
sublime, as before. -
3. (Ph. D.) ‘Persulphate of mercury’ (mer.
curic sulphate), 2 parts; dried sodium chlo-
ride, 1 part ; triturate, &c., as before.
Obs. In preparing corrosive sublimate, as
well as calomel, by the common process, the
solution of the mercury is usually made in an
iron pot, set in a furnace under a chimney, to
carry off the fumes; and the sublimation is
conducted in an earthen alembic placed in a
Sand bath; or in an iron pot, covered with a
semi-spherical earthen head. Corrosive sub-
limate may also be made by the direct solution
of mercuric oxide in hydrochloric acid, or by
bringing its constituents together in the state
of vapour. The latter plan was patented by
the late Dr. A. T. Thomson.
Prop. The mercuric chloride of commerce
occurs in white, semi-transparent, crystalline
masses, of considerable density; it possesses an
intense coppery taste, is soluble in about 16
parts of cold, and in 3 parts of boiling water;
the boiling solution deposits its excess of salt
in long white prisms as it cools; soluble in
alcohol and ether, in the latter so much so
that it has even the property of withdrawing
it from its aqueous solutions; the addition of
hydrochloric acid, ammonious chloride or cam-
phor, increases its solubility in all these men-
strua. It is decomposed by contact with nearly
all metallic bodies, and in solution by various
organic substances, and by exposure to light.
Sp. gr. 52 (5-14 to 5'42–Liebig). It melts
at about 509°Fahr., and boils and volatilises
at a higher temperature.
Tests. The presence of mercuric chloride
may, under most circumstances, be readily de-
tected by the tests given. To distinguish it
from other salts, special tests for chlorine or
hydrochloric acid must be applied. If, on fil-
tering the solution, acidulating it with dilute
nitric acid, and testing it with silver nitrate,
a cloudy white precipitate be formed, which is
insoluble in excess of the precipitant, and in
nitric acid, but soluble in ammonia water, and
blackened by lengthened exposure to light,
- - - -
corrosive sublimate is shown to be present in
the substance examined.
compound of mercury with chlorine besides
corrosive sublimate, is an insoluble powder,
which could not, therefore, be found in the
filtered liquid. Calomel, or the white precipi.
tate formed by the mercurous salt, with hy.
drochloric acid and the soluble chlorides, is
soluble in excess of the precipitant, and is not
only insoluble in liquor of ammonia, but is
immediately blackened by it.
For the purpose of demonstrating the pre-
sence of corrosive sublimate in a highly co-
loured liquid, or one loaded with organic
matter, it is necessary to agitate it for some
minutes with an equal volume of ether,
After repose for a short time, the ethereal
solution is decanted, and allowed to evaporate
spontaneously.
being dissolved in distilled water, is readily
recognised by the above characteristics.
When the substance under examination con.
sists of food, or the contents of the digestive
canal, or of animal tissue, it is in general me.
cessary to destroy the organic matter in a
nearly similar way to that described under
ARSENIOUS ACTD. The process adopted by
Devergie for this purpose consists in dissolving
the substance in concentrated hydrochloric
acid, and passing a stream of chlorine through
the liquid.-Flandin first carbonizes the mass
with # or ; its weight of concentrated sul-
phuric acid, at 212°Fahr., and then saturates
the acid in the cold, with dry chloride of
lime,” added in fragments, assisting the action
by stirring, and further adding, by degrees, as
the matter thickens and becomes white, a suf.
ficient quantity of distilled water.—Lassaigne
boils the suspected mixture for some time with
a solution of sodium chloride; a method which,
according to Orfila, is not sufficiently delicate
to withdraw minute portions of mercury from
flesh.-Millon agitates organic liquids (more
especially blood, milk, &c.) in large flasks con-
taining gaseous chlorine, which is frequently
renewed.—Orfila either dissolves the matter
in aqua regia, and passes a stream of chlorine
through the liquid, or he carbonizes it by
means of concentrated sulphuric acid, in close
vessels.-Personne proceeds by a similar me.
thod, but avoids raising the temperature of
the substances operated on.—Reveil employs
either the last method or that of Millon. In
all cases it is advisable to operate in close
vessels, on account of the volatility of the
bichloride. Orfila’s apparatus consists of a
matrass, provided with a bent tube, the one
end of which is plunged into a jar of cold dis.
tilled water. The corrosive sublimate is found
both in the volatilized matter and in the car.
bonized residuum, and is extracted from the
latter by boiling it for 15 or 20 minutes in
aqua regia. -
When the organic matter has been destroyed
by any of the above processes, and a colourless
The residuum (if any) con-
tains the corrosive sublimate, which, after
Calomel, the only

MERCURY. 755
handled with the greatest caution.
and filtered solution in distilled water obtained,
the usual tests may be at once applied. But
in this way we can only detect the presence
of mercury, but are unable to decide in what
way it has entered the system, although we
may infer it from other circumstances. It is,
therefore, absolutely necessary, in all medico-
legal investigations, to previously employ ether
(see above), in order that we may be enabled
to examine the deleterious matter in its
original form, or that in which it was swal-
lowed.
Uses, &c. Mercuric chloride is employed as
an alterative, diaphoretic, and resolvent, in
the chronic forms of secondary syphilis, rheu-
matism, scrofula, cancer, old dropsies, nume-
rous skin diseases, &c.; and externally, as a
caustic, in cancer, and made into an ointment,
lotion, or injection, in a vast number of skin
diseases, ulcers, gleet, &c., and as a preventive
of contagion. It acts quicker than the other
preparations of mercury, and it is less apt to
induce salivation; but it has been said that its
effects are less apparent.—Dose. Tº to # gr.,
either made into a pill, or in solution. It is
highly poisonous, and must be exhibited and
Its use is
contra-indicated in cases complicated with pul-
monary affections or nervous derangement.
Pois.-1. Symptoms. Strong coppery or
metallic taste; intense pain in the mouth,
pharynx, oesophagus, stomach, and intestines;
nausea, vomiting (often bloody), diarrhoea, and
(sometimes) violent dysentery (these evacua-
tions are generally more frequent than in
poisoning by other metallic compounds).
After a certain time there is generally an
abatement of the severity of the symptoms;
the circulation becomes slower, the pulse small
and thready, the respiration gentle, and the
skin cold; syncope then supervenes, and great
general insensibility, always commencing at
the pelvic extremities; and sometimes con-
vulsions occur; the secretion of urine is gene-
rally diminished, sometimes even entirely sup-
pressed; but the patients always urinate if
the sublimate has been employed in a very
diluted state, and if drinks have been admin-
istered. Death often appears to result from
the shock to the nervous system, from intense
exhaustion, or from mortification or intense
inflammation of the primae viaº. Poisoning by
corrosive sublimate is distinguished from that
by arsenic, by the countenance being flushed,
and even swollen; whereas, in poisoning by
arsenic, it is usually contracted and ghastly,
and by the whitened condition of the epithe-
lium of the mouth.
2. Antidotes. White of egg, hydrated ferric
sulphide or ferrous sulphide, and gluten, are
each of them powerful antidotes. White of egg
has proved efficacious in numerous cases. It
requires the white of one egg to decompose
4 grs. of corrosive sublimate. (Peschier.) The
recently precipitated protosulphuret of iron
is, however, according to Mialhe, the antidote
par excellence, not only to corrosive sublimate,
but to the salts of lead and copper. The
gluten of wheat has also been recommended
(Taddei); or, what is equally efficacious, wheat
flour mixed up with water. When any of the
above are not at hand, copious draughts of
milk may be substituted. Iron filings have
been occasionally used as an antidote. All
these substances should be taken in consider-
able quantities; the dose should be frequently
repeated, and the general treatment similar to
that in cases of poisoning by arsenic. Vomit-
ing should be, in all cases, immediately in-
duced, to remove, if possible, the poisonous
matter from the stomach.
Mercuric-ammonium Chloride. HgNH3Cl.
Syn. AMMONIO-CHLORIDE OF MERCURY, AM-
MONIATED CHLORIDE OF MERCURY, WHITE
PRECIPITATE, LEMERY'S W. P., COSMETIC MER-
CURY; HYDRARGYRI AMMONIATUM (B. P.),
HYDRARGYRI AMMONIO-CHLORIDUM (Ph. L.),
HYDRARGY RUM PRECIPITATUM ALBUM (Ph.
E.).
* 1. (Ph. L.) Mercuric chloride, 6
oz. ; distilled water, 3 quarts; dissolve, with
heat, and when the solution has cooled, add of
liquor of ammonia, 8 fl.oz., frequently shaking
it; lastly, wash the precipitate with water,
and dry it. The formulae of the Ph. E. & D.
are nearly similar.
2. Mercuric chloride and ammonium chlo-
ride, of each, lb, ; water, 3 quarts; dissolve,
and precipitate with solution of potassium
hydrate, q. s.
Prop., &c. A white, inodorous, light mass,
or powder; insoluble in alcohol, partially
soluble in boiling water, and wholly dissolved
by sulphuric, nitric, and hydrochloric acids,
without effervescence. It is totally dissipated
by heat. When heated with solution of potash,
it exhales ammonia, and assumes a yellow
colour. Used to make an ointment, which is
employed in herpes, porrigo, itch, and other
skin diseases, &c.; and by the lower orders, as
a dusting powder to destroy pediculi, an appli-
cation which, from its liberal employment, is
not always a safe one. It is highly poisonous,
and must not be swallowed.
Mercuric and Ammonium Chloride.
NH4C1, HgCls. Syn. CHLORIDE OF MERCURY
AND AMMONIUM, SAT, ALEMBROTH ; HY-
DRARGYRI ET AMMONII CHLORIDUM, L. Prep.
(P. Cod.) From mercuric chloride and am-
monium chloride, equal parts, triturated
together. “The object in adding the am-
monium chloride here is to render the corro-
sive sublimate more soluble in water. The
action of the latter is not otherwise altered.”
(Redwood.) It is chiefly used for lotions and
injections.
Mercuric and Quinine Chloride. Syn. CHIO-
RIDE OF MERCURY AND QUININE ; HYDRAR-
GYRI ET QUINAE CHLoRIDUM, L. Prep.
(M“Dermott.) From mercuric chloride, 1
part; quinine chloride, 3 parts; separately
formed into saturated solutions with water



756
MERCURY.
and then mixed; the crystalline precipitate is
collected, and dried by a gentle heat.—Dose.
# to # gr., made into a pill with crum of
bread ; daily, as an alterative in debilitated
habits; or combined with opium, thrice daily,
to produce salivation.
Mercuric Cyanide. HgCys or HgCCN),
Syn. CYANIDE OF MERCURY: HYDRARGYRI
CYANIDUM, H. BICYANIDUM, H. CYANURETUM
(Ph. U. S.), L.
Prep. 1. (Ph. L. 1836.) Ferric ferro-
cyanide (pure Prussian blue), 8 oz. ; mercuric
oxide, 10 oz. ; distilled water, 4 pints; boil
for half an hour, filter, evaporate, and crystal-
lize; wash what remains frequently with boil-
ing distilled water, and again evaporate, that
crystals may form. This is Proust’s process.
The formula of the Ph. U. S. is similar.
2. (Ph. D. 1826.) Prussian blue (pure),
6 parts; mercuric oxide, 5 parts; distilled
water, 40 parts; as the last.
3. (Desfosses.) Potassium ferrocyanide, 1
part, is boiled for 3 hour with mercuric sul-
phate, 2 parts, and distilled water, 8 parts;
the deposit is separated by filtration, and the
liquid evaporated to the crystallising-point.
4. (Winckler.) Saturate dilute hydrocyanic
acid with mercuric oxide; evaporate and
crystallise. Pure.
Prop., &c. Heavy, colourless, inodorous,
square prisms; tasting strongly metallic ;
soluble in 8 parts of cold water; slightly so-
luble in alcohol. Those made by the first two
formulae are of a pale yellow colour. It is
transparent and totally soluble in water.
The solution, on the addition of hydrochloric
acid, evolves hydrocyanic acid, known by its
smell; and a glass moistened with a solution
of nitrate of silver, and held over it, gives a
deposit soluble in boiling nitric acid. When
heated, it evolves cyanogen, and runs into
globules of metallic mercury. It has been
administered in some hepatic and skin diseases,
and has been proposed as a substitute for
corrosive sublimate. (Parent.) It has been
said to act directly on the skin and bones, and
to have proved useful in allaying the pain of
nodes and in dispersing them. (Mendaga.)
It is, however, principally used as a source of
cyanogen and hydrocyanic acid.—Dose. Tºg to
# gr. (beginning with the smaller quantity),
made into pills with crum of bread, or in
alcoholic solution; as a gargle or lotion, 10
grs., to water, 1 pint; as an ointment, 10 or
12 grs., to lard, 1 oz.
Mercuric Iodide. HgI2. Syn. PROTIODIDE
OF MERCURY, RED IODIDE OF MERCURY, IO-
DIDE OF MERCURY, BINIODIDE OF MERCURY ;
HYDRARGYRI IODIDUM RUBRUM (B. P.),
HYDRARGYRI IODIDUM, H. BINIODIDUM (Ph.
E.), H. IoDIDUM RUBRUM (Ph.D.), L. Prep.
1. (B. P.) Mercuric chloride (corrosive sub-
limate), 4; potassium iodide, 5; boiling dis-
tilled water, 80. Dissolve the mercuric chlo-
ride in 60 of water, and the potassium iodide
in the remainder, and mix the two solutions.
Allow to stand, decant the supernatant liquor,
and collect the precipitate in a filter, wash
twice with cold water, and dry at 212° F.
2. (Ph. L. 1836.) Mercury, 1 oz. ; iodine,
10 drs.; rectified spirit, q. s. (2 or 3 fl. drs);
triturate until the globules of mercury dis.
appear, and the mixture assumes a scarlet
colour, then dry it in the shade, and preserve
it in a well-stoppered vessel.
3. (Ph. E.) Mercury, 2 oz. ; iodine, 2% oz.;
spirit, q. S.; triturate together as last, dissolve
the product, by brisk ebullition, in concen:
trated solution of sodium chloride, 1 gal,
filter whilst boiling hot, wash the crystals
that are deposited as the solution cools, and
dry them.
4. (Ph. D.) Mercuric chloride, 1 oz.; hot
distilled water, 25 fl. oz. ; dissolve potassium
iodide, 1% oz. ; water, 5 fl. Oz. ; dissolve;
when the solutions are cold, mix them, collect
the precipitate on a paper filter, drain it,
wash it with distilled water, 10 fl. oz., and dry
it at a heat not above that of boiling water.
Prop., &c. A bright scarlet powder, inso.
luble in water, but soluble in alcohol and
ether, and in the solutions of several of the
iodides and chlorides. It is also soluble in
cod-liver oil, and in several other fixed oils,
Readily sublimed.—Dose. Tº to # gr., dis-
solved in alcohol or made into a pill; in the
same cases as the subiodides, from which it
differs chiefly in its greater energy and pois-
onous qualities.
Mercuric and Potassium Iodide. HgI2. KI.
Syn. IODIDE OF MERCURY AND POTAs:
SIUM, IODO-HYDRARGYRATE OF POTASSIUM;
HYDRARGYRI ET POTASSII IODIDUM, I.
Prep. 1. (M. Boullay.) Mercuric iodide, po:
tassium iodide, and water, equal parts;
dissolve by heat, and crystallise by evaporation
or refrigeration, or gently evaporate to dry-
neSS.
2. (Puche.) From mercuric iodide and
potassium iodide, equal parts, triturated to:
gether.—Dose. Tº to . gr., dissolved in water;
in the same cases as the biniodide, and in
chronic bronchitis, hooping-cough, inflamma-
tory sore throat, &c.
Mercuric and Potassium Iodo-cy'amide, Syn.
HYDRARGYRI ET POTASSII IODO-CYANIDUM,
L. Prep. To a concentrated solution of
mercuric cyanide, add a rather strong solution
of potassium iodide, and dry the precipitate by
a gentle heat.
Prop., &c. Small, white, pearly, crystalline
plates or scales. It is chiefly used as a test of
the purity of hydrocyanic acid. When put
into this liquid, it is instantly turned red if
any mineral acid is present.
Mercuric Nitrate. Hg(NO3)3. Syn. PRO.
TONITRATE OF MERCURY, PERNITRATE OF
MERCURY. Prep. 1. (NEUTRAL.) This is
obtained by solution of mercuric oxide, in
excess of nitric acid. The solution, evaporated
in a bell-jar over sulphuric acid, yields crystals
which are neutral. The same compound is



MERCUIRY. 757
obtained as a crystalline powder when the
syrupy liquid is dropped into strong nitric
acid.
(BASIC.) 1st. 2Hg(NO3)HO. H.O. Prep.
a. By saturating hot dilute nitric acid with
mercuric oxide. The salt, which is bibasic,
crystallises on cooling.
b. By dissolving mercury in excess of nitric
acid, with heat, until the solution, when di-
luted with distilled water, ceases to give a
precipitate with common salt. It is now a
mixed solution of the neutral and bibasic per-
nitrates; but by evaporation crystals of the
latter salt only are deposited. The acid solu-
tion (before evaporation) is used as a caustic
in cancerous, syphilitic, and other ulcerations;
but it frequently produces intense pain, and
occasionally the usual constitutional effects of
mercury. It was formerly given in similar
cases to those in which the bichloride is now
employed.—Dose. (Of the dry salt) ºn to Tº
gr. This is the preparation ordinarily referred
to under the name ‘pernitrate of mercury.’
2nd. 2Hg(NO3)HO. HgC. c. By saturat-
ing strong nitric acid with mercury, by heat,
throwing the solution into cold water, and
collecting and drying the precipitate. This
salt, which is tribasic, is also formed when
the preceding crystallised salts are put into
hot water.
Obs. This last preparation is a heavy, yellow
powder, but the shade varies according to its
basicity, which increases with the temperature
of the water employed to effect the precipita-
tion, until, at the boiling temperature, the
colour is a dull red. It is extensively em-
ployed for the extemporaneous preparation of
the ointment of nitrate of mercury, according
to the formula on the following label which
accompanies each bottle :-" Hydrarg. sub-
nitras.” “Two scruples, mixed with one
ounce of simple cerate, make the ung. hydrarg.
nit. of the London Pharmacopoeia.” We need
scarcely add that this statement, so unblush-
ingly uttered, is a dangerous falsehood. An
ointment so made possesses neither the quan-
tity of mercury nor of nitric acid employed
in the Pharmacopoeia preparation, besides
wanting many of its most sensible and valuable
properties.
Mercuric Oxide. HgC). Syn. PROTox1DE
OF MERCURY, RED OXIDE OF MERCURY,
OXIDE OF M., BINOXIDE OF M., DEUTOXIDE
of M., PEROXIDE OF M.; HYDRARGYRI OXY-
DUM, H. O. RUBRUM, L. There are several
methods by which this substance may be pre-
pared. The following are those which have
been ordered at different times in the Pharma-
copoeias:—
1. By Precipitation (HYDRARGYRI BINOXY-
DUM-Ph. L. 1836). Mercuric chloride (corro-
sive sublimate), 4 oz. ; distilled water, 6 pints;
dissolve, and add of liquor of potass, 28 fl. Oz.;
drain the precipitate, wash it in distilled
water, and dry it by a gentle heat.
Obs. A bright orange-red powder. It
usually contains a little combined water ; hence
its readier solubility in acids than the oxide
prepared by heat. When heated sufficiently,
it yields oxygen, and the mercury either runs
into globules or is totally dissipated. It is
entirely soluble in hydrochloric acid. (Ph. L.
1836.) The preparation of the shops has fre-
quently a brick-red colour, and contains a
little oxychloride, arising from too little alkali
being used.
2. By calcination of the nitrate (RED PRE-
CIPITATE ; HYDRARGYRI NITRICI OXYDUM,
Ph. L. HYDRARGYRI OXII UM RUBRUM, B. P.,
Ph. L., Ph. D.). Prep. B. P. Mercury, by
weight, 8; nitric acid, 4%; water, 2. Dissolve
half the mercury in the water and acid, evapo-
rate to dryness, and triturate with the rest of
the mercury until well blended. Heat in a
porcelain capsule, repeatedly stirring, until
acid vapours cease to be evolved.
Mercury, 3 lbs. ; nitric acid, 18 fl. oz. (1}
lb., Ph. L. 1836); water, 2 quarts; dissolve
by a gentle heat, evaporate to dryness, powder,
and calcine this in a shallow vessel, with a
gradually increased heat, until red vapours
cease to arise. The processes of the Ph. E.
and D. are similar, except that the Dublin
College directs the evaporation and calcination
to be performed in the same vessel, without
powdering or stirring the mass.
Obs. Bright red crystalline scales, which
usually contain a little undecomposed per-
nitrate of mercury; in other respects, it re-
sembles the last two preparations. It is more
generally used as an escharotic and in oint-
ments than the precipitated oxide. It is vola-
tilised by heat without the evolution of nitrous
vapours.
According to Mr. Brande, it contains about
2% per cent. of nitric acid. According to Mr.
Barker, the process of the Ph. D. yields the
finest coloured product; but Mr. Brande states
that “the nitrate requires to be constantly
stirred during the process, which is usually
performed in a cast-iron pot.” On the large
scale, the evaporation is generally conducted
in a shallow earthen dish, and as soon as the
mass becomes dry a second dish is inverted
over it, and the calcination is continued, with-
out disturbance, until the process is concluded.
The heat of a sand bath is employed. 100
lbs. of mercury and 48 lbs. of nitric acid (sp.
gr. 1'48) yields 112 lbs. of red precipitate.
(Brande.)
Uses, &c. Red oxide of mercury, whether
obtained by calcination or precipitation, pos-
sesses the same general properties. It is very
slightly soluble in water, but sufficiently so to
give that fluid an all-aline reaction and a me-
tallic taste. It was formerly employed in
medicine to induce salivation; but is now
chiefly used as an escharotic, either in the form
of powder or made into an ointment.—Dose.

# to 1 gr., combined with opium. It is very
poisomous.
Mercuric Sulphate. HgSO4. Syn, PROTO.
758 - MERCURY.
SULPHATE OF MERCURY ; HYDRARGYRI SUL-
PHAs, H. PERSULPHAs, H. BIPERSULPHAS, L.
Prep. 1. (NEUTRAL.)—a. By boiling together
sulphuric acid and metallic mercury until the
latter is wholly converted into a heavy, white,
crystalline powder; the excess of acid is re-
moved by evaporation. Equal weights of acid
and metal may conveniently be employed.
b. (Ph. D. 1826.) Dissolve mercury, 6
parts, in a mixture of sulphuric acid, 6 parts,
and nitric acid, 1 part, by boiling them in a
glass vessel, and continue the heat until the
mass becomes perfectly dry and white. Used
to make calomel.
2. (BASIC.) HgSO4. SHgC). Syn. TRIBASIC
SULPHATE OF MERCURY, TURPETH MINERAL,
TURBITH M., QUEEN’s YELLOW, SUBSULPHATE
OF MERCURY:#, TRIBASIC PERSULPHATE OF M.;
HYDRARGYRI SUBSULPHAS, H. S. FLAVUS,
TERPETHUM MINERALE, L.-a. Dissolve mer-
cury in an equal weight of sulphuric acid by
boiling them to dryness, fling the mass into
hot water, and wash and dry the resulting
yellow powder.
b. (Ph. D. 1826.) Mercuric sulphate, 1
part; warm water, 20 parts; triturate together
in an earthen mortar, wash well with distilled
water, drain, and dry it.
Prop., &c. A heavy, lemon-yellow powder,
soluble in 2000 parts of cold, and about 600
parts of boiling water. By long-continued
washing with very hot water, it loses all its
remaining acid, and is at length converted
into red oxide of mercury.—Dose. As an altera-
tive, to # gr.; as an emetic, 3 to 5 grs. ; as
an errhine, 1. gr., mixed up with a pinch of
liquorice powder or mild snuff. It is a powerful
poison, and one of the least useful of the mer-
eurial preparations.
Obs. The temperature of the water em-
ployed to decompose the neutral sulphate
influences the shade of colour of the resulting
salt, in a similar manner to that pointed out
under the nitrate. It is now superseded as
a pigment by chrome yellow and orpiment,
which are not only more beautiful, but cheaper
preparations.
Mercuric Sulphide. Hg.S. Syn. PROTO-
SULPHIDE OF MERCURY, RED SULPHURET OF
MERCURY, FACTITIOUS CINNABAR, VERMILION,
SULPHURET OF MERCURY, SULPHIDE OF M.,
BISULPHURET OF M.: ; HYDRARGYRI BISUL-
PHURETUM (Ph. L.), CINNABARIS (Ph. E.),
H. SULPHURETUM RUBRUM, L. Prep. (Ph.
L.) Quicksilver, 24 oz. ; sulphur, 5 oz. ;
melt together, and continue the heat till the
mixture swells up, then cover the vessel, re-
move it from the heat, and when cold, powder,
and sublime it. The formulae of the other
colleges are similar.
Prop., &c. Mercuric sulphide has a dark-
red semi-crystalline appearance in the mass,
but acquires a brilliant scarlet colour by pow-
dering. It is tasteless, odourless, and in-
soluble. It is chiefly used as a pigment; but
it is occasionally employed in medicine as a
acid, 21% fl. Oz. ; mix, boil to dryness (in a
diaphoretic and vermifuge, and in some cuta.
neous diseases, and gout.—Dose. 10 to 30
grs. ; as a fumigation, about ; dr. is thrown
on a plate of iron heated to dull redness. For
the last purpose it is inferior to mercurious
oxide, owing to the more irritating nature of
its vapour.
Tests. MERCUROUs SALTs. Sulphuretted
hydrogen and ammonium sulphide give black
precipitates, insoluble in dilute acids, ammo-
mium sulphide, potassium cyanide, and hot
nitric acid, but slightly soluble in sodium
sulphide, and decomposed by nitrohydrochloric
acid.
Potassium hydrate and ammonia give dark
gray or black precipitates, which are insoluble
in excess of the precipitant.
Hydrochloric acid and the soluble metallic
chlorides occasion a precipitate, which assumes
the form of a very fine powder of dazzling
whiteness, insoluble in excess, but soluble in
aqua regia and liquid chlorine. Potassium
hydrate and ammonia turn it dark gray or
black.
Potassium iodide gives a greenish-yellow
precipitate, soluble in ether, and subliming in
red crystals when heated.
Mercurous Acetate. Hg(C2H5O). Syn.
ACETATE OF MERCURY, SUBACETATE. Prep,
(P. Cod.) Dissolve mercurous nitrate, 1 part,
in water (slightly acidulated with nitric acid),
4 parts, and precipitate the liquid with a
solution of sodium acetate, gradually added,
until in slight excess; carefully wash the
precipitate with cold water, and dry it in the
shade.
Prop., &c. Small, white, micaceous, flexible
scales; insoluble in alcohol ; soluble in about
300 parts of water ; blackened by light; and
carbonized by a strong heat. It has been
said to be one of the mildest of the mercurials;
but this cannot be the case, as it occasionally
acts with great violence on both the stomach
and bowels, producing much pain and prostra-
tion.— Dose. # to 1. gr., night and morning,
gradually increased.
Mercurous Bromide. Hg Br. Syn. SUB-
BROMIDE OF MERCURY; HYDRARGY RUM BR0-
MIDUM, L. Prep. (Magendie.) By precipi.
tating a solution of mercurous nitrate by
another of potassium bromide. It closely re.
sembles calomel, in both its appearance and
properties.—Dose. 1 to 5 grs.
Mercurous Chloride. HgClor Hg,Cls. Syn.
CALOMEL, SUBCHLORIDE OF MERCURY, MER-
CURY CHLORIDE; HYDRARGYRISUBCHLORIDUM
(B. P.), HYDRARGYRI CHLORIDUM (Ph. L.), H.
C, MITE (Ph. U. S.), CALOMELAS (Ph. E. &. D.),
L. This substance is one of the best known,
and probably the most valuable, of all the
mercurials.
Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Mercury, 2 lbs. ; sulphuric
cast-iron vessel), and when the resulting mass
has cooled, add of mercury, 2 lbs., and tritu-
rate the ingredients in an earthenware mortar


MERCURY. 759
until they are well mixed; then add of sodium
chloride 14 lb., and again triturate until the
globules are no longer visible; next sublime
the mixture, reduce the sublimate to the finest
possible powder, diligently wash it with boil-
ing distilled water, and dry it.— Prod. 117 to
118% of the weight of mercury employed.
2. (Ph. E.) Mercury, 4 oz., is dissolved in
a mixture of sulphuric acid, 2 fl. oz. 3 fl. dr.s.,
and nitric acid, fl. Oz, by the aid of heat;
when cold, mercury, 4 oz., is added, and the
remainder of the process is conducted as
before.
3. (CALOMELAS SUBLIMATUM-Ph. D.)
Sulphate of mercury, 10 parts; mercury, 7
parts; dry sodium chloride, 5 parts; triturate,
&c., as before, and afterwards resublime it into
a large chamber or receiver.
4. (Apothecaries' Hall.) Quicksilver, 50 lbs.,
and sulphuric acid, 70 lbs., are boiled to dry-
ness in a cast-iron vessel; of the dry salt,
62 lbs. are triturated with quicksilver, 40% lbs.,
until the globules are extinguished, when
sodium chloride, 34 lbs., is added, and after
thorough admixture, the whole is sublimed,
&c., as before.— Prod. 96 to 100 lbs.
5. (Jewel’s Patent.) The receiver, which is
capacious, is filled with steam, so that the
calomel vapour is condensed in it in a state of
extremely minute division. The engr. repre-
sents the apparatus now usually employed
when this plan is adopted. The product is
extremely white, and of the finest quality. It
is sometimes called “hydrosublimed calomel’
and “hydrosublimate of mercury.’ The ‘flow-
ers of calomel,’ of old pharmacy, were prepared
in a nearly similar manner.
a. Furnace.
b. An earthenware retort, having a short and wide
neck, containing the ingredients for making
calomel.
c. An earthen receiver, having three tubulatures.
d. A vessel containing water.
e. A steam-boiler.
6. (Soubeiran.) The crude calomel mixture
is heated in an earthen tube in a furnace, and
a current of air is directed uninterruptedly
into the tube by means of a small ventilator.
This sweeps away, as it were, the vapours of
calomel, and in a straight tube will carry them
a distance of 60 feet, to avoid which the end
of the recipient is immersed in water, by which
means the calomel is moistened and falls down.
This plan, slightly modified, is now extensively
adopted in this country.
7. (PRECIPITATED CALOMEL; CALOMELAS
PRECIPITATUM, L.) Digest pure quicksilver,
9 parts, in nitric acid (sp. gr. 1:02 to 1-25), 8
parts, until no more metal will dissolve, apply-
ing heat as the effervescence ceases; then mix
the hot liquid quickly with a boiling solution
of sodium chloride, 8 parts, dissolved in water
(slightly acidulated with hydrochloric acid),
64 parts; lastly, well wash the precipitate in
boiling distilled water, and dry it. The pro-
duct, when the process is skilfully managed, is
perfectly white and pure.
Prop. A heavy, white, tasteless powder;
insoluble in water, alcohol, and cold dilute
nitric acid ; volatilises at a temperature below
redness, and yields a white or yellowish-white
sublimate; hot nitric acid oxidises and dissolves
it ; alkalies, the alkaline carbonates, and lime
water, decompose it, with the production of
the black oxide; ammonia converts it into a
dark slate-gray coloured powder (BLACK PRE-
CIPITATE–Kane). Sp. gr. 7:14 (Boullay;
7:156—Pelouze and Fremy; 7:176—Ure).
Pur. Calomel is frequently contaminated
with small quantities of corrosive sublimate,
which may be detected by digesting a little in
alcohol, decanting the clear portion, and test-
ing it with a drop or two of potassium hydrate,
when a reddish precipitate will be formed if
any mercuric chloride be present. It is pul-
verulent, whitish, and sublimes (entirely) by
heat. It becomes black on the addition of
potassium hydrate, then, heat being applied, it
runs into globules of mercury. Neither silver
nitrate, lime water, nor sulphuretted hydro-
gen, being added to the water in which it has
been washed or boiled throws down anything.
Uses. Calomel is one of the milder mer-
curials, and in this respect takes its position
immediately after blue pill, mercury with
chalk, and the gray oxide; but it probably
ranks before all the other salts of mercury.
Universal experience appears to show it to be
a most valuable alterative, when judiciously
administered. With this intention it is given
in doses of 4 to 1 gr., generally combined with
antimonials, as in Plummer's pill, and re-
peated every night, or every other night, for
some time, followed by a mild saline aperient
in the morning. As a purgative, 2 to 5 grs.,
either combined with or followed by other
purgatives, as jalap, rhubarb, senna, colocynth,
Epsom salt, &c. As a vermifuge, 2 to 5 grs.
over-night, followed by a sufficient dose of
castor oil next morning. Combined with opium,
it is frequently used in various complaints to
produce salivation, or bring the system under
the influence of mercury. It is also employed
as a sedative and errhime, and in a vast num-
ber of other indications. It is, indeed, more
frequently used, and in a greater variety of
complaints, than probably any other medicine.
Obs. Of the two methods of preparing
calomel, that by precipitation is not only the
best, but the most economical. That by sub-
limation is, however, the one generally adopted
in England. Mr. Brande states that “a small
portion of sodium chloride is apt to remain

760 MERCURY.
combined with it, which might affect its me-
dical uses.” Such a contamination is not
found in carefully prepared ‘precipitated calo-
mel,” although we doubt whether the quantity
of it which exists in any of the samples we
have met with (being merely a trace) would
at all interfere with its therapeutical action;
more especially when it is recollected that
alkaline chlorides are present in, not merely
the primae viae, but also in every part of the
animal body. The late Mr. Fownes, a chemist,
who was unsurpassed in the accuracy of his
researches, and the caution and delicacy with
which he expressed his opinions, once assured
us that calomel was more easily and cheaply
prepared of the best quality by precipitation
than by sublimation, and that if, from careless
manipulation, it occasionally contained a minute
quantity of common salt, this was of much less
importance than the contamination of corrosive
sublimate, which was frequently present in
samples of sublimed colomel.
To produce a superior article of calomel in
the dry way is a somewhat difficult task, and
the process frequently fails in the hands of
inexperienced operators. The solution of the
mercury is best made in an iron vessel, and
the sublimation should be conducted (pre-
ferably) in an earthenware retort with a short
but very wide neck, and fitted to a spacious
receiver, having a large flat bottom, also of
earthenware, and containing a little cold water.
On the small scale the heat may be applied by
means of a sand bath. The form above given
for calomel, by precipitation, produces a large
product, perfectly free from corrosive subli-
mate and mercurous nitrate, and is conse-
quently free from the objections frequently
raised against that mode of preparing it.
“The form in which calomel sublimes
depends much upon the dimensions and tem-
perature of the subliming vessels. In small
vessels it generally condenses in a crystalline
cake, the interior surface of which is often
covered with beautiful quadrangular prismatic
crystals, transparent, and of a texture some-
what elastic or horny. In this state it ac-
quires, by the necessary rubbing into powder,
a decidedly yellow or buff colour, more or less
deep, according to the degree of trituration it
has undergone. If, on the contrary, the calo-
mel be sublimed into a very capacious and
cold receiver, it falls in an impalpable and
perfectly white powder, which requires only
one elutriation to fit it for use; it then remains
perfectly colourless.” (Brande.)
The long-continued action of steam on calo-
mel in a state of minute division is attended
by the formation of a small quantity of corro-
sive sublimate. (Righini.) Boiling water,
hot air, and light, also produce a like effect.
Mercurous Iodide, HgI. Syn. SUBIODIDE
OF MERCURY, GREEN IODIDE OF MERCURY,
MERCURIOUS IODIDE ; HYDRARGYRI IODIDUM
VIRIDE (B. P.), HYDRARGYRI SUBIODUM, H.
IODIDUM (Ph. L.), H. I. VIRIDE (Ph.D.), L.
Prep. 1. (B. P.) Mercury, 1 oz. ; iodine, 278
grs.; rectified spirit, a sufficiency. Rub the
iodine and mercury in a porcelain mortar,
moistening occasionally with a few drops of
spirit, and continue the trituration until the
mass assumes a uniform green colour, and no
metallic globules are visible.
2. Precipitate a solution of mercurous
nitrate by another of mercurous potassium
iodide ; wash the precipitate, first in a solution
of sodium chloride, and then in pure water;
lastly, dry it in the shade.
3. (Ph. L.) Mercury, 1 oz. ; iodine, 5 drs.;
triturate together, gradually adding of recti-
fied spirit, q. S. (about 1 to 2 fl. drs.), until
globules are no longer seen; dry the powder,
by a gentle heat, in the shade, as quickly as
possible, and preserve it in a well-stopped
black glass vessel. The formula of the Ph.D.
is similar.
Prop., &c. A heavy, greenish-yellow pow-
der; insoluble in water, alcohol, and a solution
of common salt; [soluble in ether, and slightly
so in an aqueous solution of iodide of potas.
sium. “ Freshly prepared, it is yellowish,
Heat being cautiously applied, it sublimes in
red crystals, which quickly turn yellow, and,
on access of light, blacken. It is insoluble in
a solution of chloride of sodium.” The process
of the Ph. L. and F. P. does not answer when
larger quantities than 4 or 5 oz. are prepared
at once, owing to the great heat generated by
the reaction of the ingredients, and the con-
sequent volatilisation of a portion of the iodine,
by which the colour of the product suffers—
Dose. # to 1 gr., made into pills; “in syphilis
and scrofula, especially where they occur in
It is also used extern-
1t is very
the same individual.”
ally, in the form of ointment.
poisonous.
Mercurous Nitrate. HgNO3. Syn. SUBNI.
TRATE OF MERCURY ; HYDRARGYRI subMITRAS,
H. NITRAS, H. PROTONITRAS, L. Prep. 1.
(NEUTRAL.) By digesting mercury in excess
of cold dilute nitric acid, observing to remove
the short prismatic crystals within a short time
after they are formed; these, when drained,
and redissolved in water slightly acidulated
with nitric acid, furnish crystals of pure
neutral mercurous nitrate by cautious evapo-
ration.
2. (BASIC.) Deposited after some time,
when excess of mercury has been employed as
above. A finely crystallized salt.
Prop., &c. Both the above are decomposed
by water, but the former may be dissolved in
a very small quantity without decomposition.
When the neutral salt is triturated with an
excess of sodium chloride, and water sub-
sequently added, the whole of the mercury
is thrown down as calomel, and the filtered
supernatant liquid does not contain corrosive
sublimate. If this last salt is detected, the
salt examined contained mercuric nitrate, and
if any basic mercurous nitrate was present,
the newly formed calomel has a gray or black

MERCURY-METALLICA.
761
colour, due to presence of oxide.—Dose. Of
the neutral salts, ſº to . gr. It is seldom used
internally. A solution is sometimes employed
as a mild caustic to ulcers; and, more dilute,
as a lotion in lepra, porrigo, psoriasis, &c.;
or made into an ointment, in the same
diseases. -
Mercurous Oxide. Hg,O. Syn. SUBoxIDE
OF MERCURY, GRAY O. O.F. M., BLACK O. O.F. M.,
MERCUROUS o., DIOXIDE OF M., PROTOXIDE OF
M.: ; HYDRARGYRI SUBOxy. DUM, H. oxy DUM,
H. O. CINEREUM, H. O. NIGRUM, L. Prep. 1.
(Ph. L. 1836.) Calomel, 1 oz. ; lime water,
1 gall. ; mix, agitate well together, decant the
clear liquid after subsidence, and well wash
the sediment with distilled water; lastly, drain
and dry it, wrapped in bibulous paper, in the
all".
2. (Ph. D. 1826.) Sublimed calomel, 1 part;
solution of potassium hydrate (warm), 4 parts;
triturate together, &c., as last.
3. Briskly triturate calomel in a mortar
with pure potassium hydrate, in excess; wash
it with cold water, and dry it in the shade.
Prop., &c. A very dark gray or black
powder, suffering decomposition by exposure
to light and air, becoming olive coloured, from
a portion being resolved into metallic mercury
and binoxide. Digested for a short time in
dilute hydrochloric acid, it remains undis-
solved, and the filtered liquid is not affected
by potassium hydrate, or by ammonium oxa-
late. It is totally soluble in acetic acid, and
entirely dissipated by heat. As a medicine, pure
mercurous oxide is one of the mildest of the
mercurials, and is used both internally and
externally ; but chiefly as a fumigant, or made
into an ointment.--Dose. . gr. to 3 grs. twice
a day.
Mercurous Phosphate. Syn. HYDRARGYRI
PHOSPHAs, L. Prep. Add a solution of mer-
curous nitrate (slightly acidulated with nitric
acid) to a solution of sodium phosphate, and
wash and dry the precipitate which forms. In
its physical characters it closely resembles
calomel, than which it is said to be more ap-
propriate in certain cases, especially in secon-
dary syphilis. Alkalies turn it black.--Dose,
# to 1 gr., made into a pill with sugar and
aromatics.
Mercurous Sulphate. Hg,SO). Syn. SUB-
SULPHATE OF MERCURY, SULPHATE OF THE
SUBoxIDE OF M., PROTOSULPHATE OF M. f.;
HYDRARGYRI SUBSULPHAs, L. Prep. By
adding sulphuric acid to a solution of mercu-
rous nitrate. The salt falls as a white crys-
talline powder.
Mercurous Sulphide. Hg,S. Syn. SUB-
SULPHIDE OF MERCURY: HYDRARGYRI SUB-
SULPHURETUM CUM SULPHURE, H. S. NI-
GRUM, L. Prep. 1. (Pure.) This falls as a
black precipitate when a solution of mercurous
mitrate is treated with sulphuretted hydrogen
or ammonium sulphide.
2. (Impure; ETHIOP's MINERAL; HyPRAR’
GYRI SULPHURETUM CUM SULPHURE, H. S.
NIGRUM-Ph. L. 1824 & Ph. D. 1826);
AETHIOPS MINERALIS-Ph. H. 1836 & Ph. D.
1826.) Quicksilver and sulphur, equal parts,
triturated together (in a stoneware mortar—
Ph.D.) until globules are no longer visible.
Prop., &c. The last preparation is alone
employed medicinally. It is a heavy, inso-
luble, black powder. It is frequently met
with imperfectly prepared, and sometimes
adulterated. It is said to be a mixture of
mercurous sulphide and sulphur, in variable
proportions depending on the length of the
trituration. On the large scale it is generally
made by melting the ingredients together, and
afterwards reducing the mass to a fine powder
in a mill or mortar. It is said to be vermifuge
and alterative, and has been used in some
cutaneous and glandular diseases, but appears
to be nearly inert.—Dose. 5 to 30 grs.
MERCURY, OTHER PREPARATIONS OF.
Hahnemann's Mercury. Syn. HAHNEMANN’s
SOLUBLE MERCURY, H.’s BLACK OXIDE OF M.,
BLACK PRECIPITATE OF M.; HYDRARGYRI
PRAECIPITATUM NIGRUM, MERCURIUS solu-
BILIS HAHNEMANNI, L. —a. By dropping
weak ammonia into a solution of mercurous
nitrate as long as the precipitate formed is of
a black colour; the powder is washed, dried
in the shade without artificial heat, and then
preserved from the light and air.
(Ph. Bor. 1847.) Solution of mercurous
nitrate (recent ; sp. gr. 1:1), 9% oz. ; distilled
water, 2 lbs. ; mix, filter, and add to the solu-
tion of ammonia (sp. gr. 1960), 3 oz., diluted
with water, 4 fl. oz. ; collect the powder im-
mediately on a filter, wash it with water, 5 fl.
oz., and dry it, &c., as before. A very black
powder.—Dose. } to 1 gr.
Precipitates of Mercury. 1. BLACK PRECI-
PITATE, Hahnemann’s soluble mercury (basic
mercurous and ammonium nitrate). 2. GREEN
P. (MERCURIUS PRAECIPITATUS VIRIDIS, LA-
CERTA VIRIDIs), from equal parts of mercury
and copper, separately dissolved in nitric acid,
the solutions mixed, evaporated to dryness,
and then calcined until red fumes cease to
arise. Caustic. 3. RED P., mercuric oxide.
4. WHITE P., ammonio-chloride of mercury.
Ward's Mercury. Syn. AMMONIO-NITRATE
OF MERCURY; HYDRARGYRI AMMONIAE NITRAS,
L. To nitric acid, 4 parts, contained in a
spacious bolt-head or matrass, add, gradually,
ammonium sesquicarbonate, 2 parts; after-
wards add of mercury, 1 part, and digest in a
gentle heat, until the solution is complete.
MES/LIN. A mixture of various kinds of
grain. (Brande.)
METAGALLIC ACID. Obtained by heating
dry gallic acid, by a quick fire, to about 480°
Fahr., or until it froths, melts, and becomes
black and solid, then dissolving the residuum
in an alkali, filtering, and precipitating by an
acid. An insoluble, black powder.
METAL. Syn. METALLUM, L. See METALS.
METAL'LICA. [L.] Preparations of the
metals. One of the divisions of the Ph, L.


762
METALLIC TREES.–METAPHOSPHORIC ACII).
METAL'LIC TREES.
(Metallic).
METAL/I,0-CHROMES. A name given by
Nobili to extremely thin films of peroxide of
lead deposited by electrolytic action upon
plates of polished steel, so as to produce an
iridescent play of colours. The effect is often
very beautiful.
MET'ALL01DS. A name sometimes applied
to the NON-METALLIC ELEMENTS.
METAL'LURGY. “The art of extracting
metals from their ores, and adapting them to
various processes of manufacture.” (Percy.)
“Notwithstanding the striking analogy
which exists between common chemical and
metallurgic operations, since both are em-
ployed to isolate certain bodies from each
other, there are essential differences which
should be carefully noted. In the first place,
the quantity of materials being always very
great in metallurgy, requires corresponding
adaptations of apparatus, and often produces
peculiar phenomena; in the second place, the
agents to be employed for treating great
masses must be selected with a view to eco-
nomy, as well as chemical action. In analyti-
cal chemistry, the main object being exactness
of result and purity of product, little atten-
tion is bestowed upon the value of the reagents,
on account of the small quantity required for
any particular process. But in smelting metals
upon the large scale, profit being the sole
object, cheap materials and easy operations
are alone admissible.”!
The limits of this work do not permit of
more than a general reference to the leading
operations of metallurgy under this head.
These are—digging, picking or sorting, stamp-
ing or crushing, and washing, included under
the general term, dressing ores;’—roasting
or calcination, which is either performed with
the fuel in contact with the ore, or in rever-
beratory furnaces; and the liquation or reduc-
tion to the reguline form. The application of
these processes is noticed under the leading
metals. Those who desire to study the sub-
ject minutely are referred to the treatises of
Dr. Percy, Robert Hunt, Karsten, and Le
Play.
METALS. Syn. METALLA, L. Metals are
elementary bodies, which are generally dis-
tinguished by their lustre and power of con-
ducting heat and electricity. When their
solutions are electrolysed, the metals always
appear at the electro-negative surface, and
are hence termed electro-positive elements.
Formerly, when science was much less ad-
vanced than at present, the metals constituted
a well-defined class. The properties which
were regarded as specially characteristic were
physical, and were not founded on chemical
relations; thus, lustre and high specific
gravity were considered to be essential cha-
See VEGETATION
1 : Ure's Dict, of Arts, Manufactures, and Mines,” 4th
edit.
racters of all metals. But we are now ac-
quainted with metals which have a lower
specific gravity than water (lithium, sodium,
&c.), and with so-called non-metallic elements
which present a strong metallic lustre (carbon
in the state of graphite, crystallized silicon).
It will therefore be seen that the term ‘metal?
is rather conventional than strictly scientific.
By far the greater number of elementary
bodies at present known are metals. Their
physical characters and leading chemical pro-
perties are noticed under each of them in its
alphabetical place. The following table ex-
hibits some useful particulars :—
TABLE of some of the properties of some of
the metals.
Names arranged in the order of their
Ductility. Malleability.
Gold. Gold. .
Silver. Silver.
Platinum. Copper.
Iron. Tin.
Nickel. Platinum.
Copper. Lead.
Zinc. Zinc.
Tin. Iron.
Lead. Nickel.
Names arranged in the order of their
Power of conducting Power of conducting
Heat. Electricity.
Silver. Silver.
Copper. Copper.
Gold. Gold.
Tin. Zinc.
Iron. Iron,
Lead. Tin.
Bismuth, Lead.
Antimony.
Bismuth.
METANTIMONIC ACID. H.Sb,0,. The
name given by M. Fremy to that variety of
antimonic acid obtained by decomposing pen-
tachloride of antimony with excess of water,
It differs from common antimonic acid in
being tetra, and forming two different classes
of salts with the acids. The acid metanti-
moniate of potassium is the only reagent which
yields a precipitate with the sodium salts, and
is therefore of great value in chemical analysis.
It is prepared by fusing antimonic acid with
excess of potassa, in a silver crucible, dissolving
the fused mass in a little cold water, and
allowing it to crystallize in vacuo. The re-
sulting crystals (metantimoniate of potassa),
by solution in pure water, are resolved into
free potassa and the acid salt. See ANTI-
MONY. -
METAPEC/TIC ACID. See PECTIN.
METAPECTIN. See PECTIN.
• METAPHOSPHOR/IC ACID.
PHORIC ACID,
See PHOS-

METHEGLIN-MILIARY FEVER,
763
METHEG/LIN. Syn. HYDROMELI, H. VI-
NOSUM, MELLIS WINUM, L. Prep. From
honey, 1 cwt. ; warm water, 24 galls.; stir
well until dissolved; the next day add of yeast,
1 pint, and hops, 1 lb., previously boiled in
water, 1 gall. ; along with water, q. S. to make
the whole measure 1 barrel; mix well, and
ferment the whole with the usual precautions
adopted for other liquors. It contains on the
average from 7% to 8% of alcohol. See MEAD.
METHYL. CHA. The hypothetical radical
of PYRoxy LIC SPIRIT (WooD-SPIRIT, METHYLIC
ALCOHOL) and the methyl series. It forms a
number of compounds analogous to those of
ethyl.
METHYLATED SPIRIT. A mixture of
1 part of methylic alcohol (wood spirit) and
9 parts of ethylic alcohol (spirit of wine). See
SPIRIT.
IMETHYIIC AICOHOL. See WOOD SPIRIT.
MEZE’REON. Syn. GAROU ; MEZEREON
BARK, MEZEREI CortEx (B. P.); MEZEREUM
—Ph. L. E. & D. The dried bark of the
Daphne Mezereum, mezereon; or Daphne
Laureola, spurge, or wood-laurel. The “bark
of the root of Daphne Mezereum,” or spurge
olive. (Ph. L.) A stimulant and diuretic.
It is employed as a sudorific and alterative, in
syphilis, rheumatism, scrofula, and chronic
cutaneous diseases, usually in conjunction with
sarsaparilla. It has also been used as a mas-
ticatory, in toothache, paralysis of the tongue,
&c. On the Continent it is used as a vesicant.
For this purpose it is softened by soaking it
in hot vinegar, and is then bound on the part,
and renewed after intervals of some hours,
until vesication is produced.
MICE. See RATS.
MICROCOSMIC SALT, NaNHHPO. Syn.
TRIBASIC PHOSPHATE OF SODIUM AND AMIMO-
NIUM. Prep. 1. Phosphates of soda and
ammonia, equal parts; water, q. S.; dissolve
separately, mix the solutions, evaporate, and
crystallize. A slight excess of phosphate of
ammonia aids the crystallisation.
2. (Fownes.) Phosphate of sodium, 6 parts;
water, 2 parts; liquefy by heat, and add of
sal ammoniac (in powder), 1 part ; common
salt separates, and after its removal the liquid
is concentrated so that crystals may form.
Used as a flux in blowpipe assays.
MI/CR0SCOPE. The value of the micro-
scope in chemistry and the collateral sciences
is now so generally acknowledged, that it
would be folly to do more than merely to
allude to the subject here.
In the COMPOUND MICROSCOPE. which has
quite superseded the ‘simple microscope as an
instrument of research, the object is magnified
in the first instance by the object-glass, and
then remagnified by the eye-piece. It follows,
therefore, that the magnifying power of the
instrument may be increased either by increas-
ing the power of the object-glass or that of
the eye-piece. It must be borue in mind, how-
ever, that in increasing the power of the eye-
piece, we do not magnify the object itself in a
greater degree, but simply increase the image
of the object formed by the object-glass. Any
imperfections which may exist in the latter
are thus greatly increased. At first the great
drawback to the use of the compound micro-
scope was its deficiency in achromatism; but
the researches of Mr. Lester and Dr. Goring
led to the achromatising of the object-glass,
which was the first of the rapid strides to-
wards perfection made by this instrument
during the last twenty years. The two most
useful object-glasses are the “quarter-inch,”
which should magnify from 200 to 220 dia-
meters, and the “inch, which should magnify
from 30 to 40 diameters. The definition of
these glasses should be good, and they should
transmit plcnty of light. Any lines in a
structure examined by them should appear
sharp and distinct, and there should be no
coloured fringes around the object. It is of
great importance that the object-glasses are
kept perfectly free from dust. A few shreds
of wash-leather of the finest quality should be
kept in a pill-box for cleaning them. Before
rubbing them with the leather they may be
breathed upon, but no whiting or liquid of
any kind should be used, as each object-glass,
being achromatic, is a very delicate piece of
workmanship, consisting of two lenses of flint-
and crown-glass cemented together by Canada
balsam. Compound microscopes are now sold
by the best London makers at very low prices.
A really good instrument, adapted to most of
the wants of the chemical, pharmaceutical,
or medical student, may be obtained for five
guineas
MII/DEW. Syn. RUST, BLIGHT. The
mouldy appearance on the leaves of plants
produced by innumerable microscopic fungi.
The hop, wheat, and the choicest garden fruit
trees, are those most commonly attacked. The
causes are said to be excess of moisture, and
absence of the free circulation of air and sun-
shine. On the small scale, finely powdered sul-
phur is occasionally dusted over the parts
affected, as a remedy.
MII/IARY FEVER. Syn. MILIARIA, L.
Among the other symptoms are—anxiety and
frequent sighing, the perspiration has a strong
and peculiar smell, and there is a sensation of .
pricking on the neck and breast, followed by
an eruption of small red pimples, which in
two or three days become white vesicles, dry
up, peel off, and are succeeded by others. The
moist weather of spring and autumn are the
period in which it is most prevalent; and de-
licate females, particularly in child-bed, are
those most liable to its attacks. Sometimes
it assumes a malignant character. The treat-
ment of this affection consists chiefly in com-
bating the depression of the system by a sup-
porting diet; but everything that heats or
stimulates the skin should be avoided. The
apartment should be kept cool and well venti-
lated, and cooling saline laxatives and bitter



764
MILK.
tonics, with cooling drinks, should also be had
recourse to.
MILK. Syn. LAC, L. The value of milk
as an article of food is clearly shown by the
fact of it being sufficient to support, and to
increase the growth of, the young of every
species of the mammalia; at once supplying
materials for the formation of the osseous,
fleshy, and liquid portions of the body. “The
substances present in milk are wonderfully
adapted to its office of producing materials
for the rapid growth and development of the
animal frame. It contains an azotized mat-
ter, casein, nearly identical in composition
with muscular flesh, fatty principles, and a
peculiar sugar, and, lastly, various salts, among
which may be mentioned phosphate of lime,
held in complete solution in a slightly alkaline
liquid.
“The white, and almost opaque, appearance
of milk is an optical illusion. Examined by a
microscope of even moderate power, it is seen
to consist of a perfectly transparent fluid, in
which float about numbers of minute transpa-
rent globules; these consist of fat surrounded
by an albuminous envelope, which can be
broken mechanically, as in the churning, or
dissolved by the chemical action of caustic
potassa, after which, by agitating the milk
with ether, the fat can be dissolved.”
(Fownes.)
Comp. Cows' MILK, of average quality,
contains from 10% to 12% of solid matter when
evaporated to dryness by steam heat, and has
the mean sp. gr. 1030; while that of the
skimmed milk is about 1:035; and of the cream,
1.0244. (Ure.) The average CREAM of cows'
milk contains 4.5% of butter; 3.5% of curd,
and 92% of whey. (Berzelius.) The SKIM-
MED MILK consists of water, 92.9%; curd, 2.8%;
sugar of milk, 3.5%; lactic acid, lactate of
potassa," and a trace of lactate of iron, 6%;
chloride of potassium, phosphate of potassa,
and earthy phosphates (lime), 2%. (Ber-
zelius.)
The following analysis of fresh milk is by
M. Haidlen :- -
Water - 873-00
Butter - 30.00
Casein - - - 48:20
Milk sugar - 43'90
Phosphate of lime 2-31
-> magnesia '42
5x iron •07
Chloride of potassium 1:44
55 sodium . - “24
Soda in combination with
casein •42
1000'
Prop. These are well known, Perfectly
fresh milk is slightly alkaline, but soon be-
comes acid on exposure to the air, and after
a time white coagula of casein (CURDS) sepa-
rate from it. This change is immediately
effected by the addition of rennet or an acid,
That from the first, when dried and pressed,
constitutes cheese.
Pur., tests, &c. The common frauds prac.
tised by the milk-dealers are the addition of
water and the subtraction of part of the cream,
Sometimes potato starch is added to the milk,
to give it a creamy or rich appearance, and this
addition is still more frequently made to cream,
to increase its consistence and quantity. The
method of detecting the first two of these
frauds is noticed under ‘LACTOMETER.’ The
presence of potato starch may be determined
by boiling some of the milk with a little
vinegar, and after separating the coagula by a
strainer, and allowing the liquid to become
cold, testing it with solution or tincture of
iodine. If it turns blue, starch, flour, or some
other amylaceous substance, has been used tº
adulterate it. In most cases it will be suffi.
cient to apply the test to the unprepared
suspected milk.
It has frequently been stated that chalk,
plaster of Paris, gum, gelatin, sugar, flour,
mucilage of hemp-seed, the brains of animals,
and other similar substances, are often added
to London milk, but there is no reason tº
suppose there is any truth in these assertions,
as some of these articles are too costly to be
used, and the presence of others would so alter
the flavour or appearance of the milk, or
would so soon exhibit themselves by sub.
sidence, as to lead to their detection.
Pres. Milk may be preserved in stout
bottles, well corked, and wired down, by heat.
ing them, in this state, to the boiling-point,
in a water bath, by which means the oxygen
of the small quantity of enclosed air becomes
absorbed. It must be afterwards •stored in a
cool situation. By this method, which is also
extensively adopted for the preservation of
green gooseberries, green peas, &c., milk will
retain its properties unaltered for years. A
few grains of carbonate of magnesia, or, still
better, of bicarbonate of potassa or soda, may
be advantageously dissolved in each bottle
before corking it.
Under Bethel’s patent the milk or cream is
scalded, and, when cold, strongly charged with
carbonic acid gas, by means of a soda-water
machine, and the corks are wired down in the
usual manner. The bottles should be kept
inverted, in a cool place.
An excellent method of preventing milk
from turning sour, or coagulating, is to add to
every pint of it about 10 or 12 grs. of carbon-
ate or bicarbonate of soda. Milk thus pre-
pared may be kept for eight or ten days in
temperate weather. This addition is harm-
less, and, indeed, is advantageous to dyspeptic
patients. According to D'Arcot, grºwth part
of the bicarbonate is sufficient for the purpose.
An excess of alkali used in this manner may
be detected by the milk turning turmeric
paper brown, even after it has been kept



MILK.
765
some hours, and by the ash obtained by evapo-
rating a little to dryness, and then heating it
to dull redness, effervescing with an acid. (See
below.)
*** Milk should not be kept in lead or zinc
vessels, as it speedily dissolves a portion of
these metals, and becomes poisonous.
Concluding remarks. The principal differ-
ence between cows'. milk and human milk con-
sists in the former containing more casein and
less sugar of milk than the latter. The re-
markable indisposition to coagulate is another
character which distinguishes human milk
from cows' milk. Prof. Falkland, who has
practically investigated the subject has pre-
pared a nutritive fluid for infants from cows'
milk, closely resembling that of the healthy
adult woman. His process is, however, unne-
cessarily complicated, and, therefore, unsuited
to those who would have to employ it in the
nursery. To remove this objection we have
adopted the following formula;-Sugar of
milk, 2 oz. ; hot water, 3 pint; dissolve, and,
when the liquor has become quite cold, add it
to fresh cows” milk, # pint, and stir them
together. This quantity, prepared morning
and evening, will constitute the proper food
for an infant of from 5 to 8 months old.
More may be allowed it if it ‘craves’ it ;
but there must be no ‘cramming.” At first it
will be advisable to remove a little of the
cream from the milk before adding to it the
saccharine solution; but after a few days this
will be found to be unnecessary, and, indeed,
injurious. One very important particular to
be attended to is, the employment of pure
cow’s milk, obtained from a healthy grass-fed
animal only. With this precaution, and the
use of a good FEEDING-BOTTIE, the infant will
thrive nearly as well as on the breast of any
human female, excepting its mother's. (See
below.)
ASSES’ MILR closely resembles human milk
in colour, smell, and consistence, but it con-
tains rather less cream. (See below.)
EWEs’ MILK closely resembles cows' milk,
than which, however, it is slightly richer in
Cream.
GOATS’ MILK, for the most part, resembles
cows' milk, but its consistence is much
greater, and it contains much more solid
matter. (See below.)
MARES’ MILK, in consistence, is between
that of cows” and human milk. Its cream is
not converted into butter by agitation. See
BUTTER, CHEESE, LACTIC ACID, &c.
Al'mond Milk. See EMULSION and MIX-
TURE.
Arrow-root Milk, Prep. From arrow-root,
1 table-spoonful, first wetted and stirred with
a little cold water, afterwards adding, gradu-
ally, of boiling water, 4 pint ; and, lastly, of
boiling milk, ; pint; with sugar, spice, wine,
&c., to palate. Very nutritious, and excellent
in chronic diarrhoea. Some persons employ
all milk.
Chocolate Milk. Prep. Dissolve chocolate
(scraped), 1 oz., in boiling new milk, 1 pint.
Nutritious; but apt to offend delicate sto-
machs.
Coffee Milk. Prep. 1. Coffee, 1 oz. ;
boiling water, 4 pint; infuse for 10 or 15
minutes in a warm situation, and add the
strained liquid to boiling milk, # pint.
2. Coffee, 1 oz. ; tie it loosely in a piece of
muslin, and simmer it for 15 minutes in milk,
1 pint. Both the above have been recom-
mended for persons of spare habits, and for
those disposed to affections of the lungs, more
especially for the asthmatic.
Facti"tious Milk. Syn. ARTIFICIAL MILK.
Of the numerous compounds which have been
proposed as substitutes for natural milks, the .
following are examples:–
1. (FACTITIOUS ASSES’ MILK; LAC ASINI-
NUM FACTITIUM, LAC A. ARTIFICIALE, L.)—a.
Cows” milk, 1 quart ; ground rice, 1 oz. ;
oringo root (bruised), 1 dr.; boil, strain, and
add sugar candy (or white sugar), 1 oz.
b. Whites of 2 eggs; lump sugar, 1 oz. ;
cows' milk (new), ; pint ; mix, then add syrup
of tolu, ; oz.
c. Water, 1 pint; hartshorn shavings, 1 oz.;
boil to a jelly; then add lump sugar, 2 oz.;
cool, add new milk, 1 pint ; syrup of tolu,
# oz. Used as substitutes for asses’ milk,
taken freely as a beverage. A cupful, with or
without a spoonful of rum, 3 or 4 times daily,
is a popular remedy in consumption and
debility.
2. (F. GoATs’ MILK–A. T. Thomson.)
Fresh mutton suet (minced), 1 oz. ; tie it in a
muslin bag, and boil it in cows' milk, 1 quart;
lastly, add of sugar candy, 2 gr. In scrofu-
lous emaciation, and in the latter stages of
phthisis. The proportion of suet in the above
may be advantageously increased a little.
The LAC CUM SERO of Guy’s Hospital is a
similar preparation.
3. (F. HUMAN MILK ; LAC HUMANUM FAC-
TITIUM, L.)—a. See above.
b. (Rosenstein.) Almonds (blanched), 2 in
number; white sugar, 1 dr. ; water, 4 fl. oz. ;
make an emulsion, strain, and add of fresh
cows” milk, 6 fl. oz. As a substitute for the
breast in nursing.
Preserved' Milk. Syn. MILK POWDER;
LACTIS PULVIS, LAC PULVERATUM, L. Prep.
1. Fresh skimmed milk, 1 gall. ; carbonate of
soda (in very fine powder), 1% dr. ; mix, eva-
porate to 1-3rd by the heat of steam or a
water bath, with constant agitation, then add
of powdered white sugar, 3% lbs., and complete
the evaporation at a reduced temperature;
reduce the dry mass to powder, add the cream
(well drained) which was taken from the milk,
and after thorough admixture put the whole
into well-stoppered bottles or tims, which must
be at once hermetically sealed.
2. (Legrip.) Carbonate of soda, & dr. ;
water, 1 fl. oz. ; dissolve, add of fresh milk,
1 quart; sugar, 1 lb. ; reduce it by heat to


766
MILK FEVER–MINIM.
-
the consistence of a syrup, and finish the eva-
poration on plates by exposure in an oven.
Obs. About an ounce of the powder agitated
with a pint of water, forms an agreeable and
nutritious drink, and a good substitute for
milk at sea. It may also be used for tea or
coffee in the solid form. This process, which
is very old, has been recently patented. See
MILK (above). -
Milk of Roses. Syn. LAC ROSAE, L. Prep.
1. (ENGLISH.)—a. Almonds (blanched), 1 oz. ;
oil of almonds and white soft soap, of each,
1 dr. ; rose water, 1 pint; make an emulsion.
b. From liquor of potassa and oil of almonds,
of each, 1 fl. Oz. ; hot water, 2 fl. oz. ; agitate
together until mixed, then add of rose water
and distilled or filtered soft water, of each,
# pint, and again agitate well. -
c. As the last, but using half a teaspoonful
of salt of tartar for the liquor of potassa.
d. (Redwood.) Blanched almonds, 8 oz. ;
rose water, 3 pints; make an emulsion, add
of white Windsor soap, white wax, and oil of
almonds, of each, ; oz.; previously melted
together by a gentle heat; triturate until
united, and strain; lastly, add a solution of
oil of bergamot, 3 oz. ; oil of lavender, 1 dr. ;
and attar of roses, # dr. ; (dissolved in) recti-
fied spirit, 12 oz.
2. (FRENCH.)—a. From rose water, 1 quart;
tinctures of benzoin and styrax, of each, 1 fl.
oz. ; spirit of roses, , fl. oz. ; rectified spirit,
2 fl. oz. ; mix.
b. (Augustin.) Tincture of benzoin, ; fl.
oz. ; liquor of carbonate of potassa, 2% fl. dr. ;
rose water, 3 pint; agitate well together. As
a lotion in acne.
c. (Gianinni.) Tincture of benzoin, 1 dr. ;
tincture of balsam of Peru, 20 drops; rose
water, 1 pint; as the last.
d. (Schubarth.) Almond paste, 3 drs. ; rose
water, , pint; tincture of benzoin, ; fl. oz. As
before. The addition to the last 3 of a little
rectified spirit is an improvement.
3. (GERMAN.) From dilute solution of di-
acetate of lead (Goulard water), and spirit of
lavender, of each, 1 fl.oz. ; rose water, 6 fl.oz. ;
soft water, 1 pint.
Obs. All the above are used as cosmetic
washes, and to remove scurf, pimples, and
eruptions, in slight cases.
Sa'go Milk. Syn. LAC SAGO, L. Prep.
(Dr. A. T. Thomson.) Sago, 1 oz. ; cold water,
1 pint ; macerate half an hour, pour off the
water, add of milk, 1% pint, and boil slowly
until the sago is dissolved. Very nutritious;
also in lieu of arrow-root milk.
Milk of Sulphur. See SULPHUR (Precipi-
tated).
Vanilſla Milk, Syn. LAC VANILLE, L.
Prep. 1. Essence of vanilla, 12 drops; lump
sugar, 1 oz. ; triturate, and add gradually, new
milk, 1 pint.
2. (Beral.) Vanilla sugar, 3 oz. ; milk, 16 oz. ;
dissolve.
MILK FEVER, Syn, FEBRIS LACTEA, L.
A febrile condition of the system that some.
times occurs at the time the milk begins to be
secreted after parturition. It often assumes
a malignant character. See PUERPERAI
FEVER.
MILLET. Syn. MILIUM, L. Several va.
rieties of grain are known by this name. That
commonly referred to under the name is the
produce of Panicum miliaceum (“Indian millet’).
The husked seeds (MILIUM MUNDATUM) are
used to make gruel, and are ground for flour,
“Turkish millet,” or ‘ Guinea corn, is produced
by Sorgham vulgare; and the ‘German’ and
‘Italian millet” by species of Setaria. In
some parts of the world millet flour is used for
bread, but it is chiefly cultivated as food for
domestic animals. -
MINCE MEAT. Prep. From stoned raisins,
currants, sugar, and suet, of each, 2 lb.; Sul.
tana raisins and boiled beef (lean and tender)
of each, 1 lb. ; apples, 4 lbs. ; juice of 2
lemons; the rind of 1 lemon, chopped very
fine; mixed spice, 3 lb.; candied citron and
lemon peel, of each, 2 oz. ; brandy, a glass.

ful or two; the whole chopped very fine. It
may be varied by adding other spice or fla.
vouring, and by the addition of eggs, or the
substitution of chopped fowl or veal for beef,
according to the taste of the cuisinier.
MINDERE"RUS'S SPIRIT. See AMMONIA
(Acetate of), and SOLUTION.
MIN’ERAL CHAME'LEON. Prep. From a
mixture of binoxide of manganese and potassi
and nitre, equal parts, heated to redness. It
must be preserved in a well-corked bottle until
required for use.
Prop., &c.
through all the coloured rays to the red, when,
if potassa be added, the colour retrogrades
until it reaches the original green. The
addition of oil of vitriol, or of chlorine, renders
the solution colourless. The addition of a
When dissolved in water, its
solution, at first green, passes spontaneously
weak acid, or even boiling or agitating the
liquid, turns it from green to red. See MAN.
GANIC ACID.
MIN'ERALIZERS. Substances which, by
association with metallic bodies, deprive them
of their usual properties, and impart to them
the character of ores. Their removal belongs
to metallurgy. The term MINERALIZED’
has been applied to caoutchouc, gutta percha,
bitumen, &c., which has been combined with
sulphur, silica, or metallic matter.
MIN'I.M. Syn. MINIMUM, L. A measured -
drop, of which 60 are equal to a fluid drachm,
The size of drops vary so greatly with different
liquids, and are also so much influenced by the
size and shape of the vessels from which they
are poured, that they afford no reliable mea-
sure of quantity for medicinal purposes. The
poured drop has, in some cases, only ºrd the
volume of the measured drop, or minim; whilst,
in others, it is nearly 3 times as large. Accord-
ing to Mr. Durande, “liquids which contain
a small proportion of water, afford a small
MINIUM-MIXTURE, - 767
drop; while, on the contrary, liquids con-
taining a large quantity of water furnish a
large drop.” “Among liquids containing a
large proportion of water, those which are not
charged with remedial substances, give a
larger and heavier drop than the same liquids
when containing extraneous bodies in solution.”
In all cases in which the word “drop' is men-
tioned in this work a minim is intended, and
the quantity should be determined by means of
a graduated minim measure.
MIN'IUM. See RED PIGMENTS.
MINT. Syn. SPEARMINT, GREEN M.; MEN-
THA VIRIDIs (Ph. L.), L. “The recent and
the dried flowering herb” of Mentha viridis.
It is aromatic and carminative, but its flavour
is less agreeable than that of peppermint. It
is employed in flatulence, colic, nausea, diar-
rhoea, &c.; also to make sauce.
MIR/RORS. See AMALGAM (Silvering),
SILVERING, SPECULUM METAL, &c.
MITES. See ACARI.
MITH'RIDATE. Syn. DAMoCRATES’s CoN-
FECTION ; MITHRIDATIUM, CONFECTIO DAMO-
CRATIS, L. “This composition originally con-
sisted of but few ingredients; viz., 20 leaves
of rue, 2 walnuts, 2 figs, and a little salt. Of
this we are informed that Mithridates took a
dose every morning, to guard himself against
the effects of poison. It was afterwards
altered, and the number of the ingredients
increased to sixty-one. In this more complex
form it contºined opium, and was, in effect, an
aromatic opiate, of which the confection of
opium of the present day may be considered
as a simplification. The ‘mithridate’ is still
prepared in some shops, and is occasionally,
though very rarely, prescribed.” (Med. Lex.)
“The formulae for CONFECTION or ELECTUARY
of CATECHU may be considered as the repre-
sentatives, in our modern Pharmacopoeias, of
the once celebrated recipes for conFECTIO
DAMOCRATIS and THERIACA ANDROMACHI.”
(Redwood.) Mithridate was formerly con-
ceived to be good for nearly every disease, and
an antidote for every known poison.
MIX"TURE. Syn. MISTURA, L. A com-
pound liquid medicine, taken in divided doses.
Mixtures are usually extemporaneous pre-
parations, and in prescribing them care should
be taken not to bring together substances that
decompose each other, nor to order heavy
powders, that speedily separate from the body
of the liquid by subsidence. EMULSIONs,
JULEPS, and MUCILAGES, are included in the
‘MISTURE’ of the London Pharmacopoeia.
Mixtures are usually dispensed in flat octa-
gonal 6 or 8-oz. bottles, with long necks; or
in regular “octagons,’ with short necks, having
the doses marked on the glass, to which the
strength of the medicine is made to corre-
spond.
Our remarks respecting ‘DRAUGHTS’ equally
apply here. By putting the active ingredients
of six draughts into a 6-oz. mixture bottle,
and filling it up with distilled water, a mixture
will be made of corresponding properties, of
which the dose will be 2 table-spoonfuls.
When the formula for the draughts includes a
decoction or infusion as the vehicle, instead of
water, four of them only must be taken, which
will then fill the 6-oz. bottle, and the proper
dose will be 3 table-spoonfuls, or a small wine-
glassful.
The following formulae embrace the whole
of the ‘MISTURAE” of the British Pharma-
copoeias, as well as a few others in general use.
These will serve as examples for the like pre-
parations of medicinals which are not included
in the list. (See also DRAUGHT, EMULSION,
JULEP, WATER, &c.)
Mixture, Absor/bent. See ANTACID MIX-
TURE.
Mixture, Aca'cia. See GUM MIXTURE.
Mixture, Acetate of Ammo"nia. Syn. MIN-
DERERUS's MIXTURE; MISTURA AMMONIAE
ACETATIS, L. Prep. From solution of acetate
of ammonia, 1% fl. oz. ; nitre, 40 grs. ; camphor
mixture, 6 fl. Oz. ; rose syrup, 3 fl. oz.-Dose.
1 to 3 table-spoonfuls, every third or fourth
hour, as a diaphoretic in inflammatory fevers,
&c.
Mixture, Al'kaline, See ANTACID MIXTURE.
Mixture, Al'mond. Syn. EMULSION OF AL-
MONDS, MILK OF A.; MISTURA AMYGDALE
(B. P., Ph. L. E. & D.), LAC AMYGDALE, L.
Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Confection of almonds,
2% oz. ; distilled water, 1 pint; gradually add
the water to the confection while triturating,
until they are mixed; then strain the liquid
through linen.
2. (Ph. E.) From almond confection, 2 oz.,
and water, 1 quart; as the last. Or, from
sweet almonds (blanched), 10 drs.; white sugar,
5 drs. ; mucilage, ; fl. oz. (or powdered gum,
3 drs.); made into an emulsion with water, 1
quart.
3. (Ph. D.) Sweet almonds (blanched), 5
drs. ; refined sugar, 2 drs.; powdered gum, 1
dr. ; distilled water, 8 fl. oz. ; as the last.
4. (B.P.) Compound powder of almonds
(sweet), 1; water, 8; triturate and strain.
Obs. The last formula produces the article
usually employed in dispensing in the shops.
The addition of a little more sugar renders it
more pleasant; and 2 or 3 bitter almonds, as
in the formula of the Ph. D. 1826, or 1 or 2
fl. drs. of rose or orange-flower water, may occa-
sionally be added, to diversify the flavour.—
Dose. 2 or 3 table-spoonfuls, ad libitum ; as a
demulcent and emollient in coughs and colds,
or as a vehicle for more active medicines.
Mixture, Ammoniacum. Syn. EMULSION OF
AMMONIACUM, MILK OF A.; MISTURA AMMO-
NIACI (B. P., Ph. L. & D.), LAC AMMONIACI,
L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Prepared ammonia-
cum, 5 drs. ; distilled water, 1 pint; rub the
ammoniacum with the water, gradually added,
until they are perfectly mixed.
2. (Ph. D.) Ammoniacum, 4 oz.; water,
8 fl. oz. ; as the last, but straining through
muslim.
|
-
|


768 MIXTURE.
3. (B. P.) Ammoniacum, # oz. ; rubbed
down with water, 8 oz., and strain.--Dose.
} to 1 gr. .
Obs. The last formula produces the best
and most effective mixture, owing to the use
of the raw instead of the strained drug.—Dose.
1 to 2 table-spoonfuls, either alone or com-
bined with squills or ipecacuanha; as an
expectorant and demulcent in chronic coughs,
humoral asthma, &c.
Mixture, Aſmodyne. Syn, MISTURA ANODYNA,
JULEPUM CALMANs, L. Prep. 1. Prepared
chalk, 2 drs. ; syrup of poppies, 1 oz. ; fetid
spirit of ammonia, 1% dr. ; oils of dill and ani-
seed, of each, 3 drops; water, 4} fl. Oz.-Dose.
A teaspoonful 3 or 4 times a day; in the diar-
rhoea and colic of infancy.
2. (P. Cod.) Syrup of opium, 2 drs. ; syrup
of orange flowers, 6 drs. ; lettuce water, 4 fl. Oz.
To allay pain, induce sleep, &c. Dose. 1 table-
spoonful.
3. (Vicat.) Ammoniated alcohol, # fl. oz. ;
powdered opium, 1 dr. ; powdered camphor, #
dr. ; proof spirit, 1}; fl. Oz. ; digest, with agita-
tion, for 3 or 4 days, and filter. In toothache
arising from caries, and as a lotion to the
temples in headache.
Mixture, Anti-emetic. Syn. MISTURA ANTI-
EMETICA, L. Prep. 1. Creasote, 12 drops;
acetate of morphia, 1% gr. ; camphor, 10 grs. ;
rectified spirit, , fl. oz. ; syrup of orange peel,
1} fl. oz. ; distilled vinegar, 4 fi. Oz In sea-
sickness, &c.—Dose. 1 table-spoonful on the
approach of vomiting, and repeated at intervals
of # an hour until the vomiting ceases.
2. (Dr. Barker.) Compound tincture of
camphor, 1 fl. dr. ; burnt brandy, 1 fl. oz. ;
sugar, oz. ; infusion of mint, 6 fl. Oz.-Dose.
# to 1 table-spoonful, every 3 hour, until the
vomiting ceases.
Mixture, Antac'id. Syn. ABSORBENT MIX-
TURE, ALKALINE. M.; MISTURA ALKALINA,
M. ANTACIDA, L. Prep. 1. Liquor of potassa
and spirit of nutmeg, of each, 2 fl. drs. ; tincture
of rhubarb, 3 fl. drs. ; tincture of opium, 1 fl. dr.;
water, 5 fl. Oz. In dyspepsia, heartburn, &c.,
accompanied with flatulence.
2. Spirit of sal volatile and orange-flower
water, of each, 1 fl.oz. ; simple syrup, 1} fl. Oz. ;
water, 2} fl. oz. In acidity, &c., accompanied
with languor and low spirits.
3. Sesquicarbonate of ammonia, 2 drs. ; syrup
of orange peel and tincture of gentian, of each,
1 fl. oz. ; water, 4 fl. oz. In dyspepsia, heart-
burn, &c., arising from excessive indulgence
in spirituous or fermented liquors. It also
possesses considerable stimulating properties,
and will partially remove the fit of drunken-
116SS.
4. (Collier.) Prepared chalk, 2 drs. ; tincture
of ginger, 2 fl. drs. ; compound tincture of car-
damoms, 1} fl. oz. ; pimento water, 6 fl. oz. In
diarrhoea accompanied with acidity.
5. (Collier.) Chalk mixture, 5 fl. oz. tinc-
tures of catechu and cinnamon, of each, ; fl. oz.
In chronic diarrhoea.
6. (Ryan.) Liquor of potassa, 2 fl. dr.; tint.
ture of opium, 1 fl. dr.; calcined magnesia,
1 dr. ; oil of peppermint, 5 drops; lime water,
8 fl. Oz. In dyspepsia accompanied with
acidity, flatulence, and constipation.
Mixture, Anticroup'al. Syn. MISTURA SENE.
GE, L. Prep. (Jadelot.) Infusion of Senega,
4 oz. ; syrup of ipecacuanha, 1 oz. ; oxymel of
squills, 3 drs. ; tartarized antimony 1% gr;
mix. By spoonfuls, in croup.
Mixture, Anti-epilepſtic. Syn. MISTURA
ANTI-EPILEPTICA, L. Prep. (M. Lemoine)
Liquor of ammonia, 12 drops; syrup of Orange
flowers, 1 oz. ; distilled water of linden flowers,
2 oz. ; do. of cherry laurel, # oz. ; mix. Accord.
ing to M. Lemoine, this is a specific in epilepsy,
— Dose. 1 table-spoonful, or more.
Mixture, Antihyster'ic. Syn. MISTURA AN.
TIHYSTERICA, L.; POTION ANTIHYSTERIQUE,
Fr. Prep. (Dr. Josat.) Cyanide of potassium,
1; gr. ; distilled lettuce water, 4} fl. oz.; syrup
of orange flowers, 1}; fl. oz.-Dose. 1 or 2 tea.
spoonfuls every ten minutes, when the fit is
expected; during the fit it may be given in
double doses. Dr. Josat declares its efficacy
to have been indisputably proved, in upwards
of 55 cases.

2. (Magendie.) Cyanide of potassium, 2 grs;
lettuce water (distilled), 4 oz. ; syrup of marsh.
mallow, 2 oz. Resembles the last.
3. (Dr. Paris.) Assafoetida, 1 dr.; pepper.
mint water, 5 fl. Oz, ; make an emulsion, and
add of ammoniated tincture of valerian, 2 fl.
drs. ; tincture of castor, 3 fl. drs. ; sulphuric
ether, 1}; fl. dr.—Dose. 1 table-spoonful, 30.
4 times a day, or oftener.
4. (P. Cod.) Syrup of wormwood, 1 07:
tincture of castor, 3 dr. ; valerian water and
orange-flower water, of each, 2 oz. ; ether, 1
dr. As the last.

Mixture, Antimo"mial. See CoNTRA-STIMU,
LANT MIXTURE.
Mixture, Antipertus'sic. Syn. MISTURA
ANTIPERTUSSIENS, L. Prep. 1. CoCHINEAL
(powdered), 2 drs. ; carbonate of potassa, 1 dr.;
boiling water, 8 fl.oz. ; infuse for 1 hour, strain,
and add of lump sugar, 1% oz.
2. (Dr. Bird.) Extract of hemlock, 12 grs.
alum, 25 grs. ; syrup of red poppies, 2 fl, drš, ;
dill water, 3 fl. Oz.
3. (Dr. Reece.) Tincture of assafoetida, 1
fl. dr. ; tincture of opium, 10 or 12 drops;
powdered ipecacuanha, 10 grs. ; water, 2 fl. 07
—IJose. A teaspoonful every 3 hours, in hoop.
ing cough, for a child 2 or 3 years old, and
other ages in proportion,
Mixture, Antiscrofºulous. Syn. MISTURA
ANTISCROFULOSA, L. Prep. From tincture of
bichloride of gold, 30 drops; tincture of iodine,
40 drops; tincture of gentian, 1 fl. dr.; simple
syrup, 7 fl. drs. ; rose water, 5 fl. oz.-Dose. A
dessert-spoonful, 3 or 4 times daily, in a wine-
glassful of water; observing to shake the
bottle before pouring out the liquid. Mr.
Cooley states that he has seen repeated in:
stances of the excellent effects of this medicine

MIXTURE.
769
in scrofula, syphilis, and various glandular
diseases, even under all the disadvantages of
a salt-meat diet and confinement on shipboard.
Mixture, Antispasmodic. Syn. MISTURA
ANTISPASMODICA, L. Prep. 1. Tincture of
castor, 6 fl. drs. ; sulphuric ether and laudanum,
of each, 1 fl. dr.; syrup of saffron, 1 fl. oz. ;
cinnamon water, 4 fl. oz.
2. (Dr. Collier.) Assafoetida and camphor
mixtures, of each, 2} fl. oz. ; tincture of va-
lerian, 1 fl. oz.
3. (P. Cod.) Lime or linden-fiower water
and orange-flower water, of each, 2 oz. ; syrup
of orange flowers, 1 oz. ; ether, dr.—Dose.
(Of each of the above) 1 to 2 table-spoonfuls.
Mixture, Ape"rient. Syn. MISTURA APE-
RIENS, L. Prep. 1. (Abernethy.) Sulphate
of magnesia, 1 oz. ; manna, 3 oz. ; infusion of
senna, 1%; fl. oz. ; tincture of Senna, # fl. oz. ;
mint water, 2 fl. oz. ; distilled water, 4 fl. oz. ;
mix. This is the true “ABERNETHY BLACK
DRAUGHT.’ -
2. (Dr. Christison.) Sulphate of magnesia,
1% oz. ; water, 4 fl. oz. ; dissolve, and add, of
tincture of senna, 1 fl. oz. ; infusion of roses,
4 fl. oz.-Dose. A wine-glassful hourly, until
it begins to operate.
3. (Dr. Collier.) Sulphate of iron, 20 grs.;
Epsom salt, 1 oz. ; pennyroyal water, 1 pint;
dissolve.--Dose. A wine-glassful twice a day,
in atonic amenorrhoea.
Mixture, Aromatic. Syn. MISTURA ARO-
MATICA, L. Prep. 1. (P. Cod.) Syrup of
clove gillyflowers, 1 oz. ; spirit of cinnamon, ;
oz. ; confection of hyacinth, 2 drs.; peppermint
water and orange-flower water, of each, 2 oz.
2. (Guy’s Hosp.) Aromatic confection (Ph.
L., in powder), 3 drs. ; peppermint water, 9
fl. oz. Sometimes a little tincture of calumba
is added.
3. (St. B. Hosp.) Aromatic confection,
2% drs.; water, 5 fl. Oz. ; pimento water, 3 fl.
oz. ; mix. The last two are excellent aromatic
absorbents in diarrhoea, heartburn, flatulence,
acidity, &c.—Dose. 1 or 2 table-spoonfuls every
2 or 3 hours, or as required.
Mixture, Aromatic Iron. Palo bark, in
powder, 4; calumba, in powder, 2; cloves,
bruised, 1 ; iron wire, 2; compound tincture
of cardamoms, 12; tincture of orange peel, 2.;
peppermint water, 50; macerate the first four
ingredients in the last one for three days, agi-
tating occasionally, filter, add the tinctures,
and make up to 50. Used as a tonic.—Dose.
1 to 2 oz.
Mixture, Arsen'ical. Syn. MISTURA ARSENI-
CALIS, L. Prep. From liquor of arsenite of
potassa–Ph. L., 2 fl. drs. ;" compound tincture
of cardamoms, 4 fl. drs. ; cinnamon water, 2 fl.
oz. ; pure water, 3 fl.oz.; mix.-Dose. A small
table-spoonful, twice a day, after a full meal;
in agues, periodic headaches, lepra, psoriasis,
chronic rheumatism, &c. It should be exhi-
bited with caution, and its effects watched;
and after 5 or 6 days the dose should be
reduced to half the quantity.
Mixture, Astrim'gent. Syn. MISTURA A-
STRINGENs, L. Prep. 1. (Pradel.) Tannin,
12 grs. ; tincture of rhatany, 1 dr.; simple
syrup, 7 drs. ; mucilage, 1 oz. ; camphor mix-
ture, 4 oz.
2. (A. T. Thomson.) Extract of catechu,
2 drs. (or tincture, 1 oz.); cinnamon water,
8 oz. ; dissolve.—Dose. 1 to 3 table-spoonfuls,
after every liquid dejection, in diarrhoea and
dysentery.
Mixture, Atrophic. Syn. MISTURA ATRO-
PHICA, L.; PotroN ATROPHIQUE, Fr. Prep.
(Magendie.) Iodide of potassium, 4 drs.; lettuce
water, 8 oz. ; peppermint water, 2 drs.; syrup
of marsh-mallow, 1 oz.-Dose. 1 table-spoon-
ful, twice a day; in hypertrophy (enlarge-
ment) of the heart. Sometimes 1 to 2 drs. of
tincture of foxglove is added to the mixture.
Mixture, Bar’ley. Syn. MISTURA HoRDEI,
L. See DECOCTION.
Mixture, Brandy. Syn. MIXTURE OFSPIRIT
of FRENCH WINE, EGG FLIPf; MISTURA SPI-
RITUs VINI GALLICI (B. P., Ph.L.), L. Prep.
1. (Ph. L.) Brandy and cinnamon water, of
each, 4 fl. oz. ; yolks of 2 eggs; white sugar,
# oz; oil of cinnamon, 2 drops; mix. A valu-
able stimulant and restorative, in low fevers,
and in extreme exhaustion from ha-morrhages,
&c.; but scarcely a fitting subject for the
labours of the College of Physicians, since
almost every cook and housewife could pro-
duce a better compound than the product of
the College formula.
2. (B.P.) Brandy, 4 grs. ; cinnamon water,
4 oz. ; the yolks of 2 eggs; sugar, 3 oz. ; mix.
–Dose. to 13 oz., in prostration and last
stages of fever.
Mixture, Cam'phor. Syn. CAMPHoR JULEP,
CAMPHOR WATER ; MISTURA CAMPHoRAE
(Ph. L. & D.), EMULSIo CAMPHORAE (Ph. E.),
MISTURA CAMPHORATA, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.)
Camphor, dr.; rectified spirit, 10 drops;
triturate together, gradually adding of water,
1 pint; and strain through linen.
2. (Ph.D.) Tincture of camphor, 1 fl. oz. ;
distilled water, 3 pints; agitate well together,
and after 24 hours filter through paper.
3. (Ph. E.) See EMUISION.
Uses, &c. Camphor julep is chiefly used as
a vehicle for other medicines.—Dose, 3 to 1
wine-glassful.
4. (With MAGNESIA: MISTURA CAMPHORE
CUM MAGNESIA—Ph. E. & D., AQUA CAMPHORAE
—Ph. U. S.)—a. (Ph. E.) Camphor, 10 grs.,
carbonate of magnesia, 25 grs. ; triturate to-
gether, then gradually add of water, 6 fl. oz.,
still continuing the trituration.
b. (Ph.D.) Camphor, 12 grs.; carbonate of
magnesia, dr. ; water, 6 fl. oz. ; as last.
c. (Ph. U. S.) Camphor, 2 drs.; rectified
spirit, 40 drops; triturate, add of carbonate of
magnesia, 4 drs., and again triturate, adding,
gradually, of water, 32 fl. oz. Antacid, anti-
spasmodic, and anodyne.—Dose. 1 to 2 table-
spoonfuls. Used without straining. It is
stronger than the simple mixture.




-
770
MIXTURE.
Mixture, Carminative. Syn. MISTURA CAR-
MINATIVA, L. Prep. (Dr. Paris.) Calcined
magnesia, ; dr. ; peppermint water, 2% fl. dr.;
compound tincture of lavender, fl. dr. ; spirit
of caraway, 4 fl. drs. ; syrup of ginger, 2 fl. drs. ;
mix. Antacid and carminative. For 1 or 2
doses.
Mixture, Cathar'tic.
TURE, SENNA. M., &c.
Mixture, Chalk. Syn. CRETACEOUS MIX-
TURE; MISTURA CRETE (B. P.); MISTURA
CRETA (Ph. L. E. & D.); M. CRETACEA, L.
Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Prepared chalk, 3 oz. ;
sugar, 3 drs. ; mixture of acacia (mucilage),
1; fl. oz. . triturate together, then add of cin-
namon water, 18 fl. Oz.
2. (Ph. E.) Prepared chalk, 10 drs. ; white
sugar, 5 drs. ; mucilage, 3 fl. Oz. ; spirit of
cinnamom, 2 fl. Oz. ; water, 1 quart; as the
last.
3. (Ph. D.) Prepared chalk, 2 drs. ; syrup
and mucilage, of each, # Oz, ; cinnamon water,
7 fl. Oz.
4. (B. P.) Prepared chalk, 1 ; gum arabic,
in powder, 1 ; syrup, 2 ; cinnamon water, 30;
mix by trituration.—Dose. 1 to 2 grs., with
astringent tinctures and opium.
Obs. The above are antacid and absorbent.
—Dose. 1 to 3 table-spoonfuls, either alone or
combined with aromatic confection; in heart-
burn, and in diarrhoea after every liquid mo-
tion. In the latter affection, a little tincture
of catechu or laudanum is often added; and
when there is vomiting or nausea, either pep-
permint or spearmint water is generally sub-
stituted for the whole or a part of the simple
water ordered in the above formula.
Mixture, Cincho'na. Syn. BARK MIXTURE;
MISTURA CINCHONE, L. Prep. (Copland.)
Confection of roses, 3 oz. ; boiling decoction of
bark, 1 fl. Oz, ; triturate, in 10 minutes strain,
and add diluted sulphuric acid, 1}; fl. dr.; spirit
of nutmeg, 4 fl. drs. Febrifuge, tonic, and
stomachic. Dose, 1 to 3 table-spoonfuls, 2 or
3 times a day.
Mixture, Col'chicum. Syn. GouT MIXTURE;
1MISTURA ANTARTHRITICA, M. COLCHICI, L.
Prep. (Sir C. Scudamore.) Magnesia, 1% dr. ;
vinegar of colchicum and syrup of orange peel,
of each, 4 fl. drs. ; peppermint water, 3 fl. Oz.
A table-spoonful every 3 or 4 hours during
the fit of gout.
Mixture, Contra-stim'ulant. Syn. MISTURA
CONTRA-STIMULANS, JULEPUM. C., M. ANTI-
MONIT POTASSIo-TARTRATIs, L. Prep. (Laen-
mec.) Tartar emetic, 3 grs. ; infusion of orange
leaves, 8 fl. Oz, ; syrup of do., 1 fl. Oz.-Dose.
A wine-glassful, or more, every 2 hours; in
inflammation of the lungs, hooping cough,
&c.
Mixture, Cough, Syn. MISTURABECHICA, L.
Prep. 1. Almond mixture, 4 fl. oz. ; oxymel
of squills, 1 fl.oz.; ipecacuanha wine and syrup
of tolu, of each, 3 fl.oz.
2. Tincture of tolu, ; fl. Oż, ; paregoric
See APERIENT MIX-
elixir and tincture of squills, of each, 1 fl. 07;
syrup of poppies, 2 fl. Oz. ; water, 3% fl. OZ, -
3. Mixture of ammoniacum; 4 fl. Oz, ; syrup
of squills, 2 fl. Oz. In the coughs of Old
persons.
4. Antimonial wine, 3 fl. drs.; syrup of pop.
pies, 1% fl. Oz. ; water, 4 fl. Oz. In dry, husky
coughs.--Dose, (of each of the above), 1 table.
spoonful, 2 or 3 times a day, or oftener.
5. (Dr. Monro. Paregoric, ; fl. Oz.; Sul.
phuric ether and tincture of tolu, of each, #01.
—Dose. A teaspoonful, in water, night and
morning, or when the cough is troublesome,
6. (Dr. Radcliff.) Syrup of poppies, syrup
of squills, and paregoric, equal parts.-D086.
As the last. In all cases the bowels should be
kept gently moved by some mild aperient.
Mixture, Creasote. Syn. MISTURA CREASOTI
M. CREAZOTI (B. P., Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1.
(Ph. E.) Creasote and acetic acid, of each, 16
drops; mix, then add of compound spirit of
juniper and syrup, of each, 1 fl. Oz. ; water,
14 fl. Oz. ; and agitate well together.—D0%
# to 1 wine-glassful, in nausea and vomiting
especially to prevent or relieve sea-sickness,
2. (B. P.) Creasote, 16 minims; glacial
acetic acid, 16 minims; spirit of juniper, dr;
syrup, 1 oz. ; distilled water, 15 oz. ; mix-l
to 2 oz.
Mixture, Demul'cent. Syn. MISTURA DI.
MULCENS, L. See ALMOND MIXTURE, GUM
M., &c.
Mixture, Diaphoretic. Syn. MISTURA DIA.
PHORETICA, L. Prep. 1. Solution of acetate
of ammonia, 3 fl.oz.; antimonial wine, 2fl.dlsº
tincture of henbane, 1} fl. dr.; camphor mix
ture, 3 fl. Oz.-Dose. I table-spoonful every 3
or 4 hours; in fevers, &c. -
2. To the last add of sweet spirit of nitre,
fl. Oz. As above.
Mixture, Diarrhoe'a.
&c.
Mixture, Diuret'ic. Syn. MISTURA DII.
RETICA, L. Prep. 1. Nitrate of potassa, 3
drs. ; sweet spirit of nitre, 3 fl. dr. ; syrup of
squills, 1% fl. oz. ; peppermint water, 4 fl. OZ,
2. (A. T. Thomson.) Infusion of foxglovº
5% fl. oz. ; tincture of foxglove, , fl. dr.; acº.
tate of potassa, 2 drs.; spirit of juniper, 3 fl.07.;
tincture of opium, # fl. dr. In dropsy. Dost.
1 to 2 table-spoonfuls, every 2 or 3 hours.
The last must be used with caution.
Mixture, Emetic. Syn. MISTURA EMETICA,
L. Prep. 1. (Copland.) Sulphate of zinc,
40 grs., ipecacuanha wine and tincture of ser:
pentary, of each, 4 fl. drs. ; tincture of capsicum,
40 drops; oil of chamomile, 12 drops; pepper.
mint water, 4% fl. oz. As an excitant emetic;
in cases of poisoning by narcotics, &c.
2. (Magendie.) Coloured emetine, 4 grs, (or
white emetime, 1 gr.); acetic acid, 8 drops;
mix, and add of infusion of orange leaves 0.
lime flowers, 3% fl.oz. ; syrup of marsh-mallows:
1 fl. oz.
3. (A. T. Thomson.) Ipecacuanha, + drº,
tartar emetic, 1 gr. ; tincture of squills, 1 ſi
See CHALK MIXTURE;



MIXTURE.
771
dr.; water, 6 fl. oz. Dose. 1 to 2 table-spoon-
fuls, followed by half the quantity every 10 or
15 minutes, until vomiting is produced; at the
same time assisting the action of the medicine
by drinking copiously of warm water.
Mixture, Emmem'agogue. See STEEL MIX-
TURE, &c.
Mixture, Expec'torant. Syn. MISTURA Ex-
PECTORANS, L. Prep. 1. (Collier.) Oxymel
of squills and mucilage, of each, 1 oz. ; syrup
of marsh-mallows, 2 oz. ; camphorjulep, 3 fl.oz.
—Dose. 1 to 2 table-spoonfuls, 2 or 3 times a
day; in coughs, hoarseness, asthma, &c.
2. (A. T. Thomson.) Almond mixture, 5
fl.oz.; ipecacuanha wine and tincture of squills,
of each, 1 fl. dr. ; syrup of tolu, 6 fl. drs.—Dose.
1 table-spoonful; in humoral asthma, catarrh,
&c., when the cough is urgent.
Mixture, Feb’rifuge. Syn. MISTURA FEBRI-
FUGA, L. See ACETATE OF AMMONIA MIX-
TURE, DIAPHORETIC M., &c.
Mixture, Gentian (Compound). Gentian,
bruised, 1%; bitter orange peel, bruised, #;
cardamom seeds, bruised, }; proof spirit, 20 :
macerate for forty-eight hours with 15 of the
spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in a per-
colator, let it drain, and then pour on the
remaining spirit; when it ceases to drop, wash
the marc with spirit to make up 20–Dose.
1 to 2 drachms.
Mixture, Gregory's.
Mixture, Griffith's. See STEEL MIXTURE.
Mixture, Guai'acum. Syn. EMULSION OF
. GUAIACUM, MILK OF G.; MISTURA GUAIACI
(B. P.), (Ph. L. & E.), LAC G., L. Prep.
(Ph. L.) Gum guaiacum, 3 drs. ; white sugar,
# oz. ; gum acacia, 2 drs. (all in powder);
triturate together, and to these, whilst rubbing,
gradually add of cinnamon water, 1 pint.
2. (Ph. E.) Guaiacum, 3 drs. ; sugar, 4.
oz.; mucilage, }, fl. oz. ; cinnamon water, 19%
fl. oz. ; as before.—Dose. 1 to 3 table-spoon-
fuls, 2 or 3 times a day; in chronic rheuma-
tism, gout, &c.
3. (B. P.) Guaiac resin, in powder, 2 ;
sugar, 2.; gum arabic, in powder, 1; cinnamon
water, 80; triturate, adding the cinnamon
water gradually.—Dose. } to 2 oz.
Mixture, Gum. Syn. MUCILAGE ; MISTURA
ACACIAE (Ph. L.), MUCILAGo (Ph. E.), MUCI-
LAGO ACACIAE (Ph. D.), MUCILAGO ARABICI
GUMMI, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Gum acacia
(in powder), 13 oz. ; boiling distilled water, 1
pint ; rub the gum with the water, gradually
poured in, until solution is complete.
2. (Ph. E.) Gum, 9 oz. ; cold water, 1 pint;
macerate, with occasional stirring, until dis-
solved, then strain through linen or calico.
3. (Ph.D.) Gum (coarsely powdered), 4 oz. ;
water (cold), 6 fl. oz. ; dissolve, and strain
through flannel.
Oſses, &c. Mucilage of gum acacia is chiefly
employed to render oily and resinous sub-
stances miscible with water. “Oils require
about ; their weight; balsams and spermaceti,
equal parts; resins, 2 parts; and musk, 5 times
See POWDERS.
its weight,” for this purpose. (Montgomery.)
The GUM MIXTURE, Ph. E., will be found
under ‘EMULSION.”
Mixture, Hydrocyan'ic. Syn. MIXTURE OF
PRUSSIC ACID; MISTURA ACIDI HYDROCYANICI,
L. Prep. From medicinal prussic acid, 15
drops; simple syrup (pure), 1 fl.oz. ; distilled
water, 5 fl. Oz.-Dose. 1 table-spoonful, 2 or
3 times daily. Each dose contains 1} drop of
medicinal prussic acid. The bottle should be
shaken before pouring out the dose. Magen-
die's formulae for this mixture are omitted,
because the acid which he orders is not kept
in the shops in England.
Mixture, I'ron. See STEET, MIXTURE.
Mixture, I'ron (Compound). See STEEL
MIXTURE.
Mixture, Marsh-mallow. Syn. MISTURA
ALTHAEE (Ph. E.), L. Prep. (Ph. E.) Marsh-
mallow root (dried), 4 oz. ; stoned raisins, 2 oz.;
water, 5 pints; boil to 3 pints, strain through
linen, and after the sediment has subsided,
decant the clear portion.
2. (Ph.D.) See DEcoCTION. Demulcent.—
Dose. A few spoonfuls ad libiţum, so as to take
1 to 3 pints in the 24 hours; in strangury,
calculus, coughs, fevers, &c.
Mixture, Myrrh. Syn. EMUISION OF MYRRH ;
MISTURA MYRRHAE, L. Prep. (Copland.)
Myrrh, 1% dr.; add to it gradually, triturating
all the time, decoction of liquorice, 6 fl. oz.,
and strain.--Dose. 1 to 2 table-spoonfuls,
twice or thrice a day, combined with car-
bonate of soda, dilute hydrochloric acid, or
paregoric ; in debility, and diseases of the
digestive organs.
Mixture, Narcot'ic. Syn. MISTURA NAR-
COTICA, M. FEBRIFUGA, L. Prep. 1. Tincture
of henbane, 2 fl. drs. ; solution of acetate of am-
monia, 3 fl. Oz. ; water, 2; fl. oz. ; mix.-Dose.
1 to 2 table-spoonfuls, to relieve pain, procure
sleep in fevers, &c.
2. (W. Cooley.) Laudanum, 1} fl. dr. ;
syrup of poppies, sulphuric ether, and spirit of
cinnamon, of each, 1 oz.; tincture of henbane,
2} fl. dr.; tincture of capsicum, 4 fl. drs. ;
water, 2 fl. Oz.-Dose, 1 to 2 table-spoonfuls,
at the commencement of the hot fit of ague.
Mixture, Oleo-balsamic. Syn. MISTURA
ODEO-BALSAMICA, L. Prep. (Hamb. Cod.) Oils
of cedrat, cinnamon, cloves, lavender, mace, and
marjoram, of each, 20 drops; oil of rue, 10
drops; balsam of Peru, ; dr. ; rectified spirit,
10 oz. ; digest and filter.
Mixture, Pur’gative. Syn. MISTURA CA-
THARTICA, M. LAXATIVA, M. PURGANs, L.
Prep. 1. From any of the purging salts (Epsom,
Glauber, tasteless, &c.), 2 oz. ; infusion of senna,
5 fl. Oz. ; syrup of orange peel, 1 fl. oz. ; tinc-
ture of ginger, , fl. oz. ; spirit of pimento, 2
fl. drs. ; mix—Dose. 1 to 3 table-spoonfuls,
early in the morning; as an aperient in
stomach complaints, &c.
2. (Dr. Copland.) Manna, 1% oz. ; cream of
tartar, oz. ; whey, 1 quart. By wine-glass-
fuls, as an aperient drink, in fevers, &c.


772
MIXTURE.

3. (Corvisart.) Borotattrate of potassa
(soluble tartar), 1 oz. ; tartar emetic, ; gr. ;
sugar, 2 oz. ; water, 1}; pint ; dissolve. By
wine-glassfuls, until it begins to operate. This
has been called “NAPOLEON's MEDICINE,” from
its having been frequently taken by Na-
poleon I. See MIXTURES OF SCAMMONY,
SENNA, &c.
Mixture, Saline. Syn. MISTURA SALINA, L.
See DRAUGHT and LEMONADE.
Mixture, Scam'mony. Syn. SCAMMONY MILK;
MISTURA SCAMMONII (B. P.), L. Prep. 1.
(Ph. E.) Resin of scammomy, 7 grs. ; un-
skimmed milk, 3 fl. Oz.; gradually mix, tri-
turating all the time, so as to form an emul-
sion. Purgative.—Dose. One half.
2. (Planche's PURGATIVE POTION.) To the
last add of white sugar, 4 oz.: cherry-laurel (or
bitter-almond) water, 4 or 5 drops. The above
are the most tasteless and pleasant purgatives
of an active character known.
3. (B. P.) Resin of scammony, 4 grs. ; fresh
milk, 2 oz. ; triturate and form an emulsion.
—Dose. The quantity of the formula for an
adult, half for a child.
Mixture, Sen’ma (Compound). Syn. BLACK
DRAUGHT, ABERNETHY’s D., CATHARTIC MIX-
TURE; MISTURA SENNE COMPOSITA (B. P.), L.
Prep. 1. Infusion of senna, # pint ; tincture
of Senna, 1%; fl. Oz. ; Epsom salts, 4 OZ, ; car-
bonate of ammonia, # dr. ; sugar, 3 oz.
agitate until the solids are dissolved.
2. Senna, 13 oz. ; boiling water, 2 quarts;
digest for 4 hours in a hot place, then press
out the liquor in a tincture press, and add, of
compound tincture of Senna, ; pint ; Epsom
salts, 1 lb. º
3. East India Senna, 2 lb.; boiling water, 9
quarts; tincture of Senna and Epsom salt, of
each, 34 lb. ; as the last.
4. Senna, 8 lbs. ; boiling water, 9 galls. ;
Epsom salt, 16 lbs. ; tincture of senna, 1}
galls. ; treacle and colouring, of each, 1 quart.
5. (Guy’s Hosp.) Senna and mint, of each,
14 oz. (say, 13 oz.); boiling water, 1 quart;
Epsom salt, 7% oz. (say, 3 lb.).
6. (Redwood.) Infusion of senna, 18 oz. ;
tincture of Senna, 3 oz. ; sulphate of magnesia,
6 oz. ; extract of liquorice and spirit of sal vola-
tile, of each, ; oz. ; oil of cloves, 6 drops.
7. (B. P.) Infusion of senna, 14; sulphate
of magnesia, 4; extract of liquorice, , ; tinc-
ture of senna, 2%; compound tincture of car-
damoms, 1} : dissolve and mix.--Dose, 1 to
1% oz.
Obs. As the above mixture contains very
little spirit, and from its great consumption,
being made in large quantities at a time, it
frequently spoils before the whole is sold,
especially in hot weather. To avoid this,
1} dr. of cloves and 3 drs. of mustard seed, both
bruised, may be added to every gall, of the
strained liquor at the same time with the
salts, spirit, and colouring, after which it must
be shaken up repeatedly for a few days, and 2
then allowed to repose for a few days more,
when it will become quite clear. It may be
filtered through a flannel bag, but there is
much loss and delay, owing to the consistence
of the liquid. It is purgative in doses of 1 to
13; fl. Oz.
It is a singular circumstance, that although
an enormous quantity of this preparation is
consumed in these countries, there is no stand.
ard formula for it in the British Pharmaco-
poeias. See APERIENT MIXTURE, &c.
Mixture, Steel. Syn. MISTURA FERRI
CoMPOSITA (B.P.), MISTURA CHALYBEATA, I,
Two compounds of this class are officinal:—
1. (GRIFFITH's MIXTURE, COMPOUND IRON
M.; MISTURA FERRI, M. F. PROTOXYDI, M. F.
COMPOSITA—Ph. L. E. & D.) Prep.–a. (Ph.
L. & E.) Carbonate of potassa, 1 dr.; pow-
dered myrrh, 2 drs. ; spirit of nutmeg, 1 fl.oz.;
triturate together, and whilst rubbing, add
gradually, of sugar, 2 drs. ; rose water, 18 fl.
oz.; mix well; then add of sulphate of iron
(powdered), 50 grs., and place it at once in a
bottle, which must be kept closely corked.
b. (Ph.D.) Powdered myrrh and sugar, of
each, 1 dr. ; carbonate of potassa, dr. ; essence
of nutmeg, 1 fl. dr. ; rose water, 7 fl. Oz, ; Sul.
phate of iron, ; dr. ; (dissolved in) rose water,
1 fl. OZ-Dose. 1 to 2 oz., 3 or 4 times a day,
as a mild and genial chalybeate tonic and sti.
mulant ; in amenorrhoea, chlorosis, debility,
&c., when there is no determination of blood
to the head.
2. (HEBERDEN's MIXTURE, H.’s INK; ATRA:
MENTUM HEBERDII; MISTURA FERRI AROMA.
TICA–Ph. D.) Pale cinchona bark, 1 oz.;
calumba root, 3 drs. ; (both in coarse powder)
cloves (bruised), 2 drs. ; iron filings, 3 oz.; pep.
permint water, 16 fl. Oz. ; digest in a clost
vessel for 3 days, agitating frequently, then
strain, and add of tincture of cardamoms
(comp.), 3 fl. oz. ; tincture of orange peel, 3 fl.
dr. Bitter, stomachic, and aromatic.—Dose,
1 or 2 table-spoonfuls, or more, 3 or 4 times a
day. It is very slightly chalybeated. See also
AROMATIC IRON MIXTURE.
3. Sulphate of iron, 25 grs. ; carbonate of
potash, 30 grs. ; myrrh, 60 grs. ; sugar, 60
grs. ; spirit of nutmegs, 4 drs.; rose water, 9}
oz. Reduce the myrrh to powder, add the
carbonate of potash of sugar, and triturate
them with a small quantity of rose water so as
to form a thin paste, then gradually add more
rose water, and the spirit of nutmegs, con-
tinuing the trituration and further addition of
rose water until about eight fluid ounces of
milky liquid is formed, then add the sulphate
of iron previously dissolved in the remainder
of the rose water and cork the bottle imme:
diately.—Dose. 1 to 2 oz. as a stimulating
tonic.
Mixture, Tom'ic. Syn. STRENGTHENING MIX.
TURE; MISTURA ToniCA, L. Prep. 1. In:
fusion of cascarilla, 5 fl. oz. ; tincture of
..". peel, 7 fl. drs. ; aromatic sulphuric acid,
... drs. - -
2. (Collier.) Decoction of bark, 5% fl. OZ, ;
MIXTURES. 773
tincture of do., 3 fl. drs. ; aromatic confection,
20 grs. ; aromatic spirit of ammonia, 1 fl. dr.
3. (Thomson.) Infusion of calumba, 5%
fl. Oz. ; compound tincture of cinnamon and
syrup of orange peel, of each, 2 fl. drs.--Dose.
1 to 3 table-spoonfuls, 2 or 3 times a day; in
debility of the digestive organs, loss of appe-
tite, to check nausea and vomiting, &c.
Mixture, Worm. Syn. MISTURA ANTHEL-
MINTICA, M. VERMIFUGA, L. Prep. 1. (Col-
lier.) Sulphate of iron, 20 grs. ; infusion of
quassia, 8 fl. Oz.-Dose. Two table-spoonfuls
every morning fasting.
2. (Copland.) Valerian, 2 drs. ; worm-seed,
4 drs. ; boiling water, 8 fl. oz. ; macerate 1
hour, strain, and add of assafoetida, 1 dr., pre-
viously triturated with the yolk of one egg.
As the last.
3. (Richard.) Root of male fern, 1 oz. ;
water, 9 fl.oz. ; boil to 6 fl. oz., strain, and add,
of sulphuric ether, 1 dr. ; syrup of tansy, 1 fl.
Oz. In tape-worm; as above.
Mixture, Zinc. Syn. MISTURA ZINCI, M.
z. SULPHATIs, L. Prep. (Collier.) Sulphate
of zinc, 5 grs. ; sulphate of quinine, 10 grs. ;
compound infusion of roses, 2 fl. oz. Tonic.—
Dose. A teaspoonful 2 or 3 times a day, in a
glass of water. Said to be very efficacious in
the cure of coughs of a spasmodic character.
MIXTURES (Arithmetic of). The constantly
recurring necessity in business and chemical
manipulations of determining the value of
mixtures, and of producing articles and prepa-
rations of different strengths or prices to
those already in stock, has rendered a ready
means of making such calculations an indis-
pensable qualification in almost every depart-
ment of trade and industrial art. As we
address ourselves to the intelligent operative
and busy tradesman, as well as to those more
blessed by education and leisure, we feel we
are bestowing a boon on many of our readers,
in giving a short, but sufficient, outline of this
useful branch of commercial arithmetic, which
is most intimately connected with the objects
of the present work.
1. To determine the price of a mixture from
the value and quantity of each ingredient of
which it is composed.—RULE. Divide the
“gross value” by the “gross saleable’ or “useful
quantity;’ the quotient is the value or cost
per gallon, pound, &c., as the case may be.—
JEa'ample. Required, the value per gallon of a
hogshead of wine containing –
s. d. £ s. d.
30 gallons @ 10 6 . 15 15 0
20 , ,, 12 6 . . 12 10 0
13 , ,, 14 6 . 9 8 6
63 ) 37 13 6
Cost per gallon. . . 0 11 11%
2. To determine the proportions of sub-
stances or articles of different values or
strengths which must be taken to prepare a
mixture of any other value or strength.-
RULE. Arrange the ‘prices’ or “strengths of
the ingredients’ in a column, and link them
together in pairs; each of those above the
required price being always connected with
another below it. Then set the difference
between the required price and these num-
bers, alternately against those they are linked
to ; when they will indicate the quantities to
be taken, as in the following examples:–a,
Required the proportions of tea at 3s., 4s., 6s,
and 7s., that must be taken to produce a mix-
ture at 5s. the pound. Here—
3— . . . . 1, or 1 lb, (a) 3s,
* 6 || | . . . . . . g . . .
7 —— . . . . 1, , 1 , ,, 7s.
b. (When the number of the ingredients or
prices is odd.) Required the proportions of
teas at 3s., 5s., and 6s. the pound, to sell at
4s. Here the odd number must be taken a
second time :-
H. . . . . 2, , 2 s, , 48.
3–I- . . . 1-H2, or 3 lbs. (3) 3s.
4 – | . . . 1, 2, 1 ; , 5s.
6 —— - - - 1, -> l xx xx 6s.

c. (When the number of the ingredients is
not merely odd, but the prices are unequally
distributed either above or below the required
price.) A dealer having wines of the same
name at 7s., 9s., 11s., 12s., and 14.s. per gallon,
wishes to produce a mixture of them worth
10s, per gallon:—
7—1—— 1+4, or 5 galls. (6) 7s.
9–|— . . . 2, 3, 2 s, , 9s.
10 & 11– . . . . . . 3, 2, 3 s, , 11s.
12 – | . . . 1, 2, 1 , , 12s.
14 –––. . . . 3, , 3 , ,, 14s.
It will be seen that by varying the manner
of linking the numbers, different answers may
often be obtained to the same question. It
also often happens that the dealer or operator
desires to use a given quantity of one particu-
lar article, or to produce a certain quantity
only of the mixture instead of those indicated
by the above calculations. In these instances
he has simply to apply the common rule of
“practice’ or the ‘rule of three,” as the particu-
lar case may demand.
In the above manner the proportions of the
constituents of a compound may be determined
from their specific gravity, when no change of
volume has arisen from their admixture; but
when this is the case, as in alloys, alcoholic
mixtures, &c., it is either quite inapplicable or
the results obtained are mere approximations
to the truth. It may, however, be conveni-
ently employed for calculations connected with
the “mixing’ and ‘reduction’ of spirits and
other liquids, by substituting their per-centage
value in ‘proof gallons' or other corresponding
denomination, for the prices in the above ex-
amples; water, when introduced be reckoned,
=0. Thus –A spirit merchant having two


774
MOHAIR-MORDANT.
puncheons of rum of the strengths of 17 and
21 o.p., wishes to know what proportions of
each and of water he must take to form a
spirit 10 u.p. The proof values of 100 gallons
of these spirits are respectively equal to 121,
117,90, and 0 (water). Therefore—
0— 27--31, or 58 g. water.
117 |. 90, , 90, rum (G) 117 o. p.
121 90, , 90, rum , 121 ,
Suppose the dealer required to use different
proportions of the spirits referred to, instead
of equal measures, he has only to take such
aliquot parts of the quantities thus found
referring to the smaller proportion; or such
mutiples of those referring to the larger one,
as he wishes them to bear to each in the new
mixture. Numerous other applications of this
rule will occur to the ingenious reader.
Questions in “alligation,’ as the department
of arithmetic above referred to is called, are
very easily resolved by the ‘method of inde-
terminate analysis,” even by persons but
slightly conversant with rudimentary algebra;
of which, indeed, they form a simple class of
problems, often admitting of an almost indefi-
nite number of solutions.
MI0/HAIR. The hair of a goat indigenous
in Asia Minor. It is dyed and manufactured
by similar materials and in a similar manner
to wool.
MOIL. See CIDER.
MOIREE METALLIQUE. [Fr.] A beau-
tiful crystalline appearance produced on the
surface of tin plate by acids. The tin plate
is submitted for a few seconds, whilst gently
heated, to the action of dilute aqua regia, by
which it acquires a variegated primrose ap-
pearance. It is afterwards washed in hot
water, dried, and lacquered. The degree of
heat and dilution of the acid modifies the
beauty and character of the surface. The
effect is also varied by employing dilute sul-
phuric acid, either alone, or mixed with a
portion of nitric or hydrochloric acid; or by
using a solution of citric acid or caustic po-
tassa. Accºrding to Herberger, the best metal
for the purpose is plate iron, which has been
coated by dipping it into a tin bath composed
of pure tin, 200 parts; copper, 3 parts; ar-
senic, 1 part. The varnish should consist of
copal in highly rectified spirit. Moirée metal-
lique is in much less demand now than for-
merly.
M0'LASSES. See TREACLE.
M0LES. The small, soft excrescences and
discolorations of the skin which are popularly
known under this name may, when slight, be
removed by touching them every day with a
little concentrated acetic acid, by means of a
hair pencil, observing due care to prevent the
application from spreading to the surrounding
parts. This does not discolour the skin. The
application of lunar caustic is also very effec-
tive, but it turns the spot temporarily black.
In the pure mole there is always a considera-
90
ble production of hair. When other means
fail, they may be easily and safely removed by
surgical means. The operation is trifling;
and, when judiciously performed, no trace of
such a proceeding is left behind.
MOLUC/CA BALM. See LIQUEUR.
MOLYBDATEOFAMMONIUM. (NH),MOO,
Syn. MoLYBDENIC ACID, PEROXIDE OF MOIYB-
DENUM ; ACIDUM MOLYBDICUM, L. Prep,
Native sulphide of molybdenum, after being
well roasted, is reduced to fine powder, di-
gested with ammonia, and the mixture fil-
tered, and the filtrate evaporated to dryness;
the residue, molybdate of ammonium, is then
dissolved in water, purified by crystallisation;
and, lastly, decomposed by heat.
Prop., &c. Small white scales, soluble in
570 parts of water; the solution reddens lit.
mus paper; dissolves in the alkalies, forming
alkaline molybdates, from which it is again
precipitated by strong acids. It is used in
the preparation of molybdenum blue, and in
calico-printing, but its scarcity precludes its
extensive employment in the arts. Molyb.
date of ammonium is the salt principally used
in dyeing. Silks and cottons passed through
a solution of this salt, then through a bath
soured with hydrochloric acid, and, lastly
(without washing), through another of proto-
chloride of tin, are dyed of a rich and perma.
ment blue colour. A solution of molybdate of
ammonia in excess of nitric acid, forms a valu-
able reagent as a test for phosphates, with
which it gives a beautiful yellow precipitate
(phospho-molybdate of ammonia. See PHOS-
PIHORIC ACID.
MOLYB'DENUM. Mo. A very rare metal,
having a white colour, discovered by Hielm, in
1782.
Prep. By exposing molybdic acid, mixed
with charcoal and placed in a covered crucible,
to the strongest heat of a Smith's forge.
Prop., &c. It is brittle and very infusible;
when heated in contact with the air, it is con:
verted into molybdic anhydride, MoQg.
MOMOR/DICINE. See ELATERINE.
MONE'SIA. Syn. MoRESIA BARK, BURAN.
HEIM, B. ; CORTEX MONESIAE, L. The bark
of Chrysophyllum Buranheim, a tree growing
in the Brazils. The rough, imported extract
of this drug also commonly passes under the
name of MONESTA. It is astringent, and pos-
sesses no advantage over rhatany or catechu,
— Dose. (Of the latter) 15 to 20 grs.
MONE'SIN. A peculiar acrid principle,
analogous to saponin, found in monesia bark,
to the extent of 4.7%.
MONOMIA’NIA. See INSANITY.
MOR/DANT. In dyeing and calico printing,
any substance employed to fix the colouring
matter of dye-stuffs in the fibres of organic
bodies, and to give it brilliancy and perma-
mency. This it effects either by serving as a
bond of union between the two, owing to its
attraction for each of them; or it acts by
uniting with the colouring particles in the

MORDANT.
775
minute pores of the fibres, and rendering them
insoluble in the alkaline, soapy, and other
liquids, to the action of which they will sub-
sequently be exposed. When an infusion of
some dye-stuff, as cochineal or madder, for ex-
ample, is mixed with alum or acetate of alu-
mina, and a little alkali, a precipitate imme-
diately forms, consisting of alumina in com-
bination with colouring matter, constituting a
LAKE.. It is by a similar reaction occurring
within the fibres that the permanent dyeing of
the cloth is effected. Here the colouring mat-
ter of the dyeing materials not only passes
from the soluble to the insoluble form, but it
enters into chemical combination with other
substances, and in the new compounds it as-
sumes greater brilliancy and permanency than
it previously possessed. Annotta and safflower
afford instances of the second mode of action
above referred to, by which substances operate
as mordants. The colouring matter of these
dye-stuffs is soluble in alkaline lyes, and into a
solution of this kind the cloth is dipped. It
has now received an extremely fugitive colour
only; but by passing it through acidulated
water the alkaline solvent is abstracted, and
the tinctorial matter is precipitated in an in-
soluble and minutely divided state within its
pores, and it becomes permanently dyed. A
similar reaction takes place in dyeing with the
“indigo vat,’ in which atmospheric oxygen per-
forms the part of a mordant. It is believed
that even in these cases the colouring prin-
ciple, during its transition from the liquid to
the solid form, enters into combination with
the fibres of the organic substance, and that,
in proportion to the affinity existing between
the two, is the integrity and excellence of the
dye. In wool and silk, the affinity between
their filaments and the tinctorial particles of
the dye-bath is, in general, so considerable,
that a permanent stain is very easily commu-
nicated to them; but with cotton and flax, the
materials of which calico and linen goods are
made, the reverse is the case, and the inter-
vention of a third material, in the shape of a
mordant, is absolutely necessary to dye them
of a permanent colour.
“Experience has proved that, of all the
bases, those which succeed best as mordants
are alumina, tin, and oxide of iron; the first
two of which, being naturally white, are the
only ones which can be employed for preserv-
ing to the colour its original tint, at least
without much variation. But whenever the
mordant itself is coloured, it will cause the dye
to take a compound colour quite different from
its own. If, as is usually said, the mordant
enters into a real chemical union with the stuff
to be dyed, the application of the mordant
should obviously be made in such circum-
stances as are known to be most favorable
to the combination taking place; and this is
the principle of every day’s practice in the
dye-house.
“In order that a combination may result
between two bodies, they must not only be in
contact, but they must be reduced to their
ultimate molecules. The mordants to be united
with stuffs are, as we have seen, insoluble in
themselves, for which reason their particles
must be divided by solution in an appropriate
vehicle. Now, this solvent or menstruum will
exert in its own favour an affinity for the mor-
dant, which will prove to that extent an ob-
stacle to its attraction for the stuff. Hence
we must select such solvents as have a weaker
affinity for the mordants than the mordants
have for the stuffs. Of all acids which can be
employed to dissolve alumina, for example,
vinegar (acetic acid) is the one which will re-
tain it with the least energy, for which reason
the acetate of alumina is now generally sub-
stituted for alum, because the acetic acid gives
up the alumina with such readiness, that mere
elevation of temperature is sufficient to effect
the separation of these two substances. Be-
fore the substitution of the acetate, alum alone
was employed; but without knowing the true
reason, all the French dyers preferred the
alum of Rome, simply regarding it to be the
purest; it is only within these few years that
they have understood the real grounds of this
preference.
“The two principal conditions, namely, ex-
treme tenuity of particles and liberty of ac-
tion, being found in a mordant, its operation
is certain. But as the combination to be ef-
fected is merely the result of the play of
affinity between the solvent and the stuff to
be dyed, a sort of partition must take place,
proportioned to the mass of the solvent, as
well as to its attractive force. Hence the stuff
will retain more of the mordant when its solu-
tion is more concentrated, that is, when the
base diffused through it is not so much pro-
tected by a large mass of menstruum; a fact
applied to very valuable uses by the practical
man. On impregnating, in calico printing,
for example, different spots of the same web
with the same mordant in different degrees
of concentration, there is obtained in the dye-
bath a depth of colour upon these spots in-
tense in proportion to the strength of their
various mordants. Thus, with solution of
acetate of alumina in different grades of den-
sity, and with madder, every shade can be pro-
duced from the fullest red to the lightest pink
and with acetate of iron and maddder, every
shade from black to pale violet.” (Ure.)
In the employment of mordants in the ordi-
nary processes of dyeing, the goods are passed
through the solution for a period varying,
under different circumstances, according to the
object in view. The cloth is subsequently
aired, dried, and well rinsed, before immersing
it in the colouring bath. In calico printing
the mordant is applied partially or topically
to the cloth by means of wooden blocks, or
some similar contrivance; or certain parts of
the cloth are stopped out by a suitable prepa-
ration, or “resist,’ by which means a pattern is


776
MORPHIA.
produced, as the colouring matter of the dye-
bath is removed from the other portions by
the washing or scouring to which it is subse-
quently subjected. The substances used to
thicken the mordant by the calico printers,
to prevent them spreading, are starch and
British gum. The first is prepared for neutral
solutions; the last, for acidulous ones. The
removal of the undecomposed particles of the
mordant, so as to preserve the other portion
of the cloth from their action, is effected by
the process of DUNGING (which see).
The process of GALLING or ROOTING, com-
monly employed as a preparation of cotton
and linen for fast dyes, consist in working the
stuff for some time, at a good hand heat, in a
decoction of galls or an infusion of sumach.
In this case the astringent matter plays the
part of a mordant. About 2% oz. of galls, or
5 oz. of sumach, and 3 or 4 pints of water, are
commonly taken for every lb. of cotton. See
CALICO PRINTING, DYEING, and the respective
dye-stuffs and mordants.
Mordant. In gilding, any sticky matter
by which gold-leaf is made to adhere. Prep.
1. Water or beer, rendered adhesive by the ad-
dition of a little gum, sugar, or honey, and
tinged with a little gamboge or carmine, to
mark the parts to which it is applied. Used
to attach gold leaf to paper, taffety, vellum, &c.
2. (Mixtion.) From asphaltum, 1 part;
mastic, 4 parts; amber, 12 parts; fused toge-
ther, and then mixed with hot boiled oil,
1 pint. Used for gilding wood, &c. See GOLD
SIZE.
MORPHIA. C., HignO. Syn. MoRPHINE
(Ph. D.), MORPHINA, MORPHIUM, L. The
chief active principle of opium. Morphia was
discovered by Ludwig in 1688, but it was first
obtained pure, and its precise nature pointed
out by Sertuerner, in 1804. It is peculiar
to the Papaveraceae, or poppy family.
Prep. 1. (Ph.D.) Turkey opium (cut into
thin slices), 1 lb., is macerated for 24 hours in
water, 1 quart, and the liquid portion de-
canted; the residuum is macerated for 12 hours
with a second quart of water, and the process
is repeated with a third quart of water,
after which the insoluble portion is sub-
jected to strong pressure; the mixed liquids
are evaporated by water or steam heat to a
pint, and filtered through calico; to the fil-
trate is added a solution formed of chloride of
calcium, 6 drs., dissolved in distilled water, 4 fl.
oz., and the liquid is further evaporated until
it is so far concentrated that nearly the whole
of it becomes solid on cooling; this is enve-
loped in a couple of folds of strong calico, and
subjected to powerful pressure, the dark liquid
which exudes being preserved for subsequent
use; the squeezed cake is next treated with
about ; pint of boiling water, and the undis-
solved portion is washed on a paper filter ; the
filtered solution is again evaporated, and the
solid portion thus obtained submitted to pres-
sure, as before; if the product is not quite
white, this process is repeated a third time;
the squeezed cake is now dissolved in boiling
water, 6 fl. oz., and the solution filtered through
animal charcoal (if necessary); to the clear
solution is added ammonia, in slight excess;
the crystalline precipitate which forms as the
liquid cools, is collected on a paper filter,
washed with cold distilled water, and lastly, the
filter is transferred to a porous brick, in order
that the morphia which it contains may
become dry. (From the liquids reserved from
the expressions more morphia may be obtained
by dilution with water, precipitation with
ammonia, resolution in boiling water, and
treatment with a little animal charcoal, &c., as
before.)
2. (Ph. L. 1836.) Hydrochlorate of mor.
phia, 1 oz., is dissolved in distilled water, 1
pint; and ammonia, 5 fl. drs. (or q. S.), pre:
viously diluted with water, 1 fl. oz., is added
with agitation; the precipitate is well washed
in distilled water, and dried by a gentle heat,
By a similar process morphia may be obtained
from its other salts.
3. (Merck.) A cold aqueous infusion of
opium is precipitated with carbonate of sodium,
in excess; the precipitate washed, first with
cold water, and then with cold alcohol of sp.
gr. 85; the residuum is dissolved in weak
acetic acid, the solution filtered through animal
charcoal, and precipitated with ammonia; the
precipitate is again washed with cold water,
dissolved in alcohol, and crystallized. A good
process where spirit is cheap. -
4. (Mohr.) Opium, 4 parts, is made into a
strong infusion with water, q. S.; lime, 1 part
reduced to the state of milk with water, is
then added; the mixture is next heated tº
boiling, at once filtered through linen, and
treated, whilst still hot, with chloride of am:
monium, in fine powder, in slight excess (about
1 oz. to each lb. of opium); the morphia is
deposited as the liquid cools, and may be puri.
fied by a second solution in lime and precipita
tion by chloride of ammonium. This process
is remarkably simple, and in many points is
preferable to any other, either on the small 0.
large scale.
5. (PURE.) A filtered solution of opium in
tepid water is mixed with acetate of lead in
excess; the precipitate (meconate of lead) is
separated by a filter, and a stream of Sul.
phuretted hydrogen is passed through the
nearly colourless filtrate; the latter is warmed,
to expel excess of the gas, once more filtered
and then mixed with a slight excess of
ammonia, which throws down narcotine and
morphia ; these are separated by boiling
ether, in which the former is soluble.
Prop. The morphia of commerce is a white
crystalline powder; but when crystallized from
alcohol, it forms brilliant prismatic crystals
of adamantine lustre, and the formula
Clºſion Og. H2O. It exerts an alkaline reac.
tion on test paper; imparts a perceptible bitter
taste to water; requires 1160 parts of cold



MORPHIA. 777
water, and 94 parts of boiling water, for its
solution; insoluble in ether; dissolves in 90
parts of cold and about 30 parts of boiling
alcohol; it also dissolves in the fixed and vola-
tile oils, and in solutions of the alkalies; heated
in close vessels, it forms a yellow liquid, like
melted sulphur, which becomes white and
crystalline on cooling; heated in the air, it
melts, inflames like a resin, and leaves a small
quantity of charcoal behind. With the acids
it forms salts, which are mostly soluble and
crystallisable. These may all be made by the
direct solution of the alkaloid in the dilute
acid. The only ones of importance are the
acetate, hydrochlorate, and sulphate.
Pur. Commercial morphia and its prepara-
tions are often contaminated with codeine,
marcotine, and colouring matter. The pro-
portion of the first two may be estimated by
the loss of weight which the sample suffers
when digested in ether; or by dissolving out
the morphine by digestion in weak liquor of
potassa. Pure morphia “is scarcely soluble
in cold water, sparingly so in boiling water, and
readily so in alcohol. This solution is alkaline
to test paper, and by evaporation leaves crys-
tals, which are wholly dissipated by heat. It
is soluble in pure potassa.” (Ph. L. 1836.)
Tests. 1. Potassium hydrate and ammonia
precipitate morphia from solution of its salts,
under the form of a white crystalline powder,
which is very soluble in excess of hydrate of
potassium, and, with somewhat more difficulty,
in excess of ammonia. The solution formed
by excess of the first is precipitated on the
addition of bicarbonate of potassium. The
precipitate in either case is soluble in a solu-
tion of chloride of ammonium, and in dilute
acetic acid, and is insoluble in ether. A care-
ful inspection of the precipitate through a lens
of small power shows it to consist of minute
acicular crystals; and seen through a glass
which magnifies 100 times, these crystals pre-
sent the form of right rhombic prisms.-2,
The carbonates of potassium and sodium pro-
duce the same precipitate as hydrate of potas-
sium, and which is insoluble in excess of the
precipitant.—3. The bicarbonates of potassium
and sodium also give similar precipitates from
neutral solutions, insoluble in excess. In each
of the above cases stirring with a glass rod and
friction on the sides of the vessel promote the
separation of the precipitate.—4. If to a mix-
ture of morphia and oil of vitriol a minute
fragment of bichromate of potassium be added,
oxide of chromium is set free, and a fine green
colour developed.—5. A drop or two of solu-
tion of terchloride of gold added to a weak
solution of morphia gives a yellow precipitate,
which is mostly redissolved on agitating the
liquid, which then assumes various hues (green,
blue, violet, purple) on the addition of a drop
of liquor of potassa.-6. A minute fragment of
terchloride of gold and of hydrate of potassium
very gently dropped into the liquid, occasion
purple clouds or streaks in dilute solutions, fol-
lowed by a precipitate, which is violet, purple,
or blue-black, according to the strength of the
liquid.
The above are the most reliable precipitates
for morphia; the first two may, indeed, be
regarded as characteristic, and the remainder
as almost so. The following are often referred
to by medical writers, but are less exclusive
and trustworthy:-Morphia and its salts are
–7. Reddened by nitric acid, and form orange-
red solutions, darkened by ammonia in excess,
and ultimately turning yellow, with the pro-
duction of oxalic acid.—8. They are turned
blue by ferric chloride, either at once or on
the addition of an alkali, and this colour
is destroyed by water and by alkalies, or acids
in excess.-9. Iodic acid added to their solu-
tions turns them yellowish-brown, by setting
iodine free, and the liquid forms a blue com-
pound with starch.
Uses. Morphia and its salts are exhibited
either in substance, made into pills, or in solu-
tion, generally the latter; or externally, in
fine powder, applied to the dermis denuded of
the cuticle. They are principally employed as
anodynes and hypnotics in cases in which
opium is inadmissible, and are justly regarded
as the most valuable medicines of their class.
“In cases wherein both opium and the mor-
phine salts are equally admissible, I prefer the
former, its effects being better known and
regulated; moreover, opium is to be preferred
as a stimulant and sudorific, and for sup-
pressing excessive mucous discharges.” (Pe-
reira.)—Dose. Of pure morphia, ſº to # gr. ;
of its salts, to # gr. ; externally, } to 1% gr.
Morphine is chiefly used for the preparation of
the acetate, and some of its other salts.
Good opium yields from 10% to 13% of mor-
phia. See OPIUM.
Morphia, Ac'etate of Człłº NOAC3H8O2.
Syn. MoRPHIAE ACETAS (Ph. L. E. & D.), L.
Prep. 1. (Ph.L. 1836.) Morphia, 6 drs. ; acetic
acid (Ph. L.), 3 fl. drs. ; distilled water, 4 fl.
oz. ; dissolve, gently evaporate, and crystallise.
2. (Ph. E.) Hydrochlorate of morphia, 1
part, is dissolved in warm water, 14 parts:
and the solution, when cold, is precipitated
with ammonia, in slight excess, the precipi-
tate is washed in cold water, and dissolved, by
means of acetic acid, in excess, in warm water,
12 parts; from the solution crystals are ob-
tained as before.
3. (Ph.D.) Morphia (in fine powder), 1 oz. ;
rectified spirit, 8 fl. oz. ; mix, apply a gentle
heat, ºud add of acetic acid (sp. gr. 1044), 4}
fl. drs, or q. S., until a neutral or slightly acid
solution is obtained; evaporate this to the
consistence of a syrup by steam or water heat,
and set aside the residuum for a few days
until it solidifies.
Pur. “Soluble in water and in rectified spirit”
(less so in the former than the latter); “and
when the spirit is distilled from the solution,
it yields crystals which are totally destroyed
by heat.” (Ph. L.) “100 m -



778
MORPHIA.
tion of 10 grs. in # fl. Oz. of water, and 5
minims of acetic acid, heated to 212° and de-
composed by a very slight excess of ammonia,
yield by agitation a precipitate which, in 24
hours, occupies 15% measures of the liquid.”
(Ph. E.)
Obs. The acetate of morphia of commerce
is usually in the form of a whitish powder, and
is prepared by the mere evaporation of the
solution to dryness by a gentle heat. During
the process a portion of the acetic acid is dis-
sipated, and hence this preparation is seldom
perfectly soluble in water, unless it has been
slightly acidulated with acetic acid. In the
Ph. L. 1851 this salt (in crystals) is included
in the materia medica. See MORPHIA (above).
Morphia, Hydri'odate of. CyIIIoMOs, HI.
Syn. MORPHIAE HYDRYIODAs, L. Prep. (A.
T. Thomson). Hydrochlorate of morphia, 2
parts; iodide of potassium, 1 part; dissolve
each separately in a little water, mix the solu-
tions, wash the precipitate in a little very cold
water, press it in bibulous paper, redissolve it
in hot water, and crystallise.
Morphia, Hydrochlo"rate of CºIII,NO3, HI.
Syn. MURIATE OF MORPHIA; MORPHIAEHYDRO-
CHLoRAS (Ph. L.), MORPHIAE MURIAS (Ph. E.
D. & U.S.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph.L. 1836.) Macerate
sliced opium, 1 lb., in water, 4 pints, for 30
hours; then bruise it, digest it for 20 hours
more, and press it; macerate what remains a
second and a third time in water until ex-
hausted, and as often bruise and press it ; mix
the liquors, and evaporate at 140° Fahr. to
the consistence of a syrup; add of water, 3
pints, and after defecation decant the clear
portion; gradually add to this liquid crys-
tallised chloride of lead, 2 oz. (or q. s.), dis-
solved in boiling water, 4 pints, until it ceases
to produce a precipitate; decant the clear
liquid, wash the residuum with water, and
evaporate the mixed liquids, as before that
crystals may form; press these in a cloth,
then dissolve them in distilled water, 1 pint,
add freshly burnt animal charcoal, 1% oz., digest
at 120°, and filter; finally, the charcoal being
washed, cautiously evaporate the mixed liquors,
that pure crystals of hydrochlorate of morphia
may form. To the decanted liquor from which
the crystals were first separated, add of water,
1 pint, and drop in liquor of ammonia, fre-
quently shaking, until all the morphine is
precipitated; wash this precipitate with cold
distilled water, saturate it with hydrochloric
acid, digest with animal charcoal, 2 oz. ; filter,
wash the filter as before, and evaporate the
mixed liquors, cautiously, as above, that pure
crystals may be obtained. -
2. (Ph. E.) Opium, 20 oz., is exhausted
with water, 1 gal., in the quantity of a quart
at a time, and the mixed liquors are evaporated
to a pint; chloride of calcium, 1 oz., dissolved
in water, 4 fl. OZ, is added, and, after agitation,
the liquid is placed aside to settle; the clear
decanted liquid, and the washings of the sedi.
* next evaporated, so that they may
solidify on cooling ; the cooled mass, after very
strong pressure in a cloth, is redissolved in
warm water, a little powdered white mark
added, and the whole filtered; the filtrate is
acidulated with hydrochloric acid, the solutiºn
again concentrated for crystallisation, and the
crystals submitted to powerful pressure, is
before; the process of solution, clarification
with powdered marble and hydrochloric acid,
and crystallisation, is repeated until a SnOW.
white mass is obtained. This is the process ºf
Gregory and Robertson, and is one of the
easiest and most productive on the large scale
To procure the salt quite white, 2 to 4 crys,
tallisations are required, according to the
power of the press employed. The Edinburgh
College recommends, on the small scale, the
solution, after two crystallisations, to be deſ.
loured by means of animal charcoal; but, Ol
the large scale, to purify the salt by repeat:
crystallisations alone.
3. (Mohr.) By dissolving the precipitated
morphia (see MORPHIA, prep. 4) in dilut:
hydrochloric acid, and by crystallisation, is
before,
Pur., &c. It “is completely soluble intº
tified spirit, and in water. What is precipitated
from the aqueous solution by nitrate of silva
is not entirely dissolved, either by ammomi
unless added in excess, or by hydrochloric 0.
nitric acid.” (Ph. L.) “Snowy white; Cl
tirely soluble; solution colourless; loss ºf
weight at 212°Fahr, not above 13%; 100 mg
sures of a solution of 10 grs., in water, , fl.01,
heated to 212°, and decomposed with agitation
by a faint excess of ammonia, yield a precipi.
tate which, in 24 hours, occupies 12% mº
sures of the liquid.” (Ph. E.) It takes
parts of cold and about its own weight ºf
boiling water to dissolve it. The hydrochl,
rate of morphia of the shops is usually, lik:
the acetate, under the form of a white crys
talline powder.
Obs. Of all the salts of morphia, this ºn
appears to be that most suitable for mediºl
purposes, from its free solubility, and from it
Solution not being liable to spontaneous dº
composition, at least under ordinary circuſ
stances. “The opium which yields the larges
quantity of precipitate by carbonate of sodium
yields muriate of morphia, not only in th:
greatest proportion, but also with the few&
crystallisations.” (Ph. E.) Smyrna opium 00I.
tains the most morphine.
Morphia and Codei'a (Hydrochlorate ºf
Syn. GREGORY’s SALT : MoRPHIE ET CODE|| ||
HYDROCHLORAS, L.; SEI, DE GREGORY, Fr.
This is commercial HYDROCHLORATE 01
MORPHINE prepared according to Dr. Gregory':
process.
Mec'omates of Morphia. (CoHºNO),C,E,0;
Prep. 1. (NEUTRAL MEcoMATE of MOE.
PHINE; MoRPHIE MECONAs, L.) By satural
ing an aqueous solution of meconic acid with
morphia, and evaporating the solution by
gentle heat, so that crystals may be obtained.

MORPHIOMETRY-MORTAR. 779

2. (BIMECONATE OF MORPHINE ; MoRPHIAE
BIMECONAS, L.) Cº. Hiſ NOAHC, H2O. Meconic
acid, 11 parts; morphia, 14 parts; dissolve
each separately, in hot water, q. S.; mix the
solutions, and either gently evaporate and crys-
tallize, or at once evaporate to dryness.
Obs. Morphia exists in opium under the
form of bimeconate, and hence this preparation
of that drug has been preferred by some prac-
titioners. A solution of this salt for medical
purposes may be directly prepared from
opium, by treating its solution in cold water
with a little animal charcoal, filtering, gently
evaporating to dryness, redissolving the resi-
duum in cold water, filtering, and repeating
the treatment with animal charcoal. The
dose of the dry bimeconate is 3 gr., or more;
and of the meconate rather less. “A powder
is also sold, called ‘bimeconate of morphia,”
which is of the same strength as powdered
opium, and is given in similar doses. It is
obviously incorrect to apply this name to a
powder which consists principally of foreign
matter. It is to be hoped that physicians will
not prescribe this powder under the above
name, as such a practice might lead to fatal
results, if the prescription should be prepared
with the substance which the name strictly
indicates.” (Redwood.)
Sulphate of Morphia. Syn. MoRPHIE
SULPHAs, L. Prep. Saturate very dilute sul-
phuric acid with morphia, evaporate to one
half, add a little animal charcoal, continue the
evaporation for a short time longer at a gentle
heat, filter whilst hot, and abandon it to spon-
taneous evaporation. It is decomposed by
driving off the water of crystallization. Sul-
phate of morphia is included in the Ph. U. S.
According to Magendie, this salt sometimes
agrees with patients who cannot bear the
acetate,
MORPHIOM’ETRY. A name given to the
process of determining the richness of opium
in morphia. See OPIUM.
MORISON'S PILLS.
DICINES.
MORSU'LI. An old name applied to
lozenges and masticatories. It is still retained
in some foreign Pharmacopoeias.
MOR/TAR is the well-known cement, made
of lime, sand, and water, employed to bind
bricks and stones together in the construction
of walls, buildings, &c.
In the composition of mortar, stone lime is
preferred to that obtained from chalk, and
river sand to pit or road sand. Sea sand is
unfitted for mortar until it it has been well
soaked and washed in fresh water. Sifted coal
ashes are frequently substituted for the whole
or a part of the sand.
HYDRAULIC MORTARS or CEMENTS are those
which, like Roman cement, are employed for
works which are either constantly submerged
or are frequently exposed to the action of
water. The poorer sorts of limestone are
See PATENT ME-
chosen for this purpose, or those which contain
from 8% to 25% of alumina, magnesia, and silica.
Such limestones, though calcined, do not slake
when moistened; but if pulverized, they absorb
water without swelling up or heating, like fat
lime, and affords a paste which hardens in a few
days under water, but in the air they never
acquire much solidity.
“The essential constituents of every good
hydraulic mortar are caustic lime and silica;
and the hardening of this composition under
water consists mainly in a chemical combina-
tion of these two ingredients through the
agency of the water, producing a hydrated
silicate of lime. But such mortars may contain
other ingredients besides lime, as, for example,
clay and magnesia, when double silicates of
great solidity are formed; on which account
dolomite is a good ingredient in these mortars.
But the silica must be in a peculiar state for
these purposes, namely, capable of affording a
gelatinous paste with acids; and if not so
already, it must be brought into this condition,
by calcining it along with an alkali or an
alkaline earth, at a bright red heat, when it
will dissolve and gelatimize in acids. Quartzose
sand, however fine its powder may be, will
form no water mortar with lime ; but if the
powder be ignited with the lime, it then be-
comes fit for hydraulic cement. Ground felspar
or clay forms with slaked lime no water ce-
ment; but when they are previously calcined
along with the lime, the mixture becomes
capable of hardening under water.”
“All sorts of lime are made hydraulic, in the
humid way, by mixing the slaked lime with
solutions of common alum or sulphate of
alumina; but the best method consists in em-
ploying a solution of the silicate of potash,
called liquor of flints or soluble glass, to mix in
with the slaked lime or lime and clay. An
hydraulic cement may also be made which will
serve for the manufacture of architectural
ornaments, by making a paste of pulverized
chalk, with a solution of the silicate of potash.
The said liquor of flints likewise gives chalk
and plaster a stomy hardness, by merely soak-
ing them in it after they are cut or moulded
to a proper shape. On exposure to the air,
they get progressively indurated. Superficial
hardness may be readily procured by washing
over the surface of chalk, &c., with liquor of
flints, by means of a brush. This method
affords an easy and elegant method of giving a
stony crust to the plastered walls and ceilings
of apartments; as also to statues and busts,
cast in gypsum mixed with chalk.”
Under Prof. Kuhlman’s patent, dated April,
1841, “instead of calcining the limestone with
clay and sand alone, as has been hitherto com-
monly practised, this inventor introduces a
Small quantity of soda, or, preferably, potash.
in the state of sulphate, carbonate, or mur’
salts susceptible of forming silicates wº
earthy mixture is calcined. The allº
equal in weight to about 1-5th’
2-




-
-
780
MORTIFICATION--MOULDS,
lime, is introduced in solution among the
earths.” (Ure).
The hardening of the common mortars and
cements is in a great measure due to the gra-
dual absorption of carbonic acid; but even
after a very great length of time, this con-
version into carbonate is not complete. Good
mortar, under favorable circumstances, ac-
quires extreme hardness by age.
Attempts have been made at various times
to introduce the use of bituminous cements
into this country, and thus to restore both to
land and submarine architecture a valuable
material which has now lain neglected for a
period of fully 30 centuries; but, unfortu-
nately, owing to the interest of our great
building and engineering firms lying in another
direction, these attempts have been hitherto
unsuccessful. See ASPHALTUM, CEMENT,
LIME, &c.
MORTIFICATION. Syn. GANGRENE; GAN-
GRENA, MORTIFICATION, L. Local death; the
loss of vitality in one part of the animal body,
whilst the rest continues living. “The terms
gangrene and mortification are often used sy-
nonymously; but gangrene properly signifies
the state which immediately precedes morti-
fication, while the complete mortification, or
absolute death of a part, is called sphacelus.
A part which has passed into the state of
sphacelus is called a slough.
MOSAIC GOLD. See BRASS, GOLD, &c.
MOSSES, Syn. MUSCI, L. Several vege-
tables of the natural orders Algae, Fungi, Li-
ahemes, and Musoi, commonly pass under this
name with the vulgar. Of these the following
are the principal.--
Bog MOSS (Sphagnum palustre). Very re-
tentive of moisture. Used to pack up plants
for exportation.
CEYLON MOSS (Gracilaria candida). Very
nutritive; made into a decoction or jelly, which
is highly esteemed as an article of diet for in-
valids and children, more especially for those
suffering under affections of the mucous
membranes or phthisis.
CLUB MOSS (Lycopodium clavatum).
IIYCOPODIUM.
CoRSICAN Moss, C. WoRM. M. (Gracilaria
Helminthocorton). Dose. # to 2 drs, in pow-
der, mixed up with sugar; as a vermifuge.
CUP Moss, C. LICHEN (Cladonia pywidata).
Astringent and febrifuge. A cupful of the
decoction, taken warm, generally proves gently
emetic. Used in hooping-cough, &c.
FIR CLUB MOSS (Lycopodium Selago.) Vio-
lently emetic and purgative. It is also irri-
tant and narcotic.
ICELAND MOSS (Cetraria Islandica). Highly
nutritious and easy of digestion. The decoc-
tion is a favourite alimentary substance in
affections of the lungs and digestive organs.
eland, after the bitter has been removed
ing it in hot water, it is made into
ied, ground to flour, and made into
See
IRISH MOSS, PEARL M., CARRAGEEN M
(Chondrus crispus). Very nutritious. Tº
decoction or jelly is a useful and popular dº
mulcent and emollient in pulmonary affection,
dysentery, scrofula, rickets, &c. It is oft.
employed by cooks and confectioners insteal
of isinglass, and by painters to make their
SIZe. -
REIN-DEER. Moss (Cladonia rangiferin)
Esculent, very nutritious. - -
MOTHER OF PEARL. See PEARL,
MOTHER WATER. See CRYSTALLIZATION,
MOULDS. Numerous materials and COm
positions are employed for the purpose ºf
taking moulds, among which are the follow
Ing:— |
1. (CoMPO’.)—a. From spermaceti, stealiſ
or hard tallow, and white wax, equal parts
melted together. For fine work, as mall
small casts, &c.
b. From black resin, #1b.; hard tallow, lb.,
bees' wax, 6 oz. ; as the last. For coarsework
as architectural ornaments, &c. The above
are poured on the objects to be copied (prº
viously oiled) whilst in the melted state. At
ticles in plaster of Paris are first soaked in
water, observing that none of it remains 0.
the surface so as to interfere with the design.
2. (ELASTIC.)—a. Flexible or elastic mouli
may be made of gutta percha softened in bºl
ing water, and after being freed from moistuſ
pressed strongly against the object to be copied
by means of a screw press. A ring or suppº
should be employed to prevent undue later
spreading.
b. By the use of gelatin or glue, elast;
moulds are formed capable of reproducing, with
accuracy, and in a single piece the mº
elaborately sculptured objects, of exquisit:
finish and delicacy. Casts from these are nor
common in the streets. The credit of tº
application of this substance to this purposei
due to M. H. Vincent. The process of casting
consists in simply dissolving a certain quanti
of gelatin in hot water until it is reduced [.
the state of liquid paste, when it is run Oyº
the object, previously oiled, intended to lº
reproduced. As it cools, the gelatin assumº
a consistency offering a considerable degreed
resistance, and is highly elastic, which latíð
quality enables it to be easily detached from
the work on which it has been fitted. In the
hollow formed by the gelatin, the finest play
ter, mixed to a thick cream with water, is nºt
rum; and when the plaster has acquired tº
requisite hardness, the gelatin mould is dº
tached in the same manner as from the origi
mal. From this apparently fragile mould li
many as six copies may be taken, all repº
ducing the original with unerring fidelity.
3. (METALLIC.)—a. From fusible metal,
b. (CLICHéE MOULDS.) From a fusible ally
formed of bismuth, 8 parts; lead, 5 parts; till
4 parts; antimony, 1 part; repeatedly melº
together. The above are poured out in the
1 See FUSIBLE ALLoys,





MOUTH COSMETICS.–MUREXIDE. 781
melted state on a plate or slab, and after being
stirred until in a pasty state, the object to be
copied is strongly pressed on the alloy at the
moment it begins to solidify. They are chiefly
used for medals and other like objects.
c. (Chameroy’s Patent.) By melting together
one part of some easily fusible metal in a cru-
cible, and then mixing with it four parts of a
metal far less readily fusible, steeped in am-
monia and reduced to powder. Such a com-
pound is stated to be of great solidity, hard-
ness, facility of soldering, melts at a low
temperature, and has great tractability in
moulding to any form; and in casting takes
the sharpest impressions, whilst in its nature
it is peculiarly unchangeable. See ELECTRo-
TYPE.
MOUTH COSMET/ICS. See BREATH, TEETH,
LozBNGE, PASTE, POWDER, WASHES, &c.
MOX’AS. Substances burnt upon the body,
for the purpose of acting as counter-irritants,
and allaying deep-seated pains and inflamma-
tion. They have been used in gout, rheuma-
tism, &c. The small cone constituting the
moxa is placed upon a part, lighted, and
allowed to burn to its base. The CHINESE and
JAPANESE moxas are made of the downy por-
tion of the leaves of a species of wormwood
(Artemisia sinensis); but various other sub-
stances, as the pith of the sunflower, cotton, or
paper, soaked in a weak solution of nitrate, chlo-
rate, or chromate of potassium, answer as well.
The actual cautery is said to be preferable to
any of them.
MU’CILAGE. Syn. MUCILAGo, L. An
aqueous solution of gum, or other like sub-
stance, that gives a considerable consistency to
water. See DECOCTION, MIXTURE, &c.
Trag'acanth, Mucilage. Syn. MUCILAGo
TRAGACANTHE (B. P., Ph. E., and Ph. D.
1826), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. E.) Tragacanth, 2
drs; boiling water, 9 fl.oz. (8 fl. oz.-Ph. D.);
macerate for 24 hours, triturate, and press
through linen.
2. (B.P.) Tragacanth, in powder, 60 grs. ;
distilled water, 10 oz. To the water contained
in a pint bottle add the tragacanth, agitate
briskly for a few minutes, and again at short
intervals, until the tragacanth is perfectly
diffused, and has finally formed a mucilage.—
Dose. 1 oz. (Should be made as required.
One part of tragacanth gives more viscosity to
water than twenty-five parts of gum arabic.—
Squire.) Used in medicine as a demulcent,
and as an application to burns, &c., and in
pharmacy in making up pills, and to suspend
heavy powders in liquids.
MUDAR/IN. Syn. MADARINE. A peculiar
substance, possessing powerful emetic proper-
ties, extracted from the root bark of Calotropis
gigantea, in which it exists to the extent of
11%. (Duncan.) It is soluble in water and
in alcohol, and its aqueous solution, unlike
that of most other substances, gelatinises by
heat, and becomes fluid again on cooling.
MUF'FINS. Prep. Take of fine flour, 4.
peck; warm milk-and-water, 1 quart; yeast,
a wine-glassful; salt, 2 oz. ; mix for 15 mi-
nutes, then further add of flour, 4 peck, make a
dough, let?it rise 1 hour, roll it up, pull it into
pieces, make them into balls, put them in a
warm place, and when the whole dough is
made into balls, shape them into muffins, and
bake them on tins; turn them when half done,
dip them into warm milk, and bake them to a
pale brown.
MUF/FLE. See ASSAYING.
MUI/BERRY. Syn. MoRUM, L. Mulber-
ries (MORA, MORI BACCAE) are the fruit of
Morus nigra, or black mulberry tree. They
are cooling and laxative; but when eaten too
freely, are apt to disorder the stomach and
bowels. Mulberry juice (mori succus) is offi-
cinal in the Ph. L. A syrup (SYRUPUs MoRI)
is made of it. It is also, occasionally, made
into wine.
MULTUM. A mixture of extract of quassia
and liquorice, used by fraudulent brewers
instead of malt and hops.
MUM. A beverage prepared from wheat
malt, in a similar way to ordinary beer from
barley malt. A little oat and bean meal is
frequently added. It was formerly much
drunk in England; but its use at the present
day is chiefly confined to Germany, and to
Brunswick more particularly.
MUMPS. Syn. PAROTITIs, L. Inflamma-
tion of the parotid gland, which is situated
under the ear. There is little constitutional
derangement, but the cheeks become swollen
and painful, and there is some difficulty in
opening the mouth, and in swallowing. The
treatment consists in simply keeping the part
warm with flannel, and the use of warm fomen-
tations, at the same time that the bowels are
kept freely open with some mild laxative.
The mumps are said to be contagious, as,
when the affection appears in a school, it
generally goes through every member of it.
Low, damp situations are those most favorable
to this affection.
Prop., &c. It is only very slightly soluble
in cold water; freely soluble in solutions of
ammonia and the fixed alkalilies; the first, by
exposure to the air, becomes purple, and de-
posits brilliant crystals of murexide. These
compounds are the purpurates of Dr. Prout.
MUREX'IDE. CSN.HsOg. Syn. PURPURATE
OF AMMONIUM.
Prep. (Gregory.) Alloxan, 7 parts; alloxan-
tin, 4 parts; boiling water, 240 parts; dissolve,
and add the solution to a cold and strong solu-
tion of carbonate of ammonia, 80 parts;
crystals of murexide will separate as the liquid
cools.
Obs. Murexide can be obtained directly
from uric acid by the action of nitric acid and
subsequent treatment with ammonia. This
process is, however, very precarious, and often
fails altogether.
Prop., &c. It forms iridescent crystals,
having a metallie lustre, of a magnificent



782
MURIATE–MUSHROOMS.
green colour by reflected light, and an equally
beautiful reddish-purple by transmitted light.
It is soluble in boiling water, only very slightly
soluble in cold water, and insoluble in alcohol
and ether. A few years ago murexide was
extensively used in dyeing ; it is now almost
Superseded by rosaniline or magenta. An
analogous substance, formed as above, by
treating amalic acid with ammonia, is called
* caffein-murexide.”
MU"RIATE. An old name for hydrochlo-
rate and chloride. -
MURIATIC ACID, Syn. HYDROCHLORIC
ACID, which see.
MURIDE. The name originally given to
bromine, by M. Balard.
MUR/RAIN. Syn. BLACK-LEG, BLACK-
QUARTER. A disease affecting neat cattle,
more especially young animals, in the spring
and autumn. The common symptoms are
tumefaction and discoloration of one of the
hind quarters of the animal, with consequent
lameness and inability to move; a peculiar
emphysema and intumescence of various parts
of the body, particularly over the region of the
spine, accompanied with all the common indi-
cations of putrid fever. In severe cases, gan-
grene soon follows, and death frequently
ensues in from 12 to 24 hours.
The rapid progress of this disease admits of
little being done in the way of cure. Exten-
sive scarifications of the affected part, charcoal
or hot yeast poultices, or formentations, and
active purgatives, appear to constitute the
most useful treatment. The following drenches
have been recommended for this affection :-
1. (Blaine.) Sweet spirit of nitre, 3 fl. oz. ;
powdered cascarilla, 2 oz. ; solution of acetate of
ammonia, 4 fl. OZ, ; yeast, 8 fl. Oz. ; given every
3 or 4 hours,
2. (Clater.) Laudanum and sweet spirit of
nitre, of each, ; fl. oz. ; solution of chloride of
lime, 3 fl. Oz. ; prepared chalk, 1 oz. ; warm
gruel, 1 pint.
The apparent incurability of this disease
renders it of the utmost importance to the
farmer to adopt preventive measures. These
should consist of the supply of wholesome
food and pure water, the adoption of extreme
cleanliness, and the free access of pure air to
all the stalls, sheds, and other buildings in
which the cattle may be sheltered. As the
disease is regarded as contagious by many per-
sons, it is prudent to separate, as speedily as
possible, the healthy animals from those
affected. The free use of chloride of lime, as
a disinfectant, is also advisable.
Other and more immediate preventives con-
sist of the occasional exhibition of a saline
aperient, and the introduction of a seton into
the dewlap.
MUSH'R00MS. Edible fungi. The species
commonly eaten in England are the Agaricus
campestris, or common field or garden mush-
room, used to make ketchup, and eaten either
raw, stewed, or broiled;—the Morchella escu-
lenta, or morel, used to flavour soups and gº
vies;–and the Tuber cibarium, or comml
truffle, also used as a seasoning. -
Several fungi, which to the inexperiº
closely resemble the common edible mushroom
possess poisonous narcotic properties, and th:
use has not unfrequently been productive ſi
serious, and, in some cases, fatal results, Ui
fortunately, no simple tests exist by whil
the edible and poisonous varieties can be diº
tinguished from each other. So º:
the late Professor L. C. Richards, the eminºl
botanist, impressed with this feeling, thiſ
though no one was better acquainted with th:
distinctions of fungi than he was, yet he woul
never eat any except such as had been raisº
in gardens, in mushroom beds. Certainly a
mushrooms may be regarded as suspicio
which are either not so raised, or not colled.
from a known pasture or meadow by a CO:
petent judge.
The following general characters given
Professor Bentley enable us, in most cases,
distinguish the edible species:—
EDIBLE MUSHROOMS,
1. Grow in dry, airy places.
2. Generally white or brownish.
3. Have a compact, brittle flesh.
4. Do not change colour when cut by tº
action of the air.
5. Juice watery.
6. Odour agreeable.
7. Taste not bitter, acrid, or astringent,
POISONOUS MUSHROOMS.
1. Grow in clusters, in woods, and diſk
damp places.
2. Usually with bright colours.
3. Flesh tough, soft, and watery.
4. Acquire a brown, green, or blue till
when cut and exposed to the air,
5. Juice often milky.
6, Odour commonly powerful and is
agreeable.
7. Have an acrid, astringent, acid, salt,
bitter taste.
In cases of poisoning by fungi, vomiti;
should be immediately induced by an emti
and tickling the fauces with the finger or
feather; after which a purgative clyster of
strong cathartic should be administered, with
# to 1 fl. dr. of ether in a glassful of water
weak brandy. As an antidote, a solution
tannin, , dr., in water, 1% pint, or a decociº
of 3 oz. of powdered galls, or of 1 oz. of pº
dered cinchona bark, in a like quantity (;
water, has been strongly recommended by M.
Chansarel.
Alexis Soyer recommended the excelleſ
method of cooking mushrooms by baking them
under a glass or basin on toast, along with
scalded or clotted cream, or a little melt:
butter, with one clove, and salt, pepper, &
to taste. They take about 3 of an hour in:
gentle oven or before the fire. When they A.

MUSK–MUSTARD.
783
taken up, do not remove the glass for a few
minutes, by which time the vapour will have
become condensed and gone into the bread;
but when it is, the aroma, which is the essence
of the mushroom, is so powerful as to pervade
the whole apartment.
MUSK. Syn. MoscHUS. (B. P., Ph. L. E.
& D.), L. “A secretion deposited in a fol-
licle of the prepuce of Moschus moschiferus,
Linn.” Ph. L.), an animal inhabiting the
mountains of Eastern Asia. It is imported
from Bengal, China, and Russia; and, latterly,
from the United States of America. That
known as TONQUIN MUSK is the most esteemed
for its odour; but that from Russia is the only
kind which reaches usin perfect bags, or which
has not been tampered with. Pop MUSK
(MoscHUS IN VESICIS) is the bag in its natural
state, containing the musk. The average weight
of one of the pods is about 6 drs. ; that of the
grain musk which it contains, about 2% drs.
Pur., &c. The musk of the shops is gene-
rally adulterated. Dried bullock’s blood or
chocolate is commonly employed for this pur-
pose, along with a little bone-black. The
extent of these additions varies from 25% to
75% of the gross weight of the mixture. The
blood is dried by the heat of steam or a water
bath, then reduced to coarse powder, and tri-
turated with the genuine musk in a mortar
along with a few drops of liquor of ammonia.
It is then either replaced in the empty pods,
or it is put into bottles, and sold as grain
musk. There are only three certain ways of
detecting this fraud, viz.-by the inferiority
of the odour, by an assay for the iron contained
in the blood, or—by the microscope. Genuine
musk often becomes nearly inodorous by keep-
ing, but recovers its smell on being exposed to
the vapour of ammonia, or by being moistened
with ammonia water. The perfumers some-
times expose it to the fetid ammoniacal effluvia
of privies for the same purpose.
Pure musk, by trituration or digestion with
boiling water, loses about 75% of its weight,
and the boiling solution, after precipitation
with nitric acid, is nearly colourless. A solu-
tion of acetate of lead, and a cold decoction of
galls, also precipitate the solution; but one of
corrosive sublimate does not disturb it. The
ashes left after the incineration of pure musk
are neither red nor yellow, but gray, and
should not exceed 5 to 64. The Chinese appear
to be the most skilful and successful adultera-
tors of musk. One of the best solvents for
musk is ether.
Uses, &c. Musk is chiefly employed for its
odour. As a medicine, it is a powerful stimu-
lant and antispasmodic, and is a valuable
remedy in various diseases of a spasmodic or
hysterical character, or attended with low
fever. Dose. 5 to 10grs, made into an emulsion.
Musk, Factitious. Syn. RESIN OF AMBER:
RESINA SUCCINI, MoscHUS ARTIFICIALIS, M.
FACTITIUS, L. Prep. 1. Oil of amber, 1 fl. dr. ;
nitric acid, 3} fl. drs, ; digest in a cold tumbler,
and, after 24 hours, wash in cold water the
orange-yellow resinous matter which has
formed, and carefully dry it.
2. (Elsner.) From oil of amber, 1 part ;
fuming nitric acid, 3 parts; as the last, but
employing artificial cold to prevent any por-
tion of the oil being carbonised.
Obs. Resin of amber smells strongly of
musk, and is said to be antispasmodic and
nervine. A tincture (TINCTURA RESINE SUC-
CINI) is made by dissolving 1 dr. of it in rec-
tified spirit, 10 fl. dr.s., of which the dose is 1
fl. dr. ; in hooping-cough, low fevers, &c.
Dr. Collier mentions an artificial musk,
prepared by digesting for 10 days nitric acid,
# oz., on fetid animal oil, obtained by distil-
lation, 1 oz. ; then, adding of rectified spirit,
1 pint, and digesting the whole for a month.
MUSK SEED. Syn. GRAINS D’AMBRETTE.
The seed of Abelmoschus moschatus, or musk
mallow. They are chiefly used for their odour,
in perfumery, hair powder, coffee, &c.
MUSSEL, See SHELL-FISH.
MUST. Syn. MUSTUM, L. The expressed
juice of ripe grapes, before fermentation.
When boiled to 2-3 drs, it is called CARENUM ;
when boiled to , it is called SAPA. On fur-
ther concentration, it yields a species of
granular sugar (grape sugar). -
Must, Facti"tious. Syn. MUSTUM FAC-
TITIUM, L. Prep. Dissolve cream of tartar,
# oz., in boiling water, 7 pints; when cold,
add of lump sugar, 2% lbs. ; raisins (chopped
small, 3 lb. ; digest for 3 or 4 hours, strain
through flannel as quickly as possible, and add
of lemon juice, , pint.
MUSTARD. Syn. SINAPIs, L. “The seed
of Sinapis migra and S. alba.” (Ph. L.) “Flour
of the seeds of Sinapis migra, generally mixed
with those of Sinapis alba, and deprived of
fixed oil by expression.” (Ph. E.) “The
flour of the seeds.” (Ph.D.) “The seeds of
the Sinapis migra and S. alba reduced to
powder and mixed.” (B. P.) That of the
shops is very frequently adulterated with
wheat flour. When this is the case it does
not readily make a smooth paste with water,
but exhibits considerable toughness, and some-
what of a stringy appearance, especially when
little water and much heat is employed. The
common proportions taken by some grocers
are—dried common salt, wheat flour, and
superfine mustard, equal parts; with turmeric,
to colour, and cayenne, q. S. to give it piquancy
and fire,
Uses, &c. Pure flour of mustard is used in
medicine, to make stimulating poultices, pedi-
luvia, &c. As a condiment, it is useful in
torpor and coldness of the digestive organs.
A few years since the use of mustard seed, by
spoonfuls, ad libiţum, was a common and
fashionable remedy in torpor or atomy of the
digestive organs. The practice was a revival
of that recommended by Dr. Cullen; but it
has now again sunk into disuse. Sir John
Sinclair also approved of the use of mustard


784
MUSTINESS—NAILS.
seed in this way, especially for the preserva-
tion of the health of the aged. (‘Lancet,’
Jan., 1834.) See PouTTICES, &c.
Mustard for the Table. The common prac-
tice of preparing mustard for the table with
vinegar, or still more, with boiling water, ma-
terially checks the development of those pecu-
liar principles on which its pungency or
strength almost entirely depends. To econo-
mise this substance, we should use lukewarm
water only; and when flavouring matter is to
be added to it, this is better deferred until
after the paste is made. The following forms
for ‘made mustard’ are much esteemed for
their flavour :—
Prep. 1. Mustard (ground), 3% lbs. ; water,
q. S. to form a stiff paste; in hour, add of
common salt (rubbed very fine), 1 lb.; with
vinegar, grape juice, lemon juice, or white
wine, q. S. to reduce it to a proper consistence.
2. To the last add a little soluble cayenne
pepper or essence of cayenne.
3. (Lenormand.) Best flour of mustard,
2 lbs. ; fresh parsley, chevril, celery, and tar-
ragon, of each, 3 oz. ; garlic, 1 clove; 12 Salt
anchovies; (all well chopped;) grind well to-
gether, add of salt, 1 oz. ; grape juice or sugar,
q. s. to sweeten; with sufficient water to form
the mass into a thinnish paste by trituration
in a mortar. When put into pots, a red-hot
poker is to be thrust into each, and a little
vinegar afterwards poured upon the surface.
4. (MoUTARDE A L’ESTRAGON.) From black
mustard seed (gently dried until friable, and
then finely powdered), 1 lb. ; salt, 2 oz. ; tar-
ragon vinegar, q. S. to mix.
the French prepare several other “mustards,”
by employing vinegars flavoured with the re-
spective substances, or walnut or mushroom
ketchup, or the liquors of the richer pickles.
5. (MoUTARDE SUPERBE.) Salt, 1% lb. ;
scraped horseradish, 1 lb.; garlic, 2 cloves;
boiling vinegar, 2 galls.; macerate in a covered
vessel for 24 hours, strain, and add of flour of
mustard, q. S.
6. (Patent.) Black ginger (bruised), 12 lbs;
common salt, 18 lbs. ; water, 15 galls, ; boil,
strain, and add to each gallon, flour of mus-
tard, 5 lbs.
MUSTARD LEAVES (Rigollot's) are made by
spreading moistened mustard on paper, and
drying.
MUS/TINESS.
WINEs.
MUTAGE. The term applied to the “match-
ing” of grape must to arrest the progress of
fermentation. See ANTIFERMENT, MATCHES, &c.
MUTTON. The flesh of sheep. That of the
first quality is “between four and five years
old; but at present it is rarely got above
three, and often under two. The flesh ought
to be of a darkish, clear, red colour, the fat
firm and white, the meat short and tender
when pinched, and it ought not to be too fat.”
The flesh of the “Southdown wether’ is es-
teemed the finest flavoured. Mutton is one
See MALT LIQUORS and
In a similar way
of the most wholesome of the ‘red meats |
and in commercial importance is second Only
to beef.
MYC0SE. A peculiar variety of sugar, &
tracted by alcohol from ergot of rye. It Crys
tallises in colourless prisms, and is disti,
guished from cane sugar by not reducing the
acetate of copper, when boiled with a with
of that salt. -
MYRICIN. The portion of bees' wax which
is least soluble in alcohol, and Saponified with
difficulty. |
MYRISTIC ACID. HC, H2O3. A monobait
fatty acid, obtained by the saponification ºf
myristin. It melts at 120° Fahr.
MYRISTIN. Cº. HsOg. Syn. SERIGINT
The white, Solid portion of the expressed ºil
of nutmegs, which is insoluble in cold alcohºl
See MYRISTIC ACID.
MYROLES. In French pharmacy, solutions
of oleaginous or resinous substances in th:
volatile oils.
MYRON'IC ACID. H.CoPIs NS,0m. Bus
has given this name to an inodorous, bittº, ,
non-crystallisable acid, obtained by him from
black mustard, in which it exists as myromat.
of potassium. It is soluble in water and alcohºl
MYROSIN. Syn. EMULSIN OF BLACK MI5
TARD. A name given by Bussy to a peculi:
substance, soluble in water, and which pſy
sesses the power of converting myronic acidi
the presence of water, into the volatile oilſ
mustard seed.
MYROSPERMIN. The name given iſ
Richter to the portion of the oil of balsam ;
Peru, which is soluble in alcohol.
MYR0XIIIN. The name given by Richū
to the portion of the oil of balsam of Peru whil
is insoluble in alcohol. By oxygenation, iſ
forms myroxilic acid.
MYRRH. Syn. MYRRHA (B. P., Ph.L.).
& D.), L. “ Gum resin exuded from the bat.
of Balsamodendron myrrha.” (B.P., Ph.L.)
Pur.—1. Triturate a small quantity of tº
powder of the suspected myrrh with an ed
amount of chloride of ammonium, adding
water, gradually; if the whole is readily dis
solved, the myrrh is genuine; otherwise it
sophisticated with some inferior substanº
(Righini.)—2. When incinerated, it shouldn'
leave more than 3} to 4% of ashes.
Uses, &c. Myrrh is a stimulating aromati.
bitter and tonic, and is given in severaldi
eases accompanied by relaxation and debility;
especially in excessive secretions from tº
mucous membranes, and in disorders of the
digestive organs. Eaternally, as an ingredieſ:
in dentrifices and rashes, in caries of the teeth,
spongy and ulcerated gums, &c. Dose. 10t
30 grs. ; either alone or combined with aloesſ
chalybeates.
NAILS (The) should be kept clean by tº
daily use of the mail-brush and soap-and-wattſ
After wiping the hands, but whilst they aw
still soft from the action of the water, the



NANKEEN–NAPHTHALIN.
785
skin, which is apt to grow over the nails,
should be gently loosened and pressed back,
which will not only preserve them neatly
rounded, but will prevent the skin cracking
around their roots (agnails, nail-springs), and
becoming sore. The free ends or points of the
nails should be pared about once a week; and
biting them should be particularly avoided, as
being at once destructive to their beauty and
usefulness. “The (free) edge of the scarf-
skin should never be pared, the surface of
the nail never scaped, or the nails cleaned with
any instrument whatever saving the nail-
brush.” (Eras. Wilson.)
The consequences of wearing a shoe that is
obviously too short for the foot are thus de-
scribed by the above authority. “In this case
Nature gives us warning, by means of her
agent, pain, that such a proceeding is contrary
to her laws. We stop our ears, and get accus-
tomed to the pain, which, perhaps, is not
severe, and soon goes off; the shoes get a
scolding for their malice, and we forget all
about it for a time.
her course to suit the convenience of thought-
less man P. No, no. In a short time we find
that the nail, intercepted in its forward
course, has become unusually thick and hard,
and has spread out so much upon the sides,
that it is now growing into the flesh, and so
makes a case for the doctor. Or, perhaps, the
continuance of pressure may have inflamed
the sensitive skin at the root, and caused a sore
and painful place there. And instances are by
no means infrequent in which the power of
production of the nail at the root becomes
entirely abrogated, and then it grows in thick-
ness only.”
When the nails are stained or discoloured, a
little lemon juice, or vinegar-and-water, is the
best application. Occasionally a litle pumice-
stone, in impalpable powder, or a little ‘putty
powder,’ may be used along with water and a
piece of soft leather or flannel for the same pur-
pose. The frequent employment of these sub-
stances is, however, injurious to the healthy
growth of the nail.
NANKEEN’. The coloured cotton cloth
which bears this name was originally brought
from Nankin, the ancient capital of China,
and was prepared from a native cotton, of a
brownish-yellow hue. It is now successfully
imitated in England, and at the present time
the English manufacturers supply the Canton
market. In this country the colour is gene-
rally given to the cloth by successive baths of
sulphate of iron and crude carbonate of soda or
lime water.
NANKEEN DYE. The liquid sold under
this name in the shops is a solution of annotta.
It is employed to dye white calicoes of a man-
keen colour; but chiefly to restore the colour
of faded nankeen clothing.
NAPH'THA. Syn. MINERAL NAPHTHA;
NAPHTHA, L. A name given to the limpid
and purer varieties of PETROLEUM (which see),
But does Nature check
or ROCK OFL, which exudes from the surface of
the earth in various parts of the world.
Prop. Naphtha possesses a penetrating
odour and a yellow colour, but may be ren-
dered colourless by distillation; it usually
begins to boil at a temperature of about 180°
Fahr.; bnt, being a mixture of several different
hydrocarbons, it has no fixed boiling-point; it
is very inflammable; it does not mix with
water, but imparts to that fluid its peculiar
taste and smell; mixes with alcohol and oils,
and dissolves sulphur, phosphorus, camphor,
iodine, most of the resins, wax, fats, and sper-
maceti; and forms with caoutchouc a gela-
tinous varnish, which dries with very great
difficulty.
Pur. Mineral naphtha is very frequently
adulterated with oil of turpentine, a fraud
which may be detected by—1. The addition
of some oil of vitriol, which will, in that case,
thicken and darken it.—2. Hydrochloric acid
gas passed through the liquid for an hour will
occasion the formation of hydrochlorate of
camphine, either at once or after a few hours'
repose, even if only 5% of oil of turpentine is
present. (Dr. Bolley.)—3. If a few grains of
iodide of potassium and a little water are
rubbed with tha suspected sample, the colour
of the water should continue unchanged; the
presence of ºrth part of oil of turpentine will
cause it to assume a red or orange colour.
(Saladin.)
Uses. Naphtha is chiefly employed for the
purposes of illumination, as a solvent for India
rubber, and in the preparation of a very supe-
rior black pigment. It has been highly spoken
of as a remedy for cholera, by Dr. Andreo-
sky, a Russian physician. See PETROLEUM,
and below.
Naphtha, Coal-tar. Syn. NAPHTHA, COAL
N. A mixture of volatile hydrocarbons, ob-
tained by distilling coal-tar. It is one of the
first products which comes over, and flows
from the still as crude coal naphtha. To ob-
tain rectified coal naphtha, this crude liquid
is distilled, and the product agitated with 10%
of concentrated sulphuric acid; when cold,
the mixture is treated with 5% of peroxide of
manganese, and the upper portion is submitted
to further distillation. The specific gravity
of this purified product is 850. It is exten-
tively used as a solvent of caoutchouc, and
other allied substances, also of resins for the
preparation of varnishes. By repeated puri-
fication and fractional distillation, benzol, the
chief and most important constituent of coal
naphtha, is obtained. See BENZOLE.
Naphtha, Wood. See PYROxYLIC SPIRIT.
NAPH"THALIN. Clo Ho. Syn. NAPH-
THALINE, NAPHTHALENE. A white crystal-
lizable, odorous, volatile substance, obtained
from coal-tar.
Prep. The last portion of the volatile oily
product is collected separately, and allowed to
repose, when crude maphthalin separates in
the solid state. By pushing the distillation



50
786 NAPLES YELLOW-NECTAR.
until the residuum in the still begins to char,
a further portion of dark-coloured naphthalin
may be obtained. It is purified by resublima-
tion a second, or even a third time.
Prop., &c. Soluble in alcohol and ether;
slightly soluble in boiling water; melts at
176° Fahr.; boils at 413°; highly inflam-
mable, burning with a red and Smoky flame;
with sulphuric acid, it unites to form sulpho-
naphthalic acid. By the action of nitric acid
upon naphthalin, numerous substances may be
formed, the most interesting being nitro-
naphthalin. Naphthalin has lately been ex-
tensively employed as a stimulating expecto-
rant. Dose. 5 to 20 grs. ; or, preferably, }
gr., frequently. Easternally, made into an
ointment, in dry tetters, psoriasis, &c.
NA/PLES YEI/IOW. See YELLOW PIG-
IMIENTS.
NAR/CEIA. Cºriº NO, Syn. NARCEINA,
NARCEIA. A peculiar substance discovered by
Pelletier in opium. It is obtained from the
aqueous solution of opium, after it has been
freed from morphia, and narcotina by am-
monia, by adding to it hydrate of lime, or pre-
ferably, baryta. On boiling the filtered solu-
tion to expel the ammonia, and evaporating
the liquid, crystals of narceine are gradually
deposited. It may be purified by solution in
hot alcohol and recrystallisation.
Prop., &c. White, silky, acicular prisms;
neutral; inodorous; bitter; pungent; soluble
in 375 parts of water at 60°, and in 230 parts
at 212° Fahr. ; insoluble in ether; does not
neutralize the acids, and is destitute of basic
properties. It is distinguished from morphia
by its easier fusibility (198°), and by forming
a blue liquid with the dilute mineral acids,
which on gradual dilution changes to violet
and rose red, and ultimately becomes colour-
less. It does not strike a blue colour with
ferric chloride, like morphia, but forms a
blue compound with iodine which is decom.
posed by boiling water. It appears to be inert,
and has not been applied to any useful
purpose.
NARCOTICS. Syn. STUPEFACIENTS; NAR-
COTICA, STUPEFACIENTIA, L. Medicines which
produce drowsiness, sleep, and stupor. In
small doses, narcotics mostly act as stimulants,
but in larger ones they produce calmness of
mind, drowsiness, and torpor; and in poisonous
doses, delirium, coma, and death. The general
objects in the administration of these agents
are the production of sleep and the alleviation
of pain. Their action is modified to a greater
degree by idiosyncracy and habit than that of,
perhaps, any other class of medicines. Hence
the care necessary in their administration.
Alcohol, camphor, chloroform, chloral hydrate,
ether, foxglove, hemlock, henbane, morphia,
opium, and tobacco, are narcotics.
NAR/COTINA, C, H2:NOz. Syn. NARCO-
TINE, L.; SEL D’OPIUM, MATIERE DE DE-
ROSNE, Fr. A peculiar crystalline substance,
found by Derosne in opium, and on which its
stimulant property was at first supposed tº
depend.
Prep. 1. From opium exhausted of solul
matter by cold water, by treating it with Wal:
acidulated with acetic or hydrochloric acid, i.
tering, neutralizing with ammonia, and is
solving the washed precipitate in boiliº
alcohol; the narcotine is deposited as tº
liquid cools, and may be purified by solutil
in ether.
2. By acting on opium, previously exhaust:
by cold water, with ether,
Prop., &c. White, inodorous, fluted .
striated prisms; neutral to test paper; it
soluble in cold water; sparingly soluble iſ
boiling water; freely soluble in boiling alcºl
and in ether. It is only feebly basic.
Narcotine is distinguished from morphia
its insipidity, solubility in ether, insolubility
alkalies, giving an orange tint to nitric acil
and a greasy stain to paper when heated On:
over a candle. Another test for narcotina, si
by Orfila to be characteristic, is to add tº
little of the suspected substance a drop or tº
of oil of vitriol, and then to add a very sm
fragment of nitrate of potassium; the liqi.
speedily acquires a deep blood-red colour
nicotina is present. Morphia treated in tº
same way strikes a brown or olive-green colºſ.
Obs. The physiological action of º
is differently stated by different authoritis
1. gr. of it, dissolved in olive oil, killed a dº
in 24 hours; but 24 grs. dissolved in aſ:
acid were given with impunity. (Magends
In the solid state it is inert ; 129 grs, at adº
scarcely produce any obvious effects. (Ball,
Scruple doses have been given without inju
(Dr. Roots.) It has been recently propº
as a substitute for quinine in the cure
agues. For this purpose the sulphate or hydrº
chlorate is preferable. 200 cases of intº
mittent and remittent fevers have been tº
successfully treated in India. (Dr. º:
messy.)—Dose, 3 to 10 grs, as an antiper
sedative, &c.
Turkey opium contains about 14, and ſº
Indian opium, about 3}, of narcotine,
NATRIUM. See SODIUM. -
NATR0N. Native carbonate of soda,
NAU/SEA. See SICKNESs. -
NAU'SEANTS, Syn. NAUSEANTIA, L. S.
stances which induce an inclination to vomi
without effecting it. See EMETICS.
NEC/TAR. The fabled drink of the my
thological deities. The name was formſ
given to wine dulcified with honey; it is nº
occasionally applied to other sweet and plº
sant beverages of a stimulating *
The following LIQUEURS are so called:—
Prep. 1. Chopped raisins, 21bs. ; loafsugº
4 lbs. ; boiling water, 2 galls. ; mix, and sº
frequently until cold, then add 2 lemº
sliced; proof spirit (brandy or rum), 3 pins
macerate in a covered vessel for 6 or 7 day;
occasionally shaking, next strain with pressuſ
and let the strained liquid stand in a tº

NEGUS—NEUTRALIZATION. 787
place for a week to clear; lastly, decant the
clear portion, and bottle it.
2. Red ratifia, 3 galls. ; oils of cassia and
carraway, of each, 25 drops; (dissolved in)
brandy, # pint ; orange wine, 1 gall. ; sliced
oranges, 6 in no. ; lump sugar, 2 lbs. ; macerate
for a week, decant and bottle. See ARRACK
(Factitious).
NE/GUS. A well-known beverage, so named
after its originator and patron, Colonel Negus.
It is made of either port or sherry wine, mixed
with about twice its bulk of hot water, sweet-
ened with lump sugar, and flavoured with a
little lemon juice and grated nutmeg, and a
small fragment only of the yellow peel of the
lemon. The addition of about 1 drop of essence
of ambergris, or 8 or 10 drops of essence of
vanilla, distributed between about a dozen
glasses, improves it.
NEPEN'THE. A drink calculated to banish
the remembrance of grief. In the “Odyssey”
Homer describes Helen as administering it to
Telemachus. Nothing is known respecting
the composition of the ancient nepenthe. The
name is applied to a preparation of opium by
many old writers, and is now employed by a
Bristol firm to designate a preparation re-
sembling in all essential points Battley’s
* LIQUOR OPII SEDATIVUS.’
NER/WOUSNESS. The indescribable de-
rangement of health, and the complication of
disagreeable sensations which are popularly
described under this name, quite as much de-
serve the serious attention of both patient and
physician as any other affection to which the
human frame is liable. Although, in itself,
not a definite disease, it is indicative of the
vital system being out of order, that its
energies are failing or overtasked, and that
the functions of some of its organs are lan-
guidly or imperfectly performed. This condi-
tion, if not removed, may gradually lead to the
development of actual disease, and imperil life
if the conditions whereon it is dependent be
not detected and subdued.
The treatment of nervousness consists mainly
in restoring the healthy action of the stomach
and bowels, and in the use of proper exercise,
especially in the open air. The stomach should
not be overloaded with indigestible food, and
the bowels should be occasionally relieved by
the use of some mild aperient. Mental as
well as bodily relaxation should be sought,
and the pleasures, without the vices of society,
should be indulged in as discretion and incli-
nation may direct. Abernethy’s injunction to
a nervous and dyspeptic lady, “Dismiss your
servants, madam, and make your own beds,”
should be recollected by all, and may be taken
as a proof of the importance that eminent
surgeon attached to exercise; his advice to the
indolent and nervous dyspeptic should not be
forgotten, “Live on sixpence a day—and earn
it.” See ExPRCISE, FLATULENCE, HYPOCHON-
DRIASIS, HYSTERICS, INDIGESTION, &c.
NESSLER'S TEST for ammonia, &c. This, the
most delicate test for ammonia, was devised by
Nessler. It is prepared by saturating a solu-
tion of iodide of potassium with the biniodide
of mercury, and then adding a weak solution
of hydrate of sodium. The addition of a few
drops of this solution, to one containing am-
monia, produces a yellowish tint when only a
trace of ammonia is present, but a dark brown
precipitate when the ammonia is present in
larger quantity. The composition of the pre-
cipitate may be represented thus: NHg21.
A modification of this test is applied to the
detection of wood spirit in common alcohol.
A dilute solution of the iodides in question
in pure alcohol is formed, in the proportion of
2 or 3 grs. of the salts to 100 c.c. of alcohol.
About 4 c.c. of the suspected alcohol are taken,
to which are added 2 or 3 drops of the best
solution, a few drops of alcoholic ammonia,
and lastly, a little alcoholic potash; if wood
spirit be present, the solution will remain clear,
but if the alcohol be pure, the characteristic
reddish brown precipitate will appear. The
precipitate is soluble in acetone, which is
always present in wood spirit.
NET/TLE RASH. See RASHES.
NEURAL(GIA. Literally, pain in a nerve.
“Various parts of the body are liable to be
affected with excruciating pain, which is quite
independent of any inflammation of the part,
and which may often be traced in the course
of the nerves.” These affections constitute
neuralgia. One of the most distressing forms
of this disease is FACTAT, NEURALGIA or TIC
Doulou REUX (NEURALGIA FACIALIS), which,
when it assumes a marked intermittent cha-
racter, is popularly known as “FACE AGUE.”
Sometimes it attacks the nerves of the female
breast; or those of the hand, feet, hip, or
loins, in which cases it is often confounded
with acute rheumatism of those parts, occur-
ring towards the inner extremity of the eye-
brow and extending over the forehead, it is
known as “Brow-ague.”
The treatment, when neuralgia is symp-
tomatic of any other affection, must be directed
to the primary disease. When it is idiopathic,
or an independent affection, powerful tonic
medicines and powerful local counter-irritation
are generally found the most successful reme-
dies. Of tonics, carbonate of iron and bark
(both in very large doses) are generally pre-
ferred; the last, more particularly when the
affection is of an intermittent kind. As a
counter-irritant, caustic ammonia has been
much relied on. When all other means fail, a
current of mild streaming electricity through
the part will often give immediate relief. In
the present day quinine in large doses is much
depended on, although the affection should not
present the intermittent type.
NEUTRALIZATION. The admixture of
an alkali or base with an acid in such propor-
tions that neither shall predominate. A neutral
compound neither turns red litmus paper blue,
nor blue litmus paper red.

788 - NICKEL.
NICK'EL. Ni. Syn. NICKELIUM, L. A
metal obtained from kupfermickel, a native
arsenide of nickel found in Westphalia; also
from nickel-speiss, an impure arsenio-sulphide
of nickel left after the manufacture of cobalt
blue from its ores.
Prep. The powdered ore is roasted first by
itself, and next with charcoal powder, until all
the arsenic is expelled, and a garlic odour
ceases to be evolved; the residuum is mixed
with sulphur, 3 parts, and potassium hydrate,
1 part, and the compound is melted in a crucible
with a gentle heat ; the fused mass, when cold,
is reduced to powder, edulcorated with water,
dissolved in sulphuric acid mixed with a little
nitric acid, and precipitated with potassium
carbonate; the precipitate (nickelous carbonate)
is washed, dried, mixed with powdered char-
coal, and, lastly, reduced by the heat of a
powerful furnace.
When nickel predominates in the ore, after
the arsenic, iron, and copper have been sepa-
rated, ammonia is digested in the mixed nick-
elous and cobaltous oxides, and the resulting
blue solution, after dilution with boiled pure
water, is treated with potassium hydrate until
the colour disappears, when the whole is put
into an air-tight vessel, and set it aside for
some time. The powder (nickelous hydrate)
which subsides, after edulcoration, is mixed
with charcoal, and reduced by fusion in a
crucible containing some crown glass.
On the small scale, for chemical purposes,
pure nickel is best obtained by moderately
heating nickelous oxalate in a covered crucible
lined with charcoal.
Prop. White; hard; malleable; magnetic;
capable of receiving the lustre of silver;
sp. gr., when hammered, about 8:82; fusibility
between that of manganese and iron; it is not
oxidized in the air; and is little attacked by
dilute acids unless when nitric acid is present;
this last acid dissolves it freely. With the
acids, &c., it forms numerous compounds, most
of which may be prepared by the direct solu-
tion of the carbonate. A specimen of the
metal reduced from the pure oxide in a current
of hydrogen was beautifully white and silvery :
its sp. gr. was 8-575, and it was almost as soft
as copper.
Tests. The salts of nickel in the anhydrous
state are for the most part yellow; when hy-
drated, green, and furnish solutions possessing
a pale-green colour. Solutions of its salts
exhibit the following reactions:–Alkaline hy-
drates give a pale apple-green precipitate, in-
soluble in excess, but soluble in a solution of car-
bonate of ammonium, yielding a greenish-blue
liquid. Ammonia gives a similar precipitate,
soluble in excess, yielding a deep purplish-blue
solution. The presence of ammonium salts or
free acids interferes with this reaction. Cyan-
ide of potassium produces a green precipitate,
soluble in excess, forming an amber-coloured
liquid, which is reprecipitated by hydrochloric
acid. This last precipitate is scarcely soluble
in excess of the acid in the cold, but readilys
upon boiling the liquid. Ferrocyanide of p.
tassium gives a greenish-white precipitate. Sul.
phuretted hydrogen occasions no change iſ
solutions of nickel containing free mineral
acid; but in alkaline solutions gives a black
precipitate. Sulphide of ammonium in neutral
solutions gives a black precipitate, soluble with
difficulty in hydrochloric acid; but freely
soluble in aqua regia.
JEstim. Nickel may be thrown down from
its ore in the form of either carbonate or hy.
drate, and after ignition may be weighed as
oxide, each grain of which is equal to . gr. ºf
pure nickel; or, more accurately, '7871 gr,
According to Rose, nickel may be separated
from cobalt as follows:—The mixed metals
are dissolved in considerable excess of hydrº
chloric acids, and the solution is diluted with
a very large quantity of water; a current ºf
chlorine is then passed through the liquor fºr
several hours, and the upper part of the flail
is left filled with the gas after the current his
ceased; barium carbonate is next added, in
excess, the whole digested together, with frº.
quent agitation for 15 or 18 hours, and the
thrown on a filter. The filtrate yields put
nickelous oxide by precipitation with hydrateſ:
potassium; whilst the residuum on the filter
after being washed in water, dissolved in hiſ
hydrochloric acid, and the barium precipi.
tated with sulphuric acid, furnishes, with
hydrate of potassium, a precipitate of cobaltº
hydrate, free from nickel, which, when washed
and dried, is reduced in a platinum or porceláil
crucible by hydrogen gas.
Uses. Nickel is chiefly employed in tº
manufacture of German silver. Some of its
salts have been recently introduced into media
practice, and appear likely to prove most valuaik
additions to the materia medica. It has alsº
been recently used for deposition by electrolysis
on other metals, forming a hard, brilliant, nº
tarnishing coating. -
Nick'elous Ac'etate. Ni(C3H2O), sº
NICKELII ACETAS, L. Prep. By neutralit
ing acetic acid with nickelous carbonate, and
gently concentrating by evaporation, so thiſ
crystals may form. Small green *
soluble in 6 parts of water.
Nickelous Car"bonate. NiCO3. Syn. NICKE
LIT CARBONAS, L. Prep. This salt may be
obtained in the manner described above in
connection with the preparation of metaliº
nickel, or by simply adding carbonate of sodium
to a solution of nickelous chloride or sulphatº,
but in this case some hydrate is precipitated
along with it. The following is another
formula which produces a nearly pure carbon.
ate, but one which may still contain a little
cobalt, the entire separation of which is a
matter of extreme difficulty, and can best be
effected in the manner recommended by Rosſ,
described above:-
The mineral (crude speiss or kupfernicke)
is broken into small fragments, mixed with









NICKEL SILVER—NIGHTMARE.
789
from one fourth to one half its weight of
iron filings, and the whole dissolved in aqua
regia; the solution is gently evaporated to
dryness, the residue treated with boiling water,
and the insoluble ferrous arseniate removed by
filtration; the liquid is next acidulated with
hydrochloric acid, treated with sulphuretted
hydrogen, in excess, to precipitate the copper,
and, after filtration, is boiled with a little nitric
acid, to bring back the iron into ferric salts;
to the cold and largely diluted liquid a solution
of bicarbonate of sodium is gradually added, and
the ferric oxide separated by filtration; lastly,
the filtered solution is boiled with carbonate of
sodium in excess, and the pale green pre-
cipitate of carbonate collected, washed, and
dried.
Uses, &c. It is freely soluble in the acids,
and is chiefly employed to prepare the salts
and other compounds of nickel.
Nickelous Chlo"ride. NiCl2. Syn. NICKELII
CHLORIDUM, L. Prep. From nickelous car-
bonate and hydrochloric acid, as the acetate.
Small green crystals, of the formula NiCl2,9Aq.,
which are rendered yellow and anhydrous by
heat, unless they contain cobalt, when the salt
retains a tint of green.
Dou BLE CHLORIDES. Nickelous chloride
unites with the chlorides of ammonium, potas-
sium, and sodium, to form pale green crystal-
lizable salts, which have been used for deposit-
ing nickel in iron, lead, copper, &c.
Nickelous Hydrate. Ni(HO)s. By preci-
pitating a soluble salt of nickel with caustic
potassa. Hydrated. An ash-gray powder,
freely soluble in acids, forming the ordinary
salts of nickel.
Nickelous Oxalate. NiC,0ſ. Syn. NICKELII
OXALAs, L. Prep. By adding a strongsolution
of oxalic acid to a like solution of nickelous
sulphate, and collecting the pale bluish-green
precipitate which forms after a time. Used to
prepare both metallic nickel and its oxide.
Nickelous Oxide. NiO. Syn. PROTOXIDE OF
NICKEL. Prep. 1. By heating the nitrate,
carbonate, or oxalate, to redness in open vessels.
Anhydrous.
Nickelic Oxide. NiO3. Syn. SESQUIoxIDE
OF NICKEL, PEROXIDE OF NICKET. Prep. By
passing chlorine through water holding the
hydrate in suspension; or by mixing a salt of
nickel with bleaching powder. An insoluble,
black powder, which is decomposed by heat.
Nickelous Sulphate. NiSO4. Syn. SUL-
PHATE OF NICKEL. Prep. Dissolve nickelous
carbonate or oxide in dilute sulphuric acid,
evaporate down, and crystallize. Pale green
prismatic crystals, and of the formula NiSO4,
7Aq., or small pale green octrahedrous, when
crystallized at a higher temperature, contain-
ing NiSO4,6Aq.
Nickelous and Potassium Sulphate. NiSO,
K-SO1,6Aq. Syn. Dou BLE SULPHATE OF
NICKEL AND POTASSIUM. Prep. By crystal-
lizing a mixture of nickelous and potassium
sulphates. Pale green crystals, readily soluble
in water. Sodium and ammonium sulphates
form similar compounds with nickelous sulphate.
INICK'EI, SIL'WER. See GERMAN SILVER.
NIC'OTINE, Nicotina. Clo BiNs. Syn. NI-
COTIA, L. A volatile base, discovered by
Reiman and Posselt in tobacco.
Prep. (Ortigosa.) Infuse tobacco leaves for
24 hours in water acidulated with sulphuric
acid, strain, evaporate to a syrup, add of
its volume of a strong solution of potassa, and
distil in an oil bath at 288°, occasionally add-
ing a little water to assist the process, and
prevent the too great concentration of the so-
lution of potassa in the retort; next saturate
the distilled product with oxalic acid, evapo-
rate to dryness, digest in boiling absolute alco-
hol, evaporate the resulting tincture to a syrup,
and decompose the oxalate of nicotine thus
obtained by adding potassa to it in a close
vessel, and agitate the mass with ether, re-
peating the process with more ether until all
the nicotine is dissolved out ; lastly, distil the
mixed ethereal solution in an oil bath. At
first ether comes over, then water, and, lastly,
nicotina, which, towards the end of the process,
assumes a yellowish tint.
2. (Schloesing.) This chiefly differs from
the preceding by directing the concluding dis-
tillation to be conducted in a retort, by the
heat of an oil bath, at the temperature of
284° Fahr., in a current of hydrogen, for
12 hours; after which, by raising the heat to
356° Fahr., the nicotine distils over pure, drop
by drop.
Prop., &c. Nicotina is a colourless, volatile
liquid; highly acrid and pungent; smelling
strongly of tobacco; boiling at 375° Fahr.
(482°–Pereira); soluble in water, ether, al-
cohol, and oils; and combining with the acids,
forming salts, many of which are crystallizable.
It is a frightful poison; } of a drop will kill
a rabbit; a single drop will kill a large dog.
Nicotina is the substance which was employed
by the Count Bocarmé for the purpose of pois-
oning his brother-in-law, Gustave Fougnies,
the particulars of which were developed in the
celebrated trial, in Belgium, of that nobleman,
in 1851. Good Virginia and Kentucky to-
bacco, dried at 212°Fahr., contain from 6% to
} of nicotina; Havannah tobacco (cigars) less
than 2%. (Schloesing.)
NIGHTMARE. Syn. INCUBUS, EPHIALTEs,
L. The common causes of nightmare are indi-
gestion and the use of marcotic and intoxicat-
ing substances. Its prevention consists in the
selection of proper food, and in duly attend-
ing to the state of the stomach and bowels.
Heavy and late suppers should be particularly
avoided, as well as all articles of diet that are
of difficult digestion, or apt to induce flatu-
lency. When it arises from strong drink, to-
bacco, or opium, these should be abandoned, or
employed in smaller quantities. A teaspoonful
of aromatic spirits of ammonia, magnesia, or
bicarbonate of soda, taken in a glass of cold
water on going to bed, is a good and simple



790
NIGHTSHADE-NITRIC ACID
preventive. In cases accompanied by restless-
mess, a few drops of laudanum or tincture of
henbane may be added. An occasional ape-
rient is also excellent. See CHAMOMILE.
NIGHT'SHADE (Deadly). Syn. BELLADONNA
(B. P., Ph. L. E. & D.). “The leaf, fresh and
dried (leaves and root—Ph. D.), of Afropa
belladonna, Linn.” “The fresh leaves and
branches to which they are attached; also the
leaves separate from the branches, carefully
dried, of Atropa belladonna, gathered, when
the fruit has begun to form, from wild or cul-
tivated plants in Britain” (B. P.). “Oval,
acute, very perfect, glabrous, when bruised
exhaling a disagreeable odour. The herb which
grows spontaneously in hedges and unculti-
vated places is to be preferred to that which
is cultivated in gardens.” (Ph. L.)
Belladonna is a powerful narcotic, and is used
as an anodyne, antispasmodic, and discutient,
in a variety of diseases, neuralgia, arthritic
pains, migratory rheumatic pains, spasmodic
rigidity and strictures, angina pectoris, hoop-
ing-cough, fevers, phthisis, &c.; also as a pro-
phylactic of Scarlet fever, as a resolvent in
enlarged and indurated glands, to produce di-
latation of the pupil, &c., &c.—Dose. Of the
powder, commencing with 1. gr., gradually and
cautiously increased until dryness of the throat
or dilation of the pupil occurs, or the head is
affected. See ATROPIA.
NIGHTSHADE (Woody). Syn. BITTER.
SWEET ; DULCAMARA (B. P., Ph. L. E. & D.),
L. The “new shoots (caules) of Solanum
Dulcamara, Linn.” “The dried young
branches of the Solanum Dulcanara (Bitter-
sweet), from indigenous plants which have shed
their leaves” (B. P.). “It is to be collected
in autumn, after the leaves have fallen.” (Ph.
L.) Diaphoretic, diuretic, and (in large doses)
narcotic. See INFUSION OF DULCAMARA.
NIO'BIUM. See TANTALUM.
NIP'PLES (Sore). The most common form
of this affection is that termed “chapped nip-
ples,” by nurses. As a preventive measure,
the part may be moistened morning and even-
ing, for some weeks before the period of lacta-
tion, with a little rum or brandy, which is
more effective if slightly acidulated with a
few drops of dilute sulphuric acid. Some per-
sons employ tincture of tolu, or compound
tincture of benzoin (Friar's balsam) for this
purpose.
When chaps, cracks, or like sores, arising
from lactation, are once developed, one of the
safest and most effective remedies is tincture of
catechu, applied 3 or 4 times a day, by means
of a camel-hair pencil.
The celebrated nostrum of Liebert for cracked
nipples, “Cosmétique infaillibleet prompt contre
les gergures ou crevasses aux seins et autres,”
is a lotion formed of 10 grs. of nitrate of lead
dissolved in 4 fl. oz. of rose water, and tinged
with a little cochineal. The parts are moist-
ened with the liquid, and are then covered
with fine leaden nipple-shields, two of which
are provided for the purpose. This is repeated
soon after each time the child leaves the breast;
and the nipple is carefully washed with a soft
sponge and lukewarm water, and gently dabbed
dry with a very soft towel, before the infant is
again applied to it. This remedy is very suc-
cessful, and has acquired great popularity and
patronage in Brussels, Paris, Frankfort, and
other parts. It must be recollected, however,
that all applications of an active or poisonous
mature should be employed with the greatest
possible caution, as, unless unusual care istaken,
a portion of the remedy may remain concealed
within the delicate pores of the skin, and b8
sucked off by the infant, to the serious dis.
turbance of its health.
NITRAN'ILINE. This substance is obtained
by acting on nitrobenzol with a mixture of
fuming nitric acid and oil of vitriol ; Dimitr0.
benzol is formed, which is dissolved in alcohol,
and the resulting solution subjected to the re.
ducing action of ammonia and sulphuretted hy.
drogen, as described under aniline. Nitrami.
line forms yellow, acicular crystals, little so:
luble in cold water, but freely soluble in alcohol
and ether. Its salts are crystallizable.
NITRATE. Syn. NITRAs, L. A salt of
nitric acid (e. g. Aq.NO3, nitrate of silver).
The nitrates are very easily prepared by the
direct solution of the metal, or its oxide, or
carbonate, in nitric acid, which, in most cases,
should be previously diluted with water. By
evaporation, with the usual precautions, they
may be obtained either in the pulverulent Or
crystalline form.
The nitrates are characterised by deflagrát.
ing when thrown on red-hot coal, or when
heated in contact with inflammable substances
See NITRIC ACID, and the respective metals,
NITRE. Nitrate of Potassa. See POTASSA,
NITRIC ACID. HNO3. Syn. AZOTIC
ACID ; ACIDUM NITRICUM (B. P., Ph. L. E. &
D.); AQUAFORTIS.
Prep. 1. (Ph. E., and Ph. L. 1836.) Puri.
fied nitre (dried) and sulphuric acid, equal
parts; mix in a glass retort, and distil with
moderate heat, from a sand bath (or naked gas.
flame—Ph. E.) into a cool receiver, as long as
the fused materials continue to evolve vapours.
“The pale yellow acid thus obtained may be
rendered nearly colourless (if desired) by
gently heating it in a retort.” (Ph. E.) Sp.
gr. 1:500. In the present Ph. L. this acid
is included in the materia medica. (See
below.)
2. (Ph. D.) The nitrate of potassa is dis.
solved in water, the solution treated with a
little nitrate of silver, filtered, evaporated tº
dryness, weighed, and then treated as above.
3. Nitrate of soda (cubic nitre, Chili
saltpetre) is introduced, in quantities varying
between 4 and 10 lbs., into a cylindrical iron
retort, which it will only half fill, and after the
lid is luted on and the connection made with
the condensers, an equivalent of oil of vitriol
is poured in through an aperture provided for

NITRIC ACID,
791
the purpose, and the charge is worked off with
a gradually increased heat. The condensing
apparatus consists of a series of 5 or 6 salt-
glazed stoneware receivers, about ºth part
filled with cold water. The product of this
process is the strongest brown and fuming
* NITROUS ACID' of commerce (AQUAFORTIs,
FUMING NITRIC ACTD ; ACIDUM NITROSUM,
ACIDUM NITRICUM FUMANS), and has usually
the sp. gr. 1:45. It is rendered colourless by
gently heating it in a glass retort, when it
forms cow MERCIAL NITRIC ACID (sp. gr. 1:37
to 1-4.)
4. (PURE MONoHYDRATED NITRIC ACID.)
By mixing the strongest commercial acid with
about an equal quantity of oil of vitriol ; re-
distilling ; collecting apart the first portion
which comes over, and exposing it, in a vessel
slightly warmed and sheltered from the light,
to a current of dry air made to bubble through
it until the nitrous acid is completely re-
moved,
Prop. Pure liquid mitric acid is colourless,
highly corrosive, and possesses powerful acid
and oxygenizing properties. The sp. gr. of
the strongest liquid acid (monohydrated
nitric acid) has the sp. gr. 1:517 at 60°Fahr.
“On boiling nitric acid of different degrees of
concentration at the ordinary atmospheric
pressure, a residue is left boiling at 249°Fahr.,
and 29 in. barometer, having a sp. gr. 1414
at 60°Fahr.” (Fownes.) Acid of less density
than 1.414 parts with water, and gradually
becomes stronger by boiling; but acid of sp.
gr. than 1.414 is weakened by exposure to heat.
When exposed to intense cold, liquid nitric
acid freezes. It is rapidly decomposed, with
loss of oxygen, by contact with most organic
and many metallic and non-metallic bodies.
In many cases these reactions occur with con-
siderable violence, and the production of light
and heat.
Pur. The nitric acid of commerce is gene-
rally contaminated by hydrochloric acid, ni-
trous acid, sulphuric acid, or chlorine, or by
their soda or potassa salts, and, occasionally,
iodine, together with an excess of water. The
last is readily detected by the sp. gr., and the
others by the appropriate tests. “Colourless.
Contains 70% of HNO3. Sp. gr. 1:42. 90 grs.
by weight, mixed with 3 oz. of distilled water,
require for neutralisation 1000 grain measures
of the volumetric solution of soda. Evaporated,
it leaves no residue. Diluted with six volumes
of distilled water, it gives no precipitate with
chloride of barium or nitrate of silver—indi-
cating absence of sulphuric and hydrochloric
acids.” (B. P.) 5 measures of acid, sp. gr.
1.5 mixed with 2 of water, condensed into 6;
measures, and makes the sp. gr. 1:42. “Free
from colour. Sp. gr. 1'42. Exposed to the
air, it emits very acrid vapours. Totally volati-
lized by heat. Diluted with 3 times its volume
of water, it gives no precipitate with either
nitrate of silver or chloride of barium. 100 gr.
of this acid (sp. gr. 1'42) are saturated by 161
gr. of crystallized carbonate of soda.” (Ph.L.)
The Ph. E. states the density of commercial
nitric acid is 1.380 to 1.390. “If diluted
with distilled water, it precipitates but slightly,
or not at all, with solution of nitrate of baryta
or nitrate of silver.” The best ‘double aqua-
fortis' of the shops (aquafortis duplex) has
usually the sp. gr. 136; and the single aqua-
fortis’ (aquafortis simplex), the sp. gr. 1:22;
but both are commonly sold at much lower
strengths.
Tests.-1. It stains the skin yellow.—2.
When mixed with a little hydrochloric acid or
chloride of ammonium, it acquires the power
of dissolving gold leaf.-3. Morphia, brucia,
and strychnia, give it a red colour, which is
heightened by ammonia in excess.-4. When
placed in a tube, and a solution of protosul-
phate of iron is cautiously added, a dark colour
is developed at the line of junction, which is
distinctly visible when only grºwth part of
nitric acid is present. This test may be often
conveniently modified by dropping into the
liquid a crystal of protosulphate of iron. ; the
fluid immediately surrounding this crystal
then acquires a dark brown colour, which dis-
appears upon simple agitation of the fluid, or by
heating it.—5. When mixed with a weak solu-
tion of sulphate of indigo, and heated, the
colour of the latter is destroyed.—6. When
saturated with carbonate of potassium or
sodium, and evaporated to dryness, the resi-
duum deflagrates when thrown on burniug
coals.-7. When the mixture of a mitrate with
cyanide of potassium, in powder, is heated on
a piece of platinum, a vivid deflagration fol-
lows, attended with distinct ignition and de-
tonation. (Fresenius.)
The nitrates may all be tested as above by
first adding a small quantity of pure sulphuric
acid, which will liberate the mitric acid of the
salt.
Istim.-The strength of nitric acid may be
roughly estimated by its sp. gr. ; but more
accurately by ascertaining the amount of car-
bonate of sodium, or other salt of known com-
position, which is required to neutralize it.
To render the assay trustworthy, it must be, in
all cases, also tested to detect the presence of
impurities. See ACIDIMETRY.
Ant., &c. See ACIDS. -
Uses. Nitric acid is employed in assaying, in
dyeing, in etching on copper, in the preparation
of gun-cotton, oxalic and sulphuric acids, &c.
In medicine, it is used as a caustic to corns
and warts; and in doses of 1 to 10 drops, in a
tumbler of water, in liver complaints, fevers,
dyspepsia, syphilis, to remove the effects of
mercury, or as a substitute for that drug, &c.
Externally, it is employed in the form of baths,
lotions, and ointment. Dr. Collier states that
a strong lotion of mitric acidis almost a specific
in lepra, and several other kindred skin
diseases.
Concluding remarks.-The common source
of nitric acid is nitrate of potassium, but it may


792
NITRIC ANHYDRIDE-NITRO-BENZOL.
also be obtained from other nitrates by a
similar process. Nitrate of sodium is fre-
quently used instead of nitrate of potassium,
and is more convenient in some respects, as
the residuum is more easily dissolved out of
the retort or cylinder. The residuum of the
common process with nitre (‘sal emixum’) is
chiefly employed as a flux by the glass-houses,
and as a source of potash in the manufacture
of alum.
By proper management, nitre yields more
than 3 of its weight of pure mitric acid, sp. gr.
1:500; and nitrate of soda, its own weight of
acid, sp. gr. 14.
By the patent process of M. Mallet, dried
mitrate of soda is decomposed by dried or
monohydrated boracic acid, by heating the two
together. The products are liquid nitric acid,
which distils over, and biborate of soda (borax),
which remains in the retort.
The crude coloured nitric acid of commerce
(aquafortis) was originally prepared by dis-
tilling a mixture of nitre and copperas, and is
still sometimes obtained in this way.
The nitric acid of commerce may be freed
from the impurities alluded to above by one or
other of the following methods:–
1. By the addition of a little nitrate of silver,
as long as it produces any cloudiness, and,
after repose, decanting the clear acid, and
rectifying it at a heat under 212°. To ensure
a perfectly colourless product, a small portion
of pure black oxide of manganese should be put
into the retort. (Murray.)
2. By agitating the acid with a little red
oxide of lead, and then rectifying it, as before.
3. By adding 1% of bichromate of potassa to
the acid before rectifying it. This answers
well for acid not stronger than sp. gr.
1'48. -
4. By rectification at agentle heat, rejecting
the first portion that comes over, receiving
the middle portion as genuine acid, and leaving
a residuum in the retort. (Ure.)
According to Apjohn and others, the strongest
liquid nitric acid, sp. gr. 1520, is a mono-
hydrate ; that of the sp. gr. 1:500, a sesqui-
hydrate ; that of 1:486, a binhydrate; and
that of 1:244, a quadrihydrate ; or containing
respectively, 1, 1}, 2, and 4 atoms of water.
(See below.)
Nitric Acid, Anhy'drous, N.O.5. Syn.
NITRICANHYDRIDE. This interesting substance
was first obtained in a separate form by M.
Deville, in 1849.
Prep. (M. Deville.) Nitrate of silver is
dried by exposure to a current of dry carbonic
acid at a temperature of 356°Fahr., and the
tube containing it is then immersed in a water
bath heated to 203°Fahr. ; pure dry chlorine
gas is next passed through the apparatus, and,
as soon as the reaction commences, the tem-
perature is reduced to 154° or even 136°, but
not lower ; the production of crystals in the
receiver, which must be cooled by a powerful
freezing mixture, soon commences ; lastly, the
liquid portion of the product is removed by:
current of dry carbonic-acid gas.
Prop., &c.
Colourless prismatic crystals,
which melt at 86° Fahr., boil at about 115,
and at 122° begin to suffer decomposition;
added to water, much heat is generated; it
rapidly attacks organic bodies, even caOut.
chouc; sometimes it explodes spontaneously,
The process for its preparation is tedious and
difficult.
Nitric Acid, Dilute. ACIDUM NITRICUM DI.
LUTUM (B. P., Ph. L. E. & D.), L. Prep. 1.
(Ph. L.) Nitric acid (sp. gr. 1:42), 3 fl. 07:
distilled water, 17 fl. oz. ; mix. Sp. gr. 1.08%
“l fl. Oz. is saturated by 154 grs. of the crys.
tals of carbonate of soda.” It contains about
12% of pure anhydrous nitric acid.
2. (Ph. E.) Nitric acid (1:500), 1 fl. 0%;
distilled water, 9 fl. oz. Or, commercial nitriº
acid (1390), 1 fl. oz. 5% drs.; water, 9}, fl. 07
Sp. gr. 1.077. It contains 11.16% of pure dry
nitric acid.
3. (Ph. D.) Nitric acid (1:500), 4 fl. 0%;
water, 29 fl. Oz. Contains about 9.7% of pure
acid.
more. The above must not be confounded
with the acidum nitricum dilutum, Ph.D. 1826,
which had the sp. gr. 1280, nor with the fol.
lowing:—
4. (Henry’s.) Sp. gr. 1143; equal in Satu.
The above are used for convenience in
dispensing.—Dose. 15 drops to ; fl. dr., Or
rating power to hydrochloric acid sp. gr. 1074,
and sulphuric acid 1-135. Used in assaying,
5. (B. P.) Nitric acid, 6; distilled water
sufficient to make the mixture when cooled tº
60° Fahr., measure 31. Contains 15 per cent.
of anhydrous nitric acid. Test. Sp. gr. 1101.
Six fluid drachms (361.3 grains) by weight re.
quire for neutralisation 1000 grain measures of
the volumetric solution of soda, and, therefore,
contain exactly one equivalent in grains
of anhydrous acid, namely, 54 grs. Us!.
Tonic, astringent, lithomlytic.—Dose. 10 to 30
minims.
Nitric Acid, Fu’ming. Syn. NITROUS ACIDſ;
ACIDUM NITRICUM FUMANs, L. The rel
fuming nitrous or nitric acid of commerce is
simply nitric acid loaded with nitric peroxide
(which see). That of the Ph. Bor. is distilled
from nitre, 2 parts; oil of vitriol, 1 part.
NITRIC ANHYDRIDE. See NITRIC ACID,
ANHYDROUS.
NITRIC OX'IDE. See NITROGEN, OxIDESOF,
NITRITE. A salt of nitrous acid; e.g.
KNO3, nitrite of potassium.
NITR0-BENZOL. C.H.N.O. Prep. By
treating benzol with strong fuming nitric acid,
with heat ; after the violence of the reaction is
over, the liquid is diluted with water, and the
heavy oily fluid which separates is collected,
washed, and dried.
Prop., &c. Yellowish ; very sweet; smells
of bitter almonds; insoluble in water; little
affected by reagents; boils at 415°Fahr.; sp.
gr. 1209. Heated with an alcoholic solution
of caustic potassa, and the mixture submitted

NITROGEN.
793
to distillation, it yields a red, oily liquid, from
which large red crystals of azobenzol sepa-
rate. These are nearly insoluble in water,
freely soluble in alcohol and ether, melt at
149° Fahr., and boil at 559'4° Fahr. BINI-
TROBENZOL is made by dissolving benzol in
a mixture of equal volumes of the strongest
nitric and sulphuric acids, and boiling the
liquid for a few minutes; the crystals
dinitrobenzol) which form as it cools are
insoluble in water, but are freely soluble in
alcohol.
NITR0GEN. N. Syn. Azotº; NITROGE-
NIUM, AzottſM, L. A gaseous elementary sub-
stance, discovered by Rutherford, in 1722, and
found to be a constituent of the atmosphere by
Lavoisier, 1755. It is found both in the or-
ganic and inorganic kingdoms of nature; it
forms about 4, or 78% of the bulk of the
atmosphere, enters largely into the composi-
tion of most animal substances, and is a con-
stituent of gluten, the alkaloids, and other
vegetable principles. \
Prep. 1. A small piece of phosphorus is
placed in a capsule floating on the surface of
the water of the pneumatic trough, and after
setting it on fire a gas or bell-jar is inverted
over it; as soon as the combustion is over,
and the fumes of phosphoric anhydride have
subsided, the residual gas is washed by agita-
tion with recently boiled distilled water, or
with a solution of pure potassa. It may be
dried by either letting it stand over fused
chloride of calcium, or, what is better, by
passing it through concentrated oil of vitriol.
2. A porcelain tube is filled with copper
turnings, or, preferably, with spongy copper
(obtained by reducing the oxide with hydro-
gen), and is then heated to redness, a stream
of dry atmospheric air being at the same time
directed through it. By repeating the process
with the same air, and finally passing it
over fragments of pumice moistened with
strong solution of potassa to absorb carbonic
anhydride, the product is rendered quite
pure.
3. Chlorine gas is passed into a solution of
pure ammonia, care being taken to employ a
considerable excess of the latter; the evolved
gas, after being dried, is pure nitrogen. There
is some danger of producing the explosive
compound, chloride of nitrogen, with this
process.
4. (Corenwinder.) From solution of nitrate
of potassium, 1 volume; concentrated solution
of chloride of ammonium, 3 vols.; gently
heated together in a flask, and the evolved
gas passed through sulphuric acid. Pure.
5. By boiling a solution of nitrite of am-
monium, or, which amounts to the same thing,
a mixture of one measure of a solution of
nitrite of potassium and three measures of a
solution of chloride of ammonium. Both so-
lutions must be concentrated. This is the
easiest method of preparing nitrogen and of
obtaining the gas in a pure state,
Note.—The nitrite of potassium to be em-
ployed in this process is best prepared by
passing nitrous anhydride, evolved from starch
and nitric acid, into a solution of potassa (sp.
gr. 1.38) till it imparts an acid reaction to test-
paper, and then neutralising by the addition of
potassa.
6. From lean flesh digested in nitric acid, at
a gentle heat.
Prop., &c. Pure nitrogen is a colourless,
odourless, tasteless gas, neither combustible
nor capable of supporting combustion or re-
spiration. It is neutral to test-paper, does
not affect lime water, and is only slightly
absorbed by pure water. Its sp. gr. is '9713.
It is recognised by its purely negative qualities.
Nitrogen, Chlo"ride of NCl3. Syn. NITRO-
GEN TRICHLORIDE,TERCHLORIDE OF NITROGEN.
This compound was discovered by Dulong in
1811, but its nature was first accurately de-
termined by Sir H. Davy.
Prep. (Liebig.) Dissolve chloride of ammo-
nium, 1 oz., in hot water, 12 or 14 oz., and
as soon as the temperature has fallen to 90°
Fahr., invert a wide-mouthed glass bottle full
of chlorine over it. The gas is gradually ab-
sorbed, the solution acquires a yellowish colour,
and in the course of 15 to 20 minutes yellow,
oil-like globules of chloride of nitrogen form
upon the surface of the liquid, and ultimately
sink to the bottom. The globules, as they
descend, should be received in a small leaden
saucer, placed under the mouth of the bottle
for the purpose.
Prop., &c. Chloride of nitrogen should
consequently be only prepared in very small
quantities at a time. Both its discoverer and
Sir H. Davy met with severe injuries while ex-
perimenting on it. Its sp. gr. is 1:653; it vo-
latilises at 160°Fahr., and between 200° and
212° fulminates violently. Contact with com-
bustible bodies at ordinary temperatures im-
mediately causes detonation. The earplosive
power of this compound seems to eaceed that of
every known substance, not even eaccepting ful-
minating silver. A minute globule, no larger
than a grain of mustard seed, placed on a pla-
tina spoon, and touched with a piece of phos-
phorus stuck on the point of a penknife, im-
mediately explodes, and shivers the blades into
fragments, at the same time that the vessel
that contains it is broken to pieces. Olive
oil, naphtha, and oil of turpentine, have a
similar effect. See NITROGEN, IODIDE OF
(below).
Nitrogen, I'odide of Nia. Syn. NITRogEN
TRI-TODIDE, TERIODIDE OF NITRoGEN. A dark
brown or black insoluble powder, which is most
safely and conveniently prepared by saturating
alcohol (sp. gr. 852) with iodine, adding a
large quantity of the strongest pure solution
of ammonia, and agitating the mixture; water
must now be added, when iodide of nitrogen
will be precipitated, and must be carefully
washed with cold distilled water. The filter
containing the precipitate should be spread out

794
N ITROGEN-
on a sheet of glass and torn into Small pieces
while the iodide is still moist. The precipitate
should be simply exposed to air only.
Prop., &c. It detonates violently as soon as
it becomes dry, by the slightest pressure or
friction, even that of a feather, and often
spontaneously; but this explosion is scarcely
so powerful as that of the chloride of nitrogen.
It also explodes whilst moist, though less rea-
dily. It should only be prepared in very small
quantities at a time. Recent researches in-
duce the belief that both the above compounds
contain hydrogen.
Nitrogen, Oxides of Nitrogen forms 5 dis-
tinct compounds with oxygen.
1. Nitrous oxide. Syn. PROTOXIDE OF NI-
TRoGEN ; LAUGHING GAS ; NITROGENII PRO-
ToxYDUM, L. Prep. From fused nitrate of
ammonium, introduced into a glass retort, or a
flask furnished with a bent tube, and then ex-
posed, over a spirit-lamp, or charcoal-chauffer,
to a temperature of about 380° Fahr. ; the
evolved gas may be collected in bladders, gas-
bags, a gasometer, or in the pneumatic trough
over warm water. The gas may be purified
by pouring it through three wash-bottles,
one containing water, one a solution of
sulphate of iron, and the other a solution of
potassa.
Prop., &c. Colourless; possesses an agree-
able odour, and a sweetish taste; at 32°, under
a pressure of 30 atmospheres, it is liquid; this,
when exposed under the receiver of a powerful
air-pump, changes into a snow-like solid; at
—180° Fahr., it is a transparent, colourless,
crystalline body; it supports combustion, and
is absorbed by cold water. Sp. gr. 1520. Its
most remarkable property is its action on the
system when inspired. A few deep inspira-
tions are usually succeeded by a pleasing state
of excitement, and a strong propensity to
laughter and muscular exertion, which soon
subside, without being followed by languor or
depression. Its effects, however, vary with
different constitutions. From 4 to 12 quarts
may be breathed with safety. It produces
temporary insensibility to pain, like chloroform
or ether; but its use is dangerous when
affections of the heart, lungs, or brain are
present. This gas is now successfully and
extensively employed as an anaesthetic in dental
Surgery.
Obs. No particular caution is required in
preparing the above compound, except the use
of too much heat. The temperature should
be so arranged as to keep the melted mass in
a state of gentle ebullition, and should not be
allowed, under any circumstances, to exceed
about 500°Fahr. Should white fumes appear
within the retort after the evolution of
the gas has commenced, the heat should
be at once lowered, as, when heated to
about 600°, nitrate of ammonia explodes with
violence.
Nitrous oxide may also be made in the same
way, from crystallised nitrate of ammonia, or
gases into a U tube surrounded with a freezing
by exposing nitric oxide for some days over
iron filings moistened with water, but, without
great care, the product is not always fit for 18,
spiration. When pure, it is colourless, has an
agreeable odour, and does not affect solution
of nitrate of silver.
2. Nitric oxide. NO. Syn. DEUTOxIDE OF
NITROGEN, NITROUS GAS, BINOXIDE OF NITR0.
GEN ; NITROGENII BINOXYDUM, L. Prep. By
pouring nitric acid, sp. gr. 1:2, on metallic
copper, in the form of turnings, clippings, or
wire. Effervescence ensues, and nitric oxide
is evolved, and may be collected over water Ol
mercury in the pneumatic trough. The resi.
dual liquid yields crystals of nitrate of copper
on evaporation. -
Prop., &c. A colourless, tasteless, inodorous,
irrespirable, and incombustible gas. In con:
tact with free oxygen, it produces dense orange
or red vapours of nitric peroxide (NO), which
are freely absorbed by water. Nitric oxide is
absorbed by a solution of ferrous sulphate,
which it turns of a deep brown or nearly black
colour, which is removed by boiling. Sp. gr.
1:039.
Nitrous Anhydride. N2O4. Syn. NITROGEN
TRIOXIDE, ANHYDROUS NITROUs ACID. The
easiest method of obtaining this compound
consists in heating 1 part of powdered starch
with 8 parts of nitric acid of sp. gr. 1:25, and
passing the evolved gases, first through a dry.
ing tube two feet long containing fused chlo.
ride of calcium, and then into a dry and empty
U-tube cooled to 20°Fahr. by surrounding it
with a mixture of pounded ice and crystallized
chloride of calcium. Nitrous anhydride thus
produced is a blue liquid which emits red
fumes, and which on admixture with water at
ordinary temperaturesis decomposed, producing
nitric acid and nitric oxide. If nitrous
anhydride be mixed with water at temper.
tures below 0° Fahr. the two combine, and
a blue solution is formed which (probably)
contains nitrous acid (HNO). See NITROT:
ACID. -
Nitrogen Pentoxide. N.O. Syn, NITRIt
PENTOXII) E, NITRIC ANHYDRIDE, ANHYDROU$
NITRIC ACID. See NITRIC ACID (ANHY:
DROUS).
Nitrogen Peroxide. NO. Syn. NITRIC
PEROXIDE, PEROXIDE OF NITROGEN, NITROGEN
TETROXIDE, HYPONITRIC ANHYDRIDE. This
compound forms the chief constituent of the
red fumes which develope on mixing nitrić
oxide with air or oxygen. It is most readily
prepared by heating thoroughly dried nitrate
of lead in a retort, and conducting the evolved
mixture of ice and salt for the purpose of con.
densing the nitric peroxide. If the U tube
be perfectly dry, and the cold intense, the
nitric peroxide obtained assumes the form of
transparent crystals, but the presence of the
slightest trace of moisture prevents their for
mation and produces instead a colourless liquid
which, as the temperature rises, acquires a

NITRO-HYDROCHLORIC ACID—NOMENCLATURE.
yellow and ultimately a red colour. Nitric
peroxide dissolves in nitric acid and turns it of
a yellow or red hue. The so-called ‘ nitrous
acid' or fuming nitric acid' of commerce owes
its deep red colour to the presence of this
compound. At very low temperatures water
converts nitric peroxide into mitric and nitrous
acids; at ordinary temperatures it transforms
it into mitric acid, nitrous acid, and nitric
oxide.
NITRO-HYDROCHLO'RIC ACID. Syn. NI-
TRO-MURIATIC ACID ; AQUA REGIA, ACIDUM
NITRO-HYDROCHLORICUM (B. P.) A, NITRO-
MURIATICUM, L.; EAU REGALE, Fr. Prep.
1. (B. P.) Nitric acid, 3; hydrochloric acid,
4; water, 25. Mix the acids twenty-four hours
before adding the water, (This precaution is
necessary to allow of the development of the
chlorine, and the chloronitrous and chloronitric
gases which result from the mutual decompo-
sition of the two acids, and upon which the
therapeutic activity of the agent depends).
Colourless. Keep the mixture in a cool and
dark place. -
2. (Ph. D. 1826.) Nitric acid, 1 part; hy-
drochloric acid, 2 parts; (both by measure;)
mix in a refrigerated bottle, and keep the mix-
ture in a cold and dark place. Used to dissolve
gold and platinum ; and in medicine, in liver
complaints, syphilis, the exanthemata, &c.,
either internally, in doses of 5 to 15 drops
in water, or externally, as a foot- or knee-
bath. It is also occasionally employed as a
caustic.
3. (AQUA REGIA WITH SAL AMMONIAC.)
Nitric acid (sp. gr. 12), 16 fl. Oz. ; sal ammo-
niac, 4 oz. ; dissolve. Occasionally used by
dyers; does not keep well.
4. (DYER's AQUAFORTIS.) Colourless nitric
acid (sp. gr. 1:17), 10 lbs. ; hydrochloric
acid (sp. gr. 1:19), 1 lb. ; mix. Used by
dyers.
NITRO-PRUS/SIDES. A series of salts dis-
covered by Dr. Playfair, and obtained by the
action of mitric acid on the ferrocyanides and
ferridcyanides. The most important of these
salts is the nitroprusside of sodium (Nas (NO)
FeCy; . 2Aq.). Prep. Dissolve 2 parts of pow-
dered ferrocyanide of sodium in 5 parts of
common nitric acid previously diluted with its
own volume of water. When the evolution
of gas has ceased, digest the solution on a water
bath until it no longer yields a blue but a slate-
coloured precipitate with ferrous sulphate.
Cool the liquid, filter, neutralise the filtrate
with carbonate of sodium, and again filter.
This filtrate, on evaporation, yields crystals
consisting of a mixture of nitro-prusside of
sodium and nitrate of potassium; the former,
which may be recognised by their rhombic
shape and their fine ruling colour, should be
picked out and preserved. Use. As a test for
soluble sulphides, with which nitro-prusside of
sodium strikes a beautiful violet tint. Accord-
ing to Playfair this is the most delicate test
for alkaline sulphides.
795
NITROUS ACID, HNO. See NITRous
ANHYDRIDE under NITRogFN, OxTDEs of,
NITROUS 0XIDE. See NITROGEN, OXIDEs
OF.
NODE. Syn. NoDUs, L. A hard tumour pro-
ceeding from a bone, and caused by the swell-
ing of its external membrane. The bones of
the leg, forehead, and forearm, are those most
commonly attacked. Nodes are generally ac-
companied with considerable pain, and often
with caries and loss of vitality.
NOLI ME TANGERE. See LUPUS.
NOMENCLATURE (Chemical). The fol-
lowing information will doubtless prove useful
to many of our readers, as serving to explain
terms which are necessarily of frequent occur-
rence in this work :-
ACIDS.–a. When a substance produces only
one acid compound, the name of this acid is
formed by adding the termination -IC to that
of the radical, or to the leading or character-
istic portion of it; as sulphuric acid, an acid
of sulphur. This is Latinized by changing
-IC into ICUM ; as, acidum sulphur ICUM.—
b. When a body forms two acid compounds
containing oxygen, the name of the one con-
taining the smaller proportion of that substance
ends in -ous; as, nitr-OUS acid, which con-
tains 1 atom of nitrogen and 2 of oxygen;
nitric acid, containing 1 atom of nitrogen and
3 of oxygen. In this case the Latin name
ends in -OSUM ; as, acidum nitroSUM. – c.
When a substance forms more than two acids
with oxygen, the Greek preposition HYPO-
(below or under) is prefixed to the name of
the acid in -OUS or -IC next above it; as, HY-
POchlorous acid.—d. When a new acid com-
pound of a substance is discovered, containing
more oxygen than another acid of the same
substance already known, the name of which
ends in -IC, the prefix PER- or HYPER- is
added; as, PERiodic acid. This may be illus-
trated by the oxygen acids of chlorine —

Hypochlorous acid (acidum hypochlorosum) H § O
Chlorous , ( , chlorosum) o
º ... ( .. chloricum) . H CIOs
#;} , ( , perchloricum) H Cl 0,
OXIDEs. The names of these have, in general,
reference to the number of atoms of oxygen
which they contain. When a metal forms
only one basic compound with oxygen, this
compound is simply called the oxide of such
base; but as most substances form more than
one compound with oxygen, certain prefixes
are introduced to express the proportions. In
such cases it is generally found that one out of
the number has a strongly marked basic cha-
racter, and contains 1 atom of each of its
constituents. This is called the oxide, prot-
oxide, or monoxide, and forms the standard to
which those both above it and below it are
preferred. Thus, supposing M to be the metal -
we may have :- -
zº .
2.


796 NOMENCLATURE.
Suboxide or dioxide (subowydum, dioxydum M20
Oxide, protoxide, or monoxide (orydum
protowydum) - -
Sesquioxide (sesquiorydum) - - . M20s
Binoxide, dioxide, or deutoxide (binowydum)
deutoaydum) - - - - - 2
Teroxide or trioxide (terozydum, trit-
owydum - - - - - . M 03
That, º,
*a*- : - ing the largest
Peroxide (perorydum) }: g of
Oxygen.
SALTs.—a. Acids having names ending in
-IC give rise to salts whose names end in ATE ;
thus nitric acid yields nitrates, e.g. nitrate
of silver. -ATE is Latinized by -As, e.g. nitrate
of silver becomes argenţă nitras.
b. Acids possessing names ending in -ous
form salts having names ending in -ITE ; thus
sulphurous acid produces sulph ITES, e.g. Sul-
phite of sodium. -ITE is Latinized by -IS ; e.g.
sulphite of sodium becomes sulph IS.
c. The preceding names are presumed to
refer to neutral compounds. In acid salts the
prefixes noticed above are added to express
the preponderance of the acid radical over the
metal. KHSO, is called acid sulphate of
potassium, BISulphate of potassium, or BI-
sulphate of potash, the neutral sulphate being
d. In basic salts, or those in which the metal
is in excess of the acid radical, the prefixes
-SUB and -DI are employed; e.g. the formula of
neutral acetate of lead is PbSs. This salt,
when boiled with oxide of lead (a base), fur-
nishes [Pb ASPbO] and [PbA,2PbO]. They
are both, therefore, basic acetates; and to dis-
tinguish one from the other the former is called
DIacetate and the latter TRIacetate of lead ;
-di referring to the presence of two atoms of
lead and -tri to three.
Formerly the salts of the metals of the alka-
lies and alkaline-earths received names which
indicated the existence in them of the oxides
of such metals. Thus the terms carbonate of
soda, nitrate of potash, carbonate of lime,
sulphate of magnesia, names by which these
fluids are still designated by some chemists,
are now substituted by the more systematic
and less speculative names of carbonate of
sodium, mitrate of potassium, carbonate of
calcium, and sulphate of magnesium. Ano-
ther, and in the opinion of the editor, a still
better system of momenclature is that in which
the metallic or basic radical is mentioned first ;
e.g. calcium sulphate instead of sulphate of
calcium, ammonium chloride for chloride of
ammonium. When the same radicals form
more than one series of salts, each series is
distinguished by appending the terminations
-IC and -OUS to that part of the name which
refers to the basic radical; e. g. mercuroUS
chloride (HgCl), mercuric chloride (HgCl);
{6. sulphate (FeSO4), ferric sulphate (Fe2
SO4)3).
( NºMETALuo BODIES, &c. The names of
the compounds formed by the union of the
non-metallic elements, and certain other bodies,
with the metals and with each other, either
terminate in -IDE, Latinized by -IDUM, or in
-URET, Latinized by -URETUM ; as, arsenDE
or arseniu RET (arsen IDUM, arseniuRETUM)
brom IDE, carbi DE or carbu RET, chlor'IDE, Cyåſ.
IDE, fluori DE, hydr|BE, iodiLE, sulph IDE OF
sulphur ET, &c. The first of these termina:
tions now prevails among English scientific
chemists. The prefixes already noticed are
also employed here.
METALS. The names of the metals (thost
of them, at least, that have been given during
the present century) end in -IUM or (less fre:
quently) in -UM; as potassiſtſ M, sodiumſ, pl.
tin UM. The Latin names of several of the
non-metallic elementary bodies also end in
-IUM ; as, iodinIUM, nitrogenIUM, &c.
ALKALOIDS. The names of the organic
bases which resemble the alkalies in their prº.
perties end either in -IA, -NA, or -INE; as
morph LA, quin A, strychniME. These termina:
tions are now limited, as much as possible, tº
substances exhibiting basic properties, but
were formerly very loosely applied.
Many chemists reject the first two termina:
tions, and apply -INE to every substance of
this class; as, morphin E, quin.INE, aniDINE,
&c.
OTHER ORGANIC SUBSTANCES. The name:
of organic radicles generally terminate in
-YL ; as, ethy.I., methy.I., benzo YL, &c.; they
mostly contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen,
Compounds corresponding to the electro-megi.
tive elements have the termination -OGEN, as
cyanogFN, amidog EN. Neutral compounds ºf
carbon and hydrogen, mostly liquid, have the
termination -OL, or -OLE ; as, benzoL, pyrol.
Other neutral substances, generally solid, have
the termination -IN ; as, paraffiN, naphthaliX.
Compounds resembling ammonia, and generally
considered as ‘substitution compounds’ of thiſ
body, terminate in -AMINE ; as, ethylAMINE,
propylAMINE.
The Latin genitive or possessive of the above
compounds in—
-as is -atis
-is , -itis
-icum , -ici
-osum , -osi
-idum , -idi
-etum , -eti
-ium , -ii
-um , -i
-ia
-a - , , -83
-Ina,
JEa. Acetas (acetate), acetatis of acetate
arsenis, arsenitis ; citricum, citrici ; arsº:
miosum, arseniosi ; iodidum, iodidi ; sulphu.
retum, sulphureti; sodium, sodii; platinum,
platini ; morphia, morphiae; quina, quinº;
narcotina, narcotinae. The genitives of com:
mon names vary with the termination. Most
of those ending in -a make -ae, and most ºf
those in -us and -um make -i ; but there art



NORFOHLK FLUID–NURSING, 797
many exceptions, among which cornu (a horn)
and spiritus (spirit) which are unaltered in
the genitive singular, may be mentioned as
examples.
NORFOLK FLUID. Prep. Take of linseed
oil, 3 pints; black resin, ; lb. ; yellow wax,
12 oz. ; melt, and add, of neat's-foot oil, 1
quart ; oil of turpentine, 1 pint. Used to pre-
serve and soften leather.
NOR/IUM. An unexamined metal, the oxide
of which, according to Svanberg, exists in
certain varieties of ZIRCON.
NOS"TRUMS. See PATENT MRDICINES, &c.
NOVAR/GENT. Prep. From recently pre-
cipitated chloride of silver by dissolving it in
a solution of either hyposulphite of sodium or
of cyanide of potassium. Used chiefly to restore
old plated goods. The liquid is rubbed over
the metal to be coated with a little prepared
chalk, and the part is afterwards polished off
with a piece of soft leather. A powder re-
cently sold under the same name is formed by
mixing the preceding article with chalk, and
drying the mass. It is made into a paste with
a little water, spirit of wine, or gin, before
applying it.
NOWAUR/UM. From a solution of neutral
trichloride of gold, as the last.
NOYAU. Syn. CRíME DE NOYAU. This
is a pleasant nutty-tasted liqueur; but from
the large proportion of prussic acid which it
contains, a small quantity only should be taken
at a time.
Prep. 1. Bitter almonds (bruised), 3 oz. ;
spirit (22 u. p.), 1 quart ; sugar, 1 lb. ; (dis-
solved in) water, # pint; macerate for 10 days,
frequently shaking the vessel; then allow it
to repose for a few days, and decant the clear
portion.
2. As the last, but substituting apricot or
peach kernels (with the shells, bruised), for the
almonds. -
3. To either of the above, add of coriander
seed and ginger, of each, bruised, 1 dr. ; mace
and cinnamon, of each, ; dr.
4. (Wholesale.) To plain cordial, at 54 to
60 u.p., containing 3 lbs. of sugar per gallon,
add, gradually, essence of bitter almonds, q. s.
to flavour.
5. (CR£ME DE NOYAU DE MARTINIQUE.)
Loaf sugar, 24 lbs. ; water, 2% galls. ; dissolve,
add, of proof spirit, 5 galls. ; orange-flower
water, 3 pints; bitter almonds (bruised), 1 lb.;
essence of lemons, 2 drs. ; as above. See LI-
QUEURS.
NUR/SING. Milk is the natural food of the
mammalia during the earlier period of their
existence. It contains all that is necessary
for the nourishment of their bodies, and on it
they thrive and grow. Its secretion only ac-
tively commences at the time when it is re-
quired for the sustenance of the offspring, and
it either materially lessensin quantity, or wholly
disappears, as soon as the necessity of its ex-
istence has passed away, and the little being
who depended on it has acquired sufficient age
and strength to exist on cruder aliment. The
nursing mother, when in a state of perfect
health, and properly supplied with a suffi-
ciency, without excess, of 11utritious food,
elaborates this secretion in the fittest condi-
tion to ensure the health and vigour of her
offspring. Her bosom is the fountain whence
flows the beauty and stamina of the future
adult, and whilst giving strength and life
to another, she increases and prolongs her
OWI).
The milk of woman varies with the food,
health, age, &c., of the nurse. That produced
from a mixed animal and vegetable diet, nei-
ther acesces nor coagulates spontaneously, like
cows' milk; and when gently evaporated in
an open vessel, “the last drop continues thin,
sweet, and bland.” Acids and rennet, how-
ever, coagulate it readily, and so does the gas-
tric juice of the infant, as shown by the con-
dition in which it is often ejected by the
latter. The milk of a woman who lives wholly
on vegetable food acesces and coagulates with
equal readiness and in a precisely similar man-
ner to cows' milk. The quality of the milk
also varies with the progress of the digestion.
Within the first hour or two after a meal it
is thin and serous, and then gradually im-
proves in richness and flavour, until at about
the fourth or fifth hour it possesses these
qualities in the highest degree. This, then,
is the period at which the infant should be
applied to the breast, which, according to the
present habits of society, would be during the
hour immediately preceding each meal, ex-
cept the breakfast. After about the fifth or
sixth hour the milk gradually loses its pecu-
liar colour and odour, until towards the tenth
or twelfth hour after eating food it becomes
yellowish, bitter, and often nauseous; and in
this condition is frequently refused by the in-
fant. This points out the impropriety of a
nurse fasting longer than 4 to 5 hours, except
during the night, when the period may be ex-
tended to 7 or 8 hours, but never longer. The
time after accouchement is another matter that
influences the character of human milk in re-
spect of its wholesomeness for the infant.
The milk secreted soon after delivery is very
thin and serous, but in the course of a few
days it becomes thicker, richer, and more mu-
tritious ; and a gradual change in the same
direction proceeds during the usual period of
suckling. When the mother suckles her own
infant, or the “age of the milk,” as the
nurses say, corresponds to that of the child,
all goes on well ; but when the former much
exceeds the latter, the reverse is the case.
Thus, it is found that an infant is incapable
of completely digesting the milk of a nurse
whose own child is much older than itself;
and that an infant of a few weeks old will
often starve on the milk intended by nature
for one several times its age. " It is, therefore,
necessary, in selecting a wet-nurse, to be
certain that her condition, in this respect,


798 NUTMEG–NUTRITION.
closely corresponds to that of the mother of
the infant, or that it does not differ, on this
point, more than 3 or 4 weeks. In respect
of the use of high-flavoured or improper
food and beverages, medicine, &c., it appears
that all these substances immediately affect
the milk, and impart to it more or less of
their peculiar flavour and properties; and,
except with remedies administered under me-
dical advice, in nearly all cases prove injurious
to the infant. The diet of a murse should be
nutritious and succulent, and its healthy di-
gestion should be promoted by exercise and
pure air. Strong liquors, more especially
spirits, act like slow poisons on the infant, and
their habitual use by a nurse should, therefore,
be considered as a positive disqualification for
the duties of her office. The care of the mo-
ther or wet-nurse should be particularly di-
rected to the maintenance of her own health
and equanimity, by which both the health and
good temper of the infant will be, as far as
possible, ensured. A grieving, irritable or
angry mother, forces her bad qualities on her
offspring, in the shape of fits, convulsions,
or hopeless marasmus. See INFANCY, MILK,
&c.
NUT'MEG. Syn. MYRISTICE NUCLEUS, NU-
CISTA, NUX MOSCHATA, N. MYRISTICA, N.
AROMATICA, MYRISTICA (B. P., Ph. L.), L.
“The shelled seed of Myristica officinalis
(Linn.; M. moschata—Thumberg), or nutmeg-
tree.” It is chiefly used as a spice and condi-
ment, but it is also esteemed as an aromatic
in flatulency and diarrhoea.—Dose. Half a tea-
spoonful, or more, grated. The distilled and
expressed oils (OLEUM MYRISTICAE) are also
officinal.
NUTRI''TION. The phenomena of life are
accompanied by the constant and unceasing
waste of the materials of which the animal
body is composed. Every act of volition,
every exertion of muscular power, every func-
tional action of the organism, whether percep-
tible or imperceptible and involuntary, every
play of chemical affinity and decomposition,
even thought itself, occasions the disorganiza-
tion and destruction, as living matter, of a
portion of ourselves. But the process of re-
spiration, and the various important changes
with which it is connected, tends, more than
all the other vital functions, to waste the sub-
stance of the body, the temperature of which
it is its special office to support. This loss,
this change, which commences with life and
terminates only with death, is compensated
for by the constant renewal of the whole
frame by the deposition and assimilation, or
organization, of matter from the blood, which
thus becomes gradually thinner and impover-
ished, unless, in its turn, it receives a corre-
sponding supply of its vital elements. This
it does from the food, which, by the functions
of digestion, is converted into ‘chyle, and,
after being taken up by the ‘lacteals, passes
into the blood, of which it then becomes a
part, and after being animalised and rºl.
dered similar to the being it is designed tº
nourish, by the peculiar action of the vital
affinities, it attaches itself to those organs Of
tissues, the loss of which it is intended tº
supply. This constitutes nutrition.
The food of animals, or, rather, the nutritious
portion of that food on which we live, is
wholly organic matter, and is either directly
or indirectly produced by the powers of vege.
tation from the inorganic world. The plant
elaborates food for the herbivora, and thes,
in their turn, serve as food for the flesh.
eating animals. In both cases the leading
alimentary principles are the same; the differ.
ence is in their proportions. Flesh is identical
in composition with blood, and with the body
of the animal that blood is destined to nourish,
It abounds in albumen, casein, and fibrin. The
vegetable substances used as food also contain
nitrogenised principles of a precisely similar
character and chemical constitution to thost
found in flesh, and which we are, therefore
bound to believe are absolutely the same. The
gluten of wheat, when purified from gliadin,
presents all the characteristics of pure fibrin
The albumen extracted from vegetable juices,
when coagulated by heat, cannot be distill:
guished from the boiled white of egg in a
divided condition. The legumen or vegetable
casein of almonds, peas, beans, and many ºf
the oily seeds, bears the most striking resem.
blance to the casein of milk. These facts
clearly show that the leading nitrogenized
principles of animal bodies pre-exist in Yegº.
tables, and that the substances employed as
food must have the same, or nearly the Samº
chemical composition as the body itself. The
striking contrast of animal and vegetable food,
as far as this point is concerned, is moſt
apparent than real. The actual difference
between the two is to be found in the existence
of a large quantity of non-nitrogenized matter
(sugar, starch, &c.) in the last, which is nºt
contained in the other—matter which abounds
in carbon, and which, by its combustion in the
system, serves to support the animal heat at
less sacrifice of the organic fabric. In the
flesh-eating animal the waste of the organic
tissues is very rapid, and the tax upon the
vital energies proportionate ; for the tempera.
ture of its body is kept up, for the most part
by the burning of the nitrogenised matter ºf
which these tissues are composed.
The process of digestion is that by which
the available portions of the food are reduced
to a form adapted for absorption by the ves.
sels by which it is introduced into the system.
In the flesh-eating animal this process is ex
tremely simple, and consists in the mere com:
minution of the food by the teeth, and its
reduction to the liquid state in the stomach,
after which, from the nature of its composi
tion, it is nearly all taken up, and at ontº
conveyed into the blood. In the herbivor:
however, the process of digestion is much

MUX WOMICA–OAK.
799
more complicated, and occupies a longer
period. Besides the ordinary principles of
flesh, their food contains starch, sugar, gum,
&c., mixed with much inert vegetable fibre
and other useless substances, from which it
must be separated. The first of these supply
materials for the waste and growth of the
body, the second meet the requirements of
respiration, and the last pass unaltered through
the alimentary canal.
The nature of the digestive process is not
clearly established. The principal objects
effected appear to be the conversion of starch,
coagulated albumen, fibrin, casein, &c., into a
liquid form. It is known that the saliva con-
tains a peculiar principle (ptyalin) resembling
diastase, capable of transmuting starch into
sugar, and that when a little starch is held
in the mouth for a short time this change
actually occurs. It is also known that the
gastric juice contains a peculiar organic prin-
ciples named ‘pepsin,” and that this substance,
in conjunction with dilute hydrochloric acid,
which is likewise present in the stomach, pos-
sesses the property of dissolving the albuminous
principles of food. (See PEPSIN.) These
changes occur whenever these conditions are
established out of the body, and hence it is
inferred that the process of digestion is
effected by similar means. Of this, however,
there is no direct evidence.
The use of food, as already noticed, is two-
fold. It supplies the materials of nutrition
to balance the waste of the tissues continually
taking place in the body, and it conveys into
the system those elements which, by their
chemical combinations, produce heat. To
effect these purposes in the most beneficial
manner, the food should not only be sufficient
in quantity, but the proportions of its nitro-
genised and carbonaceous principles should
bear such relations to each other as to amply
meet the demands of the system for each,
without the existence, however, of an undue
excess of either.
When the muscular movements of a healthy
animal are restrained, a genial temperature
kept up, and an ample supply of food con-
taining much amylaceous or oily matter given,
an accumulation of fat in the system rapidly
takes place ; this is well seen in the case of
stall-fed cattle. On the other hand, when
food is deficient, and much exercise is taken,
emaciation results. These effects are ascribed
to differences in the activity of the respi-
ratory function. In the first instance, the
heat-food is supplied faster than it is consumed,
and hence accumulates in the form of fat ; in
the second, the conditions are reversed, and
the creature is kept in a state of leanness by
its rapid consumption. The fat of an animal
appears to be the provision of nature for the
maintenance of life during a certain period
under circumstances of privation. Hence it is
that a lean animal suffers more from cold than
a fat one, and is also sooner starved.
“The origin of ſat in the animal body has
recently been made the subject of much ani-
mated discussion ; on the one hand, it was
contended that satisfactory evidence exists
of the conversion of starch and saccharine
substances into fat, by separation of carbon
and oxygen, the change somewhat resembling
that of the vinous fermentation; it was argued,
on the other side, that oily or fatty matter is
invariably present in the food supplied to the
domestic animals, and that this fat is merely
absorbed and deposited in the body in a
slightly modified state. The question has now
been decided in favour of the first of these
views, which was enunciated by Professor
Liebig, by the very chemist who formerly
advocated the second opinion. By a series of
very beautiful experiments, MM. Dumas and
Milne-Edwards proved that bees exclusively
feeding upon sugar were still capable of pro-
ducing wax, which was pointral out as a verit-
able fact.”
Professor Liebeg has divided the principles
found in food into two classes :-plastic
elements of nutrition, or flesh-and-blood-
making principles; and elements of respiration,
or those which, by their decomposition or com-
bustion in the system, generate heat. They
are as follows:–

Elements of Nutrition.
(Plastic or Nitrogenous.)
Elements of Respiration
(Heat-producing.)
Animal flesh Tat.
Blood Starcil
Vegetable album.cn Gum
-> casein Cane sugar
>> fibrin. Grape ,
Milk ,
Pectin
Alcohol.
This division is doubtless in the main war-
ranted by fact, but, no doubt, the nitrogenous
elements of food produce heat as well as the
non-nitrogenous.
NUX WOMICA. Syn. Kooch LA NUT, POI-
SON N., WOMIT N.; NUCES VOAIICE, NUX
VoMICA (B. P., Ph. L. E. & D.), L. “The
seed of Strychnos Nua, Pomica, Linn.” (Ph.
L.), imported from the East Indies (B. P.).
This drug is chiefly known as a violent ex-
citant of the cerebro-spinal system. In small
doses, frequently repeated, it is tonic, diure-
tic, and, occasionally, laxative ; in slightly
larger ones, it is emetic ; and, in large doses, it
is an emergetic and fearful poison.—Dose. 1
to 3 grs. ; in paralysis, nervous affections, im-
potence, chronic dysentery, chronic diarrhoea,
&c. Its frequent use is said to render the
system proof against the poison of serpents.
See STRYCHNIA, its active principle.

0AK. The British oak is the Quercus Robur
of Linnaeus, of which there are two varieties,
Q. peduncata and Q. sessiflora. The wood of
the oak is more durable than that of any other
tree, and “for at once supporting a weight,
800
OAT—ODOUR.
resisting a strain, and not splintering by a
cannon shot, it is superior to every other
kind.” It, nevertheless, “warps and twists
much in drying ; and, in seasoning, shrinks
about 1-32nd of its width.” Foreign oak is
less durable, but more brittle and workable.
The bark (OAK BARK ; QUERCôS CORTEX.
QUERCUS—B. P., Ph. L. E. & D.) is used as an
astringent and febrifuge, in doses of 30 to 120
gr., frequently ; an astringent decoction is also
made of it, but its chief employment is in
tanning leather. The peculiar appearance of
old oak or ‘wainscoting’ is given to the new
wood by exposing it, whilst very slightly damp,
to the fumes of ammonia.
0AT. Syn. AVENA, L. The common cul-
tivated oat is the Avena sativa (Linn.), a
graminaceous plant, of which there are several
varieties, as the Avena sativa alba, or white
oat ; A. s. nigra, or black oat; the potato Oat,
&c. Other species are also cultivated, as
Avena nuda (Linn.), pilcorn, or naked oat ;
A. strigosa, or Spanish oat, &c. The seed
(OATs; CARYOPSIDEs, SEM.INA AVENE CRUDA)
form the common horse-corn of this country,
but in the northern parts of the country it is
extensively used as food for man. The husked
grain constitutes GROATS, and its meal OAT-
MEAL. The latter does not form a dough with
water, as wheaten meal or flour does.
Oats consist of from 24% to 28% of husk, and
74% to 78% of grain. According to M. Payen,
they contain of starch 60-59; ; azotized matter,
14:39;; saccharine and gummy matter, 9.25%;
fatty matter, 5.50%; cellulose, 7-60%; silica and
saline matter, 3.25%. The husk contains be-
tween 6 and 7% of saline matter. (Prof.
Norton.) The ash is 2.18%, and consists of
potassa and soda, 26-18; ; lime, 5'95; ; mag-
nesia, 9.95%; oxide of iron, 40% ; phosphoric
acid, 43.84%; sulphuric acid, 10.45%; chlorine,
‘26%; silica, 2-67; ; alumima, '06%. (John-
ston.) -
The yield of oats is from 20 bushels per
acre in poor soils, up to 60, 70, and even 80
bushels per acre in rich soils. The weight per
bushel varies from 35 to 45 lb., and the pro-
duct in meal is about one half the weight of
the oats.
A large proportion of the oats given to
horses passes off undigested. It has hence
been proposed to prevent this loss, by either
coarsely bruising them in a mill, or by pour-
ing boiling water over them, and allowing
them to macerate till cold, when they are to
be given to the horses without straining off
the water. It is stated on good authority,
that oats thus treated will not only fatten
quicker, but go twice as far as without prepa-
ration. Oat bruisers are now manufactured by
most agricultural implement makers.
0AT'MEAL. Syn. AVENAE FARINA, F. Ex
SEM.INIBUS AVENE (Ph. D.), L. Of thirty
samples of oatmeal examined by the ‘Lancet
Sanitary Commissioner, no fewer than sixteen
samples, or more than one half, were adulterated.
The substance generally used for this purpº
is barley meal, which is only half the price of
oatmeal. That supplied to the army, navy,
the workhouses, &c., is also very commonly
adulterated with whiting, plaster of Paris, 0.
ground bones. These frauds are readily dº:
tected by the microscope.
OBE"SITY. Syn. OBESTTAs, POLYsARCIA,
L. Unhealthy or troublesome fatness or COT.
pulency. Sometimes the secretion of fat, and
its accumulation in the adipose membrane, is
almost as rapid as that of water in anasarca;
on which account some of the old writers have
called obesity a dropsy of fat. Persons in
easy circumstances, of indolent habits, whº
live freely, and who are of a cheerful and coll.
tented disposition, are those most liable tº
obesity. The treatment consists in the very
gradual reduction of the diet, until it falls
rather below the average quantity required
by a healthy adult ; the very gradual disuse of
fermented liquors, more especially beer; the
gradual abridgment of the time devoted tº
repose, until it does not exceed 5 or 6 in
the employment of several hours daily in
exercise in the open air, at first moderate, but
increased day by day in energy, until it be:
comes laborious ; and, lastly, arousing the mind.
from a state of lethargy to one of active or even
harassing employment. -
In some few cases the accumulation of fathas
been enormous. Bright, of Maldon, weighed
728 lb. ; Daniel Lambert, of Leicester, 739 lb.;
a girl, 4 years old, noticed in the ‘ Phil. Trans,
1813, weighed 256 lb. -
Persons affected with obesity are generally
short-lived. -
O'CHRES. These are native earthy com:
pounds of clay, coloured with oxide of irol,
with frequently, a little chalk, or magnesi,
The differences in the colour arise partly from
the quantity of iron present, and partly from
the state of oxidation in which the iron is
found. Several varieties are known in com:
merce—BROWN OCHRE, FRENCH o., OXFORD
o., RED O., ROMAN O., YELLOW. O. All thes
with the exception of the first and fourth
have a yellow colour. ARMENIAN BOIR,
INDIAN RED, VENETIAN R., and SPANISH
BROWN, are also ochres.
All the ochres are darkened by calcination,
The yellow ochres acquire a red or reddish:
brown colour by this treatment. The pigment
called “light red” is thus prepared fr
yellow ochre.
ODONTAI'GIA. See TOOTHACHE. -
0/D0RAMENTS. Syn. ODoRAMENTA, I.
Substances employed in medicine on account
of their odour. They differ from disinfectants,
in only disguising, but not destroying, noxious
vapours, &c. AMMONIA, STRONG WINEGAR,
and PASTILLES, furnish the most familiar
examples of this class of substances. See
DISINFECTANTS, PERFUMES, &c.
0/D0UR. The emanation of an odoriferous
or scent-giving body. See PERFUMES,











(ENANTHIC ETHER–OILS (DRYING).
801
(ENANTHIC ETHER. See ETHER (OEnan-
thic).
OFFICINAL. Syn. OFFICINALIs, L. A
term applied to substances or medicines ordered
in the Pharmacopoeia. -
OIL. Syn. OLEUM, L.; HUILE, Fr. This
name is given to numerous liquid or semi-liquid
substances, expressed or drawn from animal or
vegetable bodies; to various products of the
distillation of bituminous minerals; and to
several unctuous mixtures in perfumery and
pharmacy. To facilitate reference, we have
grouped the principal substances generally
called ‘oils’ into classes, under the following
heads:–OILS (Drying); OILS (Empyreumatic);
OILs (Fixed); OILs (Medicated); OILs (Mine-
ral); OILs (Mixed); OILs (Perfumed); OILs
(Volatile). See these articles, also below —
Oil, Consolidated. Syn. CAMPTICON, FAC-
TITIOUS CAOUTCHOUC. A substance having
most of the properties of India rubber, pre-
pared by oxidising boiled linseed oil, or any
other oil that hardens on exposure to the at-
mosphere. To obtain the solid oil, plates of
glass are dipped into linseed oil, the films
are then allowed to dry, and the process is
repeated again and again until the plates are
coated with many layers of perfectly oxidised
oil. Instead of plates of glass, extensive sur-
faces of prepared cloth are employed when the
manufacture is carried out on a large scale.
The solid oil, having been scraped or peeled
off the surfaces, is worked with a small pro-
portion of shell-lac, by means of a mixing
machine with hot rollers, until a material
singularly like caoutchouc is produced. The
consolidated oil can be rolled on to fabrics, so
as to form a waterproof cloth, having the
finish and flexibility of rubber-cloth. By the
action of heat the consolidated oil may be con-
verted into a hard substance, resembling
vulcanite and ebonite. Its useful applications
appear to be very numerous, but its manufac-
ture has not as yet made much progress.
0IL-GAS. A mixture of several gaseous
hydrocarbons, obtained by passing common
whale or other cheap animal oil through red-
hot tubes, or by allowing it to fall in drops on
red-hot stones or bricks arranged in an iron
retort, or other suitable apparatus. The gas
has great illuminating power, requires no puri-
fication, and is quite free from the ammoniacal
and sulphur compounds which vitiate coal-gas.
The high price of oil prevents the general use
of this gas for illuminating purposes.
OILS (Drying). All the fixed oils have an
attraction more or less powerful for oxygen,
and, by exposure to the air, they either become
hard and resinous, or they only thicken slightly,
and become sour and rancid. Those which
exhibit the first property in a marked degree,
as the oils of linseed, poppy, rape, and walnut,
are called “drying oils,’ and are used as
vehicles for colours in painting. The others
are frequently termed ‘glutinous or ‘non-
drying oils.’
The resinifying or drying property of oils is
greatly increased by boiling them, either alone
or along with some litharge, sugar of lead, or
white vitriol, when the product forms the
“boiled oil' or “drying oil’ (oleum desic-
cativum) of commerce. The efficacy of the
process, according to Liebig, depends on the
elimination of substances which impede the
oxidation of the oil. The following formulae
are adopted for this purpose:—
1. Linseed oil, 1 gall. ; powdered litharge,
# lb.; simmer, with frequent stirring, until a
pellicle begins to form; remove the scum, and
when it has become cold and has settled
decant the clear portion. Dark coloured ;
used by house-painters.
2. Linseed oil and water, of each, 1 quart;
white vitriol, in powder, 2 oz. ; boil to dry-
ness. Paler than the last.
3. Pale linseed or nut oil, 1 pint; litharge
or dry sulphate of lead, in fine powder, 2 oz.;
mix, agitate frequently for 10 days, then set
the bottle in the sun or a warm place to settle,
and decant the clear portion. Very pale.
4. Linseed oil, 100 galls.; calcined white
vitriol (‘sulphate of zinc '), in fine powder,
7 lbs. ; mix in a clean copper boiler, heat the
whole to 285° Fahr., and keep it at that tem-
perature, with constant stirring, for at least
one hour; then allow it to cool, in 24 hours
decant the clear portion, and in 3 or 4 weeks
more rack it for use. Used for varnishes.
5. (Liebig.) Sugar of lead, 1 lb., is dissolved
in rain water, gall. ; litharge, in fine powder,
1 lb., is then added, and the mixture is gently
simmered until only a whitish sediment re-
mains; levigated litharge, 1 lb., is next diffused
through linseed oil, 2% galls., and the mixture
is gradually added to the lead solution, pre-
viously diluted with an equal bulk of water;
the whole is now stirred together for some
hours, with heat, and is, lastly, left to clear
itself by exposure in a warm place. The lead
solution which subsides from the oil may be
used again for the same purpose, by dissolving
in it another lb. of litharge, as before.
6. (Wilks). Into linseed oil, 236 galls., pour
oil of vitriol, 6 or 7 lbs., and stir the two to-
gether for 3 hours; then add a mixture of
fuller’s earth, 6 lbs., and hot lime, 14 lbs., and
again stir for 3 hours; next put the whole into
a copper, with an equal quantity of water, and
boil for about 3 hours; lastly, withdraw the
fire, and when the whole is cold, draw off the
water, run the oil into any suitable vessel, and
let it stand for a few weeks before using
it. Patent.
7. (“Allg, Polytech. Zeitung.") Binoxide
of manganese (in coarse powder, but not dusty),
1 part; nut or linseed oil, 10 parts; mix, and
keep the whole gently heated and frequently
stirred for 24 to 36 hours, or until the oil
begins to turn reddish. Recommended for
zinc paint, but is equally adapted for other
purposes for which boiled oil is employed.
Obs. There is often a difficulty i.obtaining



802
OILS (EMPYREUMATIC).
the oils “bright’ after boiling or heating them
with the lead solutions; the best way, on the
small scale, is either to filter them through
coarse woollen filtering paper, or to expose the
bottle for some time to the sun or in a warm
place. On the large scale, the finer oils of this
kind are often filtered through Canton-flannel
bags. The litharge and Sulphate of lead used
in the above processes may be again rendered
available for the same purpose, by Washing
them in hot water, to remove adhering mucilage.
OILS (Empyreumatic). Syn. OLEA EMPY-
REUMATICA, L. The ‘empyreumatic oils’ of
the old pharmaceutical writers were oily fluids
obtained by the dry distillation of various
substances, animal, vegetable, and mineral.
But few of them are in use at the present
day, though formulae are given for them in
some of the foreign pharmacopoeias. Two or
three have useful applications in the arts, and
it is therefore necessary that we should briefly
describe their preparation. When the ingre-
dients are of a liquid or pasty nature, or
become so when heated, they are usually mixed
with about twice their weight of Sand, pow-
dered glass, or other like substance, to divide
them, and thus expose them more effectually
to the action of the fire. Care must also be
taken to provide a well-cooled receiver, which
must be furnished with a tube to carry off
the non-condensable gases liberated at the
same time as the oil. The products of the
first distillation are generally purified by recti-
fication, either alone or along with water.
In general, they require to be preserved from
the light and air.
The following are the principal substances
belonging to this class:–
Oil of Al'oes. Syn. ALOETIC OHL; OLEUM
ALOETICUM, L. 1. From Socotrine or hepatic
aloes distilled along with sand.
2. (Batavian–Cadet de Gassicourt.) Olive
oil, 1 lb.; hepatic aloes and myrrh, of each, in
powder, 2 oz. ; Olibanum, # Oz. ; distil in a
sand bath, from a stoneware retort. Used as
an external vermifuge for children; a portion
is rubbed 2 or 3 times a day over the um-
bilical regions.
Oil of Amber. Syn. OLEUM SUCCINI, L.
From coarse pieces of amber, distilled in an
iron retort, either alone or reduced to powder
and mixed with sand. The oil is separated
from the fetid liquor and succinic acid which
passes over, and rectified along with about 6
times its volume of water, by a gentle heat.
It then forms “ FECTIFIED OIL OF AMBER'
(OLEUM SUCCINI–Ph. L. 1836, o. S. RECTI-
FICATUM-Ph. D. 1826, O. S. PURISSIMUM-
Ph. E. 1841). Prod. 20%.
Prop., &c. It has a pale yellow colour, a
strong, ungrateful odour, and a hot, acrid
taste; heat and air blacken and thicken it;
it boils at 186° Fahr. Sp. gr. 758 at 75°
Fahr. It is antispasmodic, Tubefacient, and
stimulant.—Dose. 5 to 12 drops, made into an
emulsion with mucilage; in hysteria, epilepsy,
and convulsive affections. Externally, as a
friction, either alone or combined with lauda.
num or sweet oil, in rheumatism, tic doll.
loureux, hooping-cough, &c. See MUSK (FAC:
titious).
Oil, An'imal. 1. (Empyreumatic or Fetid;
OIL OF HARTSHORN, DIPPEL's o.; OLEUM
ANIMALE EMPYREUMATICUM, O. CORNU CERVI,
O. DIPPELII, L.) Chiefly obtained as a
secondary product in the manufacture of bone.
black. Fetid and dark coloured. Used
chiefly to make lampblack.
2. (Ethereal; RECTIFIED OIL OF HART.
HORN ; OLEUMANIMALE AETHERIUM., O. CORNU
CERVI RECTIFICATUM, LOCO OLEI ANIMALIS
DIPPELII, L.)—a. A finer kind of animal oil,
made by slowly distilling oil of hartshorn, and
collecting only the first portion that comes
over. Pale and limpid. Exposure to light |.
discolours it.
b. (Ph. Bor.) Fetid animal oil distilled in
a sand bath, and the product rectified with
four times its volume of water. White, limpid,
fragrant. Light discolours it.
Prop. The refined product is said to be
antispasmodic, anodyne, and diaphoretic-
Dose. 5 to 30 drops, in water; in large doğ.
it acts as an irritant poison. -
Oil of Birch. Syn. OLEUM BETULE, I.
From the inner bark of the birch, by heatingi
in an earthen pot with a hole in the bottom
to allow the oil to flow through into another
jar sunk in the ground and luted to it. Thick
balsamic, fragrant. Used chiefly to drés
Russia leather.
Oil of Box-wood. Syn. OLEUM BUXI, 0, .
EMPYREUMATICUM (Ph. L. 1746), L. From
box-wood sawdust. Reputed resolvent; and
dyne, antispasmodic, and diaphoretic.--Doº,
5 to 20 drops; in convulsions, epilepsy, gonoſ
rhoea, &c. Externally, in toothache, &c.
Oil of Bricks. Syn. OLEUM LATERITIUM
(Ph. L. 1746), L. From olive oil, mixed with
brickdust, and distilled; or, from hot bricks
steeped in olive oil, then broken to pieces, all
distilled.
Oil of Bricks (Factitious). Syn. OLEUM
LATERITIUM FACTITIUM, L. From linseed oil
1 lb. ; oil of turpentine, 3 lb. ; oil of bones 0.
of hartshorn and Barbadoes tar, of each, 10%:
simply stirred welltogether. This is generally
substituted for the preceding in the shops,
Oil of Cade. Syn. OLEUM CADINUM, L.;
HUILE DE CADE, Fr. From the Juniper's
oaycedrus or Languedoc juniper. Used as oil
of tar, which is commonly sold for it.
Oil of Coal. Syn. COAL or L. From the
gas-works. See NAPHTHA.
Cil of Guaſiacum. Syn. OLEUM GUAIAC,
O. G. EMPYREUMATICUM, L. From guaiacum
shavings or raspings. Reputed balsamic, pºº
toral, and resolvent.
Oil of Harts/horn. Bone oil and rectified
bone oil are, commonly sold for it, but are
inferior to it. See ANIMAL OIL (above),
Oil, Paper. Syn, RAG OIL, PYROTHONIDE;
OILS (FIXED).
803
OLEUM CHARTE, L. On the small scale, by
burning paper on a cold tin plate, and col-
lecting the oil; on the large scale, by the de-
structive distillation of paper or linen rags.
In baldness, toothache, ear-ache, &c.
Oil, Par'affiin, See MINERAL OILs.
Oil, Petro"leum. See MINERAL OILS, PE-
TROLEUMI.
Oil, Rag. See PAPER OIL (above).
Oil, Rock. See NAPHTHA, MINERAL OILS,
PETROLEUM.
Oil, Shale. See MINERAL OILs.
Oil of Soot. Syn. OLEUM FULIGINIS (Ph.
L. 1746), L. From wood-soot. Fetid; re-
puted antispasmodic and nervine.
Oil of Tar. Syn. SPIRIT OF T.; OLEUM
PINI, O. P. RUBRUM, O. TEDAE, O. PICIS LI-
QUIDE, L. By simple distillation from wood-
tar. Reddish and strong scented. By one
or more rectifications it becomes colourless
and limpid. It soon gets thick. Used in
ringworm and several other skin diseases,
made into an ointment with lard. It is poi-
sonous if swallowed in large doses.
Oil of Tobacco (Empyreumatic). Syn.
OLEUM TABACI EMPYREUMATICUM (Ph. U. S.),
L. From tobacco, in coarse powder, gradually
heated in a green-glass retort to dull redness,
and kept at that temperature as long as any
oil passes over; the oily portion is then sepa-
rated from the water in the receiver, and kept
for use. Highly narcotic and poisonous.
Oil of Wax. Syn. OLEUM CERAE, L. From
bees' wax and sand distilled together; the
product is rectified once or oftener. Reputed
diuretic.—Dose. 3 to 6 drops.
0ILS (Fixed). Syn. FAT OTLS, UNCTUOUs
O.; OLEA. FIXA, O. EXPRESSA, L.; HUILES
GRASSES, Fr. The fixed oils are compounds of
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (oxyhydro-car-
bons), obtained from the organic kingdom,
and characterised by their insipidity, unctu-
osity, insolubility in water, and being lighter
than that fluid. Olive oil, which is obtained
from the vegetable kingdom, and spermaceti
oil, which is obtained from the animal king-
dom, may be taken as types of the rest.
The fixed oils are chiefly found in the fruit
and seeds of plants, and in thin membranous
cells, forming what is called the adipose tissue,
in the bodies of animals. According to their
consistence, they may be classed into ‘OILs,’
* BUTTERS,” and “TALLOWS.”
Prop., &c. Among the best-known proper-
ties of the fixed oils are—the permanent stain
they give to paper, which they render trans-
lucid; their non-volatility at the ordinary
temperature of the atmosphere, or at that of
boiling water, or, indeed, at any temperature
insufficient for their decomposition; their con-
stantly floating on the surface of water when
added to it ; and, lastly, their inability to mix
with that fluid. Some of them, as palm oil
and cocoa-nut oil, are solid at ordinary tem-
peratures; but the majority are fluid, unless
they have been considerably cooled, when they
separate into two portions—the one solid,
consisting chiefly of stearin, or some analogous
substance, and the other liquid, consisting
chiefly of olein or elain. Nearly all of them,
when exposed to the air, absorb oxygen rapidly,
and either gradually harden or become rancid
and nauseous. From the first are selected the
‘drying oils” used by painters; the last are
used as food, in cookery, and for machinery,
lamps, &c. The whole of these oils, when
heated to their boiling-points (500° to 600°
Fahr.), suffer decomposition, yielding various
hydrocarbons; and when suddenly exposed to
a red heat, they furnish a gaseous product
(oil-gas), which was formerly employed for
illumination. It is owing to this property of
oil and liquid fats that candles and lamps give
their light. The wick is a gas-producing
apparatus in miniature. With the caustic
alkalies and water, the fixed oils unite to form
soap. When some of these oils are absorbed
by porous bodies, and thus expose a vastly in-
creased surface to the air, they absorb oxygen
with such rapidity as to generate a considerable
degree of heat. Paper, tow, cotton, wool,
straw, shavings, &c., slightly embued with
oil, and left in a heap, freely exposed to the
air or sun, often spontaneously inflame. In
this way many extensive fires have arisen.
The above is more particularly the case with
linseed, rape, nut, and olive oil. The first,
made into a paste with manganese, rapidly
becomes hot, and ultimately inflames spon-
taneously.
The specific gravities of the fixed oils range
between 865 and 970, water being 1.000.
Prep. The fixed oils, except where other-
wise directed, are obtained from the bruised
or ground fruit or seed, by means of powerful
pressure, in screw or hydraulic presses, and
are then either allowed to clarify themselves
by subsidence or are filtered. Both methods
are frequently applied to the same oil. In
some cases the impurities are removed by
ebullition with water, and subsequent sepa-
ration of the pure oil. Heat is frequently
employed to increase the liquidity of the oil,
and thus lessen the difficulty of its expulsion
from the mass. With this object the bruised
mass, placed in bags, is commonly exposed to
the heat of steam, and then pressed between
heated plates of metal. This is always neces-
sary with the “butyraceous oils.”
Another method is by boiling the bruised
seed in water, and skimming off the oil as it
rises to the surface. This is the plan adopted
for castor oil in the West Indies.
In a few cases, for medicinal purposes, the
bruised mass is mixed with # its weight, or an
equal weight, of alcohol or ether, and after 24
hours’ digestion the whole is submitted to
pressure, and the alcohol or ether removed by
distillation at a gentle heat. The first men-
struum is commonly employed for croton oil
on the Continent; the second, for that of
ergot of rye.





804 -
OILS (FIXED).
Purif. Several methods are adopted for
refining or purifying the fixed oils, among
which are the following:—
1. The oil is violently agitated along with
1} to 2% of concentrated sulphuric acid; when
it assumes a greenish colour, and, after about
a fortnight's repose, deposits much colouring
matter, becomes paler, and burns with greater
brilliancy, particularly if well washed with
steam or hot water, and clarified by subsequent
repose or by filtration. This answers well
for most of the recently expressed vegetable
oils. It also greatly improves most of the
fish oils.
2. A modification of the last method is
to well mix the acid with the oil, then to
blow steam through the mixture for some
time, and afterwards to otherwise proceed as
before.
3. FISH OIL (WHALE, SEAL, &c.) is purified
a. Violently agitating it with boiling water
or steam, by placing it in a deep vessel with a
perforated bottom, through which high pressure
steam is forced for some time; it is afterwards
clarified by repose, and filtered through coarse
charcoal.
b. The oil is violently agitated with a boil-
ing-hot and strong solution of oak bark, to re-
move albumen and gelatine, and next with
high-pressure steam and hot water; it is, lastly,
dried and filtered.
c. The oil, gently heated, is stirred for some
time with about 1% of good chloride of lime,
previously made into a milk by trituration
with water; about 13% of oil of vitriol, dilu-
luted with 20 times its weight of water, is
then added, and the agitation renewed and
maintained for at least 2 hours; it is, lastly,
well washed with steam or hot water.
d. Mr. Davidson treats the oil, first with a
strong solution of tan, next with water and
chloride of lime, then with dilute sulphuric
acid, and, lastly, with hot water.
e. Mr. Dunn’s method, which is very effec-
tive, and admirable on account of its simplicity,
is to heat the oil by steam to from 180° to
200° Fahr., and then to force a current of air
of corresponding temperature through it,
auder a flue or chimney, until it is sufficiently
bleached and deodorised; it is, lastly, either
at once filtered or is previously washed with
steam or hot water.
j. Another method, formerly very generally
adopted and still in use, is to violently agitate
the oil for some time with very strong brine,
or with a mixed solution of blue vitriol and
common salt, and then either to allow it to
clarify by repose or to filter it through freshly
burnt charcoal.
4. ALMOND, CASTOR, LINSEED, NUT, OLIVE,
RAPE, and some other vegetable oils, are
readily bleached by either of the following
processes:—
a. Exposure in glass bottles to the sun’s
rays, on the leads or roofs of houses, or in
any other suitable position, open to the south,

east and south. This is the method employed
by druggists and oilmen to whiten their castºr
and linseed oils. 14 to 21 days’ exposure tº
the sun in clear weather during summer is
usually sufficient for castor oil when contained
in 2 to 4-quart pale green glass bottles (pré.
ferably the former), and covered with white
gallipots inverted over them. The oil is fil.
tered before exposing it to the light, as, if
only in a slight degree opaque, it does not
bleach well. Almond and olive oil are, when
thus treated, apt to acquire a slight sulphur.
ous smell; but this may be removed by filtra
tion through a little animal charcoal, Or,
still better, by washing the oil with hot
water.
b. Another method employed to decolour
these oils is to heat them in a wooden, tinned, Or
well-glazed earthen vessel along with some dry
‘filtering powder’ (1 to 2 lbs. per gal), with
agitation for some time, and, lastly, to filter
them in the usual manner through an oil-bag,
In this way the West-end perfumers prepart
their ‘WHITE ALMOND OTL” (OLEUM AMYG.
DALE ALBUM), and their ‘WHITE OLIVE OII'
(OIEUM OLIVE ALBUM). Formerly, freshly
burnt animal charcoal was used for this
purpose, and is still so employed by some
houses,
5. Mr. Bancroft refines OLLS FOR MACHI,
NERY AND LUBRICATING PURPOSES generally,
by agitating them with a lye of caustic sodi
of the sp. gr. 1:2. A sufficient quantity is
known to have been added when, after repos,
a portion begins to settle down clear at the
bottom. About 4% to 8% is commonly required
After 24 hours' re.
for lard oil and olive oil.
pose, the clear supernatant oil is decanted from
the Soapy sediment, and filtered.
6. Not only the oils above referred to, but
all other oils and fats may be rendered per
fectly colourless by the use of a little chromic
acid; or, what is the same, by a mixture of
solution of bichromate of potassa and sufficient
sulphuric, hydrochloric, or nitric acid, to seiſ
on all the alkali, and thus liberate the chromic
acid.
7. PALM OIL and COCOA-NUT OIL are gene.
rally refined and bleached by either chromic
acid or chlorine, or by heat —
a. The “butyraceous oil’ is liquefied by heat
in a wooden vessel, and 7% to 9% of good chlo:
ride of lime, previously made into a smooth
cream with water, is added, and the whole
assiduously stirred until the ingredients appear
united; the mixture is then allowed to cool,
and is next cut up into small lumps, which are
exposed to a free current of air for 2, 3, Or
even 4 weeks; these are melted in a wooden
vessel heated by high-pressure steam circulating
through leaden pipes, or in a cast-iron boiler
lined with lead, and an equal weight of oil of
vitriol (diluted with about 20 times its weight
of water) is poured in, and the whole gently
boiled until the oil is decoloured and runs
OILS (FIXED).
805
clear; the fire is then moderated, and the
whole allowed to settle; lastly, the fire is
removed, and the oil is left to cool very
slowly.
b. The process with chromic acid has been
already noticed, but is more fully explained
below.
c. The oil, heated to the temperature of
about 250°Fahr., is exposed to the action of
high-pressure steam, which is continuously
‘blown’ through it for 10 or 12 hours, or
even longer. The process is greatly facili-
tated by the introduction of some chromic
acid.
8. Mr. Watt's methods of purifying fats
and oils are very effective, more especially for
those intended for illumination. They are as
follows:–
a. (For FISH or LS.) Each ton is boiled for
# an hour with caustic soda, 3 lb., previously
made into a weak lye with water; or steam
is blown through the mixture for a like pe-
riod; oil of vitriol, lb., diluted with 6 times
its weight of water, is next added, the whole
again boiled for 15 minutes, and allowed to
settle for an hour or longer, when the clear
oil is run off from the water and sediment
into the bleaching tubs; here solution of bi-
chromate of potash, 4 lbs., in oil of vitriol, 2 lbs.,
previously diluted with water, q. S., together
with a little nitric acid and some oxalic acid,
are added, and after thorough admixture of
the whole, by blowing steam through it, strong
nitric acid, 1 lb., diluted with water, 1 quart,
is poured in, and the boiling continued for ;
an hour longer; a small quantity of naphtha
or rectified spirit of turpentine is then mixed
in, and the oil is, finally, well washed with hot
water, and left to settle.
b. (For PALM or L.) The oil is melted by
the heat of steam, and, after it has settled and
cooled down to about 130°Fahr., is carefully
decanted from the water and sediment into
the steaming tubs; here a mixture of a satu-
rated solution of bichromate of potash, 25 lbs.,
and oil of vitriol, 8 or 9 lbs., is added, and after
thorough admixture, hydrochloric acid, 50 lbs.,
is poured in ; the whole is then constantly
stirred until it acquires a uniform greenish
colour, or is sufficiently decoloured, a little
more of the bleaching materials being added
if the latter is not the case, after which it is
allowed to repose for half an hour to settle;
it is next run into a wooden vat, where it is
washed, &c., as before.
c. (For VEGETABLE OILs.) These are treated
with a solution of chromic acid, or with a
solution of bichromate of potassa, or some
mineral acid, as noticed at (6). For COLZA,
LINSEED, MUSTARD, NUT, and RAPE OIL, a
little hydrochloric acid is added; but for
ALMOND, CASTOR, OLIVE OIL, and POPPY OIL,
no such addition (at least in excess) is re-
quired.
9. RANCID of LS and FATS are recovered by
boiling them for about 15 minutes with a little
water and calcined magnesia; or, by filtering
them through freshly burnt charcoal.
In reference to the above processes, it may
be useful to remark, that chlorine, the com-
mon bleacher and deodoriser of other sub-
stances, cannot be well employed directly in
the purification of oils, as certain chemical re-
actions occur when these substances are brought
together, which increase the colour instead of
removing it, and are often otherwise injurious.
The same remarks apply to the use of the
‘chlorides,” which frequently fails in unskilful
hands, and is, indeed, of questionable utility,
except, perhaps, in the case of palm oil. Even
charcoal exerts little of its usual energy on
the oils, and whilst it removes or lessens their
offensive odour, sometimes increases their co-
lour. The addition of 1% or 2% of very pure
and recently rectified naphtha or oil of turpen-
tine (camphine) to lamp oil is a real improve-
ment, since it increases its combustibility and
its illuminative power.
OILS FOR MEDICAL PURPOSES, as CASTOR OIL,
COD-LIVER OIL, &c., must not be subjected to
any process beyond mere clarification by sub-
sidence, filtration through Canton flannel or
porous paper, or, at the utmost, washing with
warm water, as otherwise their active and
valuable properties, if not wholly removed,
will be considerably lessened. See FILTRA-
TION.
Purity. The fixed oils vary greatly in their
value, and hence the constant inducement
which leads the unprincipled dealer to adulte-
rate the more expensive ones with those of a
similar character, but of an inferior kind of
grade. Various methods are adopted to de-
tect these frauds, among which the following
are the most valuable of those capable of
general application. Others referring to indi-
vidual oils will be found under the respective
heads.
1. (From the odour.) The method of ap-
plying this test is to heat a few drops of the
oil under examination in a small porcelain,
platinum, or silver spoon or capsule (a watch-
glass answers well), and to carefully compare.
the odour evolved with that arising from a
known pure sample of the same kind and
quality of the oil similarly treated. The odour
of the two, when each is pure, is precisely
alike, and immediately suggests the plant or
animal from which it has been obtained.
The presence of LINSEED, NUT, RAPE, SEAL,
TRAIN, or WHALE OIL, is thus readily de-
tected, and the imperfections of the sample,
even if pure, rendered much more perceptible.
2. (From the density.)—a. According to
M. Penot, every oil supposed to come from the
same plant, or the same animal, has its own
particular density, which, at the same tempe-
rature, never deviates more than a few thou-
sandths. To apply this test, the relative den-
sity or specific gravity of the sample must be
determined. This may be done by means of a
thousand-grain bottle or an ordinary ‘AREQ.



806
OILS (FIXED).
METER; or, more conveniently, by an ‘ELAï0-
METER’ or ‘ol.EOMETER,” constructed and gra-
duated for the purpose. ‘Fischer's ELAYOME-
TER’ or ‘OIL-BALANCE’ is much employed on
the Continent for this purpose, and is a very
useful instrument. On the large scale, the
weight of an accurately measured imperial
gallon of the oil may be taken.
b. M. Laurot, an eminent Parisian chemist,
a short time since observed that the variations
of the density of an oil from adulteration are
rendered much more apparent when it is ex-
amined in a heated state. To render this dis-
covery practically available, he plunges an
“elaíometer,’ graduated for the given tempera-
ture, into a small tin cylinder nearly filled with
the oil, and then places this in a vessel contain-
ing boiling water; as soon as the whole has
acquired a uniform temperature, he observes
the point on the scale of the instrument at
which it floats. This point for—
Colza oil is 0°
Fish oil . 83°
Poppy oil * . 124°
Hemp-seed oil . . . . . 136°
Linseed oil . . . . 210°
c. By employing a specific gravity bottle or
small glass globe, fitted with a stopper in which
is hermetically fixed a capillary tube of about
8 or 9 inches in length, we may apply the
above principle of M. Lauret with the greatest
accuracy. This little apparatus is filled with
the oil, and then immersed in boiling water for
a sufficient length of time for it to acquire that
temperature; it is then removed and weighed.
The smallest adulteration is in this way im-
mediately detected.
When the density of the given sample has
been taken, and the name of the oil used to
adulterate it is known, the quantity of the
latter present may be approximately determined
from the specific gravities by the common
method of alligation."
3. (Sulphuric-acid test.)—a. Heidenreich
was the first person who gave a useful and ge-
neral application to the reactions which occur
when oil of vitriol is mixed with the fatty oils.
As soon as these substances are placed toge-
ther, very intense chemical action commences,
the temperature of the mixture rises, and the
mass becomes coloured. These changes are
sufficiently varied in the case of the different
oils to furnish us with the means of identifying
many of them, and of determining their pu,
rity. The method of M. Heidenreich is to lay
a plate of white glass over a sheet of white
paper; on the glass he places 10 or 15 drops
of oil, and then adds to it a small drop of CON:
centrated sulphuric acid (‘oil of vitriol’). The
appearances which follow differ with the chi:
racter of the fatty oil examined, and whether
the acid is allowed to act on the oil undis.
turbed (without stirring) or the two are stirred
together with a glass rod. In many cases, as
with tallow oil, a peculiar odour as well as:
change of colour is developed, and a further
means of detection supplied. M. Heidenreich
has minutely described these reactions, which,
for the most part, closely resemble those given
in the table, page 808. It is necessary, however,
in order to ensure great accuracy, to compart
the effects of the reagent on the sample with
those which it produces on pure oil of the same
kind and character under precisely similar
circumstances.
b. M. Penot, who has followed up the tº
searches of M. Heidenreich with considerable
success, recommends the employment of 20
drops of oil, instead of only 10 or 15; and the
use of a small capsule of white porcelain, i.
stead of a plate of glass. He also employs
saturated solution of bichromate of potashi
sulphuric acid, which he uses in the same prº
portion as before; but in this case the oil and
the reagent are always stirred together,
The observations of M. Penot have been
repeated in many cases by Mr. Cooley, and th:
results, with additions, and rearranged, aſ
given in the table, p. 808.
“By perusing this table,” writes M. Penoſ
“it will be observed that the same oil does nºt
under all circumstances, yield precisely similar
results with the same reagent. This depends
on the place of growth, the age, and the man.
ner of pressing. If, however, any oil be ex
amined comparatively with a perfectly put
one, the proof of adulteration may be rel:
dered, if not certain, at least probable, by
noting the difference. Thus I obtained, by
adding 1 part of either whale-train, or linsºl
oil, or oleic acid, or 10 parts of rapeseed oil
the following results:—
Small reddish lumps on a
gray ground.
Small and more numerous
red lumps on a very dark ||
green ground.
Small brownish lumps on
Brownish-olive coloured
Olive coloured
Greenish brown.
NAME of OIL.
REAGENTs.
• o A as Solution of Bichromate of
Sulphuric Acid. Potash,
Not stirred. Stirred. Stirred.
More red ground than with
rape oil
No perceptible difference
from the rape oil
º oil with whale-train
Ol
Rape oil with linseed oil
No perceptible difference
Rape oil with olein or
-- from the rape oil
oleic acid
1 See MIXTUREs, Arithmetic of.
|
an olive-coloured ground

OILS (FIXED.)
807
“The adulteration being ascertained as far
as is possible, the oil is then tested by endea-
vouring to discover the adulterating oil, either
by reagents or by its odour when gently heated,
as before described. This having been found
out, small quantities of the suspected oil are
added to a perfectly pure oil of the kind under
examination. Every mixture is then tested
by the reagents, until precisely similar results
are obtained as those yielded by the oil under
examination. Thus, the proportions of the
two mixed oils will be discovered by approxi-
mation.” (M. Penot.) A simpler method of
finding the proportions of the so mixed oils is
referred to above.
4. (From increase of temperature.) M.
Maumené proposed the increase of tempera-
ture arising from the admixture of mono-
hydrated sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol, sp. gr.
1845) with the fatty oils as a test of their
purity, but a sufficient number of observa-
tions have not yet been made to furnish data
for a general application of this method. Ac-
cording to MM. Faisst and Knauss, who have
re-examined the subject, the following are the
results when 15 grammes of oil are mixed
with 5 grammes of the acid:—
Rise of Temperature.
Almond oil . . . . . 72'5°
Olive ,, 68.0°
Poppy , - 127.0°
Rape or colza oil . 100.0°
Linseed oil (with Nordhausen or
ſuming acid only). 133-0°
The above method is less liable to error
when a larger quantity of the substances are
thrown together.
5. The presence of FISH or L in the vege-
table oils may be readily detected by passing a
stream of chlorine through them; the pure
vegetable oils are not materially altered, but
a mixture of the two turns dark brown or
black. -
*** The following are the principal fixed
oils met with in commerce, or which are objects
of interest or utility:—
Oil of Al'monds. Syn. OLEUM AMYGDALE
(B. P., Ph. L.), O. AMYGDALARUM (Ph.D.),
O. AMYGDALI CoMMUNIS (Ph. E.), L. “The
oil expressed from the kernels.” (Ph. L.)
“ Bruise the fresh almonds in a stone mortar,
then put them into a hempen sack, and ex-
press the oil, without heat.” (Ph. E.) The
oil of almonds B. P. and of commerce is ob-
tained from either the bitter or sweet almond,
but chiefly from the first, on account of their
less value, and the marc being employed in
the manufacture of essential oil.
Prop., &c. Oil of almonds is black, demul-
cent, emollient, and nutritious; possesses a
purely oleaginous taste, and is one of the most
agreeable of the fixed oils; when taken in
quantity, it is mildly laxative; it is little
affected by cold, and congeals with difficulty;
is soluble in 25 parts of cold and 6 parts of
boiling alcohol; ether dissolves it freely. Sp.
gr. 915 to 1918. Av. prod. Sweet almonds,
46%; bitter a., 41.
Pur. It is extensively adulterated with
poppy, nut, and teel oil, and not unfre-
quently with refined rape or colza oil. (See
above.)
Oil of Bay. 1. (EXPRESSED O. OF B.; OTEUM
LAURI, O. LAURINUM, L.) By expression from
either fresh or dried bayberries, as castor oil.
Limpid; insipid.
2. (By decoction ; BUTTER OF B. ; OLEUM
LAURI NOBILIS, O. L. VERUM, L.) From the
berries, by boiling them in water, and skim-
ming off the oil. Green, buttery ; chiefly
imported from Italy. Used by the vulgar in
bruises, sprains, rheumatism, deafness, &c.
Prod. 20%.
Oil of Beech. Syn. OLEUM FAGI, L. From
the nuts of Fagus sylvatica (Linn.) or beech
mast. Clear ; keeps well; when washed with
hot water, it is used for salads, and burnt in
lamps. Sp. gr. 9225. Prod. 16}.
Oil of Belladon'na. Syn. OLEUM BELLA-
IoWNE SEMINUM, O. B. BACCAE, L. From the
seeds or berries of Atropa belladonna or deadly
nightshade. Yellow ; insipid. Used for lamps
in Swabia and Wurtemberg, and as an appli-
cation to bruises. The marc is poisonous. It
freezes at 34°Fahr. Sp. gr. 9250.
Oil of Ben. Syn. OIL OF BEHEN ; OLEUM
BALATINUM. From the seeds of Moringa
pterygosperma (ben nuts). Scentless, colour-
less ; keeps long without growing rank; by
standing, it separates into two parts, one of
which freezes with difficulty, and is hence much
used in perfumery.
Oil of Benne Seed. See OIT OF GINGELLY
(below).
Oil of Brazil-nuts. Syn. OLEUM BERTHoT-
LETIAE. From the kernels of the fruit of Ber-
tholletia excelsa, or Brazil-nuts. An oil of a
bright amber colour, congealing at 24° Fahr.
Sp. gr. 1917. It has been used as a sub-
stitute for olive oil in plasters and oint-
ments.
Oil of Cacao. Syn. BUTTER OF C.; OLEUM
CACAO CONCRETUM, BUTYRUM CACAO, L. From
the seeds of Theobroma Cacao, or chocolate
nuts, gently heated over the fire, and then de-
corticated, and pressed between hot iron plates.
Sp. gr. 892.
Oil, Castor. Syn. RICINI ODEUM (B. P.),
OLEUM CASTOREI, O. RICINI (Ph. L. E. & D.),
L. “The oil prepared by heat, or by pres-
sure, from the seed " of “I’icinus communis,
Linn.” (Ph. L.), the Palma Christi, or Mexican
oil-bush. - -
The best castor oil (COLD-DRAWN CASTOR
OTL ; OLEUM RICINI SINE IGNE) is prepared by
pressing the shelled and crushed fruit (seed) in
hemp bags, in an hydraulic press, and heating
the oil thus obtained along with water in well-
tinned vessels, until the water boils and the
albumen and gum separate as a scum ; this is
carefully removed, and the oil, as soon as it has

808
OILS (FIXED).
TABLE giving the reactions of various OILs with SUIPHURIC ACID and with a saturated solutiºn
of BICHROMATE OF POTASSA in sulphuric acid. Re-arranged from M. PENOT's tablº,
with additions, by Mr. CooDEY.
*** The result indicated is obtained in each case by the action of one drop of the REAGENT
on twenty drops of OII.
NAME OF OIL.
REAGENTs.
Saturated Solution of
Sulphuric Acid. |Bichromate of Potassa |
in Sulphuric Acid,
Not stirred. Stirred. Stirred. |
Almond oil
Castor oil
Cod-liver oil (fine sample
of pale oil)
Hemp-seed oil.
Linseed oil (from the
Upper Rhine)
2x (from Paris)
-> (English)
Liver-train oil .
Madia-sativa oil
Black-mustard oil
Neat's-foot oil
Nut oil (recent) - -
, (one year old)
, (still older) .
Olein, oleic acid, lard, or
tallow oil . - -
Olive oil . . . .
33 (another sample)
xx (from fermented
olives) . -
Poppy oil (recent cold
drawn)
22 (recent, ex-
pressed with
slight heat).
2.5 (one year old,
expressed with heat)
Rape or colza oil (trade).
2x (recent).
xx (one year old)
» (one year old,
rough hot-pressed)
Whale-train oil
Greenfinch yellow, with
orange spots
Yellow, with slight spots
Deep purple in the centre,
rapidly turning brown,
whilst violet or purple
clouds or streaks spread
out towards the circum-
ference, the colour of
which remains unaltered
for some minutes after
the central portion has
turned nearly black
Small brown lumpsor clots
on a yellow ground
Dark reddish brown
Reddish brown, less dark
coloured
Chestnut brown
Dark red
Slightly reddish brown un-
†eath a thin grayish
m.
Bluish green
Yellow slight spots
Yellowish brown.
Yellow
Orange yellow
Reddish spots, with red-
dish circles
Yellow
Orange yellow
Orange yellow
Yellow spots
Greenish-yellow spots
Greenish spots
Yellowish-brown streaks
surrounded by a bluish-
green ring
Green
Green
Green
Small reddish lumps on
a brownish ground
Dirty green
Little reaction
Deep purple, passing into
purple brown, reddish
brown, and gradually
deepening to an in-
tense brown, approach-
ing black
Greenish brown
Brown small lumps on a
gray ground
Brown clots on a green
ground -
Brown clots on a greenish-
gray ground
Dark red
Olive green
Olive green
Dirty brown
Clotted, dark brown
Dirty brown, less dark
coloured
Dirty brown
Reddish brown
Dirty brown
Brownish gray
Brownish gray
Olive brown
Olive brown, turning more
on the green
Olive green
Brownish, turning on the
olive green
Bluish green
Bluish green
Olive green
Resembles wine lees
Yellowish, small lumps.
Slightly green.
Reddish-brown clºs,
changing to a clear ||
bright green. |
Small yellow lumps or
clots on agreen ground.
Brown small lumps on ||
an almost colourless
ground.
Brown small lumps on a
green ground.
Brown lumps on a green.
ish-graw ground.
Dark ; g
Light brown small lump;|
on an olive-coloured|
ground.
Olive brown.
Brown spots on a brown-
ish ground.
Small brown lumps ºf
clots.
Small brown lumps,
Small brownish lumps.
Bright chestnut colour,
Olive brown.
Brown.
Brown.
Small yellow lumps on a
white ground.
Small yellow lumps on a
greenish-gray ground,
Small yellow lumps on a
green ground. |
Yellow small lumps on a
green ground.
Yellow small lumps on a
green ground.
Yellow lumpsonabrighter
green ground.
Small yellow lumps, more |
numerous, on an olive-
green ground. |
Small, bright, chestnut.
coloured lumps on a
brown ground.






OILS (FIXED).
809
become cold, is filtered through Canton flannel,
and put into canisters. The commoner kinds
are prepared by gently heating the crushed
seeds, and pressing them whilst hot. Another
method, sometimes adopted, is to put the
crushed seed into loose bags, to boil these in
water, and to skim off the floating oil.
Prop. It is the most viscid of all the fixed
oils; when pure, it mixes in all proportions
with alcohol and ether, and also dissolves, to a
certain extent, in rectified spirit, but a portion
of the oil separates on standing. Camphor
and benzoic acid increase its solubility in
spirit. By long exposure to the air, it be-
comes rancid, thick, and is ultimately trans-
formed into a transparent yellow mass ; light
hastens these changes. Exposed to cold, a
solid, white, crystalline fat separates from the
liquid portion, and when cooled to 0° it con-
geals into a yellow transparent mass, which
does not again liquefy until the temperature
rises to about 18° Fahr. Sp. gr. 9611 to
'9612, at 60°; '9690, at 55° (Saussure);
'9575, at 77° (Saussure). Prod. 38 to 40%
(62%–Ure).
Pur. Castor oil is sometimes. adulterated
with rape oil or with lard oil, a fraud which
may be detected by its diminished density ;
and, when the added oil exceeds 33%, by its
insolubility in its own weight of alcohol of
‘820. In many cases croton oil is added to
increase the purgative quality of the mixture.
A compound of this kind is vended in gela-
tine capsules under the name of ‘ConCEN-
TRATED CASTOR OIL, the use of which is fraught
with danger. “I have heard of several
cases in which very violent and dangerous
effects were produced by these capsules.”
(Pereira.) The best is imported from the
East Indies in tin canisters. The oil obtained
from the seeds of Ricinus viridis (Willd.), or
lamp-oil seeds, is often mixed with or sold for
castor oil,
Uses, &c. Castor oil is an exceedingly useful
mild purgative, particularly when abdominal
irritation should be avoided, as in inflamma-
tions of the stomach and bowels, pregnancy,
surgical operations, &c.—Dose. 2 fl. drs, to
1 fl. Oz. -
Oil, Co'coa-nut. Syn. Coco A-NUT BUTTER ;
OLEUM COCOIS NUCIFERIE, L. By expression
from the kernels of the cocoa nut, or fruit of
the Cocos nucifera.
Oil, Cod-liver. Syn. MoRRHUE OLEUM (B.
P.), COD-FISH OFL ; OLEUM JEcoRIS ASELLI,
O. GADI, O. G. MORRHUAE, OLEUM MoRRHUAE
(Ph. L.), L. “The oil extracted from the
fresh liver of the Gadus morrhua by a steam
heat or water-bath not exceeding 180° Fahr.
Yellow.” “The oil prepared from the liver of
Gadus morrhua, Linn.” (Ph. I.)
The common cod-liver oil of commerce drains
from the livers of the cod-fish when freely ex-
posed to the sun, and just beginning to putrefy.
It is dark coloured, strong, and nauseous, and
is now chiefly employed in this country by the
curriers, for dressing leather. It is the
‘ODEUM JEcoRIS ASELLI FUSCUM’ of Conti-
mental writers. Formerly, the less fetid
varieties of this crude oil, after the impurities
were removed, either by subsidence or filtra-
tion, constituted the only cod-liver oil used
in medicine. As its employment as a remedy
increased, its revolting flavour, and its great
tendency to permanently disorder the stomach
and bowels, was found, however, to be a serious
obstacle to its general use. It was observed
that the oil, as it exists in the liver of the cod,
is bland, and nearly colourless, and has only a
slight fishy, but not a disagreeable flavour.
The attention of persons interested was there-
fore immediately directed to the subject, and
improved methods of obtaining the oil were
suggested, and ere long adopted on the large
scale.
The methods of preparing cod-liver oil are
noticed in another part of this work, but we
think it advisable to add to these a description
of the plan adopted by Messrs. Charles Fox
and Co., of Newfoundland, Scarborough, and
London, the well-known manufacturers and
importers of cod-liver oil –
“The Newfoundland fisheries are entirely
carried on in small boats, principally by the
hand-line system, and quite close to the shore.
The boats go out early in the morning, and
return about four o'clock in the afternoon.
The fish, on landing, are handed over to a
“fish-room keeper,” whose duty it is to split
and open the fish, and to deposit the livers in
small tubs, holding 17 or 18 gallons each.
These tubs are soon afterwards collected from
the different ‘fish-rooms,” and conveyed to the
manufactory. The livers are here thrown into
tubs filled with clean cold water, and, after
being well washed and jerked over, are placed
on galvanized iron-wire sieves to drain. They
are next put into covered steam-jacket-pans,
and submitted to a gentle heat for about
three quarters of an hour, after which the
steam is turned off, cold air again admitted,
and the whole allowed to repose for a short
time, during which the livers subside, and the
oil separates and floats on the top. The oil is
then skimmed off into tin vessels, and passed
through flannel strainers into tubs, where it is
left to subside for about 24 hours. From these
the purer upper portion of oil is run into a very
deep, galvanized-iron cistern, and again left
to clarify itself by defecation for a few days.
It is now further refined, by carefully passing
it through clean and very stout mole-skin
filters, under pressure. The transparent filtered
oil is received in a clean, galvanized-iron cis-
term, containing a pump, from which the casks
are filled for exportation. The latter, before
being filled, are carefully seasoned and cleaned,
to prevent their imparting either flavour or
colour to the pure oil.”
The superiority of the oil prepared as above
consists essentially in every part of the process
of extraction being performed whilst the livers


*
810
OILS (FIXED).
are fresh, and in no chemical means being
adopted to give the oil a factitious appearance.
Its natural pale colour is thus preserved from
contamination, and its medicinal virtues main-
tained intact.
Much of the light-brown oil of commerce is
obtained from Gadus callarius (the dorse), G.
carbonarius (the coal-fish), and G. pollachius
(the pollack).
Pur., &c. “The finest oil,” remarks Dr.
Pereira, “is that which is most devoid of
colour, odour, and flavour. The oil, as con-
tained in the cells of the fresh liver, is nearly
colourless, and the brownish colour possessed
by ordinary cod-liver oil is due to colouring
matters derived from the composition (putre-
fying) hepatic tissues and fluids, or from the
action of the air on the oil (age). Chemical
analysis lends no support to the opinion, at one
time entertained, that the brown oil was supe-
rior, as a therapeutical agent, to the pale oil.
Chemistry has not discovered any substance in
the brown oil that would confer on it superior
activity as a medicine. On the other hand,
the disgusting odour and flavour and nau-
seating qualities of the brown oil preclude its
repeated use. Moreover, there is reason to
suspect that, if patients could conquer their
aversion to it, its free use, like that of other
rancid and empyreumatic fats, would disturb
the digestive functions, and be attended with
injurious effects.” (“Elem. Mat. Med.,’ &c., 3rd
edit., iii, 2239.)
Among the tests of purity, that generally
relied on is known as the ‘sulphuric-acid
test.’ See OILs. (Fixed) Purity.
DORSE OIL and other FISH OILS, sold as
‘LIGHT-BROWN COD-LIVER OIL,” exhibit with
this test much lighter reactions, which closely
resemble those of LIVER-TRAIN and WHALE-
TRAIN OTL.
To detect the presence of combined iodine,
upon which, by some, the therapeutic value of
cod-liver oil is thought to depend, the sample
is saponified by trituration with a little caustic
potassa and hot water, the resulting soap cau-
tiously incinerated, the ashes digested with
water, and the whole thrown on a filter. The
usual tests for iodine may be then applied to
the filtered liquid.
The presence of iodine artificially added is
best detected by agitating the oil with a little
rectified spirit, and then testing this last for
iodine. Or, a little solution of starch and a few
drops of sulphuric or nitric acid may be at once
added to the oil, when a blue colour will be
developed if iodine, or an iodide, has been mixed
with the sample.
The sp. gr. of the pale oil is 9230 to '9238;
of the light-brown oil, ‘9240 to 9245 ; of the
dark-brown oil, 9290 to 9315. The density
is, however, apt to vary a little with the quantity
of moisture present.
Uses, &c. Cod-liver oil is a most valuable
medicine in a great variety of diseases, more
especially in glandular indurations and en-
largements, scrofula, phthisis, rheumatism,
gout, certain cutaneous diseases, amenorrhū,
chlorosis, caries, rickets, &c. To be of service,
however, its use must be continued for several
weeks, and the oil must be recent.—Dose, 1
to 2 table-spoonfuls, 3 or 4 times daily, or
oftener.
Oil, Col'za. From the seeds of Brassica cañ.
pestris, var. oleifera, or colza de printemps, a
variety of Brassica campestris (Linn.). It may
be regarded as a superior sort of rape oil.
Burns well in lamps, especially after being
refined. Sp. gr. 9136. Prod. 39%. The
term ‘colza oil’ is commonly applied to Ordi.
nary refined rape.
Oil, Cottom-seed. Syn. OLEUM GOSSIPII
SEMINUM, L. From the seed of Gossypium
Barbadense. Drying.
Oil, Cro'on, Syn. CROTONIS OLEUM (B.P.)
OLEUM CROTONIS (Ph. E.), O. TIGLII (Ph. I.)
L. From the shelled seeds of Croton tiglium
or Molucca grains. Imported chiefly from the
East Indies. It is one of the most powerful
cathartics known, and acts when either swal.
lowed or merely placed in the mouth. Ever.
nally, it is rubefacient and counter-irritant,
often causing a crop of painful pustules, like
tartar emetic.—Dose. 1 to 2 drops, on sugar;
in apoplexy, &c. It is poisomous in larger
doses. Sp. gr. 1947 to 953. Prod. Un:
shelled seeds, 22% to 20%; shelled do., 3%
to 35%. -
Pure croton oil is soluble in an equal volume
of alcohol of 796, but in 2 or 3 days about 96.
of the oil separates. In France the marcisex
hausted with alcohol, and the oil thus obtained
is added to that previously obtained from the
same seeds by expression. The East India.
oil (OLEUM CROTONIS Exoticum) is usually ºf
a pale yellow; that pressed in England (0.
CROTONIS ANGLICANUM) is much darker.
Oil of Cuſcumber. Syn. OLEUM CUCURBITE,
L. From the seeds of Curcurbita pepo of
squash, and the C. melopepo or pumpkin. Pale;
used in lamps; and, sometimes, as a soothing
application to piles. Sp. gr. 9231. Prol.
24}. -
ðil of Eggs. Syn. OLEUM OVI, O. o. VITEIII,
O. OvoRUM, L. From the yolks of eggs, gently
heated until they coagulate and the moisture
has evaporated, and then pressed or broken
up, digested in boiling rectified spirit, the
tincture filtered whilst hot, and the spirit dis.
tilled off. Bland; emollient. The commºn
plan is to fry the yolks hard; but the oil is
then darker coloured and stronger. The P.
Cod. orders them to be exhausted with ether,
by displacement. Formerly commonly used
to “kill” quicksilver, and still held in great
esteem in some parts of England for sore hip:
ples and excoriations. Prod. 10 to 12 eggs
yield 1 oz. See MIXED OILs.
Oil of Gar’den Cress. Syn. OLEUM LEPIDI
SATIVI, L. From the seed. Drying. Sp. gr.
‘9240. Prod. 54}.
Oil of Garden Spurge.
Syn. OLEUM IA-







OILS (FIXED).
811
THYRIS, O. EUPHORBIZE L., L. From the
seeds of Euphorbia lathyris or garden spurge.
Cathartic. Dose. 3 to 8 drops. Sp. gr. 9281.
Prod. 30% to 41%. Croton oil mixed with 6
times its weight of nut or rape oil is usually
sold for it.
Oil of Gingel’ly. Syn. OIL OF SESAMUM,
BENNE OIL, TEEL O., TEI. O.; OLEUM SESAMI,
L. From the seeds of Sesamum orientale
(Willd.), or gingelly. Pale; bland. Used in
Salads, paints, &c.; also to addlterate oil of
almonds. Prod. 46%,
Oil, Gourd. See CUCUMBER OIL.
Oil of Ground Nuts. From the nuts of
Arachis hypogaea. Glutinous.
Oil of Hemp. Syn. OLEUM CANNABIs, L.
From the seed of Cannabis sativa (Linn.), or
common hemp. Mawkish. Sometimes used
for frying, but chiefly for paints, soaps, &c.
Freely soluble in boiling alcohol; does not
thicken until cooled to 5° Fahr. Sp. gr. 19276.
Prod. 18% to 24.
Oil of Jatro/pha. Syn. OIL OF WILD CASTOR
SEEDS ; OLEUM JATROPHIE, L. From the
seeds of Jatropha purgans. Somewhat resem-
bles CROTON OTL. Used for lamps in the East
Indies.
Oil, Kum'dah. Syn. TALLICOONAH o.; OLEUM
ToULOUCOUNAE, L. From the fruit of Carapa
Touloucouma. Rancid, nauseous, vermifuge,
rubefacient, emetic, and purgative. Chiefly
used in lamps.
Oil, Lard. Syn. TALLOW o., CRUDE OLEIN,
C. OLEIC ACID ; OLEUM ADIPIs, L. By sepa-
rating the olein of lard from the stearin by
means of boiling alcohol. Only applicable
where spirit is cheap. The product is, how-
ever, excellent. The crude oleic acid, or lard
oil of commerce, is chiefly obtained as a secon-
dary product in the manufacture of stearin.
It is purified by agitation with sulphuric acid,
and subsequently by steaming it, or washing it
with hot water. Burns well in lamps, if the
wick-tube is kept cool. Sp. gr. 9003.
Oil, Linseed. Syn. OLEUM LINI (B. P., Ph.
L. E. & D.), L. 1. (CoLD-DRAWN LINSEED OTL ;
OLEUM LINI SINE IGN.E.) From the seed of
Linum usitatissimum (Linn.), or common flax,
bruised or crushed, and then ground and ex-
pressed without heat. Pale, insipid, viscous;
does not keep so well as the next. Prod. 17%
to 20%. -
2. As the last, but employing a steam heat
of about 200° Fahr. Amber coloured; less
viscous than the last; congeals at 2°; soluble
in 5 parts of boiling and 40 parts of cold
alcohol. Both are drying and cathartic.—Dose.
1 to 2 oz. ; in piles, &c. Chiefly used in paints,
gº &c. Sp. gr. 19347. Prod. 22% to
27}.
3. (BoILED LINSEED OTL.) See OILS (Dry-
ing).
Oil of Mace (Expressed). See OIL OF NUT-
MEG (Expressed).
Oil of Mustard. Syn. OLEUM SINAPIs, L.
1. (OIL or WHITE MUSTARD.) From Sinapis
alba, or white mustard, but chiefly from Sinapis
arvensis, S. chinensis, S. dichotorna, S. glauca,
S. ramosa, and S. tori. Sweet. Used for the
table. Sp. gr. 1914.2 (2160–Ure). Prod.
36%.
§. (OIL OF BLACK MUSTARD; OLEUM SINA-
PIs NIGRI, L.) From the ‘hulls’ of black-
mustard seed. Wiscid, stimulant. Used in
rheumatism. Sp. gr. 9168 to 9170. See
OILs (Volatile).
3. (OIL OF wiłITE MUSTARD; OLEUM RA-
PHANI, L.) From the seed of Raphanus Ra-
phanistrum (Linn.), or jointed charlock or wild
mustard. Prod. 30%.
Oil, Neat's-Foot. Syn. NERVE OLL, TROT-
TER O.; OLEUM BUBULUM, O. NERVINUM,
AXUNGIA PEDUM TAURI, L. From neat's-fee
and tripe, by boiling them in water, and skim-
ming off the oil. Does not thicken by age.
Used to soften leather, to clean fire-arms, and
for other purposes.
Oil, Nut. Syn. HAZEL-NUT o. ; OLEUM
NUCIS, O. CORYLI, L. From the kernels of
Corylus Avellana (Linn.), or hazel-nut tree.
Pale, mild tasted, drying ; superior to linseed
oil for paints and varnishes. It is commonly
sold for oil of almonds and oil of ben, and is
extensively employed to adulterate both. Wal-

nut oil is also frequently sold for nut oil. Sp.
gr. 9260. Prod. 60% (Ure).
Oil of Nut'meg (Expressed). Syn. Ex-
PRESSED OTL of MACE, BUTTER OF M.; OLEUM
MYRISTICE (CONCRETUM) (Ph. L.), MYRIs-
TICE ADEPs (Ph. E.), M. BUTYRUM, O. MY-
RISTICE EXPRESSUM (B.P.), O. MoscHATE, O.
NUCISTE, L. “The concrete oil expressed from
the seed of Myristica officinalis,” Linn. (Ph.
L.), or common nutmeg. The nutmegs are
beaten to a paste, enclosed in a bag, exposed
to the vapour of hot water, and then pressed
between heated iron plates. Orange coloured,
fragrant, spicy; butyraceous, or solid. It is a
mixture of the fixed and volatile oils of the
nutmeg. When discoloured and hardened by
age, it is called ‘BANDA so AP’ (or. MACIS IN
MASSIs). When pure, it is soluble in 4 parts of
boiling alcohol and in 2 parts of ether. It has
been used in rheumatism and palsy, but is now
chiefly employed for its odour and aromatic
qualities. From the East Indies. Prod. 17;
to 20%. -
Oil, Olive. Syn. SAIAD or L, SWEET o.;
OLIVE of EUM (B. P.), OLEUM or IVARUM, O.
oDIVAE (Ph. L. E. & D.), L. The “oil ex-
pressed from the fruit” of “Olea europaea,
Linn.” (Ph. L.), or common olive. Five dif-
ferent methods are employed to obtain the oil
from the fruit :—
1. (VIRGIN OTL ; O. o. VIRGINEUM, L.);
HUILE VIERGE, Fr.) From olives, carefully
garbled, either spontaneously or only by slight
pressure, in the cold. That yielded by the
pericarp of the fruit is the finest.
2. (Ordinary FINE or L.'). This is obtained
by either pressing the olives, previously crushed
and mixed with boiling water, or by pressing,


812
OILS (FIXED).
at a gentle heat, the olives from which the
virgin oil has been obtained. The above pro-
cesses furnish the finer salad oils of commerce.
The cake which is left is called ‘ GRIGNON.”
3. (SECOND QUALITY.) By allowing the
bruised fruit to ferment before pressing it.
Yellow ; darker than the preceding; but mild
and sweet tasted. Much used for the table.
4. (‘GORGON.") By fermenting and boiling
the pressed cake or marc in water, and skim-
ming off the oil. Inferior.
5. (OIL OF THE INFERNAL REGIONS: OLEUM
OMPHACINUM) is a very inferior quality of oil,
which is skimmed off the surface of the water
in the reservoirs into which the waste water
which has been used in the above operations
is received, and allowed to settle. The last
two are chiefly used for lamps, and in soap-
making, &c. -
Of the principal varieties of olive oil known
in commerce, and distinguished by the place
of their production, “PROVENCE ODI' is the
most esteemed; “FLORENCE OIL” and ‘LUCCA
OIL are also of very fine quality; “GENOA
OIL comes next, and then ‘GALLIPOLI OIL,”
which forms the mass of what is used in Eng-
land; “SICILY OTL,” which has a slightly re-
sinous flavour, is very inferior; and ‘SPANISH
OTL” is the worst imported.
Prop., &c. Olive oil is a nearly inodorous,
pale greenish-yellow, unctuous fluid, with a
purely oleaginous taste, peculiarly grateful to
the palate of those who relish oil. It does not
suffer active decomposition at a heat not ex-
ceeding 600°Fahr.; and when cooled to 36° it
congeals into a granular solid mass. It is very
slightly soluble in alcohol, but its solubility is
increased by admixture with castor oil. It is
soluble in 1% part of ether. When pure, it
has little tendency to become rancid. Sp. gr.
'9170 to 9173; .9192, at 53}” (Saussure);
'9176, at 59° (Heidenreich); and 9109, at 77°
Fahr. (Saussure). Prod. 32% of which 21% is
furnished by the pericarp, and the remainder,
which is inferior, by the seed and woody matter
of the fruit.
Pur. Olive oil, with the exception of that
of almonds, being the most costly of the ordi-
nary fixed oils of commerce, is, consequently,
the one most subject to adulteration. Nut,
poppy, rape, and lard oil, are those most
commonly used for this purpose. Refined
tallow olein, including that obtained from the
‘knackers’ yards’ of Paris, is said to have
been used in the same way. The addition of
any other oil to olive oil renders it far less
agreeable to the palate, and, by increasing its
tendency to rancidity, much more likely to
offend and derange the stomach and bowels of
those who consume it. Parties who indulge
themselves in the use of this luxury would,
therefore, do well to ascertain that what they
purchase is pure. When pure, and also fresh,
olive oil is most wholesome as an article of
food or as a condiment.
The detection of the sophistication of salad
oil, it is occasionally employed as a laxative
oil is a matter of no great difficulty. The
palate of the connoisseur will readily perceive
the slightest variation in the quality of his
favourite condiment. Other methods, however,
of a more accurate and certain description, and
of more general application, are adopted
Amongst these, in addition to those mentioned
above, are the following :- -
a. When pure olive oil is shaken in a phia,
only half filled, the ‘bead’ or bubbles rapidly
disappear; but if the sample has been mixed
with poppy or other oil, the bubbles continue
longer before they burst.
b. Olive oil congeals at 36° Fahr., and is
completely solidified when a small bottle COn
taining it is surrounded by ice, or a freezing
mixture ; but when mixed with poppy oil, it
remains partly liquid, even when the latter
forms only 1-4th of the mass ; if more than
1-3rd of poppy oil is present, it does not so.
lidify at all, unless cooled much below the
freezing point of water.
c. (Ph. E.) When olive oil is “carefully
mixed with Tºth part of its volume of a solu.
tion of 4 oz. of mercury in 8 fl. oz. 6 drs, of
nitric acid (sp. gr. 1:500), it becomes in 30
4 hours like a firm fat, without any separation
of liquid oil.”
d. M. Pontet recommends the mercurial
solution to be made by dissolving 6 parts ºf
mercury in 7% parts of nitric acid (sp. gr.
1.35), without heat ; of this solution he adds
1 part to every 48 parts of the oil, and well
shakes the mixture every 30 minutes, untilit
begins to solidify. This it does after about 7
hours in summer and 4 or 5 hours in wintel,
and when the oil is pure it will have formed
in 24 hours, a mass so hard that some little
force must be employed to thrust a glass rol
into it. The other edible oils do not furnish
a hard mass with nitrate of mercury. The
solidity of the mass is exactly in proportion
to the quantity of foreign oil present. When
the sophistication is equal to 1-8th of the
whole, a distinct liquid layer separates; when
the mixture contains , its volume of an in:
ferior oil, one half only of the mixture hº
comes solid, and the other half continue;
liquid. A temperature of about 90° Fahr, is
the best to cause the oil and coagulum tº
separate then perfectly from each other
When the oil has been adulterated with
animal oil, the mixture solidifies in about five
hours; but in this case the coagulum consists
of the animal oil, whilst the olive oil floats On
the surface, and may be decanted for further
examination. This coagulum, on being heated
exhales the well-known odour of rancid fat Or
melted tallow.
Uses, &c. The dietetical uses of olive oil
are well known. In Spain and Italy it is com:
monly employed as a substitute for butter.
It is highly nutritious, but is digested with
difficulty by some persons, and hence should
be avoided by the dyspeptic. Like almond


OILS (FIXED).
813
and vermifuge, and is, perhaps, one of the
mildest known. In pharmacy it is extensively
employed in the preparation of cerates, lini-
ments, ointments, and plasters.--Dose. For
an adult, # to 1 wine-glassful as a mild
aperient ; for an infant, # to 1 teaspoonful,
mixed up with an equal quantity of honey,
syrup of roses, or syrup of violets. The white
fibrous sediment which forms in the recently
expressed oil is the “AMURCA’ of Pliny, and
was formerly highly esteemed in medicine.
Oil, Olive, Droppings. Syn. SWEET-OIL D.
The ‘foots’ or “deposits,” and the ‘drippings’
of the casks, cisterns, and utensils. Used for
machinery, making soap, &c.
Oil, Olive (Oxygenated). Syn. OLEUM OLIVE
oxygENATUM (Ph. Batav), L. Olive oil, 16
oz., is placed in a receiver surrounded with ice
or very cold water, and chlorine is slowly
transmitted through it for several days, or until
it becomes thick and viscid, after which it is
well washed with warm water.
Oil, Palm. Syn. PALM BUTTER ; OLEUM
PALMAE, L. From the fruit of Elais Guineensis,
and E. melanoeocca, the Guinea oil palms.
Orange or red coloured ; butyraceous or solid;
smells of violets; unchanged by alkalies ;
bleached by sunlight, age, exposure, chlorine,
chromic acid, and oil of vitriol; melts at 117%"
Fahr. Sp. gr. 968. Demulcent. Used to
colour and scent ointments, pommades, &c.;
but chiefly to make soap and candles. From
Africa.
Oil, Pi"ney. Syn. PINEY TALLow, P. DAM-
MAR, P. RESIN. From Pateria Indica (Linn.),
or paenoe tree. Resinous flavoured, fragrant;
made into candles. Sp. gr. 926.
Oil, Pop'py. Syn. OLEUM PAPAVERIS, L. ;
OLIETE, HUILE BLANCHE, Fr. From the seeds
of Papaver somniferum (Linn.), or white poppy.
Sweet ; pale ; dries and keeps well. Used for
salads, paints, and soaps ; also (extensively) to
adulterate almond oil, for the inferior qualities
of which it is frequently sold. It does not
freeze until cooled to 0°Fahr. Sp. gr. 19243
to 9245. Prod. 48% to 54%.
Oil, Rape. Syn. CoIZA. OIL, BROWN O. ;
OLEUM RAPAE, L. From the seed of Brassica
Napus (Linn.; cole or rape), and from Brassica
campestris (Linn.; wild navew or rape). Glu-
tinous; buttery at 25° Fahr. Dries slowly;
makes soft soaps and good ointments, but
bad plasters ; smokes much in burning, unless
well refined. Sp. gr. 9135 to '9136. Prod. 32%.
OIL, REFINED or PALE RAPE (OLEUM RAPE
REFINUM, OL. R. ALBUM) is prepared from
crude rape oil, by agitating it with about 2% of
oil of vitriol, previously diluted with about
twice its weight of water, and, after 10 or 12
days’ repose, decanting the clear oil, and fil-
tering it through Canton flannel or felt. The
quality is improved by washing it with hot
water or steam, before filtration. Used for
lamps, blacking, and machinery ; also exten-
sively employed to adulterate both almond and
olive oil. It forms the common ‘SWEET OIL’
of the oilmen and druggists.
'9140.
Oil, Seal. Syn. OLEUM PHOCE, L. From
the hood seal, and harp seal, and other species
of Phocidae. PALE SEAL OIL is that which
drains from the blubber before putrefaction
commences, and forms about 60% of the whole
quantity of oil obtained. It is very clear, free
from smell, and, when recently prepared, not
unpleasant in its taste. REFINED SEAL OTL is
the last, washed and filtered. Ranks close
after sperm oil. BROWN or DARK SEAL OTL is
that which subsequently drains from the
putrid mass. It is very strong-scented and
nauseous, and smokes in burning. Both are
used for lamps and dressing leather. A full-
grown seal yields 8 to 12 galls. of oil ; a small
one, 4 to 5 galls.
Oil of Sesamum. Syn. OIL of GINGELLY
(above).
Oil, Shark-liver. The lightest of the fixed
oils. Sp. gr. 865 to '867. -
Oil, Skate. Syn. OLEUM RAIAE, L. From
the livers of Raia batis (Linn.), or common
skate, as cod-liver oil; also from Raia rhino-
batus, or white skate, and Raia clavata, or
thornback. Often sold and mixed with cod-
liver oil.
Oil, Spermace/ti. Syn. SPERM OTL ; OLEUM
CETACEI, L. From the head matter' of
Physeter macrocephalus, or spermaceti whale ;
a species once common in all the principal
seas, but now chiefly confined to the Southern
Ocean. It is very limpid, smells little, and
burns well; and has long been reputed the
best oil for lamps and machinery, as it does not
thicken by age or friction. It is frequently
adulterated with refined seal oil. Sp. gr.
’875.
Oil, Sun'ſlower. Syn. OLEUM HELIANTHI,
L. From the seeds of Helianthus annuus and
H. perennis. Clear, pale yellow, tasteless;
thickens at 60° Fahr. Used for salads and
lamps. Sp. gr. 19261. Prod. 15%.
Oil, Teel. See GINGELLY OIL (above).
Oil, Tobac'co-seed. Syn. OLEUM TABACI (Ex-
PRESSUM), L. From the seeds of Nicotiana
Tabacum (Linn.), or true tobacco plant. Pale ;
dries well ; equal to nut oil. Its production
has recently been carried on with considerable
success in some parts of Russia. Sp. gr.
‘9232.
Oil of Touloucouſma,
(above).
Oil, Train. See WHALE OIL (below).
Oil, Wal'nut. Syn. OLEUM JUGLANDIs, O.
NUCIS J., L. From the kernels of the nuts of
Juglans regia (Linn.), or common walnut tree.
Soon gets rank ; dries well. Used in paints,
and occasionally in plasters. When “cold
drawn and washed, it is sometimes eaten with
salad. Sp. gr. 9260 to '9262. Prod. 48% to
52%.
Oil of Wax. Syn.
OLEUM CERAE, L. From bees’ wax, by quick
distillation in a close vessel. Butyraceous. By
Sp. gr. 9136 to

See KUNDAH OIL


º
BUTTER OF WAX: ;
-
ſ
814
OILS (MEDICATED).
rectification along with quicklime it yields a
liquid oil. -
Oil, Whale. Syn. TRAIN OIL, WHALE-TRAIN
O. : OLEUM BALANAE, O. CETI, L. From the
blubber of the Balaena mysticetus (Linn.), or
the common or Greenland whale, by heat.
Coarse; stinking. SOUTHERN WHALE OIL is
the best. Used for lamps, machinery, &c. Sp.
gr. 19231. Prod. per fish, about 1% ton
for each foot of bone.
Oil of Wheat. Syn. OLEUM TRITICI, L.
From bruised Colne wheat, with heat. In
chilblains, ringworm, and several other skin
diseases.
Oil of Wine-stones. Syn. GRAPE-STONE OIL;
OLEUM WITIS WINIFERAE LAPIDUM, L. From
the seeds of grapes, separated from the marc.
Pale yellow, bland, emollient. Used for
salads and lamps. Sp. gr. 9202. Prod. 14%
to 18%.
*...* The numbers given above, under “pro-
ducts, unless when otherwise stated, refer to
the respective fruits, kernels, nuts, seeds, &c.,
deprived of their husks, pods, shells, and every
other portion destitute of oil.
OILS (Medicated). Syn. OLEA COCTA, O.
INFUSA, O. MEDICATA, L. These are prepared
by infusion or decoction, The bruised ingre-
dients are either simply digested in 2 to 4
times their weight of olive oil for some days,
or they are gently boiled in it until they be-
come dry and crisp, great care being taken
that the heat towards the end of the process
is not greater than that of boiling water. As
Soon as the process is complete, the oil is al-
lowed to drain from the ingredients, which
are them (if necessary) submitted to the action
of the press. The product is commonly run
through flannel or a hair sieve whilst still
warm, after which it is allowed to repose for a
week or ten days, when the clear portion is
decanted from the dregs. The green or recent
plants are usually employed for this purpose,
but, in many cases, the dried plants, reduced
to powder, and digested for 6 or 8 hours in the
oil, at the heat of hot water, with frequent
agitation, yield a much more valuable product.
They are nearly all employed as external appli-
cations only.
*** The following are the most important
preparations of this class:—
Oil of Adder's Tongue. Syn. OLEUM OPIIIo-
GLOSSI, L. From the herb, as OIL OF BELLA-
DONNA. A popular vulnerary.
Oil of Belladon’ma. Syn. OLEUM BELLA-
DONNE (P. Cod.), L. Prep. From the fresh
leaves, bruised, 1 part ; olive oil, 4 parts; di-
gested together at a gentle heat until the mois-
ture is evaporated; the oil is then strained off,
with pressure, and filtered.
Oil of Cantha'rides. Syn. OLEUM CANTHA-
RIDIs, O. CANTHARIDIBUS, L. Prep. (P. Cod.
1839.) From Spanish flies (powdered), 1 part;
olive oil, 8 parts; as OIL OF BELLADONNA. Sti-
mulant and rubefacient. Used as a dressing
to indolent sores, blisters, &c.; and in dropsy,
rheumatism, gout, &c. OIL OF THE OIL-BEETI
(Meloe proscarabaºus—Linn.) is prepared in:
similar manner.
Oil of Cap'sicum. Syn. OLEUM CAPSICI, I,
Prep. (Dr. Turnbull.) From powdered capi
cum or Cayenne pepper, 4 oz., olive oil, 1 pinſ;
digested together for 6 hours, with heat, and
strained. Stimulant ; rubefacient in Coliº
cholera, &c.
Oil of Chamomile. Syn. OLEUM ANTHE
MIDIS, OL. CHAMEMELI, L. From the drid
flowers (rubbed to pieces), 1 part, olive ºil
8 parts; digested together, with heat, for
6 hours. Stimulant, emollient, and vermi.
fuge.
Oil of Col'ocynth. Syn. OLEUM COLOGYN.
THIDIS, L. From the pulp, as OIL OF CHAM
MILE. Diuretic. In dropsy, neuralgia, rhet
matism, worms, &c. -
Oil of Elder-flowers. Syn. WHITE OII. O.
ELDER ; OLEUM SAMBUCI ALBUM., O. SAMBU
CINUM (P. Cod.), L. Prep. From the floweſs
as OIL OF CHAMOMILE. Emollient and discus.
SlWe. -
Oil of Elder-leaves. Syn. GREEN OIL, GR
OIL OF ELDER, OIL OF SWALLOWS ; OLITY
VIRIDE, O. SAMBUCI VIRIDE, L. Prep, l.
Green elder leaves, 1 lb. ; olive oil, 1 quart
boil gently until the leaves are crisp, prº
out the oil, and again heat it till it tum
green.
2. As before, but by maceration, at a hº
under 212° Fahr. More odorous than the last
3. Elder leaves, 1 cwt. ; linseed oil, 3 cwt.
as No. 1.
Obs. The last form is the one usually em.
ployed on the large scale. It is general
coloured with verdigris, lb. to the cwt., ji
before putting it into the casks, and whilst stil
warm ; as, without great skill and a very larg.
quantity of leaves, the deep-green colours
much admired by the ignorant cannot is
given to it. The oil is got from the leaſe
by allowiug them to drain in the pan
boiler (with a cock at the bottom), kept will
heated. Emollient ; in great repute amºng
the vulgar as a liniment, in a variety of affº
tions.
Oil of Fenºugreek. Syn. OLEUM F(ENT
GRECI, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) From the seeds
as OIL OF CANTHARIDES or of CHAMOMII.
Emollient and resolvent.
Oil of Fox'glove. Syn. OLEUM DIGITAIR
L. Prep. (P. Cod.) From the fresh leaves
as OIL OF BELLADONNA. Used as an applit
tion to chronic ulcers and indurations, painful
swellings, &c. As usually met with, it iſ
nearly inert.
Oil of Garden Night'shade. Syn. OLEU
SOLANI, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) From the leavč.
as OIL OF BELLADONNA. Anodyne and discus
S1We.
Oil of Gar’lic. Syn. OLEUM ALIII INFUSUM
L. From garlic, as OIL OF BELLADONNA, U,
as a liniment in deafness, diarrhoea, infantil
convulsions, palsy, rheumatism, &c.


OILS (MEDICATED).
815
Oil, Green. Syn. OLEUM VIRIDI, L. From
bay leaves, origanum, rue, sea wormwood, and
elder leaves, of each, 2% oz. ; olive oil, 1 quart;
as OIL OF ELDER. Detergent, stimulant, and
resolvent. Green oil of elder is now usually
sold for it. -
Oil of Hemlock. Syn. OLEUM CONII, L.
Prep. (P. Cod.) As of L OF BELLADONNA.
Anodyne and emollient ; in painful ulcers,
glandular tumours, &c.
Oil of Hen’bane. Syn. OLEUM HYOSCYAMI,
L. Prep. (P. Cod.) As OLL OF BELLADONNA.
Used as the last, in various painful local affec-
tions.
Oil of Ju'niper (by Infusion). Syn. OLEUM
JUNIPERI INFUSUM, L. From the crushed
berries, as OIL OF BELLADONNA. Diuretic and
vulnerary; in frictions, &c.
Oil of Lil'ies. Syn. OLEUM LILIORUM, L.
From white lilies, 1 lb. ; olive oil, 3 lbs. ; as OIL
OF BELLADONNA. Emollient; used to soften
and ripen tumours, indurations, &c.
Oil of Melilot. Syn. OLEUM MELILOTI, L.
As the last, avoiding much heat. Emollient
and resolvent.
Oil of Muſcilages. Syn. OLEUM MUCILA-
GINUM, O. CUM MUCILAGINIBUS, L. Prep.
1. (Ph. L. 1746.) Marshmallow root, 3 lb. ;
linseed and fenugreek seed, of each, bruised,
3 oz. ; water, 1 quart; boil 1 hour, add of
olive oil, 2 quarts, and boil until the water is
consumed. -
2. Fenugreek seeds, 8 oz. ; linseed oil, 1
quart ; infuse a week, and strain. Once a
highly popular emollient application in various
local affections.
Oil of Mu'dar. Syn. OLEUM MUDARIS, L.
From mudar bark (in coarse powder), 1 dr. ;
warm olive oil, 4 pint ; digest 24 hours and
strain. Used as an application to cutaneous
ulcers, the bites of venomous animals, &c., and
as a friction in worms.
Oil of 0"pium. Syn. ANODYNE OIL, OPIATED
o, ; OLEUM OPIATUM, L. Prep. From opium
(in powder), 1 dr. ; olive oil, 2} fl. oz. ; digest
at a gentle heat, with frequent agitation, for
5 or 6 hours. The powder should be rubbed
in a mortar with a few drops of the oil before
adding the remainder. As a local anodyne.
The above is the only reliable formula for this
preparation. Others are extant, but whilst
the products of several are much stronger,
those from others have only 1-5th or 1-6th the
strength.
Oil of Pellitory. Syn. OLEUM PYRETHRI,
L. From bruised pellitory root, as OIL OF
BELLADONNA. Used as the last.
Oil of Black Pepper (by Infusion). Syn.
OLEUM PIPERIS INFUSUM, L. From black
pepper, in coarse powder, as OIL OF CAPSICUM.
Stimulant and rubefacient; in frictions.
Oil of Poison Oak. Syn. OLEUM RHOIS
Toxico.DENDRI, L. From the leaves, as or L
OR BELLADONNA. Externally ; in paralysis,
&c.
Oil of Rhu'barb, Syn. OLEUM RHEI, L.
From rhubarb (in powder), 1 part ; oil of al-
monds, 8 parts; digested together in a gentle
heat for 4 hours, and strained, with expression.
As an application to indolent ulcers, and as a
friction over the abdomen in diarrhoea, English
cholera, &c., or as a laxative when the stomach
will not bear medicine.
Oil of Ro"ses. Syn. OLEUM ROSE, O. ROSA-
CEUM, O. R. INFUSUM, O. ROSATUM, L. Prep.
From the fresh petals, pulled to pieces, crushed,
and digested for 2 or 3 days in the sun, or a
warm situation, in 4 times their weight of
olive oil, and then pressed ; the process being
repeated with fresh roses. Ph. E. 1744 and
P. Cod. are nearly similar. ALMOND, BEN, or
OLIVE OIL, coloured with ALKANET, and scented
with attar of roses, is now almost universally
sold for it. Used for the hair.
Oil of Rue. Syn. OLEUM RUTAE (INFUSUM),
L. Prep. (P.Cod.) From fresh rue, bruised,
as OIL OF CHAMOMILE. Reputed antispasmodic,
emmenagogue, stimulant, and vermiſuge. In
frictions.
Oil of St. John's Wort. Syn. OLEUM Hy-
PERICI (Ph. L. 1746), O. H. SIMPLEX, BAL-
SAMUM H., L. From the flowers, 1 part ;
olive oil, 6 parts; digested together until the
oil is well coloured. Antispasmodic, stimulant,
and resolvent. A mixture of equal parts of
RAPE OLL and GREEN ELDER OIL is usually sold
for it.
Oil of Scam'mony. Syn. OLEUM scAM-
MONII, O. PURGANs, L. Prep. (Van Mons.)
From scammony (in powder), 1 dr. ; hot oil of
almonds, 3 fl. Oz. ; triturate together until cold,
and the next day decant the clear portion.
Dose, to 1 table-spoonful.
Oil of Stramo"nium. Syn. OLEUM STRA-
MONII, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) From the leaves
of thorn apple or stramonium, as OIL OF BEL-
LADONNA. Anodyne and discussive ; as an
aoplication to painful tumours, joints, &c.
Oil of Tobacco (by Infusion). Syn. OLEUM
TABACI, O. T. INFUSUM, L. From fresh to-
bacco leaves (bruised), like OIL OF CHAMO-
MILE. As an application in ringworm, irri-
table ulcers, pediculi, &c.; and as a friction in
itch, neuralgia, painful indurations, &c. It
must be used with extreme caution, as it is
poisonous.
Oil of Tooth'wort. Syn. OLEUM SQUAMARIE,
L. From the herb of Lathraea squamaria
(Linn), as OIL OF ST. JoHN’s WORT. Astrin-
gent and vulnerary. This must not be con-
founded with another preparation sometimes
called ‘ OIL OF Too THWORT (OLEUM PLUM-
BAGINIS EUROPEAE), and which has been occa-
sionally used in itch, as the latter is acrid and
apt to cause much irritation.
Oil of Wormwood. Syn. OLEUM ABSINTHII,
L. From the fresh herb, as OIL OF LILIES.
The P. Cod. and Ph. Wurtem. order only 1
part of the herb to 8 parts of oil. Applied to
the abdomen in dyspepsia, diarrhoea, heart-
burn, worms, &c. It is seldom used in this
country.

816
OILS (MINERAL).
OILS (Mineral). Syn. HYDROCARBON OILs.
An important class of liquids, consisting solely
of carbon and hydrogen—the elements of ordi-
mary coal-gas, and obtained, by the distillation
of coal, lignite, petroleum, and other bitumi-
nous substances. For the purposes of illumi-
nation, many of these oils are in most respects
superior to the fixed or fat oils containing
oxygen. They give a whiter and more bril-
liant light, and are produced at a much lower
cost. The lamps in which they are burnt,
when properly constructed, are less liable to
get out of order than those adapted for the
combustion of fat oils, and require less atten-
tion when in use. The experiments of Dr.
Frankland on the relative value of the Ordi-
nary illuminating agents, prove that the
mineral oils are cheaper than all other portable
illuminating agents in common use, and that
they give, while burning, the largest amount
of light with the least development of heat,
and the smallest production of carbonic acid.
With the oils adapted for burning in lamps
other oils are produced. Some are very vola-
tile and highly inflammable, and the safety of
the burning oils depends on their proper ex-
traction. These volatile liquids, when iso-
lated, are used in the arts as substitutes for
spirits of turpentine, as solvents for various
substances, and to increase the illuminating
power of coal-gas. Others are of a greasy
nature, and are too heavy to be conveniently
used in lamps. These, however, are well
adapted for lubricating fine machinery, and
are extensively employed instead of sperm oil
by the cotton manufacturers of Lancashire.
The distillation of coal, lignite, and petroleum,
has of late become a very extensive and highly
important branch of industry, and although
great loss of life and property has resulted
from accidents with unpurified and explosive
mineral oils, the demand for the products is
daily increasing. When the more volatile
ingredients are separated from the burning
oils, the latter are perfectly safe. (See Tests,
below.)
IHist. For many years the manufacture of
burning oils by the distillation of bituminous
schists has been extensively carried out on
the Continent, but the discovery which formed
the foundation of the modern manufacture
was made only fourteen years ago by our
countryman, Mr. James Young. This gentle-
man took the lease of a spring of petroleum
in 1847, and after numerous experiments suc-
ceeded in obtaining two useful oils from the
crude liquid; the one being adapted for lu-
bricating machinery, and the other for burning
in lamps. The almost total cessation of the
flow of petroleum terminated the business
after two years’ working, and led Mr. Young
to institute a series of experiments, to try if
petroleum could be produced artificially by
the destructive distillation of coal. These
experiments resulted in the discovery of an
1 See article ILLUMINATION.
oil which Mr. Young named “Paraffin oil,
as it had many of the chemical properties ºf
the solid body paraffin, discovered twenty
years before by Reichenbach in beech-woºd
tar. Young's patent (dated Oct. 7, 1850)
involved the slower distillation of coals, at a
lower temperature than had hitherto been em.
ployed for the purpose, and this novelty in
practice was followed by the novel result of
copious production of liquid hydrocarbons,
The gas or cannel coals were found to yield
the liquids in largest quantities, that variety
known as Boghead coal or Torbane Hill
mineral being specially adapted for the
patented process. (See PARAFFIN OIL, below).
Soon after Young's discovery native petrº:
leum was brought from Rangoon, and puri
fied by distillation, so as to produce oils very
similar to the coal products. During the last
few years rich sources of petroleum have bel.
discovered in Canada and the North Americal
States, and at the present vast quantities of the
native liquid are imported into this county.
from those sources. An Act of Parliamen
was passed in 1862, to prevent the storagº,
without a licence, of more than 40 gallons ºf
petroleum, or any product thereof that give
off inflammable vapours under 100° Fair
This Act has not had the effect intended, all
it is notorious that petroleum and its products
are recklessly stored in large quantities whº
their accidental ignition would produce terri
ble effects. It is estimated that 20,0000)
gallons of petroleum, most of it in the crudº
and therefore dangerous condition, Weſ:
brought to this country in 1863.
Tests, Precautions. As there is little deman
as yet for the more volatile and dangerous Cºl.
stituents of petroleum, unprincipled dealers
frequently allow them to remain in the oil
sold for burning. In consequence of this
criminal recklessness many frightful accidents
have taken place, To ascertain the charactſ.
for safety possessed by any oil is, therefore,
very important matter. The Sanitary Com,
mission of the ‘Lancet' took as the limit ºf
safety an oil that gave off inflammable vapºn
when heated to 130°Fahr., and this has bº
generally accepted by dealers. If an oil gives
off inflammable vapours before being heated
to 130°, it is considered unsafe for domesticus
1. The plan for testing this, recommendal
in the ‘Lancet,” is to heat a portion of th:
suspected oil in a gallipot placed in boiling
water, ascertaining by a thermometer sus.
pended in the oil the temperature at which iſ
will take fire on the surface when a light:
wax vesta is applied to it. This is a trouble
some and dangerous process, and has little
practical value. -
2. A rough and ready method of testing
the inflammability of a sample is to pour
little out on a dry flat board, and try whether
it can be ignited readily by a lighted paper.
If it catches fire like turpentine or brandy
the oil is dangerous.













OILS (MINERAL).
817
3. The following plan, proposed by Mr.
Tegetmeier, requires no scientific knowledge,
and no apparatus but what is to be found in
every house, while it is sufficiently accurate
for all practical purposes:–
Take an earthenware dish, holding about
half a pint (a breakfast cup will do), fill the
cup full from a kettle of boiling water, pour
this into an earthenware quart jug, then fill
the same cup again with boiling water from
the kettle, and pour it also into the quart jug,
then fill the cup with cold water, put it into
the jug, shake the jug to mix the hot and cold
water, then pour the tepid water from the
jug into the cup till the cup is half full, then
pour about a table-spoonful of the oil to be
tested on the tepid water in the cup, take the
oil-can with the oil out of the room, then
touch the surface of the oil in the cup with a
lighted splinter of wood, or a match without
sulphur. If the match causes a flash of flame
to appear on the surface of the oil, the oil is
below the standard of safety, and should not
be used; if no flame appears, the oil is up to
the standard. We may mention that in this
trial no time should be lost after pouring the
boiling water from the kettle, as the water
may get too cold, but the whole may be gone
through in from two to three minutes. It is
well to have a saucer at hand, and if the oil
should be a bad oil, and ignite with the match,
place the saucer on the mouth of the cup, and
the flame is extinguished. This trial should be
done by daylight, and at a distance from a fire,
and the directions must be followed exactly in
the order as given above.
4. Provided that the oils to be examined
have been produced by careful fractional dis-
tillation, their relative volatility, as indicated
by their specific gravity, shows to a great
extent the facility with which they ignite. The
lightest oils are more volatile and more easily
inflamed than those which are heavier. Oils
much under 800 inflame directly a lighted
match is thrown into them, whereas oils at
about 815 to 823 (if unmixed products) can-
not be set on fire in this manner. The specific
gravity test cannot, however, be depended on
to determine the inflaming point of any com-
mercial oil. A heavy oil, badly rectified, may
contain a proportion of very volatile vapour,
and have a low inflaming-point; whereas a
much lighter oil may be perfectly safe, from
its having the more volatile portions carefully
removed. See PETROLEUM.
To prevent accidents with paraffin or petro-
leum lamps, the following precautions ought
to be observed :-
The lamps should be filled and trimmed by
daylight.
They should never be overfilled; the oil
should not be allowed to come into contact
with the metal work of the burner.
Any portion of oil spilled on the out-
side of the lamp should be carefully wiped
away.
When not in use, the wick should be turned
down into the wick-holder.
*** The principal products noticed below
rank high among the numerous varieties of
mineral oil now in the market, but there are
doubtless many others equally good and safe.
Their properties are described in accordance
with the results obtained by Mr. W. B. Teget-
meier, who has devoted much time to the
examination of the mineral oils :—
Oil, Albertite. From ‘Albertite,’ a lustrous
black mineral found in New Brunswick. A
sample was shown in the Colonial Department
of the International Exhibition of 1862, but
the oil has not yet appeared in the English
market.
Prop. Odour very slight; illuminating
power high ; boiling-point 338° Fahr., or 126°
above that of water.
Oil, American. See PETROLEUM OIL (below).
Oil, Apyroectic. Syn. NoN-EXPLOSIVE or L.
A burning oil introduced by F. Tall, of Hull,
and prepared, we believe, from American
petroleum.
Prop. Slightly coloured; perfectly limpid;
odour slight, but not perceivable during com-
bustion. The most remarkable property of
this oil is that, in spite of its limpidity, the
point at which it gives off inflammable vapour
is 180° Fahr., or 80° above the requirements
of the Petroleum Act.
Oil, Bel/montine. From Rangoon tar, or
Burmese petroleum, by distillation; super-
heated steam being employed as the heating
agent.
Prop. Colourless; odour not unpleasant;
sp. gr. 847; but although so heavy, the oil is
altogether free from viscosity, and will rise
rapidly in a comparatively long wick; in-
flaming-point 134° Fahr.; burns with an ex-
ceedingly white light, and possesses a very
high illuminating power.
Obs. The distillation of the Rangoon tar
is carried on by Price's Patent Candle Com-
pany, under a patent. Besides the above lamp
oil, several beautiful and useful products are
obtained:—At first there comes over a very
volatile liquid, termed SHERWOODOLE, used as
a detergent for removing grease from fabrics,
cleaning gloves, &c.; then comes the BEL-
MONTINE OLL, already noticed; then two lu-
bricating oils, the one light and the other
heavy ; and, last of all, when the tempe-
rature is considerably elevated, the beautiful
white, translucent solid, known as BELMON-
TINE, distils over. This last is a kind of
paraffin, and is used for making ornamental
candles.
Oil, Caz'eline. An excellent burning oil,
probably prepared from American petroleum,
introduced by Cassell, Smith, and Co., of
London.
Prop. Bright, limpid, with scarcely a trace
of colour; odour very slight, and quite free
from any objectionable character; sp. gr. 805;
lowest point of ignition 144° Fahr. ; burns

52
818
OILS (MINERAL).
with a pure white light, free
smell.
Oil, Col'zarine. A heavy hydrocarbon oil,
adapted for burning in lamps constructed
from the old “ Moderators’ and “Carcels,’ for-
merly so much used for the fat oils.
Prop. Limpid; quite inodorous; of a pale
amber colour; sp. gr. about 838; temperature
at which the vapour can be permanently ig-
nited, 250° Fahr. Tested in the altered mo-
derator, it gives an intense white light, with-
out smoke or smell. Compared with vegetable
colza oil, its illuminating power is in the pro-
portion of 3 to 2.
Obs. This oil is manufactured by Cassell,
Smith, and Co., under Martin’s patent for the
modification of mineral oils, to fit them for
burning in lamps where “colza' and other
vegetable and animal oils have been usually
consumed. Similar oils are prepared by other
firms.
Oil, Machin'ery. Syn. LUBRICATING OIL,
SHAFTING O., SPINDLE o. The heavier hydro-
carbon oils obtained in distilling coal, shale,
and petroleum, have almost superseded the
fat oils for lubricating purposes. They have
no chemical action on the ordinary metals, and
are not affected by cold. The lightest of these
comparatively heavy oils are used for spindles,
of other kinds of rapid machinery; the
heaviest for the bearing parts of heavy ma-
chinery; and those of an intermediate cha-
racter for such things as printing-presses,
agricultural steam-engines, &c. The firm of
Whitmore and Craddock is favourably known
for the manufacture and purification of these
machinery oils. See BELMONTINE OIL (above),
and PARAFFIN OIL (below),
Oil, Paraffin. Syn. PARAFFINE OLL. This
name was given by Mr. Young to the oil pro-
duced by the distillation of cannel coal, Bog-
head coal, &c., at a temperature considerably
lower than that employed in the manufacture
of illuminating gas. This product being the
most important of the mineral oils, some
account of its manufacture will be expected
from us. The following is a brief outline of
the process adopted at the great paraffin works
at Bathgate, Linlithgowshire:—
Manuf. (Young’s patent.) Boghead coal,
broken into small fragments, is introduced
into perpendicular tubes or retorts, about
eleven feet in height, by conical hoppers at
their upper extremities. Four of these tubes
constitute a set, being built into one furnace,
and charged by a single workman. They pass
completely through the furnace, and are
closed below by dipping into shallow pools of
water, while the openings into the hoppers
above may be shut by spherical valves. The
coal in each tube is gradually heated as it
descends to that part which passes through
the furnace, and when it reaches the bottom
of the tube it has parted with its volatile
constituents, and is raked away as refuse, the
coal from above descending as it is removed.
from smoke and
Thus, the action of these perpendicular retorts
is continuous, and the distillation goes On
uninterruptedly both day and night. The
vapours produced are conducted by iron tubes
to the main condensers, which consist of a
series of syphon pipes freely exposed to the
air. The quantity of incondensible gas formed
is inconsiderable; and it is this result, so dif.
ferent from that obtained in the ordinary gas.
works, that marks the great value of Young's
process. The crude oil, a dark-coloured,
thick liquid, is then distilled to dryness in
large iron cylindrical stills, and is thus freed
from the excess of carbon which is left behind
as coke. The oil, after distillation, is further
purified by being acted upon by strong sul.
phuric acid (oil of vitriol), which chars the
principal impurities, and causes them to Sul.
side in the form of a dense black, heavy acid
tar. To separate the remaining impurities
and that portion of the sulphuric acid which
remains in the oil, it is next subjected to the
action of caustic soda. As thus purified, tilt
paraffin oil contains four distinct commercial
products. To effect their separation, the pro-
cess of fractional distillation is first employed
The first elevation of temperature drives Oye!
the lighter and more volatile portions, which
when purified by a subsequent distillation
yields the fluid known as ‘paraffin naphtha.'
This product is used as a substitute for ‘turns'
as a solvent for India rubber, and for burning
in those naphtha lamps so much employed by
costermongers, and workmen in railway tum.
nels and similar situations. On the perfect
separation of this naphtha the safety of the
burning oil depends. This burning oil, the
‘paraffin oil' of commerce, comes over at :
much higher temperature than the naphthi.
It is a perfectly safe lamp oil, and has a greatºr
illuminating value than any other oil in the
market. Its properties are noticed below.
The third product in point of volatility is :
comparatively heavy liquid (machinery oil)
largely used for lubricating purposes in the
Lancashire factories. From this oil, and others
which come over at a very high temperature
the fourth commercial product is separated by
the action of artificial cold. This last prº
duct is the beautiful translucent solid, paraffin,
now much used as a candle material." (Sº
PARAFFIN.)
Prop. The paraffin oil of commerce is ºf
a very pale amber colour; is bright, perfectly
transparent, and remarkably limpid. Its
sp. gr. is 823. Its point of temporary igni.
tion is 150°Fahr., that of permanent ignition
being a few degrees higher. Its odour is very
slight. Its rate of combustion is slow, as mºſ
be inferred from the absence of the lighter
oils, as indicated by its high sp. gr. and ill.
flaming-point. At the same time, its limpidity
proves the absence of the heavier oils, and
* For a detailed account of the processes carried on a
the Bathgate works, see Mr. Tegetmeier's paper in ‘ſº
land's Workshops.”—Groombridge and Sons. -


OILS (MIXED),
819
accounts for it rising through a long wick
with freedom, and burning without charring
the cotton.
Oil, Petro'leum. Syn. KEROSENE OLL, RE-
FINED PETROLEUM. Many of the burning oils
now in the market are derived from American
petroleum. The native petroleums vary greatly
in properties, and numerous methods of re-
fining are employed by the manufacturers.
Some make use of both acids and alkalies,
others employ alkalies alone, and steam is
applied at various degrees of heat. Some of
the oils produced are of excellent quality, but
others are inferior, and do not ascend the
wick in sufficient quantity to afford a constant
light. None of the native petroleums contain
carbolic acid and other impurities which
exist in the oils distilled from coals and
shales; hence their purification is simple and
comparatively cheap. See PETROLEUM, and
above.
Oil, Shale. Products analogous to those de-
rived from cannel or Boghead coal are obtained
by the destructive distillation of bituminous
shales and schists, and lignites or brown coals.
On the Continent shale oils have for some time
been manufactured on a large scale.
0ILS (Mixed). Syn. CoMPOUND OTLs; OLEA
COMPOSITA, OLEA MIXTA, L. Under these
names are commonly included various mixtures
of oils and other substances that possess an
unctuous appearance. When not otherwise
stated, they are prepared by simply agitating
the ingredients together, and, after a sufficient
time, decanting the clear portion, which, in
some cases, is then filtered. A few of them
only possess any importance. Some of them
are highly esteemed as remedies among the
vulgar, and the use of others is confined to
veterinary medicine.
The following include the principal mixed
oils of the shops, to which the names of a few
other compounds, which are frequently called
‘oils” by the ignorant, are added, for the pur-
pose of facilitating a reference to them —
Acoustic Oil. Syn. EAR OIL; OLEUM
ACOUSTICUM, O. TEREBINTHINAE ACOUSTICUM,
L. Prep. From oil of turpentine, 1 part;
oil of almonds, 6 parts; mix. In atonic deaf-
ness, accompanied with induration of the wax.
1 or 2 drops are poured into the ear, or on a
piece of cotton wool, which is then gently
placed in it.
Black Oil. Syn. OLEUM NIGRUM, L. Prep.
1. Oil of turpentine, 1 pint ; rape oil, 3 pints;
oil of vitriol, 4 lb.; agitate well together with
care; then add of Barbadoes tar, 3 oz. ; again
agitate well, and in 10 days decant the clear
portion. Linseed oil is preferred for the above
by many persons.
2. (Percival.) Sweet oil, 1 pint; oil of tur-
pentine, 2 oz. ; mix, add gradually of oil of
vitriol, 14 oz., again mix, and leave the bottle
open until the next day. Detersive, stimulant.
Used by farriers for mange, &c.
British Oil. Syn. CoMMON OIL OF PETRE ;
OLEUM BRITANNICUM, O. PETRAE vulgaRE,
L. Prep. From oil of turpentine, 1 quart;
Barbadoes tar, 1 lb. ; oils of rosemary and
origanum, of each, 1 oz. Stimulant. For-
merly reputed to possess the most astonishing
virtues.
Camphoraſted Oil. Liniment of camphor.
Car'ron Oil. Liniment of lime.
Chabert’s Oil. Syn. CHABERT's EMPYREU-
MATIC OIL; OLEUM CHABERTI, O. ContRA
TENIAM CHABERTI, L. Oil of turpentine, 3
parts; Dippel’s animal oil, 1 part; mix, and
distil 3 parts. It must be preserved from the
air and light. Used in tapeworm.—Dose. 1
to 2 teaspoonfuls, in water, night and morn-
ing, until 5 or 6 fl. oz., or more, have been
taken; a cathartic being given every third
day.
Fur'niture Oil. Syn. MAHOGANY OTL, OIL
STAIN. Prep. 1. From refined linseed oil, 1
pint ; alkanet root, 4 oz. ; digested together
in a warm place until the former is suffi-
ciently coloured, when it is poured off and
strained.
2. Pale boiled oil, 1 pint; bees’ wax, 4 lb.;
melted together, and coloured as before. Gives
a superior polish, which becomes very tough
by age.
3. Linseed or boiled oil, 1 pint; Venice tur-
pentine (pure), 6 oz. ; as before. The above
are used for mahogany and other dark-coloured
woods.
4. (Pale.)—a. As the preceding, omitting
the alkanet.
b. From nut oil, ; pint; bees' wax (finest),
3 oz. ; melted together.
c. To the last, add of copal varnish, 3 or
4 oz.
The last three are employed for pale woods.
They are all applied by means of a rag, and
are ‘polished off with a ‘woollen rubber’ or
“furniture brush.’ A little strong vinegar, or
a few drops of hydrochloric acid, are sometimes
added. See PoELSH.
Hair Oil. See OIL (Perfumed).
Oil and Hartshorn. Liniment of ammonia.
I'ron Oil. Syn. OLEUM FERRI, O. MARTIs,
L. The old name for the liquid formed when
perchloride of iron is allowed to deliquesce
by free exposure to the air. It is excessively
caustic and corrosive.
Lime Oil. See CALCIUM (Chloride).
Macas'sar Oil. See OILs (Perfumed).
Marrow Oil. Prep. From clarified beef-
marrow, 1 part; oil of almonds, 3 parts;
melted together, and strained through muslim.
It is usually scented with ambergris, cassia, or
mace, and slightly tinged with palm oil or
annotta. Used for the hair.
Marshall’s Oils. Prep. From linseed oil
and rape oil, of each, 1 lb. ; green oil and oil of
turpentine, of each, 3 lb. ; oil of origanum,
# fl. oz. ; oil of vitriol, 4 oz. ; well shaken to-
gether.
Mixed Oils. Syn. OLEUM MIXTUM cow-
MUNE, L. Prep. From linseed oil and green


820
OILS (MIXED).
oil, of each, 1 lb.; oil of turpentine, 3 lb. ;
Barbadoes tar and balsam of sulphur, of each,
2 oz. ; oils of spike and origanum, of each,
1 oz. Stimulant and rubefacient. Used by
farriers for sprains, &c. See STAMFORD's
OILs (below).
Newmarket Oils. Prep. From oils of lin-
seed, turpentine, and St. John’s wort, of each,
3 lbs. ; oil of vitriol, 1% oz. ; well shaken to-
gether, and the clear portion decanted in a
few days. A favourite remedy for sprains in
horses.
Nine Oils. Syn. OLD MIXED OTLS; OLEUM
Ex oMNIBUS, L. Prep. From train oil, 1
gall. ; oil of turpentine, 1 quart ; oil of amber
and oil of bricks, of each, 5 oz. ; oil of spike
and oil of origanum, of each, 2 oz.; Barbadoes
tar, 2% lbs. ; oil of vitrol, 2 oz. ; camphorated
spirit, # pint, mixed together as the last. A
favourite remedy with provincial farriers.
Oil of Petre. See BRITISH OIL (above).
Phosphorated Oil. Syn. OLEUM PHOSPHO-
RATUM, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. Bor.) Phosphorus
(dried and sliced small), 6 grs. ; oil of almonds,
1 oz. ; mix, place the phial in hot water,
agitate for some time, and, when cold, decant
the clear oil from the undissolved phosphorus.
2. (Magendie.) Phosphorus (sliced), , dr. ;
almond oil, 1 oz. ; macerate in the dark, with
frequent agitation, for 14 days, then, after
repose, decant the clear portion, and aromatise
it with a little essence of bergamotte.
Obs. A fl. oz. of oil dissolves rather less
than 5 grs. of pure phosphorus. The large
excess ordered in the second formula must be
merely for the purpose of increasing the extent
of surface acted on. It is, however, with the
other precautions given, quite unnecessary.
The products of both formulae have the same
strength.-Dose. 5 to 10 or 12 drops, in milk,
barley water, or gruel, or made into an emul-
sion ; in chronic rheumatism, gout, &c., and
as a powerful, diffusible stimulant in various
diseases with debility and general prostration
of the vital powers, &c. Externally, as a
friction. It is chiefly to the presence of phos-
phorus that cod-liver owes its wonderful
remedial power in these affections.
Quitter Oil. Prep. 1. Red precipitate, 2
drs. ; aquafortis, 1 oz. ; dissolve, add of olive
oil, oil of turpentine, and rectified spirit, of
each, 2 oz. ; and agitate well and frequently
for 3 or 4 hours.
2. Ointment of nitrate of mercury (Ph. L.),
1 part ; mut oil, 3 parts ; melt together, and
stir until the mixture is cold. Used by farriers
for quitters, &c. -
Radley’s Oils. From Barbadoes tar, lb. ;
linseed oil and oil of turpentine, of each, ; pint;
gently warmed, and shaken together.
Shaw'ing Oil. See EssFNCE OF SoAP.
Sheldrake’s Oil. Prep. From pale boiled
mut oil and copal warnish, equal parts, melted
together by the heat of hot water, and, when
perfectly mixed, placed aside in a bottle for a
week to settle, after which the clear portion is
decanted. Used by artists to grind their colours
in, to brighten them.
Oil of Spike. 1. (FARRIER's.) From oil of
turpentine, 1 quart ; Barbadoes tar, 1} 07.;
alkanet root, # oz. ; digested together for a
week. Used as a stimulating liniment by
farriers.
2. (PAINTER’s.)—a. From rectified oil of
turpentine, 3 pints; oil of lavender, 1 pint;
l]]l X.
b. Oil of turpentine (warm), 5 parts; lavender
oil bottoms (genuine), 3 parts; agitate well
together, and in a fortnight decant the clear
away. Used by artists and enamellers.
Stamford's Oils. Syn. LORD STAMFORD's
MIXED OTLs. Prep. Dissolve camphor, 107.
in rectified spirit of wine, 4 pint ; add, oil of
origanum, 2 oz. ; oil of turpentine, 3 pint;
green elder oil, 2 lbs.; and agitate until mixed
The rectified spirit is now generally omitted
the camphor being dissolved in the green Oil
by aid of heat before adding the other ingrº.
dients. Stimulant. Used by farriers.
Sulphurated Oil. Syn. BALSAM OF SUI.
PHUR ; OLEUM SULPHURATUM, BALSAMUM
SULPHURIs, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L. 1746)
Flowers of sulphur, 1 part; olive oil, 4 parts;
boil together in a vessel lightly covered, until
they assume the consistence of a thick balsam,
2. (Ph. L. 1824.) Olive oil, 16 fl. oz.; heat
it in a sand bath, and gradually add of washed
sulphur, 2 oz. ; stirring until they combine,
Prop., &c. Balsam of sulphur is a dark,
reddish-brown, viscid fluid, having an extremely
disagreeable and penetrating odour, and a
strong, nauseous taste. The local action of
balsam of sulphur is that of an acrid and irri.
tant; its remote effects, those of a stimulant,
expectorant, and diaphoretic. Externally, if
is occasionally used as an application to foll
ulcers; and was formerly commonly employed
internally, in chronic pulmonary affections, in
doses of 20 to 50 drops. It is now seldom
given internally, except in veterinary practite.
Three Oils. Syn. OLEUM DE TRIBUS (Wall
Mons), L. Oils of brick, lavender, and tur.
pentine, equal parts. As a stimulant liniment
Oil of Wit'riol. Sulphuric acid.
Ward’s Oils. Syn. WARD’s white OIS.
From powdered camphor, rape oil, oil of tur.
pentine, rectified spirit, and liquor of potassi,
equal parts, agitated together for some time,
and again before use. Beef brine was formerly
used instead of liquor of potassa.
Watchmaker’s Oil. Prepared by placing a
clean strip or coil of lead in a small white.
glass bottle filled with pure almond or olive oil
and exposing it to the sun’s rays at a window
for some time, till a curdy matter ceases to be
deposited, and the oil has become quite limpid
and colourless. Used for fine work; does not
become thick by age.
Wedell’s Oil. Syn. BEzoAR OIL; OLEIM
BEZOARDICUM, L. From nut oil, 4 pint; Cam:
phor, 3 oz. ; dissolve by a gentle heat, and
when cold, add of essence of bergamot, 1 dr,

OILS (IN PERFUMERY).
821
and let it stand over a little alkanet root, until
sufficiently coloured.
White Oils. Syn. WHITE EGG-orts. Prep.
1. Yolks of eggs, 4 in number ; oil of tur-
pentine, 4 pint; mix, add of liquor of ammonia,
3 fl. Oz. ; oil of origanum, oz. ; soaper's lye,
# pint ; water, 3 pint; agitate well, and strain
through a coarse hair sieve.
2. Rape oil, ; pint; liquor of ammonia and
oil of turpentine, of each, 3 oz. ; agitate until
they form a milk.
3. (Redwood.) Whites and yolks of 2 eggs;
oil of turpentine, 1% oz. ; triturate together,
add of Goulard's extract, oz., mix, next add
of distilled vinegar, 1% pint, and, lastly, of
rectified spirit, 1} fl. oz. Stimulant and deter-
gent. Used by farriers.
Worm Oil (Canine). Syn. OLEUM VERMI-
FUGUM CANINUM, Prep. From oil of tur-
pentine and castor oil, equal parts; tinged
yellow with a little palm oil or annotta.-
Dose. For a middle-sized dog, oz., repeated
in 2 or 3 hours if it does not operate.
OILS (in Perfumery). Syn. SCENTED or LS;
OLEA FIXA odor ATA, L. The oils which
usually form the basis of these articles are
those of almonds, ben, or olives; but others
are occasionally used. The methods adopted
for their preparation vary with the nature of
the substances whose fragrance it is intended
to convey to the oil. The Continental per-
fumers employ three different processes for
this purpose, which they technically distinguish
by terms indicative of their nature. These
are as under :- -
1. A sufficient quantity of the essential oil
of the plant, or of the concentrated essence of
the substance, if it does not furnish an oil, is
added to the fixed oil which it is desired to
perfume, until the latter becomes agreeably
fragrant; the whole is then allowed to repose
for a few days, and, if any sediment falls
(which should not be the case when the ingre-
dients are pure), the clear portion is decanted
into another bottle. When alcoholic essences
are thus employed, the fixed oil should be
gently warmed, and the admixture made in a
strong bottle, so as to permit of it being corked
and well agitated with safety; and in this
case the agitation should be prolonged until
the whole has become quite cold. In this
way, all the ordinary aromatised and per-
fumed oils of the English druggists and per-
fumers, as those of bergamotte, cassia, cloves,
lavender, lemon, mille-fleurs, neroli, nutmeg,
oranges, roses, &c., are made ; but those of a
few of the more delicate flowers, and of
certain other substances, can only be prepared
of the first quality by one or other of the pro-
cesses described below.
In general, 1 to 1% dr. of the pure essential
oils, or 3 to 4 fl. drs. of the alcoholic essences,
are found sufficient to render 1 pint of oil
agreeably fragrant. . dr. of pure attar of
roses is, however, enough for this purpose,
owing to the very powerful character of its
perfume; but even a less quantity than this is
commonly employed, on account of its costli-
ness, the deficiency being made up by a mix-
ture of the oils of rhodium, rosemary, and
bergamotte. Most of the oils of this class are
intended for hair cosmetics.
2. (By INFUSION.) Dry substances, after
being reduced to powder, or sliced very small
—flowers or petals, after being carefully
selected, and picked from the stems and other
scentless portions—and soft or unctuous mat-
ters, as ambergris, civet, or musk, after being
rubbed to a paste with a little oil, either with
or without the addition of about twice their
weight of clean sand or powdered glass, to
facilitate the reduction, are digested in the
fixed oil for about 1 hour, at a gentle heat
obtained by means of a water bath, continual
stirring being employed all the time; the mix-
ture is then removed from the heat, covered
up, and left to settle until the next day, when
the clear portion is decanted into clean bottles.
When flowers are employed, the free oil is
drained off, and the remainder obtained by
the action of a press. The process is then
repeated with fresh flowers, 5 or 6 times, or
even oftener, until the oil is sufficiently per-
fumed. For ambergris, musk, or civet, the
digestion is generally continued for 15 to 20
days, during which time the vessel is either
freely exposed to the sunshine, or kept in an
equally warm situation.
The first quality of the oils of ambergris,
balsam of Peru, benzoin, cassia, cinnamon,
civet, orange-flowers, orris, roses, styrax, and
vanilla, are made by infusion.
3. (By THE FLOWERS.)—a. Upon an iron
frame a piece of white, spongy, cotton cloth is
stretched, and then moistened with almond or
olive oil, usually the latter; on the cloth is
placed a thin layer of the fresh-plucked
flowers; another frame is similarly treated,
and in this way a pile of them is made. In
24 or 30 hours the flowers are replaced by
fresh ones, and this is repeated every day or
every other day, until 7 or 8 different lots of
flowers have been consumed, or the oil is suffi-
ciently loaded with their odour. The oil is
then obtained from the cotton cloth by power-
ful pressure, and is placed aside in bottles to
settle, ready to be decanted into others for
sale. Sometimes thin layers of cotton wool,
slightly moistened with oil, are employed in-
stead of cotton cloth.
The oils of honeysuckle, jasmin, or jessa-
mine, jonquil, may-blossom, myrtle-blossom,
narcissus, tuberose, violet, and, in general, of
all the more delicate flowers, are prepared in
the above manner.
b. The native perfumers of India prepare
their scented oils of bela, chumbul, jasmin,
&c., in the following manner: —A layer of
the scented flowers, about 4 inches thick and
2 feet square, is formed on the ground; over
this is placed a layer of moistened tel or sesa-
mum seeds, 2 inches thick, and on this ano-





822 OILS (IN PERFUMERY).
-
ther 4-inch layer of flowers. Over the whole
a sheet is thrown, which is kept pressed down
by weights attached round the edges. The
flowers are replaced with fresh ones after the
lapse of 24 hours, and the process is repeated
a third and even a fourth time, when a very
highly scented oil is desired. The swollen
sesamum seeds, rendered fragrant by contact
with the flowers, are then submitted to the
action of the press, by which their bland oil
is obtained strongly impregnated with the
aroma of the flowers. The expressed oil is
then set aside in dubbers (bottles made of un-
tanned hides) to settle. We have employed
poppy seed in this country, in a similar man-
ner, with great success. -
c. The flowers are crushed in a mortar or
mill, with one half their weight of blanched
sweet almonds, and the next day the mass is
gently heated and submitted to the action of
a powerful press; the liquid thus obtained is
allowed to repose for a week, when the upper
portion of oil is decanted and filtered. This
plan is occasionally adopted in this country
for the oils of roses, and of a few other
flowers. (See below.)
The solution of a few grains of benzoic
acid, or of gum benzoin (preferably the first),
in any of the above oils, will materially retard
the accession of rancidity, if it does not pre-
vent it altogether.
The oils of the last two classes (2 and 3)
are chiefly used to impart their respective
odours to the simple oils, pommades, &c.; and
in the manufacture of scented spirits or
esprits. The following formulae are given as
examples of both classes of preparations:—
Oil of Amſbergris. From ambergris, 2 drs.;
oil, 1 pint; by infusion.
Oil of Ben'Zoin. From gum benzoin, 7 drs.;
oil, 1 pint; by infusion.
Oils for the Hair. Sym. HUILES ANTIQUEs,
Fr. These are numerous. All those scented
with the simple perfumes are prepared in the
way explained under class 1 (above). The
selection depends entirely upon the judgment
of the operator or the fancy of the purchaser.
In general, a mixture of two or three per-
fumes is preferred in these countries to the
pure fragrance of any single flower, and a
grossness of taste is exhibited in these matters
which surprises our Continental neighbours,
and the inhabitants of Italy more particularly.
Some of these oils are coloured. A red tinge
is given to them by allowing the oil to stand
for a few hours over a little alkanet root (2 drs.
to the pint) before scenting it. The applica-
tion of a gentle heat facilitates the process.
Yellow and orange are given by a little an-
notta or palm oil; and green, by steeping a
little green parsley or lavender in them for a
few days; or by dissolving 2 or 3 drs, of gum
guaiacum in each pint by the aid of heat,
and, when cold, decanting the clear portion.
Huile antique au jasmin, Huile antique à
la fleurs d'oranges, Huile antique à la rose,
Huile antique à la tuberose, huile antique
à la violette, &c., are simple oils fiavoured
with the respective perfumes or their prepara.
tions.—Huile antique rouge à la rose is the
ordinary oil of roses coloured with alkanet
root. — Huile antique verte is simple oil
coloured green, as above, and scented,—
Huile antique aux mille-fleurs is so scented
with several perfumes that none predo:
minate. A mixture of bergamotte, lemons,
lavender, neroli, pimento, and ambergris Or
musk, is commonly employed for the purpose,
Macas'sar Oil. Syn, HUILE DE MACASSAR.
Prep. 1. (Rowland’s.) Oil of ben or almonds
(reddened by alkanet root), 1 pint; oils of
rosemary and origanum (white), of each, 1.dr.;
oil of nutmeg and attar of roses, of each, 15
drops; neroli, 6 drops; essence of musk, 30.
4 drops.
2. (De Naquet.) Oil of ben, 1 quart; nut
oil, 1 pint ; rectified spirit, # pint; essence of
bergamotte, 3% drs. ; tincture of musk and
esprit de Portugal, of each, 2 drs.; otto of
roses, # dr. ; alkanet root, q. S. to colour.
Marrow Oil (Perfumed). 1. Simple marrow
oil, scented at will.
2. (FLUIDE DE JAVA.) Marrow oil, coloured
with a little palm oil, and scented.
3. (HUILE COMOGENE.) Marrow oil, 407;
spirit of rosemary, 1% oz. ; oil of nutmeg, 12
drops.
4. (HUILE PHILOCOME D’AUBRIL.) Coll.
drawn nut oil and marrow oil, equal parts;
scent, at will, q. s.
5. (HUILE DE PHáNTx.) Clarified beef mar:
row, lard, pale nut oil, and expressed oil of
mace, of each, 4 oz. ; melt together by the
heat of hot water, straim through linen into a
warm stone mortar, add, of oils of cloves, la:
vender, mint, rosemary, sage, and thyme, ºf
each, ; dr. ; rectified spirit, 1 oz., in which his
been dissolved by a gentle heat balsam of toll
4 drs. ; camphor, 1 dr, ; triturate until the
whole is cold, and then put it into bottles
All the above are used to make the hair grow,
and to prevent it falling off.
Oil of Musk. From grain musk, 1 dr.; am.
bergris, ; dr. ; oil of lavender, 20 drops; oil
1 pint, by infusion. A second quality is made
by working the same ingredients, after the oil
is poured from them, with # pint of fresh oil
This also applies to OIL OF AMBERGRIS and
HUITE ROYALE.
Oil of Musk and Amſbergris. Syn. HUII.
ROYALE. From ambergris, 2 drs. ; grain musk,
# dr. ; oils of cassia, lavender, neroli, and nut.
meg, of each, 10 drops; oil, 1 pint; by infl:
sion. (See above.)
Oil of Sty'rax. From liquid styrax (pure)
5 drs. ; oil of nutmeg, 10 drops; ambergris,
6 grs, ; oil, 1 pint; by infusion.
Oil of Wamil’la. Syn. HUILE A LA VANILIE.
From purest olive or almond oil, 1% pint; va.
nilla (finest, in powder), 2 oz. ; oil of berg.
motte, 1 dr.; attar of roses (finest), 15 drops;
by infusion.
OILS (VOLATILE).
823
OILS (Volatile). Syn. OLEA DESTILLATA,
OLEA DISTILLATA, OLEA ESSENTIALIA, OLEA
VoIATILIA, L.; HUILES VOLATILES, Fr. The
volatile oils are an extensive and important
class of bodies, derived from the vegetable
kingdom, and found in almost every part of
the majority of the plants which produce
them, except the cotyledons of the seeds,
in which, in general, the fixed oils are exclu-
sively stored up. Their presence confers upon
flowers, leaves, fruit, seeds, roots, bark, and
woods, their peculiar and characteristic odours;
but among these they are not equally distri-
buted in the same individual, and are often
altogether absent from some of them. To
them we are indebted for our most delightful
perfumes, and our choicest spices and aro-
matics. Some of them are found to possess
valuable medicinal properties, and others are
invested with the highest possible interest on
account of their peculiar chemical constitution,
and the reactions which occur when they are
brought into contact with other bodies.
The volatile oils are often called ‘essences,”
and the same loose and unmeaning term is also
commonly applied to their alcoholic solutions.
Prop. The volatile or essential oils are usu-
ally more limpid and less unctuous than the
fixed oils; but some of them are butyraceous
or crystalline. Nearly all of them consist of
two or more oils, differing in their sp. gr. and
boiling-points, one of which is generally li-
quid, the other, in some cases, crystalline.
All of them, when perfectly pure, are colour-
less, though before rectification nearly the
whole of them have a pale yellow tint, and
some of them are brown, blue, or green.
Their odour is that of the plants which yield
them, and is usually powerful; their taste is
pungent and burning. They mix in all pro-
portions with the fixed oils, dissolve freely in
both alcohol and ether, and are sparingly so-
luble in water, forming ‘perfumed' or “me-
dicated waters.’ Their boiling-point usually
ranges between 310° and 325° Fahr., and is
always considerably higher than that of
water. They resist saponification, and (ex-
cepting oil of cloves) do not combine with
the salifiable bases. Their density fluctuates
a little on either side of water. The lightest
oil is that of citrons (sp. gr. 847), and the
heaviest that of sassafras (sp. gr. 1.096.) When
cooled sufficiently, they all solidify. The
common temperature of the atmosphere is
sufficient for this with some of them, as
the oils of roses and aniseed; whilst others
require to be cooled below the freezing-point
of water, before they assume the solid form.
In this state they appear to consist of a
crystalline or semi-crystalline substance (stear-
opten, stearessence), and a fluid portion
(eleopten, oleiessence). The two may be
separated by pressing the concrete oil be-
tween the folds of bibulous paper, in the
cold. By exposure to the air, the volatile oils
rapidly absorb oxygen, and become partially
converted into resin. This is the cause of the
deposit that usually forms in them (especially
in the expressed oil of orange) when kept in
an ill-corked vessel. The solid crystalline
matter which separates from them when kept
in closed vessels is stearoptene.
Class. Chemically considered, the essential
oils may be divided into three great classes:–
1. Oils composed of carbon and hydrogen
only (binary volatile oils, carbo-hydrogens.
hydro-carbons, terebenes, camphenes), of which
oil of turpentine may be regarded as the type.
These are characterised by being, as a class,
less soluble in rectified spirit and in water
than the other essential oils. The oils of
bergamot, capivi, cubebs, elemi, hops, juniper,
lemons, orange peel, pepper, the grass oil of
India, the laurel oil of Guiana, and some
others, belong to this class.
2. Oils containing carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen (oxygenated oils), including most of
those used in medicine and perfumery. These,
as a class, are more soluble in rectified spirit
and in water than those containing carbon
and hydrogen only. To this class belong the
oils of almonds, aniseed, cassia, cedar-wood,
cinnamon, cumin, jasmin, lavender, meadow-
sweet (Spirata ulmaria), orange flowers, penny-
royal, peppermint, spearmint, rosemary, rose-
petals, valerian, winter green (Gaultheria
procumbens), and others too numerous to men-
tion. A few of these oxygenated oils contain
nitrogen.
3. Oils containing sulphur (sulphuretted
oils). These are characterised by their ex-
treme pungency, suffocating odour, vesicating
power, property of blacking silver, and being
decomposed by contact with most other me-
tallic bodies. The oils of assafoetida, black
mustard seed, garlic, horseradish, and onions,
are of this kind. Some sulphuretted oils
contain nitrogen.
Prep. The volatile oils are generally pro-
cured by distilling the odoriferous substances
along with water; but in a few instances they
are obtained by expression, and still more
rarely by the action of alcohol.
According to the common method of pro-
ceeding, substances which part freely with
their oil are put into the still along with
about an equal weight of water, and are at
once submitted to distillation. Those sub-
stances which give out their oil with difficulty
are first soaked for 24 hours, or longer, in
about twice their weight of water, to each
gallon of which 1 lb. of common salt has been
added, in order to raise its boiling-point. The
distillation is conducted as quickly as possible,
and, when one half the water has come over,
it is returned into the still, and this cohoba-
tion is repeated, when necessary, until the dis-
tilled water ceases to be mixed with oil. The
heat of steam or a salt-water bath should be
preferably employed. When a naked fire is
used, the still should be deep and narrow, by
which means the bottom will be better pro-


OILS VOLATILE).
tected by the gradually decreasing quantity of
water towards the end of the process, and
empyreuma prevented. When the distilled
water is to be repeatedly cohobated on the in-
gredients, a convenient and economical plan is
to so arrange the apparatus that, after the
water has separated from the oil in the re-
ceiver, it shall flow back again into the still.
An ordinary worm-tub, or other like condens-
ing apparatus, may be employed; but in the
case of those oils which readily solidify, the
temperature of the water in the condenser
must not fall below about 55° Fahr.
The mixed vapours which pass over condense
and fall as a milky looking liquid into the re-
ceiver. This separates after a time into two
portions, one of which is a solution of a part
of the newly eliminated oil in water, and the
other is the oil itself. The latter either occu-
pies the upper or the lower portion of the re-
ceiver, according as its specific gravity is less
or greater than that of distilled water. The
separation of the oil and water is effected by
allowing the mixed liquids to drop into a
‘Florentine receiver' (see engr.) when the oil
is the lighter of the two, by which means the
latter accumulates at a, and the water flows
over by the spout b.
|
The same receiver may be employed for
oils heavier than water, by reversing the ar-
rangement; but a glass “separator’ (see engr.)
is, in general, found more convenient. In this
case the oil accumulates at the bottom of the
vessel, and may be drawn off by the stop-cock
provided for the purpose.
The essential oils of lemons and oranges
of commerce, and of some other fruits, are
chiefly obtained by submitting the yellow
rind to powerful pressure; but in this way
they are not so white, nor do they keep 50
well, as when distilled, although in the case
of the fruits referred to the oils are more
fragrant than when prepared by any other
method.
The London College excluded the usual di.
rections for the preparation of the essential
oils from their Pharmacopoeia of 1851, on the
ground that these substances are seldom pre:
pared by the druggist or apothecary, or at all
on the small scale.
“The fruit of anise, caraway, and juniper,
the flowers of chamomile, lavender, and elder,
the berries of allspice, the tops of rosemary,
and the entire recent plants of the other herbs,
are to be employed.” “Put any one of these
into an alembic, then pour in as much water
as will cover it, and distil the oil into a large
vessel, kept cool.” (Ph. L. 1836.)
The Edinburgh College directs—“As much
water only is to be employed as will prevent
empyreuma during the distillation. The dis.
tillation may be immediately commenced after
a proper maceration, and the oil afterwards
separated from the water,” in the manner al-
ready noticed.
“It is also necessary to observe, in preparing
these oils, as well as the distilled waters, that
the quality of the substances, their texture,
the season of the year, and similar circum-
stances, must occasion so many differences
that it is scarcely possible to give any certain
and general rules which shall strictly apply
to every example. Many things, therefore,
must be regulated by the judgment of the
operator.”
The Dublin College directs the vegetable
substances to be macerated in the still with
about 5 times their weight of water, for 24
hours, when one half of the water is to he
drawn over. The oil having been separated
from this in the usual manner, it is to be re.
turned to the still, and the same quantity
drawn over, as before, from which the oil
must again be separated.
Chevallier gives the following rules for the
distillation of essential oils:–
1. Operate upon as large quantities as p0s.
sible, in order to obtain a greater product, and
one of finer quality.
2. Conduct the distillation rapidly.
3. Divide the substances minutely, in order
to facilitate the extrication of the oil.
4. Employ only sufficient water to prevent
the matter operated on from burning, and
the product from being contaminated with
empyreuma.
5. For substances whose oil is heavier than
water, saturate or nearly saturate the water
in the still with common salt, to raise the boil.
ing-point, and thus to enable the vapour to
carry over more oil.
6. Employ, when possible, water which
has been already distilled from off the same
substances, and has thus become saturated with
oil.


OILS (VOLATILE).
825
7. For oils naturally fluid, keep the water
in the refrigeratory cool; but for those oils
which easily become solid, preserve it at 80° to
90° Fahr. (?)
To the above may be added:—
8. Collect the oil as soon as possible after
it separates from the water with which it
passes over, and in its subsequent treatment
keep it, as much as possible, from free contact
with the air.
Dr. Ure remarks, “The narrower and taller
the alembic is, within certain limits, the greater
will be the proportion of oil, relative to that of
the aromatic water, from like proportions of
aqueous and vegetable matter employed.”
“Some place the plants in baskets, and suspend
these immediately over the bottom of the still,
under the water, or above its surface in the
steam ; but the best mode, in my opinion, is to
stuff an upright cylinder full of the plants
and to drive down through them steam of
any desired force, its tension and its tempera-
ture being further regulated by the size of the
outlet-orifice leading to the condenser. The
cylinder should be made of strong copper,
tinned inside, and encased in the worst con-
ducting species of wood, such as soft deal or
sycamore.”
The newly distilled oils may be separated
from adhering water, which frequently ren-
ders them partially opaque or ‘cloudy,” by
repose in a temperature between 60° and 70°
Fahr., and subsequent decantation; but to ren-
der them quite dry (anhydrous), it is necessary
to let them stand over some fragments of fused
chloride of calcium. This is not, however,
required with the commercial oils.
The rectification of the volatile oils is com-
monly performed without water, by the careful
application of a heat just sufficient to make
them flow over pretty rapidly, so that they may
be kept heated for as short a time as possible.
One half, or at most two thirds only, is drawn
off, that left in the retort being usually mixed
with raw oil intended to be sold in that state.
This method often leads to much loss and dis-
appointment, and we have known more than
one rather dangerous explosion result from its
use. A better plan is to rectify the oil from
strong brine, and then to separate any ad-
hering water, either by repose or chloride of
calcium.
Pres. Volatile oils should be preserved in
well-closed and nearly full bottles, in the shade,
and should be opened as seldom as possible.
By age they darken, lose much of their odour,
increase in density, and become thick and
clammy. It is then necessary to distil them,
by which the undecomposed portion is sepa-
rated from the resin. Agitation along with
animal charcoal will restore their clearness
and original colour, but nothing more.
Pur., Tests. The essential or volatile oils of
commerce are very frequently adulterated with
the fatty oils, resins, spermaceti, or alcohol,
or with other essential oils of a cheaper kind
or lower grade. The presence of the first
three of these may be readily detected by
placing a drop of the suspected oil on a piece
of white paper, and exposing it for a short
time to heat. If the oil is pure, it will en-
tirely evaporate; but if adulterated with one
of these substances, a greasy or translucent
stain will be left on the paper. These sub-
stances also remain undissolved when the oil is
agitated with thrice its volume of rectified
spirit.
The presence of alcohol may be detected by
agitating the oil with a few small pieces of
dried chloride of calcium. These remain un-
altered in a pure essential oil, but dissolve in
one containing alcohol, and the resulting solu-
tion separates, forming a distinct stratum at
the bottom of the vessel. When only a very
little alcohol is present, the pieces merely
change their form, and exhibit the action of
the solvent on their angles or edges, which
become more or less obtuse or rounded.
Another test for alcohol in the essential oils
is the milkiness occasioned by agitating them
with a little water, as well as the loss of
volume of the oil when it separates after
repose for a short time.
A more delicate test of alcohol in the essen-
tial oils than either of the preceding is potas-
sium, as employed by M. Beral:—12 drops of
the oil are placed on a perfectly dry watch-
glass, and a piece of potassium, about the size
of an ordinary pin's head, set in the middle of
it. If the small fragment of metal retains its
integrity for 12 or 15 minutes, no alcohol is
present; but if it disappears after the lapse of
5 minutes, the oil contains at least 4% of
alcohol; and if it disappears in less than 1
minute, it contains not less than 25% of al-
cohol.
This species of adulteration is very common,
as it is a general practice of the druggists to
add a little of the strongest rectified spirit to
their oils, to render them transparent, espe-
cially in cold weather. Oil of cassia is nearly
always treated in this way.
The admixture of an inferior essential oil
with one more costly may be best detected by
pouring a drop or two on a piece of porous
paper or cloth, and shaking it in the air, when,
if occasionally smelled, the difference of the
odour at the beginning and the end of the
evaporation will show the adulteration, espe-
cially if the added substance is turpentine.
The presence of the latter may also be detected
by agitating the oil with rectified spirit, when
it will remain undissolved.
The purity of essential oils may likewise, in
many cases, be determined by taking their sp.
gr. ; or, with still greater accuracy and con-
venience, by measuring their index of refrac-
tion, as suggested by Dr. Wollaston. A single
drop of oil is sufficient for the application of
the last method.
The adulteration of a heavy oil with a light
one, or the reverse, may be detected by agi-

826
OILS (VOLATILE).
tating the suspected oil with water, when, in
most cases, the two will separate and form dis-
tinct strata.
Uses, &c. The volatile oils are chiefly used
by perfumers and rectifiers, and in medicine.
Some of the cheaper kinds are largely em-
ployed as vehicles for colours, and in the manu-
facture of varnishes. The dose of the aromatic
and carminative oils is from 1 to 10 drops, on
sugar, or dissolved in a little weak spirit. This
does not apply to oil of bitter almonds, the dose
of which is # to # a drop.
*** The following list includes short notices
of nearly all the volatile oils which have been
examined, as well as of some other substances
of a similar character, which commonly pass
under the name.
Oil of Allia’ria.
officinalis, or sauce-alone.
oil of black mustard.
Oil of All'spice. See OIL OF PIMENTo.
Oil of Al'monds. See OIL OF BITTER AL-
MONDS.
Oil of American Arbor Vitae. Syn. HUILE
CEDRE BLANC, Fr. From the fresh tops of
Thuja occidentalis, or American arbor-vitae
tree. Yellow ; fragrant; stimulant. Used in
frictions for rheumatism. Prod. 1% to 2%
(nearly).
Oil of Angel'ica. From the dried root of
Angelica Archangelica. Prod. 25% (fully).
Oil of An'iseed. Syn. OLEUM ANISI (Ph. L.
E. & D.), O. ESSENTIALE ANISI, L. From the
fruit (seeds) of Pimpinella anisum, or amise.
Nearly colourless. It is very frequently adul-
terated with one or other of the cheaper oils,
in which case spermaceti or camphor is added
to it, to make it “candy.”
Prop., &c. When pure, it congeals into a
solid crystalline mass on being cooled to 50°
Fahr., and does not melt again until heated to
about 63°. Treated with iodine, it quickly
congeals into a solid hard mass, with a per-
ceptible increase of temperature, and the de-
velopment of orange-coloured and gray fumes.
Sulphuric acid, with heat, turns it of a rich
purple-red colour, and the compound soon after-
wards becomes inspissated and hard (resinified).
In alcohol of '806 it is soluble in all propor-
tions, but rectified spirit ('838) dissolves only
42% of this oil. Sp. gr. (recent) 9768; (one
year old) -9853 to '9855; (old) '9856 to 9900.
The foreign oil is generally the heaviest.
Oil of aniseed is carminative and pectoral;
and both itself and preparations have long
been in favour with the masses in coughs, colds,
&c. In preparing it, care must be taken that
the temperature of the water in the receiver
and refrigerator does not fall lower than about
68° Fahr. Prod. (From the dried fruit of
commerce) av. 2% (nearly). See OIL of STAR-
ANISE.
Oil, Apple. See AMYL (Valerianate of), and
ESSENCE OF APPLE. -
Oil of Arºnica. Syn. OLEUM ARNICE, O. A.
RADICUM, L. From the roots of Arnica mon-
From the roots of Alliaria,
Identical with the
tana. Yellowish-brown. Sp. gr. 940. Prºd,
16 lbs. yielded 1 oz. of oil. The oil from the
flowers of arnica is blue.
Oil of Asarabacca. Syn. OLEUM ASARI, 0.
ASARI LIQUIDUM, L. From the roots of Asq.
rum Europaeum. Yellow; glutinous. Two
butyraceous oils pass over at the same
time. -
Oil of Assafoet'ida. Syn.
FOETIDA, L. From the gum resin.
sulphur. Very fetid and volatile.
Oil of Balm. Syn. OLEUM MELISSE, I,
From the herb (Melissa officinalis). Pale yel.
low ; fragrant. Sp. gr. 1970 to 975. Prod,
100 lbs. of the fresh flowering herb yielded
# oz. of oil (M. Raybaud). A mixture of oil
of lemons and rosemary is commonly sold for
it.
Oil of Balsam of Peru. See CINNA
MEINE.
Oil of Bergamot. Syn. BERGAMOT, Es.
SENCE OF B. ; OLEUM BERGAMII, O. BERGA
MOTE, L. By expression from the yellow por.
tion of the rind of the fruit of Citrus Bergſ-
mia, or bergamot orange. Pale greenish-yellow;
highly fragrant. It is obtained purer by dis.
tillation, but its perfume is then slightly less
delicate. Sp. gr. 875 to '885. Prod. The
rind of 100 bergamot oranges yielded by
distillation nearly 3 oz. of oil. (M. Ray.
baud.)
Oil of bergamot is frequently adulterated
with rectified spirit, or with the oils of lemons,
oranges, or turpentine. The presence of these
substances may be detected in the manner ex:
plained under OILs (Volatile), Purity and
Tests (antè), as well as by the altered density
of the oil. Pure bergamot oil is much more
soluble in rectified spirit than either of the
others, and is further distinguished from them
by its free solubility in solution of potassa,
forming a clear solution.
Oil of Bitſter Almonds. Syn. EssRNCE OF
B. A.; OLEUM AMYGDALE AMARAE, O. A. ES:
SENTIALE, L. From the ground cake of bitter
almonds from which the fixed oil has been ex-
pressed. The common plan is to soak the cake
(crumbled to fragments) for about 24 hours in
twice its weight of water, to which ºrd or 4th
of its weight of common salt has been added.
and then to submit the whole to distillation,
allowing the first half of the water that passes
over to deposit its oil, and to run back again
into the still. Pale golden-yellow; colourless
when rectified; tastes and smells strongly
nutty, like peach-kernels. It consists of 85%
to 90% of hydride of benzoyl and 8% to 12% of
hydrocyanic acid, with a variable quantity of
benzoic acid and benzoin. The density varies
a little with the age of the oil, and the tem.
perature and rapidity with which it has been
distilled. Sp. gr. (recent) 1:0525; (trade crude
oil) 1:079 (G. Wippel); (old) 1.081 (1.0836–
Pereira). “Essential oil of almonds, free from
adulteration, should have a sp. gr. at most of
1.052.” (Ure.) According to Prof. Redwood,
OLEUM ASA.
Contains

OILS (VOLATILE).
827
the density may vary from 1-0524 to 1-0822.
The light oil contains the most hydride of
benzoyl, and the heavy oil the most benzoin.
Prod. From less than 2 to 5%.
Pur. This oil is generally adulterated with
cheaper oils, and in nearly every case with
alcohol. When it is pure—Mixed with oil of
vitriol, it strikes a clear crimson-red colour,
without visible decomposition. — Mixed with
an alcoholic solution of potassa, crystals are
eliminated.—Iodine dissolves only partially and
slowly in it, without further visible results.
—Chromate of potassa does not affect it.—
Nitric acid (sp. gr. 1-42) causes no immediate
reaction, and in the course of 3 or 4 days
crystals of benzoic acid begin to appear; but
if only 8% or 10% of alcohol or rectified spirit is
present, a violent effervescence speedily com-
mences, and nitrous fumes are evolved. By
using nitric acid, sp. gr. 1'5, the smallest
quantity of alcohol may be detected.
Obs. This oil does not pre-exist in the
almond, but is formed by the action of water
on a peculiar crystallisable substance, called
amygdalin. It is essentially the hydride of
benzoyl, but it always contains a portion of
hydrocyanic or prussic acid, to which it owes
its very poisonous properties. It is occa-
sionally employed as a substitute for hydro-
cyanic acid in medicine; but its principal con-
sumption is as a flavouring ingredient and a
perfume by cooks, confectioners, liquoristes,
and perfumers. For this purpose it is dis-
solved in rectified spirits. (See ESSENCE.)
Dose. # to 1 drop.
An oil closely resembling that from bitter
almonds is obtained by distiliation from the
leaves of the peach and cherry-laurel, the bark
of the plum-tree, the bruised kernels of cher-
ries, plums, and peaches, the pips of apples,
and from several other vegetable substances
that possess a nutty odour and flavour.
A NON-POISONOUS OIL OF ALMONDS has been
introduced. This is simply the ordinary oil of
commerce freed from hydrocyanic acid, and is
intended to be substituted for the crude, poi-
sonous oil for domestic purposes. Unfortu-
nately, the purified essence does not keep well,
and is often converted after a few months into
little else than a solution of benzoic acid,
almost devoid of the usual odour and flavour
of the bitter almond. “No wonder, then,
under such circumstances, that the public pre-
ferred the preparations they had been accus-
tomed to, which were not so liable to change.”
(Redwood.) The following methods have been
adopted for this purpose:–
1. (Liebig.) Agitate the crude distilled oil
with red oxide of mercury, in slight excess,
and, after a few days’ contact, rectify the oil
from a little fresh oxide of mercury. The
product is quite pure, when the process is pro-
perly managed. The cyanide of mercury
thus formed may be either employed as such,
or reconverted into mercury and hydrocyanic
acid.
2. (Mackay.) Commercial oil of almonds,
1 lb. ; fresh-slaked lime, q. s. to form a milk-
like liquid; afterwards add, of solution of
potassa, 1% lb. ; water, 3 pints; agitate occa-
sionally for 48 hours, then distil over the oil,
and rectify it from a fresh mixture of lime and
potassa.
3. (Redwood.) The oil is mixed with an
equal quantity of water, and the mixture is
digested in a water bath with red oxide of
mercury, and small quantities of fresh-slaked
lime and protochloride of iron, with as little
access of air as possible; as soon as decompo-
sition of the acid has taken place, the whole is
introduced into a copper retort, and submitted
to distillation. The product is perfectly free
from hydrocyanic acid. The first process is,
however, the simplest, cheapest, and best.
The sp. gr. of this non-poisonous oil is 1:051.
(G. Whippell.) That of pure, colourless hydride
of benzoyl is 1.043; it boils at 356°Fahr. ; is
soluble in 35 parts of water, and in all pro-
portions in alcohol and ether. Exposed to the
air, it greedily absorbs oxygen, and becomes
converted into a mass of crystallised benzoic
acid. The purified oil of almonds does the
same, only less rapidly.
Oil of Almonds (Facti"tious). Syn. ESSENCE
OF MIRBANE, NITROBENZOL. The preparation
of this article on the small scale is explained
under NITROBENzoL. It is now extensively
prepared as a substitute for the oil of almonds
obtained by distillation. The following is
Mansfield’s process:–The apparatus consists
of a large glass worm, the upper end of which
is divided into two branches, gradually dilating
so as to form two funnel-shaped tubes. Into
one of these concentrated nitric acid is poured,
and into the other benzol, which need not, for
this purpose, be chemically pure. These bodies
meet at the point of junction of the two tubes,
and the rate of their flow is regulated by
any appropriate means. Chemical reaction in-
stantly takes place, and the new compound is
cooled by its passage through the worm, which
is refrigerated for the purpose. It has then
only to be washed with water or a very weak
solution of carbonate of soda for the process to
be complete. The product has the sp. gr.
1209, boils at 415° Fahr., has an intensely
sweet taste, and an odour closely resembling,
but not actually identical with, that of oil of
bitter almonds. Unlike genuine oil of almonds
or hydride of benzoyl, it is insoluble in water,
and does not distil without suffering partial
decomposition. It is chiefly used to scent
soaps, and to adulterate the genuine oil. The
benzol for this purpose is obtained from coal-
tar. See BENZOL and NITROBENZOL.
Brand'y Oil. See GRAPE OIL.
Oil of Buſchu. Syn. OLEUM BAROSME, 0.
DIOSMAE, L. From the leaves of Diosma cre-
nata. Yellow ; lighter than water; smells of
the leaves. -
Oil of Caj'eput. Syn. CAJEPUTI OMI, KYA-
Poot.I.E. o. ; CAJEPUTI olEUM (B.P.), OLEUM:


828 OILS (VOLATILE).
CATAPUTI (Ph. L. E. & D.), L. From the dried
leaves of the Melaleuca Cajeputi (Melaleuca
minor, B. P.). Colourless, when pure (that of
commerce is usually green); odorous; aro-
matic; taste hot and penetrating. Its odour
has been compared to a mixture of those of
camphor and cardamoms. It boils at 343°
Fahr. Sp. gr. 1925 to '927. When rectified,
about ºths of the quantity passes over colour-
less, and has the density 897; the remaining
portion is green, and has the density 920 to
‘925. Its green colour is derived from chlo-
ride of copper, the presence of which may be
recognised by the red precipitate occasioned
by agitating the oil with a solution of ferro-
cyanide of potassium. (Guibourt.) From the
East Indies.
Pure oil of cajeput is slightly soluble in
water; entirely and freely soluble in alcohol;
dissolves iodine; and when dropped on water,
rapidly diffuses itself over the surface, and
soon completely evaporates. A spurious kind
(FACTITIOUS of L OF CAJEPUT), made of oil of
rosemary, flavoured with camphor and the oils
of peppermint and cardamoms, and coloured
with verdigris, is occasionally met with in the
shops.
Oil of cajeput is a powerful antispasmodic
and diffusible stimulant. Dose. 3 to 6 drops,
on sugar; in cholera, colic, epilepsy, hysteria,
rheumatism, spasms, toothache, &c.
Oil of Cam/phor. Syn. LIQUID CAMPHOR;
OLEUM CAMPHORAE, O. C. VoIATILE, L. Ob-
tained from incisions in the wood of the cam-
phor tree of Borneo and Sumatra (Dryobala-
nops aromatica), in which it exists in cavities
in the trunk; also by distillation from the
branches of the Camphora officinarum, or laurel
camphor tree. Colourless, when rectified. Sp.
gr. 1910. Prod. 60 lbs. of the crude brown oil
yields 40 lbs. of pure white oil and 20 lbs. of
camphor. It rapidly oxidises in the air. Used
to scent soap. See CAMPHOR (Liquid).
Oil of Car’away. Syn. OLEUM CARUI (B. P.,
Ph. L. E. & D.), O. C. ESSENTIALE, L. From
the fruit of Carum Carui (caraway seeds).
Nearly colourless; aromatic; carminative. Sp.
gr. 1940; (old) 946 to 950. Prod. Av. 5%
(nearly). It is frequently adulterated with
oil of cumin. Added to purgative medicines
to prevent griping.
Oil of Car'damoms. Syn. OLEUM CARDA-
MOMI, O. C. ESSENTIALE, L. From the seed of
JElettaria Cardamomum, or true cardamom.
Colourless; fragrant; carminative. Sp. gr.
‘943. Prod. 5% (nearly). The capsules (“lesser
cardamoms") yield only about 1% of oil. (M.
Raybaud.)
Oil of Cascarilla. Syn. OLEUM CASCARIL-
LAE, L. From the bark of Croton eleuteria
(Swartz.), or cascarilla tree. Very fragrant.
Prod. 4% to 75%.
Oil of Cas'sia. Syn. OIL OF CHINA CINNA-
Mon; OLEUM CASSIAE (Ph. E.), L. From cas-
sia buds, or from cassia bark. Golden-yellow ;
aromatic; fragrant. It is generally adul-
terated with rectified spirit. Nitric acid con:
verts the pure oil into a crystalline mass. Sp.
gr. 1071 to 1:073; (old) 1:078 to 1090. Prod,
From the buds, 1} (barely); from the bark ºf
commerce, 75%. It is frequently sold for ºil
of cinnamon.
Oil of Cebadilla. Syn. OIL OF SABADILLA;
OLEUM CEBADILLE, L. A green butyraceous
matter, obtained from Asagraºa officinalis.
Oil of Cedar-wood. From the wood of a
species of Cedrus. It consists of two hydrocar.
bons. One, a volatile liquid (cedrene), and the
other a solid, crystalline compound, containing
oxygen. Prod. 2 to 25%.
Oil of Ce"drat. Syn. EssFNCE OF CEDRA;
OLEUM CEDRI, O. CITRI FINUM, L. From the
exterior yellow rind of the fruit of Citrus
medica (Risso), or citrons, either by expression
or distillation, as oil of bergamot. The first

portion of oil that comes over is colourless;
the latter portion, greenish. Very fragrant
Sp. gr. 847. Prod. 100 citrons yield nearly
1 fl. oz. of pale, and , fl.oz. of green oil. Sº
OIL OF CITRON (below).
Oil of Cel'ery Seed. Syn. OLEUM APII, L.
From the fruit (seed) of Apium graveolens.
Diuretic ; stimulant. Prod. # to 1% (nearly).
Oil of Cham’omile. Syn. OIL OF ROMAN
CHAMOMILE ; OLEUM ANTHEMIDIs (Ph. L. E.
& D.), O. CHAMEMELI, O. C. FLORUM, 0
ESSENTIALE Ex FLORIBUS C., L. From the
flowers of Anthemis mobilis. In the Ph, In,
English oil of chamomile (ANTHEMIDIs OLEUM,
ANGLICUM) is ordered. Blue ; turns yellow
and brown by exposure and age ; odour chi:
racteristic. Sp. gr., English (from the
flowers), '9083; foreign, '9289. Prod. Fresh
flowers, 1% (barely) ; recently dried (fines:
commercial), 5%; av. of 6 dried samples, 25;
(nearly). If much water is employed, even
the above small quantities of oil will not h;
obtained.
Oil of chamomile is reputed antispasmodit
tonic, and stomachic. 1 to 3 drops on a lump
of sugar, taken just before retiring to rest, i.
an excellent preventive of nightmare, and will
frequently induce quiet sleep where moſt
active substances have failed. Unfortunately
the oil of the shops is generally either adul.
terated or old, and commonly both, in which
case the oil acts as an irritant. A common
plan is to mix it with old oil of lemons, a fraud
which may be detected by the lessened density
of the oil, and by its diminished solubility in
rectified spirit.
Oil of Cher'ry-laurel. Syn. OLEUM LAURO.
CERASI, L. From the leaves of Cerasus Laurº.
cerasus, or common laurel. Closely resemble:
oil of almonds, but is said to be weaker. Like
that substance, it is powerfully poisonous
Prod. 100 lbs. fresh leaves (undeveloped, June)
10:13 oz. ; do. (half-grown, June), 72 01:
do. (full-grown, 8 weeks on tree, July)
4-96 oz. ; do. (do., 3 months on tree, Sept.)
7:04 oz. ; do. (15 months on tree), 2%
(Christison.) -

OILS (VOLATILE).
829
Oil of Cher'vil. Syn. OLEUM CHAEROPHYLLI,
H. From the bruised fresh herb, macerated
for 2 or 3 days in salt-and-water, and then
distilled.
Oil of Cincho'na. Syn. OLEUM CINCHONE,
L. From cinchona bark. Butyraceous ;
smells of the bark. 20 lbs. yield only 2 grs.
(Trommsdorff.) The odour of bark is imitated
by a solution of turmeric in potash, and by
chloride of iron.
Oil of Cin'namom. Syn. HYDRIDE OF CINNA-
MYL ; OLEUM CINNAMoMI (B. P., Ph. L. E. &
D.), O. C. VERI, L. From the bark of Cinna-
momum zeylanicum, macerated for several days
in salt-and-water, and then distilled. Yellowish
or red ; very aromatic ; both odour and taste
resemble that of the bark. Sp. gr. 1.035. Prod.
11 lbs. yielded 1 oz. ; 100 lbs. yielded 1-56 oz.
(M. Raybaud.)
Pur. Oil of cinnamon, owing to its high
price, and the consequent premium for its
adulteration, can scarcely be obtained pure
from the shops of this country. Oil of cassia
and highly rectified spirit are the substances
usually employed for this purpose. The in-
creased sp. gr. resulting from the first, and the
diminished sp. gr. from the second, afford
ready means of detecting these frauds. The
presence of oil of cassia may also be detected
by an experienced person by the odour, which
differs a little from that of pure oil of cin-
namom. Oil of cassia is less limpid than oil
of cinnamon, and it stands a greater degree
of cold without becoming turbid or congealing.
“Wine-yellow, when recent ; cherry-red, when
old ; odour purely cinnamomic ; nitric acid
converts it nearly into a uniform crystalline
mass.” (Ph. E.) During this reaction the
odour of bitter almonds is perceptible. Both
oil of cassia and oil of cinnamon are thus con-
verted into a brown balsam ; with oil of cassia,
however, a brisk decomposition oocurs sooner,
and at a slighter heat. It also forms a crys-
talline compound with ammonia. These re-
actions, unfortunately, are not characteristic.
“The most distinguishing characteristic of the
cinnamon oils is, perhaps, their relation to the
alcoholic solution of caustic potash. Both
dissolve in it readily and clear, with a reddish,
yellowish-brown colour; after some time, how-
ever, the solution becomes very turbid, and a
rather heavy undissolved oil precipitates, when
the solution gradually becomes clear again.”
(Ure.) The palest oil is considered the best.
Obs. Oil of cinnamon is chiefly imported
from Ceylon, where it is distilled from bark
that is unfit for exportation. The dark
coloured oil is usually rectified, when two pale
oils are obtained, one lighter, and the other
heavier, than water ; but 10% of oil is lost by
the process. The oil distilled from the root
of the tree (O. CINNAMOMI RADICIS) is much
weaker than that from the bark. The oil from
the leaves (0. C. FOLIORUM), also imported from
Ceylon, smells of cloves, but has a less density
than oil of cloves.
Oil of cinnamon consists essentially of hy-
dride of cinnamyl, but, unless when very
recently prepared, it also contains a varia le
proportion of cinnamic acid formed by the
oxidation of the hydride.
Oil of Cit'ron. Syn. EssBNCE OF CITRON;
OLEUM CITRI, L. From the lees of citron
juice; or, from the peels, as oil of lemons or
bergamot. The last generally goes by the
name of oil of cedrat. Both are fragrant. (See
above.)
Oil of Citron-flowers. Syn. OIEUM CITRI
FLORUM, L. Amber-coloured ; highly frag-
rant. Prod, 60 lbs. yield 1 oz.
Oil of Cloves. Syn. EssENCE OF CLovEs;
OLEUM CARYOPHYLLORUM, O. CARYop HYLLI
(B. P., Ph. L. E. & D.), O. EUGENIAE c. (Ph.
D. 1826), L. From the unexpanded flowers
(cloves) of the Caryophyllus aromaticus, or
Molucca clove-tree, soaked for some time in
salt-and-water, and then submitted to distilla-
tion ; the distilled water, after having depo-
sited its oil, being returned 3 or 4 times
into the still, and again ‘worked off” from
the same materials. Nearly colourless, when
recent, gradually becoming pale yellow,
and ultimately light brown, by age ; highly
aromatic, with the characteristic odour and
flavour of cloves. It is the least volatile
of all the essential oils. Sp. gr. 1055 to
1.061 (1-034 to 1.061, B. P.). Prod. 16% to
22}.
Pur. Oil of cloves is frequently adulterated
with inferior essential oils, especially with
those of pimento, pinks, and clove-gillyflowers,
and, occasionally, with castor oil.-1. Pure oil
of cloves forms a butyraceous coagulum when
shaken with pure liquor of ammonia, which
crystallises after fusion by a gentle heat.—2.
Treated with an alcoholic solution of potassa,
it entirely congeals into a crystalline mass,
with total loss of its characteristic odour.—
3. Shaken with an equal volume of strong
caustic soda lye, it forms, on repose, a mass
of delicate lamellar crystals.-4. Solution of
chromate of potassa converts it into brown
flakes, whilst the salt loses its yellow colour.
—5. Chlorine turns it first green, and then
brown and resinous.-6. Nitric acid turns it
red, and a reddish-brown solid mass is formed;
with heat, it converts it into oxalic acid.—7.
It dissolves freely in sulphuric acid (oil of
vitriol), yielding a transparent, deep reddish-
brown solution, without any visible decompo-
sition.—8. Mixed, gradually, with about ºrd
of its weight of oil of vitriol, an acid liquor
is formed, together with a resin of a rich
purple colour, which, after being washed, is
hard and brittle, and forms a red tincture with
rectified spirit, which is precipitated of a blood-
red colour by water.—9. It dissolves iodine
freely, without any marked reaction.—10. It
dissolves santaline freely.
Obs. Clove oil contains a heavy oil, sp. gr.
1079 (caryophyllic acid), and a light oil, sp.
gr. 918 (clove hydrocarbon); by rectification,



830 OILS (VOLATILE).
much of the light oil is lost, and the product
becomes denser. (1:361—Bonastre.)
Qil, Cog'mac. See GRAPE OIL (below).
Qil of Copai'ba. Syn. OIL OF CAPIVI ;
OLEUM COPAIBAE (B. P., Ph. L. & E.), L. 1.
(Ph. E.) Balsam of capivi, 1 oz. ; water, 1}
pint ; distil, returning the water into the still,
until oil ceases to pass over.
2. (Wholesale.) From the crude oil which
separates during the manufacture of ‘specific
solution of copaiba' and ‘soluble capivi,’
by distillation along with a little salt-and-
Water.
Pur., &c. Colourless, when pure ; that of
commerce has frequently a greenish tinge,
derived from the copper utensils ; odour, not
disagreeable when recent. Sp. gr. 876 to
‘878. Prod. 50% to 55%. When adulterated
with oil of turpentine, its solubility in rectified
spirit is greatly diminished, and the solution
is turbid.-Dose. 10 to 15 drops, in sugar ;
in the usual cases in which copaiba is ordered.
20 to 60 minims, three times a day (B. P.).
Oil of Corian'der. Syn. OLEUM CORIANDRI,
L. From the fruit (seeds) of Coriandrum
sativum. Yellowish ; aromatic ; carminative.
Prod. (Dried fruit) 5% to 6%.
Oil, Corn. The name given by Mulder to a
peculiar fatty compound found in the fusel oil
of the distilleries of Holland. It has a very
powerful odour, resembling that of some of the
unbelliferous plants, and is unaffected by
caustic potassa. See FUSEL OIL (page 550).
Oil of Cu’bebs. Syn. OLEUM CUBEBARAM,
O. CUBEBAE (B. P., Ph. E. & D.), L. From
the fruit of Cubeba officinalis, or cubebs,
coarsely ground. Aromatic, hot, and bitter
tasted ; odour, that of the fruit ; faintly green,
colourless, when pure. Sp. gr. 1929. Prod.
9% to 11%.
Pur., &c. When pure, iodine has little
action on this oil, and immediately gives it a
violet colour, without any very marked reac-
tion ; nitric acid turns it opaque, and the
mixture changes to a pale red when heated ;
sulphuric acid turns it of a crimson-red. When
adulterated with oil of turpentine, both its vis-
cidity, solubility in rectified spirit, and its
density, are lessened ; when mixed with castor
oil, it leaves a greasy stain on paper.—Dose.
10 to 15 drops, in the usual cases in which
cubebs in substance is given. 5 to 20 minims
(B. P.), suspended in water by mucilage and
Sugar.
Oil of Cu'min. Syn. OLEUM CUMINI, O.
CYMINI, L. From the fresh fruit (seed) of
Cuminum Cyminum, or cumin. Pale yellow ;
smells and tastes strongly of the seeds. Sp. gr.
1975. Prod. 2% to 3%.
Obs. Oil of cumin is a mixture of two oils
differing in volatility, and which may be sepa-
rated by careful distillation. The more vola-
tile one has been named cymol ; the other,
cuminol.
Oil of Dill. Syn. OLEUM ANETHI (Ph. L. &
E.), L. From the bruised fruit (seed) of
Anetheum graveolens. Pale yellow ; odou,
that of the fruit ; taste, hot and pungent;
carminative. Sp. gr. 881 to '882. Prod, 4
(nearly).
Oil of Elſder.
ERs ; OLEUM SAMBUCI, L. From elder flow.
ers (Sambucus migra). Butyraceous; Odour
not very marked.
Oil of Elſemi. Syn. OLEUM ELEMI, L. From
the resin. Isomeric with oil of turpentine,
Oil of Ergot. Syn. ETHEREAL 0. OF E.;
OLEUM ERGOTAE, O. E. ETHEREUM, O. SECAIR
CoRNUTI, L. Prepared by evaporating th:
ethereal tincture at a very gentle heat, and
preferably, allowing the last portion of the
ether to escape by spontaneous evaporation
Brownish-yellow; lighter than water; solubl:
in ether and solution of potassa ; only partly
soluble in alcohol. It appears to be a mixtuſ:
of volatile and fixed oil, with some resinol:
matter. Dose. 10 to 20 drops, in ham).
rhages ; 10 to 12 drops every 3 or 4 hours, i.
diarrhoea ; 20 to 50 drops, as a parturifacient
&c. Eaternally, in rheumatism, toothacle
&c.
Obs. The above is the oil of ergot now
employed in medicine.
founded with other preparations occasional
called by the same name, but which diffe
from it in character. Among the latter areth:
following:—
a. A fixed oil obtained by distilling off tº
spirit from the alcoholic tincture. It has th:
odour of rancid fish oil, and the distilled spiri
has also a putrid odour.
b. A fixed oil, obtained from coarsely pº
It must not be con,
Syn. ATTAR OF ELDER FLOW.
dered ergot by strong pressure between it.
plates, at a heat of about 212° Fahr, Iti
fluid, coloured, smells strongly of the drug
but is nearly destitute of its leading qualities
Both the preceding contain some volatile (i.
and resinous matter.
c. An empyreumatic oil obtained by is
tilling ergot per se. It is light brown, visſil
acrid, and nauseous.
d. A volatile oil obtained by digesting pºº
dered ergot in solution of potassa at 125° Fair,
diluting the saponaceous mass thus form:
with one half to an equal weight of Wattſ,
neutralising the alkali with dilute sulphur,
acid, and then submitting the whole to die
tillation in a chloride of sodium or oil bath.
It is white, adhesive, butyraceous, and taste
less. It appears a product, rather than a simpº
educt.
e. This is the ethereal oil, first described, in
its purest form. It is colourless, translucent
oily, and acrid-tasted, with the odour of ergºt;
it has a high boiling-point, at which it suffeſ;
partial decomposition, but may be volatilised
at a lower temperature, like the other oils
By long exposure to heat, it thickens and
partly solidifies; light and air darken it; it is
lighter than water, very slightly soluble in
water, but sufficiently so to impart to it is
peculiar odour; it is soluble in pure alcohol

OILS (VOLATILE).
831.
in ether, the volatile and fixed oils, alkaline
lyes, liquor of ammonia, creasote, and naphtha.
The dilute mineral acids clear it, but do not
produce any marked reaction.
Oil, Ethe"real. See OIL OF WINE (below).
Oil of Fennel. Syn. OLEUM FOENICULI
(Ph. L.), O. F. OFFICINALIS (Ph. E. & D.), O.
F. DULCIS, L. From the fruit or seed of
Foeniculum dulce, or sweet fennel (Ph. L.).
Colourless; odour that of the plant; tastes
hot and sweetish ; congeals at 50° Fahr. ;
carminative and stomachic. It consists of two
oils; the one solid and identical with that of
oil of aniseed. When treated with nitric acid,
it affords benzoin. Sp. gr. 1997. Prod. Dried
fruit (of commerce), 3% to 3.5%. The flowering
herb yields 35% of a similar oil.
Obs. The oil of fennel of the shops is the
product of the fruit of Foeniculum vulgare, or
common, wild, or bitter fennel. It closely
resembles that of sweet fennel, but is scarcely
so agreeable either in taste or smell. It is
chiefly used to scent soaps.
Oil, Fu'sel. Noticed at page 550.
Oil of Gal'bamum. Syn. OLEUM GALBANI
(Ph. Bor.), L. From galbanum, 2 lbs. ; water,
16 fl. oz. ; distilled together. Yellow; re-
sembles oil of asafoetida, but milder.
Oil of Garlic. Syn. SULPHIDE OF ALLYL.
From the bruised bulbs or ‘cloves’ of Allium
sativum, or garlic. It possesses the peculiar
odour, taste, and other properties of the bulbs,
in a highly exalted degree.
Obs. When a mixture of oil of black mustard
and sulphide of potassium is exposed in a
sealed glass tube to a temperature above that
of 212° Fahr., sulphocyanide of potassium and
garlic oil are formed. On the other hand,
when the compound of garlic oil and chloride
of mercury (formed by adding to an alcoholic
solution of the oil a like solution of the chlo-
ride) is gently heated with sulpho-cyanide of
potassium, mustard oil, with all its characteris-
tic properties, is called into existence.
Oil of Gaulthe."ria. See OIL OF PARTRIDGE
BERRY (below).
Oil of Gem'tian. Syn. OLEUM GENTIANA, L.
From the root. Butyraceous; smells strongly
of gentian. 3 cwt. yield 1 dr. (barely).
Oil of Gera"nium. Syn. OIL OF GINGER
GRASS, O. OF SPIKENARD. The oil of com-
merce which passes under this name is im-
ported from the East Indies. It is not
obtained from any species of Geranium or
Pelargonium, but probably from a species of
Andropogon. It is often employed to adul-
terate otto of roses. See GRASS OIL (below).
Oil of Ginger. Syn. OLEUM ZINGIBERIs,
L. From the dried root (rhizome) of Zingiber
officinale, or ginger of commerce. Bluish-
green; possesses a less agreeable odour than
that of good ginger, without any pungency.
Prod. } of 1% (M. Raybaud).
Oil of Grain-spirit. Syn. GRAIN OIL. Two
distinct substances are found in spirit distilled
from fermented grain; one of which is buty-
raceous and highly offensive (corn oil of Mul-
der— ?), the other liquid (crude fusel oil).
The relative proportions of these substances to
each other, and to the spirits which they con-
taminate, vary with the materials and the man.
agement of the process. The ‘GRAIN OIL of
the London rectifiers consists chiefly of fusel or
potato oil, mixed with alcohol and water, and
with small and variable proportions of solid
ethyl- and amyl-compounds of certain fatty
acids (oenanthic and margaric). The latter are
said to be similar to the butyraceous matter
before referred to, as well as the solid fat of
the whiskey distilleries conducted on the old
plan. According to Mr. Rowney, the fusel oil
of the Scotch distilleries contain capric acid.
See CoRN OIL (above), and FUSEL OIL.
Oil, Grape. Syn. BRANDY OLL, CoGNAc o.
This is essentially the sulphate of amyl. It is
prepared by dissolving the fusel oil of marc-
brandy in strong rectified spirit, and then
adding concentrated sulphuric acid; alcohol
and excess of acid is removed by washing the
newly formed compound with water. Dissolved
in rectified spirit, it forms ‘BRANDY ESSENCE,”
which is used to impart the Cognac flavour to
plain spirit. See SULPHATE OF AMYL and
AMYL-ETHER, also OIL OF MARC-BRANDY
(below).
Oil, Grass. Several of the grasses (Grami-
naceae) yield fragrant volatile oils. See OIL
of GERANIUM, GRASS OIL (of Namur), OIL OF
LEMON-GRASS, OIL OF SPRING-GRASS, &c.
Oil, Grass (of Namur). Syn. INDIA GRASS
OIL. From Andropogon Calamus aromaticus
(Royle), supposed to have been the “sweet
cane” and “rich aromatic reed from a far
country” of Scripture; formerly supposed to
be obtained from Andropogon Iwarancusa.
Stimulant and highly fragrant. See OIL OF
SPIKENARD.
Oil of Hops. Syn. OLEUM LUPULI, L. From
commercial hops, by distillation along with
water. It may also be collected during the
brewing of beer. Odorous; acrid; narcotic;
soluble in water; becomes resinous by expo-
sure and age. Sp. gr. 910. Chiefly used to
increase the aroma and flavour of old or da-
maged hops.
Oil of Horse-mint. Syn. OLEUM MONARDAE
(Ph. U. S.), L. From the fresh herb of Mo-
narda punctata, a plant indigenous in the
U. S. of America. Dark amber-coloured;
fragrant; pungent; carminative ; rubefacient;
and vesicant.
Oil of Horse-radish. Syn. OLEUM ARMo-
RACLE, L. From the fresh roots of Cochlearia
armoracia (Linn.), or common horse-radish.
Pale yellow; heavier than water; acrid; vesi-
cant; identical with that from black mustard.
Prod. '5% (nearly).
Oil of Hyssop. Syn. OLEUM HYSSoFI, L.
From the flowering herb of Hyssopus officinalis.
Aromatic; stimulant. Prod. 25 to 33}.
Oil of Jargonelle Pear. See AMYL (Ace-
tate).


832
OILS (VOLATILE).
Oil of Jasmin. Syn. OIL OF JESSAMINE ;
OLEUM JASMINI, O. J. VoIATILE, L. From the
flowers of Jasminum grandiflorum and J. fra-
grans, carefully picked, by placing them in al-
ternate layers with cotton wadding imbued
with olive oil, in any suitable vessel, and re-
newing the flowers till the fixed oil becomes
strongly odorous, and then distilling the wad-
ding along with a little water. The volatile
oils of hyacinths, jonquil, tuborose, violets, and
most of the more delicate flowers, are obtained
in the same way. Used in perfumery. From
the East Indies.
Oil of Juniper. Syn. JUNIPERI olEUM (B.
P.), OLEUM JUNIPERI (Ph. L. E. & D.), O. §.
BACCIS J., O. ESSENTIALE #. B. J., L. From
either the wood, tops, or berries, preferably the
last. The berries should be chosen fully grown,
but still slightly green, and should be bruised
before being plaeed in the still. In the Ph. L.,
English oil of juniper (O. JUNIPERI, ANGLI-
CUM) is ordered. Colourless, or very pale green-
ish-yellow; odour and taste, sweet and terebin-
thinate ; rather viscid ; soluble in rectified
spirit; rendered opaque and resinous by expo-
sure and age. It is reputed carminative and
diaphoretic, and possesses powerful diuretic
properties. Sp. gr. 911 (English, 8688; foreign,
‘8834—Brande). Prod. Green berries, 25%;
ripe do. (one year old), # to 1% (fully).
Pur. It is frequently adulterated with oil of
turpentine, a fraud readily discovered by the
lessened density, viscidity, and solubility, in
rectified spirit, of the oil.
Obs. Oil of juniper consists of two oils—one,
white and most volatile, sp. gr. 8393; the other,
dark-coloured and less volatile, sp. gr. 8784;
together with some resin left in the retort.
Oil, Krumholz. Syn. OLEUM TEMPLINUM,
L. From Hungarian balsam, a terebinthinate
exudation from the Pinus pumilio, or mountain
pine of Southern Europe. Fragrant; golden-
yellow; tastes oily, acidulous, and resinous.
Oil of Laurel. Syn. OIL OF SweFT BAY ;
OLEUM LAURI VOLATILE, O. L. ESSENTIALE,
L. From either the berries or leaves of Laurus
nobilis (Linn.), or sweet bay-tree. Pale yellow,
clear, odorous, aromatic, stimulant, and nar-
cotic. Sp. gr. 871. Prod. From the leaves,
# to 1% (fully). -
Oil of Lavender. Syn. ESSENCE OF L.; LA-
VANDULA. olbumſ (B. P.), OLEUM LAVENDULAE
(Ph. L.), O. L. VERAE (Ph. E. & D.), O. L. SPICE,
O. L. ESSENTIALE, O. L. FLORUM, L. The “oil
(OLEUM LAVANDULAE, ANGLICUM) distilled from
the flowers of “Lavandula vera’ (Ph. L.). Very
pale lemon-yellow; highly fragrant; taste,
warm and not disagreeable; carminative, an-
tispasmodic, and stimulant. Sp. gr. 877 to 905.
According to Brande, the sp. gr. of the oil ob-
tained from the flowers only is '8960; that from
the whole plant, '9206. The lightest is esteemed
the best. Prod. Flowers, 1% to 2% (nearly).
The whole of the flowering herb is commonly
distilled. According to Raybaud, the herb,
after flowering (Sept.), yields the most oil.
Pur. Alcohol is the substance commonly
used to adulterate this oil; but, occasionally,
oil of bergamot is used for the same purpose
If the density is below 87, there is reason tº
suspect adulteration. When pure—1. Sul.
phuric acid turns it reddish-brown, and the
reaction is accompanied by strong inspiù.
tion.—2. It fulminates quickly and violently
with iodine, and the thick syrupy residue pºs.
sesses a pungent, acid, balsamic odour. The
oils of the other labiate plants fulminate much
less powerfully with iodine. The presence of
alcohol weakens, but does not destroy, the
action of this test, unless it is added in an equal
volume, when only a lively effervescence and a
disengagement of orange-coloured vapours are
produced by the iodine, without fulmination—
3. Santaline is nearly insoluble in pure oil of
lavender, and exerts no marked action on it,
but is freely soluble in oil of lavender adults:
rated with alcohol or rectified spirit.
Obs. English oil of lavender possesses th:
purest fragrance; and of this, the variety
known as ‘MITCHAM OIL OF LAVENDER, from
the place of its preparation, is esteemed the
best. The foreign oil of lavender is inferior,
This last is improved by rectification. Sº
OIL OF SPIKE.
Oil of Lem'ons. Syn. ESSENCE OF I.;
OLEUM LIMONIS (B. P.), OLEUM LIMONIS,
O. LIMONUM (Ph. L. E. & D.). From
the yellow portion of the rind, grafted, place
in hair bags, and exposed to powerful pres:
sure; also by distillation, but the product
is then less agreeably fragrant and sweet, but
keeps better. Nearly colourless; odour that ºf
the fruit. Sp. gr. 8752 to 8785. Expressed
oil, 8517, distilled do., '847, at 72° Fahr
(Ure). Prod. 100 lemons yield, by expression
13 to 2 oz. (nearly); by distillation l; tı
# Oz.
Pur. Commonly adulterated with oil of tur.
pentine, and occasionally with nut or poppy
oil. These may be detected in the manner
already explained. When pure, it is soluble
in all proportions in absolute alcohol, but ret
tified spirit only dissolves 16% of it. It alsº
boils at 148°Fahr., whereas oil of turpentinº
boils at 312°, and mixtures of the two at in
termediate temperatures, depending on the
proportions.
Oil of Lem'on Grass. Syn. ESSENCE OFI.G.
INDIAN GRASS-OIL, OIL OF VERBENA. Prº
bably from Andropogon citratum, the Indial
lemon-grass. Pale yellow; powerfully fri
grant. CITRONELLE OIL is also the produt:
of this or of an allied species of Andropogon.
Oil of Lemon Thyme. Syn. OLEUM SER:
PYLLI, L.; HUILE DE TAIN, Fr. From the
fresh flowering herb of Thymus serpyllum
the lemon or wild thyme of our hills and
pastures. Very fragrant. Used to scent sop;
&c. Sp. gr. 867. Prod. 100 lbs. yield 2:
to 5% oz. of oil. When pure, it is scarcely
affected by iodine, but solution of chromate ºf
potassa acts on it with energy.

OILS (VOLATILE).
833
Oil of Let'tuce. Syn. OLEUM LACTUCAE VI-
ROSE, L. From Lactusa virosa (Linn.), or
strong-scented wild lettuce. Closely resembles
the odorous matter of opium.
Oil of Limes. Syn. OLEUM LIMETTE, L,
From the rind of the fruit of Citras Limetta,
or lime, as oil of lemons, which it somewhat
resembles. Prod. 100 limes yield 23 to 2% oz.
of oil.
Oil of Lov'age. Syn. OLEUM LEVISTICI, L.
From the leaves of fruit of Lewisticum offici-
male, lovage. Pale yellow, aromatic, carmi-
native. Prod. Fresh herb, 1% to 15%.
Oil of Mace. Syn. OLEUM MACIDIs, O. M.
ESSENTIALE, O. M. STILLATITIUM, L. From the
arillusof Myristica officinale (commercial mace).
Nearly colourless; fragrant; lighter than
water; closely resembles oil of nutmeg. Sp.
gr. 1945. Prod. 4} to 9%.
Oil of Marc-brandy. Syn. FUSEL of L OF
M.-B., O. OF GRAPE SPIRIT. Obtained after
the spirit (marc-brandy) has passed over
during the distillation of the fermented resi-
duum of expressed grapes. Limpid; odorous;
acrid ; offensive; soon turns yellow in the air;
soluble in 1000 parts of water, and in all pro-
portions in rectified spirit; 6 or 7 drops will
spoil a hogshead of brandy. According to
M. Balard, this oil is a mixture of potato oil
and oenanthic ether.
Oil of Marjoram. Syn. OIL of SWEET M.;
OLEUM MARJORANF, O. ORIGANI M. (Ph. E.),
L. From the fresh flowering herb of Origanum
Marjorana, or sweet or knotted marjoram.
Pale yellow; odorous; tonic; stimulant, Sp.
gr. 1925 (.940–Baumé) Prod. 33 to 5%. See
OIL OF ORIGANUM.
Oil of Meadow-sweet. Syn. OLEUM SPI-
LEAE ULMARIAE, L. From the flowers or flow-
ering tops of Spiraea ulmaria (Linn.), or com-
mon meadow-sweet. This oil is a native hy-
dride of sailcyl. It is yellow, sweet-scented,
and slightly soluble in water, which then
strikes a deep violet colour with the persalts
of iron. It boils at 385° Fahr. Sp. gr. 1172.
(See below.)
Oil of Meadow-sweet (Facti"tious). This
is prepared as follows:–Salicin, 1 part, is dis-
solved in distilled water, 10 parts, and being
placed in a glass retort, bichromate of potassa
(in powder), 1 part, is added, followed by oil
of vitriol, 2% parts, previously diluted with 4
times its weight of water; a gentle heat is
next applied to the retort, and after the first
effervescence resulting from the mutual reac-
tion of the ingredients is over, the heat is in-
creased, and the mixture is distilled for the oil
in the usual manner. The product is abso-
lutely identical with the natural oil of meadow-
sweet. (See above.)
Oil of Milfoil. Syn. OLEUM MILLEFOLII,
L. From the flowers of Achillaea Millefolium
(Linn.), or yarrow. Blue. Sp. gr. 852.
Prod. 14 lbs. of the dried flowers yielded 3 drs.
of oil.
Oils, Mixed (Essential). Syn, OLEA MIXTA
ESSENTIALIA. From the oils of bergamotte
and lemons, of each, 1 oz. ; oils of lavender and
pimento, of each, 3 oz. Used to scent ‘sal
volatile drops, smelling-bottles, &c.
Oil of Mustard (Volatile). Syn. SULPHo-
CYANIDE OF ALLYL; OLEUM SINAPIs NIGRAE,
O. S. ESSENTIALE, L. From the seeds of
Sinapis migra (Linn.), or black mustard), as oil
of bitter almonds. Nearly colourless; in-
tensely acrid, pungent, rubefacient, and vesi-
cant; slightly soluble in water; boils at 289°
Fahr. It contains sulphur. Sp. gr. 1035
to 1-038; 1:015, at 68° Fahr. Prod. Av.
'6} (fully).
Obs. This oil, like that of bitter almonds,
does not pre-exist in the seed, but is the re-
sult of the action of myronic acid on a pecu-
liar substance, myrosin, in the presence of
water. Oil of black mustard has been used as
a stimulant or counter-irritant in palsy, &c.;
and the distilled watér, or a solution of the oil
in water, is said to be an excellent and cleanly
remedy for the itch.
Oil of Myrrh. Syn. OLEUMMYRRHAE, O. M.
ESSENTIALE, L. Colourless; thin ; heavier
than water; stimulant; smells strongly of
the drug. -
Oil of Myrtle (Volatile). Syn. ESSENCE OF
M.; OLEUM MYRTAE ESSENTIALE, L. From
the flowers and leaves of Myrtus communis.
100 lbs. of the fresh leaves yield 2% to 5
OZ.
Oil of Namur Grass. See GRASS OIL OF
NAMUR.
Oil of Narcis'sus. Syn. ESSENCE OF JON-
QUIL; OLEUM NARCISSI, L. As OIL OF JAS-
MINE. Delightfully odorous.
Oil of Nero'li. See OIL OF ORANGE-
FLOWERS.
Oil of Nut'meg (Volatile). Syn. OLEUM MY-
RISTICE (B. P., Ph. E.), O. M. MoscHATE
(Ph. D.), L. From the officinal nutmeg or
kernel of the fruit of Myristica moschata.
Nearly colourless; odour and flavour that of
the fruit, but more powerful. By agitation
with water, it is separated into two oils—one
lighter, the other heavier, than water; the last
is butyraceous. Sp. gr. 1948. Prod. 4% to 7%.
It is reputed to make the hair grow, and to
prevent baldness.
Oil of Onions. From the bulbs of Allium
Cepa, or common onion. Contains sulphur,
and smells strongly of the herb.
Oil of Or'ange. Syn. ESSENCE OF o.; OLEUM
AURANTII, O. AURANTIORUM, O. A. CORTICIS,
L. From the yellow portion of the rind of
either the Seville or sweet orange, preferably
of the last; as oil of bergamot or lemons.
Closely resembles oil of lemons, but is more
agreeably fragrant. The expressed oil is very
apt to become opaque, and deposit a stearopten,
especially in cold weather, unless well kept
from the air. Sp. gr. 875. Prod. 100 fruits
yield 4 to 5 oz. (See below.)
Oil of Orange-berries. Syn. OLEUM AU-
RANTII BACCE, L. From the º, unripe




834 OILS (VOLATILE).
fruit of the orange-tree. Does not keep well.
(See below.)
Oil of Orange-flowers. Syn. NEROLI, OIL
of N., ESSENCE OF N.; OLEUM NAPHAE, O.
AURANTII FLORUM, AURANTII of EUM (Ph. E.
and D.), L. From the flowers of either the
bitter (Seville) or sweet orange (Citrus vulgaris
or C. aurantium), by distillation with water.
That from the fruit is said to be preferred,
but there does not appear any actual differ-
ence between the two. Very fluid; lighter
than water, in which it is slightly soluble;
it is delightfully aromatic and fragrant, but
the odour differs slightly from that of the
flowers. Prod. 100 lbs. of flowers gathered in
May or December yield 3 to 6 oz. of oil; 6 cwt.
of the fresh flowers yield 1 lb. of oil.
Pur. Neroli is commonly adulterated with
alcohol or essence de petit grain, and gene-
rally with both of them. The presence of the
first is easily determined (see above); that of
the second can only be discovered by compar-
ing the odour evolved during the evaporation
of a drop of the suspected oil, placed on a
piece of white paper, with a like drop of pure
neroli similarly treated. (See above and
below.)
Oil of Orange-leaf. Syn. OLEUM AURANTII
FOLII, L.; ESSENCE DE PETIT GRAIN, Fr. From
the leaves of either the bitter or sweet orange;
that from the first being preferred. Dclight-
fully fragrant. Extensively used to adulte-
rate oil of neroli, and is itself commonly so-
phisticated with both alcohol and oil of orange-
berries. (See above.)
Oil of Orig'amum. Syn. OLEUM ORIGANI,
O. O. ESSENTIALE, L. From the flowering
herb of Origanum vulgare, or common or
winter marjoram. Pale yellow colour; fra-
grant ; acrid, pungent, and rubefacient. Sp.
gr. 1927 (.940–Baumé). Prod. '5% to 75%.
The dark-coloured oil of origanum of the
shops is obtained from Thymus vulgare. The
oil of origanum (Ph. E.) is oil of Origanum
marjorana. See OILS OF MARJORAM. THYME,
and LEMON THYME.
Oil of Or'ris. Syn. ESSENCE OF VIOLET:
OLEUM IRIDIS, L. From the dried rhizomes
of Iris Florentina, or Florentine orris-root,
Fragrant. Sold for oil and essence of violets.
Oil of Par'sley. Syn. OLEUM PETROSELINI,
T. From the fresh herb or dried fruit (seed)
of Apium petroselinum, or garden parsley.
Yellowish; smells strongly of the plant. It
consists of two oils, separable by agitation
with water, one of which is concrete, and
melts at 80° Fahr. ; the other, liquid. Prod.
Herb, '50 to 13 (nearly). -
Oil of Partridge-berry. Syn. OIT OF WIN-
TER-GREEN, METHYLO-SALYCILIC ETHER, SA-
LICYLATE OF OXIDE OF METHYL.; OLEUMGAUL-
THERIE (Ph. U. S.), L. From the leaves or
the whole plant of Gaultheria procumbens, a
herb common in North America, and other-
wise known by the names—Box-berry, che-
quer-berry, partridge-berry, mountain tea,
winter-greem, &c. Pale yellow, growing browſ
by exposure and age; aromatic ; sweet; highly
pungent; when diluted, agreeably fragrant;
mixed with a dilute solution of potassa, it
solidifies to a crystalline mass (salicylate ºf
methyl and potassa), from which the oil may
be again separated by the addition of an acid
It is the heaviest of all the essential oils, Sp
gr. 1:173. Boils at 412°, and, when purified
at 435° Fahr.
Oil of partridge-berry, dissolved in rectified
spirit, is in common use in the United States
of America as an antispasmodic, carminative
diuretic, emmenagogue, and stimulant; chiefly
as an adjunct to mixtures, &c.; and also with
the view of increasing the flow of milk during
lactation. It is likewise extensively used in
perfumery, and is an object of great interest
to the organic chemist, on account of its pºſt
liar constitution and reactiou.
Oil of Partridge-berry (Facti"tious). Sº
SALICYLIC ACID.
Oil, Pearl. See AMYLE (Acetate of), and
ESSENCE OF JARGONELLE PEAR.
Oil of Pennyroy'al. Syn. OLEUM PUIEGI.
(Ph. L.), O. MENTHAE P. (B. P., Ph. E. & D)
O. P. ESSENTIALE, L. From the flowering
herb of Mentha Pulegium, or the commºn
pennyroyal of our gardens. Pale yellow
growing reddish-yellow by age and exposure;
antispasmodic, carminative, and emmenagºg".
Boils at 395° Fahr. Sp. gr. 925 to 1931. Prº
# to 1%. (See below.) -
Oil of Pennyroyal (American). Syn. OLET:
HEDEOMAE (Ph. U. S.), L. From Hedeomapuk
gioides, as the last. Light yellow ; closé
resembles oil of pennyroyal, for which it passé
in the U. S. Sp. gr. 1945 to '948.
Oil of Pepper. Syn. OIL of BLACK F.
OLEUM PIPERIs, O. P. NIGRI, L. From bruis:
black pepper (Piper nigrum). Colourlºš
turning yellow ; odorous; pungent; not
hot as the spice. Sp. gr. 19932. Prod, 1%
to 1.5%. White pepper (of commerc) 1.
(barely).
Oil of Pep'permint. Syn. OLEUM MENTH
PIPERITE (B. P., Ph. L. E. & D), 0, ESSEY
TIALE M. PIPERITIDIs, L. From the fré
flowering herb of Mentha piperita, or gard:
peppermint. Nearly colourless, or at most
very pale greenish-yellow; powerfully odorous;
tastes pungent, at the same time imparting:
sensation of coldness to the tongue and palaº
Boils at 365° Fahr. Sp. gr. 1902 to .9%
Prod. Fresh flowering herb, 25% to 4
dried do., 1% to 1.25% (fully). In a warm iſ
season, 5 lb. of the fresh flowering herb yield!
oz. of oil; in a wet and unfavorable one, 11]
yield barely the same quantity.
Pur. The oil of commerce usually contain
fully a third part of rectified spirit, and is alsº
frequently adulterated with the oils of rº
mary, spearmint, and turpentine. When puſ:
—1. It is soluble in its own weight of rectified
spirit.—2. Mixed with 1-4th its volume of nitri
acid, a rich purple-red colour is developed—3.


OILS (VOLATILE). 835
Chromate of potash, in solution, turns it of a
deep reddish-brown colour, and converts it
into a soft coagulum, which assumes a flaky
form when divided with a glass rod, whilst the
solution of the salt loses its yellow colour or
becomes greenish-yellow.—4. With iodine it
forms a homogeneous mass, without fulmina-
tion. If it explodes with iodine, it contains
turpentine. The yellowish, resinous oil, sold
under the name of “American * or ‘crude oil
of peppermint,’ consists chiefly of oil of tur-
pentine, and on evaporation leaves a residuum
of pine resin.
Obs. English oil of peppermint is the best, a
fact clearly shown by its price in the market
being so greatly above that of the imported
oil. The oil distilled at Mitcham, in Surrey
(Mitcham oil of peppermint), is the most
esteemed. It has usually a very pale greenish
colour, which is often imitated by steeping a
leaf or two of green mint or parsely in the oil.
Old dark-coloured oils are commonly bleached
by exposure to the light, to the destruction of
a portion of their other properties.
Oil of peppermint is stimulant, antispas-
modic, and carminative, and has always been a
favourite remedy in flatulence, nausea, vomit-
ing, loss of appetite, cramp of the stomach,
colic, griping pains, diarrhoea, the early stage
of cholera, &c.—Dose. 1 to 3 drops, on sugar.
Oil of Petro/leum. See NAPHTHA, OILS
(Mineral), PETROLEUM, &c.
Oil of Pim'ento. Syn. OIL OF ALLSPICE ;
OLEUM PIMENTE (B. P., Ph. L. E. & D.), L.
From the bruised fruit of Eugenia pimenta,
allspice, or Jamaica pepper. Pale yellow,
growing reddish-brown by age ; odour, a com-
bination of cloves and cassia ; taste, pungent.
Sp. gr. 1:021. Prod. 5% to 8%.
Obs. Oil of pimento contains two oils similar
to those found in clove oil. When pure, nitric
acid turns it red, with active effervescence
and the assumption of a rusty brown colour.
It combines with the salifiable bases in a
nearly similar manner to oil of cloves. It is
much used in perfumery, especially in hair
cosmetics.
Oil of Pim'permel. Syn. OLEUM PIMPINELLAE,
L. From the root of Sanguisorba officinalis, or
pimpernel. Blue ; carminative.
Oil, Pine-apple. This artificial essential oil
dates its commercial importance from the
Great Exhibition of 1851. It is essentially
butyric ether, and may be regarded as simply
the crude form of that substance. On the
large scale, it is prepared by saponifying butter
or crude butyric acid with a strong lye of
caustic potassa, and dissolving the resulting
soap in the smallest possible quantity of hot
alcohol; to the solution is added a mixture of
alcohol and oil of vitriol in excess, and the
whole is then submitted to distillation as long
as the product has an aromatic fruity odour ;
the product is rectified from dried chloride of
calcium and a little litharge. Dissolved in rec-
tified spirit, it is much used as a flavouring
substance by confectioners and liquoristes. See
ETHER (Butyric) and ESSENCE OF PINE-
APPLE, &c.
Oil of Potato Spirit. See AMYL (Hydrate of)
and FUSEL OIL.
Oil of Ravensa/ra, Syn. OLEUM RAVEN-
SARAE, L. From the roots of Ravensara aro-
metica. Chiefly used to adulterate oil of cloves,
which it somewhat resembles.
Oil of Rho'dium. Syn. OLEUM RHODII, L.
Said to be derived from the wood of species of
Rhodoriza. Very fluid and limpid; pale yel-
low ; soon darkens by age and exposure; tastes
bitter and aromatic ; has a modified odour of
roses. Chiefly used as a substitute for otto of
roses in cheap perfumery, and to adulterate it.
Oil of sandal-wood is frequently sold for it.
Prod. 1% to 16%. See OIL OF ROSEs (below).
Oil of Ro'ses. Syn. OLEUM ROSAE, L. Prep.
1. From the petals of Rosa sempervirens
(Linn.), or the musk rose, as oil of cloves,
observing to keep the water in the worm-tub
at 85° Fahr., and afterwards subjecting the
water in the receiver to refrigeration. Re-
sembles otto of roses, of which it is merely a
variety. Prod. ºn to ºr of 1%.
2. (ATTAR OF ROSEs, OTTO OF R. ; OLEUM
ROSE—Ph. E.) From the petals of Rosa centi-
folia and Rosa sempervirens (damask and musk
rose), principally the first, by saturating the
water, by returning it repeatedly on fresh
flowers, and then exposing it to a low tem-
perature. In the East Indies it is obtained by
stratifying gingilly seeds in alternate layers
with rose petals, for some days, and repeating
the arrangement with fresh roses till the seeds
are saturated, when the oil is expressed and
distilled along with water. In the neighbour-
hood of Mecca the rose leaves are macerated
in salt-and-water for 2 or 3 days, and then
distilled, the water being received in separate
receivers at different parts of the process.
The water is afterwards exposed in porous
earthenware vessels, tied over with linen, in
trenches dug in the earth, and over which
moistened straw is thrown, when in a short
time the otto separates and floats on the
surface.
Prop., &c. Colourless, or nearly so ; odour
intense, penetrating, and diffusive, and in a
concentrated state far from pleasant, but when
dilute very agreeable ; taste, bland and sweet-
ish ; when pure, it congeals at 80°, and does
not remelt until heated to fully 85° Fahr. ;
1000 parts of alcohol of '806 dissolve only 7
parts of otto at 57° Fahr., and only 33 parts
at 72°. Sp. gr. 832 at 90°, to water 1.000 at
60°Fahr, Prod. 100 lbs. of roses yield 2 to 3 dr.
Pur. Otto of roses is frequently adulterated
with the oils of rhodium, sandal-wood, and
geranium, and with camphor; and occasionally
with spermaceti, to give the spurious com-
pound the usual crystalline appearance. The
following are reliable tests —l. Pure otto has
a bland, sweet taste ; if it is bitter, it contains
oil of rhodium or sandal-wood; if it is pun-



836
OILS (VOLATILE).
gent, or “bites’ the palate, it contains either
oil of geranium or camphor, and probably
both ; if it imparts an unctuous sensation, it
contains spermaceti.-2. Exposed for some
hours to the fumes of a small quantity of
iodide under a bell-glass in the cold, pure otto
remains white, and continues so when exposed
to the air; an adulterated sample, on the con-
trary, becomes yellow or brown, and after-
wards, on exposure to the air, continues to
darken in colour, until it becomes of a deep
brown, or even perfectly black, according to
the quantity of foreign oil present. A single
drop may be thus tested.—3. (Guibourt.) One
or two drops of the suspected oil are put into
a watch-glass; the same number of drops of
concentrated sulphuric acid are added, and
the two fluids are mixed with a glass-rod. All
the oils are rendered more or less brown by
this proceeding; but, otto of roses retains the
purity of its odour—oil of geranium acquires a
strong and disagreeable odour, which is per-
fectly characteristic—the odour of the oil of
rhodium is increased, and becomes somewhat
unctuous, and, in general, it acquires an odour
distinctly like that of cubebs.
Oil of Rose'mary. Syn. ROSMARINI OLEUM
(B. P.), OLEUM ANTHOS, O. RORISMARINI, O.
ROSMARINI (Ph. L. E. & D.), O. RORISMARINI
ESSENTIALE, L. From the flowering tops of
Rosmarinus officinalis. In the Ph.L., English
oil of rosemary (O. ROSMARINI, ANGLICUM) is
ordered, as it is superior to that from abroad.
Colourless ; strongly fragrant, but scarcely
agreeable unless compounded; carminative and
stimulant. Boils at 365°Fahr. Sp. gr. 910;
recent, 897; rectified, '8887. Prod. to 1%
(nearly).
Pur., &c. It is frequently adulterated with
oil of turpentine. When pure, it dissolves in
all proportions in spirit of 830. By age it
deposits a crystalline stearoptene, and acquires
a terebinthinate odour. It is chiefly used as a
stimulant in liniments, hair oil, pomatums,
&c.
Oil of Rose'wort. Syn. OIL OF RCSE-Root;
OLEUM RHODIOLAE, L. From the roots of
Rhodiola rosea. Yellowish ; odour resembles
that of oil of rhodium, for which it is often
sold, as well as the distilled water for rose
water. 13 lb. yields about 1 dr.
Oil of Ruo. Syn. RUTHE OLEUM (B. P.),
OLEUM RUTAE (Ph. L. & E.), L. The “oil
distilled from the fresh herb of Ruta grave-
olens,” (B. P.), or common rue. Pale yellow,
turning brown by age, and depositing a brown-
ish, resinous sediment ; congeals at about 40°
Fahr. ; acrid, bitter; odour that of the plant;
stimulant, antispasmodic, and emmenagogue.
Sp. gr. 909 to 911. Prod. 3 to 14 (nearly).
According to Raybaud, the recent dried seeds
yield fully four times as much oil as the flower-
ing herb.
Pur. Nearly always adulterated. When
pure—1. It forms a clear solution with rec-
tified spirit.-2. It does not form a camphor
with gaseous hydrochloric acid.—3. Iodin;
dissolves in it slowly, without any apparent
reaction, beyond a darkening and a slightin:
crease of viscidity.—4. It is unaffected by:
solution of chromate of potassa,—5. Nitri:
acid very slowly changes it into a greenish:
yellow liquid balsam.—6. If it forms areddish:
brown solution with liquor of potassa and
still darker one with oil of vitriol, or if it ful.
minates with iodine, it is adulterated with the
oil of some labiate plant.—7. It is more soluble
in both rectified spirit and water than any ºf
the oils used to adulterate it.
Oil of Saffron, Syn. OLEUM CROCI, I.
From the pistils of Crocus sativus (saffron)
Yellow ; heavier than water ; acrid, pungent,
and narcotic ; decomposed by exposure to light
and age, with the formation of a white soil
matter, which is lighter than water.
Oil of Sage. Syn. OLEUM SALVIE, L. From
the herbaceous portion of Salvia officinalis, 0
common sage.
Oil of Sanſdal-wood. Syn. OLEUM SANTAI
O. S. ALBI, L. From the wood of Santal
album, or sandal-tree, and preferably from that
of Malabar. It has an odour somewhat Tº.
sembling that of oil of rhodium, for which it
is commonly used; also used to adulterſ:
otto of roses. Prod. 9 lbs. yield 1 oz.; 100lbs.
yield 5 oz. (Raybaud).
Oil of Sarsaparil'la. Syn. OLEUM SARZ,
L. From the root bark, distilled along with
salt-and-water. Acrid; odour and flavour Samt
as the root.
Oil of Sas'safras. Sym. VoIATILE OIL OF S:
OLEUM SASSAFRAS (Ph. E.), O. LAURIs, 0.
S. OFFICINALIS, L. From bruised Sassafrts
chips, the sliced root of Sassafras officinale, is
oil of cloves. Pale yellow ; highly odorous;
hot, pungent, rubefacient, and stimulant; tº:
puted alterative, sudorific, and diuretic, and
as such, occasionally given in rheumatism, cl.
taneous affections, &c. Sp. gr. 1094 to 10%
Prod. 13 to 2% (fully).
Pur., &c.—1. If the density is lower than
1094, it is adulterated.—2. Nitric acid acts
on this oil, at first slowly, merely turning it ºf
an orange-red, but afterwards with violentº
and a reddish-brown resin is formed.—3, Mixed
with about one half its weight of sulphuri
acid, a green colour is at first developed, which
by heat, is changed to a blood-red. A large
quantity of sulphuric acid acts at once wid:
lently, white fumes are given off, and met:
charcoal is left.—4. With iodine it forms a
permanently clear solution, or at least one thiſ
remains so for some time.—5. By agitation
with water, it separates into two oils—Oſlº
lighter, the other heavier, than that fluid.
Oil of Sav'ine. Syn. OLEUM SABINE (B.P.)
OLEUM JUNIPERI SABINE, O. SABINE (Ph.B.
& D.), L. From the fresh tops or leaves of
Juniperus Sabina, or common savin, Palº
yellow; limpid; acrid, pungent, and stimu:
lant. It possesses the general properties of
the plant in a highly exalted degree, Sp. gº

OILS (VOLATILE). 837
'915. Prod. Fresh herb, 1:25 to 1.5%; dried
do. (recent), 2% to 3%. Dose. 2 to 6 drops; as
an anthelmintic, diaphoretic, and emmena-
gogue. Its use must be carefully avoided
during pregnancy or disease of the abdominal
viscera.
Pur., &c. It is less frequently adulterated
than the other volatile oils. Its high sp. gr.
and free solubility in rectified spirit offer the
means of detecting the presence of either oil
of turpentine or alcohol, the substances occa-
sionally added to it. A mixture of equal parts
of oil of savin and oil of vitriol, by distillation
from milk of lime, furnishes an oil apparently
identical with oil of thyme. (Winckler.)
Oil of Sen'na. Syn. OLEUM SENNA. vol.A-
TILE, L. Possesses the nauseous odour and
flavour of the leaves, and, as well as the dis-
tilled water, is purgative.
Oil of Spear'mint. Syn. ENGLISH or L OF
SPEARMINT (B. P.), OIL of MINT, OIL of
GREEN M.; MENTHE VIRIDIs ol.EUM (B.P.);
OLEUM MENTHE VIRIDIs (Ph. L. E. & D.),
O. M. SATIVE, O. ESSENTIALE MENTHAE S., L.
From the fresh flowering herb of Mentha
viridis (Linn.), or garden or spearmint. Pale
yellow; reddened by age; odour and general
properties resemble those of oil of peppermint,
but it is less grateful. It boils at 320° Fahr.
Sp. gr. 915 ('9394, Brande). Prod. .2% to 25%.
Its common adulterants are alcohol and oil of
turpentine.
Oil of Spike (True). Syn. FoEEIGN OTL of
LAVENDER; OLEUM SPICE, O. S. VERUM, O.
STAECHADIS, O. LAVANDULA. S., L.; HUILE
D’ASPIC, Fr. Chiefly from Lavandula spica
and L. Staechas, or French and Alpine laven-
ders. It differs from English oil of lavender
by its darker green colour and inferior odour.
From France. Used by artists to mix their
colours in, and to make varnishes. Oil of tur-
pentine scented with lavender is commonly
sold for it. Prod. From L. spica (fresh), # to
1}}; L. Staechas (dried), # to 1% (fully).
Oil of Spike'mard. Syn. OLEUM NARDI, L.
The precious oil mentioned under this name in
Scripture is supposed to have been derived
from Andropogon Iwarancusa. The commer-
cial oil of geranium (see above) is also called by
this name.
Oil of Spring Grass. Syn. OLEUM ANTHox-
ANTHI ODORATI, L. From Anthoacanthum odo-
Tatum, or sweet-scented vernal grass. It is
º oil gives the very agreeable odour to new
ay.
Oil of Star-an'ise. Syn. BADTAN or L; OLEUM
BADIANI, O. ANISI STELLATI, L. From the
capsules of Illicium anisatum, or star-anise. It
continues liquid at 35%.” Fahr. This, and its
weaker reaction with iodine, distinguish it
from the preceding compound, which it is
commonly used to adulterate. Prod. 2% (fully).
Oil of Sweet Fen' mel. See OIL of FENNEL.
Oil of Sweet Flag. Syn. OLEUM ACORI, O.
A. AROMATICA, L. From the rhizomes or
roots of Acorus Calamus (Linn.), or sweet flag.
Yellow; agreeably fragrant. Used to scent
snuff, aromatic vinegar, &c. Prod. Fresh
rhizomes, # to 14; dried (recent), 1 to 1.25°.
Oil of Tan’sy. Syn. OLEUM TANACETI, L.
From the flowering herb of Tanacetum vul-
gare (Linn.), or tansy. Pale greenish-yellow ;
very odorous; bitter; aromatic. Sp. gr. 1946
to 950. Prod. Fresh, 25 to 5}; dried (re-
cent), # to 1% (fully).
Oil of Thyme. Syn. OLEUM THYMI; OIL
of ORIGANUM, OLEUM OFIGANI (of the shops).
From the flowering herb of Thymus vulgaris
(Linn.), or garden thyme. Nearly colourless;
the imported oil has a reddish colour, which it
loses by rectification; very fragrant; acrid,
hot tasted, stimulant, and rubefacient; boils
at 354°Fahr. Sp. gr. 867 to 875. Prod.
‘5% to 75%.
Obs. This is the dark-coloured ‘oil of ORI-
GANUM of the shops. It is frequently adul-
terated with oil of turpentine. It is occa-
sionally used in toothache and in stimulating
liniments; but its chief consumption is in
perfumery, more particularly for hair-oils,
pomatums, and hair-washes, as it is reputed to
make the hair grow and to prevent baldness.
Oil of Tobacco (Wolatile). From the leaves
of Nicotiana tabucum (Linn.), or the tobacco
plant. Concrete.
Oil of Tur/pentine. Syn. SPIRIT of T.,
EssBNCE OF T., TURPS, CAMPHENE, CAM-
PHINE; TEREBINTHINE OLEUM (B. P.), SPI-
RITUS TEREBINTHINAE, ESSENTIA T., OLEUM
TEREBINTHINE (Ph. L. & D.), O. T. PURIFICA-
TUM (Ph. E.), L. The oil of turpentine of
commerce is obtained by distilling strained
American turpentine along with water. The
residuum in the still is “resin' or “rosin.”
The product in oil varies from 14% to 16%.
The Colleges order it to be rectified before
being employed for medicinal purposes. This
is effected by re-distilling it along with 3 or
4 times its volume of water, observing not to
draw over quite the whole. The portion re-
maining in the retort (balsam of turpentine)
is viscid and resinous. A better plan is to
well agitate it with an equal measure of
solution of potassa or milk of lime before recti-
fying it. This is the plan adopted for the
camphine used for lamps. By agitating crude
oil of turpentine with about 5% of sulphuric
acid, diluted with twice its weight of water,
and after repose and decantation rectifying it
from 5 or 6 times its volume of the strongest
lime water, a very pure and nearly scentless
oil may be obtained. Dr. Nimmo recommends
oil of turpentine to be purified by agitation
with ºth part of rectified spirit, after repose to
decant the spirit, and to repeat the process 3
or 4 times. The product retains, however,
fully ºth part of spirit in solution, and hence
this method is objectionable, except for medi-
cinal purposes, for which, according to Dr.
Garrod, it is better than the oil purified by
rectification. The sweet spirits of turpentine
(SPIRITUs TEREBINTHINE DULCIS), vended of



838
OILS (VOLATILE).
late years in the shops, is simply the common
oil which has been agitated with, and rectified
from, somewhat dilute sulphuric acid.
Prop. Pure oil of turpentine is colourless;
limpid; very mobile ; neutral to test-paper;
has an odour neither powerful nor disagreeable
when recently prepared, but becoming so by
exposure to the air; dissolves ºth part of
alcohol of '830; is soluble in 6 parts of ether
and in 7% parts of rectified spirit; hot strong
alcohol dissolves it freely, but the greater part
separates in globules as the liquid cools. Oil
of vitriol chars it, and strong nitric acid
attacks it violently, even with flame. It con-
geals at 14°, and boils at 312° Fahr. Sp. gr.
‘867; that of the oil of the shops varies from
’872 to 878. It possesses a very high refrac-
tive power. At 72° it absorbs 163 times its
volume of hydrochloric-acid gas (if kept cool),
and in 24 hours from 26% to 47% of crystals
(KIND’s CAMPHOR) separate. These have a
camphoraceous odour, and, after being washed
with water, and sublimed along with some
dry chalk, lime, or charcoal, assume the form
of a white, translucent, flexible, crystalline
mass, which is volatile, soluble in alcohol, and
possesses a considerable resemblance to cam-
phor. A nearly similar substance is produced
by the action of oxygen gas on oil of turpen-
time.
Uses, &c. Oil of turpentine is extensively
used in the manufacture of warnishes and
paints. Under the name of ‘camphine,” it is
occasionally employed for burning in lamps.
For the last purpose it must be newly rectified
and preserved from the air. By exposure, it
rapidly absorbs oxygen, resin is formed, its
density increases, and it gives a dull fuliginous
flame. In medicine, it is employed as a dia-
phoretic, stimulant, vermifuge, &c.—Dose. 6
to 30 or 40 drops; in rheumatism, hemicrania,
&c., 1 fl. dr. every four hours, in combination
with bark or capsicum ; in tape-worm, 3 fl. dr.
to 1 fl. oz., either alone or combined with a
little syrup of orange peel, every 8 hours,
until the worm is expelled. The common
symptoms of large doses of this oil are dizziness
and a species of temporary intoxication, and
occasionally nausea and sickness, which sub-
side after two or three alvine evacuations,
leaving no other effect, when the oil is pure,
than a certain degree of languor for a few
hours. In tape-worm, a little castor-oil may
be advantageously combined with the second
and subsequent doses. Oil of turpentine im-
parts a violent odour to the urine. To prevent
loss by evaporation and resinification, this oil
should be kept in tin cans or glass bottles.
For store vessels, closely covered tin cisterns
are the best. To prevent accidents, it is
proper to caution the operator of the extremely
penetrating and inflammable nature of the
vapour of this oil, even in the cold. During
the process of its distillation, withont the
greatest precautions are taken, an explosion is
almost inevitable.
(Ph. Bor.), L. From the root of Valerial
officinalis (Linn.), or wild valerian. Yellow.
ish ; viscid ; lighter than water; small,
strongly of the plant. By exposure to th:
air, it is partly converted into Valeriami:
acid, and more readily so under the influênſ:
of an alkali. In its usual form it consists ºf
valerol, a neutral oily body; borneene, a vol.
tile liquid hydrocarbon; and valerianic acil
It is powerfully antispasmodic, emmenagogº
tonic, and stimulant, and, in large doses, mill.
cotic.—Dose. 2 to 6 drops; in epilepsy, hy;
&c. Prod. 1% to 2% (nearly).
Oil of Ver'bema. Syn. OLEUM VERBENE, I,
From the fresh flowering herb of Verbena.0d.
rata. Prod. 2% to 5%. The ‘oſſ, OF VER:
BENA’ of the shops is imported from Indi,
and is obtained from Andropogon citraliſm,
See OIL OF LEMON GRASS.
Oil of Wine.
ETHEREAL OIL, OILY ETHEREAL LIQUOR, SII.
PHATE OF ETHER AND ETHEROLE ; 0IETY
AETHEREUM (Ph. L.), OLEUM WINI, LIQUO.
AETHEREUs ol.EOSUs, L. This is an artificial
cluded under this head.
1. (Ph. L.) Rectified spirit, 2 pints, and
sulphuric acid, 36 fl. oz., are cautiously mixel
together in a glass retort, and submitted tº
distillation until a black froth appears, whº
the retort is immediately removed from th:
fire (sand heat); the lighter, supernatani
liquor is next separated from the fluid in th:
receiver, and exposed to the air for 24 hours;
it is then agitated with a mixture of solutil
of potassa and water, of each, 1 fl. OZ, or q, S.
and, when sufficiently washed, is, lastly, sº
rated from the aqueous liquid from whichi
has snbsided. The formula of the Ph, L, 18%
is nearly similar.
2. (Ph.D.) Rectified spirit and oil of vitri
(commercial), of each, 1% pint ; as the las,
employing a Liebig’s condenser, and a capsul
for the exposure to the air; the oil is the
transferred to a moistened paper filter, and
washed with a little cold water, to remove any
adhering acid.
3. (Ph.D. 1826.) From the residuumintº
retort after the process of preparing ether, diº
tilled to one half, by a moderate heat, and th:
oil treated as before.
4. From rectified spirit (sp. gr. 833), 2parts:
oil of vitriol, 5 parts; mix and distil, as before;
wash the product with distilled water, and fº
it from adhering water and undecomposed
alcohol by exposure in the vacuum of an air.
pump, between two open capsules, the one 01:
taining fragments of solid potassa, and the
other concentrated sulphuric acid. Pure.
5. By distilling a mixture of ether and
oil of vitriol, and treating the product as
before.
6. By the destructive distillation of dry Sul.
phovinate of calcium; the product is fººd
teria, hemicrania, hypochondriasis, low fever,
Oil of Wale"rian, Syn. OLEUMWATERIAN:
Syn. HEAVY OIL OF WINI
production which, for convenience, may bei




OILY EMULSION.—OINTMENT, 839
from alcohol, &c., by washing it.
yield the largest product.
Prop., &c. An oily liquid, nearly colourless,
neutral, with an aromatic taste, and an odour
resembling that of oil of peppermint. It is
insoluble in water, but freely soluble in both
alcohol and ether; boiling water converts it
into sulphovinic acid, and a volatile liquid called
light or sweet oil of wine; with an alkaline so-
lution, this effect is produced with even greater
facility. Sp. gr. 1:05 (Hennel & Ph. L.); 1:13
(Serullas). Boils at 540° Fahr. “Dropped
into water, it sinks, the form of the globule
being preserved.” (Ph. L.) Prod. 1:25 to
1.5%; 33 lbs. of rectified spirit, and 64 lbs. of
oil of vitriol, yield 17 oz. of this oil (Hennel).
Uses. Oil of wine is reputed anodyne, but
is only used in the preparation of other com-
pounds. See SPIRIT of ETHER (Compound),
&c. -
Oil of Wine (Light). Syn. SweET or I of
WINE. See ETHERIN, ETHEROLE, and above.
Wood Oil (of India). From the Chloroa:ylon
Swietenia (De Cand.), the tree which yields the
satin-wood of the cabinet-makers. Another
wood oil (GöRJUN BALSAM) is obtained by in-
cision from various species of Dipterocarpus.
This balsam yields about 38% of a volatile oil
by distillation, which in its general properties
closely resembles OIT OF COPAIBA. (O’Shaugh-
nessey.)
Oil of Worm'seed. Syn. OLEUM CHENOPOD.II
(Ph. U. S.), L. From the seeds of Chenopo-
dium anthelminţicum, or Jerusalem oak (Ame-
rican wormseed). Light yellow, or greenish;
powerfully anthelmintic. Sp. gr. 1908.-Dose.
For an adult, 25 to 30 drops, in sugar, honey,
or milk, night and morning, for 3 or 4 days,
followed by a good dose of castor oil, or some
other suitable purgative.
Oil of Worm"wood. Syn. OLEUM ABSINTHII,
L. From the herbaceous portion of Artemi-
sia Absinthium, or common wormwood; green
or brownish-green; odorous; acrid; bitter;
stomachic. Sp. gr. 19703 (Brisson); 9720
(Pereira); ‘9725 (Brande). Prod. Fresh herb
(picked), 4 to , ; ; dry herb (a year old), , ;
(fully); do. (recent), # to 1% (fully).
Pur. That of the shops is nearly always
This process
either adulterated or partly spoiled by age;
hence the discrepancies in the densities given
for this oil by different authorities. A speci-
men of this oil distilled by Mr. Cooley from the
green plant had the sp. gr. 9712; but after
being kept for 12 months, it had increased to
‘9718. Nitric acid of 1:25 colours the pure oil
first green, then blue, and, lastly, brown. The
positive character of these reactions is in direct
proportion to the purity and freshness of the
sample. -
OILY EMIUI/SION. See LINCTUs (Emol-
lient).
OILY ETHE’REAL LIQ/UOR. See OIL OF
WINE (ahove).
OINT/MENT. Syn. UNGUENTUM, L. Any
soft, fatty substance applied to the skin by
inunction. The term is now commonly re-
stricted to those which are employed in me-
dicine.
Ointments (unguenta) differ from cerates'
chiefly in their consistence, and in wax not
being a constant or essential constituent; and
they are made and used in a nearly similar man-
ner to that class of preparations. Their proper
degree of solidity is that of good butter, at the
ordinary temperature of the atmosphere. When
the active ingredients are pulverulent sub-
stances, nothing can be more suitable to form
the body of the ointment than good fresh lard,
free from salt; but when they are fluid or semi-
fluid, prepared suet, or a mixture of Suet and
lard, will be necessary to give a due consistence
to the compound. In some instances wax is or-
dered for this purpose. Another excellent ‘ve-
hicle’ for the more active ingredients is a simple
ointment, formed by melting together 1 part of
pure white wax with about 4 parts of olive oil.
The use of the last excludes the possibility of
the irritation sometimes occasioned by the ac-
cession of rancidity, when inferior lard is em-
ployed. In a few cases butter is employed to
form the body of the ointment.
Some ointments are made from recent vege-
table substances by infusion or coction, in the
manner adopted for medicated oils. See OILs,
MEDICATED.
The precautions to be used in the choice of
lard are noticed in the article devoted to this
substance. Lard is included in the Materia
Medica of the London College. In the last Ph.
D. lard for medicinal use (ADEPs SUILLUS PRE-
PARATUS—Ph.D.) is ordered to be prepared by
melting it in twice its weight of boiling water,
stirring it constantly for some time, then set-
ting the mixture aside to cool; and, lastly,
separating the fat when it has solidified.
Ointments are best preserved by keeping
them in salt-glazed earthen or stoneware jars,
covered with tin foil, in a cool situation.
The accession of rancidity in ointments and
other unctuous preparations may be greatly
retarded, if not wholly prevented, by previously
dissolving in the fat about 2% of gum-benzoin,
in fine powder, or rather less quantity of ben-
zoic acid, by the aid of heat. This addition
renders the ointment peculiarly soothing to
irritable or highly sensitive skins. Poplar buds
act in a similar manner.
*** The formulae for all the more useful and
generally employed ointments are given below.
Those not included in the list may be prepared
of the proper strength for all ordinary purposes,
by combining about 12 to 15 times the medium
dose of the particular medicinal with 1 oz. of
lard or simple ointment. For substances which
possess little activity, , to 1 dr. per oz., or even
more, may be taken. See CERATE, FAT, &c.
Ointment of Ac'etate of Lead. Syn. UNGUEN-
TUM PLUMBI ACETATIs (B. P., Ph. E. & D.), L.
Prep. 1. (Ph. E.) Acetate of lead, in fine pow-
der, 1 oz. ; simple ointment, 20 oz. ; mix them
thoroughly (by trituration).





840 - OINTMENT,
2. (Ph. D.) Ointment of white wax, 1 lb.;
melt by a gentle heat, then add, gradually, of
acetate of lead, in very fine powder, 1 oz., and
stir the mixture until it concretes.
3. (B. P.) Acetate of lead, in fine powder,
12 grs. ; benzoated lard, 1 oz. ; mix.
Obs. A useful, cooling, astringent, and desic-
cative ointment. For the formula of Ph.L.,
see CERATE.
Ointment, Ace’tic. See WINEGAR OINTMENT.
Ointment of Aconite. Syn. UNGUENTUM
ACONITI, L. Prep. 1. (Dr. Turnbull.) Al-
coholic extract of aconite, 1 part; lard, 2 parts;
carefully triturated together. In neuralgia, &c.
2. (Ammoniated; UNGUENTUM ACONITI
AMMONIATUM – Turnbull.) Ammoniated ex-
tract of aconite, 1 part; lard, 3 parts. In
neuralgia, paralysis, old rheumatic affections,
&c. The use of the above preparations of
aconite requires the greatest caution. They
are intended as substitutes for OINTMENT OF
ACONITINE, a still more dangerous prepara-
tion.
Ointment of Acom'itime. Syn. UNGUENTUM
ACONITINAE, I. Prep. 1. (Dr. Garrod.)
Pure aconitine, 1 gr. ; lard, 1 dr. ; mix by care-
ful trituration.
2. (Dr. Turnbull.) Aconitine, 2 grs. ; recti-
fied spirit, 6 or 7 drops; triturate together,
then add of lard, 1 dr., and mix well.
3. (B. P.) Aconitia (aconitine), 8 grs. ; rec-
tified spirit, , dr. ; dissolve and add lard, 1 oz. ;
l]]ly.
Use, &c. As a topical benumber in neuralgic
affections, rheumatic pains, &c. Its application
generally occasions considerable tingling, and
sometimes redness of the part to which it is
applied, followed by temporary loss of sensa-
tion in the skin and the cessation of the pain.
For slight cases Dr. Paris formerly employed
only 1 gr. to the oz. Owing to the intensely
poisonous nature of aconitine, this ointment
must be both prepared and used with great
caution, and must never be applied to an
abraded surfuce. It is seldom employed, owing
to its extreme costliness. See ACONITINE, and
above.
Ointment, Ague. See ANTI-PERIODIC OINT-
MENT.
Ointment, Albimolo’s. See PATENT MEDI-
CINES.
Ointment, Alkaline. Syn. UNGUENTUM AL-
RALINUM, L. Prep. 1. (Biett.) Carbonate
of soda, 2 drs. ; fresh-slaked lime, 1 dr. ; pow-
dered opium, 2 grs. ; lard, 2 oz. ; mix by tritu-
ration. In prurigo, ringworm, and some other
cutaneous affections. -
2. (Cazenave.) Carbonate of potassa, 1 dr. ;
lard, 1 oz. In psoriasis, lepra, and scorbutic
eruptions.
3. (Devergie.)—a. From carbonate (not ses-
quicarbonate) of soda, 10 to 15 grs. ; lard, 1 oz.
In lichen.
b. From carbonate of soda, 20 to 30 grs. ;
lard, 1 oz. . In ichthyosis, lepra, psoriasis, and
some other scaly skin diseases.
c. From carbonate of soda, to 1 dr.; latl
1 oz.
ring in adults.
4. (Soubeiran.) Carbonate of soda, 1 tº
drs.; wine of opium, 1 fl. dr. ; lard, 1 07. In
any of the above affections, when there ismſ
pain or irritation.
Obs. Carbonate of potassa is thought tol:
preferable to carbonate of soda, when the abº
affections occur in scorbutic habits. A little
camphor is also occasionally added.
Ointment of Alum. Syn. UNGUENTUM AIT,
MINIS, L. Prep. 1. Alum, in very fine pº
der, 1 dr. ; lard, 1% oz. In piles.
2. To the last add of powdered opium,7gº
In piles, when there is much pain. See BAN,
YER'S OINTMENT.
Ointment, Ammoniacal. Syn. UNGUENT
AMMONIACALE, U. AMMONIE, L.; LIPAROI).
IYAMMONIAQUE, POMMADE DE GONDRET, ºr
Prep. 1. (P. Cod.) Suet and lard, of each
1 oz. ; melt in a strong wide-mouthed bottl
In porrigo favosa, especially when OCCW
add of liquor of ammonia (sp. gr. 923), 21,
at once close the bottle, and agitate it untilis
contents concrete. As little heat as possil
should be employed, to prevent unnecessaryl's
of ammonia.
2. (Gondret.) Lard, 3 parts; suet, 2 paris;
almond oil, 1 part ; strong solution of ammomi.
6 parts; mix, as before. Rubefacient, vesical
and counter-irritant. Smeared over the skill
and covered so as to prevent evaporation,it
raises a blister in 5 or 6 minutes. Its general
effects and uses are similar to those of COm
pound liniment of ammonia.
Ointment of Carbonate of Ammo"nia, S.
UNGUENTUM AMMONIAE CARBONATIS, U. l.
SESQUICARBONATIs, L. Prep. From Carlº
bonate of ammonia, 1 dr. ; lard, 9 drs, Al
excellent application to painful joints, indoll
tumours, scrofulous sores, &c.
Ointment of Ammo'niated Mercury, S/
UNGUENTUM HYDRARGYRIAMMONIATI(B.P.)
Ammoniated mercury, 62 grs. ; simple (it
ment, 1 oz., mix. See next preparation,
Ointment of Ammo"mio-chloride of Mercury
Syn. WHITE PRECIPITATE OLNTMENT; UN
GUENTUM HYDRARGYRI AMMONIO-CHLORIDI
Ph. L.), U. H. PRECIPITATI ALBI, U. PRI.
CIP. A. (Ph. E.), U. H. SUBMURIATIs AMM),
NIATI (Ph. D. 1826), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. I)
Ammonio-chloride of mercury, 2 drs,; larl
3 oz. ; triturate together.
2. (Ph. E.) As the last, but employing
heat.
Uses, &c. Alterative; detergent; stimu.
lant. In itch, scald-head, and various other
skin diseases; in inflammation of the eyes;
as an application to scrofulous and canceroli
tumours; to destroy vermin on the body, &c.
It “may be safely used” (in small quantitië)
“on infants.” (A. T. Thomson.)
Ointment, An'glo-Saxon. Prep. Heat Olive
oil, 1 pint, and bees' wax, 4 lb., until the mix
ture acquires a reddish-brown colour; then
add red lead (levigated), 4 lb., and continº
OINTMENT.
84.1
the heat, with constant stirring ; when the
union appears complete, add of amber and
burnt alum, of each, in fine powder, 4 oz. ;
lastly, when considerably cooled, add of pow-
dered camphor, 3 drs. As a dressing to foul
ulcers.
Ointment, Anſodyne.
OPIUM, HEMLOCK, &c.
Ointment of An'thracokaſli. Syn. PoW MADE
DE ANTHRACORALI, Fr. Prep. (Dr. Polya.)
Anthracokali, in very fine powder, 1 part ;
lard, 30 parts. See ANTHRACOKALI.
Ointment, Antiherpetſic. Syn. UNGUENTUM
ANTIHERPETICUM, L. Prep. 1. (Alibert.)
Red sulphide of mercury, 3 drs. ; powdered
camphor, 1 dr.; lard, 3 oz.
2. (Chevallier.) ‘Subsulphate of mercury’
(Turpeth mineral), 2 drs. ; chloride of lime, 3
drs. ; almond oil, 6 drs. ; lard, 2 oz. In herpes
or tetters. -
Ointment, Antimo'nial. See OINTMENT OF
POTASSIO-TARTRATE OF ANTIMONY.
Ointment, Antiperiodic. Syn. AGUE OINT-
MENT ; UNGUENTUM ANTIPERIODICUM, U.
FEBRIFUGUM, L. Prep. 1. Disulphate of
quinine, 1} dr. ; saccharine carbonate of iron,
1 dr. ; oil of cajeput, 30 drops; fresh butter,
1 oz.
2. (Antonini.) Sulphate of quinine, 1 oz. ;
rectified spirit and sulphuric acid, of each, q. s.
lard, 4 oz.
Uses, &c. About 4 oz. of either of the
above to be rubbed on the vertebral regions
once every 2 or 3 hours for 3 or 4 days, in
intermittent fevers, more especially in those
accompanied by vomiting ; or, into the epi-
gastrium, in cholera, diarrhoea, or dysentery.
Ointment, Aromatic. Syn. BALSAMUM
STOMACHALE WACKERI, UNGUENTUM ARO-
MATICUM, L. Prep. (Ph. Austr. 1836.)
Simple ointment, 2% lbs. ; yellow wax and oil
of laurel, of each, 3 oz. ; melt together, and,
when considerably cooled, add of oils of juniper,
mint, lavender, and rosemary, of each, 2 drs.
Anodyne, balsamic, and stimulant.
Ointment, Arsen'ical. Syn. OINTMENT OF
WHITE ARSENIC ; UNGUENTUM ARSENICALE,
U. ARSENICI, U. ACIDI ARSENIOSI, L. Prep.
1. Arsenious acid (levigated), 3 grs. ; lard or
simple ointment, 1 oz. In lepra, psoriasis,
malignant whitlows, &c.
2. (Hosp. F.) Levigated white arsenic, 15
to 20 grs. ; lard, 1 oz. As a dressing for can-
cerous SOI’es.
3. (Soubeiran.) White arsenic, 1 dr. ; lard
and spermaceti ointment, of each, 6 drs. In
malignant cancer. The above must be care-
fully prepared, and used with great caution.
See CERATE.
Ointment of Arse"miate of I'rom. Syn. UN-
GUENTUM FERRI ARSENIATIS, L. Prep. 1.
(Carmichael.) Arseniate of iron, ; dr. ; phos-
phate of iron, 2 drs, ; spermaceti ointment,
6 drs.
2. (Dr. Pereira.) Arseniate of iron, dr, ;
lard, 1% oz. In cancer,
See OINTMENT OF
Ointment, Astringent, Syn. UNGUENTUM
ASTRINGENS, L. Prep. Triturate powdered
catechu, 1} dr., with boiling water, 2 fl. drs,
add, gradually, of spermaceti ointment (melted),
1} oz., and continue the trituration until the
mass concretes. An excellent dressing for ill-
disposed sores and ulcers, especially during
hot weather, See the several LEAD OINT-
MENTs, OINTMENT OF GALLs, &c.
Ointment of Atro"pia. Syn. UNGUENTUM
ATROPIAE (B.P.), L. Prep. 1. Atropia, 1% gr. ;
simple ointment, 1 dr. ; mix by careful tritu-
ration.
2. (Dr. Brookes.) Atropia, 5 grs. ; lard,
3 drs.; otto of roses, 1 drop. In neuralgia,
rheumatic pains, &c., when the affection is not
deeply seated.
3. (B. P.) Atropia, 8 grs.; rectified spirit,
# dr.; lard, 1 oz. ; dissolve the atropia in the
spirit and mix with the lard.
Ointment, Bailey's. See ITCH OINTMENT.
Oil of Bal'sam of Peru. Syn. UNGUENTUM
BALSAMI PERUVIANI, L. Prep. 1. Lard or
spermaceti ointment, 1 oz. ; balsam of Peru,
1 dr. ; melt together by the heat of boiling
water, stir for 5 or 6 minutes, allow it to settle,
and pour off the clear portion. In chaps and
abrasions.
2. (Compound; UNG. B. P. COMPOSITUM-
Copland.) Lard, 1 oz. ; white wax, # oz. ;
balsam of Peru, 1 dr.; melt as before, and
when nearly cold, add of oil of lavender, 10
or 12 drops. As the last, and to restore the
hair.
Ointment, Bamyer's. Syn. CoMPOUND AIUM
OINTMENT; UNGUENTUM ALUMINIS COMPO-
SITUM, U. CALOMELANOS, U. BANYERI, L.
Prep. From burnt alum and calomel, of each,
1% oz. ; carbonate of lead or litharge (levi-
gated), 2 oz. ; Venice turpentine, 3 lb.; lard,
2 lbs. ; carefully triturated together. In milk-
scald, porrigo, &c. -
Ointment of Bark. See OINTMENT OF CIN-
CHONA.
Ointment, Basil'icon. Syn. BASILICON,
YELLOW. B. ; UNGUENTUM BASILICUM ; U. B.
FLAVUM, L. Prep. (Ph. L. 1746.) Olive oil,
16 fl. oz. ; yellow wax, yellow resin, and Bur-
gundy pitch, of each, 1 lb.; melt, remove the
vessel from the fire, and stir in of common tur-
pentine, 3 oz. This form is still occasionally
employed in some shops, but is generally super-
seded by the resin cerate and resin oint-
ment of the Pharmacopoeias. A nearly similar
preparation, under the name of ‘basilicon oint-
ment,' is contained in the Ph. Bor. 1847. (See
below.)
Ointment, Basilicon (Black). See OINTMENT
OF PITCH.
Ointment, Basilicon (Green). Syn. UNGUEN-
TUM BASILICUM VIRIDE, F. Prep. (Ph. L.
1746.) Prepared verdigris, 1 oz. ; yellow basi-
licon, 8 oz. ; olive oil, 3 fl. oz. Detergent.
Used to keep down fungous growths, to dress
syphilitic ulcers, &c. See CERATE and OINT-
MENT OF VERDIGRIS,



842
OINTMENT,
Ointment, Bateman's. See ITCH OINTMENT.
Ointment of Bay-leaves. See LAUREI, OINT-
MENT.
Ointment of Belladon’na. Syn. UNGUENTUM
BELLADONNE (B. P., Ph. L.). Prep. 1. (Ph.
L.). Extract of belladonna (deadly nightshade),
1 dr. ; lard, 1 oz. ; mix by trituration.
2. (Soubeiran.) Fresh belladonna leaves
(bruised), 1 part; lard, 2 parts; simmer toge-
ther until the leaves become crisp, and, after
digestion for a short time longer, drain with
pressure.
3. (B. P.). Extract of belladonna, 1;
rubbed with a few drops of water, and mix
with lard, 5}.
Uses, &c. As a local anodyne, in painful and
indolent tumours, nervous irritations, &c.
Also as an application to the neck of the uterus
in cases of rigidity. (Chaussier.)
4. (Compound; UNGUENTUM BELLADONNE
COMPOSITUM, L.)—a. (W. Cooley.) Compound
iodine ointment, 7 drs. ; extract of belladonna,
1 dr. Powerfully discutient. A most excel-
lent application to all glandular tumours and
indurations, buboes, &c., which it is desirable
to disperse instead of mature, more espe-
cially when there is much pain. It is parti-
cularly suitable to cases occurring on shipboard,
and when its application (at least twice a day)
is accompanied with the internal use of the
mixture of iodine and gold (see ANTISCROFU-
LOUS MIXTURE), this treatment has seldom
failed, even when the parties were dieted
chiefly on salt food.
b. (Debreyne.) Extract of belladonna and
lard, of each, 3 drs. ; powdered opium, dr.
As an external anodyne and benumber, more
especially in neuralgia, painful cancerous tu-
mours, &c. A small piece is to be applied to
the part, and the friction continued for 6 or
8 minutes. The above preparations are use-
less unless the extract employed is recent, and
of good quality.
Ointment of Bismuth. Syn. UNGUENTUM
BISMUTHI, L. Prep. 1. Nitrate of bismuth
(“white bismuth'), 1 dr. ; simple ointment,
1 oz.
2. (Fuller.) Nitrate of bismuth, 1 dr. ; sper-
maceti ointment, 19 drs. In itch, and some
chronic cutaneous diseases.
Ointment, Blist'ering. See OINTMENT OF
CANTHARIDEs, and VESICANTS.
Ointment, Blue. This is the vulgar name in
England of mercurial ointment. On the Con-
tinent, an ointment made of smalts and Gou-
lard water is commonly so called.
Ointment of Bor"ax. Syn. UNGUENTUM
BORACIS, L. Prep. From borax (in very fine
powder), 1 dr.; simple ointment or lard, 7 drs.
In excoriations, chaps, &c.
Ointment of Bromide of Potas'sium. Syn.
UNGUENTUM POTASSII BROMIDI, U. POTASSAE
HYDROBROMATIs, L. Prep. (Magendie.) Bro-
mide of potassium, , dr. ; lard, 1 oz. Resol-
vent ; in bronchocele, scrofula, &c.
Ointment of Broºmime. Syn. UNGUENTUM
BROMINII, U. B. COMPOSITUM, L. Prep, (M.
gendie.) Bromide of potassium, 20 grs. ; br).
mine, 6 to 12 drops; lard, 1 oz. As the last
but more active.
Ointment, Brown. Syn. FRENCH POOR-MAN's
FRIEND ; UNGUENTUM FUSCUM, U. HYDRA.
GYRI, F., L. Prep. (P. Cod.) Nitric oxide ºf
mercury (levigated), dr. ; resin ointment,
1 oz. In ophthalmia (cautiously), after the
inflammatory stage is over; as an application
to sore legs, &c.
Ointment of Cad'mium. Syn. UNGUENTUM
CADMII, U. C. SULPHATIS, L. Prep. (Radius)
Sulphate of cadmium, 1 to 2 grs. ; pure lard,
1 dr. ; carefully triturated together. In
specks on the cornea.
Ointment of Calaſmine. Syn. UNGUENTUY
CALAMINE, U. LAPIS CALAMINARIS, U. ZINCI
CARBONATIS IMPURI, L. Prep. (Ph.D. 1826).
Prepared calamine, 1 lb. ; ointment of yellow
wax, 5 lbs. Desiccative and healing. This is
the old Dublin form for Turner’s cerate.
Ointment of Cal'omel. Syn. UNGUENT
HYDRARGYRI SUBCHLORIDI (B. P.), UNGUEN.
TUM CALOMELANOS, U. HYDRARGYRICHLORIDI,
L. Prep. 1. From calomel, 1 dr.; lard, 0.
simple ointment, 1 oz.
Obs.
agent pre-eminently useful in skin diseasº
geuerally, I should fix on this. It is well dº.
serving a place in the Pharmacopoeia.” (Pe.
reira.) Dr. Underwood uses elder-flower oint.
ment as the vehicle.
2. (Compound; UNGUENTUM CALOMEIANC;
COMPOSITUM-Dr. A. T. Thomson.) Calomé,
1 dr. ; tar ointment, 4 drs. ; spermacetidim!
ment, 1 oz.
3. (B. P.). Calomel, 1; prepared lard, 5}:
mix. In lepra.
Ointment of Cam'phor. Syn. UNGUENTI
CAMPHORE, L. Prep. 1. Camphor, l iſ
2 drs. ; lard, 1 oz. ; dissolve by a gentle heit
and stir until the mass is nearly cold. Stim.
lant and anodyne; in prurigo, psoriasis, &c.
2. (Compound.) From powdered opium
! dr. ; powdered camphor, 1% dr. ; lard,1}01;
mix by trituration, As an anodyne friction
in rheumatic pains, swelled joints, coli,
&c.
Ointment of Canthar'ides. Syn. UNGUES:
TUM CANTHARIDIS (B. P., Ph. L. D. & U.S.)
U. LYTTE, L. Prep. 1. (Ph.L.) Cantharide;
(in very fine powder), 3 oz.; distilled water
12 fl. oz. ; mix, boil to one half, to the strained
liquid add of resin cerate, 1 lb., and evaporat:
to a proper consistence.
2. (Ph.D.) Liniment of Spanish flies, 8ff.
oz. ; white wax, 3 oz. ; spermaceti, 1 07:
melt together with a gentle heat, and stir
until it concretes.
3. (Ph. E.)—a. UNGUENTUM INFUSI CAN.
THARIDIs—Ph. E.) Powdered cantharides
1 oz. ; boiling water, 3 pint; infuse one migh;
(12 hours), strain with expression, add of lard
2 oz., and boil until the water is expelled;
then add bees' wax and resin, of each, 101,
“Were I required to name a local


OINTMENT,
843
and when these are liquefied, remove the
vessel from the fire, and further add of Venice
turpentine, 2 oz.
b. (UNGUENTUM PULVERIS CANTHARIDIs—
Ph. E.) Resin ointment, 7 oz. ; melt, add of
cantharides (in fine powder), 1 oz., and stir
until the whole is nearly cold.
4. (B.P.) Cantharides, in fine powder, 1 ;
olive oil, 6; yellow wax, 1: digest the cam-
tharides in the oil for twelve hours, and for +
hour at 212°; strain, add the melted wax, and
stir till cold.
Obs. The above preparations are frequently
called ‘blister ointment’ or ‘epispastic oint-
ment.’ They are used to keep blisters open
after they have been produced by stronger
compounds. The first three compounds are
regarded as milder than the last (3, b), which
contains the flies in substance. The P. Cod.
contains an ointment (UNG. EPISPASTICUM
FLAVUM) which is weaker than the above,
prepared by digesting the bruised flies in lard,
for 3 hours, over a warm bath ; about ºth part
of wax is next added to the strained fat, which
is then coloured with turmeric, and scented
with oil of lemon. See CERATE, POMMADE,
WESICANTS, and below.
Ointment of Canthar'idine. Syn. UNGUEN-
TUM CANTHARIDINAE, L. Prep. (Soubeiran.)
Cantharidine, 1 gr. ; white wax, 1 dr.; lard,
7 drs. ; mix thoroughly. (See above.)
Ointment of Cap'sicum. Syn. UNGUENTUM
CAPSICI, L. Prep. (Dr. Turnbull.) Tincture
of capsicum (pure), q. S.; gently evaporate it
until it begins to gelatinize, then mix the ex-
tract with twice its weight of lard. As a
powerful stimulant and rubefacient. When
very freely used, it vesicates.
Ointment of Car"bonate of Am"monia.
AMMONTACAL OINTMENT.
Ointment of Car"bonate of Lead. Syn. WHITE
LEAD OINTMENT ; UNGUENTUM PLUMBI CAR-
BONATIs (P. B., Ph. E. & D.), U. CERUSSE, L.
Prep. 1. (Ph. E.) Carbonate of lead, 1 oz. ;
simple ointment, 5 oz. ; mix thoroughly.
2. (Ph.D.) Carbonate of lead, 3 oz. ; oint-
ment of white wax, 1 lb. ; mix with heat.
3. (B. P.) Carbonate of lead, in fine powder,
l; simple ointment, 7 : mix.
Uses, &c. Cooling ; desiccative. Useful to
promote the healing of excoriated parts and
slight ulcerations. The camphorated white
ointment of old pharmacy (UNG. ALBUM. CAM-
PHORATUM–Ph. L. 1744) was made by add-
ing 40 grs. of camphor to the first of the
above.
Ointment of Cat'echu. Syn. UNGUENTUM
CATECHU, L. Prep. From alum, 1 oz. ; ca-
techu, 3 oz. ; (both in very fine powder;) added
to olive oil, ; pint, and yellow resin, 4 oz., pre-
viously melted together. Used to dress ulcers
in hot climates, where the ordinary fat oint-
ments are objectionable; also in this country
during hot weather. See ASTRINGENT OINT-
IMENT.
Ointment of Char'coal.
See
Syn. UNGUENTUM
CARBONIS, L. Prep. 1. Resin ointment, 10
drs. ; recently burnt charcoal (levigated),
3 drs. As a dressing to foul ulcers, especially
those of the legs.
2. (Caspar.) Lime-tree charcoal and dried
carbonate of soda, of each, 2 drs. ; rose oint-
ment, 1 oz., or q. s. In scald-head.
3. (Radius.) Animal charcoal (recent), 1
part; mallow ointment, 2 parts. As a fric-
tion in glandular enlargements and indura-
tions, as a dressing to fetid ulcers, &c.
Ointment of Cher'ry-Laurel. Syn. UNGUEN-
TUM LAURO-CERASI, L. Prep. (Soubeiran.)
Essential oil of cherry-laurel, 1 dr. ; lard, 1 oz.
To alleviate the pain in cancer, neuralgia, and
other local affections.
Ointment, Chil'blain. Syn. UNGUENTUM AD
PERNIONES, L. Prep. 1. From made mus-
tard (very thick), 2 parts; almond oil and gly-
cerine, of each, 1 part; triturated together.
To be applied night and morning.
2. (Cottereau.) Acetate of lead, camphor,
and cherry-laurel water, of each, 1 dr. ; tar,
1% dr. ; lard, 1 oz.
3. (Devergie.) Creasote and Goulard's ex-
tract, of each, 12 drops; extract of opium,
# gr. ; lard, 1 oz. Twice or thrice daily.
4. (Giacomini). Sugar of lead, 2 drs. ;
cherry-laurel water (distilled), 2 fl. dr. ; lard,
1 oz.
5. (Linnaeus.) Balsam of Peru, 1 dr.;
hydrochloric acid, 2 drs. ; spermaceti oint-
ment, 2% oz.
Obs. For Swediaur's, Vance's, and Wahler’s
ointments, see article CHILBLAIN.
Ointment of Chlo"ride of Calcium. Syn. UN-
GUENTUM CALCII CHLORIDI, U. CALCIS MURI-
ATIsf, L. Prep. (Sundelin.) Chloride of
calcium (dry), 1 dr. ; strong vinegar, 40 grs.;
foxglove (recent, in fine powder), 2 drs.; lard,
1 oz. In bronchocele, scrofulous tumours, &c.
Ointment of Chloride of Lead. Syn. UN-
GUENTUM PLUMBI CHLORIDI, L. Prep. (Tuson).
Chloride of lead, 1 part; simple cerate, 8
parts; carefully triturated together. In pain-
ful cancerous ulcerations and neuralgic tu-
mours. See LEAD (Chloride).
Ointment of Chloride of Lime.
MENT OF HYPOCHLORITE or LIME.
Ointment of Chloride of Mercury. See OINT-
MENTS OF CALOMEL and CORROSIVE SUBLI-
MATE.
Ointment of Chlo"rime. Syn. UNGUENTUM
CHLORINII, L. Prep. (Augustin.) Chlorine
water, 1 part; lard, 8 parts; well triturated
together. In itch, lepra, ring-worm, fetid
ulcers, &c.
Ointment of Chlor-i'odide of Mercury. Syn.
UNGUENTUM HYDRARGYRI CHLORIODIDI, L.
Prep. (M. Recamier.) Chloriodide (iodo-
chloride) of mercury, 3 grs. ; lard, 5 drs. Re-
commended as a powerful discutient or resol-
vent. See OINTMENT OF IODO-CHLORIDE OF
MERCURY.
Ointment of Chlo"roform. Syn. UNGUENTUM
CHLOROFORMI, L. Prep. (M. Louis.) Chloro-
See OINT.

84.4 OINTMENT.
form, 1 dr. ; simple ointment, 1 oz. In neu-
ralgia and rheumatic pains, &c. It must be
kept in a stoppered, wide-mouthed phial.
Ointment of Cin'choma. Syn. OINTMENT OF
BARK; UNGUENTUM CINCHONE, L. Prep.
(Biett.) Red cinchona bark (in very fine
powder) and almond oil, of each, 1 part; beef
marrow (prepared), 3 parts. In the variety of
scald-head termed porrigo decalvans. A little
oil of mace or tar is a useful addition.
Ointment, Cit’rine. See OINTMENT OF NI-
TRATE OF MERCURY.
Ointment of Coc'culus Indicus. Syn. UN-
GUENTUM CoCCULI (Ph. E.), L. Prep. (Ph.
E.) Kernels of Cocculus Indicus, 1 part; beat
them to a smooth paste in a mortar, first
alone, and next with a little lard; then fur-
ther add of lard, q. S., so that it may be equal
to 5 times the weight of the kernels. Used to
destroy pediculi, and in scald-head, &c.
Ointment of Cod-liver Oil. Syn. UNGUENTUM
OLEI MORRHUAE, U. O. J.ECORIS ASELLI, L.
Prep. Cod-liver oil (pale and recent), 7 parts;
white wax and spermaceti, of each, 1 part;
melted together. In ophthalmia and opacity
of the cornea, either alone or combined with a
little citrine ointment ; as a friction or dress-
ing for scrofulous indurations and sores; in
rheumatism, stiff joints, and in several skin
diseases. It often succeeds in porrigo or scald-
head when all other remedies have failed.
Scented with oil of nutmeg and balsam of
Peru, it forms an excellent pommade for
strengthening and restoring the hair.
Ointment of Col'ocynth. Syr. UNGUENTUM
COLOCYNTHIDIS, L. Prep. (Chrestien.) Co-
locynth pulp (in very fine powder), 1 part;
lard, 8 parts. Used in frictions on the abdo-
men as a hydragogue purgative, in mania,
dropsy, &c.
Ointment of Corrosive Sub'limate. Syn.
OINTMENT OF CHLORIDE OF MERCURY: ; UN-
GUENTUM HYDRARGYRI CHLORIDI, L. Prep.
1. From corrosive sublimate, 2 to 5 grs. ; Tubit
to powder in a glass or wedgwood-ware mor-
tar; add of rectified spirit, 6 or 7 drops, or
q. S.; again triturate; lastly add, gradually,
of spermaceti ointment (reduced to a cream-
like state by heat), 1 oz., and continue the
trituration until the whole concretes. Used
as a stimulant, detergent, and discutient ap-
plication in various local affections; in lepra,
porrigo, acne, &c., and as a dressing to syphi-
litic and some other ulcers.
2. (Ph. Chirur.) Corrosive sublimate, 10
grs. ; yolk of 1 egg; lard, 1 oz. As a
dressing.
3. (POMMADE DE CIRILLo—P. Cod.) Cor-
rosive sublimate, 1 dr.; lard, 1 oz. Caustic;
must not be confounded with the preceding.
Ointment, Cosmet'ic. Syn. UNGUENTUM Cos-
METICUM, L.; POMMADE DE LA JEUNESSE, Fr.
Prep. (Quincey.) Spermaceti, 3 dr. (better,
4}. dr.); oil of almonds, 2 oz. ; melt together,
and, when cooled a little, stir in of nitrate of
bismuth (“white bismuth'), 1 dr.; and, lastly,
of oil of rhodium, 6 drops. In itch and some
other cutaneous eruptions; but chiefly as a
pommade for the hair. Its frequent use is
said to turn the latter black.
Ointment of Creasote. Syn. UNGUENTUV
CREASOTI (B. P., Ph. L. E. D. & U. S.), L.
Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Creasote, ; fl. dr.; lard
1 oz. ; triturate together.
2. (Ph. E.) Lard, 3 oz. ; melt it by a gentle
heat; add of creasote, 1 dr., and stir the mix,
ture until it is nearly cold.
3. (Ph.D.) Creasote, 1 fl. dr. ; ointment of
white wax, 7 drs. ; as the last.
4. (B. P.) Creasote, 1; simple ointment, 8:
mix.
Uses, &c. In several skin diseases, especially
ring-worm ; as a friction in tic-douloureux;
dressing for scalds and burns; an application
to chilblains, &c., &c.
Ointment of Cro'ton Oil. Syn. UNGUENTUV
CROTONIS, L. Prep. 1. Croton oil, 15 to 30
drops; lard (softened by heat), 1 oz. ; mix
well. This is the usual and most useful
strength to prepare the ointment. Rubéfi.
cient and counter-irritant ; in rheumatism and
various other diseases. When rubbed repeat.
edly on the skin, it produces redness and apus.
tular eruption. It also often affects the bowls
by absorption. The only advantage it possess';
over other preparations of the class is tº
rapidity of its action.
2. (RUBEFACIENT POMMADE—Caventol)
White wax, 1 part; lard, 5 parts; melt togº.
ther, and, when quite cold, mince it small, all
of croton oil, 2 parts, and mix by trituration
Stronger than the last.
Ointment of Cy'amide of Mer'cury. Sh
UNGUENTUM HYDRARGYRI CYANIDI, L. Prºp.
1. (Cazenave.) Cyanide of mercury, 8 gº;
lard, 1 oz. ; carefully triturated together.
2. (Pereira.) Cyanide of mercury, 10t
12 grs.; lard, 1 oz. As a dressing for scrºft
lous and syphilitic ulcers, &c.; as an appliº.
tion in psoriasis, moist tetters, and some Othº
skin diseases, &c. Biett orders the additiº
of a few drops of essence of lemon.
Ointment of Cyanide of Potas'sium, S.
UNGUENTUM POTASSII CYANIDI, L. Prºp.
(Cazenave.) Cyanide of potassium, 12 grº
oil of almonds, 2 drs. ; triturate, add of cºld
cream (dry), 2 oz., and mix by careful trituti.
tion. As an anodyne in neuralgia, rheum.
tism, swelled joints, &c.; also as a friction
over the spine in hysteria, and over the epi
gastrium in gastrodynia, &c.
Ointment of Delphin'ine. Syn. UNGUENTUM
DELPHINIE, L. Prep. (Dr. Turnbull.) Dil.
phinine or delphinia, 10 to 30 grs.; olive oil
1 dr. ; lard, 1 oz. ; mix as the last. Used as:
friction in rheumatism, and the other cases in
which veratrine is employed.
Ointment, Depil'atory. Syn. UNGUENT
DEPILATORIUM, L. See DEPILATORY (Caſ:
nave's). -
Ointment, Desic'cative. Syn. DRYING ONſ:
MENT; UNGUENTUM DESICCATIVUM, U, EX:

OINTMENT. 845
SICCANS, L. See the OINTMENTS OF CALA-
MINE, LEAD, ZINC, &c.
Ointment, Deter'gent. Syn. UNGUENTUM
DETERGENs, L. The OINTMENTS OF NITRATE
OF MERCURY, NITRIC OXIDE OF MERCURY, TAR,
VERDIGRIs, &c., when not too strong, come
under this head.
Ointment, Diges'tive. Syn. UNGUENTUM DI-
GESTIVUM, L. Prep. 1. (P. Cod.) Venice
turpentine, 2 oz. ; yolks of 2 eggs; mix, and
add of oil of St. John’s wort, , oz.
2. (DIGESTIF ANIMá–P. Cod.) As the
last, with an equal weight of liquid styrax.
3. (DIGESTIF MERCURIEL–P. Cod.) As
No. 1, with an equal weight of mercurial oint-
ment.
4. (UNG. D. VIRIDE—Dr. Kirkland.) Bees’
wax, gum elemi, and yellow resin, of each, 1 oz. ;
green oil, 6 oz. ; melt them together, and, when
considerably cooled, add of oil of turpentine,
2 drs.
Ointment, Edinburgh. Two compounds are
known under this name:–1. (BROWN.) From
lack basilicon, 6 parts; milk of sulphur, 2
parts; sal ammoniac, 1 part.
2. (WHITE.) From white hellebore, 3 oz.;
sal ammoniac, 2 oz. ; lard, 1 lb. Both are used
in itch.
Ointment of Eggs. Syn. UNGUENTUM
OVORUM, L. Prep. 1. Yolk of 1 egg; honey
and fresh linseed oil, of each, 1 oz. ; balsam of
Peru, ; dr. ; mix well.
2. (Soubeiran.) Bees’ wax, 4 drs. ; oil of
almonds, 13 oz. ; yolk of 1 egg. As an emol-
lient and soothing dressing to excoriations,
irritable ulcers, &c.
Ointment, Egyptian. Prep. (Giordano.)
Burnt alum, 1 part; verdigris, 10 parts; strong
vinegar, 14 parts; purified honey (thick), 32
parts; mix by heat and agitation. As a deter-
gent application to foul ulcers. It is a modifi-
cation of the ‘UNGUENTUM AFGYPTIACUM’ of
old pharmacy.
Ointment of Elder flowers. Syn. WHITE
ELDER-OLNTMENT; UNGUENTUM SAMBUCI FLO-
RUM, U. SAMBUCI (Ph.L.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph.
L.) Elder flowers and lard, of each, 1 lb.; boil
them together until the flowers become crisp,
then strain, with pressure, through a linen
cloth. The same precautions must be observed
as are necessary in the preparation of the medi-
cated oils, by infusion. Emollient; less white
and odorous than the following:—
2. (Wholesale.) Take of lard (hard, white,
and sweet), 25 lbs. ; prepared mutton suet, 5
lbs. ; melt them in a well-tinned copper or
earthen vessel, add of elder-flower water, 3 galls,
agitate briskly for about ; an hour, and set it
aside; the next day gently pour off the water,
re-melt the ointment, and add of benzoic acid,
5 drs. ; otto of roses, 20 drops; oil of bergamot
and oil of rosemary, of each, 1 dr. ; again agi-
tate well, let it settle for 10 minutes, and then
pour off the clear portion into pots for sale.
Very agreeable, and keeps well.
Obs. The last formula is the one now
generally adopted by the large wholesale
houses.
Ointment of Elder leaf. Syn. ELDER OTNT-
MENT, GREEN E. O.; UNGUENTUM WIRIDE, U.
SAMBUCI VIRIDE, U. SAMBUCI (Ph. D. 1826),
L. Prep. 1. (Ph. D. 1826.) Fresh elder
leaves (bruised), 31bs. ; suet, 4 lbs. ; lard, 2 lbs. ;
boil together, as above.
2. (Wholesale.) Good fresh lard, 1 cwt.,
fresh elder leaves, 56 lbs. ; boil till crisp, strain
off the oil, put it over a slow fire, add hard
prepared mutton-suet, 14 lbs., and gently stir
it until it acquires a bright green colour.
Obs. The above ointment is reputed to
be emollient and cooling, and has always been
a great favourite with the common people.
Both elder-flower and elder-leaf ointment are,
however, unnecessary preparations. “They
are vestiges of the redundant practice of
former times.” (A. T. Thomson.) The above
formulae are those now almost exclusively em-
ployed in trade. The ointment should be
allowed to cool very slowly, and after its tem-
perature has fallen a little, and it begins to
thicken, it should not be stirred, in order that
it may “grain’ well, as a granular appearance
is much admired. It is a common practice
to add powdered verdigris to deeper the
colour, but then the ointment does not keep
well. This dangerous fraud may be detected
in the manner noticed under SAVINE CERATE
(page 314).
Ointment of El’emi. Syn. BALSAM of AR-
CEUS+, UNGUENTUM ELEMI (B. P., Ph.L. & D.),
L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Elemi, 3 oz. ; suet, 6
oz. ; melt them together, remove the vessel
from the fire, and stir in of common turpentine,
2% oz. ; olive oil, ; fl. Oz. ; lastly, strain the
whole through a linen cloth.
2. (Ph. D.) Resin of elemi, 4 oz.; ointment
of white wax, 1 lb.; melt them together, strain
through flannel, and stir the mixture constantly
until it concretes.
3. (B. P.) Elemi, 1; simple ointment, 4;
melt and strain.
Uses, &c. Stimulant and digestive. It is
frequently employed to keep open issues and
setons, and as a dressing for old and ill-con-
ditioned sores. The ‘UNG. ELEMI CUM AERU-
GINE’ of St. George’s Hospital is made by
adding 1 dr. of finely powdered verdigris to
ezery 6 oz. of the ointment.
Ointment, Escharot'ic. Syn. UNGUENTUM
ESCHAROTICUM, L. Prep. 1. (Sir B. Brodie.)
Corrosive sublimate, 1 dr, ; nitric oxide of mer-
cury, sulphate of copper, and verdigris, of each,
2 drs. (all in very fine powder); lard, q. s. See
ARSENICAL OINTMENT and CERATE.
Ointment, Eye. Syn. EYE SALVE ; UNGUEN-
TUM OPHTHALMICUM, L. Prep. 1. (Dr. Col-
lier.) Burnt alum, # dr. ; powdered opium,
20 grs.; olive oil, 1 fl. dr. ; spermaceti ointment,
2 drs. In inflammation of the eyelids, purulent
ophthalmia, &c.
2. (W. Cooley.) Chloride of barium, 6 grs. ;
calomel, 10 grs. ; simple ointment, 1 oz. ; otto

846 OINTMENT.
of roses, 1 or 2 drops. In scrofulous oph-
thalmia.
3. (Dessault.) Nitric oxide of mercury,
carbonate of zinc, acetate of lead, and dried
alum, of each, 1 dr. ; corrosive sublimate, 10
grs. ; rose ointment, 1 oz. In chronic oph-
thalmia, profuse discharges, &c.; in general,
diluted.
4. (Dupuytren.) Red oxide of mercury, 10
grs. ; sulphate of zinc, 20 grs. ; lard, 2 oz. For
chronic inflammation of the eyelids, chronic
ulcers, &c.
5. (Fricke.) Nitrate of silver, 10 grs. ; zinc
ointment, 2 drs. ; balsam of Peru, ; dr. In
ulceration of the cornea, and in acute, purulent,
and chronic ophthalmia, &c., employing great
caution in its use.
6. (Guthrie.) Spermaceti ointment, 1 dr.;
solution of diacetate of lead, 15 drops; nitrate
of silver, 2 to 10 grs. As the last, and in cases
wherein a direct caustic action is desired. The
stronger ointment often occasions intense
all l.
7. (Hufeland.) Black oxide of mercury,
2 grs. ; spermaceti cerate and walnut oil, of
each, 1 dr. In chronic affections of the eyes
or eyelids, particularly in those of a syphilitic
character.
8. (Janin.) Ammonio-chloride of mercury,
1 dr. ; tutty and bole, of each, 2 drs. ; lard, 1
oz. In debility of the conjunctiva, in chronic
inflammation with excessive secretion, &c.
9. (Marshall.) See CERATE (Marshall’s).
10. (Parker.) Iodine, 1 gr. ; iodide of po-
tassium, 5 grs. ; simple ointment, 3 drs. In
scrofulous ophthalmia, thickening of the con-
junctiva, opacity of the cornea, &c.
11. (Pellier.) Nitric oxide of mercury and
carbonate of zinc, of each, 1% dr.; tutty, ; dr. ;
red sulphuret of mercury, 20 grs. ; lard, 2 oz. ;
balsam of Peru, 15 drops. In specks in the
eye arising from small ulcers which have healed
up; in excessive defluxions, &c. -
12. (Ratier.) Liquor of diacetate of lead, 3.
dr. ; wine of opium, 1 dr. ; lard, 5 drs. In ex-
coriations, and the variety of chronic ophthalmia
popularly termed ‘blear eye.”
13. (Regent.) Acetate of lead and red pre-
cipitate, of each, 1 dr. ; camphor, 6 grs. ;
washed fresh butter, 2% oz. As the last, and
in chronic ulcerations.
14. (Singleton’s GoLDEN OINTMENT.) Ac-
cording to Dr. Paris, this compound consists of
lard medicated with orpiment (native yellow
sulphuret of arsenic). There appears, however,
to be some mistake in this, as that sold us
under the name had nearly the same composi-
tion as the OINTMENT OF NITRIC OXIDE OF
MERCURY of the Pharmacopæia. It did not
contain even a trace of either arsenic or sul-
phur. The action of this nostrum, and the
reputation which it has acquired, fully justify
this conclusion.
15. (Smellome.) From verdigris (levigated),
º, dr. ; olive oil, 1 fl. dr. ; triturate together,
add of yellow basilicon, 1 oz., and again tri-
turate until it begins to concrete. A popula:
nostrum, sometimes useful in chronic inflam.
mation and ulcerations of the eyelids, &C,
especially in those of a scrofulous character,
16. (Spielmann.) Acetate of lead, 20 gº
spermaceti cerate, 5 drs. ; compound tinctureſ:
benzoin, 40 grs. Cooling; dessicative. Imil,
flamed eyelids, excoriations, &c.
17. (St. Yve.) Fresh butter (washed), 101:
white wax, 1 dr. ; camphor, 15 grs.; melt by:
gentle heat, and, when cooled a little, add ºf
red precipitate (levigated), , dr.; oxide of Zint
20 grs. In chronic inflammation of the coats
of the eye, or of the eyelids, specks on th:
cornea, &c.
18. (Thomson.) Levigated oxide of zinc, 1
dr. ; lard, 9 drs. ; wine of opium, 20 drops, I
chronic ophthalmia depending on want ºf
tone in the vessels and integuments of th:
eye.
19. (Welpeau.) Precipitated sesquioxide ºf
iron (recent, but dry), , dr. ; lard, 5 drs, ; i.
of almonds, 1 fl. dr. ; balsam of Peru, 15 drºps
As the last, especially in “blear eye.”
20. (Ware.) Wine of opium, 1 fl. dr.; simpl;
ointment, 3 drs. In ophthalmia, after their
flammatory symptoms have subsided, and the
vessels remain red and turgid.
Obs. The ingredients entering into tº
composition of all the above ointments mustle
reduced to the state of impalpable powde:
before mixing them; and the incorporatiº ||
should be made by long trituration in a weig
wood-ware mortar, or, preferably, for thºs
that contain substances that are very grity
by levigation on a porphyry slab, with a mult:
The most serious consequences, even blindnes
have resulted from the neglect of these prº
cautions. They should all be employed in tº
ceedingly small quantities at a time, and the
should be very carefully applied by meansi
a camel-hair pencil or a feather; and, in gºlº
ral, not until acute inflammation has subsided
The stronger ones, in most cases, require diº
tion with an equal weight to twice their weigh
of lard or simple ointment, and should only tº
used of their full strength under proper mei
cal advice. Various other formulae for OPM
THALMIC OINTMENTS will be found under the
names of their leading ingredients.
Ointment of Fig'wort. See OINTMENT 0.
SCROPHULARIA. -
Ointment of Fox'glove. Syn. UNGUENT
DIGITALIS, L. Prep. 1. From fresh foxglº
as ointment of hemlock—Ph, L. As an appli.
cation to chronic ulcers, glandular swelling
&c.
2. (Rademacher.) Extract of foxglove,
drs. ; lard, 1 oz. In croup ; spread on lit.
aud applied as a plaster to the throat.
Ointment of Fu'ligokaſli. See FULIGOKAII
Ointment of Galls. Syn. UNGUENT
GALLE (B. P., Ph. D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph.D.)
Gall-nuts (in very fine powder), 1 dr.; oilº
ment of white wax, 7 drs. ; rub them togethe
until a uniform mixture is obtained.


OINTMENT. 847
2. (B.P.) Galls, in very fine powder, 80 grs. ;
benzoatedlard, 1 oz. ; mix. An excellent appli-
cation to piles, either alone or mixed with
an equal quantity of zinc ointment; also highly
useful in ring-worm of the scalp.
Ointment of Galls and Opium. UNGUEN-
TUM GALLE CUM OPIO (B. P.); UNGUEN-
TUM GALLE OPIATUM, U. GALLE COMPOSITUM
—Ph.L., U. GALLE ET OPII,-(Ph. E.)—Prep.
1. (Ph. L.) Gall-nuts (very finely powdered),
6 drs. ; powdered opium, 1% dr.; lard, 6 oz. ;
rub them together.
2. (Ph. E.) Galls, 2 drs. ; opium, 1 dr. ;
lard, 1 oz. ; as the last.
3. (B. P.) Ointment of galls, 1 oz. ; opium
(in powder), 32 grs. ; mix.
Uses, &c. A most valuable astringent and
anodyne in blind piles, slight cases of pro-
lapsus ani, &c. Some practitioners add 1 dr.
of camphor. The ointment of the Ph. E. is
much the strongest.
OINTMENT OF GALLS WITH MORPHIA. UN-
GUENTUM GALLE ET MORPHIAE—Dr. Paris.)
Morphia, 2 grs. ; olive oil (hot), 2 fl. drs. ;
triturate, add of zinc ointment (Ph. L.), 1 oz. ;
powdered galls, 1 dr. ; and mix thoroughly.
In piles. The quantity of galls should be
doubled.
Ointment of Garlic. Syn. UNGUENTUM
ALLII, L. Prep. 1. Fresh garlic (bruised), 2
parts; lard, 3 parts; simmer together for 3
an hour, and then strain with expression.
Rubbed on the abdomen in chronic diarrhoea
and colic, and over the chest and spine in
hooping-cough.
2. (Beasley.) Fresh garlic and lard, equal
parts ; beaten together. Applied to the feet
in hooping-cough.
Ointment, Giacomini’s.
OINTMENT,
Ointment of Gold. Syn. UNGUENTUM AURI,
L.; POMMADE D’OR, Fr. Prep. 1. (Legrand.)
Gold (in powder), 12 grs. ; lard, 1 oz. As a
dressing for syphilitic ulcers, and as a friction
in glandular indurations, &c.; also endermi-
cally.
2. (Magendie.) Amalgam of gold, 1 dr.;
lard, 1 oz. For endermic use, chiefly. When
the surface becomes dry, the ointment of ter-
chloride of gold is to be substituted as a dress-
ing. In rheumatic pains, neuralgia, &c.
See CHILBLAIN
Ointment, Gold'em. See EYE OINTMENT,
CITRINE O., &c.
Ointment, Gondret's. See AMMONIACAL
OINTMENT.
Ointment, Goulard's. Syn. UNGUENTUM
GOULARDI, U. LITHARGYRIACETATIs, L. Prep.
(Ph. Chirur.) Goulard’s extract, 1 dr.; simple
ointment, 2 oz. See CERATE (Lead).
Ointment Green. See ELDER OINTMENT.
Ointment of Helſlebore. Syn. OINTMENT OF
WHITE HELLEBORE ; UNGUENTUM, WERATRI,
L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L. 1836.) White hellebore
(in very fine powder), 2 oz. ; lard, 8 oz. ; oil
of lemons, 20 drops. In itch, lepra, ring-worm,
&c.; and to destroy insects in the hair of
children. It should be used with caution,
and, preferably, diluted with an equal weight
of lard.
2. (Compound; UNGUENTUM VERATRI com-
POSITUM.)—a. (Rayer.) White hellebore, 1
oz. ; sal ammoniac, ; oz. ; lard, 8 oz. Used as
the last.
b. See SULPHUR OINTMENT (Compound)—
Ph. L.
Ointment of Hem'lock. Syn. UNGUENTUM
CONII (Ph. L.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Fresh
hemlock leaves and lard, of each, 1 lb. ; boil
them together (very gently) until the leaves
become crisp, then strain through linen, with
pressure. See OILS (Medicated.)
2. Extract of hemlock, 1 dr. ; lard, 9 drs. ;
triturate together.
Uses, &c. As a local anodyne in neuralgic
and rheumatic pains, glandular enlargements,
painful piles, &c.; and as a dressing to painful
and irritable ulcers, cancerous sores, &c.
Ointment of Hen’bane. Syn. UNGUENTUM
HYoscy AMI, L. Prep. 1. Fresh Henbane
leaves, 1 lb. ; lard, 2 lbs. ; boil until nearly
Cl’ISO.
2. (Taddei) Extract of henbane, 1 dr. ;
lard, 1 oz. Anodyne ; in painful piles, sores,
&c., as the last.
Ointment, Holloway’s.
CINES.
Ointment of Hops. Syn. UNGUENTUM LU-
PULI, L. Prep. (Swediaur.) Hops (com-
mercial), 2 oz. ; lard, 10 oz. ; as extract of
hemlock, Ph. L. In painful piles and can-
Cel'OllS SOreS.
Ointment of Hydri'odate of Ammo"nia.
Syn. UNGUENTUM AMMONIAE HYDRIODATIS, L.
Prep. From hydriodate of ammonia (iodide of
ammonium), , dr. ; simple ointment, 1 oz.
Used chiefly as an applicatien to scrofulous
tumour and ulcers, in irritable subjects.
Ointment of Hydrochlo"ric Acid. Syn. UN-
GUENTUM ACIDI HYDROCHLORICI, L. Prep.
(Dr. Corrigan.) Hydrochloric acid, 1 dr. ;
simple ointment, 1 oz. As a dressing for scald-
head, after the scabs have been removed by
emollient liniments or poultices.
Ointment of Hypochlo"rite of Lime. Syn.
OINTMENT OF CHLORIDE OF LIME ; UNGUEN-
TUM CALCIS HYPoCHLORITIS, U. C. CHLORI-
NATAF, L. Prep. 1. From chlorinated lime
(chloride of lime), 1 dr. ; lard, 1 oz. ; carefully
triturated together. In scrofulous swellings,
goitre, chilblains, indolent glandular tumours,
&c.
2. Chlorinated lime, 1 dr. ; powdered fox-
glove, 2 drs. ; simple ointment, 2 oz. As an
application to fetid and malignant ulcers, &c.
Ointment of Hypochlo"rite of Sulphur.
Syn. UNGUENTUM SULPHURIS HYPoCHIORITIS,

See PATENT MEDI-

L. Prep. (Dr. Copland.) “Hypochlorite of
sulphur, 1 dr. ; simple ointment, 1 oz. It is
generally scented with oil of almonds. Used
in psoriasis inveterata, and some other skin
diseases.
Ointment of I'odide of Ar'semic, Syn, UN-
848
OINTMENT.
GUENTUM ARSENICI TODIDI, L. Prep. (Biett.)
Iodide of arsenic, 2 to 3 grs. ; lard, 1 oz. ;
carefully triturated together. In lepra, psoriasis,
&c.; and in corroding tubercular diseases. It
should be used with caution, and not more
than ; dr. applied at once.
Ointment of Iodide of Ba'rium. Syn. UN-
GUENTUM BARII IODIDE, L. Prep. (Magen-
die.) Iodide of barium, 3 to 4 grs. ; lard, 1 oz.
As a friction to scrofulous swellings and indura-
tions. The usual proportions are now 5 gr. to
the oz.
Ointment of Iodide of Lead. Syn. UN-
GUENTUM PLUMBI IODIDI (B. P., Ph. L. & D.),
L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Iodide of lead, 1 oz. ;
lard, 8 oz. ; rub them together.
2. (Ph.D.) Iodide of lead (in fine powder),
1 dr.; ointment of white wax, 7 drs.
3. (B.P.) Iodide of lead, in fine powder, 62
grs. ; simple ointment, 1 oz. ; mix. An excellent
application to scrofulous tumours and swelled
glands, especially when accompanied with
palm.
Ointment of Green Iodide of Mer'cury. Prep.
1. (OINTMENT OF SUBIODIDE OF MERCURY,
O. OF PROTIODIDE OF M.* ; UNGUENTUM
HYDRARGYRI IODIDI–Ph. L.) - a. (Ph. L.
White wax, 2 oz. ; lard, 6 oz. ; melt them
together, add of iodide (green iodide) of mer- |.
cury, 1 oz., and rub them well together.
2. (Magendie.) Green iodide of mercury,
23 grs.; lard, 1% oz.
Uses, &c. In tubercular skin diseases, as
a friction in scrofulous swellings and indolent
granular tumours, and as a dressing for ill-
conditioned ulcers, especially those of a scrofu-
lous character.
Ointment of Red Iodide of Mercury. UN-
GUENTUM HYDRARGYRI IOIDIDI RUBRI, B. P.,
O. OF BINIODIDE OF M.*; UNGUENTUM HY-
DRARGYRI BINIODIDI,” U. H. (ODIDI RUBRI–
Ph. D.)–1. (Ph. D.) Red iodide of mercury,
1 dr. ; ointment of white wax, 7 drs. ; mix by
careful trituration.
2. (Soubeiran.) Red iodide of mercury, 20
grs. ; lard, 1% oz.
3. (B.P.) Red iodide of mercury (in very fine
powder), 16 grs. ; simple ointment, 1 oz. ; mix.
Uses, &c. Similar to those of the preceding,
but it is much more stimulant, and is regarded
as better adapted for obstinate syphilitic sores,
Largely diluted with lard or almond oil, it is
applied to the eyes in like cases.
Ointment of Iodide of Potas'sium. Syn. UN-
GUENTUM POTASSII IODIDI (B. P., Ph. L. & D.).
L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Iodide of potassium,
2 drs, dissolved in boiling distilled water, 2 fl.
drs. ; lard (softened by heat), 2 oz. ; triturate
together until united.
2. (Ph.D.) Iodide of potassium, 1 dr.; dis-
tilled water, , fl. dr. ; ointment of white wax,
7 drs. ; as before.
3. (Magendie.) Iodide of potassium, 1 dr. ;
lard, 12 drs.
4. (Le Gros.) Iodide, § dr.; lard, 1 oz.
5. (B. P.) Iodide of potassium, 64 grs. ;
carbonate of potash, 4 grs. ; distilled watº,
dr. ; prepared lard, 1 oz. ; dissolve the carboni.
and the iodide in the water, and mix thy
roughly with the lard.
Uses, &c. As a friction in scrofula, bº
chocele, glandular enlargements, indurations
&c.; as a dressing to scrofulous ulcers, as a
application in scrofulous ophthalmia, and in
most of the other applications in which tº
employment of iodine is indicated. The lis
formula has been successfully employed by M.
Le Gros in itch.
Obs. The strength of this ointment, is
prescribed by different parties, varies greatly
the proportions of the iodide ranging frºm
# to of the whole, to adapt it to particult
cases. When other ingredients are added,th
iodide must be used in a perfectly dry state
and in fine powder, instead of being dissolº
in water. This is particularly necessary whº
it is to be mixed with mercurial ointment,
Ointment of Iodide of Sulphur. Syn, UK.
GUENTUM SULPHURIs IODIDI (B. P., Ph. I.
L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Iodide of sulphur (i.
fine powder, 3 dr. ; lard, 1 oz. ; mix by trit.
ration.
2. (Cazenave.) Iodide of sulphur, 12 t01.
grs. ; lard, 1 oz.
3. (B.P.) Iodide of sulphur, 1; lard, 16; miſ
Uses, &c. As a local stimulant and alteº
tive, in the chronic forms of lepra, lupus, pº
rigo, psoriasis, itch, &c.; also a remedy ſº
acne punctata. A few drops of oil of cloves"
nutmeg are commonly added.
Ointment of Iodide of Zinc. Syn. UNGUIN.
TUM ZINCI IODIDI, L. Prep. 1. From iodi.
of zinc, 12 grs. ; simple ointment, 1 07, I
scrofulous excoriations, and in the chronico).
thalmia of scrofulous subjects, arising from
relaxed state of the tissues and vessels.
2. (Dr. Ure.) Iodide of zinc, 1 dr.; lard, 1
oz. As a friction to glandular tumours andi.
durations, and as a dressing to flabby and Ohří.
nate scrofulous ulcers.
Ointment of Iodine. Syn. UNGUENT
IODI (B. P.), UNGUENTUM IoDINII (Ph. U.S.)
Prep. 1.-(B. P.) Iodine, 32 grs. ; iodide ºf
potassium, 32 grs. ; proof spirit, 1 dr.; Tul
together and add prepared lard, 2 07, St.
OINTMENT OF IODINE (Compound).
2. (Ph. U. S.) Iodine, 20 grs.; rectifiti
spirit, 20 drops; rub them together, then all
of lard, 1 oz.
Ointment of Iodine (Compound). Sº
OINTMENT OF IODURETTED IODIDE OF POTA;
SIUM ; UNGUENTUM POTASSI IODIDI IODUR}
TUM, U. IODINII COMPOSITUM- Ph. L., & D,
U. IODINII—Ph. E.-a. (Ph. L.) Iodine ºf
potassium (in very fine powder), 1 dr.; lard,
oz. ; mix, then add of iodine, dr., dissolved
in rectified spirit, 1 fl. dr., and mix all together
See OINTMENT OF IoDINE (B. P.)
b. (Ph. E.) Iodine, 1 dr.; iodide of potº
sium, 2 drs. ; rub them together, then gradu.
ally add of lard, 4 oz.
c. (Ph. D.) Pure iodine, dr.; iodide ºf

OINTMENT. 849.
potassium, 1 dr. ; rub them well together in a
glass or porcelain mortar, then gradually add
of ointment of white wax, 14% drs., and con-
tinue the trituration until a uniform ointment
is obtained.
Uses, &c. The compound ointment is an ex-
cellent friction in goitre, and in enlarged or
indurated glands or tumours, more especially
those of a scrofulous character ; in the quan-
tity of 3 to 1 dr., night and morning. It may
be advantageously combined with extract of
belladonna in the incipient bubo of scrofulous
subjects, and in the early stages of cancer ;
and, with an equal weight of mercurial oint-
ment, as a friction in cases of enlarged liver
and spleen, and ovarian dropsy. The simple
ointment of the Ph. U. S. is generally regarded
as weaker and less efficacious than the com-
pound.
Ointment of Iodo-chlo"ride of Mercury. Syn.
UNGUENTUM HYDRARGYRITODo-BICHLORIDI*,
L. Prep. From iodo-chloride of mercury,
16 grs. ; simple ointment, 1 oz. Discutient;
probably one of the most powerful known in
syphilitic cases complicated with scrofula.
See OINTMENT OF CHLORIODIDE OF MER-
CURY.
Ointment of Iodo-hydrar'gyrate of Potassa.
Syn. UNGUENTUM POTASSAE IODo-HYDRARGY-
RATIS, L. Prep. 1. (Lamothe.) Iodo-hydrar-
gyrate of potassa, 20 grs.; lard, 1 oz.
2. (Puche.) Red iodide of mercury and
iodide of potassium, of each, 8 grs. ; lard,
1 oz. As a powerful stimulant discutient; in
tumours, inflammatory sore throat, &c.
Ointment, Iodo-narcotic. Syn. UNGUENTUM
IODo-NARCOTICUM, L. Prep. (Purvis.) Io-
dine, 20 grs. ; iodide of potassium, 2 drs.; oil
of tobacco (by infusion), 1% dr.; lard, 3 drs.
To relax rigid muscles.
Ointment of Ipecacuanſha. Syn. UNGUEN-
TUM IPECACUANHAE, L. Prep. (Dr. Turnbull.)
Ipecacuanha (in fine powder), 2 drs. ; olive oil,
2 fl. drs. ; lard or simple ointment, 4 drs.
Counter-irritant; when frequently employed
as a friction, it occasions an eruption, but one
of a milder character than that from either
croton oil or tartar emetic.
Ointment, Issue. Syn. UNGUENTUM AD-
FONTICULOs, L. Prep. (Golding Bird.) Oint-
ment of cantharides (Ph. L.), 1% oz.; tartar
emetic (in impalpable powder), 8 grs. ; sperma-
cetiointment, 2 oz. As a stimulating applica-
tion to issues, to promote the discharge. See
ELEMI OINTMENT, CERATE, PLASTER, &c.
Ointment, Itch. Syn. UNGUENTUM ANTI-
PSORICUM, L. Several excellent formulae for
itch ointments will be found under the names
of their leading ingredients. The following
are additional ones, including some nos-
trums:—
1. (Bailey.) From alum, nitre, and sulphate
of zinc, of each, in very fine powder, 14 oz. ;
vermilion, 3 oz. ; mix, add gradually of sweet
oil, ; pint ; triturate together until perfectly
mixed, then further add of lard (softened by
heat), 1 lb., with oils of aniseed, lavender, and
origanum, q. S. to perfume.
2. (Bateman.) Carbonate of potassa, ; oz.;
rose water, 1 fl. oz.; red sulphuret of mer-
cury, 1 dr.; oil of bergamot, , fl. dr.; sub-
limed sulphur and hog's lard, of each, 11 oz.;
mix them. (Bateman, “Cutan. Diseases.”)
The nostrum vended under the name is made
as follows:—Carbonate of potash, 1 oz. ;
vermilion, 3 drs. ; sulphur, 1 lb.; lard, 1}
lb.; rose water, 3 fl. oz. ; oil of bergamot,
1} dr.
3. (French Hosp.) Chloride of lime, 1 dr. ;
rectified spirit, 2 fl. drs. ; sweet oil, ; fl. oz. ;
common salt and sulphur, of each, 1 oz. ; soft
soap, 2 oz.; oil of lemon, 20 drops. Cheap,
effectual, and inoffensive.
4. (De La Harpe.) Sulphur, 2 oz. ; pow-
dered white hellebore, 3 oz.; sulphate of zinc,
# do.; soft soap, 4 oz. ; lard, 8 oz.
5. (Jackson.) From palm oil, flowers of sul-
phur, and white hellebore, of each, 1 part;
lard, 2 parts.
6. (Nugent.) From white lead, 2 oz. ; orris
root, 1 oz.; corrosive sublimate, in very fine
powder, 3 oz. ; palm oil, 4 oz. ; lard, 1} lb.
7. (Ph. E. 1744.) Elecampane root and
sharp-pointed dock (Rumex acutus—Linn.), of
each, bruised, 3 oz. ; water, 1 quart; vinegar,
# pint ; boil to one half, add of water-cress,
10 oz. ; lard, 4 lbs. ; boil to dryness, and strain
with expression; to the strained liquid add of
bees’ wax and oil of bays, of each, 4 oz. ; and
stir the mixture until nearly cold.
8. (UNG. A. COMP.-Ph. E. 1744.) To
each lb. of the last, add of strong mercurial
ointment, 2 oz.
9. (Robertson.) Soft soap, 1 oz. ; rum, 1
table-spoonful; chloride of lime (dry and
good), 4 oz. ; mix, and add of lard, 2 oz.
10. (Swediaur.) Stavesacre (in powder),
1 oz. ; lard, 3 oz. ; digest with heat for 3
hours, and then strain. The formula of the
Ph. Bruns. is nearly similar. Very useful in
itch; also to destroy pediculi.
11. (Thomson.) Chloride of lime and com-
mon salt, of each, in fine powder, 1 dr.; soft
soap, 1 oz. ; rectified spirit, 2 fl. drs. ; mix, add
of lard, 1 oz. ; and, lastly, of strong vinegar,
3 fl. drs. Very cleanly and effective; but
should not be made in quantity, as it does not
keep well,
12. (Voght.) Chloride of lime (dry), 2 drs.;
burnt alum, 3 drs. ; lard, 9 drs. To be mixed
with an equal quantity of soft soap at the time
of fusing it.
Obs. The products of the preceding formulae
are used by well rubbing them into the part
affected, night and morning, as long as neces-
sary, the number of applications required
depending greatly on the manner in which this
is done.
Ointment of I'vy. Syn. UNGUENTUM HE-
DERAE, L. Prep. From the leaves of common
ivy, by infusion, as ointment of henbane.
Used as an application to soft corns, in itch,

4.
850
OINTMENT.
and as a dressing to indolent ulcers and
issues.
Ointment of Ju’miper-tar. Syn. UNGUEN-
TUM OLEI PYROLIGNI JUNIPERI, U. CADINUM,
L. Prep. (Eras. Wilson.) Lard and suet, of
each, 6 parts; bees’ wax, 4 parts; liquefy by
heat, and add of pyroligneous oil of juniper
(‘huile de cade’) 16 parts; with a few drops of
any fragrant essential oil, to conceal the smell.
In ring-worm, and as a stimulant ointment in
some other skin diseases.
Ointment, Kirkland’s. See LEAD OINTMENT
(Compound).
Ointment of Lard. Syn. UNGUENTUM ADI-
PIs, L. Prep. (Ph. L. 1788.) Prepared lard,
2 lbs. ; melt, add of rose water, 3 fl. oz. ; beat
the two welltogether, then set the vessel aside,
and when the whole is cold, separate the con-
gealed fat. A simple emollient. See ELDER
OINTMENT.
Ointment of Laurel. Syn. LAURINE OINT-
MENT; UNGUENTUM LAURINUM, U. LAURI No-
BILIS, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. Lusit.) Suet (soft-
ened by heat), 8 oz. ; laurel oil (expressed oil
of bay), 1 lb.; oil of turpentine, 1% oz. This
is the “nervine balsam' and “nervine oint-
ment’ of the shops in the Peninsula, and
in some other parts of Southern Europe. The
Ph. Bat. 1805 added 3 oz. of rectified oil of
amber.
2. (P. Cod.) Fresh bay leaves and berries
(bruised), of each, 1 lb.; lard, 2 lbs. ; as hem-
lock ointment—Ph. L. Highly esteemed on
the Continent as a stimulating friction, in
bruises, strains, stiff joints, &c.; and in deaf-
IleSS.
3. (Trade.) From fresh bay leaves, 2 lbs. ;
bay berries, 1 lb.; neat's-foot oil, 5 pints; boil
as last ; to the strained oil add, of lard suet,
3 lbs., true oil of bay, 3 lb., and allow it to
cool very slowly, in order that it may “grain’
well. Sold for laurel ointment and common
oil of bay.
Ointment of Lead. Prep. 1. (UNGUENTUM
PLUMBI, U. LITHARGYRI—P. Cod.) Prep. 1.
Litharge, 3 oz. ; distilled vinegar, 4 oz. ; olive
oil, 9 oz. ; mix with heat, and stir until they
combine. Camphor, morphia, and opium, are
common additions to lead ointment, when an
anodyne effect is desirable. -
2. (Compound; NEUTRAI, OINTMENT, HIG-
GIN’s O., KIRKLAND’S O.; UNGUENTUM NEU-
TRALE, U. PLUMBI COMPOSITUM — Ph. L.)
Tlead plaster, 2 lbs. ; olive oil, 18 fl. Oz. ; mix
by a gentle heat. and add of prepared chalk,
6 oz. ; lastly, add of dilute acetic acid, 6 fl.oz.,
and stir well until the mass has cooled. As a
dressing in indolent ulcers, “but its utility is
doubtful.” (Dr. Garrod.)
Obs. It will be observed that the College
has already modified the old formula of this
ointment. The vinegar is now the last ingre-
dient added to the mass. “Gradually add the
chalk, separately mixed with the vinegar, the
effervescence being finished, and stir,” &c.
(Ph. L. 1836.) See ACETATE OF LEAD, CAR-
BONATE OF L. CHLORIDE OF L., IODIDE OFI;
EYE, GouTARD’s, LE MORT's, and other OINT,
MENTS containing lead.
Ointment, Le Mort's. Carbonate of lead
corrosive sublimate, litharge, and Venicetuſ.
pentine, of each, 1 oz. ; alum, # 07, ; latl
# lb. ; vermilion, q. S. to colour.
Ointment of Lupuline. Syn. UNGUENT
IUPULINE, L. Prep. (Soubeiran.) Lupuling
1 part; lard, 3 parts; digest by the heat of
water bath for 5 or 6 hours, and strain. As
an anodyne dressing to cancerous ulcers, and
as a friction to swollen and painful joints.
Ointment of Lycopo’dium. Syn. UNGUIN.
TUMILYCOPODII, L. Prep. Lycopodium, 1d;
balsam of Peru, ; dr. ; simple ointment, 10.
In chaps and excoriations.
Ointment of Mace. Syn. UNGUENTUM Mk
CIDIS, L. Prep. From mace (beaten to a past)
and palm oil, of each, 1 lb.; purified bef
marrow, 3 lbs. ; gently melted together, and
strained.
used as a pommade for the hair.
‘common oil of mace.”
Sold fºr
Ointment of Marsh-mallow. Syn. UNGUIN
TUM ALTHEAE, DIALTHEAE, L. Prep. 1. (Ph.
L. 1746.) Oil of mucilages, 2 lbs.; bees' waſ
# lb.; yellow resin, 3 oz. ; melt them togeth'ſ
then add of Venice turpentine, 3 oz., and stil
the mixture until it concretes. -
2. (Wholesale.) From palm oil, 3 lb.: yò.
low resin, 13 lb.; bees' wax, 24 lbs.; palei
seed oil, 9 lbs. (say I gall.); melt together, all
stir until it is nearly cold.
Uses, &c. Emollient and stimulant; seldom
used in regular practice, but in great reput
amongst the common people. Linseed oil;
now almost universally substituted for the
of mucilages.
Ointment of Master-wort. Syn. POMMAN
ANTI-CANCáREUSE DE MILIUS; UNGUENT
IMPERITORIAE, L. Prep. (Beasley.) Pº
dered master-wort (Imperatoria Osiriiliº
13 oz.; tincture of master-wort, 1 0%; lº
2 oz.
Ointment, Mercu'rial. Prep. 1. (STROY
MERCURIAL OINTMENT, BLUE O., NEAPOLITA
o.; UNGUENTUM HYDRARGYRI—B. P., Ph.
E. & D., U. H. ForTrus, U. CERUIET)
Prep. 1. (B. P.) Mercury, 16; prepared lar
16; prepared suet, 1 ; rub together until me
tallic globules cease to be visible. (See als
MERCURIAL OINTMENT (Compound).
2. (Ph. L. & E.) Mercury, 1 lb.; lar
11% oz. ; suet, 3 oz. ; rub the mercury with tº
suet and a little of the lard, until globules aſ:
no longer visible; then add the remaininglan
and triturate all together.
3. (Ph. D.) Pure mercury and lard,
each, 1 lb.; as before.
Pur., &c. The ‘stronger mercurial ºil.
ment’ of the shops is usually made with :
less quantity of mercury than that order:
by the Colleges, and the colour is broughtſ
with finely ground blue black or wood that
coal. This fraud may be detected by its inſt.
Emollient and stimulant; chiefly



OINTMENT.
$51
rior sp. gr., and by a portion being left undis-
solved when a little of the ointment is treated,
first with ether or oil of turpentine, to remove
the fat, and then with dilute nitric acid, to
remove the mercury. When made according
to the instructions of the Ph., its sp. gr. is
not less than 1:781 at 60° Fahr. It “is not
well prepared so long as metallic globules may
be seen in it with a magnifier of 4 powers.”
(Ph. E.) When rubbed on a piece of bright
copper or gold, it should immediately give it a
coating of metallic mercury, and a silvery
appearance.
The Ung. hyd. fort. of the wholesale
houses is generally made of mercury, 12 lbs.,
suet, 1% lb., and lard, 16% lbs. It thus con-
tains only $ instead of , its weight of mer-
cury. That of the same houses labelled ‘ Ung.
hyd. partes aquales,’ is prepared with mercury,
12 lbs. ; suet, 1% lb.; lard, 13% lbs.
Uses. This ointment is chiefly used to intro-
duce mercury into the system when the sto-
mach is too irritable to bear it; in syphilis,
hepatic affections, hydrocephalus, &c. For
this purpose, 3 to 1 dr. is commonly rubbed
into the inside of one of the thighs until every
particle of the ointment disappears. This ope-
ration is repeated night and morning, until
the desired effect is produced, and should be,
if possible, performed by the patient himself.
During its administration the patient should
avoid exposure to cold, and the use of fer-
mented or acidulous liquors, and his diet should
consist chiefly of toast, broth, gruel, milk-and-
water, and other inoffensive matters. This
ointment has been employed to prevent the
‘pitting’ in smallpox; and, diluted with 3 or
4 times its weight of lard, in several skin dis-
eases, as a dressing for ulcers, to destroy pedi-
culi, &c. Camphor is often added to this oint-
ment, to increase its activity. With the
addition of a little extract of belladonna, or
hydrochlorate of ammonia, it forms an excel-
lent anodyne and resolvent friction in painful
syphilitic tumours and glandular enlargements.
Obs. The preparation of mercurial ointment
according to the common plan is a process of
much labour and difficulty, and usually occu-
pies several days. The instructions in the
Pharmacopoeias are very meagre and unsatis-
factory, and, so far as details go, are seldom
precisely carried out. Employers grumble,
and operatives become impatient, when they
find the most assiduous trituration apparently
fails to hasten the extinction of the globules.
To facilitate matters, various tricks are re-
sorted to, and various contraband additions
are often clandestinely made. Among the ar-
ticles referred to, sulphur and turpentine are
those which have been longest known, and,
perhaps, most frequently employed for the
purpose; but the first spoils the colour, and
the other the consistence, of the ointment;
whilst both impart to it more or less of their
peculiar and respective odours. On the Con-
tinent, oil of eggs was formerly very generally
used for the purpose, and is even now occa-
sionally so employed. Nearly half a century ago
Mr. W. Cooley clearly showed that the difficulty
might be satisfactorily overcome by simply
triturating the quicksilver with # to # of its
weight of old mercurial ointment, before adding
the lard; and that the effective power of this
substance was in direct proportion to its age,
or the length of time it had been exposed to
the air. His plan was to employ the ‘bot-
tom’ and ‘scrapings’ of the store pots for the
purpose. At a later period (1814-5), Mr. Hig-
ginbottom, of Northampton, repeated this re-
commendation, and at length the plan has
been imported into the Pharmacopoeia Borus-
sica. About twenty years since, “we re-
opened an investigation of the subject, which
extended over several months, during which
we satisfied ourselves of the accuracy of the
assertion of M. Roux, that the mercury in
mercurial ointment exists entirely, or nearly
so, in the metallic state, and not in the form
of oxide, as was generally assumed. We suc-
ceeded in preparing an excellent sample of
mercurial ointment by agitating washed suet
and quicksilver together in vacuo. The quan-
tity of oxide present at any time in this oint-
ment is variable and accidental, and is largest
in that which has been long prepared; but in
no case is it sufficient to materially discolour
the fat after the metallic mercury is separated
from it. We were led to conclude that the
property alluded to, possessed by old ointment,
depends solely on the peculiar degree of con-
sistence or viscidity of the fat present in it,
and on the loss of much of the thoroughly
greasy, “anti-attritive’ character, possessed by
the latter in a recent state. In practically
working out this idea, we obtained pure ſats
(MAGNETIC ADEPs; SEVUM PRAEPARATUM),
which, without any addition, were capable of
reducing, in a few minutes, 8, 16, 32, and even
48 times their weight of mercury. We also
found that the formula of the Pharmacopoeia
might be adopted, and that a perfect ointment
might be readily obtained by skilful manage-
ment in from an hour to an hour, even with-
out these resources. All that was necessary
was to employ a very gentle degree of heat, by
either performing the operation in a warm
apartment or by allowing the mortar to re-
main filled with warm water for a short time
before using it. Suet or lard, reduced either
by gentle warmth or by the addition of a little
almond oil to the consistence of a thick cream,
so that it will hang to the pestle without run-
ning from it, will readily extinguish 7 or 8
times its weight of running mercury by simple
trituration. The exact temperature must,
however, be hit upon, or the operation fails.
This fact was afterwards noticed in the ‘Ann.
de Chim,” and some other journals.” (A. J.
Cooley.)
M. Pomonti has proposed a method of pre-
paring strong mercurial ointment, which, modi-
fied to suit the English operator, is as fol-





852 , OINTMENT.
lows:—Fresh lard, 8 parts; solution of nitre
(see below), 1 part; mix by trituration, add
of mercury, 32 parts, and again triturate. The
globules disappear after a few turns of the
pestle, but reappear in a few minutes, and then
again disappear to return no more. When
this happens, the trituration is to be continued
for a few minutes longer, when lard, 24 parts,
is to be rubbed in, and the ointment at once
put into pots. It is said that the globules are
so completely extinguished as to escape detec-
tion, even when the ointment is examined by
a microscope of low power. The SOLUTION.—
Nitre, 100 grs. ; water, 1 fl. oz. ; dissolve. This
quantity is sufficient for a kilogramme of
mercury. See OINTMENT OF OXIDE OF MER-
CURY.
Ointment, Mercurial (Milder), MILDER BLUE
OTNTMENT, TROOPER’s O., UNCTION ; UNGUEN-
TUM HYDRARGYRI MITIUS, U. CAERULEUM
MITIUS. Prep. 1. Stronger mercurial ointment,
11b. ; lard, 2 lbs.
Oses, &c. In the itch and several other cu-
taneous diseases, as a dressing to syphilitic
ulcers, to destroy pediculi on the body, &c.
Each drachm contains 10 grs. of mercury. That
of the shops generally contains considerably
less.
2. (With SOAP : UNGUENTUM HYDRARGYRI
SAPONACEUM ; SAVON MERCURIEL).-a. (Dra-
per.) Mercurial ointment (softened by a gentle
heat), 1 oz. ; hydrate of potassa, 1 dr., dissolved
in water, 3 fl. Oz. ; triturate them together until
the mass solidifies.
6. (Swediaur.) Milder mercurial ointment, 8
parts; soft soap, 2 parts; camphor, 1 part. In
periostitis, engorgements of the testicles, soft
corns, &c. See OINTMENT OF NITRATE OF MER-
CURY, &c.
Ointment, Mercurial (Compound), B. P. Mer-
curial ointment, 6; yellow wax, 3; olive oil,
3; camphor, 1}. Melt the wax and oil, and
when the mixture is nearly cold, add the cam-
phor in powder and the mercurial ointment,
and mix.
Ointment of Meze'reon. Syn. UNGUENTUM
MERZEREI, L. Prep. 1. (Hamb. Cod.) Alco-
holic extract of mezereon, 2 drs. ; dissolve in
rectified spirit, q. S.; add it to white wax, 1 oz.,
lard, 8 oz., and mix by a gentle heat.
2. (P. Cod.) Mezereon (dried root-bark),
4 oz. ; moisten it with rectified spirit, bruise it
well, and digest it for 12 hours, at the heat of
boiling water, in lard, 14% oz.; then strain
with pressure, and allow it to cool slowly;
lastly, separate it from the dregs, remelt it,
and add of white wax, 1% oz. Used as a stimu-
lating application to blistered surfaces and in-
dolent ulcers. -
Ointment of Mustard. Syn. UNGUENTUM
SINAPIS. L. Prep. 1. Flour of mustard, ; oz. ;
water, 1 fl. Oz. ; mix, and add, of resin cerate,
2 oz. ; oil of turpentine, 3 oz. Rubefacient
and stimulant. As a friction in rheumatism.
&c.
2. (Frank.) Flour of mustard, 3 oz. ; oil of
almonds, # fl. Oz. ; lemon juice, q, S. In sul
burn, freckles, &c.
Ointment of Naphthalin. Syn. UNGUIN
TUM NAPHTHALINE, L. Prep. (Emery.) Naph
thalin, ; dr. ; lard, 7% drs. In dry teſters
lepra, psoriasis, &c.
Ointment, Neapolitan. See MERCURIM
OINTMENT. -
Ointment, Nervine. Syn. BALSAMUM NET:
VINUM, UNGUENTUM. N., L.; BAUME NERVAI,
Fr. Prep. (P. Cod.) Expressed oil of macean
ox-marrow, of each, 4 oz. ; melt by a gent:
heat, and add, of oil of rosemary, 2 drš, ; oilſ:
cloves, 1 dr. ; camphor, 1 dr. ; balsam of tºll
2 drs. ; (the last two dissolved in) rectified
spirit, 4 drs. In rheumatism, &c. A somewhat
similar preparation was included in the Ph, P.
1744.
Ointment, Neuſtral. See 'CoMPOUND LEA)
OINTMENT.
Ointment of Niſtrate of Mercury. Syn, CF
TRINE OINTMENT, YELLOW o., MERCURIſ
BALSAMI; UNGUENTUM HYDRARGYRI NITRATE
(B. P., Ph. L. & D.), U. H. N., or U. CITRINT
(Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Mercury, 2014
nitric acid (sp. gr. 1:42), 4 fl. oz.; dissºlº
and mix the solution, whilst still hot, withlan
1 lb., and olive oil, 8 fl. Oz., melted togeth'ſ
(For the MILDER OINTMENT, see below.)
2. (Ph. E.) Mercury, 4 oz. ; nitric acid ()
gr. 1:500), 8 fl. oz. 6 fl. drs. ; dissolve by agent.
heat, add the liquid to lard, 15 oz. ; Olive i
32 fl.oz. ; melted together, and whilst the wh).
are still hot, and mix them thoroughly. “Iftik
mixture does not froth up, increase the heat
little until this takes place. Keep the ointmel
in earthenware vessels, or glass vessels, seclud:
from the air.” This admirable formula is
modification of that originally introduced it
pharmacy by the late Dr. Duncan, of Eli.
burgh. (For the milder ointment, see below)
3. (Ph. D.) Mercury, 1 oz.; nitric aſ
(1:500), 1 fl. oz. ; (diluted with) water, fl.01%
dissolve by a gentle heat, and add the liqi.
to lard, 4 oz. ; olive oil, 8 fl. oz. ; melted tº
ther, and still hot; next “let the temperatuſ.
of the mixture be raised so as to cause effº
vescence, and then, withdrawing the heat, st
the mixture with a porcelain spoon until iſ
concretes on cooling.”
4. (P. Cod.) Mercury, 3 parts; nitric ad
(1321), 6 parts; lard and oil, of each, 24 parts:
as above.
5. (Ph. U. S.) Mercury, 1 oz.; nitric at
(1:42), 14 fl. oz. ; lard, 3 oz. ; fresh neat's ſº
oil, 9 fl. oz.; mix the mercurial solution with
the melted fat and oil at 200°Fahr.
6. (B.P.) Mercury, 4; nitric acid, 12; pº
pared lard, 15; olive oil, 32; dissolve the me!
cury in the nitric acid with the aid of agent.
heat; melt the lard in the oil by a steamſ:
water bath in a porcelain vessel capable
holding six times the quantity, and while tº
mixture is hot add the solution of mercury
also hot, and mix them together thoroughly
If the mixture does not froth up, increase tº

OINTMENT. 853
-
heat till this occurs. (The heat required for
this is from 170° to 180° Fahr.
Uses, &c. Detergent and stimulant. In
ring-worm, herpes, itch, porrigo, psoriasis, and
some other chronic skin diseases; in various
chronic affections of the eyes, especially chronic
inflammation and ulceration of the eyelids,
‘blear eye,’ &c. It “may almost be regarded as
specific in psorophthalmia, in the purulent oph-
thalmia of infants producing ectropium (ever-
sion of the eyelids), and in ulcerations of the
tarsi (edges of the eyelids).” (A.T. Thomson.)
As a dressing to old ulcers, more especially
those of a syphilitic character, it is superior to
all the other ointments containing mercury;
in sore legs, assisted by the internal use of the
pill of soap with opium (PIL SAPONIs CUM
opIO), it often acts like a charm when all other
modes of treatment have failed. For most of
these purposes it should be diluted with from
twice to seven times its weight of some simple
fatty matter. One of the principal reasons
why this ointment is in less general use than
its merits deserve, is the very inferior quality
of that vended in the shops under the name,
arising from almost every druggist preparing
some mess of his own, instead of adhering to
the College formulae.
Obs. Ointment of nitrate of mercury, faith-
fully prepared according to the instructions in
the Pharmacopoeia, possesses a rich golden-yel-
low colour, and a buttery consistence, and
keeps well. Unfortunately, clumsy and care-
less operators, who regard the Pharmacopoeia
as a foolish book, which it is quite unnecessary
to look into, often fail in their attempts to
produce an article of good quality. The diffi-
culty is immediately surmounted by employing
pure ingredients, in the proportions ordered,
and mixing them at the proper temperature.
The acid should be of the full strength, or,
if somewhat weaker than that directed, an
equivalent quantity should be employed. A
slight excess of acid is not injurious, rather
the contrary; but a deficiency of acid, in all
cases, more or less damages the quality of the
product. If, on stirring the mercurial solu-
tion with the melted lard and oil, the mixture
does not froth up, the heat should be increased
a little, as, unless a violent frothing and reac-
tion take place, the ointment will not turn out
of good quality, and will rapidly harden and
lose its colour. The most favourable tempe-
rature for the union of the ingredients is from
185° to 200°Fahr., and in no case should it
exceed 212°; whilst below 180° Fahr., the
reactions are feeble and imperfect.
Stoneware or glass vessels must alone be
employed in the preparation of this ointment,
and the stirrers or spatulas should be either
of glass or white deal. The best plan is to
keep the whole exclusively for the purpose,
and when out of use to preserve them from
dust and dirt. (See below.)
Ointment of Niſtrate of Mercury (Milder).
Syn. MILDER CITRINE OINTMENT: UNGUEN-
TUM HYDRARYGRT NITRATIS MITIUS (Ph.L.),
U. H. N. M., or U. CITRINUM M. (Ph. E.)
L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Ointment of nitrate or
mercury, 1 oz. ; lard, 7 oz. ; rub them toge-
ther. “This ointment is to be used recently
prepared.”
2. (Ph. E.) As the stronger ointment, Ph. E.,
but using a triple proportion of oil and lard.
Uses, &c. See the STRONGER or NTMENT
(above).
Ointment of Niſtrate of Sil'ver. Syn. UN-
GUENTUM ARGENTI NITRATIs, L. Prep. 1.
(M. Jobert.) Nitrate of silver, 2, 4, or 6 parts;
lard, 20 parts. These ointments are respec-
tively numbered 1, 2, and 3, and are used in
white-swelling. -
2. (Macdonald.) Nitrate of silver, 1 part;
lard, 7 to 8 parts. To smear bougies, in
gonorrhoea, &c.
3. (Mackenzie.) Nitrate of silver, 5 grs.;
lard, 1 oz. In purulent and chronic ophthal-
mia, ulcers on the cornea, &c.
4. (Welpeau.) Nitrate of silver, 1 gr.; lard,
1 dr. In acute ophthalmia, &c. The above
compounds require to be used with caution.
Ointment of Niſtric Acid. Syn. Oxygen-
IZED FAT; ; UNGUENTUM oxygen ATUM, U. A.
NITRICI, L.; Ponſ MADE D’ALyon, Fr. Prep.
(Ph. D. 1826.) Olive oil, 1 lb.; lard, 4 oz. ;
melt them together, add, gradually, of nitric
acid (sp. gr. 1:500), 5% fl. drs., and stir the mix-
ture constantly with a glass rod until it con-
cretes.
Uses, &c. In itch, porrigo, and some other
chronic skin diseases; and as a dressing for
syphilitic and herpetic ulcers, old sores, &c.
It is frequently employed as a substitute for
the ointment of nitrate of mercury, which it
somewhat resembles in appearance; but it is
less active and useful.
Ointment of Niſtric Oxide of Mer'cury. Syn.
OINTMENT OF RED oxiDE of MERCURY (B.P.),
RED PRECIPITATE OLNTMENT ; UNGUENTUM
HYDRARGYRT NITRICO-OXYDI (Ph. L.), U. H.
oxy DI (Ph. E.), U. H. o. RUBRI (B. P., Ph.D.),
L. Prep. 1 (Ph. L.) White wax, 2 oz., lard,
6 oz. ; mix, by heat, add of nitric oxide of
mercury, in very fine powder, 1 oz., and rub
them together.
2. (Ph. E.) Nitric oxide of mercury, 1 oz. ;
lard, 8 oz. ; mix by trituration.
3. (Ph.D.) Red oxide of mercury (nitric
oxide), 1 dr. ; ointment of white wax, 7 drs.;
as the last.
4. (B.P.) Red oxide of mercury, in very
fine powder, 62 grs. ; yellow wax, 3 oz. ; oil of
almonds, 3 oz. ; melt the wax, add the oil, and
1111X.
Uses, &c. An excellent stimulant application
to indolent and foul sores, ulcers, &c.; and,
when diluted, as an eye ointment in chronic
inflammation and ulceration of the eyes and
eyelids, and especially in psorophthalmia;
also in specks on the cornea, and the other
affections noticed under OINTMENT OF NI-
TRATE of MERCURY. It forms the basis of




854 OINTMENT.
numerous quack medicines. See also OINT-
MENT OF OxTDE OF MERCURY (below).
Obstetſric Ointment, Syn. UNGUENTUM OB-
STETRICUM, L.; POMMADE OBSTETRICALE, Fr.
Prep. 1. (Chaussier.) Extract of belladonna,
1 dr. ; water, 2 drs. ; lard, 1 oz. To promote
the dilation of the os uteri.
2. (PoWMADE PotſR LE TOUCHER.) From
yellow wax and spermaceti, of each, 1 oz. ;
olive oil, 16 oz. ; melt them together, strain,
add of solution of caustic soda, 1 fl. oz., and
stir until the whole is nearly cold.
Ointment of 0'pium. Syn. UNGUENTUM
opLATUM, U. OPII (Ph. L.), L. Prep. 1.
(Ph. L.) Powdered opium, 20 grs. ; lard, 1 oz.;
mix by trituration. As a simple anodyne
friction or dressing.
2. (Augustin.) Opium, 2 drs. ; ox-gall, 2 oz.;
digest 2 days, strain, and add, of melted lard,
2 oz. ; oil of bergamot, 10 drops.
3. (Brera.) Opium, 1 dr. ; gastric juice of a
calf, 3 oz. ; digest 24 hours, and add of melted
lard, 1 oz.
Ointment of 0xide of Lead.
OINTMENT. -
Ointment of 0xide of Man"gamese. Syn.
DNGUENTUM MANGANESII OXYDI, U. M. BIN-
OXYDI, L. Prep. 1. Black oxide of manga-
nese (levigated), 1 dr. ; lard, 1 oz. ; mix by
patient trituration. As a friction in scrofu-
lous swellings and indurations; and in itch,
scald-head, chilblains, &c.
2. (W. Cooley.) Binoxide of manganese,
1 dr.; sulphur, 2 drs.; lard, 9 drs. ; cajeput
oil, 15 drops. As the last ; also as a friction
in rheumatism, swelled joints, &c., and in por-
rigo, and Some other skin diseases.
Ointment of 0xide of Mercury. Under this
name the two ointments noticed below are
often confounded, owing to the different
opinions held respecting the atomic weight of
mercury :—
1. Ointment of Gray Oxide of Mercury.
Syn. OINTMENT OF SUBOXIIE OF MERCURY,
O. OF PROTOXIDE OF M.:#; UNGUENTUM HY-
DRARGYRI OXYDI, U. H. SUBOXYDI, U. H. O.
CINEREI, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. E. 1817.) Gray
oxide of mercury, 1 oz. ; lard, 3 oz. ; triturate
together. Formerly proposed as a substitute
for mercurial ointment, but in practice it has
been found useless as a friction, owing to the
unctuous matter only being absorbed, whilst
the oxide is left on the surface. This objection
does not apply to the following prepara-
tions:—
2. (Donovan.) Gray oxide of mercury, 20
grs. ; lard, 1 oz. ; mix, and expose them to the
temperature of 320° Fahr. for 2 hours, con-
stantly stirring. Gray coloured. It may also
be made from the nitric- or red-oxide in the
same way, by keeping the ointment heated
to about 300° for some hours. Cleaner and
stronger than Ung. hyd. fort.—Ph. L.
3. (Tyson.) Black oxide of mercury (pre-
pared by decomposing precipitated calomel
with liquors of potassa and ammonia), 2 oz. ;
See LEAD
-
lard, 1 lb. ; triturate together. Inferior in
activity to the last. It closely resembles in
appearance a fine sample of mercurial oint.
ment. -
2. Ointment of Red Oxide of Mercury. Syl.
UNGUENTUM HYDRARGYRI BINOXIDI+, U. H.
OXYDI RUBRI, L. Prep. (Cazenave.) Rºd
oxide of mercury, 30 grs. ; camphor, 5 grs;
lard, 1 oz. Closely resembles ointment ºf
nitric oxide of mercury, over which it, pºt.
haps, possesses some advantage from the Oxid:
being in a more minutely divided state.
Ointment of 0xide of Silver. UNGUENTUM
ARGENTI oxy II, L. Prep. (Serre.) Oxide ºf
silver, 16 to 20 grs. ; lard, 1 oz. As a dressing
for scrofulous and syphilitic Sores, &c,
Ointment of 0xide of Zinc. Syn. ZINCOINT
MENT ; NIHIT, ALBUM oſNTMENT: ; UNGUIN.
TUM ZINCI (B. P., Ph. L. E. & D.), U. OXYTI
ZINCI, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Oxide of Zinº,
1 oz. ; lard, 6 oz. ; mix them together.
2. (Ph. E.) Oxide of zinc, 1 oz.; simple
limiment (Ph. E.), 6 oz.
3. (Ph.D.) Ointment of white wax, 1207;
melt it by a gentle heat, add of oxide of ſinſ,
2 oz. ; and stir constantly until the mixtuſ
concretes.
4. (B.P.) Oxide of zinc, in very fine pow:
der, 1; benzoated lard, 5%; mix. -
Uses, &c. Astringent, desiccative, and stimu.
lant; in excoriations, burns, various skin diº .
eases attended by profuse discharges, in chronic
inflammation of the eyes depending on relaxi.
tion of the vessels, in sore nipples, indolent
sores, ring-worm of the scalp, &c. It is all
excellent and very useful preparation. Sº
TUTTY OINTMENT (below).
Ointment of Pepper. Syn. UNGUENTIM
PIPERIS NIGRI, L. Prep. 1. Black peppº
(bruised), 1 oz. ; lard, 2 oz. ; suet, 1 07.; i.
gest together in a covered vessel, by the hº
of a water bath, for six hours, then strain, with
pressure, add of expressed oil of mace, 2 dis.
and stir until the mixture concretes. In pilºš
itch, as a friction in rheumatism, &c.
2. (Ph. D. 1826.) Black pepper (in in
powder), 4 oz. ; lard, 1 lb.; mix. In stall.
head, &c.
Ointment of Phosphor'ic Acid. Syn. UN:
GUENTUM ACIDI PHOSPHORICI, L. Prep,
(Soubeiran.) Phosphoric acid, 1 dr.; lar
(softened by heat), 1 oz. ; triturate carefully
together. As a friction in caries, Osseº
tumours, &c.
Ointment of Phosphorus. Syn. UNGUEN
TUM PHOSPHORI, U. PHOSPHORATUM, L. Prep,
(P. Cod.) Phosphorus, 1 dr.; lard, 6 oz. 3drs;
melt together (in a wide-mouthed bottle) by
the heat of a water bath, remove the vessel
from the heat, and shake it briskly until the
ointment concretes. As a friction in gout,
chronic rheumatism, and several skin dis.
CaSeS.
Ointment of Picrotoxin. Syn. UNGUENTUM
PICROTOXINAE, L. Prep. (Jājer.) Picro:
toxin, 10 grs. ; lard, 1 oz. In ring-worm ºf


OINTMENT.
855
the scalp, and to destroy pediculi. It should
be used with care.
Ointment for Piles. Syn. UNGUENTUM HE-
MORRHOIDALE, U. ANTI-HAEMORRHOIDALE, L.
Prep. 1. Burnt alum and oxide of zinc, of
each, ; dr. ; lard, 7 drs.
2. (Bories.) Acetate of lead, 15 grs.;
freshly burnt cork, oz.; washed fresh butter,
2 oz.; triturate well together.
3. (W. Cooley.) Morphia, 8 grs. ; melted
spermaceti ointment, 1 oz. ; triturate together
until solution is complete, then add, of galls
(in impalpable powder), 1% dr., essential oil of
almonds (genuine crude), 12 to 15 drops, and
stir until the mass concretes. In painful piles,
prolapsus, &c. It is not only very effective,
but does not soil the linen so much as most
other ointments.
4. (Dr. Gedding.) Carbonate of lead, 4 drs.;
sulphate of morphia, 15 grs.; stramonium
ointment, 1 oz. ; olive oil, q. s. When there
is much pain and inflammation.
5. (Sir H. Halford.) Ointment of nitrate
of mercury and oil of almonds, equal parts, tri-
turated together.
6. (Mazzini.) Nitrate of morphia, 15 grs. ;
citrine ointment, 1 dr. ; fresh butter, 1 oz.
As the last.
7. (Vallez.) Extract of elder leaves, dr. ;
burnt alum, 16 grs. ; poplar ointment, 1 oz.
For other formulae, see the respective names
of their leading ingredients.
8. (Ware.) Camphor, 1 dr.; simple ointment,
1 oz. ; dissolve by heat, add of powdered galls,
2 drs. ; mix well, further add of tincture of
opium, 2 fl. dr.s., and stir until the whole is
cold. In flabby mucous and painful piles.
9. (Zanin.) Spermaceti ointment, 1 oz. ;
powdered galls, 1 dr.; powdered opium, 18
grs. ; solution of diacetate of lead, 1 fl. dr.
When there is both pain and inflammation.
Ointment of Pitch. Syn. BLACK BASILICON,
OINTMENT OF BLACK PITCH ; UNG. PICIS (B.P.,
Ph. L.), U. PICIs NIGRAE, L. Prep. 1. (Ph.L.)
Black pitch, resin, and bees' wax, of each,
11 oz. ; olive oil, 1 pint; melt together, strain
through a linen cloth (and stir until the mass
concretes).
2. (B. P.) Tar, 5; yellow wax, 2; melt
together, and stir till cold.
Uses, &c. Stimulant and detergent ; very
useful in indolent ulcerations, scald-head, and
various foul eruptions. In itch and psoriasis,
and other scaly skin diseases, a little sulphur is
commonly added to it. -
Oil of Plat'imum. Syn. UNGUENTUM PLATINI,
L. Prep. (Hoefer.) Bichloride of platinum, 15
grs. ; extract of belladonna, , dr.; lard, 1 oz. As
a dressing for painful indolent ulcers.
Ointment of Plumbago. Syn. OINTMENT
OF GRAPHITE ; UNGUENTUM GRAPHITIS, U.
PLUMBAGINIS, L. Prep. From pure plumbago
(‘black-lead'), 1% dr. ; lard, 1 oz. As a dress-
ing to ulcers, and in certain skin diseases.
Plunket's Ointment. Prep. (Original for-
mula.) Crowsfoot, 1 handful; dog's fennel, 3
sprigs; pound well, add of flowers of sulphur
and white arsenic, of each, 3 thimblefuls; beat
them well together, form the mass into bo-
luses, and dry them in the sun. For use, pow-
der them; and mix the powder with yolk of
egg, spread a little on a small piece of pig's
bladder (size of half a crown), and apply it to
the sore, where it must remain until it falls off
by itself. Poisonous; in cancer ; with great
caution.
Poma/tum Ointment. See LARD OINTMENT.
Ointment of Pop'lar Buds. Syn. UNGUEN-
TUM POPULEUM, L. Prep. 1. Fresh poplar
buds (bruised), 1 part; lard, 4 parts; boil
until crisp, and strain. It never gets rancid.
Emollient and stimulant.
2. (Compound—P. Cod.) Poplar buds, 12
oz.; fresh leaves of belladonna, common night-
shade (Solanum nigrum), henbane, and poppies,
of each, 8 oz. ; lard, 4% lbs.; as the last.
Emollient, stimulant, and anodyne.
Ointment of Potas'sio-tar'trate of An'timony.
Syn. ANTIMONIAL OINTMENT, TARTAR EMETIC
o.; UNGUENTUM ANTIMONIITARTARATI (B.P.),
UNGUENTUM ANTIMONII POTASSIO-TARTATRIS
(Ph. L.), U. A. TARTARIZATI (Ph. D.), U.
ANTIMONIALE (Ph. E.), U. TARTARI EMETICI,
L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L. & E.) Potassic-tar-
trate of antimony, rubbed to a very fine
powder, 1 oz. ; lard, 4 oz. ; mix by trituration.
2. (Ph. D.) Tartar emetic, in very fine
powder, 1 dr.; ointment of white wax, 7 drs.
3. (B. P.) Tartrated antimony (in fine pow-
der), 1; simple ointment, 4; mix.
Uses, &c. Counter-irritant ; in phthisis,
chronic rheumatism, certain liver affections,
and other deep-seated pains and diseases. A
portion, about the size of a nut, is rubbed on
the skin night and morning, until a crop of
pustules is produced. The part should be
well rubbed with a coarse towel, so as to be
reddened, before applying the ointment.
The product of the Dublin formula is of
only half the strength of those of the other
Colleges.
Obs. Before adding the tartar emetic to the
lard it should be reduced to the state of an im-
palpable powder. The precipitated salt is
the best for this purpose. As the pustules
formed by this ointment permanently mark
the skin, it should only be applied to those
parts of the person which are covered by the
dress.
Pur’gative Ointment. See OINTMENT OF Co-
LOCYNTH, WoRM. O., &c.
Ointment of Quimine'. Syn. UNGUENTUM
QUINIE, U. QUINIE SULPHATIs, L. Prep. 1.
Sulphate of quinine, 1 dr. ; lard, 3 drs. In the
'agues of children.
2. (Beasley ea. Antonini.) Sulphate of qui-
nine, 1 dr. ; alcohol (rectified spirit), 2 drs. ;
sulphuric acid, 10 drops ; dissolve, and mix it
with lard, , oz. In malignant intermittents;
2 to 4 drs. at a time, rubbed into the groin or
axilla.
Ointment of Red Sul’phuret of Mercury.

856 OINTMENT.
Syn. UNGUENTUM: HYDRARGYRI BISULPHU-
RETI, U. H. SULPHURETI RUBRI, L. Prep. 1.
(Alibert.) Red sulphuret of mercury, 1 dr. ;
camphor, 20 grs. ; simple ointment, 1 oz. In
herpes, applied twice a day.
2. (Collier.) Bisulphuret of mercury, 1% dr. ;
Sal ammoniac, ; dr. ; lard, 1 oz. ; rose water,
1 fl. dr. In several skin diseases, to diminish
the itching, destroy pediculi, &c.
3. (Radius.) As the last, with 1 oz. more lard.
Ointment of Resin. Syn. YELLow BASILI-
CON ; UNGUENTUM RESINE (Ph. D.), U. RE-
SINOSUM (Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. D.)
Yellow wax, # lb.; yellow resin, in coarse pow-
der, 3 lb. ; prepared lard, 1 lb. ; melt them
together by a gentle heat, strain the mixture,
whilst hot, through flannel, and stir it con-
stantly until it concretes.
2. (Ph. E.) Bees’ wax, 2 oz. ; resin, 5 oz. ;
lard, 8 oz. -
Obs. A useful stimulant dressing to foul
and indolent ulcers. For the corresponding
preparation of the Ph. L., see RESIN CERATE
(page 314).
Ointment, Resolvent. See DISCUTIENT OINT-
MENT.
Ointment, Ring'-worm. UNGUENTUM CON-
TRA-TINEAM, L. Prep. 1. Carbonate of soda, 1
part ; fresh-slaked time, 4 parts; lard, 120 parts.
2. Ointment of nitrate of mercury, 1 dr. ;
tar ointment and lard, of each, ; oz.
3. (Henke.) Hydrochloric acid, 1 fl. dr. ;
juniper-tar ointment, 3 oz. ; marsh-mallow do.,
1 oz.
4. (Pereira.) Tar, 3 drs. ; lard, 1% oz. ; melt
them together, and stir in of acetic acid (Ph.
L.), 2 fl. drs.
5. (Thompson.) Carbonate of soda and sul-
phuret of potassium, of each, 1 dr.; creasote, ;
dr. ; lard, 14 oz.
Obs. The hair must be cut off close, and the
part washed clean before each application. For
other forms, see above.
Ointment of Rose. Syn. ROSE POMMADE,
ROSE LIP-SALVE ; UNGUENTUM ROSAE, U.
ROSATUM, L. Prep. 1. (P. Cod.) Washed lard
(melted), and roses (centif.), of each, 2 lbs. ;
mix, and in 2 days remelt the mass, and press
out the fat; to this last add of fresh roses, 2 lbs. ;
and repeat the process ; lastly, colour it with
alkanet root, if required red.
2. (UNG. AQUAE RosP-Ph. U. S.) This is
spermaceti ointment melted and beaten up
with about #rds of its weight of rose water
until they congeal. Both the above are simple
emollients. The last is an officinal “cold
cream.”
Ointment, Rust's. Prep. Calcined alum, 1}
dr. ; camphor, # dr.; powdered opium, 20 grs. ;
balsam of Peru, 1 dr.; lead ointment, 5 drs.;
triturate together. In chilblains, frostbites,
frosted limbs, &c.
Ointment of Sabadil'line. Syn. UNGUENTUM
SABADILLINAE, L. Prep. (Dr. Turnbull.) Sa-
badilline, 15 to 20 grs. ; lard, 1 oz. In-
tended as a substitute for ointment of veratrine.
Ointment of Sav'ime. Syn. UNGUENT
SABINE (Ph. L. & D.), CERATUM SABINE, I.
Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) White wax, 3 oz.; latl
1 lb. ; melt them together, mix in of fººl
savine (bruised), lb., and press through alimt
cloth.
2. (Ph.D.) Savine tops, dried and in in
powder, 1 dr. ; ointment of white wax, 7 dis;
mix by trituration. For the formula of th:
Ph. E., the uses, &c., see CERATE.
Ointment of Scrophula’ria. Syn. UNGUIN.
TUM SCROPHULARIAE, L. Prep. (Ph. D.
1826.) Green leaves of knotted rooted figwon
and lard, of each, 2 lbs. ; prepared Suet, 1
lb.; boil till crisp, and strain with pressure. In
ring-worm, “burnt holes' (pemphigus ſº
grenosus of children), impetigo, and some other
cutaneous diseases; also as an application º
piles, painful swellings, &c. In the seconditi
said to be almost specific.
Ointment, Simple. Syn. OINTMENT OFWHIT
WAX, SIMPLE DRESSING ; UNGUENTUM SIM.
PLEx (B. P., Ph. E.), U. CERAE ALBE (Ph.D)
L. Prep. 1. (Ph. E.) Olive oil, 5} fl, 0.
white wax, 2 oz.; melted together, and stirrel
whilst cooling.
2. (Ph. D.) Prepared lard, 4 lbs.; whi.
wax, 1 lb. ; as the last.
3. (B. P.) White wax, 2; prepared larl
3; almond oil, 8; melt together, and stir tilli:
becomes solid.
Obs. The above are mild emollients, useful
in healthy ulcers, excoriations, &c.; butchiefly
as forming the basis for other ointments. The
corresponding preparation of the Ph. I, is
spermaceti ointment. See below, also IAR)
OINTMENT, &c.
Ointment, Singleton’s.
MENTS.
Ointment, Small-pox. Syn. UNGUENTM
ECTROTICUM, L. Prep. 1. Mercurial dinº
ment, 1% oz.; bees’ wax and black pitch, of each
# oz. ; expressed oil of mace, 2 drs. ; mixed tº
gether by a very gentle heat.
2. (Briquet.) Mercurial ointment, 4 parts;
powdered starch, 1 part.
3. (Tourriere.) Iodide of potassium (dry and
in fine powder), 1 part ; expressed oil of macº
2 parts; black resin, 4 parts; mercurial oint:
ment, 8 parts. Used to prevent the ‘pitting
of the pustules. See SMALLPOx.
Ointment, Smellome's. See EYE OINT,
MENTS.
Ointment of Soap. 1. See CERATE.
2. (Camphorated ; UNGUENTUM SAPONſ:
CAMPHORATUM-Hamb. Cod.) White sº
(scraped), 1 lb.; water, 3 lb.; dissolve by heat;
add of olive oil, 5 oz. ; and when the mixture
has partly cooled, further add of camphor, 1
oz., previously dissolved by heat in olive oil 1
oz.; lastly, stir until the mass concretes. As
an anodyne and stimulating friction in various
local affections, as chaps, chilblains, rheuma.
tism, &c. -
Ointment of So'dio-Chlo"ride of Gold, Sh
UNGUENTUM AURI soplo-CHLORIDI, L.; Polº
See EYE OINT,


OINTMENT. 857
-
MADE DE MURIATE D’OR ET DE SOUDE, Fr.
Prep. (Magendie.) Sodio-chloride of gold, 10
grs. ; lard, 4 drs. In scrofulous and syphilitic
swellings, indurations, ulcers, &c.
Ointment of Spermaceti. Syn. EMOLLIENT
DRESSING, SIMPLE OINTMENT, WHITE O. ;
UNGUENTUM CETACEI (B. P., Ph. L. & D.), U.
SPERMATIS CETI, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.)
Spermaceti, 5 oz. ; white wax, 14 drs. ;
olive oil, 1 pint, or q. s. ; melt them together
by a gentle heat, and stir the mixture until cold.
2. (Ph.D.) White wax, 3 lb. ; spermaceti,
1 lb. ; prepared lard, 3 lbs. ; as the last.
3. (B. P.) Spermaceti, 5; white wax, 2.;
almond oil, 20, or a sufficiency; stir constantly
till it cools.
Uses, &c. As an emollient and healing
application or dressing to abrasions, excori-
ations, blistered surfaces, healthy ulcers, chil-
blains, chaps, &c. In trade, the Dublin
formula, with double the amount of lard, is
commonly employed. See LARD OINTMENT,
SIMPLE O., &c.
Ointment of Squills. Syn. UNGUENTUM
SCILLE, L. Prep. 1. (Brera). Squills (in
very fine powder), 1 dr. ; mercurial ointment,
2 drs.
2. (Hufeland.) Squills, 1 oz. ; liquor of
potassia, 2 fl. Oz. ; reduce to a mucilage by
boiling, then add of lard, 2 oz. or q. s. As a
resolvent friction to indolent tumours and in-
durations.
Ointment of Stavesa/cre. Syn. UNGUENTUM
STAPHISAGRIAE, L. Prep. (Swediaur.) Pow-
dered stavesacre, 1 oz. ; lard, 3 oz. ; melt to-
gether, digest 3 or 4 hours, and strain. A
very cleanly remedy for itch, and to destroy
pediculi on the person. A similar ointment is
much used by farriers.
Ointment of Stramo"mium. Syn. UNGUEN-
TUM STRAMONII, L. Prep. 1. Fresh thorn-
apple leaves, 1 part; lard, 4 parts; as oint-
ment of hemlock.
2. (Pereira.) Powdered leaves, 1 oz. ; lard,
4 oz. ; mix by trituration.
3. (Ph. U. S.) Extract of stramonium, 1 dr. ;
lard, 1 oz. ; as the last.
Uses, &c. To dress irritable ulcers, and as an
application to painful piles.
Ointment of Strych'mime. Syn. UNGUENTUM
STRYCHNIAE, L. Prep. 1. (Bouchardat.)
Strychnine, 16 grs. ; lard, 1 oz. ; carefully tri-
turated together.
2. (Wendt.) Nitrate of strychnine, 6 grs.;
lard, 1 oz. ; as last. Both are used as a fric-
tion in paralysed parts, &c. From the ex-
tremely poisonous character of strychnine, it
should be used with caution.
Ointment of Subac'etate of Cop'per. See
VERDIGRIs OINTMENT.
Ointment of Subacetate of Lead (Compound).
Syn. UNGUENTUM PLUMBI sub ACETATIS COM-
PoSITUM (B. P.).
tate of lead, 6; camphor, #; white wax, 8;
almond oil, 20; melt the wax with 16 of the
oil on a steam- or water-bath; remove the
Prep. Solution of subace- |
vessel, and as soon as the mixture begins to
thicken, gradually add the solution of sub-
acetate of lead, and stir the mixture constantly
until it cools; then add the camphor, dissolve
in the rest of the oil, and mix thoroughly.
Ointment of Subchloride of Mercury. See
OINTMENT OF CALOMEL.
Ointment of Subsul’phate of Mercury#. Syn.
UNGUENTUM HYDRARGYRI SUBSULPHATUS, L.
Prep. 1. (Alibert.) Turpeth mineral, # dr.;
lard, 1 oz.
2. (Biett.) Turpeth mineral, 1 dr.; sul-
phur, 2 drs.; lard, 2 oz. ; oil of lemons, 15
drops. In herpes, porrigo, and the scaly skin
diseases.
Ointment of Sul’phate of I'ron. Syn. UN-
GUENTUM FERRI SULPHATIs, L. Prep. (Wel-
peau.) Sulphate of iron, 1% dr.; simple oint-
ment, 1 oz. In erysipelas.
Ointment of Sul’phate of Man"ganese. Syn.
UNGUENTUM MANGANESI SULPHATIs, L. Prep.
From sulphate of manganese, 1 dr.; lard or
simple ointment, 1 oz. Alterative and discu-
tient ; in similar cases to those in which MER-
CURIAL or NTMENT is employed.
Ointment of Sulphate of Zinc. Syn. UN-
GUENTUM ZINCI suTPHATIs, L. Prep. (Scarpa.)
Sulphate of zinc (in very fine powder), 1 dr.;
lard, 1 oz. In some chronic skin diseases at-
tended with a lax state of the tissues, and as a
dressing to scrofulous tumours after they
have separated and the abscess has been dis-
charged.
Ointment of Sul’phur. Syn. UNGUENTUM
SULPHURIs (B. P., Ph. L. E. & D.). Prep. 1.
(Ph. I.) Sulphur, 3 lb.; lard, 1 lb. In the
Ph. L. 1836 oil of bergamot, 40 drops, were
added. (See 4, Compound.)
2. (Ph. E.) Sulphur, 1 oz. ; lard, 4 oz.
3. (Ph. D.) Sulphur, 1 lb.; lard, 4 lbs.
4. (B. P.) Sublimed sulphur, 1 ; benzoated
lard, 4 ; mix.
Uses, &c. In itch, scald-head, &c., in the
first of which it is specific. It should be well
rubbed in every night until the disease is cured;
“but not more than one fourth part of the
body should be covered with it at a time.” (A.
T. Thomson.)
5. (Compound; ITCH oſNTMENT: UNGUEN-
TUM suTPHURIS COMPOSITUM–Ph. L.)—a.
(Ph. L.) Nitrate of potassa (powdered), 40
grs. ; white hellebore (powdered), 10 drs. ; sul-
phur and soft soap, of each, 4 oz. ; lard, 1 lb.;
rub them together.
b. (P. Cod.) Alum and sal ammoniac, of
each, # oz. ; sulphur, 8 oz. ; lard, 16 oz.
Uses, &c. In itch, as the simple ointment
(1, 2, and 3). They are more efficacious, but,
owing to the presence of white hellebore, the
Ph. L. preparation is apt to cause irritation
in persons with delicate skins. See ITCH
OINTMENT.
Ointment of Sulphuret of Mercury. See
OINTMENT OF RED SULPHURET OF MERCURY.
Ointment of Sulphurated Potash. Syn. UN-
GUENTUM POTASS㺠SULPHURATE (B. P.). Sul-



858 OINTMENT.
phurated potash, 30 grs. ; triturate, and add
prepared lard, 1 oz. ; mix. See also next pre-
paration.
Ointment of Sulphuret of Potas'sium. Syn.
UNGUENTUM POTASSII SULPHURETI, L. Prep.
1. Sulphuret of potassium (dry and in fine pow-
der), 1 dr. ; lard, 9 drs. Alibert adds 1 dr. of
carbonate of soda.
2. Sulphuret of potassium, 2% drs. ; lard and
soft soap, of each, 1 oz. ; olive oil, # Oz. In
several chronic skin diseases, as itch, psoriasis,
ring-worm, lepra, eczema, &c.
Ointment of Sulphuret of Sodium. Syn.
UNGUENTUM sold II SULPHURETI, L. Prep.
(Swediaur.) Sulphuret of sodium, 3 drs. ; lard,
1% oz. In itch, for which it is very cleanly and
effective. The last two ointments are most
powerful when recently prepared.
Ointment of Sulphuric Acid. Syn. UN-
GUENTUM ACIDI SULPHURICI, L. Prep. 1.
(Dr. Duncan.) Sulphuric acid, 1 dr. ; lard,
2 oz.
2. (Ph. D. 1826.) Sulphuric acid, 1 dr. ;
lard, 1 oz. ; mix.
Uses, &c. Black, fetid; in itch. It is now
seldom used. With oil of turpentine, it has
been used as a stimulating liniment in rheu-
matism. An ointment made of 1% dr. of dilute
sulphuric acid to 1 oz. of lard is a good appli-
cation in prurigo.
Ointment, Sulta'na. Spermaceti and white
wax, of each, # oz. ; oil of almonds and butter
of cacao, of each, # lb.; melt together, add of
balsam of Peru, I dr., stir constantly for a few
minutes, and after it has settled pour off the
clear portion; to this add of orange-flower
water, 2 fl. drs., and stir the mixture constantly
until it concretes. A very agreeable species of
cold cream.
Ointment of Tan'mate of Lead. Syn. UN-
GUENTUM PLUMBI TANNATIs, L. Prep. 1. Tan-
nate of lead, 1% drs.; powdered camphor, 20
grs. ; spermaceti ointment, 7 drs. In inflamed
piles, &c. -
2. (Sundelin.) Decoction of oak bark, 6 fl.
oz.; solution of diacetate of lead, 1% oz. ; mix,
collect and drain the precipitate, and mix it,
whilst still moist, with lard, 1 oz. ; camphor,
10 grs. In bed-sores.
Ointment of Tan/min. Syn. UNGUENTUM
TANNINI, U. ACIDI TANNICI, L. Prep. (Rich-
ard.) Tannin, 2 drs. ; water, 2 fl. drs. ; tritu-
rate them together, then add of lard, 13 oz.
Astringent and haemostatic. In piles, pro-
lapsus, &c. It is a very cleanly and effective
application.
Ointment of Tar. Syn. UNGUENTUM PICIS
IIQUIDE (Ph. L. E. & D.), L. Prep. 1. Ph.
L.) Tar and suet, of each, 1 lb. ; melt them
together, and press the mixture through a linen
cloth.
2. (Ph. E.) Tar, 5 oz. ; bees' wax, 2 oz. ;
melt together, and stir the mixture briskly
until it concretes.
3. (Ph.D.) Tar, pint; yellow wax, 4 oz. ;
as the last.
| 2 fl. Oz. ; distilled vinegar, 1 fl. Oz.; melt tº
As a detergent application
ring-worm, scald-head, scabby eruptions, in
Uses, &c.
ulcers, &c. It should be, in general, at in
diluted with half of its weight of lard Oril
See also OINTMENT OF PITCH.
Ointment of Tartar Emetic. See OINTMEN:
OF POTASSIO-TARTRATE OF ANTIMONY.
Ointment of Tobac'co. Syn. UNGUENT
TABACI, L. Prep. 1. (Chippendale) Extraſ:
of tobacco, 1 dr. ; lard, 1 oz. As a frictioni
neuralgia.
2. (Ph. U. S.) Fresh tobacco leaves, 101;
lard, 12 oz. ; as ointment of hemlock. A
an anodyne application in irritable ulº
ring-worm, prurigo, and some other ski
diseases.
Ointment, Tripharmſic. Syn. OINTMENTO
THREE THINGS ; UNGUENTUM TRIPHARMACT
L. Prep. From lead plaster, 4 oz.; olive (i.
gether, and stir until they combine, and
proper consistence is obtained. Cooling all
desiccative; formerly greatly esteemed as
dressing. -
Ointment, Trooper's. See MERCURIAL 0NT
MENT. -
Ointment of Turpentime. Syn. UNGUENT
TEREBINTHINE (B. P.). Prep. 1. (Guy
Hosp.) Camphor, 1 dr. ; oil of turpentinºl
to 2 fl. drs. ; dissolve, and add of resin Cetăț,
1 oz. As a stimulant and anodyne frictioni
nephritic and rheumatic pains, engorgement
&c.
2. (Ph. Austr.) Turpentine, 2 lbs. ; simp
ointment, 1 lb. ; mix by a gentle heat. As
stimulant dressing.
3. (B.P.) Oil of turpentine, 16; camphoºl,
soft soap, 2; dissolve the camphor in the tº
pentine, add the soap, and rub till thorough
mixed.
Ointment of Tutſty. Syn. UNGUENT
ZINCI OXYDI IMPURI, U. TUTIE, L, Pº
From prepared tutty, 1 part; simple ointmel.
5 parts; mix by trituration. Formerly iſ
great repute in ophthalmic practice, more jº
ticularly in inflammation, &c., of the eyeli
See OINTMENT OF OXIDE OF ZINC.
Ointment of Veraſtrine. Syn. UNGUENT
VERATRIE (B. P.); POMMADE DE VERATRIN
Fr. Prep. 1. (Magendie.) Weratrine,4gº;
lard, 1 oz. ; mixed by careful trituration.
2. (Pereira.) Weratrine, 30 grs,; hº
1 oz.
3. (Turnbull.) Veratrine, 10 to 20 gº
olive oil, 1 dr. ; triturate, and add of spermº
ceti ointment, 1 oz.
4. Veratria, 8 grs. ; prepared lard, 1 01:
olive oil, ; dr. ; rub the veratria and the
together, then mix thoroughly with the lard.
Uses, &c. As a friction in neuralgia, nº
ralgic rheumatism, gout, dropsy, &c. A piº
about the size of a hazelnut, is to be rubbedſ.
10 or 15 minutes over the seat of pain, twit
a day. It must not be applied where the ski
is unsound, nor to a large surface at a time;
and the greatest caution must be used, 0.



OINTMENTS-OLEFIANT GAS. 859
account of the extremely poisonous character
of veratrine.
Ointment of Wer'digris. Syn. OINTMENT OF
SUBACETATE OF COPPER; UNGUENTUM ERU-
GINIS (Ph. E.), U. CUPRI SUBACETATIS (Ph.
D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. E.) Resinous oint-
ment, 15 oz. ; melt by a gentle heat, sprinkle
into it of verdigris (in very fine powder),
1 oz., and stir the mixture briskly until it
concretes.
2. (Ph.D.) Prepared subacetate of copper,
# dr. ; ointment of white wax, 7% drs. ; mix by
trituration.
Uses, &c. Detergent and escharotic ; as an
occasional dressing to foul and flabby ulcers,
to keep down fungous flesh, and, diluted with
oil or lard, in scrofulous ulceration and inflam-
mation of the eyelids.
Ointment of Winegar. Syn. ACETIC or NT-
MENT; UNGUENTUM ACETI, U. ACIDI ACETICI,
L. Prep. 1. (Dr. Cheston.) Olive oil, 1 lb. ;
white wax, 4 oz. ; melt them together by a
gentle heat, add of strong vinegar, 2 fl. oz., and
stir until the mixture concretes. As a cooling
astringent dressing, and as an application in
chronic ophthalmia.
2. (W. Cooley.) Acetate of morphia, 6 grs. ;
acetic acid (Ph. L.) and water, of each l; fl.
dr.; dissolve, add the solution to simple oint-
ment (melted), 1% oz., and stir the mixture
briskly until nearly cold. In chronic ophthal-
mia, painful inflamed piles, &c.; also to remove
freckles, and to allay itching and irritation in
several skin diseases.
Ointment, White. Both SPERMACETI OINT-
MENT and OINTMENT OF CARBONATE OF LEAD
were formerly so called, but the name is now
obsolete. The CAMPHORATED WHITE OINT-
MENT of the Ph. L. of 1746 (UNG. ALBUM. CAM-
PHORATUM) was spermaceti ointment to which
a little camphor had been added.
Ointment of White Precipitate. Syn. OINT-
MENT OF AMMONIATED MERCURY ; UNGUENTUM
HYDRARGYRI AMMONIATI (B. P.). Ammo-
niated mercury, 62 grs. ; simple ointment, 1 oz. ;
mix. See OINTMENT OF AMMONIO-CHLORIDE
OF MERCURY. -
Ointment of White Wax. See SIMPLE OINT-
MENT.
Ointment of Wolfsbane. See OINTMENT OF
ACONITE.
Ointment for Worms. Syn. UNGUENTUM
ANTHELMINTICUM, U. VERMIFUGUM, L. Prep.
1. (Boerhaave.) Aloes and ox-gall, of each,
1 part; marsh-mallow ointment, 8 parts.
2. (Fr. Hosp.) Aloes and oil of tamsy, of
each, 1 part ; dried ox-gall, 2 parts; (both in
fine powder;) lard, 8 parts.
3. (Ph. Bat.) Aloes, 1 dr. ; dried ox-gall
and petroleum, of each, 1% dr. ; lard, 1 oz.
4. (Soubeiran.) Powdered aloes, 2 drs.; lard,
1 oz.
Uses, &c. The above are purgative and ver-
mifuge, applied as frictions to the abdomen.
They are chiefly employed for children and
delicate females. See CoIOCYNTH OINTMENT,
Ointment of Yellow Wax. Syn. UNGUEN-
TUM CERHE FLAVIE, L. Prep. (Ph.D. 1826.)
Bees’ wax, 1 lb.; lard, 4 lbs. ; melt them to-
gether. A mild emollient dressing. Some
parties regard it as more ‘healing’ than the
OINTMENT OF WHITE WAX.
Ointment of Zinc, 1. See OINTMENT OF
OXIDE OF ZINC.
2. (Compound; UNGUENTUM ZINCI COM-
POSITUM, L.)—a. (Hufeland.) Oxide of zinc
and lycopodium, of each, 1 dr.; simple ointment,
1 oz. In excoriations and simple ulcerations,
especially those of the eyelids, nipples, &c.
b. (Thomson.) Oxide of zinc, ; dr. ; pow-
dered opium, 5 grs. ; lard, 1 oz. As the last,
when there is much pain.
0INTMENTS (Flower of). Syn. FLOs UN-
GUENTORUM, L. Prep. From resin, thus, wax,
and suet, of each, 3 lb.; olibanum and Venice
turpentine, of each, 2% oz. ; myrrh, 1 oz. ;
wine, 3 pint ; boil them together, and, lastly,
add of camphor, 2 drs. Suppurative; warming.
O'LEFIANT GAS. C.H. Syn. ETHYLENE,
HEAVY CARBONETTED HYDROGEN, HEAVY
CARBURETTED H., ELAYL, ETHENE. A sub-
stance discovered by some associated Dutch
chemists, in 1795, and composed of carbon
and hydrogen in the proportions expressed by
C3H, or C4H4.
Prep. 1. A mixture of alcohol (rectified
spirit), 1 part, and oil of vitriol, 6 parts, is
heated in a retort until it blackens, and sul-
phurous acid begins to be evolved; the product
is then passed first through a wash-bottle con-
taining a solution of caustic potassa or milk of
lime, and next through a bottle containing
concentrated sulphuric acid, the last being
furnished with a tube dipping into the water
of the pneumatic trough.
2. The vapour of boiling alcohol is passed
into a mixture of oil of vitriol diluted with
rather less than one half its weight of water,
and so heated as to be in a state of tran-
quil ebullition (320° to 330° Fahr.); the
gaseous product is chiefly olefiant gas, and the
vapour of water, from which it may be sepa-
rated as above. No sulphurous acid is formed,
nor does the acid blacken as in the last process.
Prop., &c. Colourless; neutral ; nearly
odourless; nearly insoluble in water ; alcohol,
ether, and the volatile and fixed oils, absorb a
portion of it ; burns with a brilliant white
flame; at a full red heat it suffers decompo-
sition, with deposit of carbon and liberation of
light carburetted hydrogen gas; mixed with
twice its volume of chlorime and inflamed,
hydrochloric acid is formed, and the carbon of
the gas is precipitated in the form of dense
black soot ; if the mixture (best in equal
volumes), instead of being kindled, be left
standing over water, it soon condenses into a
heavy oily liquid (chloride of olefiant gas,
Dutch liquid). Sp. gr. 1981; 100 cubic inches
weigh 30°57 grs.
Olefiant Gas, Bromide of. Syn. BROMIDE
OF ETHYLENE. From bromine and olefiant gas,


860 OLEIC ACID—OLEOMETER.
as Dutch liquid. A colourless liquid, with an
ethereal odour, boiling at 265°, and solidifying
at 0°Fahr. Sp. gr. 2:16.
Olefiant Gas, Chlo"ride of Syn. DUTCH
LIQUID, CHLORIDE OF ETHYLENE. This sub-
stance, referred to above, may be easily pre-
pared in any quantity by the following pro-
cess :—Chlorine and olefiant gas (the latter a
little in excess) are conveyed by separate tubes
(passing through the same cork) into a glass
globe, having a narrow funnel-shaped neck at
its lower part, dipping into a small bottle de-
stined to receive the product of their mutual
reaction ; the newly formed liquid trickles
down the sides of the globe into the receiver,
and when a sufficient quantity is collected, it
is purified by agitating it first with water, and
then with sulphuric acid, and, lastly, submitting
it to distillation.
Prop., &c. Colourless; sweet-tasted; agree-
ably fragrant, the odour approaching that of
oil of caraway; slightly soluble in water;
freely so in alcohol and ether ; it sinks in
water; boils at 180° Fahr.; burns with a
smoky greenish flame ; is unaffected by oil of
vitriol ; but decomposed by solution of caustic
potassa. It combines with chlorine, forming
new compounds. See CHLORIDES OF CARBON
(page 294).
O'LEIC ACID. HCls HºOº. Syn. EIAIC ACID.
One of the fatty acids discovered by Chevreul,
and produced by saponifying oils, and then
separating the base from the resulting soap by
means of a dilute acid. It now forms an im-
portant secondary product in the manufacture
of stearic acid. Perfectly pure oleic acid may
be obtained as follows:—
1. By Saponifying olein, as just noticed.
2. Pure almond or olive oil soap is decom-
posed by a dilute acid, and the resulting oily
acid is digested in a water bath with half its
weight of litharge (in very fine powder) for
some hours, constantly stirring ; the mixture
is then agitated with twice its volume of ether
in a close vessel, and in 24 hours the clear
ethereal solution is decanted, and decomposed
with dilute hydrochloric acid ; the oleic acid
separates, and the ether mixed with it is ex-
pelled by evaporation. To render it colour-
less, the acid is again Saponified with caustic
soda, and the soap thus obtained is repeatedly
dissolved in a solution of soda, and as often
separated by adding common salt; this soap is,
lastly, decomposed by dilute hydrochloric acid,
as before.
Prop. &c. A colourless oily acid, insoluble
in water, soluble in alcohol, ether, and oil;
with the bases, it forms salts called oleates.
0'LEIN. CºEIlo,06. Syn. ELAIN ; HUILE
ABSOLUE, Fr. The liquid portion of the
fixed oils and fats. By saponification, it yields
oleic acid.
Prep. 1. Olive oil or almond oil is digested
for 24 hours with a quantity of caustic soda
lye, only sufficient to saponify one half of the
oil, and the undecomposed oily portion (olein) is
then separated from the alkaline solutional
newly formed stearine soap.
2. The saponified mixture of oil and alkali
(see No. 1) is digested with proof spirit until
all the soap is dissolved out, and the Oli
separates and floats on the surface; the latiº,
after repose, is decanted. '
3. Almond or olive oil is agitated in a sū
bottle with 7 or 8 times its weight of strong ||
alcohol (sp. gr. 1798), at nearly the boiling,
point, until the whole is dissolved; the 50l.
tion is next allowed to cool, after which tº
clear upper stratum is decanted from #
stearin which has been deposited, and, aft:
filtration, the spirit is removed by distillatiº ||
at a gentle heat ; by exposure at a very ly
temperature, it deposits any remaining steali
and then becomes pure.
Prop., &c. The products of the last tw
formulae have only a very slight yellow Coloſ,
but may be rendered quite limpid and colour
less by digestion for 24 hours with a lit.
pure, freshly burnt animal charcoal, and Sul.
sequent filtration. In this state the Olein
perfectly neutral to test paper, does not iſ
the slightest degree affect metallic bodies in
mersed in it, and does not thicken by expºsſ
to the greatest cold. Olein is used by Waldº
makers for their fine work. Some years iſ
the product of the last formula was sold by:
certain metropolitan house, as ‘watchmakeſ
oil,’ at 1s. 6d. a drachm. Commercial Olſ
is generally lard oil. The refined oleic acidd
the stearin works also commonly passes und:
the name. Olein burns well in lamps; hiſ
oleic acid does not do so unless when wil
refined and when the wick-tube is so formed:
to remain cool. See LARD OIL and OLEICACI)
OLEOM’ETER. Syn. ELAYoMETER, EIF)
METER, OIL-BALANCE. A delicate areOmēlē
or hydrometer, so weighted and graduated it
to adapt itself to the densities of the leadiº
fixed oils. As the differences of the speci.
gravities of these substances are inconsiderall,
to render it more susceptible the bulb of tº
instrument is proportionately large, and tº
tube or stem very narrow. The scale of tº
oleometer in general use (Gobby's) is divid
into 50 degrees, and it floats at 0 or Zerº iſ
pure poppy oil, at 38 or 38% in pure almºſt
oil, and at 50 in pure olive oil. The standid
temperature of the instruments made inti
country is now 60° ; those made on the Cºl.
timent, 54.5 Fahr. The oil must therefore tº
brought to this normal temperature befº
testing it, by plunging the glass cylinder ().
taining it into either hot or cold water, as tº
case may be; or a correction of the observé
density must be made. The last is donelſ
deducting 2 from the indication of the instrº
ment for each degree of the thermometerahº
the normal temperature of the instrument, and
adding 2 for every degree below it. Thus;
suppose the temperature of the oil at the time
of the experiment is 60° Fahr., and the Olº
meter indicates 61°; then—





OLEO-PHOSPHORIC ACID–OMELET.
861
60.0° Actual temperature.
54'5 Normal temperature.
5.5 Difference.
Indication of the oleometer . 61:0
The difference 5'5 × 2 = 11:0
Real density . 50-0
Suppose the temperature observed at the
time of the experiment is 52°, and the oleo-
meter indicates 45°; then—
54-5 Normal temperature.
520 Actual temperature.
-
2.5 Difference.
Indication of the oleometer . . 45:
The difference 2.5 × 2 = . . 5’
º
50-0
Real density .
The oil is, therefore, presumed to be pure.
See HYDROMETER, OILS (Fixed), and SPECIFIC
GRAVITY.
0/LEO-PHOSPHOR/IC ACID. An acid com-
pound found by Fremy in the brain and
nervous matter.
0LE0-RES/INS. The natural compounds of
resin and essential oil forming the vegetable
balsams and turpentimes. Copaiba, Canada
balsam, and Venice turpentine, are examples.
Certain extracts prepared with ether, as the
fluid extracts of cubebs and pepper in the
Ph. U. S., may be regarded as oleo-resins,
See EXTRACT.
OLEOSAC'CHARUM. Syn. ELAEOSACCHA-
RUM. Sugar aromatised or medicated by
being rubbed up with an essential oil. The
oleosacchara of aniseed, caraway, cinnamon,
peppermint, pennyroyal, and the other like
essential oils, are made by rubbing 15 to 20
drops of the respective oils with white sugar,
1 oz.-The Ph. Graeca 1837 prescribes 1 part
of oil to 20 parts of sugar.—The Ph. Austr.
1836 and Ph. Bor. order the same propor-
tions, or 3 drops of oil to the dr., and 24 drops
to the oz., of powdered sugar. When in-
tended for making extemporaneous distilled
waters, 1 dr. of magnesia is a common addi-
tion. The oleosacchara of citrons, lemons,
oranges, &c., are made from the péels, as fol-
lows:—After cleaning off any specks in the
outer rind of the fruit, rub a large piece of
loaf sugar on it until the yellow rind is com-
pletely removed. Those parts of the sugar
which are impregnated with the essence are,
from time to time, to be cut away with a knife,
and put into an earthen pot. The whole being
thus taken off, the sugared essence (oleosac-
charum) is to be closely pressed down in the
pot, tied over with bladder, and preserved in a
cool place for use.
0LIB'ANUM. Syn, OLIBAN, INDIAN OLI-
BANUM, FRANKINCENSE. A gum resin ob-
tained from Boswellia thurifera or serrata. It
is stimulant, astringent, and diaphoretic. It
is burnt as incense in the temples of India and
in Roman Catholic churches. African or
Arabian olibanum is produced by Boswellia
floribunda. (Royle.) This substance must
not be confounded with the resin noticed at
page 541.
OLIVE, Syn. OLEA, OLIVA, L. The Olea
Europaea (Linn.), a native of the South of
Europe. The unripe fruit is preserved in
brine (SPANISH or TVES, FRENCH of IVEs); the
ripe fruit furnishes olive oil; the bark is
bitter, astringent, and febrifuge, and has been
used as a substitute for cinchona bark; it
yields a gum-like substance (OLIVE GUM),
which was formerly reported vulnerary, and
contains (olivile. The olive tree has in all
ages been held in peculiar estimation, as the
bounteous gift of heaven to man. Some
authors have styled it “a mine on earth.” It
is remarkable for yielding a fixed oil from the
pericarp, instead of from the seed.
OLLIVIER'S BISCUITS. See PATENT ME-
DICINES.
0M/ELET. Syn. OMELETTE, Fr. A variety
of pancake or fritter made of eggs and other
ingredients. Omelets may contain bacon, ham,
herbs, fish, shell-fish, cold meat, cold game,
fruit, or anything else at hand at the pleasure
of the cook. “Spirit omelets” are made by
pouring a little brandy, rum, or whisky over
them on serving them up, and setting it on
fire for a moment just before placing the dish
on the table. “Where is the man or woman
cook but says they know how to make an ome-
lette, and that to perfection ? But this is
rarely the case. It is related of Sarah, the
Duchess of Marlborough, that no one could
cook a “fraise,’ as it was then called, for the
great duke but herself. The great point is, if
in an iron pan, it should be very clean and free
from damp, which sometimes comes out of the
iron when placed on the fire. The best plan
is to put it on the fire, with a little fat, and
let it get quite hot, or until the fat burns;
remove it, and wipe it clean with a dry cloth,
and then you will be able to make the omelette
to perfection.” (Soyer.)
The following formula for a plain omelet is
by the above culinary authority:-‘‘Break four
eggs into a basin, add # teaspoonful of salt
and # do. of pepper, and beat them up well
with a fork; put into the frying-pan 1% oz. of
butter, lard, or oil, place it on the fire, and,
when hot, pour in the eggs, and keep on mixing
them quickly with a spoon until they are deli-
cately set ; then let them slip to the edge of
the pan, laying hold by the handle, and raising
it slantways, which will give an elongated
form to the omelette; turn in the edges, let
it rest a moment, to set, turn it over on to a
dish, and serve.” “It ought to be of a rich-
yellow colour, done to a nicety, and as light
and delicate as possible.” “2 table-spoonfuls
862 - ONGUENT—OPIUM.
of milk and 1 oz. of the crum of bread, cut
into thin slices, may be added.”
MIXED and FANCY OMELETS are made by
simply dropping the ingredients, cut into dice
or fragments, into the above. ANCHOVY,
OYSTER, and SHRIMP OMELETs are generally
prepared by placing a few spoonfuls of the
respective sauces in the centre of each, when
nearly dressed.
ONGUENT (de la Mere). A stimulant and
digestive ointment, very popular in French
pharmacy.
Prep. (P. Cod.) Black pitch, 1 part ;
butter, lard, litharge, suet and yellow wax,
4 parts; olive oil, 8 parts.
ON'ION. Syn. CEPA, L. The bulb of Allium
Cepa. The onion is diuretic, expectorant,
rubefacient, and stimulant. The juice, made
into a syrup with sugar (SYRUPUS CEPE), has
been given in chronic catarrh, diarrhoea, croup,
dropsy, and calculus. Roasted and split open,
onions have been applied as poultices to suppu-
rating tumours, and applied to the pubes to
relieve suppression of urine in children. Ac-
cording to Dr. Cullen, “onions are acrid and
stimulating, and possess little nutrient power.
In bilious constitutions they generally produce
flatulence, thirst, headache, and febrile symp-
toms; but where the temperament is phleg-
matic, they are of infinite service, by stimu-
lating the system, and promoting the excre-
tions, particularly expectoration and urine.”
They also possess antiscorbutic and soporific
properties.
O'NYX. A sub-species of quartz often
wrought into small ornamental articles.
Among jewellers, any stone exhibiting layers
of two or more colours, strongly contrasted,
is called an ‘onyx.” A regularly and richly
banded agate of this class is much prized for
cameos. See GEMS.
0'PAL. A mineral allied to agate and
chalcedony, but distinguished by its peculiar
resinous lustre. The variety most admired as
a gem is the precious or noble opal, which is
remarkable for its beautiful play of colours.
See GEMS and PASTES.
OPHTHAL/MIA. Syn. OPHTHALMITIS, L.
Inflammation of the eye. In ordinary cases
this disease is confined to the external mem-
brane of the globe of the eye, or to the eyelids;
but it occasionally attacks the sclerotica,
cornea, choroid coat, and retina.
The common causes of ordinary or conjunc-
tival ophthalmia are the sudden exposure of
the organ to a cold easterly wind, to dust,
gritty particles, or to any external irritation.
or injury.
The symptoms are, in part, those common
to local inflammation. The eye or eyelids
become more or less bloodshot, swollen, and
tender, and a sensation resembling that in-
duced by the presence of particles of sand
or some gritty substance, accompanied by much
heat and a pricking pain, is almost constantly
experienced. The secretion becomes yellow-
ish and glutinous, and during the night fº
quently glues, as it were, the lids together
Sometimes only one eye is attacked, but aft:
2 or 3 days the disease extends to the other
The treatment of mild cases of conjunctival
ophthalmia is extremely simple. In general
it may be relieved by fomentations of warm
water or decoction of poppy-heads and th:
use of aperient medicines, to which leeches and
cupping may often be added with advantagº
Severe cases should be treated by the medical
practitioner only.
0"PIATES. Syn. OPIATA, L. Preparations
containing opium. The word is often applied
in a general sense to anodynes and Soporifics
In French pharmacy, the name is commonly
used synonymously with confections, as in the
following preparations:—
ANTI-DYSENTERIC OPIATE–Quarin. Puri.
fied opium, 4 grs. ; ipecacuanha, dr.; tº:
mentilla, 1 dr. ; syrup of whortleberries and
conserve of red roses, of each, 6 drs.--Dose. A
teaspoonful every hour.
ANTI-IIYSTERICAL OPIATE–Trousseau and
Reveil. Powdered indigo, 1 oz. ; whitehony
3 oz.-Dose. 1 table-spoonful daily, gradually
increased until the whole is taken in a day.
In hysteria, epilepsy, and nervous affections ºf
an epileptic character.
BALSAMIC OPIATE–Trousseau and Revel.
Oleo-resin (balsam) of copaiba, 1 oz.; cubes
(in powder), 3 oz. ; potassio-tartrate of iron,
2% drs. ; syrup of quince, q. S. In gleet-
Dose, 3 boluses the size of a mut, thric
daily.
CHARCOAL OPIATE–Ratier. Willow char.
coal (recent), 1 oz. ; prepared chalk, 1 dº
powdered white sugar, 2 oz. ; rose water, q's
to form an electuary. In diarrhoea and in
cipient cholera, in dysentery with fetid stol;
and in gastralgia, flatulence, &c. By substi.
tuting calcined magnesia for chalk, it become
an excellent remedy for habitual constipation
CUBEB OPIATE–Deyeaux. Powdered cubes
4 drs. ; powdered camphor, 1 dr.; mix, and
divide it into 18 powders.--Dose. One, 30!!
times daily, in gleet, painful and scalding
micturition, &c.
0"PIUM. Syn. OPIUM (B.P., Ph. L. P. &
D.), L. The juice inspissated by spontaneous
evaporation, obtained by incision from the
unripe capsules of the Papaver somniferſ
grown in Asia Minor.
War.—1." EGYPTIAN ; in roundish flattened
lumps; inferior to Turkish opium.–2, ENG:
LISH; often equal to the best Smyrna-3
FRENCH ; resembles the last.—4. GERMAN:
similar to English opium,_5. INDIAN;-d
BENARES, in large balls;–b. MALWA, in
roundish flattened cakes, of 9 or 10 07, in
weight each;-c. PATNA, in balls or square
cakes; inferior to Turkey opium.–6, III.
VANT; same as Smyrna opium.–7. PER:
SIAN ; in rolls, or sticks, 6 × 4 inch; inferior;
resembles hepatic aloes in appearance-8
SMYRNA; in irregular, rounded, flattend


OPIUM.
863
pieces, varying in weight from 2 or 3 lbs. to
only as many oz. It forms the best variety of
Turkey opium, and is particularly rich in mor-
phia. It is the only one adapted for the
manufacture of the salts of morphia, as it
contains on the average from 7 to 9% of that
alkaloid, and usually yields about 12 to 12.5%
of hydrochlorate of morphia, which is more
than can be obtained from any other variety
of opium.—9. TURKEY ; of which two varie-
ties are known in commerce, viz., Constan-
tinople opium and Levant or Smyrna opium,
noticed above. Constantinople opium is gene-
rally in small, flattened, roundish cakes, 2 to
2% inches in diameter, and covered with poppy
leaves. It is more mucilaginous and less es-
teemed than Smyrna opium, from which it
may be distinguished by the last being always
covered with the reddish capsules of a species
of Rumex.
Pur. The opium of commerce is not unfre-
quently adulterated with extract of poppies,
extract of lettuce, lactucarium, mucilage of
gum tragacanth, dried leaves, starch, water,
clay, sand, gravel, and other substances, in
order to increase its weight. This fraud is
readily detected by inspection, by chemical
analysis, and the microscope; and indirectly,
with the greatest certainty, by a simple assay
of the sample for its morphia (morphiometry).
This may be effected by one or other of the
following methods:–
1. (Couerbe.) Opium, 4 parts, and quick-
lime, 1 part, made into a milk with water,
q. S., are boiled together, and the solution
filtered whilst hot; dilute hydrochloric acid is
then added, to saturation, and the morphia
precipitated by the addition of ammonia,
any excess of the latter being expelled by
heat; the precipitate is then collected, dried,
and weighed. If 100 grs. have been ope-
rated on, the given weight will represent the
per-centage richness of the sample in morphia
(nearly).
2. (Guilliermond.) 100 grs. of opium are tri-
turated for some time in a mortar along with
4 times its weight of rectified spirit, and the
tincture strained through linen, with expres-
sion, into a wide-mouthed bottle; the marc is
triturated a second time with about 3 times
its weight of alcohol, and the tincture strained
into the bottle as before ; to the mixed tinc-
ture is added a fl. dr. of liquor of ammonia,
and the whole is agitated for a short-time. In
about 12 hours the morphia spontaneously
separates, accompanied with some narcotina
and meconate of ammonium ; the morphia
covering the interior of the vessel with large,
coloured, and gritty crystals, feeling like sand,
and the narcotina crystallising in very light,
small, white, and pearly needles. These crys-
tals are washed with water, either through a
paper filter or linen, to free them from the
meconate of ammonia which they contain;
after which the marcotina is separated from
the morphia by decantation in water, which
removes the marcotina, which is the lighter of
the two. According to M. Mialhe, however,
the morphia is more effectually removed by
washing the crystals with 1 to 1% fl. dr. of
ether, by triturating the two together, when
the morphia is left in an insoluble state, and
may then be dried and weighed.
3. (Ph. E.) Macerate 100 grs. of opium for
24 hours in 2 fl. oz. of water, filter, and
strongly squeeze the residue; then precipitate
theinfusion with carbonate of sodium, #oz., dis-
solved in cold water, 2 fl. oz. ; gently heat the
precipitate until it shrinks and fuses, then
cool and weigh it. It should weigh at least
10 grs, and, when powdered, be entirely so-
luble in a solution of oxalic acid. See also
Watts’ ‘Dic. of Chemistry,’ article, OPIUM.
Tests. These depend chiefly on the chemical
and physical characters of morphia and me-
conic acid, the tests for which have been
already noticed. In operating upon the con-
tents of the stomach, or upon solid organs, in
cases of suspected poisoning, the best method
of proceeding is that already described under
ALKALOID.
Another method is to boil the substances
in water slighīly acidulated with acetic acid,
next to evaporate the solution to the consist-
ence of a thick syrup, and then to treat it
twice with boiling rectified spirit; the tincture
thus obtained is to be filtered when cold, and
again evaporated to the consistence of syrup;
it is now re-dissolved in distilled water, the
filtrate treated with solution of subacetate of
lead, and the precipitate of meconate of lead,
separated by filtration, and carefully preserved.
A current of sulphuretted hydrogen is then
passed through the solution, to precipitate ex-
cess of lead, and after again filtering it the
liquid is evaporated, at first in a water bath,
and afterwards under the receiver of an air-
pump. The shapeless mass of crystals thus
obtained present all the characters of mor-
phia, if the substance examined contained
opium. In the mean time the precipitate of
meconate of lead is to be boiled with water
acidulated with sulphuric acid, and the inso-
luble sulphate of lead separated by filtration;
the filtered liquid, by evaporation, furnishes
meconic acid, either under the form of crys-
tals or an amorphous powder, the solution of
which precipitates ferric salts of a deep blood-
red.
The following are additional tests to those
already noticed:—
1. From the peculiar odour of opium, often
perceptible when the drug has been taken
only in very small quantities.
2. A solution containing crude opium is
turned of a deep red colour, or, if coloured, it
is turned of a reddish-brown, and is darkened,
by tincture of ferric chloride.
3. (Hare.) A portion of the suspected liquid
is poured into a beaker glass, and a few drops
of solution of acetate of lead are added to it;
the whole is stirred frequently for 10 or 12.
-



864. OPIUM.
hours, and then allowed to settle, after which
the supernatant liquid is decanted; 20 or 30
drops each of dilute sulphuric acid and solu-
tion of ferric sulphate are next poured on the
precipitate (meconate of lead), when a deep
and beautiful red colour will be developed, if
the original liquid contained opium.
4. (Dr. Rieget.) The suspected substance is
mixed with some potassa, and is then agitated
with ether; a strip of white unsized paper is
next several times moistened with the solu-
tion, and when dry it is re-moistened with
hydrochloric acid, and exposed to the steam of
hot water. The paper assumes a red colour,
more or less deep, if opium is present.
Uses, &c. Opium is one of the most valuable
substances employed in medicine. In small
doses it acts as a powerful and diffusible stimu-
lant, in somewhat larger ones it is narcotic,
and in excessive doses it proves an active nar-
cotic poison. It is also anodyne, antispas-
modic, diaphoretic, Soporific, and sedative, its
peculiar action being greatly modified by the
dose and the condition of the patient. Its
action as a stimulant is followed by sedative
effects, which are, in general, much more
marked than could be expected from the
degree of previous excitement it induces. It
is employed to fulfil a variety of indications—
to procure sleep, to lull pain, allay irritation,
check morbid discharges, alleviate cough and
spasm, &c. &c. It also, when judiciously ad-
ministered, renders the body less susceptible
of external impressions, as those of cold, con-
tagion, &c.; but it is injurious when the pulse
is high, the heat of the body above the natural
standard, and the skin dry, or when there is a
disposition to local inflammation or congestion.
When applied externally, in the form of fric-
tions, limiments, ointments, &c., it is absorbed,
and produces similar effects to those produced
by swallowing it, but in this way it requires
to be used in larger quantities.—Dose. As a
stimulant, # gr., every 2 or 3 hours; as an
anodyne and antispasmodic, # to 1. gr. ; as a
soporific, to 2 grs. ; in violent spoSms, neu-
ralgia, acute rheumatism, &c., 2 to 4 grs.,
increased in delirium tremens, hydrophobia,
mania, tetanus, &c., to several times that
quantity, according to circumstances.
The use of opium as a stimulant and intoxi-
cant is common among the nations of the
East. The Turks chew it, and the Chinese
smoke a watery extract of it, under the name
of ‘chundoo.” Of late years opium-eating
and laudanum-taking have, unfortunately,
been greatly on the increase in this country,
and the employment of this drug as a soporific
for infants and young children has become so
general amongst the poor and dissipated as
to call for the interference of the legislature.
The first effect of opium, as a stimulant, is to
excite the mental powers and to elevate those
faculties proper to man ; but its habitual use
impairs the digestive organs, induces consti-
pation, and gradually lessens the energy of
both the mind and body. In excessive qual
tities, it destroys the memory, induces fatuity
and a state of wretchedness and misery, which
after a few years is cut short by a prematuſ:
death. In this respect the effects of the tº
cessive use of opium closely resembles thos ºf
fermented liquors.
Pois.--Symptoms. Headache; drowsines;
stupor; frightful reveries; vertigo; Cºl.
tracted pupil (generally); scanty urine; pl.
ritus or dry itching of the skin, often accom,
panied by a papular eruption; thirst; drynts
of mouth and throat; weak and low pulsº
vomiting ; respiration, generally, natural
Sometimes the drowsiness or sleep is calm all
peaceful.—Ant., &c. Vomiting must be il.
duced as soon as possible, by means of a str),
emetic and tickling the fauces. If this dº
not succeed, the stomach-pump should be aſ
plied. The emetic may consist of a dr.
sulphate of zinc dissolved in pint of warm
water, of which one third should be taken it
once, and the remainder at the rate of a wing:
glassful every 5 or 10 minutes, until vomiting
commences. When there is much drowsines
or stupor, 1 or 2 fl. drs. of tincture of capsicum
will be found a useful addition; or one of th:
formulae for emetic draughts given at page All
(especially No. 7) may be taken instead. In
fusion of galls, cinchona, or oak-bark, shoul
be freely administered before the emetic, and
water soured with vinegar and lemon juitº
after the stomach has been well cleared Out
Torouse the system, spirit-and-water,0r strºng
coffee, may be given. To keep the suffer:
awake, rough friction should be applied to th:
skin, an upright posture preserved, and Wilk
ing exercise enforced, if necessary. Whº
this is ineffectual, cold water may be dash;
over the chest, head, and spine, or mild shº
of electricity may be had recourse to, ſº
allow the sufferer to sleep is to abandon him tº
destruction. Bleeding may be subsequent
necessary in plethoric habits, or in threated
congestion. The costiveness that accompanis
convalescence may be best met by aromat.
aperients; and the general tone of the hali
restored by stimulating tonics and the show:
bath. The smallest fatal dose of opium intº
case of an adult, within our recollection, wº
4} grs. Children are much more susceptik
of the action of opium than of other mei
cines, and hence the dose of it for them mus
be diminished considerably below that indi
cated by the common method of calculatiºn
depending on the age. See DOSES, &c.
Concluding remarks. Opium is a very com:
plicated substance, and contains a numberſ
alkaloids and other proximate vegetable priº
ciples, besides a certain portion of saline mit.
ter. The substances already detected in iſ
are caoutchouc, codein, fatty matter, lighi,
meconic acid, meconia, morphia, nartti,
narcotia, odorous matter, opiania, papayeri,
pseudomorphia (?), porphyroxin, resin, Saliſt
matter, &c. It is doubtful, however, wheth:



OPODELDOC–ORANGEADE.
365
some of these substances are not generated from
other principles existing in opium, during the
processes adopted to obtain them.
According to Mulder, 100 parts of ordinary
Smyrna opium contain—
Morphia 10'842 *
Codeia •678
Narcotia 6'808
Narceia 6'662
Meconia ‘804
Mecomic acid 5-154
Resin . - 3'582
Gummy matter . 26'24.2
Mucus - 19:086
Fatty matter 2:166
Caoutchouc. 6'012
Water - - . 9'846
Matter undetermined and
loss - - - 2.118
100°
The sp. gr. of Smyrna opium is 1:336.
*** The following preparations, once famous,
are now nearly obsolete in this country. Those
that are made with cold water, or by fermenta-
tion, are supposed to be milder than crude
opium, and in this respect to be similar to
‘BLACK DROP.”
Opium, Homberg's. Opium exhausted by
repeated coction in 10 or 12 times its weight
of water, and the mixed liquors evaporated to
one third, and kept boiling for 2 or 3 days,
adding water from time to time, then strain-
ing and evaporating to a pilular consistence.
BAUMé's PURIFIED ORIUM is similar.
Opium, Launcelotte's. Opium, 1 lb.; quince
juice, 1 gall. ; pure potassa, 1 oz. ; sugar, 4 oz. ;
ferment for some time, evaporate to a syrup,
digest in rectified spirit, filter, and evaporate
the tincture.
Opium, Let'tuce. Lactucarium.
Opium, Neumann's. Infusion of opium,
strained, mixed with a little sugar, and fer-
mented for some months in a warm place;
and, lastly, strained and evaporated to an
extract, or preserved in the liquid form.
Opium, Powell's. Opium, exhausted by coc-
tion with water, the residuum treated with
spirit of wine, and the mixed tincture and de-
coction evaporated to an extract.
Opium, Pu’rified. Syn. OPIUM PURIFICA-
TUM, L. The purified opium of old pharmacy
is now represented by the aqueous extract of
the Pharmacopoeias. (See page 498.) For-
merly, picked opium, beaten to a pilular con-
sistence, with the addition of a little water or
proof spirit, was called ‘SoFT PURIFIED OPIUM’
(OPIUM PURIFICATUM MoLLE); and picked
opium dried in a water bath until brittle
enough for powdering, was called ‘HARD PURI-
FIED OPIUM (o. P. DURUM). CoRNETTE's and
JossE's PURIFIED OPIUM are similar to the
extract of Ph. L.
Opium, Quercetan's.
porated to an extract,
Winegar of opium eva-
Opium, Strained. Syn. ExTRACTUM THE-
BAICUM, OPIUM CoIATUM, OPIUM PURIFICA-
TUM, L. Opium dissolved or softened in an
equal weight of water, passed through can-
was, and evaporated to the consistence of an
extract. It is now superseded by the aqueous
extract.
Opium, Tor'refied. Syn. RossTED opIUM ;
OPIUM ToBREFACTUM, L. Opium, dried, cut
into thin slices, and roasted on an iron plate,
at a low heat, as long as it emits vapours, care
being taken not to burn it.
OPODEL'I)00. 1. See LINIMENT OF SOAP.
2. (STEER's opod ELDoc.) This, which differs
from common opodeldoc chiefly in containing
more soap, is prepared as follows:–
a. White Castile soap (cut very small), 2 lbs.;
camphor, 5 oz. ; oil of rosemary, 1 oz.; oil
of origanum, 2 oz. ; rectified spirit, 1 gall. ;
mix, and digest in a strong bottle (closely
corked), by the heat of a water bath, until
solution is complete; when the liquid has con-
siderably cooled, add of liquor of ammonia,
11 oz., and immediately put it into wide-
mouthed bottles (Steer's), cork them close,
and tie them over with bladder. Very fine,
solid and transparent when cold.
b. Soap, 4 oz. ; camphor, 1 oz.; oil of rose-
mary and origanum, of each, 1 dr. ; rectified
spirit, 1 pint; liquor of ammonia, 1% fl.oz. ; mix.
c. (Phil. Col. of Pharm.) White soap, 28
oz. ; camphor, 8 oz. ; rectified spirit, 6% pints;
dissolve, suffer the impurities to subside, add
of liquor of ammonia, 4 fl.oz. ; oils of rosemary
and horsemint, of each, 1 fl. oz.; and pour it
into phials, as before.
ORANGE. Syn. AURANTIUM, L. The com-
mon SWEET ORANGE is the fruit of Citrus Au-
ranțium. The SEVILLE or BITTER ORANGE is
produced by Citras vulgaris or Bigaradia.
Oranges are probably about the most whole-
some and useful of all the subacid fruits.
Their juice differs from that of lemons chiefly
in containing less citric acid and more sugar.
In their general properties the two are nearly
similar.
FACTITIOUS or ANGE JUICE is made by dis-
solving citric acid, 1 oz., and carbonate of po-
tassa, 1 dr., in water, 1 quart, and digesting
the solution on the peel of half an orange,
until sufficiently flavoured; Narbonne honey or
white sugar is then added to impart the neces-
rary sweetness. Instead of orange peel, 5 or
6 drops of oil of orange peel, with , fl. oz. of
tincture of orange peel, may be used.
ORANGE PEEL (CORTEX AURANTII) is an
agreeable, stomachic, bitter tonic, especially
useful as an adjunct to more active medicines.
That ordered to be used in medicine is the ex-
terior (yellow) rind of the Citras Bigaradia,
or bitter orange, dried in the months of Feb-
ruary, March, or April. See CANDYING, INFU-
SION, ISSUE PEAs, OILs (Volatile), &c.
ORANGEADE'. Syn. ORANGE SHERBET.
From oranges or orange flavour, in the same
way as LEMONADE from lemons, &c. 55


866 ORANGE CHROME–ORES.
ORANGE CHROME. Prep. 1. From a
solution of chromate of potash and diacetate of
lead, as chrome yellow.
2. From chrome yellow or chromate of lead,
by acting on it with a weak alkaline lye until
sufficiently darkened. Used as a pigment.
ORANGE DYES. These are produced from
mixtures of red and yellow dyes in various
proportions; or by passing the cloth, pre-
viously dyed yellow, through a weak red bath.
A very good fugitive orange may be given with
annotta, by passing the goods through a solu-
tion made with equal parts of annotta and
pearlash, or, still better, through a bath made
of 1 part of annotta, dissolved in a lye of 1 part
each of lime and pearlash, and 2 parts of soda.
The shade may be reddened by passing the
dyed goods through water acidulated with
vinegar, lemon juice, or citric acid, or through
a solution of alum. The goods are sometimes
passed through a weak alum mordant before
immersion in the dye-bath. See ANNOTTA,
DYEING, &c.
ORANGE RED. Syn. SANDIx. From white
lead, by calcination, in a nearly similar man-
ner to that by which red lead is prepared from
the protoxide. Brighter than red lead; used
wholly as a pigment.
OR/ANGERY. The gallery, building, or en-
closure in a garden, in which orange trees are
preserved or cultivated, to shield them from
the effects of the external winter, or to assist
their growth by artificial heat.
OR/CHARD. See CIDER.
0R/CEIN. C.H.N.O. Syn. LICHEN LARE.
A brownish-red powder, obtained by dissolving
orcin in ammonia, exposing the solution to the
air, and then precipitating with dilute acetic
acid. It is nearly insoluble in water, but dis-
solves freely in solutions of ammonia and the
fixed alkalies, with the production of a rich
purple or violet colour. It probably consti-
tutes the leading tinctorial ingredient in AR-
CHIL, CUDBEAR, and LITMUs. (See below.)
0R/CHIL: See ARCHIL.
OR/CIN. C.HsO2. The general product of
the decomposition of the acids obtained from
the tinctorial lichens under the influence of
heat or the alkaline earths.
Prep. 1. The powdered lichen is treated
with boiling alcohol, the tincture filtered whilst
hot, and again after it has become cold; the
alcohol is then removed by distillation, and
the remainder evaporated to the consistence of
a syrup; this is redissolved in water, and the
solution is again filtered and evaporated to a
syrup; it is then set aside some days, in a cool
place, and the crystals of orcin which form are
collected, and dried by pressure in bibulous
paper. Impure.
2. Lecanoric or orsenillic acid (impure will
do) is boiled in baryta water, and the excess of
baryta is precipitated by carbonic acid; the fil-
tered liquid is then evaporated to a small bulk,
and set aside to crystallise, as before.
Prop., &c. Large, square, prismatic crystals;
slightly yellowish ; intensely sweet; very &
luble in both water and alcohol; melt tº :
syrupy liquid, and then distil unchanged. Al
kalies decompose it; when exposed to the iſ
it gradually reddens. (See above.)
.0R/ELLIN. A yellow colouring matter tº:
tained together with bixin in annotta, Iti
soluble in water and in alcohol, slightly solull.
in ether, and dyes alumed goods yellow. Al
the name sometimes given to purified annotii
The commercial annotta is dissolved in a
alkaline solution, either caustic or carbonati
and then precipitated by an acid.
ORES. The mineral bodies from whit
metals are obtained. The processes ado);
for this purpose constitute opBRATIVE METI
LURGY; those by which their value is deſ:
mined, MINERAL ASSAYING. The last Ol
will be noticed here.
Assay. Three general methods are adopt:
for this purpose:–
1. (MECHANICAL.) This consists in pulveſ:
ing the ore by any convenient method, and tº
pertly washing a given weight of it (say:10
grs.) in a wooden bowl or capsule with Wald
so as to remove the earthy gangues from tº
denser and valuable metallic matter in such
way that none of the latter may be lost, Ti
is the common plan adopted with aurifº
sands, the ores of tin after they have pºsſ
the stamping-mill, galena, gray antimony &
and may either be employed as an independ:
process or merely as preparatory to more tº
investigations. When galena is thus tº
the product is a nearly pure sulphide of lº
of which every grain is equivalent to 86%
metallic lead, the rest being sulphur. Tº
results with gray antimony ore are stillmº
direct, since the product is only meltediº
pigs before being sent to market. In tº
state it contains 73% (nearly) of metal
antimony.
2. (HUMID.) Assays in the ‘humid W.
are true chemical analyses, and are desić
under the head “lºstim.’ attached to mº
the more important minerals noticed in tº
work. This plan offers greater facilities a
gives more accurate results than either ºf tº
other methods.
3. (DRY.) Of the methods of assay intº
‘ dry way,’ the following are the most accum!
generally useful, and easily applied:–
a. (Dr. Abiche.) The mineral is reduced
powder, and mixed with 5 or 6 times itswai;
of carbonate of barium, also in powder; tº
mixture is fused at a white heat in a platinº
crucible, and the resulting slag, after bei;
powdered, is exhausted with hydrochlorica:
This process answers well with both stonyº
metallic minerals, the most refractory of wi
give way under this treatment.
b. (Liebig.) Into a crucible containing®
mercial cyanide of potassium, a weighed qual
tity of the ore, in the state of fine powder;
sprinkled, when the metallic oxides and sº
phides which it contains are almost imme

ORGANIC BASES-ORGANIC SUBSTANCES.
867
diately reduced to the metallic state, and may
be separated from the scoria by edulcoration
with water. With the oxides and sulphides
of antimony and tin, this reduction occurs at a
dull red heat; with the compounds of copper,
it occurs with the disengagement of light.
and heat; but an ore of iron requires to
be mixed with a little carbonate of potassium
or of sodium before throwing it into the fused
cyanide, and to be then submitted to a full
red heat for a short time, before it is reduced
to the reguline state. In this case any man-
ganese present in the ore of iron is left under
the form of protoxide. A mixture of about
equal parts of dry carbonate of sodium and
cyanide of potassium answers better for the
crucible than the cyanide alone. See ALLOYS,
METALLURGY, &c.; also PERCY’s METALLURGY.
ORGAN'IC BASES. These interesting bodies
may be divided into two classes: the first com-
prising those which occur ready formed in ma-
ture (ALKALOIDS); and the second, those pro-
duced by artificial processes in the laboratory
(ARTIFICIAL ALKALOIDS, ARTIFICIAL ORGANIC
BASES). They all contain the element NITRO-
GEN. The natural bases have already been de-
scribed under ALKALOID (which see). The
bases of artificial origin are mostly volatile,
and their constitution is much simpler than
that of the native bases. Of the vast num-
ber which have been formed, the following are,
perhaps, the most interesting:—ETHYLAMINE,
METHYLAMINE, AMYLAMINE, ANILINE, NAPH-
THYLAMINE, CHINOLINE, and PICOLINE. These
and other bodies of the class are noticed under
their respective heads.
ORGAN’IC SUBSTANCES. We have re-
served a notice of the methods of estimating
the quantity of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and
nitrogen, in organic compounds, until now,
in order to present them to the reader in a
more useful and connected form. The opera-
tion essentially consists, in respect of the
first three, in causing the complete combustion
of a known quantity of the substance under
examination, in such a manner that the car-
bonic acid and water thus produced shall
be collected, and their quantity determined.
From these the proportions of their elements
are easily calculated. The estimation of the
quantity of nitrogen (as is also the case with
chlorine, phosphorus, sulphur, &c.) requires a
separate operation. The two great classes of
organic bodies (azotised and non-azotised) are
readily distinguished from each other by
heating a small portion with some solid hydrate
of potassa, in a test tube. If nitrogen is
present, it is converted into ammonia, which
may be recognised by its characteristic odour
and its alkaline reaction.
1. Estimation of the CARBON, HYDROGEN,
and OXYGEN.—a. The method of Prof. Liebig,
now almost exclusively adapted for this pur-
pose, is as follows:—The substance under ex-
amination, reduced to powder, is rendered as
dry as possible, either by the heat of a water
bath or by exposure over concentrated sulphuric
acid, in vacuo; 5 or 6 grs. of it are then weighed
in a narrow open test tube, 2 or 3 inches long,
and to ensure accuracy this tube and any little
adhering matter is again weighed after its
contents have been removed—the difference
between the two weights being regarded as the
true quantity of the substance employed in the
experiment. A “combustion tube, of hard
white Bohemian glass (4 to 5 inch diam.;
14 to 18 inches long), is next taken, and about
2-3rds filled with black oxide of copper, pre-
pared by the ignition of the nitrate, and which
has been just reheated to expel hygrometric
moisture. Nearly the whole of this oxide,
whilst still warm, is then gradually poured
from the tube and triturated with the organic
sample in a dry and warm mortar, after which
the mixture is transferred to the combustion
tube, and the mortar being rinsed out with a
little fresh oxide, which is added to the rest,
the tube is, lastly, nearly filled with some warm
oxide fresh from the crucible. The contents
of the tube are next arranged in a proper
position by a few gentle blows, so as to leave
a small passage for the evolved gases from the
one end of the tube to the other. (See engr.)
The “combustion tube” with its “charge ' is
next placed in a “furnace’ or ‘chauffer” of thin
sheet iron (see figure newt page). Its open
end is then connected with a “drying tube'
filled withfragments of fused chloride of calcium,
and carefully weighed.
This tube is, in its turn, con-
nected with a small glass
(“Liebig’s potash bulbs’)
containing solution of pure
potassa of sp. gr. 1:27, also
carefully weighed. The
junction with the first is
made by means of a per-
forated cork; that with the
second, by means of a small tube of India
rubber tied with silk, the whole being made
quite air-tight. The apparatus is then tested
by sucking a few bubbles through the liquid
with the dry lips, when, if the level of the
solution of potassa in the two legs continues
unequal for some minutes, the joints are
regarded as perfect. The whole arrangement
being complete (see engr.), burning charcoal is
now placed in the furnace around the front
part of the combustion tube, and when this has
become red-hot the screen is slowly moved
back, and more burning charcoal is added,
until the furthest extremity of the tube has
been exposed to its action. (Gas, burned in
furnaces specially contrived for the purpose, is



868 ORGANIC SUBSTANCES-OR-MOLU.
now usually employed instead of charcoal.) without any violence or inconvenience, all
The firing is so regulated that the gas enters
the potassa apparatus in bubbles easily counted,
is kept up as long as gas is extricated,
soon as the operation is complete, and tº
slightest retrogade action is observed, the apparatus and the chloride of calcium tº
charcoal is removed from the combustion tube, are, lastly, detached, and again accurſ.
and the extreme point of this last is broken weighed. The increase in the weight of
off. A little air is then sucked through the first gives the weight of the carbonic tº
apparatus in order to seize on any remaining formed during the combustion; that ºft
carbonic-acid gas and moisture. The potash second, the weight of the water.
GT. Gr.
1 gr. of Carbonic acid = 0.27273 of Carbon + 0.72727 of Oxygen.
1 , Water
= 9:11112
... less . . . 0-38385
2
The numbers equivalent to any given number
of grains, found as above, are converted into
the proportions per cent. by simply dividing
them by the weight of the organic substance
which has been employed in the experiment,
and moving the decimal point of the result
two figures to the right.
b. In applying the preceding method to
volatile liquids, it is necessary to enclose them
in a small bulb with a narrow neck, instead of
mixing them directly with the protoxide of
copper. The bulb with its contents is intro-
duced into the combustion tube, and after some
6 or 8 inches of the protoxide is heated to red-
mess, a hot coal is applied near where the bulb
is situated, so that the liquid which it contains
may be slowly volatilised and passed through
the heated mass in the state of vapour, and be
thus completely burned.
2. Estimation of the NITROGEN.—a. Several
methods are employed for this purpose, but
the only one of general application, and adapted
to the non-scientific operator, is that of MM.
Warrentrap and Will, described under GUANo.
To ensure correct results, the caustic soda
must be pure, and the lime of good quality
and well burnt. The last, having been properly
slaked with a little water holding the former
in solution, the mixture is thoroughly dried in
an iron vessel, and then heated to full redness
in an earthen crucible. The ignited mass is
rubbed to powder in a warm dry mortar, and
either used at once or carefully preserved from
the air. The best quantity of the organic
substance to operate on is, in this case, about
10 grs., which must be dried, and accurately
weighed with the usual precautions. Bodies
very rich in either nitrogen or hydrogen are
best mixed with about an equal weight of pure
sugar before triturating them with the soda-
lime. MM. Warrentrap and Will weigh the
nitrogen under the form of double chloride of
, Hydrogen + 0.88888 32
. . equal to 1-61615 35
platinum and ammonium, dried at 212°F.
This salt contains 6:27.2% of nitrogen,
b. M. Péligot has modified the prºl
plan by conducting the gaseous matter tº
cated during the operation into a threel
tube charged with a standard solution ºf
phuric acid. This he subsequently poursi.
a beaker-glass, and after tinging it with as:
drop of tincture of litmus, he tests it iſ
either a standard aqueous solution of sºilſ
one of lime in sweetened water, after the tº
mon method of alkalimetry. The diffeº
between the saturating power of the aſſi:
its normal condition and after its exposuº
the condenser indicates the amount of ammº
formed. (See GUANo.) Each grain of ammº
contains 82353 gr. of nitrogen.
Concluding remarks. The successful.
cation of the above processes requires tº
rable care and some aptitude in manipuliº
as well as the employment of a very diº
balance for determining the weights
greater error in the weighings than the #:
cannot be tolerated when exact results tº
sired. The method of MM. Warrentº
Will for the determination of nitrogen alsº
admirably for all organic compounds ºntº
ing it, except those in which it exists undº
form of hyponitrous, nitrous, and nitricº
for which, however, it is not required. Wº
extreme accuracy is aimed at, the atmosphº
air in the apparatus, and that absorbed it
the preliminary operations by the subsº
employed, must be expelled before the ſº
cation of heat to the combustion tube,
OR-MOLU'. [Fr.] This name is giru.
gold-coloured brass or bronze, so finishedſ:
to have the appearance of gold, or of lº
gilt ; but it is often applied in a more gºl
sense. The French more particularly tº
in working in or-molu, and the product
this branch of their industry hold an º'


ORMSKIRK MEDICINE–OX.
869
gogue, irritant, subacrid, and errhine.
portant position in the art manufactures of
France.
To give or-molu its richest appearance, “it
is not unfrequently brightened up after ‘dip-
ping’ (that is cleaning in acid) by means of a
scratch-brush (a brush made of very fine brass
wire), the action of which helps to produce a
very brilliant gold-like surface. It is pro-
tected from tarnish by the application of
lacquer.” (Ure.)
ORMSKIRK MEDICINE. A nostrum sup-
posed to prevent hydrophobia, so named after
the residence of its inventor, Mr. Hill, of
Ormskirk. It is said to have consisted of the
ingredients named below, but nothing certain
is known on the subject, as the inventor died
without revealing its secret :-Chalk, oz. ;
Armenian bole, 3 drs. ; elecampane root, 1 dr. ;
alum, 10 grs. ; oil of aniseed, 5 or 6 drops;
all in fine powder. For a dose, to be taken for
6 successive mornings, in a glass of weak milk-
and-water.
OR/PIMENT. Native yellow sulphide of
arsenic. The finest samples used by artists
(golden orpiment) come from Persia. See
ARSENIC (Tersulphuret).
0R/RIS. Syn. ORRIS Root, FLORENTINE R.;
RADIX IRIDIS, L. The dried rhizome of Iris
Florentina, pallida, and Germanica. Sialo-
Chiefly
employed to impart a violet odour to oils, tooth
powder, snuffs, spirits, &c.; and when cut into
peas, to keep open issues.
ORSE/DEW. Dutch leaf-gold.
ORSEL/LIC ACID. Two compounds pass
under this name—ALPHA-ORSELLIC ACID and
BETA-ORSELLIC ACID. They closely resemble
each other, and are obtained in a similar
manner; the first from the South American
variety of Rocella tinctoria, the last from that
grown at the Cape.
ORSELLIN’IC ACID. Syn. LECANORIC
ACID. A compound formed along with picro-
erythrine, by boiling erythric acid for some
time with water. It is also formed by boil-
ing alpha-orsellic acid with water. In both
cases, if the ebullition is too long continued,
the new acid is wholly or in part converted
into orcin.
Prop., &c. Crystallisable ; bitter-tasted ;
soluble in water; its aqueous solution, by ex-
posure to the air, assumes a beautiful purple
colour.
ORTHOPAEDIA. In surgery, the straight-
ening, correcting, or curing deformities of
children. See SURGERY.
OS/MAZOME. The substance on which the
peculiar odour and flavour of boiled meat and
broth were formerly supposed to depend.
Prep. From lean meat, minced, and digested
in cold water, with occasional pressure ; the
filtered infusion is gently evaporated nearly to
dryness, and then treated with alcohol; the
alcoholic tincture is, lastly, evaporated. The
product has a brownish-yellow colour, is soluble
in water, and its aqueous solution is precipi-
tated by infusion of galls and the mineral
astringent salts.
OS'MIUM. Os. A rare metal found associated
with the ores of platinum by M. Tennant,
in 1803.
0STE000L/LA. A rough sort of glue or
gelatin obtained from bones by digestion in
dilute hydrochloric acid, to remove their earthy
matter, and afterwards acting on the residuum
with water at a high temperature, until it is
wholly dissolved.
OTAL'GIA. Pain in the ear. See EARACHEr
0'THYL. In chemistry, a radicle having the
formula C, H2O, assumed by Professor Wil-
liamson to exist in acetic acid.
OTTO OF ROSES. See OILs (Volatile).
OWALBU'MEN. White of egg; to distin-
guish it from seralbumen, or the albumen of
the serum of the blood.
0'VENS. A very ingenious and useful im-
provement in the apparatus for baking was
introduced some years ago by Mr. Sclater, of
Carlisle. It consists in causing the articles to
be baked to traverse a heated earthenware
tube. This tube forms the oven. It is of con-
siderable length, and the biscuits or other
articles are slowly traversed through it, from
end to end, at such a rate as will allow of the
baking being completed during the passage.
The biscuits are carried on trays, set on tra-
velling chains; or the trays are made into an
endless web or chain. The oven is thus en-
tirely self-acting, and the articles demand no
attention whatever from the attendants, whilst
the system combines superior economy with
the best results. A ‘pyrometer,” or heat indi-
cator, is attached externally, so that the at-
tendant can regulate the heat with great
facility. The object of these improvements is
to reduce the cost of baking, and to improve
the appearance of the baked articles. The
apparatus is applicable as well to the baking of
articles of clay or earthenware as to bread or
biscuits.
Of the ovens now in common use by the
bakers, that known as the “hot-water oven” is
perhaps the best; not merely in reference to
economy, but also with reference to its supe-
rior cleanliness, and the ease with which the
articles operated on may be turned out of that
delicate yellowish-brown tint for which the
bread of the Viennese and Parisian bakers is
so celebrated. See BAKING, BREAD, &c.
0X. The Bos Taurus (Linn.), one of the
ruminantia. In its more limited sense, the
word is restricted to the emasculated animal.
The flesh, milk, skin, horns, bones, and blood of
this animal are all serviceable to man. Gold-
beater's skin is prepared from the peritoneal
membrane of its caecum. Its blood, fat, horns,
and excrement were among the simples of the
Ph. L. 1618. See BEEF, GALL, MILK, and
below.
0x-Gall. Syn. Ox-BILE ; FEL BOVINUM,
F. BowTS, F. TAURI, L. Crude ox-gall
is noticed at page 552. Refined ox-gall


870 OXALATE–OXALIC ACID.
(Fel bovinum purificatum) is prepared as
under :-
1. Fresh ox-gall is allowed to repose for 12
or 15 hours, after which the clear portion is
decanted, and evaporated to the consistence of
a thick syrup by the heat of a water bath; it
is then spread thinly on a dish, and exposed in
a warm situation near the fire, or to a current
of dry air, until nearly dry; it is, lastly, put
into wide-mouthed bottles or pots, and care-
fully tied over with bladder. In this state it
...will keep for years in a cool situation. For
use, a little is dissolved in water.
2. Fresh gall, 1 pint ; boil, skim, add pow-
dered alum, 1 oz. ; boil again till the alum
is dissolved, and when sufficiently cool, pour it
into a bottle, and loosely cork it down. In a
similar manmer boil and skim another pint of
gall, add to it 1 oz. of common salt, and again
boil, cool, and bottle it, as above. In three
months decant the clear from both bottles,
and mix them in equal quantities; the clear
portion must then be separated from the co-
agulum by subsidence or filtration.
Uses, &c. Both the above are employed by
artists to fix chalk and pencil drawings before
tinting them, and to remove the greasiness
from ivory, tracing paper, &c. The first is
also used in medicine.
0X'ALATE. Syn. OXALAs, L. A salt of
oxalic acid. The soluble oxalates are easily
formed by directly neutralising a solution of
oxalic acid with a metallic hydrate, carbonate,
or oxide; and the insoluble oxalates, by double
decomposition. See OXALIC ACID and the
respective bases.
OXAL'IC ACID. H.C.O. Syn. ACIDUM
OXALICUM, L. This substance was discovered
by Bergman, in 1776. It occurs both in the
mineral and organic kingdoms, and is pro-
duced artificially by the action of mitric acid
on sugar, starch, woody fibre, &c. It abounds
in wood-sorrel, in which it exists in combina-
tion with a little potassa. With the exception
of gum and sugar of milk, all starchy and sac-
charine substances yield oxalic acid when
treated with nitric acid at a Somewhat elevated
temperature.
Prep. 1. From sugar:—
a. Nitric acid (sp. gr. 1:42), 5 parts, diluted
with water, 10 parts, is poured on sugar, 1 part,
and the mixture is digested at agentle heat, as
long as gaseous products are evolved; the liquid
is then concentrated by evaporation until it
deposits crystals on cooling; the crystals, after
being drained and freed from superfluous mois-
ture, are redissolved in the smallest possible
quantity of boiling water, and the solution is set
aside to crystallise. The residuary ‘mother-
water * is treated with a little fresh nitric acid
(say 1% part) at a gentle heat, after which it is
evaporated, as before, for a second crop of
crystals. This process is repeated until the
solution is exhausted. The brownish-coloured
crystals thus obtained are allowed to effloresce
by exposure to dry air, and are then redis-
solved and recrystallised. By repeating tº
treatment they yield pure colourless 0\l
acid at the third crystallisation, ,
b. (Schlesinger.) Sugar (dried at ºf
Fahr.), 4 parts, and nitric acid (sp. gr.1%
33 parts, are digested together, as before, iſ
as soon as the evolution of gas ceases tº
liquid is boiled down to one sixth of its origin
volume, and set aside to crystallise. Tº
whole process may be completed in about:
hours, and in 1 vessel, and yields of beau:
fully crystallised oxalic acid, at the first tº
tallisation, a quantity equal to 56 to 6||
the weight of the sugar employed. -
c. (Ure.) Nitric acid (sp. gr. 14), 4 paſt
and sugar, 1 part, are digested together
the heat of a water bath, and as soon asgº
ceases to be extricated the vessel is remº
from the heat, and set aside to cool and (tº
tallise. The use of a little sulphuric iſ
along with the mitric acid contributes tº it
crease the product.
2. From POTATO- or DEXTRIN-SUGAR:-
(Nyren.) From the washed pulp of potatº
boiled for some hours with water, q, s, in:
leaden vessel, with about 2% of oil of viti
until the fecula of the pulp is convertediº
saccharine matter, shown by the liquid hiſ
no longer turned blue by iodine; the whº
is then filtered through horse-hair bag; .
strainers, and the filtrate is evaporatedut
its density is such that a gallon of it weigh
14 to 14; lbs.; in this state it is convert
into oxalic acid by treatment with nitriº ||
in the way already described. A similar pº
cess was patented some years ago by Mºº
Davy, Macmurdo, and Co.
3. From SAWDUST:—
(Roberts, Dale, & Co., Patent.) This!
cess is the one now usually employed fºr
manufacture of oxalic acid on the largesſ'
It is based on Gay-Lussac's discovery, tº
wood and similar substances are convº
into oxalic acid by fusion with caustical
The practical details of the process are tº
given by Dr. Murray Thomson, of Edinburg
—(1) Hydrate of sodium and hydrate of ſº
tassium, mixed in the proportion of 2 equiº
lents of the former to 1 equivalent of the latiº
are dissolved, and solution evaporated until
specific gravity 1:35; sawdust is now st
in until a thick paste results. (2) This pº
is then heated on iron plates, during which?
is constantly stirred; water is first given ºf
the mass then swells; inflammable gases, iſ
drogen and carburetted hydrogen, are evoly
along with a peculiar aromatic odour, Whº
the temperature has been maintained at
for one or two hours, this stage of the prºs
is complete; the mass has now a dark Cºlº
and contains only 1 to 4 per cent of ou.
acid, and about 5 per cent. of formic &
The bulk, therefore, of the mass at this sº
consists of a substance whose nature is nº
known, but which is intermediate betweettº
cellulose and oxalic acid. (3) The next tº



OXALIC ACID, 871
consists in a simple extension of the last, in
which the mass is heated till quite dry, care
being taken that no charring takes place. It
now contains the maximum quantity of oxalic
acid, 28 to 30 per cent. (4) This oxalic acid
now exists as oxalate of potassium and sodium
in the gray powder resulting from stage 3.
This powder is now washed on a filter with
solution of carbonate of sodium, which seems
to have the singular and unexpected power of
decomposing the oxalate of potassium, and
converting it into oxalate of sodium. At all
events, it is quite true that all traces of po-
tassa are washed out with the solution of car-
bonate of sodium. The only explanation that
occurs to account for this unusual decompo-
sition is that oxalate of sodium is a more in-
soluble salt than oxalate of potassium, and
therefore may be formed by preference. (5)
This oxalate of sodium is now decomposed by
boiling milk of lime. Oxalate of calcium falls
as a precipitate, and soda remains in solution.
This soda is boiled down, and again made use
of with fresh sawdust. This recovery of alkali
is also practised with the potassium salt which
filters through in the last stage. (6) The ox-
alate of calcium is now decomposed in leaden
vessels with sulphuric acid. Sulphate of cal-
cium is precipitated, and oxalic acid is in solu-
tion, which is now evaporated, and the acid
separates in crystals, which now need only to
be recrystallised to make them quite pure, and
fit the acid for all the purposes for which it is
employed. Prod. By this ingenious process
2 lbs. of sawdust are made to yield 1 lb. of
oxalic acid.
Prop., &c. Colourless, transparent, pris-
matic crystals, possessing a powerfully sour
taste and acid reaction ; these effloresce in
warm dry air, with loss of 28% (2 eq.) of water,
and then form a white powder, which may be
sublimed in part, without decomposition ; the
crystals are soluble in 8 parts of water (9
parts, “and form a solution of sp. gr. 1045,”
—Ure) at 60° Fahr., in their own weight or
less of boiling water, and in about 4 parts of
alcohol; with the acids, it forms salts called
oxalates.
Tests.-1. Solution of chloride of barium
occasions a white precipitate in neutral solu-
tions of oxalic acid (oxalates), which is soluble
in both nitric and hydrochloric acid.—2. So-
lution of mitrate of silver, under like circum-
stances, gives a white precipitate, which is
soluble in nitric acid and in ammonia, and
which, when heated to redness, yields pure
silver.—3. Lime water and solutions of all
the soluble salts of calcium produce white pre-
cipitates, even in highly dilute solutions of
oxalic acid or of the oxalates, which is freely
soluble in both nitric and hydrochloric acid,
but is nearly insoluble in either acetic or
oxalic acid, and is converted into carbonate
of calcium upon ignition.—4. Oxalic acid (or
an oxalate), when heated, in the dry state,
with oil of vitriol in excess, is converted into
carbonic anhydride and carbonic oxide; the
former produces a white precipitate with lime
water, and the latter, when kindled, burns
with a faint blue flame. Of the above tests,
solution of sulphate of calcium (vide No. 3)
is the most delicate and characteristic.—5. It
is distinguished from Epsom salt by its acid
reaction, its solubility in rectified spirit, its
complete dissipation by heat, and by emitting
a slight crackling noise during its solution in
water. See MAGNESIA (Sulphate).
Uses, Pois., &c. Oxalic acid is chiefly used
in the arts of calico printing and bleaching;
to remove ink-spots and iron-moulds from
linen, and to clean boot-tops. It is extremely
poisonous. The treatment, in cases of its
having been swallowed, is to promote vomit-
ing, and to administer chalk, whiting, or mag-
nesia, mixed up with water, in considerable
quantities. The use of the alkalies or their
carbonates must be avoided, as the compounds
which these form with oxalic acid are nearly
as poisonous as the acid itself. The remaining
treatment is noticed under ACIDS. In poison-
ing by oxalic acid, the nervous system is
almost always affected, and the patients expe-
rience numbness, formication of the extremi-
ties, and sometimes convulsions, so that the
symptoms somewhat approach those produced
by strychnia, from which it is distinguished
by its corrosive action on the tissues, and its
effect upon the heart and circulatory system.
Concluding remarks. The manufacture of
oxalic acid is an important one. The process
of Roberts, Dale, and Co., has so much cheap-
ened the price of oxalic acid, that in 1851 it
sold for 16d. per lb., and mow, in 1864, it only
costs from 8d. to 9d. per lb. More than half
the amount of oxalic acid used all over the
world is now made from sawdust. In manu-
facturing the acid from sugar, on the large
scale, the first part of the process is either
conducted in salt-glazed stoneware pipkins of
the capacity of 3 to 5 quarts each (which are
about two thirds filled and set in a water
bath), or in wooden troughs lined with lead,
and heated by means of a coil of steam-pipe.
On the small scale, a glass retort or capsule is
commonly employed. The most appropriate
temperature appears to be about 125°Fahr.
and the best evidence of the satisfactory pro-
gress of the decomposition is the free but not
violent evolution of gas, without the appear-
ance of dense red fumes, or, at all events, any
marked quantity of them. When these are
disengaged with violence and rapidity, a
greater quantity of the newly formed acid
suffers decomposition, and flies off in a gaseous
form. The sp. gr. of the nitric acid commonly
used on the large scale ranges from 1:22 to
1:27, equivalent quantities being taken. The
evaporation is preferably conducted by the
heat of steam. The evolved nitrous vapours
are usually allowed to escape, but this loss
may be in part avoided by conveying them
into a chamber filled with cold damp air, and



872 OXIDATION.—OXYGEN.
containing a little water, when they will
absorb oxygen, and be recondensed into fum-
ing nitric acid. Various modifications of this
plan have beeu patented. That of Messrs.
McDougall and Rawson, which is one of the
simplest and best, consists in passing the
mixed nitrous fumes through a series of ves-
sels containing water, and connected together
by tubes, so that the fumes which collect at
the top of one vessel are conveyed to nearly
the bottom of the next one, and then, bubbling
up through the water, mix with the air, a
supply of which is provided for the purpose.
The nitrous fumes are thus brought alternately
into contact with air and water, and by the
time they reach the last vessel are reconverted
into nitric acid. ' Another plan is to pass the
mixed nitrous vapours through a vessel stuffed
with some porous substance, as pumice-stone
or pounded glass, conjointly with a supply of
steam from a boiler and a supply of oxygen
by a blowing machine.
The products obtained by skilful manipu-
lation are—from good dry sugar, 128}; from
good treacle, 1073–“One cwt. of good treacle
will yield about 116 lbs. of marketable oxalic
acid, and the same weight of good brown sugar
may be calculated to produce about 140 lbs. of
acid.” “As a general rule, 5 cwt. of saltpetre,
or an equivalent of nitrate of soda, with 2%
cwt. of sulphuric acid, will generate suffi-
cient nitric acid to decompose 1 cwt. of good
sugar, and yield, as above, 140 lbs. of fair
marketable oxalic acid, free from superfluous
moisture.” (Ure.) On the small scale, 5 parts
of sugar yield nearly 6 parts of crystallised
acid.
Chemically pure oxalic acid is best prepared
by precipitating a solution of binoxalate of
potassium with a solution of acetate of lead,
washing the precipitate with water, decom-
posing it, whilst still moist, with dilute sul-
phuric acid or sulphuretted hydrogen, and
gently evaporating the filtrate so that crystals
may form as it cools.
OXIDATION. Syn. OXYDATION. The
combination of bodies with oxygen, forming
oxides; the operation or process adopted to
induce or facilitate such conversion.
OX'IDE. Syn. OxVD ; OXYDUM, L. A
compound formed by the union of oxygen
with another body.
OXYCHL0"RIDE. Syn. OxTCHLORIDE ;
OXYCHLORIDUM, L. A term often loosely
applied to compounds of an oxide and chloride,
whether in definite or variable proportions.
See ANTIMONY (Oxychloride), &c.
OX'YCRATE. Syn. OxyCRATUM, L. The
old name of a mixture of vinegar and water,
dulcified with honey.
0XYCR0/CEUMI. See PLASTERS.
0X′YGEN. O. Syn. OXYGEN GAs, DE-
PHLOGISTICATED AIR+, EMPYREAL A., VITAL
A.f; OXYGENIUM, L. An elementary body
discovered by Scheele and Priestley in 1744.
It is remarkable that, although this substance
forms a large proportion of our atmosphº
(nearly one fourth), and confers upon it tº
power of supporting respiration and comb;
tion, and also constitutes the principal portin
of the water of our rivers and seas (eigh
ninths), and enters largely into the compº
sition of the majority of the various minºri
bodies that form the bulk of our globe, is
existence should have remained unsuspetſ:
or at least undetermined, until a comparatively
recent date.
stituent of all living organisms. It is
absorbed by animals during respiration, all
evolved in a free state by growing vegetablº
when exposed to sunlight. The oxygen gast
the atmosphere is mechanically mixed, iſ
chemically combined, with the nitrogen,
Prep. 1. From red oxide of mercury
heated over a spirit lamp or a few pieces ºf
ignited charcoal. The operation is usually
performed in a small green-glass retort, Ori
a short tube of hard Bohemian glass, clº
with a perforated cork furnished with a picº
of bent glass tube of small bore, to convºy
the liberated gas to the vessel arranged tº
receive it. Pure. 1 oz. yields about 100 culi.
inches.
Oxygen is an essential Q| ||
2. From chlorate of potassium, as the last
Pure. 100 grs. yield nearly 100 cubic inchº
(Brande ; 115–Ure). This is the plan adopt:
in the P. Cod. The decomposition occurs will
both the above substances at a heat below thiſ
of redness.
3. From a mixture of chlorate of potassium
(in coarse powder), 3 parts; powdered binº
ide of manganese, 1 part ; both by volume
Pure. 100 grs. of the mixture yield abºut
110 cubic inches of oxygen. This methºd
which has received the approval of Faradº,
is exceedingly convenient. The gas is evolt
with a rapidity which is entirely at the Cºm:
mand of the operator, by simply increasingſ
lessening the heat. The residuum in tº
retort may be kept for another operation, if
not exhausted; or it may be at once washt
out with a little warm water, and the mall
ganese, which is uninjured by the protes
reserved for future use.
of copper, red oxide of iron, and several othº
substances, answer nearly as well as binosiſ.
of manganese.
§ 4. From a mixture of bichromate of pº
tassium, 3 parts; oil of vitriol, 4 parts; gently
heated, as before. Yields pure oxygen ver,
freely, and with a rapidity entirely at the will
of the operator. (Balmain.)
5. From binoxide of manganese and oil iſ
vitriol, equal parts; as the last, 44 grs, ſ
pure binoxide of manganese yield 8 grs, or %
cubic inches, of oxygen; 1 oz. yields 88 gº
or 256 cubic inches. (Liebig.)
6. (On the large scale.)—a. From nitre &
posed to a dull red heat in an iron retort ºf
gun-barrel. , 1 lb. yields about 1200 cubi
inches of gas, contaminated, more or less, with
nitrogen, (Ure.)
Red lead, black oil



OXYGEN.
873
b. From binoxide of manganese, as the
last. 1 oz. of the pure binoxide yields 44
grs, or 128 cubic inches, of oxygen (Liebig);
1 lb. of good commercial binoxide yields from
1500 to 1600 cubic inches, or from 5 to 6
'alls.
g c. M. Boussingault has reinvestigated a
process, long known, although not usefully
applied, by which pure oxygen gas may be
obtained from the atmosphere at a trifling
cost, so as to enable it to be collected in
unlimited quantities and preserved in gas-
ometers, like coal-gas, for application in the
arts, manufactures, and sanitation. This
process depends upon a peculiar property
possessed by the earth baryta, of absorbing
atmospheric oxygen at one temperature and
evolving it at another; or rather, the ready
conversion of hydrate of barium into peroxide
of barium by a current of atmospheric air at
a dull red heat, and the decomposition of this
peroxide, by steam, at a lower temperature,
even at 212° Fahr., with reproduction of
hydrate of barium, the process being in reality
a continuous one. The baryta is mixed with
a portion of hydrate of calcium or of magne-
sium, and the mixture being placed in an
appropriate earthen tube heated to dull red-
ness, is oxidised by passing a current of dry
atmospheric air over it. As soon as the oxida-
tion is complete, the tube is connected with
the gas-holder, and a jet of steam allowed to
act upon it; this reconverts the peroxide of
barium into hydrate of barium, the excess of
oxygen being given off and collected in the
gas-holder. The baryta is then again oxidised
by a fresh current of air and deoxidised by
steam, and the whole process is repeated as
frequently as required. One ton of baryta,
thus treated, is capable of yielding 2500 cubic
feet of pure oxygen every 24 hours; and this,
as it does not waste or lose its properties, at
the mere cost of the fuel and labour required
in the process.
d. From ferrate of potassium, prepared on
the large scale. When exposed to moisture or
thrown into water, pure oxygen is evolved.
This method has been successfully adopted to
maintain the air of diving-bells, and of other
confined spaces, in a state fit for respiration.
7. OXYGEN GAS AT THE ORDINARY TEM-
PERATURE. Boettger states that when a
mixture is made of equal weights of the per-
oxides of lead and barium, and dilute HNO3 of
a strength of 9° Beaumé is poured thereon, a
current of pure O, free from ozone and
antozone, is given off abundantly. This mix-
ture of the two peroxides may be kept dry in
a stoppered bottle for any length of time.
Prop. Oxygen gas is colourless, tasteless,
inodorous, and incombustible; the sp. gr. is
1.057 (Dumas; 1:1026–Berzelius & Dulong;
1:111—Thomson); 100 cubic inches at 60°
Fahr., and 36 inches of the barometer, weigh
34:29 grs. (Dumas; 34:109 grs.—Berz. ; 34.6
grs.-Brande; 33.85 grs-Ure). Its density
to that of atmospheric air is, therefore, as
about 11 to 10. It is a powerful supporter of
combustion, and its presence is essential to
the existence of both animal and vegetable life.
It forms 21% (20.81%) by volume, and 23% by
weight, of the atmosphere. (M. Dumas.)
Water dissolves about 5% by volume of
oxygen, and by pressure a much larger
quantity, forming oxygenated water (AQUA
OXYGENII).
Tests. 1. It is distinguished from other
gases by yielding nothing but pure water
when mixed with twice its volume of hydrogen
and exploded, or when a jet of hydrogen is
burnt in it.—2. A recently extinguished taper,
with the wick still red-hot, instantly inflames
when plunged into this gas.-3. A small spiral
piece of iron wire ignited at the point, and
suddenly plunged into a jar of oxygen, burns
with great brilliancy and rapidity. Charcoal
does the same.
Estim. The estimation of the quantity of
oxygen in an organic compound has already
been described. For determining the quan-
tity present in atmospheric air, and other
like gaseous mixtures, Dobereiner has pro-
posed the use of pyrogallic acid. The air under
examination (freed from moisture) is measured
into an accurately graduated tube over mercury,
capable of holding about 30 cubic centimetres,
and which it should #rds fill. A solution
formed of 1 part of dry hydrate of potassium
and 2 parts of water, and in volume about ºth
that of the air, is next introduced by means of
a pipette with a curved point, and is gently
agitated therewith in the gas for a short time;
the decrease of volume gives the proportion of
carbonic anhydride present. A solution of py-
rogallic acid (1 gramme in 5 or 6 centimètres
of water), equal in volume to one half that of
the solution of potassa already used, is then
introduced by means of another pipette, and
the mixed liquids are cautiously shaken to-
gether over the inner surface of the tube.
When absorption ceases (which it does in a few
midutes), the quantity of residual gas (nitro-
gen) is read off from the graduations; the dif-
ference in volume before and after the intro-
duction of the pyrogallic acid indicates the
proportion of oxygen. This is a mere modifica-
tion of Prof. Liebig’s method. 1 gramme of
pyrogallic acid in combination with hydrate of
potassium is capable of absorbing about 189
cubic centimetres of oxygen. (Dobereiner.)
Other methods employed for the analysis of
air, depending on the increase or loss of weight
when the air is passed over finely divided
copper heated to redness, the loss of volume
when the air is exploded in a eudiometer with
half its bulk of hydrogen, or when a stick of
phosphorus is left in it for some hours, are well
known, and described at length in every ele-
mentary work on chemical analysis. The last
method, although less accurate than the others,
has the advantage of extreme simplicity.
Uses, Hitherto the trouble and expense of



874
OXYGENATION.—OXYHYDROGEN BLOWPIPE.
preparing oxygen has precluded its direct use
on the large scale. It has been employed to
increase the illuminative and heating power of
lamps, and to render vitiated air respirable,
&c.; and when largely diluted with atmo-
spheric air, or condensed in water, as a reme-
dial agent in asphyxia arising from the
inhalation of carbonic acid and carbonic
oxide.
Concluding remarks. Oxygen gas may be
collected in the usual way, either over water,
mercury, or in bags; or, on the large scale,
in gasometers. The purity of the products of
the several processes given above depends on
the substances from which the gas is obtained
being themselves pure. For particular experi-
ments, the first portion of gas should be allowed
to escape, or be received apart, as with this, as
with the other gases, it is contaminated with
the atmospheric air of the apparatus. The
gas procured from manganese or nitre may
be purified by passing it through milk of lime
or a solution of caustic potassa; it will still,
however, retain some traces of nitrogen. See
ORGANIC SUBSTANCES, OZONE, &c.
OXYGENATION. Syn. OxygFNISEMENT.
The act or proccss of combining with oxygen.
It is of more general application than the
word ‘oxidation,” “which is frequently con-
founded with it, but which is only correctly
applied when an oxide is formed.
OXYGENI'SED LARD. Syn. Oxyg|ENATED
AxUNGE ; AXUNGIA oxyg|ENATA, L. Prep.
(Ph. Bat. 1805.) From prepared lard, 16
parts, melted over a slow fire, and then mixed
with nitric acid, 1 part ; the combination
being promoted by constant stirring with a
glass rod, until it ceases to affect litmus paper.
It should be extremely white, and should be
kept in the dark. See OINTMENT OF NITRIC
ACID.
OXYHYDROGEN BLOWPIPE. See BLOW-
PIPE. Deville and Debray (‘Ann. Ch.
Phys.' [3], lvi, 385) employ the oxyhydro-
gen blowpipe in the following manner for
effecting the fusion of platinum and the re-
fractory metals which accompany it. The
apparatus consists of the blowpipe C (see
below), a furnace ABD, and a crucible GHI.
The blowpipe is composed of a copper tube
about half an inch in diameter, terminating
below in a slightly comical platinum jet about
1% inch long. Within this tube, which is
supplied with hydrogen or coal gas through
the stop-cock H, is a second copper tube C"
for supplying oxygen, terminated also by a
platinum nozzle with an aperture of about a
twelfth of an inch in diameter.
The furnace ABD consists of three pieces
of well-burnt lime of slightly hydraulic
quality, which may be turned at a lathe with
ease. The cylinder A is about 2% inches
thick, and is perforated by a slightly conical
hole into which the blowpipe fits accurately,
passing about half-way through the thickness
of the mass. A second somewhat deeper
cylinder of lime, B, is hollowed into a chambº
wide enough to admit the crucible, and lºw
an interval of not more than a sixth of animſ
clear around it.
the escape of the products of combustion.
The outer crucible HH is also made of limº
but it contains a smaller crucible I of gº
coke, provided with a cover of the SAT
material; and in this the substance tº k
fused is placed, the crucible resting on tº
lime support D'. The conical cover G is mil
KK are four apertures in
ſtrº-
|A||\
ºl -
% of
"ºl. | |
" ' ". Illum,
ſº
of lime, and its apex should be placed exiſ
under the blowpipe jet, at a distance from:
# to 1% inch.
The different pieces of the furnace must
bound round with iron wire to support tº
when they crack. The oxygen is admi
under a pressure of a column of 16 indis
water. The temperature is gradually riº
to the maximum, and in about eight minº
from this time the operation is complete.
By employing a jet of mixed coal-gas it
oxygen (EQ, see below) in a furnace of liº


OXYMEL–OZONE.
875
Deville and Debray succeeded, at an expense
of about 43 cubic feet of oxygen, in melting
and refining, in 42 minutes, 25.4 lbs. avoirdu-
pois of platinum, and casting it into an ingot
in a mould of gas-coke; and much larger
masses have since been melted by this method.
Lime is so bad a conductor of heat that if a
cup of lime not more than 0.8 inch thick be
filled with melted platinum the exterior
scarcely rises beyond 300° F. (Miller's
* Elements of Chemistry,’ 3rd. ed., pt. ii, p.
825.)
0X′YMEL. Syn. OxyMEL, L. An acidu-
lous syrup made of honey and vinegar. There
are only two oxymels in the last Ph. L. The
ingredients in an oxymel should be of such a
character, and in such proportions, as to pro-
duce a mixture of the proper consistence with-
out evaporation.
Oxymel of Col'chicum. Syn. OxyMEL COL-
CHICI CORMI, OXYMEL COLCHICI, L. Prep.
(Ph. D. 1826.) Fresh corms (roots) of mea-
dow saffron, 1 oz. ; distilled vinegar, 1 pint
(wine measure); macerate for 2 days, press
out the liquor, filter, add of clarified honey,
2 lbs., and boil down the mixture to the con- &
sistence of a syrup, frequently stirring.—Dose.
1 to 3 drs, twice or thrice a day; in gout,
rheumatism, dropsy, &c.
Oxymel of Garlic. Syn. OXYMEL ALII, L.
Prep. (Ph. L. 1746.) Sliced garlic, 1} oz. ;
caraway seed and sweet fennel seed, of each, 2
drs. ; boiling vinegar, 8 fl. oz.; infuse, strain,
and add of clarified honey, 10 oz. In hooping-
cough, chronic diarrhoea, rheumatism, &c.
Oxymel, Pectoral. Syn. OXYMELPECTORALE,
O. INULE COMPOSITUM, L. Prep. (Ph. Br.)
Elecampane, 1 oz. ; orris root, oz. ; water, 1}
pint; boil to ; pint, strain, add of honey,
16 oz. ; ammoniacum, 1 oz. ; (dissolved in)
vinegar, 3 fl. Oz. ; lastly, boil to an oxymel.
— Dose. 1 spoonful, occasionally; in coughs,
humid asthma, &c.
Oxymel, Simple. Syn. WINEGAR SYRUP,
ACETATED HONEY: OxyMEL (Ph. L. & D.),
OxyMEL SIMPLEX, MEL ACETATUM, L. Prep.
1. (Ph. L.) Acetic acid (sp. gr. 1.048), 7 fl. oz. ;
distilled water, 8 fl. oz. ; mix, and add them to
honey, 5 lbs., previously made hot. This con-
tains only one half the acid ordered in the
Ph. L. 1836.
2. (Ph. D.) Clarified honey, 1 lb. ; acetic
acid (sp. gr. 1044), 3 oz. ; as before. Stronger
than the last.
3. Ph. L. 1836.) Honey, 10 lbs. ; acetic
acid (1:048), 1% pint; as before. This con-
tains too much vinegar. (See No. 1.)
4. (Wholesale.) From honey (thick and
good), 12 lbs. ; melt it by a gentle heat, add of
distilled vinegar (of fully 5%), 2 quarts, and
strain the mixture through flannel. No evapo-
ration is required.
Uses, &c. Demulcent and refrigerant.—Dose.
1 to 4 fl. dr.s., either gradually sucked from the
spoon or dissolved through some simple liquid.
Dissolved in water, it forms a useful and
pleasant cooling drink or gargle in fevers, sore
throats, hoarseness, &c.; but in some indi-
viduals it occasions griping. It is commonly
used as an adjunct, in mixtures, &c.
Oxymel of Squills. Syn. HoNEY OF SQUILLS ;
MEL SCILLAE (Ph. L.), O. SCILLITICUM, L.
Prep. 1. Vinegar of squills, 2% pints; gently
evaporate it to 12 fl. oz., and add of honey
(previously made hot), 5 lbs.
2. (Ph. L. 1836.) Strained honey, 3 lbs. ;
vinegar of squills, 1% pint; boil to a proper
consistence. The formula of the Ph. D. 1826
was similar.
Uses, &c. Expectorant, and in large doses
nauseant.—Dose. # to 2 fl. drs. ; in chronic
coughs, hoarseness, humeral asthma, &c.
Oxymel of Wer'digris. See LINIMENT.
0XYR'RHODYNE. Syn. Oxy.RRHoDINoN.
An old compound formed of 1 part of vinegar
of roses and 2 parts of oil of roses.
0XYSAC'CHARUM. A syrup acidulated
with vinegar. See SYRUP.
0XYSUL/PHIDE. A name given to certain
compounds or mixtures of metallic oxides and
sulphides. See ANTIMONY, OxysulPHIDE,
c
OYS"TER. Syn. OSTREA, L. This well-
known shell-fish is the Ostrea edulis (Linn.)
Oysters are nutritious and easy of digestion,
when fresh, but are apt to prove laxative to
those unaccustomed to their use. They are in
season each month of the year the name of
which contains the letter R. The best British
oysters are found at Purfleet; the worst near
Liverpool. Colchester, and other places in
Essex, are the great nurseries or feeding-
grounds for supplying the metropolis, and,
indeed, the whole of England, with the most
esteemed variety (NATIVEs) of this shell-fish.
The shells (TESTAE PREPARATE, T. OSTREARIAE)
were formerly used in medicine as an absorbent.
See SHELL-FISH, SAUCES, &c.
0ZONE (Greek, 5%w, I smell) is a peculiar
variety of oxygen, characterised by its greater
weight, its peculiar chlorous smell, its intensely
active oxidising powers, and, finally, by the
ease with which it passes into common oxygen.
The history of ozone may be summed up as fol-
lows:—In 1785 Van Marum observed the pro-
duction of a peculiar smell when electric sparks
were passed through oxygen. This smell, which
every one who has worked with an electric
machine must have noticed, Van Marum re-
garded as the “smell of electricity,” thinking
that electricity was a substance. In 1840,
Schönbein, of Basle, proved the existence of a
definite substance, to which he assigned the
name of ozone, and discovered several modes of
producing it, a delicate test for it, and several
of its most striking properties. He subse-
quently added many new facts, but to the time
of his death never held a correct theory in re-
gard to its mature. Later researches by Ma-
rignac and Dedalline, Becquerel and Fremy,
Andrews and Tait, Soret, Brodie, and others,
have established the true nature of this remark-

876
OZONOMETER–PADI).ING.
able body. It is now generally admitted that
it only differs from common oxygen in contain-
ing three atoms of oxygen in each molecule in-
stead of two. In fact, as the formula for oxy-
gen is O., that of ozone is Oa. It follows that
ozone is half as heavy again as oxygen, and it
has accordingly been demonstrated that its spe-
cific gravity is 24 (H=1), that of oxygen being
16. All the known reactions of ozone are easily
explained in accordance with this view.
Ozone may be generated in several ways.
(1) By the action of electricity on oxygen or
air, sparks are far less efficacious than the silent
or “slow” discharge ; but the best apparatus
is the induction-tube of Siemens. This con-
sists of two tubes, one inside the other. The
inner side of the inner and the outer side of
the outer tube are coated with tinfoil, and
these coatings are connected with the termi-
mals of a powerful induction-coil. Dry air or
oxygen streams between the tubes and passes
out, strongly charged with ozone. (2) During
certain processes of oxidation a piece of phos-
phorus, half covered with water in a bottle of
air, absorbs a portion of the oxygen, while
another portion becomes partially Ozonised. It
has been recently shown that ozone is formed
in small quantity during the burning of hydro-
gen at a jet, and in several analogous reactions.
(3) During the liberation of oxygen at low
temperatures, when barium dioxide is moistened
with sulphuric acid, the odour of ozone is at
once apparent, and the evolution proceeds for
a considerable time. (4) In the electrolysis of
water the oxygen evolved consists partly of
ozone, especially if the poles are small.
Ozone has never been isolated. By the use
of Siemens’ apparatus, oxygen containing, as a
maximum, twenty volumes per cent. of ozone
may be obtained. This represents a contrac-
tion of about 1-11th during formation. But it
is at present impossible to separate the one from
the other. Ozone is entirely converted into
oxygen by a temperature of 270° C. The con-
version is effected more slowly at lower tem-
peratures. Silver, mercury, iodine, and many
other substances, are oxidised immediately, at
ordinary temperatures, by ozone. One of the
most delicate tests for it is potassium iodide,
either alone or mixed with starch. A brown
colour in the former case, a blue in the latter,
indicates the liberation of iodine. In the best
form of ozonometer strips of paper saturated
with starch and potassium iodide are exposed
to the action of a definite volume of air in a
dark chamber. The comparative quantities of
ozone in different samples of air are judged of
by the intensity of the colour compared with a
fixed scale on which 1 is the lightest and 10
generally the darkest shade.
Ozone acts as a reducing agent in certain
curious cases. Thus, hydrogen peroxide and
ozone reduce one another, water and oxygen
being the sole products; and some substances,
such as platinum black and manganese per-
oxide, convert it into oxygen without suffering
change themselves, being probably oxidised all
reduced alternately. Ozone is a powerful
bleaching and disinfecting agent, from th:
ease with which it gives up its third atomſ:
Oxygen.
Ozone is frequently present in the atm.
sphere, formed by atmospheric electricity, all
perhaps by other means.
nature is not yet well known; but as it readily
converts ammonia into ammonium nitrite, it
is probable that nitrites, and so ultimately
nitrates, are among its ultimate products,
0ZONOMETER. This name has been giveſ
to paper prepared with a mixed solution f
starch and iodide of potassium. It is whit
but is turned blue by ozonised air, whº
exposed to it in a slightly moistened state.
PACK'FONG. Syn. PAKFONG, CHINES
WHITE COPPER. An alloy formed by fusing
together, in a covered crucible, arsenic, 2 parts
and copper clippings, 4% to 5 parts, arrangedi
alternate layers, and covered with a capping
of common salt.
10% of arsenic.
Prop., &c. White, slightly ductile, and pº |
manent at ordinary temperatures; at a tempº
rature below that of redness it suffers decompº
sition, with the extrication of fumes of arsº
nious acid. Formerly much used for the scal;
of thermometers and other instruments, did
plates, candlesticks, &c. It is now almſ:
superseded by the alloy of nickel and copy:
called German silver, to which the name i:
also applied by some recent writers.
PACK'ING. As there is considerable artil
packing brittle, hollow-ware, as glass, chill,
&c., in such a way that it will stand exposuº
to the jolting, blows, and agitation of land
carriage, it is better, when it is of much valº
or in quantity, to employ a person qualifiedſ
the job. A man, accustomed to packing suſ.
articles, may be readily procured at any glas.
works, or china warehouse, for a trifling 0.
sideration. When this cannot be done, it mus
be recollected that the great secret of siſ:
packing consists in the articles being carefully
preserved from undue pressure or contact with
each other, yet so firmly arranged, and 50 suſ.
rounded with some material, as hay, straw,
sawdust, &c., that they cannot be shaken intº
such a condition by the ordinary contingentić
of transport. Loose packing must always lº
avoided.
PAD/DING. Amongst calico printers this
term is applied to the operation of impreg
nating the pores of their cloth with amordant
It is now almost exclusively performed by
means of a simple piece of machinery (padding
machine), which essentially consists of 4
“large reel,” around which the unprepared
cloth is wound—a “guide roller, over whichi
passes to smooth and adjust it before entering
the liquor—a copper cylinder, or ‘dip-roller
nearly at the bottom of the “mordant-trough,
Its function in
The product contains abºut



PAINTER'S CREAM–PAINTING.
877
under which it is carried from the guide-
roller—a half-round polished “stretched-bar,”
to give it equal tension—a pair of ‘padded
cylinders,’ to remove superfluous moisture—
and, lastly, a ‘reel” to receive the mordanted
(‘padded') cloth. The degree of tension is
regulated by a weight suspended on a lever,
and motion is glven to the whole by an end-
less band from the driving shaft. This ma-
chine is also applicable to many of the opera-
tions of dyeing, bleaching, and starching tex-
tile fabrics. -
PAINTER'S CREAM. Prep. Take of pale
nut oil, 6 oz. ; mastic, 1 oz. ; dissolve, add of
sugar of lead, 4 oz., previously ground in the
least possible quantity of oil; then further
add of water, q. S., gradually, until it acquires
the consistence of cream, working it well all
the time. Used by painters to cover their
work when they are obliged to leave it for
some time. It may be washed off with a
sponge and water.
PAINTING. The art or employment of
laying on colour. In the fine arts, the pro-
duction of a picture or a resemblance in colours
on a flat surface. The artistic and me-
chanical consideration of this subject does not
come within the province of our volume; but
notices of the leading materials employed by
both artists and house painters are given under
the respective names. See the various pig-
ments, COLOURS, OILS, WARNISHES, &c., and
below.
Painting, Distem'per. A method of painting
generally adopted by the ancients. Water
was the principal medium, but various gela-
tinous and albuminous ‘binders’ were added
to fix the pigments. Of these the most im-
portant were glue, size, and white of egg. In
modern distemper, as executed by the painters
of theatrical scenery, panoramas, &c., spirit
of turpentine is largely employed as a medium.
Painting, Elydor'ic. A method of painting
invented by M. Vincent, of Montpelier, having
for its object to combine the fresh appearance
and finish of water colours with the mellow-
ness of oil painting. The liquid employed as
a vehicle for the pigments is an emulsion
formed of oil and water by the intervention of
certain portion of gum or mucilage.
Painting, Emam'el. In this variety of paint-
ing, vitrifiable colours are laid on thin plates of
metal, and fused into it. The outline is first
burnt in, after which the parts are filled up
gradually, with repeated fusions at an enamel-
ler's lamp, to the most minute finishing touches.
“The enamel painter has to work, not with
actual colours, but with mixtures which he
only knows from experience will produce cer-
tain colours after the operation of the fire.”
(Aikin.)
Painting, Encaus’tic. This method is very
ancient, but is now seldom practised. Ac-
cording to Pliny, the colours were made up
into crayons with wax, and the subject being
traced on the ground with a metal point, they
were melted on the picture as they were used.
A coating of melted wax was then evenly
spread over all, and when it had become quite
cold was finally polished.
The art of encaustic painting, after lying
dormant for about 15 centuries, was revived
by Count Caylus, in 1753. In its new form,
the wood or canvas to be painted on is first
well rubbed over with wax, and then held
before the fire, so that the wax may penetrate
and fill up all the interstices, and form a per-
fectly even surface. The coloured pigments
are next mixed with the powder noticed below,
which is then rubbed smooth with some thick
gum water, and applied with brushes in the
same manner as ordinary water colours. When
the painting is finished, and quite dry, it is
brushed over with pure white wax in a melted
state, the surface being equalised by the skilful
application of heat; it is, lastly, polished off,
as before. -
The powder.—To white wax, melted in an
earthen pipkin, add, in small portions at a
time, an equal weight of powdered mastic,
stirring continuously until the whole is incor-
porated; then pour it into cold water, and
afterwards reduce it to powder in a wedg-
wood-ware mortar. A small quantity only of
this powder is used with light colours; but
more is required with the darker ones, until,
on approaching black, the two may be mixed
in almost equal proportions.
Painting, Fresco. This method of painting
was known to the ancient Egyptians, and was
commonly practised by the Greeks and Romans.
It is confined to the decoration of the walls of
buildings, and is executed by incorporating
the colours with the still moist plaster, or
gesso. The pigments employed are entirely
mineral or vitreous. As it is extremely diffi-
cult to alter the work after the colours are
once absorbed, or after the ground has
hardened, the whole must be carefully de-
signed before commencing the picture, and no
more commenced at once than can be executed
during the day.
Of all the varieties of painting, fresco is
“undoubtedly the most virile, most sure, most
resolute, and most durable” (Vasari), and the
one most adapted for the purposes of historical
painting in its grandest and most exalted
forms. In comparison with it, it has been
said that even oil painting is “employment
fit only for women and children.” (Michael
Angelo.)
Painting, Glass. See STAINED GLASS.
Painting, Oil. This well-known and much
practised method of painting takes its name
from the vehicle employed for the colours.
The last may be any of those of a permanent
character, and whose natural tint is not altered
by admixture with oil. Linseed, nut, and
poppy oil, are those which are principally em-
ployed. The first requires the addition of
‘driers,” and hence is generally used under the
form of “boiled oil.” Spirit of turpentine is



878
iPAINTINGS-PALLADIUM.
|
commonly used to thin down the prepared
colours, and the finished picture is frequently
covered with a coat of varnish. -
Painting, Por'celain. See Pot'TERY, STAINHD
GLASS, &c.
Painting, Wel’vet. Any of the ordinary non-
corrosive pigments or liquid colours, thickened
with a little gum, may be employed in this
art ; preference being, however, given to those
that possess the greatest brilliancy, and which
dry without spreading. See STAINS, &c.
Painting, Water-colour. In its strictest and
modern sense, “water-colour painting’ means
the painting on paper with colours diluted
with water. The English school of water-
*~eolour-painting has produced works which
bear comparison with the great masterpieces |
in oil, and even surpass them in the delicacy
of atmospheric effects. The old practice of
making the entire drawing in light and shade
by washes of Indian ink or neutral tints, and
then adding the various local colours in trans-
parent washes, has given place to the more
healthy system of painting every object in its
appropriate local colour at the outset.
PAINTINGS. Many valuable paintings suf-
fer premature decay from the attacks of a
microscopic insect, a species of acarus or
mite. The best method of preventing this
variety of decay, is to add a little creasote
(dissolved in brandy or vinegar), or a few
grains each of corrosive sublimate and salam-
moniac (dissolved in a little water), to the paste
and glue used to line the picture, as well as
to add a few drops of pure creasote or of an
alcoholic or ethereal solution of corrosive sub-
limate to the varnish, when any is to be ap-
plied. If the destruction alluded to has
already commenced, the painting should be at
once carefully cleaned and re-lined, observing
to employ one or other of the remedies just
mentioned.
The most appropriate and only safe situation
in which to keep paintings, is where there is a
pure and moderately dry atmosphere. Impure
air abounds in carbonic acid and sulphuretted
hydrogen. It is the presence of the last in
the air that blackens the “lights,” and causes
most of the ‘middle tints’ and “shades' to
fade; and it is exposure to damp that pro-
duces mouldiness and decay of the canvas.
For this reason valuable paintings should not
be kept in churches, nor suspended against
heavy walls of masonry, especially in badly
ventilated buildings. Excess of light, parti-
cularly the direct rays of the sun, also acts
injuriously on paintings, since it bleaches some
colours and darkens others.
The blackened lights of old pictures may be
instantly restored to their original hue by
touching them with peroxide of hydrogen, di-
luted with 6 or 8 times its weight of pure
water. The part must be afterwards washed
with a clean sponge and water. The most
astonishing results have been produced in this
way, See PEROXIDE OF HYDROGEN (page
610). -
PAINTS. In trade, this term is commonly
applied to pigments ground with oil to a thick
paste, ready to be “thinned down” with oil of
turpentine to a consistence adapted for appli.
cation with a brush.
Paints are prepared on the small scale by
grinding the dry pigments with the oil by
means of a stone-and-muller; on the large
scale they are ground in a colour mill. There
are several pigments, as King's yellow,
Scheele's green, verdigris, white lead, &c.,
which from their poisonous character cannot
be safely ground by hand, except in very small
quantities at a time, and then only by the
exercise of extreme caution.
In mixing or thinning down paints for use,
it may be useful to mention that—for Out:
door work, boiled oil is principally or wholly
employed, unless it be for the decorative parts
of houses, when a portion of turpentine and
pale linseed oil is often added.—For in-door
work, linseed oil, turpentine, and a little
‘driers,’ are generally used in the same way,
The smaller the proportion of oil employed for
the purpose, the less will be the gloss, and the
greater the ultimate hardness of the coating,
For ‘flatted white,’ &c., the colour being
ground in oil, requires scarcely any further
addition of that article, as the object is tº
have it “dead’ or dull. The best driers are
ground litharge, and ground sugar of lead;
the first for dark and middle tints, and the
last for light ones. -
To preserve mixed paints in pots from ‘skin.
ning over’ or drying up, they should be kept
constantly covered with water; or, what is
better, with a thin film of linseed oil.
Brushes, when out of use, may be preserved
in a similar manner to mixed paints. When
dirty, or required for a paint of another colour,
they may be cleaned with a little oil of tur.
pentine, which may be either preserved for
the same purpose another time, or may be
allowed to deposit its colour, and then used
to thin down paints as usual. In no cast,
however, should it be thrown back into the
cistern or pan with the pure “turps.’
Paints, Flexible. Prep. Take of good yellow
soap (cut into slices), 2% lbs. ; boiling water, 1}
gall. ; dissolve, and grind the solution whilst
hot with good oil paint, 13 cwt. Used to
paint canvas.
Paints, Vitrifi'able.
STAINED GLASS, &c.
PALLA'DIUM. Pd. A raremetaldiscovered by
Dr. Wollaston in the ore of platinum, in 1803.
Prep. 1. A solution of the ore of platinum
in aqua regia, from which most of the metal
has been precipitated by chloride of ammo.
nium, is neutralised by carbonate of sodium,
and then treated with a solution of cyanide of
mercury; the white insoluble precipitate
(cyanide of palladium) is next washed, dried
and heated to redness; the residuum of the
See ENAMEL, GLAZE,

PALMITIC ACID—PAPER.
879
ignition (spongy palladium) is then submitted
to a gradually increased pressure, and welding
at a white heat, so as to form a button, in a
similar manner to that adopted with platinum.
Prod. Columbian ore of platinum, 1}; Uralian
do., 25 to 75%.
2. The native alloy of gold and palladium
(from the Brazils) is submitted to the opera-
tions of quartation and parting, the nitric acid
employed being of the density of 1:3; the
silver is next precipitased from the solution
by means of a solution of common salt or di-
lute hydrochloric acid, and the decanted super-
natant liquid, after evaporation to one half,
is neutralised with ammonia, and concentrated
so that crystals may form; these (chloride of
palladium and ammonium) are cautiously
washed in a little very cold water, dried,
mixed with borax, and exposed in a crucible
to the strongest heat of a powerful blast fur-
nace, when a solid button of pure palladium
is formed.
Prop., &c. Palladium closely resembles pla-
tinum in appearance, fusibility, malleability,
and ductility; but it is less dense, and has a
rather more silvery colour than that metal; it
is freely soluble in aqua regia, and is slowly
attacked by nitric acid, but the other acids
exert little or no action on it ; heated to red-
ness in the air, a very superficial blue or purple
film of oxide forms on the surface, which is
again reduced at a white heat. It melts at
156° Wedgwood. Sp. gr. 11:3 to 12:1 (11:8
—Wollaston; 12:14—Vauquelin). It readily
unites with copper, silver, and some other
metals, by fusion.
Tests. 1. The neutral solutions of palla-
dium are precipitated in the metallic state by
ferrous sulphate, dark brown by sulphuretted
hydrogen, olive by ferrocyanide of potassium,
and yellowish-white by cyanide of mercury.—
2. A drop of tincture of iodine placed on the
surface of metallic palladium, and then evapo-
rated by the heat of a spirit lamp, leaves a
black spot. By the last two tests palladium is
readily distinguished from platinum.
Uses. It has been employed to form the
scales of mathematical and astronomical in-
struments, and is used in dentistry. Its alloy
with silver is a very valuable white metal.
It is also used for making the smaller divisions
of grain and gramme weights. Palladium is
not tarnished by sulphuretted hydrogen. An
alloy of 1 part of palladium and 100 parts of
steel is well adapted for cutting instruments
which require to be perfectly smooth on the
edge.
#AIMIT'ic ACID. H.CleFHaO2. Prepared
from palmitin (see next article), by saponi-
fication, as stearic acid is prepared from
stearin. It forms pearly scales, and melts at
140°Fahr., like margaric acid, which it closely
resembles.
PAL'MITIN. Syn. TRIPALMITIN. C.H.,
(CigHaO2)3. The solid portion of palm oil,
purified by crystallisation from hot ether.
White; soluble in ether and slightly so in hot
alcohol; melts at 118° Fahr. ; by saponifica-
tion, it is converted into palmitic acid. (See
above.)
PALPITATION. Syn. PALPUs, PALPITATIo
CORDIS, L. A violent and irregular beating
or action of the heart, either temporary or
occasional. When it does not arise from sud-
den or violent agitation or distress of mind, it
may be regarded as a symptom of a disturb-
ance of the nervous functions by disease, in
which case attention should be directed to the
removal of the primary affection.
PAL’SY. See PARALYSIs.
PANACE/A. A term formerly applied to
those remedies which were supposed to be
capable of curing all diseases, and still applied
to some quack medicines.
PANA/DA. See BREAD JELLY.
PAN/ARY FERMENTATION. The vinous
fermentation as developed in the dough of
bread.
PAN'CAKES. These are essentially fried
batter, variously enriched and flavoured, ac-
cording to the taste of the cook. When they
contain fruit, fish, meat, or poultry, or are
highly seasoned or ornamented, they are com-
monly called FRITTERs.
Prep. (M. Soyer.) Break 2 to 4 eggs into a
basin, add 4 small table-spoonfuls of flour, 2
teaspoonfuls of sugar, and a little salt; beat
the whole well together, adding, by degrees,
# pint of milk, or a little more or less, depends
ing on the size of the eggs and the quality of
the flour, so as to form a rather thick batter;
next add a little ginger, cinnamon, or any other
flavour at will; lastly, put them into the pan,
and when set, and one side brownish, lay hold
of the frying-pan at the extremity of the han-
dle, give it a sudden but slight jerk upwards,
and the cake will turn over on the other side;
when this is brown, dish up with sifted sugar,
and serve with lemon. See FRITTERs.
PANIFICATION. The changes which occur
in flour-dough under the influence of the fer-
mentative process and heat, by which it is
converted into bread.
PAPA'VERINE. Syn. PAPAVERINA. An
alkaloid discovered by Merck in opium. It
crystallises in needles; is insoluble in water;
is slightly soluble in cold alcohol, and in ether;
and forms crystallisable salts with the acids
which possess little solubility. The hydro-
chlorate, one of the most characteristic of
these compounds, crystallises in beautiful
colourless prisms, which possess a high re-
fractive power, and are only very slightly
soluble in dilute hydrochloric acid.
PA'PER. Syn. CHARTA, PAPYRUs, L.;
PAPIER, Fr. The limits of this work preclude
the introduction of a description of the manu-
facture of this well-known and most useful
article, which is now almost exclusively made
by machinery of an elaborate and most inge-
nious description. We must, therefore, con-
tent ourselves with a short notice of a few of




380 PAPER.
the preparations of the manufactured article.
(See below.)
Good white paper should be perfectly devoid
of odour, and when burnt it should leave a
mere nominal amount of ash; digested in hot
water, the liquid should be neutral to test
paper, and not affected by sulphuretted hydro-
gen or the alkaline sulphurets, or by tincture
of iodine. Coloured papers should not contain
any deleterious matter.
Paper, Blistering. See VESICANTS.
Paper, Cloth. This is prepared by covering
gauze, calico, canvas, &c., with a surface of
paper pulp in a ‘Foudrinier machine,’ and then
finishing the compound sheet in a nearly similar
manner to that adopted for ordinary paper.
Paper, Col'oured. For those papers which
are merely coloured on one side, the pigments,
ground up with gum water or size, or the
stains thickened with a little of the same, are
applied with a brush, after which the sheets
are suspended on a line to dry.
For paper coloured throughout its substance,
the tinctorial matter is usually mixed with the
pulp in the process of manufacture; or the
manufactured paper is dipped into a bath of
the colouring substance, and then hung up to
dry.
Paper, Cop'ying. Prep. Make a stiff oint-
ment with butter or lard and black lead or
lamp black, and smear it thinly and evenly
over soft writing paper, by means of a piece of
flannel; the next day wipe off the superfluous
portion with a piece of soft rag.
Use, &c. Placed on white paper and writ-
ten on with a style or solid pen, a copy of the
writing is left on the former. By repeating
the arrangement, 2, 3, or more copies of a
letter may be obtained at once. This paper,
set up in a case, forms the ordinary ‘manifold
writer of the stationers. The copying or
transfer paper used for obtaining fac-similes of
letters written with ‘copying ink,’ is merely a
superior quality of bank-post paper.
Paper, Emery. See EMERY,
Paper, Glass. Prep. From powdered glass,
as emery paper. Used to polish wood, &c.
See GLASS (Powdered).
Paper, Gout. Syn. CHARTA ANTI-ARTHRI-
TICA, L.; PAPIER FAYARD, Fr. Prep. 1. Eu-
phorbium, 1 part; cantharides, 2 parts; (both
in powder;) rectified spirit, 8 parts; ether, 3
parts; digest in a stoppered bottle, with fre-
quent agitation, for a week; to the strained
tincture add of Venice turpentine, 1 part;
lastly, dip thin white paper into it, and dry the
sheets in the air.
2. (Mohr.) Euphorbium, 1 dr.; cantharides,
4 drs. ; rectified spirit (strongest), 5 oz.; make
a tincture, to which add of Venice turpentine,
1% oz., previously liquefied with resin, 2 oz. ;
and spread the mixture, whilst warm, very
thinly on paper. Used as a counter-irritant in
gout, rheumatism, &c.
Paper, Hydrograph'ic. An absurd name
given to paper which may be written on with
simple water or with some colourless liqui
having the appearance of water.
Prep. 1. A mixture of nut-galls, 4 parts, all
calcined sulphate of iron, 1 part (both perfect;
dry and reduced to very fine powder), is rubhº
over the surface of the paper, and is then force
into its pores by powerful pressure, after whil
the loose portion is brushed off. Writes blaſt
with a pen dipped in water.
2. From ferric sulphate and ferrocyani;
of potassium, as the last. Writes blue with
water.
3. As the last, but using sulphate of cop):
instead of sulphate of iron. Writes reddish,
brown with water.
4. The paper is wetted with a colourlºs
solution of ferrocyanide of potassium, and
after being dried is written on with a colour
less solution of ferric sulphate. Writes blue
Obs. The above applications, weneedsCarºl
say, are more amusing than useful. See SWM,
PATHETIC INK.
Paper, Incombus’tible. See INCOMBUSTIBIſ.
FABRICS.
Paper, Irides’cent. Prep. (Beasley.) Sil"
ammoniac and sulphate of indigo, of each, 1
part; sulphate of iron, 5 parts; nut-galls,
parts; gum arabic, ºth part; boil them in
water, and expose the paper washed with tº
liquid to (the fumes of) ammonia. -
Paper, Issue. Syn. CHARTA AD FONTH
CULOs, L. Prep. (Soubeiran.) Elemi, spermº
ceti, and Venice turpentine, of each, 1 part
white wax, 2 parts; melt them together by:
gentle heat, and spread the mixture on paper
Used to keep issues open. -
Paper, Lithograph'ic. Prep. 1. Starch,6014
gum arabic, 2 oz. ; alum, 1 oz. ; make a strºl;
solution of each separately, in hot water, miº
strain through gauze, and apply it whilst still
warm to one side of leaves of paper, with:
clean painting-brush or sponge; a second all
a third coat must be given as the preceding
one becomes dry; the paper must be, lastſ
pressed, to make it smooth.
2. Give the paper 3 coats of thin size, 10.
of good white starch, and 1 coat of a solutionſ
gamboge in water; the whole to be applied cºli
with a sponge, and each coat to be allowed tº
dry before the other is applied. The solution:
should be freshly made.
Use, &c. Lithographic paper is written 0.
with lithographic ink. The writing is trans.
ferred by simply moistening the back of th:
paper, placing it evenly on the stone, and the
applying pressure. A reversed copy is 0.
tained, which, when printed from, yields Cº.
rected copies, resembling the original writing
or drawing. In this way the necessity
executing the writing or drawing in a ſt
versed direction is obviated. See LITHO:
GRAPHY, INK, &c.
Paper, Oiled. Prep. Brush sheets of paper
over with “boiled oil,” and suspend them on
line till dry. Waterproof. Extensively em.
ployed as a cheap substitute for bladder all


PAPER.
881
gut skin, to tie over pots and jars, and to wrap
up paste blacking, ground white lead, &c.
Paper, Parch’ment. Syn. PAPYRIN, VEGE-
TABLE PARCHMENT. Prep. 1. (Poumarède
and Figuier.) Dip white unsized paper for
half a minute in strong sulphuric acid, sp. gr.
1842, and afterwards in water containing a
little ammonia.
2. (W. E. Gaine, Patent 1857.) Plunge
unsized paper for a few seconds into sulphuric
acid diluted with half to a quarter its bulk of
water (this solution being of the same tem-
perature as the air), and afterwards wash with
weak ammonia. This process, now extensively
worked by Messrs. De la Rue and Co., pro-
duces a much better material than does that of
Poumarède and Figuier.
Prop. A tough substance, resembling animal
parchment, and applicable to the same pur-
poses. It is largely used for covering pots of
pickles and preserves, and by the chemist for
the intervening membrane in experiments in
diffusion. See DIALYSER, DIALYSIS, &c.
Paper, Ra"zor. Smooth unsized paper, one
of the surfaces of which, whilst in a slightly
damp state, has been rubbed over with a mix-
ture of calcined peroxide of iron and emery,
both in impalpable powder. It is cut up into
pieces (about 5 × 3 inches), and sold in
packets. Used to wipe the razor on, which
thus does not require stropping.
Paper, Razor-strop. From emery and quartz
(both in impalpable powder), and paper pulp
(estimated in the dry state), equal parts, made
into sheets of the thickness of drawing paper,
by the ordinary process. For use, a piece is
pasted on the strop and moistened with a little
oil.
Paper, Resin. Syn. Poor-MAN’s PLASTER ;
CHARTA RESINOSA, L. Prep. 1. Bees’ wax,
1 oz. ; tar and resin, of each, 3 oz. ; melted
together and spread on paper.
2. (Ph. Bor.) Paper, thinly spread over
with black pitch. Calefacient, stimulant, and
counter-irritant; in rheumatism, chest affec-
tions, &c.
Paper, Rheu'matism.
PAPERs.
Paper, Safe’ty. Syn. PAPIER DE SURETÉ,
Fr. White paper pulp mixed with an equal
quantity of pulp tinged with any stain easily
affected by chlorine, acids, alkalies, &c., and
made into sheets as usual.
Paper, Test. Syn. CHARTA EXPLORATORIA,
L. Under this head may be conveniently in-
cluded all the varieties of prepared paper em-
ployed in testing. For this purpose sheets of
unsized paper or of good ordinary writing paper
(preferably the first), are uniformly wetted
with a solution of the salt, or with a cold in-
fusion or decoction of the tinctorial substance
in distilled water, and are then hung up to dry
in a current of pure air; they are, lastly, cut
into pieces of a convenient size, and preserved
in closed bottles or jars. For use, a small strip
of the prepared paper is either dipped into
See GOUT and RESIN
or moistened with the liquid under examina-
tion, or it is moistened with distilled water,
and then exposed to the fumes. A single
drop, or even less, of any liquid may be thus
tested.
The following are the principal test papers
and their applications:—
PAPER, BRAZIL-wooD. From the decoction.
Alkalies turn it purple or violet; strong acids,
red.
PAPER, BUCKTHORN. From the juice of the
berries. Reddened by acids.
PAPER, CHERRY-JUICE. As the last.
PAPER, DAHLIA, GEORGINA P. From an in-
fusion of the petals of the violet dahlia
(Georgina purpurea). Alkalies turn it green;
acids, red; strong caustic alkalies turn it
yellow. Very delicate.
PAPER, ELDERBERRY. From the juice of the
berries. As the last.
PAPER, INDIGo. From a solution of indigo.
Decoloured by chlorine.
PAPER, IODIDE OF POTASSIUM.–a. From
the solution in distilled water. Turned blue
by an acidulated solution of starch.
b. From a mixture of a solution of iodide of
potassium and starch paste. Turned blue by
chlorine, ozone, and the mineral acids, and by
air containing them.
PAPER, LEAD. From a solution of either
acetate or diacetate of lead. Sulphuretted
hydrogen and hydrosulphuret of ammonia turn
it black.
PAPER, LITMUs. In general, this is pre-
pared from infusion of litmus, without any pre-
caution, but the following plan may be adopted
when a superior test paper is desired:—
a. (Blue.) Triturate commercial litmus, 1oz.,
in a wedgwood-ware mortar, with boiling water,
3 or 4 fl. Oz, ; put the mixture into a flask,
and add more boiling water until the liquid
measures fully pint ; agitate the mixture
frequently until it is cold, then filter it, and
divide the filtrate into two equal portions; stir
one of these with a glass rod previouslydipped
into very dilute sulphuric acid, and repeat the
operation until the litmus infusion begins to
look very slightly red, then add the other half
of the filtrate, and the two being mixed to-
gether, dip strips of unsized paper into the
liquid, in the usual manner, and dry them.
Acids turn it red; alkalies, blue. The neutral
salts of most of the heavy metals also redden
this, as well as the other blue test papers
that are affected by acids.
b. (Red.) The treatment of the whole quan-
tity of the infusion (see above) with the rod
dipped in dilute sulphuric acid is repeated until
the fluid begins to look distinctly red, when the
paper is dipped into it as before. The alkalies
and alkaline earths, and their sulphides, re-
store its blue colour; the alkaline carbonates
and the soluble borates also possess the same
property. Very sensitive. An extemporaneous
red litmus paper may be prepared by holding
a strip of the blue variety over a ". or jar

s32 PAPER HANGINGS.
into which 2 or 3 drops of hydrochloric acid
have been thrown.
PAPER, MALLOW. From an infusion of the
purple flowers of the common mallow. Affected
like ‘dahlia paper.”
PAPER, MANGANESE. From a solution of
sulphate of manganese. Ozonised air blackens
it. - -
PAPER, RHUBARB. From a strong infusion
of the powdered root. Alkalies turn it brown;
but boracic acid and its salts do not affect it.
Very sensitive.
PAPER, ROSE. From the petals of the red
rose, as the last. Alkalies turn it bright green.
Dr. A. S. Taylor recommends the infusion to
be very slightly acidulated with an acid before
dipping the paper into it. More sensitive than
turmeric paper.
PAPER, STARCH. From a cold decoction of
starch. Free iodine turns it blue.
PAPER, SULPHATE OF IRON. From a solution
of ferrous sulphate. As a test for hydrocyanic
acid and the soluble cyanides.
PAPER, TURMERIC. From decoction of tur-
meric (2 oz. to the pint). It is turned brown
by alkalies, and by boracic acid and the soluble
borates. It is not quite so susceptible as some
other tests, but the change of colour is very
marked and characteristic.
Paper, Tra"cing. Prep. 1. Open a quire of
smooth unsized white paper, and place it flat
upon a table, then apply, with a clean ‘sash
tool,’ to the upper surface of the first sheet, a
coat of varnish made of equal parts of Canada
balsam and oil of turpentine, and hang the pre-
pared sheet across the line to dry; repeat the
operation on fresh sheets until the proper
quantity is finished. If not sufficiently trans-
parent, a second coat of varnish may be
applied as soon as the first has become quite
dry.
2. Rub the paper with a mixture of equal
parts of nut oil and oil of turpentine, and dry
it immediately by rubbing it with wheaten
flour; then hang it on a line for 24 hours,
to dry.
Obs. Both the above are used to copy draw-
ings, writing, &c. If washed over with ox-
gall and dried, they may be written on with
ink or water colours. The first is the whitest
and clearest, but the second is the toughest
and most flexible. The paper prepared from
the refuse of the flax-mills, and of which bank-
notes are made, is also called ‘tracing paper.”
and sometimes ‘ vegetable paper.” This re-
quires no preparation; but though very flexible,
it has little strength.
Paper, War'nished. Before proceeding to
warnish paper, card-work, pasteboard, &c., it is
necessary to give it 2 or 3 coats of size, to pre-
vent the absorption of the varnish, and any
injury to the colour or design. The size may
be made by dissolving a little isinglass in
boiling water, or by boiling some clean parch-
ment cuttings until they form a clear solution.
This, after being strained through a piece of
clean muslim, or, for very nice purposes, tº
fied with a little white of egg, is applied
means of a small clean brush, called by paintº
a sash tool. A light, delicate touch must
adopted, especially for the first coat, lesſ tº
ink or colours be started, or smothered. Whº
the prepared surface is perfectly dry, it my
be varnished in the usual manner. See MAR
WARNISH, &c.
Paper, Wa’fer. See WAFERs.
Paper, Waxed. Prep. Place cartridgepº
or strong writing paper, on a hot iron pliº.
and rub it well with a lump of bees' waſ
Used to form extemporaneous steam or gº
pipes, to cover the joints of vessels, and tº it
over pots, &c.
PAPER HANG'INGS. The ornamentalpâ),
used to cover the walls of rooms, &c, Uniº
the old system, the paper, after being iſ
and prepared with a ground colour, had tº
pattern produced on it by the common prº
of ‘stencilling,” a separate plate being tº
ployed for each colour that formed the ſº
term. To this succeeded the use of woºl.
blocks, the surface of which bearing the º
in relief, and being covered with colour, Wi
applied by simple hand pressure on the pººl
in a precisely similar manner to that adjº
in the block-printing of calicoes. The cylind.
calico-printing machine has now been sº
cessfully applied to the manufacture of plº
hangings.
The colours employed for paper hangi:
are—
BLACKS. Frankfort, ivory, and blue blad
BLUES. Prussian blue, verditer, and ſº
tious ultramarine.
BROWNS. Umber (raw and burn) tº
mixtures.
GRAYS. Prussian blue and blue black, wi
Spanish white.
GREENS. Brunswick green, Scheele's;
Schweinfurt g., and green verditer; also miº
tures of blues and yellows.
REDs. Decoctions of Brazil wood (hiſ
brightened with alum or solution of tin;
red ochres; and, sometimes, red lake.
VIOLETS. Decoction of logwood and all
also blues tempered with bright red.
YELLows. Chrome yellow, decoctiºn
French berries or of weld, terra disienna, a
the ochres.
WHITES. White lead, sulphate of barſ:
plaster of Paris, and whiting, and mixtures
them.
The vehicle employed to give adhesivelé
and body to the colours is a solution of gelatiº
or glue, sufficiently strong to gelatinist º
cooling.
The satiny lustre observable in some ſº
hangings (SATIN PAPERS) is produced by dº
ing finely powdered French chalk over their
face, and rubbing it strongly with a brushº
burnisher. The ground for this purposeispº
pared with plaster.
FLOCK and VELVET PAPERS are productiº

PAPIER-MACHE–PARAFFIN.
883
covering the surface of the pattern with a
mordant formed with boiled oil thickened with
white lead or ochre, and then sprinkling pow-
dered woollen flocks on it. These are pre-
viously dyed, and ground to the required fine-
mess in a mill.,
PAPIER-MACHE. Pulped paper moulded
into forms. It possesses great strength and
lightness. It may be rendered partially wa-
terproof by the addition of sulphate of iron,
quicklime, and glue or white of egg to the
pulp; and incombustible, by the addition of
borax and phosphate of soda. The papier-
mâché tea-trays, waiters, snuff-boxes, &c., are
prepared by pasting or gluing sheets of paper
together, and then submitting them to powerful
pressure, by which the composition acquires
the hardness of board when dry. Such articles
are afterwards japanned, and are then perfectly
waterproof.
The refuse of the cotton and flax mills, and
numerous other substances of a like character,
are now worked up as papier-mâché, and the
manufactured articles formed of them are
indistinguishable from those prepared directly
from paper.
PAPYRIN. See PAPER (Parchment).
PAR/ACHUTE. In aerostation, an instru-
ment or apparatus having for its object to
retard the descent of heavy bodies through
the air. The only form of parachute which
has been hitherto adopted with success is that
of the common umbrella when extended. The
materials of which the apparatus is made are
canvas and cord, both light but strong, and
carefully put together. The car to contain
the adventurer resembles that of the balloon,
only smaller.
It is estimated that a circular parachute, to
descend in safety with an adult, weighing,
with the apparatus, 225 lbs., must have a dia-
meter of at least 30 feet. Its terminal velo-
city would then be at the rate of 12 to 13 feet
per second, or about 6% miles per hour; and
the shock experienced on contact with the earth
would be equal to that which the aëronaut
would receive if he dropped freely from a height
about 2% feet,
Several descents from balloons, after they
have acquired a great elevation, have been
effected without accident by means of para-
chutes. Unfortunately, however, any want of
integrity in the machine, or any accident which
may happen to it after its detachment from the
balloon, is irreparable and fatal.
PARACYAN/06EN. The brown solid matter
left in the retort when cyanide of mercury is
decomposed by heat. It is isomeric with cya-
nogen.
PARAFFIN. Syn. TAR-OHL STEARIN. This
remarkable hydrocarbon is one of the several
substances discovered by Reichenbach in wooD-
TATR.
Prep. 1. (From WooD-TAR. Reichenbach.)
Distil beech tar to dryness, rectify the oily
portion of the product which is heavier than
Water, until a thick matter begins to rise, then
change the receiver, and moderately urge the
heat as long as anything passes over; next
digest the product in the second receiver, in an
equal measure of alcohol of 833, gradually add
6 or 7 parts more of alcohol, and expose the
whole to a low temperature; crystals of pa-
raffin will gradually fall down, which, after
being washed in cold alcohol, must be dis-
solved in boiling alcohol, when crystals of pure
paraffin will be deposited as the solution
cools.
2. (From CoAL—James Young, Patent
1850.) The details of this process for obtain-
ing paraffin and its congeners by the slow dis-
tillation of coal (preferably “Boghead') are
given in our article on PARAFFIN OTL. The
solid paraffin is separated from the last pro-
ducts, or ‘heavy oils,’ by artificial cold; it is
then melted and run into moulds.
3. (From RANGooN PETROLEUM-Patent.)
In this process, which is worked by Price’s
Candle Company, superheated steam is em-
ployed as the heating agent. The paraffin, or
‘BELMONTINE, as it is called, is the last pro-
duct which distils over. -
4. (From PEAT.) The various processes
which have been suggested for obtaining pa-
raffin from peat, turf, &c., are similar in prin-
ciple to Young’s. The great point is to con-
duct the distillation at as low a temperature
as possible.
Prop. A white, hard, translucent body,
melting at 110° Fahr, and upwards, according
to its source, and burning with a bright white
flame. It has great stability—sulphuric acid,
chlorine, and nitric acid below 212° exerting
no action upon it. Dr. Anderson states that
its composition and properties vary with the
source from which it is derived. With respect
to the melting point, this variation is very
remarkable. Thus, Young's paraffin, from Bog-
head coal, melts, according to the observations
of Dr. Anderson, at 114°, while that from Ran-
goon petroleum (“belmontine’), melts at 140°,
and that from turf at 116°.
Uses. Paraffin is now largely used for making
candles, for which purpose it is specially
adapted, being a most elegant substance, and
surpassing all other candle materials, even
spermaceti, in illuminating power. Its pro-
perty of not being acted upon by acids or
alkalies renders it suitable for stoppers for
vessels holding chemical liquids; also for elec-
trotype moulds. It is not acted upon by
ozone, so that it has been employed with great
advantages in experiments on this body for
rendering air tight the joints formed by the
union of glass tubes. As it contains no
oxygen, it might be employed to protect
oxydisable metals like sodium and potassium
from contact with the air. One use of pa-
raffin candle-ends will commend them to the
ladies of the household—a small piece of
paraffin added to starch will be found to
give a gloss and brilliancy of surface to the

884. -
PARAFFIN OIL–PASTE.
starched linen that can be attained by no
other addition.
PARAFFIN OIL. See OILS.
PARAL(YSIS. Syn. PALSY. A loss or con-
siderable diminution of power of voluntary
motion, or functional action, of any part of the
body. In its most usual form, one side only of
the body is affected. It not uncommonly
seizes the lower extremities, or all parts below
the pelvis; sometimes the arms only; and
occasionally a part, as one side of the face, one
eyelid, the tongue, or the muscles of degluti-
tion. In these cases, the speech frequently
becomes indistinct and incoherent, and the
memory and judgment impaired, whilst the
distorted features assume a more or less re-
volting aspect.
The causes of paralysis are various. It may
be occasioned by pressure on particular parts
of the brain, the spinal marrow, or the nerves;
by poisons, the long-continued use of sedatives,
local injuries, the sudden suppression of pro-
fuse and habitual evacuations, and by what-
ever tends to greatly relax or emervate the
system. It may also be a consequence of an
attack of apoplexy, or it may be symptomatic
of other diseases, as scrofula, syphilis, and
worms. When it is of a distinctly local character,
it may arise from excessive use or undue em-
ployment of the part or organ. That of old
age is, probably, a mere consequence of the
failing nervous energy of the system being
unequally distributed.
Palsy usually comes on with a sudden and
immediate loss of the motion and sensibility of
the parts; but, in a few instances, it is pre-
ceded by a numbness, coldness, and paleness;
and, sometimes, by slight convulsive twitches.
If the disease affects the extremities, and has
been of long duration, it not only produces a
loss of motion and sensibility, but likewise a
considerable flaccidity and wasting away of the
muscles of the parts affected.
When palsy attacks any vital part, such as
the brain, heart, or lungs, it soon terminates
in death.
The treatment of paralysis depends upon a
careful consideration of its cause. The first
object should be, as far as possible, to remove
any compressing force, and to gradually arouse
the torpid portion of the nervous system. In
general, more or less depletion will be found
beneficial, together with rather active purga-
tion, and nervous stimulants, as ammonia,
musk, &c. Blisters to the head and neck are
also appropriate. With the debilitated and
aged, venesection must be avoided. Stimulant
and rubefacient frictions and limiments, the
vapour bath, and other like remedies, also fre-
quently prove useful. In local attacks of the
disease, as the loss of use of one of the hands,
arms, legs, &c., no agent has proved so gene-
rally successful as voltaic electricity. For this
purpose the current should be in one direction
only, and continued uninterruptedly for some
time daily. When the direction of the cur-
rent is alternate, with slight shocks, as intº
common coil machine, this agent is of douli
utility, except for occasional use. In all tº
medical aid should be sought as early as ſº
sible.
PARANAPH'THALIN. Syn. ANTHRACN:
A substance found in the naphthalin of 0.
tar, from which it may be separated by diº
tion in alcohol, which dissolves the Ordi,
naphthalin and leaves the paranaphth
in an imsoluble form ; it is then purified
redigestion in hot alcohol, and final Sulli
tion.
Prop., &c. White; crystalline; inflammil,
soluble in ether and oil of turpentine; m:
at 416° Fahr. Naphthalin and paranapill
are isomeric compounds.
PARAPEC/TIN. See PECTIN.
PARASITES. The parasitical animalsº
infest the human body are referred to m
the heads ACARI and PEDICULI.
PARATARTAR/IC ACID. See RACE)
ACID.
PARCH/MENT. See WELLUM, and Pº
(Parchment).
PARCHMIENT PAPER, See PAPER,
PAREGOR/IC. See TINCTURE OF CAMPH',
(Compound).
Paregoric, Scotch. See TINCTURE OF0III
(Ammoniated). -
PAREI/RA BRA'WA. See WELVET LEA.
PARR. A name applied to the salmonut
near the end of its second year, when its
its dark lateral bars by the superaddition ºf
silvery pigment. It was formerly regarded:
a distinct species. -
PARS'LEY. Syn. PETROSELINUM, L. Tº
well-known herb is the Apium petroseliº
The root is diuretic; the fruit (seed) tº
minative; the leaves are a pleasant siſ
lating salad and condiment, and are nº
used to flavour broth and soup. “The in
is a deadly poison to parrots.” (Lind
Burnett.)
PARS'NEP. The root of Pastinaca sºft
Used as a table vegetable. The juice is sº
times made into wine. -
PASTE. Syn. PASTA, L.; PATE, Fr. Tº
word is very loosely applied to substants
preparations differing so widely from tº
other, that it would be scarcely possible to dº
them together. We shall, therefore, reſºrt
reader to the individual articles. The plº
(pâtes) of French pharmacy are compº
medicines of the consistence of hard do
and which do not stick to the fingers, Tº
are formed of sugar and gum, dissolved?
water or in some medicated liquid. They iſ
evaporated, so as to unite these principles,
degrees, and give them the pliancy and tº
firmness of paste. They are employed intº
nally in doses more or less variable, in a simi:
manner to lozenges. “Pâtes, properly 9
called, are divided into transparent, or such:
are made without agitation, like jujubs:
brown liquorice; and opaque, or such as in










PASTE.
885
made with agitation, like the pâtes of marsh-
mallow, lichen, &c.” (Trousseau and Reveil.)
See PASTEs (Artificial Gems), PASTRY, and
below. -
Paste, Al'mond. Syn. PASTA AMYGDALINA,
P. AMYGDALARUM, P. REGIA, L.; PATE ROY-
ALE, Fr. Prep. I. (MoIST.)—a. Take of
blanched Valentia almonds, 4 oz. ; reduce them
to a very smooth paste by patient pounding
in a clean mortar, adding, towards the
last, a little rose water, with some eau de
Cologne, or 3 or 4 drops of otto of roses
or neroli, or an equivalent quantity of any
other perfume, according to the fancy of the
artiste. -
b. From bitter and sweet almonds (blanched),
equal parts; rose water, q. 8. It requires no
other perfume.
c. To either of the preceding add of sper-
maceti, oz. The white of an egg, or 4 oz. of
white soap, is added by some makers. With
about ; dr. of powdered camphor to each oz.
of the above, it forms the ‘camphorated almond
paste’ of the shops.
d. Take fine Narbonne homey and white
bitter paste (see below), of each, 1 lb. ; beat
them to a smooth paste, then add, in alternate
portions, of oil of almonds, 2 lbs. ; yolks of 5
eggs; and reduce the whole to a perfectly
homogeneous pasty mass. Much esteemed.
It is commonly sold under the name of
‘honey paste,’ ‘päte royale,’ &c. In a similar
manner are made nosegay, orange, rose,
vanilla, and other like pastes having almonds
for a basis, by merely adding the respective
perfumes.
2. (PULVERULENT.)—a. (Gray.) Prepared
from the cake of bitter almonds from which the
oil has been thoroughly expressed, by drying,
grinding, and sifting it.
b. (Bitter white.) As the last, but the
almonds are blanched before being pressed.
c. (Sweet white.) As the last, but using
sweet almonds.
Obs. All the above are used as cosmetics, to
soften and whiten the skin, prevent chaps,
abrasions, chilblains, &c. The honey paste,
and the sweet and bitter white pastes, are
those most esteemed. (See below.)
Paste, Almond. (In confectionery.) Prep.
1. Take of Valentia almonds, 3 lbs. ; bitter do.,
4 lb.; blanch them, and reduce them to a very
smooth paste by pounding, then put them into
a clean copper pan along with white sugar and
good gum arabic, of each, 1 lb. ; (the last pre-
viously dissolved in about a pint of water;)
apply a gentle heat, and stir until the whole
is mixed and has acquired a proper con-
sistence, then pour it out on a smooth,
oiled, marble slab, and when cold cut it into
squares. -
2. As the last, but when the mixture, has
acquired the consistence of thick honey, set-
ting it aside to cool; when nearly cold, the
whites of 6 eggs are to be added, and heat
being again gradually applied, the whole is to
be stirred until it acquires the proper consist-
ence, as before.
3. Blanched sweet almonds and white sugar,
of each, 1 lb.; blanched bitter almonds and
powdered gum, of each, 3 oz.; beat them, in
the cold, to a perfectly smooth paste, with
orange-flower water or rose water, q. S., so
that it may be sufficiently stiff not to stick
to the fingers, and then cut the mass into
squares, as before. The above are eaten as
confections.
Paste, Ancho'vy. Prep. Remove the larger
bones from the fish, and then pound them to a
smooth paste in a marble mortar, adding a
little bay-salt and cayenne pepper, at will;
next rub the pulp through a fine hair sieve,
and about 3-4ths fill the pots with it; lastly,
cover the surface of each to the depth of about
§ inch with good butter in a melted state. It
should be kept in a cool situation. Other
fish pastes, as those of bloaters, lobsters,
shrimps, caviare, &c., are made in a similar
lmannel".
Paste, Arsen'ical. See CAUSTICS, PATENT
MEDICINES, and POWDERS.
Paste, Baudry's. See PECTORAL PASTE
(below).
Paste, Bird.
561).
Paste, Black Currant. As black currant
lozenges, but simply cutting the mass into dice
or square.
Paste, Car'rageen. Prep. From Irish moss,
as the lichen paste of the P. Cod. (see below).
Paste, Chinese'. Prep. From bullock’s blood,
10 lbs., reduced to dryness by a gentle heat,
then powdered, and mixed with quicklime, also
in fine powder, 1 lb. It is used as a cement,
made into a paste with water, and at once
applied.
Paste of Chlo"ride of Zimc. See CAUSTICS.
Paste of Dates. Syn. PASTA DACTYLIFERE,
P. DACTYLORUM, L.; PATES DE DATTEs, Fr.
From dates (stoned), as jujube paste. Pec-
toral, and slightly astringent. Paste of gum
Senegal is usually sold for it.
Paste, De Handels. Prep. From opium, #
dr.; camphor, 1 dr. ; (both in powder;) ex-
tracts of belladonna and henbane, of each, 1 dr.;
oil of cajeput and tincture of cantharides, of
each, 10 or 12 drops; distilled water of opium
(or of lettuce), q. s. In toothache.
Paste, Depilatory. Syn. PASTA EPILATORIA,
L. Several preparations of this character are
noticed at pages 400-1. A mixture of slacked
lime, 2 parts, and water, 3 parts, saturated
with sulphuretted hydrogen, is said to be
so powerful, that “a layer a line in thick-
ness denudes the scalp in three minutes.”
(Beasley.) -
Paste of Figs. Syn. PASTA CARICARUM, P.
FICARIA, L. Prep. 1. From figs, as jujube
paste.
2. (Soubeiran.) Pulp of figs, 1 part; press it
through a sieve, mix it with powdered sugar,
4 parts, concentrated by a gentle heat (if ne-
See GERMAN PASTE (page


886 PASTE.
cessary), roll the mass out, and cut it into
squares or lozenges.
Paste, Flour. Syn. CoILE DE PATE, Fr.
From wheaten flour. Paper-hangers, shoe-
makers, &c., usually add to the flour to #
of its weight of finely powdered resin. It is
then sometimes called ‘hard paste.” The
addition of a few drops of creasote or oil of
cloves, or a little powdered camphor, colocynth,
or corrosive sublimate (especially the first two
and the last), will prevent insects from attack-
ing it, and preserve it in covered vessels for
years. Should it get too hard, it may be soft-
ened with water. See CEMENTS.
Paste, Fruit. Prep. 1. To each pint of the
strained juice add of gum arabic, 1 oz., gently
evaporate to the consistence of a syrup, and
add an equal weight of bruised white sugar;
as soon as the whole is united, pour it out on
an oiled slab, and, when cold enough, cut it into
pieces.
2. Citric acid, # oz. ; gum arabic, 6 oz. ;
white sugar, 3 lb.; water, q. S.; dissolve, and
flavour with any of the fruit essences. It may
be coloured with any of the stains used for
confectionery or liqueurs.
3. As fruit lozenges (see page 721).
Paste, Fur'niture. See POLISH.
Paste, Glove. See GANTEINE.
Paste of Gum Arabic. Syn. PASTA GUMMI,
L.; PATE DE GOMME, P. DE G. ARABIQUE, Fr.
JPrep. 1. As marsh-mallow paste, omitting
the mallow roots.
2. Gum arabic (picked), 1 lb.; water, 1
pint; dissolve, add of white sugar, 1 lb. ; eva-
porate by a gentle heat to a very thick syrup,
then add the whites of 3 eggs, previously beaten
up with orange-flower water, 1 fl. oz., and
strained through muslim, and continue the
heat with constant stirring, until of a proper
consistence on being cooled. The last two are
commonly sold for marsh-mallow paste (pâte
de guimauve).
3. (Transparent.) From gum arabic (picked),
1 lb.; cold water, 1 pint ; white sugar, 14 lb. ;
proceed as the last, adding orange-flower water,
1 fl. Oz., towards the end. Often sold under
the name of ‘white jujubes.’
Paste of Gum Senegal. Syn. PATE DE
GOMME SENEGAL, Fr. As jujube paste, with-
out the fruit.
Paste, Homſey. See ALMOND PASTE.
Paste, Jujube. Syn. JUJUBES, JUTUBE LO-
ZENGES ; PASTA JUJUBE, L.; PATE DE JU-
JUBES, Fr. Prep. (P. Cod.) Jujubes (the
fruit), 1 lb. ; water, 4 lbs.; boil hour, strain
with expression, settle, decant the clear por-
tion, and clarify it with white of egg; add a
strained solution of gum arabic, 6 lbs., in water,
8 lbs., and to the mixture add of white sugar,
5 lbs. ; gently evaporate, at first constantly
stirring, and afterwards without stirring, to
the consistence of a soft extract, then add of
orange-flower water, 6 fl.oz., and place the pan
in a vessel of boiling water, In 12 hours care-
fully remove the scum, pour the matter into
slightly oiled tin moulds, and finish the ey
ration (hardening) in a stove heated to ||
Fahr. It is commonly coloured with beetly
cochineal, or saffron. Expectorant; in Cºugh
&c. Paste of gum arabic is usually sº
for it.
Paste, Li'chen. Syn. PASTA IICHENIS I.
PATE DE LICHEN, Fr. Prep. (P. Cod.) It
land moss, 1 lb.; water, q. S.; heat them:
nearly the boiling-point, strain with presſ,
reject the liquor, and boil the moss in ſº
water, q. S., for 1 hour; strain, press, all
gum arabic, 5 lbs. ; white sugar, 4 lbs, it
evaporate to a proper consistence, as alſº
Pectoral. With the addition of ; gr. ºf 8
tract of opium to each oz., it forms theoliº
lichen paste. (P. Cod.)
Paste, Liquorice. Syn. LIQUORICE JUTR
PASTA GLYCIRRHIZE, L.; PATE DE RíGIN
P. DE R. NOIRE, Fr. Prep. 1 (P. Cod) ".
fined juice and white sugar, of each 11b; gº
arabic, 2 lbs. ; water, 3 quarts; dissolve, sini
evaporate considerably, and, of finely ºf
dered orris root, 3 oz. ; oil of anisted
essence of cedrat, a few drops, and pºrt
paste upon an oiled slab, or into mould
before. -
2. (Brown; PASTA G. FUSCA; PATI
R. BRUNE.) Refined juice, 4 oz. ; whites:
2 lbs. ; gum arabic, 3 lbs. ; water, 4 iſ
proceed as last.
3. (Opiated; PATE DE R. OPIACE-
Cod.) To the last add of extract of Qi.
15 grs.
4. (White; PATE DE RáGLISSE BIANT
As No. 2, substituting the powder of the
corticated root for the extract. All the alſº
are pectoral; the second is also slightly tº
dyne. They are useful in tickling tº
hoarseness, &c. -
Paste, Marsh-mallow. Syn, PASTAAITH:
L.; PATE DE GUIMAUVE, Fr. Prep. (P.W.
1816.) Decorticated marsh-mallow ºl.
(French), 4 oz. ; water, gall.; macetăţi,
12 hours, strain, add white sugar and ſº
arabic, of each, 2% lbs.; dissolve, strain, º
porate without boiling to the thicknesſ,
honey, constantly stirring, and add, gradu.
the whites of 12 eggs, well beaten with Orº
flower water, 4 fl. oz., and strained; continº
the evaporation and constant stirring uniº
mass is so firm as not to adhere to the fingº
then proceed as before.
Obs. It should be very white, light tº
spongy. In the P. Codex of 1839 the miſſ
mallow root is omitted, and the nameischall;
to that of ‘päte de gomme,’ a compº
long sold for it in the shops. Both ſº
agreeable pectorals. See PASTE OF iſ:
ARABIC.
Paste, Odontal'gic. Syn. PASTA ODOT'ſ
GICA, L. Prep. 1. Pellitory (in powlº
1 dr. ; hydrochlorate of morphia, 3 grs; tº
turate; add, of honey, 2 drs. ; and oilofºlº
6 drops.
2, Powdered mastic, pellitory, and whº










PASTE.
887
sugar, of each, 1 dr. ; chloroform, q. S. to form
a paste, It must be kept in a stoppered bottle.
See Toot HACHE, and below.
Paste, Or'ange. Prep. From orange flowers,
2 lbs. ; bitter and sweet almonds, of each,
blanched, 24 lbs. ; beaten to a perfectly smooth
paste. An agreeable cosmetic. See ALMOND
PASTE.
Paste, 0r'geat. Prep. From blanched Jordan
almonds, 1 lb.; blanched bitter a. and white
sugar or honey, of each, 4 lb.; beaten to a
paste, with orange-flower water, q. S. (or neroli,
a few drops), and put into pots. As a cos-
metic or to make orgeat milk. For use, rub
1 oz. with , pint of water, and strain through
muslim.
Paste, Pectoral. Syn. PASTA PECTORALIS,
L. Prep. 1. (PATE PECTORALE DE BAUDRY.)
Take of gum arabic and white sugar, of each,
7 lb. ; water, q. s. ; dissolve, add of extract
of liquorice, 3 oz. ; evaporate, add of extract
of lettuce, 2 drs.; balsam of tolu,1} oz.; orange-
flower water, 4} fl. oz. ; white of 4 eggs; oil
of citrons, 5 or 6 drops.
2. (PATE PECTORALE BALSAMIQUE DE REG-
NAULT.) From the flowers of coltsfoot,
cudweed, mallow, and red poppy, of each,
1 oz. ; water, 1 quart ; boil, strain; add, of
gum arabic, 30 Oz. ; white sugar, 20 oz. ;
dissolve, concentrate, add of tincture of tolu,
3 fl. dr., and pour the mixture on an oiled
slab,
3. (ANISATED COLTSFOOT PASTE : PATE DE
TUSSILAGE A L’ANIS.) From strong decoction
of coltsfoot flowers, 1 quart ; Spanish juice,
3 lb.; dissolve, strain, evaporate as before,
and towards thc end add of oil of aniseed,
1 dr. All the above are useful in hoarseness,
coughs, &c.
Paste, Pho'sphor.
Paste, Polishing.
and brass.)
252).
2. (For iron and steel). From emery (in
fine powder) and lard, equal parts.
3. (For pewter.) From powdered Bath
brick, 2 parts; soft soap, 1 part ; water, q. s.
to make a paste. Used with a little water,
and afterwards well rinsed off.
4. (For furniture.) See PoEISH.
Paste, Ra"zor. Prep. 1. From jeweller's
rouge, plumbago, and suet, equal parts, melted
together and stirred until cold.
2. From prepared putty powder (levigated
oxide of tin), 3 parts; lard, 2 parts; crocus
martis, 1 part ; triturated together.
3. Prepared putty powder, 1 oz. ; powdered
oxalic acid, 4 oz. ; powdered gum, 20 grs. ;
make a stiff paste with water, q. S., and
evenly and thinly spread it over the strop, the
other side of which should be covered with
any of the common greasy mixtures. With
very little friction this paste gives a fine edge
to the razor, and its action is still further in-
creased by slightly moistening it, or even
breathing on it. Immediately after its use,
See RATS.
Prep. 1. (For copper
See BRASS PASTE (see page
the razor should receive a few turns on the
other side of the strop. -
4. Diamond dust, jeweller's rouge, and plum-
bago, of each, 1 part ; suet, 2 parts. Pow-
dered quartz is generally substituted for dia-
mond dust, but is much less effective.
5. (Mechi’s.) Emery (reduced to an im-
palpable powder), 4 parts; deer suet, 1 part;
well mixed together.
6. (Pradier's.) From powdered Turkey
stone, 4 oz.; jeweller’s rouge and prepared
putty power, of each, 1 oz. ; hard suet, 2 oz.
Obs. The above (generally made up into
square cakes) are rubbed over the razor strop,
and the surface being smoothed off with the
flat part of a knife or a phial bottle, the
strop is set aside for a few hours to harden
before being used. -
Paste, Regnault's. See PECTORAL PASTE.
Paste, Rubefa"cient. Syn. PASTA RUBEFA-
CIENS, L. Prep. (Clarus.) From acetate of
lead, 1 oz. ; bisulphate of potassa, 3 oz. ; water,
q. s. It acts powerfully and quickly on the
skin.
Paste, Rust’s. Prep. From powdered opium
and extract of henbane, of each, 10 grs, ;
powdered pellitory and extract of belladonna,
of each, 20 grs.; oil of cloves, 10 drops. In
toothache.
Paste, Sha'ving. Prep. 1. Naples soap
(genuine), 4 oz. ; powdered Castile soap, 2
oz. ; homey, 1 oz. ; essence of ambergris and
oils of cassia and nutmegs, of each, 5 or 6
drops.
2. White wax, spermaceti, and almond oil, of
each, 3 oz. ; melt, and, whilst warm, beat in 2
squares of Windsor soap previously reduced to
a paste with a little rose water.
3. White soft soap, 4 oz. ; spermaceti and
salad oil, of each, oz. ; melt them together,
and stir until nearly cold. It may be scented
at will. When properly prepared, these pastes
produce a good lather with either hot or cold
water, which does not dry on the face. The
proper method of using them is to smear a
minute quantity over the beard, and then to
apply the wetted shaving-brush, and not to
pour water on them, as is the common prac-
tice.
Paste, Swediaur. See CHILBLAIN.
Paste, Tooth. Syn. PASTA DENTIFRICIA,
ELECTUARIUM DENTIFRICUM, L. Various
preparations are known under this name. They
consist, for the most part, of the ordinary sub-
stances used as dentifrices, reduced to the
state of a very fine powder, and mixed with
sufficient homey, sugar, or capillaire, to give
them the required consistence. Honey of roses
is often used for this purpose, with some agree-
able perfume at will. A little eau de Cologne
or rectified spirit is a useful addition. The
following are a few examples:– ---
1. (CARBON PASTE ; OPIAT CARBONIQUE.)
The chippings of Turkey stone, cylinder char-
coal, and prepared chalk, of each, 2 oz. ; co-
chineal and cloves, of each, 1 dr.; honey, 5


888 PASTES.
oz. ; eau de Cologne, q. s. It should not be
put into the pots until the next day, and
should be afterwards well preserved from the
air. Much prized by smokers, and by per-
sons troubled with a fetid breath from rotten
teeth.
2. (CoRAL PASTE; OPIAT DENTIFRICE ROUGE.)
From prepared coral, 8 oz. ; cuttle-fish bone,
4 oz. ; mastic, 2 oz. ; cochineal, # oz. ; honey,
# lb.; essence of ambergris, 1 fl. dr.; oil of
cloves, # fl. dr., dissolved in rectified spirit,
1 fl. oz. As the last. Cleans the teeth ra-
pidly.
3. (Dyon's CHARCOAL PASTE.) From chlo-
rate of potassa, 1 dr. ; mint water, 1 fl. oz. ;
triturate until dissolved, then add, of pow-
dered charcoal, 2 oz. ; honey, 1 oz.
4. (MAGIC PASTE.) From white marble dust,
4 oz. ; pumice stone (in impalpable powder),
3 oz. ; rose pink, 1 oz. ; honey, 4 lb. ; otto of
roses, 15 drops. Rapidly whitens the teeth,
but it should not be used too freely, nor too
frequently.
5. (P. Cod.) Prepared coral, 4 oz. ; bitar-
trate of potassa, 2 oz. ; cuttle-fish bone and
cochineal, of each, 1 oz.; alum, # dr. ; Nar-
bonne honey, 10 oz. ; with essential oil, q. S. to
aromatize the mixture
6. (Pelletier’s ODONTINE.) This is stated to
be a mixture of pulverized sepia-bone, butter of
cacao, and honey, with essential oil.
7. (ROSE PASTE.) Coral paste scented
with roses, or the following : — Cuttle-fish
bone, 1 oz. ; prepared chalk, 2 oz. ; cochineal,
# dr. ; honey of roses, 3 oz. ; otto of roses,
6 drops.
8. (SOLUBLE PASTE, SALINE DENTIFRICE.)
From bitartrate of potassa or sulphate of po-
tassa (in fine powder), 3 oz. ; honey of roses,
2 oz.
9. (SPANISH DENTIFRICE, CASTILIAN Toot.II
CREAM.) From Castile soap (in fine powder)
and cuttle-fish bone, of each, 2 oz. ; honey of
roses, 5 oz. An excellent preparation. It is
superior to all the other pastes for removing
tartar and animalculae from the teeth.
10. (WANILLA PASTE.) From red cinchona
bark, 2 drs. ; vanilla, 1 dr. ; cloves, # dr. ;
(the last two reduced to powder by trituration
with) white sugar, 1 oz. ; cuttle-fish bone and
marble dust, of each, 3 oz. ; syrup of saffron,
q. S.
11. (VIOLET PASTE.) From prepared chalk
and cuttle-fish bone, of each, 3 oz. ; powdered
white sugar, 2 oz.; orris root, 1 oz. ; smalts, #
oz.; syrup of violets, q. S. to mix.
12. (Winckler's RosBATE DENTIFRICE.)
From cuttle-fish bone, 1 part ; conserve of roses
(Ph. L.), 3 parts; white otto of roses, 2 drops
to the oz.
13. Chalk, 8 oz.; myrrh and rhatany root,
of each, 2 oz. ; orris root, 1 oz. ; honey of
roses, q. S. to mix. In foul and spongy
gums.
Paste, Tooth'ache. See ODONTALGIC PASTE.
Paste, Tor’mentil. Syn. PASTA ToRMEN.
TILLE, I. Prep. (Morin.) Powdered tº
mentil root made into a paste with white oftſ,
In whitlow ; applied on linen. Mixed with
an equal weight of simple syrup, it has als
been recommended in dysentery and diº
rhoea.
Paste, Vienna. See PotASSA WITH IIME
Paste, Wohler's. Prep. From dragon's blº
1 dr.; powdered opium, 2 drs. ; powderedgin
of mastic and sandarach, of each, 4 drs, ; Old
rosemary, 20 drops; tincture of opium, ſº I
to form a paste. In toothache.
Paste, Ward's. See CoNFECTION OF PEPPE.
PASTES. Syn. ARTIFICIAL GEMS, FAI
TIOUS G. ; PIERRES PRícIEUSES ARTIFIC!
ELLES, Fr. Vitreous compounds made ini
tation of the gems and precious stones, T.
substances which enter into their compositi
and the principles on which their succesſ
production depends, have been already briel
noticed. The present article will, therefº
be confined to giving the reader a few origin
formulae, together with several others carefl;
selected from the most reliable English all
Continental authorities. Like enamels :
artificial gems have for their basis a tº
fusible, highly transparent and brilliant, dº
glass, which is known under the name of ‘fi
‘paste,’ ‘strass,’ ‘flux,’ ‘fondant,” or “Mayº
base,” and which in its state of greatest &
lence constitutes the “artificial diamond.' '
convenience, this will be noticed here under
last synonym. (See below, also Ure's 'Dº
tionary of Arts,’ &c.)
Amethyst. 1. Paste or strass, 500 gº
oxide of manganese, 3 grs. ; oxide of Cºl.
24 grs.
2. (Douault-Wiéland.) Strass, 4608 gº
oxide of manganese, 36 grs. ; oxide of tº
2 grs.
3. (Lançon.) Strass, 92.16 grs. ; oxid
manganese, 15 to 24 grs. ; oxide of Cºli
1 gr.
Aqua Marina. From strass, 4800 gº
glass of antimony, 30 grs. ; oxide of Cºlº
1} gr. See BERYL, of which this is mer'ſ
variety.
Aventurine. 1. From strass, 500 grs.; Sºlº
of iron, 100 grs. ; black oxide of copper,
grs. ; fuse until the black oxide of coppºrt
reduced to the reguline form, then allow tº
mass to cool very slowly, so that the mini
crystals of metal may be equally di
through it. Has a rich golden iridescence.
2. As the last, but submitting oxide
chromium for the protoxide of copper. A
pears brown, filled with countless gold spang's
or, when mixed with more paste, of a grºſſ
gray, filled with green spangles.
Beryl. (Douault-Wiéland.) Strass, ſº
grs. ; glass of antimony, 24grs. ; oxideofºº
1% gr. See AQUA MARINA.
Carbuncle. See GARNET.
Chrysolite. From strass, 7000 grs.; Tº
calcined sesquioxide of iron (‘trocus miri
65 grs.




PASTES. 889
Cornelian, 1. (RED.) From strass, 7000 grs. ;
glass of antimony, 3500 grs. ; calcined peroxide
of iron, 875 grs. ; binoxide of manganese, 75
grs.
2. (WHITE.) From strass, 7200 grs. ; cal-
cined bones, 250 grs. ; washed yellow ochre,
65 grs.
Diamond. 1. From rock crystal (purest),
1600 grs. ; borax, 560 grs. ; carbonate of lead
(pure), 3200 grs. ; oxide of manganese, to
1 gr. ; powder each separately, mix them to-
gether, fuse the mixture in a clean crucible,
pour the melted mass into water, separate any
reduced lead, and again powder and remelt
the mass.
2. Pure silica, 150 grs. ; pure litharge, 250
grs. ; borax and nitre, of each, 50 grs. ; arse-
mious acid, 21 grs.
3. (Douault-Wiéland.)—a. From rock crystal,
4056 grs. ; minium, 6300 grs. ; potash, 2154
grs. ; borax, 276 grs. ; arsenic, 12 grs.
b. From rock crystal, 3600 grs. ; ceruse
of Clichy (pure carbonate of lead), 8508 grs.;
potash, 1260 grs. ; borax, 360 grs.
4. (Fontanier.) Pure silica, 8 oz. ; salt of
tartar, 24 oz. ; mix, bake, cool, treat the fused
mixture with dilute nitric acid until efferves-
cence ceases, and afterwards with water as long
as the washings affect litmus paper; next dry
the powder, add to it of pure carbonate of lead,
12 oz., and to every 12 oz. of the mixture add
of borax, 1 oz. ; triturate in a porcelain mor-
tar, melt in a clean crucible, and pour the
fused mass into cold water; dry, powder, and
repeat the process a second and a third time in
a clean crucible, observing to separate any
revived lead. To the third frit add of nitre,
5 drs., and again melt. The product is per-
fectly limpid and extremely brilliant.
5. (Lançon.) Litharge, 100 grs. ; pure silica,
75 grs. ; white tartar or potash, 10 grs.
6. (Loysel.) Pure silica, 100 parts; red
oxide of lead (minium), 150 parts; calcined
potash, 30 to 35 parts; calcined borax, 10
parts; arsenious acid, 1 part. This produces
a paste which has great brilliancy and re-
fractive and dispersive powers, and also a
similar specific gravity to the oriental dia-
mond. It fuses at a moderate heat, and ac-
quires the greatest brilliancy when remelted,
and kept for 2 or 3 days in a fused state, in
order to expel the superabundant alkali, and
perfect the refining. (“Polytech. Journ.") The
products of the above formula are not only
employed to imitate the diamond, but they
also form the basis of the other factitious gems.
(See above.) .
7. (YELLOW DIAMOND.) Strass, 500 grs. ;
glass of antimony, 10 grs.
Eagle Marine. From strass, 3840 grs. ;
copper stain, 72 grs. ; pure zaffre, 1. gr.
Emerald. 1. From strass, 7000 grs. ; car-
º of copper, 65 gr. ; glass of antimony,
grs.
2. Paste, 960 grs. ; glass of antimony, 42
grs. ; oxide of cobalt, 3% grs.
3. (Douault-Wiéland.) Paste, 4608 grs. ;
green oxide of copper, 42 grs. ; oxide of chrome,
2 grs.
3. (Lançon.) Paste, 9612 grs. ; acetate of
copper, 72 grs. ; peroxide of iron, 1% gr.
Garnet. 1. Paste or strass, 1200 grs. ; glass
of antimony, 580 grs. ; purple of cassius and
binoxide of manganese, of each, 3 grs.
2. (Douault-Wiéland.) Paste, 513 grs. ; glass
of antimony, 256 grs.; purple of cassius and
oxide of manganese, of each, 2 grs.
3. (VINEGAR GARNET.) From paste, 7000
grs. ; glass of antimony, 3460 grs. ; calcined
peroxide of iron, 56 grs.
Lapis Lazuli. From paste, 7000 grs. ; cal-
cined horn or bones, 570 grs. ; oxides of cobalt
and manganese, of each, 24 grs. The golden
veins are produced by painting them on the
pieces with a mixture of gold powder, borax,
and gum water, and then gently heating them
until the borax fluxes.
Opal. 1. From strass, 960 grs. ; calcined
bones, 48 grs. -
2. (Fontanier.) Paste, 1 oz. ; horn silver,
10 grs.; calcined magnetic ore, 2 grs. ; absor-
bent earth (calcined bones), 26 grs.
Ruby. 1. Paste, 45 parts; binoxide of
manganese, 1 part.
2. Paste, 1 lb.; purple of cassius, 3 dr.
3. (Douault-Wiéland.)—a. From paste, 2880
parts; oxide of manganese, 72 parts.
b. Topaz-paste that has turned out opaque,
1 part; strass, 8 parts; fuse them together for
30 hours, cool, and again fuse it in small pieces
before the blowpipe. Very fine.
4. (Fontanier.) Strass, 16 oz. ; precipitate
of cassius, peroxide of iron, golden sulphide of
antimony, and manganese calcined with nitre,
of each, 168 grs. ; rock crystal, 2 oz., or more.
5. Paste and glass of antimony, of each, 8
oz. ; rock crystal, 1 oz. ; purple of cassius, 1}
dr. Turns on the orange.
Sapphire. 1. From strass, 3600 grs. ; oxide
of cobalt, 50 grs.; oxide of manganese, 11 grs.
2. (Douault-Wiéland.) Paste, 4608 grs.;
oxide of cobalt, 68 grs. ; fuse in a little Hessian
crucible for 30 hours.
3. (Fontaner.) Paste, 8 oz. ; oxide of co-
balt, 49 grs.
Topaz. 1. From strass, 1050 grs. ; glass of
antimony, 44 grs. ; purple of cassius, 1 gr.
2. (Douault-Wiéland.) Paste, 3456 grs. ;
calcined peroxide of iron, 36 grs.
Turquoise. From blue paste, 20 to 24 parts;
calcined bones, 1 part.
Concluding remarks. It is absolutely neces-
sary for the successful application of the pre-
ceding formulae that the substances employed
should be perfectly free from impurities, more
particularly those of a mineral kind. The
litharge, oxide of lead, and carbonate of lead,
above all things, must be entirely free from
oxide of tin, as the smallest particle of that
substance may impart a “milkiness’ to the
paste. All the ingredients must be separately
reduced to powder, and, after being mixed,


890
PASTELS-PASTII.
sifted through lawn. The fusion must be care-
fully conducted and continuous, and the melted
mass should be allowed to cool very slowly,
after having been left in the fire from 24 to 30
hours, at the least. Hessian crucibles are pre-
ferred for this purpose, and the heat of an
ordinary pottery or porcelain kiln is sufficient
in most cases; but a small wind-furnace, de-
voted exclusively to the purpose, is, in general,
more convenient. It is found that the more
tranquil, continuous, and uniform the fusion,
the denser and clearer is the paste, and the
greater its refractive power and beauty.
All the coloured vitreous compounds noticed
under GLASS may be worked up as ornamental
stones, in the same way as those just referred
to.
The following method of obtaining artifi-
cial rubies and emeralds, first pointed out
by Boettger, is exceedingly simple and inex-
pensive, and deserves the serious attention of
those interested in this ingenious art —Re-
cently precipitated and well-washed hydrate of
aluminum is moistened with a few drops of
neutral chromate of potassium, and kneaded
so that the mass assumes a tinge scarcely per-
ceptible; it is then rolled up into small sticks,
about the thickness of a finger, and slowly
dried, taking the precaution to fill the fissures
(if any) that form during desiccation with
fresh hydrate of aluminum. When perfectly
dry, and after having been submitted to a
gentle heat, one end of these sticks is brought
into the termination of the flame of an oxy-
hydrogen blowpipe, until a portion of the mass
is fused into a small globule. After the lapse
of a few minutes, several minute balls form,
having a diameter of some millimëtres, and of
such intense hardness that quartz, glass, topaz,
and granite, may be easily and perceptibly
scratched with them. These, when cut and
polished, appear, however, slightly opaque.
By employing nitrate of nickel in lieu of chro-
mate of potassium, green-coloured globules,
closely resembling the emerald, are obtained.
By the substitution of oxide of chromium
for chromate of potassium, Mr. Cooley pro-
duced factitious gems of considerable hard-
ness and beauty, though slightly opaque in
some portion of the mass. The addition of a
very little silica prevented, in a great measure,
this tendency to opacity.
It may be observed that the beauty of
pastes of factitious gems, and especially the
brilliancy of mock diamonds, is greatly de-
pendent upon the cutting, setting up, and
the skilful arrangement of the foil or tinsel
behind them. See ENAMEL, Folls, GEMS,
GLASS, &c.
PASTELS. [Fr..] Coloured crayons.
PASTIL. Syn. PASTILLE: PASTILLUs, PAS-
TILLUM, L. A lozenge or confection. The
pastilles (PASTILLI) of French pharmacy, are
merely ‘confectionery drops’ aromatised or
medicated. The name is also given to mix-
tures or odorous substances made up into
small comes and
below).
Pastils, Explo'sive.
burnt as incense, (St.
harmless.
Pastils, Fumigaſting. Syn. AROMATICPAs.
TILLES, INCENSE P.; PASTILLI FUMANTES, P.
ODORATI, L. Prep. 1. Benzoin, 4.07.; (ii.
carilla, , oz. ; mitre and gum arabic, of Cath
3 drs. ; myrrh, 1 dr. ; oils of nutmeg all
cloves, of each, 25 drops; charcoal, 701;
all in fine powder; beat them to a smoºth
ductile mass with cold water, q. S.; form iſ
into small cones with a tripod base, and diſ
them in the air.
2. (Henry and Guibourt.) Powdered gum
benzoin, 16 parts; balsam of tolu and pow:
dered sandal wood, of each, 4 parts; a light
charcoal (Linden), 48 parts; powdered tº gº
canth and true labdanum, of each, 1 part;
powdered nitre and gum arabic, of each, !
parts; cinnamon water, 12 parts; as above,
3. (P. Cod.) Benzoin, 2 oz. ; balsam ºf
tolu and yellow sandal wood, of each, 4 dº
mitre, 2 drs. ; labdanum, 1 dr. ; char(Ol
6 oz.; mix with a solution of gum trigº
canth, and divide the mass into pastille,
before.
4. (PASTILLES A LA FLEUR D'ORANGE) ºf
powdered roses in the next formula substitut;
pure orange powder, and for the essence ºf
roses use pure neroli.
5. (PASTILLES A LA ROSE.) Gumbenſin.
olibanum (in tears), and styrax (in tears),
each, 12 oz. ; nitre, 9 oz. ; charcoal, 4 lbs;
powder of pale roses, 1 lb.; essence of Tº
1 oz. ; mix with 2 oz. of gum tragacanth, is
solved in rose water, 1 quart.
6. (PASTILLES A LA WANILLE) Gumbº
zoin, styrax, and olibanum (as last), of eld
12 oz. ; mitre, 10 oz.: cloves, 8 oz. ; powder
vanilla, 1 lb. ; charcoal, 4% lbs. ; oil of clot:
# oz. ; essence of vanilla, 7 or 8 fl, 07.3 ±
before.
Obs. The products of the above formuli
are all of excellent quality. They may be
varied to please the fancy of the artiste, by
the addition or substitution of other perfumé
or aromatics. Cheaper pastilles may be mal.
by simply increasing the quantity of the chal
coal and saltpetre. The whole of the ingº
dients should be reduced to fine powder befº
mixing them. The use of musk and civet, S.
often ordered in pastilles, should be avoided
as they yield a disagreeable odour whº
burned. The addition of a little camphſ
renders them more suitable for a sick chamber
The simplest and most convenient way ºf
forming the mass into comes is by pressing iſ
into a mould of lead or porcelain.
Pastilles are burned either to diffuse a plºt:
Sant odour, or to cover a disagreeable Oſlº
For this purpose they are kindled at the apº
and set on an inverted saucer or a penny
piece to burn, Persons who use them frº
Fumigating pºstillº
containing a little gunpowder. Used topº
duce diversion, but they often prove far from
-





PASTRY. 891
quently employ a small chima or porcelain toy
(‘pastille house’) sold for the purpose.
Pastils, Mouth. Syn. BREATH PILLs, CA-
CHOU LozENGES ; PASTILLI COSMETICI, L.;
CACHOU AROMATISí, C. AROMATIQUE, C. DE
BoLOGNA, GRAINS DE CACHOU, Fr. Prep. 1.
Soft extract of liquorice, 3 oz. ; gum catechu
and white sugar, of each, 1 oz. ; gum traga-
canth (powdered), 3 oz. ; oil of cloves, 1 dr. ;
oil of cassia, ; dr. ; essence of ambergris and
oil of nutmeg, of each, 12 drops; make a
firm mass with rose or orange-flower water,
q. S., and divide it into one-grain pills; when
these are dry, cover them with gold or silverleaf.
2. Solazzi juice (dried by a gentle heat and
powdered), 4 oz. ; lump sugar, 3 oz. ; pow-
dered catechu, 2 oz. ; powdered tragacanth, 1
oz.; oil of cloves, 2 fl. drs. ; oil of cassia,
1 fl. dr.; white of egg or rose water, q. S. to
form a pill-mass; as before.
3. Powdered catechu, 1 oz. ; Salazzi juice,
4 oz. ; lump sugar, 12 oz. ; oils of cloves, cassia,
and peppermint, of each, 1 fl. dr. ; mucilage of
tragacanth, q. S. to mix; as before.
4. Extract of liquorice (soft), 2 oz. ; white
sugar, 3 oz. ; powdered tragacanth and casca-
rilla (or orris root), of each, 3 oz. ; oil of cloves.
* fl. 3r. ; oil of cassia, 12 drops; water, q. s.
as before.
5. (Chevallier.) Powdered coffee, chocolate
and sugar, of each, 1% oz. ; powdered vanilla,
and freshly burnt charcoal, of each, 1 oz. ;
mucilage of tragacanth, q. s.
6. Chloride of lime (dry and good), 1 dr. ;
white sugar, 3 oz. ; powdered tragacanth,
1 oz; oil of cloves, 30 drops; rose water, q. s.
To disinfect the breath.
Obs. Almost every maker employs his own
forms for these articles. The objects to be
aimed at are the possession of rather power-
ful and persistent odour, and a toughness to
prevent their too rapid solution in the mouth.
The original Italian formula included liquorice,
mastic, cascarilla, charcoal, orris root, oil of
peppermint, and the tinctures of ambergris and
musk, but is now seldom employed in this
country. The flavour of peppermint does not,
indeed, appear to be approved of by English
Smokers. Sometimes, instead of being made
perfectly spherical, they are flattened a little.
CACHOU A L’AMBRE GRIs, CACHOU A LA
CANELLE, CACHOU A LA FLEURS D’ORANGE,
CACHOU MUsqué, CACHOU A LA Rose, CA-
CHOU A LAWANILLE, CACHOU A LA WIoIETTE,
&c., are merely flavoured and scented respec-
tively with the essences or oils of ambergris,
cinnamon, neroli, musk, rose, vanilla, violets,
&c. See BREATH, CACHOU AROMATISé, Lo-
ZENGES, PILLs, &c. -
PA"STRY. Articles of food made of ‘paste'
or dough, or of which “paste’ forms a principal
and characteristic ingredient. The word is
popularly restricted to those which contain
puff paste, or such as form the staple pro-
duction of the modern pastrycook; but it is,
in reality, of much more general signification,
Several varieties of paste are prepared for
different purposes, of which the following are
the principal:—
PUFF PASTE. The production of a first
class puff paste is commonly regarded as a
matter of considerable difficulty, but by the
exercise of the proper precautions it is, on the
contrary, an extremely simple affair. This
paste, before being placed in the oven, consists
of alternate laminae of butter or fat and ordi-
mary flour dough, the latter being, of course,
the thicker of the two. During the process
of baking, the elastic vapour disengaged, being
in part restrained from flying off by the but-
tered surfaces of the dough, diffuses itself
between these laminae, and causes the mass to
swell up, and to form an assemblage of thin
membranes or flakes, each of which is more
or less separated from the other. Individually,
these flakes resemble those of an ordinary rich
unleavened dough when baked; but, collec-
tively, they form a very light crust, possessing
an extremely inviting appearance and an
agreeable flavour. -
The precautions above referred to are—the
use of perfectly dry flour, and its conversion
into dough with a light hand, avoiding un-
necessarily working it, the use of butter free
from water or buttermilk, and which has been
reduced to precisely the same degree of plas-
ticity as the dough between which it is to be
rolled,—conducting the operation in a cool
apartment, and, after the second or third
folding of the dough, exposing it to a rather
low temperature before proceeding further
with the process; and, lastly,–baking the
paste in a moderately smart but not too hot
an oven. The following are examples:–
1. (Rich.) Take of flour, 1 lb.; butter, 4.
lb.; cold spring water, q. s. ; make a mode-
rately soft flexible dough, then roll in (as
described above) of dry fresh butter, 3 lb.
2. (Ordinary.) Take of flour, 1 lb.; cold
water, q. s. ; make a dough, and roll in, as
before, of butter, 6 oz.
3. (Rundell.) Take 4 peck of flour, rub
into it 1 lb. of butter, and make a “light paste’
with cold water, just stiff enough to work
well; next lay it out about as thick as a
crown-piece; put a layer of butter all over it,
sprinkle on a little flour, double it up, and roll
it out again; by repeating this with fresh
layers of butter three or four times, or oftener,
a very light paste will be formed. Bake it in
a moderately quick oven.
4. (Soyer.) Put 1 lb. of flour upon your
pastry slab, make a hole in the centre, into
which put a teaspoonful of salt, mix it with
cold water into a softish flexible paste with
the right hand, dry it off a little with flour
until you have well cleared the paste from the
slab, but do not work it more than you can
possibly help; let it remain for 2 or 3 minutes
upon the slab, then take 1 lb. of fresh butter
from which you have squeezed all the butter-
milk in a cloth, and brought to the same con-

892 PATENT MEDICINES.
sistency as the paste, upon which place it ;
press it out flat with the hand, then fold over
the edges of the paste so as to hide the butter,
and reduce it with the rolling-pin to the thick-
ness of about ; an inch, when it will be about
two feet in length; fold over one third, over
which again pass the rolling-pin ; then fold
over the other third, thus forming a square;
place it with the ends top and bottom before
you, shaking a little flour both under and
over, and repeat the rolls and turns twice
again as before ; flour a ‘baking-sheet, upon
which lay it, on ice, if handy, or otherwise, in
some cool place, for about half an hour ; then
roll it twice more, turning it as before, and
again place it upon ice or in the cold for # an
hour; next give it two more rolls, making
seven in all, and it is ready for use. “You
must continually add enough flour while rolling
to prevent your paste sticking to the slab.”
HALF-PUFF PASTE. As the preceding, using
only one half the quantity of butter, and giv-
ing the paste only 3 or 4 folds.
SHORT PASTE, SHORT CRUST.—1. Flour
(dry and warm), 1 lb.; sugar, 3 oz. ; butter,
# lb.; 2 eggs; water, , pint ; make a light
dough. If one half of ‘Jones's patent flour,
be used, no eggs will be required.
2. (Soyer.) Put on the ‘paste slab or ‘pie
board’ 1 lb. of flour, 2 oz. of pounded sugar,
6 oz. of butter, 1 egg, 3 teaspoonful of salt, and
# pint of water; mix the sugar and butter
well together, add them with the water by
degrees to the flour, and form a paste, but
firmer than puff paste.
PIE PASTE. That commonly used is ‘short
paste, varied at will; but at good tables the
upper crust of the pie is generally made of
‘puff paste,’ and the remainder of ‘short
paste.”
PUDDING PASTE. This, for baked puddings,
may resemble the last. For boiled puddings
(or indeed for any), the paste may be either
ordinary ‘short paste, or one made with 2 to
6 oz. of butter or lard, or 3 to 8 oz. of chopped
beef suet, to each lb. of flour, with or without
an egg, and a little sugar, according to the
means of the parties. The first is most appro-
priate for those containing fresh fruit, and
that with suet for meat puddings, and those
containing dried fruit, as grocer's currants,
plums, &c. Milk or milk-and-water is often
used instead of simple water to make the
dough. Ginger, spices, savory herbs, &c., are
common additions to the crusts of puddings.
Where economy is an object, and especiallly
among the lower classes, kitchen fat is fre-
quently substituted for suet, and lard for
butter. When ‘ Jones’s patent flour' is em-
ployed, an excellent plain pudding paste may
be made by simply mixing it up with very
cold water, and immediately putting it into
the water, which should be boiling, and kept
in that state until the pudding is dressed.
PATENT MEDICINES. Syn. MEDICA-
MENTA ARCANA, L. The majority of the pre-
parations moticed under this head are tº
nostrums popularly termed ‘quack medicines,
and which are sold with a Government stam
attached to them. A few other secret ºf
proprietary remedies are also, for convenientº,
included in the list. An alphabetical arrangº
ment, based on the names of the reputed
inventors or proprietors of the articles, his
been adopted, as being the one best suited ſº
oasy reference. The composition of a number
of them is given from careful personal inspº
tion and analysis (by Mr. Cooley), and that ºf
the remainder on the authority of Gray, Grit
fith, Paris, Redwood, the members of the
Philadelphia College of Pharmacy, and other
respectable writers. A variety of articles m:
included in the following list are noticed along
with other preparations of the class to which
they belong, or under the names of their prº
prietors. See BALSAM, CERATE, DROPE, F:
SENCE, TINCTURE, OINTMENT, PILLs, &C,
Abernethy’s Pills. See ABERNETHY MEDI,
CINES (page 4).
Albinolo’s Ointment. See HOLLOWAY'
OINTMENT (below).
Ali Ahmed’s Treasures of the Desert, Thºſt
are three preparations included under this
Imainle :-
a. (ANTISEPTIC MALAGMA.) From lei
plaster, 3 parts; gum thus and salad oil, iſ
each, 2 parts; bees' wax, 1 part; melted tº
gether by a gentle heat, and spread upon Căliº
b. (PECTORAL, ANTIPHTHISIS, or COUGH
PILLS.) From myrrh, 3% lbs. ; squills in
ipecacuanha, of each, 1 lb. ; (all in powder)
white soft soap, 10 oz. ; oil of aniseed, 1} 01:
treacle, q. S. to form a pill mass.
c. (SPHAIROPEPTIC or ANTIBILIOUS PIII)
From aloes, 28 lbs. ; colocynth pulp, 12 lis:
rhubarb, 7 lbs. ; myrrh and scammony, Ofeld
3% lbs. ; ipecacuanha, 3 lbs.; cardamom sºlº
2 lbs. ; (all in powder;) soft soap, 9 lbs;
of juniper, 7 fl. oz. ; treacle, q. s. This, as will
as the last, is divided into 3}-gr. pills, whil ||
are then covered with tin foil or silverlºaf
An excellent aperient pill, no doubt, and 0.
likely to prove useful in all those cases i.
which the administration of a mild diaphortfit
and stomachic purge is indicated. Unlit
many of the advertised nostrums of the day
there is nothing in their composition that call
by any possibility, prove injurious; but beyond
this they are destitute of virtue.
Anderson’s Scot’s Piils. See PILLS.
Atkinson’s Infant Preservative. From Cat.
bonate of magnesia, 6 drs.; white sugar, 2014
oil of aniseed, 20 drops; spirit of salvolatiº
2} drs. ; laudanum, 1 dr. ; syrup of Saffron, 1
oz, ; caraway water to make up 1 pint,
Balm of Rackasiri. See BALSAM (page:25)
Balsam of Life. Syn. BAUME DE VIE, F,
Several compound medicines of this name are
noticed on page 261. The following are well.
known nostrums:—
1. (Hoffman’s)—a. Of the oils of cinnamº
cloves, lemon, lavender, and nutmegs, and bil.



PATENT MEDICINES.
893
sam of Peru, of each, 2 drs. ; essence of amber-
gris, oil of amber, and oil of rue, of each, 1 dr.;
cochineal, 12 grs. ; strongest rectified spirit,
# pints; mix.
b. (Ph. Dan. 1840.) Oils of cinnamon, cloves,
lavender, and nutmegs, of each, 20 grs.; puri-
fied oil of amber, 10 drops; balsam of Peru,
30 grs. ; rectified spirit (tinged with alkanet
root), 10 oz.
2. (Gabius’s.)
mann’s.
3. (Turlington’s.) Benzoin and liquid sty-
rax, of each, 12 oz. ; balsam of tolu and ex-
tract of liquorice, of each, 4 oz. ; balsam of
Peru, 2.0Z. ; aloes, myrrh, and angelica root,
of each, 1 oz. ; highly rectified spirit of wine,
7 pints; digest, with frequent agitation for
10 days, and filter. Externally, the above are
rubefacient and corroborant; internally, sti-
mulant, cordial, and pectoral.
Betton's British Oil. From oil of turpentine,
1 pint; Barbadoes tar, 3 lb. ; oil of rosemary,
1 fl.oz.
Blake's Green-mountain Ointment. We are
told that the active ingredient in this com-
pound is Arnica montana, with a basis of soap
cerate. It is very useful as an external appli-
cation in several affections. The chief ob-
jection to its use is that it is a secret prepara-
tion.
Blake's Toothache Essence. From alum, in
fine powder, 1 dr. ; sweet spirit of nitre, 5 dr.
Boerhaave's Odontalgic Essence. From
opium, , dr. ; oil of cloves, 2 dr. ; powdered
camphor, 5 dr.; rectified spirit, 1} fl. Oz.
Bouchardat’s Tasteless Aperient. From
phosphate of soda, 3 oz., placed in a soda-water
bottle, which is then filled up with carbonated
water, at the bottling machine. For a dose.
Brande's Tooth Tincture. From pellitory of
Spain (bruised), 1 oz. ; camphor, oz. ; opium,
3 oz. ; oil of cloves, 1 dr. ; digested for 10 days
in rectified spirit, , pint.
Brodum’s Nervous Cordial. Prep. 1. “Ori-
ginally it consisted simply of an infusion of
gentian root in English gin, coloured and fia-
voured with a little red lavender (compound
spirit of lavender). After a time the doctor
added a little bark to the nostrum, and subse-
quently made other additions.” (“Anat. of
Quackery.')
2. (Paris.) Tiuctures of gentian, calumba,
cardamoms, and cinchona, compound spirits of
lavender, and steel wine, of each, equal parts.
“It is tonic, stomachic, and stimulant; but,
beyond these, possesses no curative properties.”
(‘Anat. of Quackery.')
Chlorodyne. This nostrum, which was first
introduced as “a combination of perchloric
acid with a new alkaloid,” has become a popu-
lar anodyne and sedative. Several prepara-
tions are sold under this name, and the claims
of the rival makers have occasioned some
expensive lawsuits. The name was undoubt-
edly invented by Dr. J. Collis Browne, but
Mr. Freeman, pharmaceutical chemist, claims
Nearly similar to Hoff-
to be the inventor of the preparation. Whether
Browne’s and Freeman's chlorodynes’ are
essentially the same, we are not able to deter-
mine, but we know that there is not the
slightest foundation for the statements made
by each manufacturer respecting the new
vegetable principle contained in his medicine.
Chlorodyne, in every one of its forms, is simply
a mixture of certain well-known materials,
some of which are rather dangerous ingre-
dients for a popular nostrum. According to
the analysis of Dr. Ogden, Browne's chloro-
dyne is composed as follows:–
Chloroform, 6 drs. ; chloric ether, 1 dr. ; .
tincture of capsicum, dr. ; oil of peppermint,
2 drops; hydrochlorate of morphine, 8 grs. ;
Scheele's hydrocyanic acid, 12 drops; per-
chloric acid, 20 drops; tincture of Indian
hemp, 1 dr. ; treacle, 1 dr. ‘Towle's chloro-
dyne’ is prepared according to this formula,
the ingredients being named on the label.
Clarke's Conglutinnm. (See page 362.)
Cochrane's Cough Remedy. Acidulated syrup
of poppies.
Corn Nostrums. (See page 371.)
Cottereau's Odontalgic Essence. A nearly
saturated ethereal solution of camphor, mixed
with about ºth of its volume of strong liquor
of ammonia,
Curtis’s Anti-venereal Lotion. A mixture
of Beaufoy's solution of chloride of lime, 2 fl,
oz., with cold soft water, 8 fl.oz. For use, 1 to
2 table-spoonfuls are put into a wine-glassful
of water.
Dalby's Carminative. 1. (Dr. Paris.) Car.
bonate of magnesia, 40 grs. ; tincture of castor
and compound tincture of cardamoms, of each,
30 drops; tincture of asafoetida and spirit of
pennyroyal, of each, 15 drops; laudanum,
5 drops; oil of aniseed, 3 drops; oil of nut-
meg, 2 drops; oil of peppermint, 1 drop;
peppermint water, 2 fl.oz.-Dose. # to 1 tea-
spoonful. The bottle should be well shaken
before pouring it out.
2. (Wholesale.) Carbonate of magnesia,
1 oz. ; tincture of castor, 5 fl. dr.; tincture of
asafoetida, 3 fl. drs. ; oils of aniseed and penny-
royal, of each, 4 fl. dr. ; oil of nutmeg, 15
drops; syrup of poppies, 7 oz, ; rectified spirit.
3} fl. Oz, ; peppermint wrter, , pint ; as
before.
Davidson’s Canoer Remedy. A mixture of
arsenious acid and hemlock, both in powder.
(Dr. Paris.)
Davis’s Calorific. The ‘LIQUID is com-
mercial acetic acid (sp. gr. 1.048), diluted with
about an equal voluue of water, and coloured
with burnt sugar or spirit colouring. The
“SHIELD' consists of a piece of red flannel
backed with oil skin, to prevent evaporation.
A few drops of calorific are sprinkled on
the flannel, which is then bound over the
affected part. The heat of the body gradually
volatilises the acetic acid, and the escape of
the vapour being prevented by the oil skin, a
strongly counter-irritant action is set up,


894
PATENT MEDICINES.
Derbyshire's Embrocation. From opium and
mottled soap, of each, 2 oz. ; extract of henbane,
2 drs.; and mace, dr. ; boiled for 30 minutes
in water, 3 pints; to the cold liquor, rectified
spirit, 1 quart, and liquor of ammonia, 1 fl. oz.,
are added, and, after repose, the clear portion
is decanted. A preventive of sea-sickness.
Deshler's Cerate. Yellow basilicon. (See
page 417.)
Duncan's Gout Medicine. See GOUT.
Dutch Ague Remedy. A mixture formed of
Peruvian bark and cream of tartar, of each,
1 oz. ; cloves, # dr. ; reduced to fine powder.
—Dose. 1% dr., every 3 hours. (Dr. Paris.)
Godfrey’s Cordial. 1. (Original formula.)
Opium (sliced), 3 oz.; Sassafras chips, 1 oz. ;
English brandy, 1 quart; macerate for 4 or 5
days, then add, of water, 1 quart, treacle,
3% lbs., and simmer the whole gently for a
few minutes; the next day decant the clear
portion.
2. (Dr. Paris.) Aniseed, caraways, and cori
anders, of each, bruised, 1 oz. ; Sassafras chips,
9 oz. ; water, 6 pints; simmer gently until
reduced to 4 pints, then add of treacle, 6 lbs. ;
and when nearly cold, further add of tincture
of opium, 3 fl. Oz.
3. (Phil. Col. of Phar.) Carbonate of potassa,
2% oz. ; water, 26 pints (old wine measure);
dissolve, add of sugar-house molasses (treacle).
16 pints (o. W. m.); simmer the mixture, re-
move the scum, and when it has considerably
cooled, add, of tincture of opium, 24 fl. Oz. ;
oil of Sassafras, # fl. oz. ; (dissolved in) recti-
fied spirit, 1 quart (o. wom.). It contains
about 16 drops of laudanum (=1; gr. of opium)
in each fl. oz.
The following forms are also current in the
wholesale trade :-
4. From molasses, 16 lbs. ; distilled water,
2% galls. ; oil of Sassafras, 1 fl. oz., (dissolved
in) rectified spirit, gall. ; bruised ginger,
# 0Z. ; cloves, 3 oz. ; laudanum, 8 fl. Oz. ;
macerate for 14 days, and strain through
flannel.
5. Sassafras chips, 1 lb.; ginger (bruised),
4 oz. ; water, 3 galls.; simmer until reduced to
2 galls. ; then add, of treacle, 16 lbs. ; rectified
spirit, 7 lbs. ; laudanum, 1 pint.
6. Opium, # oz. ; treacle, 7 lbs. ; boiling
water, 1 gall. ; dissolve, and add, of rectified
spirit, 1 quart; oil of sassafras, , dr. ; cloves
and mustard seed, of each, 3 oz. ; coriander
and caraway seeds, of each, 1 dr. ; digest for
a week. -
7. Caraways, corianders, and aniseed, of each,
1 lb.; water, 6 galls. ; distil 5 galls., and add, of
treacle, 28 lbs. ; laudanum, 1 quart; and oil of
Sassafras, 1 fl. oz., previously dissolved in recti-
fied spirit, 1 gal.
Obs. This preparation is anodyne and nar-
cotic, and, amongst the lower classes, is com-
monly given to children troubled with wind
or colic. Its frequent and excessive use has
sent many infants prematurely to the grave.
Gray says, “It is chiefly used to prevent the
crying of children in pain or starving.” Tº
dose is teaspoonful and upwards, according
to the age and susceptibility of the child,
Graves' Gout Preventive. A tincture mº,
pared by steeping, for a week, dried Orang
peel and hiera picra, of each, 1 OZ, and ill
barb, 3 oz., in brandy, 1 pint. ' -
Grimrod's Remedy for Spasms. From ſº
tate of morphia, 1 gr. ; spirit of salvolatilell
sulphuric ether, of each, 1 fl. Oz.; campiº
julep, 4 fl. Oz. ; for a mixture. It should b.
kept closely corked, in a cool place, and shºt
be well shaken before use.—Dose. A tº
spoonful in a glassful of cold water or will
as required. It is a really valuable prº
ration.
Herrendschwand's Specific. A mixture
gamboge, 10 grs., with carbonate of polis
20 grs. (Dr. Paris.)
Holloway's Ointment. The original form
of ALBINOLO's OINTMENT, of which this pº
tends to be a reproduction, contains ||
“graisses de serpent et de vipëre,” and Oſlº
pharmaceutical curiosities. The principali
gredients, however, in the HoDLOWAY'S ON
MENT of the present day are very home
substances. In the case of Sillen v. Hollowſ
tried at the Court of Common Pleasin Janualſ
1863, the plaintiff’s council asserted that, I
the ointment being received by the agenti
Paris, it was submitted to the authoriº
government chemists to be analysed, inacº
ance with the law of France prohibiting tº
sale of secret remedies, and was found by the
to contain butter, lard, Venice turpentine,whi.
wax, yellow wax, and nothing else. In alſº
to the ‘Times,” Professor Holloway staff
that the French analysis was incorreſt, ſº
three of the ingredients named were notini.
ointment, while there were other compond
which the analysis had not discovered. Tº
formula adopted by those who prepare anim:
tation ointment on the large scale, and wi
closely resembles, if it be not actually ident
with, that employed by Mr. Holloway, is:
follows:—Fresh butter (free from water);|
bees’ wax (good), 4 oz. ; yellow resin, 3 tº
melt them together, add of vinegar of cantly
rides, 1 fl. oz., and simmer the whole, will
constant agitation, for 10 or 12 minutes,
until the moisture is nearly evaporated; the
add, of Canada balsam, 1 oz.; expressed old
mace, # dr. ; balsam of Peru or liquid styń,
10 or 12 drops; again stir well, allow tº
mixture to settle, and when it is about
cold (not before) pour it into the pots, ſº
viously slightly warmed, and allow it to
very slowly. The label will do the rest. A
two samples of Holloway's ointment are pº
cisely of the same colour or consistence.
Holloway's Pills. From aloes, 4 parts; alſº
ginger, and myrrh, of each, 2 parts; madei
a mass with mucilage. and divided into 2-gº
pills, of which about 4 dozen are put into tº
18. 1%d. box.
Jackson's Bathing Spirit. A species of sº



PATENT MEDICINEs.
895
liniment, made of soft soap, 1 lb.; camphor,
6 oz. ; oils of rosemary and thyme, of each ; fl.
Oz. ; rectified spirit, 1 gal.
Kaye's Infant’s Preservative. A preparation
partaking of the joint properties of Atkinson's
nostrum and Godfrey's cordial, but more pow-
erful than either, as indicated by the doses
in which it is directed to be given during
early infancy, viz., “two, three, or more
drops.”
Keating's Cough Lozenges. These are said
to be composed of—Lactucarium, 2 drs. ; ipe-
cacuanha, 1 dr. ; squills, # dr. ; extract of liquor-
ice, 2 oz. ; sugar, 6 oz. ; made into a mass with
mucilage of tragacanth, and divided into 20-gr.
lozenges.
King’s Sarsaparilla Pills. From the com-
pound extract. “Instead of two pills being
equivalent to , fl. oz. of the concentrated decoc-
tion or essence of sarsaparilla, as asserted, it
takes about 32 of them to represent the given
quantity, and about 4 of them to be equal in
strength to the common decoction of the Phar-
macopoeia.” “Instead of one 2s. 9d. box of
these pills being equal to a pint of the costly
concentrated fluid preparation, it would take
nearly 14 lb. of them for that purpose.” (“Med.
Circ., ii, 493.)
Kitchener’s
PILLS.
Lambert's Asthmatic Balsam. The active
ingredients in this compound are said to be
squills and aqueous extract of opium.
Lemazurier’s Odontalgic Essence. From ace-
tate of morphia, 1 gr. ; dissolved in cherry-
laurel water, 1 oz. For use, a teaspoonful is
added to , a wine-glassful of warm water,
and the mouth well rinsed out with the mix-
ture.
Leroy's Purgative.-a. (No. 1.) Vegetable
turbith, 6 drs. ; scammony, 1% oz. ; jalap, 6 oz. ;
brandy, 10 pints; digest for 24 hours, and add
a syrup made of senna, 6 oz. ; water, 1} pint;
sugar, 32 oz.
6. (No.
stronger.
c. (No. 3.) Twice as strong as No. 1.
Lewis's Electuarium. A liquid nostrum, said
to be alterative and to contain a small quantity
of both antimony and mercury.
Lewis's Baslamic Ointment. This prepara-
tion, which is declared by its proprietor to
be “utterly unsurpassable,” for the most part
resembles Holloway's ointment. (“Med. Circ.,’
ii, 493.)
Lewis's Silver Cream. This nostrum is said
to depend for its efficacy on white precipitate
and a salt of lead. .
Locock’s Pulmonic Lozenges. See WAFERS.
Mahomed’s Paste. See ELECTUARY.
Mardant's Norton’s Drops. A mixture of
the tinctures of gentian and ginger, holding in
solution a little bichloride of mercury, and
coloured with cochineal.
Marriott's Dry Womit. A mixture of equal
parts of tartar emetic and sulphate of copper.
Peristaltic Persuaders. See
2.) As the last, only 1-3rd
Marsden’s Drops. A coloured solution of
corrosive sublimate. (Dr. Paris.)
Matthieu's Vermifuge.—a. (To destroy the
worms.) Tin filings, 1 oz.; male fern root, 6 drs.;
worm seed, 4 drs. ; resinous extract of jalap and
sulphate of potassa, of each, 1 dr.; honey, q. s.
to form an electuary.—Dose. A teaspoonful,
repeated every third or fourth hour, for 2 or 3
days, when the following is to be substi-
tuted, and continued until the bowels are well
acted on.
b. (To expel the worms.) Jalap and sul-
phate of potassa, of each, 40 grs. ; scammony,
20 grs. ; gamboge, 10 grs. ; honey, q. s. as
before. -
McKinsey’s Golden Cerate.
resemble Poor Man’s Friend.
McKinsey’s Katapotia. This notorious nos-
trum is compounded of aloes, 5 oz. ; soap,
I} oz. ; (both in powder;) beaten up with syrup
of saffron and a little essential oil, and divided
into pills varying in weight from 2 to 2% grs.
each. (Med. Circ., iv, 86.)
McKinsey’s Medicinal Powder. Syn. REv.
T. SMITH's M. P. From dried lavender flowers
and rosemary tops, of each, 2% oz.; asarabacca,
1 oz. ; reduced to powder, and further dis-
guised with a little perfume. A very small
quantity of subsulphate of mercury is also most
probably added. Two or three pinches of this
powder, taken 3 or 4 times a day, as snuff, is
said by the proprietor to be sufficient to cure
almost every known disease. See ASARA-
BACCA.
Morison's Aperient Powder. A mixture of
cream of tartar and lump sugar, in nearly
equal proportions, with sufficient powdered
cassia to give it an aromatic flavour. See
PILLS.
Morrison’s Adhesive Paste. See PLASTER.
Ollivier’s Biscuits. Take of the white of 2
eggs; water, #, pint ; beat them together,
strain the mixture, and add to it a solution
of bichloride of mercury, 76 grs. ; collect the
precipitate, wash, dry, powder, and carefully
weigh it; next add it to such a quantity of
flour &c., that each 2-dr. biscuit may contain
exactly . gr.
Papier Fayard. See PAPER (Gout).
Pate Arsenicale. A powder composed of
arsenious acid, 8 grs. ; dragon’s blood, 22 grs. ;
cinnabar, 70 grs. It is to be made into a paste
with the saliva at the time of applying it. A
favorite remedy in cancer on the Continent.
(Dr. Paris.)
Perry’s Balm of Syriacum. From English
gin, 1 pint ; moist sugar, 3 lb.; (dissolved in)
water, 4 oz. ; mix, and add of paregoric (Tinct.
Camph. Co.—Ph. L. 1836), 1 oz. tincture of
tolu, oz. ; tincture of cantharides, q. S.; to-
gether with a few drops each of tho oils of
aniseed and spearmint; agitate well together,
and the next day filter, or decant the clear
portion. -
Perry’s Preventive Lotion. This is said to
be a solution of sal alembroth, 2 drs, in water,
This appears to




896 PATENT MEDICINES-PEACH.
1 pint. For use, it is diluted with 4 or 5 times cinnabar of each, 24 grs. ; powdered jalap, i.
its bulk of water.
Pieste’s Toothache Essence.
ammonia, 2 parts; laudanum, 1 part.
applied on lint.
Pilules Angéliques. Syn. GRAINS DE SANTÉ.
Take of aloes and juice of roses, of each, 4 oz. ;
juices of borage and chicory, of each, 2 oz. ;
beat them together, and when they are re-
duced to the consistence of a soft pill-mass,
add of powdered rhubarb, 2 drs, powdered
agaric, 1 dr., and divide the mixture into 1%-gr.
pills. A good purgative. Dose. 4 to 12.
Poor-man’s Friend (French). See OINT-
MENT (Brown).
Poor-man's Friend (Dr. Roberts'). This
consists chiefly of ointment of nitric-oxide of
mercury.
Pringle's Remedy for Typhus. (Dr. Paris.)
Pale cinchona (bruised), oz. ; water, 12 fl. oz. ;
boil them together for 10 minutes, adding,
towards the end, Virginian snake-root (bruised),
2 drs. ; macerate for an hour in a covered
vessel, and to the strained liquid add of dilute
sulphuric acid, 2 fl. dr.s., and when the mixture
is cold, further add of spirit of cinnamon, 1
fl. Oz. The dose is 2 table-spoonfuls every six
hours. -
Reynold's Gout Specific. Wine of colchi-
cum disguised by some unimportant additions.
Righini’s Odontalgic Drops. A solution of
creasote in an equal weight of the strongest
rectified spirit, coloured with cochineal, and
disguised by the addition of a few drops of oil
of peppermint.
Ruspini's Styptic. A strong solution of
gallic acid in spirit of roses. Dr. A. T.
Thomson says that it also contains sulphate of
Z111C.
Rust’s Toothache Paste. See PASTE.
Scott's Drops. Syn. TINCTURE OF Soo T.
From wood-soot, 2 oz. ; assafoetida, 1 oz. ; brandy
or proof spirit, 1 pint, Dose. 1 to 2 table-
spoonfuls; in hysteria, &c.
Smith’s Powder. See MC.KINSEY’s PowdER.
Solomon’s Anti-impetigimes. A solution of
bichloride of mercury disguised by the addition
of a little flavouring and tinctorial matter.
(‘Med. Circ., ii, 69, 70.)
Standert's Red Mixture. Take of carbonate
of magnesia, 1 oz. ; powdered Turkey rhubarb,
% oz. ; tincture of rhubarb, 3 fl. Oz. ; tincture of
opium, 2 fl. drs. ; oils of aniseed and peppermint,
of each, dr. ; (dissolved in) gin or proof spirit,
5 fl. oz. ; agitate the whole together, then fur-
ther add of soft water, 1} pint. In colic and
diarrhoea. Dose. A wine-glassful. The spirit
is frequently omitted, but then the mixture
soon spoils.
Standart's Stomachic Candy. Take of lump
sugar, 1 lb.; water, 3 fl.oz. ; dissolve by heat;
add cardomom seeds, ginger, and rhubarb, of
each, 1 oz. ; and when the mixture is com-
plete, pour it out on an oiled slab or into
moulds.
Storey’s Worm Cakes,
From liquor of
It is
Take of calomel and
g S.; ginger, 1 dr. ; white sugar, 1} 0Z.; Sym}
q. S.; mix and divide into a dozen cakes, ſº
semble “Ching’s lozenges’ in their action, (§
page 719).
Struve's Lotion.
TION (page 715).
Succession Powder. A mixture of powdº
quartz and diamond dust, chiefly the first
Used as an escharotic.
Tasteless Ague Drops. A solution of Ağ.
nite of potassia. It is the common ague mti
cine in the fen counties of England.
Turlington's Balsam. See BALSAM OF III
(above).
Walangin's Solution of Solvent Mineral, ſº
arsenious acid, , dr., dissolved in hydrochloſſ.
acid, 1% dr., and the solution diluted with is
tilled water, 1% pint. In ague, &c. It hº
rather less than half the strength of the sºlº
tion of arsenite of potassa, Ph. L.
Vance's Cream. See CHILBLAIN.
Wahler’s Ointment. See CHILBLAIN.
Ward's Purging Powder. A mixture of jih
and cream of tartar, equal parts, coloured will
a little red bole. Dose.
more, in broth or beer, twice or thrice daily
in dropsy.
Webster’s Diet Drink. A sweetened dº
tion of betony, dulcamara, guaiacum woºd,
quorice root, Sarsaparilla, Sassafras, thyme, all
turmeric.
Wilson's Gout Tincture.
wine of colchicum.
Wright's Pearl Ointment. Take of whi.
precipitate, 8 oz. ; Goulard's extract, 1 pilº
rub them to a cream, and add the mixtureſ
white wax, 7 lb., and olive oil, 10 lb, ſº
viously melted together by a gentle hºt
lastly, stir the whole until it is nearly &
(‘Pharm. Journ.')
Young's Aperient Drink. From carbºniº
of soda, 2% drs. ; bitartrate of potassa, 3 dº
(both in crystals;) throw them into a sºlº
water bottle containing cold water, 8 fl,07,
immediately cork it down securely, and kºji
inverted, in a cool place, until required ſº
llSè.
Zamhetti’s Bohemian Restorative Tinctuſ.
From crushed raisins, # lb. ; hay Saffron,
oz. ; aqueous extract of opium, 3 drs.; ºr
dered cochineal, 2 drs. ; capillaire and Orangº
flower water, of each, ; pint; proof spirit,
pints; digested together for a week, and th:
strained, with expression.
PAULLIN’IA. See GUARANA.
PAYN'IZING. The name given to Mſ.
Payne's process for preserving and mineri:
ing wood. See DRY-ROT. -
PEACH. Syn. PERSICUM, L. The fruitſ
Amygdalus Persica. Two varieties are knowſ
in our gardens — CLINGSTONE PEACH all
FREESTONE PEACH, terms which explain them:
selves. The fruit is wholesome; but tº
flowers and kernels contain prussic acid, all
are poisonous, -
This is said tº
See Hoop1NG-COUGH I
A teaspoonful,
PEACHWOOD-PEAS.
897
|
PEACH'W00D. The produce of a species
of Caesalpinia, now extensively used in calico-
printing. -
PEAR. Syn. PYRUs, L. The fruit of
Pyrus communis (Linn.), one of the rosaceae.
Its general qualities resemble those of the
apple.
PEAR FLAWOUR. See ESSENCE.
PEARL. Syn. MARGARITA, MARGARITUM,
PERLA, UNIO, IL. The most beautiful and
costly pearls are obtained exclusively from the
pearl oyster (Meleagrina margaritifera) of the
Indian Seas. The principal fisheries are on
the coast of Ceylon, and at Olmutz, in the
Persian Gulf. An inferior description of pearl
is procured from a fresh-water shell-fish (Unio
margaritifera) in the neighbourhood of Omagh,
county of Tyrone. A similar quality is also
procured from the river Ythan, Aberdeenshire. &
It is probable that pearls from this source, col-
lected by the ancient Britons, may have given
rise to the statement by Tacitus, in his Life of
Agricola, of pearls “not very orient, but pale
and wan,” being among the indigenous pro-
ducts of Great Britain.
Pearls are composed of membrane and car-
bonate of calcium ; or, in other words, of sub-
stances similar to bladder and chalk, in alter-
nate layers. -
The cause of the production of pearls is
highly curious and interesting. When any
foreign body gains a permanent lodgment
within the shells of any of the mollusca which
are lined with pearly matter, or macre, the
pearly secretion of the animal, instead of being
spread in layers on the inside of its habita-
tion, is accumulated around the offending
particles in concentric films of extreme
tenuity, and more or less spherical, forming a
pearl.
Pearls were formerly used in medicine as
absorbents or antacids; and among the an-
cients they were occasionally taken, dissolved
in acid, both as a remedy and for the purpose
of displaying the careless opulence and luxury
of their possessors. A perfect pearl, large,
truly spherical, highly iridescent, and reflecting
and decomposing the rays of light with vivacity,
claims to rank with the most costly of the
gems, and in some parts of the East is, with
justiee, more highly prized than even the
diamond. In Europe, however, the present
estimation of their value is somewhat different.
“A handsome necklace of Ceylon pearls,
smaller than a large pea, costs from £170 to
£300; but one of pearls about the size of
peppercorns may be had for £15. The pearls
in the former sell at a guinea each, and those
in the latter at about 1s. 6d.” (Milburn.)
Seed pearls are of little value, however beau-
tiful.
Pearl, Artificial. These are hollow spheres
or beads of glass, perforated with two holes
at opposite sides to permit of their being strung
into necklaces. A small portion of essence
d’orient is introduced into each, by suction,
and is then spread over the inner surface of the
glass. When this has become dry and hard,
the globe is filled up with white wax, sper-
maceti, or gum arabic. The glass of which the
beads are formed is slightly bluish and opa-
lescent, and very thin, The latest improvement
consists in removing the glassy appearance of
the surface of the prepared bead, by exposure
to the fumes of hydrofluoric acid, highly
diluted. -
Pearl, Mother of Syn. UNIONUM conchiº,
L.; NACRE DE PERLE, Fr. This is the in-
ternal or macreous layer of those shells which
produce the pearls for ornamenting the per-
son; hence the term ‘mother of pearl’ is by
no means inappropriate. It is also derived
from several other species, known in trade as
ear-shells, green snail-shells, Bombay-shells,
C. -
The brilliant hues of mother of pearl do
not depend so much upon the nature of the
substance as on its structure. Its surface is
covered by minute corrugations or furrows,
which give a chromatic appearance to the
reflected light. Sir David Brewster was the
first to show that this substance is capable of
imparting its iridescent appearance to fusible
metal or fine black wax.
Mother of pearl is cut and wrought with
nearly similar tools to those used for ivory,
but its treatment, owing to its more fragile
nature and delicate structure, requires con-
siderably greater care. It is polished with col-
cothar or putty powder.
The numerous applications of mother of pearl,
for buttons and knife-handles, boxes, inlaying
work, &c., are well known.
PEARLASH. This is prepared by calcining
the crude potashes on a reverberatory hearth,
dissolving the calcined mass in water, and,
after repose, decanting the clear solution, and
evaporating it to dryness in flat iron pans, the
product being constantly stirred towards the
end to reduce it to a semi-granular state.
Although purer, its richness in absolute alkali
is less than that of the potashes from which it
is prepared, being only from 47 to 51#. This
exists almost entirely under the form of car-
bonate. The commercial value of this sub-
stance is determined by the ordinary processes
of ALKALIMETRY.
PEARL BARLEY. See BARLEY.
PEARLS (Rose). Syn. RosB BEADS. The
petals of red roses beaten in an iron mortar for
some hours, until they form a smooth, black
paste, then rolled into beads and dried. Hard;
very fragrant; take a fine polish.
PEARL WHITE. This is subchloride of bis-
muth; but the name is now commonly applied
to trisnitrate of bismuth, which is sold for it.
PEAS. Syn. GARDEN PEAs, MoToR P.;
PISA, L. The seed of Pisum sativum (Linn.).
Poggiale found in 100 parts of common green
peas, dried and shelled, 57 of starch, 21-7 of a
nitrogenous substance (legumin), 19 of fatty
matter, 3.2 of cellulose, 2:8 of ash, º: 127 of

898 PEBBLE–PELTRY.
water. In the fresh state (GREEN PEAs) they
are nutritive, and, with the pods which contain
them, are highly serviceable in scurvy. The
last have been used for making beer. The
dried seeds are still more nutritious, but are
heavy and flatulent unless well cooked. For
kitchen use, “SPLIT PEAS' should be chosen, and
after having washed them in a little clean soft
water, and allowed them to drain, they should
be left to soak in cold soft water for at least
12 hours before applying heat to them, and
should then be dressed in the same water in
which they have been soaked, and be only
gently simmered until they are reduced to a
pulp. Additions of meat, vegetables, &c.,
should not be made until they have nearly
arrived at this condition. ‘WHOLE PEAS’
require soaking for at least 18 or 20 hours.
A substitute for green peas in winter may be
obtained by placing the dried seed on a flat
dish, sprinkling them with water, and keeping
them in a warm situation. In a few days
germination commences, and, after it has pro-
ceeded sufficiently far, the whole is dressed in
the usual manner. An easier and simpler plan
is to preserve the green peas, when they are in
season, by the common method adopted for
gooseberries and other like fruit.
Peas, Issue. Syn. PISA PRO FONTICULIS, L.
Orange berries, or the small unripe fruit of the
orange tree, dried, and smoothed in a lathe.
See ISSUE. -
PEB/BLE. The trade name for the trans-
parent colourless variety of rock crystal or
quartz used for the lenses of spectacles instead
of glass, over which, from its extreme hard-
mess, it has the advantage of being little apt
to be scratched.
PECTIC ACID. The name given by Bra-
connot to an acid which is found very gene-
rally diffused throughout the vegetable king-
dom, and analogous to jelly.
Prep. From carrot roots, from which the
juice has been pressed out, by boiling them
with ºth part of their weight of carbonate of
potassa, and about 6 times their weight of water,
until the liquid becomes gelatinous when neu-
tralised with an acid. A pectate of potassium
is formed, from which the acid may be obtained
by neutralising the alkali with a stronger acid,
or by carefully adding a solution of chloride of
calcium as long as a gelatinous precipitate
(pectate of calcium) falls, and, after washing
this with water, decomposing it with dilute
hydrochloric acid.
Prop., &c. A colourless jelly, having an
acid reaction; scarcely soluble in cold water,
more so in hot water; and precipitated by
acids, alkalies, alcohol, salts, and even sugar.
Its compounds with the bases are called pec-
tates. By long boiling with solution of caustic
alkali it is converted into metapectic acid,
which does not gelatinise. (See below.)
PECTIN. Syn. VEGETABLE JELLY. Ob-
tained by adding alcohol to the juice of ripe
currants or other fruit, until a gelatinous pre-
cipitate forms, which must be drained, wº
with a little weak alcohol, and dried,
Prop., &c. In the moist state it forms alſº
tral, tasteless, soluble, transparent jelly; whº |
dried, a translucent mass, closely resemi
isinglass; boiled with water, or with it
acids, it is converted into parapectin and mū;
pectin; in the presence of alkalies, thºs
well as pectin, are changed into pectic tº
and, by continuing the ebullition for sometim
longer, into metapectic acid, which is not gº
tinous. See PECTIC ACID.
PECTORALS. Under this head are pº
larly included all the various remedies tº
ployed in breath or chest diseases.
PEDIC'ULI. Three species of these ºn
sites infest the human body:-PEDICI
HUMANUS CAPITIS, or HEAD LOUSE, whichiº
and breeds in the hair of the scalp, and lº
not voluntarily extend its ravages beyondi
—P. H. CORPORIs, or BODY LOUSE, whº
resides on the trunk of the body and tº
garments, and is characterised by being wi
and nearly immaculate; and P, PUBI,
CRAB LOUSE (so named from the chain
structure of its legs), found chiefly on tº
pubes, but if not checked, gradually extºniº
itself to the armpits, eyebrows, and is
parts covered with hair. This is the mº
malignant species of the three, and frequºiſ
burrows so deeply in the skin as to be wi
difficulty dislodged.
The presence of pediculi is, in general
indication of dirty habits, or of contact wi
the dirty and lazy. Persons who perform tº
duties of the toilet with ordinary care ºf
who change their linen sufficiently often
utter strangers to the visitations of theseinº
The use of the hair-brush, strong scents
soap-and-water, and the like, are incompº
with their existence. For the destructiºn:
the p. pubis, a solution of from 15 to gº
each of bichloride of mercury and salammº
in a pint of distilled or pure soft whº
most cleanly and effective. Weak tº
water, decoction of stavesacre seeds mº
white hellebore, and the ointments of mºſtſ
sulphur, and white precipitate, are alsº
quently employed for the same purpºse &
ACARI, VERMIN, &c.
PEL'LICLE. See CRYSTALLISATION,
PEL'LITORY. Syn. PEILITORY OF Sºlº
(PELLITORY Root; PYRETHRI RADIX, B}
i’YRETHRUM (Ph. L. & E.), L. The rº
Anacyclus Pyrethrum. It is a powerfultº
excitant. It is chiefly employed as a miº
catory in headache, toothache, palsy ºf tº
tongue, and facial neuralgia and rheumatiº
and, made into a tincture with rectified sº
it is a common remedy among dentists firſt
toothache. Internally, it has been given is:
gastric stimulant, and in intermittents &
to 1 dr. may be chewed at a time. -
PEL"TRY. The name applied to fur tº
in the state in which they are received in
the hunters. To prepare them as first
|


PENCILS-PEPPER.
899
inside of them is generally first ‘tawed” by the
application of a solution of alum. They are
next well dusted over and rubbed with hot
plaster of Paris or whiting, and are, lastly,
thoroughly dried and brushed clean. When
it is desired to change or modify their colour,
the grease being removed by lime water or a
weak soda lye, they are stretched out on a table
or board, and the ordinary liquid mordants and
dyes are applied to them hot, by means of a
painter's brush.
The furs of the rabbit and hare are rendered
fit for the purposes of the felt and hat manu-
factures by a process called by the French
‘sécretage.’ This consists in thoroughly moist-
ening the hair with a solution of quicksilver,
1 part, in aquafortis, 16 parts, diluted with
half to an equal bulk of water. This is ap-
plied with a brush, and the moistened skins
being laid together, face to face, are dried
as rapidly as possible in a stove room. See
FURS.
PEN/CILS. This name is applied to the
small brushes made of camel's hair used by
artists, as well as to the plumbago crayons
familiarly known as black-lead pencils. The
last are prepared by one or other of the fol-
lowing methods:—
1. The blocks of plumbago are exposed to a
bright-red heat in a closely covered crucible,
and are afterwards sawn into minute sticks,
and mounted in cases of cedar or satin wood.
2. The plumbago, in powder, is calcined as
before, and then mixed with an equal, or any
other desired proportion of pure washed clay,
also in powder, after which the mixture is
reduced to a plastic state with water, and
pressed into grooves cut on the face of a smooth
board, or into well-greased wooden moulds, in
which state it is left to dry. When dry, the
pieces are tempered to any degree of hardness
by exposing them, surrounded by sand or pow-
dered charcoal, in a closely covered crucible,
to various degrees of heat. The crucible is not
opened until the whole has become cold, when
the prepared “slips’ are removed and mounted
as before. This method was invented by M.
Conté, in 1795.
3. The dough or paste, prepared as last, is
reduced to the required form by forcing it
through a perforated plate (in a similar man-
ner to that adopted for coloured crayons), or
into minute metallic cylinders, from which it
may be readily shaken after it has become par-
tially dry.
Obs. The leads for some varieties of draw-
ing-pencils are immersed for a minute in very
hot melted wax or suet before mounting them.
To the composition for others a little lamp-
black is added, to increase and vary the degree
of blackness. The pencils for asses’ skin books
and prepared paper are tipped with “fusible
metal.” Numerous improvements in pencil-
cases and pencil-mounts have been patented of
late years by Stevens and others.
PENNYROYAL. Syn. PULEGIUM (Ph. L.
& E.), MENTHA. P. (Ph. D.), L. “The recent
and dried flowering herb of Mentha pulegium,
Linn.” (Ph. L.) PENNYROYAL TEA is a
popular emmenagogue, expectorant, and dia-
phoretic, and is in common use in asthma
bronchitis, hooping-cough, hysteria, suppres-
sions, &c. Water, essence, oil, and spirit of
pennyroyal, are officinal. They are now chiefly
used as mere adjuncts or vehicles.
PEP'PER (Black). Syn. PEPPER: PIPER,
B.P.; NIGRIBACCE, PIPER NIGRUM (Ph.L. E.
& D.), L. “The immature fruit (berry) of
Piper nigrum, Linn., or the black pepper vine.”
(Ph. L.)
Pur. The ground black pepper of the shops
is universally adulterated. In fact, the public
taste and judgment are so vitiated, that the
pure spice is unsaleable. A most respectable
London firm, on commencing business, sup-
plied their customers with unadulterated
ground pepper, but in 3 cases out of every 4
it was returned on their hands and objected
to, on account of its dark colour and rich pun-
gency, which had induced the belief that it
was sophisticated. The house alluded to was
therefore compelled by the customers to supply
them with an inferior, but milder and paler,
article. The substances employed to lower
black pepper are known in the trade as—
‘P. D.,” “H. P. D.,’ and ‘W. P. D.’—abbre-
viations of pepper dust, hot p, d., white p. d.
The first is composed of the faded leaves of
autumn, dried and powdered; the second, the
ground husks (hulls) of black mustard, ob-
tained from the mustard mills; and the third
is common rice, finely powdered. Equal parts
of black peppercorns, H. P. D., and W. P. D.,
form the very best ground pepper sold. The
ordinary pepper of the shops does not contain
more than ºth to ºth of genuine pepper, or 2
to 2% oz. in the lb. Very recently, ground
oil-cake or limseed meal has been chiefly em-
ployed as the adulterant, instead of the old
• P. D.’
Uses, &c. Black pepper is a powerful stimu-
lant, carminative, and rubefacient. Its use,
in moderation, as a condiment, is peculiarly
serviceable to persons who are of a cold habit,
or who suffer from a weak digestion; but in
inflammatory habits, and in affections of the
mucous membranes, it is generally highly in-
jurious. As a medicine, it is often serviceable
in nausea, vomiting, chronic diarrhoea, and
agues. In North America, a common remedy
for the last is oz. of ground pepper stirred
up with a glassful of warm beer; or a like
quantity made into a tincture by steeping it
in 5 or 6 times its weight of gin, rum, or
whisky, for a few days.
Prepared black pepper is made by steeping
the berries for 3 days in 3 times their weight
of vinegar, and then drying and grinding
them. It is milder than common pepper. See
CONFECTIONS, PIPERINE, &c.
Pepper, Cayenne. Syn. BIRD PEPPER, CHILI
P., GUINEA P. INDIAN P. RED P.; PIPER



900
PEPPER.
CAPSICI, P. CAYENNE, L. This is prepared
from chillies, or the pods of Capsicum frutes-
cens, or from Capsicum baccatum, or bird
pepper, but generally from the first, on account
of its greater pungency and acrimony; and,
occasionally, from Capsicum annuum or medi-
cinal capsicum.
Prep. 1. From the dried pods (powdered),
1 lb. ; and wheaten bread or captain’s biscuits
(heated until they are perfectly dry and
brittle, and begin to acquire a yellow colour
throughout, and then powdered), 7 lbs.; mixed
and ground together. Colouring matter and
common salt are frequently added, but are un-
necessary.
2. As the last, but making the mixture
into a dough with water, then forming it
into small cakes, drying these as rapidly as
possible at a gentle heat, and then grinding
them.
3. (Loudon.) The ripe pods, dried in the
sun, are stratified with wheaten flour in a dish
or tray, and exposed in a stove-room or a half-
cold oven until they are quite dry; they are
then removed from the flour, and ground to
fine powder; to every oz. of this powder, 1 lb.
(say 15 oz.) of wheaten flour (including that
already used) are added, and the mixture is
made into a dough with a little tepid water
and a teaspoonful of yeast; after fermenta-
tion is well set up, the dough is cut into small
pieces, and baked in a slow oven until it is
perfectly hard and brittle; it is then beaten
or ground to powder, and forms “cayenne
pepper.’ -
Pure cayenne pepper, when burnt, leaves a
scarcely perceptible quantity of white ash;
a red-coloured ash indicates the presence of
red ochre, brick-dust, Armenian bole, or other
earthy colouring matter. If red lead is pre-
sent, it will be left behind under the form of
a dark-coloured powder, or a small metallic
globule.
Pur. The ‘cayenne pepper of the shops is
often a spurious article, made by grinding a
mixture of any of the reddish woods or saw-
dust, with enough red pods or chillies to ren-
der the mixture sufficiently acrid and pungent.
Common salt, colcothar, red bole, brick-dust,
vermilion, and even red lead, are also common
additions.
Uses, &c. The capsicums resemble the pep-
pers, except in their greater energy and their
pungency being unmodified, by the presence
of essential oil. As a condiment, under the
form of cayenne pepper, and in all diseases
in which the employment of a powerful sti-
mulant or rubefacient is indicated, their uses
are well known. In medicine, the fruit of
Capsicum annuum (Linn.—Ph. E. & D.; C.fasti-
giatum, Blume—B.P., Ph.L.), or annual capsi-
cum is ordered (CAPSICUM-Ph. L. E. & D.).
The London College directs the fruit to be
that of ‘Guinea,’ less than one inch long,
oblong, cylindrical, and straight.” See ESSENCE
OF CAYENNE, -
Pepper, Prepared Cayenne, is the residum
of cayenne—vinegar, essence, or tincture, i.
and ground (see below).
Pepper (Soluble), Cayenne. Syn, CRYSIII
IISED SOLUELE CAYENNE.
cum pods (recent, ground in a pepper mill
1 lb. ; rectified spirit, 2% pints; procºl
percolation so as to obtain 2; pints; from thi
distil one half of the spirit by the heat it
water bath; to the residuum add of finți
salt, 5 lbs.; mix them well together, and in
the mixture at a very gentle heat, frequel
stirring; lastly rub it through a sieve, a
put it into warm dry bottles. It is usually,
loured with a little vermilion or rouge (still
oxide of iron), but it possesses an agrº
colour without it.
2. Essence of cayenne (No. 1, page 58
6 pints; distil off 3 pints, add to the resilu
liquor, of dry salt, 12 lbs. ; mix well, dry
a gentle heat, and otherwise proceed tº
before. -
3. Capsicums (ground), 3 lbs.; red sällä
or Brazil wood (sliced or rasped), 100.
rectified spirit, 1 gal.; macerate for 14 dº
then express the tincture, filter, disſilſ
one half, add of dry salt, 15 lbs., and pº
as before.
4. As the first formula, with the additiºn:
a strong decoction of saffron, q. s. It gig.
beautiful colour to soups, &c.
Obs. The above formulae are those actil
employed by the houses most celebrated ſº
their ‘soluble cayenne.” The products ºf
the very finest quality, and are perſº
wholesome. We speak from an extensive tº
perience in the manufacture. The spirit i:
tilled from the essence forms a most suitº
menstruum for making fresh essence Oriº
ture of cayenne.
Pepper, Cu/beb. See CUBEBS.
Pepper, Jamai'ca. See PIMENT0,
Pepper, Kit'chen. See SPICE.
Pepper, Long. Syn. PIPERISLONGIFRTIſ:
PIPER LONGUM (Ph. L. & E.), L. “Their
mature fruit (dried female spikes) of Pº
longum, Linn.” (Ph. L.), or long-pepper in
The spikes are about 1% inch in length ºf
an indented surface, and are of a dark gº
colour. In its general properties it resºn's
black pepper, but it is less aromatic, tº
equally pungent. Elephant pepper is nº
a larger variety of this species. (Gray)
root and stems, sliced and dried, form tº
‘pippula moola’ of the East Indies, ſº
burgh.)
Pepper, Red. See CAYENNE PEPPER,
Pepper, White. Syn. PIPER ALBUM. I.
This is made by either soaking ordinary blº
pepper in a solution of common salt, until tº
outside skins are soft, and then rubbing tº
off in the hands, or by merely rubbing off tº
skins of the over-ripe berries that fall fºr
the vines. An inferior quality is made
bleaching black pepper with chlorine.
Obs, The use of white pepper instalſ
|
Prep, 1, Cº.



PEPPER PODS–PEPSIN.
901
please the eye.
black is an instance of the sacrifices made to
Pure white pepper has only
about 1-4th of the strength of pure black
pepper, whilst it is nearly destitute of the fine
aroma of the latter. It also contains a mere
trace of piperina or piperine, one of the most
valuable constituents of black pepper.
PEP'PER PODS. Capsicums. See CAYENNE
PEPPER.
PEPPERMINT. Syn. MENTHA PIPERITA
(Ph. L. E. & D.), L. “The recent and dried
flowering herb of Mentha piperita” (Ph. L.),
or garden peppermint. The flavour and odour
of this herb are well known. It is the most
pleasant and powerful of all the mints. Pep-
permint water and the essential oil have long
been employed in nausea, griping, flatulent
colic, hysteria, diarrhoea, &c.; but in regular
practice chiefly to cover the taste of nauseous
medicines, or as an adjunct or vehicle for more
active remedies. See OILS (Volatile), WATERs,
&c. -
PEP'SIN. Syn. GASTERASE, CHYMOSIN.
A peculiar principle found in the gastric juice,
and which, in conjunction with hydrochloric
acid, also present in the stomach, confers upon
it the power of digesting certain portions
of the food, and of dissolving, as Tuson has
recently shown, calomel and other mineral
substances.
Prep. 1. (Beale, ‘Med. Times& Gaz.,’ February
10th, 1872, p. 152.) “The mucous membrane
of a perfectly fresh pig's stomach is carefully
dissected from the muscular coat, and placed
on a flat board. It is then lightly cleansed
with a sponge and a little water, and much of
the mucus, remains of food, &c., carefully re-
moved. With the back of a knife, or with an
ivory paper-knife, the surface is scraped very
hard, in order that the glands may be squeezed
and their contents pressed out. The viscid
mucus thus obtained contains the pure gastric
juice with much epithelium from the glands
and surface of the mucous membrane. It is
to be spread out upon a piece of glass, so as to
form a very thin layer, which is to be dried at
a temperature of 100° over hot water, or in
vacuo over sulphuric acid. Care must be
taken that the temperature does not rise much
above 100 Fº., because the action of the solvent
would be completely destroyed. When dry
the mucus is scraped from the glass, powdered
in a mortar, and transferred to a well-stoppered
bottle. With this powder a good digestive
fluid may be made as follows:
Of the powder . . . . 5 grains.
Strong hydrochloric acid. 18 drops.
Water . . - - 6 ounces.
Macerate it at a temperature of 100° for an
hour. The mixture may be filtered easily, and
forms a perfectly clear solution very convenient
for experiment.
“If the powder is to be taken as a medicine,
from two to five grains may be given for a
dose, a little diluted hydrochloric acid in water
being taken at the same time. The pepsin
powder may be mixed with the salt at a meal.
It is devoid of smell, and has only a slightly
salt taste. It undergoes no change if kept
perfectly dry, and contains the active principle
of the gastric juice almost unaltered.
“The method of preparing this pepsin was
communicated to Mr. Bullock, of the firm of
Messrs. Bullock and Reynolds, 3, Hanover
Street, Hanover Square, who at once adopted
it for the preparation of medicinal pepsin, and
soon improved upon it in some particulars.
The dose is from 2 to 4 or 5 grains. Test. 8
grains of this pepsin, with 10 drops dilute
hydrochloric acid and an ounce of distilled
water, dissolve 100 grains of hard-boiled white
of egg in from twelve to twenty-four hours.
In the body probably twice this quantity of
white of egg or even more would be dissolved
in a comparatively short space of time. The
digestive powder prepared from the pig's
stomach retains its activity for any length of
time if kept dry. I had some which had been
kept in a bottle for upwards of five years, and
still retained its active power unimpaired.
The solution made with this pepsin and hydro-
chloric acid was nearly tasteless and inodorous.
One pig's stomach, which cost sixpence, will
yield about 45 grains of the powder prepared
as above described.
“Gradually the usefulness of this prepara-
tion of pepsin of the pig was found out, and it
had to be prepared in increasing quantities.
I should be afraid to say how many pigs’
stomachs have been used of late years during
the winter season.
“In 1857 Dr. Pavy carefully examined the
pepsin prepared and sold by many different
firms, and found that this dried mucus of the
pig’s stomach was the most active of them all
(‘Medical Times and Gazette,’ 1857, vol. i., p.
336). In 1870 Professor Tuson instituted a
still more careful comparative examination,
and with a similar result (‘Lancet,” August
13th, 1870); for he found that this prepara-
tion was twenty-five times stronger than some
others that he obtained for examination.”
2. (Scheffer, ‘Pharm. Journ, March 23rd,
1872, p. 761.) “Of the well-cleaned fresh hog
stomach the mucous membrane is dissected off,
chopped finely and macerated in water acidu-
lated with muriatic acid for several days,
during which time the mass is frequently well
stirred. The resulting liquid, after being
strained, is, if not clear, set aside for at least
twenty-four hours in order to allow the mucus
to settle. To the clarified liquid the same
bulk of a saturated solution of sodium chloride
is added, and the whole thoroughly mixed.
After several hours the pepsin, which by the
addition of chloride of sodium has separated
from its solution, is found floating on the
surface, from whence it is removed with a
spoon and put upon cotton cloth to drain;
finally it is submitted to strong pressure, to
free it as much as possible from the salt solution.
“The pepsin, when taken from the press and


902 PERCHLORATE–PERCOLATION.
allowed to become air dry, is a very tough
substance, and presents, according to thickness,
a different appearance, resembling in thin
sheets parchment paper, and in thick layers
sole leather; its colour varies from a dim straw
yellow to a brownish yellow. Besides a little
mucus, it contains small quantities of phos-
phate of lime and chloride of sodium, which,
however, do not interfere with its digestive
properties, as they are found also in normal
gastric juice.
“In order to get a purer article I redissolve
the pepsin, as obtained after expression, in
acidulated water, filter the solution through
paper and precipitate again with a solution of
sodium chloride; the precipitate, after drain-
ing and pressing, is now free of phosphate of
lime and mucus, but still contains salt. In
the freshly precipitated state the pepsin is
very readily soluble in water, and cannot
therefore be freed from adhering salt by
washing.
“By allowing the pressed sheet of pepsin to
get perfectly air dry—whereby it becomes
coated with a white film and small crystals of
chloride of sodium—and by immersing it then
in pure water for a short time, the greater
part of sodium chloride can be extracted, but
it has to be done very rapidly, as the pepsin
swells up considerably and loses its tenacity.
By operating in this manner I have obtained
a pepsin which dissolves in aeidulated water
to quite a clear colourless liquid, but as it still
contains traces of salt, I prefer to call it
purified pepsin.”
Pepsin, Saccharated. To work it’ into
saccharated pepsin (“American Journal of
Pharmacy,’ January, 1871) the damp pepsin,
as it is taken from the press, is triturated with
a weighed quantity of sugar of milk to a fine
powder, which, when it has become air dry, is
weighed again, the quantity of milk sugar
subtracted, and so the amount of pepsin
found. The strength of this dry pepsin is
now ascertained by finding how much coagu-
lated albumen it will dissolve at a temperature
of 106°F. in five or six hours, and after this
sufficient milk sugar is added to result in a
preparation of which ten grains will dissolve
one hundred and twenty grains of coagulated
albumen, and this preparation I have called
Saccharated pepsin.
PERCHL0"RATE. Syn. PERCHLORAS, L.
A salt of perchloric acid.
The perchlorates are distinguished from the
chlorates by their great stability, and by not
turning yellow when treated with hydro-
chloric acid. Like the chlorates, they give
off oxygen when heated to redness. They
may be prepared by directly neutralising
a solution of the acid with a solution of
the base. See POTASSIUM (Perchlorate of),
and CHLORINE.
PERCHL0’’RIC ACID. See CHLORINE.
PERCOLA"TION. Syn. METHOD of DIS-
PLACEMENT. A method of extracting the
soluble portion of any substance in a divid:
state, by causing the menstruum to filter
strain through it. The “sparging” of tº
Scotch brewers is an example of the appliº.
tion of this principle on the large scale, I
pharmacy, the ‘method of displacement's
frequently adopted for the preparation
tinctures, infusions, &c., and is, in some tº
spects, superior to digestion or macetail
“The solid materials, usually in coarse Orm.
derately fine powder, are moistened with:
sufficiency of the solvent to form a thickpil,
In twelve hours, or frequently without dº
the mass is put into a cylinder of glass, pº
lain, or tinned iron, open at both ends, iſ
obstructed at the lower end by a piece oftii,
or linen, tied lightly over it as a filter; in
the pulp being backed by pressure, rangi,
as to degree with different articles, the R.
mainder of the solvent is poured into them):
portion of the cylinder, and allowed gradulº
to percolate. In order to obtain the porti.
of the fluid which is absorbed by the residum
an additional quantity of the solvent is polid
into the cylinder, until the tincture which is
passed through equals in amount the si
originally prescribed. The spirit emplº
for this purpose is then recovered, for them
part, by pouring over the residuum as mº
water as there is spirit retained in it, wi
may be easily known by an obvious clº
lation in each case. The method of percºli.
is now preferred by all who have made ºf
cient trial of it to apply it correctly.” (Ph."
The first portion of liquid obtained by:
method of displacement is always in a st
of high concentration. In general, it is:
simple solution of the soluble ingredients
the crude drug in the fluid employed,
sometimes the solvent, if compound, is rºl
into its component parts, and the fluid wi
passes through at any given time is Only ſº
of these, holding the soluble parts of their
in solution. Thus, if diluted alcohol hemº
over powder of myrrh, in the cylinder ºf tº
percolator, the fluid which first drops intº tº
receiver is a solution of an oily consistº
chiefly composed of resin and volatile oil it
solved in alcohol. In like manner, when tº
powder of gall-nuts is treated in the sam&W
by hydrated sulphuric ether, two layers ºff
are obtained, one of which is a highly contº
trated solution of tannin in the water ºf tº
ether, and the other a weak solution of tº
same principle in pure ether. In all &
therefore, in which it is not otherwise dirº
it is absolutely necessary to agitate the sº
portions of the liquid obtained by percolatiº
together, in order to ensure a product ºf:
form strength or activity.
Several forms of displacement appart
are employed by different operators, Asimº
and useful one is that figured in the malſº
It has also the advantage of being iº
pensive, and may be made by any workerint
plate.



PERCUSSION.
903
In operating on some substances it is found
advantageous to hasten the process by pressure.
a. Percolator.
b. Stand.
c. Receiver.
d. Menstruum.
e. Substance operated on.
Calico strainer.
This may be effected by any of the methods
adopted for that purpose, and already de-
scribed under FILTRATION. An ingenious little
apparatus, which is well adapted for small
quantities, is shown in the engr. By pouring
mercury or water through (e), into the bottle
(c), the air in the latter suffers compression, and
acts in a corresponding manner on the perco-
lating liquor in (a). The whole of the joints
must be made air-tight.
a. Percolator.
b. Tube connecting it
with—
c. A double-necked
bottle containing—
d. Mercury.
e. Feeding-tube.
f. Receiver.
g. Stop-cock to regu-
late or arrest the pres-
sure of air on the con-
tents of the cylinder (a).
The method of displacement, although appa-
rently simple, requires for its successful appli-
cation no inconsiderable amount of experience
and skill in manipulation. The principal
points to be attended to are—the reduction
of the substance to the proper state of com-
minution (neither too coarse nor too fine),
the due regulation of the period of maceration
according to the hardness, density, and tex-
ture of the substance ; and, more important
still,—the proper packing of the ingredients in
the cylinder. On the correct performance of
the last the success of the process mainly de-
pends. Some substances require considerable
pressure to be used, whilst others, when even
lightly packed, scarcely permit the fluid to
pass through them. When the material is too
loosely packed, the menstruum passes through
quickly, but without exerting its proper sol-
vent action ; when too great pressure is em-
ployed, percolation either progresses very
slowly or not at all. On the whole, the firm-
ness of the packing should be inversely as the
solvent and softening power of the menstruum
upon the solids exposed to its action; but to
this rule there are many exceptions, and each
substance may be said to require special treat-
ment. An excellent plan, applicable to all
substances, and especially to those of a glu-
tinous or mucilaginous nature, is to mix
the powder with an equal bulk of well-washed
siliceous sand before rubbing it up with the
menstruum. In reference to the coarseness
of the powder, it must be observed that sub-
stances which readily become soft and pappy
when wetted by the menstruum, should not be
used so fine as those that are more woody
and fibrous, and not of a glutinous or resinous
nature.
The ‘method of displacement” has the ad-
vantage of expedition, economy, and yleiding
products possessing considerable uniformity of
strength; but the difficulties attending its
application by the inexperienced are serious
obstacles to its general adoption in the labora-
tory. It answers admirably for the prepara-
tion of all tinctures that are not of a resinous
nature, and for most infusions of a woody and
fibrous substances, as roots, woods, barks,
leaves, seeds, insects, &c., and particularly
when cold or tepid water is taken as the sol-
vent. It is also especially adapted for the pre-
paration of concentrated infusions and essences,
as they may thus be obtained of any required
strength without loss, or requiring concentration
by heat, which is so destructive to their virtues.
“When (ordinary) tinctures are made in
large quantities, displacement is never likely to
supersede maceration, on account of any prac-
tical advantages it may possess. If the pre-
scribed directions be duly attended to, the pro-
cess of maceration is unexceptionable. The
process is more simple than the other ; the
mode of operating is more uniform, it is, in
fact, always the same ; it requires less of skill
and dexterity in conducting it; it requires less
constant attention during its progress, which,
in operating on large quantities is a considera-
tion; and, finally, the apparatus required is
less complicated. When, however, only small
quantities of tincture are made at a time, and
kept in stock, the adoption of the process of
displacement will often be found convenient
and advantageous. It offers the means of
making a tincture in two or three hours, which,
by the other process, would require as many
weeks.” (Mohr and Redwood.)
Another useful application of the method of
displacement is to the manufacture of extracts
on the large scale. Here it is superior to any
other plan. By the simple and inexpensive
forms of apparatus in block-tin, stoneware, or
glass, which have recently been designed for
the purpose, not merely a first-class product
is ensured, but a great saving in fuel and labour
is at the same time effected. See BREWING,
EXTRACT, TINCTURE, &c.
PERCUS'SION. Syn. PERCUSSIO, L. In
medicine, the act of striking any part of
the body with the fingers, or any instru-
ment, to ascertain its condition. See AUSCUL-
TATION.




904
DERCUSSION CAPS–PESSARY.
PERCUS'SION CAPS. The composition em-
ployed to prime these articles is noticed under
FULMINATING MERCURY.
PER(FECT LOVE. See LIQUEUR (Parfait
Amour).
PER/FUME. A substance that emits or
casts off volatile particles which, when diffused
through the atmosphere, agreeably affect the
organs of smelling. The term is also applied
to the volatile effluvia so perceived. The
principal source of perfumes is the Vegetable
Kingdom. Its flowers, seeds, woods, and
barks, furnish a rich variety, from which the
most fastidious connoisseur may select his
favourite bouquet. A few perfumes, as musk,
ambergris, and civet, are derived from the
Animal Kingdom ; but none of these evolve
an aroma comparable in freshness to that of
the rose, or in delicacy to that of the orange-
blossom, or even the unpretending jasmine.
The Inorganic Kingdom yields not a single
perfume, so called; nor has the science of
chemistry yet been able to produce a single
odoriferous compound from matter absolutely
inorganic.
PERFU'MERY. Perfumes in general; also
the art of preparing them. In its commercial
application, this word embraces not merely per-
fumes, but also cosmetics, and other articles of
a closely allied character employed at the toilet,
the manufacture and sale of which constitute
the trade of the modern perfumer. Formulae
for the preparation of all the more valuable
perfumes, as well as of others met with in
trade, both simple and compound, will be found
under the heads CoSMETICS, DEPILATORY, Es-
SENCE, HAIR DYES, OILS, PASTES, PASTILS,
POMMADE, SPIRIT, WATERs, &c., to which we
refer the reader.
Perfumes, Ace’tic. See WINEGAR.
Perfumes, Ammo"niated. These may be pre-
pared by simply adding a sufficient quantity of
ammonia to the liquid perfumes. When the
articles are to be distilled, a cheaper plan is to
add about 5 drs, of sal ammoniac and 8 drs. of
carbonate of potassa to each pint of the article
just before distillation. Ammoniated Cologne
water is now a fashionable substitute for spirit
of sal volatile.
PERIODIC ACID. See IODINE.
PERISTALTIC PERSUA'DERS. See PILLS
(Kitchener's). -
PERMANENT WHITE. See BARYTA (Sul-
phate) and WHITE PIGMENTs.
PERNAMBU'CO WOOD, Syn. PEACH wooD.
The wood of Casalpinia echinata. It consti-
tutes the paler variety of Brazil wood used by
the dyers.
PER/RY. Syn. PyRACEUM, L. A fermented
liquor prepared from pears in the same way as
cider is from apples. The red rough-tasted
sorts are principally used for this purpose.
The best perry contains about 9% of absolute
alcohol; ordinary perry, from 5 to 7%.
Perry is a very pleasant-tasted and whole-
some liquor. When bottled ‘champagne
fashion,’ we have seen it frequently passelſ
for champagne, without the fraud being sº
pected. -
PER/SIAN BER/RIES. See FRENCH Bº
FIES.
PERSPIRATION. The liquid or VºI.
secreted by the ramifications of the Cutil
arteries over the surface of the body, Il
perspiratory apparatus consists of a gill
deeply seated in the corium, communicati,
by means of tubules (pores) with the sulfº
of the scarf-skin.
The uses of the perspiratory functions appº
to be to preserve the suppleness and sºlº
bility of the skin, to maintain the tempº
ture of the body at a uniform standard, and
remove from the system a number of tº
pounds noxious to animal life. The persºn
tion “is a fluid whose regularity and continº
ance of exhalation are not merely conduit
but absolutely necessary, to health; with:
such regularity, the animal temperature will
run riot, and substances of an injuriº
quality would be allowed to permeate tº
finest and most delicate of the tissues ºf tº
body.” (Eras. Wilson.) “From the tº
striction or constipation of the cutaneous!º
by the ambient air, especially when the hº
beforehand put into a heat, is suddenly expº
thereunto, the serous particles, which used
fly off continually in vapour, being now ſº
in, ecite an ixntense and feverish efferiº
cence; till, finding some other passage, title
by the kidneys or by the glandules of tº
nose and windpipe, they are dischargel'ſ
way of a catarrh ; or, missing this separatiº
still keep up the ebullition, very often tº tº
harard of life, by suffocating the vital in
And this is the natural consequence of ſº
structed insensible perspiration, which, intº
vulgar phrase, is the same with what tº
mean by catching cold, and of which, given
leave to remark, that as fevers make tº
thirds of diseases infesting mankind, accºli.
to the computation of the judicious Sydellº
so two thirds of fevers very probably I
take their rise from perspiration hiniº
(Daniel Turner.) Suppressed perspiratiºn:
also one of the commonest causes of diº
rhoea,
PERU’WIAN BALSAMI.
PERU.
PERU’WIAN BARK. See CINCHONA.
PES'SARY. Syn. PESSUM, PESSARIUM.)
An instrument made of caoutchouc, gº
percha, box-wood, or ivory, inserted intº tº
vagina to support the mouth and nº
the uterus. They are variously formed tº
meet the prejudices of the party or tº
necessities of the case. The cup, cºmic
globe, and ring pessaries (pessi) are those ºf
known.
Medicated pessaries are prepered by addi:
the active ingredients to a hard cerate, a
pressing the mixture into the desired fºr
Astringents (various), belladonna, acetate
See BAISAM (l
l

. PESTILENCE–PEWTER. 905
lead, iodine, mercury, opium, &c., have been
thus applied by Dr. Simpson and others.
PEST/ILENCE. See PLAGUE.
PESTILEN’TIAL DISEASES. All those
diseases which are epidemic and malignant
and assume the character of a plague. See
CHOLERA, &c.
PETONG". Same as packſong.
PET'R0LENE. The pure liquid portion of
mineral tar. It has a pale yellow colour, a
penetrating odour, and a high boiling-point;
is lighter than water, and is isomeric with the
oils of turpentine and lemons. In its general
proportions, it resembles rectified mineral
naphtha.
PETRO'LEUM. Syn. Rock of L, LIQUID
BITUMEN, OIL of PETRE ; OLEUM PETRAE,
BITUMEN LIQUIDUM, L. PETROLEUM is an
oil found oozing from the ground or ob-
taned on sinking wells in the soil. To a li-
mited extent it is met with in most countries
of Europe and in the West India islands, but
occurs in abundance in Pennsylvania and
other parts of the United States and in
Canada. It varies in colour from slight yellow
to brownish black, in consistence from a thin
mobile liquid to a fluid as thick as treacle, in
specific gravity from 800 to 1100 (water being
1000) and is either clear and transparent or
turbid and opaque. Petroleum is essentially a
volatile oil, and when submitted to distillation
yields gases homologous with light carburetted
hydrogen of marsh-gas (Ronalds obtained
three), liquids of similar constitution (Pelouze
and Cahours isolated twelve), and solid pa-
raffin-like bodies. Commercially petroleum
is distilled so as to yield petroleum-spirit or
mineral naphtha used as a substitute for tur-
pentine and for burning in sponge-lamps and
costermongers’ barrow-lamps; petroleum oil
used all over the world as mineral lamp oil for
illuminating purposes; and a heavy oil em-
ployed for lubricating machinery. The value
of a sample of rock-oil is determined by thus
distilling a weighed quantity in a small glass
retort and weighing the products. The petro-
leum or middle product must be of such a
character as to have a specific gravity not
higher than 810 or 820 and to contain so little
petroleum spirit that it only evolves inflam-
mable vapour when heated to 100°Fahr. in the
manner prescribed in the Petroleum Act, 1871
(see below). Any petroleum product or mineral
oil which will not stand this test, and which is
kept in larger bottles than one pint, and in
larger total quantity than three gallons cannot
be stored or sold except by licence of the
local authorities.
Directions for Testing Petroleum to ascertain
the temperature at which it gives off in-
flammable vapour.
The vessel which is to hold the oil shall be of
thin sheet iron; it shall be two inches deep and
two inches wide at the opening, tapering slightly
towards the bottom ; it shall have a flat rim,
with a raised edge one quarter of an inch round
the top; it shall be supported by this rim in a
tin vessel four inches and a half deep and four
and a half inches in diameter; it shall also
have a thin wire stretched across the opening,
which wire shall be so fixed to the edge of the
vessel that it shall be a quarter of an inch
above the surface of the flat rim. The ther-
mometer to be used shall have a round bulb
about half an inch in diameter, and is to be
graduated upon the scale of Fahrenheit, every
ten degrees occupying not less than half an
inch upon the scale.
The inner vessel shall be filled with the
petroleum to be tested, but care must be taken
that the liquid does not cover the flat rim.
The outer vessel shall be filled with cold, or
nearly cold water; a small flame shall be
applied to the bottom of the outer vessel, and
the thermometer shall be inserted into the oil
so that the bulb shall be immersed about one
and a half inches beneath the surface. A
screen of pasteboard or wood shall be placed
round the apparatus, and shall be of such di-
mensions as to surround it about two-thirds,
and to reach several inches above the level of
the vessels.
When heat has been applied to the water
until the thermometer has risen to about 90°
Fahr., a very small flame shall be quickly passed
across the surface of the oil on a level with
the wire. If no pale blue flicker or flash is
produced, the application of the flame is to be
repeated for every rise of two or three degrees
in the thermometer. When the flashing-
point has been noted, the test shall be repeated
with a fresh sample of the oil, using cold, or
nearly cold, water as before; withdrawing the
source of heat from the outer vessel when thc
temperature approaches that noted in the first
experiment, and applying the flame test at
every rise of two degrees in the thermometer.
See NAPHTHA, OILs (Mineral), &c.
PEW'TER. This is an alloy of tin and lead,
or of tin with antimony and copper. The
first only is properly called pewter. Three
varieties are known in trade;—
Prep. 1. (PLATE PEWTER.) . From tin,
89%; antimony, 7}; bismuth and copper, of
each, 2}; fused together. Used to make
plates, teapots, &c. Takes a fine polish.
2. (TRIPLE PEwTER. From tin, 79%; anti-
mon, 15%; lead, 64; as the last. Used for
minor articles, syringes, toys, &c.
3. (LEY PEwtER.) From tin, 80%; lead,
20%. Used for measures, inkstands, &c.
Obs. According to the report of the French
commission, pewter containing more than 18
parts of lead to 82 parts of tin is unsafe for
measures for wine, and similar liquors and, in-
deed, for any other utensils exposed to contact
with our food or beverages. The legal sp. gr.
of pewter in France is 7.764; if it be greater,
it contains an excess of lead, and is liable to
prove poisonous. The proportions of these
metals may be approximately determined from
the sp. gr.; but correctly, only by an assay
906 BHENOL–PHOSPHORUS.
for the purpose. See BRASS, GERMAN SILVER,
LEAD, and TIN.
PHENOL. C.H.O. See CARBOLIC ACID.
PHE'NYL. C. Hg. The hypothetical com-
pound radical of the phenyl-series. Carbolic
acid is said to be its hydrate.
PHENYLAMINE. C.H.H.N. Aniline is
sometimes so named on account of its relation
to the phenyl series.
PHILO'NIUM. The ancient name of an
aromatic opiate, reputed to possess many vir-
tues, invented by Philo. See CoNFECTION
OF OPIUM. -
PHILOSOPHER'S STONE. Syn. LAPIs
PHILOSOPHORUM, L. A wonderful substance,
the discovery of which formed the day dreams
of the alchemists. It was supposed to be ca-
pable of converting all the baser metals into
gold, and of curing all diseases. Some of the
alchemists appear to have laboured under the
delusion that they had actually discovered it.
The last of these enthusiasts was the talented
and unfortunate Dr. Price, of Guildford. Speak-
ing of the age of alchemy, Liebig says, “The
idea of the transmutability of metals stood in
the most perfect harmony with all the observa-
tions and all the knowledge of that age, and
in contradiction to none of these. In the first
stage of the development of science, the alche-
mists could not possibly have any other notions
of the nature of metals than those which they
actually held. . . We hear it said that
the idea of the philosopher’s stone was an
error; but all our views have been developed
from errors, and that which to-day we regard
as truth in chemistry may, perhaps, before to-
morrow, be regarded as a fallacy.”
PHILOSOPHIC CANDLE. An inflamed jet
of hydrogen gas.
PHILOSOPHIC WOOL. Flowers of zinc.
PHIL"TRE. Syn. PHILTRUM, L. A charm
or potion to excite love. The ancients had
great faith in such remedies. Nothing certain
is now known respecting their composition;
but there is sufficient evidence that recourse
was frequently had to them by the ancients,
and that “their operation was so violent that
many persons lost their lives and their reason
by their means.” The Thessalian philtres
were those most celebrated. (Juv., vi, 610,
&c.) At the present day the administration
of preparations of the kind is interdicted by
law. -
PHLORETIN. Cls HiſOs. A crystallisable,
sweet substance, formed along with grape sugar,
when phloridzin is acted on by dilute acids.
PHLORID'ZIN. Calh2Olo. Syn. PHLo-
RIZINE; PHLORIDZINUM, L. Prep. By acting
on the fresh -root-bark of the apple, pear, or
plum tree, with boiling rectified spirit; the
spirit is distilled off, and the phloridzin
crystallizes out of the residual liquor as it
cools.
Prop &c. Fine, colourless, silky needles,
freely soluble in rectified spirit and in hot
water, but requiring 1000 parts of cold water
for its solution; its taste is bitter and asſi
gent. When its solution is boiled with
little dilute sulphuric acid or hydrochloſſ.
acid, it is changed into grape sugar all
phloretin.
Phloridzin bears a great likeness to Sälii.
It is said to be a powerful febrifuge. Dº
3 to 15 grs.
PHOCE/NIC ACID. See DELPHINIC ACI),
PHOENIC/INE. See INDIGO PURPLE,
PHOS/GENE GAS.
ACID. |
PHOS'PHATE. Syn. PHOSPHAs, L. As
of phosphoric acid. See PHOSPHORIC AI
and the respective metals.
PHOS/PHIDE. See PHOSPHURET.
PHOS'PHITE. Syn. PHOSPHIS, L. A sil
of phosphorous acid. See PHOSPHOROUSAID,
PHOS/PHORUS. P.
Prep. This is now only conducted on tº
large scale:–Bone-ash (in powder), 12 parts
and water 24 parts, are stirred togetherini
large tub until the mixture is reduced tº :
perfectly smooth ‘pap’; oil of vitriol, 8 park
is then added in a slender stream, active sit
ring being employed during the whole timſ
and afterwards until the combination appº
complete; the next day the mass is thim:
with cold water, and, if convenient, heatºli
a leaden pan or boiler until it has entiſt,
lost its granular character; it is now tº
ferred to one or a series of tall casks (acºl.
ing to the extent of the batch), and furtle
diluted with a large quanty of water; aſid
repose, the clear liquid is decanted, the sºi.
ment washed with water, and the ‘washing'
and ‘decanted liquor’ evaporated in a lead.
or copper boiler until the white calcãº
deposit (gypsum) becomes considerable; tº
whole is then allowed to cool, the clear ||
tion decanted, and the sediment thorough
drained on a filter; the liquid thus obtaid
is evaporated in an iron pot to the consistºlº
of a thick syrup (say 4 parts), when dry chi"
coal (in powder), 1 part, is added, and tº
desiccation continued until the bottom of tº
pot becomes nearly red hot, after whichiti
covered over and allowed to cool; the iſ
mixture, when cold, is put into one or mº
earthen retorts well covered with “luting'an
properly dried, and heat is applied (sideway
rather than at the bottom) by means ºf .
good air-furnace; after a short time the hº
of the retort is connected with a coppertillº
the other end of which is made to dip abº
one fourth of an inch beneath the surfaced
some lukewarm water placed in a trough [.
wide-mouthed bottle.
The distilled product is purified by squeeii!
it through chamois leather under warmwatº,
and is then moulded for sale by melting:
under water heated to about 145°Fahr, in
sucking it up to any desired height in slight;
tapering, but perfectly straight, glass tulé
previously warmed and wetted. The boilº
of the tube being now closed with the fingſ
|
See CHLOROCARBON |



PHOSPHORUS. 907
it is withdrawn, and transferred to a pan of
cold water to congeal the phosphorus, which
will then commonly fall out, or may be easily
expelled by pressure with a piece of wire.
Prop., &c. Phosphorus, in its normal con-
dition, is a pale yellow, semi-transparent, and
highly combustible solid; soft and flexible at
common temperatures; it becomes waxy at
about 75° Fahr.; melts at about 111° and boils
at 550°Fahr.; it takes fire in the air at 165°,
and oxidates at all temperatures above 32°.
Exposed to the air below 60°, its surface is
slowly converted into phosphorous acid. It is
apparently insoluble in water, but it conveys
its peculiar flavour and odour to that fluid
when agitated with it; it is slightly soluble
in ether, naphtha, and the fixed and volatile
oils, and more freely so in bisulphide of carbon.
It unites with oxygen, forming oxides, and with
oxygen and hydrogen, forming acids, and with
the metals, forming phosphides.
Phosphorus is remarkable for assuming se-
veral allotrophic forms. In one of these
forms (amorphous phosphorus) its properties
are so altered that they might be those of a
distinct element.
Uses. The principal consumption of phos-
phorus is in the manufacture of lucifer matches.
When swallowed, it acts as a powerful corro-
sive poison; but small doses of its ethereal and
oily solutions are occasionally administered in
cases of chronic debility, extreme prostation
of the nervous powers, impotency, &c. Its
action is that of a powerful diffusible stimu-
lant and diuretic; it is also aphrodisaic. Its
use requires great caution, and the effects
must be narrowly watched. The treatment of
poisoning by phosphorus consists of the ad-
ministration of a powerful emetic and the
copious use of mucilaginous drinks.
Concluding remarks. From the great in-
flammability of phosphorus it can only be safely
preserved under water. In commerce, it is
always packed in tin cylinders filled with
water, and soldered up air-tight. The leading
points to be observed to ensure success in this
manufacture are chiefly connected with the
firing. The heat of the furnace should be
most slowly raised at first, but afterwards
equably maintained in a state of bright igni-
tion. After 3 or 4 hours of steady firing, car-
bonic and sulphurous anhydride are evolved
in considerable abundance, provided the mate.
rials had not been well dried in the iron pot;
then sulphuretted hydrogen makes its appear-
ance, and next phosphuretted hydrogen, which
last should continue during the whole of the
distillation. The firing should be regulated
by the escape of this remarkable gas, which
ought to be at the rate of about two bubbles
per second. If the discharge comes to be in-
tercepted, it is to be ascribed either to the
temperature being two low, or to the retort
getting cracked; and if, upon raising the heat
sufficiently, no bubbles appear, it is a proof
that the apparatus has become defective, and
that it is needless to continue the operation.
We may infer that the proeess approaches its
conclusion by the increasing slowness with
which the gas is disengaged under a powerful
heat; and when it ceases to come over we may
cease firing, taking care to prevent reflux of
water into the retort (and consequent explo-
sion), from condensation of its gaseous con-
tents, by admiting air into it through a re-
curved glass tube, or through the tube of the
copper adapter. The usual period of the
operation, upon the great scale, is from 24 to
30 hours.
Phosphorus, Amor'phous, Syn. RED PHos-
PHORUS, ALLOTROPIC PHOSPHORUS ; PHos-
PHORUS FUSCUs, P. RUBER. L. This is phos-
phorus in that, peculiar condition to which
Berzelius has applied the term “allotropic.”
The honour of its discovery is due to Dr.
Shrötter, of Vienna.
Prep. The ordinary phosphorus of commerce,
rendered as dryas possible, is placed in a shallow
vessel of hard and well-annealed Bohemian
glass, fitted with a safety tube just dipping
beneath the surface of a little hot water con-
tained in an adjacent vessel; heat is then
applied by means of a metallic bath (a mix-
ture of lead and tin), the temperature of which
is gradually raised until it ranges between
464 and 482°Fahr., and bubbles of gas escape
from the end of the safety tube and catch fire
as they come in contact with the air; this tem-
perature is maintained until the amorphous
condition is produced, the length of the expo-
sure being regulated by a miniature operation
with tubes conducted in the same bath; as
soon as this point is reached, the apparatus is
allowed to cool, and the amorphous phosphorus,
which still contains some unconverted phos-
phorus, detached from the glass; it is then
reduced to powder by careful trituration under
water, drained on a calico filter, and, whilst
still moist, spread thinly on shallow trays of
iron or lead; in this state it is exposed, with
frequent stirring, to heat in a chloride of cal-
cium bath, at first gentle, and then gradually
increased to its highest limit, and the heat con-
tinued until no more luminous vapour escapes;
the residuum on the trays is then cooled, washed
with water until this last ceases to affect test ,
paper, and is, lastly, drained and dried. To
render it absolutely free from unaltered phos-
phorus, it may be washed with bisulphide of
carbon.
On the small scale, common phosphorus may
be converted into amorphous phosphorus by
simply exposing it for 50 or 60 hours to a
temperature of about 473° Fahr., in any suit-
able vessel from which the air is kept excluded
by a stream of carbonic acid, or any other gas
which is unable to act chemically on the phos-
phorus.
By keeping common phosphorus fused at a
high temperature, under the above conditions,
for fully 8 days, compact masses of amorphous
phosphorus may be obtained.





908
PHOSPHORUS.
I-
Prop., &c. A reddish-brown, infusible, in-
odorous, solid substance, which is reconverted
into ordinary phosphorus by simply exposing
it to a heat a little above 500°Fahr. It is un-
altered by atmospheric air; is insoluble in bi-
sulphide of carbon, alcohol, ether, or naphtha;
is non-luminous in the dark below about 390°
Fahr.; and does not take fire at a lower tem-
perature than that necessary for its reconver-
sion into the common or crystalline form. The
sp. gr. ranges between 2:089 to 2:017, accord-
ing to the method of preparing it. Its pro-
perties render it an admirable substitute for
the common phosphorus in the composition
for tipping matches, both as regards security
from spontaneous ignition and the health of
the manufacturers; but the anticipations that
it would be thus generally applied, owing to
its high price, have not yet been realised.
Phosphorus, Trichloride of. PCla.
PHOSPHOROUS TERCHLORIDE, PHOSPHOROUS
CHLORIDE. By gently heating phosphorus, in
excess, in dry chlorine gas; or by passing the
vapour of phosphorus through a stratum of
powdered mercuric chloride, strongly heated
in a glass tube. It is limpid, colourless, highly
fetid, fumes in the air, and is slowly resolved
by water into phosphorous acid and hydro-
chloric acid. Sp. gr. 1:45.
Phosphorus, Pentachloride of. PCls. Syn.
PHOSPHORIC CHLORIDE, PERCHLORIDE OF
PHOSPHORUS.
Prep. By the spontaneous combustion of
phosphorus in an excess of dry chlorine; or
by passing a stream of dry chlorine into the
liquid terchloride. By the first method it is
obtained as a white crystalline sublimate; by
the second, as a solid crystalline mass. It is
volatile; water resolves it in phosphoric acid
and hydrochloric acid.
Phosphorus, Oxychloride of. PCl4O. Syn.
PHOSPHORIC OXYCHLORIDE, PHOSPHORIC
MONOOXYCHILORIDE.
Prep. By heating pentachloride of phos-
phorus with a quantity of water insufficient
to convert it into phosphoric acid. It is a
colourless, fuming liquid, having the sp. gr.
17.
Phosphorus, Hydride of PHA. Syn. PHOS-
PHORETTED HYDROGEN, PHOSPHURETTED
HYDROGEN.
Prep. 1. Phosphorous acid is gently heated
in a retort, and the first portion of the gas
collected.
2. From phosphorus (in small lumps) boiled
in a solution of hydrate of potassium or milk
of lime, contained in a small retort, as before.
Take a very small thin retort, capable of hold-
ing not more than 1 oz. or 1% oz. of water;
place in this 3 or 4 fragments of the sticks of
fused hydrate of potassium, each being about
# inch in length; add as much water as will
barely cover them, and then drop in a small
fragment of phosphorus, about the size of a
horse-bean; apply a very gentle heat with the
small flame of a spirit lamp, agitating the
Syn.
|
the retort continually. A pale lambent in
will first appear in the interior, and whenti
reaches the orifice, and burns in the open in
the retort should be placed on the stand will
its beak about an inch under water, Cin
must be taken not to withdraw the flameſ
the lamp. When the bubbles of the gas is
to the surface they spontaneously inflame.
3. From phosphide of calcium and dillº
hydrochloric acid, as above; or simply ſm
the phosphide thrown into water.
Obs. The gas obtained by methods 2 and
is contaminated with the vapour of a liqui
phosphide of hydrogen, PH2, which gives tº
the property of spontaneous inflammability.
Prop., &c. Colourless; very fetid; slight;
soluble in water; burns with a white flamº
decomposed by light, heat, and strong aſis
as commonly prepared, inflames on Ont.:
with air, at ordinary temperatures, but whº
pure, only at the heat of boiling water, S.
gr. 1'24. It is rendered quite dry by standi;
over fused chloride of calcium.
Phosphorus, Suboxide of P.O. (Odling) .
reddish-brown powder, formed when a strºn
of oxygen is forced upon phosphorus, melº
beneath the surface of hot water. To putſ |
it from phosphoric acid and free phosphor;
it is washed on a filter with water, then diº
by bibulous paper, and finally digested will
bisulphide of carbon.
Hypophosphorous Acid. HaP03. By tº
tiously decomposing a solution of hypophy
phite of barium with sulphuric acid, filtºſiſ
from the precipitate (sulphate of baryta) at
evaporating. Dissolve hypophosphite of tº
cium, 480 grs. in distilled water, 6 fl. 1
dissolve crystallised oxalic acid, 350 gr, i.
another portion of distilled water, 3 fl. 1.
mix the solutions and filter the mixture thºſ
white filtering paper. Add distilled Wil:
carefully to the filtrate till it measures 10
oz., and evaporate this to 8% fl. Oz. The slº
tion thus prepared contains about 1%
terhydrated hypophosphorous acid.
Prop. A viscid, uncrystallisable liquidhai.
a strongly acid reaction. It is a powdſ
drying agent, and forms salts called hy
phosphites.
Ammonium, Hypophosphite of. (NH), M.
Prep. Dissolve hypophosphite of calcium,
oz., in water, 4 pints; and dissolve translucº
sesquicarbonate of ammonium, 72307,(baſſ
74), in water, 2 pints; mix the solution:
filter, washing out the solution retained
the carbonate of lime with water, q, S.; tº
porate the filtrate to dryness with great Caº
dissolve it in alcohol, q. S.; filter, evaporiº
and crystallise. Very soluble in both alcºld
and water.
Barium, Hyperphosphite of Ba;(P0),
Prep. Boil phosphorus in a solution of ly
drate of barium (baryta water) till all tº
phosphorus disappears and the vapours haven
longer a garlic odour. Filter, evaporate, i.
set aside to crystallise.


PHOSPHORUS. 909

Calcium, Hypophosphite of. Ca5(PO3)3.
Prep. Slack recently burned lime, 4 lbs.,
with water, 1 gall., and mix it with water, 4
galls, just brought to the boiling temperature
in a deep open boiler, stirring until a uniform
milk of lime is formed; then add phosphorus,
1 lb., and keep up the boiling constantly, add-
ing hot water from time to time, so as to pre-
serve the measure as nearly as may be until
all the phosphorus is oxidised and combined,
and the strong odour of the gas has disap-
peared; then filter the solution through muslin,
wash out that portion retained by the calcare-
ous residue with water, and evaporate the
filtrate till reduced to 6 pints; re-filter, to
remove a portion of carbonate of calcium re-
sulting from the action of the air upon the
solution; evaporate again until a pellicle forms,
and set aside to crystallise—or continue the
heat with constant stirring until the salt gran-
ulates.
Obs. As spontaneously inflammable phos-
phoretted hydrogen is given off during the
boiling, the process must be conducted under
a hood, with a strong draught or in the open
air. Smaller proportions than those given may
be used.
Prop. Hypophosphite of calcium is a white
salt, with pearly lustre, crystallising in flat-
tened prisms; soluble in 6 parts of cold water,
and slightly soluble in dilute alcohol. It is
the most important of these compounds, and
when introduced into the stomach it is supposed
to be converted into phosphate of calcium. It
has been termed ‘chemical food.’ By de-
composition it readily furnishes the other
hypophosphites. -
Ferric, Hyperphosphite of. Fel’Os. Prep. By
precipitating a solution of hypophosphite of
sodium or ammonium, with solution of ferric
sulphate, washing the gelatinous precipitate
with care (it being somewhat soluble); and,
finally, drying it into an amorphous white
powder. This is freely soluble in hydrochloric
and hypophosphorous acids.
Potassium, Hypophosphite of KaBOa. Prep.
From hypophosphite of calcium, 6 oz., dissolved
in water, 4 pints; and granulated carbonate of
potassium, 5}oz., dissolved in water, ºpint. Mix,
filter, and wash the precipitate till the filtrate
measures 5 pints. Evaporate till a pellicle
forms, then stir constantly, continuing the
heat till the salt granulates. A white, opaque,
deliquescent body, very soluble in water and
alcohol.
Quinine, Hypophosphite of. Dissolve sul-
phate of quinine, 1 oz., in water, by the aid of
diluted sulphuric acid; precipitate the alka-
loid with ammonia; wash the precipitated
quinine and digest it in hypophosphorous acid
with heat (the quinine being in excess); after
filtering the solution, allow it to evaporate
spontaneously till the required salt crystallises.
It forms elegant tufts of soft, feathery crys-
tals, which are soluble in 60 parts water.
Sodium, Hypophosphite of Nag PO, Prep,
From hypophosphite of calcium, 6 oz., dis-
solved in water, 4 pints; and crystallised car-
bonate of sodium, 10 oz., dissolved in water,
1} pint. Proceed as in making hypophosphite
of potassium, but allowing 6 pints as the mea-
sure of the filtrate. If required in crystals,
the granulated salt may be dissolved in alco-
hol sp. gr. 835, evaporated till syrupy, and set
by in a warm place. Crystallises in rectangu-
lar tables, with a pearly lustre; is very soluble
in water and ordinary alcohol, and deliquesces
when exposed to the air.
Phosphorus, Trioxide of.
PHOSPHOROUS ANHYDRIDE ;
PHOSPHORIC ACID.
Prep. By burning phosphorus in a limited
supply of air. White flaky powder, with an
odour of garlic, and rapidly absorbing water to
form phosphorous acid.
Phosphorous Acid. HaPOs. Syn. HYDRA-
TED PHOSPHOROUS ACID. Pure phosphorus
is volatilised through a layer of powdered mer-
curic chloride, contained in a glass tube; ter-
chloride of phosphorus comes over, which, on
being mixed with water, is resolved into hydro-
chloric acid and phosphorous acid; by evapo-
rating the mixed liquid to the consistence of a
syrup, the first is expelled, and the residuum
forms a crystalline mass of hydrated phospho-
rous acid on cooling.
Prop., &c. It is a powerful deoxidising
agent. Heated in a closed vessel, it is resolved
into hydrated phosphoric acid and pure phos-
phuretted hydrogen gas. With the bases it
forms salts, called phosphites, which possess
little practical importance.
Phosphorous Pentoxide Acid. P,0s. Syn.
ANHYDROUS PHOSPHoRIC ACID ; PHOSPHOR-
OUSANHYDRIDE; PHOSPHoRIC oxIDE. By the
vivid combustion of phosphorus in a stream of
dry atmospheric air, or under a bell-jar, copi-
ously supplied with dry air. The product is
pure anhydrous phosphoric acid under the form
of snow-like flakes. It must be immediately
collected and put into a warm, dry, well-stop-
pered bottle. In this state it exhibits an
intense attraction for water, and when thrown
into it combines with explosive violence; ex-
posed to moist air for only a few seconds, it
deliquesces to a syrupy-looking liquid.
Phosphoric Acid. There are three distinct
acids usually grouped under this head, namely,
METAPHOSPHORIC ACID, HPOs; PYROPHos-
PHORIC ACID, HAP.O; ; and PHOSPHORIC ACID,
HAPO. -
Metaphosphoric Acid. HPO. Syn. Mono-
BASIC PHOSPHORIC ACID ; GLACIAL PHOSPHO-
RIC ACID,
Prep. Bones (calcined to whiteness and
powdered), 3 parts, are digested for several
days in oil of vitriol, 2 parts, previously diluted
with water, 6 parts, the mixture being fre-
quently stirred during the time; a large quan-
tity of water is next added, the whole thrown
in a strainer, and the residual matter washed
with some hot water; the mixed liquors are
P,0s. Syn.
ANHYDROUS



910 PHOSPHORUS.
ORTHOPHOSPHORIC ACID.
then precipitated with a solution of carbonate
of ammonium, in slight excess, filtered from the
insoluble, finally ignited in a platinum crucible.
By acting upon the anhydride with cold
water.
When phosphoricacidisadded toastrong solu-
tion of phosphate of zirconium, and the mixture,
after concentration, is exposed to a low temper-
ature, prismatic crystals are deposited. These,
after being strongly heated to expel their basic
water, are pure metaphosphate of sodium.
From the solution of this salt in cold water,
a solution of pure metaphosphoric acid may
be obtained, as above, by means of nitrate or
acetate of lead and sulphuretted hydrogen.
Obs. This acid precipitates the salts of silver
white, and is distinguished from the other
modifications of phosphoric acid by the pro-
perty which its solution possesses of coagu-
lating albumen.
Pyrophosphoric Acid. H.P.O. Syn. DI-
BASIC PHOSPHORIC ACID. By strongly heating
common or phosphate of sodium. The water
of crystallisation only is at first expelled, and
the salt becomes anhydrous; but as the tem-
perature reaches that of redness the salt loses
water and is decomposed. By solution of the
altered salt in water, crystals of pyrophosphate
of sodium may be obtained. A solution of
this last compound, treated with nitrate of
lead, and the resulting precipitate, suspended
in cold water, and decomposed by sulphuretted
hydrogen, yields a solution of pure pyro-
phosphoric acid.
Obs. Heat resolves this into a solution of the
ordinary acid. Pyrophosphoric acid precipi-
tates the salts of silver of a white colour. The
salts of this acid are called pyrophosphates.
Phosphoric Acid. HaPO4. Syn. TRIHY-
DRIC PHOSPHATE, TRIBASIC PHOSPHORIC ACID,
Ordinary nitric
acid is heated in a tubulated retort connected
with a receiver, and small fragments of phos-
phorus are dropped into it, singly and at in-
tervals; as soon as the oxygenation of the
phosphorus is complete, the heat is increased,
the undecomposed acid distilled off, and the
residuum evaporated to the consistence of a
syrup. In this state it forms the phosphoric
acid of the shops. Commercial phosphate of
sodium is dissolved in water and the solution
precipitated with another of acetate of lead;
an abundant white precipitate (phosphate of
lead) falls; this is collected on a filter, well
washed, and, whilst still moist, is suspended
in distilled water, and sulphuretted hydrogen
gas passed into it, in excess; a black insoluble
precipitate forms, while pure tribasic phos-
phoric acid remains in solution, and is easily
deprived of the residual sulphuretted hydrogen
by a gentle heat. By concentration in vacuo
over sulphuric acid, it may be obtained in thin
crystalline plates.
The solution of this acid may be boiled
without change, but when concentrated and
heated to about 400° Fahr, it is converted
into pyrophosphoric acid, and at a red ht
into metaphosphoric acid. Its salts are tº
ordinary phosphates, or nitrophosphates, Ali
they give a yellow precipitate with nitrated
silver. -
Tests. The following reactions characters
the ordinary or other phosphates:–1, Chlº
ride of barium produces in aqueous solutions:
the neutral and basic phosphates a whitepſ:
cipitate, which is insoluble in either hydrº
chloric or nitric acid, and with difficulty
soluble in a solution of chloride of ammonium
—2. Solution of sulphate of calcium produº
in neutral and alkaline solutions of the phy
phates a white precipitate, freely soluble iſ
acids, even the acetic.—3. Sulphate of măgº
sium produces in solutions of the phosphälä,
to which some chloride of ammonium andf&
ammonia has been added, a white, crystallinº
and quickly subsiding precipitate of ti
phosphate of ammonium and magnesium
which is insoluble in a solution of either an
monia or chloride of ammonium, but rail
soluble in acids, even the acetic.—4, Nitriº
of silver, with neutral and basic alkali:
phosphates, gives a light yellow precipitº
If the fluid in which the precipitate is slº
pended contained a basic phosphate, it dº
not affect test paper; if it contained a neut
phosphate, the reaction will be acid, Iftik
phosphate examined has been heated to Ri
ness before solution, it then, as a metaphy
phate, gives a white precipitate with nitrº
of silver.—5. Hydrochloric acid is added
the solution to acid reaction, and afterward
1 or 2 drops of a concentrated solution
ferric chloride; a solution of acetate of pºli:
sium is next added in excess, when a flocCull
gelatinous, white precipitate will be formed:
phosphoric acid or any phosphate was prºl
in any form or combination in the origid
liquor. This test is highly characteristic, all
of general applicability.—Obs. The insolil.
phosphates must be first treated with dilut:
hydrochloric or sulphuric acid, and the result
ing solution filtered and neutralised with
alkali, before applying the reagents, Whº
the substance under examination consists ºf
very small quantity of phosphoric acid
phosphate, with a large quantity of sesquioxid
of iron, it should be fused with some carbonſ:
of sodium, the residuum of the ignition &
hausted with water, and the tests applied tº
the filtered solution. Arsenious acid, if present
should be removed by sulphuretted hydrºgº
before applying the tests. When phosphi;
of aluminum, the solution in hydrochloſſ
acid is neutralised with carbonate of sodium
carbonate of barium is next added in excº
followed by the addition of hydrate pºts
sium, also in excess, after which the whole;
boiled. An insoluble phosphate of bariumi
formed, which may be decompose by sulphuri
acid, as before. See MoLYBDATE OF AMMONIT
Estim. Pure solutions or phosphorical
may be tested by the common methods


PHOSPHORUS—PHOTOGRAPHY. 911
l
acidimetry. When in a state of combination,
it may be separated and weighed in either of
the forms moticed under GUANO.
Uses, &c. This acid is the common form,
and is the compound alluded to when “phos-
phoric acid” is spoken of. It is extensively
employed by the bleacher, dyer, calico-printer,
and enameller. Unlike sulphuric acid and the
other strong acids, it does not coagulate al-
bumen nor injure vegetable fibre, and is not
decomposed by contact with organic matter.
In combination with alumina and a large
boracic acid, it is said to be capable of pro-
ducing a glaze for earthenware of extreme
beauty and durability, and perfectyinnocuous.
It is also used in medicine.
PHOSPHORUS, BALDWIN’S. Recently
fused nitrate of calcium. For this purpose it
must be broken into fragments whilst still
warm, and at once placed in dry and well-
stopped phials. After exposure for some time
to the direct rays of the sun, it emits sufficient
light in the dark to render visible the figures
on the dial-plate of a watch.
PHOSPHORUS, BOLOGNIAN. Syn. KER-
CHER’s PHOSPHORUS, BOLOGNIAN STONE. This
substance was accidentally discovered by a
shoemaker of Bologna, and excited much
interest about the middle of the 17th century.
The following is said to have been the formula
employed by the Logani family, who were
particularly successful in its preparation, and
acquired wealth by its sale to the curious
throughout Europe.
Prep. Reduce recently calcined native sul-
phate of barium to powder, make it into a
paste with mucilage of gum tragacanth, and
roll the mass into pieces about # inch thick
and 1 to 2 inches long; dry these slowly by a
moderate heat, and then expose them to igni-
tion in a wind furnace, by placing them loosely
among the charcoal; lastly, allow them to
cool slowly, and at once place the pieces in
well-stopped phials. Like the preceding sub-
stance, it phosphoresces in the dark after
exposure to the sun’s rays.
PHOSPHORUS, CANTON'S. Prep. From
calcined oyster shells, 3 parts; flowers of
sulphur, 1 part; placed in alternate layers in
a covered crucible, and exposed to a strong
heat for about an hour. It is preserved and
used like the above.
PHOSPHORUS, HOMBERG’S. Recently
ignited chloride of calcium.
PHOSPHORUS BOTTLES. Prep. 1. Phos-
phorus, 12 grs. ; olive oil, 3 oz. ; mix in an oz.
phial, and place the latter, loosely corked, in a
basin of hot water; as soon as the phosphorus
is melted, remove the phial, cork it securely,
and agitate it until nearly cold. On being
uncorked, it emits sufficient light in the dark
to see the time by a watch, and will retain
this property for some years if not too fre-
quently employed. These are frequently called
“luminous phials.”
2. (BRIQUETS PHOSPHORIQUES.)—a. From
phosphorus, 3 parts; white wax, 1 part; cau-
tiously melted together by the heat of hot
water; as the mixture begins to cool, the
bottles are turned round, so that it may adhere
to the sides.
b. (Bendix.) Cork (rasped small, and dry)
and yellow wax, of each, 1 part ; phosphorus,
4 parts; petroleum, 8 parts; mixed, by fusion,
as the last.
Used as instantaneous-light bottles. A
sulphur match rubbed against the composi-
tion immediately inflames on exposure to the
air. They should be only unstoppered at the
instant of introducing the match, and should
be handled with caution.
PHOSPHORUS MATCHES. See MATCHES,
and above.
PHOSPHORUS PASTE. Syn. ANTI-ARSE-
NICAL RAT-Poison, PHOSPHOR-PASTE. Prep.
1. Phosphorus, 1 oz. ; warm water, 1 pint;
place them in a bottle, cork it, and agitate
them well together, until the phosphorus is
reduced to a minute state of division, adding
towards the end moist sugar, 3 lb.; next add
of lard (melted by a gentle heat), 1 lb., and
repeat the agitation until the whole is nearly
cold; when cold, form it into a stiff dough
with oatmeal or barley meal, and make this
into small balls or cakes; lastly, dry these in
the air, without artificial heat.
2. (Simon.) Phosphorus, 8 parts ; water
(lukewarm), 180 parts; mix in a mortar, and
add of rye meal, 180 parts; when cold, fur-
ther add of butter or lard, 180 parts; sugar,
125 parts; and mix the whole thoroughly to-
gether. This is the formula authorised by an
ordonnance of the Prussian Government, dated.
April 27th, 1843.
Obs. Rats, mice, &c., eat the above compo-
sition with avidity, after which they soon die.
It is said that the best method of using it
is to place small pieces of it in and about the
holes, with some water in a shallow vessel for
them to drink. It has the advantage of re-
taining its efficacy for many years, and is less
dangerous to human beings than compositions
containing arsenic, whilst it is even more effec-
tive for the purpose for which it is employed.
Some persons recommend the addition of a
little oil of rhodium or oil of aniseed. See
RATS, &c.
PHOS/PHURET. Syn. PHOSPHIDE; PHos.
PHURETUM, PHOSPHIDUM, L. A compound
of phosphorus with a metal or other basic
radical. See the respective METALs, &c.
PHOSPHURETTED HYDROGEN. Syn.
PHOSPHORETTED HYDROGEN. See HYDROGEN.
PHOTOGRAPHY. Syn. HELIOGRAPHY.
The art of producing images on prepared sur-
faces by means of the actinic or chemical rays
of the sun’s light. The principal photographic
processes now in use are the positive-, negative-,
and dry-collodion processes, in each of which
a thin film or skin of iodised collodion forms
the sensitive surface, a plate of glass being
generally used as the foundation of the film



912
PHOTOMETRY-PHYSIC BALLS.
In a positive picture the “lights’ are silvery
white by reflected light, and the “shades’
are produced by a ‘backing' of black var-
nish or velvet, showing through the glass
plate. In a negative picture the “lights’
are of a dirty yellow or brown by reflection.
and being formed by opaque deposits, appear
dense black by transmitted light. Negatives
are used in the various paper-printing pro-
cesses; they are placed upon prepared paper
and exposed to direct light, which darkens
those parts of the paper not protected by the
opaque “lights,' and thus produces positive
prints with natural lights and shades. In this
way the portrait “cartes de visite ’ and other
paper photographs are formed. The advan-
tages of the “dry-collodion process” are, that
the plates, when ‘sensitised,’ will keep for
any length of time, and may be “developed’
several days after taking the picture. The
principal paper processes are the Talbotype, or
calotype, invented in 1839 by Mr. Fox Talbot;
the ordinary albumen process, in which pure
white of egg is used to give a glossy sur-
face to the paper; and the waxed paper pro-
cess, in which the paper is waxed before being
sensitised. The Daguerreotype process, dis-
covered by M. Daguerre in 1839, has been
almost entirely superseded by the easier,
healthier, and less expensive collodion process.
It consists in submitting a plate of silver or
silvered copper to the vapour of iodine and
bromine in the dark. A sensitive film of
iodide and bromide of silver is thus formed on
the plate, which is immediately exposed to
the image of an object in the camera obscura.
The latent image impressed on the plate is
brought out or developed by exposing the
plate to the action of the vapour of mercury.
The art of photography cannot be adequately
expounded in a work like the present, and we
must refer our readers for practical directions
to one of the many special treatises on the
subject which have been written. The work
which contains the greatest amount of infor-
mation within a moderate compass is Jabez
Hughes’s ‘Principles and Practice of Photo-
graphy” (Simpkin, Marshall, and Co.), of
which no fewer than nine editions have been
issued. Besides this excellent little guide to
manipulation, the ‘Year Book of Photography,”
edited for many years past by Geo. Wharton
Simpson, M.A. (Piper and Carter), takes cog-
misance of all the latest improvements intro-
duced into the practice of the art, and
furnishes details in the form of an annual
report. See CAMERA. OBSCURA, CoLLODION,
&c.
PHOTOMETRY. The art of determining
the relative intensities of different lights.
Various methods have been adopted, at different
times, for this purpose, among which, how-
ever, a few only are sufficiently simple for
general application. The principle adopted
by Bouguer and Lambert depends on the fact
that, though the eye cannot judge correctly of
the proportional force of different lights,
can, generally, distinguish with great precisim
when two similar surfaces or objects present:
together are equally illuminated, or when tº
shadows of an opaque object produced by
different lights are equally dark. Now,
light travels in straight lines, and is equally
diffused, it is evident that its intensity will
progressively lessen as the distance of its
source increases. This diminution is found tº
be in the duplicate ratio of the distance, T.
apply this principle to candles, lamps, gº
lights, &c., we have only to arrange two ºf
them so that the light or shadow resulting from
both shall be of equal intensity, after which W.
must carefully measure the distance of eld
of them from the surface on which the ligh;
or shadow falls. The squares of these dis.
tances give their relative intensity. In general
some known light, as that from a wax cand
(4 to the lb.), is taken as the standard of COm
parison.
Dr. Ritchie's ‘photometer’ consists of
rectangular box, about 2 inches square, Opºl
at both ends, and blackened inside to absºr
extraneous light. In this, inclined at anglº
of 45° to its axis, are placed two preciº,
similar rectangular plates of plain silver:
glass, and fastened so as to meet at thet)
in the middle of a narrow slit about an ind
long and the eighth of an inch broad, and
which is covered with a strip of tissue or oil:
paper. In employing this instrument, th:
“lights must be placed at such a distancefrom
each other, and from the instrument betwº
them, that the light from each shall fall Ol
the reflector next it, and be reflected to the
corresponding portion of the oiled paper. The
photometer is then to be moved nearer to tº
one or the other, until the two portions of the
oiled paper corresponding to the two minº
are equally illuminated, of which the eye (i.
judge with considerable accuracy.”
In Prof. Wheatstone’s ‘PHOTOMETER'th
relative intensity of the two lights is detº
mined by the relative brightness of the Oppº
site sides of a revolving silvered ball illuminat:
by them.
In the method of photometry usually, but
erroneously, ascribed to Count Rumford, tº
shadows of an opaque object formed by differ
ent lights, and allowed to fall on a white will
or paper screen, are contrasted. A win
about ºths of an inch thick, and about afº
in length, with the one end bent so as to fom
a handle, is commonly used to form th:
shadows. The method of proceeding is similar
to that first above noticed.
It is generally supposed that the equality.
two shadows can be appreciated with greatº!
certainty than that of two lights.
PHTHIS’IC. A popular name for difficulty
of breathing, from its supposed resemblanº
to phthisis. See BRONCHITIS, and below.
PHYSIC BALLS. See WETERINARY MEDI.
CINES.


PICA–PICKLES.
913
PICA. Depraved appetite.
12
(See page
8.)
PIC'AMAR. One of the peculiar principles
discovered by Reichenbach in beech-tar, and
described by him as a viscid, colourless, oily
liquid, only feebly odorous, but intensely bit-
ter; insoluble in water; freely soluble in al-
cohol, ether, and oils; boiling-point 520°Fahr.;
sp. gr. 1.095. See KREASOTE.
PICCALIL'LI. See PICKLES.
PICK'LE. The liquor in which substances
used as food are preserved. That for flesh is
commonly brine; that for vegetables, vinegar;
both of which are commonly flavoured with
spices, &c.
Prep. 1. (FoR MEAT.)—a. From bay salt,
3 lbs. ; saltpetre, 2% oz. ; moist sugar, 1 lb.;
allspice and black pepper, of each (bruised),
1 oz.; water, 9 pints; simmer them together
in a clean covered iron or enamelled vessel for
7 or 8 minutes; when the whole has cooled,
remove the scum, and pour it over the articles
to be preserved. Used for hams, tongues, beef,
&c., to which it imparts a fine red colour and
a superior flavour.
b. From bay salt and common salt, of each,
2 lbs. ; moist sugar, 1 lb.; saltpetre, 3 lb. ; all-
spice (bruised), 3 oz. ; water, 1 gal. ; as before.
Used chiefly for pork and hams. Common salt
may be substituted for bay salt, but it is less
powerfully antiseptic, and the flavour is less.
grateful. -
2. (For VEGETABLES.)—a. Strong distilled
vinegar, to each quart of which 1% oz. of good
salt has been added. -
b. Good distilled vinegar, 4 pints; common
salt, 2% oz. ; black pepper, oz. ; unbleached
Jamaica ginger, 2% oz. ; (the last two bruised,
but not dusty ;) mace (shredded), 3 oz. ; sim-
mer in an enamelled iron or stoneware vessel,
as above, and strain through flannel. Some-
times a little capsicum is added. Used either
hot or cold, according to the vegetable it is
intended to preserve.
Pickle, Lemon. See SAUCES.
PICKLES. These well-known articles are
easily prepared of the finest quality. The
vegetables and fruit, selected of the proper
quality and at the proper season, after being
well cleansed with cold spring water, are
steeped for some time in strong brine; they
are then drained and dried, and transferred to
bottles or jars ; the spice (if any) is then
added, the bottles filled up with hot, strong,
pickling vinegar, and at once securely corked
down and tied over with bladder. As soon as
the bottles are cold, the corks are dipped into
melted wax, the more surely to preserve them
air-tight. Good wood or distilled vinegar is
commonly used for this purpose; but the best
malt or white wine vinegar of the strength
known as No. 22 or 24 is exclusively employed
for the finer pickles which are not spiced. In
those for early use the “steep' may be made in
hot or boiling brine, by which the product
will be ready for the table in a much shorter
period; but with substances of a succulent
and flabby nature, as cabbage, cauliflower,
some fruit, &c., or in which crispness is es-
teemed a mark of excellence, this is inadmis-
sible. To such articles the vinegar should also
be added cold, or, at furthest, should be only
slightly warmed. As a general rule, the softer
and more delicate articles do not require so
long soaking in brine as the harder and coarser
kinds; and they may be often advantageously
pickled by simply pouring very strong pickling
vinegar over them, without applying heat. It
must also be observed that beetroot, and other
like substances which are sliced, as well as cer-
tain delicate fruits, must not be steeped at all.
The spice is commonly added whole to the bot-
tles; but a more economical plan is to steep it
(bruised) for some time, or to simmer it in the
vinegar before using the latter, as in the forms
given under PICKLE (above). -
The spices and flavouring ingredients em-
ployed for pickles are—allspice, black and
white pepper, capsicums or red pods, cloves,
garlic, ginger, horseradish, lemon peel, mace,
mustard, shallots, and turmeric. These are
chosen with reference to the particular variety
of the pickle, or the taste of the con-
Sunlel”.
In the preparation of pickles it is highly
necessary to avoid the use of metallic vessels,
as both vinegar and brine rapidly corrode
brass, copper, lead, &c., and thus become poi-
sonous (see page 367). These liquids may be
best heated or boiled in a stoneware jar by the
heat of a water bath or a stove. Common
glazed earthenware should be avoided, either
for making or keeping the pickles in, as the
glazing usually contains lead. Pickles should
also be kept from the air as much as possible,
and should only be touched with wooden or
bone spoons. They are also better prepared in
small jars, or bottles, than in large"ones, as the
more frequent opening of the latter exposes
them too much. Copper or verdigris is fre-
quently added to pickles to impart a green
colour, or the vinegar is boiled in a copper
vessel until sufficiently “greened” before pour-
ing it on the vegetables. This poisonons ad-
dition may be readily detected by any of the
tests mentioned at page 367. If a green
colour be desired, it may be imparted to the
vinegar, and ultimately to the pickles, by steep-
ing vine leaves, or the leaves of parsley or
spinach, in it. A teaspoonful of olive oil may
be advantageously added to each bottle, to keep
the pickles white, and to promote their pre-
servation.
*** The following list includes the leading
pickles of the shops, and some others:—
Barbarries. From the ripe fruit, without
heat.
Beams. From the young green pods of the
scarlet bean, and the French or kidney beam,
with heat. -
Beetroot. From the sliced root, without
steeping in brine, and with cold º: jºr

914.
PICKLES.
When wanted for immediate use, the vinegar
may be used boiling hot,
Brocoli. As CAUTIFLOWERS.
Cabbage. This, either red or white, is cut
into thin slices, and steeped in strong brime or
sprinkled with common salt, and allowed to lie
for 1 or 2 days; after which it is drained for
10 or 12 hours in a warm room, and then put
into jars or bottles, with or without a little
mace and white peppercorns, and at once
covered with cold, strong, white vinegar.—
Another plan is to steep the sliced cabbage in
alum water for 10 or 12 hours, and, after
draining and drying it, to pour the vinegar
upon it as before. The product of the last
formula eats very fresh and crisp, but takes
longer to mature than that of the other.
Some persons add a little salt with the vinegar;
and others mix slices of red beet with the cab-
bage.
Capsicums. As GHERRINS.
Cauliflowers. As CABBAGE (nearly). Or,
they may be steeped in hot brine for 1 or 2
hours before pouring the vinegar over them.
Cherries. From the scarcely ripe fruit, bot-
tled, and covered with strong and colourless
pickling vinegar.
Codlins. As BEANS.
Cucumbers. As GHERKINS.
Elderſlowers. From the clusters, just before
they open, as RED CABBAGE. A beautiful
pickle.
English Bamboo. From the young shoots of
elder, denuded of the outer skin, pickled in
brine for 12 or 14 hours; then bottled with a
little white pepper, ginger, mace, and allspice.
and pickled with boiling vinegar. Excellent
with boiled mutton.
Eschalots. With boiling spiced vinegar, or
spices added to each bottle.
French Beams. See above.
Garlic. As ESCHALOTS.
Gherkins. From small cucumbers (not too
young), steeped for a week in very strong brine;
this last is then poured off, heated to the boil-
ing-point, and again poured on the fruit; the
next day the gherkins are drained on a sieve,
wiped dry, put into bottles or jars with some
spice (ginger, pepper, or cayenne), and at once
covered with strong pickling vinegar, boiling
hot. Several other pickles may be prepared in
the same way. -
Gooseberries. From the green fruit, as either
CAB.BA.G.E OT CAUILIFLOWERS.
Indian Mango. From green peaches. (See
below.)
Indian Pickle. Syn. PICCALILLI. This is a
mixed pickle which is characterised by being
highly flavoured with curry-powder, or ter-
meric, mustard, and garlic. The following
form is commonly used :-Take 1 hard white
cabbage (sliced), 2 cauliflowers (pulled to
pieces, some French beans, 1 stick of horse-
radish (sliced), about 2 dozen small white
onions, and 1 dozen gherkins ; cover them with
boiling brine; the next day drain the whole
on a sieve, put into a jar, and add, of cutſ
powder or turmeric, 2 oz. ; garlic, ginger, it
mustard seed, of each, 1 oz. ; capsicums, i.
fill up the vessel with hot pickling wintº
bung it up close, and let it stand for a múi
with occasional agitation. See MIXED PICKIE
(below).
Lemons. From the fruit, slit halfway in
into quarters, and cored, put into a dish, i.
sprinkled with a little salt; in about a wº
the whole is placed in jars or bottles with:
little turmeric and capsicums, and covered wi
hot vinegar.
Limes. As the last.
Mangoes. As LEMONS, adding mustardº
and a little garlic, with spices at will. Fº
LISH MANGOES are made from cucumbers.
small melons, split and deprived of theirsº,
Melons. As LEMONS (nearly).
Mixed Pickles. From white cabbage, Cali
flowers, French beans, cucumbers, onions,
any other of the ordinary pickling vegetals
at will (except red cabbage or walnut
treated as GHERKINS ; with raw ginger, tº
sicum, mustard seed, and long pepper, for six
added to each bottle. A little coarsely bruis
turmeric improves both the colour i
flavour.
Mushrooms. From the small button mus
rooms, cleansed with cold spring water, it
"gently wiped dry with a towel, then placºli
bottles, with a blade or two of mace, ºn
covered with the strongest white picki.
vinegar, boiling hot.
Myrobalans. The yellow myrobalan ſº
served in strong brine. Gently aperient.
Nasturtiums. From the unripe or sºlº
ripe fruit, simply covered with cold stºl;
vinegar; or, as CABBAGE or GHERKINS,
Onions. From the small button or filº
onion, deprived of the outer coloured ski
and either at once put into bottles ºf
covered with strong white pickling wing
or previously steeped for a day or two
strong brine or alum water. When reſid
for early use, the vinegar should be poured
boiling hot. - -
Peaches. From the scarcely ripe fruit,
GHERRINS. -
Peas. As BEANS or CAUTIFLOWER5,
Piccalilli. See INDIAN PICKLE,
Radish Pods. As BEANS or GHERKINS,
Samphire. From the perennial sampliſ
(Erythmum maritimum), covered with stºl;
vinegar, to each pint of which #07, of Salth:
been added, and poured onboiling hot, Süß
excite the appetite.
Tomatoes. From the common tomato
love apple, as GHERKINS.
Walnuts. From the young fruit of Juliº
wegia, or common walnut:—1. Steep them:
strong brine for a week, then bottle them,
spice, and pour on the vinegar boiling hot,
2. On each pint of the nuts, spread On:
dish, sprinkle 1 oz. of common salt; exps
them to the sun or a full light for 10 Ol.

PICOLINE–PICROTOXIN. 915
days, frequently basting them with their own
liquor ; lastly, bottle them, and pour on the
vinegar, boiling hot.
3. (Dr. Kitchener.) Gently simmer the
fruit in brine, then expose it on a cloth for a
day or two, or until it turns black ; next put
it into bottles or jars, pour hot spiced vinegar
over it, and cork down immediately. In this
way the pickle becomes sufficiently mature for
the table in half the time required for that
prepared by the common method. Dr. Kit-
chener also recommends this parboiling pro-
cess for several other pickles. Some persons
pierce the fruit with an awl or stocking-needle,
in several places, in order to induce early ma-
turation. The spices usually employed are
mustard-seed, allspice, and ginger, with a little
mace and garlic.
PIC'OLINE. An oily substance, discovered
by Dr. Anderson, associated with analine,
chimoline, and some other volatile bases, in
certain varieties of coal-tar naphtha.
PIC'RIC ACID. HC H2(NO2)3O. Syn.
CARBAZOTIC ACID, NITROPHENISIC ACID, TRI-
NITROPHENISIC ACID. A peculiar compound
formed by the action of strong nitric acid on in-
digo, aloes, wool, and several other substances.
Prep. 1. Add, cautiously and gradually, 1
part of powdered indigo to 10 or 12 parts of
hot mitric acid of the sp. gr. 1:43; when the
reaction has moderated and the scum has
fallen, add an additional quantity of nitric acid,
and boil the whole until red fumes are no
longer evolved; redissolve the crystals of im-
pure picric acid deposited in boiling distilled
water, and remove any oily matter found float-
ing on the surface of the solution by means of
bibulous paper; a second time redissolve in boil-
ing water the crystals which form as the liquid
cools, saturate the new solution with carbonate
of potassa, and set it aside to crystallise ; the
crystals of picrate of potassium thus obtained
must be purified by several re-solutions and
re-crystallisations, and next decomposed by
nitric acid ; the crystals deposited as the
liquid cools yield pure picrid acid by again dis-
solving them in boiling water, and re-crystal-
lisation.
2. Dissolve the yellow resin of Xanthorrhaea
hastilis (Botany Bay Gum) in a sufficiency of
strong nitric acid. Red vapours are evolved,
accompanied by violent frothing, and a deep
red solution is produced, which turns yellow
after boiling. Evaporate this solution over a
water bath. A yellow crystalline mass is de-
posited, which consists of picric acid with small
quantitles of oxalic and nitrobenzoic acids. The
picric acid is purified by neutralising the
yellow mass with potassa, and crystallising
twice out of water. The pure picrate of potas-
sium thus obtained is decomposed by hydro-
chloric acid, and the liberated picric acid is
purified by two crystallisations. This process,
devised by Stenhouse, is one of the best, and
yields a quantity of the acid amounting to 50%
of the resin employed.
Prop., &c. Brilliant yellow scales, scarcely
soluble in cold water, but very soluble in boil-
ing water, and in alcohol and ether; fusible ;
volatile; taste, insupportably bitter, and very
permanent. It forms salts with the bases
(picrates, carbazotates), mostly possessing a
yellow colour, and exploding when heated.
The picrate of lead has been proposed as a ful-
minating powder for percussion caps. The
picrate of potassium has been given with ad-
vantage in intermittent fevers. A solution of
picric acid in alcohol is an excellent test for
potassa, if there be not too much water pre-
sent, as it throws down a yellow crystalline
precipitate with that alkali, but forms a very
soluble salt with soda. Most of the picrates
may be made by the direct solution of the car-
bonate, hydrate, or oxide of the metal, in a
solution of the acid in hot water. The picrate
of silver forms beautiful starry groups of
acicular crystals, having the colour and lustre
of gold.
The principal use of crude picric acid is for
dyeing yellow. It is said to be largely em-
ployed for the adulteration of beer. It is,
however, highly poisonous. According to Prof.
Rapp, it acts deleteriously both when swal-
lowed and applied to the unsound skin. Five
grains seriously affected a large dog, and killed
it within 24 hours. It induces vomiting,
feebleness, and general loss of nervous tone.
The tissues of animals poisoned by it (even the
white of the eye) were tinged of a yellow
colour. See Port ER, &c.
PICROTOXIN. Clsh, O. Syn. ProRo-
Toxin E, PICTROTOXIA, PICROTox1 NA. A poison-
ous principle discovered by Boullay in the
fruit of Anamirta paniculata, or Cocculus In-
dicus.
Prep. 1. Precipitate a decoction of coc-
culus Indicus with a solution of acetate of lead,
gently evaporate to dryness, redissolve the
residuum in alcohol of 817, and crystallise by
evaporation; repeat the solution and crystal-
lisation a second and a third time. Any adher-
ing colour may be removed by agitating it
with a very little water; or by animal charcoal,
in the usual manner.
2. (Kane.) Alcoholic extract of cocculus
Indicus is exhausted with the smallest possible
quantity of water, and the mixed liquors fil-
tered; to the filtrate hydrochloric acid is added,
and the whole set aside to crystallise. The
product may be purified as before.
Prop, &c. It forms small, colourless, stel-
lated needles; soluble in alcohol, ether, and
acetic acid, and feebly so in water; boiling
water dissolves it freely; taste of solutions, in-
expressibly bitter; reaction, neutral. It does
not combine with acids, as formerly asserted,
but it forms feeble combinations with some of
the bases. It is a powerful intoxicant and
narcotico-acrid poison. It acts powerfully on
the spinal cord and nervous system-generally,
occasioning an increase of the animal tempe-
rature, and peculiar movements, similar to

916 PIERRE DIVINE–PiLLS,
those described by Flourens as resulting from
sections of the cerebellum. It is frequently
present in malt liquors, owing to their com-
mon adulteration with cocculus Indicus.
PIERRE DIVINE. Sym. CUPRUM ALU-
MINATUM. See LAPIS DIVINUS.
PIES, Alexis Soyer gives the following
instructions for making pies:–
To make a pie to perfection,--when your
paste (half-puff or short) is carefully made, and
your dish or form properly full, throw a little
flour on your paste-board, take about a 4 lb. of
your paste, which roll with your hand until
(say) an inch in circumference; then moisten
the rim of your pie-dish, and fix the paste
equally on it with your thumb. When you
have rolled your paste for the covering, or
upper crust, of an equal thickness throughout,
and in proportion to the contents of your pie
# inch is about the average), fold the cover in
two, lay it over one half of your pie, and turn
the other half over the remaining part ; next
press it slightly with your thumb round the
rim, cut neatly the rim of the paste, form
rather a thick edge, and mark this with a
knife about every quarter of an inch apart ;
observing to hold your knife in a slanting
direction, which gives it a meat appearance ;
lastly, make two small holes on the top, and
egg-over the whole with a paste-brush, or else
use a little milk or water. Any small portion
of paste remaining may be shaped to fanciful
designs, and placed as ornaments on the
top.
“For meat pies, observe that, if your paste
is either too thick or too thin, the covering
too narrow or too short, and requires pulling
one way or the other, to make it fit, your pie
is sure to be imperfect, the covering no longer
protecting the contents. It is the same with
fruit; and if the paste happens to be rather
rich, it pulls the rim of the pie to the dish,
soddens the paste, makes it heavy, and, there-
fore, indigestible as well as unpalatable.”
Meat pies require the addition of either
cayenne, or black pepper, or allspice; and
fruit pies, of enough sugar to sweeten, with
mace, ginger, cloves, or lemon peel, according
to taste and the substance operated on. See
PASTRY, &c.
PIG. The pig or hog (Sus Scrofa–Linn.),
one of the common pachydermata, is now do-
mesticated in all the temperate climates of the
world. Its flesh constitutes pork, bacon, ham,
&c.; its fat (lard) is officinal in the Pharma-
copoeias. The skin, bristles, and even the
blood and intestines of this animal, are either
eaten as food or turned to some useful purpose
in the arts. See PORK, LEATHER, &c.
PIG/MIENTS. These are noticed under the
respective colours.
PIKE. The Esoa, Lucius (Linn.), a fresh-
water fish. It is remarkable for its voracity,
but is highly esteemed by epicures. Various
parts of it were formerly used in medicine.
The fat (OLEUM LUCII PISCIS) was one of the
simples of the Ph. L. of 1618, and was tº
teemed as a friction in catarrhs. It is even
now used in some parts of Europe to dispers:
opacities of the cornea.
PIL/CHARD. The Cluped Pilchardus, a fish
closely resembling the common herring, than
which, however, it is smaller, but thicker and
rounder and more oily. It abounds on the
coasts of Devon and Cornwall, where it is
not only consumed as food, but pressed ſº
its oil.
PILES. Syn. HEMORRHOIDS; HEMOR.
RHOIDES, L. A painful disease occasioned by
the morbid dilatations of the veins at the
lower part of the rectum and surrounding tº
allus. -
Piles are principally occasioned by costive.
mess and cold; and, occasionally, by the use ºf
acrid food. They have been distinguished
into—BLIND PILES, or a varicose state of the
veins without bleeding, MUCOUS PILES, whºl
the tumours are excoriated, and mucus or pl;
is discharged,—BLEEDING PILES, when accºm:
panied with loss of blood, and—EXCRFs.
CENTIAL PILES, when there are loose fleshy
excrescences about the verge of the anus and
within the rectum.
The treatment of piles consists in the admi
mistration of mild aperients, as castor oil, oral
electuary of sulphur and cream of tartſ.
When there is much inflammation or bleeding
cold and astringent lotions, as those of sulphil.
of zinc or alum, should be applied; and whº
the pain is considerable, fomentations of dº.
coction of poppy heads may be used with
advantage. To arrest the bleeding, ice is alsº
frequently applied, but continued pressure is
more certain. When the tumours are largº
and flaccid, the compound ointment of galls is
an excellent application ; and if there is :
tendency to inflammation, a little liquor ºf
diacetate of lead may be added. In confirm:
piles, the internal use of copaiba, or, still
better, of the confection of black peppº,
should be persevered in for some time, together
with local applications. In severe cases tº
protruded tumours are removed by surgeon,
by the knife or ligature. See OINTMENT,
ELECTUARIES, &c.
PILL COCHIA. See COMPOUND COLOGYNTH
PILLS (below).
PILL RUFI. See PILLS OF ALOES WITH ||
MYRRH (below).
PILLS. Syn. PILULE (Ph. E. & D), P.III.
(Ph. L.), L.; PILULES, SACCHAROLÉs SOLIDF
Fr. Pills are little balls, of a semi-solid cºſt
sistence, composed of various medicinal Sul.
stances, and intended to be taken whole. The
facility with which they are made and adminis
tered, their comparatively little taste, their
power of preserving their properties for a (0.
siderable length of time, and, lastly, their
portability and inexpensiveness, have long
rendered them the most frequently employed
and the most popular form of medicine.
The rapid and skilful preparation of ºil



PILLS.
917
from all the numerous substances of which they
are composed, is justly considered to demand
the highest qualifications in the practical dis-
penser. - The medicinals employed must be
made into a consistent and moderately firm
mass, sufficiently plastic to be rolled or
moulded into any shape, without adhering to
the fingers, knife, or slab, and yet sufficiently
solid to retain the globular form when divided
into pills. A few substances, as certain ex-
tracts, &c., are already in this condition; but
the others require the use of an excipient to
give them the requisite bulk or consistence.
As a general rule, all the constituents of a pill
which can be pulverised should be reduced to
fine powder, before mixing them with the soft
ingredients which enter into its composition;
and these last, or the excipient, should next be
gradually added, and the mixture triturated
and beaten until the whole forms a perfectly
homogeneous mass. It is then ready to be
divided into pills. This is effected by rolling
it on a slab, with a pill or bolus knife, into
small pipes or cylinders, then dividing these
into pieces of the requisite weight; and, lastly,
rolling them between the thumb and finger to
give them a globular form. A little powdered
liquorice-root or starch is commonly employed
to prevent the pills adhering to the fingers, or
to each other, after they are made. Magnesia,
so frequently used for this purpose, is unsuited
for pills containing metallic salts or the alka-
loids, or other remedies, which are exhibited
in very small doses.
Instead of forming the mass into pills by
hand, in the manner just referred to, a con-
venient and simple instrument, called a ‘pill-
machine,” is now generally used by the drug-
gists for the purpose. This consists of two
pieces. The first (see fig. 1) is divided into
three compartments:—c is a vacant space to
receive the divided mass, which is to be rolled
into pills:–b is a grooved brass plate, which
assists in dividing the mass into pills; and
—a is a box for containing the powder for
covering the pills, and to receive them as they
are formed. The second (see fig. 2) consists of
a brass plate (a), grooved to match the plate
6 in fig. 1, and bounded at both ends by mov-
able projecting plates (b. b), containing each
two wheels under the ledge of the plate (b);
and a wooden back (c), with two handles,
(dd), to which this plate is affixed. In using ||
this machine, the pill-mass is rolled into a
cylindrical form on the front part of it, by
means of fig. 2 inverted; the small roll is then
laid on the cutting part of the instrument
(1, b), and divided by passing fig. 2 over it,
the little wheels enabling the latter to run
easily on the brass plate which forms the
margin of the bed of the machine. The pills,
thus formed, are then drawn forward on to the
smooth bed on which the mass was first rolled,
and receiving a finishing turn or two with the
smooth side of the “cutter,” by which they
are rendered more nearly spherical. They
are, lastly, thrown over into 1, c, ready to be
transferred to the pill-box.
Fig. 1.
Fig. 2.
The nature of the excipient should be
suited to that of the active ingredients in
pills, as well as in all other forms of medi-
cine. Soft extracts, and other substances of
a like character, may be rendered more con-
sistent by the addition of any simple powder,
as that of liquorice or sugar. Vegetable
powders are generally beaten up with syrup
or treacle, and heavy powders with conserve
of roses or extract of liquorice. Castile soap
(made of olive oil and soda) and medicinal
soft soap (made of olive oil and potash) are
commonly employed for fatty and resinous
matters, as well as for many others which are
not decomposed by alkalies. When the chief
ingredient of the mass is resin, rectified spirit
is frequently used to soften it, either with or
without the addition of soap to increase its
solubility in the stomach. For many sub-
stances no excipient is required. Thus, most
of the gum-resins and stiff extracts may be at
once made into pills, or, at all events, after
being slightly softened by heat. Mucilage,
formerly so much used in the preparation of
pills, is now only employed for those which
are to be taken within a day or two after being
made; as pills containing it become so hard
and insoluble when kept for some time, as to
resist the action of the stomach, and fre-
quently to pass through the bowels without
even losing their form.
It may be further remarked, that no deli-
quescent salt should enter into the composi-
tion of pills not intended for immediate use;
and that when efflorescent salts are so employed,
they should be first freed from their water of
crystallisation.
When the mixed ingredients are made into
a mass (pill-mass), which it is not intended at
once to divide into pills, it should be preserved
in a piece of bladder or gut-skin placed in a
covered stoneware or earthenware pot. In
this state it may be occasionally moistened
with a little weak spirit to prevent its getting
hard.


918
PILLS.
The weight (size) of pills varies from . gr.
to 6 grs. If heavier than this, they are called
‘ boluses.” Formerly, as a general rule, they
were made of 5 grs. each; but pills of this
weight are, in general, so large, that some
persons find a difficulty in swallowing them.
Another disadvantage of large pills is the
trouble of nicely apportioning the dose,_one
pill being, perhaps, too small a quantity, and
two pills the reverse. Hence, 2 to 3-gr. pills
are now the favourite size with both pill-takers
and dispensers, notwithstanding that 5-gr.
pills are still ordered in one of the authorised
Pharmacopoeias.
Pills are occasionally coated with gold, silver,
and other substances, to render them more
agreeable to the eye, or to prevent the taste of
nauseous ingredients affecting the palate
during deglutition. They are gilded and sil-
vered by placing them, in the moist state, on
a leaf or two of the metal in a small gallipot,
and covering them in a similar manner with
another leaf of metal; over the mouth of the
gallipot is laid a piece of smooth writing paper,
and on this the palm of the hand ; a sudden
and rapid circular motion is then given to the
whole. If the pills are not sufficiently moist
or sticky, they should be rendered so by rolling
them between the fingers very slightly moist-
ened with mucilage, before proceeding to
silver them. Another method is to shake
them in a similar manner with a little gold or
silver dust.
When pills are to be covered with gelatin,
each pill, being stuck on the point of a very
thin wire four or five inches in length, is dipped
into a solution of gelatin, so as to coat it com-
pletely, and the wire is then inserted into a
pincushion, or a vessel containing fine sand,
and left until the gelatin is firm, which occurs
in about a quarter of an hour; the pins may
then be easily removed by simply warming
them, by placing the centre of each wire for a
second or two in the flame of a spirit lamp or
candle. “Sugar-coated pills' are prepared
in nearly the same way, but substituting hot
and highly concentrated syrup, to which a little
gelatin has been added, for a simple solution
of gelatin.
M. Durden covers pills with collodion. Others
have recommended for this purpose a solu-
tion of gutta percha in either chloroform or
bisulphide of carbon. The ready solubility in
the stomach of pills thus covered has, with
justice, been questioned. Gelatin, or, still
better, gelatin mixed with a little sugar, is
unexceptionable in this respect; whilst it un-
doubtedly excludes the taste of nauseous medi-
cines more effectually than any other sub-
stance. Mr. Furley employs a thin coating of
albumen to render pills tasteless.
As pill-masses are likely to get hard and
brittle by keeping, an excellent plan is to keep
the dry ingredients powered and mixed to-
gether in well-corked bottles or jars, when a
portion may at any time be beaten up with
syrup, conserve, soap, &c.; according to the
formula, and as wanted for use. The mixel
ingredients in this state are technically known
as ‘species’ or ‘powder for the respective
pills.
“It is generally said that pills should be
taken on an empty stomach, and at a Cºl.
siderable distance from a meal; but for Out:
selves, we think that it is nearly always bettº
to take them during a meal; first, because the
stomach does not then find itself immediately
under the influence of substances which, if
not always dangerous, seldom fail to act moſt
or less disagreeably ; secondly, because its
absorbent action is more certain; and, lastly
because they are then taken more easily."
(Trousseau and Reveil). The meal here re.
ferred to should be a light one, from which
acidulous and other substances likely tº
interfere with the action of the remely
should be excluded. The dose should also hº
increased.
In the London Pharmacopoeia the singular
number (‘pilula') is now very properly em.
ployed to express the names of the official
pill-masses; but in the other Pharmacopſºil;
the names are given in the plural form. As
the latter is almost universally adopted in speak
ing of magistral formulae and nostrums, W.
have used it in all cases, for the sake of uſ.
formity and for ease of reference. SeeBOITs
ExTRACT, PRESCRIBING, and below.
Pills, Abernethy’s. See ABERNETHY Mr.
DICINES (page 4).
Pills of Ac'etate of Lead. Syn. PILUI
PLUMBI ACETATIS, L. Prep. i. Acetate ºf
lead, 20 grs. ; powdered camphor, 15 grs.; Cºl.
serve of roses, q. s. ; mix and divide into 1.
pills.
2. (Radius.) Acetate of lead and powdeº
mallow or liquorice root, of each, dr.; simpl;
syrup, q. S.; divide into 18 pills.—Dose, 15%
daily, washed down with water soured with
vinegar ; as a powerful astringent in hºmº
rhages, diarrhoea, the night-sweatsin phthis
&c. See OPIATED LEAD PILLS.
Pills of Acetate of Mercury. Syn. PIIII
HYDRARGYRI ACETATIS, L. Prep, 1, Sul.
acetate of mercury, 18 grs. ; sugar of milk (ºr
manna), 1 dr. ; mucilage, q. s. ; divide intº
24 pills.--Dose. As an alterative, 1 daily;
as a sialogogue, 1 every 4 or 5 hours, ſt
oftener ; in syphilis, &c. See KEYSE:
PILLS.
3. (Opiated—Carmichael.) Acetate of met
cury, camphor, and opium, of each, 30 grs;
syrup of poppies to mix. For 30 pills, Lºs
apt to affect the stomach and bowels than tº
last.
Pills of Acetate of Mor'phia. Syn. PIIII
MORPHIE ACETATIs, L. Prep. 1. Acetateſ
morphia, 2 grs. ; sugar of milk, 15 grs.; Cºl.
serve of roses, 20 grs. ; for 12 pills. Anodyne
sedative, and soporific.—Dose. One, as it:
uired. |
2. (Dr. A. T. Thomson.) Acetate of met.

PILLS. 919
phia, 1 gr. ; powdered foxglove, 6 grs. ; pow-
dered camphor, 10 grs. ; powdered gum arabic,
8 grs. ; syrup of tolu, q. s. ; to be divided into
6 pills. Sedative and antispasmodic.—Dose.
One, every 3 or 4 hours; in phthisis, palpita-
tions, spasms, &c. The hydrochlorate of mor-
phia may be used instead of the acetate, with
advantage.
Pills of Ac/onite. Syn. PILULE ACONITI,
P. EXTRACTI A., L. Prep. (Dr. Turnbull).
Alcoholic extract of aconite, 1. gr. ; liquorice
powder, 12 grs. ; simple syrup, q. S.; mix, and
divide the mass into 6 pills.--Dose. One pill,
every 3 or 4 hours ; as a powerful anodyne
and sedative in excessive action of the heart,
acute rheumatism, gout, neuralgia, &c. The
utmost care should be taken both in their
preparation and administration.
Pills, Alibert's. See APERIENT PILLS.
Pills of Al'oes. Syn. PILULA ALois SOCO-
TRINE (B. P.,) PILULAE ALOETICAE, PILULA,
ALoïs (Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. E.) Soco-
trine aloes (in powder) and Castile soap, equal
parts; conserve of red roses, q. S. to form a
pill-mass.
2. (Ph. U. S.) Powdered aloes and Castile
soap, equal parts, beat into a mass, and divided
into 4-gr. pills.
Obs. “This pill may be also correctly
made with the finer qualities of East Indian
aloes, as the (true) Socotrine variety is very
scarce; and many, not without reason, prefer
(pure) Barbadoes aloes.” (Ph. E.) The dose,
as a laxative, is 5 to 10 grs. ; as a purgative, 12
to 20 grs, or more. See PILLS OF ALOES WITH
SOAP.
Pills of Aloes and Assafoetida. Syn. PILULA
ALoís ET ASSAFCETIDA (B. P.). Prep. Soco-
trime aloes, in powder, 1 ; assafoetida, 1 ; pow-
dered hard soap, 1; confection of roses, 1 (+
confection sufficient.—Squire). Mix. Cathartic
and antispasmodic.—Dose. 5 to 10 grs.
Pills of Aloes (Compound). Syn. PILULE
ALOETICAE COMPOSITE, PILULA. ALOñS COM-
POSITA (Ph. L.), PILULA. A. COMPOSITE (Ph.
D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Socotrine aloes
(in powder), 1 oz. ; extract of gentian, 4 oz. ;
oil of caraway, 40 drops; treacle, q. S.; the
whole to be beaten together until they form a
mass proper for making pills.
2. (Ph. D.) Hepatic aloes (in powder), 2
oz, ; extract of gentian and treacle, of each, 1
oz, ; oil of caraway, 1 fl. dr. ; as the last.
Obs. The above is a very valuable pur-
gative in habitual costiveness and indigestion,
in all cases in which the use of aloes is not con-
tra-indicated. The dose is from 5 to 15 grs,
Or more.
Pills of Aloes (Diluted). Syn. PILULE ALOśs
DILUTIE, L. Prep. 1. (Dr. Marshall Hall.)
Barbadoes aloes, Castile soap, extract of liquor-
ice, and treacle, equal parts; water, q. S. ;
dissolve, with heat, strain, and evaporate to the
consistence of a pill-mass. Resembles the
PILULA. ALOis CUM SAPONE–Ph. L.
Pills of Aloes and Assafºeti'da, Syn, PILULE
ALois ET ASSAF(ETIDA (Ph. E.), L. Prep.
(Ph. E.) Aloes (Socotrine or East Indian,
powdered), assafoetida, and Castile soap, equal
parts; beat them with conserve of red roses to
a proper pill-mass.--Dose. 5 to 10 grs., once
or twice daily, as a stomachic tonic and laxa-
tive, in dyspepsia, flatulence, &c.; and 12 to
20 grs, as a purgative in similar cases. It is
extremely useful in costiveness, with flatulency,
occurring in hysterical and hypochondriacal
subjects. The B. P. preparation is the same as
this, except that hard soap is used instead of
Castile soap.
Pills of Aloes and Ginger. Syn. PILULE
ALois ET ZINGIBERIs, L. Prep. (Ph. D.
1826.) Aloes, 1 oz. ; Castile soap, oz. ;
ginger, 1 dr.; oil of peppermint, dr. ; beaten
to a mass. A useful laxative in cold habits.
—Dose. As the last.
Pills of Aloes and Ipecacuanha. Syn. DR.
BAILLIE’s DINNER PILLS; PILULA. ALois ET
IPECACUANHAE, L. Prep. (Dr. Baillie.) Pow-
dered aloes, 30 grs. ; powdered ginger (finest),
45 grs. ; ipecacuanha, 12 grs. ; syrup of orange
peel, q. s. to mix. For 24 pills.--Dose. One,
about an hour before dinner.
Pills of Aloes and I'ron. Syn. PITULE
ALois ET FERRI (Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (B.P.)
Barbadoes aloes, 2 ; sulphate of iron, 1}; com-
pound powder of cinnamom, 3; confection of
roses, 4 ; mix (6 of confection required.
Squire).--Dose. 5 to 10 grs.
2. (Ph. E.) Sulphate of iron, 3 parts; Bar-
badoes aloes, 2 parts; aromatic powder, 6 parts;
conserve of red roses, 8 parts; powder the aloes
and sulphate of iron separately, beat the whole
to a mass, and divide this into 5-gr. pills.
An excellent medicine in chlorosis, hysteria,
and atonic amenorrhoea.— Dose. 1 to 3 pills
daily.
Pills of Aloes and Mastic. See DINNER
PILLS.
Pills of Aloes and Mercury. Syn. PILULE
ALOiśS CUM HYDRARGYRO, L. See APERIENT
PILLs (8).
Pills of Aloes and Myrrh. Syn. RUFUS's
PILLS ; PILULA ALoís CUM MYRRHA (Ph. L. &
D.), PILULE RUFI or COMMUNES (Ph.L. 1720),
P. A.Loís ET MYRRHAE (B.P., Ph. E.), L. Prep.
1. (Ph. L.) Socotrine or hepatic aloes (in
powder, oz. ; saffron, myrrh (powdered), and
soft soap (Ph. L.), of each, 2 drs. ; treacle, q. s.
to form a pill-mass.
2. (Ph. D.) Hepatic aloes, 2 oz.; myrrh,
1 oz. ; dried saffron, , oz. ; all in powder;
treacle, 2% oz.
3. (Ph. E.) Aloes (Socotrine or East Indian),
4 parts; myrrh, 2 parts; saffron, 1 part; beat
them to a pill-mass with conserve of red roses,
Q. S.
4. (Ph. L. 1836 and Ph. D. 1826). Aloes
(in powder), 2 oz. ; saffron and powdered
myrrh, of each, 1 oz. ; syrup, q, S. to form a
pill-mass. . -
5. (B. P.) Socotrine aloes, 2; myrrh, 1 ;
dried saffrom, #; confection of roses, 2% (3 are


920
PILLS,
-
required.—Squire). Mix. Stimulant and
cathartic. Dose. 5 to 10 grs.
Obs. This compound is a most excellent
stomachic purgative and emmenagogue, when
there are no febrile symptoms present. It is
said to have been employed ever since the
time of Rhazes, and is still in extensive use.
—Dose. 10 to 20 grs.
Pills of Aloes and Rhu'barb. Syn. PILULE
ALoís ET RHEI, P. R. CUM RTIEO, L. Prep.
Powdered Socotrime or hepatic aloes, pow-
dered rhubard, and soft soap (Ph. L.), of each,
3 dr. ; oil of chamomile, 10 drops; for 30 pills.
—Dose. 1 to 5, either as a stomach tonic or
laxative; especially in dyspepsia, with loss of
appetite. -
Pills of Aloes and Rose-juice. Syn. PILULE
ALOśS ROSATAE, L. ; PILULES ANGELIQUES,
GRAINS DE SANTÉ, Fr. Prep. Take aloes and
rose juice, of each, 4 oz. ; juice of borage and
chicory, of each, 2 oz. ; dissolve with heat,
evaporate to an extract; add, of rhubarb, 2 drs. ;
agaric, 1 dr.'; and divide the mass into 1%-gr.
pills.--Dose. 4 to 12, as a purge.
Pills of Aloes with Soap. Syn. PILULA
ALois CUM SAPONE (Ph. I.), L. Prep. (Ph.
L.) Powdered extract of Barbadoes aloes, soft
soap, and extract of liquorice, equal parts;
treacle, q. S. to form a pill-mass.-Dose. 10 to
20 grs. ; in the usual cases in which aloes is
administered. It is more readily soluble in
the juices of the primaeviae, and is milder than
most of the aloetic pills without soap. See
PILLS OF ALOES (Diluted). s
Pills, Al'terative. Syn. PILULE ALTERANTES,
L. See CALOMEL, MERCURIAI, and PLUM-
MER’s PILLs, &c.
Pills of Al'um. Syn. PILULE AIUMINTs,
P. A. COMPOSITIE, L. Prep. 1. (Augustin.)
Alum, 20 grs. ; benzoic acid, 6 grs. ; powdered
gum and white sugar, of each, 10 grs.; water,
q. s. to form a mass. For 36 pills. In
phthisis and atonic mucous discharges. The
whole to be taken in the course of 2 or 3 days.
2. (Capuron.) Catechu, 1 dr. ; alum, . dr. ;
opium, 10 grs. ; syrup of red roses, q. s. ; divide
into 5-gr. pills.-Dose. 1 to 3 ; in chronic
diarrhoea and leucorrhoea.
3. (Radius.) Alum and catechu, equal parts;
extract of gentian, q. S. to mix; divide into 2
or 3-gr. pills.--Dose. 2 to 4, every four hours;
in passive hamorrhages, mucous discharges,
and chronic diarrhoea.
Pills of Ammoni'acum. Syn. PILULE AM-
MONIACI, L. Prep. 1. Gum ammoniacum,
H. dr. ; powdered sugar, dr, ; conserve of hips,
q. s. In old coughs and hysterical affec-
tions.
2. (Compound.)—a. (Ainslie.) Ammoniacum,
1 dr. ; mercurial pill, 15 grs. ; powdered squills,
6 or 8 grs. ; simple syrup, q. s. For 16 pills.
In asthmatic coughs, with deranged action of
the liver.—Dose. One, 2 or 3 times a day.
b. (W. Cooley.) Ammoniacum and saga-
penum, of each, 1 dr. ; dried sulphate of iron,
§ dr, ; conserve of hips, q. s. In obstructed
menstruation, and in the chronic diarrhū
hysterical subjects.
Pills of Ammo"niated Copper. Syn. PIII:
CUPRI AMMONIATI (Ph. E.), P. C. AMMONT
RETI, L. Prep. (Ph. E.) Ammoniated tº
(in fine powder), 1 part; bread-crumb,6paris
solution of carbonate of ammonia, q, S.
make a mass, which is to be divided $0 tº
each pill may contain . gr. of ammonitº
copper. In epilepsy, and in some other sº
modic diseases.—Dose. 1 pill, night and m0!
ing, gradually increased to 5 or 6.
Pills of Ammoniated Iron. Syn, PIII:
FERRI AMMONIATI, P. F. AMMONIO-CHIORITI,
L. Prep. 1. (Dr. Copland.) Ammoniº
iron, 1 dr. ; aloes and extract of gential
each, ; dr. ; for 30 pills. In scrofula, chlorºi
amenorrhoea, &c.
2. (Radius.) Ammoniated iron and gº
banum, of each, 1 dr.; assafoetida, 2 dº
castor, 20 grs. ; tincture of Valerian, , ,
For 3-gr. pills.--Dose. 2 pills, might and m0!
ing ; in atonic nervious disorders, epilepsy, &
Pills of Ammo"mio-citrate of Ir'on, S.
PILULE FERRI AMMONIO-CITRATIS, L. Pº,
(Beral.) Ammonio-citrate of iron, 1 dr.; wi.
sugar, 3 drs. ; mucilage, q, S. to mix, For 3gſ
pills.-Dose. 1 to 3, or more; as a mild Chly
beate tonic.
Pills, Analeptic. See JAMES's PILIS &
Pills, Anderson’s Scot's. Various form:
for these pills are extant, the products:
which differ widely from the genuine artidº
Dr. Paris, some years since, declared that tº
consisted of Barbadoes aloes, jalap, and it
aniseed. “A careful examination of the pº
prietary article, with other facts that hiº
come to our knowledge, leads us to believeth
the first of the following formulae is the ºr
now employed in the preparation of tº
‘ Grana Angelica,’ or “Anderson’s TrueSºft
Pills, of the present day.” (Cooley.)
Prep. 1. From Barbadoes] aloes, 7 lº
jalap (in fine powder), 24 lbs. ; treacle, lº
soap, 6 oz. ; melted together by the hºtº
a water bath, and, when partly cold, aromatiº
by stirring in of oil of aniseed, 1 oz. Themis
is divided into about 3%-gr. pills, of which:
or 27 are placed in each Is, 1}d, box. A
mild and useful aperient—Dose, 5 to 15 gº
Ol' Inn Ore.
2. (Original formula.) Socotrinealoes, 101.
best myrrh, 4 oz.; saffron, 1 dr.; separat'
pounded very fine; mix them, in an earth:
pipkin, with a spoonful each of water all
sweet oil, by the heat of a slow fire, all
form the mass into “common-sized pills'
From a copy of the original document intº
Chapel of the Rolls. -
3. (P. Cod.) Aloes and gamboge, of twº
6 drs. ; oil of aniseed, 1 dr. ; syrup, q, S.; mix
and divide into 4-gr. pills. Much more power.
ful than the preceding, and closely resembling
Morison’s “No. 2 pills.’
4. (Phil. Coll. of Pharm.) Barbadoes alº
(in powder), 3 lbs.; Castile soap, 3 lb.; tº


PILLS.
921
cynth and gamboge (both in fine powder),
2 oz. ; oil of aniseed, 1 oz. ; beat to a mass with
water, q. S., and divide it ito 3-gr. pills. Less
active than the last, but more so than the
* True Scot’s Pills.” -
Pills, An’odyne. Syn. PILULE ANODYNE,
L. Prep. 1. (Hosp. F.) Opium (in powder),
6 grs. ; camphor, 15 grs.; conserve of roses,
q. s. ; divide into 12 pills.--Dose. 1 to 3, as
required.
2. (A. T. Thomson.) Calomel, potassio-tar-
trate of antimony, and opium, equal parts;
syrup of saffron, q. s. ; divided in 3%-gr. pills.
In acute rheumatism and neuralgia.--Dose,
1 pill, at bedtime.
Pills, Antibil’ious. All the ordinary aperient
and stomachic pills may be classed under this
head. See the names of their proprietors or
reputed inventors, or those of their leading
ingredients.
Pills, Antichlorot'ic. Syn. PILULE ANTI-
CHLORITICAE, L. Prep. 1. (Radius.) Aloes
and carbonate of iron, of each, ; dr. ; gum am-
moniacum, 1 dr. ; extract of taraxacum, q. s.
For 3-gr. pills, Dose. 2 to 6, night and morn-
ing ; in chlorosis, amenorrhoea, &c.
2. (Trousseau & Reveil.) Porphyrised iron
filings, 1 dr. ; extract of wormwood, q. s. For
36 pills.-Dose. 3 or 4; as the last.
Pills, Antimo"nial (Compound). Syn. PILU-
LAE ANTIMONIALIS COMPOSITAE, P. ANTIMONII
Co., L. Prep. 1. Antimonial powder, , dr.;
calomel, camphor, and powdered opium, of
each, 6 grs. ; conserve of roses, q. s. ; divide
into 4-gr. pills.-Dose. 2, at night; in acute
rheumatism, neuralgia, chronic coughs, &c.
2. (St. B. Hosp.) Tartar emetic, 1 gr. ;
guaiacum and pill of aloes and myrrh, of each,
! dr.; treacle, to mix. For 16 pills. As the
last.
Pills, Antispasmodic. Syn. PILULE ANTI-
SPASMODICE, L. Prep. (Dr. A. T. Thomson.)
Opium, 1 gr. ; Russian castor, 13 grs. ; pow-
dered digitalis, 2 grs. ; syrup, to mix; divide
into 4 pills.--Dose. 1 or 2, two or three times
a day; in spasmodic asthma, difficulty of
breathing, &c. Several other formulae for
antispasmodic pills will be found both above
and below.
2. (Trousseau & Reveil.) Musk, 15 grs. ;
extract of Valerian, ; dr. ; liquorice powder,
q. s. For 20 pills.-Dose. 1 every two hours,
until there is a marked improvement in the
symptoms; in pneumonia, accompanied by
delirium, especially in drunkards; in spasms
of the uterus, and in various other spasmodic
affections.
Pills, Ape"rient. Syn. PILULA. APERIENTES,
L. Prep. 1. Hepatic aloes, 2 drs. ; rhubarb
and Castile soap, of each, 1 dr.; scammony,
3 dr. ; (all in powder;) essential oil (at will), 10
or 12 drops; beaten to a smooth mass, and
divided into pills.
2. Compound extract of colocynth (Ph. L.
1836), 1% dr. ; extract of gentian, ; dr. ; pow-
dered ipecacuanha, 20 grs. ; oil of cloves, cara-
way, or cassia, a few drops,
loss of appetite, &c.
3. (Abernethy’s.) See page 4.
4. (Alibert's.) From calomel, resin of jalap,
and Castile soap, of each, 1 dr.; oil of orange
peel or citron, 6 or 8 drops. For 60 pills. As
an occasional mild purgative, especially in
bilious habits and worms.
5. (Sir B. Brodie.) Compound extract of
colocynth and mercurial pill, of each, ; dr. ;
scammony and Castile soap, of each, 15 grs. ;
oil of caraway, 6 or 7 drops. For 24 pills.
As the last.
6, (W. Cooley.) Aloes, 1% dr. ; jalap and
Castile soap, of each, 1 dr. ; rhubarb and car-
damoms, of each, dr. ; (all in powder;) oil
of juniper, 12 drops. For 3-gr. pills. A useful
mild aperient, for either frequent or occasional
uSe.
7. (Dr. Copland.) Compound extract of
colocynth (Ph. L. 1836), 40 grs. ; extract of
henbane, 30 grs.; Castile soap, 12 grs; ipeca-
cuana, 6 or 7 grs. For two dozen pills.-
Dose. 2, on retiring to rest. As an aperient
in nervous affections and irritable habits.
8. (Harvey.) Mercurial pill and powdered
aloes, of each, ; dr. ; ginger, 20 grs. For 24
pills. In constipation, attended with a defi-
ciency of bile.
9. (Dr. Neligan.) Compound colocynth pill
and soap of jalap, equal parts; either with or
without a few drops of some aromatic essential
oil. For 4 or 5-gr. pills. As an aperient for
general use. -
10. (Sir C. Scudamore.) Compound extract
of colocynth, 40 grs.; extract of rhubarb, , dr.;
scammomy and soap, of each, 12 grs.; oil of
caraway, 5 or 6 drops. For 20 or 24 pills.
11. (Stahl's ; PILULE APERIENTEs STAHLII,
—Ph. Hannov.) Powdered aloes, 1 oz.: com-
pound extract of colocynth, 3 oz. ; iron filings,
2 drs. ; mucilage, q. s. In amenorrhoea, low
habits, and worms.
12. (Vance.) Compound extract of colo-
cynth, 80 grs. ; extract of rhubarb, 12 grs.;
Castile soap, 6 or 8 grs. ; oil of cinnamon, 4 or
5 drops.
Obs. The products of the above formulae
may be divided into pills of any size deemed
most agreeable to the patient, and they may
be aromatised by the addition of any essential
oil at will. The dose varies, according to cir-
cumstances, from 5 to 10 or 12 grs, or more.
Those containing aloes or mercurials are best
taken at bedtime. For other formulae, see the
various officinal and other pills containing
aloes, colocynth, gamboge, rhubarb, scammony,
&c.
Pills, Aromatic. Syn. PILULE AROMATICE,
L. Prep. (Ph. I. 1746.) Compound powder
of aloes, 3 oz. ; balsam of Peru, 3 oz.; syrup of
orange peel, q. s. Aperient, sudorific, and ner-
vine.—Dose. 10 to 20 grs.
Pills of Arse"miate of Iron. Syn. PILULE
FERRI ARSENIATIS, L. Prep. (Biett.) Ar-
seniate of iron, 3 grs. ; extract of hops, 2 drs. ;
In dyspepsia,





922
PILLS.
powdered mallow-root, dr; syrup, q. s. For
48 pills.-Dose. 1 to 2, daily; in cancerous,
scrofulous, and herpetic affections. See AR-
SENICAL PILLS.
Pills of Arseniate of Soda. Syn. PILULE
SODE ARSENIATIs, L. Prep. (Erasmus Wil-
son.) Arseniate of soda, 2 grs. ; distilled water,
the smallest possible quantity to dissolve it ;
powdered gum guaiacum, # dr.; oxysulphuret
of antimony, 20 grs. ; mucilage, q. s. For 24
pills.-Dose. 1 pill, as the last; in herpes, &c.
See ARSENICAL PILLS.
Pills, Arsen'ical. Syn. ASIATIC PIIIS, CAR-
NATIC P., EAST INDIAN P., TANJORE P. ; PI-
IULAF ARSENICI, P. ARSENICALIS, P. ASIATICAE,
P. ACIDI ARSENIOSI, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) Ar-
senious acid, 1 gr. ; black pepper (in fine pow-
der), 12 grs. ; rub them together for some
(considerable) time in an iron mortar, then
add, of powdered gum, 2 grs. ; water, q. S. to
make a mass; which is to be accurately di-
vided into 12 pills. Each pill contains is gr.
of white arsenic.
Obs. This compound is commonly employed
in the East Indies in syphilis, elephantiasis,
intermittents, the bites of venomous snakes,
&c.; and as a preventive to hydrophobia.
The common practice in England is to employ
16 grs. of pepper to 1 gr. of arsenious acid, and
to divide the mass into 16 instead of 12 pills.
The dose is one or two pills daily, taken after
a meal. The use of all compounds containing
arsenic demands great caution.
Pills, Arsenical (Opiated). Syn. PILULE
ARSENICI CUM OPIO, L. Prep. (A. T. Thom-
son.) Arsenious acid, 2 grs. ; powdered opium,
8 grs. ; Castile soap, 20 grs.; simple syrup, q, s.
For 24 pills.—Dose. As the last ; in inter-
mittents, herpes, lepra, psoriasis, periodical
headaches, neuralgia, &c. See above.
Pills, Asiatic. See ARSENICAL PILLS.
Pills of Assafoet'ida. Syn. PILULAE, ASSA-
FCETIDE (Ph. E. & U. S.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph.
E.) Assafoetida, galbanum, and myrrh, of
each 3 parts; conserve of red roses, 4 parts,
or q. S.; mix, and beat them to a proper pill-
Illa SS.
2. (Ph. U. S.) Assafoetida, 1% oz. ; Castile
soap, 3 oz. ; water, q. S.; divide into 240 pills.
Obs. The above (particularly the last) are
stimulant and antispasmodic.—Dose. 5 to 10
grs, twice or thrice daily; in hysterical affec-
tions, &c. See below.
Pills of Assafoetida (Compound). Syn. PI-
LULE ASSAFCETIDIE COMPOSITE (B. P., Ph.D.)
Prep. l. (Ph. D.) Assafoetida, 2 oz. ; gal-
banum, myrrh, and treacle, of each, 1 oz.; mix
in a capsule, by the heat of steam or a water
bath, and stir until it becomes a uniform mass.
Dose, &c. As the last. The B. P. directs
the quantity of galbanum to be double the
above.
2. (Hosp. F.) Assafoetida, 1 dr. ; soft soap
(Ph. L.), 20 grs.; ipecacuanha and squills, of
each (in powder), 12 grs. ; syrup, q, S.–Dose.
5 to 10 grs.; in chronic asthmas, coughs, &c.
Pills of Assafoetida with I'ron, Syn. PITUI
ASSAFCETIDE CUM FERRO, L. Prep, (W.
Cooley.) Assafoetida, 1 dr. ; extract of cham.
mile, , dr. ; mix with a slight heat; all,
dried protosulphate of iron, 15 grs.; oil of Giº
put, 10 drops; and divide into 36 pills. It
hypochondriasis, hysteria, amenorrhºea, chlº
rosis, &c., after an aperient.
Pills, Asthma. Syn. PITULE ANTASTHY,
TICE, L. Prep. 1. (Expectorant.) I'm
compound squill pill, 20 grs. ; calomel, 5 gº;
powdered opium, 3 grs. ; made into 6 pills-
Dose. 1 or 2, at bedtime. Expectorant, all
sometimes laxative.
2. (Tonic.) From compound iron pill, 2 dº
extract of gentian, 1 dr. ; mix, and divide intº
60 pills.--Dose. 2, night and morning, with
an occasional dose of laxative medicine.
Pills, Astringent. Syn. PITULE ASTRIN
GENTES, L. See PILLS OF ACETATE OF LEA)
ALUM, GAILIC ACID, NITRATE OF SILVE
SULPHATE OF IRON, TANNIN, &c.
Pills, Bacher’s Tom'ic. Syn. PITULE TONICE
BACHERI, L. Prep. i. (Dr. Paris.) Extºld
of black hellebore and powdered myrrh, Ofeld
1 oz. ; powdered blessed thistle, 3 drs. ; mix
and divide into 1-dr. pills.--Dose, 2 t06, thº
times a day.
2. (P. Cod.) Alkaline extract of helleh);
and extract of myrrh, of each, 2 drs, ; pº
dered blessed thistle, 1 dr. For 4-gr, pil.
— Dose. 1 or 2, as the last. An alterative toniº
hydragogue, and emmenagogue; in debility
dropsy, amenorrhoea, &c. A favourite remº
in some parts of Europe.
Pills, Dr. Baillie's. Prep. (Cooley.) Aquº
extract of aloes and compound extract of Cºlº
cynth, of each, 3 drs. ; Castile soap, 1 drº
of cloves, 15 drops. For 4-gr. pills, Agº
occasional aperient.—Dose. 1 to 3, at bedtime
or early in the morning. See DINNER PIII:
Pills, Barbarossa’s. These are supposed tº
have been the first mercurial preparation tº
ployed in medicine. They consisted of quitº
silver, rhubarb, musk, and amber.
Pills, Rev. D. Barclay's. Prep. (Cºlº
Resinous extract of jalap, 1 dr.; almond
Castile soap, 1% dr. ; extract of colocynth,2i;
(or powdered colocynth, 3 drs.); gum guaiacum.
3 drs. ; potassio-tartrate of antimony, 10 gº
oil of juniper, 8 or 10 drops; oils of Caraw:
and rosemary, of each, 4 drops; make a mis
with syrup of buckthorn (the smallest possil
quantity), and divide into 4-gr. pills. A diº
phoretic aperient.—Dose. 1 to 3, at bedtime
Pills, Dr. Baron's. Prep. From compom
rhubarb pill, 30 grs.; compound extract of Cºlº
cynth, 20 grs. ; powdered ipecacuanha, 6 gº
For 3-gr. pills. An excellent stomachic dº
rient.--Dose. 1 to 3 pills, at bedtime; in dº
pepsia, loss of appetite, &c.
Pills, Barthez's. Prep. From myrrh, 1 dº
aloes, # dr. ; musk, 15 grs. ; camphor, 12 gº
balsam of Peru, q. S. to form a mass. Fº
gr. pills.--Dose. 2, thrice daily; in hysiº
amenorrhoea, chlorosis, &c.


PILLS,
923
Pills, Bath Digestive. Prep. (Cooley.) Rhu-
barb, 2 oz. ; ipecacuanha and Castile soap, of
each, 3 oz.: capsicum, ginger, and gamboge, of
each, 4 oz. ; (all in powder;) syrup of buck-
thorn, q.s. For 4-gr. pills.--Dose. 1, as a din-
ner pill; 2 or 3 as an aperient.
Pills of Be'beerine. Syn. PILULE BEBEER-
INE, L. Prep. From sulphate of bebeerine, #
dr.; aromatic confection, q. S.; oil of cajeput,
5 or 6 drops. For 18 pills.-Dose. 1 to 3,
every four hours; as an antiperiodic, instead
of bark or quinine.
Pills, Be'chic. PILULA. BECHICE, L. Prep.
(Trousseau and Reveil.) Extract of digitalis,
15 grs. ; white oxide of antimony, 30 grs. ; ex-
tract of liquorice, 40 grs. ; mix carefully, and
divide into 40 pills. Expectorant and seda-
tive.—Dose. 2 to 12, or more; in cases of irri-
tating coughs, catarrh of the pulmonary capil-
laries or bronchia, &c. See Cough PILLS.
Pills, Beddoe's. Prep. From dried (efflo-
resced) carbonate of soda, 1 dr.; soap, 1% dr.;
oil of juniper, 12 drops; syrup of ginger, q. S.;
divide into 30 pills. In gravel, stone, &c.
—Dose. 2 to 5.
Pills of Belladon’ma (Compound). Syn. PILU-
LE BELLADONNE COMPOSITE, L. Prep. 1.
(Ainslie.) Extract of belladonna, mercurial
pill, and powdered ipecacuanha, equal parts.
For 3-gr, pills.-Dose. 1, night and morning,
in cancerous and glandular affections.
2. (Debreyne.) Camphor and assafoetida, of
each, 1 dr. ; extract of belladonna, 20 grs. ; ex-
tract of opium, 5 grs. ; syrup, q. s. For 48
pills.-Dose. I pill, gradually increased to 6,
daily. In hysteria, amenorrhoea, &c.
Pills, Belloste's. See MERCURIAL PILLS.
Pills, Bennet's. See FULLER’s PILLs.
Pills of Bichlo"ride of Mercuryi. Pills of
corrosive sublimate.
Pills of Bichlo"ride of Plat'imum. Syn.
PILULE PLATINI BICHLORIDI, L. Prep. (Dr.
Hoefer.) Bichloride of platinum, 7% grs.; ex-
tract of guaiacum, 1 dr. ; liquorice powder, q. s.
For 24 pills.-Dose. I pill, twice or thrice
daily; as an alterative, in syphilis, &c.
Pills, Bicker's. Prep. From rust (carbonate)
of iron, 2 drs. ; aloes, myrrh, and sulphur, of
each, 1 dr.; ox-gall, q. S. to mix. For 4-gr.
pills.-Dose. 1 to 6, morning and evening ; in
debility, chlorosis, &c.
Pills of Bitſtersweet. Syn. PILULAE DUL-
CAMARE, L. Prep. (Radius.) Extract of
bittersweet (dulcamara), I dr.; crude antimony
and bittersweet (in powder), of each, ; dr.
For 3-gr. pills.-Dose. 6 to 12, twice or thrice
a day; in obstinate skin diseases.
Pills, Blaud's. Syn. PILULAE, ANTICHLORO-
TICE, L. Prep. (Trousseau and Reveil.) Sul-
phate of protoxide of iron, 2 parts; reduce it
to powder, and dry it in a stove at 104°Fahr.;
add to this dry carbonate of potassa, 2 parts;
honey, 1 part ; and form the mass into 50
pills. Tonic and emmenagogue.—Dose. 1 to
10, daily; in debility, chlorosis, &c.
Pills, Blue. See MERCURIAL PILLS.
Pills, Bontius's. Syn. PITULF HYDRogo.GIF,
P. H. BonTII, L. Prep. (B. Cod.) Socotrine
aloes, gamboge, and gum ammoniacum; of each,
1 dr. ; white-wine vinegar, 6 drs. ; dissolve by
heat, at twice, press out the liquor, evaporate
to a pilular consistence, and divide into 4-gr.
pills.--Dose. 1 to 3; as a strong cathartic, in
dropsy. -
Pills, Brigg's Gout and Rheumatic. This
nostrum closely resembles in appearance, odour,
and properties, the PLUMMER’s PILL of the
Pharmacopoeia; the two are probably iden-
tical. (Cooley.)
Pill of Broºmide of Iron. Syn. PILULE
FERRT BROMIDI, L. Prep. (Magendie.) Bro-
mide of iron and powdered gum arabic, of each,
12 grs. ; conserve of roses, 20 grs. ; mix, and
divide into 20 pills. They should be kept in
a dry, corked phial. Tonic and alterative.--
Dose. 1 to 2, night and morning; in debility,
especially that of scrofulous habits, in chlo-
rosis, &c.
Pills of Bru'cine. Syn. PILULE BRUCIE,
L. Prep. (Magendie.) Brucine, 12 grs. ; con-
fection of roses, dr.; carefully mixed and
divided into 24 pills, which are recommended
to be silvered. The quantity of the confection
may be advantageously doubled.—Dose. 1 pill,
night and morning; in the same affections as
those for which strychnine is administered.
The acetate, hydrochlorate, or sulphate of bru-
cine may be substituted for the alkaloid in the
above formula, in a slightly larger quantity.
Pills of Cal'omel. Syn. PILULAF CALOMELA-
NOS, P. E CALOMELANE, P. HYDRARGYRI SUB-
CHLORIDI, P. H. CLORIDI+, P. H. C. MITIs
(Ph. U. S.), L. Prep. 1. Calomel, 4 drs.;
powdered gum arabic, 1 dr. ; simple syrup, q, s.;
mix, and divide into 240 pills. Each pill con-
tains 1 gr. of calomel. A convenient form of
exhibiting this drug when uncombined with
other remedies.—Dose. 1 to 5 pills, according
to the indication.
2. (U. C. Hosp.) Calomel, 2 drs, ; rhubarb,
1% dr.; confection of Senna, q. s. For 4 dozen
pills. An excellent alterative aperient, espe-
cially in hepatic affections.
Pills of Calomel (Compound). Syn. PLUM-
MER’s PILLS, RED P.; PILULA HYDRARGYRI
SUBCHLORIDI COMPOSITA, PILULAE CALOME-
LANOS COMPOSITE (Ph. E. & D.), PILULE
PLUMMERI, PILULA HYDRARGYRI CHLORIDI
CowPosLTA (Ph. L.). Prep. 1. (Ph. L.), L.
Chloride of mercury (calomel) and oxysulphide
of antimony, of each, 2 drs.; rub them together,
add of guaiacum (in powder) and treacle, of
each, 4 drs, and form the whole into a pill-
Imass,
2. (Ph. E.) Calomel and golden sulphide of
antimony, of each, 1 part; guaiacum (in powder)
and treacle, of each, 2 parts; beat the
whole to a pill-mass, and divide it into 6-gr.
ills.
p 3. (Ph. D.) Calomel and precipitated sul-
phide of antimony, of each 1 dr.; triturate
them together, then add, of guaiacum resin (in


924
PILLS.
powder), 2 drs.; castor oil, 1 fl. dr.; and beat
the whole to a uniform mass.
4. (B.P.) Calomel, 1; sulphurated antimony,
l; guaiac resin (in powder), 2; castor oil, 1;
mix.-Dose. 5 to 10 grs.
Obs. An excellent alterative pill; very use-
ful in lepra, in secondary syphilis affecting the
skin, and in various other chronic cutaneous
diseases; also in dyspepsia and liver com-
plaints.--Dose. 3 to 10 grs., night and morning.
Pills of Calomel and Opium. Syn. PILULAE
CALOMELANOS ET op11 (Ph. E.), L. Prep.
(Ph. E.) Calomel, 3 parts; opium, 1 part ;
conserve of red roses, q. s. ; divide the mass so
that each pill may contain 2 grs. of calomel.
—Dose. 1 or 2 pills, in rheumatism, facial
neuralgia, and various inflammatory affections.
They offer a convenient form for gradually in-
troducing mercury into the system, and, if
continued, induce salivation.
Pills of Cam'Phor. Syn. PILULE CAM-
PHORE, P. CAMPHORATE, L. Prep. Camphor
and sugar, of each (in powder), 2 parts;
conserve of hips, 1 part. For 3-gr. pills.
Anaphrodisiac, sedative, diaphoretic, and
nervine.—Dose. I to 5, twice or thrice a day.
Pills of Camphor (Compound). Syn. PILULE
CAMPHORE COMPOSITE, P. CAMPHORATE C.,
L. Prep. 1. (Dupuytren.) Camphor, 24 grs. ;
pure musk, 8 grs. ; opium, 2 grs. ; syrup, q.
s. ; divide into 12 pills.-Dose. 1 to 4, three or
four times daily; in putrescent sores, hospital
gangrene, &c.
2. (Fr. Hosp.) Gum ammoniacum, 40 grs.;
camphor, 30 grs. ; musk, 10 grs. ; opium, 5
grs. ; tincture of valerian, q. s. ; divide into
4-gr. pills.--Dose. 2 to 6 pills daily; in nervous
and hysterical affections, &c.
3. (Ricord.) Camphor and lactucarium (or
extract of lettuce), equal parts; divide into
4-gr. pills.-Dose. 3 to 6 pills daily; as an ana-
phrodisiac.
4. (U. C. Hosp.) Camphor, 20 grs. ; assa-
foetida, 1 dr. ; extract of valerian, 2 drs. For
30 pills. As No. 2.
Pills of Canthar'ides. Syn. PILULAE CAN-
THARIDIs, P. C. COMPOSITE, L. Prep. 1.
Cantharides (in very fine powder), 8 grs. ; ex-
tract of gentian, ; dr. ; liquorice powder, 10
grs. For 12 pills.--Dose. 1 to 4 daily; as a
diuretic, emmenagogue, &c.
2. (Ellis.) Cantharides (in very fine pow-
der), 18 grs. ; opium and camphor, 36 grs. ;
mix, and divide into 36 pills.--Dose. I pill, at
bedtime; as an aphrodisiac, in parties labour-
ing under general debility. They should be
used with extreme caution, and but seldom.
Pills of Caout'chouc. Syn. PILULE GUMMI
ELASTICI, L. Prep. (Bouis.) India rubber,
cut into small squares or spheres, then moist-
ened with syrup of tolu, and, lastly, shaken in
a box with a mixture of powdered gum and
sugar. In phthisis.--Dose. 1 pill, three or
four times a day. They pass through the
primae via unaltered, and may therefore fairly
be presumed to be inert.
Pills of Cap'sicum. Sym. CAYENNE PETH
PILLS; PILULE CAPSICI, L. Prep. 1, (Guſ
Hosp.) Capsicum, 1 part; rhubarb, 2 piſt
(both in powder ;) treacle, q, S.; mix, tº
divide into 3%-gr. pills.--Dose, 1 to 3, an in
before dinner; to create an appetite allº
mote digestion.
2. (Radius.) Powdered capsicum, 20 gº
extract of gentian, 1 dr. ; powdered gemi.
q. s. to form a mass. For 60 pills—Dº!
to 4 pills, thrice daily; in chronic dyslº
especially in the loss of tone of the stºm
arising from intemperance. -
Pills of Carbonate of Iron. Syn, WAII:
PILLS ; PILULE FERRI CARBONATIS (Ph."
L. Prep. (B. P., Ph. E.) Saccharated tº
bonate of iron, 4 parts; conserve of redrº
1 part ; mix, and divide the mass intº jº
pills.--Dose. 1 to 3, or more; as a mild thiſ
beate and antichlorotic. 5 to 20 grs, B}
For another formula, see BLAUD's Piſ
(above).
Pills, Catarrh". Syn. PILULE ANTICMI}
RHALES, L. Prep. 1. (Trousseau º
Turpentine, 4 drs. ; ammoniacum, 1 dr; hº
sam of tolu, , dr. ; aqueous extract of Oji
6 grs. ; liquorice powder, q. S.; mix, andī
into 80 pills.-Dose. 5 or 6 daily; in chº
catarrh of the bronchi and bladder.
2. (Trousseau & Reveil.) Alcoholic ext:
of aconite, 30 grs. ; sulphuret of calciuml
grs. ; powdered sugar, q. s. For 24 pill-
Dose. 1 pill, three or four times daily;
chronic pulmonary catarrh.
Pills, Cathar’tic. Syn. PILULE CATHM
CE, L. Prep. 1. (Dr. Collier.) Calomill
grs. ; powdered jalap and prepared chill,
each, ; dr.; oil of caraway, 10 drops; T.
of buckthorn, to mix; divide into 5 gr, 1.
— Dose. 1 to 4.
2. (Dr. A.T. Thomson.) Scammony,4gº
extract of taraxacum, 16 grs. ; divide itſ
pills, Dose. 3 pills, twice daily; in hº
chondriasis and chronic inflammation ºf
liver.
3. (A. T. Thomson.) Calomel, 15 grs; ºr
dered jalap, 45 grs. ; mucilage, q, S. to it
For 18 pills.--Dose. 1 to 3, at night, to em.
the bowels, in bilious affections. Other ſº
mulae for cathartic pills will be found tº
above and below.
Pills, Cathartic (Compound). Syn. PIII:
CATHARTICE compositº, L. Prep. (Ph. U.S.
Compound extract of colocynth, 4 drs.; ºr
dered extract of jalap and calomel, of tº
3 drs. ; powdered gamboge, 40 grs.; wattſ,
s.; mix, and divide into 180 pills. An &
lent purgative, especially in bilious affectiº
dyspepsia, &c.—Dose. 1 to 3 pills.
Pills, Chamberlain's Restor’ative. Anostrº
composed of cinnabar and milk of Sull
equal parts; beaten up with conserve of hiſ
Pills of Cham'omile. Syn. PILULE ANT1,
MIDIS, P. FLORUM CHAMEMELI, L. Pº
Extract of gentian, 1 dr.; powdered alsº
dr. ; powdered rhubarb, 20 grs.; oil of tº


PILLS. 925
momile, 10 drops. A tonic and stomachic
aperient.—Dose. 5 to 15 grs. This forms the
‘chamomile pills' of the shops. They should
be kept in a corked phial. See below.
Pills of Chamomile (Compound). Syn. PILU-
LE ANTHEMIDIS COMPOSITIE, L. Prep. 1.
(Ainslie.) Extract of chamomile, 1 dr. ; assa-
foetida, , dr. ; powdered rhubarb, 20 grs. ; di-
vided into 30 or, better, 36 pills.-Dose. 1, as
a dinner pill; or 2 to 3, twice a day, in flatulent
dyspepsia.
2. (Beasley.) Aqueous extract of aloes, 12
grs.; extract of chamomile, 36 grs. ; oil of
chamomile, 3 drops. For 12 pills.--Dose. 2,
at night, or twice a day ; in dyspepsia, loss of
appetite, &c. See NoFTON's PILLs.
Pills, Chapman's. Prep. Mastic, 12 grs. ;
aloes, 16 grs. ; rhubarb, 24 grs. For 12 pills.
An excellent stomachic aperient.—Dose. 2
to 4.
Pills of Chiray'ta. Syn. DR. REECE's PILLs;
PILULE CHIRAYTE, L. Prep. From chirayta,
2 drs. ; dried carbonate of soda, 20 grs. ; pow-
dered ginger (best), 15 grs.; divided into 36
pills.—Dose. 2, twice a day. In acidity, flatu-
lence, and dyspepsia, especially when com-
plicated with gout or debility.
Pills of Chlo"ride of Ba'rium. Syn. PILULE
BARTI CHLORIDI, L. Prep. 1. (Pierquin.)
Chloride of barium, 1 dr. ; resin of guaiacum,
4 drs. ; conserve of fumitory, q. S.; divided
into 188 pills.--Dose. I pill, morning and
evening, afterwards increased to 2; in tape-
worm, and in the rheumatism of scrofulous
subjects.
2. (Walsh.) Chloride of barium, 15 grs. ;
powdered marsh-mallow or liquorice root and
mucilage of tragacanth, of each, q. S. to make
200 pills.--Dose. 3, gradually increased to 10
or 12, daily; in cancer, scrofula, goitre,
syphilis, &c.
Obs. The above are very poisonous, and
their exhibition demands great caution.
Pills of Chloride of Calcium. Syn. PILULE
CALCII CHLORIDI, L. Prep. 1. As the last.
2. (Gräfe.) Chloride of calcium, 1 dr. ; ex-
tract of opium, 10 grs.; mucilage, q. s. For
54 pills.-Dose. 1, every two or three hours,
gradually increased until 10, or even 12, are
taken every hour; in gonorrhoea, more espe-
cially when occurring in scrofulous subjects.
Pills of Chloride of Gold. Syn. PILULE
AURI CHLORIDI, L. Prep. From terchloride
of gold, 3 grs. ; powdered liquorice, 1 dr. ;
syrup, q, s. For 48 pills.-Dose. 1 pill, twice
or thrice daily. (See page 581.)
Pills of Chloride of Gold and So'dium. Syn.
PILULE AURI ET Sod1 CHLORIDI, P. A. SODIo-
CHLORIDI, L. Prep. (Magendie.) Soda-chlo-
ride of gold, 1 gr, ; extract of mezereon, 2
drs. ; divide into 60 pills. (See page 581.)
Pills of Chloride of Lime. Syn. PILLs of
CHLORINATED LIME; PILULAE CALCIS HYPO-
CHLORITIS, L. Prep. 1. Chloride of lime, 12
grs. ; starch powder, 24 grs. ; conserve of hips,
q, s, ; divide into 36 pills. -
2. (Dr. Copland.) Chloride of lime, 15 grs. ;
compound powder of tragacanth, 90 grs. ;
syrup, q. s. For 24 pills.-Dose. 1 to 3, twice
or thrice daily; in various putrid affections,
fevers, &c.
Pills of Chloride of Mercury#. Pills of
calomel.
Pills, Chol'era. Syn. PILULE ANTICHOLE-
RICE, L. Prep. Powdered camphor, 15 grs. ;
powdered capsicum (pure), , dr. ; bicarbonate
of soda, 1 dr. ; conserve of roses, q. s. For 36
pills.--Dose. 2 to 4, every 15 minutes, washed
down with a wine-glassful of cold water con-
taining half a teaspoonful of ether; repeated
every 15 or 20 minutes, until reaction ensues.
They should be freshly made.
Pills of Citrate of Iron and Quinine'. Syn.
PILULE FERRI CITRATIs cuyſ QUINA, L. Prep.
From citrate of iron and quinine, 1 dr. ; pow-
dered citric acid, 20 grs. ; conserve of hips, q.
s. For 36 pills. An excellent tonic in de-
bility, chlorosis, &c.—Dose. 1 to 3, twice or
thrice daily.
Pills, Dr. Clark’s.
Pills, Coindet's,
MERCURY.
Pills of Col'chicum. See GouT PILLs.
Pills of Colocynth. Syn. PILULE & DUoBus,
P. Ex colocyNTHIDE SIMPLICIOREs, L. Prep.
(Ph. L. 1746.) Colocynth and scammony, of
each, 2 oz.; oil of cloves, 2 drs.; syrup of buck-
thorn, q. S. An active hydragogue cathartic.
—Dose. 3 to 12 grs.
Pills of Colocynth (Compound). Syn. PILL
OF COCHIA; PILULE CoCCIAE, P. CoCHIAE,
PILULA COLOCYNTHIDIS compositA (B. P.), P.
CoLocyNTHIDIS COMPOSITE (Ph. L. & D.),
P. colocyNTHIDIs (Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1.
(Ph. L.) Extract of colocynth (simple), 1 dr. ;
powdered extract of aloes, 6 drs. ; powdered
scammony, 2 drs. ; powdered cardamoms, .
dr. ; soft soap (Ph. L.), 1% dr.; mix, and beat
them altogether, so that a mass may be
formed. This is intended as a substitute for
the compound extract of colocynth of the Ph.
L. 1836.
2. (Ph. E.) Socotrine or East Indian aloes
and scammony, of each, 8 parts; sulphate of
potassa, 1 part; beat them together; add of
colocynth, in fine powder, 4 parts; next add of
oil of cloves, 1 part; and, with the aid of a
little rectified spirit, beat the whole to a mass,
and divide this into 5-gr. pills.
3. (Ph.D.) Colocynth pulp, scammony, and
Castile soap, of each (in powder), 1 oz. ; hepatic
aloes, 2 oz. ; treacle, 10 drs. ; oil of cloves, 1
fl. dr. ; mix, and beat them into a mass of
uniform consistence.
4. (Ph. L. 1746.) Socotrine aloes and scam-
mony, of each, 2 oz. ; pulp of colocynth, 1 oz. ;
oil of cloves, 2 drs. ; syrup of buckthorn, q. s.
to form a pill-mass. This is the original for-
mulae published by Galen for ‘pilulae cochiae
minores,’ and, under various slight modifica-
tions, it has continued in use ever since.
5. Aloes, 1% lb, ; colocynth, 3 lb.; jalap, 6

See DINNER PILLS.
See PILLS OF IODIDE OF



926 PILLS.
oz.; (all in powder;) oil of cloves, 1% oz. ;
syrup or treacle, q. S. to mix. Prod. About
# lbs. This forms the common “pil. cochiae '
of the druggists. A few, more conscientious
than the rest, add to the above, scammony, 6
oz. It is greatly inferior to the Ph. pill.
6. (B. P.) Colocynth, in powder, 1 ; Bar-
badoes aloes, in powder, 2; Scammony, in
powder, 2; sulphate of potash, in powder, 4 ;
oil of cloves, #; distilled water, a sufficiency
(about 4); mix. Dr. Gregory’s favourite pill.
—Dose. 5 to 10 grs.
Obs. Compound colocynth pill is a cheap
and excellent cathartic, more powerful than
the other officinal aloetic pills, and well adapted
to cases of habitual costiveness. It has long
been extensively used by the poorer classes,
and in domestic medicine generally.—Dose. 5
to 15 grs.
Pills of Colocynth and Hen’bane. Syn. PI-
IULF COLOCYNTHIDIS ET HYOSCYAMI (B. P.,
Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. E.) Colocynth pill-
mass, 2 parts; extract of henbane, 1 part ; beat
them up with a few drops of rectified spirit (if
necessary), and divide them into 5-gr. pills.-
Dose, 1 to 3 pills; as an anodyne purgative,
in irritable bowels.
2. (B.P.) Colocynth, in powder, 1; Bar-
badoes aloes, in powder, 2; Scammony, in
powder, 2; sulphate of potash, in powder, #;
oil of cloves, #; extract of hyoscyamus, 3;
distilled water, a sufficiency: mix-Dose. 5
to 10 grains.
Pills of Copai'ba. Syn. PILULAE COPAIBAE,
L. Prep. (Ph. U. S.) Pure balsam of co-
paiba, 2 oz. ; recently prepared calcined mag-
nesia, 1 dr. ; mix thoroughly, then set the
mixture aside until it acquires a pillular con-
sistence, and, lastly, divide it into 200 pills.
Obs. Unless the magnesia has been very
recently calcined, the copaiba hardens very
slowly or not at all. It is said that “lime
produces the effect more completely and uni-
formly than magnesia,” and that “specimens
of copaiba which are old and contain the most
resin º' harden quickest. (Redwood.) For
present use, the quantity of magnesia may be
at least doubled. Dr. Pereira orders copaiba,
1 oz. ; magnesia, 5 or 6 drs.--Dose. 10 to 30
grs., frequently; in diseases of the mucous
membranes of the urinary organs. Cubebs
are often added.
Pills, Dr. Copland's. See APERIENT and
PECTORAL PILLS.
Pills of Corro'sive Sub'limate. Syn. PILLS
OF CHLORIDE OF MERCURY ; P. OF BICHLO-
RIDE OF M.f, HoFFMANN’s P. ; PILULAE SUB-
LIMATIS CORROSIVI, P. HYDRARGYRI BICHLO-
RIDI+, P. MAJORES HoFFMANNI, L. Prep.
1. Corrosive sublimate, 3 grs. ; white sugar,
# dr. ; triturate together in a glass mortar for
some time, then add of powdered gum arabic,
20 grs., and beat the whole to a mass with
dilute hydrochloric acid, q. s. For 36 pills,
each containing #3 gr. of corrosive sublimate.
2. (Brera.) Corrosive sublimate, 3 grs. ;
rectified spirit, the smallest possible quali
to dissolve it ; bread-crumb, q. S. to fom
mass. For 24 pills, each containing ; gº
the corrosive sublimate.
3. (Dr. Paris.) Corrosive sublimate als
ammoniac, of each, 5 grs. ; water, il, i.
triturate together until solution is Comº
then add, of honey, 3 dr., liquorice pºwl.
1 dr. (or, q. s.), and divide into 40 pills. Fº
pill contains ; gr. of corrosive sublimate.
4. (Ph. Hannov.) Corrosive sublimatºl
grs. ; distilled water, 3 fl. dr. ; crum of hº
q. s. to form a mass. For 120 pills, each tº
taining gr. º
Obs. The above formulae are among tº
most usually employed. Other authorit:
order pills containing ºth of a gr, Dil.
orders; gr., and Hüfeland only ºngº, intº
pill. The commencing dose should not tº
1 pill containing the # of a grain, twiſ'ſ
thrice a day. It may afterwards be siſ.
kept at ºth of a grain. They are chiefly tº
ployed in syphilis, but are also occasiºn
exhibited with great advantage in glami
indurations and enlargements, and in (alſº
due caution being observed. -
Pills, Cough. See PECTORAL PIIIs, EXIT
TORANT P., &c.
Pills of Creasote. Syn. PILULE CREMS'ſ
L. Prep. 1. (Pitschaft.) Creasote, 6 ſº
powdered henbane, 24 grs. ; conserve of lift
q. s. For 24 pills.-Dose. 1, three tº
daily ; in sea-sickness, the vomiting duº
pregnancy, &c.
2. (Rieche.) Creasote, 1 dr.; extrºt
liquorice and gum galbanum, of each, i.
powdered mallow-root, 2 drs.; to be diſi
into 2-gr. pills.--Dose. 3 to 6, four tims
day; in acute rheumatism, bronchitis, ſº
ralgia, phthisis, &c. º -
Pills, Crespigny’s. See DINNER PIIIs,
Pills of Croton Oil. Syn. PILUIECROW
P. TIGLII, L. Prep. 1. Croton oil, 3 dº
oil of cloves, 4 drops; bread-crum, q, S. K.
3 pills, one of which is a dose.
2. (Dr. Copland.) Croton oil, 6 dº
pill of aloes and myrrh, 1% dr.; soap, 20gº
liquorice powder, q. s. For 30 pills—lº
2 to 4.
3. (Dr. Reece.) Croton oil, 6 drops; (i.
soap, ; dr. ; oil of caraway, 8 drops; liquº
powder, q. s. For 12 pills.--Dose, 1 tº
In dropsy, visceral obstructions, &c, &
CROTON OIL.
4. (With MERCURY-Dr. Neligan) Cº.
oil soap, 3 grs. ; extract of henbane and nº
curial pill, of each, 24 grs. ; oil of piment,
drops; divide into 12 pills—Dose, 2 tº
time. (See above.)
Pills of Cy'anide of Mercury. Sn, Piſſº
HYDRARGYRI CyANIDI, P. H. CYANUREI,
Prep. (Guibourt.) Cyanide of mercury, 6%
opium, 12 grs. ; bread-crum, 60 grs.; hº
or syrup, q.'s. For 96 pills—Doº, iſſº
and morning; in syphilis, chronic influ" ||
tion of the viscera, &c.

PILLS.
927
Pills of Cyanide of Potas'sium. Syn. PI-
LULE POTASSII CYANIDI, L. Prep. (Golding
Bird.) Cyanide of potassium, 2 grs. ; arrow-
root, 20 grs. ; simple syrup, q. s. For 18 pills.
— Dose. 1, twice or thrice a day; as a seda-
tive, in hysteria, gastrodynia, extreme nervous
excitability, &c. See DRAUGHT and MIX-
TUIRE.
Pills of Dandeliſon.
CUM.
Pills, De Haen’s. Prep. (St. Marie.) Gum
ammoniacum and pill aloes with myrrh, of
each, 1 dr. ; extract of hemlock and Castile
soap, of each, 1% dr. For 2-gr. pills.-Dose.
3 to 6 daily; in painful or obstructed men-
struation, chlorosis, &c.
Pills of Delphine. Syn. PILULE DEL-
PHINIE, L. Prep. (Dr. Turnbull.) Del-
phine, 1 gr. ; extracts of henbane and liquorice,
of each, 12 grs. For 12 pills.--Dose. 1 to 3,
twice a day; in dropsy, gout, rheumatism, &c.,
instead of veratrine.
Pills, Diaphoretic. Syn. PILULE DIAPHo-
RETICE, L. Prep. 1. Antimonial powder,
# dr. ; opium, 10 grs. ; calomel, 5 grs. ; con-
fection of opium, q. S. to mix; divide into 10
pills.--Dose. 1, at bedtime; in coughs and
bronchial irritability, after an aperient.
2. Guaiacum, 10 grs. ; emetic tartar and
opium, of each, 1 gr. ; simple syrup, q. S. to
mix; divide into 3 pills.--Dose. 1 to 2, in
acute rheumatism, &c.
3. Camphor and antimonial powder, of each,
} dr. ; opium, 10 grs. ; aromatic confection,
q. S. to mix. For 12 pills. In fevers, and in
Some spasmodic diseases.— Dose. 1 pill.
4. Powdered guaiacum, 10 grs. ; compound
powder of ipecacuanha, 5 grs. ; confection of
roses, q. S. to mix; for a dose. As a diapho-
retic, in inflammatory affections and rheu-
matism.
Pills, Diarrhoea. Syn. PILULE ANTIDI-
ARRHOEALES, L. Prep. (Troussean & Reveil.)
Soft extract of opium, 1% gr. ; calomel and
powdered ipecacuanha, of each, 3 grs. ; con-
serve of hips, q. S.; divide into 10 pills.--Dose.
1, two or three times daily; in chronic and
choleraic diarrhoea.
Pills, Digestive. Under this head are
generally classed all the stomachic and milder
aperient pills. See BATH PILLs, DINNER,
PILLS, &c.
Pills of Digita'lime. Syn. PILULE DIGI-
TALINE, L. Prep. 1. Digitaline, 1. gr. ;
powdered sugar, dr. ; thick mucilage, q. s.
For 24 pills.-Dose. 1 to 4 daily, watching
the effects; as a sedative to reduce the force
of the circulation, in phthisis, enlargement of
the heart, &c. See FoxGLOVE PILLS.
Pills, Dinner. Syn. PILULAE DICTE ANTE-
CIBUM, L.; GRAINS DE SANTÉ, Fr. Prep. 1.
Aloes, 1 dr. ; rhubarb and extract of gentian,
of each, & dr. ; ipecacuanha and capsicum, of
each, 12 grs. ; syrup of ginger, q. S. to mix.
For 3%-gr. pills.
2. (Dr. Baillie's.) See page 922.
See PILLS OF TARAXA-
3. (BATH DIGESTIVE PILLS.) See page 923.
4. (PILLs of ALOES AND MASTIC ; LADY
CRESPIGNY’s PILLs, LADY HESKETH's P.,
LADY WEBSTER’s P., DIGESTIVE P., STOMACH
P., PILULAE ALOśs ET MASTICHES, P. A. CUM
MASTICHE, P: STOMACHICAE MESUES ; GRAINS
DE VIE, GRAINS DE MESUE.) From aloes (pow-
dered), 6 drs.; powdered mastic and petals of
red roses, of each, 2 drs.; syrup of wormwood,
q. s. to form a pill-mass. For 3-gr. pills. In
small doses, they excite the appetite; in larger
ones, they produce a bulky and copious eva-
cuation. This is the formula of the old Paris
Codex. Rhubarb is now frequently substi-
tuted for the rose petals.
5. (Sir C. Bell's.) From sulphate of quinine,
4 grs. ; mastic, 6 grs. ; rhubarb, 50 grs. ;
syrup of orange peel, q. S. to mix. For 12 or,
preferably, 18 pills,
6. (Sir Chas. Clarke's.) From extract of
chamomile, 3 dr. ; myrrh and rhubarb (in
powder), of each, 20 grs. ; powdered Socotrine
aloes, 10 grs. ; oil of chamomile, 8 drops;
mucilage, q. s. to form 20 pills. “These
pills, which were originally prescribed by Sir
Chas. Clarke, are much used in London.”
(Redwood.)
7. (Frank’s.) From aloes and jalap, of each,
4 parts; rhubarb, 1 part; syrup of wormwood,
q. S. For 3-gr. pills. -
8. (P. Cod.) Aloes, 6 drs.; extract of cin-
chona bark, 3 drs. ; cinnamom, 1 dr.; syrup of
wormwood, q. s.
The dose of the above is 3 to 5 grs, about
an hour before dinner, to promote the appe-
tite; or, as a purgative, 10 to 15 grs.
Pills, Diuretic. Syn. PILULE DIURETICAE,
L. Prep. 1. From powdered foxglove, 12
grs.; calomel, powdered squills, and opium, of
each, 4 grs. ; conserve of hips, q. s. For 12
pills.
2. (Dr. A. T. Thomson.) Mercurial pill,
1 dr. ; powdered squills, 20 grs. ; confection
of roses, q. S.; divided into 20 pills. The dose
of either of the above is 1 pill, twice or thrice
daily; in dropsy, &c.
Pills, Dixon's. According to Dr. Paris, these
pills consist of aloes, scammony, rhubarb, and
a little tartar emetic, beaten up with syrup.
“The following formula produces a pill pre-
cisely similar to this nostrum —Take of com-
pound extract of colocynth (Ph. L. 1836), 4
drs.; powdered rhubarb, 2 drs. ; potassio-
tartrate of antimony, 8 grs. ; syrup of buck-
thorn, q. S.; mix, and divide into 120 pills.
Aperient and diaphoretic.—Dose. 2 or 3, at
bedtime.” (Cooley). Although a nostrum, it
is really an excellent medicine, adapted for
numerous CaSeS.
Pills, Duchesme's. Prep. From aloes and
gum ammoniacum, of each, 30 grs.; mastic
and myrrh, 10 grs. ; carbonate of potassa and
saffron, of each, 3 grs. ; syrup, q. S. in the
dyspepsia of hysterical patients, in engorge-
ments of the abdominal viscera, following
intermittent fevers, &c.

928 PILLS.
spheres of metallic antimony.
Pills, Dysſentery. Syn. PILULE DYSENTE-
RICE, L. Prep. Pure alumina and tannic acid,
of each, 20 grs. ; antimonial powder, 15 grs. ;
castor oil, , dr.—Dose. 5 to 10 grs. ; fre-
quently.
Pills of Elaterium. Syn. PILULE ELATE-
RII, L. Prep. (Radius.) Elaterium, 6 grs.;
extract of gentian and Castile soap, of each,
9 grs. ; mix, and divide into 12 pills.-Dose.
1 to 4; in obstinate constipation, and as a
purge in dropsy, &c.
Pills, Emetic. Syn. PILULE EMETICE, P.
CUPRI SULPHATIS COMPOSITIE, L. Prep.
(Swediaur.) Sulphate of copper and ipeca-
cuanha, equal parts; syrup or conserve of
roses, q. s. For 5-gr. pills.-Dose. 1 pill,
repeated every 15 minutes, until vomiting
comes on. See EMETICS.
Pills, Epilep’sy. Syn. PILULE ANTEPILEP-
TICE, P. AD EPILEPSIAM, L. Prep. 1.
(Griffith.) Powdered indigo, 75 grs. ; assa-
foetida, 15 grs.; Russian castor, 7 grs. ; mix,
and divide the mass into 20 pills, Dose. 1,
every hour.
2. (Récamier.) Oxide of iron, 9 grs. ; cam-
phor and extract of belladonna, of each, 6 grs.
For 12 pills.--Dose. 1 to 3, every 3 or 4
hours. -
Pills of Er'got of Rye. Syn. PILULE ER-
GOTE, P. SECALIS CORNUTI, L. Prep. 1.
(Dewees.) Powdered ergot, , dr.; extract of
gentian, 1 dr. ; divide into 15 pills. In "ob-
structed and painful menstruation, haemor-
rhages, &c.—Dose. 1 pill, thrice daily.
2. (Lallemande.) Aloes, ergot, and rue, of
each, 8 grs.; for 12 pills. As the last.
Pills of Er'gotine. Syn. PILULE ERGOTINAE,
L. Prep. (Bonjean). Ergotine (Bonjean's),
24 grs. ; liquorice powder, 40 grs. ; syrup, q, S.
For 24 pills.-Dose. 3 to 6, daily ; as an in-
ternal haemostatic, &c.
Pills, Everlast'ing. Syn. PERPETUAL PILLs ;
PILULAE AETERNAE, P. PERPETUAE, L. Small
They possess
the property of purging as often as swallowed,
but have now long fallen into disuse.
Pills, Expectorant. Syn. PILULE EXPEC-
TORANTES, L. Prep. 1. Myrrh, 1% dr. ;
powdered squills, , dr. ; extract of henbane, 2
drs. ; syrup, q. s. ; divide into 30 pills.-Dose.
2, night and morning.
2. (A. T. Thomson.) Powdered squills and
extract of hemlock, of each, # dr. ; ammoni-
acum, 1% dr. ; divide into 30 pills. Dose. 2,
twice or thrice a day. In chronic coughs,
asthma, &c., after an aperient. See PECTORAL
PILLS, &c.
Pills, Family Antibilious. Syn. ALOE PILLs;
ALOiśS ROSATA, PILULAE ALOiśs ROSATE, L.
Prep. Socotrine or hepatic aloes, 3 oz. ; juice
of roses, 1 pint; dissolve by heat, strain through
a piece of coarse flannel, evaporate to a proper
consistence, and form it into pills. Purgative,
in doses of 5 to 15 grs.
Pills, Fever. Syn. PILULE FEBRIFUGE, L.
Of these, the principal are those containing
antimonials, bark, Guinine, and salicine (with
see).
Pills, Fordyce's. An active purgative, clºsely
resembling in composition the compound gam
boge pill of the Ph. L. -
Pills, Dr. Fothergill's. Prep. (Cºlº)
Aloes, 4 drs.; extract of colocynth and scam.
mony, of each, 1 dr. ; diaphoretic antimony
30 grs. ; syrup, q. s. For 3}-gr, pills. A
diaphoretic aperient.—Dose. 1 to 4 pills, i.
bedtime. -
Pills of Fox'glove and Hen’bane. Syn, P.
LULE DIGITALIS ET HYOSCYAMI, L. Pº,
(Dr. A. T. Thomson). Powdered foxglove!
grs. ; powdered camphor, 12 grs.; extract ºf
henbane, 18 grs. For 6 pills.--Dose, 10!'.
at bedtime; as a sedative in maniacal all
spasmodic affections, &c.
Pills of Fox'glove and Squills. Spm, P.
LULE DIGITALIS ET SCILLAE (Ph. E.), L. Prº
(Ph. E.) Powdered foxglove and squills,
each, 1 part ; aromatic electuary (Ph.B.)
parts; conserve of red roses, q. S.; divide it
4-gr. pills. A valuable diuretic in dropsis
Dose. 1 to 2 pills.
Pills, Frank's. See DINNER PILLS. -
Pills, Frankfort. These are the Pilules Angº.
liques noticed among PATENT MEDIGINE
formed into 2-gr. pills, and silvered. |
Pills of Fuligoka'li. Syn. PILULE FTI
GORALI, L. Prep. (Deschamps). Fuligºki
5 dr. ; starch, 2% dr.; powdered tragacanthl
grs. ; syrup, q. s. For 100 pills, which must
covered with 2 or 3 coats of gum, andjº
served from the air. The pills of sulphurčić
fuligokal (Pilulae Fuligokali Sulphurai)arey,
pared in a similar manner. -
Pills, Fuller's. Syn. BENNET PIIIs; PII
LE BENEDICTE, L. Prep. (Cooley.) Aloes.
sulphate of iron, of each, ; dr.; myrrh all
Senna, of each, 20 grs. ; assafoetida and gº
banum, of each, 10 grs. ; mace and saffront
each, 6 grs. ; syrup, q, S.; mix and dividei
4-gr. pills. Antispasmodic, emmenagogue,
tonic, and slightly aperient.—Dose, 1 tº
according to the object in view.
Pills, Gairthorn’s Mild Provi"sional, Pº,
(Cooley). Compound gamboge pill, 60 gº
aqueous extract of aloes, 40 grs.; sulphated
potassa and extract of senna, 30 grs,; compº
scammony powder, 15 grs. ; balsam of Peru,
or 8 grs.; emetic tartar, 3 grs. ; mix, i.
divide into 36 pills. Purgative.—D086, 1,
or more, when required.
Pills of Gal'banum (Compound). Syn, P.
LULA GALBANI COMPOSITA (Ph. L.), PILULEB
COMPOSITE, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Myrrhill
prepared sagapenum, of each, 3 drs.; prepan
galbanum and soft soap, of each, 2 drs, ; ple
pared assafoetida, 1 dr.; treacle, q, S. to fom
pill-mass.
2. (Ph. L. 1836.) As the last, omitting tº
SOan).
3. (Ph.D. 1826.) As the Ph.L., excepth:
treacle is substituted for syrup. -
Obs. These pills are stimulant, expectom





PILLS.
929
antispasmodic, and emmenagogue.—Dose. 10
to 20 grs. ; in hysteria, chronic coughs, chlo-
rosis, amenorrhoea, &c.
Pills of Galbanum with Iron. Syn. PILULE
GALBANI CUM FERRO, L. Prep. (Guy’s Hosp.)
Compound galbanum pill, 2 parts; precipitated
sesquioxide of iron, 1 part ; water, q. S. to form
a mass. For 4}-gr. pills. An excellent tonic
emmenagogue.--Dose. 10 to 20 grs. ; in chlo-
rosis, amenorrhoea, &c., when chalybeates are
not contra-indicated.
Pills of Gam'boge (Compound). Syn. GAM-
Bog E PILLS, FORDYCE’s P. ; PILULAE CAM-
BoGIAE COMPOSITA (Ph. L.), P. cAMBOGIAE (Ph.
E.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Powdered Soco-
trine or hepatic aloes, 3 drs. ; powdered gam-
boge, 2 drs. ; powdered ginger, 1 dr. ; soft soap
(Ph. L.), 4 drs. ; mix, and beat them to a pill-
mass. The formulae of the Ph. L. 1836 and
Ph.D. 1826 are precisely similar.
2. (Ph. E.) Gamboge, East Indian or Bar-
badoes aloes, and aromatic powder, of each
(in powder), 1 part ; Castile soap, 2 parts;
Syrup, q. S.
Obs. Both the above are active cathartics.
—Dose. 5 to 15 grs., at bedtime; in obstinate
constipation, &c.
Pills of Gentian (Compound). Syn. PILULAE
GENTIANAE COMPOSITIE, L. Prep. (W. Cooley.)
Extract of gentian, 1 dr. ; powdered rhubarb
and cardamoms, of each, dr. ; ipecacuanha,
12 grs. For 3-gr. pills. Stomachic.—Dose. 2
or 3, twice or thrice daily, to improve the
appetite and digestion.
Pills, Gout. Syn. PILULE ANTARTHRITICE,L.
Prep. 1. (Bouchardat.) Extract of colchicum
and compound extract of colocynth, of each,
1 dr. ; aqueous extract of opium, 3 grs. ; mix,
and divide into 3-gr. pills.-Dose. 1 or 2,
according to their purgative action, as re-
quired.
2. (Sir H. Halford's.) From acetic extract
of colchicum, dr. ; Dover’s powder and com-
pound extract of colocynth, of each, 18 grs.
For 12 pills.-Dose. 1 pill.
3. (Lartigue’s.) From compound extract of
colocynth, 20 grs. ; alcoholic extract of colchi-
cum seeds and alcoholic extract of digitalis, of
each, 1 gr. For 2-gr. pills.-Dose, &c. As the
last.
4. (St. George’s Hosp.) Acetic extract of
colchicum, 12 grs. ; Dover's powder, 30 grs.
For 12 pills.--Dose. 2 pills. .
5. (Sir C. Scudamore's.) From acetic ex-
tract of colchicum, 1 dr. ; powdered marsh-
mallow root, q. S. to form a mass. For 40 pills.
— Dose. 1 to 3, or more, with caution, as re-
quired.
6. (Trousseau & Reveil.) Powdered colchi-
cum seeds, dr. ; powdered digitalis and sul-
phate of quinine, of each, 15 grs. ; calomel and
extract of colocynth, of each, 8 grs. ; syrup,
q. s. For 20 pills.-Dose. 1 to 4, during the
day, at the commencement of an attack of
gout. Other formulae for gout pills will be
found under the respective names.
|
Pills, Dr. Griffitt's. Powdered rhubarb,1} dr.;
sulphate of iron, , dr.; Castile soap, 40 grs. ;
water, q. S. to form a mass, For 48 pills.
An excellent remedy in costiveness, with loss
of tone of the bowels.-Dose. 2 to 4, at bed-
time.
Pills of Guaſiacum (Compound). Syn. PILU-
LE GUAIACI COMPOSITE, L. Prep. 1. Pow-
dered resin of guaiacum, 1 dr.; oxysulphide of
antimony, 40 grs. ; oil of cajeput, 12 drops;
extract of gentian, q. S. to form a mass. For
4-gr. pills.-Dose. 3 to 6, thrice daily; in gout,
rheumatism, secondary syphilis, various obsti-
nate cutaneous affections, &c.
2. (St. B. Hosp.) Guaiacum, 30 grs.; ipeca-
cuanha and opium, of each, 3 grs. ; syrmp, q, S.
For 12 pills.--Dose. 1 to 3. As the last.
Pills, Halford's. See GouT PILLS.
Pills, Dr. Hamilton's. The same as the colo-
cynth and hembane pill of the Ph. E. The
compound pills of gamboge, now vended under
the title of ‘MoRISON’s No. 2 PILLs, were
long known in Scotland as Dr. Hamilton's
Pills.
Pills, Head'ache. Syn. CEPHALIC PILLS ;
PILULE CEPHALICE, P. ANTICEPHALALGICAE,
L. Prep. 1. Caffeine, 15 grs. ; aloes, 20 grs. ;
conserve of hips, q. s. . For 12 pills.-Dose. 1,
occasionally; when only one side of the head
is affected. -
2. (Broussais.) Extract of opium, 6 grs. ;
extracts of belladonna and henbane, of each,
15 grs. ; extract of lettuce, 30 grs. ; butter of
cacao, 4 drs. For 120 pills.-Dose. 1, twice or
thrice daily; in headache, accompanying spas-
modic affections, &c.
3. (Dr. Wilson Philip.) Powdered nutmeg
and rhubarb, of each, 20 grs. ; extract of cha-
momile, 20 grs. ; oil of peppermint, 10 or 12
drops. For 30 pills.-Dose, 1 to 3, thrice
daily; in nervous headaches.
Pills, Helvetius's. Syn. PILULA. ALUMINIS
HELVETII, L. Prep. Alum, 2 drs. ; dragon’s
blood, 1 dr.; honey of roses, to mix. For 48
pills. Astringent.
Pills of Hemlock (Compound). Syn. PILULA
CoNII CoMPOSITA (B. P., Ph. L.), L. Prep.
(Ph. L.) Extract of hemlock, 5 drs. ; pow-
dered ipecacuanha, 1 dr.; treacle, q. s. Anti-
spasmodic, expectorant, and narcotic.—Dose. 4
to 8 grs. (B. P. 5 to 10 grs.), twice or thrice
daily; in hooping-cough, bronchitis, incipient
phthisis, &c.
Pills of Hembane (Compound). Syn. PILULE
HYOSCYAMI ETZINCI, L.; PILULES DE MEGLIN,
Fr. Prep. (P. Cod.) Extracts of henbane and
valerian, and oxide of zinc, equal parts. For
3-gr. pills.-Dose. 1 to 10; as an anodyne or
sedative in neuralgia, nervous attacks, &c.
Pills, Lady Hesketh's. See DINNER PILLS.
Pills, Hoffmann's. See PILLs of CoRROSIVE
SUBLIMATE.
Pills, Holloway’s. See PATENT MEDI-
CINES.
Pills, Hooper's Female. Prep. 1. (Gray.)
Sulphate of iron and water, of each, 8 oz. ;

59

930 PILLS.
dissolve, add, Barbadoes aloes, 2% lbs. ; white
canella, 6 oz. ; myrrh, 2 oz. ; opopanax, 1 oz.
2. (Phil. Coll. of Pharm.) Barbadoes aloes,
8 oz. ; dried sulphate of iron, 2% oz. ; myrrh,
extract of black hellebore, and Castile soap, of
each, 2 oz. ; canella and ginger, of each, 1 oz. ;
water, q. S.; divide the mass into 24- or 3-gr.
pills, and put 40 into each box. Cathartic and
emmenagogue. —Dose. 2, or more. “If we
omit the soap, lessen the quantity of extract of
hellebore, and increase that of the aloes, we
think the form will be nearer that of the ori-
ginal.” (Cooley.)
Pills, Humphrey’s. See PECTORAL PILLS.
Pills, Hunter's. See RENAL PILLs.
Pills, Hydragogue. See BONTIUS's PILLs, &c.
Pills, Hydrophobia. Syn. PILULE AD RA-
BIEM, L. Prep. (Werlhoff.) Cantharides (in
very fine powder), 2 grs. ; belladonna and calo-
mel, of each, 4 grs. ; camphor, 8 grs. ; muci-
lage, q, S. For 12 pills.--Dose. 2 to 3, twice
daily.
Pills of Indian Hemp. Syn. PILULE CAN-
NABIS INDICAE, L. Prep. From alcoholic ex-
tract of Indian hemp, , dr. ; sugar of milk, 1
dr. ; mucilage, q. S. For 48 pills. An ex-
cellent pill for soothing pain and quieting the
system, acting without causing headache or
constipation of the bowels.-Dose. 1 pill, in-
creased to 2 or more, as necessary. (See page
602.)
Pills of Indigo. See EPILEPSY PILLS.
Pills of I'odide of Arsemic. Syn. PILULE
ARSENICI IODIDI, L. Prep. 1. (Dr. Neligan.)
Iodide of arsenic, 2 grs. ; manna, 40 grs. ;
mucilage, q. S.; mix, and divide into 20 pills.
2. (Gardiner.) Iodide of arsenic, 1 gr. ; ex-
tract of hemlock, 20 grs. For 12 pills.-Dose.
1 pill, twice or thrice daily; in lepra, psoriasis,
and some other scaly skin diseases.
Pills of Iodide of Iron. Syn. PILULA. FERRI
IODIDI, L. Prep. 1. Unoxidized iron filings
(recently levigated), 20 grs. ; iodine, 40 grs. ;
distilled water, dr. ; mix in a cold wedg-
wood-ware mortar, and triturate them together
until the red colour of the mixture has en-
tirely disappeared; then add, of powdered gum,
20 grs. ; powdered sugar, 1 dr. ; liquorice pow-
der, q. S. to form a mass, and divide it into
48 pills. Each pill contains 1 gr. of dry
iodide of iron. —Dose. 1 to 6 pills, twice or
thrice a day.
2. (Ph. U. S.) Protosulphate of iron, 60
grs. ; iodide of potassium, 80 grs. ; (both in
fine powder;) mix, add of powdered traga-
canth, 10 grs. ; powdered sugar, 30 grs. ; and
form the whole into a mass with syrup, q. s.
For 40 pills. Each pill contains nearly 2 grs.
of the dry iodide, or about 2% grs. of the
common hydrated iodide of the shops.--Dose.
1 to 3, as the last.
Obs. The above pills are reputed alterative,
tonic, and emmenagogue, and are found pecu-
liarly useful in indurations, scrofula, chlorosis,
leucorrhoea, &c., when the administration of
chalybeates is not contra-indicated.
Pills of Iodide of Lead, Syn, PIII:
PLUMBI IODIDI, L. Prep. From iodide
lead, 15 grs. ; powdered sugar, 1% dr.; mud
lage, q. s. For 60 pills.--Dose, 1 pill, gº
dually increased to 3, or more, twice a day;i
scrofula, scirrhus, &c. (See page 684)
Pills of Iodide of Mercury. Syn, PIII:
HYDRARGYRI IODIDI, L. Prep. 1. (Ph.I.
1836.) Green iodide of mercury and W.
dered ginger, of each, 1 dr. ; conserve of his
3 drs.—Dose. 2 to 5 grs., twice or thiſ:
daily, as an alterative in scrofula and scrofilº
syphilis, &c. -
2. (CoINDET's PILLS.). From green i
of mercury, 1 gr.; extract of liquorice, 20gº
mix, and divide into 8 pills.--Dose, 2 t04:
the last. Pills of red iodide of mercury in
made in the same way, but, owing to i:
greater activity, only one fourth of the alſº
quantity of iodide must enter into their ().
position. -
Pills of Iodide of Potas'sium, Sºn, PIII:
POTASSII IODIDI, L. Prep. 1. Iodide
potassium and powdered starch, of each, ; it
conserve of hips, q. s. For 36 pills—D).
1 to 6, thrice daily; in glandular indulatil
and enlargements, goiture, scrofula, &c.
2. (Voght.) Iodide of potassium, 15 gº
burnt sponge and extract of dulcamara,
each, 5 drs.; water, q. s. For 180 pills-
Dose, 4 to 6, twice a day; as the last,
Pills of Iodine. Syn. PILULE IODINI,
Prep. (Radius.) Iodine, 6 grs.; extract
gentian, 1 dr. ; powdered gum, q. S. For?
pills.--Dose. 1 to 3; in scrofula, &c.; lº
in mercurial and scorbutic salivation.
Pills of Iod'oform. Syn. PILULE IOM
FORMI, L. Prep. (Bouchardat.) Iodoſſº
} dr.; extract of wormwood (or gentian), 1ſt
mix, and divide into 36 pills.--Dose, 1, wi.
or thrice daily; in scrofula, &c.
Pills of Ipecacuanha (Compound). Sº
PILLS OF IPECACUANHA WITH SQUILIS, P.O.
T. AND OPIUM ; PILULA IPECACUANHE CI'ſ
SCILLA (Ph. L.), P. IPECACUANHE IT OF
(Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Compºu
powder of ipecacuanha (Dover's powder),3ds.
powdered ammoniacum and squills (fºl.
powdered), of each, 1 dr. ; treacle, q, s, tofºn.
a pill-mass. Anodyne, Sudorific, and expº
rant.—Dose. 5 to 10 grs. ; in chronic Cough
and asthma, &c.
2. (Ph. E.) Dover's powder, 3 parts; tº
serve of red roses, 1 part; mix, and dividei
4-gr. pills. Resembles Dover's powder in it
effects. It is hence regarded by many is:
useless preparation.
Pills of Iron (Compound). Syn. PITI,
FERRI COMPOSITA (Ph. L.), P. F. CUMMYRBIſ,
L. Prep. (Ph. L.) Myrrh (in powder), 2ds:
carbonate of soda, 1 dr. ; rub them togetherit
a warm mortar, then add of sulphate of irº,
1 dr., and again triturate; lastly, add ºf
treacle, 1 dr., and beat all together, to form:
pill-mass. An excellent mild chalybeateti
and emmenagogue, similar in its propertist


PILLS.
931
‘Griffith's Mixture.”—Dose. 5 to 15 grs, two
or three times a day.
Pills, Italian Black. Syn. PILULE ITALICE
NIGRE, P. ALOETICAE FERRATE, L. Prep. (Ph.
Bor.) Powdered aloes and dried sulphate of
iron, equal parts; beaten up with rectified
spirit, q. S., and divided into 2- or 2%-gr. pills.
See PILLS OF ALOES AND IRON.
Pills of Jalſap. Syn. PILULE JALAPRE, L.
Prep. 1. (Ph. E. 1783.) Extract of jalap,
2 drs. ; aromatic powder, 1 dr. ; syrup, q. s.
2. (Ph. Bor.) Soap of jalap, 3 parts; pow-
dered jalap, 1 part; beat them to a pill-mass.
— Dose. (Of either) 10 to 15 grs.
Pills, James's Analeptic. Prep. 1. Anti-
monial powder, guaiacum, and pill of aloes
with myrrh, equal parts; syrup, q. S.
2. (Cooley.) Antimoniai powder (James's),
pill aloes with myrrh, and compound aloes
powder, of each, 2 parts; powdered ammo-
niacum, 1 part ; beaten up with tincture of
castor, q. S., and divided into 3%-gr. pills. A
diaphoretic purge.—Dose. 2 to 4 pills.
Pills, Dr. J. Johnson’s. Prep. From com-
pound extract of colocynth, 2 drs. ; calomel,
# dr.; potassia-tartrate of antimony, 2 grs. ;
oil of cassia, 12 drops. For 4 dozen pills.
An excellent alterative and diaphoretic ape-
rient.—Dose. 1 to 3 pills.
Pills, Kaye's. See WoRSDELL’s PILLS.
Pills, Keyser's. Prep. (Guibourt.) Red
oxide of mercury, 14 oz. ; distilled vinegar
(dilute acetic acid), 1 pint ; dissolve, add to
the resulting solution, manna, 2 lbs., and
triturate for a long time before the fire,
until a proper consistence is attained; lastly,
divide the mass into pills of 1% gr. each.
Obs. Keyser’s pills were once celebrated
throughout Europe as a remedy possessing
extraordinary virtue, and so highly were they
prized that the method of preparing them was
purchased by the French government for the
benefit of the nation. Richard, who first pub-
lished a full account of them, concludes by ob-
serving that he considers this compound to be,
without exception, the most effectual remedy
for syphilis hitherto discovered. In this coun-
try, however, it has long sunk into com-
parative disuse with the faculty ; probably
from pills of acetate of suboxide of mercury
being erroneously employed under the name,
whereas according to Robiquet, acetate of
protoxide of mercury (called by him the
‘peroxide’) forms the basis of the original
preparation. The dose is 1 to 2, night and
morning, as an alterative; and 2 to 6, twice a
day, as a sialogogue. (See page 753.)
Pills, King's. See PATENT MEDICINEs.
Pills, Kitchener's. Syn. DR. KITCHENER's
PERISTALTIC PERSUADERS ; PILULAE RHAEI ET
CARUI, L. Prep. From powdered Turkey
rhubarb, 2 drs. ; simple syrup, 1 dr. ; oil of
caraway, 10 or 12 drops. For 40 pills. An
admirable stomachic, dinner, or laxative pill,
according to the quantity taken.—Dose. 2 to 6.
“From 2 to 4 will generally produce one addi-
tional motion within 12 hours. The best time
to take them is early in the morning.” -
Pills, Klein's. Prep. From ammoniacum
and extract of centaury, of each, ; dr.; Castile
soap, 1 dr.; oil of amber, 3 drops. For 2-gr.
pills. Stomachic, emmenagogue, and pectoral.
— Dose. 2 to 6 pills.
Pills of Lactate of Iron, Syn. PILULE
FERRI LACTATIs, L. Prep. (Cap.) Lactate of
protoxide of iron and powdered marsh-mallow
root, equal parts; clarified honey, q. S. For
3-gr. pills. One of the most valuable of the
chalybeates.— Dose. 1 to 2, three or four
times a day.
Pills of Lactuca"rium. Syn. PILULE LAC-
TUCARII, L. Prep. 1. (Brera.) Lactucarium,
18 grs. ; conserve of elder-berries and extract
of liquorice, of each, q. s. For 12 pills.-
Dose. 1 to 2 pills, every three or four hours;
in dry asthma, obstinate coughs without ex-
pectoration, &c.
2. (Dr. Duncan.) Lactucarium, 12 grs. ;
liquorice powder, 20 grs. ; simple syrup, q. s.
For 12 pills.-Dose, 1 to 2 pills, every hour,
as an anodyne, or to induce sleep.
Pills, Lartigue's. See GouT PILLS.
Pills of Lead. Prep. 1. See PILLS OF
ACETATE OF LEAD.
2. (Opiated; PILULE PLUMBI op|ATE —
Ph. E.; PILULA PLUMBI CUM opto-B. P.)
Acetate of lead, 6 parts; opium, 1 part; con-
serve of red roses, about 1 part; beat them
to a proper mass, and divide this into 4-gr.
pills. “This pill may also be made with
twice the quantity of opium.” In haemor-
rhages, obstinate diarrhoea, dysentery, spitting
of blood, and other cases demanding the use
of a powerful astringent. It has also been
highly extolled in cholera.--Dose. 1 to 3
pills, twice or thrice daily, washed down with
water soured with pure vinegar.
Pills, Lee's Antibil’ious. Prep. (“Amer.
Journ. of Pharm.") Aloes, 12 oz. ; scammony,
6 oz. ; calomel, 5 oz. ; gamboge, 4 oz. ; jalap,
3 oz. ; Castile soap and syrup of buckthorn,
of each, 1 oz. ; mucilage, 7 oz, ; beat them
together, and divide the mass into 5-gr. pills.
A powerful cathartic, and, from containing
mercury, not adapted for frequent use. See
WYNDHAM’s PILLS.
Pills, Lewis's Alterative and Liver. These
“for the most part resemble SCOTT's BILIOUS
AND LIVER PILLS. They are, however, of a
more drastic and powerful character, and fre-
quently operate with considerable violence.”
Pills, Lockstadt's. Prep. (Phoebus.) Sul-
phate of quinine, 3 grs. ; aromatic powder,
10 grs. ; essential oil of almonds, 1 drop ;
extract of gentian, q. s. For 10 pills.--Dose.
1 to 2, thrice daily, as a stomachic tonic; or
the whole at once, before an expected attack
of an ague or intermittent.
Pills, Lockyer's. Prep. From panacea of
antimony, 6 grs. ; powdered white sugar, 4.
drs. ; mucilage, q. S. For 48 pills. Cathartic
and emetic.—Dose. 1 to 4 pills.


932 PſLLS.
Pills, Dr. Lynn’s, Prep. From pill of aloes
with myrrh and compoundextract of colocynth,
of each, 1 dr. ; calomel, § dr. For 4 dozen
pills. Aperient and antibilious.--Dose. 1 to
3; in costiveness, biliousness, &c.
Pills of Man"gamese. These are chiefly
prepared from the recently precipitated car-
bonate (PILUTE MANGANESII CARBONATIS),
the iodide (P. M. IODIDI), the chloride (P. M.
CHLORID1), the phosphate (P. M. PHOSPHATIS),
the sulphate (P. M. SULPHATIS), and the
double sulphate of manganese and iron
(P. M. ET FERRI SULPHATIS). The best ex-
cipients are conserve of roses or of hips and
liquorice powder. See MANGANESE and its
salts.
Pills, Martial. Syn. PILLs of IRON AND
WORMWOOD ; PILULAE FERRI CUM ABSINTHIO,
P. MARTIALES, L. Prep. (Sydenham.) Levi-
gated iron-filings, 1 dr. ; extract of wormwood,
q. s. Tonic and haematinic.—Dose. 5 to 10
grs., twice a day. -
Pills, Matthew's. Syn. PILULE MATTHEI,
P. PACIFICAE, L. Prep. 1. (Dr. Paris.)
Black hellebore, Castile soap, liquorice, opium,
saffron, and turmeric, equal parts; made into
pills with oil of turpentine.
2. (Ph. E. 1744.) Opium and saffron, of
each, 1 dr. ; castor, 2 drs. ; soap of turpentine,
3 drs. ; balsam of copaiba (or oil of turpentine),
q. s. to form a mass. Alterative and anodyne.
—Dose. 3 to 10 grs.
Pills, McKinsey’s. See McKINSEY’s KATA-
POTIA, among PATENT MEDICINES.
Pills, Meglin's. Syn. PILULES DE MEGLIN,
Fr. See PILLS OF HENBANE (Compound).
Pills, Mercu"rial. Syn. BLUE PILL ;
PILULA HYDRARGYRI (B. P.), PILULE HY-
DRARGYRI (Ph. L.), PILULA. H. (Ph. E. &
D.), P. MERCURIALES, L.; PILULES MERCU-
RIELLES, Fr. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Mercury,
4 drs. ; confection of roses, 6 drs. ; rub them
together until globules can no longer be seen;
then add of liquorice powder, 2 drs., and beat
the whole together, so that a proper mass may
be formed. -
2. (Ph. E.) As the last; afterwards dividing
the mass into 5-gr. pills.
3. (Ph. D.) As the Ph. L. formula, but
taking four times the quantity of the respective
ingredients.
4. (B.P.) Mercury, 2; confection of roses,
3; decorticated liquorice root, in fine powder,
1; rub the mercury with the confection of
roses until metallic globules are no longer
visible, then add the liquorice, and mix the
whole well together.—Dose. 3 to 6 grs. as an
alterative, 10 grs. as a purgative.
Obs. The remarks under “ MERCURIAL OINT-
MENT' (page 850), for the most part, also apply
here. This pill, when properly prepared, pre-
sents no globules of mercury when moderately
rubbed on a piece of white paper, and imme-
diately communicates a white stain to a piece
of bright gold or copper. It possesses con-
siderable density, and has a dark blue or slate
colour. It contains 1-3rd of its weight:
mercury, which may be ascertained from it
sp. gr. ; or, more exactly, by an assay fort.
metal. It is the mildest and the most extà
sively used of all the mercurial preparatiº
—Dose. As an alterative, 1 to 3 grs,; is
purgative, 10 to 15 grs. ; and as a sialogºg,
5 or 6 grs., or more, twice or thrice daily, I
prevent it affecting the bowels, it is comm
combined with either rhubarb or opium,
blue pill taken over-night, and a lº
draught in the morning, is a popular remº
in bilious complaints. See ABERNETHYME
CINES.
4. (Collier.) Mercury, 2 drs, ; sesquioſ.
of iron, 1 dr. ; confection of red roses, 3 in
triturated, as before, until the globules dis
pear. An excellent extemporaneous substit
for the common mercurial pill. The additiº
of only a few grs. of the sesquioxide of im!
1 oz. of conserve, renders the latter Capil
of rapidly killing a large quantity of qi
silver.
5. (Tyson.) Gray oxide of mercury ||
pared by decomposing calomel with liquºr
potassa to which a little liquor of ammonial
been added), 2 drs. ; confection of rºl
drs. ; powdered chamomiles, 1 dr.; mix,
a substitute for the College pill.
6. (‘Pharm. Journ.") Stearin, 1 dr.; nº
in a warm mortar till it assumes the Cºlº
ence of thick cream, then add of mercury
drs., and again triturate until the globulºsiº
appear; next further add, of confectiºn
roses and wheaten flour, of each, 3 drs, ºr
dered gum, 1 dr., and form the whole iſ
pill-mass. As a substitute for the Cºl;
pill.
7. (PILULE HYDRARGYROSE—P. (..
Mercury and honey, of each, 6 drs. ; trilin
till the globules are extinguished, then all
aloes, 6 drs. ; rhubarb, 3 drs.; Scamm));
drs. ; black pepper, 1 dr. ; and make ºf
mass as before. Contains 1-4th part of ſix
silver. Alterative and aperient—Dose, ſº
10 grs. BELLOSTE’s, BARBAROSSA's, Sãº
LOT’s, and MoRELOT's PILLs, are nearlysiſ
compounds. See PILLS OF CALOMEL and!
ROSIVE SUBLIMATE, &c.
Pills, Mercurial (Arabic). Syn, PIT.
MERCURIALES ARABică, L. Prºp. Tº
quicksilver and corrosive sublimate, of tº
3 dr. ; triturate them patiently together tº
the globules disappear; then add, of agº
pellitory, and Senna, of each, 1 dr.; honº
S. to make a pill-mass. For 3}-gr, pilº
Dose. 2 a day. Employed in the ‘traitº
arabique’ for the cure of obstinate cutanº
diseases.
Pills, Mitchell’s. Prep. Aloes, dr; ſº
barb, 1 dr. ; calomel, 6 grs.; emetic tattº
grs. For 36 pills. An alterative aperiºr
Dose. 2 to 4 pills.
Pills, Moat's. Similar to MoRISON's Piſº
Pills, Morison's. Prep.–a. (No. 1 º'
From aloes and cream of tartar, equipº
PILLS.
933
made into a mass with either syrup or mucilage.
A mild aperient.
6. (No. 2 pills.) From colocynth, 1 part;
gamboge, 2 parts; aloes, 3 parts; and cream
of tartar, 4 parts; made into a mass with
syrup, as the last. An active purgative, often
acting with great violence. Both No. 1 and
No. 2 are divided into 3-gr. pills, of which 4
dozen are put into each thirteen-penny-half-
penny box. The proper dose of either is 1 to
3 or 4 pills; but they are often given by the
Morisons in doses of 12, 20, 30, or even more,
daily. For the history of these pills and their
proprietors, see ‘Anat. of Quackery,” or ‘Med.
Circ., ii, 9-27.
Pills of Mor'phia. Syn. PILULE MORPHIE,
L. Prep. (Magendie.) Morphine, 1. gr. ; con-
serve of roses (stiff), q. s. For 6 (or, better,
8) pills.--Dose. 1 pill; as an anodyne or
soporific.
Pills, Moseley's. Prep. Finest Turkey rhu-
barb, 60 grs. ; Jamaica ginger, 30 grs.; sugar,
20 grs. ; (all in powder;) tincture of rhubarb,
q. s. to form a mass. For 4-gr. pills. A mild
and excellent medicine, closely resembling
KITCHENER’s PERISTATITIC PERSUADERS.
Pills of Musk. Syn. PILULE MOSCHI, L.
Prep. (Dupuytren.) Opium, 2 grs. ; musk
(genuine), 8 grs. ; camphor (in powder), 24
grs. ; syrup, q. s. For 8 pills. Antispasmodic
and stimulant.—Dose. 1 to 3, thrice daily, in
low nervous affections; or the whole during
the day, in hospital gangrene, &c.
Pills of Myrrh. See PILLS OF ALOES AND
MYRRH.
Pills, Napier’s Neuroton'ic. Of these, like
MORISON'S PILLs, there are No. 1 and No. 2.
The first is a simple stomachic aperient; the
other, a stimulant tonic. They both owe their
sale and reputed virtues to extensive adver-
tising. (“Anat. of Quackery.')
Pills, Napoleon's. See PECTORAL PILLS.
Pills, Neuralgia. Syn. PILULE ANTINEU-
RALGICAE, L. Prep. 1. (Marchal De Calvi.)
Aqueous extract of opium, 4 grs. ; sulphate of
quinine, 16 grs. ; powdered cinnamon, pow-
dered orange leaves, and extract of valerian, of
each, 20 grs. ; syrup of belladonna, q. s. For
3 dozen pills.-Dose. 1, hourly.
2. (Trousseau & Reveil.) Extracts of opium
and stramonium, of each, 8 grs. ; Öxide of zinc,
2 drs. ; syrup, q. s. For 40 pills.--Dose. 1,
every two or three hours, gradually increased
in frequency until there is some considerable
disorder of vision, &c. Both of the above
should be used with care.
PILLs, &c.
Pills of Ni‘trate of Bismuth. Syn. PILULE
BISMUTIII TRISNITRATIS, L. Prep. From
trisnitrate of bismuth and powdered rhubarb,
equal parts; syrup of orange peel, q. S. to form
a mass. For 3-gr. pills.--Dose, 1 to 2, every
two hours; as a tonic, stomachic, and anti-
spasmodic, in dyspepsia, debility, spasms, &c.
Pills of Nitrate of Silver. Syn. PILULE
ARGENTI NITRATIS, L. Prep, 1. (St. B.
See MEGLIN’s
Hosp.) Nitrate of silver (crystallised), 12 grs.;
liquorice powder, 24 grs.; treacle, q. s. Wor
12 pills.-Dose, 1 pill, twice or thrice a day;
in chronic epilepsy and some other spasmodic
disorders.
2. (Dr. A. T. Thomson.) Nitrate of silver,
6 grs. ; crum of bread, q. s. (say # dr.); mix,
and divide into 12 pills.-Dose. 1, every six
hours.
Obs. To prevent the blue or slate coloured
tinge of the skin, so often produced by the
continued use of the salts of silver, 8 drops of
diluted nitric acid in 1 fl. oz. of water should
be taken after each pill.
Pills, Norton's Chamomile. Prep. From
aqueous extract of aloes, 1 dr. ; extract of gen-
tian, 3 drs. ; mix, and drive off the excess of
moisture by the heat of a water bath; then
add of essential oil of chamomiles, 20 drops,
and divide the mass into 60 pills. To preserve
their aromatic properties, they should be kept
in a dry glass bottle or a well-covered earthen-
ware pot.—Dose. 1, as a dinner pill; or 2,
night and morning, as a stomachic tonic.
(‘Anat. of Quackery.')
Pills of Nux Wom'ica. Syn. PILUnie NUCIS
VOMICE, L. Prep. 1. Nux vomica and aloes
(both in powder), equal parts; syrup, q. s.
For 3-gr. pills.-Dose, 1 to 3, twice or thrice
daily, earefully watching the effects; in ner-
vous derangement, general debility, impotence,
paralysis, &c.
2. Alcoholic extract of nux vomica, 1 part;
powdered sugar, 2 parts; beaten up with rec-
tified spirit, q. s. For 24-gr. pills, Dose. 1
to 2; as the last.
3. (Mondière.) Alcoholic extract, 6 grs. ;
levigated black oxide of iron, 1 dr.; syrup, q.s.
In atomic incontinence of urine, amenorrhoea,
&c.
Pills, Odontal'gic. Syn. PILULE opoNTAL-
GICE, L. Prep. (Ph. Bor.) Powdered opium
and extracts of belladonna and henbane, of
each, 10 grs.; oil of cloves, 20 drops; powdered
pellitory of Spain, ; dr. ; beat them to a mass,
and divide it into 1-gr. pills; keep these in a
corked phial.
Pills, Opiated Lead. See PILLS OF LEAD.
Pills of 0"pium. Syn. ANODYNE PILIS,
NIGHT P., THEBAIC P.; PILULE OPII (Ph. U.
S.), P. o. or THEBAICE (Ph. E.), L. Prep.
1. (Ph. E.) Opium and conserve of red roses,
of each, 1 part ; sulphate of potash, 3 parts;
rub them together to a proper mass, and divide
into 5-gr. pills.-Dose. 1 to 2 pills, as an
anodyne or soporific. Each pill contains 1 gr,
of opium, or double the quantity in the same
pill of the previous edition of the Ph. E.
2. (Ph. U. S.) Powdered opium, 1 dr. ;
Castile soap, 12 grs. ; water, q. s. For 60 pills.
As the last.
Pills of 0x-Gall. Syn. BILE PILLs; PILULE
FELLIS BOVINI, P. BIIIs, L. Prep. 1. From
inspissated ox-gall formed into pills by the
addition of any simple powder; or the harder
extract beaten up with a little proof spirit.

934
PILLS.
Powdered rhubarb is frequently used for the
purpose. For 3-gr. pills.-Dose. 1 to 6; in
constipation, flatulence, &c., arising from a
deficiency of bile.
2. (Compound.) From inspissated ox-gall,
1 dr. ; powdered rhubarb, , dr. ; powdered
ipecacuanha and capsicum, of each, 15 grs. ;
oil of caraway, 12 drops. For 48 pills.--Dose.
1 to 4; in loss of appetite and dyspepsia, with
torpor of the bowels, &c. See CONSTIPATION,
GALL, &c.
Pills of Oxide of Gold. Syn. PILULE AURI
oxy DI, L. Prep. (Magendie.) Teroxide of
gold, 5 grs. ; extract of mezereon, 2 drs. ; mix,
and divide into 60 pills. Each pill contains
Tº gr. of teroxide.—Dose. 1 to 3; in scrofula,
syphilis, malignant fevers, &c.
Pills of 0xide of Mercury. See MERCURIAL
PILLS.
Pills of Oxide of Silver. Syn. PILULE AR-
GENTI oxy DI, L. Prep. From oxide of silver,
6 grs. ; powdered rhubarb and extract of gen-
tian, of each, 12 grs. For 1 dozen pills.-Dose.
1 pill, twice or thrice daily; in gastralgia,
haemorrhages, nervous affections, &c. Milder
than the pills of nitrate of silver.
Pills of Oxide of Zinc. Syn. PILULE ZINCI
OXYDI, L. Prep. From oxide of zinc, pow-
dered cascarilla, and conserve of hips, equal
parts. For 3%-gr. pills. Tonic and antispas-
modic.—Dose. 1 to 3, thrice daily; in dys-
pepsia, gastric or spasmodic coughs, epilepsy,
chorea, &c. -
Pills, Parr’s Life. Prep. Aloes, 7 lbs.; Thu-
barb and jalap, of each, 5 lbs. ; (all in powder ;)
extract of gentian, 3% lbs. ; soft soap, ; lb. ;
liquorice powder, treacle, and moist sugar, of
each, 4% lbs. ; oil of cloves, 10 oz. ; oil of cara-
way, 3% oz. ; mix, and beat the whole to a
proper mass with syrup bottoms, q. S., and
divide it into 3%-gr. pills. “There are about
4 dozen in each 1s. 1; d. box, weighing (dry)
barely 3 grs. each.” A good stomachic and
aperient pill, but possessing none of the extra-
ordinary virtues ascribed to it by its pro-
prietors. (‘Med. Circ., ii, 146,167, &c.)
Pills of Paullin'ia. Syn. GUARANA PILLs;
PILULE GUARANF, P. PAULLINIE, L. Prep.
1. Paullinia mixed up with syrup of orange
peel, and the mass divided into 2%-gr. pills.-
IDose. 2 to 8.
2. (Dr. Gavrelle.)
dr. ; liquorice powder, q, s.
Dose. 3 to 6, daily.
Obs. These pills are highly esteemed on
the Continent as a tonic and astringent, in
diseases of the bowels and bladder, in chlorosis,
debility, &c.
Pectoral Pills. Syn. BREATH PILLs; PI-
TULE PECTORALES, L. Prep. 1. Compound
squill pill, 1 dr. ; gum benzoin, ; dr. ; powdered
ipecacuanha and extract of henbane, of each,
15 grs. ; syrup, q. S. For 3-gr. pills.--Dose. 2
to 4, three or four times a day ; in asthmas,
chronic bronchial affections, coughs, &c.
2. (Dr. Copland.) Camphor (in powder),
Extract of guarana, 1
For 40 pills.-
10 grs. ; ipecacuanha, 15 grs. ; extract Oflº
lock, 1 dr.—Dose. 3 to 6 grs.; in irritatingal
spasmodic coughs, &c.
3. (Haggart.) Powdered ipecacuanhã all
squills, of each, ; dr. ; acetate of morphi,
grs. ; Castile soap, 3 drs. ; mix, and dividei
72 pills. A most excellent medicine, at Mº
soothing and expectorant.—Dose, 1 to 2, this
a day, or oftener.
4. (HUMPHRIES’ Cough PILLS) Fromyr
dered ipecacuanha, 15 grs. ; compound Sl
pill, 1 dr. ; compound extract of colocynth;
dr. For 3%-gr. pills.-Dose. 2 pills, mightſ
morning. -
5. (Dr. Latham.) Compound powder &
ipecacuanha, 1 dr.; fresh squillandgumammº
niacum, of each, 20 grs. ; calomel, 4 grs, ſº
20 pills. A most valuable pectoral and Jº
torant.— Dose. 1 pill, thrice daily; in hº
chitis, coughs, &c., after the more activeir
flammatory symptoms have subsided.
6. (Napoleon’s.) From ipecacuanha,30gſ:
squills and ammoniacum, of each, 40 grs; (i.
in powder;) mucilage, q. S. to mix. For?
pills.
It is said that this was a favouritº
medy with the Emperor Napoleon Ifordiffiti
of breathing, bronchitis, and various affectil
of the organs of respiration.—Dose, 2 ||
night and morning.
7. (Dr. Paris.) Powdered squills, i.
powdered myrrh, 1% dr.; extract of hemlı.
40 grs. ; water (or simple syrup), q, S. tomi
For 4-gr. pills.-Dose. 2 pills, might andmº
ing. As No. 2.
8. (Ph. L. 1746.) Gum ammoniacum;
drs. ; gum benzoin, 3 drs. ; gum myrrh, 2d.;
saffron, 1 dr. ; anisated balsam of sulphuſ;
dr. ; syrup of tolu, q. S. to mix—Dose, 5th
I’S,
9. 9. (Richter.) Assafoetida and Valerii,
each, ; dr. ; castor, 15 grs.; powdered st
and sesquicarbonate of ammonia, of ºil
grs. ; extract of aconite (alcoholic), 3 gº, ſº
4-gr. pills.--Dose. 1 to 3 pills, night andm'ſ
ing; in spasmodic affections of the respiritſ
Organs,
Pills, Perpetſual.
Pills, Peter's. Prep. (Cooley.) Aloes, 3i:
gamboge, jalap, and scammony, of each, 2d.
(all in powder;) calomel, 1 dr.; beaten upwº
rectified spirit, q. s. A powerful catharit-
Dose. 1 to 3 pills.
Pills of Piperime. Syn. PILULE PIPEN
L. Prep. From piperine, dr. ; extº:
cinchona, q. s. For 30 pills.-Dose, 1 ;
every two hours, during the intermission ºf:
ague; also as an aphrodisiac and a remely:
piles.
Pills of Pitch. Syn. PILULE PICISNIGH
L. Prep. From black pitch and powdº
black pepper, equal parts; beaten togetherſ
a warm mortar, and divided into 4-gr. pills-
Dose. 2 pills, night and morning; in is
&c. - -
Pitschaft’s Eccoprot'ic Pills. Prep, Fº
strained aloes and disulphate of quinine, º
See EveRLASTINGPſ


PILLS.
935
parts; made into 2-gr. pills. A tonic and
stomachic aperient.—Dose. 2 to 4, at bedtime;
in torpor of the large intestines, the dyspepsia
of the debilitated, &c.
Plummer’s Pills.
(Compound).
Pills, Pur’gative. Syn. PILULE PURGANTES,
L. Prep. 1. (Dr. Robinson.) Aqueous ex-
tract of aloes, 1 dr. ; powdered scammony, 3.
dr. ; balsam of Peru, 10 or 12 grs. ; oil of car-
away, 9 or 10 drops; mix, and divide into 30
pills. A warm, stimulating aperient, highly
recommended to excite the peristaltic action of
the bowels of the aged, sedentary, and debili-
tated.--Dose. 1 to 4 pills, as required.
2. (Trousseau & Reveil.) Resin of jalap,
1 dr.; scammony, dr.; extract of colocynth,
6 grs. ; excipient, as required. For 20 (or,
better, 24) pills.--Dose. 1, “every two hours,
in the morning, fasting, until they operate.”
For other formulae see APERIENT and CATHAR-
TIC PILLS and PILLS OF ALOES, JALAP, COLO-
CYNTH, &c.
Pills of Quinine'.
OF QUININE.
Pills, Reece's. See CHIRAYTA PILLS.
Pills, Renal. Syn. PILULAE RENALEs, L.
Prep. 1. Squills, myrrh, and digitalis, of each
(in powder), 10 grs. ; extract of rhubarb and
mercurial pill, of each, 15 grs.; powdered nitre,
20 grs. ; oil of juniper, 10 or 12 drops. For 24
pills. Alterative, diuretic, and tonic.—Dose.
3 to 6, thrice a day. Hunter's Renal Purify-
ing Pills are similar, but omitting the mercurial
pill. De Roos’ Renal Pills contain a prepara-
tion of copäiba.
Pills, Rheu'matism. Syn. PILULE ANTI-
RHEUMATICAE, L. Prep. 1. Gum guaiacum,
1 dr. ; nitrate of potassia, 1% dr. ; (both in
powder;) soft soap (Ph. L.), dr. ; oil of caje-
put, 16 drops. For 4 dozen pills.-Dose. 2 to
6, night and morning; in chronic rheumatism,
and rheumatic gout. Their action is accele-
rated by the copious use of lemon juice during
the day.
2. (Beasley.) Extract of artichoke, , dr. ;
powdered sarsaparilla, 20 grs. ; oil of Sassa-
fras, 1 drop. For 12 pills.--Dose. I pill, thrice
daily.
Pills of Rhuſbarb. Syn. PILULE RHEI (Ph.
E.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. E.) Powdered rhubarb,
9 parts; acetate of potassa, 1 part; conserve of
red roses, 5 parts; mix, and divide into 5-gr.
pills. A stomachic and gentle aperient, parti-
cularly useful in atonic dyspepsia.--Dose. 2 to
4 pills.
2. (Ph. U. S.) Powdered rhubarb, 6 drs.;
Castile soap, 2 drs. ; beaten up with water,
q. S., and divide into 120 pills. As the
last.
Pills of Rhubarb (Compound). Syn. ARO-
MATIC PILLS, BALSAMIC LAXATIVE P., EDIN-
BURGH P., STOMACHIC P.; PILULA RHEI COM-
PoSITA (B. P., Ph. L.), PILULE R. CoMPOSITE
(Ph. E. & D.), P. STOMACHICAE, P. AROMATICE,
L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Powdered rhubarb, 4
See PILLS OF CATIOMEL
See PITIS OF SULPHATE
drs. ; powdered Socotrine aloes, 3 drs. ; pow-
dered myrrh, 2 drs. ; soft soap, (Ph. L.), dr. ;
oil of caraway, 15 drops; treacle, q, s, to form
a 1118 SS.
2. (Ph. L. 1836.) Powdered rhubarb, 1 oz. ;
aloes, 6 drs. ; myrrh, 4 drs. ; Castile soap, 1 dr.;
oil of caraway, + fl. dr. ; syrup, q. s.
3. (Ph. E.) Powdered rhubarb, 12 parts;
aloes, 9 parts; myrrh and Castile soap, of each,
6 parts; conserve of red roses, 5 parts; oil of
peppermint, 1 part; mix, and divide into 5-gr.
pills. The oil of peppermint may be omitted,
when so preferred.
4. (Ph.D.) Rhubarb, 1% oz. ; hepatic aloes,
9 drs. ; myrrh and Castile soap, of each, in fine
powder, 6 drs. ; oil of peppermint, 1 fl. dr. ;
treacle, 2 oz. ; mix, and beat the whole to a
uniform mass.
5. (Ph. U. S. & Ph. E. 1817.) Rhubarb, 8
drs. ; aloes, 6 drs. ; myrrh, 4 drs. ; oil of pep-
permint, 3 fl. dr. ; syrup of orange peel, q. s. ;
mix, and divide into 240 pills.
6. (B. P.) Rhubarb, in fine powder, 3 oz. ;
Socotrine aloes, in fine powder (some physi-
cians prefer the aqueous extract.—Squire), 24
oz. ; myrrh, in fine powder, 1% oz. ; hard soap,
# oz.; English oil of peppermint, 1% dr. ;
treacle, by weight, 4 oz.; reduce the soap to
fine powder and triturate it with the rhubarb,
aloes, and myrrh; add the treacle and oil, and
beat into a mass.--Dose. 5 to 10 grs.
Obs. The above are tonic, stomachic, and
gently laxative; extremely useful for obviating
costiveness and giving tone to the stomach
and bowels.-Dose. 6 or 8 to 20 grs. The Lon-
don pill is not only the most agreeable, but it
keeps the best.
Pills of Rhubarb and Car'away. See
KITCHENER's PILLS.
Pills of Rhubarb and Chamomile. Syn.
SPEEDIMAN’s PILLS ; PILULAE RHEI ET ANTHE-
MIDIs, L. Prep. From aloes, myrrh, rhubarb
(each in powder), and extract of chamomile, of
each, 1 dr. ; essential oil of chamomile, 10 or
12 drops. For 4-gr. pills. An excellent tonic
and stomachic aperient, particularly useful in
the dyspepsia and loss of appetite of hard
drinkers.--Dose, 1 to 3 pills, either before din-
ner or at bedtime.
Pills of Rhubarb and Copai'ba. Syn. PI-
LULAE RHEI ET COPAIBAE, P. R. BALSAMICAE, L.
Prep. (Swediaur.) Powdered rhubarb and
gum, equal parts; balsam of capaiba, q. S.
Pills of Rhubarb and Gin'ger. Syn. STO-
MACH PILLS; PILULE RHEI ET ZINGIBERIs,
L. Prep. From powdered rhubarb, 1 dr.;
powdered ginger, , dr. Castile soap, 20 grs. ;
tincture or essence of ginger, q. S. to form a
mass. For 30 pills.--Dose. 1 to 6.
Pills of Rhubarb and Ipecacuanha. Syn.
PILUL.A. RHEI ET IPECACUANHAE, L. Prep,
From rhubarb, , dr.; ipecacuanha, 15 grs. ;
opium, 5 grs. ; (each in powder;) oil of cin-
namon, 6 drops; syrup, q. s. For 18 pills.-
Dose. In loss of appetite and spasmodic dys-
pepsia, 1 to 3 pills, twice a day; in dysentery,

936 - PILLS.
diarrhoea, &c., to relieve tormina and tenesmus,
1 every two hours.
Pills of Rhubarb and I'ron. Syn. PILULE
RHEI ET FERRI (Ph. E.), L. Prep. (Ph. E.)
Dried sulphate of iron, 4 parts; extract of
rhubarb, 10 parts ; conserve of red roses, 5
parts; beat them to a proper mass, and divide
this into 5-gr. pills.--Dose. 2 to 4 pills; in the
atonic dyspepsia of debilitated subjects, in
chlorosis, &c.
Pills of Rhubarb and 0x-gall. Syn. PILULE
RHEI ET FELLIS BOVINI, L. Prep. From pow-
dered rhubarb, gum ammoniacum, and inspis-
sated ox-gall, equal parts; beaten up with a
little tincture of ginger or proof spirit, and the
mass divided into 2%-gr. pills. In dyspepsia
and constipation dependent on a torpid action
of the liver.—Dose. 2 to 6 pills.
Pills of Rhubarb and So'da. Syn. PILULE
RHEI ET SODE, P. R. COMP. CUM SODA, L.
Prep. (Guy’s Hosp.) Dried carbonate of
soda, powdered rhubarb, and extract of gentian,
equal parts. For 4}-gr. pills.-Dose. 2 to 4
pills; in acidity, heartburn, diarrhoea, loss of
appetite, &c.
Pills, Richter’s. See PECTORAL PILLS.
Pills, Dr. Robinson's. See PURGATIVE
PILLS.
Pills, Rudius's. Syn. RUDIUS's EXTRACT;
PILULF RUDII, ExTRACTUM RUDII, L. Prep.
1. Colocynth pulp, 6 drs. ; agaric, black helle-
bore, and turpethum root, of each, 4 drs. ; cin-
namon, mace, and cloves, of each, 40 grs. ;
rectified spirit, , pint ; digest for 4 days, ex-
press the tincture, and evaporate it to a proper
consistence for making pills. Formerly esteemed
one of the most safe and certain cathartics
in troublesome constipation.—Dose. 5 to 20
grs.
2. (Ph. E. 1783.) Black hellebore and colo-
cynth, of each, 2 oz. ; water, 4 pints (o. w. m.);
boil to a quart, strain, evaporate to the con-
sistence of honey, and add, of aloes, 2 oz. ;
scammomy (powdered), 1 oz. ; next remove the
vessel from the fire, and further add of sulphate
of potassa, 2 drs. ; oil of cloves, i dr.; and form
the whole into a pill-mass. Resembles the last
(nearly).
Pills, Rufus’s. See PILLS OF ALOES WITH
MYRRH.
Pills of Saffrom. Syn. PITULE CROCI, L.
Prep. From hay saffron, 1 dr. ; myrrh, ; dr. ;
oil of cajeput, 6 drops; syrup of saffron, q. s.
For 36 pills.-Dose. 1 to 3 or 4, occasionally;
A. a stimulant in low spirits, hypochondriasis,
C.
2. (Phoebus.) Saffron, myrrh, and sulphur,
equal parts; inspissated bile, q. s. For 2-gr.
pills.--Dose. 2 to 12 daily; as an emmena-
gogue.
Pills of Sagape'num (Compound). Syn. PI-
LULE SAGAPENT COMPOSITIE, L. Prep. (Ph. L.
1836.) Sagapenum, 1 oz. ; aloes, # dr.; syrup
of ginger, q. S.–Dose. 5 to 20 grs. ; as a stimu-
lant antispasmodic laxative, in dyspepsia with
flatulence, flatulent colic, &c.
Pills of Sal'icin, Syn. PITULE SAIICTY:
L. Prep. From salicin, ; dr. ; powdered thi.
barb, 20 grs. ; extract of gentian, q, S. tº mi.
For 4-gr. pills.--Dose. 2 to 4, every thº
hours, during the apyrexia of intermittents
Pills of Scam'mony (Compound), Sym, P.
IULAE SCAMMONIT COMPOSITIE, L. Prep, (§
B. Hosp.) Scammony, 24 grs. ; ginger, 20gº;
aloes and gamboge, of each, 12 grs.; trºll,
q. S.; mix, and divide into 12 pills. A power. |
ful cathartic and vermifuge.—Dose, 1 tº
pills.
Scot's Pills. Prep. From aloes, 9 lº
jalap, 3 lbs. ; gamboge and ginger, of each,
lb.; beaten with treacle, q. S. See ANDERSON:
SCOT’S PILLS.
Dr. Scott's Billious and Liver Pills, Pº,
(Cooley.) Compound extract of colocynthſ.
L. 1836), 8 oz. ; powdered rhubarb, 401;
powdered myrrh, 2 oz. ; soft soap, # 07; i
of caraway, 2% drs. ; strong syrup of Saffº,
q. s. to form a pill-mass. “There are twenty
five 3%-gr. pills in each 1s. 1%d. box.” ". .
has been stated that these pills contain :
minute portion of antimony.” (“Anat,
Quackery.”)
Sedative Pills. Syn. PILULE SEDATE
L. Prep. 1. Hydrochlorate of morphis,
grs. ; powdered Sumbul, 20 grs.; alcoholiº
tract of Indian hemp, dr. For 2-gr. pills-
Dose. 1 to 3, twice or thrice daily; in twº
sive nervous irritability, painful mensin:
tion, &c.
2. (U. C. Hosp.) Camphor, 1 dr.; relſ.
it to powder by means of rectified spirit, 3.
4 drops; add of extract of henbane, 20gs
and divide the mass into 20 pills. To ill
pain and excitement, &c.—Dose, 1 to 2 pills
3. To either of the above, add of powdº
rhubarb and extract of gentian, of each,
grs., and divide the mass into 4-gr, pills-
Dose. 1 to 4 pills; when, besides the ºilº
symptoms, the stomach and bowels are dist
dered.
Sedillot’s Febrifuge Pills. Prep. From pº
dered opium, 3 grs. ; sulphate of quining, 1.
grs. ; confection of opium, 10 grs, OT ||
For 12 pills.--Dose. 1 to 2, every sº
hour, during the intermission of an ague.
Pills of Sen’ma. Syn. PILULE SENNE, !
S. COMPOSITIE, L. Prep. 1. Powdered sºm
1 dr. ; extract of rhubarb, dr.; powded
capsicum, 4 grs.; oil of juniper, 6 or 8 in):
For 3-gr. pills. An aperient well suited ſº
females.—Dose. 5 to 8 pills.
2. (Hufeland.) Powdered senna, 1 dr; &
tract of dandelion, q. S. to mix. For 30 pil
As the last.
Smith's Pills. Prep. From powdered alº
4 drs. ; jalap, 2 drs. ; ginger and soft sºap t
each, 1 dr. ; oil of juniper, dr, ; emetictatºſ
6 grs. For 120 pills. Laxative and dimº
—Dose. 1 to 4, at bedtime, or early in tº
morning. - -
Dr. Hugh Smith's Pills. See SIMM
PILLS.
|



PILLS.
937

Pills of Soap. Syn. PILUTE SAPONIS, P.
CUM SAPONE, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) White
Castile soap, 32 parts; powdered marsh-mallow
root, 4 parts; powdered nitrate of potassa, 1
part; beat them to a mass, and divide this
into 4-gr. pills. In habitual costiveness, cal-
culary affections, &c.—Dose. 1 to 6 pills, twice
or thrice a day.
Pills of Soap (Compound). Syn. PILLs of
SOAP AND OPIUM, LAUDANUM PILLS ; PILULA
SAPONIS COMPOSITA (B. P., Ph. L.), PILULE
SAPONIS CUM OPIO, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.)
Opium and liquorice, of each (in powder), 2
drs. ; soft soap (Ph. L.), 6 drs. ; beat them to
a uniform mass.
2. (Ph. D. & Ph. U. S.) Opium (in fine
powder), 3 oz. ; Castile soap, 2 oz. ; distilled
water, , fl. dr., or q. s. ; reduce the soap to
powder, mix it with the other ingredients, and
beat the whole together, as before. See PILLS
OF OPIUM.
Obs. The above pills contain 1-5th part of
their weight in dry opium. The dose is 3 to
10 grs., in the usual cases in which the admi-
nistration of opium is indicated. Mr. Skey,
the eminent surgeon of St. Bartholomew's
Hospital, has shown the great value of this
pill in promoting the healing of obstinate
ulcers, more especially those of the legs.
Pills of Soda. Syn. PILULE SODAF CARBO-
NATIs, L. Prep. (Ph. E. 1817.) Exsiccated
carbonate of soda, 4 parts; Castile soap, 3
parts; syrup, q. S. to form a mass. Antacid
and slightly laxative.—Dose. 10 to 20 grs.
This pill was a great favourite of the once
celebrated Dr. Beddoes.
Speediman's Pills. Prep. (Cooley.) Aloes,
3 drs. ; rhubarb, myrrh, (all in powder,) and
extract of chamomile, of each, 1 dr. ; oil of
chamomile, 20 drops. For 4-gr. pills. An
excellent aperient, tonic, and stomachic.—
Dose. 2 to 4 pills, as a purgative; 1, as a sto-
machic or dinner pill.
Splenet'ic Pills. Syn. PILULAE ANTISPLE-
NETICAE, L. Prep. (Saunders.) Strained aloes
and gum ammoniacum, of each, 3 drs. ;
myrrh and bryony, of each, dr. For 4-gr.
pills.-Dose. 3 to 5. “Extolled in amenor-
rhoea and hypochondriasis.” (Dr. R. E.
Griffith.)
Pills of Squill (Compound). Syn. Cough
PILLs, PILLS OF SQUILLS AND GINGER ; PI-
LULA scILLA. COMPOSITE (B. P., Ph. L.),
PILULE scILLE COMPOSITAE (Ph. D.), P.
scILLE (Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Freshly
powdered squills, 1 dr.; powdered ginger and
powdered ammoniacum, of each, 2 drs. ; mix,
add, of soft soap (Ph. L.), 3 drs. ; treacle, 1
dr. ; and beat the whole together, so that a
mass may be formed.
2. (Ph. E.) Squills, 5 parts; ammoniacum,
ginger, (all in fine powder,) and Spanish soap,
of each, 4 parts; conserve of red roses, 2
parts; mix, as before, and divide the mass
into 5-gr. pills.
3. (Ph.D.) Squills (in fine powder), 2% drs. ;
ammoniacum, ginger, and Castile soap, of each
(in fine powder), 2 drs. ; treacle, oz.
4. (B.P.) Squill (in fine powder), 1}; gin-
ger (in fine powder), 1; ammoniacum (in
powder), 1 ; hard soap (in powder), l; treacle
(by weight), 2, or a sufficiency; mix the pow-
ders, add the treacle, and beat into a mass-
Dose. 5 to 10 grains.
Obs. Compound squill pill is a most useful
expectorant, in chronic coughs, asthmas, bron-
chial affections, difficulty of breathing, &c.;
and, combined with calomel and foxglove, and,
occasionally, with croton oil, as a diuretic, &c.,
in dropsies. Unfortunately, however, it soon
spoils; and, therefore, to be effective as a re-
medy, it must be recently prepared. As an
expectorant, it should not be administered
until the inflammatory symptoms have been
subdued by purgatives or bleeding. A little
powdered opium, or extract of henbane, is occa-
sionally added, to allay irritation.—Dose. 5 to
20 grs., twice or thrice a day, accompanied by
an occasional aperient.
Stahl’s Pills. See APERIENT PILLS.
Starkey’s Pills. Prep. (Original formula.)
Extract of opium, 4 oz. ; mineral benzoar and
nutmeg, of each, 2 oz. ; saffron and Virginian
snake-root, of each, 1 oz. ; Starkey’s soap, 3 lb.;
oil of Sassafras, 3 oz. ; tincture of antimony
(Old Ph.), 2 fl. oz. Anodyne, diaphoretic, &c.—
Dose. 3 to 10 grs. The formula already given
under MATTHEW's PILLS is erroneously as-
signed to this pill by some writers.
Mrs. Stephen’s Pills. This once celebrated
remedy for stone was prepared from the cal-
cined shells of eggs and snails, made into 3-gr.
pills with soft soap. Its active ingredients were,
consequently, lime and potash.
Stim'ulant Pills. Syn. PILULE STIMU-
LANTES, L. Prep. 1. Capsicum, dr. ; mi-
trate of silver, 2 grs. ; conserve of hips, q. s.
For 12 pills.-Dose. 2 to 4, washed down with
a spoonful of warm spirit-and-water, and re-
peated hourly, until reaction ensues; in cho-
lera, &c.
2. (A. T. Thomson.) Strychnine, 1 gr. ;
acetic acid, 1 drop; crum of bread, 20 grs.;
mix very carefully, and divide the mass into
10 pills.--Dose. 1, every six hours; in para-
lysis arising from lead.
Stoerck's Pills. Syn. PILULA. CONII, P.
CICUTE, L. Prep. From extract of hemlock,
1 dr.; powdered hemlock, q. S. to make a mass.
For 2-gr. pills.--Dose, 1 to 4, twice a day; in
various glandular and visceral enlargements,
pulmonary affections, cancer, scrofula, neu-
ralgia, &c.
Stomach Pills. Syn. PILULE STOMACHICAE,
L. Prep. 1. Ipecacuanha, 10 grs.; sumbul
and extract of rhubarb, of each, 30 grs. ; pow-
dered quassia, 20grs. ; oil of Sassafras, 6 drops;
beaten up with essence of ginger (strongest),
q. s. For 3-gr. pills.-Dose. 1 to 3, thrice daily;
in loss of appetite, flatulence, dyspepsia, &c.
2. (Dr. Hugh Smith's.) From aloes, rhu-
barb, ginger, (all powdered.) and Sagapenum,


938 PILLS.
of each, I dr.; oils of peppermint and cloves,
of each, 10 drops; balsam of Peru, q. S. to
mix. For 5-gr. pills.--Dose. 2 or 3 nightly;
or 1 to 2, before dinner. For other formulae,
see DINNER, APERIENT, CoMPOUND RHUBARB,
ALOES AND MASTIC PILLS, &c.
Pills of Sto'rax (Compound). Syn. STORAX
PILLs; PILULA STYRAcis COMPOSITA (Ph. L.),
PILULAE STYRACIS (Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1.
(Ph. L.) Prepared storax, 6 drs. ; saffron and
powdered opium, of each, 2 drs. ; beat them to-
gether to a uniform mass. Contains 1-5th of
its weight of opium. -
2. (Ph. E.) Opium and saffron, of each, 1
part; extract of styrax, 2 parts; beat them to
a uniform mass, and divide this into 4-gr. pills.
Contains 1-4th part of opium.
Obs. The storax is here chiefly employed to
disguise the odour and taste of opium. The
name of the preparation has been chosen so
that the word ‘opium' may not appear in the
prescription, a point highly necessary with
certain patients.--Dose. 3 to 10 grs. ; as com-
pound soap pill, and as an anodyne and expec-
torant in chronic coughs, &c.
Pills of Stramo"nium. Syn. PILULE STRA-
MONII, L. Prep. 1. Stramonium seeds (in
powder), 12 grs. (or leaves, 25 grs.); powdered
camphor and extract of seneka root, of each,
1 dr. ; powdered savine, 1% dr. ; oil of cajeput,
15 drops. For 2%-gr. pills.--Dose. 2 to 4,
thrice daily; in rheumatism, &c.
2. (Sir H. Halford.) Extract of stramonium
and liquorice powder, of each, 1 dr. ; powdered
Castile soap, 2 drs. ; mucilage, q. S. to mix. For
60 pills.--Dose. 1, night and morning ; in
asthmas, &c.
Pills of Strych'nine. Syn. PILULE STRYCH-
NIE, L. Prep. (Magendie.) Strychnine, 2
grs. ; conserve of hips, 36 grs. ; (liquorice
powder, q. S.;) mix very carefully, divide the
mass into 24 pills, and silver them.--Dose. 1
pill, night and morning; in amaurosis, im-
potence, paralysis, &c.
Pills of Sulphate of I'ron. Syn. PILULE
FERRI SULPHATIS (Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph.
E.) Dried sulphate of iron and conserve of
red roses, of each 2 parts; extract of dande-
lion, 5 parts. For 5-gr. pills. A useful cha-
lybeate tonic.—Dose, 1 to 2, twice or thrice
daily; in dyspepsia, chlorosis, amenorrhoea,
C.
2. (Ph. E. 1817.) Sulphate of iron (dried),
1 oz. ; extract of chamomile, 1% oz. ; oil of
peppermint, 1 dr. ; syrup, q. s. As the last.
3. (Ph. U. S.) As No. 1, but substituting
extract of gentian for extract of dandelion.
For other formulae, see Hoop ER’s PILLS, &c.
Pills of Sulphate of Quinine'. Syn. PITU-
TE QUINIAE SULPHATIS, P. Q. DISULPHATIS,
L. Prep. 1. Sulphate of quinine, 20 grs. ;
extract of gentian, 40 grs. For 20 pills.
2. (Ph. U. S.) Sulphate of quinine, 2 drs.;
powdered gum, dr. ; strained honey, q. s. For
120 pills. Each pill contains 1 gr. of the
sulphate or disulphate of quinine,—Dose. 1 or 2,
twice a day, as a tonic and stomachic; 6 tº
12, every two or three hours, during the tº
missions of agues.
Obs. Various additions are often made tº
the above formulae, according to the indiğ
tions, by which numerous other useful pil
are produced. Thus, potassio-tartrate of anti
mony is frequently added in obstinate intº
mittents; iodide of potassium, in scrofull
affections; foxglove, in the hectic fever i
phthisis; bitter tonics and aromatics, in dy:
pepsia, flatulence, &c.; carbonate of Soda ſt
magnesia, in acidity and heartburn; Calomé
mercurial pill, in bilious affections; rhubal
and aloes, in bowelly affections; sulphate iſ
iron and other chalybeates, in debility, amº
rhoea, and chlorosis; calomel, as an alteratiº
&c., &c.
Pills of Sulphate of Zimc. Syn. PITUI
ZINCI SULPHATIS, P. Z. S. COMPOSITE, I
Prep. 1. Sulphate of zinc, 12 grs.; extractſ
gentian, ; dr. ; liquorice powder, q, S, FM
20 pills. In dyspepsia, epilepsy, and vario:
convulsive diseases.
2. (Dr. Paris.) Sulphate of zinc, 10 gº;
powdered myrrh, 1% dr.; conserve of tº
q. s. For 30 pills.-Dose. 1 to 2, twice (
thrice daily; in hooping-cough, &c.
Pills, Syph'ilis. Syn. PILULE ANTISYPHI.
IITICE, L. See the various pills of mercury
gold, &c. The pills of corrosive sublimit:
commonly pass under this name.
Pills, Tangore. See ARSENICAL PILIS,
Pills of Tan'nic Acid. Syn. PILULE TV.
NINI, P. ACIDI TANNICI, L. Prep. From tal
nic acid or tannin and powdered sugar, of ºld,
# dr. ; conserve of roses, q. s. For 24 pills
— Dose. 1 or 2 pills, thrice daily, in diarrhº;
or 2, every three hours, in internal hºm).
rhages, spitting of blood, &c.
Pills of Tar. Syn. PILELE PICIS LIQUID
L. Prep. From tar, 1 dr. ; powdered gº
tian, ; dr., or q. s. For 24 pills. Stimulan,
diuretic, and sudorific.—Dose. 1 to 4, thriº
a day; in dropsies, worms, ichthyosis, ſ
several other skin diseases, &c.
Pills of Tarax'acum. Syn. PILULE TARMY
ACI, L. Prep. 1. Extract of dandelion,1 dr:
powdered rhubarb, q. S.; divide into 3}.g.
pills. In dyspepsia, &c., complicated with
congestion of the liver.
2. (St. Marie.) Extract of dandelion and
Castile soap, equal parts; liquid acetăţ (;
potassa, q. S. to mix. For 4-gr. pills. As
diuretic in dropsy.
3. Extract of dandelion, 1 dr.; mercuſſ
pill, 20 grs.; powdered digitalis, 15 grs.; liquº
rice powder, q. s. For 24 pills, Dose, 1.
afterwards increased to 2 or 3; in dropsy
connected with liver disease.
Pills, Thomson's Stomach and Liver, Pº,
From extract of dandelion, 1 dr.; Scammomy
and rhubarb, of each, 15 grs. For 14 pills-
Dose. 2 pills, night and morning; in hysteri,
hypochondriasis, and chronic inflammationſ
the liver or kidneys.



PILLS-PIMENTO. 939
Pills, Tomic. Syn. PILULE TONICE, L.
Prep. 1. Sulphate of iron, ginger, and myrrh,
(all in powder,) equal parts; conserve of roses,
q. s. ; mix, and divide into 4-gr. pills.-Dose,
1, twice a day; in debility, chlorosis, &c.
2. Powdered myrrh and sulphate of iron,
of each, 1 dr. ; disulphate of quinine, dr. ;
powdered capsicum, 15 grs. ; conserve of roses,
q. S. to mix. For 60 pills.-Dose. 1 or 2,
twice or thrice a day; in debility, dyspepsia,
ague, &c.
3. (Dr. Collier.) Tartrate of iron and ex-
tract of gentiam, of each, 1 dr.; oil of cinna-
mon, 2 drops. For 30 pills.--Dose. 3 to 6,
three or four times a day. A good stomachic
tonic.
4. (Dr. Collier.) Oxide of zinc, ; dr. (or
sulphate of zinc, 20 grs.); myrrh, 2 drs. ; cam-
phor, 20 grs.; confection of hips, to mix. For
40 pills.--Dose. 1 or two pills, three times a
day; in epilepsy, chorea, and other nervous
disorders, debility, &c.
5. (Dr. A. T. Thomson.) Rhubarb and
ginger, of each, ; dr. ; extract of chamomile,
1 dr.; divide into 30 pills.-Dose. 2 or 3,
twice a day; in dyspepsia and chlorosis.
6. (Dr. A. T. Thomson.) Sesquioxide of
iron and extract of hemlock, of each, 1 dr. ;
mix, and divide into 20 pills.--Dose. 1 or 2,
twice a day; in fluor albus, scrofula, &c.
Several other formulae for tonic pills will be
found under the names of the leading ingre-
dients, &c. (See above.)
Pills of Wale"rian (Compound). Syn. PI-
IULA. VALERIANZE COMPOSITIE, L. Prep.
(Dupuytren.) Powdered valerian, ; dr.;
castor and white oxide of zinc, of each, 20 grs.;
syrup, q. S. to mix. For 18 pills.—Dose. 2 or
3, thrice daily; in hysteria, hypochondriasis,
chlorosis, hemicrania, &c.
Pills of Wale"riamate of Zinc. Syn. PI-
LULE VALERIANAs, L. Prep. From vale-
rianate of zinc and powdered gum, of each,
15 grs. ; conserve of hips, q. S. to form a mass.
For 18 pills. Dose. 1 pill, twice daily; in
nervous headache, neuralgia, hysteria, &c.
Pills, Wallet's, See PILLS OF CARBONATE
OF IRON.
Pills, Wance's. See APERIENT PILLS.
Pills of Vera'trime. Syn. PILULAE VERA-
TRINE, L. Prep. 1. (Magendie.) Veratrine,
# gr. ; powdered gum arabic and syrup of
gum, of each, q. S. to form 6 pills. (See
below.)
2. (Turnbull.) Veratrine, 1 gr. ; extract
of henbane and liquorice powder, of each,
12 grs. ; mik, and divide into 12 pills.--Dose.
1 pill, every 3 hours; in dropsy, epilepsy,
hysteria, paralysis, nervous palpitations, &c.
This should be prepared and used with great
caution.
Pills, Ward's Red. Syn. WARD's ANTIMO-
NIAL PILLS. Prep. From glass of antimony
(finely levigated), 4 oz.; dragon’s blood, 1 oz.;
mountain wine, q. S. to form a mass. For 1%-gr.
pills. Emetic. “They are recommended in
obstinate rheumatic affections, in foulness of
the stomach and bowels, &c. Their action is
often of a very unpleasant character.” (“Anat.
of Quackery.')
Pills, Lady Webster's. See DINNER PILLs.
Pills, Whitehead’s Essence of Mustard, Bal-
sam of tolu, with resin. (Dr. Paris.)
Pills, Whytt's. Prep. (Radius.) Aloes,
chloride of iron, and extract of horehound, of
each # dr.; assafoetida, 1% dr. For 2-gr. pills.
— Dose. 2 to 5, thrice daily; in leucorrhoea,
chlorosis, hysteria, &c., with constipation.
Pills, Worm. Syn. PILULE ANTHELMIN-
TICE, P. VERMIFUGE, L. Prep. 1. Calomel,
1 oz. ; sugar, 1% oz. ; mucilage, q. S.; mix,
and divide into 240 pills.-Dose. 1 to 2, over-
night, followed by a strong dose of castor
oil early the next morning.
2. Gamboge, 6 grs.; calomel, 5 grs.; mucilage,
q. s. ; divide into 3 pills. For a morning's
dose, fasting,
3. Extract of wormwood, calomel, and pow-
dered scammony, equal parts. For 4-gr. pills.
—Dose. 2 to 1, as the last. For ascarides, and
other small worms.
4. (Bresmer.) Powdered aloes and tansy
seed, of each, ; dr. ; oil of rue, 9 or 10 drops.
For 12 pills.-Dose. 3 to 6, in the morning,
fasting, and repeated in two or three hours.
5. (Phoebus.) Iron filings, dr.; assafoetida,
1} dr.; essential oil of tansy, 10 or 12 drops;
extract of wormwood, q. S.; mix, and divide
into 80 pills. Dose. 6 pills, thrice daily.
6. (Peschier.) Ethereal extract of male
fern, 30 drops; extract of dandelion, 1 dr.;
powdered rhizomes of male fern, q. S. to mix.
For 30 pills. In tape-worm.—Dose. 6 to 15,
at bedtime; the dose being repeated in the
morning, and then followed in an hour by a
strong dose of castor oil.
Pills, Wordsell’s (Kaye's). Prep. (Cooley.)
Powdered aloes, gamboge, and ginger, equal
parts; together with a very small quantity of
diaphoretic antimony, beaten into a mass with
either syrup or treacle, and divided into 2%-gr.
pills. “There are about 4% dozen pills in
each 1s. 1; d. box.” “The dose, as given in
the directions, is from 2 to 8 pills (or even
10 to 12) daily.” (“Anat. of Quackery.") They
frequently operate with great violence.
Pills, Wyndham’s (Lee’s). Prep. (Cooley.)
Aloes and gamboge, of each (in powder), 3 oz.;
Castile soap and extract of cow-parsnip, of
each, 1 oz. ; mitre, oz. For 5-gr. pills.
A powerful drastic cathartic.—Dose. 1 to 3
pills.
Pills of Zinc, See PILLS OF OXIDE, SUI-
PHATE, and VALERIANATE OF ZINC, &c.
PIMAR/IC ACID. A resin acid first ob-
tained by Laurent from the turpentine of
Pinus maritima (Bordeaux turpentine), by the
action of hot alcohol.
PIMENT0, Syn. ALLSPICE, CLOVE PEPPER,
JAMAICA P., PIMENTO BERRIES; PIMENTA
(B.P., Ph. L. E. & D.), PIPER CARYOPHYLLA-
TUM, P. JAMAICENSE, P. ODORATUM, PIMENTAE



940 PIMPLES-PITCH.
BACCE, L. “The dried unripe berries of the
allspice tree, Eugenia pimenta, from the West
Indies”—B. P. “The immature fruit of Eu-
genia pimenta (Myrtus pimenta, Linn.)”—Ph.
L. It possesses a mixed odour of cinnamon,
cloves, and nutmegs, which, with its other
properties, it for the most yields to alcohol,
ether, and water. It is a stimulant and tonic,
and is much esteemed as an adjuvant in me-
dicines prescribed in dyspepsia, flatulence,
gout, hysteria, &c.; and also to cover the
taste of disagreeable medicines.—Dose. 5 to
30 grs., bruised or in powder. See EssENCE,
OILs (Volatile), SPIRITs, and WATERs.
PIM'PLES. See ERUPTIONs (Papular).
PINCH'BECK. A gold-like alloy of copper
and zinc. See DUTCH GOLD.
PINE APPLE. Syn. ANANAs. The fruit of
Ananassa sativa, a plant of the natural order
JBromeliaceae. It is astringent, esculent, and
possesses a rich flavour and odour. In Europe
it is chiefly used as a delicacy for the table;
but in tropical climates it is said to be valuable
in renal diseases. See ESSENCE, &c.
PI/NEY TAL'LOW. Syn. PINEY RESIN, P.
DAMMAR. An oleo-resinous substance obtained
from the fruit of Wateria indica, a tree common
in Malabar, by boiling it with water. It is
intermediate between fat and wax, makes good
soap and excellent candles. It melts at 98°
Fahr. Sp. gr. 9250 to '9265.
PI'NIC ACID. The portion of common resin
or colophony which is soluble in cold alcohol of
sp. gr. 833.
PINK. A well-known shade of light red.
The name is also applied to several pigments,
consisting of whiting stained with liquid dyes.
See RED and YELLOW PIGMENTs, &c.
PINK DYE. Prep. From washed saffiower,
2 oz. ; salt of tartar, oz.: cold water, 1
quart; digest for 3 hours, express the liquor,
and strain it. Used as a cosmetic, and to dye
silk stockings, &c., of a rose colour. The
colour is brought out by afterwards applying
to, or passing the articles through, water
soured with lemon juice. See SAUCERs (Pink).
PIP'ERINE, CI, Hign Oa. Syn. PIPERINA,
PIPERINUM, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) Alcoholic
extract of black pepper is treated with a weak
solution of caustic potassa (1 to 100), and the
residuum, after being washed with cold water,
is dissolved in alcohol; the solution is next
agitated with a little animal charcoal, and the
filtrate is allowed to evaporate spontaneously;
the product may be purified by the re-solution
in alcohol, and re-crystallisation.
Prop., &c. Colourless, or only slightly yel-
low; tasteless; inodorous; fusible; and crys-
tallisable; insoluble in water; freely soluble
in strong spirit, and in the acids; very feebly
basic ; (a few definite compounds have, how-
ever, been obtained with difficulty;) reddened
by oil of vitriol. It has been much employed
in Italy and on the Continent as a febrifuge.—
Lose. 2 to 10 grs., frequently repeated, during
the apyrexia of intermittents.
Obs. An assay for its piperine is the Qi
certain method of testing the quality of eitlº
black or white pepper. For this purpº
weighted quantity of the sample is reduced tº
powder, and is exhausted with alcohol of tº
sp. gr. 833; the mixed tinctures are then tº
porated to an extract, which is treated as alſº
See PEPPER.
PIPES. (In confectionery.) These areform
from any of the common lozenge-masses, ly
rolling them into cylinders of about thetlik
ness of a goose-quill. They are frequel!!
medicated.
PISTA/CHIO NUTS. Syn. PISTAGIANT
NUCES PISTACIAE, L. The kernels of the fini
of Piscalia vera (Linn.), one of the turpenti.
trees. They closely resemble almonds, but in
sweeter, and form a green emulsion with Walº
Used in confectionery and perfumery, andãº
as a dessert fruit.
PITCH. Syn. BLACK PITCH, BOILED 1.
STONE P., WooD P.; PIX (Ph.L.), PIXNIGH
L. “A dry bitumen prepared from lili
pitch.” (Ph. L.) The residuum from bºil;
tar in an open iron pot, or in a still, until tº
volatile and liquid portion is driven off. Th
volatile products principally consist of cri
pyroligneous acid and oil of tar, Pitchi
chiefly employed in ship-building. As :
medicine, it is stimulant and toniº, all
has been used internally in some iſ
diseases, and in piles. An ointment mill
of it is also extensively used in cutant
affections of the scalp.–Dose. 10 gº,
# dr.
Burgundy Pitch. Syn. WHITE PITCH, HE
GUNDY PINE RESIN ; PIX BURGUNDICA, (BP,
Ph. L. E. & D.), L. “Impure resin prºpºd
from the turpentine of Abies excelsa,” or Nº.
way spruce fir. (Ph. L.) “A concrete tº
nous exudation, probably, in a great mêlsº
from Abies earcelsa. (Ph. E.) It is cliff
used in plasters.
Obs. The importation of this substancel
for some years past been gradually lessºil;
in amount, in consequence of the substitutiº
for it of a fictitious pitch, made by melti.
common resin with linseed oil, and colouri;
the mass with annotta or palm oil. The phy
siological action of the two articles is, hº
evar, considerably different, since Burgun
pitch acts upon the skin as a powerful lº
irritant, exciting a slight degree of inſiſ
mation, and not unfrequently producing :
pimply eruption and an exudation of purulº
matter. It is celebrated for its effects whº
employed as a plaster in all cases whº
warmth, support, and long adhesion to theski,
are desirable; and in the latter quality most
stance equals it. The factitious Burgun'ſ
pitch has similar properties, but in an in
mensely less degree.
PREPARED BURGUNDY PITCH (PIX Bº
GUNDICA PRAEPARATA—Ph. L.) is oriº
to be obtained in the same way as tº
adopted for strained ammoniacum. Tº

PITCOAL-PLASTER. 941.
plan is, however, seldom, if ever, adopted in
trade.
Burgundy Pitch (Facti"tious). Syn. PIx
BURGUNDICA FACTITIA, L. Prep. By melt-
ing good yellow resin, 1 cwt., with linseed oil,
1 gall, and palm oil (bright), q. S. to colour.
The mixture is allowed to cool considerably,
and is then pulled with the hands in the same
way as lead plaster is treated; after which it
is placed in “bladders’ or “stands’ for sale.
Obs. The product of the above formula is
the ‘Burgundy pitch’ of the shops. The
“pulling' or ‘working’ destroys the trans-
lucency of the resin, and imparts to it the
peculiar semi-opacity of foreign Burgundy
pitch. Cold water is commonly employed to
cool it down. Annotta is often substituted for
palm oil as a colouring substance. The addi-
tion of some of the “droppings' or ‘bottoms’
of Canada balsam, Chio turpentine, oil of ju-
niper, &c., renders this article nearly equal to
foreign pitch; but in commerce this is never
attempted, the aim being only the production
of a lively colour with moderate toughness. A
common melting-pan and fire (if clean, and
carefully managed) will succeed sufficiently;
but, both for safety and convenience, steam is
preferable, and on the large scale, almost indis-
pensable. A good workman can pull and put
into stands or casks about 5 cwt. daily; or
from 1% cwt. to 3 cwt. in bladders, the latter
quantity depending on the size of the bladders.
(See above.)
Canada Pitch. Syn. HEMLOCK GUM, H.
PITCH. Similar to Burgundy pitch; but from
the Abies Canadenses, or hemlock spruce fir.
Jews' Pitch. Asphaltum.
Mineral Pitch. Indurated mineral bitumen.
See ASPHALTUM, BITUMEN, &c. -
PIT'C0AL. Syn. CoAL; HouTLLE, Fr.;
STEINKoHLE, Ger. This article has been truly
described as the most valuable of all those
mineral substances from which Great Britain
derives its prosperity, and the one which may
be regarded as the main support of the whole
system of British production. It fuses the
metals, it produces the steam which sets our
machinery in motion, and, in short, it may be
said to render all the resources of this country
available for use.
The more important kinds of coal may be
classified as follows:–1. Lignite or brown
coal (see page 691).-2. Bituminous or caking
coals. The most widely diffused and valuable
of English coals. They are subdivided into :
—a. Caking coal. Splinters on heating, but
the fragments then fuse together in a semi-
pasty mass. The chief sources of this valu-
able variety of coal are the Newcastle and
Wigan districts. b. Cherry coal or soft coal.
Lustre very bright; does not fuse, ignites
well and burns rapidly. Glasgow, Stafford-
shire, Derbyshire, Nottingham, Lancashire,
&c. c. Splint, rough, or hard coal. Black
and glistening; does not ignite readily, but
burns up to a clear hot fire. It constitutes
the bulk of the great coal fields of North and
South Staffordshire, and occurs in the Glasgow
district, in Shropshire, Leicestershire, War-
wickshire, &c. d. Cannel or parrot coal. Dense
and compact, having a shelly fracture, and
taking a polish-like jet. Splinters in the fire,
and burns clearly and brightly. Wigan and
other parts of Lancashire, West Glasgow, &c.
The curious deposit at Bathgate, near Edin-
burgh, commonly known as ‘Boghead cannel
coal,” or “Torbanehill mineral, differs con-
siderably from the ordinary “cannels.”—3.
Anthracite or stone-coal. The densest, hardest,
and most lustrous of all kinds of pit-coal.
Burns with little flame or smoke, but gives
great heat. South Wales, Devonshire, &c.—4.
Steam coal. Approaches nearly to anthracite.
Admirably adapted for steam-vessels. South
Wales, Tyne district. &c.
The quality of coal may be ascertained by
either directly testing its heating power or
by chemical analysis. In the investigations
undertaken at the Museum of Economic
Geology, under the directions of Sir H. De la
Beche, and which furnished the materials for
the celebrated “Admiralty Reports,’ three dif-
ferent methods were adopted for this purpose."
These consisted in-the determination of the
quantity of water which a given weight of the
coal was capable of converting into steam—
the quantity of litharge which it was capable of
reducing to the metalic state, and, lastly,–its
ultimate analysis by combustion with oxide of
copper. See ORGANIC SUBSTANCEs.
The quantity of sulphur in coal is another
matter of importance that may be determined
by chemical analysis. (See SULPHUR.) The
presence of more than 1% of sulphur renders
coal unfit for the economical production of
good light-gas, and more than 2% of sulphur
renders it objectionable for use as domestic
fuel. In like manner, coals containing mineral
ingredients in excess are to be avoided, not
merely on account of the quantity of ashes
left by them, but for their tendency to vitrify
upon the bars of the furnace, and to produce
what is technically called ‘clinkers.’ The
presence of much silica or alumina, and more
particularly of any of the salts of lime, in
“steam coal,” is, on this account, highly objec-
tionable.
For some further information connected
with this subject, see ANTHRACITE, CHIM-
.NEYs, CoRE, FUEL, GAs, LIGNITE, OILS,
(Mineral), ORGANIC SUBSTANCEs, &c.
PLAICE. The Platessa vulgaris, a well-
known flat fish, common to both the English
and Dutch coasts. Its flesh is good, and easy
of digestion, but more watery than that of the
flounder.
PLASTER. (In building, &c.) See MoR-
TAR.
Plaster of Paris. Calcined sulphate of lime,
See ALABASTER, GYPSUM, LIME, &c.
| PLASTER. (In pharmacy.) Syn. EM-
1 See Watts's ‘Dict, of Chemistry,’ vol. i. page 1033,


942 PLASTER.
PIASTRUM, L. Plasters (emplastra) are
external applications that possess sufficient
consistence not to adhere to the fingers
when cold, but which become soft and
adhesive at the temperature of the human
body.
Plasters are chiefly composed of unctuous
substances united to metallic oxides, or to
powders, wax, or resin. They are usually
formed, whilst warm, into #-lb. rolls, about 8
or 9 inches long, and wrapped in paper. When
required for use, a little is melted off the roll
by means of a heated iron spatula, and spread
upon leather, linen, or silk. The less adhesive
plasters, when spread, are usually surrounded
with a margin of resin plaster, to cause them
to adhere.
In the preparation of plasters, the heat of a
water bath, or of steam, should alone be em-
ployed. On the large scale, well-cleaned and
polished copper or tinned copper pans, sur-
rounded with iron jackets, supplied with high-
pressure steam, are used for this purpose. The
resins and gum resins that enter into their
composition are previously purified by strain-
ing. After the ingredients are mixed, and
the mass has acquired sufficient consistence by
cooling, portions of it are taken into the hands,
anointed with a little olive oil, and well
pulled or worked until it becomes solid enough
to admit of being formed into rolls. To pro-
mote the cooling of the plaster it is usual to
plunge it into cold water, and to expose it to
the action of the fluid by working it about
under the surface, after which it is well pulled
in the hands to remove the superfluous water;
but this process must not, on any account, be
practised on compound plasters, containing
odorous substances, or substances soluble in
water. These should be suffered to cool on an
oiled marble slap, until sufficiently “stiff’ to
be formed into rolls. Many plasters, as those
of lead and resin, derive much of their
whiteness and beauty from the treatment just
referred to. White plasters are not, however,
always the best; but they are those which are
most admired, and the most sought after in
trade.
Plasters are preserved by enveloping the
rolls with paper, to exclude the air as much
as possible, and by keeping them in a cool
situation. A few, as those of belladonna
and ammoniacum with mercury, are com-
monly placed in pots. When kept for any
length of time, they are all more or less apt
to become hard and brittle, and to lose their
colour. When this is the case, they should be
remelted by a gentle heat, and sufficient oil
added to the mass to restore it to a proper
consistence.
The operation of spreading plasters for use
requires skill and experience on the part of
the operator. Various textures are employed
for the purpose, of which linen or cotton cloth,
or leather, are those most generally employed.
Silk and satin are used for ‘court plaster.”
The shape and size must be regulated by tº
part to which they are to be applied.
On the large scale plasters are spread ly
means of a ‘spreading machine.’
Compound plasters are now much less fº
quently employed in medicine than formerly
Those principally in use are such as affi
protection to sores and abraded surfaces, all
give support to the parts. A few, howevº,
which contain acrid, stimulating, and marº
substances, and operate as rubefacients,blisºn
or anodynes, are still retained in the Pham!
copoeias.
Plaster of Ac"omite. Syn. EMPIASTRT
ACONITI, L. Prep. (Curtis.) Gently evº
rate tincture of aconite to the consistence of
soft extract, then spread a very small portin
over the surface of a common adhesive plast,
on either calico or leather. Mr. Curtis his
strongly recommended this plaster in nº
ralgia. A little of the alcoholic extract my
be employed instead of that obtained frº
from the tincture.
Adhe'rent Plaster.
(Compound).
Adhe'sive Plaster. See RESIN PIAST:
CourT P., &c.
Ammoniacal Plaster. Syn. DR, KII.
LAND’s VOLATILE PLASTER ;
AMMONIAE, E. A. HYDROCHLORATIS, L. Pºp
Take of lead plaster, 1 oz. ; white soap (shaw
fine), 3 oz. ; melt them together, and, whº
nearly cold, add of sal ammoniac (in finepºt.
der), 1 dr. Stimulant and rubefacient, l:
See SOAP PIAST:

EMPLASTRIM
Paris, who highly recommends it in pulmonaſ
affections, employs double the above prº
tion of sal ammoniac.
the gradual extrication of free ammonialyti
decomposition of the sal ammoniac, on wi
account it is proper to renew the applicatiº
of it every 24 hours.
Plaster of Ammoni'acum. Syn. EMPilº
TRUM AMMONIACI (Ph. L. E. & D.), L. Prº
1. (Ph. L. & E.) Ammoniacum (striº
5 oz. ; dilute acetic acid (distilled wing:
8 fl. oz. (9 fl. oz.-Ph. E.); dissolve, and ſº
quently stirring, evaporate by a gentle hºbº
a proper consistence.
2. (Ph.D.) Gum ammoniacum (in Cº.
powder), 4 oz. ; proof spirit, 4 fl.oz.; dislº
by the aid of a gentle heat, and evaporatº
before.
Obs. This plaster is adhesive, stimuli
and resolvent, and is employed in scrofulº
and indolent tumours, white swellings, &
In the Ph. D. 1826 vinegar of squills wº
ordered instead of distilled vinegar,
Plaster of Ammoniacum with Hemlº
Syn. EMPLASTRUM AMMONIACI CUM (ICT1
L. Prep. (Ph. E. 1744.) Gum ammoniaº
8 oz. ; vinegar of squills, q. S. to dissolve; hº
lock juice, 4 oz. ; gently evaporate, as befº
In cancerous and other painful tumours. A
better plan is to add 1 dr. of extract of hº
lock to 14 oz. of strained ammoniacum (º
viously reduced to a proper consistence with:
Its efficacy depends.
PLASTER,
943
little distilled vinegar), melted by a very gentle
heat.
Plaster of Ammoniacum with Mercury.
Syn. EMPLASTRUM AMMONIACI CUM HYDRAR-
GYRO (B. P., Ph. L. E. & D.), L. Prep. 1.
(Ph. L. & E.) Olive oil, 1 dr.; heat it in a
mortar, add of sulphur, 8 grs. ; triturate; fur-
ther add of mercury, 3 oz. ; again triturate,
and, when the globules are extinguished, add
it to ammoniacum (strained), 1 lb. (12 oz.,
B. P.), previously melted by a gentle heat, and
mix them well together.
2. (Ph. D.) From ammoniacum plaster,
4 oz. ; mercurial plaster, 8 oz.; melted together
by a gentle heat, and then stirred constantly
until nearly cold.
3. (Wholesale.) Take of mercury, 38 oz. ;
prepared sevum, 5 oz. ; triturate, as last, and
add the mixture to strained ammoniacum,
10 lbs., previously sufficiently softened by a
gentle heat. Possesses a fine blue colour, and
is quickly made.
Obs. This plaster cannot be rolled till con-
siderably cooled, and neither this nor the
simple plaster must be put into water. It is
powerfully discutient, and is applied to indu-
rated glands, indolent tumours, &c.
An’odyne Plaster. See OPIUM PLASTER,
BELLADONNA P., &c.
Antimo"nial Plaster. Syn. EMPLASTRUM
ANTIMONIALE, E. ANTIMONII POTASSIO-TAR-
TRATIS, L. Prep. (U. C. Hosp.) By sprink-
ling tartar emetic, in very fine powder, on the
surface of a spread Burgundy pitch (or common
adhesive) plaster. It has been successfully
applied to the nape of the neck, in the scarla-
tina of children; also the chest, in phthisis;
and, with the addition of a little opium, in
rheumatic affections of the joints.
Aromat'ic Plaster. Syn. STOMACH PLASTER;
EMPLASTRUM AROMATICUM, L. Prep. (Ph.
D. 1826.) Strained frankincense (thus), 3 oz. ;
bees' wax, oz. ; melt them together, and, when
the mass has considerably healed, add, of pow-
dered cinnamon, 6 drs. ; oils of allspice and
lemons, of each 2 drs. Stimulant; applied over
the stomach in dyspepsia, spasms, nausea, fla-
tulence, &c. Camphor, 1 dr., is commonly
added.
Plaster of Assafoetida. Syn. ANTIHYSTERIC
PLASTER, ANTISPASMODIC. P.; EMPLASTRUM
ASSAF(ETIDE (Ph. E.), E. ANTIHYSTERICUM,
&c., L. Prep. (Ph. E.) From lead plaster
and strained assafoetida, of each, 2 oz. ; strained
galbanum and bees’-wax, of each, 1 oz.; melted
together. Antispasmodic ; applied to the sto-
mach or abdomen in spasms, hysteria, &c.; and
to the chest in hooping-cough.
Baynton’s Adhesive Plaster. Prep. From
yellow resin, 1 oz. ; lead plaster, 1 lb.; melted
together. Recommended for bad legs, and
other like sores.
Plaster of Belladon’ma. Syn. EMPLASTRUM
BELLADONNE (B. P., Ph.L. E. & D.), L. Prep.
1. (Ph.L.) Soap plaster, 3 oz. ; melt it by the
heat of a water bath; add of extract of bella-
donna (deadly nightshade), 3 oz.; and keep
constantly stirring the mixture until it acquires
a proper consistence.
2. (Ph. E.) Resin plaster, 3 oz. ; extract of
belladonna, 1% oz. ; as the last.
3. (Ph. D.) Resin plaster, 2 oz.; extract of
belladonna, 1 oz.
4. (B. P.) Extract of belladonna, 3; resin
plaster, 3; rectified spirit, 6; rub the extract
and spirit together in a mortar, and when the
insoluble matter has subsided, decant the clear
solution, remove the spirit by distillation or
evaporation, and mix the alcoholic extract thus
obtained with the resin plaster melted at the
heat of a water bath, continuing the heat until
with constant stirring the plaster has acquired
a suitable consistence.
Uses, &c. As a powerful anodyne and anti-
spasmodic; in neuralgia and rheumatic pains,
and as an application to painful tumours.
The plaster of the shops is usually deficient in
extract. The following formula is in common
use in the wholesale trade:–Lead plaster and
resin plaster, of each, 24 lbs. ; extract of bella-
donna, 13 lb. This plaster must not be “pulled’
in water.
Berg's Antirheumatic Plaster. Syn. GouT
PAPER ; EMPLASTRUM ANTIRHEUMATICUM,
CHARTA ANTIRHEUMATICA, L. Prep. By
digesting euphorbium, 2 parts, and cantharides,
1 part, (both in powder,) in rectified spirit,
10 parts, for eight days; adding to the strained
liquid, black resin and Venetian turpentine, of
each, 4 parts; assisting the mixture by a gentle
heat. Two or three coats of the product are
successively spread over the surface of thin
paper. Used in gout and rheumatism. ( Amat.
of Quackery.”)
Black Diach'ylon Plaster.
PLASTER.
Plaster of Black Pitch. Syn. EMPLASTRUM
PICIS NIGRAE, L. Prep. (Ph. Wirtem.) Black
pitch, black resin, and bees’ wax, of each, 8
parts; suet, 1 part; melted together. Rube-
facient and stimulant.
Blistering Plaster.
THAIRIDES.
Bree's Antiastimatic Plaster. Prep. From
lead plaster, 1 oz. ; olive oil, 1 dr.; melted
together, and, when somewhat cooled, mixed
with powdered camphor, 2 drs. ; powdered
opium, I dr., and at once spread on leather.
Brown Plaster. Syn. EMPLASTRUM FUS-
CUM, L.; ONGUENT DE LA MãRE, Fr. This is
noticed at page 862. The butter, lard, oil, suet,
and wax, should be first melted together, and
the heat gradually increased until they begin
to smoke; the litharge is then to be sifted in,
and the stirring and heat continued until the
mixture assumes a brown colour; the pitch
is next added, and the whole stirred for some
time longer.
Brown Diach'ylon Plaster. See PLASTER OF
GALBANUM.
Plaster of Burgundy Pitch. Syn, CEPHALIC
PLASTER, BREATH P.; EMPLASTRUM PICIS
See CourT
See PLASTER OF CAN-

944
PLASTER.
(B. P., Ph. L. & E.), E. P. COMPOSITUM, E. P.
BURGUNDICE, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Pre-
pared (strained) Burgundy pitch, 2 lbs. ; pre-
pared frankincense (thus), 1 lb. ; yellow resin
and bees’ wax, of each, 4 oz. ; melt them toge-
ther, then add, olive oil and water, of each,
2 fl. oz. ; expressed oil of nutmeg (mace), 1 oz. ;
and, constantly stirring, evaporate to a proper
consistence.
2. (Ph. E.) Burgundy pitch, 1 lb. ; resin
and bees’ wax, of each, 2 oz. ; olive oil and
water, of each, 1 fl. Oz. ; oil of mace, oz. ; as
the last.
3. (B. P.) Burgundy pitch, 26; common
frankincense, 13; resin, 4%; yellow wax, 4%;
expressed oil of nutmegs, 1; olive oil, 2;
water, 2.; add the oil and the water to the
other ingredients, previously melted together;
stir, and evaporate to a proper consistency.
Uses, &c. Burgundy-pitch plaster is stimu-
lant, rubefacient, and counter-irritant. It is a
common application to the chest in pulmonary
affections, to the joints in rheumatism, and to
the loins in lumbago. Spread on leather, it
forms a good warm plaster to wear on the
chest during the winter. “When it produces
a serous exudation, it should be frequently
renewed.”
The BURGUNDY-PITCH PLASTER of the shops
is commonly made as follows:–Factitious
Burgundy pitch (bright coloured),42 lbs.; palm
oil (bright), 3 lb.; bees’ wax (bright), 5 lbs. ;
melt, and, when nearly cold, add, of oil of mace,
6 oz. ; oil of nutmeg, 1 oz.
Calefaſcient Plaster. Syn. WARM PLASTER;
EMPLASTRUM CALEFACIENS (Ph.D.), L. Prep.
(Ph.D.) Plaster of cantharides, 3 lb. (1 part);
Burgundy pitch, 5% lb. (11 parts); melt them
together by a gentle heat, and stir the mixture
as it cools until it stiffens. Stimulant, rube-
facient, and counter-irritant ; in a variety of
affections. In some persons, when long applied,
it blisters or produces a running sore.
Cam'cer Plaster. Syn. EMPLASTRUM ANTI-
CANCROSUM, L. Prep. 1. Wax plaster, 1 oz, ;
extract of hemlock, 1 dr. ; levigated arsenious
acid, # dr.
2. (Richter.) Extract of hemlock, 1 oz. ;
extract of henbane, 3 oz. ; powdered bella-
donna, 1 dr. ; acetate of ammonia, q. S. to form
a plaster. Both the above must be used with
great caution. See CANCER, &c.
Plaster of Canthar'ides. Syn. BLISTERING
PLASTER, VESICANT P., PLASTER OF SPANISH
FLIES; EMPLASTRUM CANTHARIDIs (B. P., Ph.
L. E. & D.), E. C. VESICATORIAE, E. LYTTE, L.
Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Yellow wax and suet, of
each, 7% oz. ; lard, 6 oz. ; resin, 3 oz. ; melt
them together, remove the vessel from the fire,
and, a little before they concrete, sprinkle in
of cantharides (in very fine powder), 1 lb.
(12 oz. B. P.), and mix.
2. (Ph. E.) Cantharides, bees’ wax, resin,
and suet, equal parts; as the last.
3. (Ph. D.) Spanish flies, 6 oz. ; prepared
lard, resin, and yellow wax, of each, 4 oz. ; pro-
ceed as before, and “stir the mixture ().
stantly until the plaster is cool.”
4. (Wholesale.) From bees' wax and gº
lard, of each, 4 lbs. ; flies and yellow rºi
of each, 6 lbs. ; suet, 10 lbs. A commonly
used formula, the product of which is, how
ever, greatly inferior to that of the Phil
macopoeia. -
Obs. All the above are used to raise his
ters. The plaster is spread on white leathſ
with a cold knife, and is surrounded with
margin of resin plaster to make it adhere. A
piece of thin muslin or tissue paper is usual
placed between the plaster and the skin ||
prevent absorption. A little powdered Camil
is sometimes sprinkled on the surface of tº
spread plaster, to prevent strangury, Abéliº
mode of obviating the action on the utilin
organs is by the copious use of diluents, Ti
plaster should be rolled in starch powder, all
not with oil.
Plaster of Cantharides (Compound). Sº
EMPLASTRUM CANTHARIDIS COMPOSITUM, I.
Prep. (Ph. E.) Venice turpentine, 4} 0.
cantharides and Burgundy pitch, of each,301
bees’ wax, 1 oz. ; verdigris (in fine powl)
} oz. ; powdered mustard and black peppeſ,
each, 2 drs. ; mix at a heat under 212° Film
Stronger than the last, and quicker ini;
action; but it causes more pain, and is muſ
more apt to occasion troublesome ulceratiſ
Used in gout, spasms of the stomach, &c.
Plaster, Capuchin'. See PLASTER OF Eſ.
PEIOBIUM.
Plaster of Car"bonate of Lead. Syn, E.
PLASTRUM PLUMBI CARBONATIS, E, CERUSS
L. Prep. (P. Cod.) Carbonate of lead,1].
olive oil and water, of each, 2 lbs.; boilfiel
together until they combine and form a ſh;
ter; lastly, remelt this with white wax, 3} .
Its properties resemble those of ordinary lº
plaster. An excellent emollient and defensit
plaster. See MAHY's PLASTER.
Plaster, Cephal'ic. Syn. LABDANUM FL;
TER ; EMPLASTRUM CEPHALICUM, E. LABDAM
L. Prep. (Ph. L. 1788.) Labdanum, 30.
frankincense (thus), 1 oz. ; melt, and add {
the mixture, when nearly cold, powdereddinº
mon and expressed oil of mace, of each, ſlº
oil of mint, 1 dr. Applied to the foreheadſ:
temples, in headache; to the stomach,
colds, &c. See BURGUNDY PITCH Pil:
TER, &c.
Plaster, Cheselden's Stick'ing. Syn, E!
PLASTRUM PLUMBI CUM PICE, L. Prep, Fr.
lead plaster, 2 lbs. ; Burgundy pitch (genui)
1 oz. ; melted together.
Plaster, Corn. Syn. EMPLASTRUM AD (1.
vos, L. Prep. 1. Resin plaster, 5 parts
melt, stir in of sal ammoniac (in fine powd."
1 part, and at once spread it on linen or ºf
leather.
2. (Kennedy's.) From bees' wax, 1 ſh;
Venice turpentine, 5 oz. ; verdigris (in iſ
powder), 1% oz. ; mixed by a gentle heat, it
spread on cloth. It is cut into pieces ºf


PLASTER, 545
polished, and of these 1 dozen are put into
each box.
3. (Le Foret.) Galbanum plaster, 2 oz. ;
melt by a very gentle heat; add, sal ammoniac
and saffron, of each, 3 oz. ; powdered camphor,
2 oz.; and, when nearly cold, stir in of liquor of
ammonia, 2 oz. Applied, spread on leather, to
the corn only, as it will blister the thinner skin
surrounding its base.
4. (Ph. Sax.) Galbanum plaster, 1 oz. ;
pitch, 3 oz. ; lead plaster, 2 drs. ; melt them
together, and add verdigris and sal ammoniac
(in fine powder), of each, 1 dr. For other
formulae, see VERDIGRIS PLASTER (below), and
CORNS.
Plaster, Court. Syn. STICKING PLASTER,
ISINGLASS P.; EMPLASTRUM ICHTHYocoLLAE,
E. ADHESIVUM ANGLICUM, L. Prep. 1. Isin-
glass, 1 part; water, 10 parts; dissolve, strain
the solution, and gradually add to it of tinc-
ture of benzoin, 2 parts; apply this mixture,
gently warmed, by means of a camel-hair
brush, to the surface of silk or sarcenet,
stretched on a frame, and allow each coating
to dry before applying the next one, the appli-
cation being repeated as often as necessary;
lastly, give the prepared surface a coating of
tincture of benzoin or tincture of balsam of
Peru. Some manufacturers apply this to the
unprepared side of the plaster, and others add
to the tincture a few drops of essence of amber-
gris or essence of musk.
2. (Deschamps’.) A piece of fine muslin,
linen, or silk, is fastened to a flat board, and a
thin coating of smooth, strained flour paste is
given to it; over this, when dry, two coats of
colourless gelatine, made into size with water,
q. S., are applied warm. Said to be superior
to the ordinary court plaster.
3. (Liston’s.) Soak isinglass, 1 oz., in water,
2} fl. oz., until it becomes swollen and quite
soft; then add of proof spirit, 3% fl. oz., and
expose the mixture to the heat of hot water,
frequently stirring, until the union is complete;
lastly, apply four coats of the solution to the
surface of oiled silk nailed to a board, by means
of a soft brush.
4. (Dr. Paris.) Black silk or sarcenet is
strained and brushed over 10 or 12 times with
the following composition :-Gum benzoin, 3.
oz, ; rectified spirit, 6 oz. ; dissolve. In a sepa- |
rate vessel dissolve of isinglass, 1 oz., in as little
water as possible; strain each solution, mix
them, decant the clear portion, and apply it
warm. Wheu the last coating is quite dry, a
finishing coat is given with a solution of
Chio turpentine, 4 oz., in tincture of benzoin,
6 oz.
Obs. The common “Cotſ RT PLASTER’ of the
shops is generally prepared without using
spirit, and with merely sufficient tincture of
benzoin, or other aromatic, to give it an agree-
able odour. Formerly, black silk or sarcenet
was exclusively employed as the basis of the
plaster, but at the present time checkered silk
is also much in favour. * FLESH-COLOURED
courT PLASTER’ is likewise fashionable.
‘TRANSPARENT COURT PLASTER’ is prepared
on oiled silk. ‘WATFRPROOF COURT PLASTER’
is simply the common plaster which has re-
ceived a thin coating of pale drying oil on its
exposed surface. The FINEST COURT PLASTER
of the West-end houses is now prepared on
gold-beaters’ skin (or the prepared membrane
of the cascum of the ox), one side of which is
coated with the isinglass solution, as above,
and the other with pale drying oil or a solution
of either gutta percha or caoutchouc in chloro-
form, or in bisulphuret of carbon.
Plaster of Croton Oil. Syn. EMPLASTRUM
CROTONIS, E. OLEI TIGLII, L. Prep. (Bou-
chardat.) To lead plaster, 4 parts, melted by
a very gentle heat, add of croton oil, 1 part. A
powerful counter-irritant; it also generally
acts powerfully on the bowels.
Plaster of Cum'in. Spn. EMPLASTRUM
CUMINI (Ph. L.), E. CYMINI, L. Prep. 1.
(Ph. L.) Burgundy pitch, 3 lbs.; bees' wax,
3 oz. ; melt, add of cumin seed, caraways, and
bay-berries, of each (in powder), 3 oz. ; next
add of olive oil and water, of each, 1% fl. oz.,
and evaporate to a proper consistence.
2. (Wholesale.) From yellow resin, 7 lbs. ;
bees' wax and limseed oil, of each, 3 lb.; pow-
dered cumin and caraway seeds, of each, 7 oz. ;
1111X.
Obs. This is a mere revival of the formula
of the Ph. L. 1724. In that of the Ph. L.
1788 no water was ordered, and the powders
simply stirred into the melted mass shortly
before it cools; the common practice in all
laboratories.
Cumin plaster is carminative, stimulant, and
discutient. It is applied over the regions of
the stomach and bowels in colic, dyspepsia,
and flatulence, and is also applied to indolent
tumours. It has long been a favourite remedy
with the lower classes.
Delacroix's Agglutinative Plaster. Syn.
EMPLASTRUM GLUTINANs SANCTI ANDREAE A
CRUCE, E. PICIS CUM ELEMI; L. EMPLATRE
D’ANDRá LE LA CROIX, Fr. Prep. (P. Cod.)
From Burgundy pitch, 25 parts; gum elemi,
6 parts; Venice turpentine and oil of bays,
of each, 3 parts ; melted together, and
strained.
Plaster, Diach'ylon. See LEAD PLASTER.
Plaster, Diapal'ma. See PALM PLASTER.
Plaster of Elſemi. Syn. EMPLASTRUM ELE-
MI, L. Prep. From wax plaster, 3 parts;
gum elemi, 1 part; melted together by a gen-
tle heat. Stimulant and discutient. Used for
issues, &c.
Plaster of Euphor’bium. Syn. EMPLASTRUM
EUPHORBII, L. Prep. 1. (Guy’s Hosp.) Bur-
gundy pitch plaster, 8 oz.; melt, and add of
euphorbium (in powder), 1 dr.
2. (CAPUCHIN PLASTER—Ph. Wirt.) Bur-
gundy pitch and bees' wax, of each, 3 oz. ;
Venice turpentine, 1 oz. ; melt them together,
add, gum ammoniacum, Olibanum, mastic, and
lapis calaminaris, of each, 1 oz. ; º,



946 PLASTER.
|
pyrethrum, and common salt, of each (in pow-
der), 2 oz.; and stir until the mass concretes.
Both of the above are stimulant, rubefacient,
and counter-irritant.
Plaster, Fayard's. See PAPER (Gout).
Plaster of Flower of Ointments. Syn. EM-
PLASTRUM FLOS UNGUENTORUM DICTUM.—L.
Prep. From frankincense (thus), yellow resin,
suet, and bees’ wax, of each 1 lb.; olibanum,
# lb.; Venice turpentine, 5 oz. ; gum myrrh,
2 oz. ; white wine, 16 fl. Oz. ; boil to a plaster,
adding, before the mass cools, of camphor,
# oz. Calefacient and stimulant. (See page
859.)
Plaster of Frankſincense. Syn. STRENGTH-
ENING PLASTER ; EMPLASTRUM THURIs, E.
ROBORANS, L. Prep. (Ph. L. 1788.) To lead
plaster, 2 lbs., melted by a gentle heat, add of
frankincense (thus), 3 lb., dragon’s blood (in
powder), 3 oz., and stir well. In muscular
relaxations, weak joints, &c. Mr. Redwood
says that a “better-looking plaster is pro-
duced by melting the frankincense and dragon’s
blood together, and straining them through a
cloth, then mixing these with the lead plaster
previously melted.” See PLASTER OF OXIDE
OF IRON.
Plaster of Gal'banum. Syn. CoMPOUND
GALBANUM PLASTER, YELLOW DIACHYLON,
GUM PLASTER, DIACHYLON WITH THE GUMS,
EMPLASTRUM GALBANI (B. P., Ph. L.), E.
GUMMOSUM (Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.)
Take of strained galbanum, 8 oz. ; common tur-
pentine, 1 oz. ; melt them together, then add
of prepared frankincense (thus), 3 oz. ; and
next, of lead plaster, 3 lbs., previously melted
over a slow fire.
2. (Ph. E.) Gum ammoniacum and galba-
num, of each, # oz. ; melt them together, strain,
and add, of litharge plaster, 4 oz. ; bees’ wax,
# oz. ; (both previously melted;) and mix
the whole thoroughly. These proportions are
the same as those of the B. P.
3. (Wholesale.) From lead plaster, 42 lbs. ;
yellow resin, 12 lbs. ; strained galbanum, 3 lbs. ;
strained assafoetida, 1 oz.
Obs. Galbanum plaster is stimulant and
resolvent, and is much used in indolent, scrofu-
lous, and other tumours, painful gouty and
rheumatic joints, in rickets, &c.
Plaster, Gaulthier's. Prep. (Guibourt.) Palm
plaster, 12 parts; olive oil and white wax, of
each, 1 part; melt, and add of Venice turpen-
tine, 2 parts. More adhesive than the simple
IPALM PLASTER.
Plaster of Gim'ger. Syn. EMPLASTRUM ZIN-
GIBERIS, L. See GINGER (page 567).
Plaster, Gout. Syn. EMPLASTRUM ANTAR-
THRITICUM, L. See PLASTERS OF GALBANUM,
PITCH, &c., GOUT PAPER.
Plaster of Gum. See GALBANUM PLASTER.
Plaster of Hem'lock. Syn. EMPLASTRUM
CONII, E. CICUTAE, L. Prep. 1. Wax, 1 part ;
Burgundy pitch, 9 parts; melt them together,
and add of extract of hemlock, 3 parts.
2. (Ph. Bat.) Lead plaster and bees' wax,
of eacb, 1 lb. ; olive oil, 6 fl. oz.; melt, andall
of powdered hemlock (recent), 1 lb. -
Obs. Hemlock plaster is occasionally usi
as an application to painful and malignini
ulcers and tumours, painful joints, &c. A
spread plaster of it, with 6 or 8 grs, of trim
emetic (in very fine powder) sprinkled overi;
surface, has been highly extolled as a count:
irritant in hooping-cough, phthisis, &c.
Plaster of Henſbane. Syn. EMPIAST:
HYOSCYAMI, L. Prep. As the last, but liſ
henbane instead of hemlock. As an amoly,
in various external affections.
Plaster of I'odide of Potas'sium, Syn, M.
PLASTRUM POTASSII IODIDI (Ph. L.), L. Pº,
(Ph.L.) Iodide of potassium, 107.; Olived
2 fl. drs. ; triturate them together, then ill
of strained frankincense (thus), 60Z.; Way,
drs. ; and stir constantly until the mass Cºl.
“This plaster is to be spread on linen, milk
than on leather.” Used as a discutient or ſº
solvent; more particularly as an applicatiºnſ
scrofulous tumours and indurations.
Plaster of Iodine. Syn. EMPIAST:
IODINII, L. Prep. Triturate iodine, 1 dr, iſ
warm mortar, with olive oil, 1 oz.; thenii
of bees’ wax, 1 oz., yellow resin, ; 0,1%
viously melted together, and stir the will
until it concretes. It should be, prefill
spread at once on leather, and applied shift
after being prepared. Used as the last,
Plaster of Iodine (Compound). Sh, H.
PLASTRUM IODINII CoMPOSITUM, L, Pº
1. Iodine, 1 dr.; iodide of potassium, 2 is
rub them to a fine powder, add this tºld
powder, 2 oz., Burgundy pitch, 101, ſº
viously melted together, and just abºut
concrete. More active than either of theº
ceding.
2. (EMP. IOD. CUM BELLADONNA) Tº
ladonna plaster, 2 oz., melted by a very gº
heat, add iodine and iodide of potassiumſ.
fine powder), of each, 1 dr., and stir them:
ture until nearly cold. Powerfully tº
and anodyne. Used in the same cases st
preceding, when there is much pain.
Plaster of I'ron, See PLASTER OFOXIIIſ
IRON.
Plaster of I"singlass. See COURT ||
TER.
Plaster, Issue. Syn. EMPLASTRUMMDR
TICULOS, SPARADRAPUM PRO FONTICUIS,
Prep. 1. From bees' wax, 3 lb.; Bugſ
pitch and Chio turpentine, of each, 40%; tº
milion and orris powder, of each, 107.5 m
4 grs. ; melted together, and spread uponiº
This is afterwards polished with a smoºthº
of glass moistened with water, and cut it
pieces.
2. (Ph. Aust.) Yellow wax, 607.; mº
suet, 2 oz. ; lard, 13 oz. ; melt, add of tutº
time, 1% oz., and afterwards, of red lead,40.
dip pieces of linen into the melted mitº
pass these between rollers, and, when tº
polish them, as before, and cut them iſ
squares. The issue plaster (issue paper; thiſ

PLASTER.
947
ad fonticulos) of the Ph. Suecica is a nearly
similar compound, with the addition of about
1-48th part of verdigris, in very fine powder,
and being spread upon paper.
Plaster, Kennedy's. See CoRN PLASTERs.
Plaster, Kirkland’s. See AMMONIACAL
PLASTER.
Plaster of Lab'danum. See CEPHALIC
PLASTER.
Plaster of Lead. Syn. LEAD PLASTER, LI-
THARGE P., COMMON P., DIACHYLON, SIMPLE
DIACHYLON, WHITE D.; EMPLASTRUM PLUMBI
(B. P., Ph. L.), E. LYTHARGYRI (Ph. E. & D.),
E. COMMUNE, DIACHYLON STMPLEX, L. Prep.
1. (Ph. L.) Oxide of lead (litharge), in very
fine powder, 6 lbs. ; olive oil, 1 gal. ; water, 1
quart ; boil them over a slow fire, constantly
stirring, to the consistence of a plaster, adding
a little boiling water, if nearly the whole of
that used in the beginning should be con-
sumed before the end of the process.
2. (Ph. E.) Litharge, 5 oz. ; olive oil, 12 fl.
Oz. ; water, 8 fl. oz. ; as the last.
3. (Ph. D.) Litharge, 5 lbs. ; olive oil, 1
gal. ; water, 1 quart.
4. (Otto Kohnke.) For each lb. of litharge
employed, add + pint of colourless vinegar
(each fl. oz. of which is capable of saturating
# dr. of carbonate of potassa); add the oil, boil
until all moisture is evaporated, and until
only a few striae of litharge rise to the surface,
then remove the vessel from the heat, add
gradually # to ; as much vinegar as before, and
boil the mixture to a proper consistence.
5. (Wholesale.) From Genoa oil, 7 galls, (or
65 lbs.); litharge (perfectly free from copper),
28 lbs. ; water, 2% galls.; boil to a plaster, as
before.
6. (B. P.) Oxide of lead, in very fine pow-
der, 1; olive oil, 2%; water, 1 ; boil all the in-
gredients together gently by the heat of a
steam bath, and keep them simmering for 4 or
5 hours, stirring constantly until the product
acquires the proper consistence for plaster,
adding more water during the process, if
necessary.
Obs. The London College orders too little
oil. The second, fourth, and fifth formulae
produce beautiful plasters, that keep well;
those of the others, although very white, get
hard and brittle much more rapidly. The
proper proportion of oil is fully 2% times the
weight of the litharge, 2% times appears the
best quantity; and without this is used, the
plaster speedily gets hard and non-adhesive.
The process consists in putting the water and
the litharge into a perfectly clean and well-
polished tinned copper or copper-pan, mixing
them well together with a spatula, adding the
oil, and boiling, with constant stirring, until
the plaster is sufficiently hard, when thoroughly
cold. This process usually occupies from 4 to
5 hours, but by adopting the fourth formula
an excellent plaster may be made in from 20
to 30 minutes. This plaster is generally cooled
by immersion in cold water; and to render it
very white, a quality highly prized in the
trade, it is usual to submit it to laborious
‘pulling,” in the manner already noticed.
Use. As a simple defensive plaster or strap-
ping; but principally as a basis for other
plasters.
Plaster, Liston’s. See CouTT PLASTER.
Plaster, Mahy's. Syn. EMPLASTRUM
PLUMBI CARBONATIS, E. P. C. COMPOSITUM,
L. Prep. (Ph. U.S.) Carbonate of lead (pure
white lead), 1 lb.; olive oil, 32 fl. oz.; water,
q. s. ; boil them together, constantly stirring
until perfectly incorporated; then add, of
yellow wax, 4 oz.; lead plaster, 1} lb.; and
when these are melted, and the mass somewhat
cooled, stir in of powdered orris root, 9 oz. A
favourite application in the United States of
America to inflamed and excoriated surfaces,
bed-sores, burns, &c.
Plaster of Mel'ilot. Syn. EMPLASTRUMMELI-
LOTI, E. & MELILOTO, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. E.
1744.) Fresh melitot, chopped small, 6 lbs. ;
suet, 3 lbs. ; boil until crisp, strain with pres-
sure, and add, of yellow resin, 8 lbs. ; bees’
wax, 4 lbs., and boil to a plaster. Stimulant.
Used to dress blisters, &c. The greater portion
of this plaster in the shops is made without
the herb, and is coloured with verdigris. (See
the next formula.)
2. (Wholesale.) Take of yellow resin, 18
lbs. ; green ointment, 4% lbs. ; yellow wax, 3
lbs. ; finely powdered verdigris, q. S. to give a
deep-green colour.
Plaster, Mercu"rial. Syn. EMPLASTRUM
MERCURIALE, E. HYDRARGYRI (B. P., Ph. L.
E. & D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Add,
gradually, of sulphur, 8 grs., to heated olive
oil, 1 fl. dr., and stir the mixture constantly
with a spatula until they unite; next add of
mercury, 3 oz., and triturate until globules are
no longer visible; lastly, gradually add of lead
plaster (melted over a slow fire), 1 lb., and mix
them all well together. (About 1 fl. dr. of
balsam of sulphur may be substituted for the
oil and sulphur ordered above.) These propor-
tions are the same as those of the B. P.
2. (Ph. E.) Resin, 1 oz. ; olive oil, 9 fl. drs.;
mix by heat, cool, add of mercury, 3 oz., and
triturate until its globules disappear; then add
of litharge plaster, 6 oz. (previously liquefied),
and mix the whole thoroughly.
3. (Ph.D.) Oil of turpentine, 1 fl. oz. ; resin,
2 oz. ; dissolve, with the aid of heat; add of
mercury, 6 oz. ; triturate until the globules
disappear, and the mixture assumes a dark
gray colour, then add of litharge plaster (pre-
viously melted), 12 oz., and stir the whole until
it stiffens on cooling.
4. (Wholesale.) Take of mercury, 7 lbs.;
prepared sevum, # lb.; triturate until the glo-
bules disappear, and add the mixture to lead
plaster (melted by a gentle heat), 36 lbs. ; stir
them well together, and until they concrete.
Very fine bluish-slate or lead colour.
Obs. Mercurial plaster is used as a dis-
cutient in glandular enlargements, and other

948 PLASTER.

swellings; and is also applied over the hepatic
regions in liver complaints.
Plaster, Mercurial, with Belladon'na. Syn.
EMPLASTRUM HYDRARGYRICUM BELLADONNA,
L. Prep. From mercurial plaster, 6 drs. ; ex-
tract of belladonna, 2 drs. ; olive oil, 1 dr. ;
mixed by a gentle heat. One of our most
useful anodyne and discutient applications, in
painful scirrhous, scrofulous, and syphilitic
tumours. The Medico-Chirurgical Pharm.
orders # fl. dr. of hydrocyanic acid to be added
to every 2 oz. of the above.
Plaster of Minſium. Syn. EMPLASTRUM
MINII, E. i. MINIo, E. PLUMBI oxy DI RUBRI,
L. Prep. (Ph. L. 1746.) Olive oil, 4 lbs. ;
minium (red lead), in fine powder, 2% lbs. ;
water, q. S.; proceed as for lead plaster (which
it closely resembles).
Obs. To ensure a good colour and the quality
of keeping well, the quantity of oil should be
increased about 1-3rd. When discoloured by
heat it forms the “brown minium plaster’
(emp. & minio fuscum) of old pharmacy. Lead
plaster, either alone or with the addition of a
little red lead, is usually sold for it.
Plaster of Minium (Compound). Syn. NU-
REMBERG BLASTER ; EMPLASTRUM MINII COM-
POSITUM, L.; EMPLATRE DE NUREMBERG, Fr.
Prep. (Soubeiran.) Red lead, 12 parts; olive
oil, 8 parts; grind them together on a por-
phyry slab, and add the mixture to lead plas-
ter, 50 parts, bees' wax, 24 parts, melted
together; lastly, when nearly cold, stir in of
camphor, 1 part.
Plaster, Morrison’s Adhesive. Syn. MOR-
RISON'S ADHESIVE PASTE. From wheaten flour,
2 oz. ; mild ale, , pint ; stir them together,
and heat the mixture to the boiling-point;
when cold, add of powdered resin, 3 oz. ; and,
constantly stirring, again heat them to boiling.
Used as a depilatory in ring-worm, &c.
Plaster of Muſcilages. Syn. DIACHYLON
COMPOSITUM, EMPLASTRUM & MUCILAGINIBUS,
L. Prep. (Ph. L. 1746.) Bees’ wax, 20 oz.;
oil of mucilages, 4 oz.; melt, and add them to
strained ammoniacum, 3 oz., common turpen-
tine, 1 oz., previously melted together. Stimu-
lant and emollient.
Plaster of Mustard. Syn. EMPLASTRUM
SINAPIs, L. This is always an extempora-
neous preparation. Flour of mustard is made
into a stiff paste with lukewarm water, or with
vinegar, and is then spread on a piece of calico
or linen (folded two or three times); over the
surface of the mustard is placed a piece of
gauze or thin muslin, and the plaster is then
applied to the part of the body it is intended
to medicate. Its action is that of a powerful
Tubefacient and counter-irritant; but its ap-
plication should not be continued long, unless
in extreme cases. Its effects are often ap-
parently wonderful. We have seen very severe
cases of facial neuralgia, sore throat, painful
joints, rheumatic pains, &c., relieved in a few
minutes by means of a mustard plaster or
‘poultice.”
Plaster, Nuremberg. See CoMPOUNDMN
UM PLASTER.
Plaster of 0"pium. Syn. EMPIASTRY
ANODYNUM, E. OPII (B. P., Ph. L. E. & D)
L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Lead plaster, 80.
melt, and add of frankincense (thus), 2 Ol.
next, add of extract of opium, 1 oz., previously
dissolved in boiling water, 1 fl. OZ, ; and, (W.
stantly stirring, evaporate the mixture OYE! :
slow fire to a proper consistence. This plašić
is much stronger than that of the Ph.L.1%
and of the other British Colleges,
2. (Ph. L. 1836.) Lead plaster, 11b,; mel
add of powdered thus, 3 oz. ; mix, and furiº ||
add, of powdered opium, oz., water, 8 fl. 1.
and boil to a proper consistence.
3. (Ph. E.) Litharge plaster, 1201; Bº
gundy pitch, 3 oz. ; liquefy by heat, then all
by degrees, of powdered opium, 07, all
mix them thoroughly. This and the pº
ceding contains only 1-3rd part of the Oil
ordered in the present Ph. L. & D,
4. (Ph.D.) Resin plaster, 9 oz.; opium,i.
fine powder, 1 oz. ; as the last. Same as B."
Obs. The above plaster is reputed anody;
and useful in various local pains; but its it
tues in this way have been greatly exaggerſ:
The formula of the Ph. L. 1836, from hiſ
less costly, is still often employed in placed
that of the Ph. L. 1851. The following:
commonly used:—Lead plaster, 14 lbs.; yellſ
resin, 2 lbs. ; powdered opium, 3 lb.
Plaster of 0xide of I'ron. Syn, II)
PLASTER, FRANKINCENSE P., STRENGTHENT
P. ; EMPLASTRUM ROBORANS, E, FERRI (i.
P., Ph. L. E. & D.), E. THURIs, E. Fº
oxy Dr RUBRI, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) It
plaster, 8 oz. ; frankincense (thus), 2 tº
melt them together over a slow fire, split
into the mixture sesquioxide of iron, 10, i.
mix the whole well together. -
2. (Ph. E.) Litharge plaster, 3.07.; yellº
resin, 6 drs. ; bees’ wax, 3 drs. ; melt the
together, then add of red oxide of iron, 10.
previously triturated with olive oil, 3}ſ, in
3. (Ph. D.) Litharge plaster, 8.07.; Bº
gundy pitch, 2 oz. ; peroxide of iron, in it
powder, 1 oz. ; as No. 1. Same as B. P.
4. (Wholesale.) From lead plaster (quit
dry), 84 lbs. ; powdered yellow resin, 14lº
“crocus martis' (lively coloured), 14 lbs; it
oil, 3 pints; as No. 2.
Obs. Iron plaster is reputed strengtheni.
and stimulant. It is employed as a methi
ical support in muscular relaxation, well
ness of the joints, &c., especially by put
dancers. Its tonic action is probably whº'ſ
imaginary. No. 4 is the ‘EMPLASTRUM E.
BORANS’ of the shops at the present time.
Oxycro'ceum Plaster. Syn. EMPIAST:
oxyCRoCEUM, L. Prep. i. (Ph. E. 114
Bees’ wax, 1 lb.; black pitch and strained;
banum, of each lb.; melt, and add of Veliº
turpentine, powdered myrrh, and olibanum,
each, 3 oz. ; powdered saffron, 2 07.
2. (Wholesale.) From black pitch,91's:

PLASTER, 949
black resin, 11 lbs. ; bees’ wax and lard, of each,
24 lbs. ; melted together. Warm ; discutient.
Still popular with the lower orders. The saf-
fron of the original formula never finds its way
into the oxycroceum plaster of the druggists.
Palm Plaster. Syn. EMPLASTRUM DIAPAL-
MUM, L.; DIAPALME, EMPLATRE DIAPALME,
Fr. Prep. (P. Cod.) Lead plaster, 32 parts;
yellow wax, 2 parts; melt them together, add
of sulphate of zinc, 1 part, dissolve in a little
water, and continue the heat, with constant
agitation, until all the water is evaporated.
Obs. This plaster originally contained palm
oil, and this ingredient is still ordered in the
formulae of Plenck and Reuss. Soubeiran
directs white wax to be employed.
Paracelsus's Plaster. Syn. EMPLASTRUM
PARACELSI, E. STYPTICUM, L. Prep. From
lead plaster, 28 lbs. ; galbanum plaster, 2 lbs.;
powdered white camella and gum thus, of each,
13 lb.; melted together. The original for-
mula, as well as that of the Ph. L. 1721, were
similar, although much more complicated.
Plaster of Pitch. Syn. Poor MAN's PLASTER,
GouT P., ANTI-RHEUMATIC P.; EMPLASTRUM
PAUPERIs, E. ANTIRHEUMATICUM, E. ANTAR-
THRITICUM, E. PICIS COMMUNE, L. This has
been already noticed under the head of RESIN
PAPER. It is also, but less frequently, spread
on cloth and leather. (See page 881.)
Prestat's Adhe'sive Plaster. Prep. From
lead plaster, 2 lbs. ; yellow resin, 5 oz. ; Venice
turpentine, 4 oz. ; gum ammoniacum and mas-
tic, of each, 1% oz. ; made into a plaster, and
spread on linen or calico.
Plaster of Red Lead.
MINIUM.
Plaster of Res’in. Syn. ADHESIVE PLASTER,
RESINOUS P.; EMPLASTRUM ADHESIVUM, E.
RESINE (B. P., Ph. L. & D.), E. RESINOSUM
(Ph. E.), E. LYTHARGYRI CUM RESINA, L.
Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) To lead plaster, 3 lbs.,
melted by a gentle heat, add of resin, lb.,
also liquefied by heat, and mix. The formula
of the Ph. U. S. is similar.
2. (Ph. E.) Litharge plaster, 5 oz. ; resin,
1 oz. ; mix with a moderate heat.
3. (Ph.D.) To litharge plaster, 2 lbs., melted
by a gentle heat, add, of powdered resin, 4 oz.,
Castile soap, in powder, 2 oz., and mix them
intimately.
4. (Wholesale.) Pale lead plaster (from a
previous batch, and quite dry), 72 lbs. ; olive
oil (Genoa), 3 lbs. ; melt them together in a
bright and perfectly clean copper pan, and
sift in of pale yellow resin (in powder), 12 lbs.,
stirring all the while. The mixture is to be
cooled, and “pulled’ or ‘worked,” after the
manner of lead plaster.
5. (B. P.) Resin (in powder), 2.; litharge
plaster, 16; hard-soap, 1 ; melt the plaster
with a gentle heat, add the resin and soap,
first liquefied, and mix. -
Obs. Resin plaster, spread upon calico, forms
the well-known “STRAPPING” or “ADHESIVE
PLASTER’ so extensively used to protect raw
See PIASTER OF
surfaces, support parts, and for dressing ulcers,
retaining the lips of recent cuts and wounds
in contact, &c. It is gently stimulant, and is
thought to assist the healing process. It is
also employed as a basis for other plasters.
The ‘HOSPITAL PLASTER’ of certain houses is
of this kind. See CoMPOUND SOAP PLASTER.
Resolvent Plaster. Syn. EMPLASTRUMRE-
SoLVENS, E. Ex MIXTIs QUATUOR, L. Prep.
(P. Cod.) Galbanum, hemlock, mercurial, and
soap plasters, equal parts, melted together.
Roper's Royal Bath Plaster. Prep. (Cooley.)
Strained black pitch, 16 oz. ; Burgundy pitch,
10 oz.: tar and bees' wax, of each, 1 oz. ; melt,
and, when considerably cooled, add of expressed
oil of mace, 2 drs, croton oil, 1 dr., and spread
the mixture upon heart-shaped pieces of white
sheep-skin, without remelting it. Stimulant
and counter-irritant; recommended by its
proprietor as a cure for all human ailments.
The “BATH-PIASTER PILLs, also prepared by
Mr. Roper, resemble several of the aperient
pills already noticed. (See: Anat. of Quackery.”)
Scott's Plaster. Prep. From lead plaster,
14 oz.; olive oil and white resin, of each, 1 oz. ;
melted together, and spread on calico.
Sharp's Black Plaster. Prep. From olive
oil, 5 parts; carbonate of lead, 4 parts; bees’
wax, 1 part; boiled to a plaster.
Plaster, Simple, See WAx PIASTER.
Plaster of Soap. Syn. EMPLASTRUM &
SAPONE, E. SAPONIS (Ph. L. E. & D.), L.
Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) To lead plaster, 3 lbs.,
melted by a slow heat, add of Castile soap,
sliced, lb., resin, 1 oz., both (also) liquefied
by heat, and, constantly stirring, evaporate to
a proper consistence.
2. (Ph. E.) To litharge plaster, 4 oz.,
gum plaster, 2 oz., melted together, add of
Castile soap, in shavings, 1 oz., and boil a
llttle.
3. (Ph. D.) To litharge plaster, 23 lbs.,
melted over a gentle fire, add of Castile soap,
in powder, 4 oz., and heat them together
(constantly stirring) until they combine.
4. (B. P.) Hard soap (in powder), 6;
lead plaster, 36; resin (in powder), 1; to the
lead plaster, previously melted, add the soap
and the resin, first liquefied, then, constantly
stirring, evaporate to a proper consistence.
Obs. Care must be taken to evaporate all
the moisture from the above compounds, as, if
any is left in the plaster, it turns out crumbly,
and does not keep well. Much heat discolours
it. (See below.)
Soap plaster is emollient and resolvent, and
is used in abrasions and excoriations, and as a
dressing to soft corns, lymphatic tumours,
&c.
Plaster of Soap (Compound.) Syn. EMPLAS-
TRUM SAPONIS COMPOSITUM, E. ADHAERENS, L.
Prep. (Ph. D. 1826.) Resin plaster, 3 oz. ;
soap plaster, 2 oz. ; melted together.
Obs. Less emollient, but more stimulant,
than the simple plaster. The ‘EMPLASTRUM
# MINIo CUM SAPoWE’—Ph. E. 1744 was made


950 PLASTER—PLATE.
by melting 1 part of soap with 5 parts of
minium plaster. Neither of the above must
be put into water. See RESIN PLASTER—
Ph. D.
Plaster of Soap-cerate. Syn. EMPLASTRUM
CERATI SAPONIS (B. P.). Prep. 1. From soap
cerate, heated by means of a water bath until
all the moisture is evaporated. Sometimes 2
or 3 drs. each of powdered mastic and gum
ammoniacum are added for each pound of
cerate. The product is generally spread whilst
still warm. Said to be suppurative, resol-
vent, cooling, and desiccative. See CERATE
(Soap).
2. (B. P.) Hard soap, 10; bees’ wax, 12% ;
oxide of lead (in powder), 15; olive oil, 20;
vinegar, 160; boil the vinegar with the oxide
over a slow fire, or by a steam bath, constantly
stirring them until they unite; then add the
soap and boil again in a similar manner until
all the moisture is evaporated; lastly, mix
with the wax previously dissolved in the oil,
and continue the process till the product takes
the consistence of a plaster.
St. Andrew’s Plaster. Prep. From yellow
resin, 8 oz. ; gum elemi, 2 oz. ; Bordeaux tur-
pentine and oil of the bay-laurel, of each, 1 oz.;
melted together by a gentle heat. A stimu-
lant, resolvent, and adhesive plaster, once Sup-
posed to possess extraordinary virtues.
Stick'ing Plaster. See CouTT PIASTER,
RESIN PLASTER, &c.
Plaster, Stom'ach. See AROMATIC PLASTER,
&c.
Plaster, Strengthſeming. See PLASTERS OF
FRANKINCENSE and OXIDE OF IRON.
Plaster, Styp’tic. See OXIDE OF IRON
PLASTER, PARACELSUS’s P., &c.
Plaster of Sulphate of Quinime'. Syn. EM-
PLASTRUM QUINIAE, E. Q. DISULPHATIS, L.
Prep. 1. Sulphate of quinine, 1 dr. ; resin
plaster, 1 oz. Applied to the abdomen in
intermittents.
2. Sulphate of quinine, 1 dr. ; mercurial
plaster, 2 oz. In affections of the liver or
spleen, following intermittents, applied over
the regions of those viscera.
3. Resin plaster, 9.drs. ; sulphate of quinine,
1 dr.; camphor and oil of cajeput, of each, #
dr. Applied over the epigastrium as a pro-
phylactic of cholera.
Plaster of Thus. See PLASTER OF FRANK-
INCENSE.
Plaster of Ver'digris. Syn. EMPLASTRUM
AERUGINIs, E. CUPRE SUBACETATIS, L. Prep.
(P. Cod.) Bees” wax, 4 parts; Burgundy pitch,
2 parts; melt, add of Venice turpentine and
prepared verdigris (in powder), of each, 1 part,
and stir until the mass is nearly cold. For
other formulae, see CoRN PLASTER, &c.
Plaster, Wer'mifuge. Syn. EMPLASTRUM
VERMIFUGUM, E. ANTHELMINTICUM, L. Prep.
From powdered aloes, 1 dr.; oil of chamomile,
10 drops; croton oil, 2 drops; oil of turpentine,
. S.
Vigo's Plaster. Syn. EMPLASTRUM WIGONIS,
L. Prep. (P. Cod.) Lead plaster, 40 Mi
mercury, 12 oz.; liquid styrax, 6 07; hº
wax, turpentine, and resin, of each,207.; am
moniacum, bdellium, myrrh, and olibanum,
each, 5 drs. ; saffron, 3 drs. ; oil of lavendº
2 drs. ; made into a plaster S. a.
Plaster, Warm. See CALEFACIENT PIAST:
BURGUNDY PITCH. P., &c.
Plaster of Wax. Syn. SIMPLE PIAST:
EMPLASTRUM ATTRAHENS, E, SIMPLEX (Ph.
E.), E. CERAE, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. E.) Bº
wax, 3 oz. ; suet and yellow resin, of each?
oz. ; melt them together, and stir the mixtſ.
briskly until it concretes by cooling.
2. (Ph. L. 1836.) Yellow wax and Sut,
each, 3 lbs. ; yellow resin, 1 lb.; as the list
Intended to be employed as a simple dressing
especially to blistered surfaces. It is M.
seldom used.
Plaster, White Diach'ylon, See IM
PLASTER.
Plaster, Yellow Diach'ylon. See GAIBANT
PLASTER.
Plaster, Zinco-lead. Syn. EMPIASTI
ZINCO-PLUMBICUM, E. DIAPOMPHOLYGOS, I
Prep. (Ph. Suec.) Bees’ wax, 1 lb.; it
oil and graphite (black lead), of each, 6 (i.
carbonate of lead, 4 oz. ; oxide of zinc (impur)
3 oz. ; olibanum, 1 oz.; boil to a plasia
Astringent and desicant. Other forms sº
stitute an equal weight of litharge for tº
graphite.
PLATE. The name commonly givent);
and silver wrought into instruments Orutºli
for domestic use.
The cleaning of plate is an importantº
tion in a large establishment, as its duraliſ
and much of its beauty, depend on this hiſ
properly done. The common practice of li.
mercurial plate-powder is destructive
both of these, as mercury not only rail
erodes the surface of silver, but rendºn
softer, and, in extreme cases, even briſ.
The only powder that may be safely used ſt
silver is prepared chalk, of the best qualiſ
For gold, the form of red oxide of iron, knºm
as jeweller's rouge, is the most useful and
propriate. Chamois leather, a plate-brush,
very soft woollen rags,'should alone be used
apply them; and their application should lº
gentle and long continued, rather than tº
reverse. Dirty plate, after being cleaned wi
boiling water, may be restored by boiling itſ
water, each quart of which contains a ſt
grains of carbonate of soda, and about anomº
of prepared chalk, calcined hartshorn, Orcuit.
fish bone, in very fine powder. The ebulli:
sets up a gentle friction, which effects
purpose admirably. The boiled plate, ſº
being dried, is best ‘finished off” with a piº
of soft leather or woollen cloth which has hº
dipped into the cold mixture of chalk ºn
water, and then dried. The same melº
answers admirably with German silver, lms
pewter, and all the softer metals, See POWſ
(Plate), &c.






PLATINA–PLATINUM. 951
PLAT/INA. See PLATINUM.
PLA”TING. The art of covering copper
and other metals with either silver or gold.
Plating is performed in various ways.
Sometimes the silver is fluxed on to the sur-
face of the copper by means of a solution of
borax, and subsequent exposure in the ‘plating
furnace,’ and the compound ingot is then
rolled to the requisite thinness between cylin-
ders of polished steel. The common thickness
of the silver plate before rolling is equal to
about the 1-40th of that of the compound
ingot. Sometimes the nobler metal is pre-
cipitated from its solutions upon the copper
by the action of chemical affinity, or, more
frequently, by the agency of electro-chemical
decomposition (electro-plating).
The metal employed for plating is a mixture
of copper and brass, amnealed or hardened, as
the case may require. For electro-plated
goods, “nickel silver’ is now almost invariably
employed. See ELECTROTYPE (page 429),
GILDING, PLATINISING, SILVERING, &c.
PLATINISING. Metals may be coated with ||
platinum by nearly similar processes to those
already referred to under PLATING. In the
‘moist way,” vessels of brass, copper, and silver,
are conveniently platinised in the following
manner:—Solid bichloride of platinum, 1 part,
is dissolved in water, 100 parts, and to this
solution is added of common salt, 8 parts; or,
still better, 1 part of ammonio-chloride of
platinum and 8 parts of chloride of ammonium
are placed in a suitable porcelain vessel, with
about 40 parts of water, and the whole heated
to ebullition; the vessels or utensils, pre-
viously made perfectly bright, are then immersed
in the boiling liquid. In a few seconds they
generally acquire a brilliant and firmly ad-
hering layer of platinum.
Silver plates for voltaic batteries are com-
monly platimised by immersing them for a
few seconds in a mixture of saturated solution
of bichloride of platinum, 1 part; dilute sul-
phuric acid, 3 parts; water, 4 to 6 parts.
Platinum battery plates are covered with
a pulverulent deposit of platinum by means of
the electrotype.
Platinised asbestos is prepared by dipping
asbestosinto a solution of bichloride of platinum,
or one of the double chlorides of that metal,
and then gradually heating it to redness. It
is used as a substitute for spongy platinum.
See ELECTROTYPE, VOLTAIC ELECTRICITY.
PLATINUMI. Pt. Syn, PLATINA, WHITE
GOLD ; PLATINUM, L. A heavy, grayish-
white metal, occurring chiefly in certain of the
alluvial districts of Mexico and Brazil, in the
Ural Mountains of Russia, in Ceylon, and in a
few other places. It occurs in nature under
the form of grains and small rolled masses,
associated with palladium, rhodium, osmium,
ruthenium, iridium, and a little iron. It has
only been known in Europe since 1748.
Prep. The native alloy of this metal (crude
platinum) is acted upon, as far as possible, by
nitro-hydrochloric acid, containing an excess
of hydrochloric acid, and slightly diluted
with water, in order to dissolve as small a
quantity of iridium as possible; to the deep
yellowish-red and high acid solution thus
produced ammonium chloride is added, by
which nearly the whole of the platinum is
thrown down in the state of ammonio-chloride.
This substance, after being washed with a
little cold water, is dried and heated to redness;
the product is spongy metallic platinum. This
is made into a thin uniform paste with water,
introduced into a slightly conical mould of
brass, and subjected to a graduated pressure,
by which the water is squeezed out, and the
mass rendered at length sufficiently solid to
bear handling. It is next dried, very care-
fully heated to whiteness, and hammered, or
subjected to powerful pressure by suitable
means, whilst in the heated stated. It will
now bear forging into a bar, and may after-
wards be rolled into plates, or drawn into
wire, at pleasure.
Prop,. &c. Platinum is one of the heaviest
substances known, its sp. gr. being 21:5. It is
whiter than iron, harder than silver, infusible
in the strongest heat of our furnaces, and
melts only when exposed to the highest tem-
perature obtained by Deville's oxyhydrogen
gas furnace. It is unaffected by air, water,
and all the ordinary acids, and even its polish
is uninjured by the strongest heat of a smith’s
forge; aqua regia, however, dissolves it, though
with much more difficulty than gold; it is
also superficially oxidised by fused hydrate
of potassa. Spongy platinum, powdered plati-
num, and even perfectly clean platinum foil,
possess the remarkable property of causing
the union of oxygen and hydrogen gases,
with more or less elevation of temperature.
Platinum is precipitated from its solutions by
deoxidising substances under the form of a
black powder (platinum black), which has
the power of absorbing oxygen, and again
imparting it to combustible substances, and
thus causing their oxidation. In this way
alcohol and pyroxylic spirit may be converted
into the acetic and formic acids, &c.
Platinum Black is simply platinum in a fine
state of fluvium, and is readily obtained as
follows:–1. A solution of platinic chloride, to
which an excess of carbonate of sodium and a
quantity of sugar have been added, is boiled
until the precipitate which forms after a little
time becomes perfectly black, and the super-
natant liquid colourless; the black powder is
then collected on a filter, washed, and dried
by gentle heat.
2. Platinic-ammonium chloride, reduced to
very fine powder, is moistened with strong
sulphuric acid, and a small piece of zinc is
thrust into the mixture; after the whole is
reduced to a black powder, it is washed, first
with hydrochloric acid, and then with pure
water, and is, lastly, dried.
Platinum, in the state of platinum black,

952 PLATINUM.
possesses the property of condensing gases,
more especially oxygen, into its pores, and
afterwards giving it out to various oxidisable
substances. When placed in contact with a
solution of formic acid, it converts it, with
copious effervescence, into carbonic acid; alco-
hol, dropped upon it, becomes changed by
oxidation into acetic acid, the rise of tempera-
ture being often sufficient to cause inflamma-
tion; exposed to a red heat, it shrinks in
volume, assumes the appearance of common
spongy platinum, and, for the most part,
loses these peculiarities. That prepared with
Zinc explodes, when heated, like gunpowder.
The spongy platinium is obtained by ignit-
ing the ammonium platinic chloride at a red
heat.
The salts of platinum are recognised as
follows:—Sulphuretted hydrogen throws down
from neutral and acid solutions of the platinic
salts a blackish-brown precipitate, which is
only formed after a time in the cold, but
immediately on heating the liquid. Ammonium
sulphide also gives a blackish-brown precipitate,
which completely redissolves in a large excess
of the precipitant, provided the latter contains
an excess of sulphur.
Chloride of ammonium and chloride of po-
tassium give yellow crystalline precipitates,
insoluble in acids, but soluble in excess of the
precipitate, upon the application of heat, and
decomposable by heat, with production of
Spongy platinum. Ammonia and potassium
hydrate also give similar precipitates in solu-
º previously acidulated with hydrochloric
a CICl.
Estim. This may be effected by throwing
down the metal under the form of chloride
of ammonium and platinum, which, after being
washed on a filter with a little weak spirit to
which a little of the precipitate has been
added, and afterwards with the spirit alone,
may be carefully dried at 212° Fahr., and
weighed. Or, the precipitate may be ignited
in a platinum crucible, and weighed under the
form of a spongy platinum. 19325 grs. of the
platinic and ammonium chlorides are equi-
valent to 98.75 grs. of metallic platinum.
Uses. Platinum is valuable for the forma-
tion of crucibles, capsules, and other utensils
or instruments intended to be exposed to a
strong heat, or to the action of acids. Platinic
chloride and the platinic and sodium chloride
are much used in chemical analysis. Both of
these are also used in medicines with the same
intentions, and in the same doses, as the cor-
responding salts of gold. These compounds
are poisonous. The antidotes and treatment
are similar to those described under GoLD.
Concluding remarks.--Daville and Debray
have recently introduced a method of refining
platinum, which has already done much to ex-
tend the useful applications of the metal. The
process consists in submitting the crude metal
to the action of an intensely high temperature,
obtained by the combustion of hydrogen (or
coal-gas) with oxygen, in a crucible of limº
By this means large quantities of platinum
(50 lbs. or more) can be kept fused until tº
sulphur, phosphorus, arsenic, and OSmium,
generally occurring in crude platinum, aſ
oxidised and volatilised, and the iron all
copper are oxidised and absorbed by the lim
forming the crucible. At the Internation
Exhibition of 1862 an ingot of pure platinum
weighing over 2 cwt., was exhibited by Mess
Johnson & Mathey, as an illustration of th:
practical results of this process.
Platinic Chloride. Pt. Clſ. Syn. BICHIORIT
OF PLATINUM, CHLORIDE OF PIATINUM
PERCHLORIDE OF P.; PLATINI BICHLORIDIY
(Ph. L.), L. Prep. By dissolving platinum
in nitro-hydrochloric acid, and evaporati,
the solution to dryness at a gentle heat, Pº),
&c. Reddish-brown, deliquescent, and ſº
soluble in both water and alcohol, yiddiſ
orange-coloured solutions. It combines with
a variety of metallic chlorides to form ‘doll.
salts.” Used as a test in chemical analysis
and as an alterative in secondary syphilis &
—Dose. # to # gr., dissolved in distilled watº,
or made into a pill with syrup and liquori.
powder. Some persons prescribe much largº
doses, but unsafely. Hoefer recommends
ointment made with it as an application tº
indolent ulcers. In doses of 5 grs, and up
wards, it acts as a violent caustic pois0n, Ti
last salt is the ‘chloride of platinum' of th:
shops, and the one used in the arts and mti
cine. It forms one of the tests includedi
the “Appendix' to the Ph. L.
Platinic-Ammonium Chloride. Pt(NH)||
or PtCl42NH4Cl. Syn. AMMONIO CHIORIDRO
PLATINUM, PLATINO-CHLORIDE OF AMMO.
NIUM. Prep. A solution of chloride of ammº
nium is added to a strong solution of platiº
chloride, and the precipitate washed with dill:
alcohol.
Prop. Minute, transparent, yellow octaheld
crystals; very feebly soluble in water, less
in dilute alcohol, and insoluble in acids; hº
converts it into spongy platinum.
Platinic-Potassium Chloride. PtF.C.
PtCl2KCl. Syn. PLATINo-CHLORIDE OF Fº
TASSIUM, POTASSIO-CHLORIDE OF PLATINUM
Prep. A bright yellow, crystalline precipitãº
formed whenever solutions of the chlorides ºf
platinum and of potassium are mixed; or :
salt of potassium, acidulated with a littlehydrº
chloric acid, is added to platinic chloride, it
appearance, solubility, &c., it closely resemble
ammonio-chloride of platinum.
Platimic - Sodium Chloride. PENaCl, ſº
PtCl42NaCl. Syn. CHLORIDE OF PIATINY
AND SODIUM, SODIO-CHLORIDE OF PIATINUM
PLATINo-BICHLORIDE OF SODIUM.; PLATINIE
SODII CHLORIDUM, PLATINI SODIO-CHIORI.
DIUM., &c., L. Prep. (Redwood) Platiº
chloride, 17 parts; chloride of sodium, 6paris;
dissolve the two salts separately in water, ſº
mix the solutions, and evaporate, that crystal
may form. The crystals are large, transplit


PLUGGING—PLUMBIC ACII). 953
and of a yellow-red colour.—Dose. #3 to ; gr.;
in the same cases as the bichloride.
Platinous Oxide. Pt(). Syn. OxTDE of
PLATINUM. Prep. By heating to below red-
mess the platinic chloride and digesting with
hydrate of potassium the residue.
Prop., &c. A black powder, soluble in
excess of alkali, and freely so in the acids,
forming brown solutions of the platinous salts.
These are distinguished from solutions of the
platinic salts by not being precipitated by
chloride of ammonium. Platinous oxalate, in
fine copper-coloured needles, may be obtained
by heating platinic oxide in a solution of oxalic
acid.
Platinic Oxide. Pt(). Syn. BINoxIDE of
PLATINUM. Prep. 1. By exactly decom-
posing the platinic sulphate with nitrate of
barium, and adding pure hydrate of sodium to
the filtered solution, so as to precipitate only
half the oxide. (Berzelius.)—2. By boiling
platinic chloride with hydrate of sodium, in
considerable excess, and then adding acetic
acid.
Prop., &c. As the hydrate (Pt(HO),), it is
a bulky brownish powder; this, when gently
heated, becomes black and anhydrous. It
forms salts with the acids, and combines with
some of the bases. The salts have a red or
yellow colour, and a remarkable tendency to
form double salts with the alkaline salts.
Obs. Both the oxides of platinum are re-
duced to the metallic state on ignition.
Platinum, Spongy. Prep. 1. By heating
ammonio-chloride of platinum to redness.
2. Crude bichloride of platinum and chlo-
ride of ammonium are separately dissolved in
proof spirit, and the one solution added to
the other as long as a precipitate forms; this
is collected, and, whilst still moist, formed
into little balls or pieces, which are then dried,
and gradually heated to redness.
Prop., &c. These have been noticed above.
Small balls of spongy platinum are used for the
hydrogen instantaneous-light lamp (Dobe-
reiner's lamp); but they are apt to absorb
moisture from the atmosphere, and then lose
their power of inflaming hydrogen, until they
are re-dried and heated.
PLUG/GING. The introduction of a mass of
lint, sponge, or other suitable material, into a
wound or cavity, with the intention of arrest-
ing hamorrhage. It is now seldom adopted,
except in cases of bleeding from the nose, and
that only after more approved methods have
failed.
PLUM. A name applied to several varieties
of the Prunus domesticus (Linn.), or wild plum.
Among the cultivated varieties, the damson,
greengage, French plum, magnum bonum or
Mogul p., mirabelle p., Orleans p., and prune,
are those best known. Grocers’ ‘plums’ are
raisins, or dried grapes. -
PLUMBA'G0. Syn. GRAPHITE, BLACK-LEAD,
One of the native forms of carbon. It contains
from 95 to 100% of pure carbon; has a metallic
lustre, and conducts electricity nearly as well
as the metals. It was formerly regarded as a
carbide of iron, but the iron generally found
is now known to be merely in a state of mix-
ture. There are two distinct varieties of
graphite—crystallised or foliated graphite, ob-
tained chiefly from Ceylon; and amorphous
graphite (the ordinary plumago or black-
lead), largely imported to this country from
Germany. The Borrowdale mine in Cumber-
land, from which the finest black-lead was
formerly derived, is now nearly exhausted.
The foliated graphite of Ceylon and other
parts is the principal material employed for
making plumbago crucibles and other fire-re-
sisting goods. The amorphons graphite is used
for making black-lead pencils, polishing pow-
der for stoves and grates (‘lustre,’ ‘servant's
friend,’ &c.), and to diminish friction in heavy
machinery (anti-friction powder). Its powder
is also used to give conducting surfaces to
articles on which it is desired to deposit cop-
per by the electrotype. In medicine, plum-
bago has been used with apparent advantage,
in herpes and several chronic skin diseases—
externally, as an ointment made with four
times its weight of lard; and internally, made
into pills.
Purification. For medical and chemical use,
graphite may be treated as follows:–
1. (Dumas and Stas.) Heat it to redness
with caustic potassa, in a covered crucible, then
wash it well with water, boil it in nitric acid,
and in aqua regia, again wash it with water,
dry it, and expose it at a white heat to a stream
of dry chlorine gas; lastly, wash it with
water, and again heat it to dull redness. In
analysis. -
2. (Ph. Bor.) Pure native plumbago, 1 lb.,
is boiled in water for 1 hour, then drained,
and digested, for 24 hours, in a mixture of
water, 8 oz. ; nitric acid and hydrochloric acid,
of each, 2 oz. ; it is, lastly, well washed with
water, and dried.
3. (Brodie's patent.) This process is only
applicable to the hard varieties of graphite, as
that of Ceylon. It consists in introducing
coarsely powdered graphite, previously mixed
with 11th of its weight of chlorate of potassa,
into 2 parts of concentrated sulphuric acid,
which is heated in a water bath until the evo-
lution of acid fumes ceases. The acid is then
removed by water, and the graphite dried.
Thus prepared, this substance, when heated to
a temperature approaching a red heat, swells
up to a voluminous mass of finely divided
graphite. This powder, which is quite free
from grit, may be afterwards consolidated by
pressure, and used for making pencils or other
purposes.
PLUMI'BIC ACID. Binoxide of lead occa-
sionally receives this name on account of its
combining with some of the bases to form
compounds which have been called plum-
bates.

954
PLUMBUM CORNEUM-POISON.
PLUM'BUM. COR/NEUM.
OF LEAD.
PLUM'OSE AL’UM. The old name of the
silky amianthine crystals of the double sul-
phate of aluminum and iron occasionally found
on alum slate. Asbestos has also been so
called,
PLUNKET’S CANCER REMIEDY. Soo PLUN-
RET’s CAUSTIC.
P0ACH'ING. Amongst cooks, a peculiar
method of cooking small articles by a slight
boiling or stewing process.
POACHED EGGS are prepared by breaking
them into a small saucepan or stewpan con-
taining about ; a pint of boiling water, to
which a teaspoonful of common salt, and, oc-
casionally, a little vinegar, is added, and gently
simmering them for 3 or 4 minutes, or until
sufficiently firm to bear removal with a spoon
or “slice.’ Another method is to employ melted
butter, instead of water, and to dress them
either with or without stirring.
Poached eggs are commonly served on toast,
or with fried ham or bacon, with spice or vege-
table seasoning at will. They form an excel-
lent breakfast, or “make-shift dinner.”
PODOPHYLLIN. Syn. RESIN of PODo-
PHYLLUM ; RESINA PopoPHYIII (B. P.). Ob-
tained from the root of the Podophyllum pelta-
tum (Linn.), or may-apple, a substance officinal
in the Ph. U. S.
Prep. 1. The alcoholic extract of may-apple
is digested in cold ether, to remove fatty matter,
and is then dissolved in rectified spirit ; the
solution is decoloured with a little animal char-
coal, and filtered; it is, lastly, allowed to eva-
porate spontaneously.
2. (B.P.) Podophyllum, in coarse powder,
1; rectified spirit, 3}, or a sufficiency; dis-
tilled water and hydrochloric acid, of each a
sufficiency; exhaust the podophyllum by per-
colation with the spirit; distil over the spirit;
slowly pour the liquid remaining after the dis-
tillation of the tincture into three times its
volume of water acidulated with ºrth part of
its weight of hydrochloric acid, constantly
stirring; let it stand 24 hours; collect the
resin which falls, wash on a filter with distilled
water, and dry in a stove. Cholagogue purga-
tive ; used as a substitute for calomel.—Dose.
# to # gr., or even 2 grs. It is best to begin
with # gr. (Squire.)
Prop., &c. An amorphous, grayish-white
mass, soluble in alcohol, and slightly soluble in
water. It is a safe and certain cathartic, supe-
rior in activity to resin of jalap.–Dose. # to 3
grs. See EXTRACT OF MAY-APPLE.
PODOPHYLLUM R00T. Syn. PopoPHYLII
RADIX. (B.P.). The dried rhizome of the Podo-
phyllum peltatum ; imported from North Ame.
rica. Active and certain cathartic.—Dose. 10
to 20 grs.
POIS'0N. Syn. Toxicum, VENENUM, L.
Any substance which, when swallowed, or ap-
plied in any particular way to the living body,
disturbs, suspends, or destroys one or more
See CHLORIDE
of the vital functions. In sufficient quantity,
or in small doses long continued, the COm:
mon result of the administration of dºlº,
terious substances is either impaired vitality.
death. -
Poisons are classified by Orfila under fºr
heads :—
1. IRRITANT POISONS, or such as inflame ºf
corrode the parts with which they come in
contact. Their chief effects are upon the di
mentary canal, with, sometimes, ulcerationſ
the tongue, fauces, and Oesophagus. Naust.
vomiting, stomachic and intestinal pains, ºr
treme anxiety and anguish, quick and fºlk
pulse, cold and clammy skin, and mu(Ol
bilious, or bloody diarrhoea, are among the Cºm:
mon leading symptoms. Arsenic, blue vitril
verdigris, strong acids and alkalies, drasti.
purgatives, and numerous other substanº
belong to this class.
2. NARCOTIC or STUPEFYING POISONS, I
such as paralyse the functions of the nervoi
system, and produce headache, vertigo, CT
fused vision, delirium, stupor, convulsions, Cºm;
&c. It includes morphia, opium, henbane, i.
of bitter almonds, prussic acid, &c.
3. NARCOTICO-ACRID POISONS, which produ%
at the same time narcotism and irritationſ
the parts which they touch. Alcohol, bel.
donna, cocculus Indicus, colchicum, foxglº
hemlock, poisonous fungi, strychnine, tohlſº
veratrine, &c., are of this kind. -
4. SEPTIC or PUTREFIANT POISONS, includ
ing all those which alter, liquefy, or cause tº
putrescence of the fluids of the body; as sl
phuretted hydrogen, the gas from sewers all
cesspools, putrefying organic matter, miasmä
&c.
The treatment of cases of poisoning variº
with the substance occasioning it; and, with
the proper antidotes, will be found notiº
under the names of the various substancestliſ.
exert a deleterious action on the animal holy
It may here, however, be useful to remark
that in almost all cases of poisoning copiº
vomiting should be excited as soon as possil
by the administration of a powerful emetic;
its action being promoted by copious draught
of lukewarm water, tickling the throat withfit
finger, &c. Should this fail, but not otherwis,
the stomach-pump should be had recourse iſ
The vomiting should be kept up and tº
stomach well washed out with bland albumi
nous or mucilaginous liquids, such as milk
and-water, barley water, sweetened Witºl
flour-and-water, or any similar matters, as it.
cumstances may afford. After the vomiting
brisk aperient draught, or clyster, may be admi
nistered, and nervous irritability or exhaustill
allayed by means of ether, opium, wine, Q.
warm spirit-and-water, as the case may requitº
Even in a suspected case of poisoning, whº
proper medical advice is not at hand, an emºtiº
should be immediately taken or administered
Vomiting may be, in general, produced very
promptly by merely swallowing a cupful ºf
|


POLARIZATION.—POMMADE.
955
warm water mixed with a teaspoonful of flour
of mustard. If no dry mustard is at hand, a
portion of the contents of a mustard-pot, put
into the water, will answer nearly as well. As
mustard may thus prove of so much use, it
should never be wanting in any house; but
even should there be no mustard at hand, warm
water by itself, freely taken, forms a tolerably
efficacious emetic.
POLARIZATION (of Light). A change pro-
duced upon light by the action of certain media
and surfaces, by which it ceases to present the
ordinary phenomena of reflection and trans-
mission. Instruments or apparatus employed
to effect this change are called “polariscopes.’
Although the polarization of light is frequently
employed as a means of chemical investigation,
and is of the utmost interest to the philosophical
inquirer, its consideration scarcely comes within
the province of this work. See ‘Watt’s Dict.
of Chemistry,” “Ganot's Physics,’ &c.
POLISH. Various substances, differing
widely from each other, are popularly known
under this name. See POWDERS, WARNISH,
&c., and below.
Polish, French. See page 541.
Polish, French Reviver. Prep. 1. Linseed
oil, ; pint; pale lac varnish and wood naphtha,
of each, + pint ; well shaken together, and
again every time before use.
2. Methylated rectified spirit, 3 pints; lin-
seed oil and French polish, of each, 1 pint; as
the last.
3. Linseed oil (pale), 1 quart; strong dis-
tilled vinegar, pint; spirit of turpentine, 4
pint; muriatic acid, 1 oz.
Furniture Cream. Prep. 1. Pearlash, 20z.;
Soft Soap, 4 oz. ; bees' wax, 1 lb.; water, 1
gall.; boil until the whole is united and forms
a creamy liquid, when cold.
2. Bees' wax, ; 1b.; good yellow soap, 4 lb.;
water, 5 pints; boil to a proper consistence
with constant agitation, then add of boiled oil
and spirit of turpentine, of each, ; pint. For
use, the above are diluted with water, spread
upon the surface with a painter's brush, and
then polished off with a hard brush, cloth, or
leather.
3. Boiled oil (pale), , pint ; bees’ wax, 1}
Oz. ; mixed by heat. Applied by a ‘rubber,’
and at once polished off.
Furniture Oil. See OILS. -
Furniture, Paste. Prep. 1. Oil of turpen-
tine, 1 pint ; alkaline root, 4 oz.; digest until
sufficiently coloured, then add of bees’ wax
(scraped small), 4 oz. ; put the vessel into hot
water, and stir until the mixture is complete,
then put it into pots. If wanted pale, the
alkanet root should be omitted.
2. (White.) White wax, 1 lb.; solution of
potassa, gallon; boil to a proper consistence.
Polish, Harness. See page 229.
Polish, Leather. See BLACKING.
POL'LARD. See FLOUR.
POL'YCHREST. Syn. PolycIIRESTUS, L.
A term formerly applied to several medicines
on account of the numerous virtues they were
supposed to possess. Sal polycrestus is the old
name for sulphate of potassa.
POL'YCHROITE. The name formerly given
to the colouring matter of saffron, from the
variety of colours which it exhibits with dif-
ferent reagents. Its alcoholic and aqueous
solutions are of a golden yellow ; nitric acid
turns it green; sulphuric acid, first blue, and
then lilac.
POM’ACE. See CIDER.
POMATUM. Syn. Pomſ MADE, Fr. This
term was originally applied to a fragrant oint-
ment prepared with lard and apples; but is
now wholly restricted, in this country, to
solid greasy substances used in dressing the
hair. The pomatums of French pharmacy
(Pomſ MADES, GRAISSES MáDICAMENTEUSES-
P. Cod, ; LIPAROLás—Guibourt ; LIPAROLás
and LIPAROIDás—Béral; STEAROLás—Ché-
reau) are soft ointments, having a basis of lard
or fat, without resinous matter. See OINT-
MENT and POMMADE.
POMEGRAN’ATE. The Punica Gramatum
(Linn.), a small tree indigenous in Persia and
the East. Fruit (POMEGRANATE ; GRANATA,
MATA PUNICA) is cooling and astringent ;
fruit-rind (POMEGRANATE PEEL ; MALACO-
RIUM, CORTEX GRANATI ; GRANATUM-(Ph.
L.) and root-bark (GRANATI RADIX—B. P.,
Ph. L. E. & D.) are powerfully astringent,
detersive, and anthelmintic ; the last more par-
ticularly so. The double flowers of the wild
tree (BALAUSTINES; BALAUSTIAE), as well as
those of the cultivated one (CYTINI), are tonic
and astringent.—Dose. 15 to 20 grs. of the
root-bark, repeated every 30 or 40 minutes,
until four doses have been taken, followed by
castor oil; in tape-worm. As an astringent,
all the parts described are commonly given
under the form of decoction.
POMMADE. [Fr.] The term applied by
Continental perfumers to any soft fragrant
ointment (POMATUM).
In the preparation of pommades, one of the
first objects of consideration is to obtain their
fatty basis in as fresh and pure a state as pos-
sible. Lard, beef and mutton suet, beef mar-
row, veal fat, and bear's fat, are the substances
commonly employed for this purpose, either
singly or in mixtures of two or more of
them. The fat, carefully selected from a young
and healthy animal, after being separated from
extraneous skin and fibre, is pounded in a
marble mortar, in the cold, until all the mem-
branes are completely torm asunder. It is
next placed in a covered porcelain or polished
metal pan, and submitted to the heat of a
water bath, which is continued until its fatty
portion has liquefied, and the albuminous and
aqueous matter, and other foreign substances,
have completely separated and subsided. The
liquid fat is then carefully skimmed, and at
once passed through a clean flannel filter. In
this state it may be aromatised or perfumed
at will; after which, when it is intended that
-

956
POMMADE.
the pommade should be opaque and white, it is
assiduously stirred or beaten with a glass or
wooden knife, or spatula, until it concretes;
but when it is desired that it should appear
transparent or crystalline, it is allowed to cool
very slowly, and without being disturbed. To
prevent the accession of rancidity, a little
benzoic acid, gum benzoin, or nitric ether, may
be added to the fat, whilst in the liquid state,
as noticed under FAT and OINTMENT. Some-
times a small portion of white wax or bees’
wax (according to the intended colour of the
product) is melted with the fat, to increase its
solidity. Some parties employ a few grains of
powdered citric acid per ounce, in a like manner,
with the intention of increasing the whiteness
of the compound; but the practice is not to
be commended, as pommades so prepared prove
injurious to the hair.
The French perfumers, who are celebrated
for the variety and excellence of their pom-
mades, divide them into four classes:–
1. POMMADES BY INFUSION. These are
made by gently melting in a clean pan, over
a water bath, 2 parts of hog's lard, and 1 part
of beef suet (both of the finest quality, and
carefully ‘rendered’), and adding thereto 1
part of the given flowers, previously carefully
picked and separated from foreign matter; or,
if the odorous substance is a solid, then coarsely
bruised, but not reduced to fine powder. The
mixture is next digested at a very gentle heat
for from 12 to 24 hours, with occasional stir-
ring, the vessel being kept covered as much
as possible during the whole time. The next
day the mixture is reheated, and again well
stirred for a short time, after which it is
poured into canvas bags, and these being
securely tied, are submitted to powerful pres-
sure, gradually increased, in a screw or barrel
press. This operation is repeated with the
same fat and fresh flowers, several times, until
the pommade is sufficiently perfumed. A good
pommade requires thrice to six times its
weight in flowers to be thus consumed; or of
the aromatic barks and seeds a corresponding
proportion. The pommades of cassia, orange
flowers, and several others kept by the French
perfumers, are prepared in this manner.
2. PoWMADES BY CONTACT (ENFLEURAGE).
These are made by spreading, with a pallette
knife, simple pommade (made with lard and
suet as above) on panes of glass or pewter
plates, to the thickness of a finger, and stick-
ing the surface all over with the sweet-scented
flowers. These last are renewed daily for one,
two, or three months, or until the pommade
has become sufficiently perfumed. On the
large scale, the panes are placed in small
shallow frames, made of four pieces of wood
micely fitted together, and are then closely
piled one upon another. On the small scale,
pewter plates are generally used, and they
are inverted one over the other. In some of
the perfumeries of France many thousands of
frames are employed at once. The pommades
of jasmin, jonquil, orange-flowers, narciºus
tuberose, violet, and of some other delicatº
flowers, are prepared in this manner.
3. POMMADES BY ADDITION. These art
prepared by simply adding the fragm:
essences or essential oils, in the required qual
tity, to the simple pommade of lard and Sū
to produce the proper odour. In this way tº
pomades of bergamotte, cédrat, cinnam),
lemons, lemon thyme, lavender, limettes, mill.
joram, Portugal, roses, rosemary, thyme, Vºl.
bena, and about 40 others kept by the Parisial
perfumers, are made.
4. MIXED POMMADES. Of these a gºt
variety exists, prepared by the addition ºf
judicious combinations of the more esteemed
perfumes to simple pommade; or, by the il.
mixture of the different perfumed pommāls
whilst in the semi-liquid state. (See below)
The COLOURED POMMADES derive their ſº.
spective tints from tinctorial matter added tº
the melted fat before perfuming it. GREY
is given by gum guaiacnm (in powder), Orly
the green leaves or tops of spinach, parly,
lavender, or walnut;-RED, by alkanet ºf
and carmine;—YELLOW and ORANGE, by Al
natto or palm oil; —WHITE POMMADES AR
made with mutton suet, instead of beef Ślę.
The BROWN and BLACK hard pomatums, Venlº
under the name of ‘COSMETIQUE, are noticel
at page 372. A few compound pommädes aſ:
used as skin cosmetics.
Pommade. Syn. POMATUM. Prep, 1
(PLAIN POMATUM, SIMPLE P.)—a. From larl
2 lbs. ; beef suet, 1 lb.; carefully rendered is
above. The ordinary consistence for tº:
perate climates.
b. Lard and suet, equal parts. For Wilm
climates. Both may be scented at will,
2. (scºntrºpºrum). Plainºut,
1 lb.; melt it by the least possible degree ºf
heat, add of essence of lemon or essence ºf
bergamot, 3 drs., and stir the mixture untili
concretes. This forms the ordinary “pomatum'
of the shops.
b. Plain pomatum, 1% lb.; essence of berg.
mot, 1% dr.; essence of lemon, 1 dr.; oils ºf
rosemary and cassia, or each, ; dr.; ºil ºf
cloves, 20 drops. More fragrant than th:
last.
Pommade, Castor Oil. Prep. 1. Fºl
castor oil, 1 lb. ; white wax, 4 oz.; melt them
together, then add, when nearly cold
essence of bergamot, 3 drs.; oil of lavendº
(English), ; dr. ; essence of ambergris, 1
drops. Supposed to render the hair glossy,
2. (Crystallised.) From castor oil, 1 lb.
spermaceti, 3 oz. ; melt them together, by
gentle heat, add, of essence of bergamot,3ds.
oil of verbena, lavender, and rosemary, ºf
each, # dr.; pour it into wide-mouthed glas
bottles, and allow it to cool very slowly all
undisturbed.
Pommade, Cazenave's. Prep. From pº
pared beef marrow, 4 oz. ; tincture of Gill.
tharides (P. Cod.), 3 to 4 drs.; powdered (i.
-




POMMADE. 957
namon, 3 oz.; melt them together, stir until
the spirit has, for the most part, evaporated,
then decant the clear portion, and again stir
it until it concretes. Recommended as a
remedy for baldness and weak hair. It is to
be used night and morning; the head being
washed with soap-and-water, and afterwards
with salt-and-water, before applying it. Dr.
Cattell scents it with the oils of origanum and
bergamot, instead of cinnamon.
Pommade Collante. Prep. 1. Oil of almonds,
3 oz. ; white wax, 3 oz. ; melt them together,
and add, of tincture of mastic (strong), 1 oz. ;
essence of bergamot, dr. Used to stiffen the
hair, and keep it in form.
2. Burgundy pitch (true), 3 oz. ; white wax,
2 oz. ; lard, 1 oz. ; melt, and, when consi-
derably cooled, stir in, of tincture of benzoin,
1 oz. ; essence of bergamot, 3. dr. Used to
fasten false curls.
Pommade, Cowslip. Prep. From plain
pommade, 2 lbs. ; essence of bergamot, 3 drs. ;
essence of lemon and essence of orange peel, of
each, 1 dr. ; huile au jasmin and essence de
petit grain, of each, ; dr. ; essence of amber-
gris, 6 drops.
Pommade, Crystallised. Prep. From olive
oil and spermaceti, as crystallised castor oil
pommade, with scent at will.
Pommade d’Alyon. Ointment of nitric acid
(page 853).
Pommade de Beaute. Prep. From oil of al-
monds, 2 oz. ; spermaceti, 2 drs. ; white wax,
1} dr.; glycerin, 1 dr. ; balsam of Peru, + dr.;
mixed by a gentle heat. Used as a skin cos-
metic, as well as for the hair.
Pommade de Casse. Prep. From plain
pommade, 1 lb.; palm oil, ; oz. ; melt, pour
off the clear, and add oil of cassia and huile au
jasmin, of each, 1 dr. ; neroli, 20 drops; oil of
verbena or lemon grass, 15 drops; otto of
roses, 5 drops; and stir until nearly cold.
Very fragrant.
Pommade d’Hebe. Prep. To white wax,
1 oz., melted by a gentle heat, add, of the
juice of lily bulbs and Narbonne honey, each,
2 oz. ; rose water, 2 drs. ; otto of roses, 2
drops. Applied night and morning to remove
wrinkles.
Pommade de Nimon de l'Enclos. Prep. Take
of oil of almonds, 4 oz. ; prepared lard, 3 oz. ;
juice of houseleek, 3 fl. oz. Used chiefly as a
skin cosmetic. Said to be very softening and
refreshing.
Pommade Divine. Prep. 1. Washed and
purified beef marrow, 2 lbs. ; liquid styrax, cy-
press wood, and powdered orris root, of each,
2 oz.; powdered cinnamon, 1 oz. ; cloves and
nutmegs, of each (bruised), 3 oz. ; digest
the whole together by the heat of a water
bath for six hours, and then strain through
flannel.
2. Plain pommade, 2 lbs. ; essence of lemon
and bergamot, of each, 2 drs. ; oils of lavender
and origanum, of each, 1 dr. ; oils of verbena,
cassia, cloves, and neroli, of each, 12 drops;
huile au jasmin, 3 drs. ; essence of violets,
# oz.
Pommade, Dupuytren’s Prep. 1. Take of
prepared beef marrow, 12 oz. ; melt, add of
baume nerval (see page 852), 4 oz. ; Peruvian
balsam and oil of almonds, of each, 3 oz. ; and,
lastly, of alcoholic extract of cantharides, 36
grs. ; (dissolve in) rectified spirit, 3 fl. drs. This
is the original formula for this celebrated
pommade. The following modifications of it
are now commonly employed:—
2. (Cap.) Beef marrow, 2 oz. ; alcoholic
extract of cantharides, 8 grs. ; rose oil, 1 dr.;
essence of lemons, 30 drops.
3. (Guibourt.) Beef marrow and ‘baume
nerval’ (page 852), of each, 1 oz. ; rose oil,
1 dr.; alcoholic (or acetic) extract of can-
tharides, 6 grs. ; (dissolved in) rectified spirit,
q. s. These compounds are used to promote
the growth of the hair and to prevent bald-
mess, for which purpose they are usually co-
loured and scented according to the taste of
the manufacturer. To be useful, they should
be well rubbed on the scalp, at least once
daily, for several weeks, and the head should
be occasionally washed with soap-and-water.
Pommade, East India. Prep. Take of suet,
3 lbs.; lard, 2 lbs. ; bees’ wax (bright), 4 lb.;
palm oil, 2 oz. ; powdered gum benzoin, 3 oz. ;
musk (previously triturated with a little lump
sugar), 20 grs. ; digest the whole together in a
covered vessel, by the heat of a water bath, for
2 hours, then decant the clear portion, and
add, of essence of lemon, ; oz. ; oil of lavender,
# oz. ; oils of cloves, cassia, and verbena, of
each, # dr. A favourite pommade in the East
Indies.
Pommade, Hard. Syn. HARD POMATUM,
ROLL P. Prep. 1. Take of beef suet, 2 lbs. ;
yellow wax, 4 lb. ; spermaceti, 1 oz. ; pow-
dered benzoin, # oz.; melt them together,
then add, of oil of lavender, 2 drs. ; essence of
ambergris, ; dr. Before it concretes pour it
into moulds of paper or tin foil.
2. Mutton suet and lard, of each, 1 lb.;
white wax, 6 oz. ; melt, and add, of essence of
lemon, 2 drs.; oil of cassia, ; dr. Other per-
fumes may be employed at will.
Hard pomatums are used to gloss and set
the hair. They act both as “pommade and
* fixateur.’ See CoSMETIQUE.
Pommade, Macassar. Prep. From castor
oil, 5 oz. ; white wax, 1 oz. ; alkanet root,
} dr.; heat them together until sufficiently
coloured, then strain, and add, oil of origanum
and oil of rosemary, of each, 1 dr.; oil of nut-
meg, dr.; otto of roses, 10 drops. Said to
be equal in efficacy to MACASSAR OIL.
Pommade, Marechal. Plain pommade scented
by digesting it with poudre marechale.
Pommade, Marrow. Syn. MARROW PoMA-
TUM. Prep. From prepared beef marrow,
3 lb.; beef suet, # lb.; palm oil, # oz. ; melted
together and scented at will.
Pommade, Millefleur. Prep. From plain
pommade scented with a mixture of essence of
958
POPPY-PORTER.
lemon and essence of ambergris, each, 4 parts;
oil of lavender, 2 parts; oil of cloves and essence
de petit grain, of each, 1 part ; or with other
like perfumes so proportioned to each other
that no one shall predominate. Much es-
teemed.
Pommade, Roll. See HARD POMMADE.
Pommade, Roman. See below.
Pommade, Rose. Syn. Rose PoVIATUM. This
is plain pommade or hard lard, which has been
well beaten with eau de rose, or, better still,
scented with otto of roses. It is sometimes
tinged with alkanet root.
Pommade, Soft. Plain pomatum scented at
will.
Pommade, Soubeiran's. Prep. From beef
marrow, 1 oz. ; oil of almonds, 3 oz. ; disul-
phate of quinine, 1 dr. Recommended for
strengthening and restoring the hair.
Pommade, Vanilla. Syn. ROMAN POMMADE,
PoMMADE A LA VANILLE, POMMADE ROMAIN.
From plain pommade and pommade à la rose,
of each, 12 lbs. ; powdered vanilla, 1 lb. ; heat
them together in a water bath, stir constantly
for 1 hour, let it settle for another hour,
decant the clear, and add, oil a la rose, 2% lbs. ;
bergamot, 4 oz.
POPPY. Syn. WHITE POPPY ; PAPAVER
SOMNIFERUM, L. The capsules or fruit (“ma-
ture”— Ph. L.; “not quite ripe”—Ph. E.)
form the poppies or poppy-heads of the shops
(PAPAVERIs CAPSULE ; PAPAVER—Ph. L. E.
& D.). They are anodyne and narcotic,
similar to opium, but in only a very slight
degree. The seeds (MAW SEED), which are
sweet, oleaginous, and nutritious, are used as
a substitute for almonds in confectionery and
mixtures, and are pressed for their oil. See
ExTRACT, OPIUM, and SYRUP.
Poppy, Red. Syn. CORN POPPY, CORN ROSE;
PAPAVER. RHOFAS, L. The fresh petals or
flowers (RHOEADos PETALA; RHOEAS–Ph. L.
E. & D.) are reputed pectoral, but are chiefly
employed on account of their rich colour.
See SYRUP.
POP'ULIN. Syn. PopULINUM, L. A pe-
culiar neutral, crystallisable substance, for-
merly supposed to be an alkaloid, found, asso-
ciated with SALICIN, in the root-bark of the
Populus tremula (Linn.), or aspen.
Prep. Concentrate the decoction by a gentle
heat, and set it aside in a cool situation to
crystallise; dissolve the crystals which are de-
posited in rectified spirit, decolour them by
digestion with animal charcoal, filter, and
again crystallise. To render them still purer,
they may be redissolved and crystallised a
second and a third time, if necessary.
Prop., &c. It resembles salicin in appear-
ance and solubility, but, unlike that substance,
has a penetrating sweet taste. Dilute acids
convert it into benzoic acid, grape sugar, and
saliretin; and with a mixture of sulphuric acid
and bichromate of potassa it yields a large
quantity of salicylous acid. It appears to be
tonic, stomachic, and febrifuge.
POR/CELAIN. See POTTERy.
PORK. The value of pork as an article
diet is well known. That from the youngäll
properly fed animal is savoury, easy of digº
tion, and, when only occasionally employal
highly wholesome ; but it is apt to disigº
with some stomachs, and should, in such Căş,
be avoided. To render it proper for foºli
should be thoroughly but not overcooki
When salted, it is less digestible. The fº
quent use of pork is said to favour Obesiſ
and to occasion disorders of the skin, especial
in the sedentary.
POR/PHYRIZED, PORPHORIZATION
Words coined by recent pharmaceutical writº
and possessing similar meanings to IEWIGATI)
and LEVIGATION.
PORPHYROXIN. A neutral crystallis'
substance discovered by Merck in opium. It
is soluble in both alcohol and ether, insºli;
in water, and is characterised by assuming
purplish-red colour when heated in dilut:
hydrochloric acid.
PORRI/G0. See RING-WORM.
PORTER. This well-known beverage, nº
the common drink of the inhabitants of Lºn.
don, by whom it is generally termed ‘hº
originated with a brewer named Harwood, i.
1722. Previously to this date, ‘ale,' 'hº
and ‘twopenny,' constituted the stock in tºld
of the London publican, and were drum;
either singly or together, under the names'ſ
‘half-and-half” or ‘three threads,’ for which
the vendor was compelled to have recours?"
two or three different casks, as the casemigli
demand. The inconvenience and trouble this
incurred led Mr. Harwood to endeavour tº
produce a beer which should possess the faſt
of the mixed liquors. In this he succeeded S.
well that his new beverage rapidly spºt
seded the mixtures then in use, and obtained
general preference among the lower classesſi
the people. At first this liquor was callel
‘entire’ or ‘entire butt,” on account ºf it
being drawn from one cask only, but it altº
wards acquired, at first in derision, the MW
familiar name of ‘porter,’ in consequence ºf
its general consumption among porters and
labourers. The word “entire’ is still, however,
frequently met with on the signboards ºf
taverns about the metropolis.
The characteristics of pure and wholesºme
porter are its transparency, lively dark browſ
colour, and its peculiar bitter and slight;
burnt taste. Originally, these qualities weſt
derived from the ‘high-dried malt, with with
alone it was brewed. It is now generally, if
not entirely, made from “pale or ‘amber malt,
mixed with a sufficient quantity of ‘patent
or “roasted malt’ to impart the necessary
flavour and colour. Formerly, this liquor Wils
* Vatted” and ‘stored” for some time beforº
being sent out to the retailer, but the chang;
in the taste of the public during the last
quarter of a century in favour of the millº
new porter has rendered this unnecessary. Tº


PORTER.
959
best ‘draught porter,’ at the time of its con-
sumption, is now only a few weeks old. In
this state only would it be tolerated by the
modern beer-drinker. The old and acid
beverage that was formerly sold under the
name of porter would be rejected at the pre-
sent day, as ‘hard’ and unpleasant, even by the
most thirsty votaries of malt liquor.
The ‘beer’ or ‘porter’ of the metropolitan
brewers is essentially a weak mild ale, coloured
and flavoured with roasted malt. Its richness
in sugar and alcohol, on which its stimulating
and nutritive properties depend, is hence less
than that of an uncoloured mild ale brewed
from a like original quantity of malt. For
pale malt is assumed to yield 80 to 84 lbs. of
saccharine per quarter; whereas the torrefied
malt employed by the porter-brewers only
yields 18 to 24 lbs. per quarter, and much of
even this small quantity is altered in its pro-
perties, and is incapable of undergoing the
vinous fermentation. In the manufacture of
porter there is a waste of malt which does not
occur in brewing ale; and the consumer must,
therefore, either pay a higher price for it or be
content with a weaker liquor.
The hygienic properties of porter, for the
most part, resemble those of other malt
liquors. Some members of the faculty con-
ceive that it is better suited to persons with
delicate stomachs and weak digestion than
either ale or beer. That there may be some
reason for this preference, in such cases, we
are not prepared to deny, but undoubtedly,
when the intention is to stimulate and nourish
the system, ale is preferable. Certain it is,
however, that the dark colour and strong taste
of porter render its adulteration easier than
that of ale, whilst such adulteration is more
difficult of detection than in the paler varieties
of malt liquors. “For medical purposes,
‘bottled porter’ (CEREVISIA LAGENARIA) is
usually preferred to draught porter.” It is
useful as a restorative in the latter stages of
fever, and to support the powers of the system
after surgical operations, severe accidents, &c.”
(Pereira, ii, 982.) When out of condition
or adulterated, porter, more than perhaps any
other malt liquor, is totally unfit for use as
a beverage, even for the healthy; and when
taken by the invalid, the consequences must
necessarily be serious. Dr. Ure says that pure
porter, “when drank in moderation, is a far
wholesomer beverage for the people than the
thin acidulous wines of France and Germany.”
The manufacture of porter has been described
in our article on BREWING, and is also referred
to above. It presents no difficulty or pecu-
liarity, beyond the choice of the proper ma-
terials. A mixture of “brown’ and ‘black
malt’ is thought to yield a finer flavour and
colour to the pale malt that gives the body to
the liquor than when ‘black’ or “roasted malt'
is employed alone. The proportion of the
former to the latter commonly varies from 1-6th
to 1-4th, When ‘black malt’ is alone used,
the proportion varies from the 1-10th to 1-15th.
1 lb. of “roasted malt,” mashed with about 79
lbs. of pale malt, is said to be capable of im-
parting to the liquor the flavour and colour of
porter. The following formulae were formerly
commonly employed in London :-
1. (DRAUGHT PORTER.) From pale malt,
3} qrs.; amber malt, 3 q1's. ; brown malt, 1};
qr.; mash at twice with 28 and 24 barrels of
water, boil with brown Kent hops, 56 lbs., and
set with yeast, 40 lbs. Prod. 28 barrels, or 3}
times the malt, besides 20 brls. of table-beer
from a third mashing.
2. (BoTTLING PoETER ; BROWN STOUT.)
From pale malt, 2 qrs. ; amber and brown malt,
of each, 1 qr.; mash at 3 times with 12, 7,
and 6 brls. of water, boil with hops, 50 lbs., and
set with yeast, 26 lbs. Prod. 17 brls., or 1.
times the malt.
The purity and quality of porter, as well as
of other malt liquors, may be inferred in the
manner noticed under BEER (see page 201);
but can only be positively determined by a
chemical examination. For this purpose seve-
ral distinct operations are required:—
1. Richness in ALCOHOL. This may be cor-
rectly found by the method of M. Gay-Lussac ;
or, from the boiling-point. (See ALCOHOLOME-
TRY and EBULLIoscoPE.) The method with
anhydrous carbonate of potassa (see g. a., page
47) will also give results sufficiently near to
the truth for ordinary purposes, when strong
or old beer is operated on. The quantity of
the liquor tested should be 3600 water-grains
measure; and it should be well agitated, with
free exposure to the air, after weighing it, but
before testing it for its alcohol. The weight of
alcohol found, multiplied by 18587, gives
its equivalent in sugar. This may be con-
verted into ‘brewer’s pounds’ or density per
barrel, as below.
2. Richness in SACCHARINE or EXTRACTIVE
MATTER. A like quantity of the liquor under
examination, after being boiled for some time
to dissipate its alcohol, is made up with distilled
water, so as to be again exactly equal to 3600
water-grains measure. The sp. gr. of the
resulting liquid is then taken, and this is
reduced to ‘brewer’s pounds’ per barrel, by
multiplying its excess of density above that of
water (or 1000) by 360, and pointing off the
three right-hand figures as decimals.
3. ACETIC ACID or WINEGAR. This is de-
termined by any of the common methods of
ACIDIMETRY (which see ; see also ACETIME-
TRY). Each grain of anhydrous acetic acid
so found represents 1.6765 gr. of sugar.
4. Gravity of ORIGINAL WORT. This is ob-
tained by the addition of the respective quanti-
ties of saccharine matter found in Nos. 1, 2,
and 3 (above). These results are always
slightly under the true original density of the
wort, as cane sugar appears to have been taken
by the Excise as the basis of their calculations.
More correctly, 12% of proof spirit is equi-
valent to 191bs. of saccharine per barrel. 10}lbs.
960 -
PORT-FIRE–POTASH.
of saccharine are equiv. to 1 gall. of proof
spirit.
5. Detection of NARCOTICS. This may be
effected either by the method described under
ALKALOID, or by one or other of the following.
processes:–
a. } gall. of the beer under examination is
evaporated to dryness in a water bath; the
resulting extract is boiled for 30 or 40 minutes
in a covered vessel with 10 or 12 fl. oz. of
alcohol or strong rectified spirit, the mixture
being occasionally stirred with a glass rod, to
promote the action of the menstruum ; the
alcoholic solution is next filtered, treated with
a sufficient quantity of solution of diacetate of
lead to precipitate colouring matter, and again
filtered; the filtrate is treated with a few drops
of dilute sulphuric acid, again filtered, and then
evaporated to dryness; it may then be tested
with any of the usual reagents, either in the
solid state or after being dissolved in distilled
water. Or, the extract, obtained as above, may
be boiled as directed with rectified spirit, the
solution filtered, the spirit distilled off, and a
small quantity of pure liquor of potassa added
to the aqueous residue, which is then to be
shaken up with about 1 fl.oz. of ether; lastly,
the ethereal solution, which separates and floats
on the surface, is decanted, evaporated, and the
residuum tested, as before. The alkaline
liquid, from which the ether has been de-
canted, is then separated from any precipitate
which may have formed, and both of these
separately tested for alkaloids.
b. From 2 to 3 oz. of purified animal charcoal
are diffused through 3 gall. of the beer, and is
digested in it, with frequent agitation, for
from 8 to 12 hours; the liquor is next filtered,
and the charcoal collected on the filter is
boiled with about ; pint of rectified spirit; the
resulting alcoholic solution is then further
treated as above, and tested. This answers
well for the detection of strychnine or nux
vomica.
6. PICRIC ACID. This substance, which was
formerly employed to impart bitterness to
London porter in lieu of hops, may be de-
tected as follows:—
a. A portion of the liquor agitated with
a little solution of diacetate of lead loses its
bitter flavour if it depends on hops, but
retains it if it depends on picric acid.
b. Pure beer is decoloured and deodorised by
animal charcoal; but beer containing picric
acid, when thus treated, retains a lemon-yellow
colour and the odour.
c. Unbleached sheep’s wool, boiled for six
or ten minutes, and then washed, takes a
canary-yellow colour if picric acid be present.
This test is so delicate that 1 gr. of the adulte-
rant, in 150,000 grs, of beer is readily detected.
7. MINERAL MATTER.—a. A weighed quan-
tity of pure beer evaporated to dryness, and
then incinerated, does not furnish more than
from 20% to 35% of ash, the quantity varying
within these limits with the strength of the
liquor and the character of the water usedit
brewing it.
b. A solution of this ash, made by deCOction
with distilled water, should be only rendered
slightly turbid by solutions of acetate of lead
bichloride of platinum, nitrate of baryta, mitritº
of silver, oxalate of ammonia, and sulphuretºl
hydrogen.
c. If the beer contained common Salt, the
above solution will give a cloudy white pred.
pitate with a solution of nitrate of silver
Each grain of this precipitate is equivalent tº
# gr. of common salt (nearly).
d. If GREEN COPPERAs (sulphate of iron) is
present, ferridcyanide of potassium gives able
precipitate, and ferrocyanide of potassium
bluish-white one, turning dark blue in the
air; solution of chloride of barium gives
white precipitate, each grain of which, aft:
being washed, dried, and ignited, represents
1-188 gr. of crystallised protosulphate ºf
iron.
e. The ash, digested in water slightly acid.
lated with nitric acid, and then boiled, yields:
solution which, when cold, gives a black prº
cipitate with sulphuretted hydrogen, and
white one with dilute sulphuric acid, with
lead is present.
For further information connected with
this subject, see ALCOHOLOMETRY, AIE, BEE
BREWING, MALT LIQUORS, &c.
PORT-FIRE. A paper tube, from 9 tº 1.
inches in length, filled with a slow buming
composition of metal powder, nitre, and sulphuſ,
rammed moderately hard, by a similar prºs
to that adopted for small rockets. It is us:
in lieu of a touch-match, to fire guns, mortan
pyrotechnical devices, &c.
PORTLAND CEMENT. A species of moſt
formed by calcining a mixture of limestonean
argillaceous earth, and grinding the calcid
mass to powder, in which state it must be pº
served from the air. It is characterised by
absorbing a large quantity of water, and the
rapidly becoming solid, and, after a time, it
quiring considerable hardness. See MORTL ||
and CEMENT.
POSOLOGY. See Dose.
POS'SET. Syn. PossETUM, L. Milk curl:
with wine or any other slightly acidulousliquºr
It is usually sweetened with either sugar
treacle, and is taken hot,
Prep. From new milk, ; pint; sherry ºf
marsala, 1 wine-glassful; treacle, 1 or 2 tablº
spoonfuls, or q. S.; heat them together in
clean saucepan until the milk coagulatº
This is called ‘treacle posset’ or ‘molas
posset,’ and, taken on retiring to rest, is
highly esteemed in some parts of the Country
as a domestic remedy for colds. Lemon juice,
strong old ale, or even vinegar, is occasionally
substituted for wine, and powdered ginger ºf
nutmeg added at will.
P0T/ASH. The ‘potash,” or ‘potashes ºf
commerce is an impure carbonate of potas,
so named after the pots or vessels in whichi


POTASSIUM.
961
was first made. The ‘potash,” or “potassa,'
of the chemist, is the hydrate of potassium,
a peculiar metal, which is more particularly
referred to below. The word potash is vul-
garly applied to the crude or commercial car-
bonate of potassium. See CARBONATE OF Po-
TASSIUM, &c.
POTAS"SIUM. K. The metallic basedf potash.
It was discovered, in 1807, by Sir H. Davy,
who obtained it by submitting moistened
potassium hydrate, under a film of naphtha, to
the action of a powerful voltaic current. It
has since been procured by easier methods, of
which the following, invented by Brunner, is
the best.
Prep. An intimate mixture of carbonate of
potassium and charcoal is prepared by calcin-
ing, in a covered iron pot, the crude tartar of
commerce; when cold, it is rubbed to powder,
mixed with 1-10th part of charcoal in small
lumps, and quickly transferred into a retort of
stout hammered iron; the latter may be one of
the iron bottles in which quicksilver is im-
ported, a short and somewhat wide iron tube
having been fitted to the aperture; the retort,
thus charged, is placed upon its side, in a fur-
nace so constructed that the flame of a very
strong fire, preferably fed with dry wood, may
wrap round it, and maintain every part of it at
a very high and uniform degree of heat. A
copper receiver, divided in the centre by a
diaphragm, is next connected to the iron pipe,
and kept cool by the application of ice, whilst
the receiver itself is partly filled with mineral
naphtha, to preserve the newly formed po-
tassium as it distils over. The arrangement of
the apparatus being completed, the fire is
gradually raised until the requisite tempe-
rature, which is that of full whiteness, is
reached, when decomposition of the alkali by
the charcoal commences, carbonic oxide gas is
abundantly disengaged, and potassium distils
over, and falls in large drops into the liquid.
To render the product absolutely pure, it is re-
distilled in an iron or green-glass retort, into
which some naphtha has been put, that its
vapour may expel the air, and prevent the
oxidation of the metal. The pieces of charcoal
are introduced for the purpose of absorbing the
melted carbonate of potassium, and preventing
its separation from the finely divided car-
bonaceous matter. Prod. 3% to 4% of the
weight of tartar acted on ; 1 lb. yielded
280 grs.
Prop., &c. Pure potassium is a brilliant
white metal, with a high lustre; at the common
temperature of the air it is soft, and may be
easily cut with a knife, but at 32°Fahr. it is
brittle and crystalline; it melts completely at
136°Fahr., and in close vessels distils unaltered
at a low red heat. Sp. gr. 865. Its most
remarkable property is its affinity for oxygen,
which is so great that it takes it from most
other substances' containing it. Exposed
to the air, its surface is instantly tarnished,
and quickly becomes covered with a crust of
*
oxide or hydrate. It inflames spontaneously
when thrown on water, and burns with a beau-
tiful purple or purple-red flame, yielding a
pure alkaline solution. It can only be pre-
served in naphtha, rock oil, or some other fluid
hydrocarbon.
The salts of potassium are all soluble in
water, the tartrate, periodate, and fluosilicate
being the least so; they are usually colourless,
unless the acid be coloured, crystallise readily,
and form numerous double compounds. They
can be recognised as follows:—
Sulphuretted hydrogen, sulphide of ammo-
nium, and carbonate of ammonium, do not affect
them. A solution of tartaric acid, added, in excess,
to moderately strong neutral or alkaline solu-
tions of potassium salts, gives a quickly sub-
siding, gritty or crystalline, white precipitate,
which is redissolved on heating the liquid,
and again separates as it cools; and is also
soluble in aqueous solutions containing free
alkali, or free mineral acids. Platinic chloride
produces, in neutral and acid solutions, a yellow
crystalline precipitate. Alkaline solutions
require to be first slightly acidulated with
hydrochloric acid. The separation of the
precipitate here, as well as that produced by
tartaric acid, is promoted by violent agitation
and friction against the sides of the vessel, and
the delicacy of both is increased by the addi-
tion of some alcohol. When converted into
carbonate by igniting with excess of carbonate
of ammonium and alcohol, and treated with
sulphuretted hydrogen solution and nitro-
prusside of sodium, gives a splendid violet
colour, turning through red to green on
standing.
Potassium salts give with sodium periodate
and hydro-fluosilicic acid, white precipitates
soluble in much water.
Heated in the inner flame of the blowpipe
on platinum wire, they impart a violet colora-
tion, masked, however, by a mere trace of
sodium salts.
Potassium, Acetate of KCSH3O3. Syn.
ACETATE OF POTASH, POTASSIC ACETATE ;
PoTASSE ACETAs (B. P., Ph. L. E.D.). Prep.
(Ph. L.) Acetic acid, 26 fl. oz. ; distilled
water, 12 fl. Oz. ; mix, and add, gradually,
carbonate of potassium, 1 lb., or q. S. to
saturate the acid; next, filter the solution,
and evaporate it by the heat of a sand
bath, gradually applied, until the salt is
dried.
Prop., &c. Acetate of potassium, prepared as
above, occurs in shining white masses, having
a foliated soft texture, a slight but peculiar
odour, and a warm sharp taste; it deliquesces
in the air; dissolves in rather less than its own
weight of water, and in about twice its weight
of alcohol; and by exposure to a red heat is
converted into pure carbonate of potassium. In
trade it is preserved in well-corked and sealed
bottles.
Pur. It is entirely soluble in water, and
in rectified spirit. These solutions neither

61
962 POTASSIUM.
affect litmus nor turmeric, nor are they dis-
turbed by either chloride of barium or nitrate
of silver; but if from a stronger solution any-
thing is thrown down by nitrate of silver, the
same is again dissolved on the addition of
water or dilute nitric acid. Sulphuric acid
being added, the vapour of acetic acidis evolved.
100 grs. of this salt, digested in sulphuric acid,
the solution evaporated, and the residuum
dried at a high temperature, furnish 88.8 grs.
of sulphate of potassium.
Uses, &c. Acetateofpotassium has been found
useful in dropsies, febrile affections, jaundice,
scurvy, calculus, and several chronic skin dis-
eases. During its exhibition the urine becomes
at first neutral, and then alkaline, owing to
the salt being converted into carbonate of potas-
sium in the system.—Dose. As a diaphoretic.
and antiscorbutic, 15 to 20 grs. ; as a diuretic,
20 to 60 grs.; as an aperient, 2 to 3 drs. ;
in each case dissolved in some bland liquid,
or in the infusion of some mild vegetable
bitter.
Potassium, Arsemiate of KH2AsO4. Syn.
ARSENIATE OF POTASSA, MONOPOTASSIC ARSE-
NIATE, POTASSIUM DYHYDRIC ARSENIATE;
PoTASSE BINARSENIAS, L. Prep. Take of
arsenious acid (white arsenic) and mitrate of
potassium, of each, in powder, 1 part ; heat the
mixture to dull redness in a glass flask, until
it fuses and red vapours cease to be evolved;
dissolve the residuum, when cold, in boiling
distilled water, 50 parts; concentrate the
solution by evaporation, and set it aside to
crystallise.
Prop., &c. This salt forms large crystals,
which are permanent in dry air, soluble in
about 4% parts of water, and insoluble in al-
cohol. It is reputed tonic, alterative, and
antiperiodic.—Dose. Fºr to . gr., dissolved in
sweetened water. It is also used to form a
resist-paste in calico-printing, and in the
manufacture of cobalt-blue.
Potassium, Borate of KiB. Os. Syn. Po-
TASSE BORAS, L. Prep. From dry carbonate
of potassium and dry boracic acid, equal parts,
reduced to powder, and heated to redness in a
covered crucible; the sublimed mass, when
cold, being dissolved in boiling water, and the
filtered solution concentrated by evaporation,
and then set aside to crystallise; or at once
completely evaporated to dryness.--Dose. 1
to 6 grs. ; in calculi, &c.
Potassium, Borotartrate of. Syn. POTASSAE
BOROTARTRAS, CREMORTARTARI SOLUBILIS, L.;
CRīME DE TARTRE SOLUBLE, Fr. Prep. (P.
Cod.) Crystallised boracic acid, 1 part; bitar-
trate of potassium, 4 parts; water, 24 parts;
dissolve by the aid of heat, in a silver basin,
and, constantly stirring, evaporate the result-
ing solution, either to dryness, and then
powder it, or merely to a syrupy consistence,
when it may be spread upon plates, and dried
in scales, by the heat of a stove. It must
afterwards be preserved from the air.
Prop, &c. A white, deliquescent powder,
freely soluble in water. It has been uselast
solvent for lithic calculi, and in gout, &
Dose. 15 to 30 grs. In doses of 2 t03 disiti
laxative, and is very popular as such on tº
Continent.
Potassium, Bromide of KBr. Syn, POTSI
BROMIDUM (B. P.). Prep. Exactly as tº
iodide, which it resembles in its chariº,
only being somewhat less soluble in water all
more in alcohol. Employed in similar tº:
and given in similar doses to the iodide, -
Potassium, Carbonate of K.00, §
CARBONATE OF POTASSA, SUBCARBONATE I
POTASSA, SALT OF TARTAR ; POTASSE CAR}}
NAs (B.P., Ph. L. E. D.). Impure or qui
carbonate of potassium is chiefly importediº
America and Russia, and is obtained by it
viating wood ashes, and evaporating the slº
tion to dryness. The mass is then transfºrm
into iron pots, and is kept in a state of flû
for several hours, until it becomes quitº
when the heat is withdrawn, and the whole;
left to cool. It is next broken up and pitºl
in air-tight barrels, and in this state (Nº.
tutes the ‘potashes’ or ‘potash’ of UN
merce. Another method is to transfer tº:
black salts, or product of the first evaporati,
from the kettles to a large oven or furnaº
constructed that the flame is made to lº
over the alkaline mass, which is kept ºf
stantly stirred by means of an iron 10d. Tº
ignition is continued until the impurities tº
burned out, and the mass changes from:
blackish tint to a dirty or bluish white. Tº
whole is next allowed to cool, and is tº
broken into fragments, and packed in Cass:
before. It now constitutes ‘pearlash.'
When pearlash is dissolved in cold distill
water, the solution depurated, filtered, and(ſ):
tallised, or simply evaporated to drynesi
forms “refined ashes, or carbonate of pºſſ
sufficiently pure for most pharmaceutical
technical purposes. The granulated Carºl
of potash, salt of tartar, or prepared kid
the shops, is simply refined ashes with
during the evaporation, and more espºil
towards the conclusion of the desiccation, is
been assiduously stirred, so that it may ſm
small white granulations, instead of adheſiſ.
together to form an amorphous solid mis
In this state it constitutes theordinary orcal
nate of potassa of the Pharmacopoeias, Ont
nary potash or pearlash may be refinels
follows:—Raw potash, 10 parts, is dissolveli
cold water, 6 parts, and the solution is allowſ:
to remain for 24 hours, in a cool place; iii.
then filtered, and somewhat concentrated
evaporation, crystallisation being preventil
continually stirring the mass until the whili
nearly cold; it is next decanted into a stillº
and the mother-liquor allowed to drip off; tº
residuum is evaporated to dryness at agent.
heat, and redissolved in an equal quantity:
cold distilled water; the new solution, it
filtration, is again evaporated to dryness. Tº
product is quite free from potassium sulphiº














POTASSIUM.
963
and is nearly free from both potassium chloride
and silicates.
Potassium, Pure Carbonate of. CARBONATE
OF POTASSA (POTASSE CARBONAS PURUM-
Ph. E. & D., and Ph. L., 1836).-(Ph. L.,
1836.) From bicarbonate of potassium, in
crystals, heated to redness in a crucible.
(Ph. E.) As the last. Or, more cheaply,
by dissolving bitartrate of potassium in thirty
parts of boiling water, separating and washing
the crystals which form on cooling, heating
them in a loosely covered crucible to redness
as long as fumes are discharged, breaking
down the mass, and roasting it in an oven for
two hours, with occasional stirring ; lixiviating
the product with (cold) distilled water, filter-
ing the solution thus obtained, evaporating it
to dryness, granulating the salt towards the
close by brisk agitation, and, lastly, heating the
granular salt thus obtained nearly to redness.
(Ph.D.) Bitartrate of potassium, 2 lbs., is
exposed to a red heat in an iron crucible, as
before ; the powdered calcined mass is boiled
for 20 minutes in water, 1 quart, the solution
filtered, and the filter washed with water, 1
pint, to which ammonium sesquicarbonate, ;
oz., has been added; the mixed and filtered
liquors are evaporated to dryness, and, a low
red heat having been applied, the residuum is
rapidly reduced to powder in a warm mortar,
and at once enclosed in (dry and) well-stopped
bottles, - -
Prop. These are well-known. It exhibits
most of the properties of hydrate of potassium,
but in a vastly less degree. It is very deli-
quescent, effervesces with acids, exhibits a
marked alkaline reaction with test paper, is in-
soluble in alcohol, but dissolves in less than its
own weight of water, its affinity for the last
being so great that it takes it from alcoholic
mixtures. -
Pur., &c. Carbonate of potassium frequently
contains an undue quantity of water, as well
as silicic acid, sulphates, and chlorides. The
water may be detected by the loss of weight
the salt suffers when heated; the silica, by
adding to it hydrochloric acid in excess, evapo-
rating to dryness, and igniting the residuum,
by which this contamination is rendered in-
soluble ; the sulphates and chlorides may be
detected by adding nitric acid in excess, and
testing the liquid with nitrate of silver and
chloride of barium. If the former produces a
white precipitate, a chloride is present; and if
the latter does the same, the contamination is
a sulphate. Carbonate of potassium deliquesces
in the air, and is almost entirely dissolved by
water; in an open vessel it spontaneously lique-
fies. It changes the colour of turmeric brown.
Supersaturated with nitric acid, neither carbo-
nate of sodium nor chloride of barium throws
down anything, and nitrate of silver very little.
100 grs. lose 16 grs. of water by a strong red
heat; and the same weight loses 263 grs. of
carbonate anhydride when placed in contact
with dilute sulphuric acid.
Potassium, Bicarbonate of KHCO3. Syn.
POTASSIUM HYDROGEN CARBONATE, BICARBO-
NATE OF POTASSA ; POTASSE BICARBONAs (B.P.,
Ph. L. E. & D.). Prep. 1. (Ph. L. 1836.)
Carbonate of potassium, 6 lbs. ; distilled water,
1 gall. ; dissolve, and pass carbonic anhydride
(from chalk and sulphuric acid diluted with
water) through the solution to saturation ;
apply a gentle heat, so that whatever crystals
have been formed may be dissolved, and set
aside the solution, that crystals may again
form; lastly, the liquid being poured off, dry
them.
2. (Ph.D.) Carbonic anhydride, obtained by
the action of dilute hydrochloric acid on chalk
(the latter contained in a perforated bottle im-
mersed in a vessel containing the acid), is
passed, by means of glass tubes connected by
vulcanised India rubber, to the bottom of a
bottle containing a solution of carbonate of po-
tassium, 1 part, in water, 2% parts; as soon as
the air is expelled from the apparatus the
corks through which the tubes pass are ren-
dered air-tight, and the process left to itself
for a week; the crystals thus obtained are
then shaken with twice their bulk of cold
water, drained, and dried on bibulous paper,
by simple exposure to the air. From the
mother-liquor, filtered, and concentrated to one
half, at a heat not exceeding 110° Fahr., more
crystals may be obtained. The tube immersed in
the solution of carbonate of potassium will have
to be occasionally cleared of the crystals with
which it is liable to become choked, else the
process will be suspended.
3. (Apothecaries' Hall, London.) Potassium
carbonate, 100 lbs. ; distilled water, 17 galls. ;
dissolve, and saturate the solution with car-
bonic anhydride, as in No. 1, when 35 to 40 lbs.
of crystals of bicarbonate of potassium may be
obtained; next dissolve carbonate of potassium,
50 lbs., in the mother-liquor, and add enough
water to make the whole a second time equal
to 17 galls.; the remaining part of the opera-
tion is then to be performed as before. This
plan may be repeated again and again, for
some time, provided the carbonate used is suffi-
ciently pure.
4. (Ph. E.) Take of carbonate of potassium, 6
oz. ; sesquicarbonate of ammonium, 3 oz. ; tri-
turate them together, and, when reduced
to a very fine powder and perfectly mixed,
make them into a stiff paste with a very little
water; dry this, very carefully, at a heat not
higher than 140° Fahr, until a fine powder,
perfectly devoid of ammoniacal odour, be ob-
tained, occasionally triturating the mass to-
wards the end of the process.
5. (Commercial.) From carbonate of potas-
sium, in powder, made into a paste with water,
and exposed for some time on shallow trays, in a
chamber filled with an atmosphere of carbonic
anhydride, generated by the combustion of
either coke or charcoal, and purified by being
forced through a cistern of cold water; the
resulting salt is next dissolved in the least pos-


964
TOTASSIUM.
sible quantity of water at the temperature of
120°Fahr., and the solution filtered and crystal-
lised.
Prop. It is soluble in 4 times its weight of
water at 60° Fahr.; is fixed in the air, but
loses carbonic acid below the temperature of
a carbonate at a red heat. It possesses the
general alkaline properties of carbonate of po-
tassium, but in an inferior degree, having
only a slightly alkaline taste, and, when abso-
lutely pure, not affecting the colour of tur-
meric.
Pur. In a solution of pure bicarbonate of po-
tassium, a solution of mercuric chloride merely
causes an opalescence, or very slight white pre-
cipitate; if it contains carbonate, a brick-
coloured precipitate is thrown down. From 100
grs. of the pure crystals of bicarbonate, 307
grs. of water and carbonic acid are expelled at
a red heat. In other respects it may be tested
like the carbonate.
Uses, &c." Bicarbonate of potassium is the
most agreeable of all the salts of potassium,
and is much used as an antacid or absorbent,
and for making effervescing saline draughts.
It has also been successfully employed in
rheumatism, scurvy, gout, dyspepsia, and
various other diseases in which the use of po-
tassium is indicated. The dose is from 10 grs.
to dr.
20 grs. bicarbonate, in crystals,
→-
are equivalent to
14 grs. of crystallised nitric acid,
15 grs. « tartaric acid, and
3 oz. of lemon juice.
Potassium, Chlorate of. KClO4. Sym.
CHLORATE OF POTASH ; PotASSE CHLORAS
(B. P., Ph. L. & D.), L. Prep. 1. Chlorine
gas is conducted by a wide tube into a mode-
rately strong and warm solution of hydrate or
carbonate of potassium, until the absorption of
the gas ceases, and the alkali is completely
neutralised; the liquid is then kept at the
boiling temperature for a few minutes, after
which it is gently evaporated (if necessary)
until a pellicle forms on the surface, and is
next set aside, so as to cool very slowly; the
crystals, thus obtained, are drained and care-
fully washed on a filter, with ice-cold water,
and are purified by re-solution and recrystal-
lisation. The product is chlorate of potassium.
The mother-liquor, which contains much chlo-
ride of potassium mixed with some chlorate, is
either evaporated for more crystals (which are,
however, less pure than the first crop) or is
preserved for a future operation.
Obs. The product of the above process is
small, varying from 10 to 45% of the weight of
the potassium consumed in it, according to the
skill with which it is conducted ; this apparent
loss of potassium arises from a large portion of
it being converted into chloride, a salt of com-
paratively little value. The following pro-
cesses have been devised principally with the
view of preventing this waste, or of emplºy
ing a cheaper salt of potassium than the (at
bonate :-
2. A solution of chloride of lime is prºd
pitated with a solution of carbonateofpotassium,
and the liquid, after filtration, saturated with
chlorine gas; it is then evaporated and Cys
tallised as before. Dr. Ure has suggestedt:
substitution of sulphate of potassium for tº
carbonate, by which the process would be rºl
dered very inexpensive.
3. Carbonate of potassium, 69 parts ofthed
or 82 parts of the granulated; hydrate of Gil
cium, 37 parts (dry fresh slaked lime); bothi
powder; are mixed together, and exposed tot:
action of chlorine gas, to saturation; (the gº
is absorbed with great rapidity, the tempº
ture rises above 212°Fahr., and water is frºl
evolved); the heat, with free exposure, is the
maintained at 212° for a few minutes (,
remove some trace of ‘hypochlorite'), the rºi
duum, consisting of chlorate of potassium all
chloride of calcium, is treated withhotwater,all
the chlorate of potassium crystallised Outoft,
resulting solution, as before. This protes
which is an excellent one (the loss of potassium
being for the most part avoided), has bºl
modified and improved by various authorities
as will be seen below.
4. A solution of chloride of lime (18 tº
Baumé) is heated in a leaden or cast-iron ves:
and sufficient of a salt of potassium added:
raise the density of the liquid 3 or 4 hydromeſ:
degrees; the solution is then quickly, butcaſt
fully, concentrated until the gravity rises tº
or 31° Baumé, when it is set aside to Crystal
lise. A good and economical process.
5. Chloride of potassium, 76 parts, and ſº
calcium hydrate, 222 parts, are reduced to :
thin paste with water, q. S., and a streamſ:
chlorine gas passed through the mixture, i.
saturation; chloride of calcium and chlorateſ
potassium are formed; the last is then remoti
by solution in boiling water, and is crystalliºl
as before. This process, which has receive
the approval and recommendation of Litig
has long been practised in Germany, and W.
originally introduced to this country by Dr.
Wagenmann. The product is very large, all
of excellent quality.
Prop. White, inodorous, four- or six-sid:
pearly scales, soluble in about 20 parts of Cºl.
and 2% parts of boiling water; in taste it tº
sembles nitre, but is somewhat more austº
at about 450° Fahr, it undergoes the ignº
fusion, and on increasing the heat almost tº
redness effervescence ensues, and fully 3% ºf
pure oxygen gas is given off, whilst the sil:
becomes changed into chloride of potassium.
When mixed with inflammable substances and
triturated, heated, or subjected to a smartblow
or strong pressure, or moistened with a strong
acid, it explodes with great violence.
Pur., tests, &c. The usual impurity of this
salt is chloride of potassium, arising from ſº
less or imperfect manipulation. When this."

POTASSIUM. 965
present, a solution of nitrate of silver gives a
curdy white precipitate, soluble in ammonia;
whereas a solution of the pure chlorate remains
clear.
Uses. Chlorate of potassium is principally
used in the manufacture of lucifer matches,
fireworks, oxygen gas, &c., and as an oxidising
agent in calico printing. It was formerly
used to fill percussion caps, but was abandoned
for fulminating mercury, on account of its dis-
position to rust the nipples of the guns. As a
medicine, it is stimulant and diuretic. It has
been given in dropsy, syphilis, scurvy, cholera,
typhus, and other depressing affections. It
gives a fine artificial colour to the blood.
(Stevens.)—Dose. 5 to 15 grs., in solution,
twice or thrice a day.
Concluding remarks. Formerly, chlorate of
potassium was a salt which was made only on
the small scale, and chiefly used in experimental
chemistry; now it is in considerable demand,
and forms an important article of chemical
manufacture. The latter has hence, of late
years, received considerable attention and im-
provement in the leading laboratories of Europe.
The chlorate requires to be handled with great
care. It should never be kept in admixture
with any inflammable substance, more espe-
cially with sulphur, phosphorus, or the sul-
phides, as these compounds are exploded by the
most trivial causes, and, not unfrequently,
explode spontaneously.
Potassium, Chloride of. KCl. Syn. CHLORIDE
OF POTASSA. Prep. The chloride of potas-
sium of commerce is usually a secondary pro-
duct in the manufacture of chlorate of potas-
sium and other substances. The mother-liquor
of the former is evaporated to dryness and
heated to dull redness, the calcined mass is then
dissolved in water, the solution purified by de-
fecation and evaporated down for crystals.
It can also be well prepared by neutralising
boiling solution of carbonate of potassium by
dilute hydrochloric acid, evaporating down, and
crystallising.
Prop., &c. It closely resembles culinary salt
in appearance; is anhydrous; dissolves in
about 4 parts of cold and 2 of boiling water;
has a slightly bitter, saline taste; fuses at a
red heat; and is volatilised at a very high
temperature. As a medicine, it is diuretic and
aperient. It was formerly in high repute as a
resolvent and antiscorbutic, and, particularly,
as a remedy for intermittents. It is now
seldom used.—Dose. 10 grs. to , dr., or more.
Potassium, Chromate of. K. CrOſ. Syn.
CHROMATE OF POTASSA, NEUTRAL CHROMATE
OF P., MONOCHROMATE OF P., YELLOW. C. of
P., SALT OF CHROME ; POTASSAE CHROMAs, P.
C. FLAVA, L. This salt is only prepared on the
large scale. Its source is “ CHROME ORE,” a
natural octahedral chromate of iron, found in
various parts of Europe and America. For
medicinal purposes the commercial chromate is
purified by solution in hot water, filtration, and
recrystallisation,
Prep. 1. The ore, previously assayed to de-
termine its richness, and freed as much as pos-
sible from its gangue, is ground to powder in
a mill, and mixed with a quantity of coarsely
powdered nitre rather less than that of the
oxide of chromium which it contains; this
mixture is exposed, for several hours, to a
powerful heat on the hearth of a reverberatory
furnace, during which time it is frequently
stirred up with iron rods; the calcined mass
is next raked out and lixiviated with hot water,
and the resulting yellow-coloured solution eva-
porated briskly over a naked fire, or by the heat
of high-pressure steam; chromate of potas-
sium falls, under the form of a granular yellow
salt, which is removed from time to time with
a ladle, and thrown into a wooden vessel,
furnished with a bottom full of holes (draining
box), where it is left to drain and dry. In this
state it forms the chromate of potassium of
commerce. By a second solution and recrystal-
lisation, it may be obtained in large and regu-
lar crystals. The next process has for its object
the employment of a cheaper salt of potassa
than the nitrate. -
2. (Swindell & Co., Patent dated Nov., 1850.)
A mixture of pulverised chrome ore and chloride
of potassium is exposed to a full red heat, on
the hearth of a reverberatory furnace, with oc-
casional stirring for some time, when steam at
a very elevated temperature is made to act on
it, until the conversion is complete, known by
assaying a portion of the mass; the chromate
is then dissolved out of the residuum, as
before. Common salt or hydrate of calcium
may be substituted for chloride of potassium,
when the chromates of sodium or calcium are
respectively produced.
3. On the small scale, this salt may be pre-
pared from the bichromate by neutralising it
with hydrate of potassium.
Prop. Yellow ; tastes cool, bitter, and dis-
agreeable; soluble in 2 parts of water at 60°
Fahr. ; the crystals are efflorescent.
Pur. The salt of commerce is frequently
contaminated with large quantities of sulphate
or chlorate of potassium. To detect these, M.
Zuber adds tartaric acid, dissolved in 50 parts
of water, to a like solution of the sample. As
soon as the decomposition is complete, and the
colour verges towards the green, the super-
natant liquor should afford no precipitate with
solutions of the nitrates of silver and barium,
whence the absence of chlorides and sulphates
may be respectively inferred. The proportions
are, 8 parts of tartaric acid to 1 part of the
chromate. If saltpetre is the adulterating
ingredient, the sample deflagrates when thrown
upon burning coals.
Assay. 1. A solution of 50 grs. of the salt
is treated with a solution of nitrate of barium,
the precipitate digested in nitric acid, and the
insoluble portion (sulphate of barium) washed,
dried, and weighed. 117 grs. of this substance
are equivalent to 89 grs, of sulphate of potas-
Slulul, -

966
POTASSIUM.
2. The nitric solution, with the washings
(see above), is treated with a solution of nitrate
of silver, and the precipitate of chloride care-
fully collected, washed, dried, ignited, and
weighed. 144 grs. of chloride of silver repre-
sent 76 grs. of chloride of potassium.
3. The nitric solution, with the washing
(see above), after having any remaining barium
thrown down by adding dilute sulphuric acid,
in slight excess, is treated with ammonia, and
the resulting precipitate of chromic oxide col-
lected on a filter, washed, dried, carefully
ignited in a silver, platinum, or porcelain cru-
cible, and weighed. 40 grs. of this oxide
represent 100 grs. of pure chromate of potas-
sium. Any deficiency consists of impurities
or adulterants.
Uses. Chromate of potassium is used in dye-
ing, bleaching, the manufacture of chromic acid,
bichromate of potassium, &c. It is the common
source of nearly all the other compounds of
chromium. It is reputed alterative in doses
of #3 to . gr.; and is emetic in doses of 1 to 4
grs. A solution in 8 parts of water is occa-
sionally used to destroy fungus; 1 in 30 to
40 parts of water is also used as an antiseptic
and desiccant.
Concluding remarks. The first process is
undoubtedly the best, when expense is not an
object. To reduce this, a mixture of ‘potash”
or ‘pearlash, with about ; of its weight of
nitre, or 1-5th part of its weight of peroxide of
manganese, may be substituted without much
inconvenience. The assay of the chrome ore,
alluded to above, may be made by reducing
100 grs. of it to powder, mixing it with twice
its weight of powdered nitre, and a little
hydrate of calcium, and subjecting the mixture
to a strong red heat for 3 or 4 hours; the cal-
cined mass may then be exhausted with boiling
water, and the resulting solution, after preci-
pitation with dilute sulphuric acid, in slight
excess, and filtration, may be treated with
rectified spirit, when its chromium may be
thrown down by the addition of ammonia.
(See above.) In the conversion of chrome ore
into chromate of potassium, care should, in all
cases, be taken that the proportion of nitre
or alkali should be slightly less than what is
absolutely required to Saturate the ore, as the
production of a neutral salt is thereby ensured;
for should not the whole of the chromate be de-
composed by the first calcination, it may easily
be roasted a second time with fresh alkali,
should the remaining quantity be thought
worth the trouble. The nature of the furnace
to be employed in the conversion is not of any
great importance, so long as carbonaceous
matters from the fire are entirely excluded,
and the required temperature is attainable.
Potassium, Bichromate of K3Cr,0, or
K. CrO4,CrO3. Syn. BICHROMATE OF Po-
TASSA, RED CHROMATE OF POTASH, ACID C.
OF P.; PoTASSAE BICHROMAS, L. Prep. 1.
To a concentrated solution of yellow chromate of
potassium, Sulphuric acid, or, better, acetic acid,
ammonium.
is added in quantity equal to one half that 13.
quired for the entire decomposition of thesilt;
the liquid is then concentrated by evapon.
tion, and slowly cooled, so that crystals my
form.
2. (Jacquelain.) Chrome ore, finely ground
and sifted, is mixed with chalk; the mixillº
is spread on a thin layer on the hearth of a tº
|
|
verberatory furnace, and heated to brightrºl
mess, with repeated stirring, for 9 or 10 hour,
The yellowish-green product consists CŞı.
tially of neutral chromate of calcium, mixel
with ferric oxide.
with hot water, and sulphuric acid is added till
a slight acid reaction becomes apparent, a sign
It is ground and stirrell)
that the neutral chromate has been converted
into bichromate.
precipitate the ferric sulphate, and after
while the clear solution is run off into another
vessel, where it is treated with carbonate ºf
potassium, which precipitates the lime all
leaves bichromate of potassium in solution, The
solution is then evaporated to the crystallising
point. This process, when carried Out On:
large scale, is very economical.
Prop., &c. It forms very beautiful squate
tables, or flat four-sided prismatic crystals;
permanent in the air; soluble in 10 parts ºf
water at 60°, and in less than 3 parts at 21%
Fahr.; it has a metallic, bitter taste, and is
poisonous. It is chiefly used in dyeing and
bleaching, and as a source of chromic acil
The tests, &c., are the same as for the yellow
chromate.
Potassium, Citrate of. K.C.H.0, S/
PoTASSE CITRAs, L. Prep. From a solutil
of citric acid neutralised with carbonate ºf
potassium, evaporated, and granulated, Or (r.
stallised; very deliquescent.
neously, in the form of solution, by adding Cir.
bonate or bicarbonate of potassium to lem).
juice, as in the common effervescing draught
Potassium, Cyanate of. KCy0, or KCN)
Prep. 1. By roasting, at ared heat, dryfºrº
cyanide of potassium, in fine powder, upon all
iron plate, constantly stirring it until it become
fused into one mass, which must be reduced iſ
fine powder, and digested in boiling alcohºl
Or, extempº
Chalk is now stirred in iſ
from which crystals of the cyanate will be dº
posited as the solution cools.
2. (Liebig.) A mixture of ferrocyanide ºf
potassium, with half its weight of peroxide ºf
manganese, may also be used to produce this
salt, as the last; the compound should lº
kindled by a red-hot body, and allowed tº
smoulder away, after which it may be treated
with alcohol, as before.
3. A mixture of ferrocyanide of potassium
and litharge is heated as before, and dissolved
out by alcohol, and crystallised.
Prop. Crystallisable colourless or white
salt, readily soluble in alcohol and water, but
readily decomposed when moist into biºlº
bonate of potassium and ammonia, or in sºlº
tion into the carbonate of potassium all
POTASSIUM.
967
sium, nearly pure, will be deposited.
This salt is poisonous. The cyamates of
silver, lead, and many other metals, may be
made by adding a solution of cyanate of
potassium to another of a neutral salt of the
base.
Potassium, Cyanide of. KCN, or KCy.
Syn. CYANIDE OF POTASH, CYANURET OF
POTASSIUM ; POTASSII CYANIDUM, P. CYANU-
RETUM, L.
Prep. 1. (MEDICINAL CYANIDE OF POTAs-
SIUM.)—a. A solution of pure hydrate of potas-
sium, 2 parts, in highly rectified spirit, 7 parts,
is placed in a receiver furnished with a safety
tube, and surrounded with bruised ice ; the
beak of a tubulated retort containing ferro-
cyanide of potassium, in powder, 4 parts, is
then adapted to it in such a manner that any
gas or vapour evolved in the retort must tra-
verse the solution in the receiver; the arrange-
ment being complete, sulphuric acid, 3 parts,
diluted with an equal weight of water, and
allowed to cool, is cautiously poured into the
retort, and the distillation conducted very
slowly, a very gentle heat only being applied,
as circumstances may direct ; as soon as the
force of ebullition in the retort has subsided, the
distillation is complete, and the connection be-
tween the retort and receiver is broken ; the
contents of the receiver, now transformed into
a mixture of a crystalline precipitate of cyanide
of potassium, and an alcoholic solution of un-
decomposed hydrate of potassium, is carefully
thrown on a filter, and the precipitate, after the
mother-liquor has drained off, very cautiously
washed with ice-cold and highly rectified spirit,
and then drained, pressed, and dried on the same
filter. The product is chemically pure, and
equal to fully 10% of the ferrocyanide employed.
This is a modification of what is commonly
known as ‘Wigger’s process.”
b. Expose well-dried and powdered ferrocya-
mide of potassium to a moderate red heat, in a
close vessel; when cold, powder the fused mass,
place it in a funnel, moisten it with a little
alcohol, and wash it with cold water; evaporate
the solution thus formed to dryness, expose it to
a dull red heat in a porcelain dish, cool, pow-
der, and digest it in boiling rectified spirit; as
the spirit cools, crystals of cyanide of potas-
The
alcohol employed in both this and the preced-
ing process may be recovered by distillation
from calcined sulphate of iron. -
2. (CRUDE or COMMERCIAL CYANIDE—
Liebig.) Commercial ferrocyanide of potassium,
8 parts, rendered anhydrous by gently heating
it on an iron plate, is intimately mixed with dry
carbonate of potassium, 3 parts; this mixture
is thrown into a red-hot earthem crucible, and
kept in a state of fusion, with occasional
stirring, until gas ceases to be evolved, and
the fluid portion of the mass becomes colour-
less; the crucible is then left at rest for a few
minutes, to allow its contents to settle, after
which the clear portion is poured from the
heavy black sediment at the bottom, upon a
clean marble slab, and the mass, whilst yet
warm, broken up, and placed in well-closed
bottles.
Obs. A cheap and excellent process. The pro-
duct is said to contain about 1-8th part of cya-
nate of potassium, and, though not sufficiently
pure for employment in medicine as potassium
cyanide, is admirably adapted for the various
technical applications of this substance, as in
electro-plating, electro-gilding, photography,
&c. It may also be advantageously substituted
for the ferrocyanide in the preparation of
hydrocyanic acid by the distillation of that
substance along with dilute sulphuric acid.
Prop., &c. When pure, this salt is colour-
less and odourless; it forms cubic or octahe-
dral crystals, which are anhydrous; it is freely
soluble in water and in boiling alcohol, but
most of it separates from the latter as the
solution cools; it is fusible; and undergoes no
change, even at a full red heat, in close vessels;
it exhibits an alkaline reaction; when exposed
to the atmosphere, it absorbs moisture, and
acquires the smell of hydrocyanic acid. If it
effervesces with acids, it contains carbonate of
potassium, and if it be yellow it contains iron.
It is employed in chemical analyses, and for
the preparation of hydrocyanic acid; cyanide
of sodium may be made in the same way. The
dose is # to # gr., in solution; in the usual
cases in which the administration of hydro-
cyanic acid is indicated.
Potassium, Ferricyanide of. K.FeCyg, or
K3, FeC.Ng. Syn. FERRIDCYANIDE OF Po-
TASSIUM, FERRICYANURET OF P., RED PRUS-
STATE OF POTASH; POTASSII FERRICYANIDUM,
P. PRUSSIAS RUBRUM, L. This important
and beautiful salt was discovered by L.
Gmelin. At first it was merely regarded as
a chemical curiosity, but it is now extensively
employed in dyeing, calico-printing, assaying,
&c.
Prep. 1. Chlorine gas, prepared in the
ordinary manner, is slowly passed into a cold
solution of ferrocyanide of potassium, 1 part, in
water, 10 parts, with constant agitation, until
the liquid appears of a deep reddish-green
colour, or of a fine red colour by transmitted
light, and ceases to give a blue precipitate, or
even a blue tinge, to a solution of ferric chlo-
ride, an excess of chlorine being carefully
avoided; the liquor is next evaporated by the
heat of steam or boiling water, until a pellicle
forms upon the surface, when it is filtered,
and set aside to cool; the crystals are after-
wards purified by re-solution and re-crystalli-
sation.--Another method is simply to eva-
porate the original solution to dryness, by a
steam-heat, with agitation, then to redissolve
the residuum in the least possible quantity of
boiling water, and, after defecation or filtra-
tion, to allow the new solution to cool very
slowly, that crystals may form.
2. (Extemporaneous.) Add nitric acid, very
gradually, to a cold solution of ferrocyanide of
potassium, with constant agitation, until a drop

968 POTASSIUM.
of the mixture ceases to impart a blue colour
to a solution of ferric chloride, carefully avoid-
ing excess of acid. It may be at once used in
solution, or evaporated, &c., as before.
Prop., &c. Magnificent regular prismatic
or, sometimes, tabular crystals, of a rich ruby-
red tint; permanent in the air; combustible ;
decomposed by a high temperature; soluble
in 4 parts of cold water; insoluble in alcohol.
Colours ferric salts a pale brown, gives with
ferrous salt a deep blue, and precipitates bis-
muth salts pale yellow ; cadmium and mer-
curic salts, yellows; zinc salts, deep yellow ;
mercurous, cupric, molybdenic, silver, and
uranic salts, reddish brown ; cobalt salts,
dark brown; manganous salts, brown; cupric
salts, greenish; and nickelous salts, olive
brown.
Potassium, Ferrocyamide of. Kp FeCyg, or
Kı, FeC6Ng. Syn. FERROCYANURET OF PO-
TASSIUM, PRUSSIATE OF POTASH, YELLOW. P.
of P.; PotASSAE PRUSSIA FLAVA (B.P.), Po-
TASSII FERROCYANIDUM (Ph. L. E. & D.), L.
This valuable salt, the well-known ‘prussiate
of potash' of commerce, was discovered by the
illustrious Scheele about the middle of the 18th
century. It is now only manufactured on the
large scale.
Prep. Good “potash' or ‘pearlash,” 2 parts,
and dried blood, horns, hoofs, woollen rags, or
other refuse animal matter, 5 or 6 parts, are
reduced to coarse powder, and mixed with
some coarse iron borings; the mixture is then
injected into egg-shaped cast-iron pots in a
state of moderate ignition ; the mass is fre-
quently stirred with an iron spatula, so as to
prevent it running together, and the calcina-
tion is continued until fetid vapours cease to
be evolved, and flame is no longer seen on
stirring the mixture, care being taken to ex-
clude the air from the vessels as much as
possible ; during the latter part of the process
the pots are kept constantly covered, and the
ignited mass stirred less frequently ; the hot
pasty mass is then removed with an iron ladle,
and excluded from the air until cold ; it is
next exhausted by edulcoration with boiling
water, and the resulting solution, after defe-
cation or filtration, is concentrated by evapora-
tion, so that crystals may form as the liquid
cools; these are redissolved in hot water, and
the solution allowed to cool very slowly, when
large and beautiful yellow crystals of ferrocya-
mide of potassium are deposited.— Product. 1
ton of dried blood or woollen refuse, with 3 cwt.
of pearlash, yields from 2 to 2% cwt. of commer-
cial ferrocyanide. The mother-liquor contains
sulphate of potassium.
Prop. It forms large and very beautiful
yellow crystals, which are permanent in the
air, and very tough and difficult to powder; it
is soluble in 4 parts of cold and 2 parts of boil-
ing water; has a mild saline taste; at a gentle
heat loses water ; at a higher temperature,
in closed vessels, it is, for the most part, con-
verted into cyanide of potassium, and, when
exposed to the air, into cyanate of potassium
Precipitates solutions of antimonous, bismuth
mercurous, and zinc salts, white; Cadmium
salts, of a pale yellow ; cuprous salts, whi: |
turning red; ferrous salts, white, turninghill;
lead salts, white ; manganous salts, wit:
turning red; mercuric salts, white, fumi:
bluish ; nickelous salts, white, turning gºl;
silver salts, white; stannous salts, white; Q
balt salts, green; cupric salts, chocolate Riº
ferric salts, dark blue; palladous Salts, gºl;
stannic salts, yellow; uranic salts, reli
brown; and zinc salts, white.
Uses, &c. Ferrocyanide of potassiumisſil
used in dyeing and calico-printing, in tº
manufacture of Prussian blue, in electrº
ing, and, in chemistry, as a test, and asſuº:
hydrocyanic acid. As a medicine, it is Siili
be sedative and astringent, and in large is
purgative, but appears to possess little atti.
—Dose. 10 grs. to ; dr., dissolved in Water;|
hooping-cough, chronic bronchitis, might
sweats, leucorrhoea, &c. D'Arcet swallowtli
solution containing # oz. of this salt withſ
experiencing any injurious effects.
Potassium, Hydrate of KHO. Sn, P.
TASSA HYDRATE, HYDRATE OF POTASS,F}
TASSA, CAUSTIC P., HYDRATED OXIDE OF A
TASSIUM ; POTASSA CAUSTICA (B. P), POTS
(Ph. E.), P. CAUSTICA (Ph. D.), P. HYD)
(Ph. L.), P. FUSA. Prep. 1. (Ph.L.) Iijº
of potassa, 1 gall. ; evaporate the water in
clean iron vessel over the fire until, the hill
tion being finished, the residuum of poſsil
hydrate liquefies ; pour this into pº
moulds.
2. (Ph. E. & D.) As the last, but pºli,
the fused hydrate upon a bright and cleanin.
plate (silver or iron dish—Ph. D.); as S001:
it solidifies, break it quickly (into fragme:
and put it into stoppered glass (green-glas-
Ph. D.) bottles. -
3. (Pure.) The hydrate, obtained as alº
is dissolved in alcohol or rectified spirit,
after repose for a few days in a clº
stopped green-glass or silver vessel, the sº.
tion is decanted, and cautiously evapº
in a deep silver basin, out of contact will
the air. -
Prop., &c. When perfectly pure, it is wil:
solid, very soluble in water and in alcohol; W
deliquescent; intensely acrid and COrtº
and exhibiting the usual signs of alkalinity:
the highest degree. That of the shops ||
usually a grayish or bluish colour.
Potassium, I'odate of KIO, Syſ, P.
TASSE IODAS, L. Prep. Neutralise à l'
solution of hydrate of potassium with iodiº
evaporate to dryness by a gentle heat, pºwl;
the residuum, and digest it in alcohol, toº
move iodide of potassium, dissolve theimsºll
portion in hot water, and crystallise.
Obs. Iodate of potassium is resolved atam
heat into oxygen gas and iodide of pºtasium
It has been recommended in bronchoſlº-
Dose, 1 to 5 grs.



POTASSIUM. 969
Potassium, Iodide of. KI. Syn. Po-
TASSII IODIDUM (B. P., Ph. L. E. and D.).
1. (Ph. L. 1836.) Take of iron filings, 2
0Z. ; distilled water, 2 quarts; iodine, 6 oz.;
mix them, and heat the solution until it turns
green, and then add of carbonate of potassium,
4 oz., dissolved in water, 1 quart ; filter, wash
the residuum on the filter with water, evapo-
rate the mixed filtered liquors and cystallise.
Product, 1 oz. of iodine yields 1 oz. 45 grs. of
iodide.
The formulae of the Ph. D. and Ph. E. are
very similar.
2. Add iodine to a hot solution of pure
hydrate of potassium, until the alkali is perfectly
neutralised, carefully avoiding excess, eva-
porate the liquid to dryness, and expose the
dry mass to a gentle red heat in a platinum or
iron crucible; afterwards, dissolve out the salt,
gently evaporate, and crystallise. An excel-
lent process, yielding a large product, but, if
the ignition be not carefully managed, it is
apt to contain a little undecomposed iodate.
To obviate this, Mr. Scanlan proposes the
addition of a little powdered charcoal to the
mass before ignition, a plan adopted in the
Ph. U.S.
3. Iodine is treated with a small proportion
of phosphorus in water, and is thus converted
into ‘hydriodic acid;’ hydrate of calcium is
then added, and the ‘iodide of calcium ” formed
is first fused, and then decomposed by sulphate
of potassium into ‘sulphate of calcium,’ which
is precipitated, and ‘iodide of potassium,’ which
remains in solution, and may be crystallised,
as in the other processes. This is a modifica-
tion of a method devised by Liebeg.
Prop. It crystallises in cubes, which in
the pure salt are extremely white, though fre-
quently opaque; these are anhydrous; fuse
when heated, without decomposition; dissolve
in less than an equal weight of water, at 60°
Fahr., and very freely in alcohol; and do not
deliquesce in moderately dry air, unless they
contain urºdecomposed hydrate of potassium.
Its solutiºn dissolves the iodine freely, and also,
less readily, several of the insoluble metallic
iodides and oxides.
Pur. It is entirely soluble in both water
and algohol. Its aqueous solution alters the
colourſ of turmeric either not at all or but
very slightly, nor does it affect litmus paper,
or effervesce with acids. Nitric acid and
starch being added together, it becomes blue.
It is not coloured by the addition of tartaric
acid with starch. No precipitate occurs on
adding either a solution of hydrate of calcium
or of chloride of barium. 100 grs., dissolved in
water, by the addition of nitrate of silver, yield
a precipitate of 141 grs. of iodide of silver.
Assaly. The iodide of commerce frequently
contains fully one half its weight of either
chloride, or carbonate of potassium, or both of
them, with variable quantities of iodate of
potassium, a much less valuable salt. The
presence of these substances is readily de-
tected by the above tests. As the first of these
is only very slightly soluble in cold alcohol,
and the others insoluble in that liquid, as
ready method of determining the richness of
a sample in pure iodide, sufficiently accurate
for ordinary purposes, is as follows:—Reduce
50 grs. of the sample to fine powder, introduce
this into a test tube with 6 fl. drs. of alcohol,
agitate the mixture violently for one minute,
and throw the whole on a weighed filter set in
a covered funnel, observing to wash what re-
mains on the filter with another fl. dr. of al-
cohol. The filtrate, evaporated to dryness,
gives the quantity of pure iodide, and the
filter, dried by the heat of boiling water, that
of the impurities present in the sample ex-
amined, provided it contained no hydrate of
potassium. The quantity of alkali, whether
hydrate or carbonate, may be found by the
common method of ‘alkalimetry.”
Uses, &c. Chiefly in medicine and phar-
macy.—Dose. 1 to 10 grs, twice or thrice daily,
made into pills, or, better, in solution, either
alone or combined with iodine; in broncho-
cele, scrofula, chronic rheumatism, dropsy,
syphilis, glandular indurations, and various
other glandular diseases. Also externally,
made into a lotion or ointment.
Potassium, Nitrate of KNO3. Syn. NITRATE
of PotASH, NITRE, SALTPETRE ; PotASSAE
NITRAS (B. P., Ph.L. E. & D.), NITRUMf, SAL
NITRI+, SAL PETRAEf, KALI NITRATUMf, L.
This salt is produced naturally in the soil, by
the action of the atmosphere, and crystallises
upon its surface, in various parts of the world,
especially in the East Indies. On the Conti-
ment it has long been produced artificially, by
exposing a mixture of calcareous soil and
animal matter to the atmosphere, when
calcium nitrate is slowly formed, and is ex-
tracted by lixiviation. The liquid is then
decomposed by the addition of wood ashes, or
carbonate of potassium, by which carbonate of
calcium is precipitated, and nitrate of potas-
sium remains in solution. The places where these
operations are performed are called ‘mitriaries,”
or “nitrières artificielles.” The British market
is wholly supplied from India. The salt of
the first crystallisation, by either process, is
called ‘crude nitre’ or ‘rough saltpetre.”
This is purified by solution in boiling water,
skimming, and, after a short time allowed for
defecation, straining (while still hot) into
wooden crystallising vessels. The crystals
thus obtained are called “single refined nitre;’
and when the process is repeated ‘double
refined mitre.” -
1. (POTASSE NITRAS PURUM.—Ph.D.) Com-
mercial nitre, 4 lbs. ; boiling distilled water,
1 quart; dissolve, withdraw the heat, and stir
the solution constantly as it cools; the minute
crystals, thus obtained, are to be drained, and
washed, in a glass or earthenware percolator,
with cold distilled water, until that which
trickles through ceases to give a precipitate
with a solution of nitrate of silver, the contents

970
POTASSIUM.
of the percolator are then to be withdrawn,
and dried in an oven.
Prop. White, pellucid, six-sided prisms; per-
manent in the air; soluble in 7 parts of water
at 60° and in 1 part at 212° Fahr. ; insoluble
in alcohol; its taste is cool, saline, and slightly
bitter and pungent; at about 560° it fuses to
an oily-looking mass, which concretes on
cooling, forming ‘sal prunella;' at a red heat
it gives out oxygen, and, afterwards, nitrous
fumes; sp. gr. 1925 to 1975.
Pur. Commercial nitre generally contains
chlorides, sulphates, or calcareous salts. The
first may be detected by its solution giving a
cloudy white precipitate with nitrate of silver.
The second by chlorides of barium or calcium
giving a white precipitate, and the third by
oxalate of ammonium giving awhite precipitate.
Assay. Of the numerous methods prescribed
for this purpose, few are sufficiently simple
for mere practical men. The proportion of
chlorides, sulphates, and calcareous salts, may
be determined as above; and the general
richness of the sample by the method of Gay-
Lussac, modified as follows:–100 grs. of the
sample (fairly chosen) are triturated with 50
grs. of lampblack and 400 grs. of common salt,
and the mixture placed in an iron ladle, and
ignited or fused therein, due care being taken
to prevent loss; the residuum is exhausted
with hot water, and the solution thus obtained
tested by the usual methods of alkalimetry for
carbonate of potassium. The quantity of car-
bonate found, multiplied by 2:125 or 24, gives
the per-centage richness of the sample in
nitrate.
Uses, &c. Nitre is chiefly employed in the
manufacture of gunpowder, fireworks, and
nitric acid. It is also used in medicine as a
sedative, refrigerant, and diaphoretic, and as a
cooling diuretic. It has been recommended
in active haemorrhages (especially spitting of
blood), in various febrile affections, in scurvy,
and in herpetic eruptions; and it has been
highly extolled, by Dr. Basham, as a remedy
in acute rheumatism.—Dose. 5 to 15 grs.,
every 2 hours. A small piece, dissolved
slowly in the mouth, frequently stops a sore
throat at the commencement. In large doses,
it is poisonous. The best treatment is a pow-
erful emetic, followed by opiates.
Potassium, Nitrite of. KNO3. Syn. NI-
TRITE OF POTASSA; PotASSÉ NITRIs, L. Prep.
1. By heating nitre to redness, dissolving the
fused mass in a little water, and adding twice
the volume of the solution in alcohol; after a
few hours the upper stratum of liquid is
decanted, and the lower one, separated from
the crystals, evaporated to dryness.
2. (Corenwinder.) Nitric acid, 10 parts,
are poured on starch, 1 part, and the evolved
gas passed through a solution of hydrate of
potassium of the sp. gr. 1380, to saturation;
the liquid is then either neutralised with a
little hydrate of potassium (if necessary), and
kept in the liquid form, or at once evaporated.
Fused pinkish mass, or clear colourless Sºluk
crystals, used in chemistry as a reagent, all
deoxydiser.
Potassium, Oxalate of K.C.,0), Syn, Nº.
TRALOXALATE OF POTASSA; POTASSE OXAIMS
L. Prep. Neutralise a solution of Oxalic acidſ:
the acid oxalates, with carbonate of potassium
evaporate, and crystallise. Transparent Cºlºur
less rhombic prisms, soluble in 3 parts
water, and of the formula K2C40, Aq.
Potassium, Hydrogen 0xalate of K, H,00,
Syn. PotASSIUM BINOXALATE, SAIT 0.
SORREL, ESSENTIAL SALT OF LEMONS; POTASS:
BINOXALAs, L. Prep. By saturating a solutil
of oxalic acid, 1 part, with carbonate of pºlis
sium, adding to the mixture a similar solutil
of 1 part of oxalic acid, unneutralised, all
evaporating for crystals. It may alsº lº
obtained from the expressed juice of woºd
sheep’s sorrel, by clarifying it with eggs &
milk, and evaporating, &c., as before, Colour
less rhombic crystals of the formula KH(0,
Aq, soluble in 40 parts of cold and 6 parts.
boiling water, yielding a very sour solution.
Potassium, Trihydrogen 0xalate of KH
(C.O.), or KHC.O., H2C2O4. Syn. POTASSITY
QUADROXALATE, POTASSIUM ACID 0xAIAT,
Prep. By neutralising 1 part of oxalic (i.
with carbonate of potassium, adding to thesilt
tion 3 parts more of oxalic acid, evaporating
and crystallising. Resembles the last; his
the formula KH3(CO)3, 2Aq; but is lºs
soluble, and more intensely sour, and ſom;
modified octahedral crystals. This salt is
occasionally sold under the names of 'sil
acetosellae,’ ‘salt of sorrel,” and ‘essential ºil
of lemons.” Both are used to remove ink and
iron stains from linen, to bleach the straw
used for making bonnets, and, occasionally, i.
medicine, as a refrigerant. 2
Potassium, Oxide of. K.O. Prep. Bum
pure potassium in a current of oxygen. Whit:
powder, rapidly absorbing water and forming
the hydrate.
Potassium, Perchlorate of KC10, S/
POTASSE PERCHLoRAs, L. Prepared by W.
jecting well-dried and finely powdered chloriſ
of potassium, in small portions at a time, iſ
warm nitric acid. The salt is separaſ
the nitrate” by crystallisation.
FERRICYANIDE and FERROCYANIDE.
Potassium, Salicylite of Formed by miº
ing salicylous acid (artificial oil of mé
sweet) with a strong solution of hydratefº
tassium; it separates, on agitation, as a yellº
crystalline mass, which, after pressing
bibulous paper, is recrystallised from alº
Golden-yellow crystals, soluble in both ºf
and alcohol; damp air gradually cºnvert
them into acetate of potassium and F
acid. -
Potassium, Sulphate of KSO, S.
POTASSAE SULPHAs (B.P., Ph.L.E. &I). Pºp.
The sulphate of potassium of comrherº is:
secondary product of several º find
-








POTASSIUM.
971
manufacturing processes. Thus, the residuum
of the distillation of nitric acid from nitre is
dissolved in water, the solution neutralised
with carbonate of potassium, and, after defeca-
tion, evaporation until a pellicle forms; it is
then strained, or decanted, and set aside to
crystallise. Or, the residuum is simply ignited,
to expel excess of acid, and then dissolved,
and crystallised, as before.
Prop., &c. Anhydrous, heavy, quartz-like
crystals; permanent in the air; soluble in 12
parts of water at 60° and in 5 parts at 212°
Fahr.; insoluble in alcohol; extremely nau-
Seous, and bitter-tasted. It crepitates on
the application of heat; fuses at a red heat,
but loses nothing in weight. 100 grs., dis-
solved in distilled water, on the addition of
chloride of barium and hydrochloric acid, fur-
mish 132 grs. of sulphate of barium, dried at a
red heat.
Potassium, Bisulphate of KHSO4. Syn.
POTASSIUM-HYDROGEN SULPHATE, ACID PO-
TASSIUM SULPHATE ; POTASSAE BISULPHAS.
Prep. 1. (Anhydrous.) Neutral sulphate of
potassium and oil of vitriol, equal parts; hot
water, q. s. (not more) to dissolve; anhydrous
bisulphate crystallises out, in long delicate
needles, as the solution cools. If these are
left for several days in the mother-liquor, they
are redissolved, and crystals of the ordinary
hydrated bisulphate are deposited.
2. (Hydrated.)—a. (Ph.L. 1836.) Salt left
in distilling nitric acid, 2 lbs.; boiling water,
3 quarts; dissolve; add of sulphuric acid, 1
lb.; concentrate by evaporation, and set the
liquid aside, so that crystals may form.
b. (Ph.D.) Sulphate of potassium (in pow-
der), 3 oz. ; sulphuric acid, 1 fl. Oz. ; mix them
in a porcelain capsule, and expose it to a heat
capable of liquefying its contents, until acid
vapours cease to be evolved; powder the
residuum, and preserve it in a well-stopped
bottle.
Prop., &c. Sour and slightly bitter-tasted
rhombic prisms; soluble in about 2 parts of
cold and 1 part of boiling water, the solution
exhibiting a strongly acid reaction. It is
much employed, in lieu of tartaric acid, for the
production of carbonic acid, in ‘gazogenes,”
&c.; also to adulterate cream of tartar and
tartaric acid. According to Dr. Paris, it
forms a “grateful adjunct to rhubarb.”—
Dose. 12 grs. to 1% dr., in solution, combined
with rhubarb or bitters, as the neutral sul-
phate.
Potassium, Sulphocyamide of. KCNS, or
KCyS. Syn. SULPHo-CYANURET OF POTAS-
SIUM ; POTASSII SULPHOCYANIDUM, P. SUL-
PHO-CYANURETUM, L. Prep. 1. Ferrocyanide
of potassium (anhydrous, or dried by a gentle
heat), 46 parts; sulphur, 32 parts; pure carbo-
nate of potassium, 17 parts; reduce them to pow-
der, and very gradually heat the mixture to
low redness in a covered iron crucible, which
it will less than one half fill; remove the half-
refrigerated and still soft mass, crush it, ex-
haust it with water, and evaporate the aque-
ous solution to dryness; powder the residuum,
and exhaust it with hot alcohol or rectified
spirit; the alcoholic solution will yield beau-
tiful white crystals as it cools, and the resi-
duum or mother-liquor may be evaporated for
the remainder of the salt.
2. Cyanide of potassium, 3 parts; sulphur, 1
part ; water, 6 parts; digest them together
for some time, add 3 parts more of water,
filter, evaporate, and crystallise.
Prop., &c. Long, slender, colourless prisms
or plates, which are anhydrous, bitter-tasted,
deliquescent, fusible, very soluble in both water
and alcohol, and non-poisonous. It is chiefly
used as a test for ferric oxide, for which
purpose it is preferable to all other sub-
stances.
Potassium, Sulphide of. Syn. SULPHURET
OF POTASSIUM, LIVER OF SULPHUR: ; Po-
TASSII SULPHURETUM (Ph. L. E. & U.S.),
HEPAR SULPHURIs (Ph. D.), L. Prep. 1.
(Ph. E.) Sulphur, 1 oz. ; carbonate of potas-
sium, 4 oz.; mix, heat them in a covered
crucible till they form a uniform fused
mass; when cold, break it into fragments,
and preserve it in well-closed vessels. The
formulae of the Ph. L. 1836 and Ph. U.S. are
similar.
2. (Ph. D.) Sublimed sulphur, 4 oz. ; car-
bonate of potassium (from pearlash, first dried,
and then reduced to powder), 7 oz. ; mix in a
warm mortar, heat them in a Hessian crucible,
as before, pour the fused mass into an iron
cup, over which immediately invert a second
vessel, to exclude the air, and, when cold, break
the mass into fragments, and preserve it in a
green-glass stoppered bottle.
Prop., &c. A hard, brittle, liver or greenish-
brown coloured solid; inodorous whilst dry;
soluble in water, forming a highly fetid solu-
tion; and, in acids, evolving strong fumes of
sulphuretted hydrogen; reaction, alkaline;
exposed to the air, it is gradually converted
into sulphate of potassa. As a medicine, it is
reputed diaphoretic, expectorant, and stimu-
lant.—Dose. 2 to 6 grs., in solution, or made
into pills with soap; in gout, rheumatism,
liver affections, and various chronic skin dis-
eases. Externally, made into a lotion and oint-
ment. It is highly acrid and corrosive, and in
large doses poisomous.
Potassium, Tartrate of. K2C4H2O6. Syn.
NEUTRAL TARTRATE OF POTASSIUM, TARTRATE
OF POTASSA, NEUTRAL TARTAR, SoLUBLE T.;
PotASSE TARTRAS (B. P., Ph. L. E. & D.),
KALI TARTARIZATUMIf, L. Prep. (Ph. D.)
Carbonate of potassium, 8 oz. ; distilled water,
2 quarts; dissolve, and to the solution, whilst
boiling hot, gradually add of bitartrate of potas-
sium, in fine powder, 1 lb., or q.'s, so that
the liquid, after ebullition for a couple of
minutes, ceases to change the colour of either
blue or reddened litmus paper; next filter the
liquid through calico, evaporate it until a pel-
licle forms on the surface, and set it aside to
972 POTATO.
crystallise; after 12 hours, collect the crystals,
dry them on bibulous paper, and preserve them
from the air. The formula of the Ph. L. 1836
is nearly similar.
Prop., &c. The crystals of this salt, which
are obtained with difficulty, are right rhombic
prisms, and are deliquescent. The salt of
commerce is usually in the form of a white
granular powder, which is obtained by simply
evaporating the solution to dryness, with con-
stant stirring. In this state it requires about
4 parts of cold water for its solution. Acids
convert it into the bitartrate. As a medicine,
it acts as a gentle diuretic and aperient, and
is valued for correcting the griping properties
of senna and resinous purgatives. It is also
antiscorbutic.—Dose. # dr. to 3 oz., in pow-
der, or dissolved in water. The solution
changes the colour neither of litmus nor tur-
meric. The addition of almost any acid throws
down crystals of bitartrate of potassium, which
generally adhere to the vessel. The precipi-
tate occasioned by either chloride of barium or
acetate of lead is dissolved by dilute nitric acid.
Potassium, Bitartrate of. KHCH4O6. Syn.
ACID TARTRATE OF POTASSA, SUPER-TARTRATE
OF P., CREAM OF TARTAR ; CREMOR TARTARI,
PoTASSAE BITARTRAS (B. P., Ph. L. E. & D.),
POTASSAE SUPER-TARTRAS, TARTARI CRYSTALLI,
L. This well-known salt is deposited during
the fermentation of grape juice, as a crust on
the sides of the casks or vats. In its unpre-
pared or crude state, it is called white or red
tartar or argol, according to the wine from
which it has been obtained. It is purified by
boiling it in water, crystallisation, resolution
in water, and treatment with freshly burnt
charcoal and aluminous clay, to remove the
colour; the clear liquid is then decanted,
whilst still hot, and allowed to cool slowly;
the resulting crystals form the ‘cream of tar-
tar’ of commerce.
Prop., &c. Small, translucent, gritty, pris-
matic crystals, irregularly grouped together;
permanent in the air; requiring fully 100
parts of cold water, and about 15 parts of
boiling water, for their perfect solution; the
solution has a harsh, sour taste, and, like that
of the tartrate, suffers spontaneous decomposi-
tion by keeping. Its solution reddens litmus.
At a red heat, it is converted into carbonate
of potassium. Entirely soluble in 40 parts of
boiling water; 40 grs., in solution, are neu-
tralised by 30 grs. of crystallised carbonate of
soda.--Dose. As an aperient, 1 to 3 drs. ; as
a diuretic, ; dr. to 1 dr. ; as an antiscorbutic,
10 to 20 grs, frequently. It is much used to
make a pleasant cooling drink (‘Imperial”),
and in tooth-powders.
P0TAT0, This well-known and valuable
article of food is the tuber of the Solanum tu-
berosum or esculentum, a plant which was in-
troduced to this country by either Sir Francis
Drake or Sir Walter Raleigh, towards the
latter part of the 16th century. It is now ex-
tensively cultivated in all the temperate cli-
mates of the world. It yields a vast quant
of food on a small space of ground, but ſil
about 1-7th part of the weight of the tº
is nutritious, and this is chiefly farimº
Its farina or starch is, however, accompiliº
by no inconsiderable portion of Saline milk
more especially of potassa, which rendºrsi
highly antiscorbutic, and a powerful corº
of the grossness of animal food. When ſm
ing part of a mixed diet, perhaps no lº
stance is more wholesome than the pºliſ,
and, certainly, no other esculent hithertºis
covered appears equally adapted for uniº
llSe.
No certain rule can be laid down for ‘dº
ing potatoes. “If boiled, it may be that tº
require to be put into boiling water, Or, my
be, into cold, and either boiled quickly
slowly; but this you must find out. Chº
them all about the same size, with a sm)
skin, and when they are boiled and beginſ
crack, throw off the water immediately, si
only damages the root. When dressed, letti.
stand near the fire, with a cloth over the
and serve them in the skins. Salt maybºy
into the water at the beginning, A Wii:
potato will require quick boiling, and, ST:
times, to be put into boiling water.” (Sº
To retain the highest amount of nourismº
in potatoes, they should be ‘dressed’ with th:
skins on them. The bruised or damagedº
worm-holes, &c., being removed with alli,
the dirt should be carefully cleaned out ºf .
“eyes,” and from the rough parts of thesis
by means of a brush and water, after wi
they should be well rinsed in clean water, it
drained in a colander. If they are at all
or shrivelled, they may be advantageously;
to soak for 3 or 4 hours in clean Cold Wild
before cooking them. Potatoes ‘dressel'ſ
the skins have been found to be nearly tº
as rich in potassa-salts as those which hiſ
been first peeled. The skins are easily remº
before sending them to table.
NEW POTATOES should have their looselë
skin rubbed off with a cloth or stiff brushk -
fore being dressed or cooked.
MASHED POTATOEs are prepared by Tig
with the back of a spoon, or with a ſoli:
pin, the hot “dressed 'tubers, placed inabi
or dish, or on a pie-board. A little mil
butter, and salt, may be added to thematºll
and they may be either at once ‘serval,
or pressed into ‘forms,’ and first “brownelſ
in the oven. Potatoes, if not soft and mū.
and well masticated, frequently escape tº
solvent action of the stomach, and pas
undigested, often to the serious derangamº
of the health. By mashing them, this intº
venience is removed. The delicate, the lº
peptic, and the aged, should take them in
other form.
Potatoes may be preserved, so as to slº
the longest voyages unchanged, by thorºugh
desiccating them in an oven, or by steam hū.
For this purpose, the roots, either ºw"
__


POT POURRI—POUDRE KOUSIQUE.
973
three parts dressed, are generally first cut
into dice of above # inch square, to facilitate
the operation. Under a patent granted to
Mr. Downes Edwards, Aug., 1840, the boiled
potatoes are mashed and granulated, by forc-
ing them through a perforated plate, before
drying them. The granulated product, beaten
up with a little hot milk or hot water, forms
an excellent extemporaneous dish of mashed
potatoes.
POT POURRI. [Fr.] A mixture of odorous
flowers, roots, gums, &c., varied according to
the taste of the operator, either mixed toge-
ther dry, or in the fresh state preserved with
salt. “The usual way of making it is to
collect roses, lavender, and other sweet-scented
flowers, as they blow ; to put them into a
large jar mixed (stratified) with salt, until a
sufficient quantity has been collected; then to
add to these such other odorous substances as
may be required to form an agreeable per-
fume.” Among the substances thus added
are—ambergris, benzoin, calamus root, casca-
rilla, cassia, cassia buds, cinnamon, civet,
cloves, musk, musk seed, orange berries and
flowers, orris root, pimento, storax, vanilla,
yellow sandal wood, &c.
“Instead of the fresh flowers, dried roses
are sometimes used, and, with the addition of
some essential oils, these answer quite as well.”
(Redwood.)
POTTED MEATS. See PUTREFACTION and
POTTING (below).
P0TTERY. The mechanical operations con-
nected with the manufacture of pottery (CE-
RAMIC ART) do not come within the province
of this work. The materials employed, in
this country, to produce the best kind of
earthenware (STAFFORDSHIRE WARE) are the
fine white clays of Devonshire and Cornwall,
and powdered chert or flint. This is brought
to a perfectly homogeneous plastic mass with
water, and in this state is fashioned upon the
potter's wheel and lathe, or by moulding, into
all the varied objects of utility and ornament
which are made in this material. After the
newly formed vessels and other articles have
been dried by exposure in heated rooms, they
are enclosed in clay cases (SEGGARS) and ex-
posed to heat in a kiln, by which they arrive
at a state (BISCUIT) which renders them fit
for glazing; the patterns (if any) and, after-
wards, appropriate vitreous materials having
been applied to their surfaces, they are again
placed in the seggars, and are again exposed
in a kiln to a heat sufficiently high to fuse the
newly applied compound, by which they ac-
quire a uniform enamelled surface, and become
fit for the market. PORCELAIN, or CHINA, as
it is commonly called, is manufactured in a
nearly similar manner, but the materials are
selected and the various processes conducted
with corresponding skill and care.
The ornamental patterns are produced upon
both Staffordshire ware and porcelain by a
number of ingenious processes, among which
printing, painting, and moulding, are the
principal. The colours employed are those
which have been already referred to under
ENAMELs.
The metallic lustres now so common on
stoneware, &c., are given as follows:–
1. GoLD LUSTRE. Dissolve grain-gold, 1
dr., in aqua regia, # oz. ; to the solution add
of metallic tin, 6 grs.; and when this is dis-
solved, pour it very gradually, with constant
stirring, into a mixture of balsam of sulphur,
# dr. ; oil of turpentine, 20 grs. ; when the
mass begins to stiffen, ; dr. more of oil of tur-
pentine must be added, and well mixed in.
More gold deepens and brightens the lustre;
more tin turns it on the violet or purple.
2. IRON LUSTRE. From a mixture of “ mu-
riate of iron’ (ferric chloride) and spirit of
tar.
3. PLATINUM LUSTRE. To a solution of
platinum in aqua regia (platinic chloride)
is added, drop by drop, a mixture of spirit of
tar and balsam of sulphur in equal propor-
tions, until by a trial the composition is found
to give the required result. This gives the
appearance of polished steel.
4. SILVER LUSTRE. The ammonio-chloride
of platinum is reduced to an impalpable pow-
der, ground up to the requisite consistence
with a little spirit of tar, and at once applied
with a brush.
The above lustres are applied, over an easily
fusible glaze, to the outer surfaces only of the
vessels, after which adhesion is produced by
exposing the pieces to a slight degree of heat
in the muffle. To give them their full beauty,
they must be rubbed with cotton, wool, or
chamois leather, after the firing. See ALU-
MINA, CLAY, ENAMELS, GILDING, GLAZES,
KAOLIN, &c.
POTTING. A term commonly applied to
the operation or practice of preserving animal
substances in a state fit for immediate use, in
small pots or jars. The method of proceeding
is, first, to mince the substance (previously
well dressed, and carefully deprived of bones,
sinews, skin, &c.), and, next, to pound it in a
clean polished marble or iron mortar, along
with a little butter and some cayenne pepper,
or other suitable spice or sauce, until it forms
a perfectly smooth paste; this is pressed into
the pots, so as to about 2-3rds fill them, and
clarified melted butter is then poured in to the
depth of about 1-8th of an inch; the pots
are, lastly, closely covered over, and kept in
a cool situation. In this state their contents
may be preserved for a year, or longer. Potted
beef, ham, veal, poultry, game, anchovies,
bloaters, salmon, &c., are commonly sold in
the shops. They are all intended for relishes,
and are spread upon bread, in the same manner
as butter.
POUDRE KOUSIQUE. [Fr.] A French nos-
trum, consisting of nitre and sulphur, of each,
50 parts; charcoal and antimony, of each, 1
part. It is divided into #-dr. doses, of which
974.
POUDRE METALLIQUE-POULTICE.
three are put into each packet. It is given
to dogs in a ball of butter, to prevent the
disorders to which they are liable.
POUDRE METALLIQUE. [Fr.] See Tooth
CEMENTS.
POUDRE SUBTILE. [Fr.] See DEPILATORY.
POUDRETTE. [Fr.] Dried night-soil. The
manure sold under this name is a compound
of night-soil with clay, charcoal, or gypsum,
made into balls or cakes. Its extensive use in
Belgium, France, the United States of America,
and, more particularly, in China, where it was
first employed, has shown it to be the most
fertilising and generally applicable of all the
numerous substances used as manure. Unfor-
tunately, the prejudices of Englishmen lead
them to poison the air of their cities and towns,
and the water of their rivers, with a substance
which, if rightly applied, would crown their
fields with golden harvests, and drive pauper-
ism from the land.
POULTICE. Syn. CATAPLASM ; CATA-
PLASMA, L. An external application, generally
extemporaneous, used to promote suppuration,
allay pain and inflammation, resolve tumours,
&c.
Poultices (cataplasmata) are generally pre-
pared with substances capable of absorbing
much water, and assuming a pulpy consistence,
so as to admit of their application to any sur-
face, however irregular. Their curative action
principally depends upon the liquids with which
they are moistened, and the heat retained by
the mass. With this object they should never
be heavy, or very bulky, and should be fre-
quently repeated, and lightly, but securely,
bandaged on, to prevent displacement.
The addition of a little lard, olive oil, or,
still better, glycerin, to a poultice, tends greatly
to promote its emollient action, and to retard
its hardening.
As the continued medication of the part
with warmth and moisture, or with substances
applied in the moist way, is the principal object
to be attained in the application of poultices,
a fold or two of lint or soft linen dipped in hot
water, either simple or medicated, and covered
with a piece of thin sheet gutta percha or India-
rubber cloth, to prevent evaporation, may be
often conveniently applied in their stead. A
very elegant and useful substitute of this kind
is sold under the name of ‘spongio piline.” Its
cleanliness, lightness, and ease of application,
has led to its extensive adoption by the medical
profession.
The following formulae embrace all the cata-
plasma of the Pharmacopoeias:–
Poultice of Alum. Syn. CATAPIASMA ALU-
MINIS, L. Prep. (B. P., Ph.D. 1826.) Alum
(in powder), 1 dr. ; whites of 2 eggs; shake
them together until they form a coagulum.
Applied, between the folds of fine linen, to
chilblains, sore nipples, inflamed eyes, &c.
Poultice of Bread. Syn. CATAPLASMA PANTS,
L. Prep. From crum of bread, soaked in hot
water, slightly pressed, and then beaten up
with a little lard, butter, or oil, Emoliſ.
See LINSEED MEAL POULTICE (below.)
Poultice of Car'rot. Syn. CATAPIAS||
DAUCI, L. Prep. 1. From the commi
esculent carrot, scraped fine, so as to form:
pulp.
2. (Ph.D. 1826.) From the cultivated tº
rot boiled with a little water, until it bººms
soft enough to form a poultice. Anodyne All
antiseptic. Used in foul and painful lº
burns, contusions, &c. That from the firstſ."
mula is the more stimulant.
Poultice of Charcoal. Syn. CATAPIAS|[.
CARBONIS (B. P., Ph. L.), C. C. LIGNI, L. P.
1. (Ph. L.) Soak bread, 2 oz., in boiling Wº
# pint; to this add, by degrees, of lilº
meal, 10 drs, and, afterwards, of powdº
(recently burnt) charcoal, 2 drs, list
sprinkle on the surface of the poultice ºf
dered charcoal, 1 dr. As an applicatiºn
fetid and gangrenous sores; frequently ſº
newed. -
2. (B. P.) Wood charcoal, Oz.; brai.
Oz. ; linseed meal, 1 oz. ; boiling water, 10.1;
soak the bread in the water near the fire, i.
the linseed meal and half the charcoal, stini:
to a soft poultice, sprinkling the remainlºſt
the charcoal on the surface.
Poultice of Chlo"ride of Soda. S/h, (Ill.
PLASMA SODE CHLORINATE (B.P., Ph. I) ||
Prep. 1. (Ph.L.) Boiling water, 6 fl.0%; i.
seed meal, 4% oz. ; mix gradually, then did
solution of chlorinated soda, 2 fl oz. Api
to foul ulcers, gangrenous parts, &c.
2. (B.P.) Solution of chlorinated solil:
linseed meal, 2 ; boiling water, 4; all il.
linseed meal gradually to the water, Siimi,
constantly, then mix the solution of cliff
nated soda.
Poultice of Hem'lock. Syn. CATAPIMS
CONII (B. P., Ph.L.), L. Prep. 1. (P.I.)
Boiling water, # pint ; linseed meal, 4} \,.
q. s. ; make a poultice, and on this spºil
extract of hemlock (Ph. L.), 1 oz., first soft
with a little hot water. Anodyne. In it.
able and painful cancerous, scrofulous, it
syphilitic sores, tumours, &c.
2. (B. P.) Hemlock leaf, in powder,114
linseed meal, 3 oz. ; boiling water, 10 lº
mix the ingredients, then add them to the Wii.
gradually, constantly stirring.
Poultice of Linseed Meal. Syn. CATAPIRſ
LINI (B. P., Ph. L.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph.L.)|
boiling water, , pint, add, gradually, constill
stirring, of linseed meal, 4% oz., or q, S. Eml
lient. Used to promote the suppuration .
‘ripening’ of tumours. A little oil or hº
should be added, and some smeared Oyèrt.
surface as well, to prevent its getting hiſ
For small “gatherings,’ as of the fingers
little chewed bread and butter is an efitſ
and convenient substitute.
2. (B. P.) Linseed meal, 4; olive oil #
boiling watér, 10; mix the linseed meal will
the oil, add the water gradually, constal
stirring.

POULTRY-IPOWDER.
975
Obs. Linseed meal prepared from the cake,
from which the oil has been expressed, is less
adapted for poultices than that prepared from
the unpressed, whole seed. The latter is or-
dered in the Ph. L.
Poultice of Mustard. Syn. CATAPIASMA
SINAPIs (Ph. L.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P., Ph. L.)
Linseed meal and powdered mustard, of each, 2.
oz., or q. S.; boiling water, pint; mix as before.
2. (Ph. L. 1836.) As the last, but substi-
tuting boiling vinegar for water. Used as a
powerful counter-irritant, stimulant, and ru-
befacient; in low fevers, apoplexy, coma, &c.,
where there is a determination of blood to
the head ; in deep-seated inflammatory pains,
neuralgic pains, &c. It should not be left
on long enough to raise a blister. See
PLASTERS.
Poultice of Poppy. Syn. CATAPIASMA PA-
PAVERIS, L. Prep. 1. (P. Cod. 1839.) A strong
decoction of poppies, thickened with crum of
bread. Anodyne.
Poultice of Potaſto. Syn. CATAPLASMA
SOLANI TUBEROSI, L. Prep. From the raw
potato, scraped or grated fine. A popular ap-
plication to fresh bruises, extravasations, burns,
Scalds, &c.
Pradier's Poultice. Syn. PRADIER’s CATA-
PLASMA; CATAPLASME DE PRADIER, Fr. Prep.
Take of balsam of Mecca, 6 drs. ; rectified spirit,
16 oz. ; dissolve; next, separately, take red cin-
chona bark, Sarsaparilla, and sage, of each, 1
Oz. ; saffron, oz. ; rectified spirit, 32 oz. ;
digest for 48 hours, and filter; mix the two
liquors, add to them twice their weight of
lime water. In gout ; 2 fl. oz. are sprinkled
on the surface of a hot linseed-meal poultice
sufficiently large to surround the affected part.
It is said that the Emperor Napoleon gave
£2500 for this receipt.
Simºple Poultice. Syn. CATAPLASMA SIM-
PLEX, L. Prep. (Ph. D. 1826.) Powder for
a cataplasma and boiling water, of each, q. S. to
form a poultice, the surface of which is to be
smeared over with olive oil. Emollient. Bread
poultice and linseed-meal poultice are now
generally called by this name. See PoWDER
(Poultice).
Poultice of Soap. Syn. CATAPLASMA SA-
PONIS, L. Prep. From white soap (scraped or
sliced), 1 oz. ; boiling water, 4 pint ; dissolve,
and add crum of bread, q. s. As an application
to scalds and burns.
Poultice of Win'egar. Syn. CATAPLASMA
ACETI, L. Prep. From crum of bread soaked
in vinegar. Applied cold in bruises, extrava-
sations, &c., especially black eyes. Verjuice is
often employed in the same way.
Poultice of Yeast. Syn. CATAPLASMA FER-
MENTI (B. P., Ph. L.), C. F. CEREVISIE, L.
Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Beer yeast and water at
100° Fahr., of each, 5 fl. oz. ; mix, stir in flour,
1 lb., and place it near the fire until it rises. In
gangrenous or foul ulcers; to correct the
fetor of the discharge, and to hasten the
sloughing. -
2. (B. P.) Beer yeast, 6; flour, 14; water
(at 100°Fahr.), 6; mix. Place the mass near
the fire till it rises.
POULTRY. Domestic birds, which are pro-
pagated and fed for the table, and for their
eggs, feathers, &c.
The poultry of this country are the common
domestic fowl, the turkey, the duck, and the
goose; to which some writers add the guinea
fowl and the peacock. Of these, the first is
the most generally useful. Though a native
of India, it accompanies man through almost
every gradation of civilisation and climate, and
flourishes almost everywhere, when properly
secured from the inclemency of the weather,
and allowed an ample supply of fresh air, with
proper food. For the production of abundance
of eggs, it must, however, be well fed and
warmly lodged. The hen-roosts and poultry-
houses should be well protected from the
weather, and their temperature should be duly
maintained by proximity to the stables, cow-
houses, or dwelling-house, and, in cold weather,
by the employment, when necessary, of artifi-
cial heat. The food should also contain an
ample supply of nitrogenous matter, for with-
out this how can it be expected that hens can
produce abundance of eggs, which are peculiarly
rich in nitrogen. The “greaves’ of the tallow-
chandlers, and such-like substances, are hence
excellent additions to the ordinary food of
poultry. But it is not sufficient merely to
supply poultry with abundance of food and
warmth ; it is equally necessary that they
should have ample space for exercise and re-
creation. This space “should always contain
living plants of various kinds, and some
gravelly or sandy soil; because worms, snails,
as well as, occasionally, grass and herbage, form
a part of the food of poultry; and sand or
gravel is swallowed by them for the purpose
of promoting digestion.” Hence, no healthy
poultry can ever be reared in towns, however
much the natural food may be imitated by the
supply of animal matters, herbage, and sand.”
(Loudon.)
POUNCE. Powdered gum sandarac generally
passes under this name. It is used to prepare
parchment for writing on, and to prevent ink
from spreading upon paper after erasures.
Powdered cuttle-fish bone is occasionally em.
ployed in the same way. Both are applied to
the surface by means of a cylindrical roll of
list, called a “rubber.” Packers rub the sur-
face of porous and greasy woods, as the heads
of boxes, cases, casks, &c., with whiting or
powdered resin, to make them bear the ink.
The coloured powders used by pattern drawers,
for sprinkling over pricked papers, are also
called ‘pounce.” For liquid pounce, see MARK-
ING INK.
POWDER. Syn. PULVIs, L. Powders are
divided by pharmaceutical writers into two
classes—simple and compound. The first are
prepared by simple pulverisation; the second,
by the admixture or two or more simple


976
POWDER.
powders. For use, the appropriate doses are se-
parately weighed, and placed in separate papers.
They are usually exhibited in a little honey,
sugar, or milk, either taken from a spoon or
made into an electuary or bolus, and swallowed
in the semi-solid form. Metallic and other
heavy powders are best taken in the latter
state. Very active substances should be, in
all cases, mixed with some inert powder, as that
of starch, gum, liquorice, or marsh-mallow, at
the time of ‘dispensing ' them.
“This form of preparing medicines is the
simplest, and perhaps the least objectionable ;
but it is not applicable to all the articles of the
Materia Medica. Those remedies which are
very unpleasant to the taste ; those which
deliquesce rapidly when exposed to the air, or
are very volatile ; and those which require to
be given in very large doses, or which are not
diffused readily in water, cannot, with pro-
priety, be administered in the form of powder.
Some substances cannot be reduced to powder
unless they be very much dried, and the heat
necessary for that purpose alters their proper-
ties.” Nor can we “be surprised that a great
alteration should be effected in a short time
by the action of the air on so great an exten-
sion of surface as takes place in the operation
usually adopted for reducing drugs to a fine
powder.” (A.T. Thomson.)
In this country, compound powders appear
to be a favourite form of medicine in the dis-
eases of infancy and childhood.
“It is necessary that whatever we order to
be reduced to powder should be rubbed through
a fine sieve, so that the impurities and coarser
parts may be separated; and it is needful that
most powders should be recently prepared, and
not too long kept.” (Ph. L.)
As nearly all powders suffer by exposure to
the air and light, they should be preserved in
closely corked opaque or green-glass bottles,
or in tin canisters from which the external air
is carefully excluded. See PULVERISATION,
&c.
Powder, Algaroth's.
ANTIMONY (page 122).
Powder of Al'oes (Compound). Syn. PUIVIS
ALois COMPOSITUS (Ph. L.), P. ALoís CUM
GUAIACO, L. Prep. (Ph. L.) Socotrine or
hepatic aloes (in powder), 1% oz. ; guaiacum
(in powder), 1 oz. ; compound cinnamon pow-
der, 4 oz.; rub them together. A warm, sudo-
rific purgative.—Dose. 10 to 20 grs.
Powder of Aloes with Camel'la. Syn.
ALOETIC PoWINER, Holy BITTER+ ; HIERA
PICRAf, PULVIS ALOES CUM CANELLA, L.
Prep. From powdered Socotrine or hepatic
aloes, 4 parts; powdered white canella, 1 part.
Uses and dose, as the last.
Obs. Once a highly popular remedy. It
was originally made into an electuary with
honey, and in this form was frequently called
* HIERA LOGADII.’ It is still a favourite in
domestic medicine and veterinary practice.
The principal objection to both this and the
See OXYCHLORIDE OF
preceding preparation is the nauseous flavour
of the aloes, which is ill concealed by the
aromatics. The “HIERA PICRA’ for farriers
is usually made with the cheapest Cape
aloes.
Powder of Al'um (Compound). Syn. STYP.
TIC PowdER; PULVIS STYPTICUs, P. ALUMINIS
COMPOSITUs (Ph. E.), L. Prep. (Ph. E)
Alum, 4 oz. ; kino, 1 oz.; mix them, and re-
duce them to fine powder. Astringent and
styptic. — Dose. 5 to 15 grs.; in diar.
rhoea, profuse menstruation, &c. Externally,
in haemorrhages, &c. -
Powder of Ancho'vy. Syn. PULVIS CLUPEE
ENCRASICOLI, L. Prep. Pound anchovies to
a paste, them rub them through a sieve, and
add enough flour to make a dough, which
must be rolled out into thin slices and dried
by a gentle heat in a stove; it is, lastly, pow-
dered and bottled. Colouring is frequently
added. Chiefly used to make sauces. British
anchovies are frequently substituted for the
genuine fish.
Powder, Antimo"mial. Syn. FEVER POW.
DER, LISLE’s P., JAMES's P.; PULVIS JACOBI,
PULVIS ANTIMONIALIS (B. P., Ph. E. & D),
PULVIS ANTIMONII CoMPOSITUs (Ph. L.), L.
Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) A mixture of tersulphide
of antimony, 1 lb., and hartshorn shavings, 2
lbs., is reduced to powder, thrown into a Cru:
cible heated to whiteness, and stirred con-
stantly until vapour no longer rises; the
calcined mixture is then rubbed to powder,
again put into the crucible, and the heat grº:
dually increased to whiteness, and maintained
so for 2 hours; the residuum is, lastly, 10.
duced to a very fine powder.
2. (Ph. E.) From sulphide of antimony
and hartshorn shavings, equal weights; as the
last.
3. (Ph.D.) Tartarised antimony, 407, is
dissolved in water, 3 gall, and added to
solution of phosphate of soda, 4 oz., in water,
1 quart; a solution of chloride of calcium, 2
oz., in water, 1 quart, and to which solution
of ammonia (Ph.D.), 4 fl.oz., has been added,
is next poured in, and the whole boiled for 20
minutes; the precipitate is then collected On
a calico filter, and washed with hot distilled
water, until the liquid which passes ceases to
give a precipitate with a weak solution of hi.
trate of silver; it is, lastly, dried by a steam
or water heat, and reduced to a fine powder.
4. (B. P.) Oxide of antimony, 1; precipi.
tated phosphate of lime, 2; mix,-Dose, 2 to
6 grs.
Uses, &c. Febrifuge and diaphoretic, In,
tended as a substitute for the proprietary and
more expensive JAMES’s PoWDER.—Dose, 3
to 10 or 12 grs, or more, repeated every
fourth or fifth hour until diaphoresis is set up;
in fevers, rheumatic affections, chronic skin
diseases, &c. It is a very uncertain and varia.
ble compound, unless it has been carefully pre:
pared. Dr. Elliotson exhibited it in doses ºf
100 grs, without producing any sensible effect.

POWDER.
977
A spurious article, made by triturating 1 oz.
of tartar emetic with 18 or 19 oz. of burnt
hartshorn, is frequently sold for it in the
shops. See ANTIMONIOUS ACID and JAMES’s
POWDER.
Powder, Aromatic.
NAMON POWDER.
Powder, Arsen'ical.
I) ER.
Powder of Asarabac'ca (Compound).
SNUFF (Cephalic).
Powder, Astringent. Syn. PULVIS ASTRIN-
GENS, P. STYPTICUS, L. Prep. From Aleppo
galls and burnt alum, in fine powder, equal
parts. Used in piles, soft polypi of the nose,
chilblains, &c. -
Powder, Ba'king. Prep. 1. Tartaric acid,
# lb.; bicarbonate of soda and potato farina
or British arrow-root, of each, # lb. (each in
powder); separately dry them perfectly by a
very gentle heat, then mix them in a dry room,
pass the mixture through a sieve, and at once
put it into packets, observing to press it hard,
and to cover it with tinfoil or close-made
paper, to preserve it as much as possible from
the air and moisture.
2. (Delforte's.) Powdered tartaric acid, 4
lb.; powdered alum, # lb.; bicarbonate of
soda, # lb.; farina, 1 lb. ; dry separately, as
before, mix, and further add of sesquicarbonate
of ammonia (in powder), 3 oz. ; lastly, closely
pack it in tinfoil.
3. (Green's.) Tartaric acid, 35 lbs. ; ses-
quicarbonate of soda, 56 lbs. ; potato flour, 1
cwt. ; mix as before.
Uses, &c. Baking powder is chiefly employed
as a substitute for yeast. 1 or 2 teaspoonfuls
are mixed with the dry flour and other ingre-
dients, which are then made into a dough, as
quickly as possible, with cold water, and at
once baked or boiled, as the case may be. By
the addition of about ; dr. of turmeric pow-
der to each pound of the mixture it is con-
verted into egg powder. When intended to
be kept for any length of time it should be
preserved in bottles or tins, so as to prevent
the absorption of moisture. We have dis-
covered traces of arsenic in some of the baking
powders of the shops, which we refer to com-
mon washerwoman’s soda being used in their
composition, instead of the pure carbonate or
sesquicarbonate.
Powder, Basilic. Syn. ROYAL POWDER,
CORNACHINI’s P.; PULVIS BASILICUS, P. COR-
NACHINI, L. Prep. From scammony, calo-
mel, cream of tartar, and diaphoretic antimony,
equal parts. This is the formula generally
adopted for this compound, which has now
long been omitted from the Pharmacopoeias.
It is still a favourite with many'practitioners,
as an alterative purgative, and vermifuge
for children.—Dose. For a child, 2 to 8
grs. ; for an adult, 5 to 20 grs. Compound
powder of scammony is now generally sold for
it.
Powder, Blaine's Distem'per.
See CoMPOUND CIN-
See ESCHAROTIC Pow-
See
The basis of
this preparation is the “aurum musivum,” or
bisulphuret of tin. (Dr. Paris.)
Powder, Blancmange'. Prep. From sago
meal, 1 lb.; essence of lemon, 15 drops; mace,
12 grs. ; mix.
Powder, Bleach'ing. Chloride or hypochlorite
of lime.
Powder Blue.
Powder, Bronze.
BRONZING, &c.
Powder of Burnt Hartshorn. Syn. PULVIs
CORNU CERVINI USTI, L. Prep. From pieces
of hartshorn calcined to whiteness, and pow-
dered. It consists principally of phosphate of
lime.—Dose. 10 to 30 grs. ; in rickets, &c.
Powder of Burnt Hartshorn with 0'pium.
Syn. PULVIS opIATUS, PULVIS coRNU USTI
CUM OPIO, L. Prep. From powdered calcined
hartshorn, 1 oz. ; powdered opium and cochi-
neal, of each, 1 dr.—Dose. 5 to 20 grs.
Powder, Capuchin'. Prep. From powdered
cevadilla, parsley seed, stavesacre, and to-
bacco, equal parts. Used to destroy pediculi.
Powder, Castillon's. Prep. From sago meal,
Salep, and gum tragacanth, of each 3 drs. ;
prepared oyster shells, 1 dr. ; cochineal, q. s.
to colour. Absorbent.—Dose. } to 1 dr.,
boiled in milk; in diarrhoea, &c.
Powder of Cat'echu (Compound). Syn. PULVIs
CATECHU COMPOSITUs (B.P., Ph.D.), L. Prep.
1. (Ph. D.) Take catechu and kino, of each,
2 oz. ; cinnamom and nutmeg, of each, oz. ;
reduce each to a fine powder, mix, and keep
the prepared powder in a well-stopped bottle.
Aromatic and astringent.—Dose. # dr. to 2
drs. ; in various affections.
2. (B. P.) Pale catechu; kino, 2 ; rha-
tany, 2; cinnamom, l; nutmeg, 1; mix.-
Dose. 15 to 30 grs.
Powder of Chalk (Compound). Syn. PULVIs
CRETE AROMATICUs (B. P.), PULVIS CRETE
COMPOSITUs (Ph. L. E. & D.), P. CARBONATIs
CALCIS COM.P., L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Pre-
pared chalk, 3 lb. ; cinnamon, 4 oz. ; tormen-
til and gum acacia, of each, 3 oz. ; long pepper,
# oz. ; rub them, separately, to a very fine
powder, and mix them.
2. (Ph. E.) Prepared chalk, 4 oz.; cinna-
mon, in fine powder, 1% dr. ; nutmeg, in fine
powder, 1 dr.
3. (Ph. D.) Prepared chalk, 5 oz. ; cinna-
mon, 2% oz. ; gum, 2 oz. ; nutmeg, oz.
4. (AROMATIC Powd ER OF CHALR, B. P.)
Chalk, ll; cinnamon, 4; nutmeg, 3; saffron,
3; cloves, 1%; cardamom seed, l; refined
sugar, 25; all in powder; mix.-Lose, 30 to
60 grs.
Uses, &c. Aromatic, astringent, and ant-
acid.—Dose. 10 to 30 grs. ; in acidity, flatu-
lence, heartburn, diarrhoea, &c. The following
form is used by many wholesale houses:–
Prepared chalk, 4 lbs.; powdered cassia, 2 lbs. ;
powdered calamus aromaticus, # lb.; powdered
gum, 1% lb. ; long pepper, 4 lb.
Powder of Chalk with Opium (Compound).
Syn. PULVIS CRETE AROMATICUS CUM OPIO
- - 62
See SMALT.
See TIN (Bisulphide),
978 POWDER.
(B. P.); OPIATED CHALK POWDER ; PULVIs
CRETAS composſTUS CUM opio (Ph. L.), PULVIS
CRETAE op1ATUS (Ph. E. & D.), L. Prep. 1.
(Ph. L.) Compound chalk powder, 6% oz. ;
powdered opium, 80 grs.
2. (Ph. E.) Compound chalk powder, 6 oz. ;
powered opium, 80 grs.
3. (Ph. D.) Compound chalk powder, 4 oz.
7 drs.; opium, in fine powder, 1 dr.
4. (Wholesale.) Compound chalk powder,
21 oz. ; powered opium, 4 oz. Anodyne, ant-
acid, and carminative.—Dose. 10 to 30 grs. ;
in the same cases as the preceding, than which
it is more active. It has long been a favourite
remedy in all cases of simple and even cho-
leraic diarrhoea.
5. Aromatic powder of chalk (see PoWDER
OF CHALK (Compound), 4), 39; opium, in
powder, 1; mix thoroughly, and pass through
a sieve.—Dose. 10 to 40 grs.
Powder, Chalk Mixture. Syn. PULVIS PRO
MISTURA CRETE, L. Prep. (Beasley.) Pow-
dered gum acacia, 5 oz. ; prepared chalk, 4 oz.;
white sugar, 3 oz. ; oil of cinnamon, 1} fl. dr. ;
mix. 40 grs. of this powder, triturated with
l fl. oz. of water.
Powder, Chol'era (Saline). Syn. PULVIS
SALINUS ANTICHOLERICUs, L. Prep. 1. (Dr.
O’Shaughnessy.) Carbonate of soda, 5 grs. ;
chloride of sodium, phosphate of soda, and
sulphate of soda, of each, 10 grs. For a
dose.
Powder of Cin'mamon (Compound). Syn.
AROMATIC POWDER ; PULVIS CINNAMOMI
COMPOSITUS (B. P., Ph. L.), PULVIS AROMA-
TICUs (Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Cin-
namon, 2 oz. ; cardamoms, 1% oz.; ginger, 1
oz. ; long pepper, # oz. ; rub them together so
that a fine powder may be made.
2. (B. P., Ph. E.) Cinnamon, cardamom
seeds, and ginger, equal parts; to be kept in a
well-closed glass vessel.
3. (Ph. D.) Cinnamon and ginger, of each,
2 oz. ; cardamom seeds (husked), and nutmegs,
of each, 1 oz. Aromatic and carminative.—
Dose. 10 to 30 grs. In the powder of the
shops cassia is generally substituted for cinna-
In 1011.
Powder, Cla’rifying. Flake albumen. See
ALBUMEN.
Powder, Cock'le. From the well-known
shell-fish Cardium edule (Linn.), as oyster
powder.
Powder, Colbatche’s Specific. Prep. From
solution of sesquichloride of iron and acetate of
lead, of each, 4 oz. ; mix, evaporate to dryness,
powder the residuum, and preserve it from
the air. Astringent and haemostatic.—Dose.
3 to 8 grs.
Powder of Col'ocynth. Syn. PULVIS COLO-
CYNTHIDIS, L. That of the shops is generally
prepared from the whole of the peeled fruit,
with the seeds, instead of merely from the
pulp, by which its activity is greatly lessened.
A factitious article is also met with in trade,
made by grinding byrony root with about
twice its weight of colocynth seeds, and a very
small quantity of gamboge. . -
Powder of Contrayer'va (Compound). Syn,
PULVIS CONTRAYERVAE COMPOSITUS, L. Prep.
(Ph. L. 1824.) Powdered contrayerva root,
5 oz. ; prepared oyster shells, 13 lb.; mix. A
tonic absorbent or antacid.—Dose, 10 grs, to #
dr., as required.
Powder, Corn.—See CoRN SOLVENT (page
371), and WART PowDER (below).
Powder, Cosmetic. Syn. PULVIS COSMETI.
CUs, L. Prep. (Ph. Hann. 1831.) Blanched
sweet almonds and beans, of each, 18 07.;
orris root, 8 oz.; white Spanish soap, 607;
spermaceti, 1% oz. ; dried carbonate of Soda,
1 oz. ; oils of lavender, bergamot, and le.
mon, of each, 6 drs. ; mix, and beat them to
a powder. See HAIR and HAND POWDER
(below), PASTE (Almond), PoWDERS (Scented),
&c.
Powder of Crystal. From quartz, like
PowdERED GLASS (page 574). Used to make
fine glass; also for a dryer for paints, and sold
under the name of “ diamond dust” for razor
strops. -
Powder, Curry. Syn. INDIAN CURRY POW.
DER. The samples of this compound prepared
by different houses vary so greatly from each
other in the proportions of the ingredients,
that it is difficult to regard any one as a stand.
ard. The following are therefore merely given
as examples:—
Prep. 1. Corianders, 1 lb.; turmeric,
# lb.; black pepper, 3 lb.; scorched mustard,
# lb.; ginger, 2 oz. ; cumin seed, 1 0Z.; Cap:
sicums, # oz.; mace, 4 oz. ; (all in powder)
mix well.
2. Coriander seeds and black pepper, of each,
8 lbs.; turmeric and cumin seeds, of each,4lbs;
allspice, #1b.; mace, 1 oz. ; (all in powder)
mix. This receipt is employed by an eminent
wholesale house that does very largely incurry
powder.
3. (See page 381.)
Used as a condiment and flavouring in:
gredient. The addition of a few heads of
garlic gives it an increased zest for Indian
Vetel’anS.
Powder, Cust'ard. Prep. From Sago meal,
2 lbs. ; powdered turmeric, 3 oz.; bitter-al-
mond powder, cassia, and mace, of each,
# dr.
Powder, Cyprus. From Cladonia rangifering,
or reindeer moss. It has a very agreeable
smell, and, being extremely retentive of odours
is much used as a basis for scent-powders,
sachets, &c. The lichen known as the ragged
hoary evernia also possesses nearly similar
properties, and is often substituted for it.
See PoWDERs (Scented).
Powder, Disinfecting. Syn. PULVIS DISIN:
FECTANs, L. Prep. (Keist.) Bisulphate of
potassa, 41 parts; sugar of lead, 7 parts;
binoxide of manganese, 3 parts; reduce them
separately to a fine powder, and, when wanted
for use, mix a proper quantity in any suitable


POWDER. 979
vessel. For other formulae, see DISINFECTING:
COMPOUNDS. The name is generally applied
to hypochlorite of lime.
Powder, Dover's. Syn. PULVIS DOVERI, L.
Prep. (Original formula.) Nitre and sulphate
of potassa, of each, 4 oz. ; melt them together
in a red-hot crucible, reduce the cold fused
matter to powder, and add powdered ipeca-
cuanha, liquorice, and opium, of each, 1 oz.
This is the formula adopted in the Paris
Codex. COMPOUND IPECACUANHA POWDER
is now sold under this name. (See below.)
Powder, Egg. See BAKING PoWDER.
Powder, Emmem/agogue. Syn. PULVIS EM-
MENAGOGUS, P. HAEMATINUS, P. CONTRA AME-
NORREICEAM, L. Prep. 1. Saccharine car-
bonate of iron, 3 parts; powdered myrrh,
ginger, and nutmeg, of each, 1 part ; divide
into #-dr. papers. One for a dose, twice or
thrice daily.
2. (Augustin.) Myrrh, 12 grs. ; saffron,
3 grs. ; oil of cloves, 1 drop. For a dose, as
the last.
3. (Klein.) Calomel, 4 grs.; extract of yew,
10 grs. ; powdered savine, 1 dr. ; Quevenne’s
iron, # dr. ; loaf sugar, 2 drs. For 6 powders;
as before.
Powder, Escharotic (Arsenical). Syn. PUL-
VIS ESCHAROTICUS ARSENICALIS, L.; POUDRE
DU FRâREs CoSME, Fr. Prep. 1. (Original
formula.) From white arsenic, 12 grs. ; burnt
hartshorn, ; dr. ; cinnabar, 1 dr.
2. (P. Cod.) Red sulphuret of mercury and
powdered dragon’s blood, of each, 2 parts;
levigated arsenious acid, 1 part; carefully
mixed together. See ARSENICAL CAUSTIC
(page 304).
Powder of Extract of Col'ocyth (Compound).
Syn. PULVIS EXTRACTI ColocyNTHIDIS COM-
POSITI, L. Prep. From compound extract of
colocynth (Ph. L. 1836), dried by a gentle
heat, and powdered.
Obs. This, like many other articles em-
ployed by lazy dispensers, does not represent
the preparation for which it is used as a sub-
stitute; whilst, from its peculiar character, it
is very open to sophistication, a practice, we
regret to say, very general with certain drug-
gists. Indeed, some of these parties make this
article by simply throwing the ingredients of
the extract into a pan along with a little water,
and, when they have become soft, stirring them
together with a spatula, after which they are
desiccated and powdered. This is then la-
belled by certain houses “Pulv. Ext. Coloc.
co.—P. L.,” and sold to their unfortunate
customers as such, although no such an extract
has been in the Ph. L. since that of 1836.
Powder, Faynard's. The charcoal of beech-
wood, finely powdered. (Paris.) Used in piles,
and as a styptic.
Powder, Fever. See ANTIMONIAL POWDER
(above).
Powder of Flint. Syn. SILEX ContRITUs
(Ph.L.), L. Prep. As powdered glass. (See
page 574.) It is ordered in the Ph. L. to be
employed, instead of magnesia, for the purpose
of mechanically dividing the essential oils used
in the preparation of distilled water. It is
also used as an escharotic.
Powder, Fly. Prep. From white arsenic,
5 oz.; white sugar, 6 lbs.; rose pink, 2 oz.; mix,
and put 6 drs. in each paper. Used to kill
flies. It is poisonous, and should be employed
with great caution, particularly where there
are children.
Powder, Ful/minating.
Powder, Fu"migating. Syn. PULVIS FU-
MALIS, L. Prep. (Ph. Russ.) Amber, mastic,
and olibanum, of each, 3 parts; storax, 2
parts; benzoin and labdanum, of each, 1 part;
reduce them to coarse powder, and mix them
well. See FUMIGATION.
Powder, Galls of (Compound). Syn. PULVIs
GALLE COMPOSITUS, L. See ASTRINGENT
POWDER.
Powder, Goelis's Antihectic. Prep. From
burnt hartshorn, powdered nutmeg, black
pepper, and roasted laurel berries, of each,
1 part ; liquorice powder, 3 parts.--Dose. }
to 1 dr.; in the hectic fever of scrofulous
subjects.
Powder, Goulard. Effloresced sugar of lead.
Poisonous.
Powder, Gray. Mercurial powder.
Powder, Gregory's. See CoMPOUND RHU-
BARB PowDER (below).
Powder, Haemostatic. Syn. PULVIS HE-
MOSTATICUS, L. Prep. 1. (Guibourt.) Char-
coal and gum arabic, of each, in powder, 1
part ; powdered resin, 4 parts.
2. (Mialhe.) From powdered alum, gum
tragacanth, and tannin, equal parts. Used to
cheek local bleeding.
Powder, Hair. Syn. PULVIS PRO CRINE, L.
Starch reduced to a very fine powder, and
then scented according to the fancy of the
artist; it is, lastly, passed through a gauze
sieve. In its simple form, without any addi-
tion, its constitutes ‘plain hair powder.”
In other cases it is distinguished by the name
of the substance added to perfume it. Thus,
we have “rose hair powder,’ ‘violet h. p.,’ &c.
Potato farina, well triturated, is now com-
monly used for hair powder. Amongst the
lower classes, the contents of the ‘flour
dredger’ of the kitchen are frequently misap-
propriated to this purpose. See SCENTED
PowDERs (below.)
Powder, Hand. Prep. From almond powder,
1 lb.; powdered cuttle-fish bone and white
soap, of each, 4 oz. ; orris powder, 1 oz. ; mix.
Used to clean the hands, and to render them
soft and white. See CoSMETIC Powl) ER.
Powder, Helvetius’s. Syn. PULVIs HELVE-
TII, L. A mixture of powdered alum and
dragon's blood. (Dr. Paris.)
Powder, Herrenschwand's Specific. See PA-
TENT MEDICINES.
Powder, Hiera Picra. Powder of aloes with
camella (see above).
Powder, Hufeland's. Syn. HUFELAND’s
980
POWDER.
QUINQUINA FACTICE, PULVIS CINCHONAE FAC-
TITIUS, P. SALICIS COMPOSITUS, L. Prep. From
bennet (the herb), calamus aromaticus, chestnut
bark, gentian root, and willow bark, equal
parts; reduced to powder.
Powder, Hunter's. See WART PowDER
(below).
Powder, Hunt's Breakfast. See page 260.
Powder of Ipecacuanſha (Compound). Syn.
DOVER’s POWDER, COMPOUND POWDER OF
IPECACUANHA WITH OPIUM ; PULVIS DOVERI,
PULVIS IPECACUANHAE CoMPOSITUs (B. P.,
Ph. L. E. & D.), L.; PoupRE D'IPECACUANHA
ET D'op1UM, Fr. Prep. 1. B. P., Ph. L.)
Ipecacuanha and opium, of each, in fine powder,
1 dr. ; sulphate of potassa, in fine powder, 1
oz. ; mix them (thoroughly). The Edin, and
Dublin Formulae are similar.
2. (P. Cod.) Nitre and sulphate of potassa,
of each, 4 oz.; ipecacuanha, liquorice root, and
hard extract of opium, of each, 1 oz. This
closely resembles the original formula.
3. (Wholesale.) From powdered ipecacuanha
and opium, of each, 1 lb.; powdered sulphate
of potassa, 8 lbs. Uses, &c. “Dover's powder’
is a powerful and valuable sudorific.—Dose.
5 to 15 or 20 grs., followed by warm diluents;
in inflammatory affections, rheumatisms,
colds, &c.
Powder, Itch. Syn. PULVIS ANTIPsorTCUs,
L. Prep. 1. Sulphur and potato farina,
of each, # lb. ; essence of bergamot, # oz. ;
mix.
2. (Poudre de Pihorel.) A mixture of
finely pulverised sulphuret of calcium and
farina, in nearly equal quantities. Used
either as a dusting powder or mixed with
a little oil or fat, and rubbed into the affected
part.
Powder of Jal'ap (Compound). Syn. PUL-
VIS JALAPAE COMPOSITUs (B. P., Ph. L. E. &
D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Jalap, 3 oz. ;
bitartrate of potassa, 6 oz. ; ginger, 2 drs. ; rub
them separately into fine powder, then mix
them.
2. (Ph. E.) As the last, omitting the
inger.
3. (Ph. D.) Jalap, 2 oz. ; bitartrate of
potassa, 3% oz. ; ginger, 3 oz. ; (all in fine pow-
der;) mix by careful trituration.—Dose. 20 to
60 grs. ; as a purgative in habitual costiveness,
dropsies, &c.; also in worms, the tumid bellies
of children, &c.
4. (B. P.) Jalap, in powder, 5; acid tar-
trate of potash, 9; ginger, in powder, 1 ; mix.
— Dose. 20 to 60 grs.
5. (PULVIS LENITIVUs; SACRE ORANGE
PURGATIF.) From refined sugar, # lb.; jalap
and cream of tartar, of each, 2 oz. ; oil of
orange peel, # oz. A popular purgative on the
Continent.—Dose. 1 to 3 drs.
Powder, James's. Syn. PULVIS JACOBI, P.
FEBRIFUGUS JACOBI, L. The antimonial pow-
der, or compound powder of antimony, of the
Pharmacopoeias (see above) is the preparation
which usually passes under this name; but the
true James’s powder is a nostrum the pretended
secret of the preparation of which is claimed
to be possessed by only two parties in the king-
dom. The patent specification of the once
celebrated Dr. James runs as follows:–
“Take of antimony, calcine it with a con-
tinued protracted heat, in a flat, unglazed
earthen vessel, adding to it, from time to time,
a sufficient quantity of any animal oil and salt,
well dephlegmated; then boil it in melted nitre
for a considerable time, and separate the pow-
der from the nitre by dissolving it in water.”
On this it has been remarked that it yields a
product totally different from that which Dr.
James and his successors have sold under the
name, and he has hence been charged with con-
cealing the real formula for his powder, and
publishing a false one in its stead.
According to Dr. Robinson, the original
formula for this nostrum, and that still
adopted by the vendors of the proprietary
article at the present day, is—Tartarised anti-
mony, 1 part; prepared burnt hartshorn and
calx of antimony, of each, 5 parts; carefully
mixed together, and divided into 21-gr, pow-
ders. (“Phil. Journ. Pharm., vi, 282.)
From analyses recently made of three speci-
mens of James's powder (“Newberry's,’ ‘But.
ler's,” and a sample of 60 years old obtained by
Mr. Squire), it appears that antimonious acid
was present in different proportions, from
about 45% to 33%, the amount being greatestin
the old specimen; teroxide of antimony was
also present to the extent of from 9% to less
than 1%, the greatest quantity being again in
the old preparation; the remainder in each
specimen consisted chiefly of phosphate of lime;
no trace of tartaric acid was discoverable in
any of the samples.
Perhaps no nostrum ever received such ex-
tensive patronage from the faculty as James's
powder. Dr. James himself was remarkably
successful in its use ; but whether his success
depended upon his powder or the mercurials
and bark which he commonly employed at the
same time, is still undetermined.
Powder of Ki'no (Compound). Syn. PUIVIs
KINo COMPOSITUs (B. P., Ph. L.), L. Prep.
(B. P., Ph. L.) Kino, 15 drs.; cinnamon,
4 drs. ; dried opium, 1 dr. ; reduce them sepa.
rately to fine powder, and then mix them.—
Dose. 5 to 20 grs. ; in diarrhoea, pyrosis, &c.
Powder, Lausamme. Prep. From nitre, 1% dré
carbonate of magnesia, bitartrate of potassä,
precipitated sulphur, and oleo-saccharum of
peppermint, of each, 4 drs. ; sugar of milk,
1 oz. Lenitive and antidysenteric,
Powder, Laxative. See SPECIES.
Powder of Liquorice (Compound). Syn.
PULVIS GLYCYRRHIZE COMPOSITUS, L. Prep.
(Ph. Bor.) Liquorice root and senna leaves,
of each, 6 oz. ; fennel seed and milk of Sul.
phur (pure), of each, 3 oz. ; white sugar, 1807;
(all in fine powder;) mix. Pectoral and laxa:
tive.


POWDER.
981
Powder of Magne'sia and Rhu’barb. See
CoMPOUND RHUBARB PowLER (below).
Powder, Martin’s Can'cer. An American
nostrum, composed of the powdered stems of
the Orobanche Virginiana (Linn.), combined
with a very small quantity of arsenious acid.
It is used as a sprinkle for open cancers and
can Cerous SOres.
Powder, Mercu'rial. Syn. GREY PowdER
(HYDRARGY RUM CUM CRETA, B.P.), MERCURY
WITH CHALK. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Mercury, 1;
prepared chalk, 2.; triturate till the globules
disappear.—Dose. 3 to 8 grs.
2. Mercury, 3 oz. ; powdered resin, # oz. ;
prepared chalk, 5 oz. ; rectified spirit, q. s.;
make a paste with the resin and a small quan-
tity of the spirit; add the mercury, which
may be extinguished in a short time; then the
chalk and alcohol, gradually, so as to keep up
the pasty consistence; lastly, add sufficient
spirit to dissolve out the resin, wash the pow-
der on a filter, and dry it. Rectified oil of tur-
pentine may be substituted for the spirit.
Powder, Milk. (See page 914.)
Powder, Morison’s Ape"rient.
MEDICINES.
Powder of Mush'room. Syn. PULVIS AGARICI,
P. A. ESCULENTI, L. From edible mushrooms,
dried by a gentle heat, and then powdered
along with a little white pepper, cloves, and
mace. Some cayenne is frequently added.
Powder of Mus'sel. From the Mytilus edulis
(Linn.), or common mussel, in the same way as
OYSTER POWDER.
Powder of Myrrh (Compound). Syn. PULVIs
# MYRRHA compositus, L. Prep. (Ph. L.
1788.) . Myrrh, dried savine, dried rue, and
Russian castor, equal parts, rubbed to powder,
and then well mixed. Emmenagogue and
antispasmodic.—Dose. 12 to 30 grs.
Powder, Nur'sery. See VIOLET PowdER (be-
low).
Powder, 0"piated. Powder of chalk with
opium.
Powder of Oyster. Syn. PULVIs OSTREE,
L. Prep. From the common oyster (Ostrea
edulis—Linn.), pulped through a sieve, made
into a paste with wheaten flour and a little
salt, and then rolled out into thin pieces and
dried; these are reduced to powder, sifted, and
packed in well-corked bottles. Used to make
sauce; about 1 oz., to water, 1 pint. Other
shell-fish are treated in the same way.
Powder, Pea. Syn. PEA FLOUR ; FARINA
PISORUM, L. Prep. From peas, in the usual
manner. Used to make extemporaneous pea-
soup. -
Powder, Pearl. Prep. From pure pearl
white and French chalk (scraped fine by Dutch
rushes), equal parts; triturated together.
Some makers add more French chalk. Used
as a skin cosmetic. This mixture is preferable
to pearl white alone, from being more adhesive.
Powder, Pease. Prep. From dried mint and
sage, of each, 4 oz. ; celery seed and white
pepper, of each, # oz. ; turmeric powder, 4 oz.;
See PATENT
reduced to fine powder. Used as a condiment
and kitchen spice.
Powder, Pec'toral. See PoWDER OF LIQUOR-
ICE, &c.
Powder, Piles. Syn. PULVIS ANTI-HEMOR-
RHOIDALIS, P. HAEMORRHOIDALIS, L. Prep.
1. (Fr. Hosp.) Precipitated sulphur, 3 oz. ;
cream of tartar and black pepper, of each, 1 oz. ;
oil of cubebs, # dr.—Dose. A teaspoonful, in
milk or honey, thrice a day.
2. (External.)—a. From Aleppo galls, in very
fine powder, 2 oz. ; opium, in fine powder, 1 dr.
A pinch to be applied occasionally.
b. From sesquioxide of iron, 1 oz. ; powdered
acetate of lead, ; dr. As the last.
Powder, Plate. Syn. PULVIS PRO ARGENT0,
L. Prep. 1. Jeweller's rouge, 4 lb.; pre-
pared chalk or levigated burnt hartshorn, 3 lb.;
Inly.
2. Levigated putty powder, 4 lb. ; burnt
hartshorn, 3 lb.; prepared chalk, 1 lb.; rose
pink, 1 oz.
3. (MERCURIAL.) From quicksilver with
chalk, 1 oz. ; prepared chalk, 11 oz. ; mix.
Used to clean and polish plate. See PLATE.
Powder, Plate Boiling. Prep. From cream
of tartar, common salt and alum, equal parts.
A little of this powder, added to the water in
which plate is boiled, gives to it a silvery
whiteness.
Powder, Plummer's Al'terative.
MONIAL ETHIOPS.
Powder, Poulſtice. Syn. PUIVIS PRO CATA-
PLASMATE (Ph. D. 1826), L. Prep. From
linseed meal, 1 part; oatmeal, 2 parts; mixed
together.
Powder, Rat. See RATs.
Powder of Rhubarb (Compound). Syn.
GREGORY's MIXTURE, GREGORY’s Powder;
PULVIs RHEI compositus (B. P., Ph. E. &
D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. E.) Calcined mag-
nesia, 1 lb.; rhubarb, 4 oz. ; ginger 2 oz. ; (all
in fine powder;) mix, and preserve it from the
all".
2. (B. P., Ph. D.) Calcined magnesia, 6 oz.;
rhubarb, 2 oz. ; ginger, 1 oz.
3. Calcined magnesia, 8 oz.; rhubarb, 3 oz. ;
chamomile, 2 oz. ; ginger, 1 oz.
Obs. An excellent stomachic, antacid, and
laxative.—Dose. 20 grs. to # dr. Some drug-
gists substitute the heavy carbonate for the
calcined magnesia ordered above, but this
alters the nature of the preparation, and re-
quires the dose to be increased. Heavy cal-
cined magnesia may, however, be employed
with advantage.
Powder, Sachſet. See SCENTED PoWDERs.
Powder, Salime' (Compound). Syn. PULVIs
SALINUS COMPOSITUS (Ph. E.), L. Prep. (Ph.
E.) Pure chloride of sodium and sulphate of
magnesia, of each, 4 oz. ; sulphate of potash,
3 oz. ; each separately dried by a gentle heat,
and pulverised, then triturated together, and
preserved in well-closed vessels. An excellent
saline purgative.—Dose. 2 to 6 drs., in # pint
of water or table-beer, in the morning, fasting.
See ANTI-

982 POWDER.
Powder of Scam'mony (Compound). Syn.
PULVIS SCAMMONII CoMPOSITUs (B. P., Ph.
L. E. & D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Scam-
mony and hard extract of jalap, of each, 2 oz. ;
ginger, 3 oz.; rub them separately to a very
fine powder, and then mix them.—Dose. 5 to
15 grs.
2. (Ph. E.) Scammomy and bitartrate of
potassa, of each, in very fine powder, equal
parts.--Dose. 7 to 20 grs.
3. (Ph. D.) Scammony, in fine powder,
1 oz. ; compound powder of jalap, 3 oz.; mix.
—Dose. 10 to 30 grs.
4. (B. P.) Scammony, 4; jalap, 3; ginger,
1; mix, and reduce to fine powder.—Dose. 10
to 20 grs.
Obs. The above are favourite cathartics in
worms, especially for children. They are com-
monly sold for basilic powder. (See above.)
Powder of Scammomy with Cal'omel. Syn.
PULVIS SCAMMONIT CUM CALOMELANE, L. Prep.
From scammony, 3 oz. ; calomel and white
sugar, of each, 2 drs. An excellent vermifuge
for children.—Dose. For an adult, 5 to 20 grs.;
for a child, 2 to 8 grs. Sold for basilic powder,
to which it approaches nearer in composition
than the preceding.
Powder, Schmidt's Parturifa"cient. Syn.
SCHMIDT’s PoupRE ocytiquE, Fr. Prep.
From powdered ergot of rye, borax, and oleo-
saccharum of camomile, of each, 8 grs. ; pow-
dered sugar, q. s. For a dose; to be repeated
every quarter of an hour, until some effect is
produced.
Powder of Sen’na (Compound). Syn. PULVIs
SENNAE comPoSITUS, L. Prep. (Ph. L. 1824.)
Senna and bitartrate of potassa, of each, 2 oz.;
scammony, oz. ; ginger, 2 drs. ; all in fine
powder; mix-Dose. 20 to 30 grs., or more;
as a purgative or anthelmintic.
Powder of Semma (Battley’s Green). Syn.
PULVIS SENNAE VIRIDIs, L. Prep. From
senna leaves, dried and heated until they turn
yellow, then powdered along with a little
(blue) charcoal, to give a green colour.
Powder, Sil'vering. Prep. 1. Silver dust
(fine), 20 grs. ; alum, 30 grs. ; common salt,
1 dr. ; cream of tartar, 3 drs.; rub them toge-
ther to a fine powder.
2. As the last, but substituting 35 grs. of
nitrate of silver for the silver dust.
3. Chloride of silver is dissolved in a solution
of hyposulphite of soda, and the solution made
into a paste with levigated burnt hartshorn
or bone dust; this is next dried, and pow-
dered.
4. Silver dust, 1 oz. ; common salt and sal
ammoniac, of each, 4 oz. ; corrosive sublimate,
# oz.
Obs. The above powders, made into a paste
with a little water, are used to silver dial-
plates, statuettes, and other articles in copper,
previously well cleaned, by friction. The best
silver powder for the purpose is that precipi-
tated from its nitric solution by means of a
copper plate. When the product of the last
formula is used, the articles should be after.
wards made red hot, and polished.
Powder of Soap. Syn. SAPO CONTRITUS,
PULVIS SAPONIS, L. Castile soap, sliced or
cut small, dried by exposure to a warm atmo-
sphere, or by a very gentle heat, and then
powdered. Used in dispensing ; also as a hand,
shaving, and tooth powder. As a cosmetic, it
may be scented at will.
Powder of Sponge. Syn. PULVIS SPONGIE,
P. SPONGIAE USTAE, L. Prep. Let sponge, cut
into small pieces, be beaten so as to free it from
sand or stones; then burn it in a covered iron
vessel, until it becomes black and friable;
finally, reduce it to powder. Deobstruent.
—Dose. } to 3 drs. ; in glandular indurations
and enlargements, &c. It should be of a
brownish-black colour; if over burnt, its effi.
cacy is destroyed.
Powder of Squills. Syn. PULVIS SCILLE, I.
Prep. Remove the membranous integuments
from the bulb of the squill, cut it into thin
slices, and dry it at a heat between 90 and
100° Fahr.; next reduce it to powder, and
keep it in well-stopped bottles.
Powder, Sternutatory. See SNUFFS (Medi-
cated).
Powder, Styp’tic. See ASTRINGENT PoWDER,
FAYNARD's P., &c.
Powder of Trag'acanth (Compound). Syn,
PULVIs TRAGACANTHE COMPOSITUs (B. P.,
Ph. L. & E.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Gum
tragacanth, gum acacia, and starch, of each,
in fine powder, 1% oz. ; powdered white sugar,
3 oz. The Edinburgh formula is similar,
Demulcent.—Dose. . dr. to 2 drs, in water
or any simple liquid; in hoarseness and ca.
tarrhs, combined with squills and henbane, to
allay irritation; in dysentery, combined with
ipecacuanha; in gonorrhoea, strangury, &c.,
combined with acetate of potass or nitre.
2. (B. P.) Tragacanth, in powder, 1; gum
arabic, in powder, 1; starch, in powder, 1;
refined sugar, in powder, 3; rub well together,
— Dose. 10 to 60 grs.
Powder, Violet. Syn. NURSERY POWDER,
SKIN P. This is simply starch reduced to a
very fine powder, and scented with orris pow-
der or essence of violets. The best kinds are
also perfumed with a little musk or ambergris,
and are now generally made with potato farina.
The commoner sort is only scented with a little
essence of bergamot or essence of lemon.
‘Plain violet powder' is, of course, unscented.
Prep. 1. Powdered starch, 28 lbs. ; pow-
dered orris root, 1 lb.; essence of ambergris
and essence of bergamot, of each, 3 oz.; oil of
rhodium, # dr. ; mix, and pass the powder
through a sieve.
2. Powdered starch, 14 lbs. ; essence of ber-
gamot, 3 oz. ; oil of cloves, # Oz, ; as last.
Used as a dusting powder in excoriations, &c.
See CoSMETIC PowLERS (below).
Powder, Ward's Sweating. Resembles D0.
VER’s POWDER.
Powder, Wart. Syn. CoRN POWDER, COS.

POWDERS.
983
METIC CAUSTIC, &c. Prep. 1. Ivy leaves
ground to powder. A pinch is applied with a
rag, the part being first moistened with strong
vinegar. Useful for soft corns and warts.
2. (Hunter’s.) From savine and verdigris,
equal parts. See CORN SOLVENT.
Powder, Warwick’s (Earl of). Syn. PULVIs
CoMITIS WARWICENCIS, L. Prep. From scam-
mony, prepared with the fumes of sulphur,
2 oz. ; diaphoretic antimony, 1 oz. ; cream of
tartar, 3 oz.-Dose. 15 to 30 grs.
Obs. This is a modification of CORNACHINI’s
PowDER. It is represented in the present
Pharmacopoeias by COMPOUND scAMMONY Pow-
DER. “Cornachini wrote a whole book about
his powder, the proportions of the ingredients
of which he varied according to circum-
stances.” (“Med. Lex.’)
Powder, Wash'ing. The numerous com-
pounds vended under this name have for their
basis the soda-ash of commerce, blended with
common Scotch soda in variable proportions.
The best of them consist either wholly or
chiefly of the first of these substances. The
alkaline matter is reduced to coarse powder,
and stirred up with liquid size, or with a de-
coction of linseed, Irish moss, or British gum,
and is then dried, and again crushed, or pow-
dered, and at once put into the packages, in
which it is rammed tight, and covered up im-
mediately. The object aimed at by the manu-
facturer is to keep his commodity from the
air as much as possible, because exposure
renders it less caustic, and consequently, less
detergent.
POWDERS. The following preparations
have been placed under this head instead of
under “PowdER,” because some are invariably
spoken of in the plural number, and the others
may be conveniently noticed in classes or
groups.
Powders, Efferves’cing. Prep. 1. (PUL-
VERES EFFERVESCENTEs—Ph. E.) Take of
tartaric acid, 1 oz. ; bicarbonate of soda, 1 oz.
54 grs. (534 grs.), or bicarbonate of potassa, 1
oz. 2 drs. 40 grs. (640 grs.); reduce the acid
and either bicarbonate separately to fine pow-
der, divide each of these into 16 powders, and
preserve the acid and alkaline powders in
separate papers of different colours.
2. (PULVEREs EFFERVESCENTES CITRATI—
Ph. D.) Take of citric acid (crystallised), 9
drs. ; bicarbonate of soda, 11 drs., or bicar-
bonate of potassa, 13 drs.; proceed as last,
dividing each into 18 parts.
3. (PULVEREs EFFERVESCENTES TARTARI-
ZATI—Ph. D.) Take of tartaric acid (in crys-
tals), 10 drs. ; bicarbonate of soda, 11 drs, or
bicarbonate of potassa, 13 drs.; reduce them
to powder, and divide them into 18 parts, as
before. (See below.)
Powders, Ginger Beer. Syn. PULVERES
EFFERVESCENTEs CUM ZINGIBERE, L. Prep.
1. Powdered white sugar, 1 to 2 drs.; bicar-
bonate of soda, 26 grs. ; finest powdered
Jamaica ginger, 6 grs. ; essence of lemon, 1
drop ; mix, and wrap it in blue paper. In the
white paper put of powdered tartaric acid, 35
grs., or of powdered citric acid, 30 grs.
2. Finest Jamaica ginger, 1 dr.; bicarbonate
of soda, 5 drs. ; white sugar, 16 drs. ; essence
of lemon, 6 or 8 drops; mix, and divide it be-
tween 12 papers (blue). For the white papers,
divide tartaric acid, 6 drs., in the same way.
By taking the drachms as ounces, the quantity
will be sufficient for 8 dozen. For use, dissolve
one of each colour separately in somewhat less
than half a glass of water, mix the two, and
drink the mixture whilst effervescing.
3. (In one bottle.)—a. The sugar and the
saline ingredients are separately dried by a
very gentle heat, then mixed in a dry room
with the ginger and essence of lemon, and at
once put into bottles.
b. By adding to the “acidulated kali,”
noticed at page 667, about 1-16th of its weight
of the finest powdered Jamaica ginger (i. e. }
dr. to each oz. ; 1 oz. to each lb.) at the time
of mixing the ingredients together. A dessert-
spoonful, thrown into a tumbler two thirds
filled with cold water, produces an excellent
glass of ginger beer.
Powders, Ink. The article usually sold under
this name is noticed under INK. Another
formula, which we have adopted with con-
siderable success, is as follows:—Good black
ink, 3 pints, lump sugar, 14 oz., and gum
arabic, 3 oz., are put into a clean iron pan,
and evaporated by the heat of boiling water,
with occasional stirring, to dryness; the dried
mass is reduced to powder, and divided into
12 parts, which are enveloped in either tin-
foil or glazed paper, and kept dry. One of
these papers dissolved in # pint of hot water
forms that quantity of excellent black ink,
without sediment, and which answers well
with the copying press.
Powders, Lem'onade. Syn. LEMON SHERBET;
LIMONADUM SICCUM, PULVIS PRO LIMONADO,
L. Prep. 1. Powdered citric or tartaric acid,
12 grs.; powdered white sugar, 4 oz. ; essence
of lemon, 1 drop (or a little of the yellow peel
of a lemon rubbed off on a piece of sugar);
mix. For one glass.
2. White sugar, 4 lbs. ; citric or tartaric
acid, 1% oz, ; essence of lemon, 4 oz. ; mix
well, and preserve it in a bottle for use. 1 to
2 dessert-spoonfuls make a glass of lemonade.
It is also put up in papers, containing about
2% drs. each.
3. (EFFERVESCING.)—a. For the blue papers,
take of powdered white sugar, 1 lb.; bicar-
bonate of soda, 4 lb. ; essence of lemon, 1% dr.;
mix, and divide it between 6 dozen papers,
Next divide tartaric or citric acid, 5 oz., be-
tween 6 dozen white papers. Or the two may
be kept in bulk, in separate bottles.
b. (In one bottle.) As ‘ACIDULATED KALI.’
Some makers slightly increase the quanti-
ties of acid and essence of lemon there
ordered.
Powders, Polishing. Prep. 1. (For brass

984
POWDERS.
and copper.)—a. From rotten stone, 3 oz.;
powdered soap, 1 oz.
b. From rotten stone, 7 oz.; powdered oxalic
acid, 1 oz. Both are used with a little water.
See BRASS PASTE.
2. (For gold.) Jeweller's rouge.
SESQUIOXIDE OF IRON.
3. (For ivory.) Pumice stone and putty
powder.
4. (For plate.) See PLATE and PLATE
POWDER.
5. (For silver.) As the last.
Powders, Scented. Prep. 1. CoSMETIC
PowDERS.–a. (Poud RE DE CHIPRE.) Macerate
oak moss in running water for 2 or 3 days,
then dry, and powder it. Used as a basis for
other powders, on account of its being highly
retentive of odours. Reindeer moss and ragged
hoary evernia are also used for the same pur-
pose. See CYPRUS PowdER (above).
b. (Poud RE DE CHIPRE DE MonTPELIER.)
From poudre de chipre, 2 lbs. ; musk, 30 grs. ;
civet, 20 grs. ; (the last two powdered by
means of a little sugar;) cloves, 3 oz.
c. (PoudNE DE FLEURS D’ORANGES.) From
starch or cyprus powder, 25 lbs. ; orange
flowers, 1 lb.; mixed in a covered chest, and
stirred twice or thrice daily; the process
being repeated, with fresh flowers, a second
and a third time. Or, the plain powder is
scented by the addition of a little neroli or
essence of petit grain.
d. (Poud RE DE FRANGIPANNI.) From pou-
dre de fleurs d’oranges and poudre de chipre,
of each, 6 lbs. ; essence of ambergris, 1 oz. ;
civet (powdered with sugar), # dr. Ash-gray
colour.
e. (Pou DRE DE JASMINE.) As PoupRE DE
FLEURS D'ORANGES, but using jasmin flowers.
f. (POUDRE A LA MARáCHALE.) From pou-
dre de chipre, 2 lbs. ; starch powder, 1 lb.; ca-
lamus aromaticus, cloves, and cyperus perennis
or rotundus, of each, 2 oz. Or, starch powder,
28 lbs. ; powdered cloves, # lb.; powdered
orris root, # lb.; essence of ambergris, 2 drs.
g. (Poud RE A LA MOUSSELINE.) From
orris root, 1 lb.; coriander seed, 6 oz. ; mace
and violet ebony, of each, 2 oz. ; musk seed,
cassia, cloves, and sandal wood, of each, 1 oz.
h. (PotſdRE DE JONQUILLE.) From jon-
quils, as POUDRE DE JASMINE.
i. (PoudrE A L’OEILLET.) From plain pow-
der, 2 lbs. ; orris root and dried red rose leaves,
of each, 1 lb.; cloves and musk seed, of each,
4 oz. ; essence of bergamot and essence de
petit grain, of each, # dr.
k. (Pou DRE DE ROSEs CoMMUNES.) From
pale roses, as POUDRE DE FLEURS D'ORANGES.
l. (POUDRE DE ROSES MUSQUEES.) From
musk roses, as the last.
m. (POUDRE A LA VANILLE.) From poudre
de chipre or cyprus, 3 lbs. ; vanilla, powdered
by means of sugar, 2 drs. ; oil of cloves and
essance of ambergris, of each, 20 drops.
n. (POUDRE A LA VIOLETTE.) See VIoLET
PoWDER (above).
See
The above are used as cosmetic powders for
the skin and hair; also, but less frequently,
for Sachets, drawers, &c.
2. SACHET POWDER.—a. From orris root,
2 oz. ; cassia, 1% oz. ; cloves, 1 oz. ; yellow
sandal wood, # oz. ; oils of lavender and ber-
gamot, of each, 1 dr. ; otto of roses, 20 drops;
musk and ambergris, of each, rubbed with a
little sugar, 6 grs. ; reduce the dry ingre.
dients to coarse powder, mix them, and add the
oils.
b. From corianders, orris root, rose leaves,
and calamus aromaticus, of each, 4 oz.; la:
vender flowers, 8 oz. ; rhodium wood, 1 dr. ;
musk, 20 grs.
c. From corianders, orris, calamus aromati.
cus, and red roses (dried), of each, 1 OZ, ;
lavender flowers, 2 oz. ; mace and cloves, of
each, 1 dr.; essential oil of almonds, 10 drops.
d. As last, but substituting musk, 5 grs, for
the oil of almonds. -
e. From patchouli, 8 oz. ; lavender flowers,
(lightly dried), 3 oz. ; orris root, 2 oz.: cloves,
1 oz. ; essence of bergamot, 1 dr.; essences of
ambergris and musk, of each, ; dr.
These are used, along with cotton wool, to fill
scent bags, cassolettes, &c.; and as scent pow-
ders for boxes, drawers, and the like. The
scent is added to the dry ingredients, separately
reduced to powder, and the whole is then
passed through a fine sieve, to ensure perfect
admixture.
3. PARFUM POUR LES AUTRES POUDRES.
From poudre d’ambrette, 12 lbs. ; civette,1}07.;
musk, 1 dr.; reduce the last two to powder by
grinding them with some dry lump sugar, then
mix the whole together and pass it through a
sieve. Used to perfume hair powder, Sachets,
&c.
Powders, Seidlitz. Syn. PULVERES EFFER.
VESCENTES APERIENTEs, L. Prep. 1. Potas.
sio-tartrate of soda (Rochelle salt), 2 drs. ; bi-
carbonate of soda, 40 grs. ; mix, and put it in
a blue paper; tartaric acid, 35 grs., to be put
in a white paper. For about ; pint of water,
Laxative.
2. (In one bottle.) From potassio-tartrate
of soda, 12 oz. ; bicarbonate of do., 40Z.; tar.
taric acid, 3% oz. ; white sugar, 1 lb.; (all in
fine powder;) dry each separately by a gentle
heat, add of essence of lemon, ; dr., mix well,
pass the mixture through a sieve, and put if
at once into clean dry bottles.—Dose. A des:
sert-spoonful, or more, to a tumblerful of
water.
Obs. The above mixtures, though now uni.
versally sold as Seidlitz powder, do not, when
dissolved, exactly resemble the natural water,
which contains carbonates, sulphates, and
chlorides of calcium and magnesium. How:
ever, the factitious article is equally effective,
and much more agreeable.
Powders, Sher'bet. These are made of the
same materials as lemonade powders, the fla:
vouring ingredient being varied to suit the par.
ticular case.

POWDERS. 985
Powders, So'da-water. Syn. EFFERVESCING
POWDERS, E. SALINE P., SODAIC P., AïRATED
SODA P. ; PULVERES EFFERVESCENTES, L.
Prep. 1. From bicarbonate of soda, 30 grs.,
in each blue paper; tartaric acid, 25 grs. (or
citric acid, 24 grs.), in each white paper. One
of each is dissolved separately in about ; a
glassful of water, and the two solutions mixed,
and drank immediately. A cooling, wholesome
summer beverage, but it should not be indulged
in to excess.
2. (Chalybeated.) By adding 1 gr. of dried
protosulphate of iron to each paper of acid.
Tonic.
3. (Midgeley’s.) Made by adding . gr. of
tartarised antimony to each paper of acid.
Refrigerant and diaphoretic. For the Ph.
formulae see EFFERVESCING PowDERs (above).
Powders, Soup. See CURRY PoWDER, PEASE
P., SPICE, &c.
Powders, Spruce Beer. Syn. PULVEREs EF-
FERVESCENTES CUM ABIETE, L. Prep. As
ginger-beer powders, but substituting essence
of spruce, 3 to 6 drops, for the powdered
ginger.
Powders, Tooth. Syn. PULVIS DENTIFRICII,
L. The general principles which should be
kept in view in the selection of the materials,
and in the preparation of dentifrices, have
been already fully noticed (see page 399), and
need not, therefore, be repeated here. Care
must be taken that all the dry ingredients be
finely pulverised, and that the harder and gritty
ones be reduced to the state of an impalpable
powder, either by levigation or elutriation.
The mixture of the ingredients must also be
complete. This is the most readily effected
by stirring them well together until they form
an apparently homogeneous powder, and then
passing this powder through a very fine sieve.
Those which contain volatile substances should
be preserved in closely corked wide-mouth
bottles, and those which contain acidulous or
gritty matter should not be frequently em-
ployed. The selection of the tooth brush like-
wise deserves attention. It should be suffi-
ciently stiff to effect its purpose completely ;
but, at the same time, it should be so formed
as not to cause irritation or injury to the gums
during its use.
Prep. 1. Cuttle-fish bone and prepared chalk,
of each, 2 oz. ; oil of cloves, 20 drops. This
may be perfumed at will, and medicated by
any of the substances referred to under DEN-
TIFRICES.
2. To the last add of powdered Castile soap,
2 oz. -
3. Prepared chalk, 12 oz. ; cuttle-fish
bone, 8 oz. ; orris root, 4 oz. ; dragon's blood,
1% oz. ; oils of cloves and cassia, of each, # dr.
4. Prepared chalk, 1 lb. ; pumice-stone, in
impalpable powder, 3 lb. ; orris root, 2 oz. ;
pure rouge, 4 oz. ; meroli, # dr.
5. Yellow cinchona bark and myrrh, of
each, # oz. ; recently burnt charcoal, 3 oz. ;
cloves, 1 dr.
6. Pumice-stone, red coral, and powdered
rhatany root, of each, 2 oz.; orris root, 3 oz. ;
essence of vanilla, # dr.
7. (AROMATIC Tooth PowdER.) From
cuttle-fish bone, 4 oz. ; calamus aromaticus,
2 oz. ; powdered Castile soap, 1 oz. ; oil of
cloves, # dr.
8. (ASIATIC DENTIFRICE.) From prepared
red coral, 84 lbs. ; Venetian red, #1b.; prepared
chalk and pumice-stone, of each, 14 lb.; China
musk, 30 grs.
9. (Cadet's.) From lump sugar and char-
coal, of each, 1 oz. ; Peruvian bark, 3 oz. ;
cream of tartar, 4 oz. ; cinnamon, # dr.
10. (Camphorated.) See CAMPHORATED
CHALK (page 317).
11. (CHARCOAL DENTIFRICE.) From char-
coal, preferably that from the willow or the
areka nut, either alone or combined with twice
its weight of prepared chalk. Scent or medi-
cinals injure it. (See 9, 19, and 26.)
12. (CoRAL DENTIFRICE.) See 16, 23, and
25 (below).
13. (Deschamp's ALKALINE DENTIFRICE.)
From powdered talc, 4 oz. ; bicarbonate of soda,
1 oz. ; carmine, 6 grs.; oil of mint, 12 or 15
drops.
14. (FLORENTINE DENTIFRICE.) From pre-
pared shells, 4 oz. ; orris root, 1% oz. ; bitar-
trate of potassa, # oz. ; Florentine lake, q. s.
to colour. *
15. (GALVANIC DENTIFRICE.) From gold,
3 leaves; silver, 4 leaves ; triturate them with
alum and sulphate of potassa, of each, 1% dr. ;
then add, of dry common salt, pellitory of Spain,
and Peruvian bark, of each, 1 dr. ; prepared
hartshorn, 1 oz. ; mix, and either colour it blue
with smalts or red with lake. A useless com-
pound.
16. (Grosvenor’s.) From red coral, 3 lbs.;
prepared oyster-shells, 2% lbs. ; orris powder, #
lb.; oil of rhodium, 25 drops. Rose-pink is now
commonly substituted for the coral.
17. (Hemet's.) From cuttle-fish bone, 6 oz. ;
cream of tartar, 1 oz. ; orris root, # oz.
18. (‘Lancet.’) Red bark and Armenian bole,
of each, 1 oz. ; powdered cinnamon and bicar-
bonate of soda, of each, # oz.; oil of cinnamon,
2 or 3 drops.
19. (Lardner's.) From charcoal, in very
fine powder, 1 oz. ; prepared chalk, 3 oz. ;
In 1X.
20. (Miahle's RATIONAL DENTIFRICE.) From
sugar of milk, 3 oz. ; pure tannin, 3 drs. ; red
lake, 1 dr. ; oils of mint and aniseed, of each, 7
or 8 drops; meroli, 4 or 5 drops.
21. (MYRRH DENTIFRICE.) From cuttle-fish
bone, 6 oz. ; myrrh and orris root, of each, 2
OZ.
22. (PEARL DENTIFRICE.) From heavy car-
bonate of magnesia or precipitated chalk, 1 lb. ;
finest smalts, 3 drs. ; essence de petit grain,
# dr.
23. (Pelletier's QUININE DENTIFRICE.) From
prepared red coral, 3 oz. ; myrrh, 1 dr. ; disul-
phate of quinine, 12 to 15 grs.
986 POX.
24. (Ph. Russ.) Cinchona bark, 4 oz. ;
orris root, 2 oz. ; catechu and myrrh, of each,
1% oz. ; sal ammoniac, 1 oz. ; oil of cloves, 20
drops.
25. (PoupRE DENTIFRICE–P. Cod.) Red
coral, red bole, and cuttle-fish bone, of each, 3
oz.; dragon’s blood, 1% oz. ; cinnamom, # oz. ;
cochineal, 3 drs.; cloves, 1 dr. ; bitartrate of
potassa, 4% oz. ; reduce them separately to very
fine powder before mixing them. This is the
* coral dentifrice’ of the French.
26. (Rignini's.) From charcoal, 1 oz. ;
yellow bark, 3 oz. -
27. (RosB DENTIFRICE.) From precipitated
chalk, 6 oz. ; cuttle-fish bone, 3 oz. ; bicarbo-
nate of soda, 2 oz. ; red lake, 4 oz. ; otto of
roses, 20 drops.
28. (Ruspini’s.) From cuttle-fish bone, 8
oz. ; Roman alum and orris root, of each, 1
oz. ; cream of tartar, 2 oz.; oil of rhodium, 6
or 8 drops.
29. (VIoLET Tooth PowDER.) From orris
root, 3 oz. ; cuttle-fish bone and rose pink, of
each, 5 oz. ; precipitated chalk, 12 oz. ; pure
indigo, q. S. to give it a pale violet tinge.
30. (Zieter's.) From finely powdered cal-
cined hartshorn and cuttle-fish bone, of each,
6 oz. ; calamus aromaticus, cassia, and pel-
litory of Spain, of each, 1 oz. ; essence of
vanilla, 1 dr. ; essence of ambergris, 10 or 12
drops. *-
Powders, Worm. Syn. PULVERES ANTHEL-
MINTICI, P. VERMIFUGI, L. Prep. 1. (Bou-
chardat.) Powdered Corsican moss and worm-
seed, of each, 5 drs. ; calomel, 40 grs.; rub them
together.
2. (Collier.) From powdered jalap and
scammony, of each, 1 dr.; cream of tartar, 2
drs.; Ethiop’s mineral, 3 drs.
3. (Guibourt.) Sulphate of iron, 1 dr. ;
tansy, 2 drs. ; worm-seed, 3 drs.
4. (P. Cod.) Corsican moss and worm-seed,
of each, 2 oz. ; rhubarb, 1 oz. ; rubbed to a
fine powder, and carefully mixed.
POX. A corruption of a Saxon word, ori-
ginally applied to pustules or eruptions of any
kind, but now restricted to varicella, variola,
vaccinia, and, in its unqualified form, to syphilis.
(See below.)
Chick'em-pox. Syn. WATER-POX ; VARI-
CELLA, L. An eruptive disease, consisting of
smooth, semi-transparent vesicles, of various
sizes, which afterwards become white and
straw-coloured, and about the fourth day
break and scale off, without leaving any per-
manent mark behind them. In hot weather
the discharge sometimes become purulent,
and at others the eruption is attended with
considerable fever. Sometimes the vesicles
assume a pointed form, and the fluid remains
clear throughout the disease; it is then fre-
quently called the “swine-pox.’ When the
vescicles are large and globular, and their con-
tents, at first whey-coloured, afterwards turn
yellow, it is popularly known as ‘ hives.”
The treatment of chicken-pox consists in
the adoption of a light, vegetable diet, and in
the administration of mild saline aperients
and cooling drinks.
The chicken-pox, except in children of a very
bad habit of body, is an extremely mild dis.
ease. Like the smallpox, it rarely attacks the
same person more than once during life.
Cow-pox. Syn. VACCINIA, VARIOLA WAC-
CINA, L. This disease was proposed as a
substitute and a preventive of smallpox, by
Dr. Jenner, in 1798, and its artificial produc.
tion (vaccination) has rendered smallpox a.
comparatively rare disease in Britain. There
appears no reason to doubt that the preten-
sions of the advocates of vaccination have been
fully justified by the experience of more than
half a century; or, that this disease, when
actively developed, evinced by the complete.
ness and maturation of the pustules, acts as a
prophylactic of smallpox. -
The process of vaccination is similar to
that of inoculation for smallpox. The point
of a lance is wetted with the matter taken
from one of the pustules, and is then gently
inserted under the cuticle, and the scratch
afterwards rubbed over with the same. Hae-
morrhage should be avoided, as the blood is
apt to wash away the virus, or to form a cake
which shields the living tissue from its action.
Smallpox. Syn. VARIOLA, L. This dis.
ease comes on with the usual symptoms of in-
flammatory, fever. About the third day, red
spots, resembling flea-bites, make their ap-
pearance on the face and head, and gradually
extend over the whole body. About the fifth
day, small circular vesicles, depressed in the
centre, surrounded by an areola, and contain-
ing a colourless fluid, begin to form, when the
feverish symptoms abate; about the sixth day,
the throat becomes sore; about the eighth day,
the face is swollen; and about the eleventh day,
the pustules acquire the size of a pea, and
cease to enlarge, the matter which they con-
tain becomes opaque and yellow, a dark central
spot forms on each, the swelling of the face
subsides, and secondary symptoms of fever
come on; the pustules become rough, break,
and scab over, and a dark spot remains for
some days, often followed by permanent inden.
tations, popularly known as “pock-marks.” At
the end of the sixteenth or eighteenth day, the
symptoms usually disappear. In the con-
fluent smallpox, a severer form of the dis.
ease, the pustules coalesce, the eruption is irre.
gular in its progress, and the inflammatory
symptoms are more severe.
The treatment of ordinary cases of smallpox
resembles, for the most part, that mentioned
above for chicken-pox. As soon as the fe-
brile symptoms become marked, the patient
should not be suffered to lie in a hot bed, but
on a mattress, in a cool and well-ventilated
apartment, and antiseptic cooling drinks should
be freely administered. When convulsions
occur, or great irritability exists, small doses
of morphine, opium, or camphor, may be ad-

PRECIPITATE–PRESCRIBING. 987
ministered, and obstinate vomiting arrested by
effervescing saline draughts. When the skin
is pale and cold, the pulse weak, and the erup-
tion languidly developed, the warm or tepid
bath is often serviceable. An infusion of the
root of Sarracenia pupurea, an American plant,
has been strongly recommended as a preven-
tive and cure of smallpox, but many of our
most eminent physicians regard it as valueless.
The application on the third day of a mask
formed of thin muslin, covered with mercurial
ointment, and having holes cut in it for the
nostrils, eyes, and mouth, will effectually pre-
vent ‘pitting.” (Dr. Stewardson.) With the
same intention, some persons recommend the
puncture of the pustules as soon as they are
mature. A solution of India rubber in chloro-
form is now often painted over the face when
the eruption has become fully developed. The
chloroform quickly evaporates, leaving an elastic
film of india-rubber, which almost entirely re-
moves the itchiness of the pustules and pre-
vents ‘pitting.” To remove the pock-marks,
whether recent or old, nothing appears to be
better than warm sea-bathing, or the use of
tepid ioduretted lotions.
The smallpox is eminently contagious, but
only attacks the same person once during life.
Formerly, a milder form of the disease was
propagated by inoculation, a practice intro-
duced into England from Turkey, by Lady
Mary Wortley Montague, about the year 1721.
At the present day, in England, inoculation,
as well as the exposure of a patient labouring
under smallpox, is penal, the punishment being
either by fine or imprisonment. See Cow-Pox
(above).
PRECIPITATE. Any substance which has
separated from its solution in a solid and,
usually, a pulverulent or flocculent form. The
substance by which such a change is produced
is called the ‘precipitant’; and the act or
operation by which it is effected is called
‘precipitation.’ The old chemists gave this
name to several compounds. Red precipitate,
or precipitate per se, is the red oxide of mer-
cury prepared by heat. White precipitate is
the AMMONIATED MERCURY of the B. P.
PRECIPITATION. The formation or sub-
sidence of a precipitate. (See above.) When
the precipitate is the chief object of the pro-
cess, it is necessary to wash it, after it is sepa-
rated, by filtration. This operation requires
little attention when
the substance thrown
down is insoluble in
water; but when it is
in some degree soluble
in that liquid, great
attention is required
to prevent the loss
which might result
from the use of too
much water. Preci-
pitates soluble in water, but insoluble in
alcohol, are frequently, on the small scale,
washed with spirit more or less concen-
trated.
The best precipitating vessel is a very tall
glass jar, furnished with a lip and spout, and
narrower at the bottom than at the mouth, so
that the precipitate may readily collect by
subsidence, and the supernatant liquor be de-
canted off with more ease.
PREG/NANCY. For the preservation of the
health, and the prevention of the numerous
discomforts and dangers which so frequently
attend this condition, nothing is so effective
as exercise. It is this that is so favourable to
the humble peasant, and it is its absence that
inflicts such calamities on the wealthier classes.
Exercise, moderate and unfatiguing, when
assisted by regular habits, and a diet nutri-
tious, but not too liberal, is, indeed, capable of
not only affording pleasure and increasing the
comforts of existence, but is also generally suf-
ficient to greatly lessen the severity of the
sufferings, and to ward off the not unfrequently
fatal results which terminate this interesting
condition.
The sickness of pregnancy may be greatly
ameliorated, if not removed, by the occasional
use of a saline aperient, and by effervescing
draughts formed with the bicarbonate of po-
tassa and citric acid. The oxalate of cerium is
strongly recommended by Professor Simpson,
of Edinburgh, as a remedy for obstinate vomit-
ing in pregnancy.—IDose. 1 gr. to 2 grs. three
times a day in pills.
PRESCRI"BING (Art of). Besides a know-
ledge of diseases and their treatment, much of
the success of the physician depends on cir-
cumstances connected with the form in which
the remedies are exhibited. In writing a pre-
scription, it is necessary to consider the age,
sex, temperament, habits, and idiosyncrasy of
the patient, as well as the conditions of climate
and season, before the selection of the leading
medicament, and the apportioning of the dose.
The most convenient form of exhibiting it,
whether it should be given alone or in some
simple form, or combined with other ingre-
dients, the compatibility of the latter, and
how far these are likely to assist, impede, or
modify its operation, must also receive the
consideration of the practitioner. Without a
careful attention to all these circumstances,
the most valuable remedies may be rendered
worthless, and the highest medical skill and
the best intentions frustrated.
A prescription generally contains several me-
dicinal substances, which are distinguished by
medical writers by names indicative of the
office which each of them performs. These
are—1. The BASIS, which is the principle or
most active ingredient;-2. The ADJUVANT,
or that which is intended to promote the
action of the base;—3. The CORRECTIVE, in-
tended to correct, modify, or control its action,
or to cover its odour or taste, as when we add
carminatives or diaphoretics to carthartics, or
aromatics or liquorice to nauseous substances;

988
PRESCRIPTIONS.–PRINTING.
–4. The ExCIPIENT, or that which gives the
whole a commodious or agreeable form, and
which, consequently, gives the prescription its
peculiar character, as that of draught, mix-
ture, pills, &c. To these, certain Continental
writers add a 5th, The INTERMEDIUM, which
is the substance employed to unite remedies
which are not, by themselves, miscible with
each other, or with the excipient. Of this
character are the yolk of egg and mucilage,
employed in the preparation of emulsions.
The medicinal substances, with the quan-
tities to be taken, generally arranged as above,
are said to form the ‘inscription,”—the di-
rections as to their combination or dispensing,
which usually come next, the ‘subscription,”
and—the orders for the exhibition of the com-
pound medicine, which follow these, the ‘in-
structions.” These distinctions are, however,
in many cases more technical than useful.
In choosing the form of a prescription, it
should be recollected that solutions and emul-
sions generally act with more certainty and
rapidity than powders diffused through water;
and these, again, than the semi-solid and solid
forms of medicine, represented by electuaries,
boluses, and pills. On these matters, how-
ever, the taste and wishes of the patient
should not be disregarded. For this purpose,
the taste of nauseous medicines should be dis-
guised, as much as possible, by the judicious
selection of an appropriate corrective or ex-
cipient. Thus, the disagreeable flavour of
Epsom salt may be in a great measure covered
by dissolving it in peppermint water; that of
aloes, by liquorice ; that of castor oil and
copaiba by orange peel; and that of powdered
bark, by mixing it with milk immediately
before taking it; whilst the bitterness of
all bitter substances is concealed by strong
coffee.
In order that a prescription may be well
made, it is not necessary to unite all the ele-
ments above referred to. The basis and the
excipient are the only two which are abso-
lutely necessary, since there are many medi-
cines which have no need of an adjuvant.
The agreeable flavour and odour of some, and
the mild and harmless nature of others, often
render the intervention of a corrigent unne-
cessary when they are employed. A single
substance may also “be capable of answering
two or more purposes. Thus, the adjuvant
may also act as a corrigent, as when the addi-
tion of soap to aloes, or to extract of jalap,
lessens their griping properties, and at the
same time promotes their action. In the
same way neutral salts correct the colic which
follows the use of resinous purgatives, and
accelerate their action.” According to Gau-
bius, the number of ingredients in a pre-
scription should scarcely ever exceed three or
four. See DoSE, MEDICINES, INCOMPATIBLEs,
PILLS, &c,
PRESCRIPTIONS. Recipes or formulae for
the preparation and exhibition of medicines
iutended, generally, for, immediate use. See
PRESCRIBING (above).
PRESERVES". A general term, under which
are included the various fruits and vegetables
which are seasoned and kept in sugar or syrup,
more especially those which are so preserved
whole or in slices. See CANDYING, JAM,
MARMALADE, &c.
PRESS (Correcting for the). See PROOFs.
PRINCE'S METAL. One of the names for
Dutch gold. (See page 580.)
PRINT'ING (Anastatic). A method of
zincography, patented in 1845, having for its
object the reproduction of drawings, engray-
ings, and letter-press, from copies however
old. To describe briefly the preparation of a
plate or cylinder, let us suppose a newspaper
about to be reprinted by this means. The
sheet is first moistened with dilute acid and
placed between sheets of blotting paper, in
order that the superfluous moisture may be
absorbed. The ink resists the acid, which
attacks the blanks only. In all cases where
the letter-press is of recent date, or not per-
haps older than half a year, a few minutes suf.
fice for this purpose. The paper is then care.
fully placed upon the plate with which the
letter-press to be transferred is in immediate
contact, and the whole passed under a press,
on removal from which, and on carefully dis-
engaging the paper, the letters are found in
reverse on the plate. A preparation of gum
is then applied to the plate by means of a
roller, after which the letters receive an addi.
tion of ink, which is immediately incorporated
with that by which they are already formed,
These operations are effected in a few minutes,
The surface of the plate round the letters is
next bitten in a very slight degree by dilute
acid, and on the fresh application of the ink it
is rejected by the zinc, and received only by
the letters, which are charged with the ink by
the common roller used in hand-printing,
Each letter comes from the press as clear as
if it had been imprinted by type metal; and
the copies are fac-similes, which cannot easily
be distinguished from the original sheet.
When pen-and-ink drawings are to be repro-
duced, they are made on any paper free from
hairs or filaments, and well-sized. The ink
used is a preparation made for the purpose,
closely resembling lithographic ink, and may
be mixed to any degree of thickness in pure
distilled water. It should be used fresh, and
slightly warm when a fine effect is to be given.
In making or copying a design a pencil may
be used; but the marks must be left on the
paper, and by no means rubbed with India
rubber or bread. It is necessary to add, that
the paper should be kept quite clean and free
from friction, and should not be touched by
the fingers, inasmuch as it will retain marks
of very slight touches.
Before closing this notice of anastatic print.
ing, it may be proper to remark, that the great
pretensions originally set up by the patentees


PRINTING INK–PRUNES, 989
have not been fulfilled by its extensive adop-
tion in trade.
PRINTING INK. Prep.–a. The WARNISH.
Linseed or nut oil, 10 or 20 galls., is set over
the fire in an iron pot capable of containing
fully as much more; when it boils, it is kept
stirred with an iron ladle, and, if it does not
take fire of itself soon after the smoke begins
to rise, it is kindled by means of a piece of
burning paper, stuck in the cleft end of a long
stick; the pot is shortly afterwards removed
from the fire, and the oil is suffered to burn
for about half an hour, or until a sample of
the varnish cooled upon a pallet knife may
be drawn into strings of about $ inch long,
between the fingers; the flame is now extin-
guished by the application of a closely fitting
tin cover, and, as soon as the froth of the ebul-
lition has subsided, black resin is added, in the
proportion of # lb. to 1 lb. for every quart of
oil thus treated; the mixture is next stirred
until the resin is dissolved, when dry brown
soap, cut into slices, 13 lb., is further added
(cautiously), and the ingredients are again
stirred with the spatula until the whole is
united, the pot being once more placed over
the fire to promote the combination; when
this is effected, the varnish is removed from
the heat, and, after a good stirring, is covered
over and set aside.
b. The INK. Indigo and Prussian blue, of
each, in fine powder, 2% oz. ; mineral lamp-
black (finest), 4 lbs. ; vegetable lampblack, 3}
lbs.; stir them gradually into the warm var-
nish (a), and submit the mixture to careful
grinding, either in a mill or by means of a
slab and muller. On the large scale, steam
power is now generally employed for this pur-
pose.
An extemporaneous superfine black ink may
be made by the following formula:—Take of
balsam of copaiba (pure), 9 oz. ; lampblack,
3 oz. ; indigo and Prussian blue, of each, # oz. ;
Indian red, # oz. ; yellow soap (dry), 3 oz. ;
grind the mixture to an impalpable smooth-
ness by means of a stone and muller. Canada
balsam may be substituted for balsam of
copaiba where the smell of the latter is objec-
tionable, but the ink then dries very quickly.
COLOURED PRINTING INKS are made in a
similar way from the following pigments:—
Carmine, lakes, vermilion, chrome yellow, red
lead, orange red, Indian red, Venetian red, for
red; orange chrome, chrome yellow, burnt
terra di sienna, gall-stone, Roman ochre, yel-
low ochre, for orange and yellow; verdigris,
Scheele's green, Schweinfurt green, blues
and yellows mixed, for greens; indigo, Prus-
sian blue, Antwerp b., cobalt b., charcoal b.,
for blue; lustre, bronze powders, &c., for
metallic colours; and umbia, sepia, &c., for
brown.
Obs. It is necessary to prepare two kinds
of varnish, varying in consistence, from more
or less boiling, to be occasionally mixed to-
gether as circumstances may require; that
which answers well in hot weather being too
thick in cold, and vice versé. Large charac-
ters also require a thinner ink than small
ones. Old linseed oil is preferable to new.
Yellow resin soap is preferred for black and
dark-coloured inks, and white curd soap for
light ones.
A good varnish may be drawn into threads
like glue, and is very thick and tenacious.
The oil loses from 10% to 14% by the boiling.
Mr. Savage obtained the large medal of the
Society of Arts for his black ink made as
above. -º-
PRINTS (Ackerman’s Liquor for). Prep.
Take of the finest pale glue and white curd
soap, of each, 4 oz. ; boiling water, 3 pints;
dissolve, then add of powdered alum, 2 oz.
Used to size prints and pictures before colour-
ing them. -
PR00F. See ACETIMETRY, ALCOHOLOME-
TRY, &c.
PR00FS (Correct'ing). The specimen on the
next page, with the notes, will, if carefully
perused, put the reader into possession of all
the secrets of this useful art.
PROPYLIC ALCOHOL. CaFLO. Syn. HY-
DRATED OXIDE OF PROPYL, TRITYL ALCOHOL.
A liquid boiling at 204.8° Fahr., obtained by
repeatedly rectifying the first products of the
distillation of the fusel-oil of marc-brandy. It
stands to ethylic alcohol (ordinary alcohol) in
the same relation in which the latter stands to
methylic alcohol (pyroxylic spirit).
PROTEIN. The name given by Mülder to
a substance which he regarded as the original
matter from which animal albumen, casein,
and fibrin, were derived; but which is now
considered as a product of the decomposition
of those important principles by moderately
strong caustic alkali.
Prep. (Liebig.) Albumen, casein, or fibrin
is dissolved in moderately strong potassa, the
solution heated for some time to 120° Fahr.,
and acetic acid added; a gelatinous precipitate
subsides, which, after being washed and dried,
is protein.
Obs. The names binoxide and teroxide of
protein have been given by Mülder to pro-
ducts of the long-continued action of boiling
water upon fibrin in contact with the air.
PR0'TIDE. A soluble, straw-yellow sub-
stance, formed, along with other products, by
the action of strong solution of potassa on
albumen, fibrin, or casein. See ERYTHRO-
PROTIDE.
PROTO-. See NOMENCLATURE.
PROVI"SIONS (Preservation of). See PU-
TREFACTION.
PRUNES. [Fr.] The fruit of cultivated
varieties of Prunus domestica (Linn.). The
dried fruit (FRENCH PRUNES or PLUMs; PRU-
NUM-B. P., Ph. L., PRUNA—Ph. E. & D.) is
cooling and gently laxative, and, as such, is
usful in habitual costiveness and fevers.
Pulp of Prunes. Syn. PREPARED PRUNES;
PULPA PRUNORUM, PRUNUM PRAEPARATUM

990
PROOF.
[Proof.
1 oft/. As the vine, which has long
4.
5
6
7
16
17
18
9
y/
//
S=N
&
ſtom
/*
Ay
A
twined its gracgful foliage
about the oak; and been
lifted by it into sunshine, will,
when the hardy plant is rift
ed by the thunderCbolt,
cling roundſ; it with its
caressing tendrils, and bind
its shattered boughs up),
so is itſordered beautifully
%. by 2rovidence, that woman
*/ who is the mere dependant
4./
-4/
and ornament of man in the
happier hours, should A his
*/ stay and solace.
When smitten by
;/ sudden calamity, winding
4&
24%ar the broken heart.
22*
tº. e.
herself E_into the rugged
recesses of his Jºature, ten-
derly supporting the droop-
ing head-, and binding up
[It also
isſinteresting to/notice how
some MINDs seem almost to
*% create themselves, springing
= up under, and working their
% Asolitary, but irresistible way, A
( 33/
67
%
through | a thousand obsta-
cles} / Nature seems, &c.
IRXVING.
* Geº. *
A
[The same corrected.]
As the vine, which has long twined its grace.
ful foliage about the oak, and been lifted by it
into sunshine, will, when the hardy plant is
rifted by the thunderbolt, cling round it with its
caressing tendrils, and bind up its shattered
boughs, so is it beautifully ordered by Providence,
that WOMAN, who is the mere dependant and
ornament of man in his happier hours, should
be his stay and solace when smitten by sudden
calamity; winding herself into the rugged re.
cesses of his nature, tenderly supporting the
drooping head, and binding up the broken heart.
It also is interesting to notice how some minds
seem almost to create THEMSELVEs, springing
up under every disadvantage, and working their
“solitary, but irresistible way,” through a thou.
sand obstacles. Nature seems, &c.
IRWING,
Earplanation of the marks:
1. When a letter or word is to be in italics,
2. When a letter is turned upside down.
3. The substitution of a comma for another
point or letter.
4. The insertion of a hyphen; also marked ().
5. When letters should be close together,
6. When a letter or word is to be omitted."
7. When a word is to be changed to roman,
8, 9. Two methods of marking a transposition:
when there are several words to be transposed,
and they are much intermixed, it is a common
plan to number them, and to put the usual mat:
in the margin.
10. Substitution of a capital for a small letter.
11. When a word is to be changed from small
letters to capitals.
12. The transposition of letters in a word.
13. The substitution of one word for another.
14. When a word or letter is to be inserted.
15. When a paragraph occurs improperly.
16. The insertion of a semicolon.
17. When a space or quadrat stands up, and is
seen along with the type.
18. When letters of a wrong fount are used,
19. When words crossed off are to remain.
20. The mark for a paragraph, when its com:
mencement has been neglected. Sometimes tilt
sign [, or ‘I, or the word “break,’ is used instead
of the syllables “New Par.”
21. For the insertion of a space when omitſ:
or insufficient.
22. To change capitals to small letters.
23. To change small letters to small capitals.
24. When lines or words are not straight.
25, 26. The insertion of inverted commas, The
apostrophe is similarly marked.
27. The insertion of a period when omitted, or
in place of another point or letter.
28. Substitution of one letter for another,
29. The method of marking an omission or
insertion when too long for the side margin.
PRUNING—PRUSSIAN BLUE.
991
(Ph. L.), L. Prep. The imported dried fruit
is boiled gently for four hours with water, q. s.
to cover them, and then pressed, first through
a fine cane sieve, and afterwards through a
fine hair sieve; the pulp is, lastly, evaporated
by the heat of a water bath to the consistence
of a confection. A better plan is to use as
little water as possible, by which the necessity
of subsequent evaporation is avoided. Used
in the preparation of confection of senna.
PRU’NING varies according to the kind of
plant or tree operated on, and the particular
object in view, and its skilful performance
must, therefore, greatly depend on the expe-
rience and knowledge of the gardener. “In
the operation of pruning, the shoots are cut
off close to the buds, or at a distance not
greater than the diameter of the branch to be
cut off; because without the near proximity
of a bud, the wounds will not heal over. In
shoots which produce their buds alternately
the cut is made at the back of the bud, slop-
ing from it, so that it may be readily covered
by the bark in the same or in the following
year; but in the case of branches where the
buds are produced opposite each other, either
one bud must be sacrificed or the branch must
be cut off at right angles to its line of direc-
tion, which is most conveniently done with
the pruning shears.” (Loudon.)
PRUSSIAN ALKALI. Ferrocyanide of
potassium.
PRUS/SIAN BLUE. Syn. BERLIN BLUE,
PARIS B., FERROCYANIDE OF IRON, PRUSSIATE
of IRON, CYANURET OF I. This is the well-
known blue pigment of the shops.
Prep. 1. The crude but clear solution of
ferrocyanide of potassium (blood lye) is
precipitated by a mixed solution of alum, 2
parts, and green sulphate of iron, 1 part ; the
dingy greenish precipitate that falls gradually
becomes blue by absorption of atmospheric
oxygèn, which is promoted by exposure and
agitation of the liquor; as soon as it has ac-
quired its full colour, the sediment is re-
peatedly washed with water, and is then
drained, and dried, at first in a stove, but
afterwards on chalk stones. Product large,
but inferior in quality.
2. Repeatedly digest and wash the preci-
pitate obtained by the above process, in very
dilute hydrochloric acid, and then in pure
water; drain and dry it, as before. Superior.
3. (Paris blue.)—a. Neutralise the solution
of ferrocyanide of potassium (blood lye) with
dilute sulphuric acid, precipitate the liquid
with a solution of any persalt or sesquisalt of
iron (as the persulphate, nitrate, sesquichloride,
or peracetate); well wash the precipitate with
water, and dry it, as before. A very rich and
intense colour.
b. (Hochstätter.) Crystallised ferrocyanide
of potassium and green sulphate of iron, of each,
6 parts, are each separately dissolved in water,
15 parts; after the admixture of the solutions,
and frequent agitation, oil of vitriol, 1 part,
and fuming hydrochloric acid, 24 parts, are
stirred in ; after some hours have elapsed, a
strained solution of chloride of lime, 1 part,
dissolved in water, 80 parts, is gradually added,
the addition being stopped as soon as an effer-
vescence from the escape of chlorine is per-
ceived ; the whole is now left for 5 or 6 hours,
when the precipitate is thoroughly washed
in pure soft water, drained, and dried. Or,
instead of the above, the precipitate is at once
washed in dilute nitric acid, until its colour
ceases to be improved by the process. The
product is of the finest quality.
Prop. Insoluble in water and in dilute
acids, except the oxalic, in solutions of which
it dissolves freely, when pure; oil of vitriol
dissolves it to a white pasty mass, which is
again precipitated of the usual blue colour by
water; alkalies instantly decompose it, and so
do red oxide of mercury and some other oxides
when boiled with it; it burns in the air like
tinder, leaving an ash of oxide of iron. It is
not poisonous.
Pur., &c. The quality of Prussian blue
may be estimated by the richness of its colour,
and by the quantity of potassa or soda required
to destroy this. If it effervesces with acids,
it contains chalk; and if it forms a paste with
boiling water, it is adulterated with starch.
It is pure if, “after being boiled with dilute
hydrochloric acid, ammonia throws down
nothing from the filtered liquid.” (Ph. L.
1836.) It is distinguished from indigo by
exhibiting a coppery tint when broken, but
which is removed by rubbing with the mail.
Concluding remarks. The commercial Prus-
sian blue is not pure ferrocyanide of iron,
but a mixture of this salt with varying pro-
portions of the ferricyanide of iron and potas-
sium, which also has a fine deep blue colour.
The object in employing alum is to prevent or
lessen the precipitation of oxide of iron by the
free alkali in the blood lye, but a portion of
alumina is in consequence thrown down with
the blue, and tends to render it paler and
increase the product. The quantity of alum
employed may be varied according to the
shades of the intended blue. Samples con-
taining this contamination must not be ein-
ployed medicinally. (See page 240.)
Prussian Blue, Soluble. Prep. 1. (BASIC
PRUSSIAN BLUE.) By adding a solution of
protosulphate of iron to a solution of ferro-
cyanide of potassium ; a bluish-white precipi-
tate, turning dark blue by free exposure, is
formed, which, after it has acquired this
colour, is washed until it begins to dissolve in
the water, and colour it blue ; it is then either
collected and dried, or is at once dissolved in
pure water. This variety is not precipitated
from its solution by alcohol.
2. (FERROCYANIDE OF POTASSIUM AND
IRON.) By precipitating a solution of a ses-
quisalt or persalt of iron (as the persulphate,
pernitrate, peracetate, or sesquichloride) with
a stronger solution of ferrocyanide of potassium,


992
PRUSSIC ACID–PULVERISATION.
so that the latter may be in considerable excess.
A blue precipitate is formed, which is treated
as before. This variety is precipitated by al-
cohol. Both are freely soluble in pure water,
but not in water which has the slightest saline
contamination. Hence it is that lengthened
exposure to the atmosphere, and the use of the
common steel pen, causes the gradual precipi-
tation of this substance from its solution when
used as ink. See WRITING FLUIDs.
PRU'SSIC ACID. See HYDROCYANIC ACID.
PSEU'D0-MOR/PHIA. A substance of little
importance, occasionally found in opium. It
differs from morphine chiefly in not decom-
posing iodic acid. It is said to contain ni-
trogen.
PTIS/AN. Syn. PTISANA, L. A decoction
made of pearl barley, liquorice, raisins, and
other like vegetable matters, either alone or
so slightly medicated as to be taken as a com-
mon drink in ſevers, catarrhs, &c. Those re-
tained in English pharmacy have been already
noticed. The French physicians often employ
this form of medicine. The ‘tisanes’ of the
P. Cod. are numerous. See DECOCTION, IN-
FUSION, JULEP, TISANE, &c.
PTY'ALIN. A peculiar animal matter, analo-
gous to diastasse, obtained from the saliva.
It is soluble in water, but insoluble in al-
cohol.
PUCHA PAT. Syn. PATCHOULI. Puchá
pät is the dried foliaceous tops of Pogostemon
Patchouli, an Indian species of Labiatae. It is
much used in perfumery, particularly for
making sachets; but its odour, although very
durable, is not so agreeable as that of many
other substances, unless it is combined with
lavender, bergamot, ambergris, musk, or some
other like perfume.
PUD'DINGS. The instructions given under
CAKES, PIES, &c., will be found, with some
slight modifications, also to apply to puddings,
and, therefore, need not be repeated here.
Soyer tell us that every sort of pudding, if
sweet or savory, is preferably dressed in a
basin, instead of in a cloth. If boiled in a
basin, the paste receives all the nutriment of
the materials, which, if boiled in a cloth, are
dissolved out by the water, when by neglect
it ceases boiling. To cause them to turn well
out, the inside of the basin should be thoroughly
“larded" or rubbed with butter.
In the preparation of meat puddings the
“first and most important point is never to
use any meat that is tainted; for in pudding,
above all other dishes, it is least possible to
disguise it by the confined progress which the
ingredients undergo. The gradual heating of
the meat, which alone would accelerate de-
composition, will cause the smallest piece of
tainted meat to contaminate all the rest. Be
particular, also, that the suet and fat are not
rancid, ever remembering the grand prin-
ciple that everything which gratifies the palate
nourishes.”
“A pudding cloth, however coarse, ought
never to be washed with soap; it should be
simply dried as quickly as possible, and kept
dry and free from dust, and in a drawer or cup-
board free from smell.” (Soyer.)
PUD/DLING. See IRON.
PULMONITIS. Inflammation of the lungs.
PULP. Syn. PULPA, L. The softer parts
of plants, more particularly of fruits, separated
from the fibrous and harder portions.
“Pulpy fruits, if they be unripe, or ripe and
dried, are to be placed in a damp situation
until they become soft; then the pulp is to be
pressed out through a hair sieve; afterwards,
it is to be boiled with a gentle heat, frequently
stirring; and, finally, the (excess of) water is
to be evaporated in a water bath, until the
pulp acquire proper consistence.
“Press the pulpy fruits which are ripe and
fresh through a hair sieve, without boiling
them.” (Ph. L. 1836.)
PULVERISATION. The reduction of any
substance to dust or powder.
On the small scale, pulverisation is usually
performed by means of a pestle and mortar;
on the large scale, by stamping, grinding or
cutting the substance in a mill. A few soft
substances, as carbonate of magnesia, carbonate
of lead, &c., may be pulverised by simply rub-
bing them through a fine sieve, placed over a
sheet of paper; whilst many hard, gritty sub-
stances can only be reduced to fine powder by
porphyrisation or levigation. Elutriation, or
‘washing over,’ is adopted for several sub-
stances, as chalk, antimony, &c., which are re-
quired to be reduced to fine powder on the
large scale. For some articles which are very
tough, fibrous, or resisting, a rasp or file is
employed. Whichever of these methods is
adopted, the body to be powdered must be very
dry, and where spontaneous drying is insuffi.
cient, artifical desiccation in a stove or oven,
gently heated, is employed. To facilitate this,
the substance should be first cut into pieces or
crushed small. On the other hand, a few sub-
stances, as rice, sago, mux vomica, and St.
Ignatius's bean, are often soaked in water, Or
steamed, before being further operated On,
Whenever a substance cannot be dried com-
pletely, without an alteration of its properties,
an intermedium is had recourse to, by which the
moisture may be absorbed, or its state of aggre.
gation modified. Thus, sugar is employed in
pulverising civet, musk, nutmeg, and vanilla,
When camphor is to be pulverised, the addition
of a very small quantity of alcohol renders the
operation easy. In other cases, the interme-
dium is of so hard a nature as to assistin break.
ing down the substance to be powdered; thus,
gold leaf is reduced to powder by rubbing it
with sulphate of potassa, and afterwards re-
moving this last by means of water. Fusible
metals, as zinc and tin, are powdered by pour-
ing them into a mortar, and stirring them
rapidly whilst cooling ; or, by briskly agitating
them, in the melted state, in a wooden box
covered with chalk or whiting. Phosphorus is

PUMICE STONE–PURGATIVES. 993
%
powdered by melting it in urine or lime water,
and then shaking the bottle until its contents
have become quite cold. Glass, quartz, and
silicated stones, require to be heated red hot,
and in this state to be thrown into cold water,
by which they become sufficiently friable to
admit of pulverisation. Many salts which are
reduced to fine powder with very great diffi-
culty, and do not dissolve in spirit of wine,
are easily obtained in a pulverulent form, by
agitating their concentrated aqueous solution
with a considerable quantity of rectified spirit;
the disengaged fine crystallised powder may
then be dried, and further divided by tritura-
tion. Potassio-tartrate of antimony may be
advantageously thus treated. A large number
of salts, including nitre, sal ammoniac, and
carbonate of potash, may also be reduced to
powder by keeping their solutions in a state of
constant and violent agitation during their
rapid evaporation.
The following rules should be observed in
the preparation of powders:–
1. If possible, perfectly dry articles should
alone be operated on, and only in dry weather.
2. The nature of the mortar, and the mode
of operating, should be adapted to the nature
of the substance. Thus, woods and barks
should be pulverised in an iron mortar; sugar,
alum, and nitre, in one of marble or wedg-
wood-ware; and corrosive sublimate, only in
one of glass.
3. The mortar should be provided with a
cover, to prevent loss and annoyance to the
operator. If much powder escapes, or if it is
dangerous or disagreeable when breathed, or if
the substance is rare or costly, the mortar
should be covered with a skin of leather, to
which the pestle is attached, so that the latter
may be freely moved without causing the
slightest opening for the escape of the dust
occasioned by the process. When aloes or
gamboge is powdered, a few drops of olive oil
are commonly added, with the same intention.
4. The pulverised portions should be sepa-
rated from time to time, by aid of a sieve, the
coarser particles being returned to the mortar
to be again beaten and triturated; and this
alternate pulverisation and sifting is to be re-
peated until the process is complete.
PUM/ICE STONE. Syn.
PUMICEUS, L. PUMICIS, L. Found in the
neighbourhood of volcanoes. Used, in the
solid form, to polish wood, paint, &c.; also,
when pulverised, as a polishing powder for
glass, bone, ivory, marble, metals, &c.
PUMEX, LAPIS
PUNCH. An acidulous, intoxicating beve-
rage, composed of water sweetened with sugar,
with a mixture of lemon juice and spirit, to
which some aromatic, as nutmeg, mace, or cin-
namon, is occasionally added. Wine is some-
times substituted for spirit. It is much less
drunk than formerly. Rum punch is the most
popular amongst sailors, who are now the prin-
cipal consumers of this beverage.
Prep. 1. Juice of 3 or 4 lemons; yellow
peel of 1 lemon; lump sugar, 4 lb.; boiling
water, 3% pints; infuse } an hour, strain, and
add, of bitter ale, 3 pint; rum and brandy, of
each, # to 1 pint (or rum alone, 1% to 2 pints).
More hot water and sugar may be added if the
punch is desired either weaker or sweeter.
2. (CoLD PUNCH.) From arrack, port wine,
and water, of each, 1 pint ; juice of 4 lemons;
white sugar, 1 lb.
3. (GIN PUNCH.) From the yellow peel of
# a lemon; juice of 1 lemon; strongest gin,
# pint; water, 13 pint; sherry, 1 glassful.
4. (ICED PUNCH.) From champagne or
Rhenish wine, 1 quart; arrack, 1 pint; juice
of 6 lemons; yellow peel of 3 lemons; white
sugar, 1 lb. ; soda water, 1 or 2 bottles; to be
iced as cream.
5. (MILR PUNCH ; VERDER.) Steep the
yellow rinds of 18 lemons and 6 oranges, for
2 days, in rum or brandy, 2 quarts; then add,
3 quarts more of either spirit; hot water, 3
quarts; lemon juice, 1 quart; loaf sugar, 4.
lbs. ; 2 nutmegs, grated; and boiling milk,
2 quarts; mix well, and in 2 hours strain the
liquor through a jelly-bag.
6. (NoFFOLR PUNCH.) Take of French
brandy, 20 quarts; yellow peels of 18 oranges
and 30 lemons; infuse for 12 hours; add, of
cold water, 30 quarts; lump sugar, 20 lbs. ;
and the juice of the oranges and lemons; mix
well, strain through a hair sieve, add of new
milk, 2 quarts, and in 6 weeks bottle it. Keeps
well.
7. (ORANGE PUNCH.) As No. 1, using
oranges, and adding some orange wine, if at
hand. A little curaçoa, noyau, or mareschino,
improves it.
8. (RASPBERRY PUNCH.) As the last, but
using raspberry juice, or raspberry vinegar, for
the oranges or lemons.
9. (REGENT's PUNCH.) From strong hot
green tea, lemon juice, and capillaire, of each,
1; pint ; rum, brandy, arrack, and curaçoa, of
each, 1 pint; champagne, 1 bottle ; mix, and
slice a pineapple into it.
10. (TEA PUNCH.) From strong hot tea,
1 quart; arrack, ; bottle; white sugar, 6 oz. ;
juice of 8 lemons; and the yellow rinds of 4
lemons; mixed together.
11. (WINE PUNCH.) From white sugar, 1.
lb.; yellow peel of 3 lemons; juice of 9 lemons;
arrack, 1 pint; port or sherry (hot), 1 gal. ;
cinnamon, 4 oz. ; nutmeg, 1 dr. ; mix.
12. (YANKEE PUNCH.) Macerate sliced
pineapple, 3 oz. ; vanilla, 6 grs. ; and amber-
gris (rubbed with a little sugar), 1 gr., in the
strongest pale brandy, 1 pint, for a few hours,
with frequent agitation; then strain with ex-
pression; add, of lemon juice, 1 pint; lemon
syrup, and either claret or port wine, of each,
1 bottle; with sugar, lb., dissolved in boiling
water, 1% pint. See SHRUB.
PURG'ATIVES. Syn. DEJECTORIA, PUR-
GANTIA, PURGATIVA, L. These have been
divided into five orders or classes, according to
- 63

994,
PURL–PURPLE DYE.
their particular actions. The following are the
principal of each class:—
1. (LAXATIVES, LENITIVES, or MILD CATHAR-
TICS.) Manna, cassia pulp, tamarinds, prunes,
honey, phosphate of soda; castor, almond, and
olive oils; ripe fruit.
2. (SALINE or cooDING LAXATIVES.) Epsom
salt, Glauber's salt, phosphate of soda (tasteless
salt), Seidlitz powders, &c.
3. (ACTIVE CATHARTICS, occasionally acrid,
frequently tonic and stomachic.) Rhubarb,
Senna, aloes, &c.
4. (DRASTIC or VIOLENT CATHARTICS.) Jalap,
scammony, gamboge, croton oil, colocynth,
elaterium, &c.
5. (MERCURIAL PURGATIVES.) Calomel, blue-
pill, quicksilver with chalk, &c.
In prescribing purgatives, regard should be
had to the particular portion of the alimentary
canal on which we desire more immediately
to act, as well as to the manner in which the
medicine effects its purpose. Thus, Epsom
salt, sulphate of potassa, and rhubarb, act
chiefly on the duodenum; aloes, on the rectum;
blue pill, calomel, and jalap, on the larger in-
testines generally; and tartrate and bitartrate
of potassa, and sulphur, on the whole length of
the intestinal canal. Again, others are stimu-
lant, as aloes, croton oil, jalap, scammomy, &c.;
others are refrigerant, as most of the saline
aperients; magnesia and its carbonate are both
aperient and antacid; whilst another class,
including rhubarb, damask roses, &c., are
astringent. Further, some produce only serous
or watery dejections, without greatly increasing
the peristaltic action of the bowels; whilst a
few occasion a copious discharge of the
faces in an apparently natural form. See
DRAUGHT, MIXTURE, PILLS, PRESCRIBING,
&c.
PURL. Prep. To ale or beer, , pint, gently
warmed, add of bitters, 1 wine-glassful, or
q. s. Some add a little spirit. A favourite
beverage with hard drinkers early in the
morning.
PURPLE. A rich compound colour, pro-
duced by the admixture of pure blue and pure
red. This colour has always been the distin-
guishing badge of royalty and distinction. The
celebrated Tyrian purple was produced from a
shell-fish called murex.
Purple, Anſiline. Syn. PERRIN's PURPLE,
MAUVE. This valuable dye-stuff is prepared
under W. H. Perkin’s patent, by mixing solu-
tions of sulphate of aniline and bichromate of
potassa in equivalent proportions, and, after
some hours, washing the black precipitate with
water, drying it, digesting it repeatedly in
coal-tar naphtha, and, finally, dissolving it in
boiling alcohol. It may be further purified by
evaporating the alcoholic solution to dryness,
dissolving the residue in a large quantity of
boiling water, reprecipitating by caustic soda,
washing with water, dissolving in alcohol,
filtering, and evaporating to dryness. Thus
purified, mauve forms a brittle substance,
having a bronze-coloured surface. It imparts
a deep purple colour to cold water, though
dissolving sparingly in that liquid; it is
more soluble in hot water, and very soluble in
alcohol. See PURPLE DYE (below), and TAR
COLOURS.
Purple of Cassius. Syn. PURPLE PRECIPI.
TATE OF CASSIUS, GOLD PURPLE, GOLD PRE-
PARED WITH TIN ; AURUM STANNO PARATUM,
PURPURA MINERALIS CASSII, L. Prep. 1.
Crystallised protochloride of tin, 1 part; crys.
tallised perchloride of tin, 2 parts; dissolve
each separately, mix the solutions, and add of
crystallised terchloride of gold (in solution),
1 part; carefully wash, and dry the precipitate,
Very fine.
2. (Frick.) Dissolve pure grain tin in cold
dilute aquaregia, until the fluid becomes faintly
opalescent, then take the metal out and weigh
it; next, dilute the solution largely with
water, and add, simultaneously, a dilute
solution of gold and dilute sulphuric acid in
such proportion that the tin in the one shall
be to the gold in the other in the ratio of 10
to 36.
3. (P. Cod.) Terchloride of gold, 1 part, is
dissolved in distilled water, 200 parts; another
solution is made by dissolving, in the cold,
pure tin, 1 part, in a mixture of nitric acid,
1 part, and hydrochloric acid, 2 parts; this
last solution is diluted with distilled water,
100 parts, and is then added to the solution of
terchloride of gold until precipitation ceases
to take place; the powder is, lastly, washed
by decantation, and dried by a very gentle
heat.
4. Silver, 150 parts; gold, 20 parts; pure
grain tin, 35 parts; fuse them together under
charcoal and borax, cool, laminate, and dissolve
out the silver with nitric acid.
Obs. Purple of Cassius is generally supposed
to be a combination of oxide of gold and SCŞ.
quioxide of tin, in which the latter acts as an
acid. Heat resolves it into a mixture of
metallic gold and binoxide of tin. It is used
as a purple in porcelain painting, and to com:
municate a ruby red colour to glass, when
melted in open vessels.
PURPLE DYE. The purples now in vogue
are the numerous shades of ‘mauve' and
‘magenta' obtained by the ‘aniline colours.'
(See above, also RED.) For silk and woollen
goods, no mordant is required. The proper
proportion of the clear alcoholic solution is
mixed with water slightly warm, any scum that
may form is cleared off, and the goods are
entered and worked until the required shade
is obtained; a small quantity of acetic or tar-
taric acid is recommended to be added in some
cases. For dyeing on cotton with the aniline
colours, the cloth or yarn is steeped in sumac
or tannic acid, dyed in the colour, and then
fixed by tin; or it may be steeped in sumac
and mordanted with tin, and then dyed. Pur-
ples were formerly, and are still occasionally,
produced, by first dyeing a blue in the ‘indig0
PURPURATE OF AMMONIA—PUTREFACTION. 995
vat, and then dyeing a cochineal or lac scarlet
upon the top. See VIOLET DYE.
PUR/PURATE OF AMITIO/NIA. See MU-
IREXII) E.
PURPU'RIC ACID. See MUREXAN.
PUR/PURIN. C., H3O8. Syn. MADDER PUR-
PLE. The name given by Robiquet and Colin
to a beautiful colouring principle obtained
from madder.
Prep. Coarsely powdered madder is allowed
to ferment with water, after which it is boiled
in a strong solution of alum; the decoction is
next mixed with sulphuric acid, and the re-
sulting red precipitate is purified by one or
more crystallisations from alcohol.
Prop., &c. Crystalline red needles, insoluble
in cold water, but soluble in hot water, and in
alcohol, ether, and solutions of alum and the
alkalies. It differs from alizarin or madder red
in containing 2 atoms less of carbon.
PUR/REE. Syn. INDIAN YELLOW. A yellow
substance, of doubtful origin, imported from
China and India, and now extensively used in
both oil and water-colour painting. According
to the researches of Stenhouse and Erdmann,
it consists of purreic acid, a strongly tinc-
torial vegetable substance, united to mag-
nesia.
PURRE'IC ACID. Syn. EUXANTHIC ACID.
This substance is obtained from purree. It
crystallises in nearly colourless needles, which
are only sparingly soluble in cold water, and
forms rich yellow-coloured compounds with
the alkalies and earths. Heat converts it into
a neutral, crystallisable substance, called pur-
I’0110110.
PUS. The cream-like, white or yellowish
liquid secreted by wounded surfaces, abscesses,
Sores, &c.
PUTREFACTION. Syn. PUTREFACTIO, L.
The spontaneous decomposition of animal and
nitrogenised vegetable substances, under the
joint influence of warmth, air, and moisture.
The solid and fluid matters are resolved into
gaseous compounds and vapours, which escape,
and into earthy matters, which remain. The
most striking characteristic of this species of
decomposition is the ammoniacal or fetid ex-
halations that constantly accompany it.
The nature of putrefaction, and the conditions
essential to its occurrence, have been briefly
alluded to under FERMENTATION, to which we
must refer the reader. It may here, however,
be useful to reiterate that this change can only
be prevented by the abstraction or exclusion
of the conditions essential to its occurrence,
This may be effected by—reduction of tempe-
rature, exclusion of atmospheric air, or—the
abstraction of moisture. The antiseptic pro-
cesses in common use are effective in precisely
the same degree as these preventive means are
carried out. Frozen meat may be preserved
for an unlimited period, while the same sub-
stance will scarcely keep for more than a few
days at the ordinary heat of Summer. Animal
substances will also remain uninjured for a
long period if kept in vessels from which the
air is entirely excluded, as in the process now
so extensively adopted for the preservation of
fresh meat for the use of our army and marine.
The third condition is fulfilled when nitro-
genised matter is preserved in alcohol, brine,
or any similar fluid, and when it is dried. In
either case water is abstracted from the sur-
face, which then loses its propensity to putrefy,
and forms an impervious layer, which ex-
cludes atmospheric oxygen from the interior
and softer portion of the substance. Creasote,
and most of the antiseptic salts, also act in
this way.
Among special antiseptic processes are the
following:—
APPLICATION OF COLD. The accession of
putrefaction is prevented, and its progress
arrested, by a temperature below that at which
water freezes. In the colder climates of the
world, butcher's meat, poultry, and even vege-
tables, are preserved from one season to the
other in the frozen state. In North America
millions are thus supplied with animal food,
which, we can state, from personal experience,
is often superior in flavour, tenderness, and
apparent freshness, to that from the recently
killed animal. In temperate climates, and in
cold ones during their short summer, ice-
houses and ice-safes afford a temperature suffi-
ciently low for keeping meat fresh and sweet
for an indefinite period. Substances preserved
in this manner should be allowed to gradually
assume their natural condition before cooking
them ; and on no account should they be
plunged into hot water, or put before the fire,
whilst in the frozen state.
BUCANING. A rude kind of drying and
smoking meat, cut into thin slices, practised by
hunters in the prairies and forests.
DESICCATION or DRYING. In this way every
article of food, both animal and vegetable,
may be preserved, without the application of
salt or other foreign matter. The proper
method is to expose the substances, cut into
slices or small fragments, in the sun, or in a
current of warm dry air, the temperature of
which should be under 140°Fahr. Articles so
treated, when immersed for a short time in
cold water, to allow the albumen and organic
fibres to swell, and then boiled in the same
water, are néarly as nutritious as fresh meat
cooked in the same manner. If a higher degree
of heat than 140° be employed for animal
substances, they become hard and insipid.
Owing to the practical difficulties in the way
of applying the above process to fresh meats,
it is usually employed in conjunction with
either salting or smoking, and, frequently, with
both of them.
EXCLUSION OF ATMOSPHERIC AIR. This is
effected by the method of preserving in sugar,
potting in oil, and, more particularly, by some
of the patented methods noticed below. Fresh
meat may be preserved for some months in
that state, by keeping it in water perfectly


996
PUTREFACTION.
deprived of air. In practice, some iron filings
and sulphur may be placed at the bottom of the
vessel, over which must be set the meat; over
the wholeisgently poured recently boiled water,
and the vessel is at once closed, so as to exclude
the external air.
IMMERSION IN ANTISEPTIC IIQUIDS. One
of the commonest and most effective liquids
employed for this purpose is alcohol of 60 to
70%, to which a little camphor, ammonia, sal
ammoniac, or common salt, is occasionally
added. . A cheaper and equally efficient plan
is to employ a weak spirit holding a little
creasote in solution. A weak solution of sul-
phurous acid may be substituted for alcohol.
Weak solutions of alum, or carbolic acid, with
or without the addition of a few grains of cor-
rosive sublimate, or of arsenious acid, are also
highly antiseptic. These are chiefly employed
for anatomical specimens, &c. A solution con-
taining only tºoth part of nitrate of silver is
likewise very effective ; but, from this salt
being poisonous, it cannot be employed for pre-
serving articles of food. Butcher's meat is
occasionally pickled in vinegar. By immers-
ing it for 1 hour in water holding Tººth part
of creasote in solution, it may be preserved
unchanged for some time, even during summer.
INJECTION OF ANTISEPTIC LIQUIDS into the
veins or arteries of the recently killed animal.
It is found that the sooner this is done after
the slaughter of the animal the more effective
it becomes, as the absorbent power of the ves-
sels rapidly decrease by age. See GANNAL's
PROCESS (below.)
JERKING is a method of preserving flesh
sometimes adopted in hot climates. It con-
sists in cutting the lean parts of the meat
into thin slices, and exposing these to the
sunshine until quite dry and brittle, when
they are bruised in a mortar, and pressed into
pots.
PICKLING IN WINEGAR. In this method the
substances, rendered as dry as possible by ex-
posure to the air, are placed in glass or stone-
ware jars (not salt-glazed), or wooden vessels,
when strong vinegar, either cold or boiling hot,
is poured over them, and the vessel at once
closely corked, or otherwise covered up, and
preserved in a cool situation. Meat is occa-
sionally thus treated; vegetables frequently
so. See PICKLE. *
PoſtING IN OIL. In this case salad or olive
oil is substituted for vinegar (see above), and is
always used cold.
SAITING acts chiefly by abstracting water
from the albuminous portions of the meat, by
which its disposition to change is lessened.
SMOKING. This process, which, as well as
the last, is referred to further on, acts both by
the abstraction of moisture and the antiseptic
properties of certain substances (creasote, &c.)
contained in wood smoke. Fresh meat and
fish are occasionally smoked ; but, in general,
substances intended to be thus treated are first
salted.
In Donkin and Gamble's patent process, the
substances, previously parboiled, are placed in
small tin cylinders, which are then filled up
with rich soup ; the lids are next soldered on
quite air-tight, and a small hole is afterwards
made in the centre ; the cylinders are then
placed in a bath of strong brine, or a strong
solution of chloride of calcium, which is at
once heated to the boiling-point, to nearly
complete the cooking process; after which the
small hole in the lid is hermetically sealed, by
covering it with solder while the vessel still
remains boiling hot ; the tins are, lastly, again
submitted to heat in the heated bath, the
duration of which is proportioned to the quan:
tity and character of their contents, the ‘dress:
ing' of which is to be perfected by this opera.
tion. The ends of the tins, on cooling, assume
a concave form, from the pressure of the at:
mosphere, without which they cannot be air.
tight, and the process has been unsuccessful
To determine this, the patentees expose the
canisters, prepared as before, for at least a
month, in an apartment heated to about 100°
Fahr. ; when, if the process has failed, putre.
faction commences, and the ends of the cases,
instead of remaining concave, bulge, or become
convex. This is called the “test.” By this
process, which was invented by M. Appert in
France, about the year 1808, fish, flesh,
poultry, and vegetables, may be preserved for
years, in any climate.
Goldner's process differs somewhat from the
preceding, in the employment of a higher
degree of heat, more hastily applied, and not
prolonged or repeated after the tins are sol:
dered up.
Gannal's process, having for its object the
preservation of butcher's meat in the fresh
state, depends on the peculiar absorbent pro-
perty of the flesh of recently killed animals,
above referred to. This process consists in in.
jecting a solution of sulphate of alumina, Or,
better, of chloride of aluminium, of the sp. gr.
1-070 to 1.085 (10° to 12° Baumé), into the
carotid artery, by means of a syphon, as soon
as the blood ceases to flow from the slaugh.
tered animal; both extremities of the jugular
vein being previously tied. 9 to 12 quarts of
the solution are sufficient for an ox, and a pro-
portionate quantity for smaller animals. A
less quantity is also required in winter than
summer. When the animal has been well
bled, and the injection skilfully performed, it
is scarcely perceptible that the animal has un-
dergone any preparation. The injected animal
is cut up in the usual way; and when intended
to be eaten within 2 or 3 weeks merely requires
to be hung up in a dry, airy situation, free
from flies; but if it is to be kept for a longer
period, it is directed to be washed with a
mixed solution of common salt and chloride of
aluminium at 10° Baumé, and then simply
dried and packed in clean air-tight barrels,
and kept in a cool, dry place. If the air
cannot be perfectly excluded, it should be

PUTTY--PYROGALLIC ACID. 997
packed in dry salt, not for the purpose of pre-
serving it, but to prevent the vegetation of
bissus, as, without this precaution, the meat
becomes musty from exposure and the action
of moisture. Meat preserved by this process
may be kept for several years, and merely
requires soaking for 24 hours in water, for the
purpose of swelling its pores, to give it the
appearance and taste of fresh meat, fit for
either roasting or boiling. For hot climates a
somewhat stronger solution, or a larger quan-
tity of the usual one, may be injected. The
use of the strong solutions ordered in some
recent works, however, deprives the flesh of
a portion of its apparent freshness, and makes
it more nearly approach in flavour to that
which has been slightly salted in the ordinary
Imanller.
In addition to the above, it may be added
that both flesh and fish may be preserved by
dipping them into, or brushing them over
with, pyroligneous acid, and then drying them.
This gives them a smoky flavour; but if pure
acetic acid (Ph. L.) be used, no taste will be
imparted. These fluids may be applied by
means of a clean painter’s brush, or even a
stiff feather. A table-spoonful is sufficient to
brush over a large surface. Fish and flesh so
prepared will bear a voyage to the East Indies,
and back, uninjured.
Fish may also be preserved in a dry state,
and perfectly fresh, by means of sugar alone.
Fresh fish may be thus kept for some days, so
as to be as good when boiled as if just caught.
If dried and kept free from mouldiness, there
seems no limit to their preservation; and they
are much more nutritious in this way than
when salted. This process is particularly valu-
able in making what is called ‘kippered sal-
mon;' and the fish preserved in this manner
are far superior in quality and flavour to those
which are salted or smoked. A few table-
spoonfuls of brown sugar are sufficient for a
salmon of five or six pounds’ weight; and if
salt be desired, a teaspoonful or two may be
added. Saltpetre may be used, instead of salt,
if it be wished to make the kipper hard.
The well-known property possessed by ether,
alcohol, pyroxylic spirit, chloroform, and certain
other hydrocarbons, of averting putrefaction,
has been thus applied by M. Robin:-He en-
closes the meat or other substances to be pre-
served in a glass case, along with a sponge or
a capsule containing the preservative liquid,
which latter is continually evolved in a va-
porous condition, and exercises the preservative
agency. In this way the vapours of hydro-
cyanic acid are found to be very efficacious.
Camphor is thus employed in the MUMMY CASES
in the British Museum.
It has been asserted by Mr. George Hamilton,
that in an atmosphere of binoxide of nitrogen,
in the dark, flesh preserves its natural colour
and freshness for about 5 months; and eats
well, provided it be boiled in open vessels, to
expel nitrous fumes. See ANIMAL SUB-
STANCEs, CANDYING, EGG, FISH, FRUIT,
MILR, PICKLEs, POTTING, PRESERVES, SALT-
ING, SMOKING, STUFFING, VEGETABLE SUB-
STANCEs, &c.
PUTTY. This name is given to the follow-
ing preparations (when used alone, ‘Glazier’s
putty’ is generally indicated):—
Glazier’s Putty. From whiting made into a
stiff paste with drying oil. It is used to fix
panes of glass in sashes, to fill holes and cracks
in wood before painting it, &c.
Plasterer's Putty. A fine cement used by
plasterers, made of lime only. It differs from
‘FINE STUFF in the absence of hair.
Polisher’s Putty. Syn. PUTTY PowpHR,
CALCINE ; CINERES STANNI, STANNI Oxy. DUM
CRUDUM, L. A crude peroxide of tin, obtained
by exposing metallic tin in a reverberatory
furnace, and raking off the dross, as it forms;
this is afterwards calcined until it becomes
whitish, and is then reduced to powder.
Another method is to melt tin with rather
more than an equal weight of lead, and then
to rapidly raise the heat so as to render the
mixed metal red hot, when the tin will be
immediately flung out in the state of ‘putty”
or ‘peroxide.” The products of both these
processes are very hard, and are used for
polishing glass and japan work, and to colour
opaque white enamel. See TIN.
PUZZOLA/NA, PUozzoLANA, or, more cor-
rectly, PUZZUOLANA, is a volcanic ash, found
at Puzzuoli, near Naples. When mixed with
lime, it forms an excellent hydraulic cement.
A good FACTITIOUS PUZZODANA may be made
by heating a mixture of 3 bushels of clay and
1 bushel of fresh-slaked lime, for some hours,
to redness. (M. Bruyere.) See CEMENT and
MORTAR.
PYRITES. A term applied to several native
metallic sulphides. IRON PYRITES is the best
known of these.
PYRO-. The term is applied to several acids
that are obtained by the action of heat on
other substances; as, PYROGALLIC ACID, PYRO-
LIGNEOUS. A., &c.
PYROACETIC SPIRIT. See SPIRIT (Pyro-
acetic).
PYROGALLIC ACID. HC.H.O. Syn.
ACIDUM PyRogALLICUM, L. Prep. 1. From
either gallic or tannic acid, heated in a retort,
by means of an oil bath, and steadily maintained
at a temperature of about 420°Fahr. as long
as crystals are formed in the neck of the retort,
or in the receiver, both of which should be kept
well cooled. Pure. If a much higher heat
is employed, the product consists chiefly of
metagallic acid.
2. From Aleppo galls, in very coarse pow-
der, heated in a dish covered with thin filter-
ing paper pasted to its edge, and connected
with a well-cooled receiver. Dr. Ure says
that the so-called Chinese galls furnish, by
dry distillation, a “very concentrated solu-
tion of pyrogallic acid, which, evaporated on
the water bath, yields of brown crystalline
998
PYROGEN ACIDS–PYROTECHNY.
pyrogallic acid nearly 15% of the weight of the
galls.” -
3. (Dr. Stenhouse.) By sublimation from
the dry aqueous extract of nut-galls, in a Mohr’s
apparatus, in the same way that benzoic acid
is obtained from benzoin resin (see page 208),
observing the precautions referred to in No. 1
(above). Nearly pure. The product is fully
10% of the weight of extract operated on.
Prop. Light crystals, which, when perfectly
pure, are quite white; freely soluble in water,
but the solution cannot be evaporated without
ſº turning black and suffering decomposition; it
strikes a rich blackish-blue colour with the
protosalts of iron, and reduces those of the
sesquioxide to the state of protoxide; when
heated to 480° Fahr., it is converted into ME-
TAGALLIC ACID and water.
Uses, &c. Pure pyrogallic acid is now very
extensively employed in photography. A solu-
tion of the crude acid mixed with a little spirit
is used to dye the hair, to which it itàparts a
fine brown colour, but has the disadvantage of
also staining the skin when applied to it.
PYROGEN ACIDS. Those generated by
heat.
PYRO/LA. See WINTER GREEN.
PYROLIG/NEOUS ACID. Syn. WINEGAR OF
wooD+, SPIRIT of W.j, SMORING LIQUOR+,
IESSENCE OF SMOKEf ; ACIDUM PYROLIGNO-
SUM, L. Impure acetic acid, obtained by the
destructive distillation of wood in close vessels.
It comes over along with tar, creasote, and
other liquid and gaseous matters. In this
state it contains much empyreumatic matter
in solution; but by separation from the tar,
saturation with slaked lime or chalk, defeca-
tion, and evaporation, an impure acetate of
pyrolignate of lime is obtained, which, after
being gently heated, to destroy part of its em-
pyreumatic matter, without injuring its acetic
acid, is again dissolved and defecated, and then
precipitated by a solution of sulphate of soda,
when a solution of acetate of soda and a pre-
cipitate of sulphate of lime are formed by
double decomposition. The solution is next
evaporated to dryness, the dry mass (pyrolig-
nite of soda) dissolved in water, and the new
solution filtered and recrystallised. The crys-
tals of acetate of soda, obtained by the last
process, yield nearly pure acetic acid by dis-
tillation along with sulphuric acid. See ACETIC
ACID and WINEGAR.
PYROLIG/NEOUS SPIRIT.
(Pyroxilic).
PYROM’ETER. An instrument to measure
high degrees of heat. WEDGwooD's PYRO-
METER, the one best known, depends on the
property which clay possesses of contracting
when strongly heated. PROF. DANIEL's PY-
ROMETER consists, essentially, of a small rod
or bar of platinum, which acts in a precisely
opposite manner to the preceding, viz., by its
expansion.
PYROPH'ORUS. Syn. LUFT-ZUNDER, Ger.
See SPIRIT
Any substance that inflames spontaneously |
when exposed to the air.
Prep. 1. Neutral chromate of lead, 6 parts;
sulphur, 1 part; triturate them with water,
q. S. to form a paste, and make this into pel.
lets; dry these perfectly by a gentle heat, them
heat them in a closed tube until the sulphur
is all driven off; lastly, transfer them to a
stoppered phial, -
2. (HoMBERG's PYROPHORUS.) From alum
and brown sugar, equal parts; stir the mixture
in an iron ladle over the fire until dry, then
put it into an earthen or coated glass phill,
and keep it at a red heat so long as flame is
emitted; it must then be carefully stopped up
and cooled.
3. (Dr. Hare.) Lampblack, 3 parts; burnt
alum, 4 parts; carbonate of potassa, 8 parts; as
the last.
4. (Gay Lussac.) From sulphate of pſ.
tassa, 9 parts; calcined lampblack, 5 parts; as
No. 2.
5. Alum, 3 parts; wheat flour, 1 part; as
No. 2.
6. (LEAD PYROPHORUS—Göbel.) Heat tar.
trate of lead to redness in a glass tube, and
then hermetically seal it. See TARTRATE OF
LEAD.
Obs. When the above are properly pre-
pared, a little of the powder rapidly becomes
very hot, and inflames on exposure to the air,
The accession of the combustion is promoted
by moisture, as a damp atmosphere or the
breath. With the exception of the first and
sixth, “they owe their combustibility to the
presence of sulphide of potassium.” (Gay
Lussac.)
PYROPHOSPHOR/IC ACID. See DIBASIC
PHOSPHORIC ACID.
PYRO'SIS. Syn. BLACK WMTER, WATER
BRASH, WATER QUALM. An affection of the
stomach, attended by a sensation of heat and
the eructation of a thin, sour liquid, often in
considerable quantity, especially in the morn.
ing. It is a variety of HEARTBURN (which
see).
PYROTARTARIC ACID. H.C.H.0. Oh,
tained by the destructive distillation of tartariº
acid. See TARTARIC ACID.
PYROTECH'NY. The art of making fire.
works. The three principal materials em:
ployed in this art are charcoal, nitre, and Sul.
phur, along with filings of iron, steel, copper
or zinc, or with resin, camphor, lycopodium,0:
other substances, to impart colour, or tº
modify the effect or the duration of the com:
bustion. Gunpowder is used “either ingrain,
half crushed, or finely ground, for different
purposes. The longer the iron filings are, the
brighter red and white spots they give; those
being preferred which are made with a coars?
file, and quite free from rust. Steel filing;
and cast-iron borings contain carbon, and
afford a more brilliant fire, with wavy radia.
tions. Copper filings give a greenish tint tº
flame; those of zinc, a fine blue colour; the


PYROXYLIC SPIRIT-PYROXYLIN. 999
sulphide of antimony gives a less greenish blue
than zinc, but with much smoke; amber affords
a yellow fire, as well as colophony (resin) and
common salt; but the last must be very dry.
Lampblack produces a very red colour with
gunpowder, and a pink one with nitre in ex-
cess; it serves for making golden showers.”
When this substance is lightly mixed with
gunpowder and put into cases, it throws out
small stars resembling the rowel of a spur;
this composition has hence been called ‘spur
fire.” “The yellow sand, or glistening mica,
communicates to fire-works golden radiations.
Verdigris imparts a pale green; sulphate of
copper and Sal ammoniac gives a palm-tree
green. Camphor yields a very white flame
and aromatic fumes, which masks the bad smell
of other substances. Benzoin and storax are
also used, on account of their agreeable odour.
Lycopodium burns with a rose colour and a
magnificent flame; but it is principally em-
ployed in theatres to represent lightning, or to
charge the torch of a Fury.” (Ure.) See
FIRES (Coloured), FLAME CoIOURs, GUNPOW-
DER, STARS, ROCKETS, &c.
PYROXYL'IC SPIRIT.
roxylic).
PYROX'YLIN. Sym. FULMINATING COTTON,
GUN-GOTTON. A highly inflammable and ex-
plosive compound, discovered by Schönbein.
It is obtained by the action of nitric acid on
cotton (cellulin, CºH10O3), in the presence of
sulphuric acid.
By varying the strength of the nitric acid
three kinds of gun-cottom may be obtained,
called respectively mononitro-cellulin [CºPI,
(NO3)O3], dinitro-cellulin [CºHs(NO3)3O3], and
trinitro-cellulin [CB, (NO2)3O3]. The first is
but slightly explosive; the second is not suffi-
ciently explosive to be used as a substitute for
gunpowder, but is best adapted for the pre-
paration of collodion; the third is highly ex-
plosive, and is the variety employed in mining
and military operations, &c.
Prep. 1. (B. P., DINITRO-CELLULIN.) Cot-
ton-wool, 1; sulphuric acid, 5; nitric acid, 5;
mix the acids, immerse the cotton, and stir
with a glass rod for three minutes, or until it
is thoroughly wetted, then remove it, and
thoroughly wash out the acid, so that the wash-
ings cease to produce a precipitate with chlo-
ride of barium. Drain on filtering paper, and
dry in a water bath. Used in the preparation
of CoILODION.
2. Concentrated nitric acid (sp. gr. 1.500)
and concentrated sulphuric acid (sp. gr. 1845)
are mixed together in about equal measures;
when the mixture has become cold, it is poured
See SPIRIT (Py-
into a glass or wedgwood-ware mortar or
basin, and clean, dry carded cotton, in as loose
a state as practicable, is immersed in it for 4
or 5 minutes, the action of the liquid being
promoted by incessant stirring with a glass
rod; the acid is next poured off, and the cotton,
after being squeezed as dry as possible, by
means of the glass stirrer, or between two
plates of glass, is thrown into a large quantity
of clean soft water, and again squeezed to free
it from superfluous moisture; it is then
washed in a stream of pure water until it
becomes perfectly free from acid, and is, lastly,
carefully dried by the heat of hot water or
steam, at a temperature not higher than about
180° Fahr. -
3. (Schönbein,) Nitric acid (1:45 to 1:50),
1 part ; sulphuric acid (1:85), 3 parts; (both
by volume;) proceed as above, but, after the
cotton has been squeezed from the acid, allow
it to remain in a covered vessel for an hour
before washing it ; and after washing it, dip
it into a solution of carbonate of potassa, 1 oz.,
in pure water, 1 gal., then squeeze, and par-
tially dry it; next dip it into a weak solution
of nitre, and dry it in a room heated by hot
air or steam to about 150°Fahr. (See Patent
Specif.)
4. (Won Lenk.) The cotton, having been
thoroughly cleansed and dried, is steeped, as
above, in a mixture of nitric and sulphuric acids
(thestrongest obtainable in commerce), squeezed
as dry as possible, and immersed in a fresh
mixture of strong acids, being allowed to re-
main in this second mixture 48 hours. It is
then washed in a stream of water for several
weeks, and finally treated with a solution of
silicate of potassa (soluble glass). This is the
celebrated Austrian gun-cotton which was
reported on so favourably by a committee of
the British Association in 1863. The treat-
ment with silicate of potassa is adopted merely
for the parpose of retarding the combustion.
5. (‘Bulletin de St. Pétersbourg.”)—a. Take
of powdered nitre, 20 parts; sulphuric acid
(1830 to 1-835), 31 parts; dissolve in a glass
vessel, and, whilst the solution is still warm
(122°Fahr.), add of dry carded cotton, 1 part,
and employ agitation until this last is well
saturated; then cover over the vessel with a
plate of glass, and let it stand, for 24 hours, at
a temperature of about 86° Fahr. ; next well
wash the cotton, as above, first with cold and
afterwards with boiling water, and dry it care-
fully at a very low temperature.
b. From sulphuric acid (containing 3 equiv.
of water), 13 parts; nitric acid (monohydrated),
12 parts; carded cotton, 1 part ; the immer-
sion being limited to one hour at a temperature
of from 104° to 122° Fahr. (See ‘Pharm.
Journ., vol. xiii, No. 2.)
Prop., &c. Pyroxylin explodes, with a very
sudden flash, and the development of very little
heat, without either smoke or residue, at a
temperature of about 300° Fahr. (No. 3 at
277° Fahr.). Several modifications of pyroxy-
lin are known, varying considerably in compo-
sition, though they all contain the elements of
hyponitric acid, and are all explosive. Some
are insoluble in a mixture of ether and alcohol,
whilst others are readily dissolved, forming
the glutinous solution which is used in surgery
under the name of ‘collodion, and which is
also extensively used in photography. The


1000
QUACK MEDICINES-QUINCE.
best gun-cotton (Von Lenk's) is of no use
whatever for making collodion. The pyroxylin
prepared by the formula 5, a (above), is soluble
in a mixture of 7 parts of ether and 1 part of
alcohol; whilst the product of 5, b, if pre-
pared by 2 hours’ digestion instead of 1, is said
to be even soluble in absolute alcohol.
Obs. General von Lenk has overcome all
the difficulties which have hitherto prevented
gun-cotton being used in place of gunpowder.
By spinning the gun-cotton into thread or
yarn, and weaving this into webs, he has suc-
ceeded in making cartridges which will pro-
duce the exact amount of force required. The
time needed for the complete ignition of the
cartridge can be diminished or increased at
pleasure by varying the mechanical arrange-
ment of the spun threads. Each gun and each
kind of projectile requires a certain density of
cartridge. In general, it is found that the
proportion of 11 lbs. of gun-cotton occupying
1 cubic foot of space produces a greater force
than gunpowder of which from 50 to 60 lbs.
occupies the same space, and a force of the
nature required for ordinary artillery. See
COLLODION and XYLOIDIN; consult also Abel's
researches in the ‘Transactions of the Royal
Society.” -
QUACK MEDICINES. See PATENT MEDI-
CINES, OINTMENT, PILLs, &c.
QUAIL. The Coturnia vulgaris, a gallina-
ceous bird, allied to the partridge, but of
smaller size. Its flesh is highly esteemed by
epicures. It is imported from Turkey, pre-
served in oil; and from Italy, potted with
clarified butter.
QUARTAN. Occurring every fourth day.
QUARTA"TION. The practice, among as-
sayers, of alloying 1 part of gold with 3 parts
of silver, before submitting it to the operation
of ‘parting; in order that its particles may
be too far separated to protect the copper,
lead, palladium, silver, or other metals, with
which it is contaminated, from the solvent
action of the nitric or sulphuric acid, as the
case may be. See ASSAYING.
QUARTZ. Pure native silica. It is an es-
sential constituent of granite and many other
rocks. Its crystalline, transparent varieties
are known as rock crystal. See GLASS, Pow-
DER, &c.
QUASS. Syn. PoscA VENALIS, L. Prep.
Mix rye-flour and warm water together, and
keep the mixture by the fireside until it has
turned sour. Used as vinegar in Russia.
QUAS'SIA. Syn. QUASSIA (Ph.L. E. & D.;
QUASSIA LIGNUM, QUASSIA wooD, B. P.)
The “wood of Picraena (Picrasma) eaccelsa,
Lindl.” (B. P., Ph. L.), or Jamaica quassia;
and also of the “Quassia amara, Linn.” (Ph.
E.), or Surinam quassia. The latter is the
original quassia, but it is no longer imported.
Quassia is characterised by its intense bitter-
ness. It is reputed tonic and stomachic,
assisting digestion; and giving tone and vigour
to the system. Its name was given to it by
Linnaeus, in honour of a negro slave who had
long employed it as a remedy for the malig-
nant endemic fevers of Surinam. When sliced,
it forms the “quassia chips’ of the shops. It
is generally taken in the form of infusion,
This last, sweetened with sugar, forms a safe
and effective poison for flies.—Dose. (In pow-
der) 10 to 20 grs. -
ROASTED QUASSIA, reduced to powder, is
largely employed, instead of hops, to embitter
porter; and the unroasted powder is used for
the same purpose in the adulteration of the
bitter varieties of ale.
QUAS'SIN. Syn. QUASSITE, QUASSINA. A
peculiar bitter principle, obtained by precipi-
tating decoction of quassia with milk of lime,
evaporating the filtrate, dissolving the residue
in alcohol, treating with animal charcoal,
again evaporating, dissolving in water, and
crystallising. 8 lbs. of quassia chips yield 1
drachm.
QUEEN'S BLUE. Thumb blue. See BLUE,
QUEEN'S METAL. A species of pewter
used for teapots, &c., made by fusing under
charcoal a mixture of tin, 9 parts, and anti-
mony, bismuth, and lead, of each, 1 part; or,
tin, 100 parts; antimony, 8 parts; copper, 4
parts ; bismuth, 1 part. See BRITANNIA
METAL and PEWTER.
QUEEN'S YELLOW. Subsulphate of mer.
cury.
QUER'CITRON. Thebark of Quercus migra
or tinctoria, a species of oak indigenous in
North America. With alum mordants it yields
a very permanent yellow dye.
QUICK'SILVER. See MERCURY.
QUILLS. Prep. 1. The quills or wing-
feathers of the goose (goose quills) are se-
parately plunged, for a few seconds, into hot
ashes, cinders, or sand, of a temperature about
equal to that of boiling water, after which
they are scraped with a blunt knife, strongly
rubbed with a piece of flannel or woollen cloth,
and gently ‘stoved;’ they are, lastly, tied up
in bundles by women or children. A yellow
tinge is often given to them by dipping them
for a short time into dilute hydrochloric or
nitric acid, or into an infusion of turmeric.
2. Suspend the quills in a copper over water
sufficiently high to nearly touch the nibs;
then close it steam tight, and apply three or
four hours' hard boiling; next, withdraw the
quills, and dry them, and in 24 hours cut the
nibs and draw out the pith; lastly, rub them
with a piece of cloth, and expose them to a
moderate heat in an oven or stove. Quills
prepared in this way are as hard as bone, with-
out being brittle, and nearly as transparent as
glass. Crow quills and swan quills may be
cured in the same manner.
QUI’NA. See QUININE.
QUINCE. Syn. CYDONIA, L. The fruit of
Cydonia vulgaris, or common quince tree. Its
flavour in the raw state is austere, but it
forms an excellent marmalade (quince marma:

QUINICINE–QUININE.
1001
lade), and its juice yields an agreeable and
wholesome wine. The seed or pips (cydoniae
seminae; cydonium—Ph. L.) abound in gummy
matter, which forms a mucilage with water,
and possesses the advantage of not being af-
fected by the salts of iron or alcohol. See
DECOCTION, FIXATURE, and JELLY.
QUINICINE. An alkaloid obtained in 1853
by Pasteur, by exposing quinine or quinidine,
under favourable circumstances, to a tempera-
ture varying from 248° to 266° Fahr., for
several hours. It is very probable that this
alkaloid is either identical, or in very close
connection, with the amorphous alkaloid solu-
ble in ether which occurs in all barks, and
particularly in the young barks of the planta-
tions in India.
QUINIDINE. C20H24O2N2.2Aq. Syn. QUI-
NIDIA, CONCHININE, &c. An alkaloid con-
tained in many species of cinchona, together
with quinine and cinchonine, and there-
fore often found in the mother-liquors of
quinine manufacturers. It is identical with
the B quinine of Van Heyningen, and
was discovered, in 1833, by Henry and
Delondre. As the cinchonidine discovered by
Winckler, in 1848, has been unhappily deno-
minated quinidine by this chemist, there is still
a confusion about these alkaloids, and, there-
fore, the quinidine of commerce was very often
a mixture of both, till Pasteur made, in 1853,
a classical investigation of this matter. He main-
tained the name of quinidine for the alkaloid
discovered by Henry and Delondre, because it
is isomeric with quinine, and gives the same
green colour when treated with chlorine fol-
lowed by ammonia, and gave the name of cin-
chonidine to the alkaloid discovered by
Winckler, because it is isomeric with cin-
chonine. He determined also the action of the
solutions of these alkaloids on the plane of
polarization, and found that the quinidine
turned this plane to the right, its molecular
rotation in alcoholic solution being [a] =
250-75° ->–-, whilst he found that the
cinchonidine turned this plane to the left, its
molecular rotation in alcoholic solution being
[a]=144:61°--3.
Prop. &c. Many of the salts of quinidine
are very similar to those of quinine, but the
normal salt with hydriodic acid is not only
very different from that of quinine, but also
from those of all the other cinchona-alkaloids.
The normal hydriodate of quinidine is so very
sparingly soluble in water that 1 part requires,
at 60° Fahr., not less than 1200 parts of water
to be dissolved. Therefore the presence of
sulphate of quinidine in the sulphate of
quinine, which often occurs, either from that
article being carelessly made or from wilful
adulteration, can be easily detected by adding
a few minims of solution of iodide of potassium
to the saturated solution of sulphate of quinine
in water of 60°Fahr., whereby, if quinidine is
present, its hydriodate will be separated either
in the shape of a sandy precipitate or, if only
traces are present, in the shape of striae on the
sides of the glass where this has been rubbed
by a glass rod.
For an account of its medicinal properties,
the reader should consult the recent report
from India upon the experiments made there
by order of Government with all the four
cinchona-alkaloids, which experiments are very
favourable to the therapeutical action of quini-
dine compared with that of quinine.
QUININE. Clo HisON. Syn. QUINA,
QUINIA. Till recently it was found in the
greatest quantity in good Calisaya bark, parti-
cularly in that from Bolivia, but since it has
been found in great quantity in some other
barks, especially in the bark of Cinchona offici-
malis, for instance in the bark of that species
grown in Ceylon. Red bark contains not only
quinine and cinchonine, but also cinchoni-
dine.
Prep. 1. By precipitating a solution of
sulphate of quinine with a slight excess of am-
monia, potassa, or soda, and washing and dry-
ing the precipitate. By solution in alcohol,
sp. gr. 815, and spontaneous evaporation, it
may be procured in crystals. Crystals may also
be obtained from “its solution in hot water
with a little ammonia.” (Liebig.)
2. (Direct.) By adding hydrate of lime,
in slight excess, to a strong decoction of the
ground bark made with water acidulated with
sulphuric acid, washing the precipitate which
ensues, and boiling it in alcohol; the solution,
filtered while hot, deposits the alkaloid on
cooling.
Prop., &c. Quinine, when prepared by pre-
cipitation, is an amorphous white powder, but
when this precipitate is left in the liquor it
assumes, after some time, the appearance of
aggregated crystalline needles; when slowly
crystallised from its solution, these needles are
remarkably fine, and of a pearly or silky lustre.
It is freely soluble in rectified spirit and in
ether, and of all the cinchona-alkaloids it is
the most soluble in ammonia. It is upon this
fact that Kerner's method for testing the purity
of sulphate of quinine is founded. Its normal
Salts, if dissolved in water, have a slightly
alkaline reaction upon red litmus paper. It
is only sparingly soluble in water, even when
boiling; both the fixed and volatile oils dis-
solve it with the aid of heat, more especially
when it has been rendered ambydrous, or is
presented to them under the form of an ethe-
real solution. It fuses by a gentle heat, with-
out decomposition; forms crystallisable salts,
which are only slightly soluble in water, unless
it be acidulated, and, like the pure alkaloid,
are extremely bitter, and possess much of the
characteristic flavour of cinchona bark. It is
precipitated by the alkalies and their carbo-
nates, by tannic acid, and by most astringent
substances.
Pur. See SULPHATE OF QUININE, and
QUINOMETRY (below). . .
ſ

1002
QUININE.
Tests. Quinine is recognised by—1. Its ap-
pearance under the microscope.—2. Its solu-
bility in ether, and in pure ammonia water.—
3. Its solubility in concentrated nitric acid,
forming a colourless liquid, which does not be-
come yellowish until it is heated.—4. The
solubility of itself and salts, when pure, in
concentrated sulphuric acid, forming colourless
fluids, “which do not acquire any coloration
upon being heated to the point of incipient
evaporation of the sulphuric acid, but which
afterwards become yellow, and finally brown.”
(Fresenius.)—5. It solubility in concentrated
sulphuric acid to which some nitric acid has
been added, forming a colourless, or, at the
most, only a faintly yellowish liquid.—6. It is
wholly destroyed by heat.
A solution of quinine in acidulated water,
and solutions of its salts, exhibit the following
reactions:–1. Ammonia, potassa, and the al-
kaline carbonates, give white, pulverulent pre-
cipitates, becoming crystallime after some time
(see above), and which are soluble in ammonia
in excess, and which, when ether is added after
the ammonia, and the whole is agitated, redis-
solve in the ether, whilst the clear liquid, on
repose, presents two distinct layers.-2. Bi-
carbonate of soda (avoiding excess) gives a
similar precipitate, both in acid and neutral
solutions of quinine, either at once or after a
short time. This precipitate is soluble in ex-
cess of the precipitant, and is again precipi-
tated from the new solution upon protracted
ebullition. “Vigorous stirring of the liquid
promotes the separation of this precipitate.”
(Fresenius.)—3. If recently prepared chlorine
be added to it, and then ammonia, a beautiful
emerald-green colour is developed. (Ph. L.)—
4. A concentrated solution of ferrocyanide of
potassium being added, in excess, after the
chlorine, instead of the ammonia, a dark red
colour is instantly produced, which, after some
time, passes into green, especially when freely
exposed to the light. This reaction is not cha-
racteristic of quinine, for with quinidine one
gets the same reaction.—5. If caustic potassa
be used instead of ammonia (see above), the
solution acquires a sulphur-yellow colour.
“These reactions are restricted to this alka-
loid.” (Dr. Garrod.)
The best test, however, for quinine is the for-
mation of its iodosulphate, the so-called herapa-
thite. For this purpose the quinine is dissolved
in 10 parts of proof spirit, acidulated with ºth
part of sulphuric acid, and to this solution an
alcoholic solution of iodine is carefully added,
and the liquid in the meanwhile stirred with
a glass rod. There appears, either imme-
diately or after some minutes, a black precipi-
tate of iodosulphate of quinine, which, if redis-
solved in boiling proof spirit, forms in cooling
the beautiful crystals of herapathite. 100
parts of this herapathite, if dried on a water
bath, represent 56.5 parts of pure quinine.
Quinine is distinguished from both cincho-
nine and quinidine by its comparatively free
solubility in ether; the last of these being
very sparingly soluble, and the other wholly
insoluble, in that menstruum. The presence
of cinchonine may also be positively determined
by reference to the behaviour of that alka-
loid. Quinidine is also distingished from qui.
nine by the different crystallisation, greater
specific gravity, and freer solubility of its salts
in cold water."
Jºsłim. See QUINOMETRY.
Uses, &c. Pure quinine is but rarely used
in medicine, but several of its salts are em-
ployed as remedies, on account of their great
stimulant, tonic, and febrifuge powers. As a
tonic in dyspeptic affections, and for restor.
ing strength and vigour to morbidly weakened
habits, and as an antiperiodic or agent to
counteract febrile action, it appears to be supé.
rior to all other remedies, provided no abnor.
mal irritability of the mucous membranes, or
of the circulatory organs, exists. The dose of
the salts of quinine, as a tonic, is # to 1 grº
twice or thrice daily; as an antiperiodic, 2 to
5 grs., or even more, every second or third
hour, during the intervals of the paroxysms of
ague, and of other intermittent or periodic
affections; also in acute rheumatism. The
sulphate (disulphate) is the salt generally used;
this and other salts are most effective when
taken in solution.
The salts of quinine may be made by simply
saturating the dilute acids with the base, so
that part of the latter remains undissolved,
and gently evaporating the solutions for crys.
tals, or to dryness. Prince Lucien Bonaparte
recommends all these salts to be prepared by
the addition of a strong alcoholic solution of
quinine to a cold solution of the acid. We
have tried this method with success.
Quinime, Ac'etate of. Syn. QUINE ACETAS,
L. Prep. 1. (P. Cod.) Mix quinine, 2 parts,
with water, 3 parts; heat the mixture, and
add of acetic acid, q. S. to dissolve the alkaloid,
and to render the solution slightly acid; lastly,
decant or filter the solution whilst boiling hot,
and set it aside to crystallise. The mother.
water, on evaporation, will yield a second crop
of the acetate.
2. Efloresced sulphate of quinine, 17 parts,
is dissolved in boiling water, and mixed with
crystallised acetate of soda, 6 parts. The
acetate of quinine crystallises.
Prop., &c. Satiny, acicular crystals, which
are rather more soluble in water than those of
the sulphate.—Dose. # to 5 grs.
Quinine, Arse"miate of. Syn. QUINE AR.
SENIAs, L. Prep. (Bourières.) Arsenic acid,
1% dr. ; quinine, 5 drs. ; distilled water, 6 fl.
oz.; boil them together in a covered glass
vessel until the alkaloid is dissolved, then set
the solution aside to crystallise.
Uses, &c. Recommended by Dr. Neligan,
* An extremely elegant and highly sensitive method of
testing for quinine and quinidine by means of the micro-
scope, &c., is described at considerable length, by Dr.
Herapath, in the ‘Pharm. Journ,” for November, 1853.

QUININE. 1003
and others, as being more powerfully antipe-
riodic than the other preparations of quinine.
—Dose. # to # gr., made into pills; in agues,
neuralgia, &c.; also in cancer.
Quinine, Ar'semite of. Syn. QUINE ARSENIS,
L. Prep. Sulphate of quinine, 100 parts, is
dissolved in alcohol, 600 parts, and boiled with
arsenious acid, 14 parts. The liquid is then
filtered. The poisonous salt is deposited in
the crystalline form as the liquid cools.
Uses, &c. As the last.
Quinine, Chlo"ride of Hydrochlorate of
quinine (see below).
Quinine, Citrate of. Syn. QUINE CITRAs,
L. Prep. 1. By mixing a hot solution of
sulphate of quinine with a like solution of
citrate of soda.
2. From quinine and citric acid, as the
acetate. Needle-shaped prisms.--Dose, &c. As
the sulphate or disulphate.
Quinine, Disul’phate of Sulphate of quinine
(see below).
Quinine, Ferrocy'anide of. Syn. CYANIDE
OF IRON AND QUININE ; QUINAE HYDROFERRO-
CYANAS, QUINE FERRO-PRUSSIAS, L. Prep.
(P. Cod.) Sulphate of quinine, 100 parts;
ferrocyanide of potassium, 31 parts; distilled
water, 2500 parts; boil for a few minutes, and,
when cold, separate the impure salt which
floats as an oily mass on the surface, wash it
with a little cold water, and dissolve it in
boiling alcohol; the solution will deposit crys-
tals as it cools.
Obs. This compound is by some said to be
the most efficacious of all the salts of quinia.
Pelouze asserts that it is simply quinine
mixed with some Prussian blue.—Dose. 1 to
6 grs.
Quinine, Ferrosul’phate of. See SULPHATE
OF QUININE AND IRON (below).
Quimine, Hydri'odate of. Syn. IODIDE OF
QUININE ; QUINAE HYDRIODAS, Q. IODIDUM, L.
Prep. 1. By adding, drop by drop, a concen-
trated solution of iodide of potassium to a like
solution of acid sulphate of quinine, and dry-
ing the precipitate in the shade; or, heat the
liquid nearly to the boiling-point, and allow it
to crystallise.
2. (Parrish.) Effloresced sulphate of quinine,
5 parts, dissolved in alcohol, and decomposed
by an alcoholic solution of 3 parts of iodide of
potassium, precipitates sulphate of potassa, and
yields, on cooling and evaporating, hydriodate
of quinine in fine crystalline needles."
3. (IoDURETTED — Bouchardat.) From an
acid solution of quinia and a solution of iodide
of iron containing a slight excess of iron, as
No. 1. -
Obs. The above are reputed alterative,
tonic, and antiperiodic.—Dose. 1 to 4 grs.; in
obstinate intermittents, and in the scrofulous
affections of debilitated subjects.
1 “l and 2 are not identical; 1 is an acid salt which
readily crystallises, but 2 is a normal salt which I never
saw crystallise, but always like a fluid resin, quite amor-
phous.”—De Vrij.
Quimime, Hydrochlo"rate of. Syn. CHLORIDE
OF QUININE, MURIATE OF QUININE f ; QUINE
HYDROCHLORAS, QUINIE MURIAs, L. Prep.
1. By neutralising dilute hydrochloric acid
with the base, as above.
2. (Ph. Bor.) Chloride of barium, 5 drs.;
boiling water, 1 lb.; dissolve, add, gradually,
of sulphate of quinine, 2 oz.; boil gently for a
few minutes, filter the solution whilst hot, and
set it aside that crystals may form.
3. (QUINAE MURIAs—Ph. D.) Dissolve
chloride of barium, 123 grs, in distilled water,
2 fl. oz. ; add of sulphate of quinine, 1 oz., dis-
solved in boiling water, 1% pint; mix, evaporate
the solution to one half, filter, and again eva-
porate until spiculae begin to appear; next
allow the liquid to cool, collect the crystals,
and dry them on bibulous paper. The mother-
liquor, by further concentration and cooling,
will yield an additional product.
Obs. Hydrochlorate of quinine occurs in
snow-white groups of feathery crystals, of a
mother-of-pearl lustre, which are more freely
soluble than those of the disulphate.
Quinine, Kiſmate of Syn. QUINE RINAs, L.
Prep. By saturating a solution of kinic acid
with quinine, and purifying by crystallisation
out of alcohol. The kinate of quinine is
obtained in crystalline warts, soluble in 4
parts of water and 8 parts of alcohol.
Quinine, Lactate of. Syn. QUINE LACTAs,
L. Prep. As the ACETATE or CITRATE. By
spontaneous evaporation fine crystals may be
obtained. Said to agree better with dyspeptic
patients than the other salts of quinine.
Quinine, Mu'riate of Hydrochlorate of
quinine (see above).
Quinime, Niſtrate of. Syn. QUINE NITRAs,
L. Prep. As the HYDROCHLORATE, substi-
tuting dilute nitric acid, or nitrate of baryta
(P. Cod.), for hydrochloric acid or chloride of
barium.
..Quinine, Phosphate of. Syn. QUINE PHOS-
PHAS, L. As the ACETATE. Silky, needle-
shaped crystals, with a pearly lustre. It has
been highly recommended in intermittents,
&c., associated with rickets and stomach affec-
tions.
Quinine, Sulphates of. The salt oftem called
“disulphate of quinine” is now generally re-
garded as the normal sulphate, while the solu-
ble salt, often called the “neutral sulphate,’
is considered to be an acid salt. This change
in nomenclature results from doubling the
atomic weight of the alkaloid quinine:–
1. Quinine, Acid Sulphate of. (CºnFIsiN,0s.
HSSO4. 7Aq). Syn. SULPHATE OF QUININE +,
NEUTRAL SULPHATE OF QUININEf, SoLUBLE s.
OF Q, ; QUINE SULPHAS SOLUBILIS, L. Prep.
From sulphate of quinine, 1 oz., dissolved, by
the aid of heat, in water, 3 pint, previously
acidulated with dilute sulphuric acid, 5 fl. drs. ;
the solution affords crystals on cooling, and
more on evaporation.
Obs. This salt possesses the advantage of
| being soluble in about 10 parts of water at
1004 - QUININE.
60° Fahr. ; but it is seldom used in the crys-
talline form ; still, as the officinal sulphate
(‘disulphate’) is generally prescribed along
with a small quantity of dilute sulphuric acid
to render it soluble, this acid sulphate is, in
fact, the compound which is commonly given.
It is the ‘bisulphate,’ ‘supersulphate, or ‘acid
sulphate of quina’ of Soubeiran and other
Continental chemists.
2. Quinime, Sulphate of (C20H24N2O)s.
2H2SO4. 7Aq). Syn. No RMAL SULPHATE
OF QUININE, DISULPHALE OF Q., QUININE ;
QUINE DISULPHAs (Ph. L.), QUINE SULPHAs
(Ph. E., D., & U. S., & P. Cod.), QUINIE SUL-
PHAs (B. P.), L.; SULPHATE DE QUININE, Fr.
Prep. 1. (Ph. L. 1836.) Take of yellow cin-
chona bark, bruised, 7 lbs. ; sulphuric acid, 4}
oz. ; (diluted with) water, 6 galls. ; boil them
for 1 hour, and strain; repeat this a second
time for 1 hour, with a like quantity of acid
and water, and again strain; next boil the bark
for 3 hours, in water, 8 galls., and strain; wash
the residue with fresh quantities of boiling dis-
tilled water; to the mixed decoctions and wash-
ings, add moist hydrated oxide of lead to
saturation, decant the supernatant fluid, and
wash the sediment with distilled water; boil
down the liquor for 15 minutes, and strain,
then precipitate the quina with liquor of am-
monia, and wash the precipitate (with very
cold water) until nothing alkaline is percep-
tible ; saturate what remains with sulphuric
acid, # oz., diluted with water, q. S., digest
with animal charcoal, 2 oz., and strain; lastly,
the charcoal being well washed, evaporate the
mixed liquors, that crystals may form.
2. (Ph. E.) This process varies from the
last one, in the bark (1 lb.) being first boiled
in water (4 pints) along with carbonate of soda
(4 oz.); the residuum, being pressed, is moist-
ened with water, and again pressed, and this
operation is repeated a second and a third
time, the object being to remove, as much as
possible, the acids, colouring matter, gum, and
extractive, before proceeding to extract the
alkaloid. Carbonate of soda is also used as the
precipitant, instead of ammonia, and the pre-
cipitate is formed into a sulphate (disulphate)
by being stirred with boiling water, 1 pint, to
which sulphuric acid, 1 fl. scruple, or q. S., is
subsequently added. The crystals, after di-
gestion with prepared animal charcoal, 2 drs.,
are ordered to be dried at a heat not higher
than 140°Fahr.
3. (Ph. D.) Yellow bark, 1 lb., is macerated
for 24 hours in water, 2 quarts, acidulated
with oil of vitriol, 2 fl. dr.s., and then boiled
for half an hour, after which the fluid is de-
canted; this is repeated a second and a third
time with water, 2 quarts, and oil of vitriol,
1 fl. dr. ; the decanted (or strained) liquors are
evaporated to a quart, and filtered, and slaked
lime, 1 oz., or q. S., added to the solution until
it exhibits a decidedly alkaline reaction; the
precipitate is next collected on a calico filter,
and, after having been washed with cold water,
partially dried on porous bricks, and subjected
to powerful pressure enveloped in blotting
paper, is boiled for 20 minutes in rectified
spirit, 1 pint, and the liquid, after subsidence,
decanted; this is repeated a second and a third
time with a fresh pint of spirit, and the resi.
duum being well pressed, the mixed liquors are
filtered, and the spirit removed by distillation;
the brown viscid residuum is dissolved in
boiling water, 16 fl. oz., boiled, and dilute Sul.
phuric acid, ; fl. oz., or q. S., added to render
the solution neutral or only slightly acid;
animal charcoal, oz., is next stirred in, the
mixture boiled for about 5 minutes, filtered,
and set aside to crystallise ; the crystals are
dried on blotting paper, by mere exposure to a
dry atmosphere.
4. (B. P.) Yellow cinchona bark, in coarse
powder, 16; hydrochloric acid, 3; distilled
water, a sufficiency; solution of soda, 80;
dilute sulphuric acid, a sufficiency. Dilute
the hydrochloric acid with ten pints of the
water. Place the bark in a porcelain basin,
and add to it as much of the diluted hydro-
chloric acid as will render it thoroughly moist.
After maceration, with occasional stirring, for
twenty-four hours, place the bark in a dis.
placement apparatus, and percolate with the
diluted hydrochloric acid until the solution
which drops through is nearly destitute of
bitter taste. Into this liquid (hydrochlorate
of quinine) pour the solution of soda, agitate
well, let the precipitate (quinine) completely
subside, decant the supernatant fluid, collect
the precipitate on a filter, and wash it with
cold distilled water until the washings cease to
have colour. Transfer the precipitate to a
porcelain dish containing a pint of distilled
water, and, applying to this the heat of a
water bath, gradually add diluted sulphuric
acid until very nearly the whole of the pre:
cipitate has been dissolved, and a neutral
liquid has been obtained. (Or add about half
the precipitated quinine to some water in an
evaporating basin, warm the mixture and pour
in diluted sulphuric acid until the precipitate
has dissolved and the liquid is neutral or only
faintly acid, then add the other half, stir well,
and again heat liquid.) Filter the solution
(sulphate of quinine), while hot, through paper,
wash the filter with boiling distilled water, com:
centrate till a film forms on the surface of the
solution, and set it aside to crystallise. The
crystals should be dried on filtering paper with:
out the application of heat.
5. “Those who are well acquainted with the
chemistry of the cinchona-alkaloids all agree
with me in condemning the boiling of bark
with dilute acids. I prefer the following
method, which can also be used on a small
scale for quinometry.
“Yellow bark, or any other bark in which
quinine prevails, like, for instance, that of
Cinchona officinalis, 1 lb., is mixed with milk
of lime, made from 4 oz. of lime and 40 Oz, of
water. After drying this mixture it is ex:



QUININE.
1005
hausted with strong methylated spirit (the
strongest possible) and the slightly coloured
solution neutralised with sulphuric acid, so that
the liquor has a slight acid reaction upon blue
litmus paper. After filtering or subsiding, the
clear liquid is distilled and the residue in the
still dissolved in water, carefully neutralised,
so that the solution has a slight alkaline re-
action upon red litmus paper, treated with
charcoal and crystallised, &c.”—De Vrij.
6. ( HospitaL SULPHATE' — Mr. E. Her-
ring.) The crushed bark is boiled in a solution
of caustic soda or potassa, to extract colouring
matter and gum ; it is then pressed, washed
with cold water, a second time boiled with
a solution of caustic alkali, and again pressed,
washed, and pressed; the decoloured and puri-
fied bark is next exhausted by coction with
acidulated water, in the usual way, and the
filtered mixed decoctions are precipitated with
carbonate of soda ; the precipitated quina is
then dissolved in hot dilute sulphuric acid, to
saturation, , when the ‘HospitaL SULPHATE'
crystallises out, as the solution cools; this is,
lastly, washed with a little cold water, drained,
and dried.—The advantage of this process is
the non-use of animal charcoal as a bleacher,
and the consequent less cost of the product.
In the preparation of his ‘WHITE SULPHATE,
Mr. Herring uses benzol as a solvent, instead
of alcohol. Patent dated July 28th, 1853.
Prop. When pure, sulphate of quinine forms
very light, delicate, flexible, white needles,
which are efflorescent, inodorous, and intensely
bitter; it is soluble in 740 parts of water at
60°, and in 30 parts at 212° Fahr.; it takes
about 80 parts of cold rectified spirit for its
solution, but is freely soluble in boiling alcohol,
and in acidulated water; it melts at 240°
Fahr., and is charred and destroyed at a heat
below that of redness. The crystals contain
76.1% of quinine, 8.7% of sulphuric acid, and
15.2% of water; of the last, they lose about
3-4ths by exposure to dry air, and nearly the
whole when kept in a state of fusion for some
time.
Pur. This may not be inferred from the
form of its crystallisation, for the sulphates of
quinidine and of cinchonidine may be obtained
in the same form of crystallisation. As men-
tioned already, the reaction with chlorine and
ammonia does not distinguish quinine from
quinidine, as both give the same green
colour. “It is entirely soluble in water (hot),
and more readily so when an acid is present.
Precipitated by ammonia, the residuary liquid,
after evaporation, should not taste of sugar.
By a gentle heat it loses 8 or 10% of water. It
is wholly consumed by heat. If chlorine be
first added, and then ammonia, it becomes
green.” (Ph. L. 1836.) “On adding chloride
of barium to 100 grs, of this salt, dissolved in
water mixed with hydrochloric acid, 26:6 grs.
of sulphate of baryta, dried at a red heat, are
prepared.” (Ph. L. 1851.) “A solution of
10 grs., in 1 fl, oz. of distilled water, and 2 or
3 drops of sulphuric acid, if decomposed by a
solution of , oz. of carbonate of soda, in two
waters, and heated until the precipitate shrinks
and fuses, yields, on cooling, a solid mass,
which, when dry, weighs 7-4 grs., and when
reduced to powder, dissolves entirely in a solu-
tion of oxalic acid.” (Ph. E.) -
Adult. Sulphate of quinine is said to be
often adulterated with starch, magnesia, gum,
sugar, cinchonine, quinidine, &c.; but accord-
ing to De Vrij, those with starch, magnesia, gum,
and sugar, are very rare, if ever they were
really observed. Very frequent are those with
the sulphates of the other cinchona-alkaloids,
and these become even still more frequent,
as very different kinds of bark are used for
the manufacture of quinine. Salicine is, if
ever, but very seldom used for adulteration of
quinine. The best practical test for the purity
of sulphate of quinine is the following :-A
saturated solution of the salt is made at
60° Fahr., and one part of this solution is
mixed with 2 or 3 minims of a concentrated
solution of iodide of potassium, whilst ano-
ther part is mixed with 2 or 3 minims of a con-
centrated solution of tartrate of potash and soda.
If the sulphate of quinine is pure its solution
will remain unaltered by both reagents, even
after rubbing the sides of the test tube with a
glass rod and standing many hours. But if it
contains one or more of the other cinchona-
alkaloids there will appear either precipitates
or striae on the glass where it has been rubbed
by the glass rod. Iodide of potassium indicates
particularly the presence of even traces of
quinidine, but also of cinchonidine and cincho-
nine, provided their quantity be not too small.
Tartrate of potash and soda indicate, under
these circumstances, only the presence of cin-
chonidine. The first three remain undissolved
when the salt is digested in spirit; the fourth
is dissolved out by cold water; the fifth may
be detected by its total insolubility in ether;
or, by precipitating the quinine by solution of
potassa, and dissolving the precipitate in boil-
ing alcohol; cinchonine crystallises out as the
solution cools, but the quinine remains in the
mother-liquor; and the last, by the greater
solubility and sp. gr. of the salt, &c. If
the sample disengages ammoniacal fumes when
treated with liquor of potassa, it contains
sal ammoniac. The presence of most foreign
organic substances is also shown by the
sample being turned brown, and being soon
charred when treated with a drop of con-
centrated sulphuric acid. If it turn red it
contains salicin, a substance which is now
frequently used to adulterate sulphate of
quinine. The pure sulphate is not discoloured
by this reagent.
Uses, &c. The sulphate is more extensively
employed than any of the other salts of quinine,
and, indeed, to almost the exclusion of them.
It is the article intended to be used whenever
‘sulphate' or ‘disulphate of quinine, or even
“quinine, is ordered for medicinal purposes,
/
/

1006 QUININE AND COD-LIVER
unless the name is qualified by some other
term. It is a most valuable stomachic, in
doses of # to 1 gr. ; as a tonic, 1 to 3 grs. ; and
as a febrifuge, 2 to 20 grs.
Quinine, Sulpho-tar'trate of. Syn. QUINAE
SULPHO-TARTRAS, L. Prep. From sulphate
of quinine, 4 parts; tartaric acid, 5 parts; dis-
tilled water, 20 parts; mix, gently evaporate
to dryness, and powder the residuum.
Quinime, Tan'mate of. Syn. QUINE TANNAs,
L. Prep. Dissolve sulphate of quinine in
slightly acidulated water, and add a solution of
tannic acid as long as a precipitate forms ;
wash this with a little cold water, and dry it.
The Ph. Graeca orders infusion of galls to be
used as the precipitant. In intermittent neu-
ralgia.
Quinine, Tar'trate of. Syn. QUINE TARTRAs,
L. Prep. (P. Cod.) From tartaric acid and
quinine, as the acetate.
Quinine, Wale"riamate of Syn. QUINEVA-
LERIANAS (Ph. D.), L. Prep. 1. As the
acetate or citrate.
2. (Ph. D.) Valerianate of soda, 124 grs. ;
distilled water, 2 fl. oz. ; dissolve ; also dis-
solve hydrochlorate of quinine, 7 drs., in dis-
tilled water, 14 fl. oz, ; next heat each solu-
tion to 120° (not higher), mix them, and set
the vessel aside for 24 hours; lastly, press
the mass of crystals thus obtained, and dry
them, without the application of artificial heat.
Prop., &c. Silky needles and prisms; its
solution suffers decomposition when heated
much above 120°Fahr. It is powerfully anti-
spasmodic, antiperiodic, and nervine.—1)ose. }
gr., every two hours, or 1 to 3 grs, twice or
thrice daily; in epilepsy, hemicrania, hysteria,
neuralgia, and other nervous affections.
QUININE AND COD-LIVER OIL. Syn.
COD-LIVER OIL WITH QUININE, QUINIARETTED
COD-LIVER OIL; OLEUM MORRHUAE CUM QUINA,
OLEUM JECORIS ASELLI CUM QUINA, L. This
medicine is a solution of pure anhydrous quin-
ine in pure cod-liver oil.
Prep. 1. Pure quinine (preferably recently
precipitated) is fused in a glass or porcelain
capsule by the heat of an oil or sand bath,
carefully applied, by which it assumes a brown
colour and the appearance of a resin ; it is
then allowed to cool out of contact with the
air, after which it is reduced to powder in a
dry mortar, and added to pure pale Newfound-
land cod-liver oil, gently heated in a closed
glass vessel over a water bath; the solution of
the alkaloid is promoted by constant agitation,
and, when complete, the vessel, still corked, is
set aside in a dark situation to cool; when the
* quiniaretted oil’ is quite cold, it is put into
bottles, in the usual manner, and preserved, as
much as possible, from the light and air.
2. The anhydrous quinine is dissolved in a
little anhydrous ether before adding it to the
oil, which in this case need not be heated, as
the union is effected by simple agitation ;
should this not take place, it may be gently
warmed for a few minutes.
OIL–QUININE AND IRON.
3. The anhydrous quinine is dissolved in
anhydrous alcohol, and after being added to the
oil, the whole is gently heated, in an open
vessel, by the heat of a water bath, until the
alcohol is expelled; agitation, &c., being had
recourse to, as in No. 1.
Prop., &c. The above preparation resembles
ordinary cod-liver oil, except in having a pale
yellowish colour, and a slightly bitter taste,
similar to that of cinchona bark. It is said to
possess all the properties of cod-liver oil com:
bined with those peculiar to quinine, by which
the tonic, stomachic, and antiperiodic qualities
of the latter are associated, in one remedy,
with the genial, supporting, and alterative
action of the other. The common strength is
2 grs. of quinine per oz.
QUININE AND IRON. These two import.
ant medicinal agents are combined together in
various ways. The following compound salts
are often prescribed.
Quinine and Iron, Cit'rate of. Syn. CITRATE
OF IRON AND QUININE ; FERRI ET QUINE CI.
TRAs, B. P. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Solution of
persulphate of iron, 4% ; sulphate of quinia,
l; dilute sulphuric acid, 1}; citric acid, 3;
solution of ammonia and distilled water, of
each, a sufficiency : mix 8 of the solution of
ammonia with 40 of the water, and to this add
the solution of persulphate of iron, previously
diluted with 40 of the water, stirring them
constantly and briskly. Let the mixture stand
for two hours, stirring it occasionally,then put it
on a calico filter, and when the liquid has
drained away, wash the precipitate with dis.
tilled water until that which passes through
the filter ceases to give a precipitate with chlo-
ride of barium. Mix the sulphate of quinia
with 8 of the water, add the sulphuric acid,
and when the salt is dissolved, precipitate the
quinia with a slight excess of solution of am:
monia. Collect the precipitate on a filter, and
wash it with 30 of the water. Dissolve the
citric acid in 5 of the water, and having applied
the heat of a water bath, add the oxide of
iron, previously well drained ; stir them toge.
ther, and when the oxalic acid has dissolved,
add the precipitated quinia, continuing the
agitation until this also has dissolved. Let the
solution cool, then add, in small quantities at
a time, 1% solution of ammonia, dilute with 2
of the water, stirring the solution briskly, and
allowing the quinia, which separates with each ||
addition of ammonia, to dissolve before the next ||
Filter the solution, evapo.
rate it to the consistence of a thin syrup, then
dry it in layers on flat porcelain or glass plates,
at the temperature of 100°Fahr., remove the
dry salt in flakes, and keep it in a stoppered
Solubility, 2 in 1.—Test. Taste bitter
addition is made.
bottle.
as well as chalybeate. When burned with
exposure to air, it leaves a residue (oxide of
iron) which yields nothing to water. 50 grs,
dissolved in an ounce of water, and treated
with a slight excess of ammonia, gives a white
precipitate (quinia) which, when collected On

QUININE AND MERCURY-QUINOMETRY.
1007
a filter and dried, weighs 8 grs. The precipi-
tate is entirely soluble in pure ether, indicat-
ing absence of quinidia and cinchonia. When
burned it leaves no residue. When dissolved
by the aid of an acid it forms a solution which,
after decolorisation by a little purified animal
charcoal, turns the plane of polarisation strongly
to the left (cinchona turns it to the right).-
Dose. 5 to 10 grs. as a tonic, three times a
day, in solution or in pill. -
2. (Ph. U. S.) Triturate sulphate of quinine,
1 oz., with distilled water, 6 fl. oz., and having
added sufficient diluted sulphuric acid to dis-
solve it, cautiously pour into the solution water
of ammonia with constant stirring, until in
slight excess. Wash the precipitated quinine
on a filter, and having added solution of citrate
of iron, 10 fl. Oz., keep the whole at a tempe-
rature of 120° by means of a water bath, and
stir constantly until the alkaloid is dissolved.
Lastly, evaporate the solution to the consist-
ence of a syrup, and spread it on plates of
glass, so that, on drying, the salt may be
obtained in scales.—Dose. 2 grs, to 5 grs.
Quinine and Iron, I'odide of. Syn. QUINE
ET FERRI IODIDUM, L. Prep. From protio-
dide of iron, 2 parts; hydriodate of quinine,
1 part ; rectified spirit, 12 parts; heat them
together, and either evaporate to dryness or
crystallise by refrigeration. A powder, or
crystalline scales. -
Quinine and Iron, Sul’phate of. Syn. FERRO-
SULPHATE OF QUININE ; QUINAE FERRO-SUL-
PHAS, QUINE ET FERRI SULPHAs, L. Prep.
From solutions of the sulphates of iron and
quinine, in atomic proportions, mixed whilst
hot, and the crystals which form as the liquid
cools carefully dried and preserved from the air.
QUININE AND MER/CURY. See CHLORIDE
OF MERCURY AND QUININE.
QUINOID'INE. Syn. AMORPHOUS QUI-
NINE, CHINOIDINE ; QUINA AMORPHA, QUINA
INFORMIS, QUINOIDIA, QUINOIDINA, QUINOI-
DINUM, CHINOIDEUM, L. A few years after
the discovery of the quinine by Pelletier and
Caventou, Sertuerner, a German physician, and
known as the discoverer of morphia, obtained,
by a peculiar method, from yellow bark, an
amorphous alkaloid which was called by him
Chinioidin,' and also fever-killer. (Fiebertöd-
ter). He found that not only this alkaloid
itself, but also all its compounds with acids,
were equally amorphous. As recent investi-
gations have proved that this amorphous alka-
loid occurs in all cinchona barks, and is found
particularly in many young Indian barks in
great quantity, it is quite natural that in the
manufacture of quinine the uncrystallisable
sulphate of this alkaloid should accumulate in
the mother-liquors of the sulphate of quinine.
From such liquors it is precipitated in an im-
pure state by an alkali, and brought into com-
merce under the name of quinoidine. As this
1 Sertuerner, “Die neuesten Entdeckungen in der
Physik, Heilkunde, und Chemie,’ 8ter Band, 2tes Heft,
Seite 269 (1830).
amorphous alkaloid has the property of pre-
venting the crystallisation of the salts of the
other alkaloids, particularly those of quini-
dine, it is clear that the quinoidine of com-
merce very often contains quinidine and also
cinchonidine. Dr. de Vrij, for instance, found
sometimes more than 20% of quinidine in some
samples of quinoidine of commerce. Although
commercial quinoidine contains many impu-
rities which may have their origin partly
in the adulteration of the cinchona-alkaloids,
unadulterated quinoidine, no doubt, chiefly con-
sists of the amorphous alkaloid discovered by
Sertuermer.
The quinoidine of commerce ought never to
be used in medicine, unless purified. For this
purification there are two methods. 1. That
of Mr. Bullock, which gives the purer but the
more expensive product. Crude quinoidine is
exhausted with ether, which, after defecation,
is distilled off, leaving the purified quinoidine
behind. This process has been patented in
England by Mr. Bullock. 2. That of Dr. de
Vrij, which consists in boiling 9 parts of crude
quinoidine with a solution of 2 parts of oxalate
of ammonium in water. By this process the
alkaloids contained in the quinoidine are dis-
solved, whilst the impurities, and amongst
them the lime which is often contained in
the crude quinoidine, remain undissolved.
The solution is mixed with a large bulk of
water, then filtered and the purified quinoidine
precipitated by a slight excess of liquor of soda.
Prop., &c. In its crude form quinoidine
somewhat resembles aloes; in its purest state
it is a yellowish-brown resin-like mass, freely
soluble in alcohol and ether, but nearly in-
soluble in water; with the acids it forms dark-
coloured, uncrystallisable salts. It is power-
fully febrifuge, but less so than either quini-
dine or quinine, although it is identical in
chemical composition with both of them.—Dose.
2 to 4 grs. for adults, # to 1 gr. for children,
given in wine, lemonade, or acidulated honey.
QUINOMETRY. Syn. CINCHONOMETRY.
The art of estimating the quantity of quinine
in cinchona bark, and in the commercial salts
of this alkaloid.
Proc. 1. For BARK.-a. (Ph. E.) A fil-
tered decoction of 100 grs. of bark, in distilled
water, 2 fl. oz., is precipitated with 1 fl. dr., or
q. s., of a concentrated solution of carbonate of
soda ; the precipitate, after being heated in
the fluid so as to become a fused mass, and
having again become cold, is dried and weighed.
“It should be 2 grs., or more, and entirely dis-
solve in a solution of oxalic acid.” To render
the result strictly accurate, the product should
be dissolved in 10 parts of proof spirit, con-
taining ºth of sulphuric acid, and to this
solution carefully added an alcoholic solution
of iodine as long as there appears a brown pre-
cipitate, which immediately turns black by
stirring with a glass rod. This precipitate,
collected upon a filter, washed with strong
alcohol and dried on a water bath, is Herapath’s

1008 QUINOVIN–QUINTESSENCE.
iodosulphate of quinine, of which 100 parts re-
present 56°5 parts of pure quinine.
b. (Rebourdain.) 100 grs. of the bark
(coarsely powdered) are exhausted with acidu-
lated water, and the filtered solution rendered
alkaline with solution of potassa; it is next
shaken with about 1-3rd of its volume of
chloroform, and then allowed to repose for a
short time ; the chloroform holding the alka-
loid in solution sinks to the bottom of the
vessel in a distinct stratum, from which the
supernatant liquid is separated by decantation;
the chloroformic solution, either at once or after
being washed with a little cold water, is allowed
to evaporate ; the residuum, when weighed,
gives the per-centage richness of the sample.
Obs. A like result may be obtained with ether,
instead of chloroform ; in which case the solu-
tion of quinine will form the upper stratum.
c. Instead of Rebourdain’s process, Dr. de
Vrij prefers that of Charles, so far as regards
the separation of the total mixed alkaloids from
the bark. To this mixture is applied the pro-
cess mentioned above (a), viz. solution in acidu-
lated proof spirit, &c.
2. For the SALTS. The above methods, as
well as several others which have been devised
for the purpose, may also be applied to the
salts of quinine ; but, unfortunately, they are
inapplicable when great accuracy is required,
owing to the non-recognition of the presence
of quinidine, as such, and which, consequently,
goes to swell the apparent richness of the
sample in quinine. The following ingenious
method, invented by Dr. Ure, not merely
enables us to detect the presence of cinchonine
and quinidine in commercial samples of the
salts of quinine, but, with some trifling modi-
fications, it also enables us to determine the
quantity of each of these alkaloids present in
any sample:–“10 grs. of the salts to be
examined ” (the sulphate is here more espe-
cially referred to) “is put into a strong test-
tube, furnished with a tight-fitting cork ; to
this are to be added 10 drops of dilute sul-
phuric acid (1 acid and 5 water), with 15
drops of water, and a gentle heat applied to
accelerate solution. This having been effected,
and the solution entirely cooled, 60 drops of
officinal sulphuric ether, with 20 drops of
liquor of ammonia, must be added, and the
whole well shaken while the top is closed by
the thumb. The tube is then to be closely
stopped, and shaken gently from time to time,
so that the bubbles of air may readily enter
the layer of ether. If the salt be free from
cinchonine and quinidine, or contain the latter
in no greater proportion than 10}, it will be
completely dissolved; while on the surface,
where contact of the two layers of clear fluid
takes place, the mechanical impurities only
will be separated. After some time the layer
of ether becomes hard and gelatinous, and no
further observation is possible.”
* “Journal de Pharmacie et de Chimie,’ 4e série, t. 12,
p. 81 (Août, 1870).
“From the above statement respecting the
solubility of quinidine in ether, it appears that
the 10 grs. of the salt examined may contain 1
gr. of quinidine, and still a complete solutiºn
with ether and ammonia may follow; but in
this case the quinidine will shortly begin to
crystallise in a layer of ether. The least trace
of quinidine may be yet more definitely de.
tected by employing, instead of the ordinary
ether, some ether previously saturated with
quinidine, by which means all of the quinidine
contained in the quinine examined must remain
undissolved. It is particularly requisite, in
performing this last experiment, to observe,
(immediately) after the shaking, whether all
has dissolved ; for, owing to the great ten.
dency of quinidine to crystallisation, it may
become again separated in a crystalline form,
and be a source of error.”
“If more than 1-10th of quinidine or (any)
cinchonine be present, there will be found an
insoluble precipitate at the limits of the twº
layers of fluids. If this be quinidine, it willbº
dissolved on the addition of proportionately *
ether, while cinchonine will remain unaffected.”
Note. To Dr. Ure's test Dr. de Vrij prefers
for several reasons, Dr. Kerner’s test, “Zeit.
schrift für Analytische Chemie, von Fresenius,
1st Jahrg, 1862; “Ueber Die Prufung des
Käuflichen Schwefelsauren Chinins auf fremde
Alkaloides, von Dr. G. Kerner.”
QUINOWIN. Cao HsOs. Syn. CINCHOVIN,
QUINOVIA.
QUINOVIN. A very bitter amorphous glu.
coside contained in the genus Cinchona, Naus:
lea, and probably in many other allied genera,
It is insoluble in water, very soluble in recti.
fied spirit and in chloroform, with which last
liquid it forms, in concentrated solutions,
jelly. If a current of hydrochloric gas is
passed into its alcoholic solution the liquid be:
comes hot and the quinovin is split up into a
peculiar kind of sugar.
QUINOVIC ACID. C. Has O. This is in:
soluble in water, also in chloroform, and diffi:
cultly soluble in alcohol. It can be obtained
from the boiling alcoholic solution, by cooling,
in small crystals. In the leaves, bark, and wood,
of the cinchona tree this acid is contained, tº
gether with quinovin, and it is this mixture
which has been recently applied in therapeutics,
as a powerful tonic in cases of dysentery, &C,
The mixture can easily be obtained from the
leaves, bark, or wood, of cinchona, and even
from bark which has been exhausted by ebul.
lition with water or diluted acids, by cold
maceration with weak milk of lime, by which
it is dissolved, as it combines easily with
bases. It is only the quinovate of lime which
has till now been used in medicine.--Dose, 2
to 8 grs. every two hours. -
QUIN’QUINA. See CINCHONA.
QUIN'SY. See THROAT AFFECTIONS.
QUINTES(SENCE. Syn. QUINTA ESSENTIA,
L. A term invented by the alchemists tº
represent a concentrated alcoholic solution of












QUOTIDIAN–RASH. 1009
the active principles of organic bodies. It is
still occasionally employed in perfumery and
the culinary art. See ESSENCE, TINCTURE,
&c.
QUOTID'IAN. Occurring or returning daily.
See AGUE.
RAB'BIT. The Lepus cuniculus (Linn.) of
the Cuvian order Rodentia. The domestic
rabbit, when young, is a light and wholesome
article of food, approaching in delicacy to the
common barn-door fowl; but has less flavour
than the wild animal. The fat is among the
‘simples’ of the Ph. L. 1618. Its hair and
skin are made into cheap furs, gloves, hats,
&c.
RAC'AHOUT. Syn. RACAHOUT DES ARABES.
This is said to be farina prepared from the
acorns of Quercus Ballota, or Barbary oak,
disguised with a little flavouring. The fol-
lowing is recommended as an imitation:—
Roasted cacao or chocolate nuts, 4 oz. ; ta-
pioca and potato farina, of each, 6 oz. ; white
sugar, slightly flavoured with vanilla, 3 lb.
Very nutritious. Used as arrow-root.
RACE/MIC ACID. Syn. PARATARTARIC
ACID. This compound was discovered by
Kestner, in 1820, replacing tartaric acid in
grape-juice of the Department of the Vosges.
Racemic acid and tartaric acid have exactly
the same composition, and yield, when exposed
to heat, the same products; the racemates also
correspond in the closest manner with the tar-
trates. Racemic acid is rather less soluble
than tartaric, and separates first from a solu-
, tion containing the two acids. A solution of
racemic acid precipitates a neutral salt of cal-
cium, which is not the case with tartaric acid.
A solution of racemic acid does not affect a
ray of polarised light, while a solution of tar-
taric acid rotates the ray to the right.
RACK'ING. See CIDER and WINEs.
RAD'ICAL. Syn. RADICLE. According to
the binary theory of the constitution of saline
compounds, every salt is composed, like chlo-
ride of sodium (NaCl), of two sides or parts,
which are termed its radicals. That part of a
salt which consists of a metal, or of a body
exercising the chemical functions of one, is
called the metallic, basic, or basylous radical;
while the other part, which, like chlorine, by
combining with hydrogen would produce an
acid, is designated the chlorous or acidulous
radical. Every salt, therefore, consists of a
basic and of an acid radical. Sometimes ra-
dicals are elementary in their nature, when
they are called simple; and sometimes they
are made up of a group of elements, when
they are termed compound. Some radicals,
both simple and compound, have been isolated,
while many have but a hypothetical existence.
In the following formulae the vertical line
separates the basic from the acid radicals, the
former being on the left, the latter on the
right:
H |F Hydrofluoric acid (Fluoride of
| hydrogen).
Na Cl Chloride of sodium.
K CN Cyanide of potassium.
Ca |COs Carbonate of calcium.
NH|Cl Chloride of ammonium.
C3H5|NO, Nitrite of ethyl.
RADISH. The common garden radish
(RAPHANUS, L.) is the root of Raphanus sa-
tivus (Linn.), one of the Cruciferae. There
are several varieties. They are all slightly
diuretic and laxative, and possess considerable
power in exciting the appetite. The seed is
pressed for oil. The horseradish (ARMORACIA,
L.) belongs to a distinct genus.
RAIN-GAUGE. Syn. OMBOMETER, PLU-
VIAMETER, UDOMETER. An instrument for
determining the quantity of water, which falls
as rain, at any given place. A simple and
convenient rain-gauge for agricultural pur-
poses is formed of a wide-mouthed funnel, or
open receiver, connected with a glass tube
furnished with a stop-cock. The diameter of
the tube may be exactly 1-100th that of the
receiver, and if the tube be graduated into
inches and tenths, the quantity of rain that
falls may be easily read off to the 1-1000th
of an inch. The instrument should be set in
some perfectly open situation; and, for agri-
cultural purposes, with its edge as nearly level
with the ground as possible. The quantity of
water should be duly measured and registered
at 9 a.m., daily.
RAI'SINS. Syn. DRIED GRAPEs; Uvie (B.
P.), UVF SICCATE, UVA (Ph. L.), UVE PASSE
(Ph. E. & D.), L. “The prepared fruit of
Piłis vinifera” (Linn.)—Ph. L. The grapes
are allowed to ripen and dry on the vine.
After being plucked and cleaned, they are
dipped, for a few seconds, into a boiling lye of
wood ashes and qucklime at 12° or 15° Baumé,
to every 4 galls. of which a handful of culinary
salt and a pint of salad oil has been added;
they are then exposed for 12 or 14 days in the
sun to dry; they are, lastly, carefully garbled,
and packed for exportation. The sweet, fleshy
kinds of grapes are those selected for the
above treatment; and, in general, their stalks
are cut about one half through, or a ring of
bark is removed, to hasten their maturation.
Raisins are nutritious, cooling, antiseptic,
and, in general, laxative; the latter to a greater
extent than the fresh fruit. There are many
varieties found in commerce. Their uses as a
dessert and culinary fruit, and in the manu-
facture of wine, &c., are well known, and are
referred to elsewhere. See GRAPES, WINES,
&c.
RANCID'ITY. The strong, sour flavour
and odour which oleaginous bodies acquire by
age and exposure to the air. For its preven-
tion, see FATS, OILS (Fixed), &c.
RAPE OIL. See OILs (Fixed).
RASH. Erasmus Wilson notices four dif-
ferent affections, as included under this
head:—


64
1010
RASPBERRY-RATAFIA.
1. ST. ANTHONY's FIRE, or ERYSIPELAS,
the severest of them all, already referred to.
2. NETTLE-RASH, or URTICARIA, character-
ised by its tingling and pricking pain, and its
little white elevations on a reddish ground,
like the wheals caused by the sting of a nettle.
This efflorescence seldom stays many hours,
and, sometimes, not even many minutes, in
the same place, and is multiplied or repro-
duced whenever any part of the skin is scratched
or even touched. No part of the body is ex-
empt from it, and when many of them occur
together, and continue for an hour or two, the
parts are often considerably swelled, and the
features temporarily disfigured. In many
cases these eruptions continue to infest the
skin, sometimes in one place, and sometimes in
another, for one or two hours together, two or
three times a day, or, perhaps, for the greatest
part of the twenty-four hours. In some con-
stitutions this lasts only a few days; in others
several months.
There are several varieties of nettle-rash or
urticaria noticed by medical writers, among
which URTICARIA FEBRILIS, PERSISTANS, and
EVANIDA, are the principal.
The common cause of nettle-rash is some
derangement of the digestive functions, aris-
ing either from the use of improper food or a
disordered state of the nervous or other sys-
tems of the body. Lobsters, crabs, mussels,
shrimps, dried fish, pork, cucumbers, mush-
rooms, and adulterated beer or porter, bear
the character of frequently causing this affec-
tion. In childhood it commonly arises from
teething. Occasionally, in persons of peculiar
idiosyncrasy, the most simple article of food,
as almonds, nuts, and even milk, rice, and
eggs, will produce this affection.
The treatment may consist of the adminis-
tration of gentle saline aperients, and in severer
cases a gentle emetic, followed by the copious
use of acidulated diluent drinks, as weak lemon-
juice-and-water, effervescing potassa-draughts,
&c., and, when required, diaphoretics. The
clothing should be light, but warm, and the
itching, when severe, may be allayed by the
application of a lotion of water to which a
little vinegar or camphorated spirit has been
added; the latter must, however, be employed
with caution. A hot knee-bath is useful in
drawing the affection from the face and upper
part of the body. A ‘ compress,” wrung out of
cold water until it ceases to drip, and kept in
contact with the stomach by means of a dry
bandage, has been recommended to relieve ex-
cessive irritation of the stomach and bowels.
It has been stated that decoction of Virginian
snake-root is particularly useful in relieving
chronic urticaria.
3. RED-RASH, RED-BIOTCH, or FIERY SPOT,
is commonly the consequence of disordered
general health, of dyspepsia, and particularly,
in females, of tight lacing. Sometimes it is
slight and evanescent; at others, it approaches
in severity to the milder forms of erysipelas,
spirit, 1 gall.; digest for 14 days, filter, and
there being much swelling and inflammation,
Chaps, galls, excoriations, and chilblains, are
varieties of this disease produced by cold, ex.
cessive moisture, or friction.
is similar to that of nettle-rash.
4. ROSE-RASH, FALSE MEASIES, or ROSEOIA,
is an efflorescence, or rather a discoloration, of
a rose-red tint, in small irregular patches,
without wheals or papulaº, which spread over
the surface of the body, and are ushered in by
slight febrile symptoms. There are several
varieties. The causes are the same as those
which produce the preceding affections, and
the treatment may be similar. In all of them
strict attention to the diet, and a careful avoid.
ance of cold applications, or exposure to cold,
so as to cause a retrocession, are matters of
the first moment.
RASP'BERRY. Syn. HINDBERRY. The
fruit of Rubus Idaºus (Linn.), a small shrub
It is cooling,
of the natural order Rosaceae.
antiscorbutic, and mildly aperitive. It is fre:
quently used to communicate a fine flavour to
liqueurs, confectionery, wine, &c. See FRUIT;
and WEGETABLES.
RATAFI'A. Originally, a liquor drank at
the ratification of an agreement or treaty. It
is now the common generic name in France of
liqueurs compounded of spirit, sugar, and the
The treatment
odoriferous and flavouring principles of vege.
tables, more particularly of those containing
the juices of recent fruits, or the kernels of
apricots, cherries, or peaches. In its un:
qualified sense, this name is commonly under.
stood as referring to cherry-brandy or peach:
brandy. -
Ratafias are prepared by distillation, mace:
ration, or extemporaneous admixture, in the
manner explained under the head LIQUEUR,
The following list includes those which are
commonly prepared by the French liquor.
istes:—
Ratafia d’Angelique.
1 dr.; angelica stalks, 4 oz. ; blanched bitter
almonds, bruised, 1 oz.; proof spirit or brandy,
6 quarts; digest for 10 days, filter; add, of
water, 1 quart; white sugar, 3% lbs.; mix well,
and in a fortnight decant the clear portion
through a piece of clear flannel.
Ratafia d’Amis. See ANISEED CORDIAI,
Ratafia de Baume de Tolu. From balsam
of Tolu, 1 oz. ; rectified spirit, 1 quart; dis.
solve, add water, 3 pints; filter, and further
add of white sugar, 1% lb. Pectoral and trau.
matic.
Ratafia de Brou de Noix. From young wal.
nuts with soft shells (pricked or pierced), 60
in no.; brandy, 2 quarts; mace, cinnamon, and
cloves, of each, 15 grs. ; digest for 8 weeks;
press, filter, add of white sugar, 1 lb.; and
keeping it for some months before decanting
it for use. Stomachic.
Ratafia de Cacao. Syn. R. DE CHOCOIAT.
From Caracca cacao-nuts, 1 lb.; West Indian
do., 3 lb.; (both roasted and bruised;) proof
From angelica seeds






RATAFIA—RATS. 1011
add, of white sugar, 2% lbs.; tincture of vanilla,
# dr. ; (or, a shred of vanilla may be infused
with the nuts in the spirit instead;) lastly,
decant in a month, and bottle it.
Ratafia de Café. From coffee, ground and
roasted, 1 lb.; brandy or proof spirit, 1 gall.;
sugar, 2 lbs. ; (dissolved in) water, 1 quart; as
last.
Ratafia de Cassis. From black-currant juice,
1 quart; cinnamon, 1 dr. ; cloves and peach
kernels, of each, # dr.; brandy, 1 gall. ; white
sugar, 3 lbs. ; digest for a fortnight, and strain
through flannel.
Ratafia de Cerise. From Morello cherries,
with their kernels bruised, 8 lbs. ; brandy or
proof spirit, 1 gall. ; white sugar, 2 lbs. ; as
last.
Ratafia de Chocolat.
above).
Ratafia de Coings. From quince juice, 3
Quarts; bitter almonds, 3 drs. ; cinnamon and
coriander seeds, of each, 2 drs.; mace, dr. ;
cloves, 15 grs. ; (all bruised;) rectified spirit
(quite flavourless), 3 gall.; digest for a week,
filter, and add of white sugar, 3% lbs.
Ratafia de Crème. From crème de moyeau
and sherry, of each, 3 pint; capillaire, 3 pint ;
fresh cream, 1 pint; beaten together.
Ratafia de Curaç0a. Curaçoa.
Ratafia de Framboises. Raspberry cordial.
Ratafia de Genièvre. From juniper berries
(each pricked with a fork, 4 lb.; caraway and
coriander seed, of each, 20 gr. ; finest malt
spirit (22 u. p.), 1 gall. ; white sugar, 2 lbs. ;
digest a week, and strain with expression.
Ratafia de Grenoble. From the small wild
black cherry (with the kernels bruised), 2 lbs. ;
proof spirit, 1 gall.; white sugar, 3 lbs.; citron
peel, a few grains; as before.
Ratafia de Grenoble, de Teyssère. From
cherries (bruised with the stones), 1 quart;
rectified spirit, 2 quarts; mix, digest for 48
hours, then express the liquor, and heat it to
boiling in a close vessel; when cold, add of
sugar or capillaire, q. S., together with some
noyeau, to flavour, and a little syrup of the bay
laurel, and of galangal; in 3 months decant,
and bottle it.
Ratafia de Noyeau. From peach or apricot
kernels (bruised), 120 in no. ; proof spirit or
brandy, 2 quarts; white sugar, 1 lb.; digest
for a week, press, and filter.
Ratafia de CEillets. From clove-pinks (with-
out the white buds),4lbs.; cinnamon and cloves,
of each, 15 grs.; proof spirit, 1 gall.; macerate
for 10 days, express the tincture, filter, and
add of white sugar, 2% lbs.
Ratafia d’Ecorce d’Orange. Crème d’Orange.
Ratafia de Fleurs d’Oranger. From fresh
orange petals, 2 lbs. ; proof spirit, 1 gall. ;
white sugar, 2% lbs. ; as last. Instead of
Orange flowers, neroli, 1 dr., may be used.
Ratafia a la Provençale. From striped
pinks, 1 lb. ; brandy or proof spirit, 1 quart;
white sugar, 3 lb.; juice of strawberries,
# pint; saffron, 20 grs.; as before.
Ratafia de cacao (see
Ratafia des Quatre Fruits. From cherries,
30 lbs. ; gooseberries, 15 lbs. ; raspberries, 8
lbs. ; black currants, 7 lbs. ; express the juice,
and to each pint add, of white sugar, 6 ozs.;
cinnamon, 6 grs. ; cloves and mace, of each,
3 grs.
Ratafia Rouge. From the juice of black
cherries, 3 quarts; juices of strawberries and
raspberries, of each, 1 quart; cinnamon, 1 dr.;
mace and cloves, of each, 15 grs. ; proof spirit
or brandy, 2 galls. ; white sugar, 7 lbs. ; mace-
rate, &c., as before.
Ratafia Sec. Take of the juice of goose-
berries, 5 pints; juices of cherries, straw-
berries, and raspberries, of each, 1 pint; proof
spirit, 6 quarts; sugar, 7 lbs. ; as before.
Ratafia a la Violette. From orris powder,
3 oz. ; litmus, 4 oz. ; rectified spirit, 2 galls.;
digest for 10 days, strain, and add of white
sugar, 12 lbs., dissolved in soft water, 1
all.
3. RATS. The common or brown rat is the
Mus Decumanus (Linn.), one of the most pro-
lific and destructive species of the Rodenţia.
It was introduced to these islands from Asia;
and has since spread over the whole country,
and multiplied at the expense of the black
rat (Mus Rattus—Linn.), which is the old
British species of this animal, until its inroads
on our granaries, our stores, and dwelling-
houses, have increased to such an extent, that
its extirpation has become a matter of serious,
if not of national, importance.
For the destruction of these noxious animals
two methods are adopted:—
1. Trapping. To render the bait more
attractive, it is commonly sprinkled with a
little of one of the rat-scents noticed below.
The trap is also occasionally so treated.
2. Poisoning. The following are reputed
the most effective mixtures for this pur-
pose:—
ARSENICAL PASTE. From oatmeal or wheaten
flour, 3 lbs. ; powdered indigo, 3 oz. ; finely
powdered white arsenic, 4 lb.; oil of aniseed,
# dr.; mix, add of melted suet, 2% lbs. ;
and beat the whole into a paste. A similar
compound has the sanction of the French
Government.
ARSENICAL POWDER. From oatmeal, 1 lb.;
moist sugar, 4 lb.; white arsenic and rotten
cheese, of each, 1 oz. ; rat-scent, a few
drops.
MILLERS’ RAT POWDER. From fresh oat-
meal, 1 lb. ; mux vomica (in very fine powder),
1 oz. ; rat-scent, 5 or 6 drops. This is highly
spoken of by those who have used it. -
MINERAL RAT-POISON. From carbonate of
baryta, 3 lb. ; sugar and oatmeal, of each,
6 oz. ; oils of aniseed and caraway, of each, a
few drops.
PHILANTROPE MUOPHOBON. A French
preparation, which, according to Mr. Beasley,
consists of tartar emetic, 1 part, with fari-
naceous matter, 4 parts, and some other (un-
important) ingredients.

1012
RAZORS–RED DYE,
s
PHOSPHOR PASTE.
Among “rat-scents’ the following are said
to be the most attractive:—
a. Powdered cantharides steeped in French
brandy. For traps. It is said that rats are
so fond of this, that if a little be rubbed about
the hands they may be handled with im-
impunity.
b. From powdered assafoetida, 8 grs. ; oil of
rhodium, 2 drs. ; oil of aniseed, 1 dr.; oil of
lavender, dr. ; mix by agitation.
c. From oil of aniseed, }, oz. ; tincture of
assafoetida, 4 oz.
d. From oil of aniseed, 4 oz. ; nitrous acid,
2 to 3 drops; musk (triturated with a little
powdered sugar), 1 gr.
RA'Z0RS. See PAPER, PASTE, and SHAV-
ING.
REA/GENTS. See TESTs.
REAL'GAR. This valuable red pigment is
the bisulphide of arsenic. It is found native
in some volcanic districts; but that of com-
merce is prepared by distilling (in an earthen
retort) arsenical pyrites, or a mixture of sul-
phur and arsenic, of orpiment and sulphur, or
of arenious acid, sulphur, and charcoal, in the
proper proportions. See BISULPHIDE OF
ARSENIC.
RECTIFICATION. A second distillation of
a fluid, for the purpose of rendering it purer.
RED. A term denoting a bright colour,
resembling blood. Red is a simple or primary
colour, but of several different shades or
hues, as scarlet, crimson, vermilion, orange-
red, &c.
Red An'iline. Syn. ROSANILINE. This ar-
tificial base is prepared by the action of bi-
chloride of tin, mercurial salts, arsenic acid,
and many other oxidising agents, upon aniline.
The aniline reps of commerce, now so largely
used for dyeing, are saline compounds, more or
less pure, of rosaniline, with 1 equiv. of acid.
These compounds are known under the names
of ‘magenta,’ ‘fuchsine,’ ‘roseine,” “aza-
leine,’ &c. In England the aniline red com-
monly employed is the acetate of rosaniline,
which has been prepared by Mr. Nicholson in
splendid crystals of very considerable dimen-
sions. In France the hydrochlorate of rosani-
line is chiefly employed. The free base
presents itself in colourless crystalline plates,
but its compounds with 1 equiv. of acid have,
when dry, a beautiful green colour, with golden
lustre, and furnish with water an intensely
coloured red solution. See PURPLE (Aniline)
and RED DYE, also TAR Co.LOURS.
RED DYE. The substances principally em-
ployed for dyeing reds are cochineal, lac-dye,
and madder, which, under proper treatment,
yield permanent colours of considerable bril-
liancy, the first and third more particularly
so. Extremely beautiful but fugitive colours
are also obtained from Brazil wood, safflower,
archil, and some other substances. For purple-
reds or crimsons (magenta, fuchsine, &c.),
on silk or wool, the aniline reds (salts of ros-
aniline) are now extensively used. (See TAR.
COLOURS.) The mode of applying them is
noticed under PURPLE DYE.
neal, safflower, or lac-dye; wool, with cochi.
neal and, still more frequently, with madder;
and cotton, with madder (chiefly), Brazil wood,
&c. The leading properties of these substances
are given under their respective names, and
the methods of employing them are generally
referred to in the articles DYEING, MORDANTS,
&c., and, therefore, need not be repeated
here. The following may, however, be useful
to the reader:-
1. First give the ‘goods’ a mordant of alum,
or of alum-and-tartar, rinse, dry, and boil
them in a bath of madder. If acetate of iron
be used instead of alum, the colour will be
purple, and by combining the two, as mor.
dants, any intermediate shade may be pro.
duced.
2. The yarn or cloth is put into a very weak
alkaline bath at the boiling temperature, then
washed, dried, and “galled’ (or, when the
SILK is usually
dyed of a permanent red or scarlet with cochi.
calico is to be printed, for this bath may be
substituted one of cow-dung, subsequent ex:
posure to the air for a day or two, and im:
mersion in very dilute sulphuric acid. In this
way the stuff gets opened, and takes and
retains the colour better). After the “galling,
the goods are dried, and alumed twice; then
dried, rinsed, and passed through a madder
bath, composed of # lb. of good madder for
every lb. weight of the goods ; this bath is
slowly raised to the boiling-point in the cours:
of 50 or 60 minutes, more or less, according
to the shade of colour required; after a few
minutes, the stuff is taken out, and slightly
washed; the operation is then repeated, in the
same manner, with fresh madder; it is, lastly,
washed and dried, or passed through a hot
soap bath, which carries off the fawn-coloured
particles.
3. (ADRIANOPLE RED, TURKEY R.) This
commences with cleansing or scouring the
goods by alkaline baths, after which they are
steeped in oily liquors brought to a creamy
state by a little carbonate of soda; a bath of
sheep’s dung is next often used as an inter.
mediate or secondary steep; the oleaginous
bath, and the operation of removing the Su
perfluous or loosely adhering oil with an al-
kaline bath, is repeated two or three times,
due care being taken to dry the goods th9.
roughly after each distinct process; then fol.
low the distinct operations of galling, aluming,
maddering, and brightening, the last for re.
moving the dun-coloured principle, by boiling
at an elevated temperature with alkaling
liquids and soap; the whole is generally com:
cluded with treatment by spirit of tin. In
this way are given the most brilliant reds on
cotton.
Obs. Wool takes from half its weight of
madder to an equal weight to dye it red;
cotton and linen take rather less. On account

RED GUM-REFINING.
1013
of the comparative insolubility of the colour-
ing matter of madder, this dye-stuff must be
boiled along with the goods to be dyed, and
not removed from the decoction, as is the
practice in using many other articles. Other
dye-stuffs are frequently added to the madder
bath, to vary the shades of colour. Decoction
of fustic, weld, logwood, quercitron, &c., are
often thus employed, the mordants being
modified accordingly. By adding bran to the
madder bath, the colour is said to be ren-
dered much lighter, and of a more agreeable
tint.
RED GUM. A slight eruptive disease of
infancy, occasioned by teething, and, less fre-
quently, by irritation from rough flannel worn
next the skin. See STROPHULUs.
RED LAW'ENDER. See TINCTURE OF LA-
VENDER (Compound).
RED LIQ/UOR. The crude solution of ace-
tate or sulpho-acetate of alumina employed
in calico-printing. It is generally prepared
by mixing crude sulphate of alumina with
about an equal weight of crude pyrolignite of
lime, both being in the state of solution.
RED PIG/MENTS. The preparation of the
principal red pigments are described under
their respective names. The following list
includes most of the reds in use:—
Armenian Bole. Syn. BOLE ARMENIAN ;
BoIUS ARMENIE, L. Formerly imported from
Armenia, Portugal, Tuscany, &c.; now gene-
rally made by grinding together a mixture of
whiting, red oxide of iron, and red ochre, in
nearly equal proportions.
Red, Brown. A factitious mixture of red
oxide of iron and red ochre, in variable pro-
portions.
Car’mine.
Carminated Lake.
Red, Chrome. Syn. DICHROMATE OF LEAD,
RED CHROMATE OF L.; PLUMBI DICHROMAS,
P. CHROMAS RUBRUM, L. Prep. 1. Boil pure
carbonate of lead with chromate of potassa, in
excess, until it assumes a proper colour; then
wash it well with pure water, and dry it in
the shade.
2. Boil neutral chromate of lead with a little
water of ammonia or lime water.
3. (Liebig and Wöhler.) Fuse saltpetre at
a low red heat in a Hessian crucible, and
throw in chromate of lead (pure chrome yel-
low), by small portions at a time, as long as a
strong ebullition follows upon each addition
of the pigment, observing to stir the mixture
frequently with a glass rod; after repose for
a minute or two, pour off the fluid part, and,
as soon as the solid residuum is cold, wash it
with water, and dry it by a gentle heat.
Obs. Great care must be taken, in conduct-
ing the last process, not to employ too much
heat, nor to allow the saline matter to stand
long over the newly formed chrome-red, as
the colour is thus apt to change to a brown
or orange. When well managed, the product
has a crystalline texture, and so beautiful a
|
red colour that it vies with native cinnabar.
The liquid poured from the crucible is reserved
for manufacturing chrome yellow.
Red, Indian. Syn. PURPLE OCHRE; OCHRA
PURPUREA PERSICA, TERRA PERSICA, L. This
is a native production, brought from Ormus.
A factitious article is prepared by calcining a
mixture of colcothar and red ochre.
Lakes (Various).
Red, Light. From yellow ochre, by careful
calcination. It works well with both oil
and water, and produces an admirable flesh-
colour by admixture with pure white. All
the ochres, both red and yellow, are darkened
by heat.
Red, Or'ange. Syn. SANDIx. Obtained
from white lead, by calcination. Very bright.
Real'gar. Bisulphide of arsenic.
Red Bole. See ARMENIAN and WENETIAN
BOLE.
Red Chalk. A clay iron ore, much used for
pencils and crayons, and, when ground, also
for paints.
Red Lead. Syn. MINIUM. The finest red
lead is prepared by exposing ground and elu-
triated massicot, or dross of lead, in shallow
iron trays (about 12 inches square, and about
4 or 5 inches deep), piled up on the hearth of
a reverberatory furnace, to a heat of about
600 to 650° Fahr., with occasional stirring,
until it acquires the proper colour. The fur-
nace employed for the preparation of massicot
during the day usually possesses sufficient
residuary heat during the night for this pro-
cess, by which fuel is saved. Lead for the
above purpose should be quite free from copper
and iron.
Red O'chre. A natural product abounding
on the Mendip hills.
Red Or'piment.
sulphide of arsenic.
Rose Pink. This is whiting coloured with
a decoction of Brazil wood to which a little
pearlash has been added. A very pretty colour,
but it does not stand. It is always kept in a
damp state. The colour may be varied by
substituting alum for pearlash, or by the addi-
tion of a little spirits of tin.
Red, Venetian. Syn. BoIUS VENETA, L.
A species of ochre, brought from Italy.
Vermillion. (See that word.)
REDUCTION. Syn. REVIVIFICATION. A
term, in its fullest sense, applied to any opera-
tion by which a substance is restored to its
neutral state; but now generally restricted,
in chemistry, to the abstraction of oxygen,
and hence frequently termed deoxidation
or deoxidizement. This change is operated
by either heating the substance in contact
with carbon or hydrogen, or in exposing it to
the action of some other body having a pow-
erful affinity for oxygen. See POTASSIUM,
&c.
REFI"NING. A term employed in com-
mercial chemistry and metallurgy synony-
mously with purification. The separation of
Syn. RED ARSENIC. Ter-


1014
REFRACTION-REFRIGERATION,
s
the precious metals from those of less value,
as in the operation of parting, constitutes the
business of the ‘refiner.’ See GOLD, SILVER,
C.
REFRACTION (of Light). The deviation
of a ray of light from its original path on
entering a medium of a different density or
power. For the practical application of this
property, see GEMS.
REFRI"GERANTS. Medicines or agents
which tend to lessen the animal temperature
without causing any marked diminution of
sensibility or nervous energy. Among inter-
nal refrigerants cold water, weak acidulous
drinks, and saline aperients, are those which
are, probably, the best known, and the most
useful. Among external refrigerants are cold,
cold water, evaporating lotions, weak solutions
of subacetate of lead, &c.
REFRIGERATION. The abatement of
heat; the act or operation of cooling.
Among the purposes to which refrigeratory
processes are applied in the arts, the principal
are—the condensation of vapours—the cooling
of liquids—the congelation of water, and—the
production of extreme degrees of cold in chemi-
cal operations. The first of these is referred
to under the heads DISTILLATION, STILL, &c.;
and the second, under WoRT. It is, therefore,
only necessary to notice here the third and
fourth applications of cold, artificially pro-
duced, above referred to.
The refrigeratory processes at present em-
ployed depend upon the greater capacity for
heat which the same body possesses as its
density lessens, or its attenuation increases;
as exhibited in the sudden liquefaction of solids,
the rapid evaporation of liquids, and the almost
instantaneous return of atmospheric air, or
other gaseous body, from a highly condensed
state to its normal condition. The loss of sen-
sible heat in the first example is the basis of
the various processes of producing cold by
what are commonly called “FREEZING-' or
* FRIGORIFIC-MIXTURES, all of which act
upon the principle of liquefying solid sub-
stances without supplying heat. The caloric
of liquidity being in these cases derived from
that previously existing in the solid itself in
a sensible state, the temperature must neces-
sarily fall. The degree of cold produced
depends upon the quantity of heat which is
thus diffused through a larger mass, or which,
as it were, disappears; and this is dependent
on the quantity of solid matter liquefied, and
the rapidity of the liquefaction. Saline com-
pounds are the substances most frequently
employed for this purpose, and those which
have the greatest affinity for water, and thus
liquefy the most rapidly, produce the greatest
degree of cold. Similar changes occur during
the evaporation of liquids. When heat passes
from the sensible to the insensible state, as in
the formation of vapour, cold is generated.
This may be shown by pouring a few drops of
ether or rectified spirit on the palm of the
hand, when a strong sensation of cold is expt.
rienced. A still more familiar illustration ºf
this fact is exhibited in the rapidity with which
the animal body loses heat when enveloped in
damp or wet clothing. The evaporation of
water produces a degeee of cold which is
greater than that of other liquids, in exact
proportion as the insensible or latent heat ºf ||
its vapour exceeds theirs. In the attenuation
or rarefaction of gases similar phenomena occur.
It has been found that evaporation proceeds
much more rapidly from the surface of fluids
in a vacuum than in the atmosphere. Water
may be easily frozen by introducing a surface
of sulphuric acid unver the receiver of an air.
pump, over which is placed a capsule filled
with water, so that the vapour arising from
the latter may be immediately absorbed by the
former. After a few strokes of the piston the
water is converted into a solid cake of ice.
The acid operates by absorbing the aqueous
vapours as soon as generated, and thus main.
taining the integrity of the vacuum. Pro.
fessor Leslie found that, when air is thus rari.
fied 250 times, the surface of evaporation was
cooled down 120° in winter; and when only
50 times, a depression of 80° or even 100
took place. “Sulphuric acid is capable of
congealing more than 20 times its weight of
water before it has imbibed nearly its own
bulk of that liquid, or has lost about ºth of its
refrigerating power.” (Ure.) Sulphuric acid,
which has become diluted in this way, may be
reconcentrated by heat. Any substance having
a great tendency to absorb moisture may be
substituted for the sulphuric acid. Fused
chloride of calcium, quicklime, nitrate of mag:
nesium, chloride of zinc,” and oatmeal (dried
nearly to brownness before a common fire)
have been used for this purpose. Again, in:
stead of employing an air-pump, a vacuum
may be produced by the agency of steam, after.
wards condensed by the affusion of cold water.
A pleasing philosophical toy, illustrative of
the evaporative power of a vacuum, is the
* CRYOPHORUS,’ or ‘FROST-BEARER,” of Dr.
Wollaston. This instrument consists of two
Ö e
Small glass globes, united by a tube, one of
which is partly filled with water. The whole
apparatus is perfectly free from air, and is,
consequently, filled with attenuated aqueous
vapours. No sooner is the pressure removed
as by plunging the empty ball into a freezing
mixture (which condenses the vapour), than
rapid evaporation commences, and the water
in the other ball is frozen in two or three
minutes.
Even in hot climates ice may be produced
under favorable circumstances by evaporã.



REFRIGERATION.
1015
tion. On the open plains, near Calcutta, this
is effected by exposing a thin stratum of water
to the atmosphere, during the fine clear nights
of December, January, and February. The
pans are made of porous earthenware, and
water is poured in to the depth of about 1%
inch. A large number of these vessels are
arranged in an excavation in the ground, 30
or 40 feet square and 2 feet deep, the bottom
of which is covered, to the depth of 10 or 12
inches, with sugar canes or the stalks of Indian
corn. At sumrise the pans are visited, the ice
separated from the water, and packed as tight
as possible in a deep cavity or pit, well screened
from the heat.
Several machines have recently been in-
vented by which water is frozen in large
quantities, by exposure to condensed air in
the act of its subsequent expansion. They
are worked by either hand or steam power.
The refrigerating apparatus invented by Mr.
Kirk, of the Bathgate Paraffin Works, acts on
this principle; and it does its work so effici-
ently that it produces a cooling effect equivalent
to two tons of ice every twenty-four hours, at
a very small expenditure of fuel. A small
model worked by hand will readily freeze mer-
cury. Kirk's apparatus is used at Bathgate
TABLE exhibiting a few of the most useful FRIGORIFIC MIXTURES.
to cause the crystallisation of solid paraffin
from the heavy paraffin oils. Formerly, a
machine, acting by the evaporation of ether,
was employed for the same purpose.
For the production of an extremely low
temperature, such as is required for the lique-
faction of some gases, Faraday employed solid
carbonic acid mixed with a little ether.
In the production of ice, or an extreme
degree of cold, by saline mixtures, the salts
should be in the crystallised state, and as rich
as possible in water, but without being in the
least damp. They should also be coarsely
pulverised at the time of using them, and
should not be mixed until immediately before
throwing them into the liquid ingredients.
The mixture should be made in a thick vessel,
well clothed, to prevent the accession of ex-
termal heat; and the substance to be acted on
should be contained in a very thin vessel, so
as to expose it more fully to the action of the
mixture. On the large scale, a vessel called a
* FREEZING Pot’ or ‘SABOTIáRE’ is commonly
employed. The following table, though
founded on experiments made more than 50
years ago by Mr. Walker, gives full and accu-
rate information on the subject of freezing
mixtures:—
Drawn up from actual
eaperiments performed by Mr. WALKER.
Ingredients. Thermometer sinks. *::::::"
Snow or pounded ice. . 2 parts – 5° -
Chloride of sodium. . . 1 , } ſ 2.É to – 5
Snow or pounded ice. 5 s, | 5 #
§ of sodium . 2 s, } 3 ;: to — 12° -
Sal ammoniac - l ; 5 *.
Snow or pounded ice . . 12 , É 5 -
Chloride of sodium . 5 s, U $2 to — 25° -
Nitrate of ammonia . . 5 ,
$ Snow - - - - - . 8 , \ **** o #n - 070 o
UHydrochloric acid (concentrated) . 5 , 5 From + 32° to — 27 59
Snow - - - - - ... 2 Hº- o #n – 50° 22
Crystallized chloride of calcium .. 3 . } From + 32° to — 50 8
Sal ammoniac . - - - . 5 , o
Nº of potassa - . 5 , From + 50° to + 10° 40
auer - . 16 , -
Nitrate of ammonia . 1 , Prom -- Kno o o
{#. - - . 1 , } From + 50° to +4 46
(Nitrate of ammonia . . 1 , o
Carbonate of soda . 1 , From + 50° to + 7° 57
Uw. - - . 1 »
Phosphate of soda . 9 ×
Nitrate of ammonia . . 6 From + 50° to — 21° 719
Diluted nitrous acid 1 4 »,
Sulphate of soda . 8 , R. tº- o o 50°
§ rochloric acid . 5 , ) From + 50° to 0 0
now - - - - - ... 3 - o +n – 489 o
Diluted nitrous acid 1 ... 2 . } From 0° to — 46 46
now - - - • 2 ,
º acid . i . } From —20° to — 60° 40°
§º - - - | >>
llow - - - - - - 3.x 9 in – 669 o
§ºmai chloride of calcium 2 s, } From 0° to —66 66
Snow - - - - - . 1 , R •om – 402 +n – 78° o
Crystallized chloride of calcium . 3 s, 5 From — 40° to —73 33
Snow - - - - . 8 ,
{iºns acid . . 5 . } From — 68° to -91° 230
Water - - - . 5 s,
* Fuming ‘nitrous acid,' 2 parts; water, 1 part; by weight.
Obs. The materials in the first column are to be cooled, previously to mixing, to the tem-
perature required in the second, by the use of other mixtures.



1016
REGULUS—RESPIRATION.
REGULUS. A term applied by the alche-
mists to various metallic matters obtained by
fusion ; as REGULUS OF ANTIMONY, ARSENIC,
&c. It is now obsolete.
REI/ISHES. See SAUCES.
REMITTENT. A term applied to fevers,
and other diseases, which exhibit a decided
remission in violence during the twenty-four
hours, but without entirely leaving the patient,
in which they differ from intermittents or agues.
REN'NET. Syn. RUNNET, PREPARED CALF's
MAW. The fourth or true digesting stomach
of the calf, freed from the outer skin, fat, and
useless membrane, washed, treated with either
brine or dry salt for a few hours, and then
hung up to dry. When well prepared, the
dried ‘ vells’ somewhat resemble parchment in
appearance. -
Uses, &c. Rennet is employed to curdle
milk. A piece of the requisite size is cut off,
and soaked for some hours in whey or water,
after which the whole is added to the milk for
curdling, slightly warmed, and the mixture is
slowly heated, if necessary, to about 122°Fahr.
In a short time after this temperature has
been attained, the milk separates into a solid
white coagulum (curd), and into a yellowish,
translucent liquid (whey). Two square inches
from the bottom of a good ‘ vell’ are sufficient
for a cheese of 60 lbs. It is the gastric juice of
the stomach that operates these changes. The
stomachs of all sucking quadrupeds possess the
same properties. See CHEESE.
Rennet, Liquid. Syn. ESSENCE OF RENNET.
Prep. From fresh rennet (cut small), 12 oz. ;
common salt, 3 oz. ; knead them together, and
leave the mixture at rest, in a cool place, for
5 or 6 weeks; then add, of water, 18 oz. ; good
rum or proof spirit, 2 oz. ; lastly, digest for 24
hours, filter, and colour the liquid with a little
burnt sugar.
Obs. 2 or 3 teaspoonfuls will curdle a quart
of milk. Some persons use white wine instead
of water, with simple digestion for a day or two.
RESIN. Syn. RESINA, L. This name is
applied to many vegetable principles composed
of the elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
The resins (RESINE) cannot be very accurately
defined, but we may in a general way describe
them as substances which are solid at ordinary
temperatures, more or less transparent, inflam-
mable, readily fusible, do not volatilise un-
changed, become negatively electrified by rub-
bing; are insoluble in water, but soluble in alco-
hol; mostly inodorous, and readily incorporated
with fatty bodies by fusion. Their sp. gr.
varies from 9 to 1:2. According to Liebig,
they are oxidised essential oils. Common
resin, rosin, or colophony, and the shellac of
which sealing-wax is made, are familiar exam-
ples of these substances. (See below.)
Resin, Black. Syn. ROSINt, BLACK R.I.,
CoLoRHONY; RESINA NIGRA, CoLoRHONIA, L.
What remains of turpentine after the oil has
been distilled. When this substance, whilst
still fluid, is agitated with about 1-8th part of
water, it forms the yellow resin of pharmacy,
Used for violin bows, dark-coloured ointments,
warnishes, &c.
Resin, Yellow. Syn. YELLOW ROSIN.
WHITE R.: ; RESINA FLAVA, RESINA (Ph.L.)
L. Detergent. Used in ointments, plasters,
&c. (See above.)
RES/INOIDS.
CONCENTRATED E.; EXTRACTA RESINA, L.
Under this head, the so-called “Eclectics,” who
form a numerous class among American phy.
sicians, place their most important ‘concen.
trated remedies.” “Viewed as pharmaceutical
preparations eligible for use in medicine,
though not purified so as to rank as distinctive
proximate principles, these are very appro-
priately named “resinous extracts,” or “resins?
The term “resinoid, so commonly used, is lºss
appropriate to the class, implying, as it does, a
resemblance to resins, while all of these are
either resins, oleo-resins, or more or less mixed
proximate principles possessing no real resem-
blance to the class of resins.” (Parrish.) Most
of them are prepared from plants indigenous
to North America, by precipitating a strong
alcoholic tincture with water. They are all
brought to the condition of powder, those
which are naturally soft and oily being mixed
with a sufficient quantity of sugar of milk, or
other dry material. One of these eclectic re.
medies has been introduced into regular prac.
tice. See PODOPHYLLIN.
SOLVENTIA, L. Substances or agents which
discuss or resolve inflammatory and other
tumours. See DIGESTIVEs.
RESPIRA"TION. The peculiar function by
which the blood is submitted to the action of
the air, for the purpose of removing carbonic
acid, and restoring its vitality by the absorp.
tion of atmospheric oxygen.
The air expired from the lungs is found to
have undergone a most remarkable change.
It is now loaded with aqueous vapour, whilst
a considerable portion of its oxygen has dis.
appeared, and its place is supplied by about a
like volume of carbonic acid. It is no longer
capable of supporting animal life, and even a
lighted taper plunged into it is immediately
extinguished. In the mean time, the ‘venous
blood” which entered the lungs from the right
chambers of the heart has lost its dingy hue,
and has acquired the rich florid colour which
is characteristic of ‘arterial blood.” In this
state it is returned to the left chambers of the
heart, and is propelled by that organ to every
part of the body, from which it passes by the
capillaries to the veins, and by these again to
the heart and lungs, to undergo the same
changes and circulation as before. The carbon
and hydrogen of the blood, ultimately derived
from the food, are, in this course, gradually
converted into carbonic acid and water, by a
species of slow combustion; but how these
changes are effected is not definitely ascertained.
The lungs, as is well known, receive the
Syn. RESINoUs ExTRACTS :
REsoiv'Ents, sºn. Discurrents; R.



REVALENTA ARABICA–RHATANY.,
1017
atmospheric air through the trachea or wind-
pipe. At the root of the neck this divides
into two branches, called bronchi, and each
bronchus, upon entering its respective lung,
divides into an infinity of small tubes. The
latter terminate in small pouches, called the
air-cells, and a number of these little air-cells
communicate together at the extremity of each
small tube. The number of air-cells in the
two lungs has been estimated at 1,744,000,000,
and the extent of the membrane which lines the
cells and tubes together at 1500 square feet.
(Dr. Addison.) Under ordinary circumstances,
from 22 to 43 cubic inches of air are thrown
out at each expiration; but, by a forced
effort, 50 or 60 inches are ordinarily expelled.
The number of respirations per minute in
health, when the individual is tranquil and
undisturbed, is about 15. Exercise increases
this number. See FOOD, NUTRITION, &c.
Respiration, Artificial. Various means have
been adopted for this purpose, among which
blowing air into the lungs is, perhaps, that
generally adopted. A better, and, in general,
a much more efficient method, is as follows:—
Powerful but not violent pressure is made
upon the sides of the chest and upon the abdo-
men at the same time, by which the cavity of
the thorax is diminished, and the air contained
in the lungs is expelled; the compression is
then suddenly withdrawn, when the elasticity
of the ribs causes them to resume their old
expanded positions; the chest is again en-
larged, a partial vacuum is formed, and air
rushes into the lungs, to be again expelled by
pressure upon the ribs and abdomen as before.
By this means artificlal respiration may be kept
up for a great length of time, without the use
of bellows, or any other apparatus. The chief
principle of Dr. Marshall Hall’s so-called
‘ready method’ is the postural performance
of artificial respiration. The patient is first
placed gently on the face, and then turned on
the side; then on the face again, alternately;
these measures being repeated .deliberately,
efficiently, and perseveringly, fifteen times in
the minute. When the prone position is re-
sumed, equable, but efficient, pressure is ap-
plied along the spine; this pressure is removed (
immediately before rotation on the side.
The “Silvester method, invented by Dr.
Henry Silvester, is now acknowledged to be
far more effective than Dr. Hall's method,
and is adopted by the Royal Humane Society
for the restoration of the apparently drowned.
It consists in laying the patient on the back,
slightly raising the head and shoulders, draw-
ing the tongue forwards, and keeping it so by
passing an elastic band over it and under the
chin. The arms are then grasped just above
the elbows, and drawn gently upwards until
they meet above the head (this is for the pur-
pose of drawing air into the lungs), keeping
the arms in that position for two seconds.
The patient’s arms are then turned down, and
pressed gently and firmly for two seconds
against the sides of the chest (this is for the
purpose of pressing the air out of the lungs).
Artificial breathing is thus carried on. These
efforts are repeated fifteen times in a minute,
until a spontaneous effort to respire is per-
ceived. During the employment of these
means the nostrils are excited with snuff or
smelling salts, or the throat is tickled with a
feather. After natural breathing has been
restored, warmth and circulation are induced
by wrapping the body in hot blankets, apply-
ing bottles or bladders of hot water, heated
bricks, &c., to the pit of the stomach, the arm-
pits, between the thighs, and to the soles of
the feet, and by rubbing the limbs upwards
firmly and energetically.
REWALEN’TA ARABICA. A mixture of
the red Arabian or Egyptian lentil with barley
flour, and a little sugar or salt. (‘Lancet.')
See LENTIL and REVALENTA.
REVERB’ERATORY FURNACE. See FUR-
NACE.
REVIV"ER. Prep. 1. (BLACK REVIVER,
PARIS's ANTICARDIUM.) — a. Blue galls
(bruised), 4 oz. ; logwood and sumach; of each,
1 oz. ; vinegar, 1 quart; macerate in a closed
vessel, at a gentle heat, for 24 hours, then
strain off the clear, add iron filings and green
copperas, of each, 1 oz., shake it occasionally
for a week, and preserve it in a corked bottle.
b. Galls, 1 lb.; logwood, 2 lb.; boil for
2 hours in water, 5 quarts, until reduced to a
gallon, then strain, and add of green copperas,
# lb. Used to restore the colour of faded
black cloth.
2. (BLUE REVIVER,) From soluble Prussian
blue, 1 oz. ; dissolved in distilled water, 1 quart,
Used for either black or blue cloth.
RHAM/NIN. Prep. Express the juice from
buckthorn berries scarcely ripe, which is to be
rejected; boil the cake or residue with water,
strain with pressure, and filter the liquid
whilst hot ; crude rhamnin will be deposited
as the liquid cools, which, by solution in
boiling alcohol and filtration, may be procured
in crystals.
Obs. Buckthorn juice (succus rhamni) “the
juice of the fruit of Rhamnus catharticus
Linn.),” is officinal in the Ph. L.
RHAT/ANY. Syn. RHATANY Root; KRA-
MERIE RADIx (B. P.); KRAMERIA (Ph. L.
E. & D.), RHATANIE RADIX, L. “The root
of Krameria triandria.” (Ph. L.) It is
stomachic, and powerfully astringent and
styptic.—Dose. 20 to 60 grs., either in powder
or made into a decoction or infusion. It is
much employed in tooth powders, to fix the
teeth when they become loosened by the re-
cession of the gums, and also for improving
the natural red colour of the lips and gums.
A saturated tincture or fluid extract, made
with brandy, forms the ‘wine-colouring’ used
by the Portuguese to give roughness, colour,
and tone to their port wine. Hard extract
of rhatany is also much employed for the same
purpose, -



1018
RHEIN–RHUBARB.
RHE'IN. Syn. CHRYSOPHANIC ACID. The
yellow colouring principle of rhubarb.
RHEU'MATISM. Syn. RHEUMATISMUs, L.
An affection of the joints, and of the external
muscular, tendinous, and fibrous textures of
the body, attended with swelling, stiffness, and
great pain. Acute rheumatism or rheumatic
fever, arthritis, inflammation of the synovial
membrane, or rheumatic gout, -sciatica, or
rheumatism of the cellular envelope of the
great sciatic nerve, affecting the hip, and
lumbago, or rheumatism of the loins, are
varieties of this disease.
The treatment of rheumatism consists in the
administration of purgatives and diaphoretics
or sudorifics, accompanied by tonics, as bark,
quinine, &c. Calomel with opium, and iodide
of potassium, have also been frequently and
successfully employed in this complaint. Of
late years the administration of the bicar-
bonate, citrate, or nitrate of potassa, in rather
large doses, has been strongly recommended,
and in numerous cases adopted with success.
Lemon juice, liberally taken, has also proved
useful in suddenly cutting short severe attacks
of certain forms of rheumatism. The compound
powder of ipecacuanha, taken at night, will
generally promote the ease and sleep of the
patient, and, by its sudorific action, tend con-
siderably to hasten a cure. Where possible, a
dry atmosphere and a regular temperature
should be sought, since a damp atmosphere,
and, indeed, exposure to damp under any form,
are the principal causes of rheumatism. Stimu-
lating embrocations, blisters, frictions, and,
above all, the hot or vapour bath, are also fre-
quently serviceable in rheumatism, especially
in lumbago and casual attacks arising from
cold. The daily use of oranges, or of lemon
juice diluted with water, has been found, in the
majority of cases, to lessen the susceptibility of
those who employ them to attacks of rheu-
matism and rheumatic gout arising from a
damp situation or exposed to the weather.
See LEMON JUICE.
RHO'DIUM. A whitish metal discovered by
Wollaston, in 1803, associated with palladium
in the ore of platinum.
It is chiefly employed for tipping the nibs of
metallic pens (rhodium’ or “everlasting pens’).
A very small quantity added to steel is said to
improve its closeness, hardness, and toughness,
and to render it less easily corrodible by damp.
RHU'BARB. Syn. RHEI RADIx (B. P.);
RHEUM (Ph. E. & D.), RHEUM-Sinense (Ph.
L.), RHABARBARUMi, RHOEUM+, L. “The
root of uncertain species of Rheum.” (Ph.L.)
According to Dr. F. Farre, the term “sinense”
(Chinese), employed by the London College,
“ was placed after “rheum,’ to include the
so-called Russian and East Indian rhubarbs,
which are considered to be the produce of
China and Chinese Tartary, and to exclude
European, Himalayan, &c.”
Three principal varieties of rhubarb are
known in this country :— -
machic, 1 to 5 grs.; as a purgative, 10 to 20
Russian or Turkey rhubarb is the produce
|
of six-year-old plants of the mountain de-
clivities of Chinese Tartary; and its principal
excellence depends on its more careful prepa.
ration, and subsequent garbling, both before
its selection for the Russian market, and after
its arrival at Kiachta, and again at St. Peters.
burg.
being pared and perforated, the better to
determine the quality of the interior portion,
At St. Petersburg the pieces are again care.
fully examined and garbled, and are, finally,
packed in close cases or chests, which are ren.
At Kiachta all pieces of a porous,
gray, or pale colour are rejected, the whole
dered air-tight by the application of pitch on
the outside.
East India or Chinese rhubarb is the pro-
duce of the locality just referred to, as well
as of other parts of China. It is obtained
from younger plants, and its preparation and
subsequent selection or garbling is conducted
with less care.
English rhubarb is principally produced
at Banbury, Oxfordshire, from the Rheum
Rhaponticum. It is cut and dressed up
after the manner of Turkey rhubarb, for
which it is sold by itinerant vendors, habited
as Turks. -
Qual. Russian or Turkey rhubarb occurs in
irregular plano-convex or roundish lumps,
perforated with a circular hole; it possesses a
yellow colour outside; when recently broken,
the inside presents a rich mottled appearance,
and evolves a peculiar and somewhat aromatic
odour. It is firm, compact, heavy, perfectly
free from moisture, and easily grated. Its
taste is bitter, slightly astringent, and sub.
acid; and when chewed it feels gritty, and
tinges the saliva of a beautiful yellow colour,
It breaks with a rough, hackly fracture, is
easily pulverised, and its powder is of a bright
buff-yellow colour.
East India, Cantom, or Chinese rhubarbis in
flat pieces, seldom perforated, and its taste and
odour are stronger than the other. It is also
heavier, tinges the saliva of an orange-red hue,
and when pulverised the powder is redder than
that of Russian rhubarb.
English rhubarb possesses all the preceding
qualities in a greatly less degree. It is light
and spongy, does not feel gritty between the
teeth, its taste is mucilaginous, and its powder
has a peculiar pinkish hue not present in
either of the other varieties of rhubarb. As a
medicine, it possesses little value, and is chiefly
employed to adulterate East India and Turkey
rhubarb. -
Prop. &c., Rhubarb is astringent, stoma.
chic, and purgative. In small doses, its ope:
ration is principally or wholly confined to the
digestive organs; in larger ones, it first
acts as a "mild aperient, and, afterwards, as an
astringent ; hence its value in diarrhoea. It
has also been used externally to promote the
healing of indolent sores.—Dose. As a sto:




RICE—ROASTING.
1019
grs. It is most effective when chewed, or in
the form of powder produced by grating it.
Rhubarb, Roast'ed. Syn. BURNTRHUBARB ;
RHEUM USTUM, L. Prep. 1. Rhubarb, in
coarse powder, is carefully and regularly heated
in a smooth shallow iron disc, with constant
stirring, until its colour has changed to a
moderately dark brown, when it is allowed to
cool out of contact with the air; when cold, it
is reduced to powder, and at once put into a
well-closed bottle.
2. (Hoblyn.) Roast powdered rhubarb in an
iron vessel, constantly stirring, until it becomes
almost black, then smother it in a covered jar.
—Dose. 5 to 10 grs. ; as an astringent in diar-
rhoea, and a tonic in dyspepsia, &c. Prof.
Procter, the well-known American pharma-
ceutist, recommends the rhubarb to be only
roasted to a “light brown.” -
RICE. Syn. ORYZA, L. The seed of Oryza.
sativa, a plant of the natural order Grami-
naceae. Several varieties are known in com-
merce, distinguished by the name of the
country or district which produces them. The
finest is that imported from Carolina.
As an article of diet, rice is highly nutri-
tious and wholesome when combined with fresh
animal or other nitrogenized food; but, owing
to the very small quantity of “flesh-formers’
which it contains, and its comparative desti-
tution in saline matter, it is totally unfit to
form the principal portion of the diet of the
working classes, or the poorly fed, at least in
this climate. “It does not appear so well cal-
culated for European constitutions as the
potato, for we find the poor constantly reject
it when potatoes can be had.” This preference
evidently depends on something more than
mere whim or taste; for some years ago, when
rice was substituted for potatoes in some of our
union workhouses, the most serious conse-
quences followed. In one of these, mine or ten
deaths from scurvy and allied diseases occurred
in a single fortnight. Large quantities of rice
are annually imported into Britain, and used
by distillers in the manufacture of spirits.
RICIN0'LEIC ACID. A variety of oleic
acid discovered in saponified castor oil.
RICKETS. Syn. RACHITIS, L. A disease,
generally confined to childhood, characterised
by a large head, prominent forehead, protruded
breast bone, flattened ribs, tumid belly, ema-
ciated limbs, and great general debility. The
bones, more particularly those of the spine and
legs, become distorted, and exhibit a deficiency
of earthy matter; the stools are frequent and
loose, a slow fever succeeds, with cough, pain-
ful and difficult respiration, and, unless the
child rallies, atrophy is confirmed, and death
ensues. When recovery takes place, there is
always more or less deformity left.
The common causes of rickets are bad nurs-
ing, exposure to damp and cold, and insuffi-
cient nutrition, arising from the use of white
bread containing alum, or any of the per-
nicious compounds vended under the names of
*
‘FARINACEOUS FOOD,” “INFANTS’ F.,’ ‘PATENT
F.,’ &c. Rickets, like caries of the bones, is a
disease which is scarcely known amongst in-
fants whose pap is made of pure wheaten
bread, and whose mothers or nurses consume
the same themselves.
The treatment of rickets depends more on
proper domestic management than on direct
medication. Careful nursing, warm dry cloth-
ing, thorough ventilation, moderate exercise,
and, above all, a light nutritious mixed diet
abounding in mitrogenous matter and the
phosphates, will do much to effect a cure. To
these may be added the administration of
the milder chalybeate tonics, bark, or quinine,
with occasional doses of some mild aperient, as
phosphate of soda, or, when there is diarrhoea,
of rhubarb or some other tonic purge. The
administration of small doses of phosphate of
lime or of dilute phosphoric acid, frequently
repeated, or, still better, the daily use of jelly
made of pure ivory or bone shavings, will often
effect wonders in those cases in which the
bones are implicated from an apparent defici-
ency of earthy matter. See BREAD, FARINA,
NURSING, &c.
RING/WORM. Syn. SCALD-HEAD ; Poſt-
RIGO, L. The common ringworm, the POR-
RIGo SCUTULATA of medical writers, is a
disease that appears in circular patches of little
pustules, which afterwards form scabs, leaving
a red pimply surface, and destroying the bulbs
of the hair in its progress. It spreads rapidly,
and is very infectious, often running through a
whole school. It chiefly affects the neck,
forehead, and scalp of weakly children, and
frequently arises without any apparent cause,
but, in general, may be traced to unclean-
ness, or contact with parties suffering from
the disease.
The treatment of ringworm consists in
shaving the part, and keeping it clean with
soap and water, at the same time that an
occasional mild saline aperient is administered,
and a light, nutritious diet, of which the red
meat and ripe fruits should form a portion, be
rigorously adhered to. When the scabbing
commences, dressings of tar ointment, or of the
ointment of nitrate or red oxide of mercury,
or a mixture of equal parts of the first and
either the second or third, should be applied,
in each case diluting the mixture with suffi-
cient lard to adapt it to the state of irritability
of the part. During this treatment the head
should be covered with an ordinary nightcap,
or some simple bandage, and not enveloped in
a bladder or oil-skin case, as is commonly the
practice, since the complete exclusion of at-
mospheric air tends to aggravate the disease.
RI''PENING. See BREWING, MALT LI-
QUORS, WINE, &c.
ROAST'ING. Alexis Soyer recommends, “as
an invariable rule,” that “all dark meats, such
as beef and mutton, should be put down to a
sharp fire for at least fifteen minutes, until
the outside has acquired a coating of Osmazome,


1020
ROB–ROPINESS.
or condensed gravy, and then removed back,
and allowed to cook gently. Lamb, veal, and
pork, if young and tender, should be done at a
moderate fire. Weal should even be covered
with paper.”
“Very rich meat, if covered with paper,
does not require basting. Fowls, &c., should
be placed close to the fire, to set the skin, and
in about ten minutes rubbed over with a small
piece of butter, pressed in a spoon. Meats, whilst
roasting, should be dredged with flour, just at
the time when the gravy begins to appear;
the flour absorbs it, and forms a coating which
prevents any more coming out. Hares and small
game should be treated in the same manner.”
Under ordinary circumstances as to the fire,
and the distance between it and the joint,
beef, mutton, and veal, take about 4 hour per
lb. in roasting. Lamb, poultry, and small game,
require only 12 to 14 minutes per lb.; whilst
veal takes fully 15 minutes, and pork takes
from + hour to 20 minutes, as they must always
be well done. The flesh of old animals re-
quires more cooking than the flesh of young
ones; and inferior, tough, and bony parts than
the prime joints and pieces.
Roasting is not an economical method of
cooking pieces of meat abounding in bone or
tendinous matter, since the nutritious portion
of these is either destroyed or rendered inso-
luble by the heat employed. Thus, the raw
bones from a joint are capable of affording a
rich and excellent basin of soup, highly nutri-
tious; whilst the bones from a corresponding
joint which has been roasted are nearly worth-
less when so treated. The same applies with
even greater force to the gristly and tendinous
portions. A dry heat either destroys them
or converts them into a horny substance, unfit
for food; whilst by boiling they are trans-
formed into a highly succulent and nutritious
article of food, besides affording excellent soup
or jelly. Hence the policy of ‘boning’ meat
before roasting or baking it; or, at all events,
of removing the bony portion which would be
most exposed to the action of the fire. See
BONE and JELLY.
ROB, Syn. RooB. A term, derived from
the Arabic, formerly applied to the inspissated
juice of ripe fruit, mixed with honey or sugar
to the consistence of a conserve of thin ex-
tract. Rob of elder-berries (ELDER ROB ;
RooB SAMBUCI), juniper berries (JUNIPER ROB;
ROOB JUNIPERI), mulberries (MULBERRY ROB ;
RooB DIAMORUM), and walnuts (WAINUT ROB;
ROOB DYACARYON), with a few others, are still
found in some of the foreign Pharmacopoeias.
R00K. The popular name of a sweetmeat
formed of sugar boiled to a candy, and then
poured upon an oiled slab, and allowed to cool
in the lump. It is variously flavoured.
R00K CRYSTAL. Native crystallised silica.
See QUARTZ.
ROCK OIL. See PETROLEUM.
R00K S0AP. A native silicate of alumina;
used for crayons, and for washing cloth,
ROCKETS. (In pyrotechny.) Prep. The
CASES.–These are made of stout cartridge
paper, rolled on a mould and pasted, and then
throttled a little below the mouth, like the
neck of a phial. The diameter should be ex-
actly equal to that of a leaden ball of the
same weight, and the length should be equal to
3} times the internal diameter. They are filled
with the following mixtures, tightly driven in;
and when intended for flight (SKY-ROCKETs),
they are “garnished, and affixed to willow rods
to direct their course.
The COMPOSITION.—1. (Marsh.)—a. For
2-0Z. rockets. From nitre, 54% parts; sulphur,
18 parts; charcoal, 274 parts; all in fine
powder, and passed through lawn.
b. For 4-oz. do. From nitre, 64 parts;
sulphur, 16 parts; charcoal, 20 parts; as the
last.
c. For #-lb. to 1-lb. do. From nitre, 62%
parts; sulphur, 15% parts; charcoal, 21% parts,
2. (Ruggieri.)—a. For rockets of #-inch
diameter. From nitre, 16 parts; charcoal,
7 parts; sulphur, 4 parts.
b. For # to 14-inch rockets, use 1 part more
of nitre.
c. For 13-inch rockets, use 2 parts more of
nitre.
d. By using 1 part less of charcoal and
adding respectively 3, 4, and 5 parts of fine
steel filings, the above are converted into
* BRILLIANT FIRES.” -
e. By the substitution of coarse cast-iron
borings for filings, and a further omission of 2
parts of charcoal from each, the latter are con-
verted into ‘CHINESE FIRE.”
HAND-ROCKETS and GROUND-ROCKETs are
usually loaded with nothing but very fine
meal gunpowder and iron or zinc filings or
borings.
After SKY-ROCKETS and WATER-ROCKETs are
charged, a piece of clay is driven in, through
which a hole is pierced, and the ‘head' or
“garniture’ filled with stars, and a little
cornpowder is them applied. See FIREs and
STARS.
ROLLS. A variety of fancy bread, gene.
rally in the form of small semicylindrical cakes,
prepared by the bakers, and intended to be
eaten hot for breakfast. They differ from
ordinary fine or French bread, as it is called,
chiefly in containing more water. Some are
wetted up with milk-and-water, and are hence
called “milk rolls.”
ROLL (Wine). Prep. Soak a French roll
or sponge-biscuit in raisin, marsala, or sherry
wine, surround it by a custard or cream thick.
ened with eggs, and add some spice and orna.
ments.
R00T. Syn. RADIx, L. That part of a
plant which imbibes its nourishment from the
soil or medium in which it grows. In popular
language, bulbs, corms, tubers, &c., are im:
properly included under this term.
R0"PINESS. See MALT LIQUORS and
WINES.





BUPOPHAGON.—ROUGE. 1021
ſ
ROPOPH'AGON. Prep. From yellow soap,
sliced, 1 oz. ; soft soap (finest), 3 oz. ; melt
them by the heat of hot water, then allow
them to cool a little, and stir in of oil of
cloves, # dr.; essence of ambergris, 10 drops,
It is kept a month before sale. Used for
shaving.
ROSE. Syn. ROSA, L. The typical genus
of the matural order Rosaceae. It includes
numerous species greatly prized as garden
plants.
Rose, Cabbage. Sym. HUNDRED-LEAVED
ROSE; ROSE CENTIFOILE PETALA (B. P.),
Ros A CENTIFOLIA (Ph. L. & E.), L. “The
fresh petals” (Ph. L.) of this species are used
in medicine. Odorous and slightly astringent
and laxative. See WATERS and SYRUP.
Rose, Dog. The Rosa canina, or wild briar.
See HIPS.
Rose, French. Syn. RED ROSE ; RoSE
GALLICE PETALA (B. P.), ROSA.GALLICA (Ph.
L. E. & D.), L. “The fresh and dried unex-
panded petals” (Ph. L.) of this species are
officinal. The white claws of the petals are
removed before drying them.
Uses, &c. The red rose is an elegant astrin-
gent and tonic, and, as such, is used as the
basis of several pharmaceutical preparations.
See CoNFECTION, HONEYS, INFUSION, and
SYRUP. -
ROSE/MARY. Syn. RosMARINUs (Ph. L.
E. & D.). The flowering tops of Rosmarinus
officinalis (Linn.), or the common rosemary of
our gardens, are officinal in the Ph. E. & D.;
as is also the oil (oleum rosmarini) in the B.
P. and Ph. L. The odour of both is refresh-
ing, and they are reputed carminative, em-
menagogue, and neurotic. The dried leaves
are occasionally used by the hysterical and
hypochondriacal as a substitute for China tea.
The oil is an ingredient in Hungary water, and
is much used in various cosmetic compounds,
under the presumption of its encouraging the
growth of hair and improving its quality.
ROSE PINK. See RED PIGMENTS.
R0'SIN. See RESIN.
ROSY-DROP. See ACNE,
R0T. Syn. GREATROT, HYDROPHIC R.,
SHEEP R., WET R. A disease peculiar to
sheep, produced by a humid atmosphere, wet
pasturage, and exposure to the weather. The
leading symptoms are loss of flesh and vivacity;
the lips and tongue look vivid, and the eyes
sad and glassy; the pelt comes off on the
slightest pull; the breath is fetid, and the
urine highly coloured and scanty ; and there is
either black purging or obstinate costiveness.
The treatment consists in a change to a dry
warm situation, and a dry diet, consisting of
oats, barley meal, tail-wheat, &c., to which
some turnips, carrots, or mangel wurzel, may
be added, with a liberal supply of common
salt, and a few grains of sulphur, daily.
These last two substances form the active in-
gredients in Flesh’s ‘Patent Restorative.”
ROT (in Timber). See DRY ROT.
ROTA"TION (of Crops). The rotation or
succession of crops is absolutely necessary for
the successful and economical cultivation of
the soil. Crops have been divided by agri-
culturists into exhausting crops, restoring
crops, and cleaning crops. The most exhaust-
ing crops are usually considered to be those of
corn, but all those that are allowed to ripen
their seed, and which are carried off the ground.
are also exhausting, but in different degrees.
Even clover, tares, and grass cut green are
considered as exhausting, but in a less degree
than those that are allowed to ripen. Re-
storing crops are such as are allowed to decay
upon the ground, or are consumed upon it by
domestic animals. Cleaning crops are such as
are grown in drills, and undergo the usual
operations of weeding, hoeing, &c.; the ma-
jority of these may also be regarded as ex-
hausting crops. An exhausting crop should
always be followed by a restoring or a cleaning
crop; or, where possible, by both combined.
Crops should also succeed each other in such a
way that the soil may not be exhausted of any
one particular kind of nutriment. This is
best effected by so rotating the crops that
plants which are nearly allied should not suc-
ceed each other on the same soil, or, at all
events, not more than once. See AGRICUL-
TURE, SOILS, &c.
ROT'TEN STONE. See TRIPOLI.
ROUGE. Syn. ToILET ROUGE ; Rouge
VáGKTAL, Rouge D'Espagne, Fr. Prep.
Wash safflower (any quantity) until the water
comes off colourless; dry and pulverise it,
and digest the powder in a weak solution of
crystallised carbonate of soda ; then place some
fine cotton-wool at the bottom of a porcelain
or glass vessel, pour the filtered tinctorial so-
lution on this, and throw down the colouring
matter, by gradually adding lemon juice or
white-wine vinegar, until it ceases to produce a
precipitate; next wash the prepared cotton in
pure cold water, and dissolve out the colour
with a fresh solution of soda; to the new solu-
tion add a quantity of finely powdered talc or
French chalk, proportionate to the intended
quality of rouge; mix well, and precipitate
with lemon juice, as before; lastly, collect the
powder, dry it with great care, with as little
heat as possible, and triturate it with a very
small quantity of oil of olives, to render it
smooth and adhesive.
Obs. According to the best authorities,
this is the only article which will brighten a
lady’s complexion without injuring the skin.
The relative finemess and proportion of tale
employed determines the quality of the rouge.
It is applied by means of a camel-hair pencil,
a small ‘powder puff, or a hare’s foot. It is
also employed under the form of “pommade”
and ‘crepons.” The last of these consist of
pieces of white woollen crape, upon which the
colouring matter of the carthamus has been
precipitated, instead of upon the talc, noticed
above.




1022 ROUGHENING—RUST.
The following articles also pass under the
name of rouge, and are used for the purposes
named after each :—
Rouge, Brown-red. Jeweller's rouge.
Rouge, Chinese Card. This is said to be a
‘carthamate of soda ; it is colourless when ap-
plied, but, being decomposed by the acid se-
cretions of the skin, acquires a most beautiful
rose-like tint. (O'Shaughnessy.)
Rouge, Jeweller's. Sesquioxide of iron pre-
pared by calcination. Used to polish gold, &c.
Rouge, Liquid. The red liquid left from the
preparation of carmine; or, a solution of car-
mine in weak carbonate of potash water, or of
pure rouge in alcohol acidulated with acetic
acid.
Rouge Indienne. The terra persica, or In-
dian red; imported from Ormuz.
Rouge de Prusse. Light red or burnt yel-
low ochre. See RED PIGMENTS.
Rouge, Spanish Lady's. This is cotton wool
which has been repeatedly wetted with an
ammoniacal solution of carmine, and dried. It
is applied like ‘rouge crepons.”
Rouge d'Athemes, Wert. Syn. PURE ROUGE.
See CARTHAMINE.
ROUGH’ÉNING. See WINES.
RUBEFA"CIENTS. Syn. RUBERACIENTIA,
L. Substances or agents which, when applied
for a certain time to the skin, occasion a red-
ness and increase of heat, without blistering.
They act as counter-irritants. Mustard, pow-
dered ginger (both made into a paste with
water), hartshorn and oil, and ether and spirit
of wine (when their evaporation is prevented),
are familiar examples of this class of reme-
dies.
RUBE'OLA. See MEASLEs.
RUBIA'CIN. An orange-coloured substance,
obtained from madder.
RUBID'IUM. [Eng., L.] A metal belong-
ing to the alkaline group discovered by Bunsen
and Kirchhoff by means of spectrum analysis.
It is found in many mineral waters associated
with cassium.
RU'BY. See GEMS and PASTES.
RUE. Syn. RUTHE FOLIA, RUTA (Ph. L. &
E.), L. “The leaf of Ruta graveolens.” (Ph.
L.) A powerful antispasmodic, diuretic, and
stimulant. It is also reputed nervine and em-
menagogue. The fresh leaves are powerfully
acrid, and even vesicant; but they become
milder in drying.—Dose. Of the powder, 15
to 30 grs, twice or thrice daily; in hysteria,
flatulent colic, &c. See INFUSION and OILs
(Volatile).
RUM. Syn. SPIRITUS JAMAICENSIS, SPI-
RITUS SACCHARI, L. An ardent spirit ob-
tained by distillation from the fermented
skimmings of the sugar-boilers (syrup scum),
the drainings of the sugar-pots and hogsheads
(molasses), the washings of the boilers and
other vessels, together with sufficient recent
cane juice or wort, prepared by mashing the
crushed cane, to impart the necessary flavour.
The sweet liquor, before fermentation, com:
monly contains from 12 to 16% of saccharine,
and every ten gallons yields from one to two
gallons of rum. -
The average strength of rum, as imported
into this country, is about 20 O.P. Like all
other spirits, it is colourless when it issues from
the still, but owing to the taste of the con-
sumer the distiller is compelled to colour it
before it leaves his premises.
Obs. Rum is imported from the West In-
dies, The best comes from Jamaica, and is
hence distinguished by that name. Leeward
Island rum is less esteemed. The duty on
rum is 10s. 2d. per proof-gallon if imported
direct from any of the British Colonies (Colo-
nial rum), but 10s. 5d. if from any other part
of the world (Foreign rum). The consumption
of rum has long been declining in England;
its place being chiefly supplied by gin. Rum
owes its flavour to a volatile oil and butyric
acid, a fact which the wary chemist has
availed himself of in the manufacture of a
butyric compound (essence of rum) for the
especial purpose of enabling the spirit dealer
to manufacture a factitious rum from malt Or
molasses spirit. In Jamaica it is usual to put
sliced pine apples into the puncheons con-
taining the finer qualities of rum, which is
then formed pine-apple rum. See ALCOHOL,
SPIRIT, &c.
RUPERT'S DROPS. These are made by
letting drops of melted glass fall into cold
water. By this means they assume an oval
form, with a tail or neck resembling a retort,
They possess this singular property, that if a
small portion of the tail is broken off, the
whole bursts into powder with an explosion,
and a considerable shock is communicated to
the hand. -
RUP'TURE. See SURGERY.
RUSKS. Prep. From 4 eggs; new milk and
warm water, of each, ; pint; melted butter and
sugar, of each, 3 lb.; yeast, 3 table-spoonfuls;
beat well together with as much flour, added
gradually, as will make a very light paste;
let it rise before the fire for half an hour, then
add a little more flour, form into small loaves
or cakes 5 or 6 inches wide, and flatten them;
bake these moderately, and, when cold, cut
them into slices the size of rusks, and put
them into the oven to brown a little. A
nice tea-cake when hot, or, with caraways,
to eat cold. PLAIN RUSKs are made by simply
cutting loaves of bread into slices, and baking
them in a slow oven to the proper colour.
RUS/MA. An arsenical iron pyrites, found
in Galatia, which, when reduced to powder,
and mixed with half its weight of quicklime,
is used by the Turkish ladies to make their
‘PSILOTHRONS, or compounds to remove super-
fluous hair. See DEPILATORY.
RUST. Syn. RUBIGO, L. The coating or
film of oxide or carbonate which forms on the
surface of several of the metals when exposed
to a moist atmosphere; more particularly,
RUTHENIUM-SACHET.
i023
that which forms on iron or steel (FERRI HY-
DRATE ; HYDRATED SESQUIOXIDE OF IRON ;
FERRUGO, FERRI RUBIGO).
To prevent iron or steel goods rusting, it is
merely necessary to preserve them from damp
or moisture. In the shops, small articles in
steel are, commonly, either varnished or en-
closed in quicklime finely pulverised; large
articles are generally protected with a coating
of plumbago, or of boiled oil, or some cheap
varnish, applied to them, previously gently
heated. Surgical instruments are frequently
slightly smeared with a little strong mercurial
ointment, with the same intention.
Spots of rust may be removed from the sur-
face of polished iron or steel by rubbing them
with a little tripoli or very fine emery made
into a paste with sweet oil; or, chemically, by
a mixture of polisher’s putty-powder with a
little oxalic acid, applied with water. When
the last is employed, the articles should be
afterwards well rinsed in pure water, then
wiped dry, and finished off with a warm and dry
rubber, in order to remove every trace of acid.
RUTHEN 'IUM. A metal, discovered by
Claus, associated with iridium, in the residue
from crude platinum, which is insoluble in
aqua regia. It forms small angular masses,
with a metallic lustre; is very brittle and in-
fusible; resists the action of acids, but readily
oxidises when heated in the air. Sp. gr. 86.
RYE. Syn. SECALE, L. The seed of
Secale cereale, a gramineous plant, the native
country of which is undetermined. It is a
more certain crop and requires less culture
and manure than wheat, and is hence largely
cultivated in Germany, Russia, and the north-
ern parts of Europe, where it is extensively
employed for bread. When roasted, it is occa-
sionally used as a substitute for coffee. It
furnishes an excellent malt for the distillation
of spirit, and is much used in the making of
Hollands. -
Rye, Spurred. See ERGOT.
SABADILLA. Syn. CEBADILLA, CEVA-
DILLA, SABADILLA (B. P., Ph. E.), L. The
dried fruit of Asagraea officinalis. A drastic
and dangerous cathartic, occasionally used in
tapeworm ; and, externally, to destroy pedi-
culi, but, even for this purpose, when the scalp
has been denuded or ulcerated, it has sometimes
caused death. It is now used chiefly as a
source of VERATRINE.
SA’BLE. The Mustella Zibellina (Linn.), a
small quadruped of the martin-cat family,
found in Northern Asia. Its fur is remarkable
for its fine quality and rich colour, and for
the hairs turning with equal ease in every di-
rection. The skins of the rabbit, cat, &c.,
dressed, painted, and lustred, are sold under
the name of COMMON or Mock SBALE. -
SAB0TIERE. [Fr.] An apparatus of pe-
culiar construction, employed by the French
confectioners for making ices. It consists of
a pail to contain a freezing mixture, and an
º
inner vessel for the creams to be iced. It may
be used with a mixture of pounded ice
and salt, or any other freezing mixture. The
pail and cream vessel being loaded, and closely
covered, an alternate rotatory motion is given
to the apparatus by means of the handle, for
10 or 15 minutes, care being taken to occa-
sionally scrape down the frozen portion of the
cream from the sides, by means of a wooden
spoon. See ICES and REFRIGERATION.
SACCHAR/IC ACID. Syn. OXALHYDRIC
ACID+. A compound, resulting from the action
of dilute nitric acid on sugar.
SAC'CHARINE. The technical name of the
uncrystallisable sugar found in malt-wort.
SACCHARINE FERMENTATION. This
occurs during the germination and kiln-drying
of grain in the operation of malting, and in
the mashing of malt in brewing. The sweet-
ening of bread during its exposure to heat in
the oven is also included under this head by
many writers. -
The substance which most powerfully excites
the sugar fermentation was first shown by
Payen and Persoz to be a peculiar principle,
to which they have given the name of ‘DIAs-
TASE.’ This is always present in good malt,
and possesses the singular property of con-
verting STARCH successively into gum (dex-
trin) and sugar, at a temperature ranging
between 149° and 168° Fahr. During the
action of this substance on starch, it is itself
decomposed; and when the sugar fermentation
ceases it is found to have entirely disappeared.
It is the presence of diastase in malt which
alone converts the starch of the grain into
sugar during the operation of mashing with
hot water; and hence the absolute necessity of
employing water at the proper temperature, as
on this depends the strength and sweetness of
the wort, and consequently its fitness for un-
dergoing the vinous fermentation, and for
making beer. Vegetable albumen and gluten
also possess the property of exciting the sac-
charine fermentation, but in a considerably
inferior degree to diastase.
The sugar formed during the germination of
seeds containing starch results from the action
of diastase, and disappears as soon as the
woody fibre (lignin), which has a similar con-
stitution, is developed, forming the skeleton of
the young plant. (Liebig.) See BREWING,
DIASTASE, DEXTRINE, &c.
SACCHAROM'ETER. An instrument, simi-
lar in principle to the common spirit hydro-
meter, but so weighted and graduated as to *
adapt it for the indication of the richness of
malt-worts in sugar, or saccharine, expressed
in pounds per barrel, or the excess of gravity
over that of water, the last being taken at 1000.
See BREWING, SYRUP, WORT, &c. :
SACH'ET. Syn. SACCULUS, L. Sachets
(SACCULI) are little bags, containing dry sub-
stances, used for the external medication of
parts, or for communicating agreeable per-
fumes to wearing apparel, drawers, furniture,


1024
&c. Those belonging to perfumery are com-
monly filled with mixtures of fragrant vegeta-
ble substances, reduced to coarse powder, and
differ from those employed for pot pourri
chiefly in being used in the dry state. Sac-
culi are now seldom employed in this coun-
try in legitimate medicine. See PoWDERS
(Scented), &c.
Sachet, Anti-phthisic. Syn. SACCULUS ANTI-
PHTHISICUS, L. Prep. Dissolve of aloes, 1 oz.,
in strong decoction of fresh rue, # pint ; next
fold a piece of soft muslim in 8 folds, large
enough to cover the chest and part of the
stomach; steep this in the decoction, and dry
it in the shade; lastly, place in a small bag,
one side of which is formed of scarlet silk or
wool, and the other, intended to be worn next
the skin, of the finest net or gauze. A cele-
brated domestic remedy for consumption and
asthma. It is intended to be constantly worn
on the chest.
Sachet, Resolv/ent. Syn. MELTING BAG ;
SACCULUS RESOLVENS, L. Prep. 1. Dr.
Breslau.) Iodide of potassium, 1 part ; sal
ammoniac, 8 parts; dry, and reduce each sepa-
rately to fine powder; mix them, and enclose
# oz. to 1 oz. of the mixed powder in a small
bag of linen or silk. Used as a resolvent to
indolent tumours, especially goitres and
scrofulous indurations. It should be worn on
the part night and day for some time. The
part next the skin should be well pricked with
a needle, and the powder shaken up and read-
justed every 2 or 3 days; and it should be
renewed about once a fortnight. -
2. (Trousseau & Reveil.) Iodide of potas-
sium, 1 part ; burnt sponge, 4 parts; fine saw-
dust, 5 parts; as before.
SACK. (From SEC, Fr., dry.) A wine used
by our ancestors, supposed by some to have
been Rhenish or Canary; but, with more
probability, by others, to have been dry
mountain—win d’Espagne; win sec−(How-
ell, “Fr. and Eng. Dict.,’ 1650). Falstaff calls
it ‘sherris sack’ (sherry sack), from Xeres,
a sea town of Corduba, where that kind of
sack (wine) is made. (Blount.) At a later
period, the term came to be used as a general
name for all sweet wines.
SAF'FLOWER. Syn. BASTARD SAFFRON,
DYER’s S. ; CARTHAMUs, L. The florets of
Carthamus tinctorius, a plant cultivated in
Spain, Egypt, and the Levant. It contains
two colouring principles—the one yellow,
and the other red. The first is removed by
water, and is rejected. The second is easily
dissolved out by weak solutions of the car-
bonated alkalies, and is again precipitated on
the addition of an acid. This property is
taken advantage of in the manufacture of
rouge, and in dyeing silk and cotton.
The most lively tints of cherry, flame,
flesh, orange-red, poppy, and rose colour,
are imparted to silk by the following process,
modified to suit the particular shade required:
—The safflower (previously deprived of its
|
SACK—SAFFRON.
yellow colouring matter by water) is exhausted
with water containing either carbonate of soda
or of potassa, in the proportion of about 5% of
the weight of the prepared dye-stuff acted on;
the resulting liquid is next treated with pure
lemon juice until it acquires a distinct and rich
red colour; the silk is then introduced and
turned about as long as it is perceived to take
up colour, a little more lemon juice being added,
as may appear necessary; for deep shades, this
is repeated with one or more fresh baths, the
silk being dried and rinsed between each im.
mersion; it is, lastly, brightened by turning
it for a few minutes through a bath of warm
water, to which a little lemon juice has
been previously added. For flame colour,
the silk should receive a slight shade with
annotta before putting it into the safflower
bath. For the deeper shades, when expense is
an object, a little archil is commonly added
to the first and second bath. See CATHAR.
MINE.
SAF'FRON. The prepared stigmata or stig.
mas of the Crocus sativus, or saffron crocus,
There are two principal varieties known in
COImmerce :--
1. (SAFFRON, HAY. S.; CRoCUS IN FENO,
C. HISPANIOLUS, CRoCI STIGMATA; CROCUS—
B.P., Ph.L. E. & D.) This consists of the stigmas,
with part of the styles, carefully picked from
the other parts of the flowers, and then dried
on paper, by a very gentle heat, generally in
a portable oven constructed for the purpose.
2. (CAKE SAFFRON; CRoCUS IN PLACENTA)
This, professedly, merely varies from the last,
it being compressed into a cake, after it has
become softened by the fire, and being then
dried in that condition. The “cake saffron”
of commerce is now, however, mostly, if not
entirely, composed of safflower made into a
paste with some sugar and gum water, rolled
out on paper into oval cakes 10 to 12 inches
long, 9 or 10 broad, and about ºth of an inch
thick, and then dried.
saffrom nor marigold in them.” (Dr. Pereira.)
Pur. Saffron, of all the articles of com-
merce, except French brandy, is, perhaps, the
one most largely and constantly adulterated,
Abroad it is frequently mixed with safflower,
and in England with ‘prepared marigolds, or
‘French (mock) saffron.” These frauds may
be detected by the inferiority of the colour,
and by soaking the leaves in water, when the
“I can detect neither
|
stigmas of the Crocus sativus may be readily
distinguished from the florets of safflower and
the petals of marigolds. Winckler and Grüner
propose to detect these substances by means of
a solution of nitrate of silver or of sesqui.
chloride of iron. The infusion of true saffrom
is not altered by these reagents, but that of
either of the above-mentioned adulterants is
rendered opaque, and is at length precipitated.
“It consists of tripartite filaments, of an
orange-red colour, with the small filaments
towards the apex dilated.”
(Ph. L.) In the
wholesale drug trade prepared marigolds are


SAGAPENUM-SALADS.
1025
not only employed to mix with genuine saffron,
but are extensively sold to the country dealers
for that purpose. Old and dry saffron is
“freshened up” by rubbing it between the
hand, slightly oiled, and then repicking it.
Prop., &c. Saffron is anodyne, cordial,
emmenagogue, and exhilarant; but is now
seldom employed, except as an adjuvant, in
medicine. Amongst cooks, confectioners, and
liquoristes, it is largely used on account of its
fine colour.
Mead'ow Saffron. See CoICHICUM.
SAGAPE/NUM. This substance is described
in the London Pharmacopoeia as a gum resin,
the production of an uncertain species of
Ferula. The mass of the sagapenum sold to
the retail trader is, however, a factitious
article, formed by softening a mixture of assa-
foetida, 3 parts, and galbanum, 15 parts, over
a water or steam bath, and then stirring in
about ºth of their weight of oil of turpentine,
with a little oil of juniper. This mixture is
labelled ‘Gum Sagapeni Opt,” an inferior
sort being made by adding Sundry portions of
yellow resin and paste of gum tragacanth to
the above.
PREPARED SAGAPENUM (SAGAPENUM PRE-
PARATUM-Ph. L.) is ordered to be prepared
in the same manner as “prepared ammo-
niacum.”
Obs. Sagapenum is the feeblest of all the
fetid gum-resins.—Dose. 5 to 15 grs., made
into pills; as an antispasmodic and emmena-
gogue.
SA'G0. Syn. SAGO (Ph. L. E. & D.), L.
“The faecula (starch) from the stem of Sagus
lavis, S. Rumphii, and, perhaps, of other species
of palms.” (Ph. L.) It forms the principal
portion of the pith of the Sago palms, the
Gommuti palm, the Talipot palm, and other
allied trees. Its properties and uses, for the
most part, resemble those of arrow-root. It is
used for making puddings, jellies, &c.
SAL. [L.] Salt. A word much used in
compound names, handed down to us from the
old chemists.
Sal Absinthii. Carbonate of potassium.
Sal Acetosel'læ. Binoxalate and quadrox-
alate of potassium.
Sal Alem"broth.
(white precipitate).
Sal Ammo"niac.
Ammoniated mercury
Chloride of ammonium.
Sal de Duobus. Sulphate of potassium.
Sal Diureticus. Acetate of potassium.
Sal Enix'um. Crude bisulphate of potassium.
Sal Gem'mae. Rock or fossil salt (chloride
of sodium).
Sal Martis.
Sal Mirabile.
Sal Perla’tum.
Sulphate of iron.
Sulphate of sodium.
Phosphate of sodium.
Sal Polycrest'us. Sulphate of potassium.
Sal Prunel'la. Syn. SoFE-THROAT SALT,
CRYSTAT, MINERAL; PotASSR, NITRAS FUSA,
NITRUM TABULATUM, SAL PRUNELLAE, L.
From nitre, fused in a Hessian crucible, and
poured out on a smooth surface, or into moulds,
to cool. Its usual form and size is that of an
ordinary musket-bullet, with the tail, in which
state it is known in the drug trade as ‘sal
prunellae globosum.” When in cakes, it is
often called ‘sal p. in placentis, or ‘s. p.
tabulatum.” A small portion allowed to dis-
solve slowly in the mouth, the saliva being
slowly swallowed, often removes incipient in-
flammatory sore throat.
Sal Saturn'i. Sugar of lead (neutral acetate
of lead).
Sal Seignette'. Rochelle salt (tartrate of
potassium and sodium).
Sal Volatile. Sesquicarbonate of am-
monia. The name is commonly used as an
abbreviation of aromatic spirit of ammonia.
See SPIRITs (Medicinal).
SAL'ADS are generally made of esculent
vegetables, either singly or mixed, chosen
according to taste or time of year, and
“dressed’ with oil, vinegar, and salt, and some-
times also with mustard and other condiments.
Sliced boiled egg is a common addition. Cold
meat, poultry, and game, sliced small, with
some cucumber or celery, and a little onion or
chopped parsley, or, instead of them, some
pickles, make a very relishing salad. Fish are
also employed in the same manner.
Salad, Let'tuce. Prep. Take two large let-
tuces, remove the faded leaves and the coarser
green ones; next cut the green tops off, pull
each leaf off separately, rinse it in cold water,
cut it lengthways, and then into four or six
pieces; put these into a bowl, and sprinkle
over them, with your fingers, 1 small tea-
spoonful of salt, do. of pepper, 3 do. of salad
oil, and 2 do. of English or 1 of French vinegar;
then with the spoon and fork turn the salad
lightly in the bowl until thoroughly mixed;
the less it is handled the better. A tea-
spoonful each of chopped chervil and tarragon
is an immense improvement.
Obs. The above seasoning is said to be
enough for 4 lb. of lettuce. According to
Soyer, it is “such as the Italian count used to
make some years since, by which he made a
fortune in dressing salads for the tables of the
aristocracy.” The above may be varied by
the addition of 2 eggs, boiled hard, and sliced,
a little eschalot, or a few chives or young
onions. Several other salad herbs, especially
endive, water-cresses, and mustard-and-cress,
may be ‘dressed’ in the same manner; always
remembering that the excellence of a salad
depends chiefly on the vegetables which com-
pose them being recently gathered and care-
fully cleansed.
To improve the appearance of the above
and other salads, when on the table or side-
board, before being used, the gay flower of the
masturtium or marigold, with a little sliced
beet-root or radish, and sliced cucumber, may
be tastefully intermixed with them.
Salad, Lobster. Prep. (Soyer.) ‘Have the
bowl half filled with any kind of salad herb
you like, as endive, lettuce, &c.; then break
1026 SALEP—SALICYLOUS ACID.
lobster in two, open the tail, extract the meat
in one piece, break the claws, cut the meat of
both in small slices, about a quarter of an inch
thick, and arrange these tastefully on the
salad; next take out all the soft part from the
belly, mix it in a basin with 1 teaspoonful of
salt, do. of pepper, 4 do. of vinegar, and 4 do.
of oil; stir these well together, and pour the
mixture on the salad ; lastly, cover it with 2
hard eggs, cut into slices, and a few slices of
cucumber.” “To vary this, a few capers and
some fillets of anchovy may be added, stirred
lightly, and then served, either with or with-
out some salad sauce. If for a dinner, orna-
ment it with some flowers of the nasturtium
and marigold.”
SAL'EP. Syn. SALOP, SALOOP. The tu-
berous roots of Orchis mascula, and other
allied species, washed, dried, and afterwards
reduced to coarse powder. That imported
from Persia and Asia Minor occurs in small
oval grains, of a whitish-yellow colour, often
semitranslucent, with a faint, peculiar Smell,
and a taste somewhat resembling gum traga-
canth. It consists, chiefly, of bassorin and
starch, is very nutritious, and is reputed aphro-
disiac. It is employed in the same way as
sago. A decoction of about 1 oz. of this sub-
stance in a pint of water was formerly sold at
street-stalls. A tea made of Sassafras chips,
flavoured with milk and coarse brown sugar or
treacle, was also sold in the same way, and
under the same name.
FRENCH SALEP is prepared from the potato.
Dr. Ure says that the Orchis mascula of our
own country, properly treated, would afford an
article of salep equal to the Turkey, and at a
vastly lower price.
SAL'ICIN. Claſſis02. A white, crystalline
substance, discovered by Le Roux and Buchner,
in the bark and leaves of several species of Salia,
and Populus. It occurs most abundantly in the
white willow (Salia, alba) and the aspen (Salia:
helia), but is also found in all the bitter pop-
lars and willows. From willow bark which is
fresh, and rich in salicin, it may be obtained
by the cautious evaporation of the cold aqueous
infusion.
Prep. 1. (Merck.) Exhaust willow bark by
repeated coction with water, concentrate the
mixed liquors, and, while boiling, add litharge
until the liquid is nearly decoloured; filter,
remove the dissolved oxide of lead, first by
sulphuric acid, and afterwards by sulphuret of
barium; filter, and evaporate, that crystals
may form; the crystals must be purified by
re-solution and recrystallisation.
2. As No. 1, but using a stream of sulphu-
retted hydrogen, to free the solution from
lead.
3. (P. Cod.) To a strong filtered decoction
of willow bark add milk of lime, to throw down
the colour; filter, evaporate the liquor to a
syrupy consistence, add alcohol (sp. gr. 847),
to separate the gummy matter, filter, distil off
the spirit, evaporate the residuum, and set it
+
aside in a cool place to crystallise; the Crys
tals are purified by solution in boiling watº,
agitation with a little animal charcoal, and
recrystallisation.
Prop,. &c. Salicin forms white, silky needs
and plates; it is intensely bitter; inodorous;
neutral; non-basic; fuses at 230° Fahr, with
decomposition; burns with a bright flame; i.
soluble in 5% parts of water at 60°, and iſ
much less at 212°; dissolves readily in alcohol:
but is insoluble in ether. It is tonic, like Sul.
phate of quinine, but less liable to irritate tº
stomach. It is given in indigestion and intº
mittent diseases, in from 5 to 10 gr. doses,
Pur. & tests.-1. It is entirely soluble in
water and rectified spirit.—2. When strongly
heated, it is wholly dissipated, and, if kindled
burns with a bright flame, leaving a bulky
charcoal.—3. Its solution is absolutely neutral
to test-paper.—4. Concentrated sulphuric acid
causes it to agglutinate into resin-like lump:
with the accession of an intense blood-red
colour.—5. When its aqueous solution is mixed
with some hydrochloric acid, or dilute Sul.
phuric acid, and the mixture is boiled for
short time, the liquid suddenly becomes turbid
and deposits SALIRETIN, under the form of
granular crystalline precipitate. This is chi:
racteristic.—6. No reagent deposits salicii
without decomposition. See SALYCYLIC and
SALYCYLOUS ACIDS. -
SAL'ICYL. C.H.O. A compound radical
|
forming the basis of the so-called sº
COMPOUNDs, or SALICYL-SERIES. It is known
only in combination. The volatile oil of meadow.
sweet is a natural hydride of salicyl, a Sul,
stance which, when artificially prepared, is .
better known under the name of sºciº
ACID. (See below.) |
SALICYL'IC ACID. H.C.H.O. A peculia
volatile, crystallisable acid, discovered by Piri
It is obtained by fusing salicylous acid with sºil
hydrate of potassa in slight excess, until th:
mixture turns white and gas is disengaged
and treating a solution of the residuum with
hydrochloric acid, in slight excess, to separat
the potassa; the salicylic acid separates in
crystals, which are purified by solution in hiſ
water. It may also be obtained from the ºil
of partridge-berry (Gaultheria procumbens) by
acting on it with a strong and hot solution ºf
potassa, and afterwards separating the acid is
before. This oil is methylo-Salicylic ethū,
or salicylate of oxide of methyl. In its
general properties, salicylic acid closely tº
sembles benzoic acid.
SALICYL'OUS ACID. C.H.0, Syn, SAIF
CYLOL, HYDROSALICYLIC ACID'ſ, HYDRIDE 0.
SALICYT, ARTIFICIAL OIL OF MEADOW-SWEEI
A nearly colourless, oily, inflammable liquid, dis
covered by Pagenstecher in the volatile oil ºf
Spiraea ulmaria (meadow-sweet), which, when
pure, entirely consists of it; and by Piria, as:
product of the decomposition of Salicin.
Prep. The oil of meadow-sweet is mix
with a strong solution of caustic potass, all

SALIVA—SALTING. 1027
the yellow crystalline mass which separates on
agitation is purified by pressure between folds
of bibulous paper and recrystallisation from
alcohol; the resulting crystals (salicylite of
potassium) are then decomposed by the addi-
tion of dilute sulphuric acid, the floating oil
separated from the water, and freed from
moisture by careful distillation from chloride
of calcium.
Prop., &c. Salicylous acid is soluble in ether
and alcohol, and slightly so in water, to which
it imparts its peculiar fragrance and the cha-
racteristic property of striking a deep violet
colour with the sesquisalts of iron. It is dis-
tinguished from salicylic acid, which also
exhibits this reaction, by its liquid form and
odour.
SALI'WA. See MASTICATION.
SALM'0N. Sym. SALMo, L. The Salmo
Salar (Linn.), a well-known, soft-finned abdo-
minal fish. Its normal locality is at the mouth
or estuary of the larger rivers of the northern
seas, which, during the breeding season, it
ascends, sooner or later, in the summer months,
against all obstacles, for the purpose of depo-
siting its spawn.
The salmon is an excellent and highly es-
teemed fish; but it is rich, oily, and difficult
of digestion, and, therefore, ill adapted to the
delicate or dyspeptic. When pickled, salted,
or smoked, it is only fitted for persons of very
strong stomachs, although in this state it is
regarded as a great delicacy by epicures.
Salmon is preferably cooked by boiling. One
weighing 10 lbs. will require to be gently sim-
mered for about an hour, reckoning from the
time the water commences boiling. For fish
of other weights, from 6 to 7 minutes per lb.
may be allowed. See FISH, &c.
SAL00P'. Sassafras (chips) tea, flavoured
with milk and sugar. A wholesome and useful
drink in cutaneous and rheumatic affections.
See SALEP.
SALT. Syn. SAI, L.; SEL, Fr. Salts may
be regarded as acids in which one or more
atoms of hydrogen, a constant constituent of
all true acids, are replaced by a metal or other
basic radical. This relationship between acids
and salts will be better understood by reference
to the subjoined list of acids and their corre-
sponding potassium and ammonium salts:
ACIDs. SALTs.
HCl (Hydrochloric acid) — KCl ( Chloride of potas-
Slumn.
22 >> , - NH4Cl (Chloride of am-
monium).
HNO3 (Nitric acid) — KNO3 (Nitrate of potas-
Sluill).
— NH, NO3 (Nitrate of ammo-
Illum).
— Kºš0, (Sulphate of potas-
- Slum.
– (NH4)2SO4 (Sulphate of am-
monium).
Acids are, in fact, hydrogen salts. The so-
called DouBLE SALTs are, according to one
view, combinations of two salts of the same
acid, but of different basic radicles; thus, com-
>> 22 22
H2SO4 (Sulphuric acid)
22 >> 22
mon alum is a compound of sulphate of alu-
minum and sulphate of potassium.
The salts are a most important class of
bodies, and their applications and uses in the
arts of life and civilisation are almost infinite.
See NOMENCLATURE, &c.
Salt, Bitter Pur’ging. Epsom salt.
Salt, Cathar’tic. Of GLAUBER, sulphate of
sodium; ENGLISH or BITTER. S., sulphate of
magnesium (Epsom salt).
Salt, Common. Syn. CULINARY SALT. Chlo-
ride of sodium.
Salt, Diuret'ic. Acetate of potassium.
Salt, Ep'som. Sulphate of magnesium.
Salt, Feb’rifuge. Chloride of potassium.
Salt, Fu"sible. Phosphate of ammonium.
Salt, Glauber's. Sulphate of sodium.
Salt, Macqueer's. Binarseniate of potassium.
Salt, Microcos'mic. Phosphate of sodium
and ammonium.
Salt, Red. Common salt wetted with an in-
fusion of beet-root, or cochineal, or tincture of
red sanders wood, then dried, and rubbed
through a sieve. Used to impart a colour to
gravies, &c. Infusion of saffron also gives a
beautiful colour for this purpose. It has been
proposed to colour Epsom salt in this way, to
distinguish it from oxalic acid.
Salt, Rochelle. Tartrate of potassium and
sodium.
Salt, Sea. Chloride of sodium.
Salt, Sedative. Boracic acid.
Salt, Smelling. See SALTs (below).
Salt, Sore-throat. Sal prunella.
Salt, Taste'less. Phosphate of sodium.
Salt, Vegetable. Tartrate of potassium.
Salt, Wolſatile, Common carbonate of am-
monium.
Salt of Lem'oms. Syn. SAL LIMONUM, L.
Citric acid. That sold in the shops for the
removal of ink spots from limen is binoxalate
or quadroxalate of potassium, either alone or
mixed with one half its weight of cream of
tartar.
Salt of Sor’rel.
of potassium.
Salt of Steel.
Binoxalate or quadroxalate
Sulphate of iron.
Salt of Tar'tar. Carbonate of potassium.
Salt of Vitºriol. Sulphate of zinc.
Salt of Wormwood. Carbonate of potassium,
SALTPETRE. Nitrate of potassium.
SALT'ING. PICKLING. Syn. This is an
easy method of preserving butcher's meat,
fish, and, indeed, most animal substances. It
is performed in two ways: —
1. (DRY SAITING...) This, as practised in
Hampshire, Yorkshire, and in various large
establishments elsewhere, consists in merely
well rubbing ordinary culinary salt, mixed with
a little saltpetre, into the meat, until every
crevice is thoroughly penetrated, and, after-
wards, sprinkling some over it, and placing it
on a board or in a trough, in such a manner
that the brine may drain off. On the small
scale, in private families, a mixture of salt,
2 lbs., with saltpetre, 1% or 2 oz., either with




1028
SALTS-SANDAL WOOD.
or without about an oz. of good moist sugar, is
commonly used for the purpose, and imparts a
fine flavour to the meat. In both cases the
pieces are turned every day, or every other
day, until sufficiently cured, a little fresh salt
being added as required. Sometimes the fresh
meat is packed at once in casks, with the best
coarse-grained or bay salt. This method is
that commonly adopted for sea stores.
2. (WET SALTING, or PICKLING IN BRINE.)
When the meat is allowed to lie in the liquor
that runs from it (see above), or is at once
plunged into strong brine, it is said to be
“pickled, or ‘wet salted.” On the small scale,
this is most conveniently performed by rub-
bing the fresh meat with salt, &c., as above,
and, after it has lain a few hours, putting it
into a pickle formed by dissolving about 4 lbs.
of good salt and 2 oz. of saltpetre in 1 gall. of
water, either with or without the addition of
# to 1 lb. of moist sugar. This pickling liquor
gets weaker by use, and should, therefore, be
occasionally boiled down a little, and skimmed,
at the same time adding some more of the
dry ingredients. Three to ten days, depend-
ing on the size, is sufficiently long to keep
meat in the brine. When it is taken out
it should be hung up to dry, after which it
may be packed in barrels with coarse-grained
salt, or smoked, whichever may be desired.
Saltpetre added to brine gives the meat a red
colour, and brown sugar improves the flavour.
The sooner animal substances, more espe-
cially flesh, are salted after being killed, the
better, as they then possess considerable ab-
sorbent power, which they gradually lose by
age. See PUTREFACTION, SCURVY, SMOKING,
C.
SALTS (Smelling). Syn. SAL VoIATIIIs
OLEOSUS, L. Sesquicarbonate of ammonia
commonly passes under the name of ‘SMELLING
SALTs,’ and, with the addition of a few drops
of essential oil, is frequently employed to fill
* SMEDLING BOTTLES’; but when a strong and
durable pungency is desired, the carbonate
should alone be used, as in one or other of the
following formulae:–
1. Carbonate (not sesquicarbonate) of am-
monia, 1 lb. ; oil of lavender (Mitcham), 2 oz.;
essence of bergamot, 1 oz. ; oil of cloves, 3 oz.;
rub them together, and sublime; keep the
product in well-stopped bottles.
2. Carbonate of ammonia, 1 lb.; oil of laven-
der, 2 oz. ; oils of bergamot and lemon, of each,
1 oz. ; as the last.
3. Carbonate of ammonia, 4 lb. ; essence of
bergamot, 1 oz. ; oil of verbena, 3 oz. ; otto of
roses, 1 dr. ; as before.
4. Carbonate of ammonia, ; 1b. ; essences of
bergamot and lemon, of each, 3 oz. ; essence
de petit grain, 4 oz.; oil of cloves, 1 dr., as
before.
5. (Extemporaneous.)—a. From sal ammo-
niac, 1 dr. ; pure potassa, 3 drs. ; grind them
together, and add, of essence of lemons, 15
drops ; oil of cloves, 3 or 4 drops.-b. From
carbonate or sesquicarbonate of ammonia
(bruised), q. s. ; volatile ammoniacal essence, a
few drops. (See page 465.)
According to Dr. Paris, GoDFREY’s SMEII.
ING SALTs are made by resubliming volatile
salt with subcarbonate of potassa and a little
spirits of wine (and essential oil).
SALWE. A name indiscriminately applied
by the vulgar to any consistent, greasy prepa.
ration used in medicine.
Salve, Lip-. Syn. CERATUM LABIALE, I.
Prep. 1. (RED or PERUVIAN.) From sper.
maceti ointment, # lb.; alkanet root, # 07.;
melt them together until sufficiently coloured,
strain, and, when the strained fat has cooled
a little, add of balsam of Peru, 3 drs.; stir
well, and in a few minutes pour off the clear
portion from the dregs; lastly, stir in of oil
of cloves, 20 or 30 drops. This never gets
rancid.
2. (ROSE.) See CERATE. -
3. (WHITE.) From the finest spermaceti
ointment or cerate, 3 oz. ; finely powdered
white sugar, 1 oz. ; neroli or essence de petit
grain, 10 or 12 drops, or q. s.
Obs. Numerous formulae are extant for
lip-salves, as for other like articles, but the
preceding are those generally employed in
trade. The perfumes may be varied at will
and the salve named after them. A very
small quantity of finely powdered borax is
i
.
-
occasionally added. FRENCH LIP-SAIVE is
said to contain alum, in fine powder; and
GERMAN LIP-SALVE is said to be made of Căcă0
butter.
MENT.
SAND. Syn. ARENA, L. River and sº
sand consist chiefly of finely divided siliceous.
matter, mixed, occasionally, with carbonate of
lime. That of Lynn and Alum Bay is nearly
purely silica, and is, therefore, selected for the
manufacture of glass. Sand is used by mould.
ers in metal, and as a manure for heavy land.
It is a large and necessary portion of every
fertile soil.
SANDAL WOOD. I. (RED SANDERS WOOD,
R. SAUNDERS W.; LIGNUM, SANTALI RUBRI,
|
See CERATE, POMMADE, and OINT,
LIGNUM, SANTALINUM RUBRUM, PTER0CARPUs
—Ph. L. & E.)
santalinus.
The wood of Pterocarpus
It is used in medicine as a colour.
ing matter. It is also employed in dyeing
and to stain varnishes. WoOL may be dyed
carmine red by dipping it alternately into all
infusion of this wood and an acidulous bath.
(Trommsdorff.) Prepared with a mordant ºf
alum and tartar, and then dyed in a bath of
sandal wood and sumach, it takes a reddish:
yellow. (Bancroft.) See SANTALIN.
2. (WHITE SANDAL wooD, WHITE SANDERs;
SANTAIUM ALBUM.) The young timber, or,
according to others, the outside wood of Sail.
talum album (Linn.). º
-
3. (YELLOW SANDAL WooD ; SANTAIUM
CITRINUM, S. FLAVUM.) The old timber, or
according to others, the heart of the same
tree. Both the latter are much esteemed Oil
s =


SANDARACH-SARSAPARILLA.
1029
-
account of their fragrance, and yield a valuable
essential oil.
SAN’DARACH. Syn. SANDRAC, GUM s. A
resin obtained from Thuja articulata, and
Juniperus communis (in warm climates). It is
slightly fragrant, is freely soluble in rectified
spirit, and has a sp. gr. of 1:05 to 1:09. It is
vsed as incense, pounce, in varnishes, &c.
SANDERS WOOD. See SANDAL Woop.
SAN'DIWER. Syn. GLASS GALL ; FELL
VITRI, SAI, VITRI, L. The saline scum that
swims on glass when first made. It is occa-
sionally used in tooth-powders.
SANGUINA'RINE. Syn. SANGUINARINA, L.
Obtained from the root of Sanguinaria Cana-
densis (Linn.), or blood-root, by digesting it in
annydrous alcohol; exhausting it with weak
sulphuric acid; precipitating by liquor of am-
monia; dissolving out by ether, and precipi-
ºtating sulphate of sanguinarine by the addition
of sulphuric acid. The sulphate may be de-
composed by ammonia, which precipitates the
alkaloid as a white pearly substance, of an
acrid taste, very soluble in alcohol, also soluble
in ether and volatile oils. With acids it forms
soluble salts, remarkable for their beautiful red,
crimson, and scarlet colours. These salts are
wised in medicine as expectorants, in doses of
fractions of a grain.
The “sanguinarin’ of the American ‘Eclec-
tics' is prepared by precipitating a saturated
tincture of blood-root by water. It contains
an uncertain proportion of the alkaloid, and is
of a deep reddish-brown colour. See RESIN-
OIDS. -
SANTALIN. The colouring principle of
red sanders wood.
SANTONIN. C. His0s. Syn. SANTONIC
ACID; SANTONINUM, L. The crystalline and
characteristic principle of the seed of several
varieties of Artemisia.
Prep. (Ph. Baden. 1841.) Take of worm-
seed, 4 parts; hydrate of lime, 1% part ; mix,
and exhaust them with alcohol of 90%; distil
off 3-4ths of the spirit, and evaporate the re-
mainder to one half, which, at the boiling tem-
perature, is to be mixed with acetic acid in
excess, and afterwards with water; on repose,
impure santonine subsides; wash this with a
little weak spirit, then dissolve it in rectified
spirit, 10 parts, decolour by ebullition for a
few minutes with animal charcoal, and filter;
the filtrate deposits colourless crystals of san-
tonine as it cools; these are to be dried, and
kept in opaque bottles.
Prop., &c. Prismatic or tabular crystals;
imodorous; tasteless, or only slightly bitter;
fusible; volatilisable; soluble in 4500 parts
of cold and about 250 parts of boiling water;
soluble in cold alcohol and ether; freely solu-
ble in hot alcohol. It is much esteemed as a
tasteless worm medicine, and is especially
adapted to remove lumbricales (large round
worms).--Dose. 6 to 18 or 20 grs., repeated
night and morning, followed by a brisk purge.
SAP GREEN. See GREEN PIGMENTS,
SAPONIFICATION. See SOAP.
SAP'0NIN. Syn. SAPONINUM, L. A white
non-crystallisable substance, obtained by the
action of hot diluted alcohol on the root of
Saponaria officinalis (Linn.), or soap wort.
Prop., &c. Saponin is soluble in hot water,
and the solution froths strongly on agitation.
The smallest quantity of the powder causes
violent sneezing.
SARCOCOL'IA. A gum-resin supposed to
be derived from one or more plants of the
natural order Renaeaceae, growing in Arabia
and Persia. It somewhat resembles gum
arabic, except in being soluble in both water
and alcohol, and in having a bitter-sweet
taste. It was formerly used in surgery.
SAR/C0SINE. C. H.O.N. A feebly basic
substance, obtained by boiling kreatine for
some time with a solution of pure baryta. It
forms colourless, transparent plates, freely
soluble in water, sparingly so in alcohol, and
insoluble in ether; it may be fused and vola-
tilised. -
SARSAPARIL'LA. Syn. SARSAE RADIx
B. P.), RADIX SARZAE, RADIX SARSAPARILLE,
SARZA (Ph. L. & E.), SARSAPARILLA (Ph. D.
& U. S.), L. “Jamaica sarza. The root of
Smilaw officinalis, Kunth” (Ph. L.); “and
probably of other species.” (Ph. E.)
The sarsaparillas of commerce are divided
by Dr. Pereira into two classes:— Mealy
sarsaparillas’ and ‘non-mealy sarsaparillas.’
In the first are placed Brazilian or Lisbon,
Caraccas or gouty Vera Cruz, and Honduras;
the second includes Jamaica, Lima, and true
Vera Cruz.
The mealy sarsaparillas are distinguished by
“the mealy character of the inner cortical
layers, which are white or pale-coloured. The
meal or starch is sometimes so abundant, that
a shower of it, in the form of white dust, falls
when we fracture the roots.” The medulla
or pith is also frequently very amylaceous.
The non-mealy sarsaparillas “are charac-
terised by a deeply coloured (red or brown),
usually non-mealy, cortex. The cortex is red,
and much thinner than in the mealy sorts.”
“If a drop of oil of vitriol be applied to a
transverse section of the root of the non-
mealy sarsaparillas, both cortex and wood
acquire a dark-red or purplish tint;” whilst in
the preceding varieties, the mealy coat, and,
sometimes, the pith, is but little altered in
colour. “The decoction of non-mealy sarsa-
parilla, when cold, is somewhat darkened, but
does not yield a blue colour when a solution of
iodine is added to it.” The aqueous extract,
when rubbed down with a little cold distilled
water in a mortar, does not yield a turbid
liquid, nor become blue on the addition of
iodine. The reverse is the case with the de-
coction and extract of the mealy varieties.
The JAMAICA, RED JAMAICA, or RED-
BEARDED SARSAPARILLA (SARZA JAMAICENSIs
—Ph. D.), is the variety which should alone
be used in medicine. This kind yields from

1030
SARSAPARILLIN–SAUCERS.
33 to 44% of its weight of extract (Battley,
Hennell, Pope), and contains less starchy
matter than the other varieties. It is dis-
tinguished by exhibiting the above pecu-
liarities in a marked degree, by the dirty
reddish colour of its bark, which “is not
mealy,” and by being “beset very plentifully
with rootlets” (fibres).-Ph. L. Its powder
has also a pale reddish-brown colour. The
other varieties of sarsaparilla, viz. the Lisbon,
Lima, Vera Cruz, and Honduras, are fre-
quently substituted for the Jamaica by the
druggists in the preparations of the decoctions
and extracts of this drug; but the products
are vastly inferior in quantity, colour, taste,
and medicinal virtue, to those prepared from
the officinal Sarsaparilla. Decoction of sarsa-
parilla, when made with the Honduras root, is
very liable to ferment, even by a few hours'
exposure, in hot weather. We have seen hogs-
heads of the strong decoction, after exposure
for a single night, in as active a state of fer-
mentation as a gyle of beer, with a frothy head,
and evolving a most disagreeable odour, that
was not wholly removed by several hours'
boiling. When this occurs the decoction
suffers in density, and the product in extract
is, consequently, considerably lessened. Yet
this is frequently allowed to occur in the
wholesale laboratory, where the rule should be
—always begin a “bath of Sarza’ (as it is
called), and, indeed, of other perishable ar-
ticles, early in the morning, and finish it, com-
pletely and entirely, the same day. .
Sarsaparilla has been recommended as a
mild but efficacious alterative, diaphoretic and
tonic. It has long been a popular remedy in
chronic rheumatism, rheumatic and gouty
pains, scurvy, scrofula, syphilis, secondary
syphilis, lepra, psoriasis, and several other skin
diseases; and, especially, in cachexia, or a
general bad habit of body, and to remove the
symptoms arising from the injudicious use of
mercurials, often falsely called ‘secondary
syphilis.’ During its use the skin should be
kept warm, and diluents should be freely taken.
Its efficacy has been greatly exaggerated. It
is, however, much more effective in warm
than in northern climates.—Dose. In sub-
stance, to 1 dr., three or four times daily;
but, preferably, made into a decoction or in-
fusion.
The articles so much puffed under the
names of American or United States sar-
Saparilla and extract of Sarsaparilla are
“ nothing more than the decoction of a
common herb, a sort of ‘aralia,’ inhabiting
the Swamps and marshes of the United States.
When cut up it has the appearance of chaff,
but not the slightest resemblance in character,
colour, or taste, to even the most inferior
species of Smilax (or Sarza). The decoction is
sweetened with a little sugar, flavoured with
benzoin and Sassafras, and, finally, preserved
from decomposition, by means of the bichloride
of mercury.” “I have heard of several cases
of deadly sickness, and other dangerous symp-
toms, following its use.” “We do not believe
that a particle of real sarsaparilla ever entered
into the composition of either of the article
referred to.” (“Med. Circ., ii, 227.) See D#.
COCTION and EXTRACT. .
SARSAPARIL/LIN. Syn. PARIGLIN,
RILLIC ACID, SALSAPARIN, SMILACIN.
white, crystallisable, odourless, and nearl
tasteless substance, discovered by Pallottà
and Folchi, in Sarsaparilla.
Prep. The bark of Jamaica sarsaparillá is
treated with hot rectified spirit, and the re.
sulting tincture reduced to about one third
by distilling off the spirit; the residual liquid
is then filtered, whilst boiling, slightly con-
centrated by evaporation, and set aside to
crystallise; the crystalline deposit is redis.
solved in either hot rectified spirit or boiling
water, and decoloured by agitation with a
little animal charcoal; the filtrate deposits
crystals of nearly pure Smilacin as it coºls,
It may also be extracted by boiling water.
Prop., &c. A non-nitrogenised neut
body. Water holding a very small quantity.
of it in solution froths considerably on agita.
tion. This is especially the case with infusion
of Jamaica sarsaparilla, and this property has
consequently been proposed as a test of the
quality of sarsaparilla root. Its medicinal
properties are similar to those of Sarsaparilla,
According to Pallotta, it is a powerful sedative,
and diminishes the vital energies in proportion
to the quantity taken.—Dose. 2 to 10 grs.; in
the usual cases in which the root is given.
SAS'SAFRAS. Syn. SASSAFRAS RADIX
(B.P.), SASSAFRAS RADIX, SASSAFRAS (Ph. I.
E. & D.), L. “The root of Sassafras officinale,
Nees. Laurus sassafras, Linn.)”—Ph. L. It
has a fragrant odour, and a sweetish aromatic
taste. It has long been reputed a stimulating
alterative, diaphoretic, diuretic, and tonic;
and an infusion of the chips (sassafras chips),
under the name of sassafras tea, has been
a popular “ diet drink’ in various cutaneous
affections, gout, chronic rheumatism, &c.
SATURATION. The state in which a body
has taken its full dose, or chemical proportion,
of any other substance with which it can
combine, or which it can dissolve; as water
with sugar or a salt, or an alkali with an acid,
when the properties of both are neutralised.
SAUCERS (for Dyeing). Prep. 1. (BLUE)
From blue carmine, made into a paste with
gum water, which is then spread over the
inside of the saucers, and dried.
2. (PINK.)- a. From pure rouge mixed with
a little carbonate of soda, then made into a
paste with thin gum water, and applied as the
last.
b. Well-washed safflower, 8 oz. ; carbonate
of soda, 2 oz. ; water, 2 gallons; infuse, strain,
add of French chalk (scraped fine with Dutch
rushes), 2 lbs.; mix well, and precipitate the
colour by adding a solution of tartaric acid;
4.
collect the red powder, drain it, add a very







SAUCE.
1031
small quantity of gum, and apply the paste
to the saucers. Inferior. Both the above are
used to tinge silk stockings, gloves, &c.
SAUCE. A liquid or semi-liquid condiment
or seasoning for food. The following receipts
for sauces may be useful to the reader:-
Sauce, Ancho'vy. 1. (Extemporaneous.)
From 3 or 4 anchovies, chopped small; butter,
3 oz. ; water, a wine-glassful; vinegar, 2 table-
spoonfuls; flour, 1 do.; stir the mixture over
the fire till it thickens, then rub it through
a coarse hair sleeve.
2. (Wholesale.) As essence of anchovies.
Other fish sauces may be made in the same
lmannel”.
Sauce, Apple. From sharp apples, cored,
sliced, stewed with a spoonful or two of water,
and then beaten to a perfectly smooth pulp
with a little good moist sugar. Tomato, and
many other like sauces, may be made in the
Same Imannel”.
Sauce, Aristocratique. From green-walnut
juice and anchovies, equal parts; cloves, mace,
and pimento, of each, bruised, 1 dr. to every
lb. of juice; boil and strain, and then add to
every pint, 1 pint of vinegar, 3 pint of port
wine, # pint of soy, and a few shallots; let the
whole stand for a few day, and decant the
clear liquor.
Bech'amel. A species of fine white broth or
consommée, thickened with cream, and used as
‘white sauce.”
Sauce, Caper. Put twelve table-spoonfuls
of melted butter into a stewpān, place it on the
fire, and, when on the point of boiling, add 1
oz. of fresh butter and 1 table-spoonful of
capers; shake the stewpan round over the
fire until the butter is melted, add a little
pepper and salt, and Serve where directed.
Also as mint sauce.
Sauce, Chut'ney. 1. From sour apples (pared
and cored), tomatoes, brown sugar, and sultana
raisins, of each, 8 oz.; common salt, 4 oz.; red
chillies and powdered ginger, of each, 2 oz. ;
garlic and shallots, of each, 1 oz. ; pound the
whole well, add, of strong vinegar, 3 quarts;
lemon juice, 1 do. ; and digest, with frequent
agitation, for a month; then pour off nearly
all the liquor, and bottle it. Used for fish
or meat, either hot or cold, or to flavour stews,
&c. The residue is the ‘Chutney,’ ‘Chet-
ney,” or ‘Chitni,” which must be ground to
a smooth paste with a stone and muller, and
then put into pots or jars. It is used like
mustard. -
2. (BENG AL CHITNI.) As the last, but
using tamarinds instead of apples, and only
sufficient vinegar and lemon juice to form a
paste.
Cor'atch. From good mushroom ketchup,
# gal.; walnut ketchup, # pint; India soy and
chillie vinegar, of each, ; pint; essence of an-
chovies, 5 or 6 oz.; macerate for a fortnight.
Sauce, Epicuriemme. To the last add of
walnut ketchup and port wine, of each, 1 quart;
garlic and white pepper, of each (bruised),
~
\ /
V/
4 oz. ; chillies (bruised), 1 oz. ; mace and cloves,
of each, oz. -
Sauce, Fich. From port wine, 1 gal.; moun-
tain do., 1 quart ; walnut ketchup, 2 quarts;
anchovies (with the liquor), 2 lbs. ; 8 lemons;
48 shallots; scraped horseradish, 1% lb.; flour
of mustard, 8 oz. ; mace, 1 oz. ; cayenne, q. S.;
boil the whole up gently, strain, and bottle.
Ketchup. See page 668.
Sauce, Kitchener's. Syn. KITCHENER's
RELISH. From salt, 3 oz. ; black pepper, 2 oz. ;
allspice, horseradish, and shallots, of each, loz. ;
burnt-sugar colouring, a wine-glassful; mush-
room ketchup, 1 quart; (all bruised or scraped;)
macerate for 3 weeks, strain, and bottle.
Lem'on Pickle. From lemon juice and vine-
gar, of each, 3 galls. ; bruised ginger, 1 lb.;
allspice, pepper, and grated lemon peel, of each,
8 oz. ; salt, 3% lbs. ; cayenne, 2 oz.; mace and
nutmegs, of each, 1 oz. ; digest for 14 days.
Sauce, Lobster. From lobsters, as ANCHOVY
SAUCE.
Sauce, Mint. From garden mint, chopped
Small, and then beaten up with vinegar, some
moist sugar, and a little salt and pepper.
Sauce, Onion. From onions boiled to a pulp
and then beaten up with melted butter and a
little warm milk.
Sauce, Oyster. From about 12 oysters, and
6 or 7 oz. of melted butter, with a little cay-
enne pepper, and 2 or 3 spoonfuls of cream,
stirred together over a slow fire, then brought
to a boil, and served.
Sauce Piquante. From soy and cayenne
pepper, of each 4 oz. ; port wine, , pint;
brown pickling vinegar, 1% pint; mix, and let
them stand for 7 or 8 days before bottling.
Sauce, Quin’s. From walnut pickle and
port wine, of each, 1 pint ; mushroom ketchup,
1 quart; anchovies and shallots (chopped fine),
of each, 2 dozen ; soy, # pint ; cayenne, 3 oz. ;
simmer gently for 10 minutes, and in a fort-
night strain, and bottle.
Sauce au Roi. From brown vinegar (good),
3 quarts; soy and walnut ketchup, of each,
!, pint; cloves and shallots, of each, 1 doz. ;
cayenne pepper, 1% oz. ; mix, and digest for
14 days. -
Sauce, Shrimp. From shrimps or prawns,
aS ANCHOWY SAUCE.
Soy: See that article.
Sauce, Superlative. From port wine and
mushroom ketchup, of each, 1 quart ; walnut
pickle, 1 pint; soy, 3 pint ; pounded ancho-
vies, 3 lb. ; fresh lemon peel, minced shallots,
and scraped horseradish, of each, 2 oz. ; all-
spice and black pepper (bruised), of each,
1 oz. ; cayenne pepper and bruised celery seed,
of each, 3 oz. (or currie powder, oz.); digest
for 14 days, strain, and bottle. Very re-
lishing.
Sauce, Tomaſto. From bruised tomatoes, 1
gal. ; good salt, 3 lb. ; mix, in 3 days press
out the juice, to each quart of which add of
shallots, 2 oz. ; black pepper, 1 dr. ; simmer
very gently for 20 to 30 minutes, strain, and
1032
SAUER KRAUT-SCAGLIOLA.
add to the strained liquor, mace, allspice, gin-
ger, nutmegs, and cochineal, of each, 3 oz. ;
coriander seed, 1 dr.; simmer gently for 10
minutes, strain, cool, and in a week put it into
bottles.
Sauce, Waterloo. From strong vinegar(nearly
boiling), 1 quart; port wine, # pint ; mush-
room-ketchup, # pint; walnut ketchup, + pint;
essence of anchovies, 4 oz. ; 8 cloves of garlic;
cochineal (powdered), 3 oz. (or red beet, sliced,
3 oz.); let them stand together for a fortnight
or longer, occasionally shaking the bottle.
Sauce, White. Syn. BUTTER SAUCE, MELTED
BUTTER. From good butter, 4 oz. ; cream,
2% oz. ; salt (in very fine powder), , tea-
spoonful; put them into a pot or basin, set
this in hot water, and beat the whole with a
bone, wooden, or silver spoon, until it forms a
perfectly smooth cream-like mixture, avoiding
too much heat, which would make it run oily.
A table-spoonful of sherry, marsala, lemon
juice, or vinegar, is sometimes added; but the
selection must depend on the dishes the sauce
is intended for. Used either by itself, or as a
basis for other sauces. Beaten up with any of
the ‘bottled sauces,’ an excellent compound
sauce of the added ingredient is immediately
obtained.
SAUER, KRAUT. [Ger.] Prep. Clean
white cabbages, cut them into small pieces, and
stratify them in a cask along with culinary
salt and a few juniper berries and caraway
seeds, observing to pack them down as hard
as possible, without crushing them, and to
cover them with a lid pressed down with a
heavy weight. The cask should be placed
in a cold situation as soon as a sour smell is
perceived. Used by the Germans and other
northern nations of Europe like our “pickled
cabbage,’ but more extensively.
SAU/SAGES. From the fat and lean of
pork (PORK SAUSAGES), or of beef (BEEF SAU-
SAGES), chopped small, flavoured with spice,
and put into gut skins, or pressed into pots or
balls (SAUSAGE MEAT). Crum of bread is
also added. Their quality is proportionate to
that of the ingredients, and to the care and
cleanliness employed in preparing them.
SAV'ELOYS. Pork sausages made in such
a way that they keep good for a considerable
time Prep. (Mrs. Rundell.) Take of young
pork, free from bone and skin, 3 lbs. ; salt it
with 1 oz. of saltpetre, and #lb. of common
salt, for 2 days; then chop it fine, add, 3 tea-
spoonfuls of pepper, 1 doz. sage leaves, chopped
fine, and 1 lb. of grated bread; mix well, fill
the skins, and steam them or bake them half
an hour in a slack oven. They are said to be
good either hot or cold.
SAW'INE. Syn. SAVIN ; Fol.IA SABINE,
SABINA (Ph. L. E. & D.). L. “The recent
and dried tops of Juniperis Sabina, Linn,” or
common savine. (Ph. L.) It is a powerful
stimulant, diaphoretic, emmenagogue, and an-
thelmintic; and, externally, rubefacient, es-
charotic, and vesicant. In large doses it is apt
to occasion abortion, and acts as a pois0n,
SAVINE PowLER mixed with verdigris is often
It is now chiefly
applied to corns and warts.
used in the form of ointment. Dose. 5 to 16
grs., twice or thrice daily (with care), in -
amenorrhoea and worms. See CERATE.
SAVONETTES. [Fr.]
sand. The spherical or spheroidal form is given
to them by pressure in moulds, or by first
roughly forming them with the hands, and,
when quite hard, turning them in a lathe.
According to Mr. Beasley, “they are formed
into spherical balls by taking a mass of the pre:
pared soap in the left hand, and a conical
drinking-glass with rather thin edges in the
right. By turning the glass and ball of $0ap
in every direction, the rounded form is soon
given; when dry, the surface is scraped, tº
render it more smooth and even.”
Prep. 1. Take of curd soap, 3 lbs. ; finest
yellow soap, 2 lbs. ; (both in shavings;) soft
water, # pint; melt by a gentle heat, stir in of
powdered starch (farina), 13 lb.; when the
mass has considerably cooled, further add of
Syn. WASH BALIS,
These are made of any of the mild toilet soaps,
scented at will, generally with the addition of
some powdered starch or farina, and sometimes
essence of lemon or bergamot, 1 oz., and make
it into balls.
2. (CAMPHOR.)
add camphor (cut small), 1 oz.; dissolve, and
add the liquid mass to white curd soap, 13 lb.,
previously melted by the aid of a little water
and a gentle heat, and allowed to cool con-
siderably, as above. These should be covered
with tin-foil.
3. (HoNEY.) From the finest bright coloured
yellow soap, 7 lbs. ; palm oil # lb.; melt, and
add of oil of verbena, rose-geraneum, or ginger-
grass, 1 oz. ; as No. 1. Sometimes ; Oz, of oil
of rosemary is also added.
4. (MoTTLED.)—a.
or Windsor soap (not too dry) into small
square pieces, and roll these in a mixture of
powdered bole or rouge, either with or without
RED. Cut white curd
Melt spermaceti, 2 07;
the addition of some starch; then Squeeſe
them strongly into balls, observing to mix the
colour as little as possible.—b. BLUE. Roll
the pieces in powder blue, and proceed as be:
fore.—c. GREEN. Roll the pieces in a mixture
of powder blue and bright yellow ochre. By
varying the colour of the powder, mottled
savonettes of any colour may be produced.
5. (SAND.) From soap (at will), 2 lbs.; fine
siliceous sand, 1 lb.; scent, q. S.; as No. 1,
For the finer qualities, finely powdered pumice.
stone is substituted for sand.
6. (VIOLET.) From palm-oil soap, 4 lbs.;
farina, 2 lbs. ; finely powdered orris root, 1 lb.
Sometimes a little smalts, or indigo, is added.
SCAB'IES. See ITCH.
SCAGLIO'LA. A species of plaster or stucco,
made of pure gypsum, with variegated colours,
in imitation of marble. In general, the liquid
employed is a weak solution of Flanders glue;
and the colours, any which are not decompº



SCALD-HEAD–SCARLET FEVER.
1033
or destroyed by admixture with sulphate of
lime and exposure to the light. The compo-
sition is often applied upon hollow columns
formed of wood, or even of laths nailed to-
gether, and the surface, when hard, is turned
smooth in a lathe, and polished.
SCALD-HEAD. See RINGWORM.
SCALDS. See BURNS AND SCALDS.
SCALL. Syn. SCALD. The popular name
of several skin diseases distinguished by scabs
or scurfiness, whether dry or humid. See
ERUPTIONS, RINGWORM, &c.
SCAM/MONY. Syn. SCAMMONIUM (B. P.,
Ph. L. E. & D.), L. The “gum resin emitted
from the cut root of Convolvulus Scammonia,
Linn.” (Ph. L.), or Aleppo scammony-plant.
There are three principal varieties or quali-
ties of scammomy known in the market; viz.
—VIRGIN (sp. gr. 1:21), SECONDS (sp. gr.
1460 to 1:463), and THIRDs (sp. gr. 1:465
to 1-500). The best, and that only intended
to be used in medicine, is imported from
Aleppo.
Pur. Scammony is not only largely adulte-
rated in the country of its production, but
again after its arrival in England. SMYRNA
SCAMMONY, a very inferior variety, is alsº
commonly dressed up, and sold as Aleppo
Scammony. In many cases substances are sold
at the public sales in London, and elsewhere,
as scammony, which contain only a mere trace
of that article. This is all ground up to form
the scammony-powder of the shops. P'ide
* Evid. Com. Ho. Com.,’ 1855.) PURE SCAM-
MONY has a peculiar cheesy smell, and a green-
ish-gray colour. It is “porous and brittle,
and the freshly broken surface shines; hydro-
chloric acid being dropped on it, it emits no
bubbles; nor does the powder digested in
water, at a heat of 170° Fahr., become blue
by the simultaneous addition of iodide of
potassium and dilute nitric acid. Out of 100
grs., 78 (80—Ph. E.) should be soluble in
ether.” (Ph. L.) The tincture of pure scam-
mony is not turned green by nitric acid. If
the powder effervesce with dilute acids, it con-
tains chalk.
Uses, &c. Pure scammony is a powerful
drastic purgative and anthelmintic, inadmis-
sible in inflammatory conditions of the ali-
mentary canal, but well adapted for torpid
and inactive conditions of the abdominal
organs. Associated with calomel, rhubarb, or
sūlphate of potassa, it is useful in all cases in
which an active cathartic or vermifuge may be
required, especially for children. Dose. (For
an adult) 5 to 15 grs, in powder, or made into
a bolus or emulsion.
SCARLATI’NA. See SCARLET FEVER.
SCAR'LET DYE. Proc. (Poèrner.)—a. The
* Bouillon.” Take of cream of tartar, 1; oz. ;
water, q. S.; boil in a block-tin vessel, and
when dissolved, add of solution of tin (made by
dissolving 2 oz. of grain tin in a mixture of
1 lb. each of nitric acid and water, and 1% oz.
of sal ammoniac), 1% oz.; boil for 3 minutes,
then introduce the cloth, boil for 2 hours,
drain it, and let it cool.-b. The ‘Rougie.”
Next, take of cream of tartar, # oz. ; water,
q. s. ; boil, and add powdered cochineal, 1 oz. ;
again boil for 5 minutes, then gradually add of
solution of tin, 1 oz., stirring well all the time;
lastly, put in the goods and dye as quickly as
possible. The quantities given are those for
1 to 14 lb. of woollen cloth. The result is a
full scarlet. To make the colour turn on the
“ponceau’ or poppy, a little turmeric is added
to the bath.
Obs. Scarlet is red with a tinge of yellow;
it is nearly always produced by cochineal. See
RED DYE.
SCARLET FE/WER. Syn. SCARLATINA, FE-
BRIS SCARLATINA, L. A highly contagious
disease, so named after the peculiar eruption
or efflorescence of the skin which accompanies
it. The milder form of this disease (SCARLA-
TINA SIMPLEX, S. MITIS) comes on with lan-
guor, chilliness alternated by fits of heat,
nausea, vomiting (frequently), and other com-
mon symptoms of fever; followed, on the
third or fourth day, by a scarlet efflorescence
upon the skin, which, after three or four days,
ends in the cuticle or scarf-skin peeling off in
branny scales. Dropsical swelling of the
whole body sometimes follows the disappear-
ance of the eruption; but this, with the fe-
brile symptoms, and the soreness of the throat
(if any), then give way, and the patient gradu-
ally regains his former health and strength.
In the malignant form of scarlet fever (SCAR-
LATINA CYNANCHICA, S. ANGIUOSA, S. MALIGNA)
the febrile symptoms, from the first, are more
alarming ; there is bilious vomiting, great sore-
ness and ulceration of the throat, the pulse is
small and quick, and the breathing laborious.
These symptoms rapidly increase on the ap-
pearance of the eruption; the body then be-
comes swollen, the nose and eyes inflamed, the
breath fetid, the throat suppurates, putrid
symptoms ensue, and the patient is either
suddenly cut off or recovers very slowly.
The early symptoms of scarlet fever are dis-
tinguished from those of the MEASLES and
SMALLPOX by the greater extent and want of
elevation of the eruption, and by its not con-
gregating into patches. Nor are there the
cough and running from the eyes and nose
which usher in the measles.
The treatment of the milder form of scarlet
fever, especially that of childhood, may con-
sist of the administration of an emetic, fol-
lowed by a saline aperient, to clear the bowels;
the latter being repeated as occasion may re-
quire. The patient should be kept in a cool
and well-ventilated room, the diet should be
light and farinaceous, and the use of diluent
drinks copiously indulged in. If the febrile
symptoms are severe, or the throat much af-
fected, small doses of some mild mercurial,
as calomel, mercurial pill, or quicksilver with
chalk, may be administered, either separately
or combined with antimonial diaphoretics or
1034 SCENE-PAINTING—SCOURING.
Dover's powder. In malignant scarlet fever a
smart emetic should be given early, and mer-
curials and diaphoretics at once freely exhi-
bited. Acidulated gargles may be used for the
throat, and, when the heat of the body is much
above the natural standard, sponging the whole
body with cold water, or with vinegar-and-
water, may be had recourse to. If the malig-
nant symptoms run high, and assume a typhoid
or putrid character, the system must be sup-
ported with stimulant tonics, as, wine, bark,
capsicum, &c. -
According to Hahnemann, Koreff, and
Randhahn, belladonna is a prophylactic against
scarlet fever. The homoeopathists also hold
it to be almost a specific in the disease.
Scarlet fever is common to all ages of life,
but children and young persons are the most
subject to it. Unlike the smallpox, it occa-
sionally attacks the same person more than
once. It is most common in dirty, close,
damp situations.
SCENE-PAINTING. A variety of distemper
painting employed in theatres, &c., governed
by perspective, and having for its object the
production of striking effects when viewed at
a distance. Water, size, turpentine, and the
ordinary pigments, are the materials used for
the purpose.
SCENT BAGS. See SACHIETS.
SCENT BALLS. Syn. PASTILLES DE ToI-
LETTE ODORANTES, Fr. These are prepared
from any of the materials noticed under Pot
Pou RRI, SCENTED POWDERS, and SACHETs,
made into a paste with mucilage of gum traga-
canth, and moulded into any desired forms, as
that of balls, beads, medallions, &c. The larger
ones are frequently polished.
SCENTED CAS'SOLETTES. See POT Pour RI,
and above.
SCENTS (Pommade). Prep. 1. (CowsLIP.)
From essence of bergamot, 8 oz. ; essence of
lemon, 4 oz. ; oil of cloves, 2 oz. ; essence de
petit grain, 1 oz.
2. (JONQUILLE.) From essence of bergamot
and lemon, of each, 8 oz. ; oils of orange peel
and cloves, of each, 2 oz. ; oil of Sassafras,
1 oz.; liquid storax, 3 oz. ; digest, with warmth
and agitation, for a few hours, and decant the
clear portion in a week.
3. (MILLEFLEUR.) From essence of amber-
gris (finest), 4 oz. ; essence of lemon, 3 oz. ;
oil of cloves and English oil of lavender, of
each, 2 oz.; essence de petit grain, essence of
bergamot, and balsam of Peru (genuine), of
each, 1 oz. ; as the last.
Obs. The above are employed to scent po-
matums, hair oils, &c. 1 oz. of any one of
them, dissolved in 1 pint of the strongest rec-
tified spirit, produces a delicious perfume for
the handkerchief.
SCENTS (Snuff). Prep. 1. Essence of ber-
gamot, 2 oz. ; otto of roses and neroli, of each,
1 dr. -
2. Oil of lavender, 1 oz. ; essence of lemon,
2 oz. ; essence of bergamot, 4 oz.
3. To the last, add of oil of cloves, 2 oz. -
4. Essence of musk and ambergris, of each,
1 oz. ; liquor of ammonia, ; dr. See SNUFF,
&c.
SCHEELE'S GREEN. See GREEN PIG.
MENTS. -
SCHLIPPE'S SALT. Sulphantimoniate of
sodium.
SCHWARTZ’S DROPS. See WORM DROPS,
SCIAT’ICA. See RHEUMATISM.
SCII/LITIN. Syn. SCILLITINA, SCILLITITE.
A whitish, resinous, translucent, bitter, deli-
quescent substance, obtained by Vögel from
squills. It is soluble in water, alcohol, and
acetic acid, and is purgative, acrid, and poi.
SOIlOuS.
SCORBU'TUS. See SCURVY.
SC0"RIA. Dross; the refuse or useless
part of any substance, more especially that
left from bodies which have been subjected
to the action of fire. It is frequently used
in the plural (SCORIAE).
SCOTT'S DROPS. See PATENT MEDICINES,
SCOUR/ING. The common method of clean-
ing cloth is by beating and brushing it, unless
it be very dirty, when it undergoes the opera.
tion of scouring. This is best done on the
small scale, as with ARTICLES OF WEARING
APPAREL, as follows:—A little curd soap is
dissolved in water, and, after mixing it with a
little clarified ox-gall, is applied to all the
spots of grease, dirt, &c., and well rubbed into i
them with a stiff brush until they appear to
be removed; after which the article is well
cleaned all over with a brush or sponge dipped
into some warm water, to which the previous
mixture and a little more ox-gall has been
added. The cloth is next thoroughly rinsed
in clean water, and hung up to dry. For
dark-coloured cloths, some fuller's earth is
often added to the mixture of soap and gall,
When the article is nearly dry, the map is laid
smooth, and it is carefully pressed (if with a
hot iron, on the wrong side), after which a
soft brush, moistened with a drop or two of
olive oil, is frequently passed over it, to give it
a finish and gloss.
Cloth is also cleaned in the dry way:-The
spots being removed, as above, and the wetted
parts having become dry, clean damp sand is
strewed over it, and beaten into it with a
brush, after which the article is well gone over |
with a hard brush, when the sand comes out,
and brings the dirt with it. -
BUFF and DRAB CLOTH is generally cleaned
by covering it with a paste made with pipe:
clay and water, either with or without a little
umber to temper the colour, which, when dry,
is rubbed and brushed off.
When the article requires renovation as well
as scouring, it is placed, whilst still damp, on a
board, and the threadbare parts are rubbed
with a half-worn hatter’s card filled with flocks,
or with a teasel, or a prickly thistle, until a
map is raised; it is next hung up to dry, after
which it is “finished off? as before, When the




SCOURING DROPS–SELENIC ACID.
103.5
cloth is much faded, it is usual to give it a
‘dip,” as it is called, or to pass it through a
dye bath to freshen up the colour. BLACK and
DARK BLUE CLOTH, if rusty or faded, is com-
monly treated to a coat of ‘reviver, instead of
being ‘re-dipped, and is then hung up until
next day, before being pressed and finished off.
See SPOTS and STAINS.
SCOURING DROPS. See DROPS.
SCUDAMORE’S I,0'TION. See GOUT LO-
TION.
SCURF. Syn. FURFURA. Scurf “is a na-
tural and healthy formation, and though it
may be kept from accumulating, it cannot be
prevented. It is produced on every part of
the body where hair is found, although, from
the more active growth of hair on the scalp,
the facilities for collecting, and the contrast of
colour, it strikes the eye most disagreeably in
that situation. This will show how futile any
attempt must be which shall have for its
object to prevent the formation of the scurf.
It may be removed, and should be removed,
every day, with the hair-brush; but pre-
vention is impossible, inasmuch as it is opposed
to a law of nature. Occasionally, as a morbid
action, an unusual quantity of scurf is produced,
in which case medical means may be adopted
to bring the scalp into a more healthful
state.” (Eras. Wilson.) In such cases the
daily use of some mild stimulating or deter-
gent wash, with due attention to the stomach
and bowels, will generally abate this annoy-
ance.
SCUR/WY. Syn. SCORBUTUs, L. This disease
commences with indolence, sallow looks, debi-
lity, and loss of spirits; the gums become sore
and spongy, the teeth loose, and the breath
fetid; the legs swell, eruptions appear on dif-
ferent parts of the body, and, at length, the
patient sinks under general emaciation, diar-
rhoea, and haemorrhages.
The treatment of ordinary cases of this
disease mainly consists in employing a diet of
fresh animal and green vegetable food, with
mild ale, beer, or lemonade, as beverages;
scrupulously avoiding salted and dried meat.
The fresh-squeezed juice of lemons is, perhaps,
of all other substances, the most powerful
remedy in this disease in its early stages,
and is useful in all of them. Effervescing
draughts formed with the bicarbonate of po-
tassa (not soda) are also excellent.
SEAL/ING WAX. See WAx.
SEA SICKNESS. The most effectual pre-
ventive of sea sickness appears to be the hori-
zontal position. When there is much pain,
after the stomach has been well cleared, a few
drops of laudanum may be taken, or an opium
plaster may be applied over the region of the
stomach. Persons about to proceed to sea
should put their stomach and bowels in proper
order, by the use of mild aperients, and even
an emetic, if required, when it will generally
be found that a glass of warm and weak
brandy-and-water, to which 15 or 20 drops of
laudanum, or, still better, 1 or 2 drops of
creasote, have been added, will effectually pre-
vent any disposition to sea sickness, provided
the bowels be attended to, and excess in eating
and drinking be at the same time avoided. A
spoonful of crushed ice, in a wine-glassful of
cold water, or weak brandy-and-water, will
often afford relief when all other means fail.
Smoking at sea is very apt to induce sickness.
M. F. Curie, in the ‘Comptes Rendus,’ asserts
that drawing in the breath as the vessel
descends, and exhaling it as it ascends, on the
billows, by preventing the movements of the
diaphragm acting abnormally on the phrenetic
nerves, prevent sea sickness. On this Mr.
Atkinson, at one of the meetings of the British
Association, observed that—if a person, seated
on board ship, holding a tumbler filled with
water in his hand, makes an effort to prevent
the water running over, at the same time
allowing not merely his arm, but also his
whole body, to participate in the movements,
he will find that this has the effect of prevent-
ing the giddiness and nausea that the rolling
and tossing of the vessel have a tendency to
produce in inexperienced voyagers. If the
person is suffering from sickness at the com-
mencement of his experiment, as soon as he
grasps the glass of liquid in his hand, and
suffers his arm to take its course and go
through the movements alluded to, he feels as
if he were performing them of his own free
will, and the nausea abates immediately, and
very soon ceases entirely, and does not return
so long as he suffers his arm and body to
assume the postures into which they seem to
be drawn. Should he, however, resist the free
course of his hand, he instantly feels a thrill
of pain, of a peculiarly stunning kind, shoot
through his head, and experiences a sense of
dizziness and returning nausea.
SED/ATIVES. Syn. SEDATIVA, L. Medi-
cines and agents which diminish the force of
the circulation or the animal energy, and allay
pain. Foxglove, henbane, tobacco, potassio-
tartrate of antimony, and several of the
neutral salts and acids, act as sedatives. Cold
is, perhaps, the most powerful agent of this
class.
SEED. Syn. SEMEN, L. The seeds of plants
are conspicuous for their vast number and
variety, and their extreme usefulness to man.
The seeds of certain of the Graminaceae furnish
him with his daily bread; some of those of the
Leguminosae, in either the immature or ripe
state, supply his table with wholesome escu-
lents, or provide a nourishing diet for his
domestic animals; whilst those of numerous
other plants, dispersed through every class,
order, and family, yield their treasures of oil,
medicinals, or perfumes, for his use.
SELEN’IC ACID. H. SeO4. Syn. ACIDUM
SELENICUM, L. Prep. By fusing selenium
with nitrate of potassium or of sodium, acting
on the fused mass with water, precipitating the
resulting solution with acetate or nitrate of

1036
SELEN IUM-SEVUM.
lead, and decomposing the precipitate (selenate
of lead), diffused in water, with sulphuretted
hydrogen. The selenic acid, thus obtained,
may be cautiously concentrated in a glass
vessel, if necessary; but if this be pushed too
far, it is resolved into selenious acid (H3SeO3)
and oxygen.
Prop., &c. Hydrated selenic acid is a colour-
less liquid, closely resembling sulphuric acid;
its salts (selenates) bear the closest analogy to
the sulphates.
SELE/NIUM. Se. A rare chemical element,
discovered by Berzelius in 1818.
SEM'OLA (Bullock's). This preparation
consists of wheaten flour deprived of much of
its starch by washings with water, and con-
tains the largest amount (48 per cent.) of
nitrogenous or albumenoid principles consistent
with its adaptability to culinary purposes. It
is specially intended as a food for infants,
weakly children, and invalids.
SEMOLINA. Syn. SáMoULE, SEMOULINA.
The large hard grains of wheat flour retained
in the bolting machine, after the fine flour
has passed through its meshes. “The best
sémoule is obtained from the wheat of the
southern parts of Europe. With the sémoule,
the fine white Parisian bread called ‘gruau' is
baked.” (Ure.)
SEN/EGA. Syn. SENEKA, SNARE ROOT,
RATTLESNARE R.; SENEGAE RADIX (B. P.);
SENEGA (Ph. L. E. & D.), RADIX SENEGA, L.
“The root of Polygala Senega, Linn.” (Ph.
L.) A stimulating diaphoretic, and expecto-
rant; in large doses, diuretic, cathartic, and
emetic. In America it is used as an antidote
to the bite of the rattlesnake. Drs. Chapman
and Hartshorne extol it as an emmenagogue.
Dr. Pereira says that it is an exceedingly
valuable remedy in the latter stages of bron-
chial or pulmonary inflammation, when this
disease occurs in aged, debilitated, or torpid
constitutions.—Dose. 10 to 30 grs, in powder
or decoction (combined with aromatics, opium,
or camphor), thrice daily.
SEN/EGIN. Syn. PolyGALIN, PolyGALIC
ACID. A white odourless powder, discovered
by Gehlin in the bark of seneka root (Poly-
gala Senega).
SEN'NA. Syn. SENNA, SENNE FOLIA, L.
There are three principal varieties:–
1. ALEXANDRIAN SENNA (SENNA. ALEXAN-
DRINA—B. P., Ph. L. E. & D.), referred in the
Ph. L. to Cassia officinalis and Cassia obovata,
in the Ph. D. to Cassia acutifolia (Delile), and
in the Ph. E. to various species of cassia. The
leaves are “unequal at the base, ovate acute,
or obovate mucronate.” (Ph. L.) It is gene-
rally mixed with the leaves of Solenostemma
Argel (argel leaves), the presence of which is
often the occasion of much griping. The leaf
of argel is fully an inch long, warty, regular,
in its formation, and the lateral nerves are
imperfectly seen on the under side; whilst
that of the true Alexandrian senna, never
exceeds ; inch in length, is oblique, and the
nerves on the under side are very conspi.
CuOUIS.
2. INDIAN SENNA (SENNA INDICA–B, P.,
Ph. L. & E.) is referred to Cassia officinalis in
the Ph. L., and in the Ph. E. & D. to Cassia
elongata (Lemaire, Lisancourt). The leaf is
“unequal at the base,” and “lanceolate.”
(Ph. L.)
3. TINNEVELLY SENNA, forming the finest
Indian, now introduced into the Ph. D., is
therein described as composed of the leaflets
of Cassia oblongata. These are pale green,
thin, flexible, and from 1 to 2 inches long, and
nearly $ inch broad. This variety is equal in
medicinal virtue to the best Alexandrian, and
is to be preferred, on account of its being im:
ported perfectly free from adulteration.
Senna is purgative in doses of 10 to 30 grs,
either in powder or made into an infusion of
tea with water, combined with ginger, cara-
ways, or some other aromatic, to prevent
griping. It acts chiefly on the small intestines,
and generally effects its purpose within 4 hours
after being taken.
SE"PIA. A pigment prepared from the
‘ink’ or black fluid secreted by Sepia officinalis
(Linn.), and several other varieties of cuttle-
fish. The contents of the ‘ink bags” are in-
spissated as soon as possible after collection,
and then form the crude sepia of commerce.
This is prepared for artists by boiling it for a
short time in a weak lye of caustic alkali, preci.
pitating the solution with an acid, and well
washing and carefully drying the precipitate by
a gentle heat. It possesses a fine brown
colour, and is used like Indian ink.
SER/PENTARY. Syn. VIRGINIAN SNARE
Root; SERPENTARIA RADIx (B. P.), SERPEN.
TARIAE RADIx, SERPENTARIA (Ph. L. & E),
ARISTOLOCHIA SERPENTARIA (Ph.D.), L. An
excellent stimulating diaphoretic and tonic;
in typhoid and putrid fevers, dyspepsia, &c.
It is admirably suited to check vomiting and
to tranquillise the stomach, particularly in
bilious cases. (Dr. Chapman.)—Dose. 10 to
20 grs., every third or fourth hour, its use
being preceded by an aperient.
SE"RUM. Syn. SERALBUMEN. The clear
pale fluid in which the blood-globules float,
and which separates from blood during its
coagulation. It is, essentially, a feebly alkaline
solution of albumen. See ALBUMEN. -
SESQUI-. See NOMENCLATURE.
SETON. Syn. SETACEUM. An artificial
ulcer, made by passing a portion of silk or
thread under the skin by means of a seton
needle, a part of which is drawn through
daily, and thus keeps up a constant irritation,
Occasionally, the thread is anointed with some
irritating substance, for the purpose of in:
creasing the discharge.
SEWUM (Prepared). Syn. SEWUM PREPA:
RATUM (B.P.), SEVUM MAGNETICUM, L. Prep.
1. ( Pharm. Journ.") Mould candles, at least
2 years old, melted by a very gentle heat, and
strained from the wicks,
-


SHADDOCK-SHERRY.COBBLER.
1037
2. As MAGNETIC ADEPs. Used to make
mercurial ointment. Triturated with 8, 12, or
. 16 times its weight of quicksilver, the globules
are completely extinguished in from 10 to 15
minutes.
SHAD/D0CK. A large species of orange,
the fruit of Citrus Decumana (Linn.).
SHAGREEN". This is prepared from the
skins of the horse, wild ass, and camel, as fol-
lows:—The skin, freed from epidermis and
hair by soaking in water, and, after dressing
with the currier’s fleshing-knife, is sprinkled
over, whilst still wet and stretched, with the
seeds of a species of chenopodium, which are
imbedded in it by strong pressure, and in this
state it is dried; the seeds are then shaken off,
and the surface rubbed or shaved down, nearly
to the bottom of the seed-pits or indentations;
it is next soaked in water, by which the skin
swells, and the recently depressed surface rises
into a number of minute prominences; it is,
lastly, dyed and smoothed off. Black is given
to it with galls and copperas; blue, with a
solution of indigo ; green, with copper filings
and sal ammoniac; and red, with cochineal and
alum. Shagreen was formerly very extensively
used for covering the cases of watches, spec-
tacles, surgical instruments, &c.
SHALLOT". Sym. ESCHALOT. The Allium
ascalonicum (Linn.), a plant allied to the
onion, the bulb of which is much used as a
sauce or pot-herb.
SHAMP00'ING. A practice common in the
East, having for its object the increase or
restoration of the tone and vigour of the body,
or the mitigation of pain. It is applied either
in the bath or immediately after quitting it,
generally the latter, and consists in pressing
and kneading the flesh, stretching and relax-
ing the knee-joints, and laboriously brushing
and scrubbing the skin.
SHARPS. See FLOUR.
SHA(VING. The following are Mr. Mechi's
instructions for this, to many persons, trouble-
some operation:—Never fail to well wash your
beard with soap and cold water, and to rub it
dry, immediately before you apply the lather,
of which the more you use the easier you will
shave. Never use warm water, which makes a
tender face. Place the razor (closed, of course)
in your pocket, or under your arm, to warm it.
The moment you leave your bed is the best
time to shave. Always put your shaving-brush
away with the lather on it.
The razor (being only a very fine saw)
should be moved in a sloping or sawing di-
rection, holding it nearly flat to your face, care
being taken to draw the skin as tight as pos-
sible with the left hand, so as to present an even
surface and throw out the beard. The prac-
tice of pressing on the edge of a razor in strop-
ping generally rounds it; the pressure should
be directed to the back, which must never be
raised from the strop. If you shave from heel
to point of the razor, strop it from point to
heel; but if you begin with the point, then strop
from heel to point. If you only once put away
your razor without stropping or otherwise
cleaning the edge, you must no longer ex-
pect to shave well, the soap and damp so soon
rust the fine teeth or edge. A piece of plate
leather should always be kept with the razors.
SHAVING FLUID. See ESSENCE OF SOAP.
SHEEP. Syn. OvIs, L. The Ovis aries, an
animal domesticated almost everywhere. Its
flesh supplies us with food; its skin, with
leather; its fleece, with wool; and its intes-
times, with catgut. Its fat (sevum) is officinal.
See MUTTON, SUET, &c.
SHELL-FISH. The common name for the
Crustacean and Molluscous animals that are
used for food. “Shell-fish ’ are extremely
liable to disturb the functions of the stomach
and bowels. The oyster (Ostrea edulis), and
the cockle (Cardium edule), are, perhaps, the
least objectionable. The crab (Cancer par
gurus, the crayfish (Astacus fluvialis), the
lobster (Homarus vulgaris), the mussel (My-
tilus edulis), the prawn (Palaemon serratus),
the periwinkle (Littorina littorea), and the
shrimp (Crangon vulgaris), with the exception
of the claws of the first three, are always sus-
picious, particularly in hot weather, and often
absolutely poisonous. We have seen the most
alarming, nay, fatal symptoms, follow the use
of mussels, even amongst those habitually
accustomed to take them ; whilst it is a well-
known fact that the luscious body of the crab
and lobster have too often formed the last
supper of the epicure. See OYSTERs, &c.
SHELL-LAC. See LAC.
SHELLS (Prepared). Syn. TESTE PREPA-
RATE (Ph. L. 1836), L. Prep. (Ph.L. 1836.)
Wash oyster-shells (OSTRE–Ph.L.) with boiling
water, having previously freed them from
extraneous matters; then prepare them in the
manner directed for chalk. The product is
similar in constitution and properties to pre-
pared chalk. -
SHER/BET. [Pers...] A cooling drink, used
in the East, prepared with the juices of fruit,
and water, variously sweetened and flavoured.
The word has been, of late years, commonly
employed in these countries in a similar
manner. See LEMONADE, ORANGEADE, and
POWDERS.
SHER/RY. Syn. SHERRY WINE, SHERRIS ;
WINUM XERICUM (Ph. L.), WINUM ALBUM.
(Ph. E.), WINUM ALBUM HISPANICUM (Ph.D.),
L. This is the only wine ordered in the
British Pharmacopoeias. See WINEs.
SHERRY-C0BBLER. Prep. (Redwood.)
Half fill a tumbler with clean pounded ice;
add a table-spoonful of powdered white sugar,
a few thin slices of lemon with the peel (or
some strawberries or other similar fruit,
bruised), and a wine-glassful or more of sherry
wine; mix them together (lightly), and, as the
ice melts, suck the liquor through a straw (or
a small tube of silver or glass).
Obs. A favourite American drink; very
refreshing in hot weather.
1038
SHINGLES-SHRUB.
SHIN’GLES. Syn. ZoSTER, HERPEs zos-
TER, HERPES ZONA, L. A local variety of
herpes or tetter, remarkable for forming a
kind of belt round or partly round some part
of the trunk of the body, chiefly the waist or
abdomen. See TETTERS.
SHOT METAL. Prep. From lead, 1000
parts; arsenic, 3 parts. When the lead is
coarse, 6 to 8 parts of metallic arsenic are
required to fit it for this purpose.
SHOW BOTTLES. The large ornamental
carboys and jars filled with coloured liquids,
and displayed in the shop-windows of druggists,
may be noticed under this head. They are
striking objects when the solutions they con-
tain are bright and of a deep pure tint, espe-
cially at night, when they are seen by trans-
mitted light. The following formulae for the
solutions have been recommended by different
persons:—
AMBER. From dragon’s blood (in coarse
powder, 1 part; oil of vitrol, 4 parts; digest,
and, when the solution is complete, dilute the
mixture with distilled or soft water, q. S.
BLUE.-a. From blue vitriol, 2 oz.; oil of
vitriol, 3 oz. ; water, 1 pint-b. A solution of
indigo in sulphuric acid, diluted with water,
q. s.-c. A solution of soluble Prussian blue in
either oxalic or hydrochloric acid, slightly
diluted, and afterwards further diluted with
water to the proper shade of colour.
CRIMSON.—a. From alkanet root, 1 oz. ; oil
of turpentine, 1 pint. Used chiefly for the
bull’s-eyes of lamps.-b. As PINK (b), below.
GREEN.—a. From sulphate of copper, 2 oz. ;
bichromate of potash, 1 dr., or q. S.; water, 1
pint.—b. A solution of sulphate of copper,
2 oz. ; chloride of sodium, 4 oz.; water, 1 pint,
or q. S.–c. A solution of distilled verdigris in
acetic acid, diluted with water, q. S.–d. Dis-
solve blue vitriol in water, and add nitric acid
until it turns green.
LILAC.—a. Dissolve crude oxide of cobalt
(zaffre) in nitric or hydrochloric acid, add ses-
quicarbonate of ammonia, in excess, and after-
wards, sufficient ammonio-sulphate of copper
to strike the colour.—b. As the purple, but
more diluted.
MAGENTA. Acetate of rosaniline, dissolved
in water, q. s.
OLIVE. Dissolve sulphate of iron and oil
of vitriol, equal weights, in water, and
add of nitrate of copper, q. S. to strike the
colour.
ORANGE.-a, A solution of bichromate of
potash in water, either with or without the
addition of some hydrochloric or sulphuric acid.
—b. Dissolve gamboge or annotta in liquor of
potassa; dilute with water, and add a little
spirit.
PINK.—a. To a solution of chloride or ni-
trate of cobalt, in water, add sesquicarbonate of
ammonia, q. S. to dissolve the precipitate at
first formed.—b. From madder (washed with
cold water), 1 oz.; sesquicarbonate of ammonia,
4 oz. ; water, 3 pints; digest, with agitation,
for 24 hours, then dilute with more water, -
and filter. -
Purpiń-a. A solution of sulphate of op.
per, 1 oz., in water, 1 quart, or q. S., with the
addition of sesquicarbonate of ammonia, 1% 0Z.
—b. To the last, add a sufficient quantity of
the first pink (above) to turn the colour.—0.
To an infusion of logwood, add carbonate of am.
monia or of potassa, q. S.—d. Sugar of lead,
3 oz. ; powdered cochineal, 1 dr.; water, q, S.
—e. Add sulphate of indigo, nearly neutralised
with chalk, to an infusion of cochineal, till it
turns purple.
RED.—a. Dissolve carmine in liquor of am:
monia, and dilute with water.—b. Digest pow-
dered cochineal in a weak solution of ammonia
or of sal ammoniac, and afterwards dilute with
water.—c. Add oil of vitriol, 4 oz., to water,
1 gall, and digest dried red rose leaves, 8 OZ,
in the mixture for 24 hours.-d. Dissolve
madder lake in a solution of sesquicarbonate
of ammonia, and dilute the solution with
water.
WIOLET. To a solution of nitrate of cobalt
in a solution of sesquicarbonate of ammonia,
add solution of ammonia-sulphate of copper,
q. S. to strike the colour.
YELLOW-a. A solution of Susquioxide Or
rust of iron, 3 lb., in hydrochloric acid, 1 quart,
diluted with water.—b. To a strong decoction
of French berries add a little alum.–6. A
simple solution of chromate or bichromate of
potash in distilled water.—d. A solution of
equal parts of nitre and either chromate or
bichromate of potash, in water.
Obs. Most of the above require filtering,
which should be done through powdered glass,
placed in a glass funnel, and never through
paper.
after being exposed to the light for some
weeks; hence it is convenient always to make
a little more of them than is required to fill
the bottle, as several of them, when diluted
after filtration, become again turbid. Distilled
water or filtered rain water should be used.
SHRIMP. See SHELL-FISH.
SHRUB. A species of concentrated cold
punch, prepared with lemon juice, spirit,
sugar, and water. When the word is used in
its unqualified form, RUM SHRUB is alluded to
Shrub, Brandy. Prep. 1. Take of brandy,
1 gall.; orange and lemon juice, of each, 1
pint ; peels of 2 oranges; do. of 1 lemon;
digest for 24 hours, strain, and add of white
sugar, 4 lbs., dissolved in water, 5 pints; in a
fortnight decant the clear liquid for use.
2. As RUM SHRUB (below), but using brandy,
Shrub, Lemon. Syn. LEMONADE SHRUB.
Concentrated lemonade, either with or without
the addition of a little spirit. Used to make
lemonade or lemon sherbet.
Shrub, Punch. Concentrated punch, made
with equal parts of spirit and water. Used to
make punch.
Shrub, Rum. Prep. 1. As BRANDY SHRUB:
but substituting rum for brandy.
They usually need a second filtration,


SIALOGOGUES.–SILK.
1039
esteemed.
2. Take of rum, at proof, 34 gall. (or, if of
any other strength, an equivalent quantity);
essential oils of orange and lemon, of each, 2 oz.,
dissolved in rectified spirit, 1 quart; good
lump sugar, 300 lbs., dissolved in water, 20
galls.; mix well by ‘rummaging,” and gradually
and cautiously add of Seville orange juice, or of
a solution of tartaric acid in water, q. S. to
produce a pleasant but scarcely perceptible
acidity; next ‘rummage’ well for 15 minutes,
then add sufficient water to make the whole
measure exactly 100 galls., and again ‘rum-
mage’ well for at least half an hour; lastly,
bung the cask down loosely, and allow it to
repose for some days. In a fortnight, or less,
it will usually be sufficient ‘brilliant’ to be
racked. The product is 100 galls., at 66 u. p.
Obs. Rum shrub is the kind in the greatest
demand, and that having a slight prepon-
derance of the orange flavour is the most
If wholly flavoured with lemon, it
is apt to acquire a kind of ‘dead’ or ‘musty”
flavour by long keeping. The substitution of
a few gallons of brandy for a portion of the
rum, or the addition, after racking, of about
1 oz. each of bruised bitter almonds, cloves,
and cassia, the peels of about 2 dozen oranges,
and a “thread of the essences of ambergris and
vanilla, render it delicious.
SIAL'06.06 UES. Medicines which increase
the flow of saliva. Mercurials and pellitory of
Spain belong to this class.
SICK'NESS. Nausea and vomiting fre-
quently arise from the use of improper food,
and other articles which offend the stomach;
at other times, it is symptomatic of some
disease, as colic, cholera, dyspepsia, head affec-
tions, incipient fever, &c.; in which case the
primary affection should be attended to.
Nausea lowers the pulse, contracts the small
vessels, occasions cold perspiration, severe
rigors, and trembling ; and diminishes, as
long as it lasts, the actions, and even the
general powers, of life. The act of retching,
and vomiting more especially, on the contrary,
rouses rather than depresses, puts to flight all
the preceding symptoms, and often restores
the system to itself.
The best remedies or palliatives in these
affections are effervescing saline draughts,
either with or without the addition of a few
drops of tincture of henbane or tincture of
opium. A glass of genuine lemonade, iced, or
a spoonful of crushed ice in a wine-glassful of
mint water, is also very serviceable. Pepsin
(Bullock and Reynolds) and oxalate of cerium
are said to be most valuable remedies in the
sickness of pregnancy. See DRAUGHTS, PREG-
NANCY, SEA SICKNESS, &c. -
SIFT'ING is to pulverulent substances what
filtration is to liquids; but in this case the
medium through which the substance passes
is, usually, of a simpler and coarser descrip-
tion. Sieves are commonly employed for the
purpose, which are fitted with silk or brass-
wire gauze for fine purposes, and horse-hair,
cloth, or wire netting, for coarser ones. Drum
sieves are such as are furnished with covers
and an enclosed space to receive the fine pow-
der that passes through, by which dust and
loss are prevented.
SIGHT. See WISION.
SIGNATURES (Fac-similes of). These may
be readily obtained as follows:–
1. Let the name be written on a piece of
paper, and, while the ink is still wet, sprinkle
over it some finely powdered gum arabic, then
make a rim round it, and pour on it some
fusible alloy in a liquid state. Impressions
may be taken from the plates formed in this
way, by means of printing ink and the copper-
plate press.
2. By the use of transfer ink and litho-
graphy,
SIL'ICA. SiO3. Syn. SILICIC ANHYDRIDE,
SILICIC ACID, SILEX, SILICEOUS EARTH+,
EARTH OF FLINTS+. This exists in quartz
and rock crystal in a nearly pure state. The
sands of rivers and the sea-shore, flint, and
almost all the scintillating stones, chiefly con-
sist of it. It may be obtained in a state of
absolute purity by passing gaseous fluoride of
silicon into water, collecting the resulting gela-
tinous precipitate on a calico filter, washing it
with distilled water, drying it, and heating it
to redness. Another method is to precipitate
a solution of silicate of soda or potassa (soluble
glass) with dilute hydrochloric acid, and to
treat the precipitate as before.
Prop., &c. A fine, white, tasteless, infusible
powder, insoluble in all acids, after being
heated, except the hydrofluoric; soluble in
strong alkaline solutions; its salts are called
SILICATES. Sp. gr. 2:66. See GLASS, SoLU-
BLE GLASS, &c.
SIL'ICON. Si. Syn. SILICIUM. An ele-
mentary substance forming the base of silica.
SILK. As an article of clothing, as far as
“roundness of fibre, softness of texture, ab-
sence of attraction for moisture, and power of .
communicating warmth, are concerned, silk is
greatly superior to both linen and cotton;
moreover it gives the sensation of freshness to
the touch which is so agreeable in linen. But,
with all these advantages, silk (when worn
next the body) has its defects; on the slightest
friction, it disturbs the electricity of the skin,
and thus becomes a source of irritation.
Sometimes, it is true, this irritation is advan-
tageous, as causing a determination of blood
to the surface; but when this action is not
required, it is disagreeable, and quite equal,
in a sensitive constitution, to producing an
eruption on the skin. I have seen eruptions
occasioned in this manmer, and, when they
have not occurred, so much itching and irri-
tation as to call for the abandonment of the
garment.” (Eras. Wilson.)
Silk is characterised by its fibres appearing
perfectly smooth and cylindrical, without de-
pressions, even under a magnifying power of
160. Its fibres (even when dyed) acquire a

1040
SILKwoPM GUT-SILVER.
permanent straw-yellow colour when steeped
in nitric acid of the sp. gr. 1:20 to 1:30. The
fibres of white or light coloured silk are
similarly stained by a solution of picric acid.
A thread of silk, when inflamed, shrivels and
burns with difficulty, evolves a peculiar odour,
and leaves a bulky charcoal. By these pro-
perties silk is distinguished from cotton and
linen.
The cleaning and renovation of articles of
wearing apparel made of silk are matters
requiring some care. No silk goods look well
after being washed, however carefully it may
be done; and this method should therefore
never be resorted to but from absolute neces-
sity. It is recommended to sponge faded silks
with warm water and curd soap, then to rub
them with a dry cloth on a flat board, and
afterwards to iron them on the wrong side
with an ordinary smoothing iron. Sponging
with spirit, benzol, or pure oil of turpentine,
also greatly improves old silk, and is often
preferable to any other method. The odour
of the benzol passes off very quickly, that of
the turpentine after exposure for a few days.
When the ironing is done on the right side,
thin paper should be spread over the surface,
to prevent “glazing.’ See DYEING, GILDING,
&c.
SILK'WORNI GUT. See GUT.
SIL'LABUB. Prep. Grate off the yellow
peel of a lemon with lump sugar, and dissolve
the sugar in # pint of wine; add the juice of
# a lemon, and a # pint of cream ; beat the
whole together until of a proper thickness,
and then put it into glasses.
Obs. # to 1 pint of new milk is often sub-
stituted for the cream, and strong cider or
perry for the wine. Grated nutmeg is often
added. When ‘whipped to a froth, it is
called ‘WHIPPED SILLABUB.’ See CREAM
(Whipped).
SILVER. Ag. Syn. ARGENTUM, L. This
metal, like gold, appears to have been as
much valued in the remotest ages of antiquity
of which we have any record, as at the
present time. It is found in nature both in
the metallic state and mineralised, in the
state of alloy, and combined with sulphur,
chlorine, and other metallic sulphurets. In
Great Britain it is found in combination
chiefly with lead. It is extracted from its
ores principally by the process of amalgamation,
founded on its easy solubility in mercury, and
by subsequent cupellation. It is only prepared
on the large scale.
Chemically pure silver may be obtained
the methods noticed subsequently.
Prop. Pure silver has a very white colour,
a high degree of lustre, is exceedingly malleable
and ductile, and is the best conductor of heat
and electricity known. Its hardness is between
that of copper and gold; its sp. gr. is
10:475 to 10:500; it melts at about 1873°
Fahr., or bright redness (Daniell); is freely
soluble in nitric acid, and dissolves in sul-
by
phuric acid by the aid, of heat; it refuses to
oxidise alone at any temperature, but, when
strongly heated in open vessels, it absorbs
many times its bulk of oxygen, which is again
disengaged at the moment of solidification;
its surface is rapidly tarnished by sulphuretted
hydrogen and by the fumes of sulphur.
Pur. “Entirely soluble in diluted nitric
acid. This solution, treated with an excess
of muriate of soda, gives a white precipitate
entirely soluble in ammonia water, and a fluid
which is not affected by sulphuretted hydro-
gen.” (Ph. E.)
Tests. 1. The compounds of silver, mixed
with carbonate of soda, and exposed on a
charcoal support to the inner flame of the
blowpipe, afford white, brilliant, and ductile
metallic globules, without any incrustation of
the charcoal.—2. The salts of silver are non-
volatile and colourless, but most of them
acquire more or less a black tint by exposure
to full daylight.
The soluble salts of silver give—1. A white
curdy precipitate (chloride of silver) with
hydrochloric acid and the soluble metallic
chlorides, which is soluble in ammonia and
insoluble in nitric acid, and blackened by
exposure to light; 2. White precipitates with
solutions of the alkaline carbonates, oxalates,
and ferrocyanides;–3. Yellow precipitates
with the alkaline arsenites and phosphates;–
4. With the arseniates, red precipitates;–
5. With the fixed alkalies, brown precipitates;
–6. With sulphuretted hydrogen and hydro-
sulphuret of ammonia, a black powder, which
is insoluble in dilute acids, alkalies, alkaline
sulphurets, and cyanide of potassium, but
readily soluble, with separation of sulphur,
in boiling nitric acid; and—7. With phos.
phorus, and with metallic copper or zinc, pure
silver.
• Assay. 1. The method of assaying silver by
cupellation has been explained under ASSAY
and CUPELLATION ; and that method is along
applicable when the alloy contains a very small
quantity of silver, as a few ounces only per ton.
When the reverse is the case, as with the silver
of commerce, the following is a much more
accurate method:—
2. Humid assay of silver.—a. Dissolve 10
grs. of the silver for assay in 100 grs. Of
nitric acid, sp. gr. 1:28, by the aid of heat,
the solution being made in a tall stoppered
glass tube, furnished with a foot; then place
it in a very delicate balance, bring it into all
exact state of equilibrium, and add the test
solution (see below), gradually and cautiously,
until the whole of the silver be thrown down;
the number of grains now required to restore
the equilibrium of the balance or scales gives
the exact quantity of pure silver in 1000 parts
of the sample.—Obs. To ensure accuracy, after
each addition the stopper should be placed in
the tube, and the latter violently agitated for
a short time, when the liquor will rapidly
clear and enable us to see when the operation






SIf VER.
1041
is concluded. We must then, as a check,
add a small quantity of a solution of mitrate
of silver to the liquor in the tube, after having
first carefully taken the weight. If too
much of the test liquor has been added, this
will produce a fresh precipitate, and the assay
cannot then be depended on.—Instead of
weighing the quantity of test liquor used, a
tube graduated into 100 parts, and holding
1000 grs., may be employed, every division of
which required to throw down the silver, will
represent the #6th of a grain. See ALKALI-
METRY and ACIDIMETRY.
b. The precipitate of chloride of silver may
be collected in a paper filter, and be dried,
washed, fused, and weighed. The previous
weight of the paper, deducted from the gross
wéight of the filter and its contents, gives the
quantity of chloride of silver present, which,
multiplied by 0-75278, gives the weight of the
pure silver in the sample.
Test liquor. Dissolve 54'27 (54%) grs. of
pure sea salt in 9945.73 grs. (or 22 oz. and
320% grs. avoirdupois) of distilled water;
filter, and keep the liquor in a stoppered
bottle for use. Pure sea salt is obtained by
boiling together, for a few minutes, in a glass
vessel, a solution of common salt with a little
pure bicarbonate of soda; then adding to the
filtered liquor sufficient hydrochloric acid to
render it neutral to litmus and turmeric paper,
and, lastly, evaporating and crystallising.
Obs. The presence of mercury, lead, or
sulphuret of silver, interferes with the ac-
curacy of the above assay. When mercury
is present, the precipitate blackens less readily
by exposure to light; and when it contains
Túrm or Túrm of chloride of mercury, it remains
of a dead white; with Tºry it is not sensibly
discoloured by the diffused light of a room,
with Tºry only slightly darkened, with Tºrr
more so, but with pure chloride of silver, the
effect is very rapid and intense. When this
metal is present, which is, however, seldom
the case, the assay sample must be placed in a
small crucible, and exposed to a full red heat,
before solution in the acid. Another method,
proposed by M. Levol, and modified by M. Gay-
Lussac, is to add to the nitric solution of the
silver sufficient acetate of ammonia or crystal-
lised acetate of soda to saturate all the nitric
acid existing in the liquor, either in the free
state or combined with the silver. When the
alloy contains lead, shown by the precipitated
chloride being partly soluble in water, it may
either be laminated and subjected to the
action of acetic acid before solution in the
nitric acid; or, the test solution of chloride
of soda should be replaced by one of chloride
of lead; (139°355 grs. of the latter are
equiv. to 58-732 grs. of the former). The
presence of sulphuret of silver is detected
whilst dissolving the sample in nitric acid, by
the black flakes which may be observed
floating about in the liquor in an insoluble
state. These flakes may be dissolved by fuming
nitric acid, or by adding pure concentrated
sulphuric acid to the solution, which should
be then heated for about a # hour in a steam-
bath. When thus treated, the precipitate
produced by the test liquor represents the
whole of the silver contained in the alloy.
Uses, &c. Metallic silver, unless in a state
of very minute division, has no action on the
human body. A plate of silver is ordered, in
the Ph. L., as a test of the presence of nitric
acid in the acetic and phosphoric acids; and
metallic silver (preferably granulated) is em-
ployed by the other colleges in the preparation
of the nitrate. Its numerous applications in
the arts are well known. The standard silver
of England contains 111 parts of silver, and
9 parts of copper.
Concluding remarks. The researches of
Tillet, D'Arcet, and Gay-Lussac, have clearly
shown that the percentage of silver in an alloy,
as indicated by cupellation, is always below its
real richness in that metal, owing to loss in
the process; and, that the cupelled button
always retains a trace of lead and copper,
the precise quantity of which is variable.
The following Table exhibits the additions
to be made on this score, when the quantity
assayed (assay pound) is 20 grs. :—
Actual rich- Percentage
Weight after cupellation. ness in pure of richness in
silver. pure silver.
19,979 20 100
1895 19 95
17-92 18 90
16.917 17 85
15'914 16 80
14-91 15 75
13.905 14 70
12'905 13 65
11:906 12 60
10:906 11 55
9'906 10 50
7.921 8 40
5°948 6 30
3:949 4. 20
1982 2 10
In assaying lead ores very poor in silver,
the best quantity to be taken for cupellation
is 500 grs. ; and from that quantity 0:01.48
of silver, including compensation for loss,
represents one ounce of silver to the ton.
A cupel may absorb its own weight of lead.
If the quantity of lead to be absorbed is more
considerable, another cupel may be turned
topsy-turvy, and the cupel in which the assay
is to be made may be placed upon it. See
ASSAY, and M. Gay-Lussac's elaborate memoir
on the “ Humid Assay of Silver.”
For the recovery or reduction of silver from
the chloride and its other compounds, several
methods are employed:—
66

1042
SILVER.
a. The washed chloride is placed in a zinc
or iron cup, along with a little water strongly
acidulated with sulphuric acid; or in a glass
or porcelain cup along with a zinc plate; the
whole may then be left to itself for some
hours; or, to hasten the reduction, gently
heated, or even boiled; the precipitated silver
is washed with pure water, and dried.
b. (Hornung.) Digest the chloride with
some ammonia and pure copper filings, for
24 hours, then wash and dry the powder.
c. (M. Levol.) The washed chloride is
mixed with an equal weight of sugar, and
the mixture is digested in an excess of a
moderately strong solution of caustic potassa,
with occasional agitation for 24 hours; or the
whole is boiled for some time; the reduced
silver is washed with distilled water.
d. (Mohr.) The dry chloride is mixed with
1-3rd of its weight of powdered black resin,
and moderately heated in a crucible until the
flame ceases to have a greenish-blue colour;
the heat is then suddenly increased so as to
melt the metal into a button or ingot.
e. (M. Gay-Lussac.) If the chloride, dry
it, and throw it, in successive portions, into
twice its weight of carbonate of potassa
fused in a red-hot Hessian crucible; effer-
vescence ensues, and the pure silver subsides
to the bottom.—If a “soluble salt,” as the
nitrate, acidulate the solution, and precipitate
it by means of a polished plate of copper; the
silver is then obtained in the form of powder.
The products of the above processes, when the
latter are carefully conducted, are chemically
pure silver. -
Silver, Acetate of. Syn. ARGENTI ACETAS,
L. Prep. By adding a solution of acetate of
potassa to a like solution of nitrate of silver,
washing the precipitate with cold water, re-
dissolving it in a little hot water, and setting
the solution aside to crystallise. Small colour-
less needles.
Silver, Ammoniuret of. See FULMINATING
SILVER (Berthollet's, Nos.1 and 2, page 547).
Silver, Ammonio-chloride of Syn. ARGENTO-
CHLORIDE OF AMMONIA; ARGENTI AMMONIO-
CHLORIDUM, L. Prep. Add, gradually, chlo-
ride of silver (recently precipitated and well
washed) to concentrated liquor of ammonia, as
long as it is dissolved on agitation, applying a
gentle heat towards the end; then heat the
solution to the boiling-point, concentrate a
little, and allow it to cool very slowly; collect
the crystals which form, dry them by pressure
(with care) between folds of bibulous paper,
and at once preserve them from the light and
air.—Dose. # to . gr.
Silver, Ben'zoate of AgC, H,0s. Thin
transparent plates, which are blackened by ex-
posure to the light. See BENZOATE.
Silver, Broºmide of AgBr. Resembles the
chloride.
Silver, Car"bonate of. Ag.,CO3, Syn. AR-
GENTI CARBONAS, L. A white insoluble pow-
der, obtained by precipitating a cold solution
of nitrate of silver with another of carbonate of
sodium. It is decomposed by heat.
Silver, Chlo"ride of AgCl. Syn. ARGENTIC
CHLORIDE. Prep. Precipitate a solution
of nitrate of silver by dilute hydrochloric acid
or a solution of common salt; wash the preci-
pitate, and dry it in the shade.—Dose. # to 3
grs., thrice daily; in epilepsy, chronic dysentery,
cholera, diarrhoea, &c. Dr. Perry regards it as
preferable to the nitrate. When fused, chlo-
ride of silver forms horn silver, the “luna
cornea’ of the older writers.
Silver, Cy'anide of. AgCN. Syn. ARGENTIC
CYANIDE, HYDROCYANATE OF SILVER. Prep.
Add dilute hydrocyanic acid to a solution of
nitrate of silver, as long as a precipitate
falls; wash this with distilled water, and dry it.
Prop., &c. Cyanide of silver is a white pow-
der, soluble in ammonia, and decomposed by
contact with vegetable substances; light turns
it violet-coloured.—Dose. Fºr to . gr. ; in
syphilis, &c. It has been proposed as a source
of hydrocyanic acid. (Everitt.)
Silver Hyposul/phite of Ag5S2O3. Syn.
ARGENTIHYPOSULPHIS, L. A white substance,
insoluble in water, and very prone to decompo-
sition. It is very soluble in the alkaline hypo-
sulphites, forming compounds possessing an
intensely sweet taste. See HYPOSULPHUROUS
ACID. -
Silver, I'odide of. AgI. Syn. ARGENTIC
IODIDE; ARGENTI IODIDUM, L. Prep. Preci-
pitate a solution of nitrate of silver with
another of iodide of potassium; wash the pre-
cipitate with distilled water, and dry it in the
shade. Pale greenish-yellow ; insoluble in
water and in liquor of ammonia ; soluble in a
solution of hyposulphite of soda. Used in
some of the French hospitals in the stomach
affections of scrofulous subjects; also in epi-
lepsy.—Dose. Tº to 1 gr.
Silver, Niſtrate of AgNO3. Syn. ARGENTI
NITRAS, L. This article is found in commerce
under two forms:—
1. CRYSTALLISED. Prep. By dissolving
grain silver in nitric acid diluted with about
twice its weight of water, evaporating the so-
lution until it is strong enough to crystallise
on cooling, and then allowing it to cool very
slowly. Colourless; transparent, anhydrous
rhombic prisms or tables ; soluble in an equal
weight of cold and in half their weight of
boiling water ; soluble in alcohol ; fuse when
heated, and at a higher temperature suffer
decomposition ; blackened by light, and by
contact with organic substances. Its solution
in distilled water is not sensibly darkened by
light, in the absence of organic matter. Used
for solutions, and in photography.
2. FUSED (LUNAR CAUSTIC ; ARGENTI NI-
TRAS–B. P., Ph. L. & E., A. N. FUSUM-Ph.
D.). Prep. (Ph.D.) Refined silver, 3 oz.; pure
nitric acid, 2 fl. oz. ; distilled water, 5 fl. Oz, ;
mix in a glass flask, and apply a gentle heat
until the metal is dissolved; transfer the solu-
tion to a porcelain capsule (or a large porcelain

SILVER.
1043
crucible), decanting it off a heavy black pow-
der which appears at the bottom of the flask,
and, having evaporated it to dryness, raise the
heat (in a dark room) until the mass liquefies ;
then pour it into a brass mould (iron moulds—
Ph. E. & Ph. L. 1836), furnished with cylin-
drical cavities of the size of a goose-quill, and
which then admits of being opened by a hinge;
preserve the concreted salt in well-stopped
bottles, impervious to the light. The formulae
of the Ph. E. & Ph. L. 1836 are similar.
Obs. In preparing this salt, care should be
had that the silver is free from copper. Pure
nitrate of silver may, however, be prepared
from silver containing copper, by evaporating
the nitric solution to dryness, and cautiously
heating the mixed nitrates to fusion. A small
portion of the melted mass is examined from
time to time, until a little dissolved in water,
and treated with ammonia in excess, ceases to
strike a blue colour. When this point is ar-
rived at, the fused nitrate is allowed to cool,
when it is redissolved in water, filtered or de-
canted from the insoluble black oxide of copper,
and evaporated in the usual way.
The heat employed in preparing the fused
nitrate should not exceed 420° Fahr., and the
fusion should be effected completely, but with
moderate expedition, to prevent loss of nitric
acid. Formerly, a mass of well-tempered
white clay, perforated by means of a well-
greased goose-quill, was used instead of metal
moulds. In the Ph. E. & Ph. L. 1836 the
moulds are ordered to be greased ; when this
is done, the sticks of caustic should be wiped
clean before rolling them in paper. The moulds
should be gently heated before pouring the
fused nitrate into them. Mr. Benzon, the
celebrated Danish pharmaceutist, recommends
mould formed of the massive white Bohemian
talc or of English slate.
Pur., &c. Pure nitrate of silver, whether
crystallised or fused, is entirely soluble in
water, yielding a colourless solution, from
which metallic silver is precipitated by a piece
of bright copper; both are originally white,
but are darkened by exposure to light and con-
tact with organic matter.
Uses, &c. Nitrate of silver is a powerful
tonic, antispasmodic, astringent, and escha-
rotic.—Dose. # to 1 gr., gradually increased,
twice or thrice a day, made into a pill with
crum of bread ; in chorea, epilepsy, &c., pre-
ceded by purgatives. It has been highly ex-
tolled by Mr. Ross, as a remedy in cholera.
Its continued use permanently colours the
skin. It is also extensively employed exter-
mally as a caustic. It is powerfully poisonous.
A solution of common salt, emetics, and de-
mulcents, constitute the treatment in such
cases. Nitrate of silver is much employed in
the manufacture of ‘indelible ink’ for linen,
and hair dyes.
Silver, Dioxide of Ag;03. Syn. ARGENTISUB-
oxy DUMI, L. Prep. From dry citrate of silver
heated to 212°Fahr., in a stream of hydrogen
gas, until it turns dark brown, when it is dis-
solved in water ; the solution is next treated
with potassa, and the precipitate is carefully
washed and dried. A black powder, easily de-
composed, and soluble in ammonia.
Silver, 0xide of. Ag30. Syn. PROTOXIDE OF
SILVER ; ARGENTI OXYDUM, A. PROTOXYDUM,
L. Prep. 1. (Lane.) Nitrate of silver, 2
parts; hydrate of potassa, 1 part; dissolve each
separately in distilled water, mix the solutions,
and, after frequent agitation during an hour,
collect and wash the precipitate, and dry it by
a gentle heat in the shade. A pale brown
powder.
2. Recently precipitated chloride of silver
is boiled in a solution of hydrate of potassium
of the sp. gr. 1:25, with frequent stirring
and trituration, until, on testing a little of it,
it is found to be entirely soluble in dilute nitric
acid, when it is washed and dried, as before. A
black and very dense powder. Chemically pure.
3. Nitrate of silver, 3 oz. ; water, 4 fl. oz. ;
dissolve, and pour the solution into a bottle
containing lime water, 2 quarts, or q. s. ;
agitate the mixture well, collect and wash the
sediment, and dry it at a heat not exceeding
212° Fahr. A dark olive-brown powder. Pure.
Prop., &c. Very soluble in solutions of am-
monia and of the alkaline hyposulphites;
slightly soluble in water; reaction, alkaline ;
decomposed by light.—Dose. # to 2 grs. ; in
epilepsy, gastralgic irritations, &c. It is much
used in France, and has been highly extolled
in memorrhagia. By some, however, it is not
considered superior to the nitrate.
Silver, Peroxide of. Syn. ARGENTI PER-
OXYDUM, L. A black crystalline substance
which forms on the positive electrode of a vol-
taic arrangement employed to decompose solu-
tion of nitrate of silver. -
Silver, Sulphate of Ag;SO4. Syn. ARGENTI
SULPHAs, L. Prep. By boiling silver in sul-
phuric acid ; or, by precipitating a solution of
the nitrate by another of sulphate of sodium.
It dissolves in 80 parts of hot water, and falls
in small colourless needles as the solution cools.
Silver, Sulphide of. Ag;S. Syn. SULPHURET
of SILVER; ARGENTI SULPHURETUM, L. Pre-
pared bypassing sulphuretted hydrogen through
a solution of nitrate of silver; or, by melting
its constituents together. It possesses a gray-
ish-black colour, and is a strong sulphur-
base.
Silver, 0x'idised. The high appreciation in
which ornamental articles in oxidised silver are
now held, renders a motice of the process fol-
lowed interesting. There are two distinct
shades in use, one produced by chlorine, which
has a brownish tint, and the other by sulphur,
which has a bluish-black tint. To produce the
former, it is only necessary to wash the
article with a solution of sal ammoniac. A
much more beautiful tint may, however, be
obtained by employing a solution composed of
equal parts of sulphate of copper and Sal am-
moniac dissolved in vinegar. A fine black

1044
SILVER DUST-SILVERING,
tint may be produced by a slightly warm solu-
tion of sulphide of potassium or of sodium.
(“Chem. Techn.')
SILVER DUST. Syn. SILVER POWDER ;
ARGENTI CROCUS, A. PUIVIS, L. Prep. 1.
Pure pulverulent silver, obtained by any of the
methods explained at page 1043. Used to coat
pills, by japanners, &c. -
2. Heat oxide of silver to dull redness in a
porcelain crucible, cool, triturate the powder
in an agate mortar, and pass it through a fine
sieve. Used at the hospital of Montpellier.
SILVER SHELLS. These are prepared and
used like gold shells. -
SIL'VERING. The art of covering the sur-
faces of bodies with a thin coating of silver.
Leather, paper, wood, &c., are silvered by
covering them with silver leaf, by a similar
process to that employed for gilding them.
Silvering of Glass. Two distinct methods
are adopted for this purpose—one of which
consists in employing a layer of tin-foil, and
mercury, falsely called ‘silvering; the other in
using a coating of real silver precipitated
from a solution of that metal.
1. Plane surfaces, as those of mirrors, &c.,
are commonly silvered as follows:—A sheet of
tin-foil corresponding to the size of the plate
of glass is evenly spread on a perfectly smooth
and solid marble tube, and every wrinkle on
its surface is carefully rubbed down with a
brush; a portion of mercury is then poured
on, and rubbed over the foil with a clean piece
of very soft woollen stuff, or a hare’s foot, after
which two rules are applied to the edges, and
mercury poured on to the depth of a crown-
piece, when any oxide on the surface is care-
fully removed, and the sheet of glass, made per-
fectly clean and dry, is slid along over the
surface of the liquid metal, so that no air,
dirt, or oxide, can possibly either remain or
get between them. When the glass has ar-
rived at its proper position, gentle pressure is
applied, and the table sloped a little to carry
off the waste mercury, after which it is covered
with flannel and loaded with heavy weights;
in 24 hours it is removed to a wooden table
and further slanted, and this position is pro-
gressively increased during a month, until it
becomes perpendicular.
For silvering convex or concave surfaces a
mould of plaster of Paris is employed, so that
the amalgamated foil may be accurately fitted
to the surface.
Globes and other hollow vessels are commonly
silvered by the application of one of the sil-
vering amalgams noticed at page 84.
2. In the HUMID WAY.-a. (Drayton.) A
mixture is first made of nitrate of silver (in
coarse powder), 1 oz., ammonia, 4 oz., and
water, 2 oz., which, after standing for 24
hours, is filtered (the deposit upon the filter,
which is silver, being preserved), and an addi-
tion is made thereto of spirit (by preference,
rectified spirit at 60% o.p.), or naphtha, 3 oz. ;
from 20 to 30 drops of oil of cassia are then
added; and, after remaining for about 6 hours
longer, the solution is ready for use. The
glass to be silvered (first well cleaned and
polished) is placed in a horizontal position,
and a wall of putty, or other suitable material,
formed around it; the above solution is then
poured over it to the depth of from # to # inch;
from 6 to 12 drops of a mixture of oil of cloves
and spirit of wine (in the proportion of 1 part,
by measure, of oil of cloves, to 3 of spirit of
wine) are next dropped into it, at different
places; or the diluted oil of cloves may be
mixed with the solution before it is poured
upon the glass, a larger quantity, in both
cases, increasing the rate of the deposit. When
the glass is sufficiently silvered, the solution is
poured off; and as soon as the silver on the
glass is perfectly dry, it is varnished with a
composition formed by melting together equal
quantities of bees’ wax and tallow. The solu-
tion, after being poured off, is allowed to stand
for 3 or 4 days, in a close vessel; as it still
contains silver, and may be again employed
after filtration, and the addition of a sufficient
quantity of fresh ingredients to supply the
place of those which have been used. 18 grs.
of nitrate of silver are sufficient for one square
foot of glass. Hollow vessels may be silvered
by pouring the solution into them. By the
addition of a small quantity of oil of caraway,
oil of cloves, or oil of thyme, the colour of the
silver may be varied. (“Patent Journ.')
b. (Thomson & Mellish.) Nitrate of silver,
2 oz. ; water and rectified spirit, of each, 3 fl.
oz. ; dissolve, add of spirit of hartshorn or
liquor of ammonia, 1 fl. oz., mix, and after a
short time filter the solution; to each ounce of
this add of grape sugar, 3 oz., previously dis-
solved in a mixture of rectified spirit and water,
of each # pint; after 3 or 4 hours’ repose it is
fit for use. This solution is applied to the
glass, heated to about 160°Fahr., in a similar
manner to the last. Patented.
c. The best plan of silvering plain or slightly
curved surfaces is, however, the method em-
ployed for coating the specula of the silvered.
glass Newtonian telescopes. This method is
very?easy, and has the advantages of giving a
brilliant and durable surface on both sides, and
the film is sufficiently firm to admit of being
polished with rouge and fine wash-leather.
One # oz. of pure nitrate of silver is
dissolved in 4 oz. of distilled water, and
divided into two equal portions. One is treated
with dilute ammonia until the brownish preci-
pitate is entirely redissolved; and to this clear
solution, 3 oz. of pure hydrate of potassium
dissolved in 8 oz. of water added; and the
brown precipitate, and gray sediment that
remains after the brown precipitate disappears,
dissolved by the cautious addition of ammonia,
stirring well all the time. The remaining
nitrate of silver solution is now added, stirring
well until it gives a grayish precipitate that
does not disappear after well stirring. The
bulk of the solution is next made up to 1000Z,

SIMAROUBA—SKIN COSMETICS.
1045
and allowed to settle, when the clear solution is
poured off for use.
The reducing solution is prepared by dis-
solving # oz. of pure milk sugar in 10 oz. of
hot water, and adding 10 minims of pure
alcohol.
This quantity of silvering solution will coat
over two square feet of glass surface with a
brilliant film of pure silver. The glass must
be perfectly clean, and is to be suspended face
downwards on the surface of the solution and
allowed to stand one hour; the temperature of
the solution being best about 80°Fahr.
Silvering of Metals. 1. (LEAF SILVERING.)
This is performed with leaf silver in the way
described under GILDING for the gilding of
polished metals.
2. (CoID SILVERING...) Mix chloride of
silver, 1 part, with pearlash, 3 parts, common
salt, 1% part, and whiting, 1 part; and well
rub the mixture on the surface of the brass or
copper (previously well cleaned), by means of
a piece of soft leather, or a cork moistened
with water and dipped into the powder.
When properly silvered, the metal should be
well washed in hot water slightly alkalised,
and them wiped dry.
3. (ELECTRO-SILVERING...) This is described
under ELECTROTYPE. -
SIMAROU’BA. Syn. SIMARUBA (Ph. E. &
D.), L. The root-bark of Simaruba amara or
officinalis, the mountain damson. Tonic, bitter,
and astringent.—Dose. 20 to 30 grs.; in inter-
mittents, obstimate diarrhoea, dysentery, and
dyspepsia.
SIN’AMINE. C.H.N. A basic substance
formed, along with sulphide of lead, when
thiosinamine is treated with oxide of lead. It
is very bitter tasted, has a powerful alkaline
reaction, and, when slowly obtained from its
concentrated aqueous solution, forms brilliant
colourless crystals.
SIN’APISM. Syn. SINAPISMUs, L. A mus-
tard poultice.
SIN/APOLINE. C. His N.O. A basic substance
formed, along with carbonic acid, when the
volatile oil of mustard, or sulphocyanide of
allyl, is treated with oxide of lead. It is
soluble in water and alcohol, has an alkaline
reaction, and crystallises in colourless plates.
SIZE. Obtained, like glue, from the skins
of animals, but is evaporated less, and kept in
the soft state. See GOLD and GoLD SIZE,
SKATE. The Raia batis (Linn.). Other
varities of Raia also pass under the name.
It is a coarse fish, and is principally salted and
dried for exportation.
SKIN (The). Syn. CUTIs, DERMIS, PELLIS,
L. Every person must be familiar with the
external appearance and general properties
of the skin; but there are many of our
readers who may not be aware of its pecu-
liar compound character. The skin, then, al-
though apparently a single membrane, is com-
posed of three distinct layers or membranes,
each of which performs its special duties:–1.
The exterior of these is called the cuticle
epidermis, or scarf-skin. It is an albumin"
ous tissue, possessing no sensibility, and is
found thickest on those parts of the body
most exposed to friction or injury.—2. The
mucous net, or rete mucosum, which is a
thin layer of soft pulpy matter, which lies im-
mediately under the cuticle, and is supposed
to be the seat of the colour of the skin.-3.
The derma, cutis vera, or true skin, is a
highly sensitive, vascular, gelatinous texture,
the third, and last in succession from the sur-
face of the body. It is this which, when the
scarf-skin and hair have been removed, is con-
verted by the process of tanning or tawing
into leather.
Skin, Goldbeat'er's. See page 583.
SKIN COSMET/ICS. The simplest, cheapest,
and most generally employed cutaneous cos-
metics are soap and water, which at once
cleanse and soften the skin. Soap containing
a full proportion of alkali exercises a solvent
power upon the cuticle, a minute portion of
which it dissolves; but when it contains a
small preponderance of oily matter, as the prin-
cipal part of the milder toilet soaps now do, it
mechanically softens the skin and promotes its
smoothness. Almond, Naples, and Castile
soaps are esteemed for these properties, and
milk of roses, cold cream, and almond
powder (paste), are also used for a similar
purpose. To produce an opposite effect, and
to harden the cuticle, spirits, astringents,
acids, and astringent salts, are commonly
employed. The frequent use of hard water
has a similar effect. The application of these
articles is generally for the purpose of strength-
ening or preserving some particular part
against the action of cold, moisture, &c.; as the
lips, or mammae, from chapping, or the hands
from contracting chilblains; but in this respect,
oils, pommades, and other oleaginous bodies,
are generally regarded as preferable.
Another class of cutaneous cosmetics are
employed to remove freckles and eruptions.
Among the most innocent and valuable of
these is Gowland’s lotion, which has long
been a popular article, and deservedly so, for
it not only tends to impart a delightful soft-
ness to the skin, but is a most valuable remedy
for many obstinate eruptive diseases which fre-
quently resist the usual methods of treatment.
Bitter almonds have been recommended to
remove freckles (Celsus), but moistening them
with a lotion made by mixing 1 fl. oz. of rec-
tified spirit, and a teaspoonful of hydrochloric
acid with 7 or 8 fl. oz. of water, is said to do
this more effectually. A safe and excellent
cosmetic is, an infusion of horeradish in cold
milk. (Withering.)
Skin paints and skin stains are employed
to give an artificial bloom or delicacy to the
skin. Rouge and carmine are the articles
most generally used to communicate a red
colour. The first is the only cosmetic that
can be employed, without injury, to brighten

1046
SKINS-SMOKE PREVENTION.
a lady’s complexion. The other, though pos-
sessing unrivalled beauty, is apt to impart a
sallowness to the skin by frequent use. Starch
powder is employed to impart a white tint,
and generally proves perfectly harmless. The
American ladies, who are very fond of painting
their necks white, use finely powdered mag-
mesia, another very innocent substance. Se-
veral metallic compounds, as the trisnitrate,
chloride, and oxide of bismuth (pearl white,
Fard’s white, &c.), carbonate of lead (flake
white), white precipitate, &c., are frequently
used to revive faded complexions; but they
are not only injurious to the skin, but
act as poisons if taken up by the absorbents.
Trisnitrate of bismuth (pearl white), pro-
bably the least injurious of these articles, has
been known to cause spasmodic tremblings of
the muscles of the face, ending in paralysis.
(‘Voght. Pharm.’) The employment of liquid
preparations containing sugar of lead, which
are commonly sold under the name of milk
of roses, cream of roses, &c., is equally in-
jurious. Another disadvantage of these metal-
lic preparations is, that they readily turn black
when exposed to the action of sulphuretted
hydrogen gas, or the vapours of sulphur, such
as frequently escape into the apartment from
coal fires. There are many instances recorded
of a whole company being suddenly alarmed
by the pearly complexion of one of its belles
being thus transformed into a sickly gray or
black colour.
In conclusion, it may be remarked that the
best purifiers of the skin are soap and water,
followed by the use of a coarse but not a stiff
cloth, in opposition to the costly and smooth
diapers that are commonly employed; and the
best beautifiers are health, exercise, and
good temper.
SKINS (of Animals). The preparation and
preservation of fur skins are noticed under
PEITRY; the preparation and uses of the skins
of the larger animals under LEATHER, TANNING,
TAWING, &c.
SLACK. Small coal, such as is used for
kilns.
SLAG. The semi-vitrified compounds, pro-
duced, on the large scale, during the reduction
of metallic ores by fluxes. Those from iron
and copper works are often used for building
materials, mending roads, &c.
SLATE. The excellence of this material
for water-cisterns deserves a passing notice
here. -
Irish slate (lapis Hibernicus) is an argil-
laceous mineral, said to contain iron and sul-
phur, found in different parts of Ireland. It
is a common remedy, among the vulgar, for
internal bruises, taken in a glass of gin.
SMALLPOX. See Pox.
SMALTS. Syn. AZURE, POWDER BLUE,
SILICEOUS. B., SMALT; AZURUM, SMALTA, L.
This consists, essentially, of glass coloured by
fusing it with oxide of cobalt.
Prep. 1. Cobalt ore is roasted, to drive off
the arsenic, then made into a paste with oil of
vitriol, and heated to redness for an hour; the
residuum is powdered, dissolved in water, and
the ferric oxide precipitated with carbonate of
potassium, gradually added, until a rose-co-
loured powder begins to fall; the clear portion
is then decanted, and precipitated with a
solution of silicate of potassium (prepared by
fusing together, for 5 hours, a mixture of 10
parts of potash, 15 parts of finely ground
flints, and 1 part of charcoal); the precipitate,
after being dried, is fused, and reduced to a
very fine powder. A very rich colour.
2. Roasted cobalt ore and carbonate of po-
tassium, of each, 1 part ; siliceous sand, 3
parts; fuse them together, and cool and pow-
der the residuum. Used as a blue pigment,
also to colour glass, and for ‘blueing' the
starch used to get up linen. See BLUE PIG.
IMIENTS.
SMELI'ING SAITS. See SALTs.
SMELT. A beautiful little abdominal fish
abounding in the Thames, and a few other
rivers, between the months of November and
February. It is esteemed a great delicacy by
epicures, but sometimes proves offensive to
the delicate and dyspeptic.
SMOKE PREVENTION. Although the full
consideration of this subject belongs to public
hygiene and civil engineering, its immediate
application and advantages are interesting and
important to everybody.
The history of ‘smoke burning’ scarcely com-
mences before the year 1840, at which date
Mr. Charles Wye Williams obtained a patent
for this purpose. Since that time a ‘thou-
sand-and-one’ schemes, either patented or
non-patented, professedly for the same object,
have been brought before the public. Most
of these have been supported by the most
reckless statements regarding their value,
made by interested parties; and the most
serious inconvenience and losses have often ,
followed their adoption. Williams's methodis
to admit an abundant supply of cold air through
a large number of small perforations in the
door and front part of the furnace. Lark's
method is based on the admission of heated
air, under due regulation, both through the
door, and at the bridge or back of the fur-
nace, by which means combustion is rendered
more complete, and smoke thereby prevented.
Ivison's plan consists in the introduction of
steam by minute jets over the fire, which is
thus greatly increased in intensity without the
production of smoke, and with a saving of fuel.
In Jucke’s arrangement the grate-bars of a
furnace are replaced by an endless chain web,
which is carried round upon two rollers, in
such a way that each part of the fuel is .
exposed to conditions most favorable for per-
fect combustion. Other inventions are based
upon supplying fuel to the fires from beneath,
so that the products of combustion must pass
through the incandescent coals above.
For household fires, the smokeless grate, in-

SMORING-SNUFF.
104.7
|
2
vented by Dr. Arnott, will be found entirely
successful, and most economical. Its general
introduction would be a great advance in both
domestic and public hygiene; and, being
hence of national importance, should be en-
forced by law.
SMO"KING. This is done, on the large scale,
by hanging up the articles (previously more or
less salted) in smoking rooms, into which smoke
is very slowly admitted from smothered dry-
wood fires, kindled in the cellar, for the pur-
pose of allowing it to cool and deposit its
cruder part before it arrives at the meat.
This process requires from six days to as many
weeks to perform it properly, and is best done
in winter. In farm-houses, where dry wood is
burnt, hams, &c., are often smoked by hanging
them up in some cool part of the kitchen
chimney. When the meat is cut into slices,
or scored deeply with a knife, to allow the
smoke to penetrate it, it is called ‘BUCANING.'
“The quality of the wood has an influence
upon the smell and taste of the smoke-dried
meat; smoke from beech wood and oak being
preferable to that from fir and larch. Smoke
from the twigs and berries of juniper, from
rosemary, peppermint, &c., impart somewhat
of the aromatic flavour of these plants.” (Ure.)
The occasional addition of a few cloves or all-
spice to the fuel gives a very agreeable flavour
to the meat.
Hung beef, a highly esteemed variety of
smoked beef, is prepared from any part, free
from bone and fat, by well salting and pressing
it, and then drying and smoking it in the usual
manner. It is best eaten shredded. See PU-
TREFACTION, SALTING, &c.
SNAIKE-R00T. See SENEGA. For ‘Wir-
ginian snake-root’ see SERPENTARY. Snake-
weed (Bistorta radia) is the root of Poly-
gonum Bistorta (Linn.).
SNIPE. The Scolopaw Gallinago, a well-
known bird indigenous to this country. It is
fine flavoured, but rather indigestible.
SNUFF. Syn. PULVIS TABACI, L.; TABAC
EN POUDRE, Fr. A powder, prepared from
tobacco, for the purpose of being sniffed up the
nose as a stimulant or intoxicant.
The finer kinds of snuff are made from the
soft portions of the best description of manu-
factured leaf-tobacco, separated from the da-
maged portion; but the ordinary snuffs of the
shops are mostly prepared from the coarser
and damaged portions, the mid-ribs, stems, or
stalky parts, that remain from the manufacture
of ‘shag tobacco,” the dust or powder sifted
from the bales, and the fragments that are
unfit for other purposes.
Prep. The proper material being chosen,
and if not in a sufficiently mature state ren-
dered so by further fermentation, they are
sufficiently dried by a gentle heat or exposure
to the air to admit of being pulverised. This
is performed, on the large scale, in a mill, and
on the small scale, with a kind of pestle and
mortar. During the operation the tobacco is
frequently sifted, that it may not be reduced
to too fine a powder, and, is several times
slightly moistened with rose or orange-flower
water, or eau d’ange, which are the only liquids
fit for the superior kinds of snuff. In pre-
paring the dry snuffs, no moisture is used. The
scent or other like matters are next added, and,
after thorough admixture, the snuff is packed
in jars or canisters.
Adult. During the grinding of tobacco it is
frequently mixed with dark-coloured rotten
wood, various English leaves, colouring, and
other matter. Ammonia, hellebore, euphorbium,
and powdered glass, are common additions to
snuffs to increase their pungency. We have
seen powdered sal ammoniac sent by the hun-
dredweight at one time to a certain celebrated
London tobacconist. The moist kinds of snuff
are generally drugged with pearlash, for the
triple purpose of keeping them damp and in-
creasing their pungency and colour. The dry
snuffs, especially ‘Scotch' and ‘Welsh,” are
commonly adulterated with quicklime, the
particles of which may be occasionally distin-
guished even by the naked eye. This ad-
dition causes their biting and desiccating
effect on the pituitary membrane. “We
were once severely injured by taking snuff
which, after our suspicions were awakened,
we found to contain a mixture of red lead and
umber.” (Cooley.)
War. Snuffs are divided into two kinds—
DRY SNUFFs, as ‘Scotch,” “Irish,” “Welsh,”
and ‘Spanish snuff,” “Lundyfoot,’ &c.; and—
MOIST SNUFFS, or RAPPEES, including ‘black”
and “brown rappee,” “carotte,’ ‘Cuba,” “Hard-
ham’s mixture,” “prince’s mixture,’ ‘prin-
ceza,’ ‘queen’s snuff,’ &c. The last three also
come under the denomination of scENTED
SNUFFS,
The immense variety of snuffs kept in the
shops, independently of the above-named con-
ditions, depend for their distinguishing charac-
teristics on the length of the fermentation, the
fineness of the powder, the height to which
they are dried, and the addition of odorous
substances. Tonquin beans, essence oftonquin
bean, ambergris, musk, civet, leaves of orchis
fusca, root and oil of calamus aromaticus, pow-
der and essence of orris root, and the essences
or oils of bergamot, cedra, cloves, lavender,
petit grain, neroli, and roses (otto), as well as
several others, either alone or compounded, are
thus employed. TABAC PARFUMáEAUX FLEURS
is perfumed by putting orange flowers, jasmins,
tuberoses, musk roses, or common roses, to the
snuff in a close chest or jar, sifting them out
after 24 hours, and repeating the treatment
with fresh flowers, as necessary. Another way
is to lay paper, pricked all over with a large
pin, between the flowers and the snuff.
MACOUBA SNUFF is imitated by moistening
the tobacco with a mixture of treacle and
water, and allowing it to ferment well. .
SPANISH SNUFF is made from unsifted
“Havannah snuff, reduced by adding ground
1048 -º-
SOAP.
Spanish nutshells, sprinkling the mixture with
treacle water, and allowing it to sweat for.
some days before packing.
YELLow SNUFF is prepared from ordinary
pale snuff moistened with a mixture of yellow
ochre diffused in water, to which a few spoon-
fuls of thin mucilage have been added; when
dry, the colour that does not adhere to the
snuff is separated with a fine sieve.
RED SNUFF. As last, but using red ochre.
Snuff, Asarabac'ca. Syn. CEPHALIC SNUFF,
CoMPOUND POWDER OF ASARABACCA; PULVIs
ASART COMPOSITUS, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. D.
1826.) Asarabacca leaves, 1 oz. ; lavender
flowers, 1 dr. ; (both dried;) mix and powder
them.
2. (Ph. E. 1817.) Asarabacca leaves, 3 drs.;
leaves of marjoram and flowers of lavender, of
each, 1 dr. ; as before. Both are used as
errhimes in headaches and ophthalmia. See
CEPHALIC SNUFF, ASARABACCA, &c.
Snuff, Chephalic. Prep. 1. From asarabacca
leaves and Lundyfoot snuff, of each, 2 oz. ;
lavender flowers, 4 oz. ; essence of bergamotte
and oil of cloves, of each, 2 or 3 drops; mixed
and ground to a powder, the perfume being
added last.
2. (Boeli's.) From tobacco or pure snuff
and valerian root, of each, ; oz. ; reduced to
powder, and scented with the oils of lavender
and marjoram, of each, 5 or 6 drops.
Obs. The first formula is an excellent one;
and the product is very useful in nervous
headaches, dimness of sight, &c. See ASARA-
BACCA SNUFF (above).
Snuff, Eye. Prep. From finely levigated
tribasic sulphate of mercury (‘Turpeth mine-
ral'), dr. ; pure dry Scotch or Lundyfoot
snuff, 1 oz. ; triturate them well together. A
pinch of this, occasionally, has been recom-
mended in inflammation of the eyes, dim-
mess of sight, headache, polypus, &c.; but
it should be used with caution, and not too
often.
SOAP. Syn. SAPO, L.; SAVON, Fr. SPA-
NISH, CASTILE, or HARD SOAP, made with olive
oil and soda (SAPO, SAPO Ex OLIVE OLEO ET
SODA CONFECTUS—Ph.L.; SAPO DURUS—B.P.,
Ph. E. & D.), and SOFT SOAP, made with olive
oil and potash (SAPOMOLLIS—B. P., Ph.L. & E.,
SAPO Ex OLIVAE OLEO ET POTASSA CONFECTUS
—Ph. L.), are the only kinds directed to be
employed in medicine. The former is intended
whenever “soap * is ordered, and is the one
which is principally employed internally; the
latter is used in ointments, &c., and in some of
the officinal pills.
Prep. The fatty or oleaginous matter is
boiled with a weak alkaline lye (soap-lye) ren-
dered caustic by quicklime, and portions of
stronger lye are added from time to time, the
ebullition being still continued, until these
substances, reacting on each other, combine to
form a tenacious compound, which begins to
separate from the water ; to promote this
separation and the granulation of the newly
formed soap, some common salt is generally
added, and the fire being withdrawn, the con-
tents of the boiler are allowed to repose for
some hours, in order that the soap may collect
into one stratum, and solidify; when this
happens it is put into wooden frames or moulds,
and when it has become stiff enough to be
handled it is cut into bars or pieces, and ex-
posed to the air, in a warm situation, to
further harden and to dry.
War. The principal varieties of soap found
in commerce are:–
ALMOND SOAP (SAPO AMYGDALINUs), made
from almond oil and caustic soda, and chiefly
used for the toilet.
CASTILE SOAP, SPANISH S., MARSEILLES. S.;
SAPO CASTILIENSIS, SAPO HISPANICU.S. An .
olive-oil soda soap, kept both in the white and
marbled state. The former is said to be the
purest; the latter, the strongest.
CURD SOAP, made with tallow (chiefly) and
soda.
MEDICATED SOAPs, containing various
active ingredients. The chief of these are
noticed below.
MoTTLED SOAP, made with refuse kitchen-
stuff, &c. -
SoFT So AP (of commerce), made with
whale, seal, or cod oil, tailow, and caustic
potash. -
ToILET SoAPs, prepared from any of the
preceding varieties, and variously coloured and
scented. Formulae are given below. -
YELLOW SoAP, RESIN SOAP, made with
tallow, resin, and caustic soda. Soluble glass
is now largely employed in place of resin.
Soaps are also divided into SOFT or POTASH
SOAPs and HARD or SODA SOAPs.
Assay. 1. For the WATER. A piece, fairly
taken from the sample, and weighing 100 grs,
is reduced to thin shavings, which are dried
by the heat of boiling water, until they cease
to lose weight. The loss indicates the pro-
portion of free water. This should not exceed
35% for ordinary curd and mottled soap, 45%
for yellow soap, and about 15 to 16% for
Castile soap. -
2. For the ALKALI. 100 grs. of the soap are
dissolved in 4 or 5 fl. oz. of boiling water, and
the solution tested by the common method of
alkalimetry. Curd and yellow soap usually
contain from 6 to 7%, mottled soap from 7 to
8}, and Castile soap 8 to 9% of soda.
3. For the or L or FAT. The solution tested
for alkali (see No. 2) is heated, and then
allowed to cool slowly; when cold, the floating
fatty matter is removed, freed from water, and
weighed. When the fat or oil has little con-
sistence, 100 grs. of pure white wax is added to
the soap solution, before heating it. The
weight obtained, in grains in the one case, and
the excess above 100 grs. in the other, give the
proportion of oil or fat present. This, in
ordinary mottled soap, should be about 68%;
in yellow soap, 65%; in curd soap, 60%; and
in Castile soap, 75%. -


SOAPS (MEDICATED). 1049
4. UNSAPONIFIED FATTY MATTER.—a. Pure
soap is entirely soluble in distilled water and
insoluble in saline solution; if a film of fatty
matter forms on its solution in the former,
after repose, that portion has not been sa-
ponified.
b. The fat separated from soap (see No. 2),
when it has been perfectly saponified, is
entirely soluble in alcohol.
5. OTHER IMPURITIES. Pure soap is solu-
ble in rectified spirit, forming a colourless
or nearly colourless solution. The undissolved
portion, if exceeding 1%, is adulteration.
Uses, &c. The common uses of soap need
not be enumerated. As a medicine, it acts as
a mild purgative and lithontriptic, and it has
been thought by some to be useful in certain
affections of the stomach arising from de-
ficiency of bile. Easternally, it is stimulant
and detergent.—Dose, 3 to 20 or 30 grs.,
made into pills, and usually combined with
aloes or rhubarb.
Concluding remarks. Prior to the researches
of Chevreul, no correct ideas were entertained
as to the constitution of soap. It was long
known that the fixed oils and fats, in contact
with caustic alkaline solutions at a high tem-
perature, undergo the remarkable change
which is called saponification; but here the
knowledge of the matter stopped. Chevreul
discovered that if the soap, so produced, be
afterwards decomposed by the addition of an
acid, the fat which separates is found to be
completely changed in character; to have
acquired a strong acid reaction when applied
in a melted state to test paper, and to have
become soluble with the greatest facility in
warm alcohol; in other words—that a new
substance, capable of forming salts, and exhi-
biting all the characteristic properties of an
acid, has been generated out of the elements
of the neutral fat under the influence of the
base. Stearin, when thus treated, yields
stearic acid, palmatin gives palmatic acid,
olein gives oleic acid, and common animal
fat, which is a mixture of several neutral
bodies, affords, by saponification by an alkali
and subsequent decomposition of the soap,
a mixture of the corresponding fatty acids.
These bodies are not, however, the only
products of saponification ; the change is
always accompanied by the formation of a
very peculiar sweet substance, called glycerin,
which remains in the mother-liquor from
which the acidified fat has been separated.
The process of saponification itself proceeds
with perfect facility, even in a closed vessel;
no gas is disengaged; the neutral fat, of what-
soever kind, is simply resolved into an alkaline
salt of the fatty acid, which is soap, and into
glycerin, a neutral body resembling syrup, and,
like that liquid, miscible with water in every
proportion.
“When yellow soap is made with the cheaper
kinds of fat, it will hardly acquire a sufficient
degree of firmness or hardness to satisfy the
thrifty washerwoman. It melts away too
rapidly in hot water, a defect which may be
well remedied by the introduction into the
soap of a little (1-20th) fused sulphate of soda;
and this salt concreting, gives the soap a de-
sirable hardness, whilst it improves its colour,
and renders it a more desirable article for the
washing tub.” (Ure.) This process was pa-
tented by Dr. Normandy, but soon proved a
source of annoyance and molestation to him on
the part of the Board of Excise, it being an
enormous crime in law to attempt to improve
and cheapen soap.
“Soda which contains sulphurets is preferred
for making mottled or marbled soap, whereas
the desulphuretted soda makes the best white
curd soap.” “The Barillas always contain
a small proportion of potash, to which their
peculiar value, in making a less brittle or
more plastic hard soap than the factitious
sodas, may, with great probability, be as-
cribed.” (Ure.)
The mottled appearance is usually given, in
the London Soap-works, by watering the
nearly finished soap with a strong lye of
crude soda, by means of a watering can fur-
nished with a rose spout. For ‘Castile
soap,' a solution of sulphate of iron is
so employed. See SOAPs (Medicated and
Toilet).
Soap, Arsen'ical. Syn. SAPO ARSENICALIS,
L. Prep. (Bécoeurs.) From carbonate of po-
tash, 12 oz. ; white arsenic, white soap, and
air-slaked lime, of each, 4 oz. ; powdered cam-
phor, # oz. ; made into a paste with water,
q. s. Used to preserve the skins of birds, and
other small animals.
Soap, Black. Syn. SAPO NIGER, S. MOLLIS
COMMUNIS, L. A crude soft soap, made of fish
oil and potash; but the following mixture is
usually sold for it:—soft soap, 7 lbs.; train oil,
1 lb.; water, 1 gall.; boil to a proper consist-
ence, adding ivory black or powdered charcoal,
q. s. to colour. Used by farriers. -
SOAPS (Medicated). A few only of these
deserve notice here :-
Soap, Antimo"mial. Syn. SAPO ANTIMO-
NIALIS, SAPO STIBIATUS, L. Prep. (Hamb,
Cod. 1845.) Golden sulphuret of antimony,
2 drs. ; solution of caustic potassa, 6 drs. (or
q. s.); dissolve and triturate the solution
with medicated (Castile) soap (in powder),
I} oz., until the mass assumes a pilular
consistence. It should be of a grayish-white
colour.
Soap, Chlorimated. Syn. SAPO CALCIS CHIO-
RINATE, L.; SAVON ANTISYPHILITIQUE, Fr.
Prep. From Castile soap (in powder), 11 oz. ;
chloride of lime (dry and good), 1 oz.; mix,
beat them to a mass with rectified spirit, q. S.;
(holding in solution) oil of verbena or of ginger
grass, # oz. ; lastly, form the mass into flat
tablets, and wrap these in thin sheet gutta
percha. A most excellent detergent and sti-
mulant soap in various affections, admirably
adapted for hospital use, and for removing

1050
SOAPS (TOILET).
stains from the skin and rendering it white.
It is the most powerful known agent against
infection from contagious diseases communi-
cable by contact.
Soap, Croton. Syn. SAPO CROTONIS, L.
Prep, From croton oil and liquor of potassa,
equal parts; triturated together in a warm
mortar until they combine. Cathartic.—Dose.
1 to 3 grs. -
Soap of Guaſiacum. Syn. SAPO GUAIACI,
SAPO GUAIACINUS, L. Prep. (Ph. Bor.)
Liquor of potassa, 1 oz. ; water, 2 oz. ; mix in
a porcelain capsule, apply heat, and gradually
add of resin of guaiacum (in powder), 6 drs,
or as much as it will dissolve ; next decant or
filter, and evaporate to a pilular consistence.
—Dose. 10 to 30 grs.; in chronic rheumatism,
various skin diseases, &c.
Soap, I’odine. Syn. SAPo IoDURATUS, L.
Prep. From Castile soap (sliced), 1 lb.; iodide
of potassium, 1 oz. ; (dissolved in) water, 3 fl.
oz. ; melt them together in a glass or porce-
lain vessel, over a water bath. Excellent in
various skin diseases; also as a common soap
for scrofulous subjects.
Soap of Jalſap. See page 663.
Soap, Macquer’s Acid. Syn. SAPO VITRIO-
LICUS, L. Prep. From Castile soap, 4 oz.,
softened by heat and a little water, and then
continually triturated in a mortar with oil of
vitriol (added drop by drop). Detergent.
Iſsed where alkalies would be prejudicial.
Soap, Mercu"rial. Syn. SAPO MERCURIALIS,
L. Prep. 1. (SAPO SUBLIMATIS CORROSIVI.)
From Castile soap (in powder) 4 oz.; corrosive
sublimate, 1 dr. ; (dissolved in) rectified spirit,
1 fi, oz. ; beaten to a uniform mass in a porce-
lain or wedgwood-ware mortar.
2. (SAPO HYDRARGYRI PRECIPITATI RUBRI
—Sir H. Marsh.) From white Windsor soap,
2 oz., nitric oxide of mercury (levigated),
I dr.; otto of roses, 6 or 8 drops; (dissolved
in) rectified spirit, 1 to 2 fl. drs. ; as the last.
Both the above are employed as stimulant de-
tergents and repellants, in various skin dis-
eases; also as SAVON ANTISYPHILITIQUE.
Soap, Sulphuretted. Syn. SAPO SULPHURIs,
SAPO SULPHURATUS, L. Prep. (Sir H. Marsh.)
From white soap, 2 oz. ; sublimed sulphur,
# oz.; beaten to a smooth paste in a marble
mortar with 1 or 2 fl. drs. of rectified spirit
strongly coloured with alkanet root, and hold-
ing in solution otto of roses, 10 or 12 drops.
In itch and various other cutaneous diseases.
Soap, Tar. Syn. SAPO PICIS LIQUIDAE, SAPO
PICEUS, L. Prep. From tar, 1 part; liquor of
potassa and soap (in shavings), of each, 2
parts; beat them together until they unite.
Stimulant. Used in psoriasis, lepra, &c.
Soap, Tur'pentine. Syn. STARKEY’s so AP;
SAPO TEREBINTHINAE, S. TEREBINTHINATUS,
L.; SAVON TERáBINTHINE, Fr. Prep. (P.
Cod.) Subcarbonate of potash, oil of turpen-
tine, and Venice turpentine, equal parts; tri-
turate them together, in a warm mortar, with
little water, until they combine; put the pro-
duct into paper moulds, and in a few days
slice it, and preserve it in a well-stopped
bottle.
SOAPS (Toilet). Of Toilet soaps there are
two principal varieties:—
1. (HARD.) The basis of these is, generally,
a mixture of suet, 9 parts, and olive oil, 1 part,
saponified by caustic soda ; the product is
variously scented and coloured. They are also
made of white tallow, olive, almond, and palm-
oil soaps, either alone or combined in various
proportions, and scented.
2. (SOFT.) The basis of these is a soap
made of hog's lard and potash, variously
scented and coloured.
On the small scale, the perfume is generally
added to the soap melted in a bright copper
pan by the heat of a water bath; on the large
scale, it is mixed with the liquid soap, at the
soap-maker’s, before the latter is poured into
the frames.
The following are examples of a few of the
leading toilet soaps:"—
Soap, Bitter-al'mond. Syn. SAVON D’AMANDE,
Fr. Prep. From white tallow soap, 56 lbs.; .
essential oil of almonds, # lb.; as before.
Savon au Bouquet. [Fr.] Prep. From
tallow soap, 30 lbs. ; olive-oil soap, 10 lbs. ; es-
sence of bergamot, 4 oz. ; oils of cloves, Sassa-
fras, and thyme, of each, 1 oz. ; pure neroli,
# oz. ; brown ochre (finely powdered), 3 lb.;
mixed as the last.
Soap, Cin'namom. Prep. From tallow soap,
14 lbs. ; palm-oil soap, 7 lbs. ; oil of cinnamon
(cassia), 3 oz. ; oil of Sassafras and essence of
bergamot, of each, 3 oz. ; levigated yellow
ochre, lb.
Soap, Floating. Prep. From good oil soap,
14 lbs. ; water, 3 pints; melted together by
the heat of a steam or water bath, and assidu-
ously beaten until the mixture has at least
doubled its volume, when it must be put into
the frames, cooled, and cut into pieces. Any
scent may be added.
Soap, Hon’ey. Prep. 1. From palm-oil soap
and olive-oil soap, of each, 1 part; curd soap,
3 parts; melted together and scented with
the oil of verbena, rose-geranium, or ginger-
grass.
2. From the finest bright-coloured yellow
soap, scented with the oils of ginger-grass and .
bergamot. -
Soap, Musk. As CINNAMON SOAP, but with
essence of musk, supported with a little essence
of bergamot and oil of cloves, as perfume, and
burnt sugar, to colour.
Soap, Naples. From olive oil and potash.
Soap, 0range-flower. As SAVON A IA ROSE,
with oil of neroli or essence de petit grain, sup-
ported with a little of the essences of amber-
gris and Portugal, for perfume.
Soap, Palm-oil. Syn. VIOLET SOAP. Made
of palm oil and caustic soda lye. It has a
pleasant odour of violets and a lively colour.
Soap, Pearl. Syn. AIMOND CREAM; CRÉME
* I See also SAvon ETTEs.
SODA-SODIUM. 1051
D’AMANDES, Fr. Prep. From a soap made
of lard and caustic potash lye ; when quite
cold, it is beaten in small portions at a time
in a marble mortar, until it unites to form a
homogeneous mass, or ‘pearls,” as it is called;
essence of bitter almonds, q. S., to perfume,
being added during the pounding.
; Savon à la Rose. [Fr.] Prep. From a
mixture of olive-oil soap, 36 lbs.; best tallow
soap, 24 lbs, ; (both new and in shavings;)
water, 1 quart; melted in a covered bright
copper pan, by the heat of a water bath, then
coloured with vermilion (finely levigated),
2% oz. ; and, after the mixture has cooled a
little, scented with otto of roses, 3 oz. ; es-
sence of bergamot, 2% oz. ; oils of cloves and
cinnamon, of each, 1 oz.
Soap, Sha'ving. See PASTE (Shaving).
Soap, Transpa’rent. Prep. From perfectly
dry almond, tallow, or soft soap, reduced to
shavings, and dissolved, in a closed vessel or
still, in an equal weight of rectified spirit, the
clear portion, after a few hours' repose, being
poured into moulds or frames; after a few
weeks’ exposure to a dry atmosphere, the
pieces are “trimmed up? and stamped, as de-
sired. It may be scented and coloured, at
will, by adding the ingredients to it while in
the soft state. A rose colour is given by tinc-
ture of archil; and yellow, by tincture of tur-
meric or annotta. It does not lather well.
Soap, Windsor. Syn. SAPO WINDESORAE, S.
WINDESORIENSIs, L. Prep. 1. (WHITE; S.
V. ALBUs.) The best “English’ is made of a
mixture of olive oil, 1 part, and ox tallow or
suet, 9 parts, saponified by caustic soda.
* French Windsor-soap” is made of hog's lard,
with the addition of a little palm oil. That
of the shops is merely ordinary curd soap,
scented with oil of caraway, supported with a
little oil of bergamot, lavender, or origanum.
To the finer qualities a little of the essences of
musk and ambergris is occasionally added.
1% lb. of the mixed scents is the common pro-
portion per cwt.
2. (BROWN; S. W. FUSCUs.) This merely
differs from the last in being coloured with
burnt sugar, or (less frequently) with umber.
Originally, it was the white variety, that had
become mellow and brown with age.
SO'DA. See SODIUM. .
SO'DIUM. Na. Syn. NATRIUM. The me-
tallic base of soda. It was first obtained by
Sir H. Davy, in 1807, by means of a powerful
galvanic battery; but it may be more conve-
niently and cheaply procured, in quantity, by
the method described under POTASSIUM. The
process, when well conducted, is, however,
much easier and more certain than that for the
last-named metal.
Prep. The anhydrous carbonate of so-
dium, 6 parts, is dissolved in a little
water, and the solution mixed with charcoal
in fine powder, 2 parts, and charcoal in
small lumps, 1 part; the whole is then eva-
porated to dryness, transferred to an iron
retort, and treated in the manner described at
page 961.
Obs. Very important improvements have
been made in the manufacture of this metal by
Deville, consisting partly in the simplification
of the receiver, and partly in the addition of
carbonate of calcium to the mixture, which ad-
dition appears to facilitate the reduction of
the sodium in a most remarkable manner.
Prop., &c. Sodium is a soft silver-white
metal, scarcely solid at common temperatures,
fuses at 194° Fahr., and volatilises at a red
heat; it oxidises very rapidly in the air; when
placed on the surface of cold water, it decom-
poses that liquid with great violence, but
generally without flame, in which it differs
from potassium ; on hot water it burns with a
bright yellow flame—in both cases a solution
of pure soda being formed. Sp. gr. 972; it is
more malleable than any other metal, and may
be easily reduced into very thin leaves (Ure);
its other properties resemble those of potas-
sium, but are of a feebler character. With
oxygen it forms two oxides; with chlorine, a
chloride (common salt); and—with bromine,
iodine, fluorine, &c., bromide, iodide, fluoride,
&c., all of which may be obtained by similar
processes to the respective compounds of po-
tassium, which, for the most part, they
resemble.
Uses. Until recently, sodium has been re-
garded as a mere mechanical or philosophical
curiosity; it has now, however, become of
great practical importance, from being em-
ployed in the manufacture of the metals alumi-
nium, magnesium, &c.
Tests. Sodium salts are recognised by their
solubility in water, and by their giving a pre-
cipitate with none of the ordinary reagents.
They give a rich yellow colour to the colour-
less Bunsen or the pale blue blowpipe flame.
They can, to a certain extent, be also distin-
guished from potassium salts by the carbonate
being an easily crystallisable salt, effervescing
in dry air; the carbonate of potassium being
crystallised with difficulty, and deliquescent.
Platinum chloride does not give a precipitate
with sodium chloride; neither does picric acid,
perchlorate of ammonium, nor tartaric acid.
Sodium, Acetate of NaC., H3O3. Syn. ACE-
TATE of sold.A.; SODAE ACETAs (B. P., Ph.D.), L.
Prepared from carbonate of sodium as the cor-
responding potassium salt; but the resulting
solution is evaporated to a pellicle, and set
aside to crystallise. Its crystals are striated
oblique rhombic prisms; it effloresces slightly
in the air, and is soluble in 4 parts of water at
60° Fahr. Diuretic.—Dose. 20 to 40 grs.
Sodium, Arsemiates of. These salts are made,
and their properties and doses are the same, as
the corresponding potassium salts.
Sodium, Carbonate of Na2CO3. 10Aq, Syn.
CARBONATE of soldA, MONo-CARBONATE OF
soldA, SUBCARBONATE of s.j., SALT OF BARILLAf;
SoD# CARBONAs (B. P., Ph. L. E. & D.), L.
The carbonate of sodium of commerce (WASH-


1052
SODIUM.
ING sold A) was formerly prepared from the
ashes of seaweed, and other marine vegetables,
in a somewhat similar manner to that by which
carbonate of potassium is obtained; but it is
now usually obtained from chloride of sodium,
by the action of heat, sulphuric acid, and car-
bonaceous matter.
Prep. (From common salt or sulphate
of sodium.) The latter is generally obtained
by decomposing the former with sulphuric
acid, the evolved gas being passed into water,
or through flues filled with coke, over which a
very small stream of cold water constantly
flows, by which it is condensed, and forms
‘LIQUID HYDROCHLORIC ACID, a substance
afterwards consumed, in large quantities, in
the manufacture of chloride of lime, and for
other purposes. The sulphate of sodium, ob-
tained from this or any other source, is well
mixed with an equal weight of chalk or lime-
º
º º
stone, and about half its weight of small coal,
each being previously ground to powder, and
the mixture is exposed to a strong heat in a
“reverbatory furnace' (see engr.) until the
decomposition of the sulphate is complete, the
mass during the calcination being frequently
stirred about with a long iron rod; the semi-
liquid is now raked into an iron trough, where
it is allowed to cool, whilst the furnace is re-
charged with fresh materials. The crude
dark-gray product, thus obtained, is known as
‘ball alkali,” or ‘British barilla,’ and usually
contains about 22 or 23% of pure hydrate of
sodium. This is now lixiviated with tepid
water, and the solution, after defecation, eva-
porated to dryness; the residuum is mixed
with a certain quantity of sawdust, coal-dust,
or charcoal, and roasted in a reverberatory
furnace, at a heat not exceeding 700° Fahr.,
until all the sulphur is expelled. The product
is the “soda-ash,” “soda salt,” or ‘British
alkali,” of commerce, and contains about 50%
of pure sodium, partly in the state of carbonate,
and partly as hydrate, the remainder being
chiefly sulphate of sodium and common salt.
When this is purified by solution in water,
defecation, evaporation, and crystallisation, it
furnishes commercial crystallised carbonate of
soda. When this last is redissolved, and the
filtered solution is carefully crystallised, it
constitutes the ordinary carbonate of sodium
WSº in pharmacy and medicine,
Scotch Soda Furnace.
L
F.
When it is required anhydrous (SODE CAR-
BONAS ExSICCATA, B. P., Ph. L.; SODE CAR-
BONAS SICCATUM, Ph. E. & D.), the crystallised
carbonate is heated to redness, and, when cold,
powdered.
Prop., &c. Carbonate of sodium forms large,
transparent, oblique rhombic prisms, which,
as ordinarily met with, and of the formulae
NaşCO3. 10Aq; but by particular management
may be had with fifteen, nine, seven, or some-
times with only one molecule of water of
crystallisation (Fownes); it is soluble in twice
its weight of water at 60°, and less than an
equal weight at 212° Fahr. As a medicine, it
is deobstruent and antacid, and is given in
doses of 10 to 30 grs. It is also, occasion-
ally, used to make effervescing draughts,
When taken in an overdose, it is poisonous.
The antidotes are the same as for carbonate
of potassium. The crude carbonate is largely
employed in the manufacture of soap, glass,
C.
53 grs. of the dried carbonate are equal to
143 of the crystallised salt. The medicinal
properties of both are similar. It has, how-
ever, the disadvantage of being difficultly.
soluble in water.
The ordinary carbonate of sodium generally
contains either sulphates or chlorides, or both;
and these may be detected as under CAR-
BONATE of PotASSIUM. “When supersatu-
rated with nitric acid, it precipitates only
slightly or not at all, chloride of barium or
nitrate of silver ; and 143 grs. require at
least 960 grain-measures of solution of oxalic
acid” (B. P.). At a high temperature, 100 grs,
lose 62-5 grs, of water. -
Sodium, Sesquicarbonate of. Nai H3(CO)8. A
salt found native on the banks of the soda lakes
of Sotrena, in Africa, whence it is exported as
“Trona.”
Sodium, Bicarbonate of NaHCOs. Syn.
SESQUICARBONATE OF SODA, SODE BICAR-
BONAs (B. P., Ph. L. E. & D.). This salt can
be prepared in exactly the same manner as the
corresponding salt of potassium. Another
method is as follows:–Take of crystallised
carbonate of sodium, 1 part ; dried carbonate
of sodium, 2 parts; (both in powder;) tritu-
rate them well together, and surround them
with an atmosphere of carbonic acid gas,
under pressure ; let the action go on until no
more gas is absorbed, which will generally
occupy 10 to 14 hours, according to the pres:
sure employed), then remove the salt, and dry
it at a heat not above 120° Fahr.
Prop., &c. A crystalline white powder; it is
soluble in 10 parts of water at 60° Fahr., but
it cannot be dissolved in even warm water
without partial decomposition ; it is more
pleasant tasted and more feebly alkaline than
the carbonate of the same base. When abso-
lutely pure, it does not darken turmeric paper,
or only very slightly. The dose is from 10 to
40 grains, as an antacid and absorbent. It is
much employed in the preparation of effer.




















SOD1UM. 1053
vescing powders and draughts, for which pur-
pose
20 grs. of commercial bicarbonate of sodium
-º- -
are taken with
18 grs. of crystallised tartaric acid;
17 grs. of crystallised citric acid; or
# fl. oz. of lemon juice.
The quantity of bicarbonate any given
sample contains may be approximately de-
termined by well washing 100 grs. of the salt
with an equal weight of water, and filtering
the solution. The residuum left upon the
filter, dried at a heat of 120° Fahr., and
weighed, gives the per-centage of pure bicar-
bonate of sodium present (very nearly). The
solution of this in water will give only a very
trifling white precipitate with corrosive sub-
limate; whilst the filtered portion, which was
used to wash the salt, will give a red one, if it
contains the simple carbonate of sodium.
Sodium, Chloride of NaCl. Syn. SopſI
CIILORIDUM (B. P., Ph. L. & D.), SoDE MU-
RIAS (Ph. E.), L. This important and whole-
some compound appears to have been known
in the earliest ages of which we have any
record. It is mentioned by Moses (Gen. xix,
26), and by Homer in the Iliad (lib. ix, 214).
In ancient Rome it was subjected to a duty
(vectigal salinarium); and, even at the present
day, a similar tax furnishes no inconsiderable
portion of the revenue of certain nations.
Common salt forms no small portion of the
mineral wealth of England, and has become an
important article of commerce in every part of
the known world. The principal portion of
the salt consumed in this country is procured
by the evaporation of the water of brine
springs. It is also prepared by the evapo-
ration of sea-water (hence the term ‘sea-salt"),
but this process has been almost abandoned in
England, being more suited to hot dry climates
or to very cold ones.
P'ar.—BAY SALT; SAL MARINUS, SAT, NIGER ;
imported from France, Portugal, and Spain,
and obtained from sea-water evaporated in
shallow ponds by the sun; large-grained and
dark-coloured.—BRITISH BAY SALT, CHESHIRE
LARGE-GRAINED S. ; by evaporating native
brine at a heat of 130° to 140° Fahr.; hard
cubical crystals. Both of the above are used
to salt provisions for hot climates, as they dis-
solve very slowly in the brine as it grows
weaker. CHESHIRE STOVED SALT, LUMP S.,
BASKET S.; obtained by evaporating the brine
of salt springs; small flaky crystals.-LONDON's
PATENT SOLID SALT ; Cheshire rock salt, melted
and ladled into moulds,-ROCK SALT, FOSSIL
S. ; SAT, GEMME, SAL FOSSILIS ; found in
mineral beds in Cheshire ; has commonly a
reddish colour ; chiefly exported for purifica-
tion.
Prop. Pure chloride of sodium is fixed in
the air; crystallises in anhydrous cubes, which
are often grouped into pyramidst or steps ;
dissolves in about 2% parts of water at 60°
Fahr. ; its solubility is not increased by heat ;
it is slightly soluble in proof spirit ; insoluble
in alcohol; decrepitates when heated; fuses at
a red heat, and volatilises at a much higher
temperature.
Pur., &c. The common salt of commerce
contains small portions of chloride of mag-
nesium, chloride of calcium, and sulphate of
calcium ; and hence has commonly a slightly
bitter taste, and deliquesces in the air. To
separate these, dissolve the salt in 4 times its
weight of pure water, and drop into the fil-
tered solution, first, chloride of barium, and
then carbonate of sodium, as long as any pre-
cipitate falls; filter, and evaporate the clear
fluid very slowly, until the last crystallises,
which is pure chloride of sodium. (“Thom-
son’s Chem., ii, 377.) For medical purposes,
the Ph. E. orders the salt to be dissolved in
boiling water, and the solution to be filtered
and evaporated over the fire, skimming off the
crystals as they form, which must then be
quickly washed in cold water, and dried. A
solution of pure salt is not precipitated by a
solution of carbonate of ammonium, followed
by a solution of phosphate of sodium ; a solu-
tion of 9 grs. in distilled water is not entirely
precipitated by a solution of 26 grs. of nitrate
of silver. (Ph. E.)
Uses. Common salt is stimulant, anti-
septic, and vermifuge, and is hence em-
ployed as a condiment, and for preserving ani-
mal and vegetable substances. It is also oc-
casionally used in medicine, in clysters and
lotions.
Sodium, Iodide of. NaI. Syn. SODII IODI-
DUM. Prep. As IODIDE OF POTASSIUM. This,
as well as the bromide, crystallises in clear or
whitish cubes, deliquescent, and soluble in
water. Used in medicine, in the same manner
as the corresponding potassium salts.
Sodium, Hydrate of NaHO. Syn. HYDRATE
OF SODA, SODIUM HYDRATE, CAUSTIC SODA;
SoDE HYDRAs. Prep. Exactly in the same
manner from carbonate of sodium as potas-
sium hydrate is prepared from carbonate of
potassium.
Grayish, semi-translucent, deliquescent mas-
ses, very soluble in water, and bearing a very
great resemblance to the corresponding potas-
sium compound.
Sodium, Hypochlo"rite of. Syn. CHLoRI.
NATED SODA, CHLORIDE OF SODA: ; SoDA
CHLORINATA, L. Prep. (Dr. Christison.)
Dried carbonate of sodium, 19 parts, are tri-
turated with water, 1 part, and the mixture
placed in a proper vessel, and exposed to the
prolonged action of chlorine gas, generated
from a mixture of chloride of sodium, 10 parts;
binoxide of manganese, 8 parts ; sulphuric
acid, 14 parts; (diluted with) water, 10
parts.
Sodium, Hyposulphate of NašS303. Syn.
SoDAE HYPOSULPHIS, L. Prep. 1. Dried car-
1054
SODIUM.
bonate of sodium, 1 lb. ; flower of sulphur, 10
oz. ; mix, and slowly heat the powder in a
porcelain dish until the sulphur melts; stir
the fused mass freely to expose it to the atmo-
sphere, until the incandescence flags, then dis-
solve the mass in water, and immediately boil
the filtered liquid with some flowers of sulphur;
lastly, carefully concentrate the solution for
crystals. - -
2. A stream of well-washed sulphurous an-
hydride gas is passed into a strong solution of
carbonate of sodium, which is then digested
with sulphur at a gentle heat during several
days ; by evaporating the solution at a mode-
rate temperature, the salt is obtained in large
and regular crystals.
3. (Capaun's process.) Boil a dilute solu-
tion of caustic soda with sulphur to saturation,
then pass sulphurous acid gas into the solution
until a small portion, when filtered, is found
to have a very pale yellow colour; when this is
the case, it must be filtered and evaporated, as
before.
4. (P. Cod.) Dissolve carbonate of sodium,
8 parts, in water, 16 parts; add of sublimed
sulphur, 1 part, and pass sulphurous acid gas,
in excess, into the solution ; next boil the
liquid in a glass matrass for a few minutes,
filter, gently evaporate the filtrate to 1-3rd
its volume, and set it aside in a cool place to
crystallise. .
Prop., &c. Hyposulphite of sodium crystal-
lises in four-sided prisms, which, in the dry
state, are unalterable in the air ; it is freely
soluble in water. It may be perfectly freed
from sulphide of sodium by agitating it with
about half its weight of alcohol ; the alcohol
dissolves out the sulphide, which may then be
easily separated. This salt is now very exten-
sively used in the practice of photography, also
as an ‘antichlore,' to extract the last traces
from paper pulp.
Sodium, Niſtrate of NaNO3. Syn. CHILI
SALTPETRE, CUBIC NITRE ; SODAE NITRAs, L.
This salt occurs native like ordinary nitre, and
is chiefly imported into England from South
America. It is largely employed as a manure,
in the preparation of nitric acid, and, recently,
in the manufacture of fireworks, on account of
the comparative slowness with which it burns.
It is deliquescent and very soluble in water.
Sodium, Oxide of Na2O. Syn. ANHYDROUS
SODA. Prep. By burning dry metallic sodium
in air. White powder, very deliquescent, and
soluble in water, forming pure sodium
hydrate.
Sodium, Phosphate of Na,FIPO. , 12Aq.
Syn. COMMON TRIBASIC PHOSPHATE of SoDA,
RHOMBIC P. OF S.; SoDE PHOSPHAs (B. P., Ph.
L. E. & D.). Prep. 1. (Ph. E.) Take of
powdered bone ashes, 10 lbs. ; sulphuric acid,
44 fl. oz. ; mix, add gradually of water, 6 pints,
and digest for 3 days, replacing the water
which evaporates; then add 6 pints of boil-
ing water, strain through limen, and wash the
residue on the filter with boiling water ; mix
the liquors, and, after defecation, decant and
evaporate to 6 pints; let the impurities again
settle, and neutralise the clear fluid, heated
to boiling, with a solution of carbonate of
sodium in slight excess; crystals will be depo-
sited as the solution cools, and by successively
evaporating, adding a little more carbonate of
sodium to the mother-liquor till it is feebly
alkaline, and cooling, more crystals may be
obtained; these must be kept in closed vessels.
The formula of the Ph.D. is nearly similar.
It is placed in the Materia Medica of the B. P.
& Ph. L.
2. (Funcke.) To ground calcined bones,
diffused through water, add a little dilute sul-
phuric acid to saturate any carbonate of cal-
cium present; when effervescence ceases, dis-
solve the whole in nitric acid, q. s. ; to this
solution add as much sulphate of sodium as the
bone ash used, and distil the whole to recover
the nitric acid ; the residuum is treated with
water, and the resulting solution filtered, eva-
porated, and crystallised.
Prop., &c. It forms very beautiful oblique
rhomic prisms, of the formulae Na,FI, PO1,
12H2O, which effloresce in the air, dissolve in
about 4 parts of cold water and in 2 parts at
212° Fahr., and fuse when heated. As a medi-
cine, it is mildly aperient, in doses of # to 1
oz., or even more; and antacid in doses of 20
to 30 grs., frequently repeated. It has a
purely saline taste, resembling that of culi-
mary salt, and is commonly taken in broth or
Soup. -
Sodium, Stan'mate of NassmOa. Prep. (Green-
wood & Co.) Caustic soda, 22 lbs., is heated to
low redness in an iron crucible, when nitrate
of sodium, 8 lbs., and common salt, 4 lbs., are
added; when the mixture is at a “fluxing
heat,” 10 lbs. of feathered block tin is stirred
in with an iron rod, both the stirring and heat
being continued until the mass becomes red
hot and “pasty,” and ammoniacal fumes are
given off. The product may be purified by
solution and crystallisation. Patented. (See
below.)
Sodium, Stan'nite of Prep. (Greenwood
& Co.) From caustic soda, 13% lbs.; feathered
block tin and common salt, of each, 4 lbs. ;
as the last. Patented. Both the above are
vsed to prepare tin mordants (about 12 oz. to
water, 1 gal). The stannate and stannite of
potassium are prepared in a similar man-
Ile1’.
Sodium, Sulphate of NaşSO4.10Aq. Syn.
GLAUBER's SALT; SODE SULPHAs (B. P., Ph.
L. E. & D.), SAL CATHARTICUS GLAUBERIf, L.
This is obtained as a secondary product in
various chemical processes; but it may be
easily formed directly from its constituents.
Prop., &c. It forms transparent, six-sided,
irregular, channelled prisms, with dihedral
summits, of the formulae Na;SO,10H2O, which
effloresce in the air, and fall to an opaque
white powder; soluble in about 3 parts of
water at 60°, and in considerably less at 100°


SOILS.
1055
Fahr., but at a higher temperature its solu-
bility rapidly lessens; insoluble in alcohol;
fuses when heated. It is seldom wilfully
adulterated. When pure, the solution is neu-
tral to test paper; nitrate of silver throws
down scarcely anything from a dilute solution;
mitrate of baryta more, which is not dissolved
by nitric acid. It loses 55.5% of its weight by
a strong heat. -
Uses. It is purgative, but, being extremely
bitter-tasted, is now less frequently used than
formerly. Its nauseous flavour is said to be
covered by lemon juice.—Dose. # to 1 oz. The
dried salt (SODAE SULPHAS EXSICCATA) is twice
as strong. LYMINGTON GLAUBER's SALT is
a mixture of the sulphates of soda and
potassa obtained from the mother-liquor of sea-
salt.
Sodium, Sulphide of Prep. (P. Cod.)
Saturate a solution of caustic soda (sp. gr.
1200) with sulphuretted hydrogen, closely
cover up the vessel, and set it aside that crystals
may form; drain, press them in bibulous paper,
and at once preserve them in a well-closed
bottle. Used to make mineral waters, and in
certain skin diseases.
The anhydrous sulphides resembles closely
and are prepared in the same manner as the
potassium sulphides.
Sodium, Tartrate of, and Potassium.
KNaCH4O6.4Aq. Syn. TARTRATE OF POTASSA
AND SODA, ROCHELLE SALT, SEIGNETTE's S.,
TARTARISED SODAf; SODAE TARTARATA (B.P.),
SoDE POTASSIO-TARTRAS (Ph. L.), SoDE ET
POTASSAE TARTRAS (Ph. E. & D.), SODA TAR-
TARIZATA+, L. Prep. (Ph. L. 1836.) Take
of carbonate of sodium, 12 oz.; boiling water, 2
quarts; dissolve, and add, gradually, of pow-
dered bitartrate of potassium, 16 oz. (or q. s.);
strain, evaporate to a pellicle, and set it aside
to crystallise; dry the resulting crystals, and
evaporate the mother-liquor that it may yield
more of them. The formulae of the other Col-
leges are nearly similar.
Prop., &c. Large, transparent, hard, right
rhombic prisms, often occurring in halves;
slightly efflorescent; soluble in 5 parts of water
at 60° Fahr. Its “solution neither changes
the colour of litmus nor of turmeric. On the
addition of sulphuric acid, bitartrate of potas-
sium is thrown down ; on adding either nitrate
of silver or chloride of barium nothing is thrown
down, or only what is redissolved by the addi-
tion of water.” (Ph. L.) By heat it yields a
mixture of the pure carbonates of potassium
and sodium.
Potassio-tartrate of sodium is a mild and
cooling laxative.—Dose. # to 1 oz., largely
diluted with water. It forms the basis of the
popular aperient called SEIDLITZ POWDERS.
Sodium, Wale"rianate of NaC5H8O2. Syn.
SoDEVALERIANAS (Ph.D.), L. Prep. (Ph.D.)
Dilute oil of vitriol, 6; fl. oz., with water, ,
pint ; then dissolve of powdered bichromate of
potassium, 9 oz., with the aid of heat, in
water, 3% pints; when both solutions have
cooled, put them into a matrass, and having
added of fusel oil (alcohol amylicum—Ph.D.),
4 fl. oz., shake them together repeatedly until
the temperature, which first rises to 150°,
has fallen to 80° or 90° Fahr. ; a condenser
being connected, next apply heat so as to distil
over about 4 pints of liquid ; saturate this
exactly with a pint, or q. S., of solution of
caustic soda, separate the liquid from the oil
which floats upon the surface, and evaporate
it until the residual salt is partially liquefied;
the heat being now withdrawn, and the salt
concreted, this last, whilst still warm, is to be
divided into fragments, and preserved in well-
stopped bottles.
Obs. This salt, is intended to be used in the
preparation of the VALERIANATES OF IRON,
QUININE, and ZINC.
SOILS. These are classified by agriculturists
according to their chief ingredients; as loamy,
clayey, sandy, chalky, and peaty soils. Of these
the first is the best for most purposes, but the
others may be improved by the addition of the
mineral constituents of which they are defi-
cient. Sand and lime or chalk are the proper
additions to clayey soils, and clay, gypsum, or
loam, to sandy and gravelly ones. Clayey soils
are expensive to bring into a fertile state; but
when this is once effected, and they are well
manured, they yield immense crops of wheat,
oats, beans, clover, and most fruits and flowers
of the rosaceous kinds.
The fertilisation of soils is suggested partly
by chemical analysis, practical experience, and
geological observations. In cases where a
barren soil is examined with a view to its
improvement, it is, when possible, compared
with an extremely fertile soil in the same
neighbourhood, and in a similar situation; the
difference given by their analyses indicates the
nature of the manure required, and the most
judicious methods of cultivation; and thus a
plan of improvement is suggested, founded
upon scientific principles.
The analysis of soils may be briefly and
generally described as follows:–
1. The general character of the soil, as
loamy, sandy, stoney, rather stoney, &c., being
noted, 3 or 4 lbs. of it, fairly selected as an
average specimen, may be taken during a
period of ordinary dry weather. From this,
after crushing or bruising the lumps with a
piece of wood, all stones of a larger size than
that of a filbert may be picked out, and their
proportion to the whole quantity duly re-
gistered.
2. 1000 grs. of the remainder may be next -
dried by the heat of boiling water, until the
mass ceases to lose weight; and, afterwards,
exposed to a moist atmosphere for some time.
The loss of weight in the first case, and the in-
crease of weight in the second, indicate the
absorbent powers of the soil.
3. The matter from No. 2, freed from sili-
ceous stones by garbling, may be gradually
heated to dull redness in a shallow open vessel,
1056
SOLANINE–SOLUTION.
-
avoiding waste from decrepitation, &c. The
loss of weight, divided by 10, gives the per-
centage quantity of vegetable or organic
matter present (nearly).
4. Another 1000 grs. (see No. 1) may be
next washed with successive portions of cold
water as long as anything is removed. The
residuum, after being dried, indicates the pro-
portion of sand and gravel (nearly).
5. Another portion of the soil (100, 200, or
more grs., according to its character) is tested
in the manner described under CARBONATE
and ALKALIMETRY. The loss of weight in
carbonic acid indicates the quantity of car-
bonate of lime present in the sample examined;
22 grs. of the former being equal to 50 grs. of
the latter.
6. Another like portion of the soil may be
gently boiled for 4 or 5 hours, along with
dilute hydrochloric acid, in a flask furnished
with a long glass tube passing through the
cork, to prevent loss (see ETHER); after that
time the whole must be thrown upon a filter,
and what refuses to pass through (silica)
washed with distilled water, dried, ignited,
and weighed.
7. The filtrate and washings from No. 6 are
next successively treated for alumina (pure
clay), lime, phosphate of lime, phosphoric
acid, oxide of iron, alkalies (potassa or soda),
ammonia (both ready formed and latent),
&c. &c., in the manner noticed under GLASS,
GUANO, and the names of the respective sub-
stances referred to. See AGRICULTURE, MA-
NURES, &c.
SOL'ANINE. Syn. SoTANIA, SOLANINA, L.
A peculiar basic substance, obtained from the
leaves and stem of Solanum Dulcamara, or
bitter-sweet, and other species of the So-
lanacea.
SQL/DERING. The union of metallic sur-
faces by means of a more fusible metal fluxed
between them. The method of autogenous
soldering, invented by M. De Richmont, is an
exception to this definition. In all cases the
surfaces must be perfectly clean, and in abso-
lute contact, and the air must be excluded, to
prevent oxidation. For this last purpose the
brazier and silversmith use powdered borax
made into a paste with water; the copper-
Smith, powdered sal ammoniac; and the tin-
man, powdered resin. Tin-foil applied between
the joints of fine brass work, first wetted with
a strong solution of sal ammoniac, makes an
excellent juncture, care being taken to avoid
too much heat. See SoLUTION (Soldering),
and below.
SOLDERS. Prep. 1. (For copper, iron,
and dark brass.) From copper and zinc, equal
parts; melted together. For pale brass more
zinc must be used.
2. (Fine solder.) From tin, 2 parts; lead,
1 part. Melts at 350° Fahr. Used to tin and
solder copper, tin plates, &c.
3. (For German silver.) From German
silver, 5 parts; zinc, 4 parts; melted together,
fish.
run into thin flakes, and then powdered. Also
as No. 7.
4. (Glazier's.) From lead, 3 parts; tin,
1 part. Melts at 500°Fahr.
5. (For gold.) Gold, 12 pennyweights;
copper, 4 do. ; silver, 2 do.
6. (For lead and zinc.) From lead, 2 parts; .
tin, 1 part.
7. (For pewter, Britannia metal, &c.) From
tin, 10 parts; lead, 5 parts; bismuth, 1 to 3
parts.
8. (For silver.) From fine brass, 6 parts;
silver, 5 parts; zinc, 2 parts.
9. (For tin plate.) From tin, 2 parts;
lead, 1 part. The addition of bismuth, 1 part,
renders it fit for pewter.
S0LE. The Solea vulgaris, a well-known
It is perhaps more frequently eaten
than any other flat fish, and, when skilfully
cooked, exceeds them all in delicacy, nutri-
tiousness, and flavour.
SOLUTION. Syn. SoTUTIO, L. Under the
head of solutions (SOLUTIONES), in pharmacy,
are properly included only those liquids which
consist of water, or an aqueous menstruum, in
which has been dissolved an appropriate
quantity of any soluble substance to impart to
the liquor its peculiar properties. When
spirit is the menstruum, the liquid receives
the name of alcoholic solution, spirit, or tinc-
ture. In the B. P. and the Ph. L. & 1).
aqueous solutions are named LIQUORS (II-
QUOREs); whilst in the Ph. E., and in the old
Pharmacopoeias generally, they are termed
WATERs (AQUAE).
The following list embraces all the solutions
of the British pharmacopoeias, with a few
others likely to be useful to the reader. Some
other preparations to which the name has
been given will be found under LIQUORS,
TINCTURES, &c.
Solution of Ac'etate of Ammo"nia. Syn.
LIQUOR OF ACETATE OF AMMONIA, WATER
OF A. OF A., MINDERERUs’ SPIRIT; AM-
MONIE ACETATIS LIQUOR (B.P.), LIQUOR AM-
MONIAE ACETATIS (Ph. L. & D.), AMMONIE
ACETATIS AQUA (Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph.
L.) From dilute acetic acid, 1 pint; exactly
neutralised by sesquicarbonate of ammonia (in
coarse powder), 9 drs., or q. s. Sp. gr. 1022.
2. (Ph. E.) Distilled vinegar (preferably
from French vinegar), sp. gr. 1:005, 24 fl. oz. ;
carbonate (sesquicarbonate) of ammonia, 1 oz.,
or q. S. Sp. gr. 1011.
3. (Ph. D.) Sesquicarbonate of ammonia,
2% oz. ; dilute acetic acid, 3 pints. Sp. gr.
1°012.
4. (B. P.) Carbonate of ammonia, 3}, or
sufficient; acetic acid (28 per cent.), 10; dis-
tilled water, 50. Dissolve the carbonate in the
acid, and add the water.
Prop., &c. Free from colour and odour.
It changes the colour neither of litmus nor
turmeric. Sulphuretted hydrogen being
dropped in, it is not discoloured, neither is
anything thrown down on the addition of


SOLUTION.
1057.
chloride of barium. What is precipitated by
nitrate of silver is soluble in water, but espe-
cially so in nitric acid. Potassa being added,
it emits ammonia; and sulphuric acid being
added, it gives off acetic vapours. The fluid
being evaporated, what remains is completely
destroyed by heat.
Uses, &c. Solution of acetate of ammonia
is a very common and excellent febrifuge and
diaphoretic, and, in large doses, aperient saline
liquor. Taken warm, in bed, it generally
proves a powerful sudorific; and as it operates
without heat, it is much used in febrile and
inflammatory disorders. Its action may like-
wise be determined to the kidneys, by walking
about in the cold air.—Dose. 2 to 6 drs.,
twice or thrice daily, either by itself or along
with other medicines. Eaternally, as a dis-
cutient and refrigerant lotion; and diluted
(1 oz. to 9 oz. of water), as a collyrium in
chronic ophthalmia. For this last purpose it
must be free from excess of ammonia.
5. (Concentrated.) Saturate acetic acid,
sp. gr. 1-038, 3 gal., with carbonate of am-
monia (in powder), 2% lbs., or q. S.; carefully
avoiding excess.
Obs. This article is in great demand in the
wholesale drug trade, under the name of
‘concentrated liquor of acetate of ammonia’
(LIQ. AMMON. ACET. CONC.). It is very con-
venient for dispensing. 1 fl. dr. added to
7 fl. drs. of water forms the LIQUOR AMMONIAE
ACETATIS of the Ph. L.
Solution of Acetate of Lead. See SOLUTION
OF DIACETATE OF LEAD.
Solution of Acetate of Morphia. Syn. LI-
QUOR MORPHIAE ACETATIS (B. P., Ph. L. & D.),
L. Prep. 1 (Ph. L.) Acetate of morphia,
4 drs.; acetic acid, 15 drops; distilled water,
1 pint; proof spirit, # pint ; mix, and dissolve.
60 drops (minims) contain 1 gr. of acetate of
morphia.--Dose. 5 to 15 or 20 drops.
2. (B. P.) Acetate of morphia, 4 grs. ;
diluted acetic acid, 8 minims; rectified spirit,
2 drs. ; distilled water, 6 drs. ; dissolve in the
mixed liquids.--Dose. 10 to 60 minims.
3. (Ph. D.) Acetate of morphia, 82 grs.;
rectified spirit, 5 fl. oz. ; distilled water, 15
fl. oz. 120 drops (minims) contain 1 gr. of
the acetate.—Dose. 10 to 45 or 50 drops, or
similar to that of tincture of opium.
4. (Magendie.) Each fl. dr. contains 1% gr.
of acetate (nearly).--Dose. 5 to 15 drops.
Anodyne, hypnotic, and narcotic; in those
cases in which opium is inadmissible. See
MORPHIA.
Solution of Al'um (Compound). Syn. BATE's
ALUM WATER ; LIQUOR ALUMINIS COMPOSITUS
(Ph. L.), AQUA ALUMINOSA COMPOSITA+, L.
Prep. (Ph. L.) Alum and sulphate of zinc,
of each, 1 oz. ; boiling water, 3 pints; dissolve,
and filter (if necessary). Detergent and
astringent. Used as a lotion for old ulcers,
chilblains, excoriations, &c.; and, largely di-
luted with water, as an eye-wash and injec-
tion.
Solution of Ammo"nia. See LIQUOR OF
AMMONIA.
Solution of Ammo"mio-miſtrate of Silver.
Sym. HUME's TEST; SOLUTIO ARGENTI AM-
MoRIATI (Ph. E.), L. Prep. (Ph. E.) Nitrate
of silver (pure crystallised), 44 grs. ; distilled
water, 1 fl. oz. ; dissolve, and add ammonia
water, gradually, until the precipitate, at first
thrown down, is very nearly, but not entirely,
redissolved. Used as a test for arsenic.
Solution of Ammo"nio-sulphate of Copper.
Syn. LIQUOR CUPRI AMMONIO-SUIPHATIS
(Ph. L.), CUPRI AMMONIATI solutio (Ph. E.),
C. A. AQUA, L. Prep. (Ph. L.) Ammonio-
sulphate of copper, 1 dr.; water, 1 pint; dis-
solve, and filter. Stimulant and detergent.
Applied to indolent ulcers, and, when largely
diluted, to remove specks on the cornea; also
used as a test for arsenic.
Solution for Anatomſical Preparations, &c.
Syn. ANTISEPTIC SOLUTION. Prep. 1. Nearly
saturate water with sulphurous acid, and add
a little creasote. -
2. Dissolve chloride of tin, 4 parts, in water,
100 parts, to which 3% of hydrochloric acid
has been added.
3. Dissolve corrosive sublimate, 1 part, and
chloride of sodium, 3 parts, in water, 100
parts, to which 2% of hydrochloric acid has been
added.
4. Mix liquor of ammonia (strong) with 3
times its weight (each) of water and rectified
spirit.
5. Sal ammoniac, 1 part; water, 10 or 11
parts. For muscular parts of animals.
6. Sulphate of zinc, 1 part; water, 15 to 25
parts. For muscles, integuments, and cerebral
Imas SeS.
7. (Dr. Babington.) Wood naphtha, 1 part;
water, 7 parts; or wood naphtha undiluted, as
an injection.
8. (Sir W. Burnett.) Concentrated solution
of chloride of zinc, 1 lb.; water, 1 gal. The
substances are immersed in the solution for 2
to 4 days, and then dried in the air.
9. (Gannal.) Alum and culinary salt, of
each, 3 lb.; nitre, 3 lb.; water, 1 gal.
10. (Goadsby.)—a. From bay salt, 2 oz. ;
alum, 1 oz. ; bichloride of mercury, 1 gr. ;
water, 1 pint. For ordinary purposes.
b. To the last add of bichloride of mercury,
1 gr.; water, 1 pint. For very tender tissues,
and where there is a tendency to mouldiness.
c. From bay salt, 3 lb. ; bichloride of mer-
cury, 1 gr. ; water, 1 pint. For subjects con-
taining carbonate of lime.
d. From bay (salt, # lb.; arsenious acid,
10 grs.; water, 1 pint; dissolve by heat. For
old preparations.
e. To the last add of bichloride of mercury,
1 gr. As the last, when there is a tendency to
the softening of parts; and, diluted, for mol-
lusca. These solutions are approved of by
Prof. Owen.
11. (M. Réboulet.) Nitre, 1 part; alum,
2 parts; chloride of lime, 4 parts; * 16

1058
SOLUTION. -
or 20 parts; to be afterwards diluted accord-
ing to circumstances. For pathological speci-
InellS.
12. (Dr. Stapleton.) Alum, 2% oz. ; nitre,
1 dr. ; water, 1 quart. For pathological speci-
Imens.
13. (For FEATHERS–Beasley.) Strychnia,
16 grs.; rectified spirit, 1 pint.
Obs. These fluids are used for preserving
ANATOMICAL PREPARATIONS, OBJECTS OF NA-
TURAL HISTORY, &c., by immersing them there-
in, in close vessels; or, for temporary purposes,
applying them by means of a brush or piece
of rag. The presence of corrosive sublimate
is apt to render animal substances very hard.
See PUTREFACTION.
Solution, Antiseptic. See above.
Solution, Arsenical. Syn. MINERAL SOLU-
TION ; SOLUTIO ARSENICALIS, SOLUTIO MINE-
RALIS, L. Prep. 1. (Devergie.) As SOLU-
TION OF ARSENITE OF POTASSA, Ph. L., but of
only 1-50th the strength, and flavoured with
compound spirit of balm, and coloured to a
deep rose with cochineal.
2. (Pearson.) Arseniate of soda, 4 grs. ;
water, 4 fl. oz. ; dissolve.—1}ose. 10 to 30
drops during the day. (See below.)
Solution of Arse"mious Acid.
DROPS and ARSENIOUS ACID.
Solution of Ar’semite of Potas'sa. Syn.
FOWLER’s MINERAL SOLUTION ; LIQUOR PO-
TASSA, ABSENITIS (Ph. L.), LIQUOR ARSENI-
CALIS (B. P., Ph. E. D. & U. S.), L. Prep.
(B. P., Ph. L. & E.) Arsenious acid, coarsely
powdered, and carbonate of potassa, of each,
80 grs. ; distilled water, 1 pint ; boil until dis-
solved, and add, to the cold solution, compound
tincture of lavender, 5 fl. drs. ; water, q. S. to
make the whole exactly measure a pint. Tonic,
antiperiodic, and alterative. — Dose. 4 or 5
drops, gradually and cautiously increased; in
agues and various scaly skin diseases. It is
preferably taken soon after a meal. See AR-
SENIOUS ACID, &c.
Solution of Atropia. Syn. LIQUOR ATRO-
PIAE (B. P.). Prep. Atropia, 4 grs.; rectified
spirit, 1 dr.; dissolve and add water, 7 drs.;
mix.-Dose. 1 minim. -
Solution of Bismuth and Citrate of Ammonia.
Syn. LIQUOR BISMUTHIET AMMONIE CITRATIS
(B. P.). Purified bismuth, 1; nitric acid, 2;
citric acid, 2; solution of ammonia, a sufficiency;
mix the nitric acid with an ounce of distilled
water, and add the bismuth in successive por-
tions. When effervescence has ceased, apply for
ten minutes a heat approaching that of ebulli-
tion, and decant the solution from any insoluble
matter. Evaporate the solution until it is re-
duced to 2, then add the citric acid previously
dissolved in 4 of distilled water, and after-
wards the solution of ammonia in small quan-
tities at a time, until the precipitate formed is
See AGUE
redissolved, and the solution is neutral or (
slightly alkaline to test paper; dilute with dis-
tilled water to the volume of 20.--Dose. # to
1 dr.
-
Solution, Brandish's. See SOLUTION OF
POTASSA.
Solution, Burnett's. A solution of chloride
of zinc. See SOLUTION FOR ANATOMICAL
PREPARATIONS (above), also DISINFECTING
CoMPOUNDS.
Solution of Car"bonate of Ammo"nia. Syn.
SOLUTION OF SESQUICARBONATE OF AMMONIA,
CARBONATE OF AMMONIA WATER ; LIQUOR
AMMONIAE SESQUICARBONATIS (Ph. L.), AQUA
AMMONIAE CARBONATIS (Ph. E.). Prep. (Ph.
L. & E.) Sesquicarbonate of ammonia, 4 oz.:
distilled water, 1 pint; dissolve. Stimulant
and antacid, Dose. # to 1 fl. dr., in water.
Solution of Carbonate of Magnesia. Syn.
LIQUOR MAGNESIAE CARBONATIS (B. P.). Pre-
pared by impregnating water with carbonic
anhydride under pressure, in which freshly
precipitated carbonate of magnesia is sus-
pended. Dose. 1 to 2 oz.
Solution of Carbonate of Potas'sa. Syn.
OIL OF TARTAR+, WATER OF SUBCARBONATE
OF POTASH+ ; LIQUOR POTASSE CARBONATIS,
Ph. L. & D.), L. P. SUBCARBONATISf, L.
Prep. (Ph. L.) Carbonate of potassa, 20 oz.
(10 oz.-Ph. D.); water, 1 pint; dissolve and
filter (or decant). Sp. gr.—Ph. L., 1473;
Ph. D., 1:310. Dose. 10 drops to 1 dr., as an
antacid, &c. -
Solution of Carboriate of Soda. Syn. SUB-
CARBONATE OF SODA WATER+ ; SODE CARBO-
NATIS LIQUOR (Ph. D.), L. Prep. (Ph. D.)
Carbonate of soda (in crystals) 1% oz. ; distilled
water, 1 pint. Sp. gr. 1:026.--Dose. # to 1%.
fl. OZ, as an antacid; in heartburn, dyspepsia,
&c.
Solution of Chloride of Antimony. Syn.
ANTIMONII CHLORIDI IIQUOR (B.P.). Prep.
Dissolve black sulphide of antimony in boiling
hydrochloric acid. Used as an escharotic, and
in the preparation of oxide of antimony.
Solution of Chlo"ride of Ar’semic. Syn.
LIQUOR ARSENICI HYDROCHLORICUs (B. P.),
LIQUOR ARSENICI CHLORIDI (Ph. L), L. Prep.
1. (Ph. L.) Arsenious acid (in coarse powder),
# dr. ; hydrochloric acid, 1}; fl. dr. ; distilled
water, 1 fl. oz. ; boil until the solution of the
arsenious acid is complete, and, when cold,
add enough distilled water to make the whole
exactly measure a pint-Dose, 4 to 5 drops.
2. (B. P.) Arsenious acid, 80 grs.; hydro-
chloric acid, 2 drs. ; distilled water, 20 oz.;
boil the two acids with 4 oz. of the water until
a solution is effected, then add sufficient dis-
tilled water to make up 20 oz.--Dose. 2 to 8
minims.
Solution of Chloride of Ba'rium. Syn. S0-
LUTION OF MURIATE OF BARYTAf; LIQUOR
BARII CHLORIDI (Ph. L. & D.), SOLUTIO BA-
RYTAE MURIATIS (Ph. E.), L. Prep. (Ph. L.
& E.) Dissolve chloride of barium, 1 dr.
(1 oz.-Ph. D.), in water, 1 fl. Oz. (8 OZ.
Ph. D.), and filter the solution. Sp. gr.
(Ph. D.) 1:088-Dose. 5 drops, gradually in-
creased to 10 or 12, twice or thrice daily; in
scrofula, scirrhous affections, and worms ; eº-
* - SOLUTION.
iO59
allow the product to cool.
ternally, largely diluted, as a lotion in scrofu-
lous ophthalmia.
Solution of Chloride of Cal'cium. Syn. So-
LUTION OF MURIATE OF LIME: ; CALCII
CHLORIDI LIQUOR (Ph. D.), CALCIS MURIATIS
solutio (Ph. E.). Prep. 1. (Ph. L. 1836.)
Fused chloride of calcium, 4 oz. (crystals, 8 oz.
—Ph. E.); water, 12 fl. oz, ; dissolve, and
filter.
2. (Ph. D.) Fused chloride of calcium,
3 oz. ; water, 12 oz. Sp. gr. 1225.-Dose.
10 drops to 1 dr., or more; in scrofulous and
glandular diseases, &c.
Solution of Chloride of Zinc, Syn. LIQUOR
ZINCI CHLORIDI (B. P.). Prep. Granulated
zinc, 8 ; hydrochloric acid, 22; solution of
chlorine, q. s. ; carbonate of zinc, #; distilled
water, 10. Mix the acid and water in a por-
celain dish," add the zinc, and apply a gentle
heat to promote the action until gas is no
longer evolved; boil for half an hour, sup-
plying the water lost by evaporation, and
Filter it into a
bottle, and add solution of chlorine by degrees,
with frequent agitation, until a brown sedi-
ment appears. Filter the liquid into a porce-
lain basin, and evaporate until it is reduced to
the bulk of 20.
Solution of Chlo"rimated Lime. Syn. BLEACH-
ING LIQUID, SOLUTION OF CHLORIDE OF LIMEſ,
L. OF HYPOCHLORITE OF LIME; SOLUTIO CALCIS
HYPOCHLORIS, S. CALCIS CHLORIDI, CALCIS
CHLORINATE LIQUOR (Ph.D.), L. Prep. 1.
(Ph.D.) Chlorinated lime (“chloride of lime'),
# lb.; water, gal. ; triturate them together,
then transfer the mixture to a stoppered
bottle, and shake it repeatedly for the space
of 3 hours; lastly, filter through calico, and
preserve it in a well-stopped bottle.
2. Chloride of lime (dry and good, and
rubbed to fine powder), 9 lbs. ; tepid water,
6 galls. ; mix in a stoneware bottle capable of
holding 8 galls., agitate frequently for a day or
two, and, after 2 or 3 days’ repose, decant the
clear portion, and keep it in well-corked
bottles, in a cool situation. If filtered, it
should be done as rapidly as possible, and only
through coarsely powdered glass in a covered
vessel.
Obs. The last is the usual strength sold in
trade, under various attractive names, to give
it importance. It is used as a disinfectant,
bleacher, and fumigation; and, diluted with
water, as a lotion, injection, or collyrium, in
several diseases. See HYPoCHLORITE of CAL-
CIUM.
Solution of Chlorimated Potas'sa. Syn. So-
LUTION OF CHLORIDE OF POTASHi, S. OF HY-
POCHIORITE OF POTASSA, JAVELLE's BLEACH-
ING LIQUID ; SOLUTIO POTASSAE HYPOCHLORIS,
LIQUOR POTASSE CHLORIDI, L. POTASSAE
CHLORINATE, L.; EAU DE JAVELLE, Fr.
Prep. 1. Dissolve carbonate of potassa, 1 part,
in water, 10 parts, and pass chlorine gas
through the solution to saturation.
2. Chloride of lime (dry and good), 1 part;
water, 15 parts; agitate them together for
an hour; next dissolve of carbonate of potassa,
2 oz., in water, 4 pint; mix the two solutions,
and after a time either decant or filter. Uses,
&c., as the last.
Solution of Chlorinated Soda. Syn. SOLU-
TION OF CHLORIDE OF sold.A., S. OF HYPo-
CHLORITE OF SODA, LABARRAQUE's DISIN-
FECTING LIQUID ; SOLUTIO SODE. HYPO-
CHLORIs, HYPOCHLORIS SODICUS AQUA so-
LUTUs (P. Cod.), LIQUOR SoDE CHLORINATE
(Ph. L. & D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.), Car-
bonate of soda (in crystals), 1 lb.; water, 1
quart; dissolve, and pass through the solution
the chlorine evolved from a mixture of com-
mon salt, 4 oz. ; binoxide of manganese, 3 oz. ;
sulphuric acid, 2} fl. oz. (4 oz.-Ph. L. 1836);
diluted with water, 3 fl.oz. ; placed in a retort,
heat being applied to promote the action, and
the gas being purified by passing through
5 fl. oz. of water before it enters the alkaline
solution.
2. (Ph. D.) Chlorinated lime, 3 lb., and
water, 3 pints, are triturated together in a
marble mortar, after which the mixture is
transferred to a stoppered bottle, agitated fre-
quently during three hours, and then filtered
through calico; in the mean time carbonate of
soda (cryst.), 7 oz., is dissolved in water.
1 pint; the two solutions are next mixed, and,
after agitation for about 10 minutes, the whole
is filtered as before. The filtrate is to be pre-
served in a well-stopped bottle.
Obs. This solution is used as an antiseptic,
disinfectant, and bleaching liquid.—Dose. 20
to 30 drops, in any bland fluid, in scarlet
fever, sore throat, &c.; it is also made into a
lotion, gargle, injection, and eye-water. Meat
in a nearly putrid state, unfit for food, is im-
mediately restored by washing or immersion
in this liquid.
Solution of Chlo"rime. Syn. CHLORINE
WATER ; SOLUTIO CHLORINII, LIQUOR CHLO-
RINI (Ph. L. & D.), CHLORINEI AQUA (Ph. E.),
L. Prep. 1. (Ph.L.) On binoxide of man-
ganese (in powder), 2 drs., placed in a retort,
pour hydrochloric acid, 1 fl. oz., and pass the
chlorine into distilled water, 3 pint, until it
ceases to be evolved.
2. (Ph. E.) Muriate of soda (common salt),
60 grs.; red oxide of lead, 350 grs. ; triturate
them together, and put them into 8 fl. oz. of
distilled water, contained in a stoppered bottle;
then add of sulphuric acid, 2 fl. drs.; and
having replaced the stopper, agitate the
whole, occasionally, until the oxide of lead
turns white ; lastly, after subsidence, pour
off the clear liquid into another stoppered
bottle.
3. (Ph. D.) Introduce into a gas bottle
peroxide of manganese (in fine powder), 3 oz. ;
add of hydrochloric acid, 3 fl.oz. (diluted with),
water, 2 fl. oz.; apply a gentle heat, and cause
the evolved gas to pass through water, 2 fl.oz.,
and then into a 3-pint bottle containing dis-
tilled water, 20 fl. oz., and whose mouth is


1060
SOLUTION. …
loosely plugged with tow; when the air has
been entirely displaced by the chlorine, cork
the bottle loosely, and shake it until the
chlorine is absorbed; it should now be trans-
ferred to a pint stoppered bottle, and preserved
in a dark and cool place.
Prop., &c. Irritant and acrid, but, when
largely diluted, stimulant and antiseptic.—
Dose. # to 2 fl. dr., in # pint of water, sweet-
ened with a little sugar, in divided doses,
during the day; in scarlatina, malignant sore
throat, &c. On the large scale, liquid chlo-
rine may be procured by passing the gas ob-
tained by any of the methods named under
CHLORINE, into water, until it will absorb no
1m0re.
Solution of Cit'rate of Ammo"nia. Syn.
LIQUOR AMMONIE CITRATIS (B. P., Ph. L.), L.
Prep. (Ph. L.) Dissolve citric acid, 3 oz., in
distilled water, 1 pint; and to the solution add
of sesquicarbonate of ammonia (in powder), 2%
oz., or q. S. to exactly neutralise the liquor
— Dose. 2 to 6 fl. drs.
Solution of Citrate of Magne'sia. Syn. So-
LUTIO MAGNESIAE CITRATIs, L. See page 729.
Solution of Citrate of Morphia. Syn.
LIQUOR MORPHIAE CITRATIS, SOLUTIO M. C.,
L. Prep. (Magendie.) Pure morphia, 13 grs. ;
citric acid, 8 or 10 grs. ; water, 1.fl. Oz. ; tinc-
ture of cochineal, 2 fl. drs.--Dose. 3 to 12 drops.
Solution of Copaiſba. See SPECIFIC SoLUTION.
Solution of Corro'sive Sub'limate. Syn.
SOLUTION OF CHLORIDE OF MERCURY ; LIQUOR
HYDRARGYRI BICHLORIDI+ (Ph. L.). Prep.
1. (Ph. L.) Corrosive sublimate and sal am-
moniac, of each, 10 grs. ; water, 1 pint ; dis-
solve.—Dose. As an alterative, 10 to 30 drops;
as an antisyphilitic, # to 2 fl. dr.s., in simple or
sweetened water. It must not be allowed to
touch anything metallic. It also forms a most
useful lotion in various skin diseases.
2. See MERCURIAL IOTIONS.
Solution of Diac'etate of Lead. See SoLU-
TION OF SUBACETATE OF LEAD.
Solution, Donovan's. See SOLUTION OF HY-
DRIODATE OF ARSENIC AND MERCURY (below).
Solution, Escharotic (Freyburg’s). Syn.
SoLUTIO ESCHAROTICA, L. Prep. From cam-
phor, 30 grs. ; corrosive sublimate, 60 to 100
grs. ; rectified spirit, 1 fl. oz, ; dissolve. In
syphilitic vegetations, and specially condy-
lomes. It is spread over the diseased surface,
either at once or after the application of a
ligature.
Solution of Flints. Syn. LIQUOR OF FLINTS ;
LIQUAMEN SILICUM, LIQUOR POTASSAE SILI-
CATIS, L. Prep. 1. Soluble glass dissolved in
water. - -
2. (Bate.) Powdered quartz, 1 part ; dry
carbonate of potash, 2 parts (3 parts—Turner);
triturate them together, fuse the mixture in
a Hessian crucible, and allow the resulting
glass to deliquesce by exposure in a damp
situation.—Dose. 5 or 6 to 30 drops; in gouty
concretions, stone, &c. “It resolves the stone,
and opens obstructions.” See SOLUBLE GLASS.
Solution, Gammal’s. See page 1057.
Solution, Goadsby's. See page 1057.
Solution, Goulard's. See SoLUTION OF SUB-
ACETATE OF LEAD.
Solution, Hahnemann’s Prophylactic. Syn.
TIQUOR BELLADONNAE, SoLUTIO PROPHYLAC-
TICA, L. Prep. From extract of belladonna
(alcoholic), 3 grs. ; distilled water, 6 fl. drs. ;
rectified spirit, 2 fl. drs. ; dissolve. Used
against scarlet fever.—Dose. 2 or 3 drops
for a child under 12 months; and an addi-
tional drop for every year above that age to
maturity.
Solution of Hydri'odate of Ar’semic and -
Mercury. Syn. DONOVAN's SOLUTION; SOLU-
TIO ARSENICI ET HYDRARGYRI IODIDI, AR-
SENICI ET HYDRARGYRI HYDRIODATIS LIQUOR
(Ph.D.), L. Prep. 1. (Donovan.) Triturate
metallic arsenic, 6-08 grs., mercury, 15:38 grs.,
and iodine, 50 grs., with alcohol, 1 fl. dr.,
until dry; to this add, gradually, of distilled
water, 8 fl. oz., and again well triturate; next
put the whole into a flask, add of hydriodic
acid, fl. dr., and boil for a few minutes;
lastly, when cold, add distilled water, q. S. to
make the whole measure exactly 8 fl. oz.
2. (Ph. D.) Pure arsenic (in fine powder),
6 grs. ; pure mercury, 16 grs. ; pure iodine, 50%
grs. ; alcohol, ; fl. dr. ; triturate as before, add,
gradually, of water, 8 fl. oz. ; heat the mixture
until it begins to boil, and, afterwards, make
up the cold and filtered solution to exactly 8
fl. oz. 6 fl. dr.
3. (Wholesale.) From metallic arsenic, 61
grs. ; iodine, 500 grs. ; mercury, 154 grs. ; rec-
tified spirit, 1} fl.oz.; distilled water, 2 quarts;
hydriodic acid, 5 fl. drs. ; as No. 1; the product
being made up with distilled water so as to
measure exactly 4 pints, or 80 fl. oz., or to
weigh 5 lbs. 14 oz. (av.), when cold.
Obs. Great care must be taken that the
whole of the arsenic be dissolved, which can
only be affected by the most careful tritura-
tion. Soubeiran recommends the employment
of 1 part, each, of the respective iodides, with
98 parts of water, as furnishing a simpler and
equally effective product, proportions which
are almost exactly those employed by Mr.
Donovan.—Dose. 10 to 30 drops, twice or
thrice a day, preferable soon after a meal; in
lepra, psoriasis, lupus, and several other scaly
skin diseases. It is a most valuable medicine
in these affections.
Solution of Hyrochlo"rate of Mor'phia. Syn.
SOLUTION OF MURIATE OF MORPHIA ; LIQUOR
MoRPHIAE HYDROCHLoRATIS (Ph. L.), SoLUTIO
MORPHIAE MURIATIs (Ph. E.), MoRPHIAE MU-
RIATIS LIQUOR (Ph.D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph.L.)
Hydrochlorate of morphia, 4 drs. ; proof
spirit, # pint ; distilled water, 1 pint ; dis-
solve by the aid of a gentle heat. 60 drops
(minims) of this solution contain I gr. of hy-
drochlorate of morphia.--Dose. 5 to 15 or 20
drops.
2. (Ph. E. &. D.) Muriate of morphia, 90
grs. ; rectified spirit, 5 fl. oz. ; distilled water,

- SOLUTION,
1061
15 fl. oz. 107 drops (minims) contain 1 gr.
of the hydrochlorate.—Dose. 10 to 30 or 40
drops, or nearly as laudanum.
3. (Apothecaries' Hall.) Muriate of morphia,
16 grs.; rectified spirit, 1 fl. dr. ; water, 1 fl.oz.;
30 drops (minims) contain 1 gr.--Dose. 3 to 10
drops. See SoLUTION OF ACETATE OF MOR-
PHIA, &c.
Solution of Hypochlo"rite of Lime.
tion of chlorinated lime.
Solution of I'odide of Ar’semic. Syn. LIQUOR
ARSENICI PERIODIDI, L. Prep. (Wackenro-
der.) Each drachm contains . gr. of teriodide
of arsenic; equivalent to #s gr. of metallic ar-
senic, and ºn gr. (nearly) of iodine.
Solution of Iodide of Mercury and Potas'sium.
Syn. LIQUOR IODOHYDRARGYRATIs POTASSII
IODIDI, L. Prep. (Dr. Channing.) Iodide
of potassium, 3% grs. ; biniodide of mercury,
4} grs. ; distilled water, 1 fl. oz. ; dissolve.—
Dose. 2 to 5 or 6 drops, three times a day,
much diluted; in dyspepsia, indurations, en-
largement of the spleen, dropsy, &c.
Solution of Iodide of Potas'sium (Compomnd).
Syn. IODURETTED WATER, CoMPOUND solu-
TION OF IODINE; LIQUOR POTASSII IODIDI
COMPOSITUs (Ph. L. & D.), LIQUOR IoDINEI
COMPOSITUs (Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.
& D.) Iodide of potassium, 10 grs. ; iodine, 5
grs. ; water, 1 pint; dissolve.—Dose. 1to 6 drs.;
in the usual cases where iodine is employed.
2. (Ph. E.) Iodide of potassium, 1 oz. ;
iodine, 2 drs. ; water, 16 fl. oz. This is 30
times as strong as the preceding.—Dose. 5 to
20 drops.
Solution of Iodine. See above.
Solution of Iron (Alkaline). Syn. LIQUOR
FERRI ALKALINI, L. Prep. (Ph. L. 1824.)
Iron filings, 2% drs. ; nitric acid, 2 fl. oz. ;
water, 6 fl. oz. ; dissolve, decant, gradually add
of solution of carbonate of potash, 6 fl. oz.,
and in 6 hours decant the clear portion. This
was intended as an imitation of Stahl’s Tinctura
Martis Alkalina. It is tonic, emmenagogue,
&c.—Dose. 20 to 60 drops.
Solution, Javelle’s. See page 1059.
Solution, Labarraque’s. See page 1059.
Solution of Lime. Syn. LIME WATER ; So-
LUTIO CALCIS HYDRATIS, LIQUOR CALCIS (Ph.
L. & D.), AQUA CALCIS (Ph. E.), L. Prep.
(Ph. L.) Upon the lime, 3 lb., first slaked (by
sprinkling it) with a little of the water, pour
the remainder of water, 12 pints, and shake
them well together (for 5 minutes—Ph. D.);
immediately cover the vessel, and set it aside
for three hours; then keep the solution with
the remaining lime (equally divided) in stop-
pered glass vessels, and, when it is to be used,
decant the required portion from the clear
solution (replacing it with more water, and
agitating briskly, as before—Ph. E.).
Obs. Cold water dissolves more lime than
hot water. 1 pint of water at 32° Fahr. dis-
solves 134 grs., at 60° it dissolves 11% grs, but
at 212° only 6% grs. (Phillips.)
Uses, &c. Lime water is antacid, astringent,
Solu-
antilithic, tonic, and vermifuge.—Dose. A
wine-glassful, or more, 2 or 3 times a day, in
milk or broth; in dyspepsia, diarrhoea, calcu-
lous affections, &c.; and, externally, as a de-
tersive and discutient lotion.
Solution of Lime (Saccharated). Syn. LI-
QUOR CALCIS SACCHARATUS. Prep. Slaked
lime, 1; refined sugar (in powder), 2; dis-
tilled water, 20; digest for some hours and
strain.—Dose, 15 to 60 minims in milk.
Solution, Mackenzie's. Prep. From nitrate
of silver, 20 grs., dissolved in distilled water,
1 fl. oz. Used to wash the throat and fauces,
and to sponge the trachea, in affections of those
parts.
Solution of Magne'sia. Syn. AERATED
MAGNESIA WATER, CARBONATED M. W., FLUID
MAGNESIA, CONDENSED solution of M., CoN-
CENTRATED S. OF M.; LIQUOR MAGNESIAE CAR-
BONATIS, AQUA M. C., L.; EAU MAGNESIENNE,
Fr. Prep. (Dinneford’s.) Water and How-
ard’s heavy carbonate of magnesia, in the
proportion of 17% grs. of the latter to every
fl. oz. of the former, are introduced into a
cylindrical tinned copper vessel, and carbonic
acid, generated by the action of sulphuric
acid on whiting, is forced into it by steam
power, for 5% hours, during the whole of which
time the cylinder is kept in motion. Sir J.
Murray’s is similar. The Paris Codex orders
| recently precipitated carbonate of magnesia to
be used while still moist. Antacid and laxa-
tive. See FLUID MAGNESIA.
Solution, Mim'eral. See SoLUTION OR AR-
SENITE OF POTASSA.
Solution of Mor'phia. See SoLUTIONS or
ACETATE, HYDROCHLORATE, and SULPHATE.
Solution of Nitrate of Mercury (Acid). Syn.
LIQUOR HYDRARGYRI NITRATIS ACIDUs (B.
P.). Prep. Mercury, 4; nitric acid, 5; dis-
tilled water, 1}; mix the nitric acid with the
water in a flask, and dissolve the mercury in
the mixture without the application of heat.
Boil gently for 15 minutes, cool, and preserve
the solution in a stoppered bottle. Used alone,
as a caustic; 1 to 2 minims to 1 oz. water, as a
gargle; and 1 minim to 2 oz. water, as an in-
jection in gonorrhoea.
Solution of Nitrate of Silver. Syn. LIQUOR
ARGENTI NITRATIs (Ph. L.), SoLUTIO A. N.
(Ph. E.), L. Prep. (P. L.) Nitrate of silver
(cryst.), 1 dr. (40 grs.—Ph. E.); distilled
water, 1 fl. oz. (1600 grs.—Ph. E.); dissolve.
Used as an escharotic, &c. It should be kept
from the light. See LOTION, SILVER, &c.
Solution of 0'pium (Sed/ative). See LIQUOR.
Solution of Oxysulphate of Iront. Syn. LI-
QUOR FERRI OXYSULPHATIs, L. Prep. From
sulphate of iron (in powder) and nitric acid, of
each, 3 drs. ; triturated together for 15 minutes,
and then dissolved in distilled water, 1} fl. oz.
—IDose. 5 or 6 to 12 drops.
Solution of Permangamate of Potassa. Syn.
LIQUOR POTASSE PERMANGANATIS (B. P.).
Prep. Permanganate of potassa, 4 grs. ; dis-
tilled water, 1 oz. ; dissolve. Diluted with

1062
SOLUTION.
40 parts of water, it is used as a gargle or as a
cleansing wash for diseased surface.—Dose. 2
to 4 drs.
Solution of Perchloride of Iron. Syn. LI-
QUOR FERRI PERCHLORIDI (B. P.). Prep.
Stronger solution of perchloride of iron (see
below), 1; distilled water, 3.—Dose. 10 to 30
minims.
Solution of Perchloride of Iron (Stronger).
Syn. LIQUOR FERRI PERCHLORIDI FORTIOR.
(B. P.). Prep. Iron wire, 2 oz. ; hydrochloric
acid, 12 oz. ; mitric acid, 9 drs. ; distilled
water, 8 grs. Mix 8 of the hydrochloric acid
with the water, and pour the mixture on the
iron wire, applying a gentle heat, so that the
whole of the metal may be dissolved; filter
the solution, and add to it the remainder of the
hydrochloric and nitric acids; heat the mix-
ture briskly, until, on the sudden evolution of
red fumes, the liquid becomes of an orange-
brown colour, then evaporate by the heat of a
water bath until it is reduced to 10 fl. Oz.
Used as an application to diphtheritic patches,
for injecting navi, as a powerful styptic, and
in the preparation of SoLUTION OF PERCHLo-
RIDE OF IRON. (See above.)
Solution of Permiſtrate of Iron. Syn. SOLU-
TION OF PERSESQUINITRATE OF IRON ; FERRI
PERNITRAS LIQUOR (Ph.D.), SOLUTIO PER-
SESQUINITRAS FERRI (Kerr), L. Prep. (Ph.
D.). Take of pure mitric acid, 3 fl. Oz. ; water,
16 fl. Oz. ; mix, add fine iron wire, 1 oz. ; dis-
solve, and to the clear solution add as much
water as will make the whole measure 1% pint.
Sp. gr. 1'107.-Dose. 5 or 6 to 30 drops, or
more; in passive hamorrhages, mucous dis-
charges, chronic diarrhoea with prostration, &c.
Solution of Persulphate of Iron. Syn. LIQUOR
FERRI PERSULPHATIS. Prep. Sulphate of iron,
8; sulphuric acid, #; nitric acid, #; distilled water,
12. Add the sulphuric acid to 10 of the water,
and dissolve the sulphate of iron in the mix-
ture with the aid of heat. Mix the nitric
acid with the remaining 2 of the water, and
add the dilute acid to the solution of sulphate
of iron. Concentrate the whole by boiling
until, by the sudden evolution of ruddy va-
pours, the liquid ceases to be black, and acquires
a red colour. A drop of the solution is now
to be tested with ferricyanide of potassium,
and if a blue precipitate be formed, a few ad-
ditional drops of nitric acid should be added
and the boiling renewed, in order that the
whole may be converted into persulphate of
iron. When the solution is cold, make up the
quantity to 11 by the addition, if necessary,
of distilled water. Used in making several
preparations of iron; it is also a good styptic.
Solution of Perchloride of Mercury. Syn.
LIQUOR HYDRARGYRI PERCHLORIDI (B. P.).
JPrep. Corrosive sublimate, 10 grs. ; chloride
of ammonium, 10 grs. ; distilled water, 20 oz. ;
dissolve.—Dose. 30 to 120 minims.
Solution for Plate. Syn. PLATE LIQUOR;
SoLUTIo PRO ARGENT0, L. Prep. From alum,
cream of tartar, and common salt, of each, 1
oz.; water, #gal.; dissolve. Used to increase
the lustre and whiteness of silver plate, the
articles being boiled in it.
Solution of Potas'sa. Syn. SOLUTION OF
HYDRATE OF POTASSA, LIQUOR OF POTASSA,
POTASH WATER, CAUSTIC P. W.; LIQUOR PO-
TASSÉ (B. P., Ph.L.), AQUA POTASSAE (Ph. E.),
POTASSE CAUSTICAE LIQUOR (Ph. D.), AQUA
KALI PURI+, LIXIVIUM. SAPONARIUM+, AQUA
KALI CAUSTICUMi, LIXIVIUM CAUSTICUMi, L.
Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Lime (recently burnt), 8
oz. ; boiling distilled water, 1 gal.; sprinkle
a little of the water on the lime in an earthen
vessel, and, when it is slaked and fallen to
powder, add of carbonate of potassa, 15 oz.,
dissolved in the remainder of the water; bung
down, and shake frequently, until the mixture
is cold, then allow the whole to settle, and
decant the clear supernatant portion into per-
fectly clean and well-stoppered green-glass
bottles. Sp. gr. 1.063. It contains 67% of
pure potassa.
2. (Ph. E.) Carbonate of potassa (dry), 4
Oz. ; quicklime, 2 oz. ; water, 45 fl.oz. ; boiling
briskly for a few minutes after each addition
of the milk of lime; to yield at least 35 fl. Oz.,
by decantation, after 24 hours’ repose in a
deep, narrow, glass vessel. Sp. gr. 1072.
3. (Ph.D.) Pure carbonate of potassa, 1 lb.;
distilled water, 1 gal. ; dissolve, heat the solu-
tion to the boiling-point in a clean iron vessel,
gradually add to it of fresh quickline, 10 oz.,
previous slaked with water, 7 fl. oz., and con-
tinue the ebullition for 10 minutes, with con-
stant stirring ; next allow it to cool out of
contact with the air, and, when perfectly clear,
decant it by means of a syphon, and bottle it
as before. Sp. gr. 1:068.
4. (B. P.) Carbonate of potash, 2; slaked
lime, 1}; distilled water, 20; dissolve the car-
bonate of potash in the water, and having
heated the solution to the boiling-point in a
clean iron vessel, gradually mix the slaked lime,
and continue the ebullition for 10 minutes
with constant stirring; decant the clear liquid,
—Dose. 15 to 60 minims 3 times a day in
beer, milk, or Mistura Amygdalae.
5. (Wöhler.) Nitrate of potassa, 1 part, is
mixed, in alternate layers, with clippings of
sheet copper, 2 or 3 parts, and then heated to
moderate redness for about ; an hour in a
copper or iron crucible; when cold, the po-
tassa is washed out with distilled water, and
the solution, after repose in a closed vessel, de-
canted as before. Not a trace of copper can
be detected in the liquid. The clippings may
be again used if mixed with a little fresh me-
tallic copper. -
6. (Wholesale.) From carbonate of potash
(kali), 1 lb., and quicklime, # lb., to each gal.
of water.
7. (BRANDISH's ALKALINE solution ; L1-
QUOR POTASSE BRANDISHII.) From American
pearlashes, 6 lbs. ; quicklime and wood-ashes
(from the ash), of each, 2 lbs. ; boiling water,
6 galls. (old meas.); to each gal, of the clear

SOLUTION.
1063
product is added 12 or 15 drops of oil of ju-
niper. This ‘solution’ is much asked for in
trade. Ordinary liquor of potassa is generally
sold for it.
Pur. “Nothing, or scarcely anything, is
thrown down from this solution on the addi-
tion of lime water; and when it has been first
saturated by nitric acid, no precipitate falls on
the addition of carbonate of soda, chloride of
barium, or nitrate of silver. What is thrown
down by bichloride of platinum is yellowish.”
(Ph. L.)
Uses, &c. Liquor of potassa is antacid, diu-
retic, resolvent, and lithontriptic.—Dose, 10
to 30 or 40 drops, in any bland diluent (not
acidulous); in heartburn, gout, calculi, indu-
rations, scrofula, lepra, psoriasis, &c.
Obs. Quicklime fails to abstract the car-
bonic acid from the alkaline carbonates in
solutions much stronger than those above re-
ferred to. Weaker solutions may, however,
be easily concentrated by evaporation in iron
vessels. See HYDRATE OF POTASSA, and below.
Solution of Potas'ga (Effervescing). Syn.
LIQUOR POTASSE EFFERVESCENS (B. P.); EF-
FERVESCING POTASH WATER, SUPERCARBO-
NATE OF POTASSA W.; AQUA POTASSAE EFFER-
VESCENS (Ph. E.), A. P. SUPERCARBONATIs,
L. Prep. (Ph. L. & E.) Bicarbonate of potash,
1 dr.; distilled water, 1 pint; dissolve, force
in carbonic acid gas, in excess, and keep it in
a well-stoppered bottle. Resembles soda water,
but sits better on the stomach. It is almost
specific in the early stages of scurvy.
Obs. An excellent substitute for this pre-
paration is to pour a bottle of soda water into
a tumbler containing 20 grs. of powdered bi-
carbonate of potash, and to drink it immedi-
ately.
Solution of Potas'sio-tar'trate of An'timony.
Syn. SOLUTEO ANTIMONII POTASSIo-TARTRA-
TIS, ANTIMONIT TARTARIZATI LIQUOR (Ph.
D.), L. Prep. (Ph. D.) Tartarised antimony,
1 dr. ; rectified spirit, 7 fl. oz. ; distilled water,
1 pint ; dissolve. Strength, doses, and uses,
similar to those of antimonial wine (which
see), than which it keeps better.
Solution, Prophylactic. See HAHNEMANN’s
SOLUTION.
Solution of Sesquicar'bonate of Ammonia.
See SOLUTION OF CARBONATE OF AMMONIA.
Solution of Silicate of Potas'sa. See So-
LUTION OF FLINTS.
Solution of Soda. Syn. SoTUTION OF HY-
DRATE OF SODA, LIQUOR OF SODA, CAUSTIC
SODA WATER; LIQUOR SODA (B. P., Ph. L.),
SODAR CAUSTICE LIQUOR (Ph.D.), L. Prep.
1. (Ph. L.) Carbonate of soda (cryst), 32 oz. ;
lime, 9 oz. ; boiling distilled water, 1 gal.;
proceed as for solution of potassa. “In 100
grs. are contained 1 gr. of (pure) soda.” (Ph.
L.) Sp. gr. 1061.
2. (Ph.D.) Carbonate of soda (cryst.), 2
lbs. ; fresh-burned lime, 10 oz. ; water, 1 gal.
7 fl. oz. ; as liquor of potassa. Sp. gr. 1056.
3. (B. P.) Carbonate of soda, 7; slaked
lime, 3; distilled water, 40; dissolve the car-
bonate in the water, boil in a clean iron vessel,
gradually mixing the lime, and stirring con-
stantly for ten minutes; decant into a green
glass bottle, with air-tight stopper. Sp. gr.
1-047.-Dose. } to 1 dr.
Solution of Soda (Effervescing). Syn. SopA
WATER ; LIQUOR SODE EFFERVESCENS, AQUA
S. E. (Ph. E.), A. S. SUPERCARBONATIS, SODAF.
CARBONATIS AQUA ACIDUIA, L. Prep. (Ph. E.)
Bicarbonate of soda, 1 dr.; distilled water,
1 pint; dissolve, and force carbonic acid gas
into the solution, under pressure. Used as an
antacid and grateful stimulant, often proving
gently laxative. The soda water of the shops
cannot be substituted for this preparation, as,
in opposition to its name, it is usually made
without soda. ---
Solution of Sulphate of Atropia. Syn. LT-
QUOR ATROPIAE SULPHATIS (B. P.). Prep.
Sulphate of atropia, 4 grs. ; distilled water,
1 oz. ; dissolve.—Dose. 1 to 2 minims.
Solution, Sol'dering. Prep. Dissolve zinc
in hydrochloric acid nearly to saturation, add
1-5th part of powdered sal ammoniac, and sim-
mer for 5 minutes. Used to make solder flow
easily and take well; applied with a feather.
See SOLDERING.
Solution, Specific (Frank's). Syn. SPECIFIC
solution of COPAIBA ; LIQUOR COPAIBAE
ALKALINA, L. Prep. Take of balsam of co-
paiba, 2 parts; liquor of potassa (Ph. L.),
3 parts; water, 7 parts; boil the mixture for
2 or 3 minutes, put it into a separator, and
allow it to stand for 5 or 6 days; then draw it
off from the bottom, avoiding the upper
stratum of oil, and to the clear liquid add of
sweet spirit of nitre (perfectly free from acid),
1 part; should it turn foul or milky, a very
little liquor of potassa will usually brighten it;
if not, place it in a clean separator, and let it
stand, closely covered, for a few days, and then
draw it off from the bottom as before, when it
will be perfectly transparent, without filtering.
Some persons add the sweet spirit of nitre
whilst the solution is still warm, mix it in as
rapidly as possible, and immediately cork or
fasten up the vessel. This is a good way when
the article is wanted in a hurry, but is objec-
tionable from the loss of spirit thereby occa-
sioned, and the danger, without care, of burst-
ing the separator.
Obs. A receipt for this article, upon the
authority of Battley, has been going the round
of the pharmaceutical works for many years.
It is as follows:—Take 12 oz. of balsam of
copaiba, and 6 oz. of calcined magnesia; rub
together, add a pint of proof spirit, filter, and
then add , oz. of sweet spirits of nitre.”
(‘ Gray's Supplement.”) The product of this
formula, utterly unlike ‘Frank’s Specific So-
lution,” is a colourless tincture, scarcely fla-
voured with copaiba, and holding very little
of the active matter of the balsam in solution,
owing to the compound formed with the mag-
nesia being insoluble in spirit. Such is the

1064
SOLVENT—SOUP.
affinity of this earth for copaiba (copaibic
acid), that it will even take it from caustic
potassa. See CoPAIBA, and its preparations.
Solution of Strychnia. Syn. LIQUOR
STRYCHNIE (B. P.). Prep. Strychnia, in
crystals, 4 grs. ; dilute hydrochloric acid, 6
minims; rectified spirit, 2 drs. ; distilled
water, 6 drs. ; mix the hydrochloric acid
with 4 drs. of the water, and dissolve the
strychnia in it by means of heat; then add
the spirit and the remainder of the water.—
Dose. 4 to 10 minims.
Solution of Subac'etate of Lead. Syn. LI-
QUOR OF SUBACETATE OF LEAD, L. OF DIACE-
TATE OF L.f., GOULARD’S EXTRACT; LIQUOR
PLUMBI, L. PLUMBI DIACETATIs (Ph. L.),
PLUMBIDIACETATIS SOLUTIO (Ph. E.), PLUMBI
SUBACETATIS LIQUOR (Ph. D.), L. Prep. 1.
(Ph. L.) Acetate of lead, 27 oz. ; litharge, in
fine powder, 16 oz. ; water, 3 quarts; boil for
# an hour, constantly stirring, and then add
enough distilled water to make the whole mea-
sure 3 quarts; lastly, filter, if required, and
keep it in a closed vessel. The proportions
ordered in the Ph. E. are similar. Sp. gr.
1'260.
2. (Ph. D.) Acetate of lead, 6 oz. ; litharge,
4 oz. ; distilled water, 1 quart; boil, &c., as
before; to produce, 1 quart. Sp. gr. 1066.
3. (Wholesale.) From finely powdered li-
tharge, 32 lbs. ; distilled vinegar, 32 galls.;
boil in a perfectly bright copper pan for 2
hours, cool, add water to make up 32 galls.,
again simmer for 1 minute, cover up the vessel,
and in an hour decant the clear portion. Com-
mon trade strength. (See below.)
Solution of Subacetate of Lead (Dilute). Syn.
GOULARD, GOULARD’s LOTION, G.'s WATER ;
LIQUOR PLUMBI DIACETATIS DILUTUS (Ph. L.),
PLUMBI SUBACETATIS LIQUOR COMPOSITUS
(Ph.D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Liquor of
diacetate of lead, 1} fl. dr.; proof spirit, 2 fl.
drs.; distilled water, 1 pint ; mix.
2. (Ph.D.) Solution of subacetate of lead
and proof spirit, of each, 2 fl. oz. ; distilled
water, gal.; mix, filter, and preserve it in a
well-stopped bottle.
Obs. Both the above preparations were
formerly made with common vinegar, and
hence were coloured, but those of the Pharm.
are white. If wanted coloured, a little spirit
colouring may be added. The stronger liquor
is only used diluted; and the dilute solution is
now seldom prepared by the wholesale drug-
gist. The last (diluted solution) is employed
as a sedative, refrigerant, and astringent wash,
in various affections. Both are poisonous.
For the antidotes, see LEAD. -
Solution of Sul’phate of Mor'phia. Syn.
LIQUOR MORPHIE SULPHATIS, L. Prep. From
sulphate of morphia, as the solution of the
acetate or hydrochlorate. The uses, doses,
&c., are the same.
Solution of Sul’phate of Zinc (Compound).
See CoMPOUND SOLUTION OF ALUM.
Solution of Sulphurct of Potassium. Sym.
SOLUTION OF HYDROSUIPTIATE OF POTASSA ;
SOLUTIO POTASSII SULPHURETI, LIQUOR PO-
TASSAE HYDROSULPHATIS, AQUA POTASSE SUI-
PHURETI (Ph.D.), L. Prep. Take of washed
sublimed sulphur, 1 part; water of caustic
potassa, 11 parts; mix, boil for 10 minutes,
filter, and keep the solution in well-closed
bottles. Sp. gr. 1117. The product is a mixed
solution of hydrosulphate and hyposulphite of
potassa,—Dose. 10 to 60 drops, diluted in
water; and, externally, made into a lotion;
in itch, and several other eruptive diseases.
SOL'VENT. Syn. MENSTRUUM, L. The
liquid in which any substance is dissolved.
The substance dissolved is, occasionally, called
the “solvend.” (Kirwan.)
Solvent, Glazier's. Syn. GLAZIER's PICKLE.
From soft soap dissolved in thrice its weight.
of strong soaper's lye ; or, from freshly slaked
lime made into a thin paste or cream with
twice its weight of pearlash dissolved in a
little water. Very caustic. Used to soften
old putty, and to remove old paint.
S00T. Syn. FULIGO. Wood soot was for-
merly officinal, and reputed vermifuge and
antiseptic. The soot from pit-coal contains,
besides empyreumatic matter, sulphate of am-
monia; hence, it is valuable as a manure,
when not too freely applied. It is also em-
ployed by gardeners to kill insects.
SOPORIFICS. Hypnotics (which see).
SOU/JEE. Syn. SoojFE. A species of
semolina. Semoletta (semola rarita) is a still
smaller variety of pearled wheat, separated
from the others by means of a sieve. ‘Baster's
soojee’ is said to be a mixture of ordinary
wheat flour and sugar.
SOUR KROUT. See SAUER-KROUT.
SOUP. A strong decoction of flesh, properly
seasoned with salts, spices, &c., for the table. . .
The different tastes of people require more or
less of the flavour of spices, salt, garlic, butter,
&c., which can, therefore, never be ordered by
general rules. If the cook has not a good
taste, and attention to that of his or her
employers, not all the ingredients which nature
and art can furnish will give an exquisite
flavour to the dishes. The proper articles
should be always at hand, and must be pro-
portioned until the true Zest be obtained. A
variety of flavours may be given to different
dishes served at the same time, or even to the
same soup, by varying the condiments and
spices. At a Parisian restaurant one cauldron
is made to produce almost every imaginable
variety of soup.
Soup, Portable. Syn. GIAZE. From skin
of beef, or other like part; the soup being
gently simmered until reduced to the consist-
ence of a thin syrup, and then poured into
small upright jelly-pots, with covers, or, upon
flat dishes, to lie about # inch deep. The
latter, when set, is divided into pieces, which
are dried. Used to make extemporaneous soup
and glazes. A similar article, prepared on the
SOURING-SPECIES.
1065
large scale, now generally forms part of every
ship’s stores.
SOUR/ING.
WINES.
SOY. Genuine soy is a species of thick
black sauce, imported from China. Prep. Take
of the seeds of Soja hispida (white haricots or
kidney beans may be used for them), 1 gal.;
boil them in water, q. S., until soft, add of
bruised wheat, 1 gal., and keep the mixture in
a warm place for 24 hours; then add of com-
mon salt, 1 gal.; water, 2 galls. ; put the
whole into a stone jar, and bung it up loosely
for two or three months, shaking it very fre-
quently during the whole time; lastly press
out the liquor and bottle it; the residuum
may be treated afresh with water and salt, for
soy of an inferior quality.
Obs. The soy of the shops is, in nine cases
out of ten, a spurious article made in this
country, by simply saturating molasses or
treacle with common salt. A better and a
really wholesome imitation is made as follows:
—Malt syrup, 1 gall. (or, 13% lbs.); treacle,
5 lbs. ; salt, 4} lbs. ; mushroom juice, 1 quart;
mix, with a gentle heat, and stir until the
union is complete; in a fortnight decant the
clear portion.
SPAN/ISH FLIES. See CANTHARIDES.
SPAR/ADRAP. Syn. SPARADRAPUM, L.
Originally, a cerecloth; now, applied to spread
plasters; as, SPARADRAPUM. COMMUNE, common
strapping or adhesive plaster; S. VESICATO-
RIUM, blistering plaster or tissue, &c.
SPARTE'INE. Syn. SPARTEINA, L. A
volatile oily liquid, possessing basic properties,
obtained from Spartium scoparium, or broom.
It is highly poisonous, and resembles comine
and nicotine in its general properties.
SPASMS. Syn. CRAMP; SPASMUs, L. An
involuntary contraction of the muscles, gene-
rally of the extremities, accompanied with pain,
more or less severe. Spasms are distinguished
into clonic spasms or convulsions, in which
the contractions and relaxations are alternate,
as in epilepsy; and into tonic spasms, in
which there is continued rigidity, as in locked-
jaw. That form which commonly attacks the
muscles of the legs and feet, especially after
great exertion or exposure to cold, is commonly
called cramp. The best treatment for this is
immediately to stand upright, and to well rub
the part with the hand. The application of
strong stimulants, as spirits of ammonia, or of
anodynes, as opiate liniments, has been recom-
mended. When spasm or cramp occurs in the
stomach, a teaspoonful of sal volatile in water,
or a tablespoonful of good brandy, may be
swallowed immediately. When cramp comes
or during cold bathing, the limb should be
thrown out as suddenly and violently as pos-
sible, which will generally remove it, care
being also taken not to become flurried or
frightened, as presence of mind is very essen-
tial to personal safety on such an occasion. A
common cause of spasm is indigestion, and
See MALT LIQUORS and
the use of acescent liquors; these should,
therefore, be avoided, and bitters and ab-
sorbents had recourse to. See ANTISPASMO-
DICS, and the names of the principal spasmodic
diseases.
SPEAR/MINT. See MINT.
SPECIES. (In pharmacy.) Mixtures of
dried plants, or parts of plants, in a divided
state, which, for convenience, are kept mixed
for use. The dry ingredients of pills, con-
serves, electuaries, mixtures, &c., that do not
keep well when made up, or which are in
little demand, may be economically and conve-
niently preserved in this state. The word,
thus applied, is obsolete out of the pharma-
ceutical laboratory.
Species, Anthelmim'tic. Syn. SPECIES AN-
THELMINTICE, L. The dried flowering tops of
tansy and wormwood, and the flowers of chamo-
mile, equal parts; mix, and keep them in a
close vessel. (P. Cod.)
Species, Aper'itive.
(below).
Species, Aromatic. Syn. AROMATIC Pow-
DER ; SPECIES AROMATICAE, L. Prep. (Ph.
Bor.) Leaves of balm and curled-leaf mint
(Mentha crispa), of each, 4 oz. ; lavender flow-
ers, 2 oz. ; cloves, 1 oz. ; dry them by a gentle
heat, and then powder them.
Species, Astringent. Syn. SPECIES ASTRIN-
GENTES, L. The roots of bistort and tor-
mentil, and bark of pomegranate, equal parts.
(P. Cod.)
Species, Bitter. Syn. THREE BITTER HERBs;
SPECIES AMARAE, HERBE AMARAE, L. The
leaves of germander, and dried tops of lesser
centaury and wormwood, equal parts. (P.
Cod.)
Species, Capil'lary. Syn. FIVE CAPILLARY
HERBs; HERBE QUINQUE CAPILLARES, L.
Hart's tongue, black maiden-hair, white do.,
golden do., and spleenwort, equal parts. (Ph.
L. 1720.)
Species, Cor'dial. Syn. Four coRDIAL FLOW-
ERs; SPECIES CORDIALEs, L. The flowers of
borage, bugloss, roses, and violets, equal parts.
(Ph. L. 1720.)
Species, Diuret'ic. Syn. APERIENT ROOTS,
APERITIVE SPECIES ; SPECIES DIURETICAE, L.
1. (FIVE GREATER APERITIVE ROOTs—P. Cod.,
& Ph. E. 1744.) The dried roots of asparagus,
butcher's broom, parsley, smallage, and sweet
fennel, equal parts.
2. (FIVE LESSER APERITIVE Roots.) Those
of caper, dog-grass, eryngo, madder, and rest-
harrow.
Species, Emol/lient. Syn. SPECIES EMOL-
IIENTES, L. 1. (THREE EMOLLIENT MEALs; ,
FARINE EMOLLIENTEs.) The meal of barley,
linseed, and rye, equal parts. (P. Cod.)
2. (FIVE EMOLLIENT HERBs; HERBAE QUIN-
QUE EMOLLIENTES)—a. The dried leaves of
groundsel, common mallow, marsh-mallow,
great mullein, and wall pellitory, equal parts,
(P. Cod.)
b. The leaves of mallow, marsh-mallow,
See DIURETIC SPECIES


1066
SPECIFIC GRAVITY-SPECTRUM ANALYSIS.
French mercury, pellitory of the wall, and
violet. (Ph. E. 1744.)
Species for Eme'mas. Syn. HERBS FOR
CLYSTERS; HERBAE PRO ENEMATE, L. Mallow
leaves, 2 parts; chamomile flowers, 1 part.
Species for Fomenta/tions. Syn. SPECIES
PRO FOTU, HERBAE PRO FOTU, L. Leaves of
southernwood, tops of sea-wormwood, and
flowers of chamomile, of each, 2 parts; bay
leaves, 1 part.
Species, Hot. 1. (FouT GREATER HOT
SEEDs.) The seeds of anise, caraway, cumin,
and fennel.
2. (Four LESSER HOT SEEDs.) The seeds of
bishop’s weed, smallage, stone parsley, and
wild carrot.
Species, Lax'ative. Syn. ST.GERMAIN IAX-
ATIVE POWDER; SPECIES LAXANTES ST.GER-
MAIN, L. Prep. (Ph. Bor.) Senna leaves (ex-
hausted with spirit), 4 oz. ; elder flowers, 2%
oz.; aniseed and fennel seed, of each, 1% oz, ;
reduce them' to coarse powder, and, when dis-
pensing, add of powdered cream of tartar,
1 dr., to each 1; oz. of the mixture.
Species, Narcotic. Syn. FouT. NARCOTIC
HERBs; SPECIES NARCOTICE, L. Dried leaves
of belladonna, black mightshade, henbane, and
thorn-apple, equal parts.
Species, Pectoral. Syn. SPECIES BECHICAE,
SPECIES AD INFUSUM PECTORATES, L. 1. Mal-
low root, 4 oz.; coltsfoot leaves, 2 oz.; liquorice
root, 1% oz. ; aniseed, great-mullein flowers
and red-poppy flowers, of each, 1 oz. ; orris
root, 3 oz. (Ph. Bor.)
Species, Refri"gerant.— 1. (Four COID
SEEDs.) The seeds of cucumber, gourd, melon,
and water-melon.
2. (FOUR LESSER COLD SEEDs.) The seeds
of endive, lettuce, purslane, and succory.
Species, Resolvent. Syn. FARINE RE-
SoLVENTES, L. The meal of the seeds of barley,
bean, tare, and white lupin.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY is the comparative
weights of equal bulks of different substances,
the assumed standard being 1 and sometimes
1000. This standard is pure distilled water
for liquids and solids, and atmospheric air for
gaseous bodies and vapours." In England the
sp. gr., unless when otherwise expressed, is
always taken at 60°Fahr.; but in France it is
taken at 32° Fahr. (0°C), or the temperature
of melting ice. In the ‘British Pharmacopoeia,”
whenever specific gravity is mentioned, the
substance spoken of is supposed to be of the
temperature of 60° Fahr. In most cases,
however, it is sufficient merely to note the
temperature, and to apply a correction, de-
pending on the known density of water, or air,
at the different degrees of the thermometric
scale.
To determine the specific gravity of a solid,
we weigh it, first in the air, and then in water.
In the latter case it loses, of its weight, a
1. By many modern chemists hydrogen, the lightest sub-
stance in mature, is taken as the standard for the specific
gravity of gases and vapours.
quantity precisely equal to the weight of its
own bulk of water; and hence, by comparing
this weight with its total weight, we find its
specific gravity. The rule is—Divide the total
weight by the loss of weight in water; the
quotient is the specific gravity.
The specific gravity of a substance lighter
than water may be determined by attaching it
to some substance, as a piece of lead, the sp.
gr., &c., of which are known. In this way, by
deducting the loss in weight of the two sub-
stances, when weighed in water, from the loss
sustained by the lead alone, when so weighed,
we obtain a difference (a) which, added to the
weight of the substance taken in air (b), gives
the respective densities. From these the sp.
gr. is found by the rule of three :—
(a + b): 1: ; b : sp. gr.
The specific gravity of substances soluble in
water are taken in pure oil of turpentime, recti-
fied spirit, olive oil, or some other liquid, the
density of which is exactly known. Sometimes,
for rough purposes, the article is covered with
a coating of mastic varnish. This last method
answers for mercurial pill.
The specific gravity of a substance in frag-
ments, or in powder, may be found by putting
a portion (say 100 grs.) into a sp. gr. bottle,
filling the latter with distilled water, and then
weighing it. The weight of water which it is
found to contain, deducted from 1000 (the
weight of the bottle when filled with distilled
water), gives a difference (a) which bears the
same relation to the sp. gr. of water (1:000)
as the weight of the powder (b) put into the
bottle does to the required sp. gr. Or—
a : 1'000 :: b : sp. gr.
The specific gravity of alloys and mixtures,
when no condensation has occurred, is equal to
the sum of the weights divided by the sum of
the volumes, compared to water reckoned as
unity; and is not merely the arithmetical mean
between the two numbers denoting the two
sp. gr., as is frequently taught. See BEADS
(Lovi's), HYDROMETER, MIXTUREs (Arithme-
tic of), &c. For the mode of determining the
specific gravity of gases, the reader is referred
to the works on chemistry of Miller and
Fownes.
The specific gravity of a liquid is found by
weighing it in a sp. gr. bottle, glass flask, or
other vessel of known capacity, and dividing
that weight by the weight of the same bulk of
water; the quotient is, as before, the specific
gravity. A bottle of the capacity of 1000
water-grains (specific gravity bottle) gives
the density of a liquid at once, by simply
filling it to the given mark, and then accu-
rately weighing it.
SPEC/TACLES. See EYE, VISION, &c.
SPEC/TROSCOPE. An instrument devised
for examining the spectra of flames. (See
below.) -
SPEC/TRUM ANAI'YSIS. A method of

SPECULUM METAL-SPIGELLA.
1067
determining the chemical constituents of sub-
stances, devised by Kirchhoff and Bunsen. It
consists in letting the rays of a flame, coloured
by the substance under examination, pass first
through a narrow slit, then through a prism,
and observing them, when thus refracted,
through a telescope. A distinct spectrum is
obtained for every flame-colouring metal; thus,
sodium, which gives a yellow colour to the
flame, has a spectrum consisting of a double
yellow line; potassium, which burns with a
purple light, gives red and blue lines; lithium
also gives red and blue lines, but they are of
a different tint and in a different part of the
spectrum; calcium gives red, yellow, green,
and blue lines; barium a great number of
green lines, and so on. To produce a suitable
flame, of great heating power but small lu-
minosity, a Bunsen’s gas-lamp is usually
employed; in this flame the substance to be
examined is burned on a loop of fine platinum
wire. The instrument employed for producing
and viewing the spectra is called a spectro-
scope. This method of analysis is so delicate,
that a quantity of sodium but little exceeding
the millionth part of a grain may be detected
by it. Since its introduction, four new metals
have been discovered by it, namely, caesium,
rubidium, thallium, and indium." See FLAME
COLOURS, &c. -
SPECULUM METAL. Prep. 1. Take of
copper, 64 parts; pure tin, 29 parts; melt them
separately under a little black flux; next in-
corporate them thoroughly by stirring with a
wooden spatula, and run the metal into the
moulds, so that the face of the intended
mirror may be downwards; lastly, allow the
whole to cool very slowly.
2. Pure copper, 2 parts; pure tin, 1 part.
Used to make the mirrors of reflecting tele-
scopes. The addition of a little metallic
arsenic renders it whiter.
SPEL'TER. See ZINC.
SPERMACETI. Syn. CETACEUM (B. P.,
Ph. L. E. & D.), L. A concretion prepared
from the oily matter of the head of the Phy-
seter macrocephalus, or spermaceti whale. It
is demulcent and emollient; chiefly used in
ointments and cerates.
SPHEROID'AL STATE. It is found that
water, or any other volatile liquid, thrown on
a metallic plate heated to dull redness, is not
resolved into vapour, but, assuming a some-
what globular form, remains intact, until the
temperature becomes sufficiently lowered to
allow of contact between the liquid and the
heated surface. It is then immediately volati-
lised. M. Boutigny, who fully investigated
this subject, has also shown that the same
thing happens when a solid body containing
water is substituted for the liquid in the
above and similar experiments. Thus, the
finger or hand, under certain restrictions, may
be thrust, with perfect impunity, into a stream
* See the last edition of Fownes’s “Manual of Che-
mistry, and Watts's “Dic, of Chemistry.” -
of molten metal, and ice may be produced by
throwing water into a red-hot crucible. This
last experiment, as performed by MM. Bou-
tigny and Prevostaye, is essentially as follows:
—A thick platinum crucible, of the capacity
of 1 fl. oz., is heated to redness over a powerful
spirit lamp, and some liquid anhydrous sul-
phurous acid (a very volatile substance) poured
into it by means of a pipette; the acid assumes
a spheroidal form, and does not evaporate;
a few drops of water are now introduced into
the sulphurous acid in the same way; the di-
luted and slightly cooled acid instantly flashes
off in vapour, and, robbing the water of its
caloric, leaves the latter in a frozen state ;
and, if the operator seizes the right moment,
a solid lump of ice may be thrown out of the
red-hot crucible.
SPICE. A general name for vegetable sub-
stances possessing aromatic and pungent pro-
perties, and employed for seasoning or flavour-
ing food.
Spice, Horse. Syn. Cow SPICE ; SPECIES
EQUINUs, L. Prep. 1. Aniseed, allspice, cu-
min seed, ginger, liquorice, and turmeric, equal
parts.
2. Turmeric and cumin seed, of each, 5 lbs.;
ginger, 2% lbs. Used by farriers.
Spice, Kitſchem. Syn. MIXED SPICE, KITCHEN
PEPPER, &c. Prep. From black pepper, 2 lbs.;
ginger, 1 lb.; cinnamon, allspice, and nutmegs,
of each, 8 oz. ; cloves, 1 oz. ; dry salt, 6 lbs. ;
well ground together. Useful to flavour gra-
vies, soups, &c.
Spice, Mixed. As the last, omitting half the
salt.
Spice, Pease. See PoWDER.
Spice, Ragout. Prep. From dry salt, 1 lb.;
flour of mustard, black pepper, and grated lemon
peel, of each, 3 lb.; cayenne pepper, 2 oz. ;
allspice and ginger, of each, 1 oz. ; nutmeg, #
oz. ; all separately powdered.
Spice, Sausage (French). Syn. EPICE FINEs,
Fr. Prep. From black pepper, 5 lbs. ; ginger
2} lbs.; cloves and nutmegs, of each 1 lb.;
aniseed and coriander seeds, of each, 3 lb. ;
powder and mix them.
Spice, Sa'voury. Prep. 1. (Kidder’s.)
From cloves, mace, nutmegs, pepper, and salt,
equal parts. Used by cooks.
2. (Dr. Kitchener’s.) See RAGOUT SPICE
(above). -
Spice, Soup. Syn. KITCHENER's soup-HERB
PoWDER, KITCHENER's VEGETABLE RELISH,
&c. Prep. From parsley, lemon thyme, sweet
marjoram, and winter savoury, of each, dried,
2 oz. ; sweet bazil and yellow peel of lemon, of
each, dried, 1 oz. ; mix, and powder.
Spice, Sweet (Kidder's). Prep. From cin-
namon, cloves, mace, nutmegs, and sugar, equal
parts. Used in pastry.
SPIGE'LIA. Syn. CAROLINA P.INK ROOT;
SPIGELIA (Ph. E.), L. The root of Spägelia.
Marilandica, or worm grass. It is purgative,
narcotic, and vermifuge.—Dose, 10 to 40 grs.,
in powder or infusion, night and morning,
1068 SPIRIT.
until the worms are expelled. Rhubarb or order. Spirit may also be obtained by fer-
calomel is commonly added to it. mentation and distillation from all vegetable
SPIRIT. Syn. SPIRITUS, L. Under this juices or solutions that contain sugar.
term are included all the inflammable and | The spirit used in pharmacy and chemistry
intoxicating liquors obtained by distillation, is distinguished by names which have re-,
and used as beverages, as BRANDY, GIN, RUM, ference to its richness in alcohol. (See
&c., each of which is noticed in its alphabetical TABLEs.)
I. TABLE of the Pharmacopoeial Spirits.
Sp. gr. Sp. gr.
Alcohol, Ph. B. (absolute). -- . 0.795 \ º Rectified Spirit, Ph.D. . - ... 0-840 or 54}} 0. p.
ul'
, Ph. E. . . . . . 0.796 j Mºhol. Proof spirit, Spiritus Tenuio), oº, , –
,, Ph.D. 1826 . - - ... 0-810 or 70% o.p. Ph. B. . - - ...} 22
, Ph. L. 1836 . . . . 0-815 , 68%. , || Alcohol (absolu), P. Cod. . . . 0.797 , —
Stronger Spirit (Spiritus Fortior -
* * * *} osis, º, , (at 40°) , . . . 0-810 , 70% ,
*Rectified Spirit (Spirit of Wine; - - 0.
Spiritus iº 0.838 , 56%. , , (du commerce), P. Cod, . 0-863 , 41% ,
B. P. . - - - ,, (faible) ,, . . 0.923 ,, 2}}u.p.
* “This spirit can be reduced to the standard of the weaker (or proof) spirit, by adding, to every 5 pints of it,
3 pints of distilled water, at 62°Fahr.” (Ph.L.)
>
II. TABLE of the principal Spirituous Liquors sold in England, with their usual
Strengths, &c.
Usual Selling Strength.
Specific
- - - Revenue Import | Legal Limits Gravity
Denomination. Mark. Strength. of Štrength. Contains | Contains at 60°
By Alcohol | Absolute Fahr.
Permit. of 0.825. Alcohol.
*Gin (strongest). . X (17 u.p.) | ...... Not stronger 17 u.p. ...... 403 0.9395
than 25 o. p.
*Do. (best ordinary) . X (22 u.p.) | ...... do. 22 u. p. ...... 37.4% 0.94.45
fDo. (cordial) . . X (22 u. p.) do. 22 u. p. ...... do. |0.
+Do. . . . . X (24 u.p.) do. 24 u.p. ...... 36.5% |0.
#Peppermint . . . X mint. do. 60 u.p. ------ 21% |0.
Do. . - - - do. do. 64 u, p. ------ 183 |0.
#Cloves .
#Bitters
#Raspberry
£Noyau
#Cinnamon
fººd . . X (64 u, p.) | ...... do. 64 u. p. ...... do. nº
#Caraway . - - 1%
#Loveage -
fúsquebaugh.
#Orange Cordial.
£Citron . -
Rum . . . - R. lº, No limit. ll u.p. ------ 43% º
0. p. to O
30, p. 0.8597
#Rum Shrub . - R. Sh. ...... do. 64 u. p. ... .. 18% |0.
#D0. . - - - do. 1 ...... do. 60 u, p. ...... 21% |0.
French Brandy . . F. 5 * 8 do. 10 u, p. ...... 44% 0.93.18
- O. D. LO
or 10 u.p
§Spirit of Wine . . S. W. ...... Not less 54 to ...... . ...... 0.8415
than 43 0. p. 64 o.p. to
Malt, grain, or mo- ():8221
lasses spirit (sent
out by British dis- -
tillers) . - - P. S. ------ Not stronger] ....., | ...... ------ 0.8669 to
than 25 0. p. 0-93.18
Hollands . - - Geneva. | ..... - No limit. ,..., - 51.60% 40.5% 0.9358
Whiskey (Irish). - P. S. ...... } Not stronger { ------ 54% 50%
Do. (Scotch) - P. S. ..... - than 25 0. p. & ...... 54.3% 50.2%
* Frequently retailed at 25 to 35 u.p. § Usual strength 54 to 60 o.p.
# Though “permitted” at 22 to 24, are generally from | | The specific gravity is no guide when sugar is pre-
25 to 35 u.p., or even weaker. sent, as in compounds.
# These, though “permitted at 60 or 64 u.p., are gene-
rally 75 or 80 u, p.


SPIRIT. 1069
Spirituous liquors, like all other fluids at
common temperatures, expand when they are
heated, and diminish in volume when they are
cooled. It is found that 1000 galls. of proof
spirit, measured at the temperature of 50°Fahr.,
will, if re-measured at 59°, be found to have
increased in bulk to fully 1004% galls. ; whilst
1000 galls. of the same spirit, measured at 77°
Fahr., will be only equal to 991% galls. at 59°,
These changes are still more marked at higher
strengths, and at extreme temperatures, and,
from not being recognisable by the hydro-
meter, often lead to serious losses in trade,
and to serious fluctuations in ‘stock,” which,
to those unaware of the action of temperature,
are perfectly unaccountable. A gallon of proof
spirit only weighs 94 lbs. at 60°Fahr. At a
higher temperature it will weigh less—at a
lower one, more; but as this weight consti-
tutes the standard gallon at the temperature
the proof is calculated for, it is manifest that
any variations from it must result in loss either
to the buyer or seller. Hence the equity of
buying and selling liquors by weight, instead
of by measure. The stock-keeper in every
wholesale house should be aware of this fact,
and on “taking stock’ should as regularly
enter the temperature of his liquors in his
stock-book as he does the ‘dip’ or ‘wet inches.’
See ALCOHOL, ALCOHOLOMETRY, SPECIFIC
GRAVITY, SPIRITS (Medicinal), SPIRITs (Per-
fumed), &c.
Spirit, Amyl'ic. See FUSELOIL.
Spirit, Dyer's. See TIN MoRDANTs.
Spirit, Meth'ylated. Spirit of wine to which
one tenth of its volume of wood naphtha
(strength not less than 60° o. p.) has been
added, the object of such addition being that
of rendering the mixture unpotable through,
its offensive odour and taste. The purification
of this mixed spirit, or the separation of the
two alcohols, though often attempted, has
always proved a failure. It might be sup-
posed that, owing to the low boiling-point of
methylic alcohol, simple distillation would
effect this; but experience has shown that both
spirits distil over simultaneously. This is, no
doubt, due to the difference of their vapour
densities. Methylated spirit, being sold duty
free, can be employed by the chemical manu-
facturer as a solvent in many processes for
which, from its greater cost duty-paid spirit
would be commercially inapplicable. But in
the preparation of medicines, containing spirit,
as the vehicle or menstruum by which more
active substances are administered, the em-
ployment of methylated spirit is highly im-
proper. The Council of the Pharmaceutical
Society obtained from the Pharmacopoeia
Committee of the Medical Council, the decided
opinion that “the substitution of ‘methy-
lated' for “rectified’ spirit in any of the pro-
cesses of the Pharmacopoeia should be strictly
prohibited.” -
The use of methylated spirit in the prepara-
tion of tinatures, sweet spirit of nitre, common
ether, or any medicine to be used internally, is
now prohibited by law.
Spirit, Proof. See above.
Spirit, Pyroacetic. Syn. ACETONE ; SPI-
RITUS PYROACETICUS, L. ; ACáTONE, ESPRIT
PYROACáTIQUE, Fr. An inflammable volatile
liquid obtained with carbonic acid and other
products when the metallic acetates in an an-
hydrous state are subjected to destructive dis-
tillation. . The acetate of lead is the most
eligible salt for this purpose.
Prep. 1. Dried acetate of lead is carefully
distilled in a large earthen or coated-glass
retort, by a heat gradually raised to redness,
the volatile products being passed through a
condenser well supplied with cold water. The
distillation is continued until nothing but
finely divided lead (lead pyrophorus) remains
in the retort. The receiver contains crude
acetone, which is to be saturated with car-
bonate of potassa, and afterwards rectified in a
water bath from chloride of calcium.
2. By passing the vapour of strong acetic
acid through an iron tube heated to dull
redness, and condensing the acetone thus
formed.
Obs. In both of the above processes car-
bonic acid and other permanent gases are pro-
duced, consequently the receiver must not fit
too closely to the tube of the condenser.
Prop. Colourless, limpid, of peculiar odour,
and very inflammable, giving a brilliant flame,
without smoke ; boiling-point 132° Fahr. ;
sp. gr. 792. It dissolves resins and essential
oils. See MESITILOL, MESITYL, METACETONE,
&c.
Spirit, Pyroxyl'ic. Syn. PyRo11GNEOUS
SPIRIT, WooD S., MEDICINAL NAPHTHA, WooD
N., HYDRATED OXIDE OF METHYL ; SPIRITUS
PYROXYLICUs (Ph. D.), L. A light volatile
liquid, discovered by P. Taylor, in 1812, among
the limpid products of the distillation of dry
wood. It has been shown by Dumas and
Peligot to be “really a second alcohol, forming
an ether, and a series of compounds (MYTHYL-
SERIES) exactly corresponding with those of
vinous spirit, and, in some points, even more
complete than the latter.”
Prep. Crude pyroligneous acid (which con-
tains about 1% of the spirit) is subjected to
distillation, and the first or more volatile
portion which passes over is neutralised with
hydrate of lime. After repose, the clear liquid
is separated from the oil which floats on the
surface, and from the sediment at the bottom
of the vessel; this, when redistilled, forms the
wood spirit of commerce. It may be
strengthened in the same manner as ordinary
alcohol, by rectification, and ultimately ren-
dered pure by careful distillation from quick-
lime by the heat of a water bath. Berzelius
recommends the crude spirit to be agitated
with a fatty oil, to remove empyreumatic
matter, and then to rectify it, first, from
recently burnt charcoal, and next with chloride
of calcium.

1070
SPIRITS.
Prop., &c. Pure pyroxylic spirit is a trans-
parent colourless liquid, having a penetrating
ethereal smell, and a hot disagreeable taste;
it is very inflammable, burning with a pale
blue flame. It is neutral to test paper ; mixes
with water, alcohol, and ether, in all propor-
tion; and boils at 152°Fahr. ; sp. gr. 798 at
68°Fahr. (Regnault and Liebig.) Dr. Ure
states the sp. gr. to be '824 at 60°; the Dublin
College makes it '846. That of the latter
must therefore have contained a little water.
It does not dissolve India rubber and gutta.
percha, like mineral or true naphtha.
Pyroxylic spirit is distinguished from ace-
tone or pyroacetic spirit by the character
of its flame, and by freely dissolving chloride
of calcium, which is quite insoluble in the
latter. In a mixture of these two liquids two
distinct strata are formed when this sub-
stance, either in powder or concentrated solu-
tion, is added. -
Pyroxylic spirit is distinguished from vinous
spirit by Nessler’s test (which see), by its
forming a solid crystalline salt (methylic
oxalate) when distilled with an oxalate and
sulphuric acid, and by its lower boiling-point.
The presence of alcohol, in a mixture of the
two, is readily detected by distilling the sus-
pected sample with sulphuric acid. The for-
mation of common ether indicates ethylic
alcohol, and from the amount formed the pro-
portion of alcohol may be determined.
Uses, &c. Chiefly to dissolve resins and
volatile oils, especially shell-lac, and as a sub-
stitute for alcohol in spirit lamps. As a medi-
cine, it is anodyne and sedative ; and has been
beneficially employed by Drs. Christison,
Hastings, and Neligan, to allay the harassing
cough, troublesome vomiting, and excessive
expectoration, in phthisis and some other
affections—Dose. 5 to 30 drops, thrice a day,
in water.
Spirit, Rai'sin. Prep. From raisins fer-
mented along with water, and the wash dis-
tilled by a quick fire. Used to give a brandy
flavour to malt spirit. 1 gal, added to 150
galls, of plain spirit, along with some colour-
ing, and a little catechu, either with or with-
out a little acetic ether, makes a very decent
‘British Brandy.”
Spirit, Rec'tified. See ALCOHOL, and TABLE
I, under SPIRIT.
Spirit of Salt+. Hydrochloric acid.
Spirit of Soup-herbs. As essence of soup-
herbs, but substituting 1 quart of brandy or
proof spirit for the rectified spirit.
Spirit of Wine. See ALCOHOL, and TABLE I,
under SPIRIT.
SPIRITS (Medic'imal). Syn. SPIRITUS ME-
DICINALES, L. The spirits of pharmacy are
either prepared by macerating the bruised
seeds, flowers, herbs, &c., in the spirit, for 2 or
3 days before distillation, and then drawing it
off by a gentle heat; or extemporaneously, by
adding a proper proportion of essential oil to
pure spirit of the prescribed strength. This
latter plan is very generally adopted in the
Ph. D. In the first method, when a naked
fire is employed, a little water is put into the
still along with the spirit, to prevent empy-
reuma. These spirits are principally employed
as aromatics and stimulants, or as adjuvants
in draughts and mixtures. -
The following are the principal medicinal
spirits:—
Spirit of Ammo"nia. Syn. SPIRITUS AM-
MONIE (Ph. E.). Prep. 1. (Ph. E.) Take
of quicklime, 12 oz. ; slake it with water, 6%
fl. oz. ; add of finely powdered chloride of
ammonium, 3 oz. ; and distil in a glass retort
furnished with a tube reaching nearly to the
bottom of a bottle containing rectified spirit,
2 pints, and kept well cooled. A sand heat
is to be employed, and the distillation con-
tinued as long as anything passes over. The
product has a sp. gr. about 845, and should
not effervesce with acids. The alkali is here
in the caustic state, and in this respect it
resembles the spirit of ammonia, Ph. U. S.,
and Dzond’s caustic spirit of ammonia, Ph. Bor.
2. (Ph. L. 1836.) Chloride of ammonium,
10 oz. ; carbonate of potassa, 16 oz. ; rectified
spirit and water, of each, 3 pints; mix, and
let 3 pints distil.
3. (Ph.D. 1826.) Dissolve 3% oz. of carbo-
nate of ammonia, in rectified spirit, 3 winepints.
Obs. The ammonia in the last two pre-
parations exists in the carbonated state. They
are chiefly employed to make other preparations.
4. (ANISATED SPIRIT OF AMMONIA; LIQUOR
AMMONIAE ANISATUS, SPIRITUS A. A.—Ph.
Bor.) Rectified spirit, 12 oz. ; oil of aniseed,
3 drs. ; dissolve, and add of caustic solution of
ammonia (1960), 3 oz.
5. (AROMATIC SPIRIT OF AMMONIA, SPIRIT
OF SAL VOLATILE ; SPIRITUS AMMONIAE ARO-
MATIOUS—B. P., Ph. L. E. & D.)—a. (Ph.
L.) Take of hydrochlorate of ammonia, 6
Oz. ; carbonate of potassa, 10 oz. ; cinnamon
and cloves, of each, bruised, 2% drs.; fresh
lemon peel, 5 oz. ; rectified spirit and water,
of each, 2 quarts; mix, and distil 3 quarts,
Sp. gr. 918.
b. (Ph. E.) Spirit of ammonia, 8 fl. Oz. ;
oil of rosemary, 1} fl. dr. ; oil of lemon peel,
1 fl. dr. ; mix,
c. (Ph. D.) Rectified spirit, 3 pints; oil
of lemon, ; fl. oz. ; oil of nutmeg, 2 fl. drs, ;
oil of cinnamon, , fl. dr. ; dissolve, and add of
stronger solution of ammonia, 6 fl. Oz. Sp. gr.
'852.
d. (B. P.) Carbonate of ammonia, 8 oz. ;
strong solution of ammonia, 4 oz. ; volatile oil
of nutmeg, 4 drs.; oil of lemon, 6 drs. ; rec-
tified spirit, 6 pints; water, 3 pints; distil 7
pints.--Dose. 20 to 60 minims in camphor
water.
Obs. The ammonia exists in the state of
neutral carbonate in the product of the a
formula, but in the caustic state in those of
the others.--Dose. # to 1 fl. dr., in water, or
any bland liquid; as a diffusible stimulant and

SPIRITS.
1071.
antacid, in debility, low spirits, dyspepsia,
heartburn, flatulent colic, hysteria, &c. The
spirit of sal volatile of the shops is generally a
spurious compound of little more than half the
above strength.
6. (FETID SPIRIT OF AMMONIA; SPIRITUS
AMMONIE FOETIDUs—B. P., Ph. L. E. & D.),
L.—a. (Ph. E.) Hydrochlorate of ammonia,
10 oz. ; carbonate of potassa, 16 oz. ; assa-
foetida, 5 oz. ; rectified spirit and water, of
each, 3 pints; mix well, then slowly distil 3
pints. Sp. gr. 861.
b. (Ph. E.) Spirit of ammonia, 10% fl. oz. ;
assafoetida (broken small), , oz. ; digest for 12
hours, then distil 10% fl. oz., by the heat of a
vapour (water) bath.
c. (Ph. D.) Assafoetida, 1% oz. ; rectified
spirit, 1% pint; digest for 24 hours, then
distil of the whole of the spirit, and mix the
product with stronger solution of ammonia, 3
fl. oz. Sp. gr. 849.
d. (B. P.) Strong solution of ammonia, 2;
assafoetida, in small pieces, 1%; rectified spirit,
sufficient ; macerate the assafoetida in 15 of the
spirit for 24 hours, distil, add the distillate to
the ammonia, and make up with spirit to 20.
—Dose. # to 1 dr.
Obs. The dose, &c., are the same as those of
the last, but it is preferred for hysterical and
spasmodic affections.
Spirit, Amylºic. Syn. ALCOHOL AMYLICUM
(Ph. D.), L. See FUSEL OIL.
Spirit of An'iseed. Syn. SPIRITUS ANISI
(Ph. L.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Oil of ani-
seed, 3 fl. drs. ; proof spirit, 1 gal. ; dissolve.
Carminative.—Dose. } fl. dr. to 4 fl. drs.
2. (ESSENTIA ANISI—Ph. D.) Oil of ani-
seed, 1 fl. oz. ; rectified spirit, 9 fl. oz. ; mix
with agitation. Chiefly used to make aniseed
water.
3. (CoMPOUND SPIRIT OF ANISEED; SPI-
RITUs ANISI COMPOSITUs—Ph. D. 1826.) Ani-
seed and angelica seed, of each, lb.; proof
spirit, 1 gal. ; water, q. S. ; distil 1 gallon.
When coloured with saffron, or sap green, it
closely resembles the Irish usquebaugh.
(Montgomery.)—Dose. 1 to 4 fl. drs.
Spirit, Arquebusade'. See WULNERARY
SPIRIT (below).
Spirit of Balm (Compound). Syn. BALM
WATER, CARMELITE W.; AQUA MELISSAE COM-
POSITA, SPIRITUS M. COMPOSITUS, L.; EAU
DES CARMES, EAU DE MELISSE DES CARMES,
Fa. Prep. 1. (P. Cod.) Fresh flowering tops
of balm, 24 oz. ; fresh lemon peel, 4 oz. ; cinna-
mon, cloves, and nutmegs, of each, 2 oz. ; cori-
ander seed and dried angelica root, of each,
1 oz. ; rectified spirit, 8 lbs. ; macerate for 8
days and distil in a water bath to dryness.
The spirit is much esteemed in France as a
stomachic, a cosmetic, and a stimulant.
Spirit, Bath'ing. Soap liniment.
Spirit of Camphor. Syn. CAMPHORATED
SPIRIT ; SPIRITUS CAMPHORE (B. P., Ph. L.),
TINCTURA CAMPHORAE, SPIRITUS CAMPHO-
RATUS, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Camphor, 5
oz. ; rectified spirit, 1 quart ; dissolve.
2. (B. P.) Camphor, 1 ; rectified spirit, 9;
dissolve.—Dose. 10 to 30 minims, in milk or
on sugar. Used as an application to chilblains,
and in chronic rheumatism, cholera, &c. See
DROPS, ESSENCE, and TINCTURE.
Spirit of Car’away. Syn. SPIRITUS CARUI
(Ph. L. & E.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Oil of
caraway, 2 fl. drs. ; proof spirit, 1 gal. ; dis-
solve.
2. (Ph. E.) Caraway seeds (bruised), 3 lb. ;
proof spirit, 7 pints; macerate for 2 days in a
covered vessel, then add of water, 1; pint, and
distil 7 pints. Aromatic and carminative.—
Dose. 1 to 4 fl. drs. A similar spirit, “sweet-
ened with sugar, is drunk in Germany as a
dram (KüMELLIQUEUR ; KUMELBRANDTWEIN).
3. (ESSENTIA CARUI—Ph. D.) Oil of cara-
way, 1 fl. oz. ; rectified spirit, 9 fl. oz. Used
to make caraway water.
Spirit of Cas'sia. Syn. SPIRITUs cassIE
(Ph. E.), L. Prep. From coarsely powdered
cassia, 1 lb. ; proof spirit, 7 pints; water, 1};
pint, or q. s. ; draw off 7 pints.--Dose, &c., as
the last. It is almost universally substituted
for spirit of cinnamon.
Spirit of Cin'mamom. Syn. SPIRITUS CIN-
NAMOMI (Ph. L. & E.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.)
Oil of cinnamon, 2 fl. drs. ; proof spirit, 1 gal.;
dissolve.
2. (Ph. E.) From cinnamon, as spirit of
cassia.--Dose. 1 to 4 fl. drs.
3. (ESSENTIA CINNAMOMI—Ph. D.) Oil of
cinnamon, 1 fl. Oz.; rectified spirit, 9 fl. oz.
Used to make cinnamon water, &c.
Spirit of Ether. Syn. SPIRIT of SULPHURIC
ETHER, SWEET SPIRIT OF WITRIOL: ; SPIRITU's
ETHERIS (B. P.), SPIRITUS FTHERIS SUL-
PHURICI (Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1.-a. (Ph. E.)
Sulphuric ether, 1 part ; rectified spirit, 2
parts. Sp. gr. 809. Obs. This preparation
should be neutral to test paper, mix (clear)
with water, and, when shaken with twice its
volume of concentrated solution of chloride of
calcium, 28% of ether should separate.—Dose.
# to 2 or 3 fl. drs. ; as a stimulant and ano-
dwne.
b. (B.P.) Ether, 1; rectified spirit, 2; mix.
— Dose. 30 to 60 minims.
2. (COMPOUND SPIRIT of ETHER, HoFF-
MANN’s ANODYNE LIQUOR ; SPIRITUS ASTHERI's
COMPOSITUS (Ph. L.), S. ATHERIs of Eosus
(Ph. D.), L.-a. (Ph. L.) Ether, 8 fl. oz. ;
rectified spirit, 16 fl. OZ, ; ethereal oil, 3 fl. drs.;
In 1X.
b. (Ph. D.) Mix in a glass matrass, oil of
vitriol, 1% pint, with rectified spirit, 1 pint;
connect this with a Liebig’s condenser, apply
heat, and distil until a black froth begins to
rise; then separate the upper stratum of the
distilled liquid, and, having exposed it to the
air for 24 hours, let the oil be transferred to a
moist paper filter, and washed with a little
cold water; lastly, dissolve it in a mixture of
rectified spirit, 3 pint ; sulphuric ether, 5 fl. oz.
1072
SPIRITS,
Obs. This compound is anodyne and anti-
spasmodic, and was once held in very great
repute.—Dose. } to 2 fl. drs. -
3. (AROMATIC SPIRIT OF ETHER, A. S. OF
SULPHURIC E., SWEET ELIXIR OF VITRIOL: ;
SPIRITUs AETHERIS AROMATICUs, L. Prep.
(Ph. L. 1824.) Bruised cinnamon, 3 drs. ; car-
damoms, 1% dr. ; long pepper and ginger, of
each, 1 dr.; rectified spirit, 10 fl. oz. ; sulphuric
ether, 5 fl. oz. ; mix, and digest 14 days. The
last two preparations are also frequently called
“sweet elixir of vitriol.”
Spirit of Harts'horn. Syn. LIQUOR or SPI-
RITUS VOLATILIS CORNU CERVI, L. Originally
distilled from hartshorn. Dilute liquor of ammo-
nia is now generally sold for spirit of hartshorn.
Spirit of Horseradish (Compound). Syn.
SPIRITUS ARMORACLE COMPOSITUs (B. P., Ph.
L.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Sliced horseradish
and dried orange peel, of each, 20 oz. ; bruised
nutmegs, 5 drs. ; proof spirit, 1 gal.; water, 1
quart, or q. S.; distil 1 gal. Stimulant and
diuretic.—Dose. 1 to 4 fl. drs. ; in dropsies,
when there is much debility. It is usually com-
bined withinfusion of juniperberries or foxglove.
2. (B. P.) Fresh root, sliced, 20; dried
orange peel, 20; nutmeg, bruised, }; proof
spirit, 160; water, 40; mix, and distil over
160.-Dose. 1 to 3 drs.
Spirit of Hydrochlo"ric Ether. Syn. SPIRIT
OF MURIATIC ETHER, CLUTTON's FEBRIFUGE
SPIRIT ; AETHER HYDROCHLORICUS ALCOHOLI-
CUS, SPIRITUS ATHERIS MURIATICI, L. Prep.
1. From hydrochloric ether and rectified spirit,
equal parts ; mixed together.
2. (Ph. E. 1744.) Hydrochloric acid, 1 part;
rectified spirit, 3 parts; digest some days, and
distil in a sand bath.—Dose. , to 3 fl. drs. ;
in dyspepsia, liver complaints, hectic fever, &c.
Spirit of Juni"per. Syn. SPIRITUs JUNIPERI
(B. P.). Prep. English oil of juniper, 1 ; recti-
fied spirit,49; dissolve.—Dose. 30 to 60 minims.
Spirit of Juniper (Compound). Syn. SPI-
RITUs JUNIPERI COMPOSITUs (Ph. L. E. & D.),
L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Oil of juniper, 1}; fl.
dr. ; oils of caraway and fennel, of each, 12
drops; proof spirit, 1 gal.; dissolve.
2. (Ph. L. 1836.) Juniper berries, bruised,
15 oz. ; caraway and fennel seed, of each,
bruised, 2 oz. ; proof spirit, 1 gal. ; water, 1
quart, or q. s. ; distil 1 gallon.
Obs. This spirit is stimulant and diuretic.
— Dose, 2 to 4 fl. drs. Mixed with twice or
thrice its weight of proof spirit, and sweetened
with a little sugar, it makes no bad substitute
for Hollands gin.
Spirit of Lav'ender. Syn. SPIRITUS LAVAN-
DULE (B. P., Ph. E.), L. Prep. From fresh
lavender, 2% lbs. ; rectified spirit, 1 gal.; water,
1 quart, or q. S.; distill gallon (7 pints—Ph. E.).
2. (Wholesale.) From Mitcham oil of laven-
der, 3 oz. ; rectified spirit, 1 gal.; dissolve.
Cordial and fragrant."
3. (B. P.) English oil of lavender, 1; rec-
tified spirit, 49; dissolve.—Dose. 30 to 60
minims, SeeSPIRITS (Perfumed), TINCTURE, &c.
Spirit of Niſtric Ether. Syn. SPIRIT OF
NITROUS ETHER, SWEET SPIRIT OF NITRE,
NITROUS ETHEREAL SPIRIT, NITRE DROPS ;
SPIRITUs AETHERIs NITRICI (B. P., Ph. L. &
E.), SPIRITUs AETHEREUs NITROSUs (Ph.D.),
L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Take of rectified
spirit, 1 quart ; nitric acid, 3} fl. oz.; add the
acid, by degrees, to the spirit; then mix them,
and let 28 fl. Oz. distil over.
still and condensing worm should be employed.
Sp. gr. 834.
2. (Ph. E.) Pure hyponitrous ether (Ph.
E.), 1 part ; rectified spirit, 4 parts ; (both by
volume;) mix. Sp. gr. 847.
3. (Ph. D.) Nitrous or hyponitrous ether
(which has been washed with half of its volume
of liquor of ammonia), 4 fl. oz. ; rectified spirit,
“in 42 fl. oz. ; mix, and preserve the compound
in small, strong, and accurately stopped bottles.”
4. (B. P.) Nitric acid (sp. gr. 1:42), 3 ;
sulphuric acid, 2 ; copper, in fine powder (No.
25), 2.; rectified spirit, a sufficiency; to 20 of
the spirit add gradually the sulphuric acid,
stirring them together; then add to this, also
gradually, 2% of the nitric acid. Put the mix-
ture into a retort or other suitable apparatus,
into which the copper has been introduced, and
to which a thermometer is fitted. Attach now
an efficient condenser, and, applying a gentle
heat, let the spirit distil at a temperature com-
mencing at 170° and rising to 175°, but not
exceeding 180°, until 12 have passed over and
been collected in a bottle kept cool, if neces-
sary, with ice-cold water; then withdraw the
heat, and, having allowed the contents of the
retort to cool, introduce the remaining of
nitric acid, and resume the distillation as
before, until the increased product has been
increased to 15. Mix this with 40 of the
rectified spirit, or as much as will make the
product correspond to the tests of specific
gravity and per-centage of ether separated by
chloride of calcium. Preserve it in well-closed
vessels.
Char. and Tests. Transparent, and nearly
colourless, with a very slight tinge of yellow,
mobile, inflammable, of a peculiar penetrating
apple-like odour, and sweetish, cooling, sharp
taste. It effervesces feebly, or not at all, when
shaken with a little bicarbonate of soda. When
agitated with solution of sulphate of iron and
a few drops of sulphuric acid, it becomes deep
olive-brown or black. If it be agitated with
twice its volume of a saturated solution of
chloride of calcium in a closed tube, 2% of its
original volume will separate in the form of
nitrous ether, and rise to the surface of the
mixture. Sp. gr. 845.-Dose. 1 to 2 fl. drs.
Pur., &c. Pure spirit of nitric ether boils
at about 160°Fahr., scarcely reddens litmus
paper, and “gives off no bubbles of carbonic
acid gas on the addition of carbonate of soda.”
(Ph. L.) “When agitated with twice its
volume of concentrated solution of chloride of
calcium, 12% of ether slowly separates.”
E.)—Dose. # to 3 fl, drs, as a febrifuge, a dia-
(Ph.
An earthenware

SPIRITS (PERFUMED). 1073
phoretic, diuretic, antispasmodic, &c.; in va-
rious affections.
Obs. The mass of the sweet spirits of nitre
of the shops is of very inferior quality, and is
scarcely, if ever, made directly from spirit
that has paid the duty. One, and a very large
portion, is obtained from Scotland; another,
from the manufacturers of fulminating mer-
cury; and a third, and, in fact, the principal
part, from certain persons in the neighbour-
hood of the metropolis who employ contraband
spirit for its preparation, as this article is not
under the excise. Recently methylated spirit
has been employed for the purpose.
Sweet spirits of nitre, sp. gr. 850, is now
commonly and publicly sold, in quantity, at a
price which is only about 2-3rds that of the
spirit in it, if the latter had paid duty. The
spirit obtained from the manufacturers of ful-
minating mercury frequently contains no in-
considerable quantity of hydrocyanic acid.
The mere admixture of nitric or hyponitrous
ether with alcohol does not afford an officinal
SPIR. ETHER. NITR., as this always contains
aldehyde, which, according to Prof. Liebig,
is an essential constituent of the officinal com-
pound.
Spirit of Nitrous Ether. Syn. SPIRITUS
FTHERIs NITROSI (B. P.). See SPIRIT OF
NITRIC ETHER.
Spirit of Nut’meg. Syn. SPIRITUs MY-
RISTICAE (B. P., Ph. L. & E.), S. NUCIs Mos-
CHATE, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L. & E.) Bruised
nutmegs, 2% oz. ; proof spirit, 1 gal.; water,
1 pint, or q. S.; distil a gallon. Cordial and
carminative.—Dose. 1 to 4 fl. drs. ; chiefly used
to flavour mixtures and draughts.
2. (ESSENTIA MYRISTICE MoscHATE–Ph.
D.) Oil of nutmegs, 1 fl. oz.; rectified spirit,
9 fl. oz. Used in dispensing.
* 3. (B. P.) Volatile oil of nutmeg, 1; rec-
tified spirit, 49; dissolve.—Dose. 30 to 60
minims.
Spirit of Pennyroy'al. Syn. SPIRITUS PU-
LEGII (Ph. L.), S. MENTHAE PULEGII, L.
Prep. 1. (Ph.L.) Oil of pennyroyal, 3 fl. drs. ;
proof spirit, 1 gall. ; dissolve. Stimulant, an-
tispasmodic, and carminative.—Dose. # to 2
fl. drs.
2. (ESSENTIA MENTHE PULEGII—Ph. D.)
Oil of pennyroyal, I fl. oz. ; rectified spirit, 9
fl. oz. Used chiefly in dispensing.
Spirit of Pep'permint. Syn. SPIRITUS
MENTHAE PIPERITE (B. P., Ph. L.), S. MEN-
THE (Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Oil of
peppermint, 3 fl. drs.; proof spirit, 1 gal. ;
dissolve.
2. (Ph. E.) Green peppermint, 1% lb. ;
proof spirit, 7 pints; macerate 2 days; add of
water, q. S., and distil 7 pints.--Dose. # to
2 drs.
3. (ESSENTIA MENTHAE PIPERITAE–Ph. D.)
Oil of peppermint, 1 fl. oz. ; rectified spirit, 9
fl. oz. See ESSENCE of PEPPERMINT.
4. (B. P.) English oil of peppermint, 1 ;
rectified spirit, 49; dissolve.—Dose. 30 to 60
minims, or, for children under five years, 1 to 3
minims.
Spirit of Pimento. Syn. SPIRIT of ALL-
SPICE; SPIRITUs PIMENTE–Ph. L. & E.), L.
Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Oil of pimento, 2 fl. drs. ;
proof spirit, 1 gal.; dissolve.
2. (Ph. E.) From pimento, bruised, 3 lb.,
and proof spirit, 7 pints; as spirit of caraway.
Carmative and stomachic.—Dose. 1 to 4 fl.
drs. ; in flatulent colic, dyspepsia, &c.
3. (ESSENTIAE PIMENTAE-Ph. D.) Oil of
pimento, 1 fl. oz. ; rectified spirit, 9 fl. oz.
Used to make pimento water, and in dispens-
Ing.
Spirit of Pine-tops. Syn. SPIRITUs TURIO-
NUM PINI, L. See RIGA BALSAM.
Spirit of Rose'mary. Syn. SPIRITUS Ros-
MARINI (B. P., Ph. L. & E.), L. Prep. 1.
(Ph. L.) As SPIRIT OF PIMENTo.
2. (Ph. E.) Rosemary tops, 2% lbs. ; rectified
spirit, 1 gall.; as SPIRIT OF LAVENDER. Fra-
grant and stimulant.
3. (ESSENTIA RoSMARINI-Ph. D.) As
ESSENCE OF PIMIENTO.
4. (B. P.) Oil of rosemary, 1 ; rectified
spirit, 49; dissolve.--Dose. 10 to 30 minims.
Spirit of Spear'mint. Syn. SPIRITUS MEN-
THE VIRIDIS (Ph. L.), S. MENTHAE SATIVE,
L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) As SPIRIT OF PEP-
PERMINT—Ph. L.
2. (ESSENTIA MENTHAE VIRIDIs—Ph. D.)
As ESSENCE OF PEPPERMINT—Ph. D. The uses
and doses are also the same.
Spirit of Sulphu'ric Ether. See page 1072.
Spirit of Vitriol (Sweet). See AROMATIC
SPIRIT OF ETHER (above).
Wul'nerary Spirit. Syn. VULNERARY waſ ER,
ARQUEBUSADE ; SPIRITUS VULNERARIUS, L.;
EAU D’ARQUEBUSADE, Fr. Prep. 1. Dried
tops of sage, wormwood, fennel, hyssop, mar-
joram, savory, thyme, rosemary, calamint, balm,
peppermint, and scordium, fresh leaves of an-
gelica and basil, and lavender flowers, of each,
4 oz. ; proof spirit, 2 galls.; digest for 14 days,
and distil over 1% gal.
2. Rosemary leaves, 1% lb.; leaves of thyme
and summits of millefoil, of each, 3 lb. ; juniper
berries, 3 oz. ; proof spirit, 2 galls. ; distil over
5 quarts.
Obs. This preparation is stimulant and vul-
nerary, and is in great repute on the Con-
tinent as a cosmetic and cordial,
SPIRITS (Perfumed). Syn. SPIRITUs opo-
RIFERI, ODORES SPIRITUOSI, L. The odo-
riferous spirits of the perfumer are, for the
most part, prepared from various aromatic and
odorous substances, by a similar process to that
described under ESSENCEs and SPIRITs (Medi-
cinal); but in this case a perfectly pure, fla-
vourless, and scentless spirit must be employed.
The distillation should also be preferably con-
ducted by steam, or the heat of a water bath,
and the distilled spirit should be kept for
some time in a cellar, or other cold situation,
previously to being used. When simple solu-
tion of an essential oil in the spirit is adopted,

68

1074
SPIRITS (PERFUMED).
care should be taken that the oil is pale and
new ; or, at least, has not been much exposed
to the air; as in that case it would contain
resin, which would make the perfumed spirit,
or essence, liable to stain delicate articles of
clothing to which it may be applied. Most of
the ‘eaux’ and ‘esprits’ of the perfumers
are prepared by one or other of the above
methods. It is found, however, that the per-
fumed spirits of some of the more delicate
flowers cannot be well obtained by either in-
fusion or distillation, or by the simple solution
of their essential oils in spirit; or, at least,
they are not usually so prepared by the foreign
perfumers. The spirits of orange flowers,
jasmin, tuberose, jonquille, roses, and of
some other flowers, and of cassia, vanilla,
&c., are commonly prepared by digesting pure
rectified spirit for 3 or 4 days on half its
weight of the respective pommades or oils, ob-
tained by infusion or contact. The operation
is performed in a closed vessel placed in a
water bath, and frequent agitation is employed
for 3 or 4 days, when the perfumed spirit is
decanted into a second digester, containing a
like quantity of oil to the first. The whole
process is repeated a second and a third time,
after which the spirit is allowed to settle and
is then decanted. It now forms the most fra-
grant and perfect odoriferous spirit (extrait)
of the Continental perfumer. The product is
called ‘esprit’ or “extrait of the first in-
fusion.” The three portions of oil are then
treated again with fresh spirit in the same
manner, and thus spirits or essences of inferior
quality are obtained, which are distinguished
by the perfumers as No. 2, 3, 4, &c., or
‘esprits’ or “extraits of the first, second,
third, &c., operation or infusion. In some,
though only a very few cases, the spirits are
afterwards distilled.
The strength of the spirit for the concen-
trated essences should not be less than 56
o. p. (sp. gr. 8376); that for eaux, esprits,
and extraits, not less than 35 o. p. (sp. gr.
•8723). The strength of the second quality of
the last three must be fully proof (sp. gr. 1920).
See ALCOHOL, DISTILLATION, ESSENCE, OILS,
PoMMADE, &c. and below.
Eau d'Ambre Royale. [Fr.] From essences
of ambergris and musk, of each, 1 fl.oz. ; spirit
of ambrette and orange-flower water, of each,
1 pint; rectified spirit, 1 quart ; mix.
Eau d'Ange, [Fr.] From flowering tops of
myrtle (bruised), 13 lb.; rectified spirit, 7
pints; water, 3 pints; digest a week, add of
common salt, 2 lbs., and distil 1 gal.
Eau d'Arquebusade. [Fr.] See page 1071.
Eau de Bouquet. [Fr.] From spirits of rose-
mary and essence of violets, of each, 1 fl. Oz. ;
essences of bergamot and jasmin, of each I fl.
dr. ; oils of verbena and lavender, of each, #
fl. dr.; orange-flower water, 1 fl. oz. ; eau de
rose, pint ; rectified spirit, 1 quart; mix.
Eau de Bouquet de Flore. [Fr.] From
spirits of rosemary and roses and essence of
violets, of each, ; fl. oz. ; oil of cedra and
essence of ambergris, of each, 1 fl. dr.; orange-
flower water, 5 fl. oz. ; rectified spirit, 1 pint.
Eau des Carmes. [Fr.] See SPIRIT OF
BALM.
Eau de Cologne. [Fr.] Syn. COLOGNE
WATER ; AQUA COLONIENSIS, A. C. SPIRITU-
OSA, SPIRITUS CoIONIENSIS, L. For the pro-
duction of good eau de Cologne it is abso-
lutely essential that the spirit be of the purest
description, both tasteless and scentless, and
that the oils be not only genuine, but recently
distilled, as old oils are less odorous, and con-
tain a considerable quantity of resin and cam-
phor, which prove injurious. When flowers
and the flowering tops of plants are ordered,
it is also necessary that they be either fresh'
gathered or well preserved, without drying
them. To produce an article of the finest
quality, distillation should be had recourse to.
A very excellent eau de Cologne may, how-
ever, be produced by simple solution of the
oils or essences in the spirit, provided they be
new, pale coloured, and pure. The mass of the
eau de Cologne prepared in England, some of
which possess the most delicate fragrance, and
is nearly equal to the best imported, is made
without distillation. In the shops two kinds
of this article are generally kept—French and
German. That prepared by Farina of Cologne
is esteemed the best, and is preferred in the
fashionable world.
Prep. 1. From essences of bergamot and
lemon, of each, 1 fl. dr.; oil of orange, }, dr.;
oil of neroli, 20 drops; oil of rosemary, 10
drops; essence of ambergris and musk, of each,
1 drop ; rectified spirit, # pint; mix.
2. Essence of bergamot, 3 fl. Oz. ; essence of
lemon, 3 fl. drs. ; essence of cedrat, 2 fl. drs. ;
oils of neroli and rosemary, of each, 1} fl. dr. ;
oil of balm, # fl. dr. ; rectified spirit, 1% gal.;
l]ll Y.
3. (Cadet Gassincourt.) Take of pure neroli,
essences (oils) of cedrat, orange, lemon, berga-
mot, and rosemary, of each, 24 drops; lesser
cardamom seeds, 3 oz. ; spirit at 32° Beaumé
(sp. gr. 869), 1 quart; digest a few days, and
then distil 1% pint.
4. (Farina.) Take of rectified spirit, 5 galls.;
calamus aromaticus, sage, and thyme, of each,
# dr. ; balm-mint and spearmint, of each, 1 oz.;
angelica root, 10 grs. ; camphor, 15 grs. ; petals
of roses and violets, of each, 3 drs. ; lavender
flowers, 1% dr. ; orange flowers, 1 dr. ; worm-
wood, nutmeg, cloves, cassia lignea, and mace,
of each, 20 grs. ; oranges and lemons, sliced, of
each, 2 in no.; bruise or slice the solids, ma-
cerate, with agitation, for 48 hours, then distil
off 2-3rds, and add to the product—essences of
lemon, cedrat, balm-mint, and lavender, of each,
1 fl. dr.; pure neroli and essence of the seeds
of anthos, of each, 20 drops; essences of jas-
mine and bergamot, of each, 1 fl. oz. ; mix well
and filter, if necessary.
5. (P. Cod.) Oils of bergamot, lemon, and
cedrat, of each, 3 oz. ; oils of rosemary, laven:

SPIRITS (PERFUMED).
1075
der, and neroli, of each, 1 oz. ; oil of cinna-
mon, # oz. ; spirit of rosemary, 1 quart; com-
pound spirit of balm (eau de melisse des
Carmes), 3 pints; rectified spirit, 3 galls.;
digest for 8 days, then distil 3 galls.
6. (Dr. A. T. Thomson.) Oils of bergamot,
orange, and rosemary, of each, 1 fl. dr. ; car-
damom seeds, 1 dr.; rectified spirit and orange-
flower water, of each, 1 pint; mix, digest for
a day, and then distil a pint.
7. (Trommsdorff.) Oils of neroli, citron,
bergamot, orange, and rosemary, of each, 12
drops; Malabar cardamoms, bruised, 1 dr.;
rectified spirit of wine, 1 quart; mix, and,
after standing 2 or 3 days, distil a quart.
Obs. Eau de Cologne is principally used
as a perfume, but a very large quantity is
consumed by fashionable ladies, as a cordial
and stimulant. For this purpose it is dulcified
with sugar. A piece of linen dipped in Cologne
water, and laid across the forehead, is a
fashionable remedy for headache.
Eau d’Elegance. [Fr.] From spirit of jes-
Samine, 1 pint; rectified spirit and spirits of
hyacinth and storax, of each, ; pint ; tinctures
of star-anise and tolu, of each, 2 fl.oz.; tincture
of vanilla, 1 fl. Oz. ; essence of ambergris, ; dr.;
mix, and in a week decant the clear portion.
Eau de Framboises. [Fr.] From straw-
berries, bruised, 16 lbs. ; rectified spirit, 1 gal.;
digest, and distil to dryness in a salt-water or
steam bath.
Eau d’Heliotrope. [Fr.] From essence of
ambergris, ; fl. dr.; vanilla, 3 oz.; orange-
flower water, , pint; rectified spirit, 1 quart;
digest a week, and filter.
Eau d'Hongrie. [Fr.] Syn. HUNGARY
WATER ; AQUA HUNGARICA, SPIRITUS ROS-
MARINI COMPOSITUS, L.; EAU DE LA REINE
D'Hong RIE, Fr. A fragrant stimulant and
cosmetic. Sweetened with sugar, it is also
tised as a liqueur.
Prep. 1. Rosemary tops, in blossom, 4 lbs. ;
fresh sage, } lb. ; bruised ginger, 2 oz. ; recti-
fied spirit, 1% gal.; water, 3 gal.; macerate
for 10 days, add of common salt, 3 lbs., and
then distil 11 pints. -
2. From oil of rosemary (genuine), 1} fl. dr.;
oil of lavender, # dr. ; orange-flower water,
# pint; rectified spirit, 1% pint; mix. SPIRIT
OF ROSEMARY (see above) is now commonly
sold for it.
Eau d’Ispaham. [Fr.] From oil of the
bitter orange, 2 fl. Oz. ; oil of rosemary, 2 drs.;
oils of cloves and neroli, of each, 1 fl. dr. ; oil
of spearmint, # fl. dr. ; eau de rose, 1 pint ;
rectified spirit, 7 pints; mix. It is better for
distillation. Used as Eau de Cologne.
Eau de Jasmin. [Fr.] See ESPRIT DE
JASMIN (below).
Eau de Lavande, [Fr.] Syn. LAVENDER
WATER, DOUBLE DISTILLED L. W.; AQUA LA-
VANDULAE, A. L. ODoRIFERA, SPIRITUS L., L.
Prep. 1. From the flowering tops of lavender
(freshly and carefully picked), 7 lbs.; rectified
spirit, 2 galls. ; macerate for a week, add of
water, gal.; (holding in solution) common
salt, 3 lbs., and distil 2 gallons.
2. From Mitcham oil of lavender, 8 oz.;
essence of musk, 4 oz.; essence of ambergris
and oil of bergamot, of each, 1% oz. ; rectified
spirit, 2 gallons; mix well. Very fine.
3. (Brande.) Oil of lavender, 20 oz. ; oil
of bergamot, 5 oz. ; essence of ambergris
(finest), 3 oz. ; rectified spirit, 5 galls.; mix.
Obs. The products of the last two formulae
are better for distillation; but in that case
the essences of ambergris and musk should
be added to the distilled spirit. The oils
should be of the best quality, and newly dis-
tilled, and the spirit should be perfectly scent-
less.
It may be useful to observe here, that the
common lavender water, double distilled laven-
der water, or spirit of lavender of the shops,
is made with spirit at proof, or even weaker;
hence its inferior quality to that of the more
celebrated perfumers. 1 oz. of true English
oil of lavender is all that will properly com-
bine with 1 gal. of proof spirit, without ren-
dering it muddy or cloudy.
Eau de lavande is a most agreeable and
fashionable perfume. The article produced
by the second formula, has received the com-
mendation of her Majesty and many of the
nobility.
Eau de Lavange (Ammoniacal). 1. To
lavender water, 1 pint, add of liquor of am-
monia, ; fl. Oz.
2. (P. Cod.) English oil of lavender, 1 oz.;
spirit of ammonia, 2 lbs. ; dissolve. Used as a
stimulating scent in fainting. See PERFUMEs
(Ammoniated).
Eau de Lawande de Millefleurs. To each
quart of the ordinary eau de lavender (Nos. 2
or 3), add of oil of cloves, 1% fl. dr.; essence of
ambergris, ; fl. dr.
Eau de Luce.
AMMONIA.
Eau de Maréchale. [Fr.] Syn. EXTRAIT
DE MAR#CHALE, Fr. 1. From ambergris and
grain musk, of each, 20 grs. ; oils of bergamot,
lavender, and cloves, of each, 1 oz. ; oils of sas-
Safras and origanum, of each, ; fl. dr.; rec-
tified spirit, 2 quarts; macerate with agitation
for a week.
2. Rectified spirit, 1 pint; essence of violets,
1 oz. ; essences of bergamot and oeillets, of each,
# oz. ; orange-flower water, 3 pint ; mix.
[Fr.] See TINCTURE OF
Eau de Melisse. [Fr.] See SPIRIT or
BALM.
Eau de Miel. [Fr.] Syn. HoNEY WATER,
SWEET-SCENTED H. W.; AQUA MELLIS, A. M.
ODORIFERA, L. Prep. 1. Take of spirit of
roses (No. 3—see above), 2 quarts; spirit of
jasmin and rectified spirit, of each, 1 quart;
essence of Portugal, 1 fl.oz.; essences of vanilla
and musk, of each (No. 3), 4 fl.oz.; flowers of
benzoin, 1% dr. ; mix, agitate, and add of eau
de fleurs d'oranges, 1 quart, Delightfully
fragrant.
2. Honey (finest), 4 lb, ; essence of bergamot,
1076
SPIRITS (PERFUMED),
# oz, ; essence of lemon, 4 oz. ; oil of cloves, 12
drops; musk, 12 grs.; ambergris, 6 grs. ;
orange-flower and rose water, of each, 1 quart;
rectified spirit, 1 gal.; macerate for 14 days,
with frequent agitation, and filter.
Obs. The last is often coloured with 20 or
30 grs. of saffron, and made into a ratafia with
sugar. HoNEY WATER FOR THE HAIR is a
different article to the above. It is obtained
by the dry distillation of honey, mixed with an
equal weight of clean sand, a gentle heat only
being employed. The product is yellowish,
and acidulous, from the presence of acetic acid.
This last is used to promote the growth of the
hair.
Eau de Millefleurs. [Fr.] Syn. ExTRAIT
DE MILLEFLEURS, Fr. Prep. 1. From grain
musk, 12 grs. ; ambergris, 20 grs. ; essence of
lemon, 1% oz. ; oils of cloves and lavender (Eng-
lish), of each, 1 oz. ; meroli and oil of verbena,
of each, ; dr.; rectified spirits, 2 quarts; mace-
rate in a closed vessel, and a warm situation,
for a fortnight.
2. Balsam of Peru (genuine) and essence of
cloves, of each, 1 oz. ; essences of bergamot and
musk, of each, 2 oz. ; essences of neroli and
thyme, of each, 3 oz. ; eau de fleurs d’oranges,
1 quart; rectified spirit, 9 pints; mix well.
Very fine.
3. Essence of bergamot, 4 oz. ; eau de lavande
and essence of jasmin, of each, 1 oz.; orange-
flower water, 8 fl. oz. ; rectified spirit, 1 pint ;
lmly.
Eau de Mousselline. [Fr.] From eau de
fleurs d’oranges and spirit of clove-gillyflower,
of each, 1 quart; spirit of roses (No. 3—see
above), spirit of jasmin (No. 4), and spirit of
orange flowers (No. 4), of each, 2 quarts;
essences of vanilla and musk, of each (No. 3),
2 fl. oz. ; sanders wood, ; oz. Very fine.
Eau de Naphe. [Fr.] See WATERS (Per-
fumed).
Eau Romain. [Fr.] From essence of am-
- bergris, 1 fl. oz. ; tincture of benzoin, 4 fl. oz.;
spirit of tuberose, 3 pint ; spirit of acacia
flowers and tincture of vanilla, of each, 1 pint ;
spirit of jasmin, 3 pints; mix.
Eau de Rosieres. [Fr.] From spirit of
roses, 1 pint; spirits of cucumber, angelica root,
and celery seeds, of each, ; pint ; spirits of
jasmin and orange flowers, of each, # pint;
tincture of benzoin, 2 fl. Oz.; mix.
Eau sans Pareille. [Fr.] 1. From essence
of bergamot, 5 drs. ; essence of lemon, 8 drs. ;
essence of citron, 4 drs. ; Hungary water, 1
pint; rectified spirit, 6 quarts; mix, and
distil. -
2. Grain musk, 20 grs.; ambergris, 25 grs.;
oils of lavender and cloves, of each; 1 oz. ;
essence of bergamot, 3 oz. ; oils of sassafras
and origanum, of each, 20 drops; rectified
spirit, 1 gal. ; macerate for 14 days. -
Eau de Violette. [Fr.] See ESPRIT DE
WIOLETTES (below).
Esprit d’Ambrette.
(page 456).
[Fr.] See ESSENCE
pint.
Esprit de Bergamotte. [Fr.] From essence
(oil) of bergamot (best), 5 oz. ; essence of am-
bergris (pale), 2 fl. oz. ; essence of musk, #
fl. Oz. ; oil of verbena, 2 fl. drs.; rectified spirit,
1 gal. ; mix.
Esprit de Bouquet [Fr.] From Mitcham
oil of lavender, 1 oz. ; oils of cloves and ber-
gamot, of each, 3 fl. drs.; essence of musk, 1
fl. dr.; otto of roses, 10 drops; rectified spirit,
1 quart.
Esprit de Fleurs. [Fr.] See SPIRIT OF
THE FLOWERS OF ITALY (below).
Esprit de Jasmin. [Fr.] Syn. EAU DE JAS-
MIN, Fr. See page 1073.
Esprit de Jasmin Odorante. [Fr.] From
spirit of jasmin and rectified spirit, of each,
1 pint ; essence of ambergris, 1 fl. dr.
Esprit de Jonquille. [Fr.]
Esprit de la Reine. [Fr.] From oil of ber-
gamot, 1 fl. Oz. ; essence of ambergris, 2 fl.
drs. ; otto of roses, 1 fl. dr. ; rectified spirit, 1
quart.
Esprit de Rondeletia. [Fr.] Syn. ExTRAIT
DE RONDELETIA, Fr. From Mitcham oil of
lavender, 3 oz. ; oil of cloves, 14 oz. ; oil of
bergamot, 1 oz. ; essences of musk and amber-
gris, of each, 2 fl. drs. ; rectified spirit, 3
pints.
Esprit de Rose. [Fr.] 1. From spirit of
roses (see general directions, page 1073), 1 pint;
essence of ambergris and oil of rose-geranium,
of each, ; fl. dr.
2. From otto of roses, 2 drs. ; neroli, º, dr.;
rectified spirit, 1 gal.; dissolve, add of chloride
of calcium (well dried and in powder), 1% lb.;
agitate well, and distil 7 pints. Very fine.
Esprit de Suave. [Fr.] From the essences
of cloves and bergamot, of each, 1} fl. dr. ;
neroli, º, fl. dr. ; essence of musk, 1 fl. oz. ;
spirit of tuberose and rectified spirit, of each,
1 pint; spirits of jasmin and cassia, of each,
1 quart; dissolve, then add of eau de rose,
1 pint, and mix well.
Esprit de Taim. [Fr.] Syn. SPIRIT OF LEMON
THYME; SPIRITUs THYMI, L. From tops of
lemon thyme, 2 lbs. ; proof spirit, 1 gal.; distil
7 pints.
Esprit de Violettes. [Fr.] Syn. SPIRIT OF
VIOLETS, ESSENCE OF V., E. OF ORRIS. From
Florentine orris root, reduced to coarse pow-
der, 4 lb.; rectified spirit, 1 pint; by simple
maceration for a fortnight. A stronger and
finer article (ESSENCE OF VIOLETS) is prepared
from orris root, 5 lbs., to rectified spirit, 1 gal.;
by percolation,
Extrait de Bouquet.
[Fr.] Extract of nose-
gay. -
Extrait de Maréchale. [Fr.] See page
1075. -
Extrait de Millefleurs. [Fr.] See above.
Extrait de Rondeletia. [Fr.] See above.
Odeur Délectable. [Fr.] From oils of
lavender, bergamot, rose-geranium, and cloves,
of each 1 fl. dr. ; eaux de rose and fleurs
d’orange, of each, # pint ; rectified spirit, 1}















SPITTING OF BLOOD-SPRAIN. 1077
Odeur Suave. [Fr.] See ESPRIT (above).
Spirit of Cytherea. From the spirits of
violets, tuberose, clove-gillyflower, jasmin
(No. 2—see above), roses (No. 2), and Portu-
gal, of each, 1 pint ; orange-flower water, 1
quart ; mix.
Spirit of the Flowers of Italy. Syn. ESPRIT
DE FLEURS, Fr. From the spirits of roses
(No. 1—see above), jasmin (No. 2), oranges
(No. 3), and cassia (No. 2), of each, 4 pints;
orange-flower water, 3 pints; mix.
Victoria, Perfume. See ESPRIT DE LA REINE
(above).
SPITTING OF BI,00D. See HAEMOPTYSIS.
SPONGE. Syn. SPONGIA, S. OFFICINALIS,
L. Sponge is a cellular fibrous structure,
produced by marine animals of the humblest
type, belonging to the sub-kingdom Protozoa.
The finest quality is imported from Smyrna,
and is known as TURREY SPONGE ; another,
called WEST INDIAN or BAHAMA SPONGE, is
much less esteemed, being coarse, dark co-
loured, and very rotten.
Sponge, as collected, and also as generally
imported, contains many impurities, more
especially sand, most of which may be re-
moved by beating it, and by washing it in
water. Amusing disputes often arise between
the smaller importers and the wholesale pur-
chasers, on this subject—the privilege of
beating it before weighing it, the number of
minutes so employed, and even the size of the
stick, being often made important matters in
the ‘haggling.’
BLEACHED SPONGE (WHITE SPONGE;
SPONGIA DEALBATA) is prepared by soaking
ordinary sponge in very dilute hydrochloric
acid, to remove calcareous matter, then in
cold water, changing it frequently, and squeez-
ing the sponge out each time, and next, in
water holding a little sulphuric or sulphurous
acid, or, still better, a very little chlorine, in
solution; the sponge is, lastly, repeatedly
washed and soaked in clean water, scented
with rose or orange-flower water, and dried.
BURNT SPONGE (SPONGIA USTA—Ph. D.) is
prepared by heating the cuttings and unsale-
able pieces in a closed iron crucible until they
become black and friable, avoiding too much
heat, and allowing the whole to cool before
exposing it to the air. It was formerly in
great repute in bronchocele and scrofulous
complaints.--Dose. 1 to 3 drs, in water, or
made into an electuary or lozenges.--When
good, burnt sponge evolves violet fumes of
iodine on being heated in a flask along with
sulphuric acid.
COMPRESSED or WAXED SPONGE (SPONGIA
CERATA, S. COMPRESSA) is sponge which has
been dipped into melted wax, and then com-
pressed between two iron plates until cold.
When cut into pieces it forms ‘SPONGE
TENTs,” which are used by surgeons to dilate
wounds.
SPOTS and STAINS,-1, OIL and GREASE
SPOTS on boards, marble, &c., when recent,
may be removed by covering them with a
paste made of fuller's earth and hot water,
and the next day, when the mixture has be-
come perfectly dry, scouring it off with hot
soap-and-water. For old spots, a mixture of
fuller's earth and soft soap, or a paste made of
fresh-slaked lime and pearlash, will be better;
observing not to touch the last with the
fingers.
2. RECENT SPOTS of OIL, GREASE, or WAX,
on woollen cloth or silk, may be removed with
a little clean oil of turpentine or benzol; or
with a little fuller’s earth or scraped
French chalk, made into a paste with water,
and allowed to dry on them. They may
also be generally removed by means of a
rather hot flat-iron and blotting-paper or spongy
brown paper, more especially if the cloth, or
one of the pieces of paper, be first slightly
damped. OLD OTL and GREASE SPOTS require
to be treated with ox-gall or yolk of egg, made
into a paste with fuller's earth or soap. PAINT
SPOTS, when recent, generally yield to the last
treatment. Old ones, however, are more ob-
stimate, and require some fuller's earth and
soft soap made into a paste with either ox-gall
or spirit of turpentine.
FRUIT and WINE STAINs, on linen, commonly
yield easily to hot soap-and-water. If not,
they must be treated as those below.
INK SPOTS and RECENT IRON MOULDS on
washable fabrics may be removed by dropping
on the part a little melted tallow £rom a com-
mon candle, before washing the articles; or,
by the application of a little lemon juice, or of
a little powdered cream of tartar made into a
paste with hot water. Old ink spots and
iron moulds will be found to yield almost
immediately to a very little powdered oxalic
acid, which must be well rubbed upon the
spot previously moistened with boiling water,
and kept hot over a basin filled with the
Salme.
STAINS arising from ALKALIES and AIKALINE
LIQUORS, when the colours are not destroyed,
give way before the application of a little
lemon juice; whilst those arising from the
weaker acids and acidulous liquids yield
to the fumes of ammonia, or the application of
a little spirit of hartshorn or sal volatile.
STAINS OF MARKING INK may be removed
by soaking the part in a solution of chloride of
lime, and afterwards rinsing it in a little
solution of ammonia or of hyposulphate of
soda; or they may be rubbed with the tincture
of iodine, and then rinsed as before. See
BALLS, CLOTHES, HANDS, SCOURING, STAINS,
&c.
SPRAIN. Syn. SUBLUXATIo, L. An injury
of a joint, in which it has been strained or
twisted in an unnatural manner, without
actual dislocation. Pain, swelling, and in-
flammation, are the common consequences,
which must be combated by purgatives, repose,
and a low diet, with refrigerant lotions, or



1078
SPRAT-STARCH.
warm fomentations, according to circum-
stances. In extreme cases, blood should be
taken. Where there is simple stiffness and
weakness, exercise is often serviceable.
SPRAT. The Cluped Sprattus (Linn.), a
small fish of the herring family, abounding on
our coasts. Gutted, coloured, and pickled, it
is sold for anchovies, or as British ancho-
vies, and much used to make the sauce of that
Ilanne.
SPRUCE, See BEER, ESSENCE, and Pow-
DERS.
SPUNK. See AMADO.U.
SQUILL. Syn. SCILLA (B. P., Ph. L. E. &
D.), L. The bulb of “Urginea Scilla,” sliced
and dried. In small doses, squill acts as a
stimulating expectorant and diuretic; in larger
ones, as an emetic and purgative. With the
first intention it is generally given in substance
(powder), in doses of 1 to 3 or 4 grs. ; with
the latter, either made into vinegar or oxymel
(which see). It is an excellent remedy in
coughs, &c., after the inflammatory symptoms
have subsided.
STAINED GLASS. The art of painting or
staining glass resembles enamel painting, in
the effect being produced by fluxing certain
metallic substances, as oxides or chlorides, on
its surface, by means of heat applied in a
suitable furnace. The operations it embraces
are difficult, and require great promptitude
and experience to prove successful. The
colours or eompounds employed are, for the
most part, similar to those noticed under
ENAMEL and PASTE.
STAINS. Discolourations from foreign
matters. Liquid dyes are also frequently
termed “stains.’ See SPOTS, &c., and below.
Stains, Blood. Spots of dried blood on wood,
limen, &c., however old, are easily recognised
by the microscope; but simple stains or marks
of blood of a slight character, especially those
occurring on iron or steel, are recognised with
greater difficulty. To obviate this, H. Zolli-
kofer adopts the following plan –The spot is
removed, by scraping, from the surface of the
metal, and the resulting powder is digested in
tepid water, when a liquid is obtained which
exhibits the following reactions:—
1. The liquid is neutralised with acid,
and heated to ebullition, when opalisation
occurs, or a dirty red coagulum forms.
2. The coagulum is dissolved in hot liquor
of potassa; the solution, if blood (haematin)
be present, is diachromatic, or appears green
by transmitted light and red by reflected
light.
3. By the addition of concentrated chlorine
water, in excess, to either solution, white flocks
of albumen and chlorhaematin separate, which
are free from iron, as tested by sulphocyanide
of potassium.
Obs. The last two reactions are said to
be characteristic. Very old spots must be
boiled in water containing a little liquor of
potassa. See Dr. Taylor’s ‘Medical Jurispru-
dence.”
Stains, Bookbinder's. See LEATHER, MAR-
BLING, &c.
Stains, Confectioner's. These are similar to
those noticed under LIQUEUR. Mineral colours,
especially mineral blues, greens, and yellows,
must on no account be used, as they are nearly
all dangerous poisons; nor is there any induce-
ment to use them, since the vegetable sub-
stances referred to afford, by proper manage-
ment, every shade that can be possibly
required. These stains are also used for cakes
and pastry.
Stains, Liqueur. See LIQUEUR.
Stains, Map. See MAPs, WELVET COLOURS,
&c.
STAM'MERING. Syn. BLESITAs, L. Oc.
casionally, this depends on some organic affec-
tion, or slight malformation of the parts of
the mouth or throat immediately connected
with the utterance of vocal sounds; but, much
more frequently, it is a habit resulting from
carelessness, or acquired from example or imi-
tation. When the latter is the case, it may
be generally removed by perseveringly adopting
the plan of never speaking without having the
chest moderately filled with air, and then only
slowly and deliberately. Hasty and rapid
speaking must not be attempted until the
habit of stammering is completely subdued.
Nervous excitement and confusion must be
avoided as much as possible, and the general
health attended to, as circumstances may direct.
This variety of stammering is commonly distin-
guished by the person being able to sing with-
out hesitation. Stammering depending on
elongation of the uvula, and other like causes,
may be generally removed by a simple surgical
operation.
STAN/NIC ACID. Peroxide of tiri.
STARCH. CºHoOº. Syn. AMYLACEOUS
FECULA; AMYLUM, L. One of the most
important and widely diffused of the proximate
principles of vegetables, being found, in greater
or less quantity, in every plant. The mealy
and farinaceous seeds, fruits, roots, and the
stem-pith of certain trees, consist chiefly of
starch in a nearly pure state. Wheat contains
about 75% and potatoes about 15% of this
substance. From these sources the fecula is
obtained by rasping or grinding to pulp the
vegetable structure, and washing the mass
upon a sieve, by which the torn cellular tissue
is retained, whilst the starch passes through
with the liquid, and eventually settles down
from the latter as a soft, white, insoluble
powder, which, after being thoroughly washed
with cold water, is dried in the air, or with a
very gentle heat.
WHEAT STARCH (AMYLUM, B. P., Ph. L. E.
& D.) is commonly prepared by steeping the
flour in water for a week, or a fortnight, during
which time the saccharine portion ferments
and the starch-granules become freed, for the
most part, from the glutinous matter which

STARCH-STARCHING,
1079
envelopes them, by the disintegrating and sol-
vent action of the lactic acid generated by the
fermentation. The sour liquor is then drawn
off, and the feculous residue washed on a sieve;
what passes through is allowed to settle, when
the liquid is again drawn off, and the starch
thoroughly washed from the slimy matter; it is
then drained in perforated boxes, cut up into
square lumps, placed on porous bricks to ab-
sorb the moisture, and, lastly, air or stove
dried.
In the preparation of starch from potatoes
(potato starch) and other like vegetable sub-
stances, the roots or tubers, after being washed
and peeled, either by hand-labour or by ma-
chinery, are rasped by a revolving grater, and
the pulp washed on hair sieves until freed
from feculous matter. Successive portions of
the pulp are thus treated until the vessel over
which the sieves are placed, or into which the
washings run, is sufficiently full. The starch
held in suspension in the water having sub-
sided to the bottom, the water is drawn off,
and the starch stirred up with fresh water, and
again allowed to subside. This operation is
repeated several times, with fresh water, until
the starch is rendered sufficiently pure for
commercial purposes, when it is washed and
dried as before. The waste fibres and the
washing waters are used as manure. (See AR-
ROW-ROOT.)
In the manufacture of starch from rice and
Indian corn (rice starch, maize starch), a
very dilute solution of caustic soda, contain-
ing about 200 grs. of alkali to each gallon of
liquid, is employed to facilitate the disintegra-
tion and separation of the gluten and other
nitrogenised matters. A weak solution of
ammonia, or sesquicarbonate of ammonia, is
also similarly employed with advantage. The
gluten may be recovered by saturating the
alkali with dilute sulphuric acid. Such starch
does not require boiling, and is less apt than
wheat starch to attract moisture from the
atmosphere. Most of the so-called “wheaten
starch’ of commerce used by laundresses is now
prepared from rice.
To whiten the starches made from damaged
roots and grains, and the coarser portions of
those from sound ones, a little solution of
chloride of lime is occasionally added to the
water, followed by another water containing
a very little dilute sulphuric acid; every trace
of the last being afterwards removed by the
copious use of pure soft or spring water.
The bluish-white starch used by laundresses
is coloured with a mixture of smalts and alum
in water, and is regarded as unfit for medicinal
purposes.
Prop., &c. Starch is insoluble in cold water,
and in alcohol and most other liquids, but it
readily forms a gelatinous compound (amidin)
with water at about 175°Fahr.; alcohol and
most of the astringent salts precipitate it
from its solutions; infusion of galls throws
down a copious yellowish precipitate, con-
taining tannic acid, which "is redissolved by
heating the liquid; heat and dilute acids con-
vert it into dextrin and grape sugar; strong
alkaline lyes dissolve it, and ultimately decom-
pose it. Sp. gr. 1:53.
To the naked eye it presents the appearance
of a soft, white, and often glistening pow-
der; under the microscope it is seem to be
altogether destitute of crystalline structure,
but to possess, on the contrary, a kind of or-
ganisation, being made of multitudes of
little rounded transparent bodies, upon each
of which a series of depressed parallel rings,
surrounding a central spot or hilum, may be
traced. The starch-granules from different
plants vary both in magnitude and form.
Those of potato-starch and canna starch
(tous les mois) are the largest, and those of
rice and millet starch the smallest, the
dimensions raging from ºn to the Tºur of
an inch. The granules of arrow-root and
tous les mois are ovoid, those of potato
starch both oblong and circular, those of ta-
pioca muller-shaped, and those of wheat
starch circular.
Identif. One of the commonest frauds prac-
tised upon the profession and the public is the
admixture of the cheaper kinds of starch,
chiefly potato farina, with arrow-root, and
vending manufactured for genuine tapioca,
sago, and other articles of diet, used for inva-
lids and children. These sophistications are
most easily detected with a good microscope."
Starch, I'odide of. Syn. AMYLI IoDIDUM,
AMYLI IODATUM, L. Prep. (Ph. Castr. Ru-
thena.) Iodine, 24 grs.; rectified spirit, a
few drops; rub them to a powder; then add
of starch, 1 oz., and again triturate, until the
mass assumes a uniform colour. Recommended
by Dr. A. Buchanan, of Glasgow, as producing
the alterative effects of iodine, without the
usual irritant action of that medicine.—Dose.
A teaspoonful, or more, in water-gruel, or any
bland liquid, twice or thrice a day.
STARCHING (Clear). Muslims, &c., are
“clear-starched’ or “got-up' by laundresses in
the following manner:-Rinse the articles in
three waters, dry them, and dip them into
thick made-starch, which has been previously
strained through a piece of muslin; squeeze
them, shake them gently, and again hang
them up to dry; when they are dry, dip them
twice or thrice into clear water, squeeze them,
spread them on a linen cloth, roll them up in
it, and let them lie an hour before ironing
them. Some persons put a morsel of sugar
into the starch, to prevent its sticking whilst
ironing, and others stir the starch with a
candle to effect the same end; both these prac-
tices are as injurious as unnecessary. The best
plan to prevent sticking is simply to use the
best starch, and to make it well, and to have
i. The measurements and microscopical appearances of
all the commercial starches will be found accurately
described and figured in Royle’s “Manual ºf Materia
Medica.”
1080
STAVESACRE–STEAM.
the irons quite clean and highly polished. Mr.
W. B. Tegetmeier recommends the addition of
a small piece of paraffin (a piece of paraffin
candle-end) to the starch, to increase the glos-
siness of the ironed fabric.
STAVESACRE, Syn. STAVESACRE SEEDs;
STAPHISAGRIE SEM.INA, STAPHISAGRIA (Ph.
L., & D.), L. “The seed of Delphinium Sta-
phisagria, Linn.” (Ph. L.) This article is
powerfully emetic and cathartic, but is now
scarcely ever used internally. Mixed with
hair powder, it is used to kill lice. An infu-
sion, or ointment, made with it is said to be
infallible in itch, but its use requires some
caution.
STARS. (In pyrotechny.) Prop. 1. (Bril-
liant—Marsh.) Nitrate, 52% parts; sulphur
and black antimony, of each, 13 parts; reduce
them to powder, make them into a stiff paste
with isinglass, 1% part, dissolved in a mixture
of vinegar, 6% parts, and spirits of wine, 13
parts; lastly, form this into small pieces,
and, whilst moist, roll them in meal gun-
powder.
2. (WHITE–Ruggieri.) Nitre, 16 parts;
sulphur, 7 parts; gunpowder, 4 parts; as the
last.
3. (GoLDEN RAIN.)—a. (Ruggieri.) Nitre
and gunpowder, of each, 16 parts; sulphur,
10 parts; charcoal, 4 parts; lampblack, 2
parts; mix, and pack it into small paper
tubes.
b. (Ruggieri.) Nitre, 16 parts; sulphur
and gunpowder, of each, 8 parts; charcoal and
lampblack, of each, 2 parts; as the last.
c. (Marsh.) Mealed gunpowder, 66; parts;
sulphur, 11 parts; charcoal, 22} parts; as
before. Used for the garniture' of rockets,
&c.
STAYS. Syn. CoRSET. Stays, “before
womanhood, are instruments of barbarity and
torture, and then they are needed only to give
beauty to the chest. It is the duty of every
mother, and every guardian of children, to
inquire the purpose for which stays were in-
troduced into female attire. Was it for
warmth P. If so, they certainly fulfil the in-
tention very badly, and are much inferior to
an elastic woollen habit, or one of silk quilted
with wool. Was it to force the ribs, while yet
soft and pliable, into the place of the liver and
stomach, and the two latter into the space al-
lotted for other parts, to engender disease and
deformity to the sufferer and her children for
generations? Truly, if this were the object,
the device is most successful, and the intention
most ingeniously fulfilled.” (Eras. Wilson.)
“Only observe,” exclaimed Dr. John Hunter,
“only observe, if the statue of the Medicean
Venus were to be dressed in stays, and her
beautiful feet compressed into a pair of exe-
crably tight shoes, it would extort a smile
from an Heraclitus, and a horse-laugh from a
Cymic.”
“The Turkish ladies express horror at seeing
Englishwomen so tightly laced.”
W. Montague.)
The practice of tight-lacing has happily
gone out of fashion since the remarks above
quoted were made. -
STEAM. The application of steam of the
laboratory, as a source of heat, is commonly
effected by means of double pans, to the space
between which steam, at a moderate pressure,
is introduced, the arrangements being such as
to permit of the condensed steam, or distilled
water, being removed, by means of a cock,
nearly as soon as formed, or as may be de-
sirable. Another plan is to place coils of metal
pipe along the bottom of cisterns, vats, &c.,
formed either of wood or metal, and to keep
them supplied with high-pressure steam.
“It is quite susceptible of positive proof
that by no arrangement yet discovered, can
more than two thirds of the heat generated
by a given quantity of coal, during combus-
tion, be fairly absorbed and utilised in any of
our manufactories; and, moreover, there are
undeniable facts, which demonstrate that sel-
dom, in the burning of coal, are more than
three fourths of the total heat, which might
be eliminated, actually obtained; thus justi-
fying the supposition that one half of all the
coal now consumed is virtually wasted, snd lost
to society.” To lessen, as much as possible,
(Lady M.
this loss, various improvements have been
made, which, “for the most part, have con-
sisted in lengthening the flues, and exposing a
larger surface of the boiler to the action of
the heated air passing from the furnace to the
chimney.” “Remembering that air is an ex-
tremely bad conductor of heat, and that water
about to be converted into steam is also a bad
conductor, it is evident that time must form
an important element in the perfect trans-
mission of heat from one of these to the other;
and hence, with a great velocity of current
existing in the flues, very little heat would pass
from air, however high its temperature, to
water contained in a boiler, and so circum-
stanced with respect to its all but gaseous con-
dition.” The results of the experiments on
fuel made at the Museum of Practical Geology
by Sir H. de la Beche and Dr. Lyon Playfair,
go clearly to show that, “to open the damper
of a steam-boiler furnace is pretty generally
to diminish the effective power of the fuel.”
“Great waste of coal now arises from this
simple circumstance; and much of the heat of
the fire, which ought to go to the boiler, is
lost by its (too) hasty transmission up the
chimney. If, however, there be thus far room
for improvement in the direction just indi-
cated, still wider is the vacant space, caused
by imperfect combustion, or, in technical
phrase, ‘bad stoking,' merely because the
stoker, to economise his labour, and to avoid
trouble, throws on to the bars of his furnace
a thick layer of fuel, by which loss is caused
in two or three directions.” These are, prin-
cipally, imperfect combustion, and the volatili-




STEARIC ACID.
1081
sation of fuel, as smoke, &c., from an insuffi-
cient supply of air, and from a mass of mere
red-hot coke or cinder, two or three inches
thick, lying between the boiler and the hot-
test part of the furnace; which last, accord-
ing, to Dr. Kennedy, is about one inch above
the firé-bars. Besides which, “in passing over
this red-hot coke, the carbonic acid would be
converted into carbonic oxide, and thus not
only remove a quantity of carbon equal to its
own, without yielding any additional heat, but
actually with the production of cold, or, in
other words, the absorption of heat.” (“Dict.
Arts, Manuf, and Mines.’) This points to the
evident policy of using a smoke-consuming
furnace, as noticed elsewhere.
Another matter worthy of remark, is the
constant waste of heat, and, consequently, of
fuel, in laboratories and manufactories in which
steam is employed, owing to the exposed con-
dition of the pipes, boilers, and pans. All of
these should be well ‘clothed’ or covered by
some non-conducting medium, to prevent loss
of heat by radiation, and by contact with the
atmosphere. Not only does economy dictate
such a course, but the health and comfort of
the workpeople demand that the atmosphere
in which they labour should be as little heated
and poisoned as possible.
TABLE of corresponding Pressure and . Tem-
peratures of Steam. By ARAGO and DU-
TIONG.
º Temperature, .º Tempº
spheres." Falir. spheres.1 alll'.
Degrees. Degrees.
1 212. 13 380°66
1} 234' 14 386-94
2 250:5 15 392-86
2% 263.8 16 398-48
3 275-2 17 403'83
3} 285: 18 408-92
4. 293.7 19 413-78
4} - 300-3 20 4.18°46
5 307.5 21 422-96
5% 314, 24. 22 4:27:28
6 320'36 23 431'42
6% 326-26 24 435-56
7 331.7 25 439'34
7% 336'86 30. 457-16
8 341-78 35 472-73
9 350-78 40 486'59
10 358'88 45 499-14
11 366'85 50 510:6
12 374,
A cubic inch of water, during its conversion
into steam, under the ordinary pressure of the
atmosphere, expands into 1696 cubic inches,
or nearly a cubic foot. -
One part, by weight, of steam, at 212° Fahr.,
1 Estimating 14.6 lbs, = 1 atmosphere.
when condensed into cold water, is found to be
capable of raising 5-6 parts of the latter from
the freezing- to the boiling-point. See FUEL,
PIT-COAL, SMOKE, &c.
STEAR/IC ACID. HCls HºOº. Syn. STEARIN
(Commercial). This is obtained from stearin
(see below), by saponification.
Prep. 1. Repeatedly dissolve and crystal-
lise commercial stearic acid in hot alcohol,
until its melting-point becomes constant at
not less than 158° Fahr. Pure.
2. (Chevreul.) Saponify mutton suet with
caustic potassa, and dissolve the newly formed
soap in 6 times its weight of hot water; to the
solution add 40 or 50 parts of cold water, and
set the mixture aside in a temperature of about
52° Fahr.; after a time separate the pearly
matter (stearate and margarate of potassa)
which falls, drain and wash it on a filter, and
dissolve it in 24 parts of hot alcohol of sp. gr.
'820; collect the stearate of potassa which falls
as the liquid cools, recrystallise it in alcohol,
and decompose it, in boiling water, with hy-
drochloric acid; lastly, wash the disengaged
stearic acid in hot water, and dry it.
3. (Commercial.) Ordinary tallow is boiled
in large wooden vessels, by means of high-
pressure steam, with about 16% of hydrate of
lime (equiv. to 11% of pure lime), for 3 or 4
hours, or until the combination is complete,
and an earthy soap is formed, when the whole
is allowed to cool; the product (stearate of
lime) is then transferred to another wooden
vessel, and decomposed by adding to it 4 parts
of oil of vitriol (diluted with water) for every
3 parts of slaked lime previously employed, the
action being promoted by steam heat and
brisk agitation; after repose, the liberated fat
is decanted from the sediment (sulphate of
lime) and water, and is then well washed with
water, and by blowing steam into it; it is next
allowed to cool, when it is reduced to shavings
by means of a number of knives worked by
machinery, and in this divided state is placed
in canvas bags and submitted to the action of
a powerful hydraulic press, by which a large
portion of the oleic acid which it contains is
expelled; the pressed cakes are then a second
time exposed to the action of steam and water,
again cooled, and coarsely powdered, and again
submitted to the joint action of steam and
pressure; they are, lastly, melted, and cast into
blocks for sale.
Obs. This product is a more or less impure
mixture of stearic acid and other fatty bodies,
particularly the so-called margaric acid, now
generally regarded as a mixture of palmitic
and stearic acids. The hard fatty acids of
vegetable origin (palmitic, cocinic, myristic,
&c.), now so extensively used as candle
materials, are obtained from the natural oils
and butters by the process known as ‘sul-
phuric acid saponification,” which consists in
treating the fatty bodies with 5 or 6% of con-
centrated sulphuric acid at a high temperature
(about 350° Fahr., produced by superheated

1082
STEARIN–STEWING.
steam), and distilling the resulting mass by
the aid of steam heated to about 560° Fahr.
Frequently the operations of hot and cold
pressing are resorted to in order to free the
product from the softer fats.
By a patent process employed at Price's
candle works the natural vegetable fats are
decomposed into their constituents (fatty acids
and glycerin) by the action of superheated
steam alone, without previous ‘Saponification,”
with lime or sulphuric acid.
Prop., &c. Pure stearic acid crystallises in
milk-white needles, which are soluble in ether
and in cold alcohol, and form salts with the
bases, called stearates. The commercial acid
is made into candles. See CANDLES, FAT,
OILs (Fixed), and TALLOW.
STE’ARIN. C., Huo Q5. The solid portion
of fats which is insoluble in cold alcohol.
Prep. Pure strained mutton suet is melted
in a glass flask along with 7 or 8 times its
weight of ether, and the solution allowed to
cool; the soft, pasty, semi-crystalline mass is
then transferred to a cloth, and is strongly
pressed as rapidly as possible, in order to avoid
unnecessary evaporation; the solid portion is
then redissolved in ether, and the solution al-
lowed to crystallise, as before. The product
is nearly pure.
Prop., &c. White; semi-crystalline; inso-
luble in water and cold alcohol; soluble in
225 parts of cold ether, and freely so in boil-
ing ether. It melts at 130°Fahr. The stearin
of commerce is stearic acid.
STEAROPTEN. The name given by Her-
berger to the concrete portion or camphor of
volatile oils. Bizio calls it stereusin.
STEEL. This important material may be
defined as iron chemically combined with suf-
ficient carbon to give it extreme toughness
and hardness without brittleness. According
to one of our greatest authorities on metal-
lurgy, steel should contain from 1833% to 1.67%
of carbon, these numbers referring respectively
to the softest and the hardest varieties.
Within the last few years great attention has
been paid to the investigation of the chemistry
of steel. The researches of Despretz and
Fremy tend to the conclusion that nitrogen
exercises a very important influence over the
phenomena of “steeling,” and that carbon plays
a less necessary part; while those of Caron and
Deville still refer the formation of steel to the
chemical combination of iron with carbon.
The processes for converting iron into steel,
and for “tempering” steel articles, cannot be
described in a work like the present.
There is no test of the value of steel beyond
its elasticity and temper, and the fineness,
equality, and smoothness of its grain.'
STE’REOTYPE METAL. See TYPE METAL.
STER/LING. The truth of the old proverb,
that “all is not gold which glitters,” is often
1 For full information respecting the manufacture of
steel, refer to Dr. Percy’s elaborate treatise on “Metal-
lurgy–Iron and Steel.”
painfully experienced by the purchaser of mo.
dern jewelry. The following table will, there-
fore, prove highly useful to the reader in de-
termining the value of articles in gold, pro-
vided he ascertain the “fineness of the
metal, either by examination or written war.
ranty :—
Sterling value of Gold of different degrees of
* Fineness.”
Carats. Value per
Fine. oz. Troy.
£ s. d.
24 caraís 4 4. 11;
23 , - - - 4, 1 5
22 , (British standard) 3 17 10%
21 in - - - 3-14. 4.
20 ,, 3 10 9}
19 , . . . . 3 7 3
18 , (lowest Hall-mark). 3 3 8%
17 , . . . . 3 0 2
16 ,, 2 16 7%
15 ,, 2 13 1.
14 , 2 9 6%
13 , 2 6 0
12 , 2 2 5%
11 ,, 1 18 11
10 , 1 15 4;
9 ,, 1 11 10
8 , I 8 3%
7 ,, 1 4, 9
6 ,, 1 1 2%
5 ,, O 17 8
4. , 0 14, 2
3 , O 10 7}
2 , 0 7 1
1 : 0 3 6}
STER(R0-METAL. A remarkable alloy re-
cently invented by Baron de Rosthorn, of
Vienna, and used in place of ordinary gun-
metal. It consists of copper and spelter, with
small proportions of iron and tin, and to these
latter its peculiar hardness, tensile strength,
and elasticity, are attributed.
STETH'OSCOPE. An instrument employed
in auscultation. It consists of a tube (usually
made of wood, sometimes of gutta percha)
widening considerably at one end, and but
slightly at the other. The wide end is applied
to the chest or other part of the patient, the
physician putting his ear at the other end;
and from the sounds emitted by the heart,
lungs, &c., the state of these parts is ascer-
tained.
STEWING. A method of cooking food in-
termediate to frying and boiling, performed
by simmering it in a saucepan or stewpan,
with merely sufficient water to prevent burn-
ing, and to effect the object in view; the
whole being served up to form the ‘dish.' It
is undoubtedly the most simple and economi-
cal, and, when skilfully conducted, one of those
best calculated to develop the flavour and nu-
tritious qualities of animal food. The follow-
ing is one of the most popular stews :-
STILL-STORM-GLASS.
1083
Stew, Irish. Prep. (Soyer.) Take about
2 lbs. of scrag or neck of mutton; divide it
into ten or twelve pieces, and lay them in the
pan; add 8 large potatoes and 4 onions cut
into slices, season with 1% teaspoonful of pep-
per, and 3 do. of salt; cover all with water,
put it into a slow oven, or on a stove, for two
hours, then stir it all up well, and serve it up
in deep dishes. If a little more water is added
at the commencement, you can take out, when
half done, a nice cup of broth.
STILL. A vessel or apparatus employed for
the distillation of liquids on the large scale.
The forms of stills, and the materials of which
they are made, vary according to the pur-
poses for which they are intended, some being
exceedingly simple, whilst others are equally
elaborate and complicated. The engr. repre-
sents the most common and useful apparatus
of this kind, and the one almost exclusively
employed in the laboratory. It is used as
follows:–After the fluid and other matters (if
any) are put into the still, the head is placed
on and connected with the worm-tub or refri-
gerator, and the joints are all securely luted.
For ordinary liquids, a stiff paste made with
linseed meal and water, to which a little chalk
may be added, answers well for this purpose.
For corrosive liquids, nothing is better than
elastic bands or rings interposed between the
joints, which are then ‘brought home,’ as it is
called, with screws or clamps. Heat is next
applied, and the worm tub is supplied with
cold water in sufficient quantity to preserve its
contents at a proper temperature; the applica-
tion of the heat being so regulated that the
liquid may drop from the end of the refrige-
rator quite cold and unaccompanied with va-
pour. For highly volatile liquids a closed
receiver should be provided.
a. Body of still, which may be either placed in a steam
jacket or in a brick furnace.
ºb. Still head or capital.
c. Worm tub.
d. Pewter worm, or refrigerator.
e. Cold water pipe.
f Waste pipe.
g. Receiver.
STIM/UIANTS, Syn. STIMULANTIA, L.
Medicines or agents which possess the power
of exciting vital action. They are divided
into general stimulants, or those which affect
the whole system, as mercury or bark; and
local or topical stimulants, or those which
affect a particular organ or part only, as mus-
tard applied as a poultice. Diffusible stimu-
lants are general stimulants the effects of
which are rapid but fugacious, as ether or
alcohol. “Much discrimination and caution
are required in the administration of articles
of this class, because, if given when inflamma-
tion is present, they are liable to create more
mischief than benefit; but they are called for
when, on the decline of that condition of an
organ or organs, a state of relaxation or tor-
pidity exists. In this state of things, a gentle
stimulation materially assists the functions,
and is productive of much benefit.”
STIR-ABOUT. Thick gruel formed of oat-
meal and water boiled together. When eaten
with cold milk, it forms the porridge of the
Scotch ; and when mixed with the liquor in
which meat or vegetables have been boiled, it
is called beef brose, kale brose, &c.
ST00K. Among cooks, is condensed soup or
jelly, used to make extemporaneous soup,
broth, &c.
STOM’ACH AFFEC’TIONS. Those of a
character to admit of being usefully noticed in
a popular work are referred to under the heads
APPETITE, DYSPEPSIA, SICKNESS, &c.
Dr. Budd recommends small doses of ipe-
cacuanha as a remedy for those cases of indi-
gestion in which digestion is slow, and the food
lies heavily on the stomach, and there is an
inability for mental or bodily exertion for
some time after meals. He says it should be
given in the morning, fasting, and in quantity
barely sufficient to occasion a slight feeling of
vermiculating motion in the stomach, but
without causing any sensation of pain or
nausea. The dose to produce this effect varies
from 4 to 2 grs. He thinks there is no other
medicine which appears so effectual in remov-
ing the affections in question. Small doses of
rhubarb, ginger, and cayenne pepper, have a
similar kind of action, and may be given
singly or together for the same purpose. “I
generally prescribe from # to 1 gr. of ipecacu-
anha, in a pill, with 3 or 4 grs. of rhubarb.
With many, a favourite remedy for the discom-
fort resulting from slow digestion is a grain
of cayenne paper, with 3 or 4 grs. of rhubarb.
The best time for giving these medicines is
shortly” (say , an hour) “before any meal after
which a sense of oppression is usually felt.”
STOP'PERS, when obstimately immovable in
bottles, are the most safely treated by patiently
hitting them upwards alternately on opposite
sides with a piece of wood. When this fails,
the part may be dipped into hot water.
STORM-GLASS. A philosophical toy, con-
sisting of a thin glass tube about 12 inches
long and 3 inch in diameter, about three fourths
filled with the following liquid, and covered
with a brass car having an almost capillary
hole through it, or else tied over with bladder.
The solution. Take of camphor, 2 drs.;
nitre, 1% dr.; Sal ammoniac, 1 dr. ; proof
spirit, 24 fl. oz.; dissolve, and place it in the


1084.
STRABISMUS–STRYCHNINE.
tube above referred to. Used to foretell
changes of the weather.
STRABIS'MUS. Syn. SQUINTING. This
need not be described. When one eye only is
affected, an excellent plan is to blindfold the
sound eye during several hours each day, until
the affection be removed. When both eyes are
affected, a projecting piece of pasteboard, in
the line of the nose, may be worn as much as
possible with the same object. In bad cases
of squinting inwards, as it is called, the
division of the internal rectus muscle of the
eyeball, by a skilful surgeon, is said to often
relieve the deformity.
STRAPPING. Spread adhesive plaster.
Used to dress wounds, &c.
STRASS. See ENAMEL.
STRAW'BERRY. Syn. FRAGARIA, L. The
fruit of Fragaria vesca (Linn.), or strawberry
plant. Strawberries are, perhaps, the mildest
of all the cultivated fruits; they are cooling,
and slightly laxative and diuretic; rubbed on
the teeth, they dissolve the tartar, and whiten
them. They were formerly in repute in gout,
stone, and consumption. The root of the
plant is aperient.
STRAW PLAIT, and the articles made of it,
are bleached by exposing them to the fumes of
burning sulphur in a close chest or box; or, by
immersing them in a weak solution of chloride
of lime, and afterwards well washing them in
water. Water acidulated with oil of vitriol or
oxalic acid is also used for the same purpose.
Straw plait may be dyed with any of the
simple liquid dyes.
STRON'TIUM. Sr. The metallic base of
the earth strontia. It was discovered by Sir
H. Davy, in 1808. It closely resembles barium,
but is less lustrous. With chlorine it com-
bines to form chloride of strontium, a some-
what deliquescent salt, soluble in 2 parts of
cold and in less of boiling water, and freely
soluble in alcohol. With oxygen it forms an
oxide.
Test. Strontium salts are precipitated by
sulphuric acid and alkaline carbonates and
sulphate. They are distinguished from barium
by not giving such a decided precipitate with
sulphates, and by not being precipitated by
bichromate of potassium. From calcium, by
sulphates of calcium solution giving a precipi-
tate, and by concentrated solutions giving a
precipitate with chromate of potassium. It is
distinguished from magnesium by the insolu-
bility of its sulphate.
Strontium, Oxide of Sr0. Syn. PROT-
OXIDE OF STRONTIUM, STRONTIA, Prep.
Quite pure crystalline nitrate of strontium.
Prop. Grayish-white powder, uniting with
water to form a white, somewhat soluble sub-
stance, the hydrate of strontium, Sr(HO)s.
With acids it forms various salts, of which
the carbonate is a white insoluble powder, and
the nitrate a white crystalline salt, soluble
in 5 parts, of cold water, and in alcohol, com-
municating a brilliant red colour to flame.
STROPH'ULUS. A papular eruption pecu.
liar to infants. There are several varieties:—
In strophulus intertinctus, red gum, or red
gown, the pimples rise sensibly above the
level of the cuticle, possess a vivid red colour,
and are usually distinct from each other;
they commonly attack the cheeks, forearm,
and back of the hand, and, occasionally, other
parts of the body.—In strophulus albidus, or
white gum, there are a number of minute
whitish specks, which are, sometimes, sur-
rounded by a slight redness. The two pre-
ceding varieties commonly occur during the
first two or three months of lactation.—In
strophulus confertus, rank red gum, or tooth
rash, which usually appears about the fourth
or fifth month, the pimples usually occur on
the cheeks and sides of the nose, sometimes
on the forehead and arms, and still less fre-
quently on the loins. They are smaller, set
closer together, and less vivid, but more per-
manent than in the common red gum.—In
strophulus volaticus small circular patches or
clusters of pimples, each containing from 6 to
12, appear successively on different parts of
the body, accompanied with redness; and as
one patch declines another springs up near it,
by which the efflorescence often spreads gra-
dually over the whole face and body.—In
strophulus candidus the pimples are larger
than in the preceding, and are pale, smooth,
and shining; it principally attacks the upper
parts of the arms, the shoulders, and the loins.
The last two varieties commonly appear between
the third and ninth month.
The treatment of the above affections con-
sists chiefly in removing acidity and indigestion,
and duly regulating the bowels by an occasional
dose of magnesia or rhubarb, or both combined.
Diarrhoea may be met by the warm bath and
the daily use of arrow-root (genuine), to which
a teaspoonful or two of pure port wine has been
added; and itching and irritation may be alle-
viated by the use of a lotion consisting of water,
to which a little milk, lemon juice, borax, or
glycerin, has been added.
STRYCH/NINE. C. H.N.O. Syn. STRYCH-
NINA, STRYOHNIA (B. P., Ph. L. E. & D.), L.
Prep. 1. Dissolve hydrochlorate or sulphate of
strychnine in distilled water, and throw down
the alkaloid with ammonia, carefully avoiding
excess; redissolve the precipitate in hot recti-
fied spirit, and collect the crystals which form
as the liquid cools.
2. (Ph. D.) Nux vomica (in powder), 1 lb., is
digested for 24 hours in 3 gal. of water acidu-
lated with 2 fl. drs. of sulphuric acid, after
which it is boiled for half an hour, and the de-
coction decanted; the residuum is boiled a
second and a third time with a fresh & gal. of
water acidulated with 1 fl. dr. of the acid, and
the undissolved matter is finally submitted to
strong expression; the decoctions are next fil-
tered and concentrated to the consistence of a
syrup, which is boiled with rectified spirit, 3
pints, for about 20 minutes, hydrate of calcium,

STRYCHNINE.
1085
1 oz., or q.s., being added in successive portions
during the ebullition, until the solution becomes
distinctly alkaline; the liquid is then filtered,
the spirit distilled off, and the residuum dis-
solved in diluted sulphuric acid, q.s. ; ammonia,
in slight excess, is added to the filtered solution,
and the precipitate which falls is collected upon
a paper filter, and dried; it is next redissolved
in a minimum of boiling rectified spirit, and
digested with 3 oz. of animal charcoal for 20
minutes; the filtered liquid, as it cools, deposits
strychnine, in crystals.
Prop. A white, imodorous, infusible powder;
or small, but exceedingly brilliant, transparent,
colourless, octahedral crystals; soluble in about
7000 parts of water at 60°, and in 2500 parts
at 212°Fahr, ; freely soluble in hot rectified
spirit; insoluble in absolute alcohol, ether, and
solutions of the caustic alkalies; imparts a dis-
tinctly bitter taste to 600,000 times its weight
of water (1 part in 1,000,000 parts of water is
still perceptible—Fownes); exhibits an alka-
line reaction; and forms salts with the acids,
which are easily prepared, are crystallisable,
and well defined.
Tests.-1. Potassium hydrate and the car-
bonate produce, in solutions of the salts of
strychnia, white precipitates, which are inso-
luble in excess of the precipitant, and which,
when viewed through a lens magnifying 100
times, appear as aggregates of small crystalline
needles. In weak solutions the precipitate only
separates after some time, in the form of crystal-
line needles, which are, however, in this case,
perfectly visible to the naked eye.—2. Ammonia
gives a similar precipitate, which is soluble in
excess of the precipitant.—3. Bicarbonate of
sodium produces, in neutral solutions, a like
white precipitate, which is insoluble in excess,
but which redissolves on the addition of a
single drop of acid; in acid solutions no pre-
cipitate occurs for some time, in the cold, but
immediately on boiling the liquid.—4. Nitric
acid dissolves pure strychnia and its salts to
colourless fluids, which become yellow when
heated. Commercial strychnine, from con-
taining a little brucine, is reddened by this
test.—5. A minute quantity of strychnine
being mixed with a small drop of concentrated
sulphuric acid, placed on a white capsule or
slip of glass, forms a colourless solution, but
yields, on the addition of a very small crystal
of bichromate of potassium, or a very minute
portion of chromic acid, a rich violet colour,
which gradually changes to red and yellow,
and disappears after some time. The rººth of
a grain yields very distinct indications,—6.
Pure oxide or peroxide of lead produces a
similar reaction to the last, provided the sul-
phuric acid contain about 1% of nitric acid.
Pois. The characteristic symptom is the
special influence exerted upon the nervous
system, which is manifested by a general con-
traction of all the muscles of the body, with
rigidity of the spinal column. A profound
calm soon succeeds, which is followed by a
-
new tetanic seizure, longer than the first,
during which the respiration is suspended.
These symptoms then cease, the breathing
becomes easy, and there is stupor, followed by
another general contraction. In fatal cases
these attacks are renewed, at intervals, with
increasing violence, until death ensues. One
phenomenon which is only found in poisonings
by substances containing strychnine is, that
touching any part of the body, or even threat-
ening to do so, instantly produces the tetanic
Spasm.
Treat. The stomach should be immediately
cleared by means of an emetic, tickling the
fauces, &c. To counteract the asphyxia from
tetanus, &c., artificial respiration should be
practised with diligence and care. “If the
poison has been applied externally, we ought
immediately to cauterise the part, and apply
a ligature tightly above the wound. If the
poison has been swallowed for some time, we
should give a purgative clyster, and administer
draughts containing sulphuric ether or oil of
turpentine, which in most cases produce a
salutary effect. Lastly, injections of chlorine
and decoction of tannin are of value.”
According to Ch. Gunther, the greatest
reliance may be placed on full doses of opium,
assisted by venesection, in cases of poisoning
by strychnia or nux vomica. His plan is to
administer this drug in the form of solution
or mixture, in combination with a saline
aperient.
Uses, &c. It is a most frightful poison, pro-
ducing tetanus and death in very small doses.
Even ºr gr. will sometimes occasion tetanic
twitchings in persons of delicate temperament.
+ gr. blown into the throat of a small dog
produced death in 6 minutes. In very minute
doses it acts as a usefultonic in various nervous
diseases, chronic diarrhoea, leucorrhoea, &c.;
in slightly larger ones, it has been advan-
tageously employed in certain forms of para-
lysis, in tic douloureux, impotence, &c.—Dose
# to fºr gr. (dissolved in water by means of a
drop of acetic or hydrochloric acid), gradually
and cautiously increased until it slightly affects
the muscular system. Eternally, to # gr. at
a time.
The Edinburgh College ordered the nux
vomica to be exposed for two hours to steam,
to soften it, then to chop or slice it, next to
dry it by the heat of a vapour bath or hot air,
and, lastly, to grind it in a coffee-mill. In the
process of the Ph. L. 1836 magnesia was em-
ployed to effect the precipitation. In the last
Ph. L. Strychnine appears in the Materia Me-
dica. Most of that of commerce is now ob-
tained from St. Ignatius's bean, which, ac-
cording to Geiseler, yields 1} {} of it; whereas
3 lbs. of nux vomica produce little more than
1 dr. Commercial strychnine may be freed
from brucine by digesting the powder in dilute
alcohol.
The salts of strichnine, which areoccasionally
asked for in trade, are the acetate (strych-

-
1086
niae acetas), hydrochlorate or muriate (s.
murias—Ph. D.), hydriodate (s. hydriodas),
nitrate (s. mitras), phosphate (S. phosphas),
and sulphate (s. sulphas). All of these
may be easily formed by simply neutra-
lising the acid previously diluted with 2 or
3 parts of water, with the alkaloid, assisting
the solution with heat; crystals are deposited
as the liquid cools, and more may be obtained
by evaporating the mother-liquor. -
STUC/C0. The name of several calcareous
cements or mortars. Fine stucco is the
third or last coat of three-coat plaster, and
consists of a mixture of fine lime and quartzose
sand, which, in application, is “twice hand-
floated and well trowelled.”
STUFFING. Seasoning, placed in meat,
poultry, game, &c., before dressing them, to
give them an increased relish. The same
materials, formed into balls, are added to
soups, gravies, &c., under the name of FORCE-
IMEAT.
Prep. 1. (For fowls, &c.) Shred a little
ham or gammon, some cold veal or fowl, some
beef Suet, a small quantity of onion, some
parsley, a very little lemon peel, salt, nutmeg,
or pounded mace, and either white pepper or
cayenne, and bread crumbs; pound them in a
mortar, and bind it with 1 or 2 eggs.
2. (For hare, or anything in imitation of it
—Mrs. Rundell.) The scalded liver, an anchovy,
some fat bacon, a little suet, some parsley,
thyme, knotted marjoram, a little shalot, and
either onion or chives, all chopped fine; with
some crumbs of bread, pepper, and nutmeg,
beaten in a mortar with an egg.
3. (For goose.) From sage, onion, suet,
and crumb of bread. Geese are now, however,
more commonly stuffed with veal stuffing.
4. (For veal—Soyer.) Chop 3 lb. of suet,
put it into a basin with # lb. of bread crumbs,
a teaspoonful of salt, a # do. of pepper, a little
thyme or lemon peel chopped, and 3 whole
eggs; mix well.
Obs. 1 lb. of bread crumbs and one more
egg may be used; they will make it cut firmer.
This, as well as No. 1, is now commonly em-
ployed for poultry and meat. Ude, a great
authority in these matters, observes that “it
would not be amiss to add a piece of butter,
and to pound the whole in a mortar.”
“Grated ham or tongue may be added to this
stuffing.” (Rundell.) This is also used for
turkeys, and for ‘forcemeat patties.”
STUFFING (Birds, &c.). The skins are
commonly dusted over with a mixture of
camphor, alum, and sulphur, in about equal
quantities; or, they are smeared with Bécour’s
arsenical soap, noticed at page 1049. Accord-
ing to Crace Calvert, carbolic acid, which is
worth only about 2s. per gal., is superior to
all other substances for preserving the skins of
birds and animals, as well as corpses.
STUR/GEON. Several species of Acipenser
pass under this name. The common sturgeon
is the Acipenser sturio (Linn.). The roe is
STÜCCO-SUB.,
made into ‘caviare, the swimming-bladder
into ‘isinglass.’
STY. Syn. STYE, STIAN ; HoRDEOLUM, L.
A small inflamed tumour, or boil, at the edge
of the eyelid, somewhat resembling a barley-
corn. It is usually recommended to promote
its maturation by warm applications, since
“the stye, like other furunculous inflamma-
tions, forms an exception to the general rule,
that the best mode in which inflammatory
swellings can end in resolution.”
STYPTICS. Syn. STYPTICA, L. Substances
which arrest local bleeding. Creasote, tannic
acid, alcohol, alum, and most of the astringent
salts, belong to this class. -
Styptic, Brocchieri's. A nostrum consisting
of the water distilled from pine tops.
Styptic, Eaton’s. A solution of sulphate
disguised by the addition of some unim-
portant substances. “Helvetius's styptic was
for a long time employed under this title.”
(Paris.)
Styptic, Helvetius's. Syn. STYPTICUM HEL-
VETII, L. Iron filings (fine), and cream of
tartar, mixed to a proper consistence with
French brandy. See HELVETIUS’s STYPTIC
PoWDER (page 979).
STY'RAX. Syn. STORAX, STORAX BALSAM;
STYRAx (Ph. L. & E.), L. “The liquid balsam
of an uncertain plant.” (Ph. L.) The “bal-
samic exudation of Styraw officinale, Linn.”
(Ph. E.), or cane storax tree. Two or three
varieties are known in commerce :—Liquid
storax (styraw liquida), lump or red storax
(s. in massis), which is generally very im-
pure; storax in tears (s. in lachrymis), and
storax in reeds (s. calamita). The last are
now seldom met with in trade.
PREPARED STORAX (styraw colata ; s. prae-
parata (B. P., Ph. L.) is obtained by dis-
solving storax, 1 lb., in rectified spirit, 4 pints,
by a gentle heat, straining the solution through
linen, distilling off greater part of the spirit,
and evaporating what is left to a proper con-
sistence by the heat of a water bath. It is less
fragrant than the raw drug.
Storax is stimulant, expectorant, and nervine.
It was formerly much used in menstrual ob-
structions, phthisis, coughs, asthmas, and other
breath diseases. It is now chiefly used as a
perfume.—Dose. 6 to 20 or 30 grs. (10 to 20
grs. twice a day, B. P.).
A factitious strained Storax is made as fol-
lows:–1. Balsam of Peru, 1 lb.; balsam of
tolu, 4 lbs. ; mix.
2. Gum benzoin, 8 lbs. ; liquid storax, 6 lbs. ;
balsam of tolu and Socotrine aloes, of each,
3 lbs. ; balsam of Peru, 2 lbs. ; N. S. W. yellow
gum, 7 lbs. ; rectified spirit, 7 galls. ; digest,
with frequent agitation, for a fortnight, strain
and distil off the spirit (about 5% galls.) until
the residuum has a proper consistence. Prod.
28 lbs.
3. Liquid storax, 1 oz. ; Socotrine aloes, 3 lb.;
balsam of tolu, 2 lbs. ; rectified spirit, q. S.
SUB-. See NOMENCLATURE and SALTS.

SUBERIC ACID–SUGAR.
1087
SU'BERIC ACID. Obtained by boiling
rasped cork for some time in nitric acid.
SUBLIMATION. The process by which
volatile substances are reduced to the state of
vapour by heat, and again condensed in the
solid form. It differs from ordinary distil-
lation in being confined to dry solid substances,
and in the heat employed being, in general,
much greater.
SUB'STANTIVE COLOURS. In the art of
dyeing, are such as impart their tints to cloth
and yarns without the intervention of a mor-
dant; in contradistinction to adjective co-
lours, which require to be fixed by certain
‘intermedes, or substances which have a joint
affinity for the colouring matter and the ma-
terial to be dyed.
SUCCIN'IC ACID. C.H.O.H. Syn. ACI-
DUM SUCCINICUM. Prep. From amber, in
coarse powder, mixed with an equal weight of
sand, and distilled by a gradually increased
heat; or from the impure acid obtained dur-
ing the distillation of oil of amber; the pro-
duct in both cases being purified by wrapping
it in bibulous paper, and submitting it to
strong pressure, to remove the oil, and then
resubliming it.
From malic acid, by fermentation, or by
digestion with hydriodic acid in sealed tubes.
Prop., &c. Colourless; inodorous (when
pure); crystallises in oblique rhombic prisms;
soluble in 5 parts of cold and in 2% parts of
boiling water; fusible and volatile, without
decomposition. Its salts are called ‘succi-
nates, most of which are soluble. Succinate
of ammonium is used as a test for iron.
Succinic acid is distinguished from benzoic
acid by its greater solubility, and by giving
a brownish or pale red bulky precipitate with
ferric chloride in neutral solutions; whereas
that with benzoic acid is paler and yellower.
Uses, &c. Succinic acid is antispasmodic,
stimulant, and diuretic, but is now seldom
used.—Dose. 5 to 15 grs.
SUC'CORY. Chicory, or wild endive. (See
CHICORY.)
SUDORIFICS. See DIAPHORETICS.
SU'ET. Syn. SEWUM, SEBUM, L. This
is prepared from the fat of the loins of the
sheep or bullock by melting it by a gentle
heat, and straining the liquid fat. In this
state it forms the ADEPs ov[LLUS (Ph. D.),
SEVUM (Ph. L. & E.), SEVUM ov1LLUM, or
SEVUM PREPARATUM, employed in medicine
and perfumery, as the basis of ointments,
cerates, plasters, pommades, &c.
Suet, Melilot. Syn. SEVUM MELILOTI, L.
Prep. From suet, 8 lbs.; melilot leaves, 2 lbs.;
boil until the leaves are crisp, strain, and
allow it to cool very slowly, so that it may
‘grain well.” Used by farriers, and to make
melilot plaster.
SUFFOCATION. The treatment varies
with the cause. See ASPHYXIA, CHARCOAL,
DROWNING, HANGING, SULPHURETTED HY-
DROGEN, &c.
SUGAR. ClaRI,0m. Syn. CANE SUGAR ;
SACCHARUM, T.; SUCRE, Fr. This well-known
and most useful substance is found in the
juice of many of the canes or grasses, in the
sap of several forest trees, and in the roots of
various plants. In tropical climates it is
extracted from the sugar-cane (Saccharum
officinarum), in China from the sweet sorgho
(Sorghum saccharatum), in North America
from the sugar-maple (Acer saccharinum), and
in France from white beet-root (Beta vulgaris,
var. alba). The ordinary sugar used in
England is extracted from the sugar-cane
which is raised so abundantly in our numerous
colonies.
The manufacture of sugar is exclusively
conducted on the large scale. The recent
canes are crushed between rollers, and the
expressed juice is suffered to flow into a suit-
able vessel, where it is slowly heated to nearly
the boiling-point, to coagulate albuminous
matter. A small quantity of milk of lime is
then added, to remove mechanical impurities,
and the skimmed and clarified juice, after being
sufficiently concentrated by rapid evaporation
in open pans, is transferred to coolers, and
thence into upright casks perforated at the
bottom, and so placed that the syrup, or un-
crystallisable portion, may drain off into a
tank or cistern from the newly formed sugar.
During the period of crystallisation it is fre-
quently agitated, in order to hasten the change,
and to prevent the formation of large crystals.
The solid portion of the product forms moist,
raw, or muscovado sugar; the uncrystal-
lisable syrup, molasses or treacle."
Raw sugar is refined by redissolving it in
water, adding to the solution albumen, under
the form of serum of blood or white of egg, and,
sometimes, a little lime-water, and heating the
whole to the boiling-point; the impurities are
then removed by careful skimming, and the
syrup is decoloured by filtration through re-
cently burnt animal charcoal; the clear de-
colorised syrup is next evaporated to the
crystallising-point in vacuo, and at once trans-
ferred into conical earthern moulds, where it
solidifies, after some time, to a confusedly
crystallised mass; this, when drained, washed
with a little clean syrup, and dried in a stove,
constitutes ordinary loaf, lump, or refined
sugar. When the crystallisation is allowed
to take place quietly and slowly, the product
is sugar candy. The evaporation at a low
temperature in vacuum-pans has the effect of
diminishing the yield of treacle.
Prop. Sugar requires for its solution only
1-3rd of its weight of cold and still less of
boiling water; it is slowly dissolved by cold
rectified spirit; it dissolves in 4 parts of
boiling rectified spirit and in 80 parts of
boiling absolute alcohol; it melts by heat, and
cools to a glassy amorphous mass (barley
1 The term ‘molasses’ is usually restricted to the drain-
ings from raw sugar, and treacle to the thicker syrup
which has drained from refined sugar in the moulds.
1088
SUGAR.
sugar); at about 400°Fahr, it suffers rapid
decomposition, and fuses to a brown, uncrys-
tallisable mass (caramel); long boiling with
water increases its colour, and lessens its
tendency to crystallise; its aqueous solution
dissolves alkalies, earths, and many metallic
oxides, with facility; weak syrups take up
about half as much hydrate of calcium as they
contain sugar; when slowly crystallised, it
assumes the form of oblique 4-sided prisms,
terminated by 2-sided summits. Sp. gr. 1:60
(1:577—Ure).
Pur. 1. Moist or muscovado sugar and crushed
lump sugar are occasionally adulterated with
chalk, plaster, sand, potato-flour, and other
fecula; but frequently, and in certain neigh-
bourhoods constantly, with starch sugar or
potato-sugar. These frauds may be detected
as follows:—
Tests.—1. Pure cane sugar dissolves freely
and entirely in both water and proof spirit,
forming transparent colourless solutions, which
are unaffected by either sulphuretted hydro-
gen or dilute sulphuric acid.—2. Its solution
bends the luminous rays in circumpolarisation
to the right, whereas grape and fecula sugars
bend it to the left.—3. (Chevallier.) Boiled
for a short time in water containing 2 or 3% of
caustic potassa, the liquid remains colourless;
but it turns brown, which is more or less
intense, according to the quantity, if starch
sugar is present. Even 2 or 3% of starch sugar
may be thus detected.—4. (E. Krantz.) A
filtered solution of 33 grs. of cane or beet sugar
in 1 fl. oz. of water, mixed with 3 grs. of pure
hydrate of potassium, and then agitated with 1%
gr. of sulphate of copper in an air-tight bottle,
remains clear, even after the lapse of several
days; but if starch sugar be present, a red
precipitate is formed after some time; and if
it is present in considerable quantity, the
copper will be wholly converted into oxide
within 24 hours, the solution turning first
blue or green, and then entirely losing its
colour.—5. (Trommer's test.) A solution of
cane sugar is mixed with a solution of sulphate
of copper, and hydrate of potassium added in
excess; ablueliquid is obtained, which, on being
heated, is at first but little altered; a small
quantity of red powder falls after a time, but
the liquid long retains its blue tint. When
grape sugar or fecula sugar is thus treated,
the first application of heat throws down a
copions greenish precipitate, which rapidly
changes to scarlet, and eventually to dark red,
leaving a nearly colourless solution. This is
an excellent test for distinguishing the two
varieties of sugar, or discovering an admixture
of grape sugar with cane sugar. The Tºrºth
part of grape sugar may be thus detected.
The proportion of oxide of copper produced
affords a good criterion, not only of the purity
of the sugar, but also of the extent of the
adulteration.—6. (Ure.) Dissolve a little sul-
phate of copper (say 20 grs.) in a measured
quantity of water, and add to it, in the cold, a
solution of hydrate of potassium, until, by testing
with turmeric paper, the liquid appears faintly
alkaline, shown by the paper becoming slightly
brown. If a small quantity of this test-liquor
(previously well shaken) be added to an
aqueous solution of the sugar, and the whole
boiled, the solution becomes at first green, and
then olive-green, if dextrin is present; but if
it contain grape sugar, the salt of copper is
immediately reduced into the state of orange
and oxide; whilst a solution of pure sugar
undergoes no change, or is scarcely altered.
–7. The presence of the inspissated sweet
waste liquor (crude glycerin) of the stearin
manufactories, now a common adulterant, may
be detected by the inferior sweetness and by
the moist and ‘sickly’ appearance of the
sugar.—8. The specific gravities and crystal-
line forms offer other means of distinguishing
the varieties of sugar.
Concluding remarks.-Refined sugar (SAC-
CHARUM-Ph. L., S. PURUM-Ph. E., S. PU-
RIFICATUM–Ph.D.), raw sugar (s. COMMUNE
—Ph. E.), and molasses or treacle (SACCHARI
FEX—Ph. L. & E.), were officinal.
The relative sweetening power of cane sugar
is estimated at 100; that of pure grape sugar,
at 60; that of fecula or starch sugar, at 30
to 40.
According to Messrs. Oxland's method
(patented 1849) of defecating and bleaching the
juice of beet-root, cane, &c., acetate of alu-
minium, formed by dissolving 4lbs. of that earth
in acetic acid, is boiled with each ton of sugar,
and as soon as the acetic acid is nearly all
driven off, a solution of tannin, formed from
1 lb. of bruised valonia and 2 galls, of hot water,
is added to the boiling sprup; the excess of
aluminium is afterwards separated by lime, and
the usual method of further procedure adopted.
By their second patent (1851), superphosphate
of aluminium or of calcium is substituted for
acetate of aluminium, in the proportion of
about 6 lbs. of aluminium, dissolved in phos-
phoric acid, for each ton of sugar. -
Sugar may be obtained from nearly all sweet
vegetable substances, by a process essentially
similar to that described above.
Sugar, Alum. Syn. SACCHARUM ALUMI-
NATUM, ALUMEN SACCHARINUM, L. From
alum and white sugar, in fine powder, equal
parts, formed into minute sugar-loaf shaped
lumps with mucilage of gum arabic made with
rose water. Used to make astringent lotions
and eye-waters.
Sugar, Bar’ley. Syn. SACCHARUM HORDE-
ATUM, PENIDIUM, SACCHARUM PENIDIUM., L.
Prep. Take of saffron, 12 grs. ; hot water, q. S.;
sugar, 1 lb. ; boil to a full ‘ candy height,” or
that state called ‘crack,” or ‘crackled sugar,'
when 2 or 3 drops of clear lemon juice or white
vinegar must be added, and the pan removed
from the fire and set for a single minute in
cold water, to prevent its burning; the sugar
must be then at once poured out on an oiled
marble slab, and either cut into pieces or























SUGAR-BOILING.
1089
-
rolled into cylinders, and twisted in the usual
manner. I drop of oil of citron, orange, or
lemon, will flavour a considerable quantity.
White barley sugar is made with a strained de-
coction of barley instead of water, or starch is
added to whiten it.
Sugar, Beet-root. Syn. SACCHARUM BETAE,
L. Sugar obtained from the white beet. (See
above.) It is identical with cane sugar.
Diabetic Sugar. Grape sugar found in the
urine of persons labouring under diabetes. In
diabetes insipidus a substancehaving the general
properties of a sugar, but destitute of a sweet
taste, appears to be produced. (Thénard.)
Sugar, Gelſatin. See GLYCOCINE.
Sugar, Grape, C5H12O6. H2O. Syn. GLUC0SE,
FRUIT SUGAR ; SACCHARUM UVAE, S. FRUCTUS,
L. This substance is found in the juice of
grapes and other fruit, in the urine of diabetic
patients, and in the liquid formed by acting on
starch and woody fibre with dilute sulphuric
acid.
Prep. 1. From the juice of ripe grapes or
an infusion of the ripe fruit (raisins), by satu-
rating the acid with chalk, decanting the clear
liquid, evaporating to a syrup, clarifying with
white of egg or bullock’s blood, and then care-
fully evaporating to dryness; it may be
purified for chemical purposes by solution
and crystallisation in either water or boiling
alcohol. Like other sugar, it may be deco-
loured by animal charcoal.
2. From honey, by washing with cold alcohol,
which dissolves the fluid syrup and leaves the
solid crystallisable portion. -
Prop. It is less sweet and less soluble than
cane sugar, requiring 1% part of cold water
for its solution; instead of bold crystals, it
forms granular warty masses, without distinct
crystalline faces; it does not easily combine
with either oxide of calcium or oxide of lead;
with heat, caustic alkaline solutions turn it
brown or black, but it dissolves in oil of vitriol
without blackening, the reverse being the case
with cane sugar; with chloride of sodium it
forms a soluble salt, which yields large, regular,
and beautiful crystals. Sp. gr. 1400.
Obs. Cane sugar is converted into grape
sugar during the process of fermentation, and
by the action of acids. See SUGAR (page 1087)
and STARCH SUGAR (below).
Sugar, Maple. Syn. SACCHARUM ACERINUM,
L: From the juice of the sugar maple. The
average product from each tree is about 6 lbs.
per season. It is identical with cane sugar.
(See page 1087.) -
Sugar, Milk. Cish,0m. H2O. Syn. SUGAR
OF MILR, LACTIN; SACCHARUM LACTIS (Ph.
D.), L. Prep. Gently evaporate clarified
whey until it crystallises on cooling, and purify
the crystals by digestion with animal charcoal
and repeated crystallisations.
Prop, &c. White, translucent, very hard,
cylindrical masses or four-sided prisms; solu-
ble in about 6 parts of cold and in 2 parts of
boiling water; it is unsusceptible of the vinous
fermentation, except under the action of
dilute acids, which convert it into grape
sugar; in solution, it is converted into lactic
or butyric acid by the action of caseine and
albuminous matter. Milk contains about 5;
of it. (Boussingault.) -
Obs. Sugar of milk is chiefly imported from
Switzerland. In this country it is chiefly used
as a vehicle for more active medicines, espe-
cially among the homoeopathists.
Sugar, Starch. Syn. POTATO SUGAR, FECULA
S. This is grape sugar obtained by the action
of diastase on starch, in the manner noticed
under GUM (British), or by the action of
dilute sulphuric acid on starch, or of the
strong acid on lignin, or on substances con-
taining it.
Prep. 1. Potato starch, 100 parts; water,
400 parts; sulphuric acid, 6 parts; mix, boil for
35 or 40 hours, adding water, to make up for
evaporation; then saturate the acid with lime
or chalk, decant or filter, and evaporate the
clear liquor. Under pressure, the conversion
is more rapid. Prod. 105}. -
2. Shreds of linen or paper, 12 parts; strong
sulphuric acid, 17 parts (Braconnot ; 5 of
acid, and 1 of water—Vogel); mix in the
cold; in 24 hours dilute with water, and boil
it for 10 hours; then neutralise with chalk,
filter, evaporate to a syrup, and set the vessel
aside to crystallise. Prod. 114%. Sawdust,
glue, &c., also yield grape sugar by like treat-
ment. See LIGNIN. * -
SUGAR-BOILING. The art or business of
the confectioner or sugar-baker; the candying
of sugar. The stages are as follow:—Well
clarified and perfectly transparent syrup is
boiled until a ‘skimmer' dipped into it, and a
portion touched' between the forefinger and
thumb, on opening them, is drawn into a small
thread, which crystallises and breaks. This
is called a ‘weak candy height.” If boiled again,
it will draw into a larger string, and if blad-
ders may be blown through the ‘drippings’
from the ladle, with the mouth, it has acquired
the second degree, and is now called ‘bloom
sugar.” After still further boiling, it arrives at
the state called ‘feathered sugar.” To deter-
mine this re-dip the skimmer, and shake it
over the pan, then give it a sudden flirt
behind, and the sugar will fly off like feathers.
The next degree is that of ‘crackled sugar,’ in
which state the sugar that hangs to a stick
dipped into it, and put directly into a pan of
cold water, is not dissolved off, but turns hard
and snaps. The last stage of refining this
article reduces it to what is called ‘ carmel
sugar,” proved by dipping a stick first into the
sugar, and then into cold water, when, on the
moment it touches the latter, it will, if ma-
tured, snap like glass. It has now arrived at
a ‘full candy height.” Care must be taken
throughout that the fire is not too fierce, as,
by flaming up against the sides of the pan, it
will burn and discolour the sugar; hence the
boiling is best conducted by steam heat.
69
1090
SUGAR CANDY-SULPHOCARBOLIC ACID.
Any flavour or colour may be given to the
candy by adding the colouring matter to the
syrup before boiling it, or the flavouring
essences when the process is nearly complete.
See STAINS, &c.
SUGAR CAN'DY. Syn. SACCHARUM CAN-
DIDUM, S. CRYSTALLINUM, S. CRYSTALLI-
ZATUM, L. Sugar crystallised by leaving the
saturated syrup in a warm plaee (90 to 100°
Fahr.), the shooting being promoted by placing
sticks, or threads, at small distances from each
other in the liquor; it is also deposited from
compound syrups, and does not seem to retain
much of the foreign substances with which
they are loaded. Brown sugar candy is pre-
pared in this way from raw sugar ; white do.,
from refined sugar ; and red do., from a syrup
of refined sugar which has been coloured red
by means of cochineal.
Sugar candy is chiefly used as a sweetmeat;
and, being longer in dissolving than sugar,
in coughs, to keep the throat moist; reduced
to powder, it is also blown into the eye, as
a mild escharotic in films or dimness of that
Organ.
SUGAR OF LEAD. Acetate of lead.
SUGAR PLUMS. Syn. BON-BONS, DRA-
GáES, Fr. These are made by various methods,
among which are those noticed under DROPS
(Confectionery), LozENGES, and PASTILS, to
which may be added the following:—Take a
quantity of Sugar syrup, in the proportion to
their size, in that state called a “blow” (which
may be known by dipping the skimmer into
the sugar, shaking it, and blowing through the
holes, when parts of light may be seen), and
add a drop or two of any esteemed flavouring
essence. If the “bon-bons' are preferred white,
when the sugar has cooled a little, stir it
round the pan till it grains and shines on the
surface. When all is ready, pour it through a
funnel into little clean, bright, leaden moulds,
which must be of various shapes, and be pre-
viously slightly moistened with oil of sweet
almonds; it will then take a proper form and
harden. As soon as the plums are cold, take
them from the moulds; dry them for two or
three days in the air, and put them upon paper.
If the bon-bons are required to be coloured,
add the colour just as the sugar is ready to be
taken off the fire. -
CRYSTALLISED BON-BONS are prepared by
dusting them with powdered double-refined
lump sugar before drying them.
LIQUEUR BON-BONS, now so beautifully got
up by the Parisian confectioners, are obtained
by pressing pieces of polished bone or metal into
finely powdered sugar, filling the hollow spaces
so formed with Saturated solutions of sugar in
the respective liqueurs, and then spreading
over the whole an ample layer of powdered
sugar. In the course of three or four days the
bon-bons may be removed, and tinted by the
artist at will. Instead of white powdered
sugar ordered above, coloured sugar may be
used. These bon-bons are found to be hol-
low spheres, containing a small quantity of
the 'spirit or liqueur employed, and will
bear keeping for many months. See SWEET-
MEATS, &c.
SUGARS (Medicated). Syn. SACCHARIDES;
SACCHARA MEDICATA, L.; SACCHAROLÉs, SAC-
CHARURES, Fr. Some of these are prepared by
moistening white sugar with the medicinal
substance, then gently drying it, and rubbing
it to powder; in other cases they are obtained
in the manner noticed under PULVERULENT
EXTRACTS, or OLEOSACCHARUM. The most
valuable preparation of this class in British
pharmacy is the saccharated carbonate of
iron (FERRI CARBONAS CUM SACCHARO–
Ph. L.). -
SUL(PHATE. Syn. SULPHAs, L. A salt of
sulphuric acid.
SUL'PHIDE. A salt consisting of sulphur
and a metal or other basic radical.
SULPHINDYL'IC ACID. Syn. SULPHIN-
DIGOTIC ACID. An intensely blue pasty mass,
formed by dissolving 1 part of indigo in about
15 parts of concentrated sulphuric acid. See
SULPHATE OF INDIGO.
SUI/PHITE. A salt of sulphurous acid.
SUIPH00ARBOLIC ACID. (SULPHOCAR-
BOLATES.) Carbolic acid, when acted upon by
bases, yields a class of salts termed carbolates.
These compounds are very unstable ; they
readily absorb water from the air, which sets
free carbolic acid; they usually have the power-
ful odour of the latter. When, however, equiva-
lent weights of carbolic and sulphuric acids are
mixed, union takes place, a definite double acid
(sulphocarbolic) results, and the salts formed by
this double acid with the various bases are en-
tirely different from the simple salts of carbolic
acid. They are very stable, very soluble, possess
neither odour nor taste of carbolic acid, and
are singularly beautiful in crystalline form.
Sulphocarbolic Acid [HCGHaSO4] is ob-
tained by the crystallisation in long colourless
needles; unlike carbolic acid, it is soluble in
water, alcohol, and ether, in any propor-
tions.
Sulphocarbolateof Sodium.[Na(CºHº)SO4. Aql
is in brilliant, clear, rhombic prisms. The
salt is very soluble in water. This salt can
be administered as a medicine in doses of
20 to 60 grs. ; it is slowly decomposed in the
textures, carbolic acid being evolved. It thus
becomes a very simple means of obtaining the
beneficial effects of the administration of this
antiseptic without the difficulties and dangers
which attend it in its uncombined irritant
and caustic form. It has proved of great
service in the treatment of infectious dis-
eases. Administered in the severest cases of
diphtheria, malignant scarlet fever, typhoid,
erysipelas, &c., the remedy has proved of ex-
treme value. -
The Sulphocarbolates of Potassium
[KC6H5SO4] and Ammonium [NH3C5H5SO4]
are also brilliant crystals; they are freely
soluble, administered with the greatest ease,


SULPHOCYANOGEN-SULPHUR.
1091
and have been used with success as remedial
agents.
Sulphocarbolate of Calcium [Ca(C6H5SOſ);
+ Aq.] is obtained in very long, fine, densely
interlacing crystals, which form in bulk, by
their interlacement, a porous mass. Unlike
the usual lime-salts, this is exceedingly soluble.
This fact overcomes the great difficulty of
treatment when in disease there is a deficiency
of lime in the body, especially in rickets, in
which disease the want of lime in the bones
gives rise to distortions. The sulphocarbolate
of magnesium crystallises in large, clear, rhom-
bic prisms, easily soluble in water.
Sulphocarbolate of Iron [Fe(C5H5SO), is
in colourless or pale green rhombic plates. It
is readily administered, and seems in some
instances to be preferred to other salts of iron.
It seems to have been of especial use in the
skin diseases of children, wherein there is
much formation of matter. -
Sulphocarbolate of Zinc [Zn(C5H5SO)2] is
chiefly employed in solution as a lotion. By
high surgical authorities it is considered to
answer all the purposes of the antiseptic dress-
ing of carbolic acid. It is inodorous, and has
very slight irritating action.
Sulphocarbolate of Copper [Cu(C6H5SO).
forms fine prismatic crystals of a blue colour.
It is used as the zinc sulphocarbolate, chiefly as
a lotion and dressing, in the proportion of 3 to
10 grains to the ounce of distilled water.
SULPHOCYAN/OGEN. A well-defined salt-
radical, containing sulphur united to the ele-
ments of cyanogen. Its compounds are the
sulphocyanides, most of which may be formed
by directly saturating hydrosulphocyanic acid
with the oxide or hydrate of the base; or,
from the sulphocyanide of potassium and a
soluble salt of the base, by double decomposi-
tion.
SULPHOPHENIC ACID. A synonym of
sulphocarbolic acid. See SULPHOCARBOLATES.
SUIPHOWINIC ACID. C.H., HSO. Syn.
SULPHETHYLIC ACID ; ACIDUM SULPHOVINI-
CUM, L. This substance is formed by the
action of heat on a mixture of alcohol and sul-
phuric acid; it is the intermediate product
which is developed in the preparation of ether.
The salts are called sulphovinates or sulpho-
thylates. -
SUI/PHUR. [Eng., L.] Syn. BRIMSTONE;
SouTRE, Fr. An elementary substance. That
of commerce is chiefly imported from Sicily
and Italy, and is a volcanic production.
War. The principal of these are—
AMORPHOUS SULPHUR, BROWN S.; SULPHUR
AMORPHUM, S. FUSCUM, S. INFORME, S. RU-
BRUM, L. Prepared from sublimed sulphur,
by melting it, increasing the heat to from
320° to 350° Fahr., and continuing it at that
temperature for about half an hour, or until
it becomes brown and viscid, and then pouring
it into water. In this state it is ductile, like
wax, may be easily moulded in any form, is
much heavier than usual, and when it has
bluish flame.
cooled does not again become fluid until heated
to above 600°Fahr. The same effect is pro-
duced more rapidly by at once raising the
temperature of the melted mass to from 430°
to 480° Fahr.
PRECIPITATED SULBHUR, HYDRATE OF SUL-
PHUR, MILK OF S.; SULPHURIS HYDRAS, LAC
SULPHURIs, SULPHUR PRECIPITATUM (B. P.,
Ph.D.), L. Prep. From sublimed sulphur, lpart;
dry and recently slaked lime, 2 parts; water,
25 parts, or q. S.; boil for 2 or 3 hours, dilute
with 25 parts more of water, filter, and preci-
pitate with dilute hydrochloric acid; drain,
and well wash the precipitate, and dry it by a
gentle heat. Resembles sublimed sulphur in
its general properties, but is much paler, and
in a finer state of division. “A grayish-yellow
powder, free from grittiness, and with no smell
of sulphuretted hydrogen.” (B. P.)
ROLL SULPHUR, CANE S., STICK S.; SUL-
PHUR IN BACCULIS, S. IN ROTULIS, S. RoTUN-
DUM, L. This is crude sulphur, purified by
melting and skimming it, and then pouring it
into moulds. That obtained during the roast-
ing of copper pyrites, and which forms the
common roll sulphur of England, frequently
contains from 3 to 7% of yellow arsenic.
SUBLIMED SULPHUR, FLOWERS OF SULPHUR;
FLORES SULPHURIs, SULPHUR (Ph. L.), SUL-
PHUR SUBLIMATUM (B. P., Ph. E. & D.), L.
Prepared by subliming sulphur in iron vessels.
For medical purposes, it is ordered to be well
washed with water, and dried by a gentle
heat. “A slightly gritty powder, of a fine
greenish-yellow colour, without taste and
without odour till heated.” (B. P.)
SULPHUR WIVUM, BLACK SULPHUR, CRUDE
S., HORSE BRIMSTONE ; SULPHUR NIGRUM, S.
CABALLINUM, S. GRISEUM, L. This is crude
native sulphur. It is a gray or mouse-coloured
powder. The residuum in the subliming pots
from the preparation of flowers of sulphur is
now commonly substituted for it. It gene-
rally contains much arsenic, and is conse-
quently very poisonous.
Pur. The sublimed sulphur of the shops
is now, in general, of respectable quality, but
the precipitated sulphur frequently contains
about ; of its weight of sulphate of lime
(plaster of Paris), owing to the substitution of
sulphuric acid for hydrochloric acid in its
manufacture. This sophistication is readily
detected by strongly heating a little of the
suspected sample in an iron spoon or shovel,
when the sulphur is burnt or volatilised, and
leaves behind the sulphate of lime as a white
ash; this, when mixed with water, and gently
dried, gives the amount of the adulteration. A
still simpler plan is to dissolve out the sulphur
in the sample with a little hot oil of turpen-
time or liquor of potassa; the undissolved por-
tion is foreign matter.
Prop. Sulphur melts to a clear thin fluid,
and volatilises at about 232° Fahr., and in
open vessels rapidly takes fire, burning with a
It is insoluble in both water
1092
SULPHURATION.—SULPHURIC ACID.
and alcohol; it is soluble in oil of turpentine
and the fatty oils, and freely so in bisulphide
of carbon and hot liquor of potassa. With
oxygen it unites to form sulphurous anhydride,
and with the metals to form sulphides. Sp. gr.
1982 to 2'015.
Estim. The determination of the quantity
of sulphur, phosphorus, and chlorine, in a state
of combination, especially in organic mixtures,
is often rather troublesome. The proportion
of sulphur is best determined by oxidising
a known weight of the substances by strong
nitric acid, or by fusing it in a silver vessel
with 10 or 12 times its weight of pure hydrate
of potassa and about half as much nitre. The
sulphur is thus converted into sulphuric acid,
the quantity of which can be determined by
dissolving the fused mass in water, acidulating
the solution with nitric acid, adding a salt of
baryta, and weighing the resulting sulphate.
Phosphorus is, in like manner, oxidised to
phosphoric acid, the quantity of which is de-
termined by precipitation in combination with
sesquioxide of iron, or otherwise. The chlo-
rine is correctly determined by placing a
small weighed portion in a combustion-tube,
which is afterwards filled with fragments of
pure quicklime. The lime is then brought to
a red heat, and the vapour of the liquid driven
over it, when chloride of calcium is formed.
The contents of the tube, when gold, are dis-
solved in dilute nitric acid, filtered, the chlo-
rine precipitated by nitrate of silver, and the
chlorine weighed under the form of chloride of
silver. See ORGANIC SUBSTANCES.
Uses, &c. Sulphur is extensively used in
the manufacture of gunpowder, in bleaching,
&c. &c. When swallowed, it acts as a mild
laxative and stimulating diaphoretic ; and has
hence been long taken in various chronic skin
diseases, in pulmonary, rheumatic, and gouty
affections, and as a mild purgative in piles,
prolapsus ani, &c. Externally, it is extensively
used in skin diseases, especially the itch, for
which it appears to be a specific.—Dose. 20 to
63 grs., in sugar, honey, treacle, or milk.
Sulphur, Chlo"rides of Several of these
compounds exist, but the following are the
most important. 1. (DICHLORIDE, S2Cl2.)
Prepared by passing dry chlorine gas over the
surface of sulphur melted in a bulbed-tube or
small retort connected with a well-cooled
receiver. The product is a deep orange-yellow
and very mobile liquid, which possesses a
disagreeable odour, and boils at 280° Fahr. It
is soluble in bisulphide of carbon, and in
benzol, without decomposing. It dissolves
sulphur in large quantities, especially when
heated. A solution of the dichloride with
excess of sulphur in crude benzol is used for
vulcanising caoutchouc.
2. (CHLORIDE, HYPOCHLORIDE, or HYPO-
CHLORITE of the shops; SUIPHURIS CHLo-
RIDUM, S. HYPOCHLORIDUM,
RITIs, L.) This is prepared by spreading
washed sulphur thinly on the bottom of a
S. HYPOCHIO-
wooden box, or other chamber, and passing
chlorine gas slowly over until it ceases to be
absorbed.
Obs. This last compound is of variable and
undetermined constitution. It has been re-
commended for internal use, by Derksengi, in
old gouty affections, combined with pains in
the stomach, and in severe nervous fever.—
Dose. # to 2 grs., dissolved in ether, and taken
with old Hungary wine. It is also used ex-
ternally in psoriasis inveterata, and other skin
diseases.
I'odide of Sulphur. S.I., Syn. BINIODIDE
of SULPHUR ; SULPHURIs TODIDUM (Ph. L.),
SULPHUR IoDATUM (Ph. D.), L. Prep. Into
a glass flask put 1 part of sublimed sulphur,
and over it place 4 parts of iodine; insert the
cork loosely, and place the flask in a water
bath ; as soon as its contents melt, stir them
with a glass rod, replace the cork, remove the
bath from the fire, and let the whole cool toge-
ther. When cold, break the iodide into pieces,
and place it in a wide-mouthed stoppered
bottle. In this way a beautiful semi-crystal-
line, dark gray mass, resembling antimony,
is obtained. The formulae of the B. P., Ph. L.
E. & D., Ph. U. S. & P. Cod., are essentially
similar. The Ph.D. orders the two substances
to be powdered and mixed before heating :
them.
Uses, &c. It is stimulant and alterative.
An ointment made of it has been recom-
mended by Biett and others in tuberculous
affections of the skin, in lepra, psoriasis, lupus,
porrigo, &c.
Iodide of sulphur stains the skin like iodine,
and is readily decomposed by contact with or-.
ganic substances.
SULPHURATION. The process by which
silk, cotton, and woollen goods, straw plait,
&c., are subjected to the fumes of burning
sulphur, or sulphurous acid, for the purpose
of bleaching or decolouring them. On the
large scale, this is effected in closed apart-
ments, called ‘sulphuring rooms,” to which
sufficient air only is admitted to keep up the
slow combustion of the sulphur. On the
small scale, as for straw hats, bonnets, &c., a
large wooden chest is frequently employed in
the same way.
SUI/PHURET. Syn. SULPHIDE; SULPHU-
RETUM, SULPHIDUM, L. See SULPHIDE.
SULPHURET/TED HYDROGEN. See Hy-
IDROGEN.
SULPHU'RIC ACID. H. SO). Syn. OIL OF
VITRIOL, BRITISH O. O.F. V., VITRIOLIC ACID+ ;
ACIDUM SULPHURICUM (B. P., Ph. L. & E.),
ACIDUM SULPHURICUM VENALE (Ph. D.),
ACIDUM WITRIOLICUMi, L. This acid, in a
concentrated form, was discovered by Basil
Valentine towards the end of the 15th cen-
tury. At first it was obtained by the distilla-
tion of green vitriol ; but is now made by
bringing sulphurous anhydride, arising from
the combustion of sulphur, into contact with
the vapour of nitric acid, evolved from a mix-



SULPHURIC ACID. - 1093
ture of nitrate of soda and oil of vitriol, and
of steam. The process is conducted in leaden
chambers, into which steam is admitted con-
tinuously by several jets, and which have
about three inches of water resting on the
floor, to absorb the acid. As soon as the water,
or rather liquid acid, has acquired the sp. gr.
of 1:35 to 1:50, it is drawn off, and concen-
trated by boiling in shallow leaden pans to the
density of about 1:72, after which it is fur-
ther concentrated in green-glass or platinum
retorts, until the sp. gr. reaches 1:842 to 1846.
When cold, the clear acid is put into large
globular bottles of green glass (carboys), sur-
rounded with straw and basket-work, and is
sent into the market under the name of “oil
of vitriol.”
Purif. Commercial sulphuric acid frequently
contains nitrous acid, arsenic, lead, and saline
matter. The nitrous acid may be removed
by adding a little sulphate of ammonia, and
heating the acid to ebullition for a few mi-
nutes. Both nitric and nitrous acid are thus
entirely decomposed into water and nitrogen
gas. The arsenic may be got rid of by add-
ing a little sulphide of barium to the acid,
agitating the mixture well, and, after repose,
decanting and distilling it. Lead, which exists
as sulphate, may be separated as a white preci-
pitate by simply diluting the acid with water.
Saline matter may be removed by simple recti-
fication. A good way of purifying oil of vitriol
is to heat it nearly to the boiling-point, and
pass a current of hydrochloric acid through it;
the arsenic is thus carried over as the volatile
chloride of arsenic, while the nitrous and nitric
acids are expelled almost completely. To ob-
tain a perfectly pure acid, it should be distilled
after the removal of the nitrous acid and ar-
senic by the methods indicated above. “The
distillation is most conveniently conducted, on
the small scale, in a glass retort, containing a
few platinum chips, and heated by a sand bath
or gas-flame, rejecting the first # fl. oz. that
comes over.” (Ph. E.) In the Ph. D. the
first tenth of the distillate is ordered to be re-
jected, and the process to be stopped when no
more than about 1 fl. Oz. is left in the retort.
According to Dr. Ure, the capacity of the re-
torts should be from 4 to 8 times as great as
the volume of the acid, and connected with a
large tubular receiver by a loosely fitting glass
tube, 4 feet long and 1 to 2 inches in diameter.
“The receiver should not be surrounded with
cold water.” We find that fragments of glass,
or of rock crystals, may be advantageously sub-
stituted for platinum foil, to lessen the explo-
sive violence of the ebullition. Sulphuric acid
which has become brown by exposure may be
decolorised by heating it gently, the carbon of
the organic substances being thus converted
into carbonic acid.
Prop. Commercial sulphuric acid (oil of
vitriol) is a colourless, odourless, and highly
corrosive liquid, the general properties of
which are well known. Its sp. gr. at 60°
should never be greater than 1848, or less
than 1840. (Miller and Odling give the sp.
gr. of the pure and concentrated acid as 1842;
Abel and Bloxam, as 1848; Apjohn gives it
as 1846, and Hardwich about 1845.) It is
immediately coloured by contact with organic
matter. It attracts water so rapidly from the
atmosphere, when freely exposed to it, as to
absorb 1-3rd of its weight in 24 hours, and 6
times its weight in a few months. When 3
volumes are suddenly mixed with 2 of water,
the temperature of the mixture rises more
than 180° Fahr. Its freezing-point appears to
be about 60° below that of water (Miller and
Odling give that of the rectified acid as — 30°
Fahr. ; Apjohn and Abel and Bloxam, -29°).
It boils at about 620° Fahr. (620.6°, Odling;
620°, Hardwich and Fownes; 617°, Apjohn;
590.6°, Abel and Bloxam). It exhibits all the
properties of the acids in an exalted degree. Its
salts are called sulphates.
Pur. “Free from colour and odour. Sp.
gr. 1843. 100 grs. are saturated by 285 grs.
of crystallised carbonate of soda.” (Ph. L.)
“What remains after the acid is distilled to
dryness, does not exceed ##7th part of its
weight. Diluted sulphuric acid is not dis-
coloured by sulphuretted hydrogen.” (Ph. L.
1836.) “Diluted with its own volume of
water, only a scanty muddiness arises, and no
orange fumes escape. Sp. gr. 1840.” (Ph.
E.) The rectified acid (ACIDUM suTPHURI-
CUM PURUM-Ph. E. & D.) is colourless; dilu-
tion causes no muddiness; solution of sulphate
of iron shows no reddening at the line of con-
tact when poured over it. Sp. gr. 1845.”
(Ph. E.) Sp. gr. 1846—Ph. D.; 1843—B. P.;
1842—Ure.
Tests.-See SULPHATE.
Uses, &c. Sulphuric acid is much employed
in the arts, and, from its superior affinity, to
disengage most of the other acids from their
saline combinations in chemical processes. In
the diluted state it is used in medicine. When
swallowed, it acts as a violent corrosive poison.
The antidotes are chalk, whiting, magnesia,
carbonate of soda, or carbonate of potash,
mixed with water, or any bland diluent, and
taken freely, an emetic being also adminis-
tered.
JEstim. The strength of sulphuric acid is
most correctly ascertained by its power of
saturating bases. In commerce, it is usually
determined from its sp. gr. The quantity of
sulphuric acid present in a compound may be
determined by weighing it under the form of
sulphate, as explained in a former part of this
volume. See ACIDIMETRY.
Concluding remarks. According to most of
our standard works on chemistry, British oil
of vitriol, when purified and brought to its
maximum strength by distillation, is a definite
chemical compound, having the formula HSSO4,
and designated normal sulphuric acid by
Odling. Marignac, however, asserts that the
distilled acid always contains an excess of
1094
SULPHURIC ANHYDRIDE-SULPHUROUS ACID.
water, and that the true monohydrate can only
be obtained by submitting fuming sulphuric
acid (“Nordhausen s. a.”) to congelation. Ac-
cording to this chemist, the true monohydrate
readily freezes in cold weather, and remains
solid up to 51° Fahr. Two other definite
hydrates of sulphuric acid are generally re-
cognised by chemists, viz.-Bihydrated sul-
phuric acid ( glacial s. a.”), having a sp. gr.
of 178; freezing at about 40° Fahr. (47°,
Miller); and boiling at about 435° (Apjohn ;
401° to 410°, Odling): Terhydrated sulphuric
acid, having a sp. gr. of 1:632, and the boiling-
point 348° Fahr. See also NoFDHAUSEN SUL-
PHURIC ACID (below).
Sulphuric Acid, Al'coholised. Syn. ACIDUM
SUIPHURICUM ALCOHOLISATUM, L.; EAU DE
RABEL, Fr. Prep. (P. Cod.) To rectified
spirit, 3 parts, add, very gradually, sulphuric
acid, 1 part. It is generally coloured by letting
it stand over a little cochineal. Refrigerant,
and, externally, escharotic.—Dose. # fl. dr. to
* 1 pint ; as a cooling drink in fevers,
C.
Sulphuric Acid, Anhy'drous. SO3. Syn.
SULPHURIC ANHYDRIDE, DRY SULPHURIC
ACID ; ACIDUM suTPHURICUM SINE AQUA, L.
Prep. 1. By heating Nordhausen acid to about
100° Fahr. in a glass retort connected with a
well-cooled receiver.
2. By distilling anhydrous bisulphate of soda,
which has previously been raised to a low red
heat in an earthen retort, to which a receiver is
fitted without the aid of corks.
3. (Barreswill.) 2 parts of the strongest
oil of vitriol are gradually added to 3 parts of
anhydrous phosphoric acid, contained in a
retort surrounded by a freezing mixture; when
the compound has assumed a brown colour,
the retort is removed from the bath, and con-
nected with a réceiver which is set there in
its place ; a gentle heat is now applied to it,
when white vapours pass over into the receiver,
and condense there under the form of beautiful
silky crystals. The product equals in weight
that of the phosphorus originally employed.
“If a few drops of water be added, a dangerous
explosion ensues.”
Prop. White, silky, asbestos-like crystals,
deliquescing rapidly, and fuming in the air ;
put into water, it hisses like a red-hot iron; it
melts at 77°, and rapidly volatilises at 86°Fahr.;
it does not redden dry litmus paper; sp. gr.
1.97 at 78° Fahr.
Sulphuric Acid, Aromatic. Syn. ELIXIR OF
WITRIOL, ACID E. O.F. V. ; ACIDUM SULPHU-
RICUM AROMATICUM (B. P., Ph. E. & D.), L.
Prep. 1. (Ph. E. & D.) Oil of vitriol, 3} fl.
oz. ; rectified spirit, 1% pint ; mix, add of pow-
dered cinnamon, 1% oz. ; powdered ginger, 1
oz. ; digest for 6 days (7 days—Ph. D.), and
filter. Sp. gr. 1974–Ph. D.
2. (Wholesale.) From compound tincture of
cinnamon, 1 gal. ; oil of vitriol, 1 lb. ; mix,
and in a week filter—Dose. 10 to 30 drops, in
the same cases as the dilute acid.
3. (B.P.) Sulphuric acid,3; rectified spirit,
40; cinnamon, in powder, 2.; ginger, in pow-
der, 1}; mix the acid gradually with the spirit,
add the powders, macerate for 7 days, and filter.
— Dose. 5 to 30 minims.
Sulphuric Acid, Dilute'. Syn. SPIRIT OF
VITRIOL ; ACIDUM SULPHURICUM DILUTUM
(B. P., Ph. L. E. & D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph.
L.) Take of sulphuric acid, 15 fl. drs., and
dilute it gradually with distilled water, q. S. to
make the whole exactly measure a pint. Sp.
gr. 1:103. “1 fl. oz. of this acid is exactly
saturated by 216 grs. of crystallised carbonate
of soda.”
2. (Ph. E.) Sulphuric acid, 1 fl. oz. ; water,
13 fl. Oz. Sp. gr. 1090.
3. (Ph. D.) Pure sulphuric acid, 1 fl. oz. ;
distilled water, 13 oz. Sp. gr. 1084.
4. (B.P.) Sulphuric acid,3; distilled water,
q. s. to measure 35%; mix by adding the acid
gradually to the water.—Dose. 4 to 20
In Inll)].S.
Prop, &c. Antiseptic, tonic, and refrigerant.
—Dose. 10 to 30 drops, largely diluted with
water, several times daily; in low typhoid
fevers, passive haemorrhages, profuse perspi-
ration, in various skin diseases to relieve the
itching, in dyspepsia, &c. It is also used ex-
termally. -
Sulphuric Acid, Nordhausen. Syn. FUMING
SULPHURIC ACID ; ACIDUM SULPHURICUM
FUMANs, L. Prep. By distilling calcined
ferrous sulphate (‘green vitriol’) in an
earthen retort. The product is a brown oily
liquid, which fumes in the air, is intensely
corrosive, and has a sp. gr. about 1.900. When
heated to about 100° Fahr., the anhydrous
acid is given off, and ordinary oil of vitriol is
left. According to Marignac, crystals of nor-
mal sulphuric acid (H2SO) are formed in this
acid when it is submitted to a low tempera-
ture. Nordhausen acid is so called from the
place of its manufacture in Saxony. It may
be regarded as a mixture or compound of
HSSO, and SO3. It is chiefly used for dis-
solving indigo.
SUIPHURIC ANHYDRIDE.
DROUS SULPHURICACID.
SULPHURIC ETHER. See ETHER.
SUL'PHUROUS ACID. SO). Syn. SUL-
PHUROUS ANHYDRIDE; ACIDUMI SULPHURO-
SUM, B. P. This compound is freely evolved in
the gaseous form when sulphur is burnt in air
or oxygen, and when the metals are digested
in hot sulphuric acid; and, mixed with car-
bonic acid, when charcoal, chips of wood, cork,
and sawdust, are treated in the same way.
Prep.
on chippings of copper or mercury at a gentle
heat. Pure.
2. (Berthier.) By heating, in a glass retort,
a mixture of black oxide of manganese, 100
parts, and sulphur, 12 or 14 parts. Pure. The
gas evolved should be collected over mercury,
or received into water. -
3. (Redwood.) Pounded charcoal,
See ANIIY-
0Z, ;
1. By the action of sulphuric acid

SUMACH-SUPPOSITORY.
1095
oil of vitriol, 4 fl. oz. ; mix in a retort, apply
the heat of a spirit lamp, and conduct the
evolved gases by means of a bent tube into a
bottle containing water. The sulphurous acid is
absorbed, whilst the carbonic acid gas passes off.
4. (B. P.) Distilled water, saturated with
sulphurous anhydride. It is colourless and
emits a pungent odour. Used as a deoxidiser,
disinfectant, and antiseptic. Diluted with from
1 to 2 parts of water it is employed as a lotion
for wounds, cuts, ulcers, bed-sores, scalds, and
burns; with from 1 to 5 of water it is used as
a gargle, also as a lotion in parasitic skin dis-
eases; from # to 1 dr., in a wine-glassful of
water, 3 times a day, relieves constant sick-
IlêSS.
Prop., &c. Water absorbs 30 times its
volume of this gas. Pure liquid sulphurous
acid can only be obtained by passing the
pure dry gas through a glass tube surrounded
by a powerful freezing mixture. Its sp. gr. is
1'45; boiling-point, 14° Fahr.; it causes in-
tense cold by its evaporation. Sulphurous acid
forms salts called sulphites.
Uses. To bleach silks, woollens, straw, &c.,
and to remove vegetable stains and iron-moulds
from linen. For these purposes it is prepared
from sawdust or any other refuse carbonaceous
matter.
Sulphurous Anhydride.
ACID.
SU'MACH. This dye stuff is chiefly used as
a substitute for galls. With a mordant of
acetate of iron, it gives gray or black; with
tin or acetate of alumina, yellow; and with
sulphate of zinc, a yellowish-brown; alone, it
gives a greenish-fawn colour.
SUM'BUL. Syn. MUSIC ROOT, JATAMANSI,
SUMBUL Root; SUMBUI, RADIX (B. P.). A
substance introduced to British medicine by
Dr. A. B. Granville, in 1850. It occurs in
circular pieces, varying from 1 to 3 or 4 inches
in diameter; has a musk-like odour, and a
sweet balsamic taste. It acts as a powerful
stimulant, especially of the nervous system.
In India and Persia it has long been used as a
medicine, a perfume, and as incense.—Dose.
15 grs. to 1 dr., either masticated, or made
into an infusion, electuary, or tincture ; in
cholera, hysteria, neuralgia, epilepsy, low
fevers, and various other spasmodic and ner-
vous disorders.
SUMMER DRINKS. See LEMONADE, SHER-
See SULPHUROUS
BET, &c.
SU'PER-. See NoMENCLATURE.
SUPPER. The evening meal; the last
meal of the day. Supper is generally an un-
necessary meal, and, when either heavy, or
taken at a period not long before that of
retiring to rest, proves nearly always injurious,
preventing sound and refreshing sleep, and
occasioning unpleasant dreams, nightmare,
biliousness, and all the worst symptoms of
imperfect digestion. The last meal of the day
º should be taken at least three hours before
bedtime. Even when it consists of some “trifle,”
as a sandwich or biscuit, an interval of at least
an hour should elapse before retiring to rest.
In this way restlessness and unpleasant dreams
will become rare.
SUPPOSITORY. Syn. SUPPOSITORIUM, L,
A medicine placed in the rectum for the pur-
pose of affecting the lower intestine, or, by
absorption, the system generally. Supposito-
ries are rounded, usually, elongated masses,
having the active medicine combined with
some substance which will retain the proper
shape, as soap, spermaceti cerate, or cacao-
butter. The latter substance is, perhaps, the
best vehicle for remedies prescribed in this
form. It is, however, rather too soft to be
used without admixture. According to Dor-
vault, the addition of one eighth part by
weight of wax imparts the proper hardness.
The mode of proportioning the doses of active
ingredients has been noticed in the article
ENEMA.
Suppository of Lead (Compound). Syn. SUP-
PoSITORIUM PLUMBI COMPOSITUM (B. P.).
Prep. Acetate of lead, in powder, 36; opium,
in powder, 12 ; benzoated lard, 42; white wax,
10; oil of theobroma, 80; melt the wax and
oil of theobroma with a gentle heat, then add
the other ingredients previously rubbed toge-
ther in a mortar, and, having mixed them
thoroughly, pour the mixture while it is fluid
into suitable moulds of the capacity of 15 grs.
The above makes 12 suppositories.
Suppository of Mercury. Syn. SUPPOSITO-
RIUM HYDRARGYRI (B. P.). Prep. Ointment
of mercury, 60 grs. ; benzoated lard, 20 grs.;
white wax, 20 grs. ; oil of theobroma, 80 grs. ;
melt all but the mercurial ointment together,
then add the ointment of mercury, stir till well
mixed, and immediately pour into moulds of
the capacity of 15 grs. The above makes 12
suppositories.
Suppository of Morphia. Syn. SUPPOSITO-
RIUM MORPHIE (B. P.). Prep. Hydrochlorate
of morphia, 6 grs. ; oil of theobroma, 90 grs, ;
benzoated lard, 64 grs.; white wax, 20 grs. ;
melt the wax and oil of theobroma with a
gentle heat, then add the hydrochlorate of
morphia and benzoated lard, previously rubbed
together in a mortar, and mix all the ingre-
dients thoroughly ; pour the mixture, while it
is fluid, into suitable moulds of the capacity
of 15 grs., or the fluid mixture may be allowed
to cool, and then be divided into 12 equal parts,
each of which should be made into a conical
form.
Suppository for Piles. Syn. SUPPOSITORIUM
HEMORRHOIDALE, S. SEDATIVUM, L. Prep.
1. Powdered opium, 2 grs. ; finely powdered
galls, 10 grs. ; spermaceti cerate, 1 dr.
2. (Ellis.) Powdered opium, 2 grs. ; soap,
10 grs. ; mix.
3. (Richard.) Extracts of opium and stra-
monium, of each, 1 gr.; cacao-butter, 2 drs.
Used when the piles are very painful.
Suppository, Pur’gative. Syn. SUPPOSITO-
RIUM CATHARTICUM, L. Prep. 1. Soap, 1 dr. ;













1096
SWALLOW-SYRUP.
elaterium, 1 to 2 grs. ; mix. As a strong
ul'Q'e.
2. (Niemann.) Soap, 2 drs. ; common salt,
1 dr. ; honey, q. S.; mix. As a mild cathartic.
Suppository, Resolvent. Syn. SUPPOSITO-
RIUM. RESOLVENS, L. Prep. (Stafford.) Io-
dide of potassium, 3 to 4 grs. ; extracts of
henbane and hemlock, of each, 6 grs. In en-
largement or induration of the prostate gland.
Suppository, Sedative. See above.
Suppository of Tammic Acid. Syn. SUPPOSI-
TORIUM ACIDI TANNICI (B.P.). Prep. Tannic
acid, 36 grs. ; benzoated lard, 44 grs.; white
wax, 10 grs. ; oil of theobroma, 90 grs. ; melt
the wax and oil with a gentle heat, then add
the tannic acid and benzoated lard, previously
rubbed together, and mix thoroughly. Pour
the mixture, while it is fluid, into suitable
moulds of the capacity of 15 grs. The above
makes 12 suppositories.
Suppository, Wer’mifuge. Syn. SUPPOSITO-
RIUM ANTHELMINTICUM, S. VERMIFUGUMI, L.
Prep. (Swediaur.) Aloes, 4 drs. ; common
salt, 3 drs. ; flour, 2 drs. ; honey, q. S. to make
a stiff mass; divide into proper-shaped pieces,
weighing about 15 grs. each. One to be used
after each motion.
SWALLOW. Three or four species of
hirundo (Linn.) pass under this name. It
was once held in great repute in medicine.
Even the excrement was included among the
simples of the Ph.L. 1618. The swallow is an
insectivorous bird, but, like the sparrow and
rook, is much persecuted for its good services.
It has been calculated that, directly and indi-
rectly, a single swallow is the humble means of
lessening the race of one kind of insect alone
to the extent of 560,970,489,000,000,000 of
its race in one year.
SWEET BALLS. Prep. Take of Florentine
orris root, 3 oz.; cassia, 1 oz.; cloves, rhodium
wood, and lavender flowers, of each, ; oz. ;
ambergris and musk, of each, 6 grs. ; oil of
verbena, 10 or 12 drops; beat them to a paste,
form this into balls with mucilage of gum
tragacanth made with rose water, pierce them,
whilst soft, with a needle, and, when they are
quite dry and hard, polish them. Worn in
the pocket as a perfume. Some persons varnish
them, but that keeps in the smell.
SWEET BAY. Syn. LAUREL; LAURUs
NOBILIS (Linn.), L. The fruit (LAURI BACCE;
LAURUS—Ph. L.), as well as the leaves (LAURI
FOLIA), are reputed aromatic, stimulant, and
marcotic. They were formerly very popular
in coughs, colic, hysteria, suppressions, &c.;
and, externally, in sprains, bruises, &c.
SWEET FLAG. Syn. ACORUS CALAMUs, L.
A plant of the natural order Orontiaceae. The
rhizome (“root') is an aromatic stimulant, and
is regarded by some as a valuable medicine in
agues, and as a useful adjunct to other stimu-
lants and bitter tonics. It is sometimes em-
ployed by the rectifiers of gin. The volatile
oil obtained from it by distillation is employed
for scenting snuff, and in the preparation of
aromatic vinegar.
SWEETS. Home-made wines; British
wines.
SWEET/BREAD. The thymus gland of the
calf. When boiled, it is light and digestible;
but when highly dressed and seasoned, it is
improper both for dyspeptics and invalids.
(Pereira.)
SWEET'MEATS. Under this head are pro-
perly included confections, candies, and pre-
serves, in sugar; but, as generally employed,
the word embraces all the sweet compounds of
the confectioner.
Sweetmeats, as well as cakes, blancmange,
and jellies, are not unfrequently coloured with
deleterious substances, the consequences of
which are always pernicious, and, in many
instances, have proved fatal. Gamboge, a
drastic cathartic ; chrome yellow, red lead,
orpiment, emerald green, and various other pig-
ments containing lead, arsenic, copper, or
other poisons, have been thus employed. The
whole of these may be readily detected by the
tests and characteristics appended to their re-
spective names.
The colours and stains which may be
safely employed to increase the beauty of
these articles are noticed under STAINS and
LIQUEUR.
SWINE-POX. See POx.
SYDENHAM'S LEN'ITIVE. Prep, Take of
rhubarb (recently grated or powdered), 3 drs.;
tamarinds, 2 oz. ; senma, ; oz.; coriander seeds
(bruised), 2 drs. ; boiling water, 1 pint; mace-
rate for 3 hours in a covered vessel, and strain.
An excellent stomachic and laxative.—Dose.
# to 1 wine-glassful.
SYI/WIC ACID. Syn. SILVIC ACID. The
portion of common resin or colophony which is -
the least soluble in cold and somewhate dilute
alcohol.
SYM'BOLS. In chemistry, are representa-
tions of one atom of each of the elementary
bodies, by the capital initial letter with or
without the addition of a small letter of their
Latin names. As C, for carbon ; Fe (ferrum),
iron; O, owygen, &c.
SYMPATHET/IC INK. See page 643.
SYN/APTASE. Syn. EMULSIN. The name
given by Robiquet to the EMULSIN, a nitroge-
nised or albuminoid principle existing in
both the bitter and sweet almond. It possesses
the remarkable property of converting amyg-
dalin, in the presence of water, into hydro-
cyanic acid and the essential oil of bitter
almonds. 100 grs, of amygdalin yield, under
the influence of synaptase and water, 47 grs.
of raw oil, and 5-9 grs. of anhydrous hydro-
cyanic acid. (Liebig.) -
SYN/COPE, See FAINTING.
SYR'UP. Syn. SIRUP, SIROP; SYRUPUs,
L. A saturated, or nearly Saturated, solution
of sugar in water, either simple, flavoured, or
medicated. -
In the preparation of syrups care should be
-

















SYRUP.
1097
taken to employ the best refined sugar, and
either distilled water or filtered rain water; by
which they will be rendered much less liable
to spontaneous decomposition, and will be per-
fectly transparent, without the trouble of cla-
rification. When inferior sugar is employed,
clarification is always necessary. This is best
done by dissolving the sugar in the water, or
other aqueous menstruum, in the cold, and
then beating up a little of the cold syrup with
some white of egg, and an ounce or two of cold
water, until the mixture froths well; this must
be added to the syrup in the boiler, and the
whole ‘whisked up' to a good froth; heat
should now be applied, and the scum which
forms removed from time to time with a clean
‘skimmer. As soon as the syrup begins to
slightly simmer it must be removed from the
fire, and allowed to stand until it has cooled a
little, when \; should be again skimmed, if
necessary, and then passed through clean flan-
nel. When vegetable infusions or solutions
enter into the composition of syrups, they
should be rendered perfectly transparent by
filtration or clarification, before being added to
the sugar.
The proper quantity of sugar for syrups will,
in general, be found to be 2 lbs. (avoir.) to
every imperial pint of water or thin aqueous
fluid. These proportions, allowing for the
water that is lost by evaporation during the
process, are those best calculated to produce a
syrup of the proper consistence, and pos-
sessing good ‘keeping qualities.’ They closely
correspond to those recommended by Guibourt
for the production of a perfect syrup, which,
he says, consists of 30 parts of sugar to 16
parts of water.
In the preparation of syrups it is of great
importance to employ as little heat as possible,
as a solution of sugar, even when kept at the
temperature of boiling water, undergoes slow
decomposition. The plan which we adopt is
to pour the water (cold) over the sugar, and to
allow the two to lie together for a few hours,
in a covered vessel, occasionally stirring, and
then to apply a gentle heat (preferably that of
stoam or a water bath) to finish the solution.
Some persons (falsely) deem a syrup ill pre-
pared unless it has been allowed to boil well;
but if this method be adopted, the ebullition
should be only of the gentlest kind (‘simmer-
ing'), and should be checked after the lapse of
1 or 2 minutes.
When it is necessary to thicken a syrup
by boiling, a few fragments of glass should
be introduced, in order to lower the boiling-
point.
To make highly transparent syrups, the
sugar should be in a single lump, and, by pre-
ference, taken from the bottom or broad end of
the loaf, as, when taken from the smaller end,
or if it be powdered or bruised, the syrup will
be more or less cloudy.
Syrups are judged, by the laboratory man,
to be sufficiently boiled when some taken up in
a spoon pours out like oil, or, a drop cooled
on the thumb-nail gives a proper ‘thread”
when touched. When a thin skin appears on
blowing upon the syrup, it is judged, by the
same party, to be completely saturated. These
rude tests often lead to errors, which might be
easily prevented by employing the proper pro-
portions, or determining the sp. gr.
A fluid ounce of SATURATED SYRUP weighs
577% grs. ; a gallon weighs 13+ lbs. (avoir.); its
sp. gr. is 1.319 to 1:321, or 35° of Baumé's
aerometer; its boiling-point is 221°Fahr., and
its density at the temperature of 212° is 1260
to 1.261, or 30° Baumé. The syrups pre-
pared with the juices of fruits, or which
contain much extractive matter, as those
of Sarsaparilla, poppies, &c., mark about 2°
or 3° more on Baumé's scale than the other
Syrups. -
In most pharmaceutical works directions
are given to completely saturate the water with
sugar. Our own experience, which is exten-
sive, leads us to disapprove of such a practice,
since we find that, under all ordinary circum-
stances, a syrup with a very slight excess of
water keeps better than one fully saturated.
In the latter case a portion of sugar generally
crystallises out on standing, and thus, by
abstracting sugar from the remainder of the
syrup, so weakens it, that it rapidly ferments
and spoils. This change proceeds at a rapidity
proportionate to the temperature. Saturated
syrup kept in a vessel that is frequently un-
corked or exposed to the air soon loses suffi-
cient water, by evaporation from its surface, to
cause the formation of minute crystals of sugar,
which, falling to the bottom of the vessel,
continue to increase in size at the expense of
the sugar in the solution. We have seen a
single 6-gallon stone bottle, in which syrup
has been kept for some time, the inside of
which, when broken, has been found to be en-
tirely cased with sugar candy, amounting in
weight to 16 or 18 lbs. On the other hand,
syrups containing too much water also rapidly
ferment, and become ascescent; but of the two,
this is the less evil, and may be more easily
prevented. The proportions of sugar and water
given above will form an excellent syrup, pro-
vided care be taken that an undue quantity be
not lost by evaporation.
The decimal part of the number denoting the
sp. gr. of a syrup, multiplied by 26, gives the
number of pounds of sugar it contains per
gallon, very nearly. (Ure.)
In boiling syrups, if they appear likely to
boil over, a little oil, or rubbing the edges of
the pan with soap, will prevent it.
Syrups may be decoloured by agitation with,
or filtration through, recently burnt animal
charcoal. Medicated syrupsshould not, how-
ever, be treated in this way.
The preservation of syrups, as well as of all
other saccharine solutions, is best promoted by
keeping them in a moderately cool, but not a
very cold, place. “Let syrups be kept in ves-
1098
SYRUP.
sels well closed, and in a situation where the
temperature never rises above 55° Fahr.”
(Ph. I.) They are better kept in smaller rather
than in large bottles, as the longer a bottle
lasts the more frequently it will be opened,
and, consequently, the more it will be exposed
to the air. By bottling syrups whilst boiling
hot, and immediately corking down and tying
the bottles over with bladder perfectly air-
tight, they may be preserved, even at a summer
heat, for years, without fermenting or losing
their transparency.
The “candying,” or crystallisation, of syrup,
unless it be oversaturated with sugar, may be
prevented by the addition of a little acetic or
citric acid (2 or 3 drs, per gal.).
The fermentation of syrups may be effec-
tually prevented by the addition of a little
sulphite of potassa or of lime. Chlorate of
potassa has been proposed for this purpose by
Dr. Macculloch, on theoretical grounds. M.
Chereau recommends the addition of some
(about 3 to 4%) sugar of milk, with the same
intention.” Dr. Durand asserts that by adding
about 1 fl. dr. of “ Hoffmann’s amodyne’ to each
pint of syrup, the accession of fermentation
may not only be prevented, but arrested when
it occurs. Fermenting syrups may be immedi-
ately restored by exposing the vessel containing
them to the temperature of boiling water. The
addition of a little spirit is ordered in the new
* London Pharmacopoeia.’
In making the above additions to syrup,
care must be had not to mix incompatible
substances. Thus, in general, the two methods
referred to cannot be practised together.
Syrup is, perhaps, the worst possible form of
medicine, owing to the difficulty of accurately
saturating it with active medicinals, and its
liability to change. Few persons think that
“sweetness renders a nauseous drug more
palatable.” See also Squire’s ‘Companion to
the British Pharmacopoeia.”
The following formulae embrace all the syrups
(SYRUPI) which are cfficinal in these coun-
tries:—
Syrup of Ac'etate of Mor'phia. Syn. SY-
RUPUs MORPHIAE ACETATIS, L. Prep. (Ph.D.)
Solution of acetate of morphia, 1 fl. oz. ;
simple syrup, 15 fl. Oz. ; mix. Each fl. Oz.
contains # gr. of acetate.—Dose. # to 2 tea-
spoonfuls.
Syrup of Al'mond. Syn. BARLEY SYRUP,
ORGEAT ; SYRUPUS AMYGDAL.A., L.; SIROP
D'ORGEAT, Fr. Prep. 1. Sweet almonds, 1 lb.;
bitter almonds, 1 oz. ; blanch, beat them to a
smooth paste, and make an emulsion with
barley water, 1 quart; strain, to each pint add
of sugar, 2 lbs., and a table-spoonful or two of
orange-flower water; put the mixture into small
bottles, and preserve it in a cool place. Some
persons add a little brandy.
2. (Ph. Bor.) Sweet almonds, 8 oz. ; bitter
almonds, 2 oz. ; blanch them, after cold mace-
ration, then beat them in a marble mortar,
with a wooden pestle, to a paste, adding, gra-
dually, of water, 16 fl. oz.; orange-flower
water, 3 fl. Oz. ; after straining through
flannel, dissolve 3 lbs. of sugar in each pint
of the emulsion. An agreeable pectoral and
demulcent.
Syrup of Buck'thorn. Syn. SYRUPUs RHAMNI
(B. P., Ph. L. & E.), S. RHAMNI CATHARTICI,
L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Juice of buckthorn,
defecated by 3 days’ repose, 2 quarts; ginger
and allspice, of each (bruised), 6 drs. ; mace-
rate the spice in 1 pint of the juice, at a gentle
heat, for 4 hours, and filter ; boil the remain-
der of the juice to 13 pint, mix the liquors,
dissolve therein of white sugar, 6 lbs., and
add to (the nearly cold) syrup 6 fl. oz. of
rectified spirit. In the Ph. E. the spirit is
omitted.
2. (B. P.) Buckthorn juice, 97; ginger,
sliced, 1 ; pimento, bruised, 1; refined sugar,
97; rectified spirit, 8 oz. ; evaporate the juice
to nearly half (#); add the ginger and pimento,
digest at a gentle heat for four hours, and
strain; when cold add the spirit, let the mix-
ture stand for two days, then decant off the
clear liquor, and in this dissolve the sugar at
a gentle heat; sp. gr. 1:32.-Dose. 1 dr.
3. (Wholesale.)—a. Take of buckthorn juice,
3 galls.; bruised pimento and ginger (sifted from
the dust), of each, 3 lb. ; simmer for 15 minutes,
strain, and add of sugar, 44 lbs.
b. Take of buckthorn juice, 3 galls.; boil to
2 galls, add of bruised pimento and ginger
gruffs (free from dust), of each # lb. ; boil to
1 gal., strain, add molasses, 72 lbs., and finish
the boiling.
Obs. Syrup of buckthorn is a brisk but un-
pleasant cathartic. It is now chiefly used in
veterinary practice.—Bose. fl. Oz. to 1 fl. Oz.
Should the colour be dull, the addition of
a few grs. of citric or tartaric acid will
brighten it.
Syrup of Cap'illaire Syn. SYRUP OF
MAIDEN-HAIR ; SYRUPUS.A.DIANTHI, SYRUPUS
CAPILLORUM VENERIs, L.; CAPILLAIRE, SIROP
DE CAPILLAIRE, Fr. Prep. (P. Cod.) Canadian
maiden-hair (Adiantum pedatum — Linn.), 4
oz. ; boiling water, 2% pints; infuse, strain,
add of white sugar, 5 lbs., and pour the boil-
ing clarified syrup over 2 oz. more of maiden-
hair; re-infuse for 2 hours, and again strain.
Obs Demulcent. Clarified syrup flavoured
with orange-flower water or curaçoa is now
commonly sold for CAPILLAIRE. It is usually
‘put up” in small bottles of a peculiar shape,
known in the trade as ‘capillaires.’ It is now
chiefly used to sweeten and flavour grog. See
CAPILLAIRE.
Syrup of Car'rageen. Syn. SYRUP OF ICE-
LAND MOSS. Prep. Boil horehound, 1 oz.,
liverwort, 6 drs., in water, 4 pints, for 15 minutes;
express and strain; then add carrageen (pre-
viously softened with cold water), 6 drs. ; again
boil for 15 minutes, strain through flannel,
and add sugar, 1 lb., to each pint. An agree-
able demulcent in coughs.
Syrup of Cit'ric Acid. Syn. SYRUPUS ACIDI


SYRUP.
1099
CITRICI (Ph.D.), L. Prep. (Ph.D.) Take of
citric acid (in powder) and distilled water, of
each, 2% oz. ; dissolve, add the solution, to-
gether with tincture of lemon peel, 5 fl. drs., to
simple syrup, 3 pints, and mix with agitation.
An agreeable refrigerant. Used for sweetening
barley water, &c., and for flavouring water to
be used as a beverage in fevers and other in-
flammatory diseases.
Syrup of Coch’ineal. Syn. SYRUPUs coccI-
NELLAE, SYRUPUs cocCI (Ph. L.), L. Prep.
(Ph. L.) Take of cochineal (bruised), 80 grs. ;
boiling distilled water, 1 pint ; boil for 15
minutes in a closed vessel, strain, and add of
sugar, 3 lbs., or twice that of the strained
liquor; lastly, when the syrup has cooled, add
of rectified spirit, 2.; fl. oz., or ; fl. dr. to
each fl. oz. of syrup. Used as a colouring
syrup, and often sold for SYRUP OF CLOVE-
PINKS.
Syrup of Colts'foot. Syn. SYRUPUs TUSSI-
LAGINIS, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) Flowers of colts-
foot, 1 lb.; (or dried flowers, 2 oz.); boiling
Water, 2 lbs. ; macerate for 12 hours; strain,
press, filter, and add of white sugar, 4 lbs. A
popular remedy in coughs, colds, &c.—Dose. 1
to 2 table-spoonfuls, ad libitum.
Syrup of Cream. Finely powdered lump sugar
mixed with an equal weight of fresh cream. It
will keep for a long time if put into bottles,
and closely corked and sealed over. It is com-
monly placed in 2-0Z. wide-mouthed phials, and
taken on long voyages, a fresh phial being
opened at every meal.
Syrup, Empyreumatic.
Syrup of Ether. Syn. SYRUPUS FTHERIs,
S. AE. SULPHURICI, L.; SIROP D’ETHER,
Fr. Prep. (P. Cod.) Sulphuric ether, 1 part;
white (simple) syrup, 16 parts; place them in a
glass vessel having a tap at the bottom, shake
them frequently for 5 or 6 days, and then draw
off the clear syrup into small bottles.—Dose. }
to 3 fl. drs.
Syrup of Ginger. Syn. SYRUPUs ZINGIBE-
RIS (B. P., Ph. L. E. & D.), L. Prep. 1.
(Ph. L.) Bruised ginger, 2% oz. ; boiling
water, 1 pint ; macerate for 4 hours, strain,
and add of white sugar, 2% lbs., or q. s. ; and
rectified spirit, as directed for syrup of cochi-
neal. The Ph. E. omits the spirit.
2. (Ph. D.) Tincture of ginger, 1 fl. oz. ;
simple syrup, 7 fl. oz. ; mix. Stimulant and
carminative. Chiefly used as an adjuvant, in
mixtures.
3. (B. P.) Strong tincture of ginger, 1 ;
syrup, 25; mix-Dose. 1 to 4 drims.
Syrup of Gum. Syn. SYRUPUs ACACIE, L.;
SIROP DE GOMME, Fr. Prep. (P. Cod.) Dis-
solve pale and picked gum arabic in an equal
weight of water, by a gentle heat, add the
solution to four times its weight of simple
syrup, simmer for 2 or 3 minutes, remove the
scum, and cool. A pleasant demulcent. The
addition of 1 or 2 fl. oz. of orange-flower water
to each pint greatly improves it.
Syrup, Hive. Compound syrup of squills.
Treacle.
Syrup of Horehound. Syn. SYRUPUs MA-
RUBII, L.; SIROP DE PRASSIo, Fr. Prep. 1.
(P. Cod.) Dried horehound, 1 oz. ; horehound
water, 2 lbs. ; digest in a water bath for 2 hours,
strain, and add of white sugar, 4 lbs.
2. White horehound (fresh), 1 lb. ; boiling
water, 1 gal. ; infuse for 2 hours, press out the
liquor, filter, and add of sugar, q. s.
Obs. A popular remedy in coughs and
diseases of the lungs.--Dose. A table-spoonful,
ad libiţum. “It is sold for any syrup of herbs
that is demanded, and which is not in the
shop.” (Gray.)
Syrup of Hydrochlo"rate of Mor'phine. Syn.
SYRUP OF MURIATE OF MORPHINE, SYRUPUs
MORPHIE MURIATIs (Ph.D.), L. Prep. (Ph.
D.) Solution of muriate of morphia, I fl. oz. ;
simple syrup, 17 fl.oz. ; mix. Each fl. oz. con-
tains # gr. of the muriate.—Dose. } to 2 tea-
spoonfuls.
Syrup of Indian Sarsaparil’la. Syn. SY-
RUPUs HEMIDESMI (B. P., Ph. D.), L. Prep.
1. (Ph. D.) Indian sarsaparilla (Hemidesmus
Indicus—Brown), bruised, 4 oz. ; boiling water,
1 pint; infuse for 4 hours, and to the strained
and defecated infusion add twice its weight of
sugar. Tonic, diuretic, &c.—Dose. 2 to 4 fl.
drs. ; in nephritic complaints, and in some
others, instead of sarsaparilla.
2. (B. P.) Hemidesmus, bruised, 1; re-
fined sugar, 7; boiling distilled water, 5 ; in-
fuse 4 hours, strain, add the sugar, and dis-
solve. The product should weigh 10% and
measure 8. Sp. gr. 1335–IJose, 1 to 4
drs.
Syrup of I'odide of Iron. Syn. SYRUPUs
FERRI IODIDI (B. P., Ph. L. E. & D.), L.
Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Mix iodine, 1 oz., and iron
wine, 3 drs., with distilled water, 8 fl. oz., and
heat the solution until it assumes a greenish
colour; then strain it, evaporate it to about 4
fl. oz., and add to it of white sugar, 10 oz. ;
lastly, when the syrup has cooled, add as much
water as may be necessary, that it may mea-
sure exactly 15 fl. oz., and keep it in a well-
stoppered black glass bottle. The formulae of
the Ph. E. & D. are nearly similar, a fl. dr. of
each containing about 5 grs. of the pure dry
iodide. This syrup is tonic and resolvent, and
haematinic.—Dose. 15 or 20 drops to 1 fl. dr. ;
in anaemia, debility, scrofula, &c.
2. (B. P.) Iron wire, 1 ; iodine, 2; refined
sugar, 28; distilled water, 13. Make a
syrup with the sugar and 10 of the water, and
keep it hot. Put into a strong soda-water
bottle, covered with a cloth, the iron wire, the
iodine, and 3 of the water, shake them toge-
ther until the froth of the mixture becomes
white, filter whilst still hot into the syrup.
The product should be made up by water to
weigh 43 or to measure 31%. Sp. gr. 1385–
Dose. 20 to 60 minims.
Syrup of Ipecacuanſha. Syn. SYRUPUS
IPECACUANHAE, L. Prep. (Ph. E.) Ipeca-
cuanha (in coarse powder), 4 oz. ; rectified
spirit, 15 fl. oz, ; digest for 24 hours at a
1100
SYRUP.
gentle heat, and strain; add of proof spirit,
14 fl. oz., and again digest and strain, and
repeat the process with water, 14 fl. Oz. ; distil
off the spirit from the mixed liquors, evaporate
to 12 fl. oz., and filter ; next add to the re-
siduum rectified spirit, 5 fl. Oz., and simple
syrup, 7 pints, and mix well.—Dose. As an
emetic for infants, # teaspoonful; for adults,
1 to 1% fl. Oz, ; as an expectorant, 1 to 3 tea-
spoonfuls.
Syrup of Lem'on. Syn. SYRUPUs LIMONIS
(B. P.), SYRUPUs LIMONUM (Ph. L. & E.),
SYRUPUs CITRI MEDICE. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.)
Lemon juice (strained or defecated), 1 pint ;
white sugar, 2% lbs. ; dissolve by a gentle heat,
and set it aside ; in 24 hours remove the scum,
decant the clear portion, and add of rectified
spirit, 2% fl. oz. The Edinburgh College omits
the spirit. A pleasant refrigerant syrup in
fevers, &c.—Dose. 1 to 4 fl. drs., in any diluent.
With water it forms an excellent extempora-
neous lemonade.
2. (B. P.) Fresh lemon peel, 2; lemon
juice, strained, 20; refined sugar, 36. Heat
the lemon juice to the boiling-point, and having
put it into a covered vessel with the lemon
peel, let them stand until they are cold, then
filter and dissolve the sugar in the filtered
liquid with a gentle heat. The product should
weigh 56 and measure 41-Dose. 1 to 2
drs.
Syrup of Marsh-mal'low. Syn. SYRUPUS
ALTHAEE (Ph. L. & E.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.)
Marsh-mallow root, fresh and sliced, 1% oz. ;
distilled water (cold), 1 pint ; macerate for 12
hours, press out the liquor, strain it through
linen, and add to the strained liquor twice its
weight of white sugar (about 3 lbs.); dissolve
by a gentle heat, and, when cold, add of recti-
fied spirit, 2} fl. oz., or q. s. See SYRUP OF
COCHINEAL. -
2. (Ph. L. 1836.) Take of fresh marsh-mal-
low root, bruised, 8 oz. ; water, 4 pints; boil
down to one half, and express the liquor when
it is cold ; set it aside for 24 hours, that the
faeces may subside, then decant off the clear
liquid, and, having added to it of sugar, 2% lbs.,
boil the whole to a proper consistence. The
formula of the Ph. E. is similar.
Obs. This is a popular demulcent and pec-
toral.—Dose. 1 to 4 fl. drs.; in coughs, &c.,
either alone or added to mixtures.
Syrup of Mulſberries. Syn. SYRUPUS MORI
(B. P., Ph. L.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Juice
of mulberries, strained, 1 pint; sugar, 2% lbs. ;
dissolve by a gentle heat, and set the solution
by for 24 hours; then remove the scum, de-
cant the clear liquid, and add of rectified spirit,
2} fl. oz. Used as a colouring and flavouring,
when alkalies and earths are not present.
Syrup of red poppies (rhoeados), slightly acidu-
lated with tartaric or dilute sulphuric acid, is
very generally sold for it.
2. (B.P.) Mulberry juice, 20; refined sugar,
32; rectified spirit, 2% ; heat the juice to the
boiling-point, and, when it has cooled, filter it;
dissolve the sugar in the filtered liquid by a
gentle heat, and add the spirit. The product
should weigh 54. Sp. gr. 1:33.--Dose. 1 to 2
drs.
Syrup of Mu'riate of Morphia. See SYRUP
OF HYDROCHLORATE OF MORPHINE.
Syrup of Orange Flowers. Syn. SYRUPUS
AURANTII FLORIS (B. P.). Prep. Orange-
flower water, 8; refined sugar, 48; distilled
water, 16, or a sufficiency; heat the sugar and
water together, strain, and when nearly cold
add the orange-flower water. When finished
should weigh 72 and measure 54. Sp. gr. 1:33.
—Dose. 1 to 2 drs.
Syrup of Or'ange Peel. Syn. SYRUPUS AU-
RANTII (B. P., Ph. L. E. & D.), S. CITRI AU-
RANTII, S. à CORTICIBUS AURANTIORUM, L.
Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Dried orange peel, 2% oz. ;
boiling distilled water, 1 pint ; macerate for 12
hours in a covered vessel, press out the liquor,
simmer it for 10 minutes, and then complete
the process as directed for SYRUP OF COCHI-
NEAL. In the Ph. E. & D., & Ph. L. 1836, no
spirit is ordered.
2. (B. P.) Tincture of orange peel, 1;
syrup, 7; mix-Dose. 1 to 2 drs.
3. (Wholesale.)—a. From fresh orange peel,
18 oz. (or dried), # lb. ; sugar, 18 lbs. ; water,
q. S.
b. From tincture of orange peel, 1 fl. oz. ;
simple syrup, 19 fl. oz. ; mix. An agreeable
flavouring and stomachic.—Dose, 1 to 4 fl.
drs.
Syrup of Pop'pies. Syn. SYRUP OF WHITE
POPPIES ; SYRUPUs PAPAVERIs (B. P., Ph. L.
& E.), S. P. SOMNIFERI, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.)
Poppy capsules, coarsely powdered, free from
seeds, 36; rectified spirit, 16; refined sugar,
64; boiling distilled water, a sufficiency;
macerate the poppy capsules in 80 of the water.
Infuse for 24 hours, then pack in a percolator,
and, adding more of the water, allow the
liquor slowly to pass until 320 have been col-
lected or the poppies are exhausted; evaporate
the liquor by a water bath until it is reduced
to 60 ; when quite cold add the spirit; let the
mixture stand for 12 hours and filter. Distil
off the spirit, evaporate the remaining liquor
to 40, and then add the sugar. The product
should weigh 104 and measure 78%. Sp. gr.
1:32.-Dose. 1 dr.; 10 to 20 minims for chil-
dren, increasing cautiously.
2. (Ph. L.) Poppy-heads, dried, bruised,
and without the seed, 3 lbs. ; boiling water, 5
galls.; boil down to 2 galls., press out the
liquor, evaporate the expressed liquid to 2 quarts,
strain it whilst hot, and set it aside for 12
hours; next decant the clear portion from the
faeces, boil this down to 1 quart, and dissolve in
itsugar, 5 lbs. ; lastly, when cold, add of rectified
spirit; 5 fl. Oz. “Each fl. Oz. is equivalent to
1 gr. of dry extract.” In the Ph. E. & Ph.D.
1826 no spirit is ordered.
3. (Wholesale.) Extract of poppies, 13 lb.;
boiling water, 2% galls. ; dissolve, clarify, or
filter, so that it may be perfectly transparent




SYRUP.
1101
when cold, then add of white sugar, 44 lbs., and
dissolve.
Obs. Syrup of poppies is anodyne and so-
porific.—Dose. For an infant, 4 to teaspoon-
ful; for an adult, 2 to 4 fl. drs. According to
M. Chereau, its tendency to fermentation is
prevented by the addition of 32 parts of sugar
of milk to every 1000 parts of the syrup.
Syrup of Red Pop'pies. Syn. SYRUPUS
RHOEADos, (Ph. L. & E.)., S. PAPAVERIS
RHOEADos, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Petals of
the red poppy, 1 lb. ; boiling water, 1 pint ;
mix in a water bath, remove the vessel, mace-
rate for 12 hours, press out the liquor, and,
after defecation or filtering, complete the pro-
cess as directed for SYRUP OF COCIIINEAL.
2. (Wholesale.) From dried red-poppy
petals, 3 lbs, ; boiling water, q. S.; white sugar,
44 lbs. ; as the last.
Obs. Syrup of red poppies is chiefly em-
ployed for its fine red colour. A little acid
brightens it. The colour is injured by con-
tact with iron, copper, and all the common
metals. - -
Syrup of Rhuſbarb. Syn. SYRUPUs RHEI
(B. P.). Prep. 1. (B. P.). Rhubarb, in coarse
powder, 2; coriander fruit, in powder, 2.; re-
fined sugar, 24; rectified spirit, 8; distilled
water, 24 ; mix the rhubarb and coriander,
pack them in a percolator, pass the spirit and
water, previously mixed, slowly through them,
evaporate the liquid that has passed until it is
reduced to 13, and in this, after it has been
filtered, dissolve the sugar with a gentle heat.
—Lose. 1 to 4 drs. .
2. (P. Cod.) Bruised rhubarb, 3 oz. ; cold
water, 16 fl. oz. ; macerate for 12 hours, filter,
and add of white sugar, 32 oz.
3. (Ph. U. S.) Take of rectified spirit, 8 fl.
oz. ; water, 24 fl. oz. ; rhubarb (coarsely pow-
dered), 2 oz. ; (mixed with) sand, an equal
bulk, or q. S.; make a tincture by percolation,
evaporate this, over a water bath, to 13 fl. oz.,
and dissolve it in 2 lbs. of white sugar. An
excellent formula.
4. (Wholesale.) Rhubarb (bruised), 1% lb.;
cold water, q. S.; sugar, 20 lbs. ; as No. 1.
Stomachic and purgative.—Dose. For an in-
fant, # to 1 teaspoonful; for an adult, to #fl.
OZ., Ol' linore.
Syrup of Rhubarb (Spiced). Syn. SYRUPUS
RHEI AROMATICUS, L. Prep. (Ph. U. S.)
Rhubarb, 2 oz. ; cloves and cinnamon, of each,
# oz. ; nutmeg, 3 oz. ; (all bruised;) proof
spirit, 32 fl. oz. ; macerate for 14 days (or
percolate), strain, gently evaporate to 16 fl.
oz., filter whilst hot, and mix the liquid
with simple syrup (gently warmed), 4% pints.
A cordial laxative.—Dose. # to 1 teaspoon-
ful ; in infantile constipation, diarrhoea, &c.
Syrup of Ros"es. Syn. SYRUPUS Ros A.
(Ph. L.), SYRUPUs ROSE CENTIFoDIE (Ph. E.),
L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Dried petals of damask
roses (Rosa centifolia), 7 oz, ; boiling water, 3
pints; macerate for 12 hours, filter, evaporate
in a water bath to 1 quart, and add of white
sugar, 6 lbs. ; and, when cold, rectified spirit,
5; fl. Oz.
2. (Wholesale.) From rose leaves, 1 lb. ;
sugar, 19 lbs. ; water, q. s. ; as the last.
Gently laxative.—Dose. # to 1 fl. oz. It is
usual to add a few drops of dilute sulphuric
acid, to brighten the colour. Alkalies turn it
green.
Syrup of Red Roses. Syn. SYRUPUs ROSE
(B. P.), SYRUPUs RosſF GAILICE (Ph. E. &
D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. E.) Dried petals of
the red rose, 2 oz. ; boiling water, 1 pint;
pure sugar, 20 oz. ; as the last,
2. (Ph. D.) Dried petals of the gallic rose,
2 oz. ; boiling water, 1 pint; boil in a glass or
porcelain vessel until the colour is extracted,
strain with expression, and, after defecation,
add to the clear decanted liquor twice its
weight of white sugar. Astringent and sto-
machic ; chiefly used as an adjunct in mixtures,
&c.
3. (B. P.) Dried rose petals, 1; refined
sugar, 15; boiling distilled water, 10; infuse
the petals in the water 2 hours, squeeze
through calico, heat the liquor to the boiling-
point, and filter; add the sugar and dissolve
with heat. The product should weigh 23 and
measure 17%. Sp. gr. 1335.-Dose. 1 to 2
drs.
Syrup of Rue. Syn. SYRUPUs RUTAE, L.
Prep. Take of oil of rue, 12 to 15 drops; rec-
tified spirit, , fl. Oz. ; dissolve, and add it to
simple syrup, 1 pint.—Dose. # to 1 teaspoon-
ful; in the flatulent colic of children. An
| infusion of , oz. of the herb is sometimes
substituted for the solution of the essential
oil.
Syrup of Saffron. Syn. SYRUPUs CRoCI
(Ph. L. E. & D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Hay
saffron, 5 drs. (10 drs.-Ph. E.; # oz.-Ph.
D.); boiling water, 1 pint; macerate in a co-
vered vessel for 12 hours, then strain the liquor,
and add of white sugar, 3 lbs., or q. S., and
rectified spirit, 2.; fl. oz., or q. S., in the man-
ner directed under SYRUP OF COCHINEAL. The
Ph. E. and D. omit the spirit.
2. (Wholesale.) Hay saffron, 6 oz. ; boiling
water, 6 quarts; white sugar, 24 lbs. ; as the
last. Used for its colour and flavour; the first
is very beautiful.
Syrup of Sarsaparil'la. Syn. SYRUPUS SAR-
ZE (Ph. L. & E.), SYRUPUs SARSAPARILLE, L.
Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Take of sarsaparilla (sliced),
3} lbs. ; boil it in water, 2 galls., down to one
half; pour off the liquor, and strain it whilst
hot ; again boil the Sarsaparilla in another
gal. of water down to one half, and strain;
evaporate the mixed liquors to 1 quart, and in
these dissolve of white sugar, 8 oz. ; lastly,
when the syrup has cooled, add to it of recti-
fied spirit, 2 fl. oz. -
2. (Ph. E., & Ph. L. 1836.) Sarsaparilla,
sliced, 15 oz. ; boiling water, 1 gal. ; macerate
for 24 hours, boil to 2 quarts, strain, add of
sugar, 15 oz., and boil to a syrup.
3. (Wholesale.) Take of extract of sarsa-

1102
SYRUP.
parilla, 3 lbs.; boiling water, 3 quarts; dissolve,
strain, and add of white sugar, 12 lbs. Alter-
ative and tonic.—Dose. 2 to 4 drs. See SARSA-
PARILLA.
Syrup of Sarsaparilla (Compound). Syn.
SYRUPUS SARZAF COMPOSITUS, L.; SYROP DE
CUSINIER, Fr. Prep. (Ph. U. S.) Sarsapa-
rilla, bruised, 2 lbs.; guaiacum wood, rasped,
3 oz. ; damask roses, senna, and liquorice root,
bruised, of each, 2 oz. ; diluted alcohol (proof
spirit), 10 wine pints (1 gal. imperial); mace-
rate for 14 days, express, filter through paper,
and evaporate in a water bath to 4 wine pints
(34 pints, imperial); then add of white sugar,
8 lbs., and, when cold, further add of oils of
sassafras and aniseed, of each, 5 drops, and
oil of partridge berry (Gaultheria procumbens),
3 drops, previously triturated with a little of
the syrup.
Obs. This is an excellent preparation; but
the rose leaves might be well omitted.—Dose.
# fl. Oz., 3 or 4 times a day, as an alterative,
tonic, and restorative. The syrup of the P.
Cod. is made with water instead of spirit, and
is inferior as a remedy to the preceding.
Syrup of Sen'na. Syn. SYRUPUS SENNAE
(B. P., Ph. L. & E.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.)
Take of senna, 3% oz. ; fennel seed (bruised),
10 drs. ; boiling water, 1 pint ; macerate for 6
hours, with a gentle heat ; then strongly press
out the liquid through linen, and dissolve in it
of manna, 3 oz. ; next add this solution to
treacle, 3 lbs., previously evaporated over a
water bath until a little of it, on being cooled,
almost concretes, and stir them well together.
2. (Ph. E.) Senna, 4 oz. ; boiling water,
24 fl. oz. ; infuse, strain, add of treacle, 48 oz.,
and evaporate to a proper consistence. Ape-
rient.—Dose. 1 to 4 drs.
3. (B. P.) Senna, broken small, 8 oz.; oil
of coriander, 4% minims; refined sugar, 12 oz.;
distilled water, 50 oz., or a sufficiency; recti-
fied spirit, 1 oz. ; digest the senna in # of the
water twenty-four hours at a temperature of
120°, press, and strain; digest the marc in the
remainder of the water six hours, press, and
strain; evaporate the mixed liquors to 5 oz. ;
when cold add the rectified spirit containing
the oil of coriander; filter, and wash the filter
with water to make up 8 oz.; add the sugar,
and dissolve with gentle heat. The product
should weigh 21 oz. and measure 16 oz. Sp.
gr. 1310–Dose. 1 to 2 drums.
Syrup, Simple. Syn. SYRUPUs (B. P. Ph.,
L.), SYRUPUs SIMPLEx (Ph. E. &. D.), L.
1. (Ph. L.) White sugar, 3 lbs. ; distilled
water, 1 pint; dissolve by a gentle heat.
2. (Ph. E., & Ph. L. 1836.) Pure sugar,
10 lbs. ; boiling water, 3 pints.
3. (Ph. D.) Refined sugar (in powder—
crushed), 5 lbs. ; distilled water, 1 quart.
4. (B. P.) Refined sugar, 6; distilled water,
3; dissolve the sugar in the water with the
aid of heat, and when cool add water to make
the product weigh 9 and measure very nearly
7. Sp. gr., 1:33. -
5. (Wholesale.) Finest double refined sugar,
44 lbs. ; distilled water, 2} galls.; make a
Syrup.
Obs. This preparation should be as white
and transparent as water. Used as capillaire,
&c., and to give cohesiveness and consistence
to pulverulent substances in the preparation of
electuaries, pills, &c.
Syrup of Squills. Syn. SYRUPUS SCILLE
(B. P., Ph. E. & D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. E.)
Vinegar of squills, 3 pints; white sugar (in
powder), 7 lbs. ; dissolve by a gentle heat.
2. (Ph. D.) Winegar of squills, 8 fl. OZ, ;
refined sugar (in powder), 1 lb.; dissolve.
3. (B. P.) Vinegar of squills, 20; refined
sugar, 40; dissolve with the aid of heat—
Dose. } to 1 dr.
4. (Wholesale.) Take qf vinegar of squills
(perfectly transparent), 14 lbs. ; double refined
sugar, 28 lbs.; dissolve in a stoneware vessel,
in the cold, or at most by a very gentle heat.
Obs. This syrup, like the last, should be as
clear as water, and nearly colourless.--Dose.
1 to 2 fl. dr.s., as an expectorant; in chronic
coughs and asthma. In large doses it proves
emetic.
Syrup of Squills (Compound). Syn. HIVE
SYRUP ; SYRUPUS SCILLAE COMPOSITUS, L.
Prep. (Ph. U. S.) Squills and senega, of
each, bruised, 5 oz. ; water, gal.; boil to
a quart; add of Sugar, 4% lbs. ; evaporate to 3
pints, or a proper consistence, and dissolve in
it, whilst hot, of potassio-tartrate of antimony
(in powder), 1 dr.
Obs. This syrup is a popular expectorant in
the U.S., where it is known as hive syrup.–
Dose. As an expectorant, 20 to 30 drops, for
adults; for children, 5 to 10 drops; in croup,
10 drops to ; fl. dr., repeated until it vomits.
Syrup of Tolu'. Syn. BALSAMIC SYRUP;
SYRUPUs ToIUTANUs (B. P., Ph. L. E. & D.),
L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Balsam of Tolu, 10
drs. (1 oz.-Ph. D.); boiling distilled water,
1 pint; boil in a covered vessel for ; an hour,
frequently stirring, then cool, strain, and dis-
Solve in the liquor sugar, 2% lbs.
2. (Ph. E.) Simple syrup (warm), 2 lbs. ;
tincture of Tolu, 1 oz. ; mix by degrees, and
agitate them briskly together in a closed
vessel.
3. (B. P.) Balsam of Tolu, 1}; sugar, 32;
water, 20; boil the balsam half an hour, add-
ing water when required; when cold make up
to 16, filter, add the sugar, and dissolve. The
product weighs 48 and measures 36. Sp. gr.,
1:33.—Dose. 1 to 2 drs.
4. (Wholesale.) To warm water, 23 lbs., add
tincture of Tolu, gradually, until it will bear
no more without becoming opaque; then cork
down the bottle, and occasionally agitate until
cold; when quite cold, filter it through paper,
and add of the finest double-refined sugar, 44
lbs. ; lastly, promote the solution, in a closed
vessel, by a gentle heat, in a water bath.
Obs. This syrup should be clear and colour-
less as water; but, as met with in the shops,
TABLETTES--TALLOW.
1103

it is usually milky. It is strange that the
London College should have omitted from their
formula the usual addition of rectified spirit,
although this syrup, perhaps more than any
other, would be benefited by it.
Syrup of Tolu is pectoral and balsamic.
Syrup, Welmo's Vegetable. According to Dr.
Paris and Sir B. Brodie, this celebrated nos-
trum is prepared as follows:—Young and
fresh burdock root, sliced, 2 oz.; dandelion
root, 1 oz. ; fresh spearmint, Senna, coriander
seed, and bruised liquorice root, of each, 1% dr.;
water, 1% pint ; boil down gently to a pint,
strain, add of lump sugar, 1 lb., boil to a
syrup, and, lastly, add a small quantity of
corrosive sublimate, previously dissolved in a
little spirit. Used as an alterative and puri-
fier of the blood.
Syrup of Winſegar. Syn. SYRUPUs ACETI,
L. Prep. (Ph. E.) Take of vinegar (French,
in preference), 11 fl. oz. ; white sugar, 14 oz. ;
and make a syrup.–Dose, 1 dr. to 1 fl. oz. ;
as an expectorant, in coughs and colds, or dif-
fused through any mild diluent, as a drink in
fevers. A more agreeable preparation is that
of the P. Cod, made by dissolving 30 parts of
sugar in 16 parts of raspberry vinegar.
Syrup of Violets. Syn. SYRUPUs VIOLA-
RUM, SYRUPUs VIOLE (Ph. L. & E.), L. Prep.
1. (Ph. L.) Macerate violet flowers, 9 oz., in
boiling water, 1 pint, for twelve hours, then
press, strain, and set aside the liquid, that the
faces may subside; afterwards complete the
process with sugar, 3 lbs., and rectified spirit,
2} fl. oz., (or as much of each as may be neces-
sary,) in the way which has been ordered con-
cerning syrup of cochineal.
2. (Ph. E.) Fresh violets, 1 lb.; boiling
water, 2% pints; infuse for 24 hours in a co-
vered vessel of glass or earthenware, strain off
the liquor (with gentle pressure), filter, and
dissolve in the liquid white sugar, 7% lbs.
3. (Wholesale.) From double-refined white
sugar, 66 lbs.; “anthokyan,” 11 lbs. ; water,
22 lbs., or q. s. ; dissolve in earthenware.
Uses. Syrup of violets is gently laxative.-
JDose. For an infant, a teaspoonful,
Obs. Genuine syrup of violet has a lively
violet-blue colour, is reddened by acids, turned
green by alkalies, and both smells and tastes
of the flowers. It is frequently used as a test.
A spurious sort is met with in the shops, which
is coloured with litmus, and slightly scented
with orris root. The purest sugar, perfectly
free from either acid or alkaline contamina-
tion, should alone be used in the manufacture
of this syrup. The Ph. E. orders the infusion
to be strained without pressure; and the P.
Cod., and some other Ph., direct the flowers to
be first washed in cold water.
Syrup of Wormwood. Syn. SYRUPUS AB-
SINTHII, L. ; SIROP D’ABSINTHE, Fr. Prep.
1 The expressed juice of violets, defecated, gently heated
in earthenware to 192°Fahr., then skimmed, cooled, and
filtered; a little spirit is next added, and the next day the
compound is again filtered.
(P. Cod.) Tops of wormwood (dried), 1 part ;
boiling water, 8 parts; infuse for 12 hours,
strain, with expression, and dissolve in the
liquor twice its weight of sugar. Bitter,
tonic, and stomachic.—Dose. 1 to 3 fl. drs.
TABLETTES. [Fr.] See LozENGEs and
SAVONETTES.
TAF'FETAS. Plasters on silk are occa-
sionally so called. For TAFFETAS ANGLICUM,
see CouTT PLASTER ; for TAFFETAS VESICANs,
see VESICANTs.
TALC. Syn. FoELATED TALC; UBRUC. A
transparent, foliated, siliceous magnesian
mineral, flexible, but not elastic, found in
Scotland, the Tyrol, and elsewhere. It is used
as a cosmetic, to impart a silky whiteness to
the skin; also in the composition of rouge
végétal, and to give a flesh-like polish to ala-
baster figures. A second and harder species of
this mineral (FRENCH CHALK, SoAPSTONE,
STEATITE ; CRETA GALLICA) is employed as a
crayon by carpenters, glaziers, and tailors, and
forms the boot-powder of the boot-makers.
Writing executed with it on glass, even after
being apparently removed by friction, becomes
again visible when breathed upon.
TAI'LOW and other fats are commonly puri-
fied by melting them along with water, pass-
ing the mixed fluids through a sieve, and
letting the whole cool slowly, when a cake of
cleansed fat is obtained.—Another plan is to
keep the tallow melted for some time, along
with about 2% of oil of vitriol, largely diluted
with water, employing constant agitation, and
allowing the whole to cool slowly; then to re-
melt the cake with a large quantity of hot
water, and to wash it well.—Another method
is to blow steam for some time through the
melted fat. By either this or the preceding
process a white hard tallow may be obtained.—
Some persons add a little nitre to the melted
fat, and, afterwards, a little dilute nitric or sul-
phuric acid, or a solution of bisulphate of
potash. Others boil the fat along with water
and a little dilute nitric or chromic acid, or a
mixture of bichromate of potash and sulphuric
acid; and afterwards wash it thoroughly with
water. These methods answer well for the
tallow or mixed fats of which ordinary candles
are made,
Tallow converted into stearic acid by saponi-
fication is readily hardened and bleached, if
moderately pure. A mixture composed of 1 part
of oxalic acid and 2000 parts of water is suffi-
cient to bleach 1000 parts of stearic acid. The
mode of operating is as follows:—Throw the
stearic acid, cut into small pieces, into a vessel
of cold water, and turn on steam ; as soon as it
has melted and assumed a turbid appearance,
add the solution of oxalic acid, and boil the
mixture. After boiling for # hour, long threads
appear in the liquid; the liquid itself, which
previously was of a grayish colour, becomes
black, and the threads unite together. The
boiling must now be discontinued, and the
contents of £he vessel, having been allowed to

1104
TANIARA–TANNIC ACID.
settle for three or four hours, must be drawn
off into the coolers. -
As commercial stearic acid frequently con-
tains undecomposed tallow, as well as various
foreign matters, this process is occasionally
unsuccessful. To obviate the inconveniences
connected with the use of this impure material,
the candle may be run at two operations, as
follows:—“The stearic acid, treated as above,
is exposed for a month to the sun, by which
means the foreign matters are oxidised, and
the bleached stearic acid acquires a dirty yel-
low colour; the oxidised blocks are then melted
in water containiug a little sulphuric acid, at
about 150°Fahr. ; an addition of about 10 per
cent. of good white wax (or spermaceti) is next
made, and the whole boiled for half an hour;
the white of an egg, previously beaten up in a
quart of water, is then added to each 1 cwt. of
stearic acid, the temperature of the mass
having been reduced to 100°, or at most 120°
Fahr., after which the mixture is again well
stirred and boiled, when the liquid soon becomes
clear, which is seen by the dark colour it
aSSüllnes. -
“This mixture of stearic acid and wax or
spermaceti is very suitable for forming the ex-
terior coating of the candle; it is transparent,
and of perfect whiteness, and, as it is devoid of
oxalic acid, it does not injure the moulds;
whilst at the same time, as it is less fusible
than pure stearic acid, candles made with it
do not run. This first coating may be run hot
without crystallising; the interior of the
candle, being protected from without against
too sudden a cooling, may also be run some-
what hot ; by this means the candle acquires
a whiteness and a transparency which cannot
be realised by other processes.” (“Le Moni-
teur Industriel.”)
The sulphuric acid saponification of inferior
tallow and other solid or semi-solid fatty bodies
is now carried out on a very large scale for
producing the cheaper varieties of “stearine
candles.' For this purpose, the tallow or fat
is mixed with 5 or 6% of concentrated sulphuric
acid, and exposed to a steam heat of 350° to
360° Fahr. After cooling, the black mass thus
obtained crystallises to a tolerably solid fat,
which is well washed once or twice with water,
or high-pressure steam, and is then submitted
to distillation by the aid of steam heated to
about 560° Fahr. The product of the distilla-
tion is beautifully white, and may be at once
used for making candles. It is better, how-
ever, to first submit it to the processes of cold
and hot pressing, whereby a much more solid
fat is obtained.
According to M. Pohl, palm oil or palm
tallow is most easily purified by simple ex-
posure to a high temperature, provided it has
been first well defecated. When quickly heated
to about 465° Fahr., and kept at that tem-
perature for from 5 to 15 minutes, it is com-
pletely decoloured. The product has a slight
empyreumatic odour, but this disappears by
age, exposure, or saponification, and the natural
violet odour of the oil returns. Cast-iron
pans should be employed in the process, and
should be only 2-3rds filled, and well covered
during the operation.
By the distillation of sulphurated palm oil in
closed vessels, at a heat ranging from 570° to
600°Fahr., from 68% to 75% of a mixture of
palmitic and palm-oleic acid passes over, of
which 25% to 30% is colourless, hard, and
crystalline, and the rest darker and softer.
(Pohl.) The residuum in the still is a fine
hard pitch. See CANDLES, FAT, GIYCERIN,
OILS (Fixed), STEARIC ACID, &c.
TAMARA. A mixed spice used in Italian
cookery, consisting of cinnamom, cloves, and
corianders, of each, 2 parts; aniseed and fennel
seed, of each 1 part.
TAM'ARIND. Syn. TAMARINDUS (B. P.,
Ph. L. E. & D.), L. The pulp or preserved
fruit or pod of the Tamarindus Indica, or
tamarind tree.
Tamarind pulp is refrigerant and gently
laxative. Mixed with water, it forms a grate-
ful acidulous drink in fevers.--Dose. # oz. and
upwards.
TAN/NATE. A salt of tannic acid.
TAN'NER'S BARK. The best of this is
oak bark; but the bark of the chestnut,
willow, and larch, and other trees which abound
in tannin, are also used for preparing leather.
TAN/NIC ACID. C. HºOz. Syn. TAN,
TANNIN, GALLO-TANNIC ACID+ ; TANNINUM,
ACIDUM TANNICUM (B. P., Ph. L. D. & U. S.),
L. A peculiar vegetable principle, remarkable
for its astringency and its power of converting
the skins of animals into leather.
Prep. 1. (Pelouze.) From galls, in moderately
fine powder, by percolation, in a closed vessel,
with sulphuric ether that has been previously
agitated with water. After some time the
percolated liquid will be found divided into
two distinct portions, the lower and heavier
one being a watery solution of tannic acid, and
the upper one an ethereal solution of gallic
acid and colouring matter. Fresh ether must
be passed through the powder as long as the
lower stratum of liquid continues to augment.
The two fluids are now carefully separated,
and after the heavier one has been well washed
with ether, it is gently evaporated to dryness,
preferably under the receiver of an air-pump,
or over sulphuric acid. The ether may be re-
covered unaltered from the ethereal solution,
by cautious distillation in a retort connected
with a Liebig's condenser supplied with ice-
cold water. Prod, About 40%.
2. (Ph. D.) From galls, in tolerably fine
powder, 8 oz., and a mixture of sulphuric
ether, 3 pints, with water, 5 fl. oz. ; by per-
colation, in successive portions, like the last;
the aqueous solution of tannic acid being
evaporated, and finally dried at a heat not ex-
ceeding 212° Fahr.
Prop., &c. Pure tannic acid is perfectly
white, but as ordinarily met with it has a

TANNiN–TAR.
1105
slight yellowish colour, owing to the action of
the air; it is uncrystallisable; possesses a
powerful and purely astringent taste, without
bitterness; is freely soluble in water, less so
in alcohol, and only very slightly in ether; it
reddens vegetable blues; when boiled with
acids, it assimilates water and splits into gal-
lic acid and grape sugar; when heated in
the dry state, it suffers decomposition, meta-
gallic and pyrogallic acids being formed;
it unites with the bases, forming salts called
tannates, which are characterised by striking
a deep black with the persalts of iron (ink),
and forming a white precipitate with gelatin.
Uses, &c. The value of substances containing
tannin in the preparation of leather is well
known. In its pure form it is used as an
astringent in medicine; internally, in diar-
rhoea, hæmorrhages, as a tonic in dyspepsia,
&c.; externally, made into a gargle, injection,
or ointment.—Dose. 1 to 10 grs., in the form
of pills or solution. See GALLIC ACID, &c.
TAN/NIN. See TANNIC ACID.
TAN/NING. When the skin of an animal,
carefully deprived of hair, fat, and other im-
purities, is immersed in a dilute solution of
tannic acid, the gelatin gradually combines
with that substance as it penetrates inwards,
forming a perfectly insoluble compound, which
resists putrefaction completely; this is tanned
leather. In practice, lime water is used
for cleansing and preparing the skin, water
acidulated with oil of vitriol for “raising'
or opening the pores, and an infusion of oak
bark, or, sometimes, of catechu, or other astrin-
gent matter, as the source of tannic acid. The
process itself is necessarily a slow one, as dilute
solutions only can be safely used. Skins in-
tended for the curriers, to be dressed for
‘ uppers,’ commonly require about 3 weeks;
and ‘thick hides,’ from 12 to 18 months.
Of late years various ingenious contrivances
have been adopted, with more or less success,
to hasten the process of tanning skins and
hides. Among these may be mentioned the
employment of stronger tan solutions, the ap-
plication of a gentle heat, puncturing the skins
to afford more ready access for the liquid to
their interior parts, and maceration in the tan
liquor under pressure, either at once or after
the vessel containing them has been exhausted
of air by means of an air-pump. On the merit
of these several methods it has been remarked
“ that the saturated infusions of astringent
barks contain much less extractive matter, in
proportion to their tannin, than the weak in-
fusions; and when the skins are quickly tanned
in the former, common experience shows that
it produces leather which is less durable than
leather slowly formed.” (Sir H. Davy.) “100
lbs. of skin, quickly tanned in a strong infusion
of bark, produce 137 lbs. of leather; while
100 lbs., slowly tanned in a weak infusion,
produce only 1173 lbs.” “Leather thus highly
(and hastily) charged with tannin is, more-
over, so spongy as to allow moisture to pass
readily through its pores, to the great dis-
comfort and danger of persons wearing shoes
made of it.” (Ure.) -
According to Mr. G. Lee, much of the ori-
ginal gelatin of the skin is wasted in the
preliminary processes to which they are sub-
jected, more especially the “liming’ and ‘bating.’
He says, that 100 lbs. of perfectly dry hide,
cleaned from extraneous matter, should, on
chemical principles, afford at least 180 lbs. of
leather.
MoRocco LEATHER is prepared from goat or
sheep skins, which, after the action of lime
water and a dung bath, are slightly tanned in
a bath of sumach. They are subsequently
grained, polished, &c.
RUSSIA LEATHER is generally tanned with a
decoction of willow bark, after which it is dyed,
and curried with the empyreumatic oil of the
birch tree. It is the last substance which im-
parts to this leather its peculiar odour and
power of resisting mould and damp. See
LEATHER, TANNIC ACID, TAWING, &c.
TAN'TALUM. Ta. Syn. CoIUMBIUM. A
rare metal discovered by Mr. Hatchett, in 1801,
in a mineral from Massachusetts; and by M.
Ekeberg, in 1803, in tantalite, a mineral
found in Sweden. It exists in most of its ores
in combination with oxygen.
TAPE-WORM. See WoRMS.
TAPIO'CA. Syn. TAPIOCA (Ph. E. & D.), L.
The fecula of the root of Janipha manihot (Ja-
tropha manihot—Linn.), which has been well
washed in water, and dried on hot plates, by
which it assumes the appearance of warty-
looking granules.
Pure tapioca is insipid, inodorous, only
slightly soluble in cold water, but entirely
soluble in boiling water, forming a translu-
cent and highly nutritious jelly. Its granules
are muller-shaped, about grºwn of an inch in
diameter, and display very marked hilums. It
is used in a similar manner to sago and arrow-
root. See CASSAVA.
TAR. Syn. PIX LIQUIDA (B.P., Ph. L. E.
& D.), L. A liquid bitumen prepared from
the wood of Pinus sylvestris, and other species,
by heat. The chemical constitution of tar is
very complicated. Its uses in the arts are
well known. As a medicine, it is stimulant,
diuretic, sudorific, and vermifuge.—Dose. 20
to 60 minims, made into pills with flour; in
ichthyosis, &c. Easternally, in lepra, psoriasis,
foul ulcers, &c. See OINTMENT and INFUSION.
Tar, Barbadoes. Syn. PIX LIQUIDA BAR-
BADENSIS, PETROLEUM BARBADENSE, PETRO-
LEUM (Ph. L. & E.), L. “Black liquid bitu-
men, exuding spontaneously from the earth.”
(Ph. L.) Its properties for the most part
resemble those of the last.—Dose. 10 to 30
drops; in asthma, chronic coughs, tape-worm,
&c. Eaternally, in chilblains, chronic and
rheumatic pains, &c. See PETROLEUM.
Tar, Coal. Produced during the distillation
of bituminous coal for gas. See NAPHTHA,
&c.
70
1106
TAR COLOURS.
TAR COLOURS. Syn. CoAI, TAR COLOURS,
ANILINE COLOURS, &c. Coal tar, the source
of the aniline colours, consists of the oily fluid
obtained in the destructive distillation of coal,
during the manufacture of ordinary illumi-
nating gas, and collected in a tank from the
hydraulic main and condensers.
The composition of coal tar is highly com-
plex, the most important constituents being,
however, a series of homologous hydrocarbons
obtained by distilling coal tar, and known as
“coal naphtha.” Naphtha, by rectification
between 180° and 250° Fahr. (82 and 121
Cent.), yields a light yellow oily liquid, of sp.
gr. 88, the benzol of commerce.
By the action of a mixture of nitric and
sulphuric acids on benzol, nitro-benzol, a heavy
oily liquid with an odour of oil of bitter
almonds, is obtained. In commerce this sub-
stance is made in large cast iron-pots, fitted
with tight covers, and provided with stirrers
worked by steam power. By means of pipes
the reagents are admitted and the nitrous
fumes are carried off, while the nitro-benzol
and the spent reagents are drawn off from the
bottom. The entire charge of benzol is first
placed into the vessels, and the mixed acids
are, as the reation is very emergetic, cautiously
run in, the whole being well stirred throughout.
When finished, the contents are drawn off,
and the nitro-benzol collected, washed with
water, and, if necessary, neutralised with a
solution of soda.
Nitro-benzol is converted into aniline in a
similar apparatus, only provided with means of
admitting a current of superheated steam, and
condensing the aniline as it distils over. Into
the vessel iron borings are placed, and acetic
acid and nitro-benzol cautiously run in as
the reduction is violent, stirring well all the
time. A current of superheated steam is
passed through, and the aniline collected as it
distils over, as a pale sherry coloured oily
liquid boiling at 360°Fahr. (182 Cent), and
of sp. gr. 1:02.
MAUVE, the first-discovered coal tar, or
aniline colour, was obtained by Mr. Perkins
during some experiments directed towards the
artificial formation of quinine, and was also
first practically manufactured by Mr. Perkins.
Commercially, mauve is made as follows:—
Aniline and sulphuric acid in proper pro-
portions are dissolved in water in a vat by
aid of heat, and when cold a solution of
bichromate of potassium added, and the whole
allowed to stand a day or two, when a black
precipitate is obtained, which, after collecting
on shallow filters, is washed and well dried.
This black resinous substance is digested with
dilute methylated spirit in a suitable apparatus,
to dissolve out the mauve, and the major
portion of the spirit distilled off. The mauve
is precipitated from the aqueous solution left
behind by hydrate of sodium, and after washing
is either drained to a paste or dried.
The amount of mauve thus obtained is but
small in comparison with the raw material,
coal tar, as 100 lbs. of coal yield 10 lbs. 12
oz. of coal tar; 8% oz. of mineral naphtha,2% oz.
of benzol; 4% oz. of nitro-benzol, 2% oz. of
aniline, and 4 oz. of mauve. Mauve is usually
sent into the market in paste or solution, the
expense of the crystals being heavy, and
offering no corresponding advantages.
Other salts than the bichromate of potassium .
have been employed to convert aniline into
mauve, as chloride of copper, permanganate of
potassium, &c.; but experience has shown
none to possess the same advantages as the
bichromate of potassium. -
MAUVEINE, the organic base of mauve or
aniline purple, is a black crystalline powder, of
the formula CyPIsiNg, yielding a dull violet
solution. The moment, however, mauveine is
brought in contact with an acid, it turns a
magnificent purple colour. The salts of mau-
veine form beautiful crystals possessing a
splendid green metallic lustre, soluble very
readily in alcohol, and less so in water. The
commercial salt, or mauve, is the acetate, or
sometimes the hydrochlorate.
MAGENTA. Syn. ANILINE RED, RoSEINE,
FUCHSINE, &c., is prepared from commercial
aniline by the action of arsenic acid; the pro-
cess being carried out in cast-iron pots of proper
construction, placed over a furnace. Into these
pots are placed 2 parts of commercial aniline
containing 25 per cent. of toluidine, and 3
parts of a saturated solution of arsenic acid;
the whole is well stirred, heated for a proper
period, and the excess of aniline driven off by
a current of superheated steam. The crude
product obtained is transferred to vats, boiled
with water and filtered; common salt added
to the filtrate, and the precipitated magenta
collected, redissolved in boiling water, refiltered,
and crystallised.
This after-recrystallisation constitutes com-
mercial magenta. Magenta consists of bril-
liant large crystals, having a beautiful golden-
green metallic lustre, and soluble in water to an
intense purplish-red solution. It is a salt of
a colourless base, rosaniline, which is prepared
from magenta by boiling with hydrate of
potassium, and allowing the solution to cool,
when it crystallises out in colourless crystals,
having the formula C20H16N4H2O. All the
salts of rosaniline have splendid purple-red
colour, and that usually met with as magenta
is the hydrochlorate, although the nitrate,
oxalate, and acetate are also to be obtained.
From magenta or hydrochlorate of rosaniline
a large number of colouring matters are pro-
duced, the most important of which will be
briefly described below.
ANILINE BLUE, or BLEU DE LYONS. This
dye is prepared by heating a mixture of
magenta, acetate of sodium and aniline in iron
pots, provided with stirrers, &c., in an oil bath,
to 374° Fahr. (190° C.), and the excess of
aniline distilled over. When a good blue has
been obtained, the heat is removed, and tº:




TAR COLOURS.
1107
thick treacly fluid purified. This is effected
for the commoner varieties by treating the
crude product with hydrochloric acid to dissolve
all the excess of aniline, and the various red
and purple impurities; but for the better
qualities by mixing the crude product with
methylated spirit, and pouring the whole
into water acidulated with hydrochloric acid,
and then thoroughly washing the colouring
matter that is precipitated, with water and
drying.
This blue, like magenta, is a Salt of a colour-
less base, which has been named Triphenyl-
rosaniline, Casſigns, or CºoHig(C6H5)4N3.
Aniline blue, or Lyons blue, is sent into the
market either as a coarse powder of a coppery
lustre, or in alcoholic solution; as it is insoluble
in water, which necessitates it being added to
the dye bath in solution in spirit, a great
drawback. -
Mr. Nicholson, by treating Lyons blue in
the same manner as indigo is converted into
sulpindigotic acid, has succeeded in rendering
it soluble; dissolving in alkalies to form colour-
less salts, and decomposed by acids into its
original blue colour.
By a modification of this method, “NICHOL-
SON BLUE' is prepared a fine soluble blue dye.
Another colouring matter called Paris blue or
bleu de Paris, was obtained by heating stannic
chloride with aniline for 30 hours at a tem-
perature of 356°Fahr. (180 C.). It is a fine
pure blue, soluble in water, and crystallising
in large blue needles with a coppery lustre.
VIOLET IMPERIAL. If the action of the
aniline and magenta in the process of manu-
facturing aniline blue be stopped before it is
finished, and the resulting product treated with
dilute acid, a colouring matter called violet im-
perial is obtained. It is now, however, replaced
by the Hoffmann violets.
HoFFMANN VIOLETS. On a large scale these
violets are produced in deep cast-iron pots, sur-
rounded by a steam jacket, and provided with
a lid, having a perforation for distilling over
the excess of reagents.
These vessels are charged with a solution of
magenta in methylated or wood spirit, and
iodide of ethyl or methyl, in proportions ac-
cording to the shade required, and the whole
heated by steam for five or six hours, when
the excess of alcohol and iodide of ethyl is dis-
tilled over. The resulting product is dissolved
in water, filtered, precipitated with common
salt, and well washed.
Like most of the other colours, Hoffmann
violets are salts of colourless basés. That of a
red shade has a formula of CºHº Na, or C20His
(C3H5)N3; of a true violet shade, Cº. HºNº,
or C20H17(C5H5)3N3; and of a blue shade of
violet, of Cºg H31N3, or C20H18(C5H5)3 Ng. They
are all moderately fast on wool and silk,
although less so on cotton, and, as they can be
produced in nearly every shade of violet, are
in great use, having replaced most of the other
violets.
DAHLIA. This is prepared from mauve and
iodide of ethyl, in the same manner as the
Hoffmann violets, and is a purple-red violet.
It is a good colour, but the expense precludes
its general use.
BRITANNIA WIOLET. This is obtained in
the same manner as the Hoffmann violets, by
acting on an alcoholic solution of magenta,
with a thick, viscid, oily fluid of the formula
Clo BigBra, obtained by cautiously acting with
bromine on oil of turpentine. It is a beautiful
violet, capable of being manufactured of every
shade, from purple to blue, and most extensively
used.
ALDEHYDE GREEN. Prepared by dissolving
one part of magenta in three parts of sulphuric
acid, diluted with one part of water, adding
by degrees one and a half part of aldehyde, and
heating the whole on a water bath until a drop
put in water turns a fine blue. It is then
poured into a large quantity of hot water con-
taining three parts of hyposulphite of sodium,
boiled and filtered. The filtrate contains the
green, which can either be kept in solution or
be precipitated by means of tannic acid or
acetate of sodium. Like the other colours,
this green is a salt of a colourless base, con-
taining sulphur, the formula of which is not
known, and is principally used for dyeing silk,
being very brilliant in both day and artificial
light.
IODIDE GREEN. Produced during the manu-
facture of the Hoffmann colours, and is now
used for dyeing cotton and silk; its colour
being bluer than that of aldehyde green, it is
more useful. Iodide green, not being precipi-
tated by carbonate of sodium, is usually sold
in alcoholic solution.
PERKINS’ GREEN. This is also a magenta
derivative, and a salt of a powerful colourless
base. It resembles the iodide green, but is
precipitated by alkaline carbonates and picric
acid. This colour is used chiefly for calico
printing, and is quite as fast as the Hoffmann
colours.
Besides the above products obtained from
aniline, a series of colours have been obtained
from phenol, or carbolic acid, another substance
obtained from coal tar.
PICRIC ACID. This is obtained by treating
in a suitable apparatus, with proper precau-
tions, carbolic acid with nitric acid. It is a
pale yellow crystalline acid, forming dark
orange explosive salts, and deying silk a fine
yellow.
ISOPURPURATE OF POTASSIUM. By treating
picric acid with cyanide of potassium a very
explosive salt is obtained, used to dye wool a
dark maroon colour.
AURINE, or ROSOLIC ACID. This is ob-
tained by heating a mixture of sulphuric,
oxalic, and carbolic acids, and purifying the
products. It is a beautiful reddish, resinous
substance, with a pale green lustre, and yield-
ing an orange coloured solution, changed by
alkalies to a splendid crimson. Owing to the

1108
TARAXACUM.–TARTARIC ACII).
difficulty in using it, however, it is not very
extensively employed.
PEONINE, or CoRALLINE. This dye is formed
when rosolic acid and ammonia are heated to
between 248° and 284°Fahr. (120° to 140° C.).
It is a fine crimson dye, forming shades simi-
lar to safflower on silk, but, owing to the bad
effects of acids, not much used.
AZULINE. Prepared by heating coralline
and aniline together. A coppery coloured re-
sinous substance, soluble in alcohol, and with
difficulty in water, and dyeing silk a blue
colour. The amiline blues, however, have su-
perseded it to a great extent.
There are other substances obtained from
coal tar that have been employed to form dyes,
but of which we shall only refer to one—
naphthaline. By treating this in exactly the
same manner as benzol is converted into ani-
line, a solid crystalline white base, termed
naphthylamine, is produced. From this sub-
stance is obtained the following dye.
DINITRONAPHTHAL, or MANCHESTER YEL-
LOW. Naphthylamine is converted into diazy-
naphthol by treatment with nitrite of potas-
sium, and the latter, when heated with nitric
acid, yields the colour. It is a weak acid, and
the salt employed in commerce is the beautiful
yellow crystalline calcium salt which dyes silk
and wool a magnificent golden-yellow colour.
TARAX(ACUM. See DANIDELION.
TARPAU'LIN. Syn. TARPAWLING. Canvas
covered with tar or any composition to render
it waterproof.
TAR/RAS. Syn. TERRAs. A volcanic pro-
duct resembling puzzolano, that imparts to
mortar the property of hardening under water.
Several other argillo-ferruginous minerals pos-
sess the same power, and are used under this
term.
TAR/TAR. Syn. ARGAL, ORGOL ; TAR-
TARUM, TARTARUS, L. Impure bitartrate of
potassa. Crude tartar is the concrete de-
posit formed upon the sides of the casks and
vats during the fermentation of grape juice.
That obtained from white wine is white argol;
that from red wine, red argol. After purifica-
tion it forms cream of tartar.
Tartar, Ammo"miated. Syn. AMMONIO-TAR-
TRATE OF POTASSA, SOLUBLE TARTAR (Ammo-
niated); TARTARUS AMMONIATUS, TARTARUM
SOLUBILE AMMONIATUM, L. Prep. Neutralise
a solution of cream of tartar with ammonia in
slight excess, then evaporate, and crystallise.
Very soluble in water. A favourite laxative
on the Continent.
Tartar, Bo'raxated. Syn. SOLUBLE CREAM
OF TARTAR, BORO-TARTRATE OF POTASSA AND
SODA; TARTARUM BORAXATUM, CREMOR TAR-
TARI SOLUBILIS, POTASSAE ET SODAE TARTRAS
BORAXATA, L. Prep. From borax, 2 lbs.; cream
of tartar, 5 lbs. ; (both in powder;) dissolved
in water, evaporated, and crystallised. See
BOROTARTRATE OF POTASSA.
Tartar, Chalybeaſted. Potassio-tartrate of
II"On.
Tartar, Cream of Bitartiate of potassa.
Tartar, Emet'ic. Potassio-tartrate of anti-
mony.
Tartar, Oil of. Deliquesced carbonate of
potassa.
Tartar, Reduced. Syn. CREMOR TARTARI
REDUCTUS, L. An article is sold, under the
name of ‘British cream of tartar,’ which
contains # its weight or more of bisulphate of
potassa. -
Tartar, Salt of Carbonate of potassa.
Tartar, Solºuble. Neutral tartrate of po-
tassa.
Tartar, Spirit of Pyrotartaric acid.
TARTAR/IC ACID. H.C.H.O.g. Syn. ACID
OF TARTAR, ESSENTIAL SALT OF T.f; ACIDUM
TARTARICUM (B. P., Ph. L. E. & D.), SAI.
ESSENTIALE TARTARI+, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.
1836.) Take of cream of tartar, 4 lbs. ;
boiling water, 2 galls. ; dissolve by boiling;
add, gradually, of prepared chalk, 12 oz. 7 drs.
(made into a milk with water), and, when the
effervescence ceases, add another like portion
of prepared chalk, dissolved in hydrochloric
acid, 26% fl. oz., or q. S., diluted with water,
4 pints; collect the precipitate (‘tartrate of
lime’), and, after well washing it with water,
boil it for 15 minutes in dilute sulphuric acid,
7 pints and 17 fl. oz. ; next filter, evaporate
the filtrate (to the density of 1:38), and set it
aside to crystallise; redissolve the crystals in
water, concentrate the solution by evaporation,
and recrystallise a second and a third time, .
The Edinburgh formula is nearly similar. In
the Ph. L. & D. tartaric acid is placed in the
Materia Medica.
2. (Gatty.) The solution of argol or tar.
taris first neutralised with carbonate of potassa,
and to every 300 galls. of the clear liquid, at
5° Twaddell, 34 galls. of milk of lime (1 lb. of
lime per gall.) are added; carbonic acid gas is
then forced in, with agitation; decomposition
ensues, with the formation of ‘bicarbonate of
potassa’ and ‘tartrate of lime; the last is
converted into tartaric acid in the usual
manner, and the former is evaporated in iron
pans, and roasted in a reverberatory furnace
for its potassa.
Prop. Tartaric acid forms
in the air; it possesses a purely sour taste,
inodorous,
scarcely transparent, oblique rhombic prisms,
more or less modified, which are permanent
-
dissolves in about 2 parts of water at 60°Fahr,
and in about its own weight of boiling water;
it is slightly soluble in alcohol; the aqueous
solution exhibits right-handed polarisation,
and suffers gradual decomposition by age.
It is free from colour ; is entirely, or
almost entirely, dissipated by ignition; and is
entirely soluble in water.
Tests.
by its solution giving white precipitates with
solutions of caustic lime, baryta, and strontia,
which dissolve in excess of the acid.—
2. A solution of potassa causes a white
granular precipitate of cream of tartar,
1. Tartaric acid is known to be such

TARTRATE–TEA,
1109
soluble by agitation in excess of the precipi-
tant.—3. Nitrate of silver and acetate of lead
give white precipitates, which, when heated,
fume, and yield the pure metal.-4. If to a
solution of tartaric acid, or a tartrate, solution
of a ferric or aluminum salt, be added, and
subsequently ammonia or potassa, no precipi-
tate is formed.—5. At about 570° Fahr. all
the tartrates are blackened, and yield a peculiar
and charaeteristic odour. -
Uses, &c. Tartaric acid is chiefly employed
in calico printing, and, in medicine, as a
substitute for citric acid and lemon juice
in the preparation of cooling drinks and
saline draughts. For the latter purpose,
bicarbonate of soda is the alkaline salt com-
monly employed.—Dose. 10 to 30 grains.
Concluding remarks. On the large scale
the decomposition of the tartar is usually
effected in a copper boiler, and that of the
tart rate of lime in a leaden cistern. This
part of the process is often performed by mere
digestion for a few days, without the applica-
tion of heat. Leaden or stoneware vessels
are used as crystallisers. Good cream of tar-
tar requires 26% of chalk and 28.5% of dry
chloride of calcium for its perfect decomposi-
tion. Dry tartrate of lime requires 75% of oil
of vitriol to liberate the whole of its tartaric
acid. A very slight excess of sulphuric acid
may be safely, nay, advantageously, employed.
Some manufacturers bleach the coloured solu-
tion of the first crystals, by treating it with
animal charcoal; but for this purpose the
latter substance should be first purified by
digesting it in hydrochloric acid, and after-
wards by edulcorating it with water, and ex-
posing it to a dull red heat in a covered
vessel. The general management of this
manufacture resembles that of citric acid. To
obtain a large product, care must be taken
that the whole of the tartrate of lime be tho-
roughly decomposed, a matter not always
effected by clumsy manipulators, who do not
adapt their quantities or practice to the cir-
cumstances before them.
TAR/TRATE. A salt of tartaric acid.
TARTS. These may be regarded as minia-
ture pies, consisting of fruit, either fresh or
preserved, baked or spread on puff-paste.
TAU'RIN. C.H.NSOs. Obtained when puri-
fied bile is boiled for some hours with an ex-
cess of hydrochloric acid. By filtration, eva-
poration, and dissolving the dry residuum in
about 6 parts of boiling alcohol, nearly pure
taurin crystallises out as the solution cools. It
forms with crystalline needles, which are solu-
ble in water, and sparingly soluble in alcohol.
It is remarkable for containing fully 25% of
sulphur. -
TAUROCHOLAL/IC ACID. See CHOLEIC
ACID.
TAWING. In the preparation of the
TAWED LEATHER used for gloves, housings, &c.,
the skins are first soaked, scraped, and hung in
a warm room until they begin to exhale an
ammoniacal odour, and the wool readily comes
off; they are then de-haired, and soaked in
water with some quicklime for several weeks,
the water being changed two or three times
during that period ; they are then again
beamed, smoothed, and trimmed, after which
they are rinsed, and resoaked in a vat of bran-
and-water, where they are kept in a state of
gentle fermentation for some weeks; (in this
state they are called ‘pelts';) the skins are
next well worked about in a warm solution of
alum and salt, again fermented in bran-and-
water for a short time, and are then stretched
on hooks, and dried in a stove-room ; they are,
lastly, again soaked in water and trodden or
worked in a pail or tub containing some yolks
of eggs beaten to a froth with water, after
which they are stretched and dried in a loft,
and are smoothed with a warm smoothing-iron.
Sometimes the process is shortened by soaking
the skins in the following mixture after the
first steep with bran:—Common salt, 3% lbs. ;
alum, 8 lbs. ; boiling water, q. s. ; dissolve, add
of wheaten flour, 21 lbs. ; yolks of 9 dozen eggs;
make a paste. For use, a portion is to be
largely diluted with water.
CHAMoIS or SHAMMY LEATHER is generally
prepared from either sheep or doe-skins, which,
after dressing, liming, &c., are well oiled on the
grain side, then rolled into balls, and thrown
into the trough of the fulling-mill, where they
are beaten for 2, 3, or 4 hours. They are
mext aired, and again oiled and fulled, and this
is repeated a third time, or oftener, as circum-
stances may direct. The oiled skins are then
exposed to a fermenting process, or heating in
a close chamber, and are afterwards freed from
redundant oil by being scoured in a weak alka-
line lye. They are, lastly, rinsed in clean water,
wrung at the peg, dried, and ‘finished” at the
stretcher-iron.
TAWED LEATHER differs from TANNED
IEATHER in yielding size or glue under the
influence of heat and moisture, in nearly the
same way as the raw skins.
TEA. Syn. THEA, L. The dried leaves of
the Chinese tea plants (Thea Bohea and Thea
viridis.)
It was formerly suppoeed that BLACK TEAS
could only be obtained from T. Bohea, and
GREEN TEAS from T. viridis, but Fortune and
others have proved that both sorts may be
made from either species, and that the differ-
ences in colour and flavour depend chiefly on
the age of the leaves and the treatment they
undergo in the drying process. Another
species, named Thea Assamica, furnishes ASSAM
TEA.
Pur. The only adulteration of tea which
is extensively practised at the present day is
mixing it with a certain portion of exhausted
tea-leaves, which have been redried and curled.
The collection and preparation of these occupy
several hundred persons, chiefly women and
children, in and about London. The leaves
which have been found in the possession of the
1110
TEA-TEETH.
manufacturers of imitation tea are those of
the sloe tree, ash tree, elder bush, and white
thorn. According to Mr. Warrington, a most
extensive system of adulterating tea is prac-
tised in China. Many samples directly im-
ported from that country, examined by him,
did not contain a single grain of tea, being
made up entirely of other leaves. The ordi-
nary green teas he found, for the most part,
spurious, being manufactured out of the
cheaper black teas. These are ‘faced up’ or
‘painted ' with various colouring substances,
powdered porcelain clay, &c., which are readily
perceived under the microscope, and even
admit of being separated, and chemically
examined.
It is a general practice among the grocers in
this country to impart what they call a ‘bloom’
to their green teas by ‘rouncing’ them up
with a little calcined magnesia, or finely pow-
dered talc or French chalk. The quantity
that adheres to the tea is very trifling, but it
greatly improves its appearance. Black teas
are ‘faced,” in a similar manner, with finely
powdered plumbago or black-lead.
Pure China tea is not turned black by being
put into water impregnated with sulphuretted
hydrogen gas, nor does it tinge a solution of
ammonia blue. The infusion is amber-coloured,
and is not reddened by the addition of an acid.
The ashes left from the combustion of genuine
tea are white, and do not exceed 5 to 5% #.
If they exceed this they may be chemically
examined with the usual tests for alumina,
chromate of lead, copper, cyanide of potassium,
gypsum, lime, magnesia, &c. Many of these
substances may be detected by simply agitating
the tea with a little cold water, when they
will be detached from its surface, and render
the water turbid, or, by their gravity, sink to
the bottom.
Among domestic substitutes for tea are
—the leaves of speedwell, wild germander,
black currant, syringa or mock Orange, purple-
spiked willow herb, winter green, sweetbriar,
cherry tree, sloe, &c., all of which are used for
tea, either singly or mixed. The addition of a
single bud of the black currant to the infusion
of ordinary black tea imparts to it a flavour
closely resembling that of green tea.
The brownish-coloured powder vended under
the name of “la veno beno’ is a mixture of
2 parts of tea-dust with 5 parts of powdered
catechu or terra japonica. A few grains of
this substance thrown into the teapot are de-
scribed in the advertisements as being capable
of more than doubling the strength of the
beverage.
The once notorious ‘ PARAQUAY PLANT,”
sold in packets, was simply new meadow-
hay that had been wetted with a strong in-
fusion of catechu, then dried, chopped small,
and strongly compressed. See THEINE and
CAFFEINE.
Tea, “The tea is not a meal; when it is
properly used, it should not be a meal; but it
has a special purpose to fulfil, which I will now
explain. Tea—and under the generic term tea
I include coffee
hours after dinner. This is the moment which
corresponds with the completion of digestion,
when, the food having been conveyed away
from the stomach, nothing remains behind but
the excess of the acid juices employed in
digestion; these acid juices create an uneasy
sensation at the stomach, and a call is made for
something to relieve the uneasiness; tea fulfils
that object.” “On the same principle, after
the business of the dining-room, the antacid
and refreshing beverage, either in the shape of
tea or coffee, is prepared in the drawing-room.
In taking either, the nearer they approach to
the simple infusion the better; little milk or
cream, and less sugar, should be the principle.
But, seeing the purpose of tea, how unrea-
sonable to make it the excuse for a meal, to
conjoin with it toast, muffins, bread and butter,
and id genus omne.” “Three meals a day may
be taken as the standard of habit and custom;
tea and coffee having a specific place and pur-
pose as a beverage, but nome as a meal.” (Eras,
Wilson.) See MEALs, &c.
Tea, Beef. Syn. INFUSUM CARNIS BUBULE,
JUSCULUM CUM CARNE BOVIS, L. This is merely
a very concentrated soup formed of lean beef.
According to the common plan, lean beef, 1 lb.,
is gently simmered in water, 1 quart, for about
# an hour, when spices, salt, &c., are added, and
in a few minutes the whole is strained for use.
The following are other formulae:–
1. (Dr. A.T.Thomson.) Take of good rump
steak, lb.; cut it into thin slices, spread these
over a hollow dish, sprinkle a little salt on
them, add a pint of boiling water, and place
the dish (covered) near the fire for , an hour ;
then remove the whole to a saucepan, and boil
it gently for 15 minutes; lastly, strain through
a hair sieve.
2. (Prof. Liebig.) Beef, free from fat, 1
lb., is to be minced very small, mixed with an
equal weight of cold water, and, after diges-
tion and agitation in the cold for about , an
hour, heated slowly to boiling ; when it has
boiled for a minute or two, strain it through a
cloth. It may be coloured with roasted onion
or burnt sugar, and spiced and salted to
taste.
Obs. Similar preparations are ordered in
some foreign Pharmacopoeias from calves’ lights,
crayfish, frogs, mutton, pullets, snails, tortoise,
veal, &c. In the Ph. L. 1746 a form was
given for viper broth (JUSCULUM WIPERINUM).
See ESSENCE OR BEEF, EXTRACT OF MEAT,
&c.
TEETH (The). Syn. DENTES, L. An
object very subservient to health, and which
merits due attention, is the preservation of the
teeth; the care of which, considering their
importance in preparing the food for diges-
tion, is, in general, far from being sufficiently
appreciated. Comparatively very few persons
wash their mouth and clean their teeth even
tea is usually taken three


TEETHING-TETANUS, 1111
-
once a day; a feat which ought always to be
practised at the conclusion of a meal, when
either animal food or vegetables are eaten;
for the first is apt to leave behind it a rancid
acrimony, and the other an acidity, both of
them hurtful to the teeth. Those who abhor
a fetid breath, rotten teeth, and the tooth-
ache, would do well to invariably clean their
teeth before retiring to rest. With smokers,
this practice is almost obligatory. Washing
the mouth frequently with cold water is not
only serviceable in keeping the teeth clean,
but in strengthening the gums, the firm adhe-
sion of which to the teeth, is of the greatest
importance in preserving them sound and
secure. Some persons think it serviceable to
add a few drops of spirit or essence of cam-
phor to the water thus employed, a plan we
certainly approve of. See BREATH, DENTI-
FRICES, PASTES, PoWDERS, Too'ſ H. CEMENTS,
WASHES, &c.
TEETH'ING. Syn. DENTITION. Children
are sometimes born with one or more teeth;
but, in general, the teeth, at birth, consist of
mere pulpy rudiments buried in the gum.
Their development is gradual. About the
third or fourth month they begin to assume
shape and hardness. At this period children
become fretful, the saliva flows copiously, the
gums grow turgid, and there is a fondness
of biting hard cold objects. In nearly all
cases there is more or less fever, frequently a
cough or diarrhoea, and a rash commonly
appears, which is called by nurses the ‘red
gum.” These symptoms generally abate after
a fortnight or three weeks, and the child
remains undisturbed until the seventh or eighth
month. About this period the gums again
become red, tender, and swollen, and often
extremely sensitive, and painful. The upper
part of the gum gradually becomes attenuated
and pale, and, just before the tooth appears,
even covered with a blister. These changes
are usually attended by an increased flow of
saliva, or “driveling,” and a lax state of the
bowels, both of which are regarded as favor-
able symptoms. Sometimes, however, the
diarrhoea is excessive, when it may be cautiously
restrained by a dose or two of rhubarb-and-
magnesia, with a little dill or peppermint
water; or, better, by the daily use of a little
arrow-root, to which a few drops of pure port
wine may be added. Sometimes the local irri-
tation is considerable, or there are spasms or
convulsions, in which case the practice is to
lance the gums. When there is drowsiness,
stupor, or oppressed respiration, one or two
leeches may be applied to the temples, and a
small blister to the back of the neck, or behind
the ear. Sluggishness of the bowels may be
removed by a little castor oil; or, when there
is actual constipation, by a little calomel or
mercurial powder and rhubarb. Excessive
irritability, without other marked symptoms,
is best combated by a drop or two of tincture
of hops in sweetened water. Throughout the
whole period of dentition the use of warm dry
clothing, freedom from fight bandages, with
thorough ventilation, good nursing, exercise,
fresh air without undue exposure, abundance
of crawling on the carpet, and frequent warm
baths, will be found most advantageous. In-
deed, the last, without other treatment, are
often sufficient to subdue the most distressing
convulsions and the most obstinate diarrhoea,
and in no case can they do harm. See NURS-
ING, STROPHULUS, &c.
TELIU'RIUM. A rare grayish-white ele-
mentary substance, found only in small quan-
tities, associated with gold, silver, lead, and
bismuth, in the gold mines of Transylvania.
It has often been described as a metal, but is
now commonly classed with the metalloids.
TEM'PERATURE. In English pharmacy it
is customary to measure the degree of heat by
Fahrenheit's thermometer. When a boiling
heat is directed, 212° is meant. A gentle heat
is that which is denoted by any degree be-
tween 90° and 100°Fahr.
Whenever specific gravity is mentioned, the
substance spoken of is supposed to be of the
temperature of 62°Fahr. (Ph. L.)
In the B. P., Ph. E. & D., and in chemical
works in this country generally, the specific
gravities of bodies are taken at, or referred to,
the temperature of 60° Fahr. See THER-
MOMETERS.
TENT. A piece of lint, or compressed
sponge, used to dilate openings, wounds, &c.
TERBIUM. A rare metal found by Prof.
Mosander, associated with erbium and
yttrium in ordinary yttria. See ERBIUM
and YTTRIA.
TER/RA. [L.] Earth. TERRA JAPONICA,
catechu; TERRA PONDEROSA, sulphate of ba-
ryta, &c.
TERRA COT''TA. Literally, baked clay;
a term applied to statues, architectural orna-
ments, &c., made of pure white clay, fine sand,
and powdered potsherds, slowly dried, and
baked to a strong hardness.
TEST. Syn. REAGENT. Any substance .
employed to determine the name or character
of any other substance, or to detect its pre-
sence in compounds.
TET’ANUS. Spasm with rigidity. When
it affects the under jaw, it is called TRISMUs,
or locked-jaw; when the body is drawn back-
ward by the contraction of the muscles, it is
called OPISTHOTONos; when the body is bent
forward, EMPROSTHOTONos; and when the
body is drawn to one side, PLEUROSTHOTONos.
The cause of tetanus, in temperate climates,
is generally irritation of the nerves, arising
from local injuries, especially punctured or
lacerated wounds. Of these the most trivial
are occasionally sufficient to produce locked-
jaw. In hot climates the disease is occasionally
produced by exposure to cold, or by suddenly
suppressed perspiration. The last variety is
curable; the former one, scarcely ever so. The
proper treatment is a matter still undeter-
-

1112
TETTERS–THERMOMETERS.
mined. Sedatives, antispasmodics, and powerful
stimulants, have each had their advocates.
Large doses of wine and spirits, in conjunction
with opium, have occasionally been adminis-
tered with success. Electricity and the vapour
bath have also proved useful. In all cases the
bowels should be moved by active aperients,
either by the mouth or per anum.
TETTERS. The popular name of several
cutaneous diseases, the treatment of which
can only be properly undertaken by the expe-
rienced medical man.
THAL/LIUM. T.I. [Eng.,L..] A heavy metal,
belonging to the mercury, silver, and lead
group, discovered by Crookes in the early part
of 1861, and displayed by him as “a new me-
tallic element” at the opening of the Interna-
tional Exhibition, on the 1st of May, 1862.
Thallium is a widely diffused metal, being found
in many minerals, particularly iron- and cop-
per-pyrites and native sulphur. It has re-
cently been obtained in comparatively large
quantities from the dust of the flues leading
to sulphuric acid chambers. The spectrum of
thallium consists of a single most characteris-
tic line of a beautiful green colour. The spec-
trum produced when the metal is burnt in
the electric arc is, however, more complicated,
and consists of several green, blue, and other
lines.
Thallium melts at 550° Fahr., and at a
less heat may be readily welded, a property
that has hitherto been regarded as peculiar
to iron and platinum. Its specific gravity
varies from 11.8 to 11:9, according to the mode
of preparation. When freshly cut it has a dull
white colour, destitute of the brilliancy of
polished silver. Exposed to the air, it tar-
nishes rapidly, a straw-coloured oxide making
its appearance on the surface. The oxide is
alkaline and caustic to the taste, and much
more soluble than the oxides of silver and lead.
The metal is remarkable for its strongly
marked diamagnetic characters, resembling bis-
muth in this respect. The alloys of thallium
are very remarkable. Copper, alloyed with
only one half per cent. of thallium, becomes
quite brittle; but the alloy with tin is mal-
leable. Mr. Crookes has prepared a great
number of the salts of this interesting metal.
These need not be described here, as they
have not yet been applied to any use in the
arts.
THEBA'INE. Clºh, NO. Syn. THEBAIA,
PARAMORPHIA. A crystalline substance ob-
tained by Thibourméry from an infusion of
opium that has had its morphia extracted by
acting on it by an excess of lime.
THE INE. CŞHión,0s. Syn. THEINA. An
alkaloid extracted from tea. It is identical with
caffeine, and may be obtained from tea in the
same manner as that substance is from coffee.
The best “gunpowder tea’ contains fully 6% of
theine, about one half of which is lost in the
present careless mode of making infusion of
tea for the table.
THENARD’S BLUE.
(Cobaltic).
THEOBROMIE OLEUM. Syn. CACAO BUT-
TER. A concrete oil, obtained by expression
and heat from the ground seeds of Theobroma
Cacao. Occurs in cakes of a yellowish colour,
of a pleasant cacao odour. Does not become
rancid from exposure to air. Contained in all
the suppositories.
Not official.—The following form good
bases for suppositories:–Theobroma oil, when
melted, begins to solidify at 72°Fahr. ; stearine
of cocoa-nut oil at 75° Fahr. ; 4 of stearine and
2 of mutton fat at 77° Fahr. ; 4 of stearine
and 1 spermaceti at 80° Fahr. Stearine alone
is, perhaps, a better substance than cacao
butter for making suppositories. It begins to
solidify at 78°Fahr., but there is stearine that
solidifies at 120 Fahr.; this will not answer for
suppositories.
THEOBR0'MINE. A peculiar principle,
closely resembling caffeine or theine, found by
Woskresensky in the seed of the Theobroma
Cacao, or the nuts from which chocolate is
prepared, Its form is that of a light, white,
crystalline powder, which is rather less soluble
than caffeine. It is obtained like caffeine.
See CoCOA.
THERI'ACA. A name given in ancient
pharmacy to varies compound medicines,
chiefly electuaries or confections, employed as
antidotes to poisons or infection. The THE-
RIACA ANDROMACHI, Ph. L. 1746, contained
above 60 ingredients. Mithridate and
Venice treacle are examples of this class.
See TREACLE.
THERMOM’ETERS. FAHRENHEIT’s scale
is the one generally employed in England,
while that of CELSIUS, or the CENTIGRADE
scale, is principally used on the Continent.
REAUMER's is another scale occasionally em-
ployed. DE LISLE’s thermometer was for-
merly used in Russia, and some other parts of
the north of Europe. As references to these
scales are frequently met with in books, it is
useful to know their relative value, and the
method of reducing the one to the other. The
boiling-point of water is indicated by 212°
on Fahrenheit's scale, 100° on the Centigrade
scale, 80° on that of Reaumur, and 0° on that
of De Lisle; the freezing-point of water
marks 32° Fahrenheit, and 0°, or zero, on the
Centigrade and Reaumur, and 150° on the scale
of De Lisle. The 0° or zero of Fahrenheit is
32° below the freezing-point of water.
1. To reduce Centigrade degrees to those of
Fahrenheit, multiply them by 9, divide the
product by 5, and to the quotient add 32;
that is—
º X 9 + 32 = Fahr.”
2. To reduce Fahrenheit's degrees to Cen.
tigrade:—
Fahr.” — 32 x 5
9 = Cent.”
See ULTRAMARINE




THORIUM-TIN.
1113
3. To reduce Reaumur’s to Fahrenheit's:-
***482–Fanº
4. To convert Fahrenheit’s to Reaumer's :—
Fahr.” — 32 × 4
9
Thermometers intended to register extreme
degrees of heat are called PYROMETERS (which
see).
THO'RIUM. Th. Syn. THORINUM. A
very rare element, belonging to the group of
earthy metals. Metallic base of thoria. It is
obtained by the action of potassium on the
chloride of thorium, and washing the resulting
mass in water.
THORN-APPLE. See DATURA.
THROAT AFFECTIONS. We intend here
only to allude to those arising from exposure
or cold. The list is, therefore, a short one.
CROUP, one of the most important, has been
already briefly noticed.
QUINSY, or INFLAMMATORY SORE THROAT,
commonly commences with stiffness and pain
on one side of the throat, and swelling of the
tonsils, attended by febrile symptoms, which
increase as tumefaction advances, and some-
times become extreme. There is great rest-
lessness and anxiety, considerable difficulty
in swallowing even liquids, the respiration is
painful and laborious, and the speech ob-
structed. When the inflammation is not re-
solved, these symptoms rapidly increase in se-
verity, the patient suffers the greatest misery,
the tumour suppurates rapidly, the abscess
bursts, and with the rupture comes almost
immediate relief. It occasionally happens that
the other side of the throat then becomes af.
fected, and goes through the same stages; but
in general this is not the case, and the patient
rapidly recovers, a few detergent gargles and
a light nutritious diet being all that is required.
Sometimes, at the very commencement of the
attack, the inflammation may be resolved by
the patient sucking a lozenge or powder, every
hour or two, containing # or ; gr. of tartarised
antimony carefully triturated with about 20
grs. of lump sugar, so as to keep up a constant
state of nausea or vomiting for hours.
MALIGNANT SORE THROAT is marked by
the inflammation of the tonsils being more
superficial; but no sooner does it occur than
it passes into small ulcers of varied colours
and appearance, extending to the pharynx,
and spreading over the whole fauces, into the
nostrils, and even" around the glottis and
down the oesophagus. These ulcers rapidly
slough, and the febrile symptoms of a typhoid
character, which are present throughout, be-
come more or less severe. In this way the
disease often hastens to a fatal termination,
and, being highly contagious, often extends
itself to all, or nearly all, the members of a
family. The treatment must be similar to that
= Reaumur.”
adopted for typhus fever. Stimulating gargles,
containing capsicum, the mineral acids, or port
wine, are useful local remedies.
THRUSH. Syn. APHTHA, L. A disease
of infancy, which, in its common form, is
marked by small white ulcers upon the tongue,
palate, and gums. In some cases it extends
through the whole course of the alimentary
canal, and, assuming a malignant form, proves
fatal. The treatment consists of a gentle
emetic of ipecacuanha wine, followed by an
occasional dose of rhubarb and magnesia, to
keep the bowels clear, and to arrest diarrhoea.
The ulceration may be touched with a little
honey of borax ; and if they assume a dark
colour, or there be much debility, astringents
and tonics should be had recourse to. In all
cases the diet should be light, but supporting,
as imperfect nutrition is a common cause of
the disease. -
TIC DOULOUREUX'. [Fr.] According to
a writer in one of the medicial periodicals, a
solution of atropia, 2 grs., in water, 1 fl. dr., to
which nitric acid, 1 drop (minim), has been
previously added, applied as a paint, by means
of a camel-hair pencil, to the part of the face
over the spot affected, immediately and com-
pletely subdues the pain, or, at all events,
within 3 to 5 minutes, in all accidental cases,
and affords considerable relief in others. The
application is to be continued until some relief
is experienced. The solution, being very
poieonous, must not be taken internally, nor
applied to the skin when broken. See ATRo-
PIA and NEURALGIA.
TIN. Sm. Syn. STANNUM (Ph. E. & D.),
L. This metal has been known from the most
remote antiquity, being mentioned in the
books of Moses (Numb. xxxi, 22), and by Homer
(‘Iliad, x, 25), and other early writers. The
ancients obtained it principally, if not solely,
from Cornwall. The Phoenicians traded with
England for this metal at least 1000 years
before the birth of Christ.
Tin occurs in nature in the state of oxide
and, more rarely, as sulphide (TIN PYRITES).
In Cornwall it is found under the form of
peroxide (MINE-TIN, TIN-STONE), associated
with copper ore, in the slate and granite rocks,
and as an alluvial deposit (STREAM TIN) in the
beds of rivers.
Prep., &c. The ore is first reduced to
powder in stamping-mills, washed to remove
earthy matter, and then roasted to expel ar-
senic and sulphur; it is next deoxidised or
reduced by smelting it with about 1-6th of
its weight of powdered culm, and a little slaked
lime ; it is, lastly, refined by “liquation,’ fol-
lowed by a second smelting of the purer por-
tion, which, after being treated in a state of
fusion, for some time with billets of green wood,
or ‘tossed,’ as the workmen call it, is allowed
to settle, and is then cast into large blocks,
which, after being assayed, receive the stamp
of the duchy. Two varieties of commercial tin
are known, called respectively grain tin and



1114
TIN.
bar tin. The first is the best, and is prepared
from the stream ore.
Prop. Tin approaches silver in whiteness
and lustre ; in hardness it is intermediate
between gold and lead; it is very malleable
when pure, but the presence of a very small
quantity of any other metal, particularly lead,
deprives it of this property; when rubbed it
evolves a peculiar odour, and when bent back-
wards and forwards it emits a peculiar crack-
ling noise ; it melts at 442°Fahr. ; volatilises
at a white heat; and when heated above its
melting-point, with free access of air, is
speedily converted into a yellowish-white
powder, which is the peroxide, or the ‘putty
powder’ of polishers. Sp. gr. 7:29 to 7-31.
Pur. It is almost entirely dissolved by
hydrochloric acid, yielding a colourless solu-
tion; the precipitate thrown down by hydrate
of potassium is white, and soluble in excess of
the precipitant. If it contain arsenic, brown-
ish-black flocks will be separated during the
solution, and arseniuretted hydrogen evolved,
which may be inflamed and tested in the usual
manner. The presence of other metals in tin
may be detected by treating the hydrochloric
solution with nitric acid, sp. gr. 1:16, first in
the cold, and afterwards with heat, until all
the tin is thrown down in the state of insoluble
stannic oxide. The decanted acid solution
from pure tin leaves no residuum on evapora-
tion. If, after all the acid has been dissipated
by heat, dilution with water occasion a heavy
white precipitate, the sample contained bis-
muth; if, after dilution, a solution of sulphate
of ammonium or of sodium produce a similar
white precipitate (sulphate of lead), it con-
tained lead; if ammonia, added in excess,
occasion reddish-brown flocks, or if ferricyanide
of potassium give a blue precipitate, it con-
tained iron; and, if the clear supernatant
liquid leave a residuum on evaporation,
Copper.
Tests. The stannous salts are characterised
as follows:–1. Hydrate of potassium gives a
bulky white precipitate, readily soluble in
excess of the precipitant ; on concentrating the
solution, the precipitate is changed from stan-
nous hydrate into stannic hydrate, which
remains in solution, and metallic tin, which
separates in brown flakes.—2. Ammonia, and
the carbonates of potassium, sodium, and am-
monium, give white precipitates, insoluble in
excess.-3. Sulphuretted hydrogen gives, in
neutral and acid solutions, a dark brown pre-
cipitate, which is soluble in hydrate of potas-
sium, in the alkaline sulphides (especially
when they contain an excess of sulphur), and in
strong hot hydrochloric acid; and insoluble in
nitric acid, even when boiling.—4. Sulphide
of ammonium produces a like brown precipi-
tate, soluble in excess of the precipitant, pro-
vided the latter contains an excess of sulphur.
—5. Terchloride of gold gives, in the cold, on
the addition of a little nitric acid, a precipitate
of the purple of Cassius.--6. Mercuric chloride
>
-
-
N-
..TO CHILORIDE OF TIN.
Distil a mixture of tin and mercuric chloride.
gives a black precipitate, but in excess it pro-
duces a white one. -
Stanmous Chloride. SnCl2. Syn. PRO-
Prep. (ANHYDROUS.)
Gray, resin like, solid, fusible, and volatile.
(HYDRATED ; TIN SALT.) Boil an excess of
tin in hydrochloric acid. A powerful deoxidis-
ing agent. It is somewhat extensively used
as a mordant in dyeing.
Stamnous Iodide. SnIs. Syn. PROTIODIDE
OF TIN. Heat tin and iodine together. A
fusible, brownish-red, translucent substance,
soluble in water.
Stanmous Hydrate. Sn(HO)s.
DRATED OXIIDE OF TIN.
Syn. HY-
Prep. Precipitate
stanmous chloride with carbonate of potassium,
well wash, and dry under 196°. Grayish-white
powder, soluble in acids and alkaline hydrates,
except ammonia.
Stamnous Oxide. SnO. Syn. PROTOXIDE OF
TIN. Prep. Ignite the hydrate in an atmosphere
of carbonic anhydride. Black powder, inflam-
mable in air, and insoluble in acids.
Stamnous Sulphide. SnS. Syn. PROTO-
SULPHIDE OF TIN. A brittle bluish-gray sub-
stance, obtained by heating tin and sulphur.
The stannous salts behave with reagents as
follows:–1. Hydrate of potassium, ammonia
and alkaline carbonates, give a white precipi-
tate, which is freely soluble in an excess of
hydrate of potassium and in acids, sparingly
soluble in excess of ammonia, only very slightly
soluble in excess of carbonate of potassium,
and insoluble in excess of carbonate of am-
monium.—2. Sulphuretted hydrogen gives, in
acid neutral solutions, a golden-yellow pre-
cipitate, either at once or on heating the liquid,
which is readily soluble in pure hydrate of
potassium, the alkaline sulphides, and boiling
hydrochloric acid; less soluble in ammonia,
and insoluble in nitric acid.—3. A plate of
metallic zinc throws down metallic tin, under
the form of gray scales or a spongy mass, from
solutions free from nitric acid ; and from those
containing free nitric acid, white stannic
hydrate.—4. Mercuric chloride gives a white
precipitate.-5. Ferrocyanide of potassium
gives no precipitate at first, but after a time
the whole forms a thick jelly.
Assay. Each grain of stannic oxide (see
above), after being washed and gently ignited,
is equivalent to 78365 gr. of pure tin. The
loss of weight represents the impurities. Each
gr. of sulphate of lead, so treated, is equiv. to
'683 gr. of metallic lead (nearly).
Uses. The uses of tin in the arts are well
known. In medicine, 1 tº 3 drs. of the fil-
ings or powder, made into an electuary with
treacle, are sometimes given in tape-worm, for
2 or 3 successive mornings, followed by an
aperient. -
Stannic Chloride. SnCl4. Syn. BICHLo-
RIDE OF TTN, TETROCHLORIDE OF TIN, PER-
CHLORIDE of TIN, PERMURIATE OF T.: ;
STANNI BICHLORIDUM, STANNI PERMURIAS,
|
|




- TIN FILINGS-TIN POWDER. 1115
L. Prep. 1. (Liebig.) By dissolving grain
tin in a mixture of hydrochloric acid, 2 parts;
nitric acid and water, of each, 1 part ; (all by
volume ;) observing to add the tin by degrees,
and to allow one portion to dissolve before add-
ing another, as without this precaution the
action is apt to become violent, and stannic
oxide of tin to be deposited.
2. (ANHYDROUs; LIBAVIUS's FUMING II-
QUOR.) By heating stannous chloride in chlo-
rine gas; or, by distilling a mixture of pow-
dered tin, 1 part, with corrosive sublimate, 3
parts (5 parts—Fownes). A very volatile,
colourless, mobile liquid, which fumes in the
air, and boils at 2.48° Fahr. ; when mixed with
1-3rd of its weight of water, it solidifies to a
crystalline mass.
Obs. Solution of stannic chloride is much
used by dyers, under the names of ‘SPIRITs
OF TEN,” “I)YER's SPIRITs,’ ‘TIN MORDANT,”
&c., the proportions of the ingredients and the
state of dilution being various according to
circumstances or the caprice of the manu-
facturer. A process which has been highly
recommended, and which seems preferable to
all others, is to prepare a simple solution of
the stannous chloride, and to convert it into a
solution of the stannic chloride, either by the
addition of nitric acid and a gentle heat, or by
passing chlorine through it. See TIN MOR-
ID ANTS. -
Stamnic Kodide. SmI2. By dissolving stan-
mic hydrate in hydriodic acid. Yellow, silky
crystals.
Stanmic Hydrate. Sn(HO). Syn. HYDRATED
PEROXIDE OF TIN, STANNIC ACTD. Prep.
1. By adding hydrate of potassium or an
alkaline carbonate to a solution of stannic
chloride. Soluble in acids and pure alkalies,
Its compounds with the latter are sometimes
called STANNATES.
Stannic Oxide. SnOs. Syn. BINOXIDE OF
TIN, PEROxIDE OF TIN. Prep. By the action
of nitric acid on metallic tin, the resulting
white powder being well washed with water;
or, by heating metallic tin above its melting-
point, in the air. Yellow; anhydrous; in-
soluble.
Obs. Frémy has given the name of METAS-
TANNIC ACID to the oxide prepared by the
action of nitric acid on metallic tin; the
hydrate he calls STANNIC ACID. See PoDISH-
ER’s PUTTY (page 997).
Stanmic Sulphide. SnSs. Syn. BISUIPHIDE OF
TIN, BRONZE POWDER, Mos AIC GoLD ; AURUM
MUSIVUM, AURUM MOSAICUM, STANNI BISUI-
PHURETUM, L. Prep. 1. To pure tin, 12 oz.,
melted by a gentle heat, add of mercury, 6 oz. ;
to the powdered mass, when cold, add of chlo-
ride of ammonium, 6 oz. ; flowers of sulphur,
7 oz. ; and after thorough admixture place
the compound in a glass flask or matrass, and
gradually heat it, imbedded in sand, to low
redness, and continue the heat for several
hours, or until white fumes cease to be disen-
gaged; the “aurum musivum” remains at the
bottom of the vessel, under the form of soft
and very brilliant gold-coloured flakes.
2. (Berzelius.) Stannic oxide and sulphur,
of each, 2 parts; chloride of ammonium, 1.
part ; mix, and expose it to a low red heat in
a glass or earthenware retort, until sulphurous
fumes cease to be evolved.
Used as a metallic gold colour, or substitute
for powdered gold, in bronzes, varnish work,
sealing-wax, &c.
TIN FI’’LINGS. See TIN POWDER (below).
TIN GLASS}. See BISMUTH.
TIN MOR/DANTS. Syn. DYER's SPIRIT,
SOLUTION OF TIN, SPIRIT OF T., NITROMURIATE
OF T.f. These, as noticed above, vary greatly
in their composition and character.
Prep. 1. Take of aquafortis, 8 parts; sal
ammoniac or common salt, 1 part; dissolve,
and add, very gradually, of grain tin, 1 part :
and, when dissolved, preserve it in stoppered
bottles from the air. This is the common
‘SPIRIT of TIN’ of the dyers.
2. (Berthollet.) Nitric acid, at 30° Baumé,
8 parts; sal ammoniac, 1 part; dissolve, then
add by degrees, of tin, 1 part ; and, when dis-
solved, dilute the solution with 1-4th of its
weight of water.
3. (Dambourney.) Hydrochloric acid, at
17° Baumé, 4 parts; nitric acid, at 30° Baumé,
1 part; mix, and add by degrees, of Molucca
tin, 1 part. -
4. (Hellot.) Nitric acid and water, of each,
1 lb.; salammoniac, 1 oz. ; mitre, oz.; dissolve,
then add, by degrees, of granulated tin, 2 oz.
5. (Poerner.) Nitric acid and water, of
each, 1 lb.; sal ammoniac, 1% oz.; dissolve,
then add, by very slow degrees, of pure tin
beaten into ribands, 2 oz.
6. (Schoeffer.) Nitric acid and water, of
each, 2 lbs. ; Sal ammoniac, 2 oz. ; pure tin,
4% oz. ; as last. All the above are used chiefly
for dyeing scarlet, more particularly with
cochineal.
7. (LAC SPIRIT.) From grain tin, 1 lb.,
slowly dissolved in hydrochloric acid (sp. gr.
1:19), 20 lbs. Recommended as a solvent for
lac dye. For use, # to 1 lb. of the liquid is
digested on each lb. of the dye for 5 or 6 hours,
before adding it to the dye bath.
8. Hydrochloric acid, 6% lbs. ; aquafortis,
§ lb.: grain tin, gradually added, 1 lb. Re-
commended for lac dye.
TIN-PLATE. Iron-plate covered with a
coating of tin, by dipping it into a bath of that
metal.
TIN POW'DER. Syn. TIN FILINGs, TIN
DUST; STANNI PULVIS (Ph. E. & D.), L.
Prep. 1. (Ph. E.) Melt grain tin in an iron
vessel, pour it into an earthenware mortar
heated a little above its melting-point, and
triturate briskly as the metal cools; lastly,
sift the product, and repeat the process with
what remains in the sieve.
2. (Ph.D.) Melt grain-tin in a black-lead
crucible, and, whilst it is cooling, stir it with
a rod of iron until it is reduced to powder
1116
TINNING—TINCTURE.
let the finer particles be separated by means
of a sieve, and when, after having been several
times in succession shaken with distilled water,
the decanted liquor appears quite clear, let
the product be dried for use.
Obs. Powdered tin is also prepared by
filing and rasping.—Dose. 2 to 4 drs, as a
vermifuge. PoEISHER's PUTTY, coloured with
ivory black, is frequently substituted for this
powder, and hence arises the ill effects that
sometimes follow its use.
TIN/NING. Proc. I. Plates or vessels of
brass or copper, boiled with a solution of
stannate of potassa, mixed with turnings of
tin, become, in the course of a few minutes,
covered with a firmly attached layer of pure
tin.
2. A similar effect is produced by boiling
the articles with tin filings and caustic alkali
or cream of tartar. -
Obs. By either of the above methods chemi-
cal vessels made of copper or brass may be
easily and perfectly tinned.
TINCTURE. Syn. TINCTURA, L.; TEIN-
TURE, Fr. Tinctures (TINCTURE; ALCOOLás,
ALCOOLATUREs) are solutions of the active
principles of bodies, obtained by digesting
them in alcohol more or less dilute. ETHEREAL
TINCTUREs (TINCTURE ETHEREE: ETHéROLás,
ETHKROLATUREs) are similar solutions pre-
pared with ether. -
Prep. “Tinctures are usually prepared by
reducing the solid ingredients to small frag-
ments, coarse powder, or fine powder, mace-
rating them for 7 days, or longer, in proof
spirit or rectified spirit, straining the solution
through linen or calico (or paper), and finally
expressing the residuum strongly, to obtain
what fluid is still retained in the mass. They
are also advantageously prepared by the method
of displacement or percolation.” (Ph. E.)
“All tinctures should be prepared in closed
glass (or stoneware) vessels, and be shaken
frequently during the process of maceration.”
(Ph. L.) Cooper's patent jars are very con-
venient for the preparation of tinctures, as
they are made with wide mouths, large enough
to admit the hand, and yet may be closed in an
instant, with as much ease and certainty as an
ordinary stoppered bottle.
Tinctures are better clarified by repose than
by filtration, as in the latter case a considerable
portion is retained by the filtering medium,
and lost by evaporation. The waste in this
way is never less than 10% of spirit. In all
ordinary cases, it is sufficient to allow the
tincture to settle for a few days, and then to
pour off the clear supernatant portion through
a funnel loosely choked with a piece of sponge
or tow; after which the remaining foul por-
tion of the liquid may be filtered through
bibulous paper in a covered funnel. The fil-
tration should be conducted as rapidly as
possible, for the double purpose of lessening
the amount lost by evaporation, and the action
of the air on the fluid. Tinctures which have
been long exposed to the air frequently lose
their transparency within a few days after
being filtered, owing to the oxidisement and
precipitation of some portion of the matter
previously held in solution, a change which
occurs even in stoppered bottles. Resinous
and oily tinctures, as those of myrrh, tolu, and
lavender (comp.), may be generally restored to
their former brightness by the addition of a
quantity of rectified spirit, equal to that which
they have lost by evaporation; but many tinc-
tures resist this mode of treatment, and require
refiltering. .
Ethereal tinctures are best prepared by per-
colation, and should be both made and kept in
stoppered bottles.
Qual. The tinctures of the shops are usually
very uncertain and inferior preparations,
owing to their manufacture being carelessly
conducted, and refuse drugs and an insufficient
quantity of spirit being employed in their pro-
duction. It is a general practice among the
druggists to substitute a mixture of equal
parts of rectified spirit and water, or a spirit of
about 26 u.p., for proof spirit; and a mixture
of 2 galls. of water with 5 galls. of rectified
spirit, for rectified spirit. In some wholesale
drug-houses all the simple tinctures (except
those that are of a very active or valuable
kind, as LAUDANUM, for instance) are made
with 1 lb. of the dry ingredient to the gal. of
spirit, irrespective of the instructions in the
Pharmacopoeia. Appearance is the object which
is alone aimed at, without reference to quality.
If the tincture be perfectly transparent, and
has a good colour, the conscience of the seller and
the stomach of the consumer are alike satisfied.
Assay. 1. The RICHNESS in ALCOHOL may be
readily determined by Brande's method of al-
coholometry; but more accurately by the me-
thod of M. Gay-Lussac (see ALCOHOLOMETRY).
That of tinctures containing simple extractive.
saccharine, or like organic matter, in solution,
may be approximately found from the boiling-
point, or from the temperature of the vapour
of the boiling liquid.
2. The QUANTITY of SOLID MATTER per cent.
may be ascertained by evaporating to dryness
100 grains-measure, in a weighed capsule, by
the heat of boiling water.
3. The QUANTITY of the INGREDIENTS used
in the preparation of tinctures may be inferred
from the weight last found, reference being
had to the known per-centage of extract
which the substances employed yield to spirit
of the strength under examination. When
the ingredients contain alkaloids, or consist of
saline or mineral matter, an assay may be made
for them.
Uses, &c. Tinctures, from the quantity of
alcohol which they contain, are necessarily
administered in small doses, unless in cases
where stimulants are indicated. The most
important and useful of them are those that
contain very active ingredients, such as the
tincture of opium, foxglove, hemlock,





TINCTURE.
111?
henbane, &c. In many instances the solvent,
even in doses of a few fluid drachums, acts
more powerfully on the living system than the
principles it holds in solution; and, when con-
tinued for some time, produces the same de-
leterious effects as the habitual use of ardent
spirits. When the action of a substance is the
reverse of stimulant, it cannot with propriety.
be exhibited in this form, unless the dose be so
small that the operation of the spirit cannot be
taken into account, as with the narcotic tinc-
tures. Hence, this class of remedies are in
less frequent use than formerly.
The following list embraces all the formulae
of the tincturae of the London, Edinburgh,
Publin, and British Pharmacopoeias, with a
few others likely to be useful to the reader.
These will furnish examples for the prepara-
tion of others in less general use, care being
had to proportionate the ingredients with due
reference to the proper or usual dose of tinc-
tures of that class.
Tincture of Ac'etate of I'ron. Syn. TINC-
TURA FERRI ACETATIS (B. P., Ph.D.), L.
Prep. 1. (B. P.) Solution of persulphate of
iron, 5; acetate of potash, 4; rectified spirit,
q. s. ; dissolve the acetate of potash in 20 of
water and add 16 of spirit to the solution of
iron; mix the two liquids, and shake well
occasionally for an hour, then filter, and add
to the filtered liquid sufficient rectified spirit
to make up 40.—Dose. 5 to 30 minims.
2. (Ph. D.) To water, 9 fl. oz., add of pure
sulphuric acid, 6 fl. drs. ; and in the mixture,
with the aid of a gentle heat, dissolve sulphate
of iron, 8 oz. ; next add of pure nitric acid,
# fl.oz., previously diluted with water, 1 fl.oz.,
and evaporate the resulting solution to the
consistence of a thick syrup; dissolve this in
rectified spirit, 1 quart; also dissolve of ace-
tate of potassa, 8 oz., in another quart of rec-
tified spirit; and having thoroughly mixed the
solutions, by frequent agitation in a large
bottle, filter the whole, with expression, first
through calico, and then through paper. Sp.
gr. 891–Lose. 15 to 60 drops, in water, in
the same cases as in the other chalybeates.
Tincture of Acetate of Zinc. Syn. TINC-
TURA ZINCI ACETATIS, L. Prep. (Ph. D.
1826.) Acetate of potassa and sulphate of
zinc, of each, 1 oz. ; rub them together, then
add of rectified spirit, 16 fl. oz. ; macerate for
a week, and filter. Astringent. Diluted with
water, it is used as a collyrium and injection.
Tincture of Ac'onite. Syn. TINCTURA
ACONITI (Ph. L.), TINCT. ACONITI RADICIs
(B. P., Ph.D.), L. Prep. 1. (B.P.) Pow-
dered root, 1; rectified spirit to percolate, 8;
macerate for 48 hours with three fourths of
the spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in a
percolator and let it drain, then pour on the
remaining spirit; when it ceases to drop, press
the marc and add spirit to make up 8.--Dose.
5 to 15 minims, twice or thrice a day.
2. (Ph. L.) Take of aconite root, c0arsely
powdered, 15 oz. (20 oz.-Ph. D.); rectified
spirit, 1 quart ; macerate for 7 days, press,
and filter.
Obs. These tinctures differ materially in
strength.-Dose. Of the Ph. L., 5 to 10 drops;
of the Ph. D., 3 to 6 drops, two or three times
daily (carefully watching its effects); in rheu-
matism, gout, syphilis, &c., where a narcotic
sedative is indicated. Diluted with water, it
forms an excellent embrocation in rheumatism,
neuralgia, &c. It should be applied by means
of a small sponge, tied to the end of a stick or
glass rod. The Ph. D. formula is nearly the
same as that for Dr. Turnbull’s concentrated
tincture of aconite root, and that given by
Dr. Pereira. The TINCTURA ACONITIFOLIORUM
of the Ph. U. S. is made with 1 oz. of the
dried leaves to 8 fl. oz. of rectified spirit.
Tincture of Al'oes. Syn. TINCTURA ALoís
(B. P., Ph. L. & E.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.)
Socotrine aloes, 1 ; extract of liquorice, 3;
proof spirit, 40; macerate seven days, press,
and wash the marc with spirit to make 40-
Dose. 1 to 2 drs.
2. (Ph. L.) Socotrine or hepatic aloes,
coarsely powdered, 1 oz. ; extract of liquorice,
3 oz. ; water, 1% pint; rectified spirit, ; pint;
macerate for 7 days, and filter. The for-
mula of the Ph. E. is nearly similar. Pur-
gative and stomachic.—Dose. # to 1 fl. oz.
Tincture of Aloes (Compound). Syn. TINC-
TURE OF ALOES AND MYRRH ; TINCTURA
ALois COMPOSITA (Ph. L.), TINCTURA ALošs
ET MYRRHAE (Ph. E.), ELIXIR ALoßsf, L.
Prep. 1. (Ph. L. & E.) Socotrine or hepatic
aloes, coarsely powdered, 4 oz. ; hay saffron,
2 oz. ; tincture of myrrh, 1 quart ; macerate
for 7 days, with occasional agitation, and
strain. The Dublin College (1826) omits the
saffron.
2. (Wholesale.) From aloes, 1 lb.; myrrh,
# lb.; hay saffrom, 2 oz. ; rectified spirit, 5
pints; water, 3 pints; as the last. Purga-
tive, stomachic, and emmenagogue.--Dose
# to 2 fl. drs. -
Tincture of Ammo"nia (Compound). Syn.
TINCTURA AMMONIE COMPOSITA (Ph. L.), L.
Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Mastic, 2 drs. ; rectified
spirit, 9 fl. drs. ; digest until dissolved, de-
cant, add, of oil of lavender, 14 drops;
stronger solution of ammonia, 1 pint ; and
mix well.
2. (Ph. L. 1836; AQUA LUCIE ; EAU DE
LUCE.) As the last, but adding 4 drops of oil
of amber along with the oil of lavender.
Obs. This preparation is reputed antacid,
antispasmodic, and stimulant.—Dose. 10 to 20
drops, in water ; in hysteria, low spirits, &c.
In the East Indies, eau de luce is regarded
almost as a specific for the bite of the cobra di
capello and other venomous reptiles.
Tincture of Ammo"nia-chlo"ride of I'ron.
Syn. AMMONIATED TINCTURE OF TRON, MYN-
SIGHT’s A. T. OF I. ; TINCTURA FERRI AMMO-
NIO-CHLORIDI (Ph. L.), TINCTURA FERRI AM-
MONIATI, L. Prep. (Ph. L.) Ammonio-chlo-
ride of iron, 4 oz. ; proof spirit and distilled
1118 TINCTURE.
water, of each, 1 pint ; dissolve.—Dose. 20
to 60 drops, or more ; as a stimulant, chaly-
beate tonic. “A fl. oz. of this, on potassa
being added, yields 5-8 grs. of sesquioxide of
iron.” (Ph. L.)
Tincture of Angustuſra. Tincture of cus-
paria.
Tincture of Ar"nica. Syn. TINCTURA AR-
NICE, T. A. FLORUM, L. Prep. (Ph. Bor.
and Hamb. Cod.) Flowers of Arnica montana,
14 oz. ; spirit, sp. gr. 900 (15% o.p.), 1 lb. ;
digest for 8 days, and strain, with expression.
—Dose. 10 to 30 drops; in diarrhoea, dysen-
tery, gout, rheumatism, paralysis, &c.
Tincture of Armica Root. Syn. TINCTURA
ARNICE (B. P.), TINCTURA ARNICE RADICIS,
L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Bruised root, 1; recti-
fied spirit to percolate 20; macerate forty-
eight hours with 15 of the spirit, agitating
occasionally; pack in a perlocator, and, when
it ceases to drop, pour on the remaining spirit,
let it drain, wash the marc, press, filter, and
make up to 20.-Dose. 1 to 2 drs.
2. From arnica root, 2 oz. ; proof spirit, 1
pint ; as the last.
Tincture, Aromatic.
cinnamon.
Tincture of Assafoet'ida. Syn, TINCTURA
ASSAFOETIDAE (Ph. L. E. & D.), L. Prep. 1.
(B. P.) Assafoetida (small fragments), 1 ; rec-
tified spirit, 8; macerate seven days, strain,
filter, and add spirit to make 8–Lose. . dr.
to 1 dr,
2. (Ph. L.) Assafoetida (small), 5 oz. ; recti-
fied spirit, 1 quart ; macerate for 7 days (14
days—Ph. D.), and filter. “It cannot be
made by percolation with delay.” (Ph. E.)
3. (Wholesale.) Assafoetida, 2% lbs. ; boiling
water, 2 quarts; dissolve, add of rectified
spirit, 1% gal. ; agitate well for 3 or 4 days,
then let it settle, and decant the clear por-
tion.--Dose. to 2 fl. drs. ; in hysteria, flatu-
lent colic, &c.
Tincture of Assafoetida (Ammo"miated). See
FETID SPIRIT OF AMMONIA.
Tincture, Asthmatic. Compound tincture
of camphor.
Tincture of Bal'sam of Peru. Syn. TINC-
TURA BALSAMI PERUVIANI, L. Prep. (Ph. L.
1788.) Balsam of Peru, 4 oz. ; rectified spirit,
16 fl. oz. ; dissolve. Pectoral, stimulant, and
fragrant.—Dose. 10 to 30 drops.
Tincture of Balsam of Tolu.
Tolu.
Tincture of Bark. Tincture of cinchona.
Tincture of Belladon’ma. Syn. TINCTURA
BELLADONNE (B. P., Ph. L. & D.), L. Prep.
1. (B. P.) The dried leaves in coarse powder,
1; proof spirit, 20; macerate forty-eight
hours in 15 of the spirit, agitating occasion-
ally ; pack in a percolator, and when it ceases
to drop, add the remaining spirit, let it drain,
wash and press the marc; filter and make
up 20.-Dose. From 5 to 20 minims. -
2. (Ph.L.) Dried leaves of belladonna, 4 oz.
(5 oz., in coarse powder—Ph. D.); proof spirit,
Compound tincture of
Tincture of
1 quart; macerate for 7 days (14– Ph. D.),
press, and filter.
3. (Wholesale.) From the dried leaves, 1 lb.;
proof spirit, 1 gal.; macerate 14 days.--Dose.
5 to 10 drops, gradually increased; also, ex-
ternally, diluted with water.
Tincture of Benºzoin (Compound). Syn.
FRIAR’s BALSAM, TRAUMATIC B., BALSAM FOR
CUTS, COMMANDER’s BALSAM, WERVAIN’s B.,
WoUND B., JESUITs’ DROPs, WADE’s D.;
TINCTURA BENZOINT COMPOSITA (B.P., Ph. L.
& E.), TINCT. BENZośs COM.P., BALSAMUM
TRAUMATICUM, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Benzoin,
8; prepared storax, 6; balsam of Tolu, 2;
socotrine aloes, 1%; rectified spirit, 80; ma-
cerate seven days, filter, and wash the marc
with spirit to make up 80.-Dose. , to 1 dr.,
triturated with mucilage or yolk of egg.
2. (Ph. L.) Gum benzoin, coarsely pow-
dered, 3% oz. ; prepared storax, 2% ; balsam of
Tolu, 10 drs. ; Socotrine or hepatic aloes, in
coarse powder, 5 drs. ; rectified spirit, 1 quart;
macerate, with frequent agitation, for 7 days,
and strain.
3. (Ph. E.) Benzoin, 4 oz. ; balsam of Peru,
2% oz. ; East Indian (hepatic) aloes, 3 oz. ;
rectified spirit, 1 quart.
Obs. Either of the above formulae produces
a most beautiful tincture, truly balsamic. The
following is, however, very generally employed
by the wholesale druggists, and the product,
though possessing a very rich colour, is thin
and watery.
4. (Wholesale.) From gum benzoin, 4 lbs. ;
aloes (lively coloured), 13 lb.; liquid storax,
1 lb. ; balsam of Tolu, 3 lb. ; powdered tur-
meric (best), 6 oz. ; rectified spirit, 5% galls.;
digest with frequent agitation for 10 days,
then add of hot water, 1% gal, again digest
for 4 days, and, after 24 hours' repose, decant
the clear portion.
Dose. 10 drops to 2 fl. drs. ; as a stimu-
lating expectorant, in chronic coughs, and
various breath affections. It is also employed
to stop the bleeding from cuts, &c., and pro-
mote their healing.
Tincture, Bitter Stomach'ic.
gentian.
Tincture, Brandish's. Alkaline tincture of
rhubarb. -
Tincture of Buſchu. Syn. TINCTURA DI-
OSME, T. BUCKU (Ph. E.), T. BUCHU (B. P.,
Ph.D.), L. Prep. 1. (B.P.) Buchu bruised,
1; proof spirit, 8; macerate for forty-eight
hours with # of the spirit, pack in a percolator,
and let it drain, then pour on the rest of the
spirit; when it ceases to drop, press and wash
the marc, filter and make up to 8.-Dose. 1 to
2 drs.
2. (Ph. E.) Buchu leaves, 5 oz. ; proof
spirit, 1 quart ; macerate 7 days (14 days—Ph.
D.); or proceed by the method of percolation.
— Dose. 1 to 4 fl. drs. ; as a tonic, sudorific,
and diuretic. It is inferior to the fresh infu-
sion.
Tincture of Calum/ba.
Tincture of
Syn. TINCTURA CA-


TINCTURE.
1119
LUMBE (B. P., Ph. L. & E.), T. CoIOMBE (Ph.
D.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Bruised calumba,
1; proof spirit, 8; macerate forty-eight hours
with 6 of the spirit, agitating occasionally;
pack in a percolator, and let it drain, then
pour on the remaining spirit; when it ceases
to drop, press, and wash the marc with spirit
to make up 8.-Dose. # to 2 drs.
2. (Ph. L.) Calumba root, finely sliced, 3 oz.;
proof spirit, 1 quart ; macerate a week (14
days—Ph. D.), press, and filter. “Or, more
conveniently, by percolation, allowing the ca-
lumba, in moderately fine powder, to first soak
in a little of the spirit for 6 hours.” (Ph. E.)
Obs. This tincture is commonly made with
1 lb. of calumba root to the gallon of a mix-
ture of equal parts of rectified spirit and
water. —Dose. 1 to 2 fl. drs. ; as a stomachic
bitter and tonic, usually joined with soda or
chalybeates.
Tincture of Cam'phor. Syn. SPIRIT OF
WINE AND CAMPHOR, CAMPHORATED SPIRIT ;
TINCTURA CAMPHORE (Ph. E. & D.), SPI-
RITUS CAMPHORE (Ph. L.), SPIRITUS CAM-
PHORATUS, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. E.) Camphor,
2% oz. ; rectified spirit, 1 quart; dissolve.
This is only one half as strong as the Ph. L.
preparation.
2. (Ph.D.) Camphor, 1 oz. ; rectified spirit,
8 fl. oz. Stimulant and anodyne.—Dose. 10
to 60 drops. Also as a liniment for sprains,
bruises, chronic rheumatism, &c. For the
Ph. L. formula see SPIRIT.
Tincture of Camphor (Compound). Syn.
CAMPHORATED TINCTURE OF ORIUM, ASTH-
MATIC ELIXIR, PARAGORIC E., ASTHMATIC
TINCTURE ; TINCTURA CAMPHORAE COMPOSITA
(B. P., Ph. L.), TINCTURA op11 CAMPHoRATA
(Ph. E. & D.), ELIXIR PAREGORICUM, L.
Prep. 1. (B. P.) Opium, in coarse powder,
40 grs. ; benzoic acid, 40 grs. ; camphor, 30
grs. ; oil of anise, dr.; proof spirit, 20 oz. ;
macerate seven days, strain, wash the marc
with spirit, and filter 20 oz.-Dose. 15 to
60 minims.
2. (Ph. L.) Camphor, 50 grs. ; powdered
opium and benzoic acid, of each, 72 grs. ;
oil of aniseed, 1 fl. dr. ; proof spirit, 1 quart;
macerate for 7 days, and filter. The formulae
of the Ph. E. & D. are nearly similar. The
oil of aniseed, probably one of the most
useful and characteristic of the ingredients,
was omitted in the Ph. L. 1824, but was
restored in that of 1836.
3. (Wholesale.) From powdered opium, 3
oz. ; benzoic acid, camphor, and oil of ani-
seed, of each, 2 oz. ; rectified spirit and water,
of each, 3 galls. ; as before.
Obs. This tincture is a popular and excel-
lent pectoral and anodyne, where there are
no inflammatory symptoms.--Dose. # to 2
fi. drs. ; in troublesome coughs, &c. § fl. Oz.
contains about 1. gr. of opium.
Tincture of Canthar'ides. Syn. TINCTURA
CANTHARIDIs (B. P., Ph. L. E. & D.), TINC-
TURA LYTTE, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Can-
tharides, in coarse powder, 1; proof spirit,
80; macerate, agitating occasionally, for seven
days, in a closed vessel, strain, press, filter, and
add sufficient proof spirit to make up 80.—
IJose. 5 to 20 minims.
2. (Ph. L.) Powdered cantharides, 4 drs.
(; oz.--Ph.D.), and strain, with expression.
3. (Wholesale.) From powdered cantharides,
2% oz. ; rectified spirit and water, of each, #
gall. ; as the last.—Dose. 10 drops, gradually
raised to 1 fl. dr., in any bland liquid; in fluor
albus, gleets, incontinence of urine, lepra, &c.
It should be used with caution. The Ed.
College recommends it to be prepared by dis-
placement.
Tincture of Capsicum. Syn. TINCTURE OF
CAYENNE PEPPER ; TINCTURA CAPSICI (B.P.,
Ph. L. E. & D.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Capsi-
cum, bruised, 1; rectified spirit, 27; macerate
48 hours with three fourths of the spirit,
agitating occasionally, pack in a percolator,
and let it drain, then pour on the remaining
spirit; as soon as it ceases to drop, wash the
marc with spirit to make up 27.-Dose. 10 to
20 minims.
2. (Ph. L.) Capsicum, bruised, 10 drs. ;
proof spirit, 1 quart ; digest 14 days (or per-
colate—Ph. E.).--Dose. 10 to 60 drops; in
atomic dyspepsia, scarlet fever, ulcerated sore
throat, &c. It is also made into a gargle.
3. (Ph.D.) Cayenne pods, bruised, 13 oz. ;
proof spirit, 1 pint; macerate for 14 days.
This is of fully twice the strength of the pre-
ceding. -
Tincture of Capsicum (Concentrated). See
ESSENCES.
Tincture of Card'amoms. Syn. TINCTURA
CARDAMOMI (Ph. E.), TINCT. AMoMI REPEN-
TIS, L. Prep. (Ph. L. 1836.) Cardamom
seeds, 3% oz. (4% oz.-Ph. E.); proof spirit, 1
quart; digest for 14 days (or percolate—Ph.
E.).
%. The shells should be sifted from the
seeds before maceration, and the latter are
preferably ground in a pepper-mill instead of
being bruised in a mortar. Aromatic and
carminative.—Dose. 1 to 2 fl. dr.s., as an ad-
junct to purgative mixtures.
Tincture of Cardamoms (Compound). Syn.
STOMACHIC TINCTURE; TINCTURA CARDA-
MoMI comiPoSITA (B. P., Ph. L. E. & D.),
TINCTURA STOMACHICA, L. Prep. 1. (B.P.) Car-
damom seeds, freed from their pericarps, bruised,
1; caraway, bruised, 1; raisins, freed from
their seeds, 8; bruised cinnamon, 2; cochineal,
in powder, , ; proof spirit, 80; macerate 48
hours with # of the spirit, agitating occasionally,
pack in a percolator, and let it drain, pour
upon it the remainder of the spirit, and, when
it ceases to drop, press, wash the marc with
spirit to make up 80.—Dose. } to 2 drs.
2. (P.L.) Cardamoms (without the shells),
caraways, and cochineal, of each, bruised, 2}
drs.; cinnamon, bruised, 5 drs.; raisins, stoned,
5 oz. ; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate 7 days,
then strain, with expression.
1120
TINCTURE.
3. (Ph. E., and Ph. L. 1836.) As the last,
but using only 1 dr. of cochineal, and mace-
rating 14 days; or, “it may be prepared by
the method of displacement.” (Ph. E.)
4. (Wholesale.) From cardamoms and cara-
way seeds, of each, 4 oz. ; cochineal (s. g.), 6
oz.; cassia, 8 oz.; sultana raisins, 5 lbs. ; proof
spirit, 4 galls. (or rectified spirit and water, of
each, 2 galls.); macerate, &c., as before.
Obs. The Dublin College omitted the co-
chineal and raisins in their Ph. of 1826, but
have restored them in their new one. The
order of the London College to stone the
raisins is seldom adopted in practice; by
which the tincture is rendered unfit to be em-
ployed in dispensing prescriptions containing
quinine or other alkaloids. When pharma-
ceutists are too lazy to follow the instructions
in their Pharmacopoeia, they had better use
sultana raisins, which have no stones.—Dose.
1 to 4 fl. drs. ; as a cordial and stomachic, but
chiefly as an adjunct, for its colour and fla-
WOut’.
Tincture of Cascarilla. Syn. TINCTURA
CASCARILLE (B. P., Ph. L. E. & D.), L. Prep.
1. (B.P.) Cascarilla, bruised, 1; proof spirit, 8;
macerate 48 hours with 6 of the spirit, agitat-
ing occasionally; pack in a percolator, let it
drain, and pour on the remainder of the spirit,
and, when it ceases to drop, wash the marc,
press, filter, and make up 8.-Dose. # to 2
drums.
2. (Ph. L.) Cascarilla, bruised, 5 oz. ;
proof spirit, 1 quart ; macerate for 7 days (14
days—Ph. D.; or percolate—Ph. E.). An
excellent tonic and stomachic ; chiefly em-
ployed as an adjunct to mixtures, &c.—Dose.
1 to 2 fl. drs.
Tincture of Cassia. Syn. TINCTURE CAS-
STE (Ph. E.), L. Prep. (Ph. E.) Cassia, 3}
oz. ; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7
days, or percolate. Stomachic and carmina-
tive.—Dose. 1 to 2 fl. drs.
Tincture of Castor. Syn. TINCTURA CAS-
TOREI (B. P., Ph.L. & E.), TINCT. CASTOREI
RossICI, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Castor, in coarse
powder, 1; rectified spirić, 20; macerate seven
days, strain, and wash the marc with spirit
sufficient to make up to 20–Dose. to 1 dr.
2. (Ph. L.) Castor, bruised, 2% oz. ; rectified
spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days (or per-
colate–Ph. E.).
Obs. The Dublin College ordered Russian
castor in their Ph. of 1826; but the scarcity
and high price of that variety, we fear, too
often precludes its use. The tincture of the
shops is usually made with only 8 oz. of castor
to the gal. of proof spirit. Nervine and anti-
spasmodic.—Dose. 20 drops to 2 fl. drs. ; in
hysteria, epilepsy, &c.
Tincture of Castor (Ammo"niated). Syn.
ELIXIR FOETIDUM, TINCTURA CASTOREI COM-
PoSITA, T. C. AMMONIATA (Ph. E.), L. Prep.
(Ph. E.) Castor, bruised, 2% oz. ; assafoetida, in
small fragments, 10 drs. ; spirit of ammonia, 1
quart; digest 7 days in a well-closed vessel.
Stimulant and antispasmodic.—Dose and uses,
as the last. -
opium, it forms the Elixir Uterinum, or Elixir
Castorei Thebaicum of foreign Pharmacopoeias.
Tincture of Cat'echu. Syn. COMPOUND
TINCTURE OF CATECHU; TINCTURA CATECHU
COMPOSITA (Ph. L.), T. CATECHU (B. P., Ph.
E. & D.), L. Prep. 1. (B.P.) Pale catechu, in
coarse powder, 2% ; cinnamon, bruised, 1; proof
spirit, 20: macerate for seven days with agita-
tion, strain, press, and filter, and add spirit to
make up 20.—Dose. } to 2 drms.
2. (Ph. L.) Catechu, in powder, 3% oz. (4
oz.—Ph. D.); cinnamon, bruised, 2% oz. (2 oz.
—Ph. D.); proof spirit, 1 quart ; macerate for
7 days (or percolate—Ph. E.).
3. (Wholesale.) From catechu, 2 lbs.; oil of
cassia, 3 fl. drs. ; rectified spirit and water, of
each, 1 gal.; macerate for 10 days.--Dose. 1
to 2 fl. dr.s., as a warm astringent; in diar-
rhoea, &c., either alone, or combined with chalk.
Tincture of Chiret’ta. Syn. TINCTURA
CHIRAYTAE (B. P.), TINCTURA CHIRAYTE, T.
CHIRETTE (Ph.D.), L. Prep. (B.P.) Chiretta, cut
small and bruised, 1; proof spirit,8; macerate
48 hours with 6 of the spirit, agitating occa-
sionally, pack in a percolator and let it drain,
then pour on the remaining spirit; when it
ceases to drop, press, and wash the marc with
spirit to make up 8.-Dose. 15 to 60 minims;
B. Ph. dose ; to 2 drs.
2. (Ph. D.) Chiretta or chirayta (bruised),
5 oz. ; proof spirit, 1 quart ; macerate for 14
days. Tonic and stomachic,+Dose. # to 2
fl. drs.
Tincture of Cinchoma.
BARK; TINCTURA CINCHONAE (B. P., Ph. L. E.
& D.), T. CoRTICIS PERUVIANI, T. C. P.
SIMPLEX, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Yellow cin-
chona bark, in coarse powder, 4; proof spirit,
20; macerate 48 hours with 15 of the spirit,
agitating occasionally, pack in a percolator
and let it drain, then pour on the remaining
spirit, and when it ceases to drop, press, and
wash the marc with spirit to make 20,—Dose.
1 to 2 drms.
2. (Ph. L.) Yellow cinchona bark (bruised),
8 oz. ; proof spirit, 1 quart ; macerate for 14
days (or percolate—Ph. E.).
Obs. The Dublin College orders pale bark,
and the Edinburgh either species, according
to prescription.--Dose. 1 to 3 fl. drs.; as a
tonic, stomachic, and febrifuge.
Tincture of Cinchoma (Pale). Syn. TINC-
TURE OF PALE BARK ; TINCTURA CINCHONAE
PALLIDE (Ph. L.), L. Prep. From pale bark,
as the last.
Tinctura of Cinchoma (Compound). Syn.
COMPOUND TINCTURE OF BARK, HUXHAM’s
T. OF B., FEVER TINCTURE; TINCTURA CIN-
CHONE COMPOSITA (B. P.), TINCTURA CIN-
CHONAE COMPOSITE (Ph. L. E. & D.), TINCT,
CORTICIS PERUVIANT COMPOSITA, L. Prep.
1. (B. P.) Pale cinchona bark, in coarse
powders; bitter orange peel, cut small and
bruised, 2; serpentary, bruised, 1 ; Saffron, #;
With the addition of ; oz. of
Syn. TINCTURE OF



TINCTURE.
1121
cochineal, , ; proof spirit, 40; macerate 48
hours with 30 of spirit, agitating occasionally,
pack in a percolator and let it drain, then
pour on the remainder of the spirit; when it
ceases to drop, press, and wash the marc with
spirit to make up 40.-Dose. # to 2 drs.
2. (Ph. L.) Pale bark, bruised, 4 oz.; dried
bitter orange-peel, 3 oz. (2 oz.-Ph. D.); ser-
pentary root, bruised, 6 drs. ; hay saffron,
2 drs. ; cochineal, in powder, 1 dr. ; macerate
for 7 days (14 days—Ph. D.; or percolate—
Ph. E.); press, and filter.
3. (Wholesale.) From pale bark, 3% lbs. ;
dried orange peel, 2 lbs.; serpentary root, 4 oz.;
hay saffron, 1 oz.; cochineal, # oz. ; proof spi-
rit, 4 galls, (or rectified spirit and water, of
each, 2 galls.); macerate for 14 days.
Obs. In the Ph. E. yellow bark is ordered.
Dose and use, as the last.
Tincture of Cimma'mon. Syn. TINCTURA
CINNAMoMI (B. P., Ph. L. & E.), L. Prep.
1. (B. P.) Cinnamon, in coarse powder, 1;
proof spirit, 8; macerate 48 hours with 6 of
the spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in a
percolator and let it drain, then pour on the
remaining spirit; when it ceases to drop,
press, and wash the marc with spirit to
make up 8.
2. (Ph. L.) Cinnamon, bruised, 3% oz. ;
proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days (or
percolate—Ph. E.). In the shops cassia is
usually substituted for cinnamon, and spirit
26 u.p. for proof spirit.—Dose. 1 to 4 fl. drs. ;
as a cordial, aromatic, and stomachic.
Tincture of Cinnamon (Compound). Syn.
AROMATIC TINCTURE; TINCTURA CINNAMOMI
COMPOSITA (Ph. L. E. & D.), T. AROMATICA,
L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Cinnamon, bruised,
1 oz. ; cardamoms (bruised, without the shells),
# oz.; long pepper and ginger, of each, 2% drs.;
proof spirit, 1 quart; digest for 7 days (or
percolate–Ph. E.). The Ph. E. omits the
ginger, and uses 3 oz. more cardamoms.
2. (Ph. D.) Cinnamon, 2 oz.; cardamoms,
1 oz. ; ginger, 4 oz. ; proof spirit, 1 quart;
macerate for 14 days. The following form is
current in the wholesale houses.
3. Cassia, 1 lb.; cardamoms, 6 oz. ; long
pepper and ginger, of each, + lb.; oil of cassia,
1} fl. drs. ; proof spirit, 4 galls. (or rectified
spirit and water, of each, 2 galls.). Cordial,
aromatic, stomachic.--Dose. 1 to 2 fl. drs. ;
in atonic gout, debility, flatulence, &c.
Tincture of Coch’ineal. Syn. TINCTURA
CoCCI CACTI (Ph.D.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.)
Cochineal, in powder, 1 ; proof spirit, 8:
macerate 7 days; strain, and wash the marc
with spirit to make up 8.-Dose. 30 to 90
minims twice a day. (Used chiefly for colour-
ing medicines.)
2. (Ph.D.) Cochineal, in fine powder, 2 oz. ;
proof spirit, 1 pint. Antispasmodic and seda-
tive ; but chiefly employed for its colour.—
Dose. # to 2 fl. drs.
Tincture of Col'chicum. Syn. GouT TING-
TURE, TINCTURE OF MEADOW SAFFRON; TINC-
TURA ColchTCI SEMINUM (B. P.); TINCTURA
COLCHICI (Ph.L. & E.), T. SEMINUM CoICHICI
(Ph. D.), L. Prep. 1. Colchicum seed,
bruised, 1 ; proof spirit, 8: macerate 48 hours
with 6 of the spirit, agitating occasionally,
pack in a percolator, and let it drain, then
pour on the remainder of the spirit; when it
ceases to drop, wash the marc with spirit to
make up 8.-Dose. 15 to 30 minims.
2. (Ph. L.) Seeds of meadow, saffron (Col-
chicum autumnale), bruised (finely ground in
a coffee-mill—Ph. E.), 5 oz. ; proof spirit, 1
quart ; macerate for 7 days (14 days—Ph.
D. ; or percolate—Ph. E.); then press, and
filter.—Dose. 15 to 20 drops to 1 fl. dr.; in
gout, &c.
Tincture of Colchicum (Compound). Syn.
TINCTURA ColchTCI CoMPOSITA (Ph. L.), SPI-
RITUS COLCHICI AMMONIATUS, L. Prep. (Ph.
L.) Colchicum seeds, bruised, 5 oz. ; aromatic
spirit of ammonia, 1 quart ; digest for 7 days,
then press, and filter.—Dose. 20 drops to 1
fl. dr.; in gout, &c.
Tincture of Colchicum Flowers. Syn. TINC-
TURA FLORUM COLCHICI; EAU MEDICINALE
D’HUSSON (Dr. Wilson). Prep. Take of the
fresh juice of colchicum flowers, 2 parts;
French brandy (or proof spirit), 1 part; mix,
and in a few days decant, or filter, and preserve
it in small bottles in a cool place.
Tincture of Copaiſba (Alkaline). Syn.
TINCTURA COPAIBAE ALKALINE, L. Prep.
(Lewis Thompson.) Dissolve carbonate of po-
tassa, 2 oz., in water, 1 pint, and add to this
balsam of copaiba, in a thin stream, constantly
stirring, until the mixture, at first white and
milky, becomes clear, like jelly or amber, which
will generally take place when about a pint of
balsam has been added; set the mixture aside
for two or three hours, then pour in of rec-
tified spirit, 1 quart, and mix the whole to-
gether. Sweet spirit of nitre may be substi-
tuted for spirit of wine, provided it does not
contain free acid.—Dose. 1 to 2 teaspoonfuls.
Tincture of Cu’bebs. Syn. EssBNCE OF
CUBEBS; TINCTURA CUBEBAE (B. P., Ph. L. &
D.), TINCTURA PIPERIs CUBEBE, L. Prep. 1.
(B.P.) Cubebs, in powder, 1; rectified spirit, 8:
macerate 48 hours with 6 of the spirit, agita-
ting occasionally, pack in a percolator and let
it drain; pour on the remaining spirit, and
when it ceases to drop, wash the marc with
spirit to make up 8.-Dose. 1 to 2 drs.
2. (Ph. L.) Cubebs (bruised or ground in
a pepper-mill), 1 lb.; proof spirit, 1 quart;
macerate for 7 days, press out the liquor, and
filter.—Dose. # to 1 fl. dr., three or four times
a day; in gonorrhoea, &c.
3. (Ph. D., & Ph. L. 1836.) Cubebs, 5 oz.;
rectified spirit, 1 quart (proof spirit—Ph. D.
1826); macerate for 14 days.--Dose, 1 to 2
fl. drs. -
Tincture of Cuspa"ria. Syn. TINCTURA
CUSPARIAE (Ph. E.), T. ANGOSTURE, L. Prep
(Ph. E.) Angostura bark or cusparia, 4% oz. ;
proof spirit, 1 quart; digest or percolate
1122 TINCTURE.
Tonic, stimulant, and stomachic.—Bose. 1 to
2 fl. drs. -
Tincture of Deadly Nightshade. Tincture of
belladonna.
Tincture, De Coetlogon's. Haffenden's tinc-
ture.
Tincture of Digitalis. Tincture of fox-glove.
Tincture of Elecampame'. Syn. TINCTURA
INUL.A., T. HELENII, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) Pow-
dered elecampame, 4 oz. ; proof spirit, 1 pint ;
macerate for 15 days. Tonic, deobstruent,
and expectorant.—Dose. to 2 fl. drs. ; in
dyspepsia, palsy, dropsies, uterine obstruc-
tions, &c.
Tincture of Er'got. Syn. TINCTURA SECALII
CORNUTI TINCTURA ERGOTE (B. P., Ph.D.),
L. Prep. 1. (B.P.) Ergot, bruised, 1; proof
spirit, 4: macerate 48 hours with 3 of the
spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in a perco-
lator, let it drain, then pour on the remaining
spirit; when it ceases to drop, wash the marc
with the spirit to make up 4.—Dose. 15 to
60 minims.
2. (Apothecaries' Hall.) Ergot (ground in
a coffee-mill), 2% oz. ; proof spirit, 1 pint;
digest for 7 days.--Dose. A teaspoonful; to
excite the action of the uterus in labour.
3. (Ph. D.) Ergot, 8 oz. ; proof spirit, 1
quart; macerate for 14 days, and strain, with
expression.--Dose. 20 drops to 1 fl. dr. ; as
the last.
Tincture of Ergot (Ethereal). Syn. TINC-
TURA ERGOTHE ETHEREA (Ph. L.), L. Prep.
(Ph. L.) Ergot, bruised, 15 oz. ; ether, 1
quart ; macerate for 7 days, press, and filter.
—Dose. 10 drops to 1 fl. dr.
Tincture of Fox'glove. Syn. TINCTURA DI-
GITALIS (Ph.L. E. & D.), L. Prep. (Ph. L.)
Dried foxglove leaves, 4 oz. (5 oz.-Ph. D.);
proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days (14
days—Ph. D.; or percolate—Ph. E.) ; then
press, and strain.
Obs. This tincture is a powerful sedative,
diuretic, and narcotic. The commencing dose
should be 10 drops, gradually and cautiously
increased to 30, or even 40; in asthmas, drop-
sies, fevers, phthisis, &c. “If 40 fl. oz. of
spirit be allowed to pass (percolate) through,
the sp. gr. will be 944; and the solid contents
of 1 fl. oz. will amount to 24 gr.” (Ph. E.)
Tincture of Gal’banum. Syn. TINCTURA
GALBANI, L. Prep. (Ph.D. 1826.) Galbanum,
2 oz. ; proof spirit, 32 fl. oz. ; digest 7 days.
Stimulant and antispasmodic.—Dose. 1 to 3
fl. drs. “If less nauseous than tincture of assa-
foetida, it is also less powerful.” (Dr. A. T.
Thomson.)
Tincture of Galls. Syn. TINCTURA GAILE
(B. P., Ph. L. & D.), TINCTURA GAILARUM
(Ph. E.), L., Prep. 1. (B. P.) Galls, bruised,
1; proof spirit, 8: macerate for 48 hours with
6 of the spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in
a percolator, let it drain, and then pour on the
remaining spirit; when it ceases to drop, wash
the marc with spirit to make up 8.--Dose. #
to 2 drs.
--
2. (Ph. L.) Galls, in powder, 5 oz. ; proof
spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days (14 days
—Ph. D.); or percolate—Ph. E.); then ex-
press the liquid, and filter it. Astringent and
styptic.—Dose. to 2 fl. drs. It is chiefly
used as a test for iron.
Tincture of Gen'tian (Compound). Sym.
BITTER STOMACHIC TINCTURE ; TINCTURA
GENTIANAE COMPOSITA (B. P., Ph. L. E. & D),
TINCTURA AMARA, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.)
Gentian, bruised, 1%; bitter orange peel,
bruised, #; cardamom seeds, bruised, }; proof
spirit, 20; macerate for 48 hours with 15 of
the spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in a
percolator, let it drain, and then pour on the
remaining spirit; when it ceases to drop, wash
the marc with spirit to make up 20.-Dose.
1 to 2 drs. -
2. (Ph. L.) Gentian root, sliced and bruised,
2% oz. ; dried orange peel, 10 drs.; cardamoms,
bruised, 5 drs. ; proof spirit, 1 quart; mace:
rate for 7 days (or percolate—Ph. E.). The
Edinburgh College substitutes canella for car-
damoms, and adds of cochineal, dr.
3. (Ph. D.) Gentian root, 3 oz. ; dried
bitter orange peel, 1 oz.; cardamoms, 3 oz.;
proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 14 days.
4. (Wholesale.) Gentian, 2% lbs. ; dried
orange peel, 13 lb.; bruised cardamoms, 2% lbs. ;
proof spirit, 4 galls. (or rectified spirit and
water, of each, 2 galls.); digest as last.
Obs. This is an elegant and popular sto-
machic bitter and tonic.—Dose. 1 to 2 fl. drs. ;
in dyspepsia, loss of appetite, &c.
Tincture of Gentian (Ammo"niated). Syn.
TINCTURA GENTIANAE AMMONIATAE, L.; ELIXIR
ANTISCROFULEUX, Fr. Prep. (P. Cod.) Gen-
tian, 1 oz. ; sesquicarbonate of ammonia, 4 oz.;
proof spirit, 32 fl, oz. As the last ; but pre-
ferred in acidity and low spirits.
Tincture of Ginger. Syn. TINCTURA ZIN-
GIBERIS (B. P., Ph. L. E. & D.). Prep. 1,
(B. P.) Ginger, bruised, 1; rectified spirit,
8; macerate the ginger 48 homrs in 6 of the
spirit, agitating occasionally; pack in a perco:
lator, let it drain, pour on the remaining spirit,
and when it ceases to drop press, filter, and
add spirit to make 8.-Dose. 10 to 30 minims.
2. (Ph. L.) Ginger, bruised, 2% oz. ; recti.
fied spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days (or
percolate—Ph. E.).
3. (Wholesale.) Coarsely powdered un-
bleached Jamaicaginger, 14 lb.; rectified spirit
(or spirit distilled from the essence), 1% gal, ;
water, 3 gal.; digest as above. Stimulant and
carminative.—Dose. 1 to 2 fl. drs.
Obs. The formula of the Ph.D. 1826 re-
sembles the above; that of the last Ph. D.
orders 8 oz. of ginger to 1 quart of rectified
spirit. The product is, consequently, of fully
3 times the strength of that of the others;
and is similar to the common ESSENCE OF
GINGER of the shops.
Tincture, Gout. Syn. TINCTURA ANTAR-
THRITICA, L. Prep. 1. (Dr. Graves's.) Take
of dried orange peel and powder of aloes and





















TINCTURE.
1123
camella, of each, 2 oz.; rhubarb, 1 oz.; French
brandy (or proof spirit), 1 quart; digest a
week, and strain, with expression.—Dose, 1 to
2 teaspoonfuls, night and morning.
2. (Dr. Wilson’s.) Tincture of colchicum
flowers.
3. Tincture of colchicum.
Tincture of Guaiacum. Syn. TINCTURA
GUAIACI (Ph. E. & D.), L. Prep. (Ph. E., &
Ph. L. 1836.) Guaiacum resin (powdered), 7
oz. (8 oz.-Ph. D.); rectified spirit, 1 quart;
digest for 14 days, and filter. An excellent
sudorific; in chronic gout and rheumatism.—
Dose, 1 to 3 fl. dr.s., taken in milk.
Tincture of Guaiacum (Compound).
AMMONIATED TINCTURE OF GUAIACUM, Wo-
LATILE T. of G., RHEUMATIC DROPS ; TINC-
TURA GUAIACT COMPOSITA (Ph. L.), T. G. AM-
MONIATA (B. P., Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.)
Guaiac resin, in fine powder, 4; aromatic
spirit of ammonia, 20; macerate 7 days, filter,
and wash the filter with the spirit to make up
20.-Dose. to 1 dr., with 1 dr. of mucilage
or yolk of egg, to form an emulsion.
2. (Ph. L.) Guaiacum, in coarse powder, 7
oz.; aromatic spirit of ammonia (spirit of am-
monia—Ph. E.), 1 quart; digest for 7 days,
and decant or filter. A powerful, stimulating
sudorific and emmenagogue; in chronic rheu-
matism, gout, amenorrhoea, &c.—IDose. 1 to 2
fl. drs., in milk, or some viscid liquid.
Tincture, Haffenden’s Balsam'ic. Syn. DE
CoETLOGON’s BALSAMIT TINCTURE. This is a
nostrum, of many virtues, prepared from tinc-
ture of serpentary (of double strength), 1}; fl.
oz; compound of tincture of benzoin, 1 fl.oz. ;
tinctures of tolu and opium, of each, ; fl. Oz. ;
with rectified spirits, q. S. to render the mix-
ture “bright,' should it turn milky. (“Anat. of
Quackery.')
Tincture, Hatfield's. Prep. From gum
guaiacum and soap, of each, 2 drs.; rectified
spirit, 1 pint; digest for a week. Used as
TINCTURE OF GUAIACUM ; also externally.
Tincture of Helſlebore. Syn. TINCTURE OF
BLACK HELLEBORE ; TINCTURA HELLEBORI
(Ph. L.), L. TINCTURA HELLEBORI NIGRI.
Prep. (Ph. L.) Black hellebore root, bruised,
5 oz. ; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate 7 days,
then strain, with expression.
Obs. This tincture is a powerful emme-
nagogue, and was a favourite remedy with Dr.
Mead, in uterine obstructions and certain cuta-
neous affections.—Dose. 20 drops to 1 fl. dr.
See TINCTURE OF VERATRUM.
Tincture of Hem'lock. Syn. TINCTURA
CICUTE, T. CONII (Ph. L. & E.), T. CONII MACU-
LATI, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Dried hemlock
leaves, 5 oz. ; proof spirit, 1 quart; digest a
week, press, and filter. In the Ph, L, 1836,
cardamom seeds, 1 oz., was added.
2. (Ph. E.) Fresh hemlock leaves, 12 oz. ;
express the juice, bruise the residuum, and
treat it, by percolation, first with tincture of
cardamoms, 10 fl. oz., and next with rectified
spirit, 1 pint; mix the liquids, and filter.
Syn.
Deobstruent and narcotic.—Dose of the Ph.L.,
20 to 60 drops; that of the Ph. E. tincture is
less, it being a much stronger and certain pre-
paration. See HEMLOCK.
Tincture of Hemp.
Hemp.
Tincture of Hen’bane. Syn. TINCTURA
Hyoscy AMI (B. P., Ph.L. E. & D.). Prep. 1.
(B. P.) Hyoscyamus leaves, dried and bruised,
1; proof spirit, 8; macerate 48 hours with 6
of the spirit, pack in a percolator, and when it
has drained pour on the remaining spirit, and
when it ceases to drop, press, and wash the
marc with spirit to make up 8.-Dose. 15 to 60
minims.
2. (Ph. L.) Dried leaves of henbane, 5 oz. ;
proof spirit, 1 quart ; macerate for 7 days
(14 days, Ph. D.; or percolate—Ph. E.),
then press, and filter. Anodyne, sedative,
soporific, and narcotic.—Dose. 20 drops to
2 fl. drs. -
Obs. This, as well as the TINCTURES OF
FOXGLOWE, HEMLOCK, HOPS, JALAP, LOBELIA
INFLATA, RHATANY, SAVINE, SQUILLS, SENNA,
VALERIAN WoRMWooD, &c., is usually pre-
pared by the druggists with 1 lb. of the dried
leaves (or dried drugs) to each gal. of a mix-
ture of equal parts of rectified spirit and
water.
Tincture of Hops. Syn. TINCTURA LUPULI
(B. P., Ph. L. & E.), TINCTURA HUMULI, L.
Prep. 1. (B. P.) Hop, 1; proof spirit, 8;
macerate 48 hours in 6 of the spirit, agitating
occasionally, pack in a percolator, let it drain,
add the remaining spirit, and when fluid ceases
to drop, wash the marc, filter, and make up 8.
—Dose. to 2 drs.
2. (Ph. E.) Hops, 6 oz. ; proof spirit, 1
quart; digest 7 days, then press, and filter.
Anodyne, sedative, and soporific.—Dose. to
2 fl. drs. For the formula of the Ph. E. and
D., see TINCTURE OF LUPUI.IN. - -
Tincture, Hudson’s. Tooth tincture.
Tincture, Huxham’s. Compound tincture of
cinchona.
Tincture of Indian Hemp. Syn. TINCTURA
CANNABIS INDICAE (B. P.), TINCTURA CANNA-
BIs, T. C. INDICAE (Ph.D.), L. Prep. 1. (B.
P.) Extract of Indian hemp, 1; rectified spirit,
20; dissolve.—Dose. 5 to 20 minims with 1
dr. of mucilage, adding 1 oz. of water.
2. (Ph.D.) Purified extract of Indian hemp,
oz. ; rectified spirit, , pint ; dissolve. 21 drops
(minims) contains 1 gr. of the extract.
Obs. The formulae of O'Shaughnessy and
the Bengal Ph. are similar.—Dose. 10 drops,
every hour, in cholera; 1 fl. dr., every 3 hour,
in tetanus, till the paroxysms cease, or catalepsy
is induced.
Tincture of Indian Tobac'co.
lobelia.
Tincture of I'odime. Syn, TINCTURA
IODINEI (Ph. E.), TINCTURA IODINII, L.
Prep. (Ph. E.) Iodine, 2 oz. ; rectified spirit,
1 quart; dissolve, and preserve it in well-
closed bottles.—Dose, 5 to 30 drops, twice or
Tincture of Indian
Tincture of


1124
TINCTURE.
thrice daily, where the use of iodine is indicated.
Externally, as a paint, &c.
Obs. The formulae of Magendie, the Ph. U.
S., and the Paris Codex, are similar.
Tincture of Iodine (Compound). Syn.
ANTISCROFULOUs DROPs; TINCTURA IoDI (B.
P.), TINCTURA IoDINII CoMPOSITA (Ph. L. &
D.), L. Prep. 1. Iodine, #; iodide of potas-
sium, #; rectified spirit, 20; dissolve.—Dose.
5 to 20 minims. Also an excellent application
to the throat in diphtheria.
2. (Ph. L. & D.) Iodine, 1 oz. ; iodide of
potassium, 2 oz. ; rectified spirit, 1 quart; dis-
solve:–Dose, &c., as the last.
Tincture of Ipecacuam'ha. Syn. TINCTURA
IPECACUANHA, L. Prep. (Ph. Bor.) Ipeca-
cuanha (coarsely powdered), 1 oz. ; spirit, sp.
gr. 897 to 900 (16 to 17 o.p.), 8 oz. ; mace-
rate for 8 days. The tincture of the P. Cod.
has twice its strength.--Dose. 10 or 12
drops to 2 fl. drs, according to the inten-
tion.
Tincture of Jalſap. Syn. TINCTURA JALAPAE
(B. P., Ph. L. E. & D.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.)
Jalap, in coarse powder, 1 ; proof spirit, 8;
macerate for 48 hours in six of the spirit,
agitating occasionally, pack in a percolator,
and when the fluid ceases to pass, pour on the
remaining spirit, press, filter, and add spirit to
make 8–Lose. # to 2 drs.
2. (Ph. L.) Jalap, coarsely powdered,
5 oz. (10 oz.-Ph. L. 1836; 7 oz-Ph. E.);
proof spirit, 1 quart, (13 pint, — Ph. D.);
macerate for 7 days (or percolate—Ph. E.),
then press, and filter. Carthartic.—Dose. 1
to 4 fl. drs.
Tincture of Ki'no. Syn. TINCTURA KINo
(B. P., Ph. L. & E.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.)
Kino, in powder, 1; rectified spirit, 10; mace-
rate 7 days, filter, and make up 10.-Dose. to
2 drs.
2. (Ph. L.) Powdered kino, 34 oz. ; rectified
spirit, 1 quart ; macerate for 7 days (or perco-
late—Ph. E.), and filter. Astringent.—Dose.
1 to 2 fl. drs, combined with chalk mixture; in
diarrhoea, &c.
Tincture of Lactuca’rium. Syn. TINCTURA
LACTUCARII, L. Prep. (Ph. E.) Powdered
lactucarium, 4 oz. ; proof spirit, 1 quart;
digest or percolate. Anodyne, Soporific, anti-
spasmodic, and sedative.—Dose. 20 to 60
drops; in cases for which opium is unsuited.
10 drops (minims) contain 1 gr. of lactu-
Carlum.
Tincture of Law'emder (Compound). Syn.
RED LAVENDER, RED LAVENDER DROPS, RED
HARTSHORN ; TINCTURA LAVENDULAE COM-
POSITA (B. P., Ph. L. & D), SPIRITUs LAVAN-
DULE COMPOSITUS (Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (B.
P.) English oil of lavender, 90 minims; Eng-
lish oil of rosemary, 10 minims; cinnamon,
bruised, 150 grs. ; nutmeg, bruised, 150 grs. ;
red sandal wood, 300 grs. ; rectified spirit, 40
oz.; macerate the cinnamon, nutmeg, and red
sandal-wood in the spirit for 7 days, then press
out and strain; dissolve the oils in the strained
tincture and add sufficient rectified spirit to
make 40 oz.-Dose. to 2 drs.
2. (Ph. L.) Cinnamon and nutmegs, of each,
bruised, 2, drs. ; red sanders wood, sliced, 5
drs, ; rectified spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7
days, then strain, with expression, and dissolve
in the strained liquid, oil of lavender, 1}; fl.dr.,
oil of rosemary, 10 drops.
3. (Ph. L. 1836.) Spirit of lavender, 1}
pint ; spirit of rosemary, # pint ; red sanders
wood (rasped), 5 drs. ; cinnamon and nutmegs
(bruised), of each, 2% drs. ; macerate for 14
days.
4. (Ph. E.) Spirit of lavender, 1 quart ;
spirit of rosemary, 12 fl. Oz. ; cinnamon, 1 oz. ;
nutmeg, oz. ; red sanders, 3 drs. ; cloves, 2
drs. ; as No. 1.
5. (Ph. D.) Oil of lavender, 3 fl. drs. ; oil of
rosemary, 1 fl. dr. ; cinnamon, 1 oz. ; nutmegs,
oz. ; cloves and cochineal, of each, 3 oz. ;
rectified spirit, 1 quart ; macerate for 14
days.
6. (Wholesale.) From oil of cassia, # fl. oz. ;
oil of nutmeg, 1 fl. oz. ; oils of lavender and
rosemary, of each, 4} fl. Oz. ; red sanders
(rasped), 3 lbs.; proof spirit, 6 galls. (or recti-
fied spirit and water, of each, 3 galls.); digest
14 days. Should it be cloudy, add a little
more proof spirit. -
Obs. Compound tincture of lavender is a
popular stimulant, cordial, and stomachic.—
Dose. 1 to 3 teaspoonfuls (; to 2 fl. drs);
in lowness of spirits, faintness, flatulence,
hysteria, &c.
Tincture of Lem'ons. Syn. TINCTURA II.
MONUM (Ph. L.), TINCTURA LIMONIs (B. P.,
Ph. D., Ph. L.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Fresh
lemon peel, sliced thin, 1 ; proof spirit, 8;
macerate for 7 days in a closed vessel
with occasional agitation, strain, press, filter,
and make up with spirit to 8.—Dose. } to 2
drs.
2. Fresh lemon peel, 3% oz. (cut thin, 5 oz.
—Ph. D.); proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for
7 days (14 days—Ph. D.), then express the
liquid, and filter it. An aromatic bitter and
stomachic.—Dose. # to 2 fl. drs.
Tincture of Lobe"lia. Sym. TINCTURE OF
INDIAN TOBACCO ; TINCTURA LOBELIZE IN.
FLATE, TINCTURA LOBELIE (B. P., Ph. L. E.
& D.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Lobelia, dried
and bruised, 1 ; proof spirit, 8; mace-
rate 48 hours with 6 of the spirit, agi-
tating occasionally, pack in a percolator, and
let it drain, pour on the remaining spirit,
and when it ceases to drop, press and wash
the marc with spirit to make up 8.-Dose.
10 to 30 minims, but 1 dr. may be given for
dyspnoea; 4 drs. as an emetic.
2. (Ph. L.) Dried and powdered lobelia in-
flata, 5 oz. ; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate
for 7 days (14 days—Ph. D.; or percolate—
Ph. E.), press, and filter.—Dose. As an ex-
pectorant, 10 to 60 drops; as an emetic and
antispasmodic, 1 to 2 fl. drs, repeated every
third hour until it causes vomiting. It is

TINCTURE.
1125
-
principally employed in spasmodic asthma, and
some other pulmonary affections.
Tincture of Lobelia (Ethereal). Syn. TING-
TURA LOBELIE ETHEREA (B. P., Ph. L. & E.),
L. Prep. 1. Lobelia, dried and bruised, 1;
spirit of ether, 8; macerate 7 days, press,
and strain 8.-IDose. 10 to 30 minims as an
antispasmodic.
2. (Ph. L.) Indian tobacco, powdered, 5 oz.;
ether, 14 fl. oz. ; rectified spirit, 26 fl. oz. ;
macerate 7 days, press, and filter.
3. (Ph. E.) Dry lobelia, 5 oz. ; spirit of sul-
phuric ether, 1 quart; by digestion for 7 days,
or by percolation.—Dose. 6 or 8 drops to 1 fl.
dr.
4. (Whitlaw’s.) From lobelia, 1 lb.; recti-
fied spirit and spirit of nitrous ether, of each,
4 pints; sulphuric ether, 4 oz.-Dose, &c., as
the last.
Tincture of Lu'pulim. Syn. TINCTURE OF
HoPs; TINCTURA LUPULI (Ph. E.), TINCTURE
IUPULINAE (Ph. D.) L. Prep. (Ph. D).
Lupulin (the yellowish-brown powder
attached to the scales of hops, separated
by friction and sifting), 5 oz. ; rectified spirit,
1 quart; macerate for 14 days (or proceed
by displacement—Ph. E.), press, and filter.
— Dose. # to 2 fl. drs. See TINCTURE OF
HOPS. -
Tincture of Mat'ico. Sym. TINCTURA MATICO
(Ph.D.), L. Prep. (Ph. D.) Matico leaves,
in coarse powder, 8 oz. ; proof spirit, 1 quart;
macerate for 14 days, and strain, with expres-
sion.—Dose. 1 to 2 fl. dr.s., as an internal
astringent or haemostatic. It is a very feeble
remedy, as matico leaves are destitute of either
tannin or gallic acid, and derive their power
of stopping local bleeding from the peculiar
mechanical construction of their surface.
Tincture of Mea'dow Saffrom. Tincture of
colchicum.
Tincture of Mome'sia. Syn. TINCTURA
MONESIAE, L. Prep. From monesia, 2% oz. ;
proof spirit, 1 pint; macerate a week.
Astringent.—Dose. # to 2 fl. drs.
Tincture of Musk. Syn. TINCTURA MoscHI,
L. Prep. (Ph.D. 1826.) Musk, 2 drs.; rec-
tified spirit, 16 fl. oz.; digest 7 days. Anti-
spasmodic; but principally used as a perfume,
being too weak for medical use.
Tincture of Myrrh. Syn. GoLDEN TOOTH-
DROPs; TINCTURE, (B. P., Ph. L. E. & D.),
L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Myrrh, in coarse powder,
1; rectified spirit, 8; macerate ; 48 hours
with 6 of the spirit, agitating occasionally,
pack in a percolator, and when it ceases to
drop, pour on the remaining spirit, wash the
marc, press, and make up to 8–Dose. # to 1
dr. More frequently used mixed with water
to form a gargle.
2. (Ph. L.) Myrrh, in powder, 3 oz. (3}
oz., Ph. E.; 4 oz., Ph. D.; rectified spirit,
l, quart; macerate for 7 days (14 days,
Ph. D.; or by displacement—Ph.' E.), and
filter. -
3. (Wholesale.) Myrrh (in coarse powder),
2% lbs. ; rectified spirit, 2 galls, ; water, 1 gal.;
as the last.
Obs. Tincture of myrrh is tonic and stimu-
lant.—Dose. # to 1 fl. dr., as an adjuvant in
mixtures, gargles, &c. Chiefly used diluted
with water, as a dentifrice or wash for ulcerated
and spongy gums.
Tincture of Myrrh. (Compound). Syn.
TINCTURA MYRRHAE COMPOSITA, L. Prep.
From myrrh and Socotrine aloes, of each, 2 lbs. ;
rectified spirit, 3 galls.; water, 2 galls. ; digest
for 14 days. This is frequently substituted
for ‘COMPOUND TINCTURE OF ALOES” in the
wholesale trade.
Tincture of Nux Womiſca. Syn. TINCTURA
NUCIS voMICAE, L. Prep. 1. Nux vomica, 1
rectified spirit, 10; soften the nux vomica
by steam, dry rapidly, and reduce to fine
powder. Macerate 48 hours in three
fourths of the spirit, agitating occasionally,
pack in a percolator, let it drain, pour on
the remaining spirit, and when it ceases to
drop, press, filter, and make up to 10.--Dose.
10 to 30 minims.
2. (Ph.D. 1826.) Nux vomica (ground in a
coffee-mill), 2 oz. ; rectified spirit, 8 fl. oz. ;
macerate 7 (14) days.-Dose. 5 to 20 drops;
in paralysis, &c. It is poisonous.
Tincture, Odontal‘gic. Syn. TootBACHE
TINCTURE; TINCTURA opoNTALGICA, L. Prep.
1. Tincture of opium, 1 fl. dr.; ether, 2 fl. drs. ;
oil of cloves, 15 drops.
2. Rectified spirit, 3 fl. drs.; chloroform, 2
drs. ; creasote, 1 dr. ; mix.
3. (Collier.) Pellitory of Spain, 4 drs. ; cam-
phor, 3 drs. ; opium, 1 dr.; oil of cloves, 2 fl.
drs.; rectified spirit, 16 fl. oz. ; digest for a
week.
4. (Niemann.) Digest 60 or 80 common
lady-birds (Coccinella septempunctata, Linn.)
in rectified spirit, 1 fl. oz., for 8 days, and
strain.
Obs. The above are commonly applied, on
a small piece of lint, in toothache. For other
formulae see DROPs, TINCTURES OF MYRRH
and PELLITORY, &c.
Tincture of 0'pium. Syn. LAUDANUM, LI-
QUID, L., ANODYNE TINCTURE, THEBAIC T.;
TINCTURA op11,–(B. P., Ph. L. E. & D.),
THEBAICA, LAUDANUM LIQUIDUM, L. Prep.
1. (B.P.) Opium in coarse powder, 1}; proof
spirit, 20; macerate 7 days, strain, express,
filter, and add spirit to make 20–Dose. 10
to 30 minims.
2. (Ph. L.) Powdered opium, 3 oz. (3 oz.-
Ph. D.); proof spirit, 1 quart ; macerate for
7 days (14 days— Ph.D.), and strain, with
expression.
3. (Ph. E.) Opium, sliced, 3 oz. ; boiling
water, 13% fl. oz. ; digest, with heat, for 2
hours, break down the opium with the hand,
strain, and express the infusion; then macerate
the residuum for about 20 hours in rectified
spirit, 1 pint 7 fl. oz. ; next strain, press,
mix the watery and spirituous infusions, and
filter.
1126
TINCTURE.
Obs. This preparation has a deep brownish-
red colour, and the characteristic odour and
taste of opium. 14 minims or measured drops
of the London, and about 15 minims of the
Edinburgh and Dublin tiuctures, are equivalent
to 1 gr. of dry opium, or 1.12 gr. of ordinary
opium. 14 minims of this tincture are equal
to about 25 drops of it poured from a bottle.
Its sp. gr. is 952. (Phillips.)—Dose. 10 to
60 drops; as an anodyne, sedative, or hypnotic.
The following form is substituted for that of
the Pharmacopoeia by many of the wholesale
drug houses:–Take of Turkey opium, 2% lbs. ;
boiling water, 9 quarts; digest till dissolved or
disintegrated, cool; add of rectified spirit, 2
galls.; and, after repose for 24 hours, decant
the clear portion. Prod. 4 galls.
Tincture of Opium (Ammo"miated). Syn.
AMMONIATED TINCTURE OF ORIUM, SCOTCH
PAREGORIC; TINCTURA. OPII AMMONIATA
(B. P., Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Opium
in powder, 100 grs. ; saffron, cut small, 180
grs. ; benzoic acid, 180 grs. ; oil of anise, 60
minims; strong solution of ammonia, 4 oz. ;
rectified spirit, 16 oz. ; macerate 7 days in
a closed vessel, with occasional agitation,
strain, and add sufficient rectified spirit to
make up 20 oz.-Dose. # to 1 dr.
2. (Ph. E.) Benzoic acid and hay saffron,
of each, 6 drs. ; opium, sliced, 4 drs. ; oil of
aniseed, 1 dr.; spirit of ammonia (Ph. E.), i.
quart; digest for a week, and filter. Stimu-
lant, antispasmodic, and anodyne.—Dose. 20
to 80 drops; in hysteria, hooping-cough, &c.
Obs. This preparation is called ‘ PARE-
GORIC, or ‘ PAREGOIC ELIXIR,” in Scotland,
but should be carefully distinguished from the
compound tincture of camphor, which passes
under the same names in England; as the
former contains about 4 times as much opium
as the latter. 80 minims, or 145 poured drops,
contain about 1. gr. of opium.
Tincture of Opium (Cam'phorated). Com-
pound tincture of camphor.
Tincture of Or'ange Peel. Syn. TINCTURA
AURANTII (B. P., Ph. L. E. & D.), T. CORTICIS
AURANTII, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Dried bitter
orange peel, cut small and bruised, 1 ; proof
spirit, 10; macerate for 7 days in a closed
vessel with occasional agitation, then strain,
press, and filter, add sufficient proof, spirit
to make 10.—Dose. 1 to 2 drs.
2. (Ph. L.) Dried orange peel, 33 oz. (4 oz.
—Ph. D.); proof spirit, 1 quart; digest for
7 days (14 days—Ph. D.; or by percolation
—Ph. E), press, and filter. A grateful bitter
stomachic.—Dose. I to 3 fl. drs. ; chiefly as
an adjuvant in mixtures, &c.
Tincture of Pellitory. Syn. TootRACHE
TINCTURE; TINCTURA PYRETHRI, B. P. Prep.
1. (B. P.) Pellitory root, in coarse powder, 4;
rectified spirit, 20; macerate for 48 hours
with 15 of the spirit, agitating occasion-
ally, then pack in a percolator, let it drain,
and pour on the remaining spirit; when it
ceases to drop, press, filter, and make up to 20.
2. Pellitory of Spain (bruised), 1 oz. ; recti.
fied spirit, # pint; digest a week. In the P.
Cod. a tincture is ordered prepared with spirit
about 41 o.p., and another prepared with spirit
of sulphuric ether.
3. (COMPOUND.—Brande.) Pellitory root, 4
drs. ; camphor, 3 drs. ; oil of cloves, 2 drs. ;
opium, 1 dr. ; rectified spirit, 6 fl. oz. ; digest
for eight days. Both the above are used for the
toothache. See ODONTAIGIC TINCTURE.
Tincture of Phosphorus (Ethereal). Syn.
AETHER PHOSPHORATUS, TINCTURA PHOS-
FHoRI AETHEREA, L. Prep. 1. Ph. Hann.
1831.) Phosphorus (powdered by agitation
with rectified spirit), 16 grs. ; ether, 2 oz.;
macerate, with agitation, for 4 days, then
decant the clear portion, and preserve it in a
stoppered bottle, in a cool dark situation.
2. (P. Cod.) Phosphorus, cut small, 1 part;
ether, 50 parts; digest, with occasional agita-
tion, for 1 month, and decant the clear.—Dose.
5 to 15 drops, in any bland vehicle, thrice
daily; in impotency, low sinking conditions of
the system, &c.
Tincture of Quas'sia. Syn. TINCTURA
QUASSIAF (B. P., Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (B.P.)
Quassia in chips, #; proof spirit, 20; digest 7
days, filter, and make up to 20.-Dose, 1 t
2 drs. -
2. (Ph. E.) Quassia, in chips, 10 drs.; proof
spirit, 1 quart; digest 7 days. Bitter, tonic,
—Dose. } to 2 fl. drs. ; in dyspepsia, &c.
Tincture of Quassia (Compound). Syn,
TINCTURA QUASSIAE COMPOSITA (Ph. E.), L.
Prep. (Ph. E.) Cardamoms and cochineal, of
each, bruised, ; oz. ; powdered cinnamon and
quassia chips, of each, 6 drs. ; raisins, 7 oz, ;
proof spirit,
(or by percolation), then press, and filter.
Aromatic and tonic.—Dose and use, as the
last.
Tincture of Quininé (Compound). Syn.
FEVER DROPs; TINCTURA QUINAE, B. P.;
TINCTURA QUINE COMPOSITA (Ph. L.) Prep.
1. (B. P.) Sulphate of quinia, 1; tincture of
orange peel, 60; dissolve with a gentle heat,
digest for 3 days with occasional agitation
and strain.—Dose. 1 to 1. dr. -
2. (Ph. L.) Sulphate of quinine, 5 drs, 1
scrup. (or 320 grs.); tincture of orange peel,
1 quart; digest, with agitation, for 7 days,
or until solution is complete.
Obs. Unless the tincture employed as the
solvent be of the full strength, some of the
disulphate remains undissolved. It is an
excellent medicine when faithfully prepated.
—Dose. # to 2 fl. drs. ; in debility, dyspepsia,
&c
Tincture of Red Lav'ender. Compound
tincture of lavender.
Tincture of Rhat'any. Syn. TINCTURA
KRAMERIE (B. P., Ph.D.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.)
Rhatany, bruised, l; proof spirit, 8; mace-
rate 48 hours in 6 of the spirit, agitating
occasionally, pack in a percolator; when it
ceases to drop, pour on the remaining spirit,
1 quart; digest for 7 days



TINCTURE,
1127
and wash the marc with spirit to make up
8.— Dose. 1 to 2 drs.
2. (Ph.D.) Rhatany root, in coarse powder,
8 oz. ; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 14
days, then press, and filter. Astringent.—
Dose. 1 to 2 fl. drs. The formula of the Ph.
U. S. is similar.
Tincture of Rhubarb. Syn. TINCTURA
RHEI (B. P., Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.)
Rhubarb, bruised, 2; cardamom seeds, bruised,
# ; coriander, bruised, #; saffron, #; proof
spirit, 20; macerate for 48 hours with
15 of the spirit, agitating occasionally, pack
in a percolator, and when it ceases to drop
pour on the remaining spirit, press and wash
the marc, and add spirit to make up 20.-
Dose. As a stomachic, 1 to 2 drs. ; as a purga-
tive, # to 1 oz.
2. (Ph. E.), Powdered rhubarb, 34 oz. ; car-
damom seeds, bruised, }, oz. ; proof spirit, 1
quart; digest, or proceed by the method of
displacement.
3. (Ph. L. 1824.) Rhubarb, 2 oz.: carda-
moms, 4 drs. ; saffron, 2 drs. ; proof spirit, 32
fl. oz. Both the above are cordial, stomachic,
and laxative.—7)ose. 1 fl. dr. to 1 fl. oz.
Tincture of Rhubarb (Compound), Syn.
TINCTURA RHEI COMPOSITA (Ph. L. & D.)
Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Rhubarb, sliced, 2% oz. ;
liquorice root, bruised, 6 drs. ; ginger (bruised)
and hay saffrom, of each, 3 drs. ; proof spirit,
1 quart; macerate for 7 days, then press, and
filter.
2. (Ph.) Rhubarb, 3 oz., cardamoms, 1
oz. ; liquorice root, 3 oz. ; saffron, 4 oz. ; proof (
spirit, 1 quart ; macerate for 14 days.
3. (Ph. L.) 1824. Rhubarb, 2 oz. ; liquorice
root, 4 drs. ; ginger and saffron, of each, 2 drs. ;
proof spirit, 16 fl. oz. ; water, 12 fl. oz.
Obs. This tincture is a popular remedy in
diarrhoea and colic, and is an especial favourite
with drunkards.--Dose, as a stomachic, 1 to 3
fl. drs. ; as a purgative, # to 13 fl. Oz. The
tincture of rhubarb of the shops is mostly
inferior, being generally deficient both in
rhubarb and spirit. The following forms we
have seen extensively employed in the whole-
sale trade :-East Indian rhubarb, 20 lbs.; boil-
ing water, q. S. to cover it; infuse for 24 hours,
then slice the rhubarb, and put it into a cask
with moist sugar, 14 lbs.; ginger, bruised, 3%
lb. ; hay saffron, 1 lb.; carbonate of potash, ;
lb.; bruised nutmegs, 3 lb.; rectified spirit,
19 galls. ; water, 21 galls.; macerate with fre-
quent agitation for 14 days, decant the clear
portion, and press and filter the bottoms.
Those houses that adhere to the Ph. L. for
1824 substitute cardamom seeds, 5 lbs., for the
ginger. For the corresponding Ph. E. formula
see the last article.
Tincture of Rhubarb (Brandish’s Al'ka-
line). Syn. TINCTURA RHEI AIKALINA
BRANDISHII, L. Prep. From rhubarb, in
coarse powder, 1% oz. ; Brandish's alkaline
solution, 1 quart; macerate for a week. In
the original formula only 3 oz. of rhubarb is
ordered.—Dose. 20 drops to 2 fl. drs., in any
bland liquid, not acidulous; in acidities, dys-
pepsia, &c.
Tincture of Rhubarb and Al'oes, Syn.
SACRED ELIXIRī; TINCTURA RHEI ET ALöEs,
(Ph. E.), L. Prep. (Ph.D.) Rhubarb, in powder
1% oz. ; Socotrine or East Indian aloes, 6 drs.;
cardamom seeds, bruised, 5 drs.; proof spirit, L
quart; macerate 7 days, or percolate. A warm
stomachic purgative.—Dose. , fl. Oz. to 1
fl. oz.
Tincture of Rhubarb and Gemſtian, TINC-
TURA RHEI AMARA, TINCTURA RHEI ET GEN-
TIANIE (Ph. E.), L. Prep. (Ph. E.) Rhu-
barb, 2 oz. ; gentian, 3 oz. ; proof spirit, 1
quart; proceed as for the last. Stomachic,
tonic, and purgative.--Dose. 1 fl. dr. to 1
fl. oz.
Tincture of Rhubarb and Sen'na. Syn.
WARNER's GouT coRDIAL; TINCTURA RHEI
ET SENNAE (Ph. U. S.), L. Prep. (Ph. U. S.)
Rhubarb, 1 oz.; senna and red sanders wood,
of each, 2 drs. ; coriander and fennel seed, of
each, 1 dr.; saffron and extract of liquorice,
of each, ; dr.; stoned raisins, 6 oz.; proof
spirit, 2% pints; macerate for 14 days. A
popular stomachic and laxative.—Dose. } to
13; fl. oz.
Tincture, Riemer’s Nervous. Prep. From
oil of juniper, 1 part; volatile liquor of harts-
horn, 4 parts; rectified spirit, 16 parts.--Dose.
1 teaspoonful, in water.
Tincture, Ruspini’s. Tooth tincture.
Tincture of Saffron. Syn. TINCTURA CRoCI
B. P., Ph. E. & D.), T. C. SATIVE, L. Prep.
1. (B.P.) Saffron, 1; proof spirit, 20; macerate
48 hours with 15 of the spirit, agitating occa-
sionally, pack in a percolator, let it drain, and
then pour on the remaining spirit; when it
ceases to drop, wash the marc with spirit to
make up 20.—Dose # to 2 drs.
2. (Ph. E.) Hay saffron, 2 oz. (2 oz.-Ph.
D.); proof spirit, 1 quart (1 pint—Ph. D.);
proceed either by maceration (for 14 days—
Ph. D.) or by displacement. Stimulant, and
emmenagogue-Dose. 1 to 2 fl, drs. Chiefly
used for its colour and flavour.
Tincture of Senna (Compound). Syn. TINC-
TURE OF SENNA, ELIXIR OF HEALTH+ ; TINC-
TURA SENNAE (B.P.), TINCTURA SENNAE COM-
PoSITE (Ph. L. E. & D.), L. Prep. 1. (B.P.)
Senna, broken small, 5; raisins, freed from
seeds, 4; caraway, bruised, 1; coriander,
bruised, 1 ; proof spirit, 40; macerate the
ingredients 48 hours in three fourths of the
spirit, agitating occasionally ; pack in a per-
colator, and when it ceases to drop, pour on
the remaining spirit; press, filter, and make
up 40.—Dose. 2 to 8 drs.
2. (Ph. L.) Senna, 3% oz.; caraway seeds,
bruised, 3% drs. ; cardamom seeds, bruised,
1 dr.; stoned raisins, 5 oz. ; proof spirit,
1 quart; macerate for 7 days, press, and
filter. -
3. (Ph. E.) Senna and stoned raisins, of
each, 4 oz. ; sugar, 23 oz, ; corianders, 1 oz. ;
1128
TINCTURE.
jalap, 6 drs. ; caraways and cardamoms, of
each, 5 drs. ; proof spirit, 1 quart; digest, or
proceed by percolation.
4. (Ph.D.) Senna, 4 oz. ; caraway and car-
damom seeds, of each, bruised, 3 oz. ; proof
spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 14 days.
5. (Wholesale.) From senna, 6 lbs.; treacle,
2 lbs. ; caraways, # lb.; cardamoms, 4 lb. ;
rectified spirit and water, of each, 4 galls. ; as
before. Carminative, stomachic, and purga-
tive.--Dose. # to 1 fl. Oz.
Obs. “If Alexandrian senna be used for this
preparation, it must be freed from cynanchum
(argel) leaves, by picking.” (Ph. E.)
Tincture of Ser'pentary. Syn. TINCTURE
OF VIRGINIAN SNARE ROOT ; TINCTURA
SERPENTARIAE (B. P., Ph. L. & E.), L.
Prep. 1. (B. P.) Serpentary, bruised, 1 ;
proof spirit, 8; macerate 48 hours, with
6 of the spirit, agitating occasionally, pack
in a percolator and let it drain; pour on
the remaining spirit, and when it ceases to
drop, press, and wash the marc to make up
8.—Dose. # to 2 drs.
2. (Ph. L.) Serpentary, bruised, 3% oz.
(cochineal, 1 dr.—Ph. E.); proof spirit, 1
quart; macerate for 7 days (or by percolation
—Ph. E.), strain, and filter. Stimulant, tonic,
and diaphoretic.—Dose. 1 to 3 fl. drs.
Tincture of Sesquichlo"ride of Iron. Syn.
TINCTURE OF MURIATE OF IRON, TINCTURE OF
STEEL, STEEL IROPS ; TINCTURA FERRI PER-
CHLORIDI (B. P.), TINCTURA FERRI SESQUI-
CHLORIDI (Ph. L. & D.), T. FERRI MURIATIS
(Ph. E.), FERRI MURIATIS LIQUOR, L. Prep.
1. (B. P.) Strong solution of perchloride of
iron, 1 ; rectified spirit, 3: mix,−Dose. 10 to
30 minims in water.
2. (Ph. L.) Sesquioxide of iron, 6 oz.;
hydrochloric acid, 1 pint; mix, and digest in
a sand bath, frequently shaking (with a gentle
heat, for a day—Ph. E.), until solution is
complete, then add, when cold, of rectified
spirit, 3 pints, and (in a short time) filter.
Sp. gr. 1992. “1 fl. oz., potash being added,
deposits nearly 30 grs. of sesquioxide of iron.”
(Ph.T.)
3. (Ph. D.) Iron wire, 8 oz. ; pure hydro-
chloric acid, 1 quart; distilled water, 1 pint;
mix, and dissolve by a gentle heat ; next add,
in successive portions, of pure nitric acid, 18 fl.
drs. ; evaporate by a gentle heat to a pint, and,
when cold, mix this in a bottle with rectified
spirit, 1% ſpint ; lastly, after 12 hours, filter.
Sp. gr. 1237.
Obs. This tincture is an active ferru-
ginous tonic.—Dose. 10 to 30 drops, gradually
increased, taken in water, ale, or wine. In the
old tinctura martis, Ph. L., iron filings, and
in the T. ferri muriatis, Ph. E. 1817, black
oxide of iron, were used instead of the sesqui-
oxide or carbonate. * Bestuchef’s nervine
tincture of the P. Cod. is prepared by dis-
solving 1 dr. of dry sesquichloride of iron in
7 drs. of spirit of sulphuric ether. See GOLDEN
DROPS,
Tincture of Sesquiniſtrate of Ironí. Syn.
TINCTURA FERRI SESQUINITRATIS, L. Prep.
(Onion.) Iron filings, 3 oz.; nitric acid (1-5),
2% oz.; dissolve, add of hydrochloric acid (1:16),
6 drs., simmer for 2 or 3 minutes, cool, add of
rectified spirit, 8 oz., and filter. Proposed
as a substitute for the last preparation, but the
name misrepresents its chemical constitution.
Tincture of Squills. Syn. TINCTURA BECHI-
CA, TINCTURA scILLE (B. P., Ph. L. E. & D.),
L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Dried squill, bruised 1;
proof spirit, 8; macerate for 48 hours with 6
of the spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in
a percolator, let it drain, and pour on the
remaining spirit; when it ceases to drop,
press, filter, and make up to 8.-Dose. 15 to
30 minims.
2. (Ph. L.) Squills, recently dried and
sliced (or in coarse powder), 5 oz.; proof spirit,
1 quart; macerate for 7 days (14 days—Ph.
D.; or by percolation—Ph. E.), press and
filter. A stimulating expectorant and diuretics.
— Dose. 10 to 30 drops; in chronic coughs,
and other bronchial affections.
Tincture, Stomach'ic. Compound tincture of
cardamoms. Compound tincture of gentian is
also, occasionally, so called.
Tincture of Stramo"nium. Syn. TINCTURE
OF THORN-APPLE; TINCTURASTRAMONII (B.P.,
Ph. D. & U. S.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Stra-
monium seeds, bruised, 1 ; proof spirit, 8;
macerate 48 hours with 6 of the spirit, agi-
tating occasionally; pack in a percolator, let
it drain, and pour on the remaining spirit.
When it ceases to drop, press, filter, and add
spirit to make 8–Lose. 10 to 20 minims.
2. (Ph. D.) Stramonium or thorn-apple
seeds (bruised), 5 oz. ; proof spirit, 1 quart;
macerate for 14 days (or by displacement—
Ph. U. S.), then press, and filter. Anodyne.—
Dose. 10 to 20 drops; in neuralgia, rheuma-
tism, &c. Said to be superior to laudanum.
Tincture of Sum'bul. Syn. TINCTURA SUM-
BULI, B. P. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Sumbul, bruised
fine, 1 ; proof spirit, 8; digest 7 days and
filter.—Dose. 15 to 30 minims.
2. From sumbul, bruised, 5 oz.; proof
spirit, 1 quart; macerate for a week, and
strain, with expression. Stimulant and tonic.
—Dose. 10 to 30 or 40 drops.
Tincture of Thorn-apple. Tincture of stra-
monium.
Tincture of Tobacco. Syn. TINCTURA NICO-
TIANAE, TINCTURA TABACI, L. Prep. From
pure manufactured tobacco, 1% oz. ; proof
spirit, 1 pint; macerate for 7 days. Compound
spirit of juniper is often used instead of proof
spirit. Sedative and marcotic.—Dose. 10 to
30 drops. A tincture is also made from the
fresh leaves. See VEGETABLE JUICES and
TINCTUREs (Ethereal).
Tincture of Tolºu. Syn. TINCTURA ToIU-
TANUs (B.P.), TINCTURA TOLUTANA (Ph. L. &
D.), T. BALSAMI ToIUTANI, T. To LUIFERA.
BALSAMI, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Balsam of
tolu, 1; rectified spirit, 8; dissolve, filter, and



TINCTURES.
1129
make up to 8.-Dose. 15 to 30 minims, mixed
with mucilage or syrup.
2. (Ph. L.) Balsam of Tolu, 2 oz. (3% oz.-
Ph. E.); rectified spirit, 1 quart (1 pint—Ph.
D.); dissolve (by the aid of a gentle heat—
Ph. E. & D.), and filter.
Obs. This tincture is reputed pectoral and
expectorant; but it is chiefly used as an adju-
vant in mixtures, on account of its flavour.—
Dose. 10 to 60 drops.
Tincture, Tooth. Prep. 1. (Greenhough’s.)
From bitter almonds, 2 oz. ; Brazil wood, cin-
namom, and orris root, of each, ; oz. ; alum,
cochineal, and salt of sorrel, of each, 1 dr. ;
spirit of scurvy grass, 2 fl.oz.; proof spirit, 1}
pint ; macerate a week.
2. (Hudson's.) From the tinctures of
myrrh and cinchona, and cinnamon water,
equal parts, with a little arquebusade and gum
arabic. -
3. (Ruspini’s.) From orris root, 8 oz. ;
cloves, 1 oz. ; ambergris, 20 grs. ; rectified
spirit, 1 quart; digested for 14 days. The
above are used as cosmetics for the teeth and
gums. The last has long been a popular
dentifrice.
Tincture, Toothache. Odontalgic tincture.
See also DROPS, ESSENCE, &c.
Tincture of Wale'rian. Syn. TINCTURA
VALERIANZE (B. P., Ph. L. E. & D.), L. Prep.
1. (B.P.) Valerian bruised, 1; proof spirit, 8;
macerate the valerian 48 hours with 6 of the
spirit, agitating occasionally; pack in a per-
colator, let it drain, pour on the remainder of
the spirit; when it ceases to drop, press and
filter, washing the marc with spirit to make up
8.-Dose. 1 to 2 drs.
2. (Ph. L.) Valerian root, bruised, 5 oz. ;
proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate 7 days (14 days
—Ph. D.; or by percolation—Ph. E.), press,
and filter. Tonic and antispasmodic.—Dose.
1 to 3 fl. drs. ; in hysteria, epilepsy, &c.
Tincture of Walerian (Compound). Syn.
AMMONIATED TINCTURE OF WALERIAN, WOLA-
TILE T. of W.; TINCTURA VALERIANAE COM-
PoSITA (Ph. L.), T. V. AMMONIATA (B. P., Ph.
E.), L. Prep. 1. (B.P.) Valerian, bruised, 1;
aromatic spirit of ammonia, 8; macerate the
valerian 7 days, press, filter, aud add spirit to
make up 8.--Dose. # to 1 dr.
2. (Ph. L.) Valerian root, bruised, 5 oz. ;
aromatic spirit of ammonia (simple—Ph. E.),
1 quart; macerate for 7 days (or by per-
colation—Ph. E.), then press, and filter. Sti-
mulant, tonic, and antispasmodic.—Dose and
wise, same as those of the simple tincture, than
which it is thought to be more powerful. The
tincture of the shops is generally made with
only 1 lb. of the root to the gallon.
Tincture of Veraſtrum. Syn. TINCTURE OF
WHITE HELLEBORE; TINCTURA VERATRI VIRI-
DIS ; TINCTURA HELLEBORI ALBI, T. VERATRI
(Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (B.P.) Green hellebore
root, in coarse powder, 4; rectified spirit, 20;
macerate the powder with 15 of the spirit 48
hours, agitating occasionally, pack it in a per-
colator, let it drain, pour on the remainder of
the spirit, when it ceases to drop, press, filter,
wash the marc with spirit to make up 20,—
Dose. 5 to 20 minims.
2. (Ph. E.) White hellebore,4 oz.; proof spirit,
1 pint; digest or percolate.—Dose. 10 drops,
2 or 3 times a day, gradually increased; in
gout, rheumatism, &c., as a substitute for
colchicum ; also, externally.
Tincture of Wirginian Smake Root. Tincture
of serpentary.
Tincture of Vittie-vayr. Syn. TINCTURA
VETIVERIAE, L. Prep. From vittie-wayr (roots
of Andropogon muricatis), 2% oz.; proof spirit,
1 pint; macerate a week. Stimulant, tonic,
and sudorific.—Dose. 15 to 30 drops.
Tincture, Warburg's Fever. Syn. TINCTURA
FEBRIFUGA WARBURGII. According to M.
Fuchs, this tincture may be exactly imitated
as follows:–Take of hepatic aloes and Zedoary
root, of each, 1 dr. ; saffron, 3 grs. ; angelica
root and camphor, of each, 2 grs.; spirit ('897,
or about 18 o. p.), 3 oz.; make a tincture
(which should be 25 drs.), and dissolve in it (by
the aid of a gentle heat), 30 grs. of sulphate of
quinine. It is put up in 5-dr. bottles, each of
which contains a dose, and is sold at about 5s.
English. If the spirit be weaker than 18 or
20 o.p., some of the sulphate remains undis-
solved.
TINCTURES (Concentrated). Syn. TINc-
TURAE concENTRATE HAENII, L. Prep. (Ph.
Baden.) Digest 8 parts of the vegetable pow-
der in 16 of spirit of the sp. gr. 857 (45 o.p.),
for 4 days, at 72°Fahr., with occasional agi-
tation, then press, and filter; to the marc or
residuum add as much spirit as it has absorbed,
and again press, and filter; the weight of the
mixed liquors should be 16 parts. In this way
are prepared concentrated tinctures of aconite
leaves; arnica and chamomile flowers; bella-
donna, digitalis, hemlock, henbane, pepper-
mint, and savine leaves; ipecacuanha and
valerian roots, &c.
TINCTURES (Culinary). See ESSENCEs,
SPIRITS, &c. -
TINCTURES (Ethe"real). Syn. TINCTURE
FTHEREE, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) From the
vegetable substance, 1 oz. ; sulphuric ether,
4 oz. (or 6 fl. oz.); by maceration, for 4 days,
in a well-closed vessel; or, preferably, by per-
colation in a cylindrical glass vessel furnished
with a stopper, and terminating at the lower
end in a funnel, obstructed with a little cotton.
The powder being introduced over the cotton,
pour on enough ether to moisten it, put in
the stopper, fix the tube into the neck of a
bottle, and leave it for 48 hours; then add,
gradually, the remaining portion of the ether,
and, lastly, enough water to displace the ether
absorbed. In this manner are prepared the
ethereal tinctures of aconite leaves, arnica
flowers, belladonna, hemlock, foxglove, to-
bacco, pellitory, solanum, valerian, stramonium,
&c., of the Paris Codex.
The ethereal tinctures of amber, ambergris,
1130
TINCTURES.
assafoetida, cantharides (acetic ether), castor,
musk, tolu, &c., are prepared by maceration
only.
TINCTURES (Odoriferous). These are pre-
pared from odoriferous substances by the usual
processes of digestion or percolation. See
SPIRITS. -
TINCTURES from Recent Vegetables.
VEGETABLE JUICES.
TIN'DER (German). See AMADou.
TISANE. [Fr.] Syn. PTISAN ; PTISANA,
L. This form of medicine is much used in
France. Tisanes may be readily prepared by
slightly medicating barley, rice, or tamarind
water, lemonade, &c. See DECOCTION, INFU-
SION, JULEP, PTISAN, &c., and below.
Tisane Antiscorbutique. An infusion of
buckbean and the fresh roots of horseradish.
Tisame Antivenerienne. Various compound
decoctions of sarsaparilla are known by this
Ilame.
Tisane Commune. A decoction of pearl-
barley and couch-grass, flavoured with liquorice
root.
Tisame Pectorale. An infusion of the roots
of liquorice and marsh-mallow, Canadian
See
maiden-hair, and the flowers of the red poppy
and coltsfoot, in a decoction of rice.
Tisane Royale. From senna, fresh chervil,
and sulphate of soda, of each, 4 drs. ; aniseed
and cinnamon, of each, 1 dr. ; 1 lemon, sliced ;
cold water, 1; pint; macerate for 24 hours,
stirring occasionally, then press and filter.
Aperient.—Dose. A wine-glassful, or more,
repeated every half-hour, until it operates.
TISSUE (Blis'tering). See VESICANTs.
TITA/NIUM. A rare metal, discovered by
Klaproth in 1794, and examined by Wollaston
in 1822. It is occasionally found at the
bottom of the smelting furnaces of iron works,
in combination with nitrogen and cyanogen,
under the form of minute crystals, having a
coppery lustre.
TOAST (Essence of). This is liquid burnt
sugar or spirit colouring. Used to make
extemporaneous toast-and-water (3 or 4 drops
to the glass), and to flavour soups, gravies,
C.
TOBACC0. Syn. TABACUM (Ph.L. E. & D.),
L.; TABAC, Fr. The prepared leaf of Nico-
tiana Tabacum (Linn.), or other species of the
same genus. The name was given to this
herb by the Spaniards, because it was first
seen by them at Tabasco, or Tabaco, a province
of Yucatan, in Mexico.
The tobacco of commerce is chiefly obtained
from Virginia, and other parts of the United
States, and recently from Japan and California,
but the finest varieties are imported from
Havannah and from the East. The plants are
gathered when mature, during hot dry weather,
and are hung up in pairs, in sheds, to dry.
When sufficiently dry, the leaves are separated
from the stems, bound up in bundles, and
these are formed into bales, or packed in hogs-
heads, for exportation.
Prep. To impart to the dried leaves the
characteristic odour and flavour of tobacco,
and to render them agreeable to smokers and
snuffers, it is necessary that they should
undergo a certain preparation, or kind of fer-
mentation. If a fresh green leaf of tobacco
be crushed between the fingers, it emits
merely the herbaceous smell common to most
plants; but if it be triturated in a mortar
along with a very small quantity of quicklime
or caustic alkali, it will immediately exhale
the peculiar odour of manufactured tobacco.
This arises from the active and volatile ingre-
dients being liberated from their previous
combination, by the ammonia developed by
fermentation, or the action of a stronger base.
Tobacco contains a considerable quantity of
chloride of ammonium, and this substance,
as is well known, when placed in contact with
lime or potassa, immediately evolves free am-
monia. If we reverse the case, and saturate
the excess of alkali in prepared tobacco by the
addition of any mild acid, its characteristic
odour entirely disappears. In the preparation
of tobacco previously to its manufacture for
sale, these changes are effected by a species of
fermentation. Pure water, without any addi-
tion, is quite sufficient to promote and main-
tain the perfect fermentation of tobacco. The
leaves soon become hot and evolve ammonia;
during this time the heaps require to be occa-
sionally opened up and turned over, lest they
become too hot, take fire, or run into the
putrefactive fermentation. The extent to
which the process is allowed to proceed varies,
for different kinds of snuff or tobacco, from
one to three months.
Qual., &c. Tobacco is a powerful narcotic,
sedative, and emetic; and is also cathartic and
diuretic; but the last in a weaker degree than
either squills or foxglove. Its action is vio-
lently depressing and relaxing, producing
fainting, and even death, in comparatively
small quantities. Toxicologists rank it among
the more active narcotico-acrid poisons; and
physicians, when they wish to produce sudden
physical prostration, in accidents or spasmodic
diseases, order an enema of the infusion or
smoke of tobacco. Its deleterious properties
depend on the presence of narcotine, one of
the most frightful vegetable poisons known, of
which ordinary Virginia tobacco contains from
6 to 7%. Yet of such a vegetable substance,
so rich in such a deadly poison, upwards of
30,000,000 lbs. are said to be annually con-
sumed in the British islands alone, by smokers
and snuffers.
Tobacco, British. Syn. HERB ToBACCO;
TABACUM ANGLICUM, SPECIES STERNUTORIE,
L. Prep. Take of thyme, marjoram, and
hyssop, of each, 2 oz. ; betony and eyebright,
3 oz. ; rosemary and lavender, of each, 4 oz.;
coltsfoot, 1 lb. ; mix, press them together, and
cut the mass in imitation of manufactured
foreign tobacco. Some asthmatic subjects add
5 or 6 oz. of stramonium or thorn-apple




TODDY-TOOTH CEMENTS.
1131
leaves; and others add ,
tobacco. - -
Tobacco, Indian. See LOBELIA.
TOD/DY. Obtained from various species of
palms, by cutting off the end of the flowering
bud, and collecting the sap. Used, fresh, as
a cooling beverage; and, after fermentation,
as an intoxicating one. Sweetened grog is so
called in Cornwall, and in some other parts of
England.
TOFFY. Syn. EVERTON TOFFY. A sweet-
meat prepared by heating brown sugar, in a
saucepan or skillet, with about one half its
weight of fresh butter, for 15 to 20 minutes,
or until a ‘little of it dropped into cold water
forms a lump that breaks crisply;” it is then
poured into a little buttered tin mould.
TOM'BAC. A species of brass with excess
of zinc. Red tombac is red brass or Dutch
gold; white tombac, an alloy of copper with
arsenic.
TON'ICS. Medicines that increase the tone
of the muscular fibre, and impart vigour to
the system.
TON'QUIN REMEDY. Syn. PUIVISTRUN-
CHINENSIS, P. ALEXIPHARMICUS SINENSIS, L.
Prep. From Valerian, 20 grs. ; musk, 16 grs.;
camphor, 6 grs. ; mix. Antispasmodic and
alexiterial, in doses of 6 to 12 grs., in hooping-
cough, &c.; 1 dr., in hydrophobia, exanthe-
mata, and mania.
T00TH/ACHE. Syn. ODONTALGIA, L. This
annoying affection frequently arises from sym-
pathy with a disordered stomach. In such
cases a saline purgative should be administered,
and an emetic, if required. When cold is the
cause, an excellent remedy is a hot embrocation
of poppy-heads, followed by the use of flannel
and diaphoretics. When it arises from a hollow
or decayed tooth, the best application is a piece
of lint moistened with creasote, or a strong
spirituous solution of creasote, and closely
rammed into the cavity of the tooth. Lau-
danum, the essential oils of cloves, caraway,
and cajeput, and essence or tincture of pelli-
tory of Spain, are also used in the same way.
To prevent the recurrence of the latter kind of
toothache, the cavity should be filled with an
amalgam of gold, or with mineral marmora-
tum, or some other good cement. In many
cases, chewing a piece of good ginger, or, still
better, a small piece of pellitory, will afford
relief in a few minutes. The celebrated John
Wesley recommended a ‘few whiffs’ at a pipe
containing a little caraway seed mixed with
the tobacco. A slight “shock’ from a voltaic
battery will often instantly remove the tooth-
ache after all other means have failed. See
DROPS, ESSENCE, TINCTURE, &c.
T00TH CEMENTS. Prep. 1. Amalgam of
gold, applied warm. Silver, and even tin, are
also used in the same way.
2. A piece of purified white gutta percha,
softened in hot water, and applied at once.
Efficient, and durable.
3. Zinc filings, 1 part; quicksilver, 2 parts;
lb. of genuine
mixed, and applied at once. Not very du-
rable.
4. (Bermotte's.) From powdered mastic
mixed with about half its weight of ether, and,
afterwards, with enough finely powdered burnt
alum to form a stiff paste. ‘Taveare's Ce-
ment’ is similar.
5. (Evans.) Pure tin, 2 parts; cadmium
and bees' wax, of each, 1 part; melt them to-
gether, cast the compound metal into a small
ingot, and reduce it to filings. For use, form
these into a liquid amalgam with quicksilver,
q. s. ; squeeze out the excess of quicksilver
through a piece of chamois leather, and at
once apply it to the tooth. (See No. 9.)
Recommended as very durable and unobjection-
able.
6. (‘MARMORATUM.) From anhydrous
phosphoric acid, 12 grs. ; pure caustic lime, 13
grs. ; both finely pulverised, mixed rapidly in
a mortar, and applied, in the dry state, as
rapidly as possible, as it soon becomes moist ;
the mixed powder, after being well pressed in,
is smoothed off with the finger moistencă with
a drop of water. This is white and durable,
and soon acquires great hardness. In its com-
position it resembles the natural earthy matter
of the teeth.
7. (MINERAL MARMORATUM.) The same
as ‘mineral succedaneum’ (No. 9), with the
addition of a little powdered glass or quartz.
A common sort is made of levigated glass
mixed with amalgam of tin.
8. (‘MINERAL METALLIC CEMENT.") Add
finely levigated steel filings to some mineral
succedaneum. Dark-coloured inferior to “mi-
neral marmoratum.”
9. (‘MINERAL SUCCEDANEUM.") This is
merely amalgam of gold first above noticed.
The common method of proceeding is to heat
pure gold in a bright iron ladle, and to add
enough pure mercury to render it of a doughy
consistence at the heat of hot water; when
cold, the excess of mercury, if any, must be
removed by pressure in a piece of chamois
leather. For use, a little must be kneaded, as
hot as possible, in the hand, and at once wedged
into the cavity of the tooth.
10. (Ostermaier’s.) Same as No. 6.
11. (“PouTRE METALLIQUE.") The article
sold in Paris under this name is said to be a
triple amalgam of mercury, silver, and ammo-
nium, with the latter in excess; part of the
ammonium escapes as ammoniacal gas, whilst
the remainder of the ammonium, silver, and
mercury, remains as a firm alloy in the cavity
of the tooth. (Redwood.)
12. (‘SILICA.") From levigated porcelain,
plaster of Paris, and iron filings, equal parts,
made into a paste with the thickest quick-dry-
ing copal varnish. -
13. (‘VIENNA CEMENT.") From powdered
asbestos, made into a paste with mastic var-
mish.
14. (Wirth's.) From levigated quartz, made
into a paste with very thick mastic varnish.
-
/
1132
TOPAZ–TUNGSTATE OF SODIUM.
Obs. It is absolutely necessary for success
that the teeth be well cleaned out, and wiped
dry, before applying any of the above stop-
pings or cements.
T0'PAZ. See GEMS.
TOR/MENTIL. Syn. ToRMENTILLAB RADIx;
ToRMENTILLA (Ph. L. & E.), L. The root or
rhizome of Potenţilla Tormentilla. It is
astringent and febrifuge, without being stimu-
lant.—Dose. 20 to 60 grs.; in agues, diar-
rhoea, &c.; also, formerly, in syphilis.
TOUCH-NEEDIES. See ASSAYING.
TOUCH-W00D. See AMADOU.
TOUS-LES-MOIS. The fecula of the roots
of Canna edulis (Ph. D.); intended as a sub-
stitute for arrow-root. To the naked eye, it
closely resembles the finest quality of potato-
starch, but under the microscope its granules
are found to be oblong, oval, with a concentric
structure, and larger than those of the potato
tuber. -
TOXICOL'OGY. See POISON.
TRAG/ACANTH. See GUM.
TRANSPA"RENCIES. Water-colour pic-
tures on paper, linen, or calico, if executed in
non-opaque or glazing colours, may be con-
verted into transparencies by simply brushing
over their backs with Canada balsam, thinned
down, when necessary, with a little oil of tur-
pentine. For coarse work, boiled oil may be
employed.
TRAUMAT/IC BALSAM. Compound tinc-
ture of benzoin is known by this name. See
TINCTURE.
TRAUMAT/ICINE. This article, as manu-
factured by the Gutta Percha Company, is
simply a solution of white and dry unmanu-
factured gutta percha in bisulphuret of carbon.
A small portion dropped on a wound, or raw
surface, almost instantly forms a pliable, water-
proof, and air-tight defensive covering to the
part. The only objection to the preparation
is the fetid odour of the menstruum, which,
however, is lost in a few seconds, or may be
obviated by employing chloroform as the sol-
vent.
TREA’CLE. Syn. MoLASSES; THERIACA
(B. P.), THERLACA, SACCHARI FEX \Ph. L. &
E.), L. The viscid, brown, uncrystallisable
syrup which drains from moist sugar during
its formation (molasses), and from the sugar-
refining moulds (sugar-house molasses). The
last, according to Dr. Ure, has generally the
sp. gr. 1:4, and contains about 75% of solid
matter.
Treacle is more laxative than sugar, and
always contains more or less free acid. It is
used as the vehiculum in some of the pill-
masses of the Ph. L. See SUGAR.
Treacle, German. Syn. THERTACA GER-
MANIAE, L. An evaporated infusion or decoc-
tion of juniper berries. It is sweet-tasted,
aromatic, and diuretic.
Treacle, Venice. Syn. LONDON TREACLE ;
THERLACA, T. ANDROCHI, L. The theriaca
of the Ph. L. 1746 consists of 61 ingredients,
and contains 1 gr. of opium in 75 grs. ; that
of the Paris Codex consists of 72 ingredients,
and contains 1 gr. of opium in 72 grs. ; that
of the Ph. E. 1744 consists of 10 ingredients,
and contains 1 gr. of opium in every 100 grs.
It is prepared as follows:—Take of serpentary
root, 6 oz. ; valerian and contrayerva roots, of
each, 4 oz. ; aromatic powder, 3 oz. ; guaiacum
resin, castor, and nutmeg, of each, 2 oz. ;
saffron and opium (dissolved in a little wine),
of each, 1 oz.: clarified honey, 75 oz. ; reduce
all the dry ingredients to fine powder, then
mix them. The confections or electuaries of
catechu and opium are the representatives of
the above polypharmic compounds in the
modern British Pharmacopoeias.
TRI-, TRIS-. See NOMENCLATURE.
TRIP'OLI. Syn. RottEN STONE ; ALANA,
TERRA CARIOSA, L. A mineral employed as a
polishing powder, originally imported from
Tripoli, in Barbary. It consists almost en-
tirely of silica, and is composed of the skele-
tons of minute infusoria, the precise character
of which is readily distinguishable under the
microscope.
TRIS/MUS. See TETANUS.
TRITURATION. Syn. TRITURA, TRITU-
RATIO, L. The act of rubbing a solid body to
powder. See PULVERIZATION.
TR0'CHES. See LOZENGES.
TR0'NA. A native carbonate of soda, found
on the banks of the soda-lakes of Sokena, in
Africa.
TROPH'AZOME. A concentrated infusion
of minced lean meat mixed with the fluid ob-
tained from the residuum after being heated
for 20 minutes in a water bath, and flavoured
with salt and spices, the whole being, lastly,
simmered for a few minutes. Excellent for
convalescents.
TROUT. The Salmo furio of Linnaeus, a
highly esteemed fish, found in most of the
rivers and lakes of this country. Other mem-
bers of the genus salmo are also so called; as, S.
erioa, the bull or gray trout; S. feroa, the
great gray or lake trout; S. trutta, the salmon
trout, &c. All of these varieties are in the
finest condition from the end of May to late in
September.
TUNG'STEN. W. Syn. TUNGSTENUM,
WolfRAMIUM, L. A heavy, gray, brittle metal,
discovered by Delhuyart.
TUNGSTATE OF SODIUM. Na, WO. This
salt is used for rendering linen, cotton, and
other fabrics uninflammable; also as a substi-
tute for stannate of sodium as a mordant in
dyeing. It may be prepared by adding 9 parts
of finely powdered tungstem to 8 parts of fused
carbonate of sodium, and continuing the heat
for some time; on boiling the cooled and pul-
verised mass with water, evaporating the fil-
trate to dryness, and treating the residue with
luke-warm water, the salt dissolves out. Mus-
lin steeped in a 20% solution of this salt is per-
fectly uninflammable when dry, and the saline
film left upon its surface is so smooth that the





TURBOT-ULTRAMARINE.
1133
muslin may be ironed without difficulty. See
Richardson and Watt's ‘Chemical Technology,”
i,[4]48.
TUR/B0T. The Rhombus maximus (Cu-
vier), said to be the best and, excepting the
halibut, the largest of our flat fishes. Dutch
turbots are the most esteemed.
TUR/KEY. See POULTRY.
TUR'MERIC. Syn. CURCUMA (Ph. L. &
D.), L. The rhizome of Curcuma longa. The
best is imported from Ceylon. It is stimulant
and carminative, but is chiefly used in dyeing
yellow, and as an ingredient in curry-powder;
also as a test for alkalies. It gives a fugi-
tive golden yellow with wold, and an orange
tinge to scarlet. It dyes wool and silk,
mordanted with common salt, or sal ammo-
niac, a fugitive yellow.—Dose. 10 to 30 grs.
See CURCUMINE.
TURNBULL’S BLUE. Syn. FERRICYANIDE
OF IRON ; FERRI FERRIDCYANIDUM, L. Prep.
Precipitate a solution of protosulphate of iron
with another of red prussiate of potash (ferri-
cyanide of potassium).
Obs. This is a variety of Prussian blue, re-
markable for its beautiful colour, and may be
distinguished from the ordinary Prussian blue"
of commerce by its action on the yellow prus-
siate of potash. When boiled in a solution of
the latter, it is decomposed, a portion is dis-
Solved, and a gray residue remains.
TURNER'S YELLOW. See YELLOW. PIG-
MENTS.
TURN’SOLE. See LITMU.S.
TUR/PENTINE. Syn. TURPENTIN ; TERE-
BINTHINA (Ph. L. E. D.), L. An oleo-resin
flowing from the trunk, the bark being re-
moved, of Pinus palustris (pitch or swamp
pine) and Pinus Taeda (loblolly or old field
pine).” (Ph. L.) “From Pinus sylvestris (the
Scotch fir).” (Ph.D.) “From various species of
Pinus and of Abies.” (Ph. E.) It is viscid, of
the consistence of honey, and transparent; by
distillation it is resolved into oil of turpentine,
which passes over into the receiver; and into
resin, which remains in the still. -
Turpentime, Bordeaux. Syn. FRENCH
TURPENTINE. From the Pinus maritima,
or cluster pine. Solidifies with magnesia.
(Lindley.)
Turpentime, Chian. Syn. CHIOTURPENTINE,
CYPRUs T., SCIo T.; TEREBINTHINA CHIA (Ph.
L. & E.), L. “An oleo-resin flowing from the
incised trunk of Pistachia terebinthus” (Linn.).
(Ph. L.) It is pale, aromatic, fragrant, and
has a warm taste, devoid of acrimony or bit-
terness. It is much adulterated. A facti.
tious article (terebinthina Chia factitia),
made as follows, is also very generally sold for
it:—Black resin, 7 lbs. ; melt, remove the heat,
and stir in of balsam of Canada, 7 lbs. ; oils of
fennel and juniper, of each, 1 fl. dr.
Turpentine, Venice. Syn. TEREBINTHINA
VENETA (Ph. E.), L. Liquid resinous exuda-
tion from the Abies Laria, or larch tree. It is
sweeter and less resinous-tasted than common
turpentine, but is now scarcely ever met with
in trade. That of the shops is wholly a facti.
tious article, made as follows:–Black resin,
48 lbs. ; melt, remove the heat, and add of oil
of turpentine, 2 galls.
TUR/PETH MINERAL. Basic sulphate of
mercury.
TURTLE. Syn. GREEN TURTLE. The
Testuda midas (Linn.), a chelonian reptile,
highly esteemed for its flesh, eggs, and fat.
TUSSILA'G0. See CoITSFoot.
TUTENAG. A name sometimes applied to
German silver ; at others, to pale brass and
bell metal. “In India zinc sometimes goes
under this name.” (Brande.)
TUTTY. Syn. TUTIA, TUTHIA, IMPURE
OXIDE OF ZINC. The sublimate that collects
in the chimneys of the furnaces in which the
ores of zinc are smelting. Drying ; astringent.
Used in eye-waters and ointments.
TYPE METAL. An alloy formed of anti-
mony, 1 part; lead, 3 parts; melted together.
Small types are usually made of a harder com-
position than large ones. A good stereotype
metal is said to be made of lead, 9 parts;
antimony, 2 parts; bismuth, 1 part. This alloy
expands as it cools, and, consequently, brings
out a fine impression.
UL/MIN, ULMIC ACID. By boiling sugar
in dilute sulphuric acid for a long time, a
brownish-black substance is produced. Boul-
lay and Malaguti state that this is a mixture
of two distinct bodies—ulmin (Sacchulmin—
Liebig) and ulmic acid (sacchulmic acid—
Liebig). The first is insoluble in solutions of
the alkalies; the latter dissolves in them
freely. A number of black uncrystallisable
substances, produced by the action of powerful
chemical agents upon vegetable matter, have
been confounded under these names.
ULTRAMARINE'. Syn. LAPIS-LAZULI
BLUE, ULTRAMARINE B.; CAERULEUM ULTRA-
MonTANUM, L. This beautiful pigment is ob-
tained from the blue mineral azure stone, lazu-
lite, or lapis lazuli, the finest specimens of
which are brought from China, Persia, and
Great Bucharia.
Prep. Pure lapis lazuli (reduced to frag-
ments about the size of a pea, and the colour-
less pieces rejected), 1 lb., is heated to red-
ness, quenched in water, and ground to an im-
palpable powder; to this is added, of yellow
resin, 6 oz. ; turpentine, bees’ wax, and linseed
oil, of each, 2 oz. ; previously melted together;
the whole is next made into a mass, which is
kneaded in successive portions of warm water,
as long as it colours it blue ; from these it is
deposited on repose, and is then collected,
well washed with clean water, dried, and
sorted according to its qualities. The first
water, which is usually dirty, is thrown away;
the second gives a blue of the first quality;
and the third, and following ones, yield sum-
ples of less value. The process is founded on
the property which the colouring matter of
1134
UPAS–UREA.
azure-stone has of adhering less firmly to the
resinous cement than the foreign matter with
which it is associated. When azure-stone has
its colour altered by a moderate heat, it is
reckoned bad or factitious.
Obs. Ultramarine is the most costly, but at
the same time the most splendidand permanent,
of our blue pigments, and works well in oil.
Ultramarine Ashes. Syn. SAUNDER’s BLUE.
Obtained from the resinous mass from making
ultramarine, by melting it with fresh oil, and
kneading it in water containing a little potash
or soda; or, by burning away the wax and oil
of the mass and well grinding and washing the
residue with water. Very permanent, but
much less brilliant than ultramarine.
Ultramarine, Artificial. Syn. AZURE BLUE,
1MEISSNER ULTRAMARINE, PARIS B., VIENNA
B. ; CERULEUM ULTRAMONTANUM FACTITIUM,
L. From the researches of Clement, Desormes,
and Robiquet, it has been inferred that the
colour of ultramarine depends on the presence
of sulphuret of sodium in a peculiar state of
combination with the silicates of soda and alu-
mina; but, according to Elsner and Tirnmon,
a minute quantity of sulphuret of iron is also
an essential ingredient. It is by heating mix-
tures of this kind that the artificial ultra-
marine of commerce is prepared. The finer
specimens, thus obtained, are quite equal in
durability and beauty of colour to those pre-
pared from lazulite, while they are very much
less expensive.
Prep. 1. Kaolin, 37 parts; sulphate of soda,
15; carbonate of soda, 22; sulphur, 18; char-
coal, 8; intimately mixed and heated from
24 to 30 hours, in large crucibles; the product
is then heated again in cast-iron boxes, at a
moderate temperature, till the required tint is
obtained; it is, finally, pulverised, washed, and
dried.
2. (Gmelin.) Sulphur, 2 parts; dry car-
bonate of soda, 1 part ; mix well; gradually
heat them in a covered crucible to redness, or
till the mixture fuses, then sprinkle in, by
degrees, another mixture of silicate of soda and
‘ aluminate of soda’ (containing 72 parts of
silica and 70 parts of alumina), and continue
the heat for an hour. The product contains
a little free sulphur, which may be separated
by water.
3. (Robiquet.) By exposing to a low red
heat, in a covered crucible, as long as fumes
are given off, a mixture of pure kaolin, 2 parts;
anhydrous carbonate of soda and sulphur, of
each, 3 parts. Some manufacturers who adopt
this process use 1-3rd less carbonate of soda.
4. (Tirnmon.) Take of crystallised car-
bonate of soda, 1075 grs. ; apply a gentle heat,
and, when fused in its water of crystallisation,
shake in of finely pulverised orpiment, 5 grs,
and, when partly decomposed, add as much
gelatinous hydrate of alumina as contains 7 grs.
of anhydrous alumina; finely sifted clay, 100
grs, and flowers of sulphur, 221 grs, are next
to be added, and the whole placed in a covered
crucible, and at first gently heated, to drive of
the water; but as soon as this is effected,
raised to redness, the heat being so regulated
that the ingredients only ‘sinter’ together,
without actually fusing ; the mass is then to
be cooled, finely pulverised, suspended in river
water, and brought upon a filter; the product
has now a very beautiful delicate green or
bluish colour, but on being heated in a covered
dish, and stirred about from time to time,
until the temperature reaches that of dull red-
ness, at which it must be kept for 1 or 2 hours,
it changes to a rich blue. If the heat of the first
calcination has been properly regulated, the
whole of the mass taken from the crucible will
have uniform colour; but if too little heat has
been used, and the ingredients have not been
properly mixed, there will be colourless parts,
which should be rejected; if too much heat has
been used, or the mass allowed to fuse, brown
parts will appear, especially if the crucible is
of a bad kind, or easily destroyed; these must
also be rejected. (“Compt. Rend.,’ 1842.)
Ultramarine, Cobal'tic. Syn. CHINESEBLUE,
COBALT B., LOUISA. B., HöFFNER’s B., THá-
NARD’s B. A very rich blue pigment, with
many synonymes, prepared by slowly drying
and heating the dull redness a mixture of
freshly precipitated alumina (freed from water
as much as possible), 8 to 10 parts; arseniate
or phosphate of cobalt, 1 part. By daylight it
is of a pure blue, but by artificial light the
colour turns on the violet. For other formulae
See BLUE PIGMENTS,
U'PAS. The Javan name for several deadly
poisons. ‘Bohun upas' is a gum-resin ob-
tained from the bark of the Antiaris toacăcaria,
(See ANTIARINE.) The ‘upas tieuté’ is ob.
tained from the Strychnos Tieuté, and owes its
fatal power to strychnine. They are both used
to poison arrows and other deadly weapons.
URA’NIUM. U. A rare metal, discovered
by Klaproth, in 1789. It occurs in the pitch-
blende of Saxony, and the uranite of Cornwall,
Uses. Its ores and oxides are occasionally
used to colour glass and enamels.
U’RATES. Salts of uric acid.
U’REA, COH4N2, Syn. CYANATE OF AM-
MONIUM (Anomalous). A crystalline, colour.
less, transparent substance, discovered by
Fourcroy and Vauquelin in Urine, and by
Wöhler as the first organic compound artifi-
cially produced.
Prep. (Thénard.) Fresh urine, gently eva-
porated to the consistence of a syrup, is
treated with its own volume of nitric acid of
sp. gr. 1:19; the mixture is shaken and im-
mersed in an ice bath, to solidify the crystals
of nitrate of urea; these are washed with ice-
cold water, drained, and pressed between sheets
of blotting paper; they are next dissolved in
water, and the solution is decomposed and pre-
cipitated with carbonate of potassium (or car- |
bonate of barium); the whole is then gently
evaporated nearly to dryness, and the residuum
is exhausted with pure alcohol, which dissolves
|


URIC ACID–VACUUM.
1135
the urea, which crystallises out as the solution
cools. -
Urea, Niſtrate of. Syn. UREE NITRAS, L.
Prep. From urine, as described above; or it
may be prepared by Saturating artificial urea
with nitric acid. Diuretic.—Dose. 2 to 5 grs.,
twice or thrice daily; in dropsy.
U'RIC ACID. C.H.N.O. Syn. LITHIC
ACID ; ACIDUM LITHICUM, A. URICUM, L.
A substance discovered by Scheele, and peculiar
to the urine of certain animals, and the excre-
ment of serpents and several birds. The faces
of the boa constrictor consist of little else than
urate of ammonium. It constitutes one of the
commonest varieties of urinary calculi, and of
the red gravel or sand which is voided in
certain morbid states of the urine. Guano
derives its principal value as a manure from
the presence of urate of ammonium. The
gouty concretions of the joints, popularly
known as chalk-stones, consist chiefly of urate
of sodium.
Prep. Dissolve the chalk-like excrement of
serpents, reduced to fine powder, in a solu-
tion of caustic potassa, by boiling, then add
hydrochloric acid in excess, again boil for 15
minutes, and well wash the precipitate with
Water.
Prop., &c. Brilliant, very minute, white
and silky scales, which are tasteless, inodo-
rous, slightly soluble in boiling water, and
dissolve in strong sulphuric acid, but are again
precipitated by water. It forms salts with
the bases called urates, all of which are very
sparingly soluble. The characteristic reaction
of uric acid is, that, when moistened with
nitric acid and heated, it dissolves, and by
evaporation yields a red compound, which,
upon the addition of a drop or two of solution
of ammonia, assumes a magnificent crimson
colour, being converted into murexide.
U'RINE. The density of the urine varies
from 1:005 to 1:030; the average, in health,
being 1:020, when it contains about 380 grs.
of solid matter in the pint. According to
Berzelius, the proportion is about 6% #, the rest
being pure water. It exhibits a decidedly
acid reaction, and is never alkaline, except
during disease, or the use of large quantities
of alkaline salts of the vegetable acids. The
average quantity secreted during 24 hours
may be taken at 1% pint to l; pint.
The presence of bile in urine, or other like
fluids, may be detected as follows:–Put a
small quantity of the suspected liquid into a
test-tube, and add to it drop by drop, strong
sulphuric acid, until it becomes warm, taking
care not to raise the temperature above 122°
Fahr. ; then add from 2 to 5 drops of syrup
(made with 5 parts of sugar to 4 of water),
and shake the mixture. If the liquid contain
bile, a violet coloration is observed. Acetic
acid may be substituted for sugar.
The presence of sugar, and the quantity
present, may be determined in the manner de-
scribed under SUGAR (tests for). White merino,
that has been wet with a solution of bichloride
of tin, is also said to form a ready test for
Sugar in urine.
The quantity of urea present in urine is
best determined by treating that liquid with
a solution of permitrate of mercury of known
strength, alternately with a solution of baryta,
as long as a white precipitate falls. As soon
as the whole of the urea is thrown down, the
precipitate assumes a yellow colour.
URINOMETER. An hydrometer adapted
to determining the density of urine. That of
Dr. Prout is the simplest and best.
URN POWDER. Crocus martis, or jeweller's
rouge. -
URTICAR/IA. See RASH.
US'QUEBAUGH. Syn. EscuBAC. Literally,
mad water, the Irish name of which, “whiskey,”
is a corruption. At the present time it is
applied to a strong cordial spirit, much drunk
in Ireland, and made in the greatest perfection
at Drogheda.
Prep. 1. Brandy or proof spirit, 3 galls.;
dates (without their kernels) and raisins, of
each, bruised, 4 lb.; juniper berries, bruised,
1 oz. ; mace and cloves, of each, # oz.; cori-
ander and aniseed, of each, 3 oz. ; cinnamon,
4 oz. ; macerate, with frequent agitation, for
14 days, then filter, and add of capillaire or
simple syrup, 1 gall.
2. Pimento and caraways, of each, 3 oz. ;
mace, cloves, and nutmegs, of each, 2 oz. ;
aniseed, corianders, and angelica root, of each,
8 oz. ; raisins, stoned and bruised, 14 lbs. ;
proof spirit, 9 galls. ; digest as before, then
press, filter, or clarify, and add of simple syrup,
q. s. Should it turn milky, add a little strong
spirit, or clarify it with alum, or filter through
magnesia.
Obs. Usquebaugh is either coloured yellow
with saffron (about 4 oz. per gall.), or green
with sap-green (about 3 oz. per gall.); either
being added to the other ingredients, before
maceration in the spirit.
WACCINATION. See Cow-Pox.
WAC'CINE MATTER. Syn. LYMPHA VAC-
CINIAE, L. This is collected either upon the
points of lancet-like pieces of ivory, or by
opening the pustule, and applying a small
glass ball and tube (like those called by the
boys in London candle-pops, or fire-pops) to
the orifice, expelling part of the air in the ball
by bringing a lighted taper near it; then,
withdrawing the taper, the matter is sucked
into the ball, in which it may be sealed up
hermetically or cemented, and thus kept for a
length of time. It is, however, now generally
preserved between two small pieces of glass,
or in straight capillary glass tubes. It is said
that cotton thread is a convenient and efficient
vehicle. The matter may be liquefied with a
little clean water before application. A degree
of heat scarcely higher than that of the blood
lessens its efficacy.
WAC'UUM. Empty space; a portion of

1136
VALERIAN–VANILLA.
space void of matter. For experimental and
manufacturing purposes, a sufficient vacuum is
produced either by means of the air-pump, or
by filling an enclosed space by steam, which
is then condensed by the application of cold.
Evaporation proceeds much more rapidly, and
liquids boil at much lower temperatures in an
exhausted receiver than when exposed to the
air. Thus, under ordinary circumstances, in
the air, ether boils at 96°, alcohol at 177°, and
water at 212° Fahr. ; but in vacuo water boils
at about 88°, alcohol at 56°, and ether at
—20° Fahr. In the best vacuum obtainable
by a powerful air-pump, water placed over oil
of vitriol, to absorb the aqueous vapour as it
forms, will often enter into violent ebullition
whilst ice is in the act of formation on its sur-
face. The reduction of the boiling-point with
reduced pressure is practically taken advantage
of by the pharmaceutist in the preparation
of extracts, by the sugar refiner in the eva-
poration of his syrups, by the distiller in the
production of certain liqueurs, and by the
chemist in a variety of processes of interest or
utility. See EXTRACTS, EVAPORATION, RE-
FRIGERATION, &c.
WALE"RIAN. Syn. VALERIANA, RADIx
(B. P.), WALERIANAE RADIX, WALERIANA (Ph.
L. E. & D.), L. “The root of the wild plant
Valeriana officinalis (Linn.), or wild valerian.”
(Ph. L.) An excitant, antispasmodic, tonic,
and emmenagogue, not only acting on the
secretions, but exercising a specific influence
over the cerebro-spinal system, and in large
quantities producing agitation, mental exalta-
tion, and even intoxication.—Dose. 10 to 30
or 40 grs., thrice daily; in hysteria, epilepsy,
headache (affecting only one side), morbid
nervous sensibility, &c. Even the odour of it
exerts a species of fascination over cats.
WALERIAN'IC ACID. HC, H,0s. Syn. VA-
LERIC ACID; ACIDUMWALERLANICUM, A. VALE-
RICUM, L. Prep. 1. A mixture of potato oil or
corn-spirit oil (hydrated oxide of amyl) with
about 10 times its weight of quicklime and hy-
drate of potassa in equal proportions, placed in
a glass flask, is kept heated to about 400°Fahr.,
for 10 or 12 hours, by means of a bath of oil
or fusible metal; the nearly white solid resi-
duum is mixed with water, an excess of sulphu-
ric acid added to the mixture, and the whole sub-
jected to distillation; the distillate is super-
Saturated with potassa, evaporated nearly to
dryness, to dissipate any undecomposed potato
oil, and then mixed with weak sulphuric acidin
excess; a light oily liquid (terhydrated valeri-
anic acid) separates, which, by cautious recti-
fication, yields at first water containing a little
acid, and afterwards pure monohydrated vale-
rianic acid, which is perfectly identical with
that prepared from valerian root.
2. (Ph. D.) See WALERIANATE OF So-
DIUM. This is the most economical process.
Prop., &c. A limpid oily liquid, smelling
strongly of valerian root; it has an acid taste
and reaction, and leaves a sensation of sweet-
ness and a white spot on the tongue; is inflam.
mable; boils at 347°; is freely soluble in alco-
hol and ether; dissolves in 30 parts of water,
and forms salts called valerianates, most of
which have a sweetish taste, are soluble, and
uncrystallisable; sp. gr. 1937; placed in con-
tact with water, it absorbs a portion of it, and
is converted into the terhydrated acid, with
increase of sp. gr., and reduction of the boiling-
point.
WALE’RIC ACID. See WALERIANIC ACID.
WALO'NIA. The cup of a large species of
acorn, imported from the Levant. Used in
tanning leather.
WANAD'IC ACID. W.05. Syn. WANADIC AN-
HYDRIDE, TEROXIDE OF W.; ACIDUM WANADI-
CUM, L. Prep. (Johnston.) From the native
vanadate of lead, by dissolving it in nitric
acid, passing sulphuretted hydrogen through
the solution, to throw down lead and arsenic,
filtering, and evaporating the resulting blue
liquid to dryness; the residuum is then dis-
solved in a solution of ammonia, and a piece
of sal ammoniac, considerably larger than can
be dissolved, introduped; as the latter dis-
solves, a pulverulent precipitate of vanadate of
ammonium is formed, which must be washed,
first in a solution of sal ammoniac, and then in
alcohol of ‘860; by exposing this salt, in an
open platinum crucible, to a heat a little below
redness, and keeping it constantly stirred, until
it acquires a dark red colour, pure vanadic acid
is obtained. -
Prop., &c. Vanadic acid is orange-coloured,
scarcely soluble in water, and forms, with the
alkaline bases, soluble salts called wanadates;
and with the other bases sparingly soluble
salts. All of these have an orange or yellow
colour. “Vanadate of ammonia mixed with
solution of galls forms a black fluid, which is
the best writing ink hitherto known. The
quantity of the salt required for this purpose
is very small; the writing is perfectly black,
and not obliterated by alkalies, acids, chlorine,
or other reagents.” (Ure.)
WANA/DIUM. W. A rare metal discovered
by Sefstom, in 1830, in some Swedish iron ex-
tracted from an iron mine near Jönköping.
It has since been found in a lead ore from
Scotland, and in the iron slag of Stafford-
shire.
WANII/LA. Syn. VANILLE, Fr. The dried
pods of various species of Vanilla, a genus of
the natural order Orchidaceae. It is chiefly
used in the manufacture of chocolate and per-
fumery. As a medicine, it is much employed
on the Continent as an aromatic stimulant
and neurotic.—Dose. 6 to 12 grs. ; in asthe-
nic fevers, hysteria, hypochondriasis, impo-
tency, &c.
Vanilla is reduced to powder (PULVIS VA-
NILLE ; PouT)RE DE VANILLE) by slicing it,
and triturating the fragments with twice or
thrice their weight of well-dried lump sugar.
For SUCRE DE WANILLE, 11 parts of sugar are
employed.



VAN SWIETEN'S SOLUTION.—WARNISH.
ii.37
WAN SWIETEN'S SOLUTION. Contains
Tºoth part of its weight of corrosive sub-
imate; or ; gr. per fl. oz.
WARICOSE WEINS. See WARIX.
WA'RIX. The permanent unequal dilation
of a vein, or veins, which are then said to be
* varicose.” It is known by the presence of
a soft tumour, which does not pulsate, and
often assumes a serpentine figure. Varicose
veins of the groin and scrotum generally form
a collection of knots. The treatment consists
of cold applications, and pressure from ban-
dages. Some cases are relieved by ligature.
When occurring in the legs, much standing or
walking should be avoided, and the use of the
elastic stockings made for the purpose will be
proper. -
WAR/NISH. Syn. VERNIs, Fr. Any liquid
matter, which, when applied to the surface
of a solid body, becomes dry, and forms a
hard glossy coating, impervious to air and
moisture.
Varnishes are commonly divided into two
classes—FAT or OIL WARNISHES and SPIRIT
WARNISHES. The fixed or volatile oils, or mix-
tures of them, are used as vehicles or solvents
in the former, and concentrated alcohol in the
latter." The sp. gr. of alcohol for the purpose
of making warnishes should not be more than
'8156 (= 67 o.p.), and it should be preferably
chosen of even greater strength. A little
camphor is often dissolved in it, to increase its
solvent power. The oil of turpentine, which is
the essential oil chiefly employed for var-
nishes, should be pure and colourless. Pale
drying linseed oil is the fixed oil generally
used; but poppy oil and nut oil are also occa-
sionally employed. Among the substances
which are dissolved in the above menstrua are
—amber, animé, copal, elemi, lac, mastic, and
sandarach, to impart body and lustre ;
benzoin, on account of its agreeable odour;
annotta, gamboge, saffron, Socotrine aloes, and
turmeric, to give a yellow colour; dragon’s
blood and red sandal wood, to give ared tinge;
asphaltum, to give a black colour and body;
and caoutchouc to impart toughness and
elasticity.
In the preparation of spirit varnishes, care
should be taken to prevent the evaporation of
the alcohol as much as possible, and also to
preserve the portion that evaporates. On the
large scale, a common still may be advan-
tageously employed; the head being furnished
with a stuffing-box, to permit of the passage of
a vertical rod, connected with a stirrer at one
end and a working handle at the other. The
gum and spirit being introduced, the head of
the still closely fitted on and luted, and the
connection made with a proper refrigerator,
heat (preferably that of steam or a water bath)
should be applied, and the spirit brought to a
gentle boil, after which it should be partially
withdrawn, and agitation continued until the
* Methylated spirit is now generally used for making
spirit warnishes, in place of duty-paid alcohol.
gum is dissolved. The spirit which has distilled
over should be then added to the varnish, and,
after thorough admixture, the whole should be
run off, as rapidly as possible, through a silk-
gauze sieve, into stone jars, which should be
immediately corked down, and set aside to
clarify. On the small scale, spirit varnishes
are best made by maceration in closed bottles
or tin cans, either in the cold or by the heat
of a water bath. In order to prevent the
agglutination of the resin, it is often advan-
tageously mixed with clean siliceous sand or
pounded glass, by which the surface is much
increased, and the solvent power of the men-
struum greatly promoted.
To ensure the excellence of oil varnishes, one
of the most important points is the use of good
drying oil. Linseed oil for this purpose should
be very pale, perfectly limpid or transparent,
scarcely odorous, and mellow and sweet to the
taste.—100 gall, of such an oil is put into an
iron or copper boiler, capable of holding fully
150 galls, gradually heated to a gentle simmer,
and kept near that point for about 2 hours, to
expel moisture; the scum is then carefully re-
moved, and 14 lbs. of finely pulverised scale
litharge, 12 lhs. of red lead, and 8 lbs. of pow-
dered umber (all carefully dried and free from
moisture), are gradually sprinkled in ; the
whole is then kept well stirred, to prevent the
driers sinking to the bottom, and the boiling is
continued at a gentle heat for about 3 hours
longer; the fire is next withdrawn, and, after
30 to 40 hours' repose, the scum is carefully
removed, and the clear supernatant oil de-
canted from the ‘bottoms.”—The product
forms the best boiled or drying-oil of the
warnish-maker.—Another method is to heat
a hogshead of the oil gradually for 2 hours,
then to gently simmer it for about 3 hours
longer, and, after removing the scum, to add,
gradually, 1 lb. of the best calcined magnesia,
observing to mix it up well with the oil, and,
afterwards, to continue the boiling pretty
briskly for at least an hour, with constant
agitation. The fire is then allowed to die
away, and, after 24 hours, the oil is decanted
as before. The product is called ‘clarified
oil, and requires to be used with driers. It
should be allowed to lay in the cistern for 2 or
3 months to clarify.
In the preparation of oil varnishes, the gum
is melted as rapidly as possible, without dis-
colouring or burning it; and when completely
fused, the oil, also heated to nearly the boiling-
point, is poured in, after which the mixture
is boiled until it appears perfectly homo-
geneous and clear, like oil, when the heat is
raised, the driers (if any are to be used)
gradually and cautiously sprinkled in, and
the boiling continued, with constant stirring,
for 3 or 4 hours, or until a little, when cooled
on a palette knife, feels strong and stringy
between the fingers. The mixture is next
allowed to cool considerably, but while still
quite fluid, the turpentine, *} made
2
1138 WARNISH.
moderately hot, is cautiously added, and the
whole thoroughly incorporated. The varnish
is then run through a filter or sieve into stone
jars, cans, or other vessels, and set aside to
clarify itself by subsidence. When no driers
are used, the mixture of oil and gum is boiled
until it runs perfectly clear, when it is removed
from the fire, and, after it has cooled a little,
the turpentine is added as before.
It is generally conceived that the more
perfectly the gum is fused, or run, as it is
called, the larger and stronger will be the
product ; and the longer the boiling of the
‘gum' and oil is continued, within moderation,
the freer the resulting warnish will work and
cover. An excess of heat renders the varnish
stringy, and injuries its flowing qualities.
For pale varnishes as little heat as possible
should be employed throughout the whole
process. Good body warnishes should contain
1% lb. ; carriage, wainscot, and mahogany var-
mish, fully 1 lb. ; and gold size, and black japan,
fully 3 lb. of gum per gall., besides the
asphaltum in the latter. Spirit varnishes
should contain about 2% lbs. of gum per gall.
The use of too much driers is found to injure
the brilliancy and transparency of the varnish.
Copperas does not combine with varnish, but
only hardens it ; sugar of lead, however, dis-
solves in it to a greater or less extent. Boiling
oil of turpentine combines very readily with
melted copal, and it is an improvement on the
common process to use it, either before or in
conjunction with the oil, in the preparation of
copal varnish that it is desired should be very
white. Gums of difficult solubility are ren-
dered more soluble by being exposed, in the
state of powder, for some time to the air.
Warnishes, like wines, improve by age; and
should always be kept as long as possible
before use.
From theinflammable nature of thematerials
of which warnishes are composed, their manu-
facture should be only carried on in some
detached building of little value, and built of
uninflammable materials. When a pot of
warnish, gum, or turpentine catches fire, it is
most readily extinguished by closely covering
it with a piece of stout woollen carpeting, which
should be always kept at hand, ready for the
purpose.
An excellent paper, by Mr. J. W. Niel, on
the manufacture of varnishes, will be found in
the ‘Trans. of the Soc. of Arts,’ vol. 49. See
also the articles ALCOHOL, AMBER, COPAL,
OILS, &c., in this work.
Warmish, Amber. Prep. 1. Take of amber
(clear and pale), 6 lbs. ; fuse it, add of hot
clarified linseed oil, 2 galls. ; boil until it
‘strings well, then let it cool a little, and
add of oil of turpentine, 4 galls. or q. s. Nearly
as pale as copal varnish ; it soon becomes
very hard, and is the most durable of the oil
varnishes; but it requires some time before it
is fit for polishing, unless the articles are
‘stoved.” When required to dry and harden
quicker, drying oil may be substituted for
the linseed oil, or ‘driers’ may be added
during the boiling.
2. Amber, 4 oz. ; pale boiled oil, 1 quart;
proceed as last. Very hard.
3. Pale transparent amber, 5 oz.; clarified
linseed oil or pale boiled oil, and oil of tur-
pentine, of each, 1 pint ; as before.
Obs. Amber varnish is suited for all pur-
poses where a very hard and durable oil war-
nish is required. The paler kind is superior
to copal warnish, and is often mixed with
the latter to increase its hardness and durabi-
lity. The only objection to it is the diffi-
culty of preparing it of a very pale colour. It
may, however, be easily bleached with some
fresh-slaked lime.
Warmish, Balloon. See FLEXIBLE WARNISH
(below).
Warmish, Bessemer’s. This consists of a pale
oil copal warnish, diluted with about 6 times
its volume of oil of turpentine, the mixture
being subsequently agitated with about 1-30th
part of dry slaked lime, and decanted after a
few days’ repose. 5 parts of the product
mixed with 4 parts of bronze powder forms
* Bessemer’s gold paint.” -
Warnish, Black. Prep. 1. (BLACK AMBER
WARNISH.) From amber, 1 lb.; fuse, add, of
hot drying oil, ; pint; powdered black resin,
3 oz. ; asphaltum (Naples), 4 oz.; when pro-
perly incorporated and considerably cooled,
add of oil of turpentine, 1 pint. This is the
beautiful black varnish of the coachmakers.
2. (IRONWORK BLACK). From asphaltum,
48 lbs. ; fuse, add of boiled oil, 10 galls.; red
lead and litharge, of each, 7 lbs. ; dried and
powdered white copperas, 3 lbs. ; boil for 2
hours, then add of dark gum amber (fused),
8 lbs. ; hotlinseed oil, 2 galls; boil for 2 hours
longer, or until a little of the mass, when
cooled, may be rolled into pills, then with-
draw the heat, and afterwards thin it down
with oil of turpentine, 30 galls. Used for the
ironwork of carriages, and other nice purposes,
3. (BLACK JAPAN, BITUMINOUS WARNISH.)
—a. From Naples asphaltum, 50 lbs.; dark gum
animé, 8 lbs. ; fuse, add of linseed oil, 12 galls.;
boil as before, then add of dark gum amber,
10 lbs., previously fused and boiled with lin-
seed oil, 2 galls. ; next add of driers, q. S., and
further proceed as ordered in No. 2. Ex-
cellent for either wood or metals.
b. From burnt umber, 8 oz.; true asphaltum,
4 oz. ; boiled linseed oil, 1 gal.; grind the
umber with a little of the oil; add it to the
asphaltum, previously dissolved in a small
quantity of the oil by heat; mix, add the
remainder of the oil, boil, cool, and thin with
a sufficient quantity of oil of turpentine,
Flexible.
4. (BRUNSWICK BLACK.)—a. To asphalt,
2 lbs., fused in an iron pot, add of hot boiled
oil, 1 pint; mix well, remove the pot from
the fire, and, when cooled a little, add of oil
of turpentine, 2 quarts. Used to blacken and


WARNISH.
1139
polish grates and ironwork. Some makers
add driers. -
b. From black pitch and gas-tar asphaltum,
of each, 25 lbs. ; boil gently for 5 hours, then
add, of linseed oil, 8 galls.; litharge and red
lead, of each, 10 lbs. ; boil as before, and thin
with oil of turpentine, 20 galls. Inferior to
the last, but cheaper.
Warmish, Body. Prep. 1. From the finest
African copal, 8 lbs.; drying oil, 2 galls. ; oil
of turpentine, 3% galls.; proceed as for AMBER
WARNISH. Very hard and durable.
2. Pale gum copal,8lbs.; clarified oil, 2 galls;
dried sugar of lead, 3 lb.; oil of turpentine,
3% galls. ; proceed as before, and mix the
product, whilst still hot, with the following
varnish:-pale gum animé, 8 lbs. ; linseed oil,
2 galls. ; dried white copperas, # lb.; oil of tur-
pentine, 3% galls.; the mixed varnishes are to
be immediately strained into the cans or
cistern. Dries in about 6 hours in winter, and
in about 4 hours in summer. Used for the
bodies of coaches and other vehicles.
Warnish, Bookbinder's. Prep. Take of pale
gum Sandarach, 3 oz. ; rectified spirit, 1 pint;
dissolve by cold digestion, and frequent agi-
tation. Used by binders, to varnish morocco
leather book-covers. A similar varnish is also
prepared from very pale shell-lac and wood
naphtha.
Warnish, Cabinet-maker's.
occasionally so called.
Warmish, Carriage. Prep. 1. (SPIRIT.) Take
of gum sandarach, 14 lb. ; very pale shell-lac,
#1b.; very pale transparent resin, 3 lb.; rec-
tified spirit of 8221 (64 o. p.) 3 quarts;
dissolve, and add of pure Canadian balsam,
1% lb. Used for the internal parts of carriages,
&c. Dries in 10 minutes or less.
2. (OIL.)—a. (Best pale.) Take of pale
African copal, 8 lbs. ; fuse, add of clarified
linseed oil, 2% galls. ; boil until very stringy,
then add of dried copperas and litharge, of
each, 3 lb. ; again boil, thin with oil of tur-
pentine, 5% galls, mix, whilst both are hot,
with the following varnish, and immediately
strain the mixture into a covered vessel:—
Gum animé,8 lbs.; clarified linseed oil, 2% galls.;
dried sugar of lead and litharge, of each, 4 lb.;
boil as before, thin with oil of turpentine,
5% galls. Dries in 4 hours in summer, and 6
in winter. Used for the wheels, springs, and
carriage parts of coaches, and other vehicles,
and by house painters, decorators. &c., who
want a strong, quick-drying, and durable
varnish.
b. (Second quality.) From gum animé
(‘sorts'), 8 lbs. ; clarified oil, 3 galls.; litharge,
5 oz. ; dried and powdered sugar of lead and
white copperas, of each, 4 oz. ; boil as last,
and thin with oil of turpentine, 5% galls. Used
as the last. -
Warnish, Chinese. Prep. From mastic and
sandarach, of each, 2 oz. ; rectified spirit
(64 o. p.), 1 pint; dissolve. Dries in 6 mi-
nutes. Very tough and brilliant.
French polish is
Warmish, Copal. Prep. 1. (OIL) – From
pale hard copal, 2 lbs. ; fuse, add of hot drying
oil, 1 pint ; boil as before directed, and thin
with oil of turpentine, 3 pints, or q. s. Dries
hard in 12 to 24 hours.
b. From clear and pale African copal, 8 lbs.;
pale drying oil, 2 galls, ; rectified oil of tur-
pentine, 3 galls.; proceed as before and imme-
diately strain it into the store can or cistern.
Very fine, hard, and durable.
2. (SPIRIT.)—a. From coarsely powdered
copal and glass, of each, 4 oz. ; alcohol of 90;
(64. o. p.), 1 pint; camphor, oz. ; heat the
mixture, with frequent stirring, in a water
bath, so that the bubbles may be counted as
they rise, until solution is complete, and, when
cold, decant the clear portion.
b. From copal (which has been melted,
dropped into water, and then dried and pow-
dered), 4 oz. ; gum Sandarach, 6 oz. ; mastic,
2 oz. ; pure Chio turpentine, 3 oz. ; powdered
glass, 5 oz. ; spirit of 90%, 1 quart; dissolve by
a gentle heat. Dries rapidly.
3. (TURPENTINE.) To oil of turpentine,
1 pint, heated in a water bath, add, in small
portions at a time, of powdered copal (pre-
pared as above), 3 to 4 oz. ; dissolve, &c., as
before. Dries slowly, but is very pale and
durable.
4. (JAPANNER's COPAL VARNISH.) From
pale African copal, 7 lbs.; pale drying oil, #
gal.; oil of turpentine, 3 galls.; proceed as in
No. 1. Dries in 20 to 60 minutes, and may be
polished as soon as hard, particularly if stoved.
See JAPANNING. -
Obs. All copal varnishes, when properly
made, are very hard and durable, though less
so than those of amber; but they have the
advantage over the latter of being paler.
They are applied on coaches, pictures, polished
metal, wood, and other objects requiring a good
durable varnish. Animé is frequently sub-
stituted for copal in the copal varnishes of the
shops. See BODY and CARRIAGE WARNISHES,
CoPAL, &c.
Warnish, Crystal. Prep. 1. From genuine
pale Canada balsam and rectified oil of turpen-
time, equal parts. Used for maps, prints,
drawings, and other articles of paper, and also
to prepare tracing paper, and to transfer
engravings.
2. Mastic, 3 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 pint;
dissolve. Used to fix pencil drawings.
Warmish, Drying. Spirit copal warnish.
Warnish, Dutch. Lac and toy warnishes are
often so called.
Warmish, Etch'ing. See ETCHING.
Warnish, Fat. See OIL WARNISH.
Warmish, Flexible. Syn. BALLOON VARNISH,
CAOUTCHOUC V., INDIA-RUBBER. V. Prep. 1.
From India rubber (cut small), 1% oz.: chlo-
roform, ether (washed), or bisulphuret of
carbon, 1 pint ; digest in the cold until solu-
tion is complete. Dries as soon as it is laid
on. Pure gutta percha may be substituted
for India rubber.

1140
WARNISH.
2. India rubber, in shavings, 1 oz. ; rectified
mineral naphtha or benzol, 1 pint; digest at
a gentle heat, in a closed vessel, and strain.
Dries very badly, and never gets perfectly
hard.
3. India rubber, 1 oz. ; drying oil, 1 quart;
dissolve by heat. Very tough; dries in about
48 hours.
4. Linseed oil, 1 gal.; dried white copperas
and sugar of lead, of each, 3 oz. ; litharge,
8 oz.; boil, with constant agitation, until it
strings well, then cool slowly, and decant the
clear portion. If too thick, thin it down with
quick-dying linseed oil. The above are used
for balloons, gas bags, &c. See BALLOON,
CAOUTCHOUC, &c.
Warnish, Furniture. A solution of pure white
wax, 1 part, in rectified oil of turpentine,
4 parts, frequently passes under this name.
See BODY, CARRIAGE, and COPAL WARNISHES,
&c.
Warmish, Gilder's. Prep. (Watin.) Pale
gum-lacin grains, gamboge, dragon's blood, and
annotta, of each, 12% oz. ; saffron, 3} oz. ;
dissolve each resin separately in 5 pints of
alcohol of 90%, and make two separate tinc-
tures of the dragon’s blood and annnotta, with a
like quantity of spirit; then mix the solutions
in the proper proportions to produce the
required shade. Used for gilded articles, &c.
Warnish, Glass. A solution of soluble glass.
Used to render wood, &c., fire-proof.
Warnish, Gun-barrel. Prep. From shell-lac,
1% oz. ; dragon’s blood, 3 drs. ; rectified spirit,
1 quart. Applied after the barrels are
* browned.”
Warnish, Hair. Prep. From hog's bristles
(chopped small), 1 part ; drying oil, 10 parts;
dissolve by heat. Said to be used to give
cotton or linen cloth the appearance of horse-
hair.
Warmish, India-rubber.
MISH (above).
Warnish, Italian. Prep. Boil scio turpen-
tine until brittle, powder it, and dissolve
this in oil of turpentine. Used for prints,
&c.
Warnish, Japan, Pale amber or copal war-
nish. Used for japanning tin, papier mâché,
&c.
Warmish, Lac. Prep. 1. Pale seed-lac (or
shell-lac), 8 oz. ; rectified spirit, 1 quart; dis-
solve.
2. Substitute lac bleached with chlorine for
seed-lac. Both are very tough, hard, and
durable, but quite inflexible. Wood naphtha
may be substituted for spirit. Used for pic-
tures, metal, wood, or leather, and particu-
larly for toys.
Warmish, Lac (Aqueous). Prep. From pale
shell-lac, 5 OZ, ; borax, 1 oz. ; water, 1 pint;
digest at nearly the boiling-point until dis-
solved; then strain. Equal to the more costly
spirit varnish for many purposes; it is an ex-
cellent vehicle for water colours, inks, &c.;
when dry, it is waterproof.
See FLEXIBLE WAR-
Warnish, Lac (Coloured). Syn.
BRASSWORK WARNISH. Prep.
turmeric (ground), 1 lb.; rectified spirit, 2
galls. ; macerate for a week, strain, with ex-
pression, and add to the tincture, gamboge,
1% oz. ; pale shell-lac, # lb. ; gum Sandarach,
3} lbs. ; when dissolved, strain, and further
add of good turpentine varnish, 1 quart. Gold
coloured.
LACQUER,
2. Seed-lac, 3 oz. : turmeric, 1 oz.: dragon's
2 3. 3. 2 >
blood, 4 oz. ; rectified spirit, 1 pint; digest
for a week, frequently shaking, then decant
the clear portion. Deep gold coloured.
3. Spanish annotta, 3 lbs. ; dragon’s blood,
1 lb. ; gum sandarach, 34 lbs. ; rectified spirit,
2 galls. ; turpentine warnish, 1 quart; as before.
Red coloured.
4. Gamboge, 1 oz. ; Cape aloes, 3 oz. ; pale
shell-lac, 1 lb.; rectified spirit, 2 galls.; as
bofore. Pale brass coloured.
5. Seed-lac, dragon's blood, annotta, and
gamboge, of each, # lb.; gum sandarach, 20Z.;
saffron, 1 oz. ; rectified spirit, 1 gall. Re-
sembles the last.
Obs. Lacquers are used upon polished
metals and wood, to impart to them the
appearance of gold. Articles in brass, tin
plate, and pewter, or which are covered with
tinfoil, are more especially so treated. As
lacquers are required of different depths and
shades of colour, it is best to keep a concen-
trated solution of each of the colouring ingre-
dients ready, so that it may be added, at any
time, to produce any desired tint.
Warmish, Mahogany. Prep. From gum
animé (‘sorts'), 8 lbs. ; clarified oil, 3 galls.;
litharge and powdered dried sugar of lead, of
each, 4 lb. ; proceed as for body warnish, and
thin with oil of turpentine, 5 galls., or q. s.
Warnish, Mastic.
1. Take of pale and picked gum mastic, 5 lbs. ;
glass (pounded as small as barley, and well
washed and dried), 3 lbs. ; finest newly recti-
fied oil of turpentine (lukewarm), 2 galls; put
them into a clean 4-gall. tin bottle or can,
bung down securely, and keep rolling it back-
wards and forwards pretty smartly on a
counter, or any other solid place, for at least
4 hours, when, if the gum is all dissolved,
the varnish may be decanted, strained through
muslin into another bottle, and allowed to
settle; if the solution is still incomplete, the
agitation must be continued for some time
longer, or the gentle warmth applied as well.
Very fine.
2. (Second quality.) From mastic, 4 lbs. ;
oil of turpentine, 2 galls.; dissolve with heat.
Obs. Mastic varnish is much used for pic-
tures, &c.; when good, it is tough, hard,
brilliant, and colourless. It greatly improves
by age, and, when possible, should never be
used before it has been made at least a twelve-
month. Should it get ‘ chilled, 1 lb. of well-
washed siliceous sand should be made mode-
rately hot, and added to each gallon, which
1. Take of
Syn. PICTURE WARNISH,
TURPENTINE v., TINGRY's ESSENCE v. Prep."

WARNISH.
1141
must then be well agitated for 5 minutes, and
afterwards allowed to settle.
Warmish, Oak. Syn. WAINSCOT WARNISH,
CoMMON TURPENTINE v. Prep. 1. Clear
pale resin, 3% lbs. ; oil of turpentine, 1 gal. ;
dissolve.
2. To the last add of Canada balsam, 1 pint.
Both are cheap and excellent common var-
nishes for wood or metal.
Warnish, Oil. The finer qualities are noticed
under AMBER, BODY, CARRIAGE, and COPAL
WARNISH; the following produces the ordinary
oil varnish of the shops:–Take of good clear
resin, 3 lbs. ; drying oil, ; gal.; melt, and thin
with oil of turpentine, 2 quarts. A good and
durable varnish for common work.
Warmish, Painter’s. See CARRIAGE, COPAL,
MAHOGANY, OAR, OIL, and other varnishes.
The selection depending greatly on the colour
and quality of the work.
Warmish, Patent Leather. This is carefully
prepared drying oil. The skins being stretched
on a board, and every trace of grease being
removed from them by means of a mixture of
fuller’s earth and water, they are ready to
receive the varnish, which is then spread
upon them, very thinly, by means of a species
of scraper. The first coat varnish consists of
pale Prussian blue (that containing some
alumina), 5 oz. ; drying oil, 1 gal.; boiled to
the consistence of single size, and, when cold,
ground with a little vegetable black; it is
stoved, and afterwards polished with fine-
grained pumice;—the second coating resembles
the first, excepting in having a little pure
Prussian blue mixed with it;-the third coat
varnish consists of a similar mixture, but the
oil is boiled until it strings well, and a little
more pure Prussian blue and vegetable black
are added;—the last coat varnish, or finish, is
the same as the third, but must contain } lb.
of pure dark-coloured Prussian blue, and 4 lb.
of pure vegetable black per gal., to which a
little oil copal or amber varnish is often added;
each coat being duly stoved and pumiced
before the next is applied. The heat of the
stove or oven is commonly 120° Fahr. for
* enamelled skins,” as those of the calf and seal,
intended for “uppers;' and 175° to 180° for
stout “japan leather; the exposure in the
stove is commonly for 6 to 10 hours. The skins
are next oiled, and grained. The ‘graining '
of the “enamelled skins’ is done by holding
the skin in one hand, and with a curved board
lined with cork (graining stick), lightly pressed
upon the fleshy side, working it up and down
until the proper effect is produced.
Warnish, Picture. Several varnishes, especi-
ally mastic varnish, are called by this name.
Pale copal or mastic varnish is generally used
for oil paintings, and crystal, white hard
spirit, or mastic varnish, for water-colour
drawings on paper.
Warnish, Printer's, Diluted with twice its
volume of oil of turpentine, it forms a good
common warnish.
Warmish, Sealing-wax. Black, red, or any
coloured sealing-wax, broken small, with
enough rectified spirit (or methylated spirit) to
cover it, digested till dissolved. A most useful
varnish for wood-work of electrical or chemical
apparatus, for tops of corks, &c.
Warmish, Spirit. Prep. 1. (BROWN HARD.
—a. From gum sandarach, 3 lbs. ; pale seed-
lac or shell lac, 2 lbs. ; rectified spirit (65 o.
p.), 2 galls.; dissolve, and add of turpentine
warnish, 1 quart; agitate well, strain (quickly)
through gauze, and in a month decant the clear
portion from the sediment. Very fine.
b. From seed-lac and yellow resin, of each,
13 lb. ; rectified spirit, 5 quarts; oil of tur-
pentine, 1% pint; dissolve. Inferior to the
last.
2. (WHITE HARD.)—a. From gum sandarach
(picked), 5 lbs. ; camphor, 2 oz. ; washed and
dried coarsely pounded glass, 3 lbs. ; rectified
spirit (65 o. p.), 7 quarts; proceed as in
making mastic varnish; when strained, add of
pure Canada balsam, 1 quart. Very pale,
durable, and brilliant.
b. From gum sandarach and gum mastic,
of each, picked, 4 oz.: coarsely powdered
glass, 8 oz. ; rectified spirit, 1 quart; dissolve,
and add of pure Strasburg turpentine, 3 oz.
Very fine. -
3. (SoFT BRILLIANT.) From sandarach, 6
oz.; elemi (genuine), 4 oz. ; animé, 1 oz. ;
camphor, 3 oz. ; rectified spirit, 1 quart; as
before.
4. (SCENTED.) To the preceding add some
gum benzoin, balsam of Peru, balsam of Tolu,
oil of lavender, or the essence of musk or am-
bergris. The first two can only be employed
for dark warnishes.
Obs. The above varnishes are chiefly applied
to articles of the toilette, as work-boxes, card-
cases, &c.; but are also suitable to other
articles, whether of paper, wood, linen, or
metal, that require a brilliant and quick-drying
varnish. They dry almost as soon as applied,
and are usually hard enough to polish in
24 hours. They are, however, much less
durable, and more liable to crack, than oil
varnishes.
Warmish, Stopping-out. Syn. PETIT VERNIS,
Fr. From lampblack, made into a paste with
turpentine. Used by engravers. See ETCH-
ING.
Warmish, Tingry’s. MASTIC VARNISH.
Warmish, Toy. Similar to common spirit
varnish, but using carefully rectified wood
naptha as the solvent. See LAC and SPIRIT
WARNISH.
Warnish, Transfer. Syn. MoRDANT WAR-
NISH. Prep. From mastic (in tears) and
sandarach, of each, 4 oz. ; rectified spirit, 1%
pint ; dissolve, and add of pure Canada balsam,
# pint. Used for transferring and fixing en-
gravings or lithographs on wood, and for
gilding, silvering, &c. See CRYSTALWARNISH.
Warnish, Turpentime. See MASTIC and OAK
WARNISH.
1142 WARNISHING-VEGETABLES.
Warmish, Wainscot. See OAR WARNISH.
Warnish, Wax. Syn. MILK OF WAx; EMUL-
SIo CERAE SPIRITUOSA, L. Prep. Take of
white wax (pure), 1 lb. ; melt it with as gentle
a heat as possible, add of warm rectified spirit,
sp. gr. 830 (60 o. p.), 1 pint ; mix perfectly,
and pour the liquid out upon a cold porphyry
slab; next grind it with a muller to a perfectly
smooth paste, adding more spirit, as required;
put the paste into a marble mortar, make an
emulsion with water, 3% pints, gradually
added, and strain it through muslin. Used as
a varnish for paintings; when dry, a hot iron
is passed over it, or heat is otherwise evenly
applied, so as to fuse it, and render it trans-
parent, after which, when quite cold, it is
polished with a clean linen cloth. The most
protective of all varnishes.
2. Wax (pure), 5 oz. ; oil of turpentine, 1
quart ; dissolve. Used for furniture. See
SEALING-WAX, WARNISH.
Warmish, White, See SPIRIT WARNISH, 2
a and b.
WAR/NISHING. To give the highest degree
of lustre to varnish after it is laid on, as well
as to remove the marks of the brush, it under-
goes the operation of polishing. This is per-
formed by first rubbing it with very finely
powdered pumice-stone and water, and, after-
wards, with an oiled rag and tripoli, until the
required polish is produced. The surface is,
last of all, cleaned with soft linen cloths,
cleared of all greasiness with powdered starch,
and then rubbed bright with the palm of the
hand.
In varnishing, great care must be taken that
the surface is free from grease or smoke; as,
unless this be the case, the best oil or turpen-
tine varnish in the world will not dry and
harden. Old articles are usually washed with
soap and water, by the painters, before being
varnished, to prevent any misadventure of the
kind alluded to.
WEAL. “The grain should be close, firm,
and white, and the fat of a pinkish-white, not
a dead white, and the kidneys well covered
with a thick white fat.” (Soyer.)
Weal, like pork, requires to be well dressed,
to develop its nutritive qualities. It should
also be eaten fresh, as a peculiar principle is
generated in it when improperly kept, which
º as a malignant poison. See ROASTING,
C.
WEG'ETABLE AL/KALIf. Potassa.
WEGETABLE JUICES. See below.
WEGETABLES. Wegetables are organic
beings, which are distinguished from animals
by a number of characteristics, but, like them,
are composed of certain proximate principles,
or compounds, which possess a high degree of
scientific interest, and in many cases are in-
valuable to man. Among the most important
of these are—albumen, gluten, gum, lignin,
starch, sugar, tannin, wax, the fixed and volatile
oils, the resins, and gum-resins, the alkaloids,
and innumerable forms of extractive matter.
Several of these substances are noticed under
their respective names. .
The method of propagating plants from
their seeds, depending on their simple expo-
sure, at the proper season, to warmth and
moisture, under the protection of the soil, is
well known; that by propagation from “slips’
and “cuttings,” which will doubtless prove
interesting to theamateur gardener, are noticed
below.
The choice of slips and cuttings should be
made from the side shoots of trees and plants,
and, when possible, from such as recline
towards the ground, observing, when they are
removed by the knife, to leave a little wood of
a former year or season's growth attached to
them, as such are found to take root more
readily than when they are wholly composed
of new wood. The time to take slips or cut-
tings is as soon as the sap gets into full
motion. Before setting them the latter should
be cut across, just below an eye or joint, with
as smooth a section as possible, observing not
to injure the bud. The superfluous leaves may
be removed, but a sufficient number should be
left on for the purposes of vegetation. The
common practice of removing all or nearly all
the leaves of cuttings is injudicious. In some
cases leaves alone will strike root. When
cuttings are set in pots, they should be so
placed as to reach to the bottom and touch the
sides throughout their whole length, when
they will seldom fail to become rooted plants.
In the case of tubular-stalked plants, it is said
to be advantageous to insert both ends into
the soil, each of which will take root, and may
then be divided, when two plants will be pro-
duced instead of one. An equable temperature,
a moist atmosphere, a shady situation, and a
moderate supply of water, are the principal
requisites to induce speedy rooting. Excess of
any of these is prejudicial. When the size of
the cuttings admit, it is better to place them
under a hand- or bell-glass, which will preserve
a constant degree of heat, and prevent evapo-
ration from the surface of the leaves, which is
the most common cause of their dying, especi-
ally in hot, dry weather.
Qual. The vegetable kingdom furnishes by
far the larger portion of the food of man, and
indirectly, perhaps, the whole of it. The great
value of culinary vegetables and fruit in a
mixed diet need not be insisted on, since it is
a fact which is almost universally known and
appreciated.
In the choice of culinary vegetables, observe,
that if they are stiff and break freely and
crisply, they are fresh, and fit for food; if, on
the contrary, they have a flabby appearance, or
are soft or discoloured, they are stale, and
should be rejected.
The dose of the generality of vegetable sub-
stances that exercise no very marked action
on the human frame is about 3 to 1 dr. of the
powder, night and morning; or 1 oz., or q. S.
to impart a moderately strong colour or taste,



VEGETABLES.
1143
may be infused, or boiled, in 1 pint of water,
and a wine-glassful or thereabouts, taken 2 or 3
times a day.
Collection and pres. The following general
directions are given in the London Pharma-
copoeia for the collection and preservation of
vegetable substances—(vegetabilia Ph. L.):—
“Vegetables are to be collected in dry
weather, and when neither wet with rain nor
dew; they are to be collected annually, and are
not to be kept beyond a year.
“Barks are to be collected at that season in
which they can be most easily separated
from the wood.” Spring is the season here
alluded to ; as at this time, after the sap begins
to ascend, the bark is, in general, very easily
separated.
“Flowers are to be collected recently blown.”
The red rose, however, must be gathered before
the buds are expanded.
“Fruits and seeds are to be collected when
ripe.
“Herbs and leaves are to be gathered after
the flowers have expanded, and before the seeds
are mature.
“Roots and rhizomes (underground stems),
for the most part, are to be dug up after the
old leaves and stalks have fallen, and before
the new ones appear.” (“Roots, which are
required to be preserved fresh, should be buried
in dry sand.”—Ph.L. 1836.)
“Seeds are to be collected when they are ripe,
and before they drop from the plant.” (“They
ought to be preserved in their seed vessels.”—
Ph. L. 1836.)
“The different parts of vegetables are to be
kept dried for use, except where we shall
otherwise direct. Expose those you wish to
dry, within a short time after they have been
gathered, in shallow wicker baskets, to a gentle
heat, in a dark place, and where there is a
current of air. Then, the moisture being driven
off, gradually increase the heat to 150°Fahr.,
in order that they may be dried. Finally, pre-
serve the more delicate parts, viz., flowers and
leaves, in black glass vessels, well closed, and
keep the rest in proper vessels, preventing the
access of light and moisture.”
Fruits, culinary vegetables, and vegetable
juice, of every class, may be preserved for any
length of time by several of the methods de-
scribed under PUTREFACTION. On the small
Scale, the following method is often adopted :
—The substances to be preserved are put into
strong glass or stoneware bottles, with necks
of a proper size, which are then corked with
the greatest care, tied or wired, and luted with
a mixture of lime and soft cheese, or with a
paste formed of linseed meal and water, spread
on rags; or, tin cases are employed, and are
soldered up instead of being corked. The
bottles are then placed in an oven, the tem-
perature of which is cautiously raised to fully
212° Fahr. ; or, they are enclosed, separately,
in canvas bags, and put into a copper of
water to which some Salt has been added,
which is then gradually heated until it boils,
and thus kept for 15 or 20 minutes; the whole
is next left to cool, when the bottles are taken
out and carefully examined before being laid
by, lest they should have cracked, or the lute
have given way.
Herbs and flowers are now generally pre-
served for distillation by means of common
salt. The objection which is raised against the
use of fresh aromatic plants is thus obviated,
whilst the odours of the distilled products are
rendered superior to those obtained from either
the recent or dried plant, fruit, or flower, with-
out the great loss, inconvenience, or trouble-
attending the common methods. Besides,
many aromatic and odorous substances almost
entirely lose their properties by drying; while
most of them yield more oil, and that of a
finer quality, in the fresh than in the dried
state. The odours of roses, elder flowers, and
a variety of others, are vastly improved by
this treatment, and these flowers may thus be
preserved with ease and safety from season to
season, or even longer, if required. The pro-
cess simply consists in intimately mixing the
flowers, or other vegetables, soon after being
gathered, with about ; their weight, or less,
of good dry salt, and ramming down the mix-
ture as tightly as possible in strong casks.
The casks are then placed in a cold cellar, and
covered with boards, on which heavy weights
are put, to keep the mass tight and close. See
FRUITS, PUTREFACTION, &c.
Juices of Vegetables. 1. (ExPRESSED VEGE-
TABLE JUICE, SIMPLE W. J.; SUCCI Ex-
PRESSI, L.) These are obtained by bruising
the fresh leaves, or other vegetable matter, in a
marble mortar, or in a mill, and expressing the
liquid portion by means of a powerful screw
press. After defecation for 12 or 14 hours in
a cold situation, the juice is either decanted or
filtered from the feculous sediment, and is
next heated for some minutes to about 185°
Fahr., to coagulate albuminous matter. The
clear portion is subsequently separated as be-
fore, and the product preserved for use in well-
closed and well-filled bottles, in a cool situation.
Some plants, as borage, cabbage, &c., require the
addition of , of water before being pressed.
The expression of the juice of lemons, oranges,
quinces, &c., is facilitated by previously mixing
the pulp with clean chopped straw. Buck-
thorn berries, mulberries, &c., after being
crushed between the hands, are commonly left
for 3 or 4 days to undergo a slight fermenta-
tion, before pressing them.
The expression of the juices of the nar-
cotic plants, and of some other vegetables, has
lately assumed considerable interest, from these
juices being now extensively used in pharmacy
for the preparation of extracts and the pre-
served juices, noticed below. It appears that
the juice of young plants just coming into
flower yield only ; the amount of extract
which may be obtained from the same quantity
of juice expressed from the matured plant, or
1144. VEGETABLES.
when the flowers are fully blown, and the
strength of the product is also inferior; the
case appears to be best met by selecting the
plants when more than half the flowers are
fully blown. The leaves alone should be pre-
ferably employed, and should be exclusively of
the second year’s growth, when the plants are
biennials. (Squire.) The homoeopathists com-
monly employ the whole flowering herb.
The INSPISSATED VEGETABLE JUICES (SUC-
CUS SPISSATIS) are now included among the
extracts.
The principal simple vegetable juices of com-
Imerce are :-
BUCKTHoRN JUICE (SUCCUs RHAMNT—Ph.
L.), from the fruit of Rhamnus catharticus, or
buckthorn berries.
CITRON JUICE (SUCCUS CITRI), chiefly im-
ported from Italy in large casks.
LEMON JUICE (SUCCUs LIMONUM-Ph. L.),
from lemons that spoil before they can be
sold ; also imported.
MULBERRY: JUICE (SUCCUS MORI-Ph. L.),
from the fruit of the mulberry.
ORANGE JUICE (SUCCUs AURANTII), ob-
tained from the same source as that of
lemons.
CoNCENTRATED ORANGE JUICE (SUCCUS
SPISSATIS AURANTII vel AURANTIORUM) and
CoNCENTRATED LEMON JUICE (SUCCUS SPIS-
SATUS LIMONUM) are prepared by evaporating
the fresh juices of oranges and lemons, either
alone or mixed with sugar, and are employed
as substitutes for the fruit, where the latter
cannot be obtained.
2. (ALCOHOLISED VEGETABLE JUICES, PRE-
SERVED. W. J.; TINCTURES OF RECENT PLANTS ;
SUCCI ALCOHOLATI, L.; ALCOOLATURES, Fr.)
Prep. a. The juice, obtained by powerful
pressure, in the manner noticed above, is al-
lowed to remain for 24 hours in a cold place,
when the clear portion is decanted from the
feculous matter which has subsided, and is then
agitated with one half its volume of rectified
spirit (56 o. p.); after another 24 hours the
clear portion is again decanted and, if neces-
sary, filtered through bibulous paper or linen.
In this way are now generally prepared
the preserved juices of aconite, belladonna, col-
chicum (corms), hemlock, henbane, foxglove,
elaterium, lactura virosa, taraxacum, &c., sold
in this country.
b. (P. Cod.) To the fresh leaves, bruised in a
marble mortar, is added an equal weight of
rectified spirit, and, after maceration for 15
days, the whole is pressed, and the resulting
tincture filtered. In this manner are pre-
pared tinctures of the fresh leaves of aconite
(tinctura aconiti cum foliis recentibus, bella-
donna, foxglove, hemlock, henbane, strong-
scented lettuce (Lactuca virosa), stramonium,
trailing poison oak (Rhus towicodendron), mug-
wort (Artemisa vulgaris), colchicum (corms),
squirting cucumber, white poppy, taraxacum,
&c., &c., of the Paris Codex.
Obs. These tinctures are much more power-
ful, and more certain in their operation, than
those prepared from the dried plants. The
commencing dose is from 2 to 5 drops, the
effects of which should be carefully watched.
The products of the first of the above formula
keep as well as the ordinary tinctures, and
there is less waste of spirit than with the
second. That of the P. Cod. is, however, pre-
ferred by M. Soubeiran, as affording more
uniform products ; an opinion which is ques-
tionable. Béral orders equal weights of juice
and spirit ; Mr. Squire recommends part;
Messrs. Bentley & Davenport + part (both by
volume), and Mr. Gieseke only # part (by
weight), of spirit, to 1 part of the expressed
juice. The homoeopathists generally go with
M. Béral. “Our own experience, which has
been very considerable, and extends over
upwards of 16 years, leads us to prefer the pro-
portions given in formula a, which are similar
to those of Mr. Squire. If less spirit be em-
ployed, the product is apt to suffer rapid de-
terioration when kept in a warm shop or
surgery.” (Cooley.)
3. (ETHERIZED VEGETABLE JUICES; SUCCI
AETHERIZATI,-L. ; ETHáROLATURES, SUCS
ETHäRás, Fr.) For these we are indebted to
M. Bouchardat. They are prepared as fol-
lows: Ether is gradually added to the depu-
rated freshly expressed juice, until, after active
agitatiou, a thin layer of it rises to the surface
on the mixture being allowed to repose for a
minute or two ; the whole is then set aside for
24 hours, when the supernatant ether is ex-
pertly removed by means of a pipette or
syringe, and the juice is filtered; lastly, the
decanted ether is returned to the filtrate, and
the etherised juice is at once put into well-
stoppered bottles. For use, one of the bottles
is reversed, and the dose taken from the lower
part, so that the ether remains behind. We
find, in practice, that decantation, carefully
conducted, may be substituted for filtration ;
thus not only rendering the process less costly,
but ensuring a more uniform product.
The etherised juices are said to retain their
active properties for an indefinite period. The
method has been successfully applied to the
juices of aconite, anemone, black hellebore,
and hemlock, and is probably applicable to
many others; but, we think, not to the juices
of all the narcotic plants, as has been as-
serted.
been fancifully applied to the following:—
LEAD TREE ; ARBOR SATURNI. Take of
sugar of lead, 1 oz. ; distilled water, 1% pint;
acetic acid, a few drops; dissolve, place the
liquid in a clear white glass bottle, and sus-
pend a piece of zinc in it, by means of a fine
thread.
SILVER TREE: ARBOR DIANAE. From nitrate
of silver, 20 grs. ; water, 1 fl. Oz. ; dissolve
in a phial, and add about # dr. of pure mer-
Cury.
vićBTATION (Metallic). This name has
TIN TREE; ARBOR JOVIS. From chloride























VEGETO-ALKALI–VENTILATION.
1145
of tin, 3 drs. ; nitric acid, 10 to 15 drops; dis-
tilled or rain water, 1 pint; dissolve in a white
glass bottle, and hang in it, by a thread, a
small rod of zinc.
Obs. In the above experiments, the metals
are precipitated in a very beautiful arborescent
form. It is curious to observe the laminae
shoot out, as it were, from nothing, assuming
forms resembling real vegetation. This phe-
nomenon results from voltaic action being set
up between the liquid and the metal.
WEGET0-AL'KALI. See ALKALOID.
WEL'LUM. A fine kind of parchment pre-
pared from the skins of calves, kids, and lambs.
The skins are limed, shaved, washed, and
stretched in hoops or other frames, where they
are scraped and trimmed with the currier's
fleshing-knife, and next carefully rubbed down
with pumice-stone; they are, lastly, polished
with finely powdered chalk or fresh-slaked lime,
and then dried. A green colour is given with
a solution of crystallised verdigris, to which a
little cream of tartar and nitric acid has been
added; and a blue colour, with a solution of
indigo. The surface is often finished off with
white of egg, and subsequent friction.
The skins of sheep are commonly used for
parchment; those of he-goats and wolves for
drum-heads; and those of the ass, for battle-
dores. The species of vellum used for church
services by binders is said to be prepared from
pig-skins. See POUNCE.
WELVET COLOURS. Syn. MAP STAINs,
PAPER. S.; LACCA FLUIDA, L. Prep. 1.
(BLUE.)—a. Dissolve litmus in water, and add
# of spirit of wine.—b. Dilute Saxon blue or
sulphate of indigo with water. If required
for delicate work, neutralize the acid with
chalk-c. To an aqueous infusion of litmus
add a few drops of vinegar, until it turns of
a full blue. -
2. (GREEN.)—a. Dissolve crystallised verdi-
gris in water.—b. Dissolve sap green in water,
and add a little alum.—c. Add a little salt of
tartar to a blue or purple solution of litmus,
until it turns green.—d. Dissolve equal parts
of crystallised verdigris and cream of tartar
in water.
3. (PURPLE.)—a. Steep litmus in water, and
strain the solution.—b. Add a little alum to a
stained decoction of logwood.—c. Add a solu-
tion of carmine (red) to a little blue solution
of litmus or Saxon blue.
4. (RED.)—a. Macerate ground Brazil wood
in vinegar, boil a few minutes, strain, and add
a little alum and gum.—b. Add vinegar to an
infusion of litmus until it turns red.—c. Boil
or infuse powdered cochineal in water contain-
ing a little ammonia or sal volatile.—d. Dis-
solve carmine in liquor of ammonia, or in
weak carbonate of potash water; the former
is superb.
5. (YELLOW.)—a. Dissolve gamboge in water,
and add a little alum.—b. Dissolve gamboge in
equal parts of proof spirit and water. Golden
coloured,—c. Steep French berries in boiling
water, strain, and add a little alum.—d. Steep
turmeric, round Zedoary, gamboge, or annotta,
in a weak ley of subcarbonate of soda or pot-
ash.
Obs. The preceding, thickened with a little
gum, are used as inks for writing, as colours
to tint maps, foils, paper, artificial flowers, &c.,
and to paint on velvet. Some of them are
very beautiful. Those containing litmus are,
however, fugitive. It must be observed, that
those made with strong spirit do not mix well
with gum water, unless somewhat diluted with
water. Any other transparent colours or stains
may be employed for painting on velvet, as
well as the above. -
WELVET LEAF. Syn. PAREIRA BRAVA,
PAREIRA (Ph. L. E. & D.), L. “The root of
Cissampelos Pareira” (Ph. L.), white pareira
or velvet leaf. It is tonic, aperient, and diu-
retic.—Dose. 20 to 60 grs. ; in chronic and
purulent inflammation and extreme irritability
of the bladder; in leucorrhoea, dropsy, ulcera-
tion of the kidney, &c.
VEN'ISON. The flesh of several species of
deer. That from good land, killed at the
proper season, and eaten in a moderately fresh
state, is most easily digestible, and, perhaps,
the most wholesome, of all the red meats; but
when it is ‘high, or in a state of incipient pu-
trefaction, it is far from wholesome, and often
poisomous.
VENO BENO (La). See TEA.
VENTILATION. The proper ventilation of
our habitations, as well as of other buildings
in which we pass any considerable portion of
our time, is quite as necessary to health as
food and clothing. Lavoisier, writing in the
middle of the last century, remarks—“It is
certain that mankind degenerate when em-
ployed in sedentary manufactures, or living in
crowded houses, or in the narrow lanes of large
cities; whereas they improve in their nature
and constitution in most of the country la-
bours which are carried on in the open air.”
Yet many persons, by the care which they take
to shut out fresh air, and to prevent the escape
of that which their own bodies, by pulmonary
and surfacial respiration, have contaminated,
would seem to hug to themselves the discom-
fort of breathing over and over again an im-
pure and unrefreshing atmosphere, and to be
anxious to finish their career by lingering
suicide. The almost universal indifference to
the subject, considering its importance, is un-
accountable.
The first step towards effecting and main-
taining a liberal supply of fresh air, is either
by means of ventilators or by regularly open-
ing the windows for stated periods daily.
During the colder portion of the year, when
fires are kept burning, and there is an up-
current in the chimney, nothing is so simple
and effective as the well-known chimney-valve
of Dr. Arnott; and, indeed, without this, open
fires are powerful instruments of ventilation.
In cold weather, where expense is not an ob-

1146
VERATRINE–VERDIGRIS. w
ject, the apartments may be supplied with air
that has been previously warmed by passing
through a heated chamber, on the principle
recommended by Dr. Reid; but care must be
taken that, in warming the air, we do not
over-heat it, nor contaminate it.
A sufficient supply of light, another powerful
sanitary agent, is now regarded as nearly as
essential as thorough ventilation, and the two
are commonly treated of together. According
to Palladio, the opening of windows should not
exceed a fourth, nor be less than a fifth, of the
length of the side of a room, and should be in
height two and one sixth times the width.
Mr. Gwilt, another high authority on this sub-
ject, has given as a definite rule, that we should
allow 1 square foot of glass to every 100 cubic
feet of space in any apartment or enclosure.
A great deal must, however, depend on the
shape of the apartment; but, in all cases, care
should be taken that the windows are placed
at the longest side of the room, and not at the
marrowest, or the end of it. A southern aspect
affords the most light and heat; a northern
one, the most diffused and least variable light,
and is hence usually chosen by artists for their
studios.
VERATRINE. Cash;N,0s. Syn. VERA-
TRIA, WERATRINA, SABADILLINE ; WERATRIA
(B. P., Ph. L. & E.), L. An alkaloid dis-
covered by Pelletier and Caventou, in the
seeds of Asagreat officinalis (sabadilla), and
in the rhizomes of Veratrum album (white
hellebore).
Prep. 1. (Ph. E.) Digest sabadilla seeds
in boiling water for 24 hours, then squeeze
them, dry them thoroughly by a gentle heat,
beat them in a mortar, and separate the
seeds from the capsules by agitation in a deep
and narrow vessel; next grind the seeds in a
coffee-mill, and exhaust them by percolation
with rectified spirit; concentrate the resulting
tincture by distillation, so long as no deposit
forms, and pour the residuum, whilst still hot,
into 12 times its volume of cold water; then
filter through calico, and wash the residuum
on the filter as long as the washings yield a
precipitate with ammonia; unite the filtered
liquid with the washings, add ammonia in ex-
cess, collect the precipitate on a filter, wash
it slightly with cold water, and dry it first by
imbibition with filtering paper, and then in the
vapour bath. “The product is not pure, but
sufficiently so for medical use. From this
coloured substance it may be obtained white,
but at considerable loss, by solution in very
weak hydrochlorie acid, decolorisation with
animal charcoal, and reprecipitation with am-
monia.”
2. (Ph. L. 1836.) This is the same in prin-
ciple as the last; a tincture is formed by
boiling the seeds in rectified spirit, which is
then evaporated to a syrup, dissolved in very
dilute sulphuric acid, the veratrine precipitated
with magnesia, redissolved in very dilute acid,
treated with animal charcoal, the filtrate again
evaporated to a syrup, and precipitated with
ammonia; it is, lastly, washed and dried.
3. By means of ether, as noticed under AL-
KALOID and ACONITINE. This is by far the
best method.
Prop. Pure veratrine is perfectly white;
but as usually met with, it is a yellowish or
greenish-white powder; it is highly acrid;
uncrystallisable; scarcely soluble in water,
soluble in ether, and freely soluble in hot al-
cohol; heated to about 125° Fahr., it fuses
like wax, and solidifies, upon cooling, to a
transparent yellow mass. With the dilute
acid it forms salts, which are either amorphous
or difficultly crystallisable. The smallest pos-
sible portion of its powder causes violent
sneezing.
Tests. 1. Potassa, ammonia, and their car-
bonates, give flocculent white precipitates,which
at first are not crystalline under the micro-
scope, but which, after some minutes, assume
the appearance of small scattered clusters of
short prismatic crystals; they are insoluble
in excess of potassa and its carbonate, and
only very slightly so in excess of ammonia-
2. With sulphuric acid it strikes an intense red
colour, changing afterwards to crimson, and
finally to violet.—3. A dilute acetic solution of
veratrine is turned to a superb red by strong
sulphuric acid.
Weratrine is distinguished from brucine and
the other alkaloids by its fusibility—by the
crystalline form of its precipitate with po-
tassa, and—by its reaction with oil of vitriol.
Uses, &c. “As an external application, it
has been efficaciously employed by Magendie
in France, and by Dr. Turnbullin this country;
but the extravagant eulogies of the latter
have not tended to confirm the reputation of
this remedy.” (Dr. A. T. Thomson.) From
6 to 12 grs., dissolved in 1 fl, oz. of rectified
spirit, as a liniment; or 30 grs, mixed with
1 dr. of olive oil, and 1 oz. of lard, as an oint-
ment, have been occasionally found very ser-
viceable in nenralgia, and other like painful
affections, and in gouty and rheumatic para-
lysis. As an internal remedy, it possesses no
advantage, as it merely acts as a violent and
depressing cathartic.—Dose. #r to ºr gr. In
larger doses, it acts as a powerful irritant
poison. For antidotes, &c., see ALKALOID.
WERATRUM. See WHITE HELLEBORE.
WER/DIGRIS. Syn. AERUGO, L.; VERT-DE-
GRIs, Fr. This is a mixture of several basic
acetates of copper which have a green or
blue colour. It is obtained in the wine
districts of the south of Europe, by the action
of refuse grapes, from which the juice has
been expressed, on thin sheets of copper
When pure, it should dissolve, almost entirely,
and without effervescence, in dilute sulphuric
acid. It is very poisonous; for antidotes, see
CoPPER. -
An inferior quality of verdigris is now pre-
pared from pommage, or apple marc, in the
cider districts of England.


VERDITER—VERMILION.
1147
Verdigris, Distilled. Syn. CRYSTALLISED
VERDIGRIS. This name is applied to the
normal acetate of copper, which is prepared in
the wine districts by dissolving ordinary verdi-
gris, 1 part, in good distilled vinegar, 2 parts;
the operation being performed in a copper
vessel, by the aid of a gentle heat and agitation;
the solution is afterwards slowly evaporated
until a pellicle begins to form on the surface,
when it is transferred into glazed earthen pans
(‘oulas”), in each of which is placed 2 or 3
cleft sticks, and it is then left in a warm
apartment for 14 or 15 days, to crystallise.
A spurious article is often prepared by add-
ing a solution of sulphate of copper, 12% lbs.,
to a solution of sugar of lead, 19 lbs., or q. S.,
and filtering, evaporating, and crystallising
the mixture.
There is an acetate of copper and lime which
resembles distilled verdigris in colour. It was
manufactured pretty extensively in Scotland
some years ago, and fetched a high price, till
Dr. Ure published an analysis of it in the
* Edin. Phil. Trans.’ It is much inferior for
all uses in the arts.
Pure distilled verdigris is entirely soluble in
water, and is not precipitated on the addition
of sulphuric acid or of ammonia in excess.
Verdigris, English. Prep. Blue vitriol,
24 lbs. ; white vitriol, 16 lbs. ; sugar of lead,
12 lbs. ; alum, 2 lbs. ; (all coarsely powdered;)
mix, and heat them in a pot over the fire until
they unite into a mass. Sold by fraudulent
dealers for foreign verdigris.
WER/DITER. Syn. BLUE VERDITER, RE-
FINER's VERDITER; CENDRES BLEUES, Fr. A
blue pigment, obtained by adding chalk, whit-
ing, or milk of lime, to a solution of copper in
nitric acid; or, by triturating recently preci-
pitated and still moist carbonate of oxide of
copper with hydrate of lime.
Prep. A quantity of whiting or milk of
lime is put into a tub, and upon this the solu-
tion of copper is poured; the mixture is stirred
every day for some hours together, until the
liquor loses its colour; it is then poured off,
and more solution of copper added; this is
repeated until the whiting or lime has acquired
the proper colour; the whole is then washed
with water, drained, spread on chalk stones,
and dried in the sun.
Obs. The cupreous solution employed in
the above process is made by neutralising the
nitric solution obtained from the refiners of
gold and silver, by heating it along with me-
tallic copper. For the finer qualities of ver-
diter the lime should be of the purest kind,
and the cupreous precipitate should be care-
fully triturated with it, after it is nearly dry,
by which a fine velvety appearance is produced.
The “cendres bleues en pătes’ of the French
differ from the above mainly in a solu-
tion of chloride of copper being employed, and
in the resulting green precipitate being turned
blue by the action of carbonate of potassa.
Verditer is made into crayons whilst moist, or
dried into a powder, or it is used as a water
colour in the moist state.
Verditer, Green. Syn. BREMEN GREEN. The
process for refiner’s verditer frequently mis-
carries, and a green colour is produced instead
of a blue one. It may also be obtained directly
by omitting the ‘blueing up’ with carbonate
of potassa, mentioned above.
WER/JUICE. Syn. AGRESTA, OMPHACIUM,
L. The expressed juice of unripe grapes. The
term is also often extended to the expressed
juice of the wild or crab apple. It was for-
merly used as an astringent and refrigerant
in medicine; but it is now principally employed
as an ingredient in sauces, ragoûts, &c.
WERMICEL'LI. This, like macaroni, is
prepared from a stiff paste made of a peculiar
fine kind of granular wheat flour, called semoule,
which is mixed up with hot water, and, after
being well kneaded, is formed into small
ribands, cylinders, or tubes, by being placed
in a vertical cylinder press, the bottom of which
is filled with proper-shaped holes, through
which it is driven by an iron plate or ‘fol-
lower’ being forced down by a powerful
screw. The pieces that protrude are broken
off, twisted into any desired shape upon paper,
and dried. Those in the form of fillets or
ribands are called “lazagnes.’ See MACA-
IRONI.
WER/MIFUGES. Syn. ANTHELMINTICs;
ANTHELMINTICA, HELMINTHAGOGA, VERMI-
FUGA, L. Medicines employed to destroy or
expel intestinal worms. Some of these, as
coarsely powdered tin- and iron-filings and
cowhage, act as mechanical agents, by irri-
tating the worms; others have a specific action
upon worms, as male fern, kousso, santonin,
&c.; others, again, owe their power to their
action as purgatives, as calomel, gamboge,
jalap, &c. See WoRMS.
WERMILION. Syn. FACTITIOUs CINNA-
BAR, RED SULPHIDE of MERCURY, RED SUL-
PHURET OF MERCURY. This article may be
prepared both in the moist and dry way; that
of commerce is almost entirely obtained by
the latter.
Prep. 1. By sublimation. Take of pure
mercury, 202 parts; pure sulphur, 33 parts;
fuse them together by a gentle heat, observing
| not to allow the mass to take fire; when
fused, cover over the vessel, and, when the
whole has become cold, powder the mass, and
sublime it in a closed vessel, so placed in a
furnace that the flame may freely circulate
and play upon it to about half its height, the
heat being at first gradually applied, and
afterwards augmented until the lower part of
the subliming vessel becomes red hot; the
cold sublimate is broken into pieces, ground
along with water to a fine powder, elutriated,
passed through a sieve, and dried. Prod.
Fully 1.12% of the weight of the mercury em-
ployed.
2. In the humid way. (Brunner.) Take of
pure quicksilver, 300 parts; pure sublimed sul-
1148
VERTIGO-VESICANTS,
phur, 114 parts; triturate them together for
several hours, until a perfect “ethiops' is
formed, add gradually of caustic potassa, 75
parts, (dissolved in) water, 450 parts; con-
tinue the trituration for some time longer,
then gently heat the mixture in an iron vessel,
at first constantly stirring, but afterwards only
from time to time, observing to keep the heat
at about 113°, or, at all events, under 122°
Fahr., and to add fresh water, to compensate
for the portion evaporated. When the colour
begins to redden, great caution is requisite to
preserve the mixture at the lower tempera-
ture, and to keep the sulphuret of mercury
perfectly pulverulent; as soon as the colour
becomes nearly ‘fine,” the process must be
conducted with increased caution, and at a
lower heat for some hours, or until a rich
colour is produced, when the newly formed ver-
milion must be elutriated with water, to sepa-
rate any particles of metallic mercury, and
carefully dried. Prod. 332 parts of vermilion,
equal in brilliancy to the finest Chinese.
Obs. It has been said that the rich tone of
Chinese vermilion may be imitated by adding
to the materials 1% of sulphuret of antimony,
and by digesting the ground sublimate, first
in a solution of sulphuret of potassium, and
next in diluted hydrochloric acid, after which
it must be well edulcorated with water, and
dried. Our own belief is, that the finer quali-
ties of vermilion owe their superiority of shade
more to the care bestowed on their sublima-
tion, and the extent to which their division is
carried, than to anything else.
Vermilion is a beautiful and permanent red
pigment, and works and covers well both in
oil and water.
WERTIGO. Dizziness and swimming of the
head. In its more serious forms there is more
or less mental confusion, the objects around
the patient appear in motion, the ears are op-
pressed with strange sounds, and visible illu-
sions are experienced, whether the eyes be
closed or open, and in darkness as well as in
the light. The causes are fulness of the ves-
sels of the head, nervous derangement, general
debility, haemorrhage, the use of narcotics, an
overloaded stomach, and, in some cases, an
empty one. It is also frequently symptomatic
of fevers and inflammations, and of a condition
threatening apoplexy. The treatment must be
varied, according to the cause and the peculiar
habit or condition of the patient.
WES'ICANTS, Syn. EPISPASTICS; EPIS-
PASTICA, VESICANTIA, L. Substances which
vesicate, or raise blisters. Among these are
the cantharis or blistering fly, mezereon, croton
oil, boiling water, &c.; the first only of which
is now in common use in England.
“It is a principle sufficiently established
with regard to the living system, that, where
a morbid action exists, it may often be re-
moved by inducing an action of a different
kind, in the same or a neighbouring part. On
this principle is explained the utility of blis-
ters in local inflammation and spasmodic
action, and it regulates their application in
pneumonia, gastritis, hepatitis, phrenitis, an-
gina, rheumatism, colic and spasmodic affec-
tions of the stomach; diseases in which they
are employed with the most marked advantage.
A similar principle exists with respect to pain;
exciting one pain often relieves another.
Hence blisters often give relief in toothache,
and some other painful affections. Lastly,
blisters, by their operation, communicate a
stimulus to the whole system, and raise the
vigour of the circulation. Hence, in part,
their utility in fevers of the typhoid kind,
though in such cases they are used with still
more advantage to obviate or remove local
inflammation.” (“Med. Lex.’)
Blisters are commonly prepared with can-
tharides plaster, or with some other prepara-
tion of cantharides; and, in the former case,
are usually lightly covered with the powdered
fly. In order to prevent the action of the can-
tharides upon the mucous membrane of the
bladder, blistering plasters are often sprinkled
with a little powdered camphor, or, better
still, are moistened with camphorated ether,
which leaves a thin layer of camphor. In all
these cases the layer should not be too thick,
for in that case the plaster would not take
effect.
When it is not wished to maintain a dis-
charge from the blistered part, it is sufficient
to make a puncture in the vesicle, to let out
the fluid; but when the case requires the
blister to be “kept open,’ as it is called, the
whole of the detached cuticle is carefully re-
moved with a pair of scissors, and the part is
dressed with either the ointment of cantharides
or of savine, at first more or less diluted with
lard, or simple ointment, with an occasional
dressing of resin cerate. According to Mr.
Crowther, the blistered surface is best kept
clean by daily fomentation with warm water.
Of late years, to obviate the unpleasant
effects occasionally arising from the common
blister, various compounds having cantharides
for their base have been wrought before the
public. Of these, the vesicating collodion
noticed under Co.LLODION is the most conve-
nient and effective. The following also deserve
notice:— -
1. Take of cantharides, in fine powder, 2
parts; spermaceti, 2 parts; olive oil, 4 parts;
white wax, 8 parts; water, 10 parts; simmer,
with constant agitation, for 2 hours, strain
through flannel, separate the plaster from the
water, gently remelt it with common turpen-
time, 1 part, and spread the mass whilst still
fluid. This nearly resembles the form recom-
mended by MM. Henry and Guibourt.
2. (P. Cod.) Distil off the ether from a
concentrated ethereal tincture of cantharides,
melt the oily residue with twice its weight of
white wax, and spread the mixture on thin
oiled silk, or on cloth prepared with wax
plaster.



VESICATION.—witHRINARY MEDICINEs.
1149
3. (Oettinger.) Cantharidal ether (pre-
pared from cantharides, 1 part; ether, 2 parts),
and sulphuric ether, of each, 10 dr. ; turpen-
time and black resin, of each, 2% drs. ; mix,
dissolve, and apply it to the surface of
stretched silk or taffeta which has been pre-
viously prepared with two coatings of a solu-
tion of isinglass.
Obs. The above compounds are spread on
leather, linen, paper, silk, oiled silk, taffeta,
&c., and then form the numerous compounds
vended under the names of blistering tissue,
charta epispastica, rannus vesicatorius, papier
epispastique, sparadrapum vesicatorium, taf-
fetas vesicans, tela vesicatoria, &c.
Acetic extract of cantharides, croton oil, or
extract of mezereon, is sometimes substituted
for the ethereal extract ordered in the above
formulae.
The ‘papier epispastique” of Wée is pre-
pared of three strengths, which are respec-
.tively distinguished by the colours white,
green, and red. The composition is made by
boiling powdered cantharides for an hour with
water, lard, and green ointment, or with lard
coloured with alkanet root, adding white wax
to the strained fats, and spreading the mix-
ture whilst fluid :-No. 1 is made with 10 oz.
of cantharides to 4 lbs. of lard; No. 2 of 1 lb.
of cantharides to 8 lbs. of green ointment;
and No. 3, of 13 lb. of flies to 8 lbs. of red-
dened lard. To each are added 2 lbs. of
white wax. (Dorvault.)
The magistral blister of Valleix is a revival
of the vesicating epithem. See BLISTER,
CANTHARIDES, COLLODION, &c., and below.
WESICATION. The formation of a blister
is a vital process, and its success may be taken
as a proof of the presence of life. Hence, a
French physician, Dr. Mandl, has suggested
such a stimulation of the skin as would or-
dinarily cause a blister as a test of life, in
those cases of long-continued trance which we
occasionally hear of, where all the functions of
life seem to be extinct. Dr. Mandl’s plan is
to apply a stick of lunar caustic. The appli-
cation of a little strong vinegar of cantharides,
or other cantharidal blister, of the size of a six-
penny piece, or of two or three spoonfuls of
boiling water by means of a bent tube of like
diameter, is however, more certain and satis-
factory.
WES'ICATORIN. Syn. CANTHAR'IDIN, CAN-
THARIDINA, CANTHARIDES-CAMPHOR. The
blistering principle of Spanish flies, disco-
vered by M. Robiquet.
Prep. 1. (P. Cod.) Exhaust powdered
cantharides with concentrated alcohol, by per-
colation; distil off the spirit from the filtered
tincture, and leave the residuum to deposit
crystals; these may be purified by dissolving
them in boiling alcohol, digestion with animal
charcoal, filtration whilst hot, and crystallising
by refrigeration.
2. (Thierry.) Macerate cantharides (in
coarse powder) for several days in ether, in a
closed displacement apparatus; then, after the
whole of the soluble matter has been extracted
by the addition of fresh portions of ether,
pour on sufficient water to displace the re-
tained ether; next distil off the ether, dissolve
the remaining extract in boiling alcohol, filter
while hot, and abandon the filtrate to spon-
taneous evaporation. Prod. '5%.
3. Digest the aqueous extract of cantharides
in hot alcohol, filter, evaporate to dryness,
digest the residuum in sulphuric ether, evapo-
rate, and slightly wash the resulting crystals
with cold alcohol.
Prop., &c. Micaceous plates resembling
spermaceti; fusible; vaporizable; insoluble in
water; soluble in ether, oils, acetic acid, and
hot alcohol; powerfully vesicant and poisonous.
Its vapour, even at ordinary temperatures, fre-
quently produces temporary blindness. The
1-100th part of a grain, placed on a piece of
paper, and applied to the edge of the lower
lip, caused small blisters in 15 minutes, which,
when rubbed with a little simple cerate, ex-
tended over a large surface, and covered both
lips with blisters. (Robiquet.)
WETCH. The common name of various le.
guminous plants of the genera Picia and Er-
vum, now much cultivated as green fodder for
milch cows and working stock. The seeds
(tares) were formerly reputed detersive and
astringent. Those of “the Canadian variety
make good bread.” (Lindley.)
WET'ERINARY MEDICINES. The common
form of medicine for horses is that popularly
known as horse balls. They are usually pre-
pared by mixing the dry ingredients, in the
state of powder, with a sufficient quantity of
treacle, or syrup bottoms, to give the mass a
proper consistence for rolling into balls; add-
ing, when necessary, linseed meal, or any other
simple powder, to increase the bulk. The
usual practice among the veterinary druggists
is to keep a compound known in the trade as
‘ball-mass,” or ‘common mass,’ ready pre-
pared to give form and bulk to more active
ingredients. This is usually made of about
equal parts of linseed meal and treacle, to-
gether with a little palm or lard, thoroughly
incorporated by kneading with the hands; and
it is kept in a cool situation, tied over to pre-
vent it drying and hardening. For use, the
ball-masses are either rolled or moulded into
small cylinders of about 1% to 1; oz. in weight;
and in size, from 2 to 2% inches long, and
from about # to § of an inch in diameter;
and they are wrapped in soft paper, which is
administered with them. Those for dogs are
commonly formed into large boluses or nut-
like pieces. The common practice, in some
houses, of adding a little salt of tartar or ace-
tate of potassa to ball-masses kept in stock, for
the purpose of preserving them in a soft state,
is not to be commended, since these articles
decompose many of the saline and mineral
compounds which are subsequently added to
them.

1150 VINEGAR.
Medicines for meat cattle are always ad-
ministered in a liquid form, popularly called
drenches. A similar plan is adopted with
small cattle, as sheep and goats. For these,
however, the quantity should seldom exceed
+ pint. In all cases, drenches should be very
slowly administered.
The following are a few useful horse-
balls:—
ALTERATIVE BALLS.—1. Levigated sul-
phuret of antimony, sulphur, and linseed meal,
of each, 3 oz. ; nitre, 4 oz. ; palm oil, q. S. to
form a mass; for 12 balls. One to be taken
every day, or every other day.
2. (Bell.) Sulphuret of antimony, nitre, sul-
phur, and ethiop's mineral, of each, 3 oz. ;
soft soap, 10 oz. ; oil of juniper, 3 oz. ; for 12
balls. As the last.
3. (White.) Sulphuret of antimony, cara-
ways, and treacle, of each, # oz. ; for one ball.
As the last.
CoRDIAL BALLS.–1. (Blaine.) Coriander
seed, caraway, and gentian, of each, 8 oz. ; gin-
ger, 4 oz.; oil of aniseed, } oz. ; honey or palm
oil, q. S. to form a mass. Cordial, warming,
and stomachic.—Dose, 1% oz.
2. (Hill.) Anise, caraway, and cumin seed,
of each, 4 lbs; ginger, 2 lbs. ; treacle, q. S.;
divide into 13-oz. balls. Prod. 21 lbs.
Cough BALLS.—1. (Blaine.) Ipecacuanha,
1 dr.; camphor, 2 drs. ; honey, q. S. to form a
ball. One night and morning.
2. (B. Clark.) Emetic tartar and benzoin,
of each, 2 drs. ; squills, 4 drs. ; spermaceti and
balsam of copaiba, of each, 1 oz. ; elecampane
and sulphur, of each, 2 oz. ; syrup of poppies,
q. s. to mix; for 8 balls. As the last.
DIURETIC BALLS.–1. (Bracy Clark.) Nitre
and common turpentine, of each, 1 lb.; Castile
soap, # lb. ; barley meal, 2% lbs., or q. s. For
common-sized balls.
2. (Morton.) Digitalis, 1 oz. ; aloes, 2 oz. ;
liquorice, 13 Oz, ; honey or Barbadoes tar, q, S.
to mix; for 1-0Z, balls. One, twice a day,
with care.
PHYSIC BALLS, PURGING B., CATHARTIC B.
—1. Aloes and hard soap, of each, 5 oz. ; salt
of tartar and cayenne pepper, of each, 1 oz. ;
melt together. For 8 balls.
2. (Vet. Coll.)—a. (Common physic ball.)
Aloes, 8 oz. ; treacle, 3 oz. ; olive oil, 1 oz. ;
melted together.—Dose. 1 to 1% oz.
b. (Stronger ball.) To each dose of the
last, add of croton oil, 4 to 8 drops.
Obs. The dose of the above is 1 ball, fasting,
in the morning, preceded by a bran mash, on
one or two successive nights, and followed
by gentle exercise until the ball begins to
operate.
WoRM BALLS.–1. Barbadoes aloes, 5 drs. ;
calomel and ginger, of each, 2 drs.; oil of cloves,
12 drops; treacle, q. S. for a ball.
2. (J. Bell & Co.) Barbadoes aloes, 5 to 8
drs.; powdered tin, ethiop's mineral, and ginger,
of each, 2 drs, ; oils of aniseed and savine, of
each, 20 drops; treacle, q, S. for a ball.
3. (Clater.) Sulphur and emetic tartar, of
each, 1 dr.; linseed meal, 4 drs. ; palm oil, q.s.
to form a ball. One every morning, having
prepared the animal with a physic ball con-
taining 1 dr. of calomel. See BALLS ; also
Tuson’s ‘Veterinary Pharmacopoeia.’
WIN'EGAR. Syn. ACETUM, L.; WINAIGRE,
Fr. Dilute acetic acid, more or less contami-
nated with gum, Sugar, and vegetable matter.
1. MALT WINEGAR ; ACETUM, BRITISH
VINEGAR (B. P.); ACETUM BRITANNICUM
(Ph. L. & E.), L. This is the ordinary
coloured vinegar consumed in this country,
and is correctly described in the Ph. L. as
“impure (dilute) acetic acid, prepared by
fermentation from an infusion of malt (malt-
wort).” -
In the manufacture of MALT WINEGAR a mix-
ture of malt and barley is mashed with hot
water, and the resulting wort fermented, as
in the common process of brewing. The liquor
is then run into barrels, placed endways, tied
over with coarse canvas, and arranged side by
side in darkened chambers, moderately heated
by a stove, and freely supplied with air. Here
it remains till the acetous fermentation is
nearly complete, which usually occupies several
weeks, or even months. The newly formed
vinegar is next run off into two large tuns,
furnished with false bottoms, on which some
“rape’ (the pressed cake from making domestic
wines, or the green twigs or cuttings of vines)
is placed. One of these vessels is wholly, and
the other only about 3-4ths, filled. The fer-
mentation recommences, and the acetification
proceeds more rapidly in the latter than in
the former tun, and the liquor it contains con-
sequently matures the sooner. When fit for
sale, a portion of the vinegar is withdrawn
from the smaller quantity, and its place sup-
plied with a like quantity from the full tun,
and this in its turn is refilled from the barrels
before noticed. This process is carried on with
a number of tuns at once, which are all worked
in pairs.
Prop., &c. The general properties of malt
vinegar are well known. Its pleasant and re-
freshing odour is chiefly derived from acetic
acid and acetic ether. Its strength is distin-
guished by the makers as Nos. 18, 20, 22, and
24; the last of which, also called ‘proof
vinegar,” is the strongest, and usually con-
tains about 4.6% of real or about 5% of glacial
acetic acid. Its density varies according to
the quantity of foreign matter which it con-
tains. Sp. gr. 1:017 to 1:019—B. P. This
vinegar usually contains a small quantity of
sulphuric acid. The presence of 1-1000th
part of this acid is allowed by law.
Pur. “Brownish; of a peculiar odour. Its
sp. gr. is 1-019. 1 fl. oz. of the acid is satu-
rated by 1 dr. of the crystals of carbonate of
soda. If, after 10 minims of solution of chlo-
ride of barium have been added to the same
quantity, more of the chloride be poured into
the filtered acid, nothing further is thrown

VINEGAR.
1151
down. The colour is not changed by the ad-
dition of hydrosulphuric acid.” (Ph.L.)
2. WINE WINEGAR, FRENCH. W.; ACETUM
GALLICUM (Ph. E. & D.), A. VINI, L.; WINAI-
GRE D’ORLEANS, Fr. This is prepared, in
wine countries, from grape juice and inferior
new wines, worked up with wine-lees, by a
nearly similar process to that adopted for malt
vinegar. That prepared from white wine
(WHITE-WINE WINEGAR) is the most esteemed.
It is purer and pleasanter than malt vinegar.
Sp. gr. 1:014 to 1:022—Ph. E.; 1:016–Phillips.
It usually contains from 5 to 6% of acetic acid.
“100 parts of good Orleans vinegar should
require 10 parts of dry carbonate of potassa
for saturation.” (Soubeiran.)
3. GERMAN, or QUICK-METHOD OF MAKING
VINEGAR; PROCESS OF HAM. This method is
based upon the fact, that acetification is the
mere oxidation of alcohol in contact with
organic matter. Hence, by employing dilute
alcohol, or liquors containing it, and by vastly
enlarging the surface of the liquid exposed
to the air at a proper temperature, we may
reduce the period occupied in acetification
from weeks to as many hours. In practice
this is effected by causing the dilute spirit,
previously mixed with 1-1000th part of sugar
or malt extract, or the fermented and clarified
malt-wort, to slowly trickle down through a
mass of beech shavings steeped in vinegar, and
contained in a vessel called a vinegar generator
(essigbilder), or graduation vessel. This is an
oaken tub, narrower at the bottom than at the
top, furnished with a loose lid or cover, below
which is a perforated shelf (colander or false
bottom), having a number of small holes,
which are loosely filled with packthread about
6 inches long, and prevented from falling
through by a knot at the upper end. The
shelf is also perforated with four open glass
tubes, as air-vents, each having its ends pro-
jecting above and below the shelf. This
arrangement is repeated a second and a third
time, or even oftener, according to the size of
the vessel. The tub or graduator at its lower
part is pierced with a horizontal row of eight
equidistant round holes, to admit atmospheric
air. One inch above the bottom is a syphon-
formed discharge pipe, whose upper curvature
stands one inch below the level of the air-holes
in the side of the tub. The floors or partitions
of the tub or generator being covered with
birch twigs or beech chips to the depth of a few
inches, the alcoholic liquor (first heated to
between 75° and 83° Fahr.) is introduced at
the upper part of the apparatus. This im-
mediately commences trickling slowly down
through the holes by means of the packthreads,
diffuses itself over the chips or twigs forming
the respective strata, slowly collects at the
bottom of the tub, and then runs off by the
syphon pipe. The air enters by the circum-
ferential holes, circulates freely through the
tub, and escapes by the glass tubes. As
the acetification proceeds, the temperature of
-
CRYSTAL VINEGAR.
the liquid rises to 100° or 105° Fahr., and
remains stationary at that point while the
action goes on favorably. The alcoholic solu-
tion or wort requires to be passed three or four
times through the cask before acetification is
complete, which is, in general, effected in from
24 to 36 hours.
Obs. For the production of a superior
vinegar by this process, it is necessary that the
spirit employed be sufficiently pure not to con-
taminate the product with its flavour or
odour, and that the malt-wort should be
fermented and treated with all the care
usually employed in the production of beer.
The best English manufacturers who have
adopted this process are in the habit of
filtering or clarifying their fermented wash, and
also of storing it away for several months before
they subject it to acetification in the graduator.
The most favorable temperature for the pro-
cess is about 90° Fahr., and this should be
preserved, as much as possible, by artificial
means. Prod. A malt-wort of the sp. gr.
1072, or, in “technical language, weighing
about 26 lbs. per barrel, afforded a vinegar
containing 5.4% of pure acetic acid, and a
residuary extract of 10 lbs., from 36 galls. The
former of these would indicate 35 lbs. of sugar,
or 13.7 lbs. per barrel of gravity; whilst the
latter shows 3.8 lbs. per barrel; the two united
being only 17.5 lbs., instead of 26, the original
weight. The loss, therefore, has been 8.5 lbs.,
or from a sp. gr. of 1-072 to less than 1.050.”
(Ure.) Thus, about one third of all the
extractive matter of the malt is lost or dissi-
pated during the processes of fermentation
and acetification. According to Knapp, a
mixture of about 80 galls. of water, 9 galls, of
spirit of from 44 to 45%. Tralles (18 or 20 u, p.),
and 3 galls. of vinegar containing 3.5% of real
acid, forming together 92 galls, yield, on an
average, an almost equal quantity of vinegar,
or about from 90 to 91 galls. of the above-
stated strength.
4. WooD VINEGAR. See PYROLIGNEOUS
ACID.
5. OTHER VARIETIES OF VINEGAR, of
minor importance; chiefly domestic, and
commonly ‘worked’ as malt vinegar.—ALE
WINEGAR, ALEGAR ; ACETUM CEREVISIE. From
strong pale ale which has soured.—ARGOL
VINEGAR; ACETUM EX TARTARO. From white
argol or cream of tartar, 1 lb.; dissolved in
boiling water, 2 galls. ; with the addition, when
cold, of proof spirit or whiskey, 3 pints.-
Pickling vinegar, dis-
coloured with fresh burnt animal charcoal.—
CIDER WINEGAR. From cider, worked as malt
vinegar. — GERMAN HOUSEHOLD WINEGAR.
From soft water, 7% galls.; honey or brown
sugar, 2 lbs. ; cream of tartar, 2 oz. ; corn
spirit or whiskey, 1 gall.—GoosłBERRY WINE-
GAR. From bruised gooseberries and brown
sugar, of each 14 lb.; water, 1 gall. Other
fruits may be substituted for gooseberries.—
PICKLING WINEGAR, The strongest pale malt

1152
VINEGAR.
vinegar.—RAISIN VINEGAR. From the marc
left from making raisin wine, 1 cwt. to every
12 or 15 galls. of water, along with a little
yeast.—SUGAR VINEGAR. From brown sugar,
4 lbs. to each gallon of water.—WHISKEY
VINEGAR. From whiskey, 1 pint; sugar, 2 oz. ;
yeast, a dessert-spoonful.
Pur., tests, & assay. These are, for the
most part, rather fully noticed under ACETIC
ACID, ACETIMETRY, and above. The following
additional tests, &c., may, however, be useful :
—1. Paper written on or smeared with pure
vinegar is not charred when strongly warmed
before the fire; if it is, the sample examined
contained fully 2% of oil of vitriol.-2. A
small porcelain capsule, or china cup, dipped
into a solution of sugar in 30 times its weight
of water, and then heated to a temperature
equal to that of boiling water, is not materially
discoloured when a drop of pure vinegar is
poured on it; but a spot of an intensely brown
or black colour is formed if the sample con-
tain only 1-300th part of sulphuric acid;
if it contains only 1-1000th part, the spot is
olive green; and if a less quantity, then only
of a pale green colour.—3. The heavy white
precipitate given with chloride of barium (see
above) shows the presence of sulphuric acid;
each grain, after being dried, and gently ignited,
represents 344 grs. of dry sulphuric acid.
If the precipitate from 1000 grs. of the vine-
gar exceeds 2% grs., it contains an illegal
quantity of this acid.—4. If a solution of
nitrate of silver gives a cloudy white precipitate,
hydrochloric acid is present.—5. If, after
the addition of 2 or 3 grs, of carbonate of
potash, and evaporation of the sample to dry-
ness, the residuum deflagrates when ignited,
the sample under examination contains
nitric acid.—6. If the vinegar be blackened
by sulphuretted hydrogen, or hydrosulphuret
of ammonia, it contains either lead or copper.
If it gives a yellow precipitate with iodide of
potassium or chromate of potash, the metal
is lead. If ferrocyanide of potassium gives
a bronze-brown coloured precipitate, or a little
olive oil, when agitated with some of the
vinegar, be turned green, the metal is copper.
–7. If a small sample, gently evaporated to
dryness, leaves more than 1% of residuum, and
this has a sweet taste, it is undecomposed
sugar. The presence of acrid substances, as
capsicum, chillies, grains of paradise, mustard
seed, pellitory of Spain, pepper, &c., may
be detected by neutralising the acidity of
the vinegar with carbonate of soda, when the
acrid taste of the adulterant will be readily
perceived.
Winegar, Aromatic. Syn. ACETUM AROMA-
TICUM, L. Prep. 1. Glacial acetic acid,
1 lb. ; oil of cloves, 1% dr. ; oil of rosemary, 1
dr. ; oils of bergamot, cinnamon, pimento, and
lavender, of each, # dr. ; neroli, 20 drops;
camphor, 2 oz. ; rectified spirit, 2 fl. oz. ; mix.
Very fine.
2. (Henry’s.) From glacial acetic acid,
strongly scented with the oils of cloves, laven-
der, rosemary, and Calamus aromaticus to
which the usual quantity of camphor is added.
This is the formula adopted at Apothecaries'
Hall.
3. (Extemporaneous.) From acetate of
potash (dry), 1 dr. ; oil of vitriol, 20 drops;
oils of lemon and cloves, of each, 3 drops.
Obs. Aromatic vinegar is used as a pungent
and refreshing perfume, in faintness, &c. For
this purpose it is generally dropped on a small
piece of sponge placed in a stoppered bottle or
a vinaigrette. It is highly corrosive, and
should therefore be kept from contact with the
skin and clothes.
Winegar, Camp. Prep. Take of sliced garlic,
8 oz.; Cayenne pepper, soy, and walnut ketchup,
of each, 4 oz. ; 36 chopped anchovies; vinegar,
1 gal.; powdered cochineal, , oz. ; macerate
for a month, strain, and bottle.
Winegar, Cam'phorated.
Winegar of Canthar'ides. Syn. BLISTERING
VINEGAR; ACETUM CANTHARIDIS (B.P., Ph.L.
E. & D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Cantharides,
in powder, 2 oz. ; acetic acid, 1 pint; macerate,
with agitation, for 8 days, then press, and
strain. -
2. (Ph. E.) Cantharides, 3 oz. ; euphorbium,
} oz. ; acetic acid, 5 fl. oz. ; pyroligneous acid,
15 fl. oz. ; macerate a week.
3. (Ph.D.) Spanish flies, 4 oz. ; strong acetic
acid, 4 fl. oz. ; commercial acetic acid (sp. gr.
1-044), 16 fl. oz. ; macerate, as before, for 14
days.
4. (B.P.) Cantharides, in powder, 2; glacial
acetic acid, 2.; acetic acid (28 per cent.), 18,
or a sufficiency: add the glacial acetic acid to
13 of acetic acid, and in this mixture digest
the cantharides for two hours at a temperature
of 200° F.; when cold, place them in a perco-
lator, and when the liquid ceases to drop, pour
over the residuum the remaining 5 of acetic
acid, and when the percolation is finished,
press and make the whole liquid up to 20.
Uses, &c. As a counter-irritant, and to
raise blisters. For the last purpose it is
applied on a piece of lint, evaporation being
prevented with a piece of oiled skin or thin
sheet gutta percha. The last is the best, and,
indeed, the only effective form; the others
being too weak. “If the acetic acid be strong,
a blister will be as rapidly raised without the
cantharides as with them.” (Dr. A. T.
Thomson.)
Winegar, Cur'rie. Prep. From currie pow-
der, 3 lb.; vinegar, 1 gal.; infuse for a week.
Used as a flavouring. Other like vinegars may
be made in the same way.
Winegar of Col'chicum, Syn. ACETUM COL-
CHICI (Ph. L. E. &. D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.)
Dried corms of colchicum or meadow saffron,
3% drs. ; dilute acetic acid, 1 pint; macerate
for 3 days, then press out the liquor, and, after
defecation, add to the strained liquid, proof
spirit, 1% fl. Oz.
2. (Ph, E.) Fresh colchicum bulbs (dried), 1.
-

WINEGAR–VINOUS FERMENTATION.
1153
oz. ; distilled vinegar, 16 fl. oz. ; proof spirit, 1
fl. oz.
3. (Ph. D.) Dried colchicum bulbs, 1 oz. ;
acetic acid (1:04:4), 4 fl. oz. ; distilled water,
12 fl. oz. ; as before, but prolonging the
maceration for 7 days.
Obs. Vinegar of colchicum is chiefly used
in gout. Dose. 20 drops to 1 fl. dr. The
Dublin preparation is about three times as
strong as the others, and the dose must there-
fore be proportionately less
Winegar, Distill’ed. Syn. ACETUM DESTIL-
LATUM (Ph. L. & E., and Ph. D. 1826), L.
Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Winegar, 1 gal. ; distil in a
sand bath, 7 pints. Sp. gr. 1:0065.
2. (Ph. E.) Vinegar (preferably French),
8 parts; distil over with a gentle heat, 7
parts; and dilute the product, if necessary,
with distilled water, until the sp. gr. is 1:005.
Pur., &c. “1 fluid oz. is saturated by 57 grs.
of crystallised carbonate of soda.” (Ph. L.)
100 grs. are saturated by 13 grs. of crystallised
carbonate of soda. It contains about 4.6% of
real acetic acid. If a pewter worm is used, a
portion of lead is dissolved, and the product
becomes cloudy and poisonous. Distilled vine-
gar is more agreeable than pure dilute acetic
acid of the same strength.
Winegar, Marseilles. Syn. WINEGAR OF THE
FOUR THIEVES, PROPIIYLACTIC VINEGAR ;
ACETUM PROPHYLACTICUM, A. ANTISEPTI-
CUM, A. THERLACALE, A. QUATUOR FURUM,
L.; WINAIGRE DES QUATRE WOLEURS, Fr.
Prep. Take of the summits of rosemary and
flowers of sage (dried), of each, 4 oz. ; dried
lavender flowers, 2 oz. ; cloves, 1 dr. ; distilled
vinegar, 1 gal.; digest for 7 days, press, and
filter. Used as a corrector of bad smells, and
formerly as a prophylactic against the plague,
and other contagious diseases. It is said to
have been a favourite preventive with Cardinal
Wolsey, who always carried some with him.
The original formula also contained, of garlic,
# oz. ; fresh rue, 1% oz. ; and camphor, dis-
solved in spirit, 1 oz.
Winegar of 0°pium. Syn. ACETUM opTI
(Ph. E. & D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. E.) Opium,
sliced, 4 oz. ; distilled vinegar, 16 fl. oz. ;
macerate for 7 days, press, and filter.—Dose. 5
to 20 drops.
2. (Ph. D.) Opium, in coarse powder, 1;
oz. ; dilute acetic acid, 1 pint; macerate for 7
days.--Dose. 10 or 12 to 60 drops.
Obs. These were intended to supersede the
old ‘black drop,” which they closely resemble
in their action.
Winegar, Raspberry. Syn. ACETUM RUBI
IDAEI, L.; WINAIGRE FRAMBOISE, Fr. Prep.
1. Bruised ripe raspberries and white wine
vinegar, of each, 3 pints; macerate for 3 days,
press, strain, and to each pint add of white
sugar, 1 lb.; boil, skim, cool, and at once
bottle. Some persons add 2 fl. Oz. of brandy
to each pint.
2. (P. Cod.) Fresh raspberries, picked from
their calices, 3 lbs. ; (1 lb.-Ph. Bor.); good
vinegar, 2 lbs. ; macerate, in glass, for a fort-
night, then strain, without pressure.
Obs. In a similar manner may be made
cherry vinegar, strawberry v., and the vinegars
of all other like fruits.
Winegar of Squills. Syn. ACETUM scILIAE
(Ph. L. E. & D), ACETUM scr1LITICUM, L.
Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Take of squills, recently
dried and bruised, 2% oz. ; dilute acetic acid,
1 pint; macerate with a gentle heat, in a
covered vessel, for 3 days, then press out the
liquor, and, after defecation, add to the
strained liquid, proof spirit, 1}; fl. oz. The
Edinburgh and Dublin Colleges direct cold
maceration for 7 days in a glass vessel, and
the Dublin omits the spirit.
2. (Wholesale.) From squills, 7 lbs. ; dis-
tilled vinegar, 6 galls. ; macerate in the cold for
10 days, press, and filter. Expectorant and
diuretic.—Dose. } to 1; fl. dr.; in chronic
pulmonary affections, dropsies, &c.
Winegars (Cul’inary). Prep. 1. BLACK PEPPER
VINEGAR, CAPER V., CAPSICUM W., CELERY-SEED
W., CHILLIE V., CRESS-SEED W., GARLIC W.,
G.INGER V., HORSERADISH V., ONION V., RED-
ROSE W., SEVILLE-ORANGE-PEEL V., SHALLOT W.,
TRUFFLE W., WHITE PEPPER V., with several
others of a like kind, are made by steeping
about an oz. of the respective articles in a pint
of good vinegar for 14 days, and straining.
2. BASIL VINEGAR, BURNET W., CELERY V.,
CHERWILLE V., ELDER-FLOWER. W., GREEN-MINT
W., TARRAGON V., with several others from like
substances, are prepared from 2 to 3 oz. of the
leaves to each pint of vinegar; the whole
being frequently shaken for 14 days, then
strained and bottled. They are used in
cookery. The culinary vinegars may also be
prepared in the same manner as the “culinary
spirits’ and ‘tinctures,’ by simply substituting
strong pickling vinegar for the spirit.
Winegars (Perfumed'). Syn. ACETA opoRI-
FERA, L. Prep. From the dried flowers, 1 to
2 oz., or the fresh flowers, 2 to 4 oz. ; strongest
distilled vinegar, 1 pint ; digest for a week,
strain with pressure, and repeat the process
with fresh flowers, if necessary. They may
also be made by adding 15 to 20 drops, or q. S.,
of the respective essential oils to the vinegar.
In a similar way are prepared the vinegars of
clove-gilly flowers, elder flowers, lavender f.
(vinaigre distillé de lavande), musk roses,
orange flowers (fresh), Provins roses, red roses
(vinaigre de rose; acetum rosatum), rosemary
flowers (vinaigre de rosmarin; acetum antho-
satum), tarragon flowers, &c. &c. Another ex-
cellent plan is to add 1 fl. oz. of glacial acetic
acid to each pint of the respective perfumed
spirits. This answers admirably for aceticeau
de Cologne and like perfumes.
WINOUS FERMENTATION. Syn. AL-
coBIOLICFERMENTATION. The peculiar change
by which sugar, in solution, is converted into
carbonic acid, which is eliminated, and into
alcohol, which remains in solution in the fer-
mented liquor.
73

1154.
WINOUS FERMENTATION.
-
matters of the solution on the sugar.
The presence of a ‘ferment’ is essential to
excite the vinous, fermentation, as a solution
of absolutely pure sugar remains unaltered,
even though exposed to the conditions most
favourable to its accession. In the juices of
the sweet fruits, and in those vegetable solutions
that spontaneously run into a state of fermen-
tation, the ferment is supplied by nature, and
is intimately associated with the saccharine
matter. In the juice of those grapes which
produce the more perfect wines, the relative
proportions of the exciters of fermentation
and the sugar are so accurately apportioned,
that the whole of the former are decomposed,
and nearly the whole of the latter is converted
into alcohol; so that the liquid (wine) is left
in a state but little liable to future change.
An infusion of malt, however, in which the
nitrogenised matters (gluten, vegetable albu-
men, &c.) are absent, or at least present in too
small quantities to vigorously excite the
vinous fermentation, undergoes a mixed species
of decomposition, with the formation of pro-
ducts widely different from those that result
from the true vinous fermentation; or, in
other words, the liquid becomes spoiled. But
if a ferment (yeast) be added to this infusion
of malt under the above circumstances, and
in the proper proportion to the sugar present,
the true vinous fermentation speedily com-
mences, and the liquid becomes converted
into beer. This is what actually takes place
in the process of brewing, and the scientific
brewer endeavours to employ a proper quantity
of ferment to decompose the whole of the sac-
charine matter of his wort; but, at the same
time, as equally endeavours to avoid the use of
an eXCeSS.
The chief product of the vinous fermentation
is alcohol, but there are other substances
simultaneously produced, and which remain
associated with the fermented liquor. Among
the principal of these are oenanthic acid, oenan-
thic ether, fusel oil (oil of potato spirit, oil
of grain), &c.; none of which exist previously
to fermentation, and are generally supposed
to result from the action of the nitrogenised
Under
certain circumstances these extraneous pro-
ducts are formed in much larger quantities
than under others; and as these substances
injure the value of the alcohol with which
they are associated, a knowledge of the pecu-
liar circumstances favourable and unfavourable
to their production is a desideratum to the
brewer and distiller.
According to MM. Colin and Thénard,
Frémy, Rousseau, and others, the essential con-
dition of a ferment, to be able to excite the
pure winous fermentation, is to be sufficiently
acidulous to act on coloured test-paper; and
this acidity should arise from the presence of
certain vegetable acids and salts, capable of
conversion into carbonic acid and carbonates
by their spontaneous decomposition. Those
acids and salts which are found to pre-exist in
fermentable fruits and liquors, as the tartaric,
citric, malic, and lactic acids, and their salts,
should be chosen for this purpose ; preference
being given to the bitartrate of potassa, on
account of its presence in the grape. The ad-
dition of any of these substances to a sac-
charine solution renders its fermentation both
more active and complete. The favourable
influence of cream of tartar on fermentation
was first pointed out by Thénard and Colin,
and the addition of a little of this article has
been adopted in practice, with manifest ad-
vantage, by the manufacturers of British wine.
There is good reason for supposing that
each variety of sugar which is susceptible of
the alcoholic fermentation is first converted
into grape sugar, by contact with the ferment,
and that this variety of sugar is alone capable
of yielding carbonic acid and alcohol.
The circumstances most favourable to this
fermentation are, a certain degree of warmth
—a sufficient quantity of active ferment, and
its due distribution through the liquor. The
temperature of from 68° to 77°Fahr., is usually
regarded as the most propitious for the com-
mencement and progress of fermentation; but
it has been ably shown by Liebig that, at
this temperature, the newly formed alcohol
slowly undergoes the ‘acetous fermentation,”
forming vinegar, by which the vinous character
of the liquor is lessened. This conversion of
alcohol into vinegar proceeds most rapidly at
a temperature of 95° Fahr., and gradually be-
comes more languid, until, at about 46° to
50° Fahr. (8 to 10 Cent.), it ceases altogether,
while the tendency of the nitrogenous sub-
stances to absorb oxygen at this low tempera-
ture is scarcely diminished in a perceptible
degree. “It is therefore evident that if wort
(or any other saccharine solution) is fermented
in wide, open, shallow vessels, as is done in
Bavaria, which afford free and unlimited
access to the atmospheric oxygen, and this in
a situation where the temperature does not
exceed 46° to 50° Fahr., a separation of the
nitrogenous constituents, i. e. the exciters of
acidification, takes place simultaneously on the
surface, and within the whole body of the
liquid.” (Liebig.) By this method wine or
beer is obtained, which is invariably far
superior in quality to that fermented in the
usual manner. See FERMENTATION.
The symptoms of a perfect fermentation of
malt wort, according to the usual English
system with top yeast (oberhefe), have been
thus described by a well-known practical
writer on brewing: 1. A cream-like substance
forms round the edges of the gyle tun, which
gradually extends itself, and ultimately covers
the whole surface of the liquor.—2. A fine
curly or cauliflower head in a similar way
extends itself over the surface, and indicates
to the experienced brewer the probable quality
of the fermentation.—3. The ‘stomach,” or
vinous odour, is next evolved, and continues to
increase with the attenuation of the wort.

VIOLET-WIOLET DYE.
1155
The peculiar nature of this odour is also an
indication of the state of the fermentation.—
4. The cauliflower head changes, or rises to a
fine ‘rocky’ or “yeasty’ head, and ultimately
falls down.—5. In this stage the head assumes
a peculiar yeasty appearance, called by brewers
‘close-yeasty,’ and the gas is evolved in suffi-
cient quantity to blow up little bells or
bubbles, which immediately burst, and are
followed by others, at intervals depending on
the activity and forwardness of the fermen-
tation. These bells should be bright and clear;
as, if they appear opaque or dirty, there is
something the matter with the wort. (Black.)
It is often of the utmost importance to
brewers, wine-merchants, sugar-refiners, drug-
gists, &c., to be able to lessen the activity of
the vinous fermentation, or to stop it altogether,
or to prevent its accession to syrups and other
saccharine and vegetable solutions. Whatever
will still the motion of the molecules of the
nitrogenous matter forming the ferment will
render them inoperative as exciters of fermen-
tation. Among the simplest means of effecting
this object, and such as admit of easy practical
application, may be mentioned exposure to
either cold or heat. At a temperature below
about 50° Fahr., the acetous fermentation is
suspended, and the alcoholic fermentation pro-
ceeds with diminished activity as the tem-
perature falls, until at about 38° Fahr. it
ceases altogether. In like manner, the rapid
increase of the temperature of a fermenting
liquid arrests its fermentation, and is preferable
to the action of cold, as it is of easier appli-
cation, and perfectly precipitates the ferment
in an inert state. For this purpose, a heat of
about 180° Fahr. is sufficient; but even that
of boiling water may be employed with advan-
tage. In practice, fluids are commonly raised
to their boiling-point for this purpose, or they
are submitted to the heat of a water bath
(207%" Fahr.). In this way the fermentation
of syrups and vegetable solutions and juices
is commonly arrested in the pharmaceutical
laboratory.
Among substances that may be added to
liquids to arrest fermentation, the most active
are—the volatile oil of mustard, coarsely pow-
dered mustard seed or pure flour of mustard,
sulphurous acid or the fumes of buruing sulphur,
sulphuric acid, sulphite of lime, tincture of
catechu, strong spirit, strong acetic acid, chlo-
rate of potassa, sugar of milk, bruised horse-
radish, garlic, and cloves, and their essential
oils, and all the other volatile oils that contain
sulphur, and most of the salts that readily part
with their oxygen. These substances arrest
fermentation by rendering the yeast inopera-
tive, and they possess this power nearly in
the order in which they stand above. In
practice, mustard, the fumes of burning sul-
phur, sulphite of lime, and chlorate of potassa,
are those most adapted for beer, cider, wines,
syrups, &c.; but some of the others are occa-
sionally used, though less active. For arrest-
ing or preventing the fermentation of the
vegetable juices and solutions, and the medi-
cated syrups employed in pharmacy, mustard
seed, either alone or combined with a little
bruised cloves, may be safely used, as the addi-
tion of acids or salts would lead to the decom-
position of their active principles. For this
reason such liquids should be kept in a suffi-
ciently low temperature to prevent fermenta-
tion; and should they pass into that state, it
should be preferably arrested by the applica-
tion of heat or cold, as above explained. Sugar
of milk is also very effective for certain syrups,
if not all of them.
To prevent, or rather to lessen, the produc-
tion of fusel oil, it has been proposed to add a
certain quantity of tartaric acid or bitartrate
of potassa to the wort; or, to arrest the fer-
mentative process somewhat before the liquid
has reached its utmost degree of attenuation.
The best means of depriving the spirit of this
and other substances of a similar nature is to
largely dilute it with water, and to redistil it
at a gentle heat. Agitation with olive oil,
decantation, dilution with a large quantity of
water, and redistillation, have also been recom-
mended. An excellent method is filtration
through newly burnt and coarsely powdered
charcoal. This plan succeeds perfectly with
moderately diluted spirit. On the Continent,
the addition of about 10% of common vinegar,
and a very little sulphuric acid, followed by
agitation, repose for a few days, and redis-
tillation, is a favourite method. A solution of
chloride of lime is also employed for the same
purpose, and in the same way. In both these
cases a species of ether is formed, which pos-
sesses a very agreeable odour. In the first,
acetate of oxide of amyl (essence of jargonelle)
is produced ; and in the other, chloride of
amyl, which also possesses a pleasant ethereal
smell and taste. The affinity of the hydrated
oxide of amyl (fusel-oil) for acetic acid is so
great, that they readily unite without the
intervention of a mineral acid. (Doebereiner.)
Thus, the oil of vitriol mentioned above,
though always used in practice, might be
omitted without any disadvantage.
According to Messrs. Bowerbank, the dis-
tillers, quoted by Dr. Pereira, 500 galls, of
corn spirit yield about one gal. of corn-spirit
oil. See ACETIFICATION, ALCOHOL, BREWING,
DISTILLATION, FERMENTATION, FUSEL OIL,
SPIRIT, VINEGAR, WISCOUS FERMENTATION,
YEAST, &c.
VI'0LET. Syn. PURPLE VIoIET, SweFT v.;
VIOLA (Ph.L. & E.), L. “The recent petals of
Viola odorata, Linn.” (Ph. L.) It is chiefly
used on account of its colour. See SYRUP.
WIOLET DYE. Violet, like purple, is pro-
duced by a mixture of red and blue colouring
matter, applied either together or in succes-
sion. The ‘aniline colours' are now almost ex-
clusively used for obtaining violet on silk and
wool (see ANILINE PURPLE & TAR COLOURS).
With the old dye-stuffs, violet may thus be

1156
obtained:—A good violet may be given to silk
or wool by passing it first through a solution
of verdigris, then through a decoction of log-
wood, and, lastly, through alum water. A fast
violet may be given by first dyeing the goods
a crimson with cochineal, without alum or
tartar, and, after rinsing, passing them through
the indigo wat.—Linens and cottons are first
galled with about 18% of gall-nuts, next passed
through a mixed mordant of alum, iron liquor,
and sulphate of copper, working them well,
then through a madder bath made with an
equal weight of root, and, lastly, brightened
with soap or soda. Another good method is to
pass cloth, previously dyed Turkey red, through
the blue vat. Wool, silk, cotton, or linen,
mordanted with alum and dyed in a logwood
bath, or a mixed bath of archil and Brazil, takes
a pretty, but false, violet.
VISCOUS FERMENTATION. Syn. MUCI-
LAGINOUS FERMENTATION, MUCOUS F. The
peculiar change by which sugar, in solution, is
converted into gummy matters, and other pro-
ducts, instead of into alcohol.
When the expressed juice of the beet is ex-
posed to a temperature of 90° to 100° Fahr.,
for a considerable time, the sugar it contains
suffers this peculiar kind of fermentation.
Gases are evolved which are rich in hydrogen,
instead of being exclusively carbonic acid, and
when the sugar has, for the most part, dis-
appeared, mere traces of alcohol are found in
the liquid, but, in place of that substance, a
quantity of lactic acid, mannite, and a muci-
laginous substance, resembling gum arabic, and
said to be identical with gum in composition.
By boiling yeast or the gluten of wheat in
water, dissolving sugar in the filtered solution,
and exposing it to a tolerably high tempera-
ture, the viscous fermentation is set up, and a
large quantity of the gummy principle gene-
rated, along with a ferment of a globular
texture, like that of yeast, but which is capa-
ble of producing only the viscous fermentation
in saccharine solutions.
The peculiar cloudy, stringy, oily appearance
of wine and beer, called by the French ‘graisse,”
and the English ‘ropiness,’ depends on the
accession of the viscous fermentation. The
mineral acids and astringent substances, espe-
cially the sulphuric and sulphurous acids, and
tannin, precipitate the viscous ferment, and
are, hence, the best cures for this malady of
fermented liquors. It is the large amount of
tannic acid in the red wines and well-hopped
beer which is the cause of their never being
attacked with ‘graisse,” or ‘ropiness.’ See
WINoUS FERMENTATION, WINES, &c.
WI"SION. The following means of preserv-
ing and restoring the sight may be appropri-
ately inserted here:—
For NEAR-SIGHTEDNESS. — Close the eyes
and press the fingers very gently, from the
nose outward, across the eyes. This flattens
the pupil, and thus lengthens or extends the
angle of vision. This should be done several
WISCOUS FERMENTATION.—VOLTAIC ELECTRICITY.
times a day, or at least always after washing
the face, until short-sightedness is overcome.
For LOSS OF SIGHT BY AGE, such as require
magnifying glasses, pass the fingers or towel
from the outer corner of the eyes inwardly,
above and below the eyeballs, pressing very
gently against them. This rounds them up,
and preserves or restores the sight.
It is said that many persons, by this last
means, have preserved their sight so as to read
fine print at 80 years of age; others, whose
sight had been impaired by age, by carefully
manipulating the eyes with their fingers,
from their external angles inwardly, have re-
stored their sight, and been able to dispense
with glasses, and have since preserved it by a
continuance of the practice. To be successful,
or safe, these practices must be applied with
great gentleness and caution. Many per-
sons seriously damage their eyes by forcibly
rubbing them when drowsy, especially on
awaking in the morning.
The ‘Lancet' remarks, that “there is good
reason to believe that chicory (the coffee of the
Londoners), from its narcotic character, exerts
an injurious effect on the nervous system. So
convinced of this is Professor Beer, of Vienna,
a most celebrated German oculist, that he has
enumerated chicoried coffee among the causes
of amaurotic blindness.”
To strengthen the eyes, to relieve them when
swollen or congested, and to remove chronic
ophthalmia, purulent discharges, &c., nothing
is equal to frequently bathing them with
water, at first tepid, but afterwards lowered
in temperature to absolute coldness.
WIT/RIOL. A common name for sulphuric
acid and for several of its salts. (See below.)
Vitriol, Blue. Syn. ROMAN WITRIOL. Com-
mercial sulphate of copper.
Witriol, Green. Commercial sulphate of iron.
Vitriol, White. Commercial sulphate of zinc.
WITTIE WAYR. Syn. WETIVER, The Ta-
mool name of the odorous and fibrous roots
of the Andropogon muricatus sold by the per-
fumers.
VOLTA/IC ELECTRICITY. Syn. GALVANIC
E., GALVANISM, VoITAISM. That branch of
electrical science which has reference to the
phenomena attendant on the development of
electricity by chemical action. Electricity
thus developed may be made to show itself in
the ‘static’ condition, so as to produce the
effects of frictional electricity, but it is much
more easily obtained in the “dynamic’ con-
dition—in other words, as a “voltaic current’
—when it is especially remarkable for its
chemical and magnetic effects. If a plate of
zinc and a plate of platinum be immersed in
dilute sulphuric acid, and connected outside
the liquid by a wire, a current of electricity
will immediately be set up, and will continue
as long as the conducting circuit is complete
and the action of the acid on the zinc goes on.
The current of “positive’ electricity passes
from the zinc, through the liquid, to the
WOLUMETRIC ANALYSIS.
1157
platinum, and thence through the wire to the
zinc. The arrangement of two dissimilar metals
immersed in a liquid which acts upon one of
them is called a voltaic couple. By uniting a
number of couples together in regular order, a
voltaic pile or battery is formed.
The older forms of the voltaic battery, viz.,
VoITA’s PILE, CRUIKSHANK’s TROUGH, and
WOLLASTON's BATTERY, are now but little
used. They all consist of a series of couples
of zinc and copper, excited by an acid liquid,
generally a mixture of water with # of its
bulk of sulphuric acid, and ºn of nitric acid.
One of the most useful forms of the voltaic
battery is that proposed by the late Prof.
Daniell, and commonly known by his name.
Its peculiar advantages arise from its action
continuing without interruption for a long time,
hence the name of ‘constant battery’ that has
been applied to it. The following figure will
explain the construction of each couple.
A. A copper cylinder, filled with a saturated solution of
sulphate of copper.
B. A smaller porous cylinder (earthenware or membrane),
containing a mixture of 1 measure of strong sul-
phuric acid, and about 8 measures of water.
C. A rod of amalgamated zinc, supported in the smaller
cylinder by the cross piece (i).
D. A shelf full of small holes, for supporting crystals of
sulphate of copper, to keep up the strength of the
solution.
e andf. Screws and caps to connect the wires g and h
with the battery.
g. The megative wire, connected with the zinc.
h. The positive wire, connected with the copper.
One of these couples is sufficient for electro-
typing; six of them form a circle of consider-
able power, and about 20 produce one suffi-
ciently strong for most experiments of demon-
stration and research.
In arranging these, as well as other bat-
teries, when intensity, or travelling power, is
desired, the metallic communication is made
between the opposite metals (the zinc of one
couple being united with the copper of another);
but when simple quantity without intensity is
required, the zinc of one battery is united with
the zinc of the other, and the copper of the
one with the copper of the other, an effect
which is equally attainable with a single bat-
tery of enlarged dimensions.
Another useful apparatus is GROVE's BAT-
TERY, in which the positive metal consists of
amalgamated zinc immersed in sulphuric acid,
diluted with 10 times its bulk of water; and
the negative metal of platinum immersed in
strong nitric acid. The two liquids are kept
separate by the use of porous vessels, as in
‘Daniell’s battery.’ This is an extremely
powerful arrangement, but not so constant as
Daniell’s, owing to the reduction of the mitric
acid to lower oxides of nitrogen. After this
battery has been in action for about an hour,
copious red nitrous fumes are given off, which
cause great annoyance.
In place of platinum, compact charcoal or
coke, prepared by a rather troublesome pro-
cess, may be used, and the arrangement then
constitutes a BUNSEN’s BATTERY. Other sub-
stitutes for the costly platinum have been pro-
posed, as lead coated with gold or platinum,
and iron rendered ‘passive’ by immersion in
strong nitric acid. Callan has obtained very
good results with amalgamated zinc and cast
iron immersed in diluted sulphuric acid, without
the use of nitric acid (MAYNOOTH BATTERY).
In SMEE's BATTERY, which is much used in
the arts, pairs of amalgamated zinc and plati-
nised silver (or platinised platinum) are im-
mersed in dilute sulphuric acid (1 part acid to
7 parts water). The plates of zinc are usually
bent double, and the platinised plates inter-
posed between the two surfaces formed by the
bend. See PLATINIZING (page 1099).
In every voltaic combination the passage of
the electricity (i. e. the positive modification
of the force) in the liquid is from the active
element to the inactive element; in the case of
a simple zinc-and-copper couple, for instance,
it is from the zinc to the copper. If this
simple fact be borne in mind, it will decide in
every case the question which confuses so
many, namely, which is the positive, and
which the negative end of a battery P. The
positive is the end where the electricity leaves
the battery; the negative where it re-enters
it. For further information connected with
the subject of voltaic electricity, see articles on
ELECTRICITY, ELECTROLYSIS, ELECTROTYPE,
ETCHING, &c.
VOLUME"TRIC ANALYSIS. Quantitative
chemical analysis by measure. This method
of analysis “consists in submitting the sub-
stance to be estimated to certain characteristic
reactions, employing for such reactions liquids
of known strength, and from the quantity of
the liquid employed determining the weight
of the substance to be estimated by means of
the known laws of equivalence.” As an ex-
ample of this method we give the following
from the Introduction in Mr. Sutton’s excel-
lent “Handbook of Volumetric Analysis:’—
“Suppose that it is desirable to know the
quantity of pure silver contained in a shilling.
The coin is first dissolved in nitric acid, by
which means a bluish solution, containing
silver, copper, and probably other metals, is
obtained. It is a known fact that chlorine
combines with silver in the presence of other
metals to form chloride of silver, which is in-
soluble in nitric acid. The proportions in
which the combination takes place are 35-46
of chlorine to every 108 of silver; conse-


1158
WADE'S DEOPS–WAFERS.
quently, if a standard solution of pure chlo-
ride of sodium is prepared by dissolving 58:46
grains of the salt (i. e. 1 equiv. sodium = 23,
1 eq. chlorine = 35.46 = 1 eq. chloride of
sodium 58.46) in so much distilled water as
will make up exactly 1000 grains by measure;
every single grain of this solution will combine
with 108 grain of pure silver to form chlo-
ride of silver, which precipitates to the bottom
of the vessel in which the mixture is made.
In the process of adding the salt solution to
the silver, drop by drop, a point is at last
reached when the precipitate ceases to form.
Here the process must stop. On looking care-
fully at the graduated vessel from which the
standard solution has been used, the operator
sees at once the number of grains which
have been necessary to produce the complete
decomposition. For example, suppose the
quantity used was 520 grains; all that is ne-
cessary to be done is to multiply '108 grain
by 520, which shows the amount of pure silver
present to be 56.16 grains.” The volumetric
method is much less troublesome than the or-
dinary method of analysis (by separating the
constituents of a mixture and weighing them),
and is admirably adapted for the examination
of substances used in arts and manufactures.
Most of the processes described under ACIDI-
METRY and ALKALIMETRY are examples of this
method. See those articles, also EQUIVA-
LENTS, TEST-SOLUTIONS, &c.
WADE'S DROPS. Compound tincture of
benzoin. -
WA/FER PAPER. See WAFERs, in Cookery
(below).
WA/FERS. Thin adhesive discs, used for
securing letters or sticking papers together.
Prep. 1. (WAFERs, FLOUR W.) The finest
wheaten flour is mixed with water, either pure
or coloured, to a smooth pap or batter, which,
after being passed through a sieve, to remove
clots or lumps, is poured into the ‘wafer-irons’
(previously warmed and greased with butter
or olive oil), and in this state exposed to the
heat of a clear charcoal fire; the whole is
then allowed to cool, when the irons are opened,
and the thin cake, which has become hard and
brittle, is cut into wafers by means of sharp
annular steel punches, made exclusively for
the purpose. -
2. (GELATINE WAFERS, TRANSPARENT W.)
Good gelatine or glue is dissolved, by the heat
of a water bath, in just sufficient water to form
a consistent mass on cooling; it is then poured,
whilst hot, upon the surface of a warm plate
or mirror glass, slightly oiled, and surrounded
with a border of card paper (laid flat); a
similar plate, also warmed and oiled, is next
laid upon the gelatine, and the two plates
pressed into as close contact as is permitted by
the card paper; when quite cold, the thin sheet
of gelatine is removed, and cut into wafers
with punches, as before. 1 to 2 oz.of sugar is
commonly added to each lb. of gelatine.
3. (MEDALLION WAFERs.) A sheet of metal
or glass, having designs sunk in it correspond-
ing to the raised part of seals, being provided,
the hollows are filled up with a mixture formed
of any appropriate coloured powder, made into
a paste with gum water or size, leaving the flat
part clear; melted coloured glue is then poured
on the plate, and the process is otherwise con-
ducted as before. For use, the paper is wetted
where the wafer is to be applied.
Obs. Care must be taken that no poisonous
colours be employed. For gelatine wafers,
transparent colours only can be used. Those
noticed under LIQUEURS and STAINS (Confec-
fectioner's) are appropriate. To these may be
added plumbago, sesquioxide of iron (crocus
martis), smalts, levigated vegetable charcoal,
and vermilion.
Wafers. (In cookery.) Prep. Make fine
flour, dried and sifted, into a smooth thin
batter with good milk, or a little cream-and-
water ; add about as much white wine as will
make it thick enough for pancakes, sweeten
it with a little loaf sugar, and flavour it with
powdered cinnamon. When thus prepared,
have the wafer-irons made ready, by being
heated over a charcoal fire ; rub them with a
piece of linen cloth dipped in butter; then
pour a spoonful of the batter upon them, and
close them almost immediately ; turn them
upon the fire, and pare the edges with a knife,
if any of the batter oozes out. A short time
will bake them, when the irons are perfectly
heated. The wafers must be curled round
whilst warm when they are for ornaments.
* Wafer paper’ is prepared in a similar way
to the above; but when intended to be kept
for some time, the milk must be omitted.
Used by cooks, &c.; and, recently, as an en-
velope for nauseous medicines.
Wafers, Da Silva's. These nostrums were
introduced to the public some time ago, as
though they were prepared from the formulae
of a celebrated physician whose name was
affixed to them." There are three varieties,
which are said to be prepared as follows:—
1. APERIENT or ANTIBILIOUS WAFERS.
From sugar and extract of liquorice (Spanish
juice), equal parts; senna and jalap, of each,
in fine powder, about ; dr. to every oz. of
sugar employed; made into a mass with a
concentrated infusion of senna, and divided
into 12-gr. lozenges or squares with the cor-
ners rounded off.
2. FEMALE WAFERS. From sugar, horehound
candy (or honey), and aperient wafer mass,
equal parts; beaten to a proper consistence
with weak gum water, to which a little orange-
flower water has been added, and divided int
8. gr. tabellae, as before. -
3. PULMONIC WAFERS. From lump sugar
and starch, of each, in powder, 2 parts; pow-
dered gum, 1 part ; made into a lozenge-mass
1 For an exposition of the Da Silva quackery, with Dr.
Locock’s letter on the subject, see the “Amat. of Quackery,’
or the ‘Med, Cir.,” ii, 106-126. -

WALNUT-WASHES.
1159
with vinegar of squills, oxymel of squills, and
ipecacuanha wine, equal parts, gently evapo-
rated to 1-6th their weight, with the addition
of lactucarium in the proportion of 20 to 30
grs. to every oz. of the dry powders; the mass
being divided into half-inch squares, weighing
about 7% grs. each (when dry), as before.
WAL'NUT. The Juglans regia, a tree of
the natural order Juglandaceae. The sap yields
sugar; the fruit is the walnut; the kernels of
the latter are eaten and pressed for their oil;
the peel or husks are used for “rooting’ or
dyeing brown; the unripe fruit is pickled,
and its juice is used as a hair dye; the leaves
are reputed diaphoretic and antisyphilitic;
and the wood is esteemed for cabinet work.
WARBURG’S FEWER DROPS. See WAR-
BURG’s FEVER TINCTURE.
WARD'S RED DROP. A strong solution of
emetic tartar in wine.
WARTS. Syn. VERRUCE, L. These chiefly
attack the hands, and may be removed by the
daily use of a little nitrate of silver, nitric
acid, or aromatic vinegar, as directed under
CoRN. The first of the above applications
produces a black stain, and the second a yellow
one ; both of which, however, wear off after
the lapse of some days. Acetic acid scarcely
discolours the skin. Erasmus Wilson, the
eminent surgeon and talented author of se-
veral works on the skin, mentions the case of
a gentleman who removed an entire crop of
warts from his knuckles and fingers by sub-
jecting them to a succession of sparks from
one of the poles of an electrical machine.
“He was in the habit, as is usual, of trying
the amount of electric fluid collected in his
machine by placing his knuckle near the brass
knob, and receiving a spark. Observing that
an odd sensation was produced whenever the
spark struck a wart, he was tempted for amuse-
ment to give them a round of discharges.
When his attention was next directed to his
hands, he found, to his surprise and satisfac-
tion, that all the warts had disappeared.”
Dr. Peez, of Wiesbaden, recommends the in-
ternal use of carbonate of magnesia in cases
of warts. -
The papular eruption which covers the
hands of some persons, and which is occa-
sionally called “soft warts, is best removed by
the daily use of Gowlard's lotion.
WASH. The fermented wort of the distiller.
WASH-BALLS. See SAVONETTES.
WASHERWOMAN'S SCALI. See PSORI-
ASIS.
WASHES. The familiar name of lotions,
more especially of those employed as cos-
metics. See FRECKLES, Lot ION, MILK of
ROSES, SKIN COSMETICS, &c., and below.
Washes, Hair. Prep. 1. From rosemary
tops, 2 oz.; boiling water, 1 pint; infused to-
gether in a teapot or jug, either with or
without the addition of rectified spirit, 1 fl.oz.
(or rum, 2 fl. oz.) to the cold strained liquor.
2. Box leaves, a small handful; boiling water,
1 pint; digest for an hour, simmer 10 minutes,
and strain. Both are used to improve the
growth of and strengthen the hair.
3. To clean the ‘partings,” remove scurf,
&c.—a. (ANTIPITYRIENNE) From sesquicar-
bonate of ammonia, 1 oz.; spirit of rosemary,
# pint; rose of elder-flower water, 1% pint.
b. (DETERGENT ESSENCE.) From honey,
2 oz. ; borax, 1 oz.; cochineal (bruised), 4 oz. ;
camphor, 1 dr.; (dissolved in) rectified spirit,
2 fl. oz.; soft water, # pint; oil of rosemary,
20 drops.
c. (VEGETABLE EXTRACT.) Take of salt of
tartar, 1 oz. ; rosemary water, 1 pint; burnt
sugar, q. S. to tinge it brown; dissolve, filter,
and add of essence of musk, 10 drops.
4. To darken the hair.—a. From pyrogallic
acid, 4 oz.; distilled water, orange-flower water,
and rectified spirit, of each, 1+ fl. oz.
b. (LA FOREST’s CoSMETIC LotroN or
LIQUID HAIR DYE.) Boil, for a few minutes,
chloride of sodium, 1 dr., and sulphate of
iron, 2 drs., in red wine, 1 lb.; then add of
verdigris, 1 dr.; in 2 or 3 minutes remove it
from the fire, and further add of powdered
galls, 2 drs.; the next day filter. For use,
moisten the hair with the liquid; in a few
minutes dry it with a cloth, and afterwards
wash the skin with water.
5. To prevent the hair falling off.-a, (AME-
RICAN SHAMPoo LIQUID.) Take of carbonate
of ammonia, # oz. ; carbonate of potash, 1 oz.;
water, 1 pint; dissolve, and add the solution
to a mixture of tincture of cantharides, 5 fl.
oz.; rectified spirit, 1 pint; good rum, 3 quarts.
Used to strengthen the hair and to remove
dandruff, by moistening it with the mixture,
rubbing, so as to form a lather, and them wash-
ing with cold water. -
b. (BALM OF COLUMBIA.) As the last, omit-
ting the potash, quadrupling the carbonate of
ammonia, and adding some perfume.
c. (Eras. Wilson.) Eau de Cologne (strongest),
8 fl. oz.; tincture of cantharides, 1 fl. oz. ; oils
of rosemary and lavender, of each, # fl. dr.
d. (DR. LocoCK’s LOTION.) From expressed
oil of mace (nutmeg), 1 oz., liquefied, at a
gentle heat, with olive oil, oz. ; and, when
cold, formed into an emulsion by agitation
with rose water, 4 pint; spirit of rosemary,
2} fl.oz.; stronger liquor of ammonia, 1% fl. drs.
For other formulae, see BALDNESS, HAIR DYES,
LOTION, &c.
Washes, Medicinal. See LOTION, &c.
Washes, Mouth. Syn. Tooth WASHES;
CoLLUTORIA, L. Prep. 1. Take of camphor
(cut small), 4 oz. ; rectified spirit, 2 fl. oz.;
dissolve. A few drops to be added to a wine-
glassful of water, to sweeten the breath and
preserve the teeth.
2. Chloride of lime, 3 oz.; water, 2 fl. oz. ;
agitate well together in a phial for ; an hour,
filter, and add, of rectified spirit, 2 fl. oz.; rose
or orange-flower water, 1 fl. oz. Used, highly
diluted with water, as the last, by smokers
and persons having a foul breath.

1160
WASHING FILUIDS—WATER.
3. Mastic (in powder), 2 drs. ; balsam of
Peru, ; dr. ; gum, 2 drs., or q. S.; orange-
flower water, 6 fl. oz. ; tincture of myrrh,
2 fl. drs. ; for an emulsion. In loose teeth,
&c.
4. Tannin, , dr. ; tincture of tolu, 2 fl. dr.s;
tincture of myrrh, 6 fl. drs. ; spirit of horse-
radish, 2 fl. oz. ; mix. In spongy gums,
scurvy, &c.; diluted with tepid water.
5. (Swediaur.) Borax, 4 oz. ; water and
tincture of myrrh, of each, 1 fl. oz.; honey of
roses, 2 oz. In tender or ulcerated gums.
6. Balsam of Peru, 2 drs. ; camphor, dr. ;
essence of musk and liquor of ammonia, of
each, 3 fl. dr. ; tincture of myrrh, 3 fl. drs. ;
spirit of horseradish, 1} fl. oz. To sweeten
and perfume the breath; a teaspoonful in #
wineglassful of tepid water to rinse the mouth
with.
Washes, Tooth. See above.
WASHING FLU'IDS. Solutions of carbo-
nate of soda, rendered caustic with quicklime.
WASHING POW/DERS. See POWDERS.
WATCH FULNESS. Syn. SLEEPLESSNEss;
AGRYPNIA, L. The common causes of watch-
fulness are thoughtfulness or grief, disordered
stomach or bowels, heavy and late suppers,
and a deficiency of out-door exercise. The
best treatment, in ordinary cases, simply con-
sists in an attention to these points. The
method of producing sleep recommended by a
late celebrated hypnotist consists in merely
adopting an easy recumbent position, inclining
the head toward the chest, shutting the eyes,
and taking several deep inspirations with the
mouth closed. Another method, recommended
by an eminent surgeon, and which appears in-
fallible if persevered in with proper confidence,
and which is suitable either to the sitting or
recumbent posture, consists in tying a decanter
cork with a bright metallic top, a pencil-case,
or any other bright object on the forehead, in
such a position that the eyes must be distorted
or strained to be capable of seeing it. By
resolutely gazing in this way for a short time,
without winking, with the mind fully absorbed
in the effort, the muscles of the eyes gradu-
ally relax, and the experimenter falls asleep.
Gazing in a similar manner on any imaginary
bright spot in the dark, as at night, exerts a
like effect. A tumblerful of cold spring water,
either with or without a few grains of bicar-
bonate of potash in it, taken just before lying
down, will frequently succeed with the dys-
peptic and nervous, when all other means fail.
See SUPPER, &c.
WATER. H.O. Syn. OxTDE of HYDRO-
GEN, PROTOXIDE OF H.; AQUA, L.; EAU, Fr. ;
WASSER, Ger. The ancients regarded water
as a simple substance, and as convertible into
various mineral and organic products. Earth,
air, fire, and water, were at one time conceived
to be the elementary principles or essences of
matter, from which all form and substance
derived their existence. The true constitution
of water was not discovered until about the
year 1781, when Cavendish and James Watt,
independently and nearly simultaneously,
showed it to be a compound of hydrogen and
oxygen. Five years, however, before this time
(1776), the celebrated Macquer, assisted by
Sigaud de la Fond, obtained pure water by the
combustion of hydrogen in the air. It has
since been satisfactorily demonstrated that
hydrogen and oxygen exist in water in the
proportion of 1 to 8 by weight, or 2 to 1 by
volume; the sp. gr. of hydrogen being to that
of oxygen as 1 to 16. One cubic inch of per-
fectly pure water at 62° Fahr., and 30 inches
of the barometer, weighs 252'458 grs. ; by
which it will be seen that it is 815 times
heavier than atmospheric air. Its sp. gr. is
1-0, it being made the standard by which the
densities of all solid and liquid bodies are esti-
mated. The sp. gr. of frozen water (ice) is
'9175 water being 1-0 (Dufour); that of
aqueous vapour (steam), .6252, air being 1:0.
Water changes its volume with the tempe-
rature; its greatest density is at about 39%.”
Fahr., and its sp. gr. decreases from that point,
either way. By the enormous pressure of 30,000
lbs. on the square inch, 14 volumes of water
are condensed into 13 volumes. Water eva-
porates, at all temperatures, but at 212°, under
ordinary circumstances, this takes place so
rapidly that it boils, and is converted into
vapour (steam), whose bulk is nearly 1700 times
greater than that of water. The general pro-
perties and uses of water are too well known to
require notice. - -
Var. Of these the following are the prin-
cipal:—
ºrmºn WATER ; AQUA DESTILLATA (B.
P., Ph. L. E. & D.), L. Obtained by the distil-
lation of common water through a block-tin
worm, rejecting the first and last portions that
come over. The still employed for this operation
should be used for no other purpose; and when
great nicety is required the distillation should
be performed in glass or earthenware. It re-
mains limpid on the addition of lime water,
chloride of barium, nitrate of silver, oxalate of
ammonium, or hydrosulphuric acid. It is the
only kind of water that should be employed in
chemical and pharmaceutical operations. When
distilled water is not at hand, clean filtered or
clarified rain water is the only kind that can be
successfully substituted.
RAIN WATER ; AQUA PLUVIA, L. A nearly
pure kind of natural water; but it contains
minute quantities of air, carbonic and nitric
acid, carbonate of ammonium, &c.
SNOW WATER ; AQUA NIVALIS, L. The
purest of all natural waters.
SPRING WATER ; Aqua (Ph. E.), AQUA FON-
TANA (Ph. D.), L. Rain water which has
percolated through the earth almost always
contains mineral impurities. For pharma-
ceutical use, spring water must be so far free
of saline matter as not to possess the quality
of hardness, or contain above 1:6000th part of
solid matter. (Ph. E.)

WATER.
1161
RIVER WATER ; AQUA FLUVIALIS, L. Less
pure than good spring water. Thames water
contains about 1:3500th part of fixed impuri-
ties, chiefly carbonate of calcium; or from 16
to 24 grs. of solid matter per gallon, indepe-
dently of gaseous matter and mechanical im-
purities.
WELL WATER, PUMP WATER ; AQUA PU-
TEANA, L. Less pure than either of the pre-
ceding. Usually contains a large quantity
of carbonate and sulphate of calcium. Hence
its ‘hardness’ and property of curdling soap.
When this arises from the first-named sub-
stance, it is called, temporary hardness,”
since it is, for the most part, removed by
boiling and exposure; but when it arises
from sulphate of calcium, it is called “per-
manent hardness,” since it cannot be so easily
remedied.
SEA WATER ; AQUA MARINA, L. The cha-
racteristic of this variety is its saltness. Its
density is about 1:0274, and the average
quantity of saline matter which it con-
tains is about 3% per cent, of which about #
are chloride of sodium, and the remainder
chiefly chloride of magnesium and sulphate of
magnesium.
Analysis of Sea Water (British Channel),
by Dr. Schweitzer, of Brighton:
1000 grains contained— grains.
Water . - - 964745
Chloride of sodium 27:059
xx of potassium . 0.766
3.2 of magnesium. 3:666
Bromide of magnesium 0.029
Sulphate of magnesium 2:296
22 of calcium 1:406
Carbonate of calcium . 0.033
1000.
Pur. Pure water is perfectly transparent,
odourless, and colourless, and evaporates with-
out residue, or even leaving a stain behind.
The purest natural water is that obtained by
melting snow or frozen rain, that has fallen
at some distance from any town. Absolutely
pure water can only be obtained by the union
of its gaseous constituents; but very pure
water, sufficiently so for all purposes, may be
procured by the careful distillation of common
water.
Tests. 1. If a precipitate is formed, or a
“fur’ or ‘crust’ deposited on the vessel during
ebullition, it indicates the presence of carbo-
nate of calcium.–2. The residuum, if any, of
evaporation, is impurity; if it be organic
matter, smoke and a peculiar odour will be
evolved, as the residue becomes dry and
charred.—3. If a solution of ferrous sulphate,
when added to the water contained in a
stoppered phial, occasions areddish-brown pre-
cipitate after a few days, the presence of oxy-
gen is indicated.—4. Neither litmus, syrup of
violets, nor turmeric, are discoloured or affected
when moistened with pure water; if the first
two are reddened, it indicates an acid; if the
last is turned brown, an alkali.-5. If a milki-
ness follows the addition of a solution of hydrate
of calcium before and not after the water
has been boiled, it contains carbonic acid.-6.
Chloride of barium occasions a white preci-
pitate, insoluble in nitric acid if sulphuric acid
or sulphates be present.—7. Oxalate of am-
monium produces a white precipitate in
water containing calcium salts.-8. Nitrate
of silver occasions a cloudy white preci-
pitate, insoluble in nitric acid, but soluble
in ammonia, in water containing chlorine
or chlorides.—9. Phosphate of sodium and
ammonium (microcosmic salt), added to water
that has been boiled, and precipitated by
oxalic acid (if required), produces, in a few
hours, a white precipitate, if the water con-
tains magnesium salts.-10. Tincture or in-
fusion of galls turns water containing iron
black; when this takes place, both before
and after the water has been boiled, the metal
is present under the form of sulphate; but
if it only occurs before boiling, then ferrous
carbonate may be suspected, and will be
precipitated as a reddish powder by expo-
sure to air and heat.—11. Ferrocyanide of
potassium gives a blue precipitate in water
containing a ferric salt, and a white one, turn-
ing blue by exposure to the air, in water con-
taining a ferrous salt.—12. Sulphuretted
hydrogen and the hydro-sulphates give a brown
or black precipitate in water containing cop-
per, iron, or lead; and a yellow precipitate
in water containing arsenic, or its com-
pounds.
Purif. Pure water is incapable of putre-
faction, but ordinary water contains a small
quantity of organic matter in solution, which
speedily undergoes decomposition, even in
closed vessels. This is especially the case with
water kept in wooden casks, or in open cisterns
into which leaves and insects are driven by the
wind. Putrescent water is highly unwhole-
some as a beverage; and it is a fact, clearly
demonstrated by the returns of the Registrar-
General, that the last visitations of cholera
corresponded in severity to the impurity of
the water supplied to the respective dis-
tricts.
Among the methods adopted for purifying
foul water are the following:—1. Filtration
through, or agitation with, coarsely powdered
freshly burnt charcoal, either animal or vege-
table, but preferably the former. This re-
moves both mechanically suspended matter and
part of the calcareous and gaseºus impurities
held in solution.—2. Free exposure to the
action of the air, by which the organic matters
become oxidised and insoluble, and speedily
subside. This may be easily effected by agi-
tating the water in contact with fresh air, or
by forcing air through it by means of bellows.
—3. The addition of a little sulphuric acid has
a like effect; 15 or 20 drops are usually suffi-
cient for a gallon. This addition may be
advantageously made to water intended for

1162
WATER.
filtration through charcoal, by which plan at
least 3 of the latter may be saved. (Lowitz.)—
4. An ounce of powdered alum (dissolved), well
agitated with a hogshead or more of foul
water, will purify it in the course of a few
hours, when the clear portion may be de-
canted. When the water is very putrid, about
# dr. (or even 1 dr. per gal) may be employed;
any alum that may be left in solution may be
precipitated by the cautious addition of an
equivalent proportion of carbonate of sodium.—
5. A solution of ferric sulphate acts in the same
way as alum; a few drops are sufficient for a
gallon.—6. Agitation with about the # to 1% of
finely powdered black oxide of manganese has a
similar effect to the last.—7. The addition of a
little aqueous chlorine, or chlorine gas, to foul
water, cleanses it immediately. This method
has the advantage of the water being perfectly
freed from any excess of the precipitant by
heat.—8. Sea water may be rendered fit for
washing by the addition of a solution of car-
bonate of sodium or salt of tartar, as long as it
turns milky. After repose, the clear portion
must be decanted.—9. Sea water may be ren-
dered fit for use as a beverage by distillation.
The waste heat of the cook’s galley is amply
sufficient for this purpose. (There are several
patent contrivances for the distillation of water
on shipboard.)—10. Hard water may be sof-
tened in the same way as sea water.—11.
Hard water may be both ačrated and softened
by the addition of a few grains of bicarbonate
of potassium per gallon, followed by half as
much lemon juice or tartaric acid as is suffi-
cient to saturate the alkali in the carbonate
thus added.—12. The hardness of water de-
pending on the presence of carbonate of calcium
(“temporary hardness'), including that of most
rivers and many springs, may be nearly re-
moved by ebullition ; or, as recommended by
Prof. Clark, by mixing the hard water with
lime water in the proper proportions, when the
calcium combines with the excess of car-
bonic acid, which previously rendered the
carbonate soluble, and is precipitated as car-
bonate (chalk), together with the carbonate
originally present. This method has been suc-
cessfully carried out on the large scale.—13.
Another method is to precipitate the lime by
the addition of oxalate of ammonium in atomic
proportion, carefully avoiding excess, and then
to agitate the water with a little binoxide of
manganese, in fine powder.—14. ‘Permanently
hard’ water, that chiefly due to sulphate of
calcium, may be softened by the addition of
carbonate of sodium or wood-ashes.
Water, Quantitative Analysis of. The ge-
neral quantitative analysis of potable waters is
confined to the following : total residue ;
chlorine; hardness, temporary and permanent ;
nitrates, and nitrites, and nitrogenous organic
matter.
Excess of chlorine is generally an indication
of the presence of sewage, unless in the case
of tidal waters; while nitrates and nitrites
are usually the result of the oxidation of
decomposing organic matter, and therefore,
likewise, indicate more or less contamination
by sewage or decomposing animal matters.
The nitrogenous organic matter is usually
estimated as ammonia, urea, and albuminoid
matter. -
Unfortunately no decisive test for, or rather
method of estimation of, the actually injurious
organic matter has been discovered, not even
a satisfactory proof of previous sewage con-
tamination, but the fact of obtaining albu-
minoid ammonia, and the presence of an
appreciable amount of nitrates or nitrites is
generally sufficient ground for rejecting as
suspicious a water, as if not absolutely inju-
rious, at least liable to become so at any
moment.
The hardness should be determined in the
natural water, and after boiling it for one hour,
replacing that lost by evaporation by dis-
tilled water. The second determination gives
the permanent hardness or that due to sul-
phate of calcium, while the first determi-
nation is the total hardness, and minus the
second gives the temporary hardness, or that
due to bicarbonate of calcium. Temporary
hardness can be remedied by Dr. Clark’s soften-
ing process, which consists in treating the
water with milk of lime, which decomposes the
soluble bicarbonates into carbonates, insoluble
in water. Permanent hardness can be best re-
moved for washing processes by the addition
of carbonate of sodium, or by filtering the
water through wood-ashes.
Solid residue. One thousand grains of
the water are evaporated down to dryness in a
platinium dish over a water bath, and the
residue heated to about 250 Fahr. for one hour.
The increase in weight of the platinium vessel
gives the total solid residue.
Bardness. One thousand measured grains
of the water are run into a narrow-mouthed
six or eight ounce stoppered bottle, well shaken
and the air sucked out by means of a piece of
glass tube. The standard soap solution is now
run in a little at a time, shaking well between
each addition, until a permanent lather is
formed over the whole suyface when the bottle is
placed upon its side, and lasting for five minutes.
The measure of soap solution used will indicate
the hardness of the water by reference to
Table A. Should, however, this not take place
before 320 grain measures of soap solution have
been added, a second trial must be made. One
thousand grain measures of soap solution are
placed in the bottle with a like amount of dis-
tilled water, and treated in the same manner
as before. The amount of soap solution
divided by two, will indicate half the hard-,
ness of the water. In the case of extremely
hard water, where even 600 measures of
soap solution gives no permanent lather, to
every one thousand grains of the water twice
that volume of distilled water must be added,
and the degree of hardness found by multiply-

WATER.
1163
ing the degree corresponding to a third of the
soap solution by three.
TABLE A.
Soap test measures corresponding to one
thousand measures of water of each degree of
hardness.
Degree of hardness. Soap test measures. Difference.
O - 14 18
1. - 32 22
2 - 54 22
3 - 76 20
4. - 96 20
5 - 116 20
6 - 136 20
7 - 156 - 19
8 175 - 19
9 194 19
10 213 18
11 - 231 18
12 249 - 18
13 267 - 18
14 285 - 18
15 - 303 17
16 320 -
The soap test is made as follows:—Sixteen
grains of pure carbonate of calcium (Iceland
spar) are dissolved in pure dilute hydrochloric
acid, and the whole cautiously evaporated to
dryness over a water bath, redissolved in water
and again evaporated to dryness. The resulting
chloride of calcium, if perfectly neutral, is dis-
solved in one gallon of pure distilled water, and
constitutes the standard water of “sixteen
degrees of hardness.” Good curd soap is dis-
solved in proof spirit, in the proportion of one
ounce to the gallon. One thousand grains of the
water of sixteen degrees of hardness are placed
into a bottle, and this soap solution run in from
a burette until a permanent lather is formed.
The number of measures is noted, and the soap
solution made up to such a strength that 320
grain measures produce a lather permanent for
five minutes in 1000 grain measures of water
of sixteen degrees of hardness.
Chlorine. Two thousand grains of the water
are evaporated down to a little less than half
an ounce in a platinium capsule over a water
bath, and the bulk made up to 250 grains
exactly with pure distilled water, a drop of
neutral chromate of sodium solution is added,
and a standard solution of nitrate of silver run
in from a burette until a red colouration is pro-
duced. The number of grains of standard
solution used multiplied by 0035 will give
the grains of chlorine in one gallon of the
Water.
The standard solution is prepared by dis-
solving 33:53 grains of pure nitrate of silver in
one gallon of distilled water.
Mitrates and Nitrites. The most convenient
method is Messrs. Wanklyn and Chapman’s
modification of Schulze's. Two thousand grains
of the water are placed in a retort, and half as
much of a solution of hydrate of sodium (of a
strength of one in ten) added. Half the con-
tents of the retort are distilled over, and the
residue cooled. A piece of sheet aluminium is
introduced into the solution and the whole
allowed to stand several hours, the neck of the
retort being closed by a cork (traversed by a
tube moistened with hydrochloric acid and con-
nected with a drying tube, if thought necessary).
The neck of the retort (and tube) is then washed
down with a little pure water, and the con-
tents distilled over, down to about an ounce,
into two or three ounces of water placed in the
receiver. The contents of the receiver are made
up to 2000 grains, and one half Nesslerised, as
described further on. The amount of ammonia
found multiplied by 259-2 gives the amount of
nitrates, as nitric acid, in one gallon of the
water.
Drs. Frankland and Armstrong have also
described a method of estimating nitrates by
the use of a special piece of apparatus, for
which method we must refer the reader to the
‘Journal of the Chemical Society’ for March,
1868.
Nitrogen as Ammonia and Organic Matter.
For the estimation of these Messrs. Wanklyn’s
and Chapman’s is, for general use, the best and
most convenient method. It depends on
the conversion of the nitrogen of the nitroge-
nous organic matter into ammonia, and the
employment of Nessler’s test to estimate this
anald OD11a.
Nessler’s Reagent. 500 grains of iodide of
potassium are dissolved in a small quantity of
hot distilled water. Place this over a water
bath, and add to it a strong aqueous solution of
mercuric chloride, until the precipitate ceases
to be dissolved as quickly as formed, when the
addition of mercuric chloride is stopped.
Filter, add to the filtrate 2000 grains of potas-
sium dissolved in water, and dilute the volume
to 10,000 grains. A little of the aqueous
mercuric chloride solution is added, and the
whole allowed to settle and the clear liquid
decanted off.
Standard Ammonia Solution. Dissolve
27-164 grains of pure sulphate of ammonium
in one gallon of distilled water. For use
dilute 100 grains to 1000 grains. It will then
contain 1 grain of ammonia in 100,000 of
water.
In order to estimate ammonia, several tall
glass cylinders, graduated at 1000 grains, and
holding about six ounces, are employed. One
of these is filled up to the graduation with the
ammonia solution to be estimated, and about 30
grains of Nessler’s reagent added from a
pipette. The colouration produced is noted.
A second cylinder is filled nearly to the mark
with distilled water, and what is thought suffi-
cient ammonia to produce a similar colour to
the first run in, the whole made up to 1000
grains, and 30 grains of Nessler added; if after
standing ten minutes, the colouration in the
second is the same as in the first, the amount

1164.
WATER.
of ammonia solution added is the same as in t e
water examined; but if this is not the case, a
second trial must be added, using more or less
standard ammonia as the intensity of colour is
less or greater than the first. After a little
experience more than two trials is rarely
necessary.
Eacamination. Five thousand grains of the
water to be analysed are placed in a tubulated
retort, and half an ounce of a saturated solu-
tion of carbonate of sodium added. The con-
tents are distilled over and every 500 grains col-
lected separately, until 1000 or 1500 has passed
over, when the next portion of 500 grains is
Nesslerised ; if it gives no reaction, the distil-
lation is stopped ; if it does, the distillation is
continued until a portion of 500 grains ceases
to. The ammonia in all these portions is esti-
mated, making each portion of 500 grains up
to 1000 with distilled water, and the total put
down to ammonia, from ammonium salts and
urea. The ammonia from ammonium salts
can be estimated by boiling 2000 grains of the
water with carbonate of sodium for half an
hour, making up the loss from evaporation,
and by using some of this instead of distilled
water in estimating the ammonia in 1000 grains
of the original water, the amount of ammonia
will be obtained. This substracted from the
total ammonia will give the ammonia from the
urea, and multiplying by 1:76 will give the
amount of urea.
To the retort after all the ammonia from the
urea and has been driven off, one ounce of a
solution of hydrate and permanganate of potas-
sium, of a strength of 2000 grains of hydrate
of potassium and 80 grains of permanganate
to 10,000 grains of water, is added, and the
distillation continued until no more ammonia
comes over, collecting the distillate in portions
of 500 grains as before. After estimation the
total ammonia obtained must be put down to
ammonia set free by the decomposition of
nitrogenous organic, or albuminoid bodies. By
multiplying the ammonia by ten, a fairly
approximate weight of these substances will be
obtained.
The following are some determinations of
Professor Wanklyn. (Water Analysis.)
Grains per gallon of
Ammonia from
Albumi-
Urea and Salts. noid
bodies.
Thames, London Bridge 0.123 0.024
25 Hampton Court 0.003 O'002
Well near East of London 2-800 0.210
London Institution 0-0014, 0.006
Bishopsgate Street pump 0.525 0.018
Bala Lake w 0-0007 0.017
Loch Katrine (Glasgow) 0.0003 0:006
Pres. Water is usually preserved on ship-
board in iron tanks, or in casks well charred on
the inside.
It cannot be safely kept in copper.
or leaden vessels, and receives a calcareous im
pregnation by contact with lime, mortar,
stucco, or stone containing lime. The addition
to water of about 3 to 1% of finely powdered
black oxide of manganese materially promotes
its preservation, especially at sea, where the
motion of the vessel, and the consequent
agitation of the water, increases the points of
contact. Water never putrefies in iron vessels,
or when some fragments of metallic iron are
immersed in it. Distilled water should be pre-
served in stoppered glass bottles or carboys.
See LOTION, SOLUTION, SPIRITs, WATERS
(Distilled, Eye, Mineral, Perfumed, &c.), and
the articles below.
Water, Barèges. Prep. Take of alum, car-
bonate of calcium, and hard Spanish soap, of
each, 2 grs. ; common salt, 4 grs. ; dried car-
bonate of sodium, 20 grs. ; sulphide of potas-
sium, 16 grs. ; water, 1 quart; boil them
together until the fumes of sulphuretted
hydrogen begin to be evolved, then add
enough water to make up 1 gallon. Used as a
medicated lotion or bath in cutaneous diseases,
from the slightest eruption to the most obsti-
nate cases of leprosy. 60 times the above
quantity formed the medicated warm bath
employed by the Emperor Napoleon. See
WATERS (Mineral). -
Water, Carrara. Syn. CARBONATED LIME
WATER ; AQUA CALCIS SUPERCARBONATIS, L.
Prep. From lime water (professedly prepared
from lime made by calcining Carrara marble),
supersaturated by strong pressure with car-
bonic anhydride, so that the carbonate of cal-
cium at first thrown down is redissolved.
Each #-pint bottle contains 8 to 10 grs. of
carbonate of calcium.
Water, Chalyb'eated. Syn. AQUA CHALY-
BEATA, L. Prep. (Ure.) Ferrous sulphate, 3
grs. ; bicarbonate of potassium, 61 grs. ; cold
rain or distilled water, 1 quart; mix, and
agitate in a corked bottle. Possesses equal
tonic powers to that of the springs, but it may
be rendered pleasanter by forcing in a little
carbonic acid gas. See WATERS (Mineral.)
Water, Fly. Prep. From white arsenic,
1 dr.; boiling water, 1 pint ; dissolve, and
sweeten the mixture with treacle. Used to
kill flies. A dangerous method, and one that
should never be adopted where there are
children.
Water, Lime. See SoLUTION OF LIME.
Water, Lith'ia. From the freshly precipi-
tated carbonate, as solution of magnesia. Ant-
acid and antilithic. -
Water, Potash. See SOLUTION.
Water, Rose. See WATERS (Distilled).
Water, Seidlitz. See PoWDERS and WATERS
(Mineral).
Water, Soda. Each bottle of this liquid
should contain at least 15 grs. of carbonate of
sodium, but that of the shops is usually no-
thing else but water highly charged with car-
bonic anhydride. Not a particle of soda enters
into its composition, on which account it.

WATERS (DISTILLED).
1165
cannot be substituted for the preparation of
the Pharmacopoeias.
To produce a superior article of soda water,
the possession of a powerful ačrating and
bottling machine is absolutely necessary. The
water employed must also be of the purest qua-
lity, the carbonic anhydride well washed with
water, and the corks so prepared that they
will not impart their peculiar flavour to the
beverage. See PoWDERS, SOLUTION, and
WINES.
Water, Tar. See INFUSION OF TAR.
WATERS (Distilled). Syn. AROMATIC
wATERs, ODoRIFEROUs W., PERFUMED W.;
AQUAE (Ph. L.), AQUAE DESTILLATE (Ph. E. &
D.), L. Pure water, charged, by distillation,
with the volatile, odorous, and aromatic
principles of plants.
Prep. 1. (Ph. L.)—a. 2 galls. of water are
put into the still along with the vegetable
matter (bruised, if necessary), but only 1 gal.
is drawn over. In the Ph. L. 1836, 7 fl. oz.
of proof spirit were added before distillation.
b. Take of the essential oil of the plant,
2 fl. dr. ; powdered silex, 2 drs. ; triturate
them diligently together, and then with dis-
tilled water, 1 gal., gradually added; lastly
(after briskly agitating the whole for some
time), strain the solution.
2. (Ph. E.) As 1, a, but adding of rectified
spirit, 3 fl. oz., before distillation.
3. (Ph. D.) From the respective essences
(Ph.D.), 1 fl. oz. ; distilled water, 2 quarts;
agitated well together, and then filtered
through paper.
The following are the AQUAE DESTIILATE of
the British Colleges, with some others, the
quantities referring to a product of 1 gal., to
be prepared as above when not otherwise
directed.
ANGELICA WATER ; AQUA ANGELICAE (P.
Cod.), L. Bruised seed, 3 lbs.
ANISEED WATER ; Aqua ANISI (Ph.D.), L.
BALM WATER; AQUA MELISSAE (P. Cod.), L.
Fresh tops, 12 lbs.
BITTER-ALMOND WATER ; AQUA AMYG-
DALE AMARAE, AQUA AMYGDALARUM AMA-
RARUM (P. Cod.), L. Bitter-almond cake
(from which the oil has been expressed), 5 lbs.;
macerate for 24 hours, and filter the distilled
product through paper previously wetted with
pure distilled water. Poisonous.--Dose. 10 to
60 drops, as a substitute for hydrocyanic acid.
BoFAGE WATER ; AQUA BORAGINIS (P.
Cod.), L. Fresh leaves, 12 lbs.
CARAWAY WATER ; Aqua CARUI (B. P., Ph.
L. & D.). Caraway, bruised, l; water, 20;
distil 10. -
CASCARILLA WATER ; AQUA CORTICIS CAS-
CARILLE (P. Cod.), L. Cascarilla, bruised,
3 lbs.
CASSIA WATER ; AQUA CASSIAE (Ph. E.), L.
Cassia, bruised, 13 lb.
CHERRY-LAUREL WATER ; AQUA LAURO-
CERASI (B. P., Ph. E. & D.), L. Prep. 1.
(B. P.) Fresh leaves of common laurel, 16,
water, 50; chop the leaves, crush them in a
mortar, and macerate them in the water for
twenty-four hours; distil 20 of the liquid,
shake the product, filter through paper, and
preserve in a stoppered bottle.—2. (Ph. E.)
Fresh leaves, chopped, 10 lbs. (10 lbs.-Ph.D.).
To the product add of compound spirit of
lavender, 8 fl. oz. ; agitate well, and, if milky,
filter it (through wet paper—Ph. D. & P. Cod.).
— Dose. 10 to 60 drops, as a substitute for
hydrocyanic acid. It is commonly imitated in
trade, by dissolving 75 drops (minims) of the
oil of bitter almonds in 2; fl. oz. of rectified
spirit, agitating the mixture with warm dis-
tilled water, 1 gal., and filtering.
CINNAMON WATER ; AQUA CINNAMOMI (B.
P., Ph. L. E. & D.), L. 1. Cinnamon, bruised,
18 oz. ; or oil, 2 fl. drs.-2. (B. P.) Cinnamon,
bruised, 1 ; water, 16; distil 8.
CLOVE WATER ; AQUA CARYoPHILLI (P.
Cod.), L. Cloves, bruised, 3 lbs.
DILL WATER ; AQUA ANETHI (B. P., Ph. L.
& E.), L. 1. Bruised seed, 1}lb.; or essential
oil, 2 fl. drs.—2. (B.P.) Bruised fruit, 1; water,
20; distil 10.
ELDER-FLOWER WATER ; AQUA SAMBUCI
(B. P., Ph. L. & E.), L. 1. Fresh elder flowers,
10 lbs.-2. (B. P.) Fresh elder flowers, sepa-
rated from the stalks, 1 ; water 2; distil 1.
FENNEL WATER ; Aqu A FOENICULI (B. P.,
Ph. L. E. & D.), L. As DILL WATER.
Hyssop WATER ; AQUA HYSSoFI (P. Cod.),
L. Fresh tops, 12 lbs. -
JUNIPER WATER ; AQUA BACCAE JUNIPERI
(P. Cod.), L. Berries, bruised, 3 lbs.
LAVENDER WATER; AQUA LAVENDULAE (P.
Cod.), L. Flowering tops, 3 lbs.
LETTUCE WATER ; Aqua LACTUCE (P. Cod.),
L. Fresh lettuces, bruised, 12 lbs.
MELILOT WATER ; AQUA MELLIOTI (P. Cod.),
L. Dried flowers, 3 lbs.
MINT WATER, SPEARMINT W.; AQUA MEN-
THAE VIRIDIs (B. P., Ph. L. E. & D.), L.
1. Dried herb, 2 lbs. ; or fresh herb, 4 lbs.; or
essential oil, 2 fl. drs.—2. (B. P.) English oil
of spearmint, 1% drim. ; water, 1% gal, ; distil
1 gal.
ORANGE-FLOWER WATER ; AQUA AURANTII
FLORIs (B. P., Ph. L.), A. FLORUM AURANTII,
L. “Water distilled from the flowers of Citrus
Bigaradia, Risso, and Citrus Aurantium,
D. C.” (Ph. L.) Orange flowers, 10 lbs. ;
proof spirit, 7 fl. oz. (Ph. L. 1836.)
ORIGANUM WATER ; AQUA ORIGANI (P.
Cod.), L. Dried flowers, 3 lbs.
PEACH WATER ; AQUA PERSICE (P. Cod.),
L. Fresh leaves, chopped small, 12 lbs. ; as
CHERRY-LAUREL WATER.
PENNYRoy AL WATER ; AQUA PULEGII (Ph.
L. & E.), AQUA MENTHE PULEGII (Ph.D.), L.
As MINT WATER (above).
PEPPERMINT WATER ; AQUA MENTHE PI-
PERITA (B. P., Ph. L. E. & D.), L. As MINT
WATER (above).
PIMENTo WATER ; AQUA PIMENTAE (B. P.,
Ph. L. E. & D.), L. 1. Pimento, bruised, 1

1166 WATERS (EYE).
lb.; or oil, 2 fl. drs.—2. (B. P.) Pimento,
bruised, 1; water, 23, nearly ; distil one half.
RosB WATER ; AQUA Ros A. (B. P., Ph. L. E.
& D.), L. Damask or hundred-leaved rose, 10
lbs. Ph). L. & E.).-Otto, 40 drops. (Ph. D.)
–Fresh cabbage-rose petals, 1; water, 2; distil
1 (B. P.).
SAGE WATER ; AQUA SALVTE (P. Cod.), L.
As LAVENDER WATER (above).
SASSAFRAS WATER ; AQUA LIGNI SASSAFRAS
(P. Cod.), L. Sassafras chips, 3 lbs.
SPEARMINT WATER. See MINT WATER.
TANsy WATER ; AQUA TANACETI (P. Cod.),
L. Flowering tops, 6 lbs.
THYME WATER ; Aqua THYMI (P. Cod.), L.
As the last.
VALERIAN WATER ; AQUA VALERIANZE, A.
RADICIS v. (P. Cod.), L. Root, bruised, 3 lbs.
WANILLA WATER ; AQUA VANILLAE, L. Wa-
nilla, coarsely powdered, 1 lb.; salt, 5 lbs. ;
water, 2% galls.; macerate for 24 hours in a
covered vessel, then distil 1 gal.
Uses, &c. Distilled waters are mostly em-
ployed as vehicles or perfumes. A few, as
bitter-almond, cherry-laurel, and peach water,
are poisonous in doses larger than a few drops.
The dose of the aromatic or carminative
waters, as those of dill, caraway, peppermint,
pennyroyal, &c., is a wine-glassful, ad libiţum.
Concluding remarks. In the preparation of
distilled waters for medicinal purposes, the
utmost care should be taken to prevent con-
tamination from contact with either copper,
lead, or zinc, since these metals are gradually
oxidised and dissolved by them. In preparing
them from the essential oils, silica, in impal-
pable powder, is the best substance that can
be employed to promote the division and diffu-
sion of the oil, as directed in the Ph. L. Mag-
nesia and sugar, formerly used for the purpose,
are objectionable; as the first not only decom-
poses a portion of the oil, but the water is apt
to dissolve a little of it, and is hence rendered
unfit to be used as a solvent for metallic salts,
more especially for corrosive sublimate and
nitrate of silver; whilst the other causes the
water to ferment and acetify.
In the distillation of waters intended for
perfumery, the utmost care is requisite to
produce a highly fragrant article. The still
should be furnished with a high and narrow
neck, and the heat of steam, or a salt-water
bath, should alone be employed. The first 2
or 3 fl. oz. of the runnings should be rejected,
except when spirit is used, and the remainder
collected until the proper quantity be ob-
tained, when the whole product should be
mixed together, as distilled waters pro-
gressively decrease in strength the longer the
process is continued. When a very superior
article is desired, the waters may be re-
distilled by a gentle heat, the first two thirds
only being preserved. The herbaceous odour
of recently distilled waters is removed by keep-
ing them for some months, loosely covered in
a cold cellar.
When distilled waters have been carefully
prepared, so that none of the liquor in the
still has “spirted” over into the condensing
worm, they keep well, and are not liable to
change; but when the reverse is the case, they
frequently become ropy and viscid. The best
remedy for this is to redistil them. Waters
which have acquired a burnt smell in the
‘stilling’ lose it by freezing. Distilled waters
may be prevented from turning sour by adding
a little calcined magnesia to them, and those
which have begun to spoil may be recovered by
adding 1 gr. each of borax and alum to the
pint. This doctoring is not, however, to be
recommended, and should never be adopted
for those used in medicine. A drop of solution
of terchloride of gold added to these waters
shows whether they contain any uncombined
essential oil, by forming, in that case, a fine
metallic film on the surface. After distilled
waters have acquired their full odour, they
should be carefully preserved in well-stopped
bottles. Some houses keep a separate still for
each of the more delicate perfumed waters, as
it is extremely difficult to remove any odour
that adheres to the body of the still and worm.
The addition of the small quantity of spirit
ordered in the Ph. E., and Ph. L. 1836, in the
preparation of their waters, in no way tends to
promote their preservation.
In general, the druggist draw off 2 galls., or
more, of water from the quantities of the
herbs, barks, seeds, or flowers, ordered in the
Pharmacopoeias; hence the inferior quality of
the waters of the shops. They do, however,
very well for vehicles. The perfumers, on the
contrary, use an excess of flowers, or at least
reserve only the first and stronger portion of
the water that distils over, the remainder
being collected and used for a second distil-
lation of fresh flowers.
The most beautiful distilled waters are those
prepared in the south of France, and which
are imported into England under the French
names. Thus eau de rose, eau de fleurs
d’oranges, &c., are immensely superior to the
best English rose or orange-flower water, &c.
The water that distils over in the preparation
of the essential oils is usually of the strongest
and finest class. See ESSENCE, OILs (Vo-
latile), SPIRITs (Perfumed), VEGETABLEs, &c.
WATERS (Eye). Syn. CoILYRIA, L. Prep.
1. From distilled vinegar, 1 fl. oz. ; distilled
water, 3 pint. A fl. oz. of rectified spirit, or
1 fl. oz. of brandy, is often added. In simple
chronic ophthalmia, blear eyes, &c., also to re-
move particles of lime from the eyes.
2. Sugar of lead, 10 grs.; pure vinegar, ,
teaspoonful; distilled water, 3 pint. In oph-
thalmia, as soon as active inflammation ceases;
also as the last.
3. Wine of opium, 2 fl. drs. ; sulphate of
zinc, 20 grs. ; distilled water, 3 pint. Astrin-
gent and anodyne; in painful ophthalmia and
extreme irritability.
4. Opium, 15 grs. ; boiling water, 8 fl. oz.;

WATERS (MINERAL).
1167
when cold, add of solution of acetate of ammo-
nia, 2% fl. oz., and filter. As the last.
5. Sulphate of zinc, 20 grs.; distilled water,
# pint; dissolve. An excellent astringent water
in chronic ophthalmia, weak and irritable
eyes, &c.
6. Sulphate of copper, 10 grs. ; camphor
mixture (julep), 3 pint; dissolve. In the
purulent ophthalmia of infants.
7. Camphor julep, 5 fl. Oz. ; solution of ace-
tate of ammonia and rose water, of each, 2} fl.
oz. ; mix. For weak or swollen eyes, particu-
larly after ophthalmia.
8. Chloride of barium, 30 grs. ; distilled
water, , pint. In the ophthalmia of scrofulous
and syphylitic habits.
9. (Bate's.) From blue vitriol, 15 grs. ;
camphor, 4 grs. ; hot water, 3 pint; agitate in
a corked bottle, and, when cold, make it up
to 4 pints, and filter. In purulent ophthalmia
and blear eyes.
10. (Goulard's.) From solution of diacetate
of lead, 16 drops; distilled water, 3 pint;
mix. As No. 2.
11. (Krimer.) Hydrochloric acid, 20 drops;
mucilage, 1 dr.; water, 2 fl. oz. To remove
particles of iron or lime from the eye.
12. (Marshall’s “EYE-DROPs.”) Nitrate of
silver, 2 grs. ; dilute nitric acid, 2 drops; pure
soft or distilled water, 1 fl. oz. ; dissolve; add
powdered gum, 15 grs.; agitate until dissolved,
and the next day decant the clear portion.
13. (P. Cod.) Extract of opium, 4 grs. ;
rose water, 4 fl. Oz. ; dissolve. In painful
ophthalmia.
WATERS (Mineral). Syn. SALINE
WATERS; AQUE MINERALES, L. Our space
will not permit a description of these individu-
ally. The tables given on pages 1168-69, ex-
hibiting their composition, will, however,
enable the reader, with a little attention, to
produce artificial waters more closely re-
sembling the natural ones that can be done
by adopting any of the numerous formulae
published for the purpose. The ‘’aérated
waters’ are charged with 5 or 6 times their
volume of carbonic acid gas, by means of the
apparatus employed by the soda-water manu-
facturers. On the small scale, the gas is often
produced by the reaction of the ingredients
on each other, in which case, on the intro-
duction of the latter, the bottle must be in-
stantly closed and inverted. Distilled water,
or filtered rain water, should alone be em-
ployed in their composition; and for the chaly-
beated and sulphuretted waters, it should be
first boiled, and allowed to cool out of contact
with the air.
In addition to the tables, it may be re-
marked that traces of iodine have been found
in the water of Cheltenham (old well), traces
of bromine in the water of Epsom, and traces
of both bromine and iodine in that of
Leamington (royal pump). Manganese has
been found in the waters of Tunbridge, Carls-
bad, Spa, Pyrmont, Marienbad, Saidschüts, &c.
Traces of phosphoric and fluoric acid have
also been found in some mineral waters. It is
the opinion of many high authorities that the
medicinal virtues of these waters depend more
on the minute quantities of the above sub-
stances, and the high state of dilution in
which they are held, than on their more abun-
dant saline ingredients.
WATERS (Perfumed'). Syn. AQUAE opo-
RIFERAE, L. The simple distilled waters of the
perfumer have been already noticed (see pages
1165-66). They may be prepared from any
substances which imparts its fragrance to water
by distillation. The compound waters (eaux)
employed as perfumes consist of very pure
rectified spirit, holding in solution essential
oils, or other odorous matter, and resemble the
esprits, essences, and spirits, before no-
ticed. They differ from extraits in being
mostly colourless, or nearly so, and in being
generally prepared by distillation, or by the
addition of the pure essential oils or essences
to carefully rectified and perfectly scentless
spirit; whereas the extraits are mostly and
preferably prepared by macerating the flowers,
&c., in the spirit, or by digesting the spirit with
the oils, in the manner noticed under SPIRITS
(Perfumed). Extraits are preferred to eaux
and esprits as the basis of good perfumery,
where the colour is not objectionable.
The following are a few additional formulae
and remarks:—
ANGEL WATER, PoETUGAL w. From orange-
flower and rose water, of each, 1 pint; myrtle
water, # pint ; essence of ambergris, ; fl. oz. ;
essence of musk, # fl. oz. ; shake them well
togetherfor some hours, then filter the mixture
through paper.
EAU D’ANGE, Fr. ; AQUA MYRTI, L. From
myrtle flowers, 3% lbs. ; water, 2 galls.; distil a
gallon. A pleasant perfume.
EAU D’ANGE BOUILLEE, Fr. From rose
water and orange-flower water, of each, 3
pints; benzoin, # lb.; storax, # lb.; cinnamon,
1 oz.; cloves, 4 oz. ; 3 fresh-emptied musk
bags; digest in a securely covered vessel, at
nearly the boiling heat, for 2 hours, then
allow it to cool; strain off the clear, press
the remainder, and filter for use. Very fra-
grant.
EAU D’ANGE DISTILLAEE, Fr. From ben-
zoin, 4 oz.; storax, 2 oz. ; cloves, 3 oz. ; cala-
mus and cinnamon, of each, + oz.; coriander
seeds, 1 dr. ; (all bruised;) water, 3 quarts;
distil 2 quarts. Eau d’Ange distillée et mus-
quée is made by adding a little essence of
musk to the distilled product. Both are
highly fragrant.
EAU DE NAPHRE, EAU LE NAPHE, Fr. ;
AQUA NAPHA., L. This article is distilled in
Languedoc from the leaves of the bigarade, or
bitter-orange tree, but the preparation sold in
England under this name is often prepared as
follows:—Orange flowers, 7 lbs. ; fresh yellow
peel of the bigarade or Seville orange, } lb.;
water, 2 galls.; macerate 24 hours, and distil
I. TABLE exhibiting the Composition of several of the more celebrated MINERAL WATERs.
16 fl oz. contain the following Ingredients —
Carbonic Car- Car- Car- |Sulphate|Sulphate|Sulphate Chloride Chloride Chlorid
- Nitrogen anhy- |Sulphuretted bonate of bonate of bonate of of of mag- of of of mag- } . e Ferri T Total of
WATERS. in cubic dride in hydrogen in sodium magne- calcium sodium nesium calcium sodium nesium | ...". 5. Silica. . saline AUTHORITY.
inches. cubic cubic inches. in sium in in in in in in in clum in Oxide Taºul'º' contents.
inches. grains. grains. grains. grains. grains. grains. grains. grains. | *
CARBONATED.
Seltzer . - - -- 17. 4” 5. 3. --- --- 17. --- --- Cold 29, Bergman.
Pyrmont - 26. --- 10. 4'5 5'5 8.5 1.5 0-6 ... do. 30:6 Ditto.
Spa . - 13' 1-5 4.5 1.5 --- --- --- 0-2 0.6 --- do. 8:3 Ditto.
Carlsbad 5. 5. --- 1:5 8:5 4-5 a trace || 0-3 165° 19.8 |Klaproth.
Pouges 30: 10. 1.2 12. --- --- 2.2 2.5 0-5 Cold 28.4 || Hassenfratz.
Saint Parize 22. --- 0.5 11-5 13. --- --- --- do. 25. Ditto.
CHALYBEATE.
Tunbridge. 0.59 | 1. ... --- 0.03 | ... --- 0-17 || 0-30 || 0:03 || 0-05 || 0:28 do. 0-86 Scudamore.
c
Cheltenham Chalybeate 2.5 --- 0.5 22.7 6. 2.5 41-3 --- 0.8 --- do. 73-8 Parkes & Brande.
Brighton . - 2.2 --- --- --- 4: 3. 0.75 1-4 0.14 | do. 9:29 |Marcet.
SAILINE.
Seidlitz º. - - - -- --- 2.5 0.8 --- 180° 5. --- 4.5 do. 192.8 |Bergman.
Cheltenham Pure Saline . --- --- --- --- 15- 11- 4'5 50. --- do. 80.5 |Parkes & Brande.
Bristol F. - - --- 3.5 --- 1.5 1-5 --- 1:5 0.5 1. --- 742 6. Carrick.
Buxton 0-2 --- --- 1.3 --- 0.3 0-2 --- 0.03 --- 829 1.83 |Pearson.
Bath --- 1.2 --- 0.8 1.5 9. 3-3 --- a trace || 0:2 116° 14.8 |Phillips.
Scarborough --- -- --- --- a trace | 20° 9. --- --- do. --- Cold 29' |Saunders.
Barèges -- r -- uncertain 2.5 ditto --- -- a trace 0.5 --- --- ..., | 120° 3. Ditto.
Plombières -- --- --- 2.2 --- 0-3 2-3 --- --- 1:5 --- --- --- 0-3 ? 6-6 ||Wauquelin.
Kilburn . - - -- 3-5 8:54 P --- ().5 1. 12. 37. 5'5 2.5 5'5 0-2 | a trace | ... Cold 64-2 |Schmeisser.
Leamington New Bath 0.4 a trace a trace --- --- 19. --- 14' 53. 1.5 --- 0.8 do. 88.3 |Lambe.
Leamington Old Bath 0.3 ditto 7.5 7. 18' 41’ --- do. 73°5 | Ditto.
SULPHUROU.S.
Harrogate 0-8 1. 2:3 0.7 2.5 1-3 77. 11. 1.5 do. 94' |Garnet.
Moffat - - 0:5 0-6 1.2 --- --- --- --- 4.5 --- --- do. 4.5 | Ditto.
Aix-la-Chapelle - -i --- --- 5-5 12. 4-2 --- --- --- 5. --- 1439 21:2 |Bergman.
Cheltenham SulphurSpring 1.5 --- --- 23.5 5. 1-2 35- 0.3 Cold 65 |Parkes & Brande.
#

1169
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1170
WATER BRASH –WATERPROOFING.
1 gal. In many cases ordinary orange-flower
water is sold for eau de naphe.
ROSE WATER. From otto of roses, 3 drs.;
rectified spirit (warm), 1 pint; dissolve, add
of hot water, 10 galls.; mix in a 12-gallon
carboy, cork, and well agitate the whole until
quite cold. This makes the ordinary rose
water of the shops, and is really excellent, but
it is better for distillation. See WATERS
(Distilled).
UNPARALLELED WATER ; EAU INCOMPARA-
BLE, Fr. From oil of lemon, 4 drs. ; oil of ber-
gamot, 2% drs.; oil of cedrat, 2 drs. ; rectified
spirit, 3} pints; Hungary water, 3 pint;
mix, and distil all but 9 oz. (Guibourt.)
WATER BRASH. See PyROSIS.
WATER-COLOUR CAKES. These are pre-
pared from any of the ordinary pigments that
work well in water, made into a stiff and
perfectly smooth paste with gum water, or
isinglass size, or a mixture of the two, and then
compressed in polished steel moulds, and
dried. See PAINTING, and the respective
pigments.
WATER CRESS. The Wasturtium officinale,
a well-known plant of the natural order
Cruciferae. It is alterative and antiscorbutic,
and was formerly used in medicine, but now
chiefly as a salad, or a refreshing relish at
breakfast.
WATER-P0x. See CHICKEN-POx.
WATERPR00F/ING. Clothis ‘waterproofed’
as follows:—
1. Moisten the cloth, on the wrong side, first
with a weak solution of isinglass, and, when
dry, with an infusion of nut-galls.
2. As the last, but substitute a solution of
soap for isinglass, and another of alum for
galls.
3. (Hancock’s Patent.) By spreading the
liquid juice of the caoutchouc tree upon the
inner surface of the goods, and allowing them
to dry in the air. Absolutely chimerical.
4. (Potter's Patent.) The cloth is first
imbued on the wrong side with a solution of
isinglass, alum, and soap, by means of a
brush; when dry, it is brushed on the same
side against the grain, and then gone over with
a brush dipped in water. Impervious to water,
but not to air.
5. (Sievier’s Patent.) By applying first a
solution of India rubber in oil of turpentine,
and afterwards another India rubber warnish,
rendered very drying by the use of driers. On
this, wool or other material of which the fabric
is made, cut into proper lengths, is spread, and
the whole passed through a press, whereby the
surface acquires a map or pile. -
6. A simple method of rendering cloth
waterproof, without being airproof, is to spread
it on any smooth surface, and to rub the
wrong side with a lump of bees' wax (perfectly
pure and free from grease), until it presents a
light, but even, white or grayish appearance;
a hot iron is then to be passed over it, and the
cloth being brushed whilst warm, the process
is complete. When the operation has been
skilfully performed, a candle may be blown out
through the cloth, if coarse, and yet a piece of
the same, placed across an inverted hat, may
have several glassfuls of water poured into the
hollow formed by it, without any of the liquid
passing through. Pressure or friction will
alone make it do so. “We have shown this to
numerous cloth-manufacturers, waterproofers,
tailors, and others, several of whom have
adopted the method very extensively, and with
perfect success.” (Cooley.)
7. About the year 1862 a patent was taken
out by Dr. Stenhouse for employing paraffin
as a means of rendering leather waterproof, as
well as the various textile and felted fabrics;
and in August, 1864, an additional patent was
granted to him for an extension of and im-
provement on the previous one, which con-
sisted chiefly in combining the paraffin with
various proportions of drying oil, it having
been found that paraffin alone, especially when
applied to fabrics, became to a considerable
extent detached from the fibre of the cloth after
a short time, owing to its great tendency to
crystallise. The presence, however, of even a
small quantity of drying oil causes the paraffin
to adhere much more firmly to the texture of
the cloth, from the oil gradually becoming con-
verted into a tenacious resin by absorption of
Oxygen.
In the application of paraffin for waterproof.
ing purposes it is first melted along with the
requisite quantity of drying oil and cast into
blocks. This composition can then be applied
to fabrics by rubbing them over with a block
of it, either cold or gently warmed, or the mix-
ture may be melted and laid on with a brush,
the complete impregnation being effected by
subsequently passing it between hot rollers.
When this paraffin mixture has been applied
to cloth such as that employed for blinds or
tents, it renders it very repellant to water,
although still pervious to air.
Cloth paraffined in this manner forms an
excellent basis for such articles as capes, tar-
paulins, &c., which require to be rendered
quite impervious by subsequently coating them
with drying oil, tſie paraffin in a great measure.
preventing the well-known injurious effect of
drying oil on the fibre of the cloth. The
paraffin mixture can also very advantageously
be applied to the various kinds of leather. One
of the most convenient ways of effecting this
is to coat the skins or manufactured articles,
such as boots, shoes, harness, pump-buckets,
&c., with the melted composition, and then to
gently heat the articles until it is entirely
absorbed. When leather is impregnated with
the mixture, it is not only rendered perfectly
waterproof, but also stronger and more durable.
The beneficial effects of this process are pecu-
liarly observable in the case of boots and shoes,
which it renders very firm without destroying
their elasticity. It, therefore, not only makes
them exceedingly durable, but possesses an
WATERPROOF LIQUID–WAX.
1171
advantage over ordinary dubbing in not inter-
fering with the polish of these articles, which,
on the whole, it rather improveš.
The superiority of paraffin over most other
materials for some kinds of waterproofing con-
sists in its comparative cheapness, in being
easily applied, and in not materially altering
the colour of fabrics, which in the case of light
shades and white cloth is of very considerable
importance.
WATERPR00F LIQUID. Prep. 1. India
rubber, in fragments, 1 oz. ; boiled oil, 1 pint;
dissolve by heat, carefully applied, then stir in
of hot boiled oil, 1 pint, and remove the vessel
from the fire.
2. Boiled oil, 1 pint; bees' wax and yellow
resin, of each, 2 oz. ; melt them together.
3. Salad oil, 1 pint ; mutton suet, # lb.;
white wax and spermaceti, of each, 1 oz. ; as
the last. For ladies’ work.”
Obs. The above are used for boots, shoes,
harness, leather straps, leather trunks, &c.,
applied warm before the fire.
WAX. Syn. BEES' WAX, YELLOW W.; CERA
(Ph. L.), CERA FLAVA (B. P., Ph. E. & D.), L.
The substance which forms the cells of bees;
obtained by melting the combin water, after the
honey has been removed, straining the liquid
mass, remelting the defecated portion, and
casting it into cakes.
Pure bees' wax has a pleasant ceraceous
odour, a pale yellowish-brown colour, and the
sp. gr. 1960 to '965. It is brittle at 32°,
softens and becomes plastic at 88 or 90°, and
melts at 154 to 155° Fahr. “It becomes
kneadable at about 85°, and its behaviour
while worked between finger and thumb is
characteristic. A piece the size of a pea being
worked in the hand till tough with the
warmth, then placed upon the thumb, and
forcibly stroked down with the forefinger,
curls up, following the finger, and is marked
by it with longitudinal streaks.” (B.S. Proctor.)
It is very frequently adulterated with farina,
resin, and mutton suet or stearin. Dr. Nor-
mandy met with a sample containing 23% of
effloresced sulphate of soda. The first may be
detected by oil of turpentine, which dissolves
only the wax,−the second, by its solubility in
cold alcohol, and by its terebinthinate taste,_
the third and fourth, even when forming less
than 2% of the wax, may be detected by it
affording sebacic acid on distillation. When
greasy matter is lº in any considerable
quantity, it may also be detected by the sus-
pected sample having an unctuous feel and a
disagreeable taste. Salime matter may be de-
tected by the loss of weight, when a weighed
quantity of the wax is boiled in water. Heavy
substances, as chalk, plaster of Paris, white
lead, oxide of zinc, &c., may also be thus sepa-
rated, since they subside, owing to their supe-
rior gravity, to the bottom of the vessel. The
rough mealy fracture of pure wax is rendered
finer grained, smoother, and duller, by the
addition of lard or spermaceti, and becomes
sparkling'and more granular by the addition of
resin.” (Proctor.) -
Wax, Bleached. See WHITE WAX (below).
Wax, Etching. See ETCHING GROUND
and WARNISH.
Wax, Fact1"tious. Syn. CERA FLAVA FAC-
TITIA, L. A spurious compound, sold by the
farrier's druggists for veterinary purposes.
Prep. 1. From yellow resin, 16 lbs. ; hard
mutton suet or stearin, 8 lbs.; palm oil, 2% lbs. ;
melted together.
2. As last, but substituting turmeric, 1 lb.,
for the palm oil.
3. Best annotta, 6 oz. or q. s. ; water, 1 gal.;
boil; add, of hard mutton suet or stearin,
35 lbs.; yellow resin, 70 lbs.; again boil, with
constant agitation, until perfectly mixed and
of a proper colour, and, as soon as it begins to
thicken, pour it out into basins to cool. When
cold, rub each cake over with a little potato
starch. -
Wax, Gilder's. See GILDING.
Wax, Modeling. Prep. Take of bees’ wax,
lead plaster, olive oil, and yellow resin, equal
parts; whiting, q. S. to form a paste; mix well,
and roll it into sticks. Colours may be added
at will.
Wax, Refined. Crude wax, especially that
imported, is generally loaded with dirt, bees,
and other foreign matter. To free it from
these substances, it undergoes the operation of
“refining.” This is done by melting the wax
along with about 4 or 5% of water in a bright
copper or stone-ware boiler, preferably heated
by steam, and, after the whole is perfectly
liquid, and has boiled for some minutes, with-
drawing the heat, and sprinkling over its sur-
face a little oil of vitriol, in the proportion of
about 5 or 6 fl. Oz. to every cwt. of wax. This
operation should be conducted with great care
and circumspection; as, when done carelessly,
the melted wax froths up, and boils over the
sides of the pan. The acid should also be well
scattered over the whole surface. The melted
wax is next covered over, and left for some
hours to settle, or until it becomes sufficiently
cool to be drawn off for “moulding.” It is then
very gently skimmed with a hot ladle, baled or
decanted into hot tin ‘jacks,” and by means of
these poured into basins, where it is left to
cool. Great care must be taken not to disturb
the sediment. When no more clear wax can
be drawn off, the remainder in the melting-pan
is allowed to cool, and the cake, or ‘foot,’ as it
is called, is taken out, and the impurities
(mostly bees) scraped from its under surface.
The scraped cake is usually reserved for a
second operation; but if required, it may be at
once remelted, and strained through canvas
into a mould.
Much of the foreign wax has a pale dirty
colour, which renders it, no matter however
pure, objectionable to the retail purchaser.
Such wax undergoes the operation of ‘colour-
ing’ as well as ‘refining.” A small quantity of
the best roll annotta, cut into slices (# lb., more

1172
WAX,
or less, to wax, 1 cwt., depending on the pale-
ness of the latter), is put into a clean boiler
with about a gallon of water, and boiled for
some time, or until it is perfectly dissolved,
when a few ladlefuls of the melted wax are
added, and the boiling continued until the wax
has taken up all the colour, or until the water
is mostly evaporated. The portion of wax thus
treated has now a deep orange colour, and is
added, in quantity as required, to the remainder
of the melted wax in the larger boiler until
the proper shade of colour is produced when
cold; the whole being well mixed, and a sample
of it cooled now and them, to ascertain when
enough has been added. The copper is next
brought to a boil, and treated with oil of
vitriol, &c., as before. Some persons add palm
oil (bright) to the wax, until it gets sufficient
colour, but this plan is objectionable from the
quantity required for the purpose being often
so large as to injure the quality of the pro-
duct; besides which the colour produced is
inferior, and less transparent and permanent
than that given by annotta.
Another method of refining crude wax, and
which produces a very bright article, is to melt
it in a large earthen or stoneware vessel, heated
by steam or a salt-water bath, then to cau-
tiously add to it about 1% of concentrated
nitric acid, and to continue the boiling until
nitrous fumes cease to be evolved, after which
the whole is allowed to settle, and is treated
as before.
Obs. The great art in the above process is to
produce a wax which shall at once be ‘bright,’
or semi-translucent in thin places, and good
coloured. The former is best ensured by
allowing the melted mass to settle well, and
by carefully skimming and decanting the clear
portion without disturbing the sediment. It
should not be poured into the moulds too
warm, as, in that case, it is apt to “separate,”
and the resulting cakes to be “streaky,' or of
different shades of colour. Again, it should be
allowed to cool very slowly. When cooled
rapidly, especially if a current of air fall upon
its surface, it is apt to crack, and to form cakes
full of fissures. Some persons, who are very
nice about their wax, have the cakes polished
with a stiff brush when quite cold and hard.
It is absolutely necessary that the ‘jacks’ or
cans, ladles, and skimmers, used in the above
process, be kept pretty hot, as without this
precaution the wax cools, and accumulates upon
them in such quantity as to render them in-
convenient, and often quite useless, without
being constantly scraped out.
Wax, Seal'ing. Prep. 1. (RED)—a. Take
of shell-lac (very pale), 4 oz. ; cautiously melt
it in a bright copper pan over a clear charcoal
fire, and, when fused, add of Venice turpentine,
14 oz. ; mix, and further add of vermilion, 3 oz.;
remove the pan from the fire, cool a little,
weigh it into pieces, and roll them into circular
sticks on a warm marble slab by means of a
polished wooden block; or it may be poured
into moulds whilst in a state of fusion. Some
persons polish the sticks with a rag until
quite cold. -
b. From shell-lac, 3 lbs. ; Venice turpentine,
14 lb. ; finest cinnabar, 2 lbs. ; mix as before.
Both the above are ‘fine.’
c. As the last, but using # less of vermilion.
Inferior.
d. Resin, 4 lbs. ; shell-lac, 2 lbs. ; Venice tur-
pentine and red lead, of each, 1% lb.; as before.
Common.
2. (BLACK.)—a. From shell-lac, 60 parts;
finest ivory black, reduced to an impalpable
powder, 30 parts; Venice turpentine, 20 parts.
Fine.
b. Resin, 6 lbs. ; shell-lac and Venice tur-
pentine, of each, 2 lbs. ; lampblack, q. s.
ferior.
3. (GOLD-COLOURED.) By stirring gold-
coloured mica spangles or talc, or aurum musi-
vum, into the melted resins just before they
begin to cool. Fine.
4. (MARBLED.) By mixing 2 or 3 dif-
ferent coloured kinds just as they begin to
grow solid.
5. (SOFT,)—a. (Red.) Take of bees’ wax,
8 parts; olive oil, 5 parts; melt, and add, of
Venice turpentine, 15 parts; red lead, to colour.
—b. (Green.) As the last, but substituting
powdered verdigris for red lead. Both are used
for sealing official documents kept in tin boxes;
also as a cement.
6. (BOTTLE WAX.)—a. (Black.) From black
resin, 6% lbs.; bees' wax, 3 lb.; finely pow-
dered ivory black, 13 lb.; melted together.—b.
(Red.) As the last, but substitute Venetian
red or red lead for ivory black.
Obs. All the above forms for “fine” wax
produce ‘superfine’ by employing the best
qualities of the ingredients; and ‘extra super-
fine,” or ‘scented, by adding 1% of balsam of
Peru or liquid storax to the ingredients when
considerably cooled. The ‘variegated’ and
‘fancy coloured kinds' are commonly scented
with a little essence of musk or ambergris, or
any of the more fragrant essential oils.
addition of a little camphor, or spirit of wine,
makes sealing-wax burn easier. Sealing-wax
containing resin, or too much turpentine, runs
into thin drops at the flame of a candle.
Wax, White. Syn. BLEACHED WAX; CERA
AIBA (B. P., Ph.L. E. & D.), L. Prep. From
pure bees’ wax, by exposing it in thin flakes to
the action of the sun, wind, and rain, frequently
changing the surface thus exposed, by remelt-
ing it, and reducing it again to thin flakes.
Used in making candles, and in white oint-
ments, pommades, &c., for the sake of its
colour. Block white wax (CERA ALBA IN
MASSIS) is the above when cast into blocks;
the best foreign is always in this form. Virgin
wax (CAKE WHITE WAX; CERA ALBA IN OFFIS)
should be the last made into round flat cakes;
but this is seldom the case, the mixture sold
under the name generally containing from
1-3rd to 1-2nd its weight of spermaceti. The
In- .
The


WEIGHT.
1173
‘white wax' supplied by certain wholesale,
druggists to their customers is often totally
unfit for the purposes to which it is applied.
Spermaceti is constantly added to the white
wax of commerce, to improve its colour. Mr.
B. S. Proctor states that wholesale houses of
the highest reputation supply an article, as
white cake wax, which is in many cases half
spermaceti, and in some as much as two thirds
spermaceti to one of wax."
WEIGHT. The quantity of a body deter-
mined by means of a balance, and expressed in
terms having reference to some known stand-
ard; the measure of the force of gravity, from
which the relative quantity of a body is in-
ferred. The relation between the weight and
volume of a body, compared to a given stand-
ard taken as unity, constitutes its specific
gravity.
For the purpose of weighing, a balance or
. lever is required, which, when accurately sus-
pended in a state of equilibrium, will be
affected, in precisley an equal manner, by like
weights applied to its extremities. Hence,
the construction of such an instrument is not
more difficult than its application is important
in chemical and philosophical research. Oert-
ling, the most celebrated maker of the che-
mical balance, constructs this important in-
strument in seven different varieties, more or
less elaborate. The largest of these, with a
16-inch beam, will carry 2 lbs. in each pan, and
yet turn with rºwth of a grain. A balance
with arms of unequal length or weight will
weigh as accurately as another of the same
workmanship with equal arms, provided the
substance weighed be removed and standard
weights placed in the same scale until the
equilibrium be again restored, when the
weights so employed, being exactly in the
same condition as the substance previously
occupying the scale, will, of course, indicate
its proper weight. A knowledge of this fact
is useful, as it enables any one to weigh cor-
rectly with unequal scales, or with any sus-
pended lever.
Small weights may be made of thin leafbrass,
or, preferably, of platinum foil. Quantities
below the 100th of a gr. may be either esti-
mated by the position of the index, or shown
by actually counting rings of wire, the value
of which has been previously determined.
The readiest way to subdivide small weights
consists in weighing a certain quantity of very
fine wire, and afterwards cutting it into such
parts, by measure, as are desired; or the wire
may be wrapped close round two pins, and
then cut asunder with a knife. By this means
it will be divided into a great number of equal
lengths, or small rings.” The following Tables
represent the values and relative proportions.
of the principal weights employed in Commerce
and the Arts:— * .
I. ENGLISH WEIGHTS.
1. Imperial Avoirdupois Weight.

Drachm Hundred Equiv. Equiv. in
Old of the Ounces. | Pounds. Quarters weight. | Tom Equiv. in Grains in Minims or
Drachmsl Ph. D. 0Z. lb. qr. . - - (Troy). French measured
dr. - grammes. drops.
1. ‘5 •0625 •0039 || ... -- 27.34375 17714
2: 1. •125 •0078 ... ---- 54.6875 3’5428 60°
16. 8. 1. '0625 | ... --- 437.50 28'34.24 480-
256. 128. 16. 1. --- --- --- 7000' 453-4784 7680.
7168. 3584; 448. 28. 1. •25 --- 196,000.
28672 14336' | 1792. 112. 4." I' •05 784,000.
573.440" | 286720 |35840. 2240° 80' 20. 1. 15,680,000.
*** The standard in avoirdupois weight is the same as in troy weight.
The old avoirdu-
pois drachm is now never used, except in weighing silk; whenever a drachm is mentioned in
commerce, the 1-8th of the avoird. oz. is intended, which, together with other divisions, is
adopted in the Ph. D. In the new British Ph. the avoird, oz. and lb., with the ordinary grain,
are the only denominations of weight adopted,
other commodities 14 lbs., in London.
Avoird.
1 lb. = 1.21577 lb.,
1 oz. = 91.14583 oz.,
The stone of butcher's meat is 8 lbs., and of
or 1 lb. 2 oz. 4 drs. 40 grs. Troy.
or 7 drs. 17.5 grs.
1 lb, distilled water (therm. 62°, barom. 30 in.)=2772740 cubic inches,
1 oz. 55 33
I dr. 53 93.
173296 35
“21662 33
T
+4+ Avoirdupois weight is distinguished in this work by the abbreviations referring to it
being printed in italics.
1 See articles on “Adulteration of Wax,” and “Substitutes for Wax,” in ‘Chemist and Druggist,’ vol. iv., 1863.
* An elaborate essay on the BALANCE, in Watt’s “Dict, of Chemistry,” gives minute directions for weighing, with
rules for the elimination of errors.
1174.
******
WEIGHT,
2. Imperial Troy Weight.
Grains, Pennyweights, Ounces, Pound.
gr. dwt. 0Z, lb. or th:
24 I
480 20 I
5760 240 12 1
*** The standard of the above measure is 1 cubic inch of distilled water, which, at 62°Fahr.
and 30 inches of the barometer, weighs 252'458 troy grains.
The carat used in weighing diamonds is 3% grains (nearly). Troy weight is employed in
weighing gold, jewelry, &c., and, under a somewhat modified form, in prescribing and dis-
pensing medicines, (See below.) -
3. Apothecaries' Weight.
(Modified Troy Weight.)
- Faniv in Equiv. in Triniiv i
%. Scruples. Drachms. ounces. | Pounds. |*."|Minimal Equiv.in Aºi.
gr. 5 5 grammes, * cubic inches. weight.
1. *05 •01666 || 1002083 || 0001736 •06475 1'09 •003961055 l' gr.
20. 1. •3333 '0416 •003472 1.295 21-94 •07922109 20: ,,
60' 3. 1. *1250 '0104,166 3.885 65.82 “23766329 60. ,
480' 24' 8. 1. •0833333 31.08 526-62 1901.30635 1 oz. 42'5,
5760 288. 96. 13' - 372.96 6319.54 22:8.1567609 || 13 , 72.5,
*** Apothecaries' weight is employed in prescribing and dispensing medicines according to
the Ph. L., E., and U. S. But in the last Ph. D. and the new Brit, Ph. it has been superseded
by avoirdupois weight, as noticed above.
Troy.
Aviordupois.
1 b is equivalent to 0-822857 lb,
1 oz.
39
1097143 oz,
II, FRENCH WEIGHTS.
1. Metrical or Decimal Weights.
Equiv. in Equiv. in Equiv. in Equiv. in
Names. Grammes. | Troy grains. | Avoirdupois weight. Apothecaries' weight.
Milligramme . . •001 •0154 lb. oz. 94'. lb. oz. dr. gr.
Centigramme •01 *1543 - --- --- --- - - - - - - ---
Decigramme . . •l I'5434 --- - - - --- --- . ... l'5
|- Gramme v. - o 1. 15'4340 --- --- --- . ... 15:4
Decagramme 10. 1543402 - 0} 45° --- . 2 34'
Hectogramme - 100' . . 1543°4023 3; 12:152 ... I 43-
Kilogramme or Kilo . 1000' . 15434'0234 2, 3} 12:173 2 8 1. 14'
Myriagramme . 10000" 154340,2344 22 0# 12. 26 4 20.
*** The standard unit in the above table is the gramme.
grammes. A millier is 1000 kilos.
A metrical quintal is 10
myria-



WELCH RAREBIT-WHEAT,
1175
2. Binary Weights.
(Système usuel.)
- Equiv. in Round number . . " -
Trench | Scru- - Kilo- Equiv. in Avoir-
- '0s. - - Tamin f - - -
grain. pule. Gros Once, Livre gramme. #. . ... | dupois weight.
t
lb. oz. gr.
1. --- - •0542 •05 ---- 0.837
24' 1. --- --- I-30 1:30 ... 20:1
72. 3. 1. --- --- 3:906 4. , 60.284
576. 24. 8. 1. --- 81:25 32. 1 45°
92.16 384. 128. 16. 1. --- 500- 500. l 13, 61.
18432 768. 256' 32. 2. 1. 1000. 1000" 2, 3} 13.
*** The old French grain is equal to 820 of an imperial troy grain; hence 1 troy grain is
equal to 121 old French grains. The gros, once, and other multiples of the grain, are, of
course, proportionate.
'8365228 gr. troy.
numbers, '9, but this is much too high,
The new French grain (of 1812) is equal to 0542 gramme, or
It is said, in some works, to be equal to 878 gr, troy, or, in round
III, CONTINENTAL MEDICINAL WEIGHTS, in Troy Grains,
(From Dr. Christison’s ‘Dispensatory.')
Scruple consisting of
Country. Pound. Oumce. Drachm, Grain.
24 med, grs. 20 med, grs.
French 5670.5 470-50 59:10 19.7 --- 0-820
Spanish 5326-3 443'49 55-14 18:47 --- 0.769
Tuscan 5240-3 436.67 54:58 18.19 --- 0.758
Roman 5235.0 436:25 54:58 18:17 --- 0.757
Austrian 6495-1 541:25 67-65 --- 22:5 1127
German 5524.8 460:40 57.55 19-18 0-960
Russian 55.24.8 460-40 57.55 19:18 0.960
Prussian 54:15:1 451.26 56:40 1880 0.940
T]utch 5695'8 474.64 59:33 1978 0.988
Belgian 56.95:8 474.64 59:33 1978 0.988
Swedish . 5500-2 458'34 57.29 19'09 0.954
Piedmontese 47447 395-39 49'45 16:48 0.824
Venetian 4661'4 388:45 48'55 16:18 0.809
WELCH RARE/BIT, Prep. Cut slices of
bread, toast and butter them; then cover them
with slices of rich cheese, spread a little mus-
tard over the cheese, put the bread in a cheese-
toaster before the fire, and in a short time
serve it up very hot.
WELD. Syn. WoRID. The Reseda luteola
(Linn.), an herbaceous annual employed by
the dyers. A decoction of the stems and leaves
gives a rich yellow to goods mordanted with
alum, tartar, or muriate of tin. See YELLOW
PIGMENTS.
WEN. The popular name of pulpy en-
cysted and fleshy tumours of the face and
neck.
WHEAT. Syn. TRITICUM, L. The ripe
seed or fruit of several varieties of Triticum
vulgare (Linn.), of which the principal are
Triticum aestivum, or spring wheat, Triticum
hybernum, or winter wheat, and Triticum tur-
gidum, or turgid wheat, the last two of which
include several red and white sub-varieties.
Of all the cereal grains, wheat appears to be
that best adapted for bread corn, not merely
on account of its highly nutritious character,
but also on account of the power it possesses,
from its richness in gluten, of forming a light
and agreeable loaf by the process of fermenta-
tion.
According to Sir H. Davy, good English
wheat contains of gluten, 194; starch, 77%;
soluble matter, 4 to 5%.
The average weight of good wheat per bushel
is from 58 to 60 lbs.; and its average yield of
flour is fully 12} lbs, for every 14 lbs. The
weight of the straw is said to be about double
that of the grain. The produce per acre varies
from 12 to 60, or even 64, bushels an acre.
See FLOUR, STAROH, &c."
Buckwheat. Syn. FAGOPYRUM. The seed
of Fagopyrum esculentum, a plant of the na-
tural order Polygonaceae. It makes excellent
cakes, crumpets, and gruel. In North Ame-
rica, buckwheat cakes, or rather fritters, are
in general use at breakfast, eaten with mo-
lassen. In England, buckwheat is cultivated
as food for pheasants.
Wheat, Indian. See MAIZE.
Wheat, Steeps for. Quicklime, sulphate of
zinc, or white vitriol, sulphate of copper or
blue vitriol, and arsenious acid or white arsenic,
are the substances chiefly employed for this
1176
WHEY—WHITE PIGMENTS.
purpose. About 5 lbs. of the first (slaked and
made into a milk with water), 14 lb. of the
second, 1 lb. of the third, and 3 or 4 oz. of the
last, are regarded as sufficient for each sack of
seed. The method of applying them is either
to dissolve or mix them with just sufficient
water to cover the seed, which is then to be
soaked in the mixture for a few hours, or a
less quantity of water is employed, and the
more concentrated solution is, at intervals,
well sprinkled, by means of a “watering-pot,”
over the seed wheat spread upon the barn
floor, the action being promoted by occasional
stirring.
Obs. The first two substances above named
have been separately proved to be amply suffi-
cient to destroy the “smut” in seed wheat,
and are perfectly harmless in their effects,
which renders them greatly preferable to ar-
senic, or even to sulphate of copper. Nearly
all the numerous advertised ‘Anti-smuts, or
nostrums to prevent the Smut in wheat, con-
tain one or other of the last three of the above
substances.
WHEY. Syn. SERUM IACTIs, L.; PETIT
IAIT, Fr. The liquid portion of milk after the
curd has been separated. It consists chiefly of
water, holding in solution 3 or 4% of sugar of
milk. A pound of milk, mixed with a table-
spoonful of proof spirit, allowed to become
sour, and the whey filtered from the sedi-
ment, yields, in the course of a few weeks,
a good vinegar (whey vinegar), free from
laetic acid (Scheele). Skimmed milk may be
used. -
Whey, Al'um. Syn. SERUM LACTIs ALU-
MINATUM, L. Prep. Take of powdered alum,
1 dr. ; hot milk, 1 pint; simmer a few seconds,
let it repose for a short time, and strain the
whey from the coagulum. Used in diarrhoea,
&c.; a wine-glassful after every motion. Acid
whey (SERUM LACTIS ACIDUM) may be pre-
pared in a similar manner, by substituting
# dr. of tartaric or citric acid for the alum.
Orange whey and lemon whey are prepared
from the juice of the respective fruits, with a
little of the yellow peel to impart flavour.
WHEY POWDER. Prep. 1. From whey
gently evaporated to dryness, and powdered
along with about 1-3rd of its weight of lump
Sugar. - -
2. Sugar, 7 oz. ; sugar of milk, 2 oz.: gum
arabic, 1 oz., (all in fine powder;) mix well. 1
oz. dissolved in 14 pint of water, forms extem-
poraneous whey.
WHIS’KEY. Dilute alcohol obtained from
the fermented wort of malt or grain. That
from the former is the most esteemed. The
inferior qualities of this spirit are prepared
from barley, oats, or rye, a small portion only
of which is malted, or from potatoes mashed
with a portion of barley malt, the resulting
wash being carelessly fermented and distilled,
and purposely suffered to burn, to impart the
peculiar empyreumatic or smoky flavour so
much relished by the lower orders of whiskey-
drinkers. The malt whiskey (sold as such) of
the principal Scotch and Irish distillers is
fully equal in quality to London gin, from
which it merely differs in flavour. The pecu-
liar flavour of whiskey may be nicely imitated
by adding a few drops each of pure creasote
and purified fusel oil to 2 or 3 gallons of good
London gin; and the imitation will be still
more perfect if the liquor be kept for some
months before drinking it. See GIN, SPIRITS,
and USQUEBAUGH.
WHITE AR/SENIC, ARSENIOUS ACID.
WHITE-BAIT. The Cluped Latulus (Clu-
pea alba–Yarrell), a very small and delicate
fish, common in the brackish waters of the
Thames from April to September. When
fried in oil, it is esteemed a great luxury by
epicures.
WHITE COPPER.
and PACKTONG. -
WHITE HELLEBORE, Syn. VERATRUM
(Ph. L. & E.); VERATRI ALBI RADIX, L.
“The rhizome of Veratrum album, Linn., or
white hellebore.” (Ph. L.) A powerful acrid
cathartic, emetic, and sternutatory. It is now
seldom exhibited internally, and its external
use over a large or ulcerated service is not
unaccompanied with danger.—Dose. # to 2 grs.
of the powder, made into a pill; in gout,
mania, &c.; or 1 to 3 grs., carefully triturated
with 12 or 15 grs. of liquorice powder, as an
errhine, in amaurosis, &c.
WHITE LEAD. See below.
WHITE PIG/MENTS. Syn. PIGMENTA
ALBA, L. The following list embraces the more
important white pigments of commerce :—
White, Alum. Syn. BAUMá’s whitE. Take
of powdered Roman alum, 2 lbs. ; honey, 1 lb.;
mix, dry, powder, calcine in a shallow dish to
whiteness, cool, wash, and dry. A beautiful
and permanent white, both in oil and water.
White, Derbyshire. From cawk or heavy
spar, by grinding and elutriation.
White, Flake. The finer kinds of white lead
are so called.
White, Mineral.
lead.
White, Newcastle. White lead made with
molasses vinegar. -
White, Nottingham. White lead made with
alegar. Permanent white is now commonly
sold for it.
White, Pearl. Syn. FARD's SPANISH WHITE.
Trisnitrate of bismuth.
White, Per'mament. Artificial sulphate of
baryta, prepared by precipitating chloride of
barium with dilute sulphuric acid, or a solution
of glauber salts. A good fast white, unchanged
by sulphurous fumes. Used to mark jars and
bottles for containing acids or alkalies, as it is
affected by very few substances; also to adul-
terate white lead.
White, Spanish. Syn. BLANC D’ESPAGNE,
BLANC DE TROYES, Fr. The softest and purest
white chalk, elutriated, made into balls, and
well dried. Used as a cheap white paint.
See GERMAN SILVER
Precipitated carbonate of


WHITE LEAD–WIHITING.
1177
WHITELEAD. Syn. FINE WHITE, FLAKE
W., CARBONATE OF LEAD, CERUSE, MAGISTERY
of LEAD; CERUSSA, PLUMBI CARBONAs (B. P.,
Ph. E. & D.), L. Made by suspending rolls
of thin sheet lead over malt vinegar, or pyro-
ligneous acid, in close vessels, the evaporation
from the acid being kept up by the vessels
being placed in a heap of dung, or a steam
bath.
Obs. Commercial carbonate of lead, how-
ever prepared, is not the pure carbonate of
lead, but always contains a certain proportion
of hydrate. It is generally largely adulterated
with native sulphate of baryta (“heavy spar’),
and sometimes with chalk. The former may
be detected by its insolubility in dilute nitric
acid, and the latter by the nitric solution
yielding a white precipitate with dilute 'sul-
phuric acid, or a solution of oxalic acid or
oxalate of ammonia, after having been treated
with sulphuretted hydrogen, or a hydrosul-
phuret, to throw down the lead. “Pure car-
bonate of lead does not lose weight at a tem-
perature of 212° Fahr. ; 68 grs. are entirely
dissolved in 150 minims of acetic acid diluted
with 1 fl. oz. of distilled water; and the solu-
tion is not entirely precipitated by a solution
of 60 grs. of phosphate of soda.” (Ph. E.) The
solution in nitric acid should not yield a pre-
cipitate when treated with a solution of sul-
phate of soda-Used as a superior white paint,
and, in medicine, as an external astringent,
refrigerant, and desiccant. The particles of
carbonate of lead prepared by precipitation,
or by any of the quick processes, are in
a somewhat crystalline and semi-translucent
condition, and hence do not cover so well
as that just noticed. The following are
some of the varieties of ‘white lead’ found
in commerce :-
1. (DUTCH WHITE LEAD.)—a. (Finest.)
From flake white, 1 cwt. ; cawk, 3 cwt.—
b. (Ordinary.) Flake white, 1 cwt.; cawk, 7
cwt. These form the best white lead of the
shops.
2. (ENGLISH WHITE LEAD.) Flake white
lowered with chalk. Covers badly, and the
colour is inferior to the preceding.
3. (FRENCH WHITE LEAD ; BLANC DE
PLOMB, Fr.) From litharge dissolved in vinegar,
and the lead thrown down by a current of
carbonic acid gas from coke, Does not cover
so well as flake white.
4. (GRACE’s WHITE LEAD.) Made from
sheet lead, with the refuse water of the starch-
maker's, soured brewer’s grain, &c.
5. (HAMBURG WHIT,E HAMBURG white
LEAD.) From flake white, 1 cwt.; cawk, 2 cwt.
Also sold for best Dutch white lead.
6. (VENETIAN WHITE, VENETIAN white
LEAD ; CERUSA WENETA, L.) From flake
white, or pure white lead and cawk, equal parts.
(See below.)
White Precipitate of Lead. Syn. MINIA-
TURE PAINTER’s WHITE, SULPHATE OF LEAD.
From an acetic or nitric solution of litharge,
precipitated by adding dilute sulphuric acid,
and the white powder washed and dried. The
clear liquid decanted from the precipitate is
poured on fresh litharge, when a second solu-
tion takes place; and this may be repeated
for any number of times. Used in minia-
ture painting, being a beautiful and durable
white.
Whi"ting. The same as prepared chalk, but
prepared more carelessly, in horse-mills.
White, Wilkinson’s. From litharge ground
with sea water until it ceases to whiten, and
then washed and dried.
White, Zinc (Hubbuck's). A hydrated oxide
of zinc. It possesses the advantage of being
innocuous in use, and not being blackened by
sulphuretted hydrogen, like white lead.
WHITE SWELLING. Syn. HYDRARTHRUs,
L. A variety of indolent, malignant, scrofu-
lous tumour, attacking the knee, ankle, wrist,
and elbow, especially the first.
WHITES (Sharp). Prep. 1. From wheaten
flour and powdered alum, equal parts, ground
together.
2. (STUFF ; BAKER’s STUFF.) From alum,
ground to the coarseness of common salt, 1 lb.;
common salt, 3 lbs. ; mix together. Both the
above are used by bakers for the purpose of
clandestinely introducing alum into their
bread.
WHITE"WASH. Whiting is made into a
milk with water, and a small quantity of
melted size or dissolved glue added. It is
applied to walls or ceilings with a broad, flat
brush, worked in a uniform direction. Should
the surface have been previously whitewashed,
it is requisite first to remove the dirt by wash-
ing it with a brush and abundance of clean
water.
“LIME-WASHING is, from the cleansing ac-
tion of the quicklime, much the more effectual
mode of purification, but is less frequently had
recourse to, from the general ignorance re-
specting the proper mode of preparing the
lime-wash. If glue is employed, it is destroyed
by the corrosive action of the lime, and, in
consequence, the latter easily rubs off the
walls when dry. This is the case also if the
lime be employed, as is often absurdly recom-
mended, simply slaked in water, and used
without any fixing material. Lime-wash is
prepared by placing some freshly burned quick-
lime in a pail, and pouring on sufficient water
to recover it; “boiled oil’ (linseed) should then
be immediately added, in the proportion of a
pint to a gallon of the wash. For coarser
work, any common refuse fat may be used in-
stead of the boiled oil. The whole should
then be thinned with water to the required
consistency, and applied with a brush. Care
should be taken not to leave the brush in the
lime-wash for any length of time, as it destroys
the bristles.” (W. B. Tegetmeier.)
WHI''TING. See WHITE PIGMENTS.
WHITING. The Gadus merlangus (Linn.),
a member of the cod family of fishes. It is a

11.78
WHITLOW-WINE.
very light and nutritious fish, and well adapted
to dyspeptics and invalids; but it has too
little flavour to be a favourite with gour-
mands.
WHIT'LOW. Syn. WHITLOE ; PARONY-
CHIA, L. A painful inflammation, tending to
suppuration and abscess, at the ends of the
fingers, and mostly under or about the nails.
Emollient poultices are useful in this affection;
extreme tension and pain may be relieved by
an incision, so as to allow the exit of the pus
or matter from under the nail. The treat-
ment must also be directed to establish the
general health, as without this local remedies
often fail.
WHOOP'ING-COUGH. Syn. CHIN-COUGH,
HoOPING-C., KIN.-C.; PERTUSSIS, L. A con-
vulsive strangling cough, characterised by pe-
culiar sonorous or whooping inspirations, from
which its popular name is taken. It comes
on in fits, which are usually terminated by
vomiting. It is infectious, chiefly attacks
children, and, like the smallpox, only occurs
once during life.
The treatment of whooping-cough consists,
chiefly, in obviating irritation, and in exciting
nausea and occasional vomiting. For the
first, aperients and sedatives (hemlock or hen-
bane), in small doses, may be given; for the
second intention, an extremely weak sweetened
solution of tartarized antimony, or a mixture
containing squills or ipecacuanha, may be ad-
ministered in small doses every hour or two,
according to the effect produced. In full
habits, blisters and leeches may be resorted to;
and in all cases opiate and stimulating embro-
cations may be applied to the chest and spine
with advantage. Whenever the head is af.
fected, the use of narcotics is contra-indicated.
The hot bath is often serviceable. “A mix-
ture of cochineal and carbonate of potassa is
by some regarded as almost a specific for this
disease; but our own observations lead us to
look with more favour on anatomical nau-
seants and emetics.” (Cooley.) See ANTIMO-
NIALS, DRAUGHT, MIXTURE, OXYMEL, SYRUP,
WINES, &c.
WHOR/TLEBERRY (Bear's). Syn. UVF
URSI FoEIA (B. P.), UVA URSI (Ph. L.
E. & D.), L. The leaf of Arctostaphylos
Uva Ursi, trailing arbutus, or bearberry.
Astringent.—Dose. 10 to 30 grs. of the
powder, thrice daily. See DECOCTION and
ExTRACT.
WIK'ANA. Syn. WACARA DES INDs, Fr.
Prep. (Guibourt.) Roasted chocolate nuts
ground), 2 oz. ; powdered cinnamon, 2 drs. ;
powdered vanilla, # dr. ; ambergris, 3 grs. ;
musk, 1% gr. ; sugar, 6 oz. ; well mixed to-
gether. A teaspoonful is boiled with 3 pint
of milk, or arrow-root, as a stimulating diet
for convalescents.
WILD CHERRY. The Prunus Virginiana,
a beautiful tree, growing wild in the western
states of America. The inner bark (wild-
cherry bark) is officinal in the Ph. U. S.,
and is a valuable sedative tonic. It is spe-
cially adapted for the alleviation of the dis-
tressing cough which is so harassing to pa-
tients with pulmonary disease. See INFUSION.
WILD’FIRE RASH. Strophulus volaticus.
WILLOW. Syn. SALIx, L. The barks of
Salia, alba or white willow, Salis fragilis or
crack willow, and Salia, Caprea or great round-
leaved willow (WILLOW BARK ; SALICIS COR-
TICIS.–Ph. E.), were officinal in the Ph. D.
1826; and, with that of Salia, Russelliana, and
other species, are rich in salicin, and hence
possess considerable febrifuge power.—Dose. }
to 1 dr., either in powder or made into a de-
coction; as a substitute for Peruvian bark, in
agues, hectics, debility, dyspepsia, &c.
WINDOWS. A prismatic or crystalline
appearance may be imparted to windows by
several expedients:—
1. Mix a hot solution of sulphate of mag-
nesia (Epsom salt) with a clear solution of gum
arabic, and lay it on hot. For a margin, or for
figures, wipe off the part you wish to remain
clear with a wet towel as soon as the surface
has become cold and hard. The effect is very
pretty, and may be varied by substituting
oxalic acid, red or yellow prussiate of potash,
or any other salt (not efflorescent), for the
sulphate of magnesia. Sulphate of copper
gives a very beautiful crystallisation of a blue
colour.
2. Evenly cover the surface of the glass with
a layer of thin gum water, and sprinkle any of
the saline crystals before noticed over it whilst
wet. The gum water may be tinged of any
colour to vary the effect.
A blinded appearance, more or less resem-
bling ground glass, may be given as follows:–
1. By evenly dabbing the surface with a
piece of soft glazier's putty.
2. A coating of stained rice jelly, laid on
with a painter’s brush (sash tool), and after-
wards dabbed with a duster brush, applied
endways.
3. Tissue paper, either white or coloured,
applied by means of clear gum water or some
pale varnish. The pattern may be lined with
a pencil, and, when the whole is somewhat
dry, but not hard, the lines may be cut through,
and the pattern stripped off with the flat point
of a knife.
4. The surface of the glass being coated
with mucilage, or any pale varnish, as before,
coarsely powdered glass or quartz, reduced to a
uniform state of grain by a sieve, may be
sprinkled over it; when dry, the loose portion
should be removed with a soft brush.
WINE. Syn. WINUM, L.; WIN, Fr. The
fermented juice of the grape. The general
characters and quality of wine are principally
influenced by climate, soil, and aspect, the
nature and maturity of the grape, and the
method of conducting the fermentation. The
sp. gr. of the “must varies from 1:063 to
1285, from which the proportion of saccharine
matter and the ultimate alcoholic richness of

WINE.
1179
the wine resulting from its fermentation may
be inferred. That of Rhenish grapes seldom
exceeds 1.095 to 1:100. Want of space com-
pels us to confine our remarks chiefly to the
properties, uses, and management of grape
juice after it has passed through the stage of
fermentation, or, in reality, become wine.
Qfficinal Wine. The only wine ordered by
the British Colleges is sherry (WHITE WINE;
VINUM XERICUM-B. P., Ph. L.; WINUM
D.); but several other wines are employed in
medicine, as tonics, stimulants, antispasmodics,
and restoratives, according to the circum-
stances of the case or the taste of the patient.
In pharmacy, the less expensive Cape or
marsala, or even raisin wine, is usually sub-
stituted for sherry in the preparation of the
medicated wines of the Pharmacopoeias.
Varieties, characteristics, &c. The following
Tables will convey much useful information
ALBUM.–Ph, E.; VINUM HISPANICUM--Ph, on this subject in a condensed form:-
1. TABLE of the Quantity of Alcohol in Wine. By Dr. CHRISTISON,
Alcohol of Proof spirit
Names, &c. º ". º .
weight. by volume.
Weakest . - 1497 31:31
Port Mean of 7 samples . 16:20 3491
- Strongest 17-10 37.27
White - - - - 1497 31°31
ſWeakest. - - - - - - 13-98 30'84
Mean of 13 wines, excluding those - --
very long kept in cask. } - 15-37 33'59
Sherry ...+ Strongest . . . . . . . . 16:17 35'12
Mean of 9 wines long kept in cask - -
| in the East Indies - } 14.72 31:30
Madre da Xeres - - 16-90 37.06
Madeira {* kept in cask in ſ Strongest 16-90 37:06
--- the East Indies Weakest 14'09 30'86
Teneriffe (long in cask at Calcutta) - 13-84 30-21
Cercial - - - - - 15:45 33-65
Lisbon (dry) 16'14 34.71
Shiraz . - 12:95 28'30
Amontillado. - - - - 12-63 27.60
Claret. (A first growth of 1811). 7-72 16-95
Chateau-Latour. (Do. 1825) . 7-78 17:06
Rosan. (Second growth of 1825). 7-61 16-74
Ordinary Claret. (Win Ordinaire) 8-99 1896
Rivesaltes . - - - - 9:31 22:35
Malmsley - - 12.86 28-17
Rüdesheimer. 1st quality 8’40 18:44
55 Inferior 6'90 15:19
Hambacher. Superior quality 7-35 16:15
1180
WINE,
II. Quantity of Alcohol (sp. gr. 825 at 60°Fahr.) in 100 parts of Wine by volume,
Names of wine. Alcoholic content. Authority.
Alba Flora 17.26 Brande -
Barsac 13.86 do.
Bucellas - 18-49 do.
Burgundy (average) . 14:57 do.
Ditto . - - 12-16 Prout
Calcavella (average) . 18°65 Brande
Cape Madeira (do.) 20-51 do.
Cape Muschat . 18'25 do.
Champagne (average) 12’61 do.
Ditto . - - 12:20 Fontenelle.
Claret (average) 15:10 Brande.
Colares - 1975 do.
Constantia (White) 1975 do.
Ditto (Red) 1892 do.
Ditto (average) 14'50 Prout.
Côte Rôtie 12-32 Brande.
Currant 20:55 do.
Elder - - - 8-79 do.
Frontignac (Rivesalte) 12-79 do.
Gooseberry - - 11.84 do.
Grape (English) 18°11 do.
Hermitage (Red) 12-32 do.
Ditto (White) 17.43 do.
Hock (average). 12:08 do.
Lachryma Christi 19-70 do.
Lisbon - 1894 de.
Lissa (average). - 25°41 do.
Ditto (do.) . - 15'90 Prout
Lunel - - 15°52 Brande
Madeira (average) 22:27 do.
Ditto (do.) 21:20 Prout
Malaga - - 17:26 Brande
Ditto - 1894 do.
Malmsey Madeira - 16:40 do.
Marsala (average) 25'09 do.
Ditto do. 18°40 Prout
Nice . . . 14'63 Brande
Orange (average) 11:26 do.
Port (do.) 20-64 Prout
Ditto (do.) 22.96 Brande.
Raisin (do.) - - 25°41 do.
Ditto (do.) ... " . 15-90 Prout.
Red Madeira (do.) . 20:35 Brande.
Roussillon (do.) 18:13 do.
Sauterne . - 14:22 do.
Shiraz - 15:52 do.
Sherry (average) 19:17 do.
Ditto (do.) - 23.80 Prout
Syracuse . - - 20:00 do.
Ditto . - 15°28 Brande
Teneriffe - 1979 do.
Tent - 13:30 do.
Tokay - 9-88 do.
Widonia - 19:25 do.
Vin de Grave - 13-94 do.
Zante - 17:05 do.
* Alcohol of 825 contains 92.6% of real or anhydrous alcohol; or, in the language of the Excise, is about 6
and in round numbers may be said to be of about twice the strength of brandy or rum, as usually sold .
01.0
*20
0.p.,


WINE.
118i
Composition. The constituents of wine are
—alcohol, which is one of its principal ingre-
dients, and on which its power of producing
intoxication depends; sugar, which has escaped
the process of fermentation, and which is most
abundant in the sweet wines, as tokay, tent,
frontignac, &c.; extractive, derived chiefly
from the husk of the grape, and is extracted
from it by the newly formed alcohol; tartar,
or bitartrate of potassa, which constitutes the
most important portion of the saline matter
of wine; odoriferous matter, imparting the
characteristic vinous odour, depending chiefly
upon the presence of oenanthic acid and ether;
bouquet, arising from essential oil, or amyl-
compounds, probably existing under the form
of ethers. Besides these, small quantities of
tannin, gum, acetic and malic acid, acetic
ether, lime, &c., are found in wine. The
specific gravity of wine depends on the
richness and ripeness of the grapes used in
its manufacture, the nature of the fermen-
tation, and its age. It varies from about 970
to 1:04.1.
Purity. The most frequent species of fraud
in the wine trade is the mixing of wines of
inferior quality with those of a superior grade.
In many cases the inferior kinds of foreign
wine are flavoured and substituted for the
more expensive ones. This is commonly
practised with Cape wine, which, after having
a slight “nuttiness’ communicated to it by
bitter almonds or peach kernels, a lusciousness
or fulness by honey, and additional strength
by a little plain spirit or pale brandy, is made
to undergo the operation of “fretting in,’ and
is then sold for ‘sherry.” Formerly, it was a
common practice of ignorant wine-dealers to
add a little litharge or acetate of lead to their
inferior wines to correct their acidity, but it
is believed that this highly poisonous substance
is now never employed in this country, “salt
of tartar” being made to perform the same
duty. The lead which is frequently detected
in bottled wine, and which often causes serious
indisposition, may be generally traced to shot
being carelessly left in the bottles, and not to
wilful fraud. Sherry is commonly coloured,
in Spain, by the addition of must boiled down
to # of its original volume; and in England,
by burnt brown sugar, or spirit colouring.
Amontillado (a very nutty wine) is frequently
added to sherries deficient inflavour. Various
other ingredients, as the essential oil of
almonds, bitter almonds in substance, cherry-
laurel leaves, cherry-laurel water, &c., are also
employed for a like purpose. In Portugal, the
juice of elderberries is very commonly added
to port wine to increase its colour, and extract
of rhatany for the double purpose of improv-
ing its colour and imparting an astringent
taste. In England, beet-root, Brazil wood,
the juices of elderberries and bilberries, the
pressed cake of elder wine, extract of logwood,
&c., are frequently added to port to deepen its
colour; and oak sawdust, kino, alum, and ex-
tract of rhatany, to increase its astringency.
But the most common adulterant of port
wine, both in Portugal and this country, is
‘jerupiga, or ‘geropiga,’ a compound of elder
juice, brown sugar, grape juice, and crude
Portuguese brandy. That imported here con-
tains about 45% of proof spirit, and is allowed
by the Customs-house authorities to be mixed
with port wine in bond. A factitious bou-
quet is also commonly given to wine by the
addition of sweetbriar, orris root, clary,
orange flowers, elder flowers, esprit de petit
grain, &c.
Tests. These, for the most part, are ap-
plicable to all fermented liquors:–
1. Richness in alcohol. This may be found
by any of the methods noticed under ALCO-
HOLMETRY, PORTER, and TINCTURE.
2. SACCHARINE and EXTRACTIVE MATTER.
The sp. gr. corresponding to the alcoholic
strength, last found, is deducted, from the real
sp. gr. of the sample, the difference divided by
‘0025, or multiplied by 400, gives the weight
of solid matter (chiefly sugar) in oz. per gallon
(nearly).
3. NARCOTICS. These may be detected in
the manner noticed at page 1109.
4. LEAD. The presence of lead or litharge
in wine may be readily detected by sulphuretted
hydrogen, or a solution of any hydrosulphuret,
which will, in that case, produce a black pre-
cipitate. See WINE-TESTs.
5. POTASSA or SODA improperly present.
A portion of the wine is evaporated nearly to
dryness, and then agitated with rectified spirit;
the filtered tincture, holding in solution ace-
tate of potassa, is then divided into two por-
tions, one of which is tested for acetic acid,
and the other for the alkali.
6. ALUM. A portion of the wine is eva-
porated to dryness, and ignited; the residuum
is then treated with a small quantity of hydro-
chloric acid, the mixture evaporated to dry-
mess, again treated with dilute hydrochlorie
acid, and tested with liquor of potassa. If
a white bulky precipitate forms, which is
soluble in an excess of caustic potassa,
and which is reprecipitated by a solution of
sal ammoniać, the sample examined contained
alum.
7. OIL OF WITRIOL-a. A drop or two of
the suspected wine may be poured upon a
piece of paper, which be dried
before the fire. Pure w; tains
the paper, but one, -
acid causes it to bec
The effect is more n
has been previously
paste.
b. According to M.I.
leaves, by spontaneous
purple stain on paper;
sulphuric acid has been :
only equal to gºry to :
pink stain in drying.
8, SPURIOUS COLOURING



1182
WINE.
ine red wines yield greenish-grey precipitates
with sugar of lead, and greenish ones with
potassa; but those coloured with elderberries,
bilberries, litmus, logwood, and mulberries,
give deep blue or violet precipitates, and those
coloured with Brazil wood, red sanders wood,
or red beet, give red ones.
b. Pure red wine is perfectly decoloured by
agitation with recent hydrate of lime.
9. ARTIFICIAL FLAVOURING. This can only
be detected by a discriminating and sensitive
palate.
10. ARTIFICIAL BOUQUET. The substances
added for this purpose may often be readily
detected by a comparison of the sample with
another of known purity.
Uses. The uses of wine as a beverage are
too well known to require description. As a
medicine, port wine is most esteemed as an
astringent and tonic; and sherry and Madeira
as stimulants and restoratives, in diseases
where the acidity of the former would be ob-
jectionable; champagne is reputed diuretic
and excitant, but its effects are not of long
duration; and the Rhenish wines are regarded
as refrigerant, diuretic, and slightly aperient.
Claret, Rhenish, and Moselle wines are said to
be the most wholesome. In pharmacy, wine
is used as a menstruum.
MANAGEMENT OF WINE.
Age. The sparkling wines are in their prime
in from 18 to 30 months after the vintage,
depending on the cellaring and climate. Weak
wines, of inferior growths, should be drunk
within 12 or 15 months, and be preserved in a
very cool cellar. Sound, well-fermented, full-
bodied still wines are improved by age, within
reasonable limits, provided they be well pre-
served from the air, and stored in a cool place,
having a pretty uniform temperature. See
Maturation (below).
Bottling. The secret of bottling wine with
success consists in the simple exercise of care
and cleanliness. The bottles should be all
sound, clean, and dry, and perfectly free from
the least mustiness or other odour. The corks
should be of the best quality, and immediately
before being placed in the bottles should be
compressed by means of a ‘cdrk-squeezer.’
For superior or very delicate wines, the corks
are usually prepared by placing them in a
copper or tub, covering them with weights to
keep them *-***d then pouring over them
boilincº a little pearlash in so-
Jułłº. they are allowed to
when they are well
uor, drained, and re-
l, hours in hot water,
l washed and soaked
ortions of clean and
d, dried out of contact
er bags, and hung up
The wine should be
if it be not so, it must
of ‘fining’ before being
s a common practice with
some persons to perform this operation whether
the wine require it or not; as, if it has been
mixed and doctored, it “amalgamates and
ameliorates the various flavours.” The bottles,
corks, and wine, being ready, a fine clear day
should be preferably chosen for the bottling,
and the utmost cleanliness and care should be
exercised during the process. Great caution
should also be observed to avoid shaking the
cask so as to disturb the ‘bottoms.” The re-
maining portion that cannot be drawn off clear
should be passed through the ‘wine-bag,” and,
when bottled, should be set apart as inferior
to the rest. The coopers, to prevent breakage
and loss, place each bottle, before corking it,
in a small bucket having a bottom made of
soft cork, and which is strapped on the knee
of the bottler. They thus seldom break a
bottle, though they ‘flog ' in the corks very
hard. When the process is complete, the
bottles of wine are stored in a cool cellar, and
on no account upright, or in damp straw,
but on their sides, in sweet, dry sawdust or
sand. -
Bouquet,
ing. -
JBrandying. Brandy is frequently added to
weak or vapid wines, to increase their strength,
or to promote their preservation. In Portugal,
one third of brandy is commonly added to
port before shipping it for England, as with-
out this addition it generally passes into the .
acetous fermentation during the voyage. A
little good brandy is also usually added to
sherry before it leaves Spain. By the regula-
tions of the Customs of England, 10% of
brandy may be added to wines in bond, and
the increased quantity is only charged the
usual duty on wine. The addition of brandy
to wine injures its proper flavour, and hence it
is chiefly made to port, sherry, and other wines,
whose flavour is so strong as not to be easily
injured. Even when brandy is added to wines
of the latter description, they require to be
kept for some time to recover their natural
flavour. To promote this object, the wine-
doctors employ the process called ‘fretting in,’
by which they effect the same change in 3 or
4 weeks, as would otherwise require some
months, at the very least.
Cellaring. A wine-cellar should be dry at
bottom, and either covered with good hard
gravel or be paved with flags. Its gratings
or windows should open toward the north,
and it should be sunk sufficiently below the
surface to ensure an equable temperature. It
should also be sufficiently removed from any
public thoroughfare, so as not to suffer vibra-
tion from the passing of carriages. Should it
not be in a position to maintain a regular
temperature, arrangements should be made to
apply artificial heat in winter, and proper ven-
tilation in summer.
Colouring. Wines are as commonly doc-
tored in their colour as their flavour. A fawn-
yellow and golden-sherry yellow are given by
See Flavouring and Perfum-
WINE.
1183
means of tincture or infusion of Saffrom, tur-
meric, or safflower, followed by a little spirit
colouring, to prevent the colour being too
lively. All shades of amber and fawn, to deep
brown and brandy colour, are given by burnt
sugar. Cochineal (either alone or with a little
alum) gives a pink colour; beet-root and red
sanders give a red colour; the extracts of
rhatany and logwood, and the juice of elder-
berries, bilberries, &c., give a port-wine colour.
Crusting. To make port wine form a crust
on the inside of the bottles, a spoonful of pow-
dered catechu, or ; a spoonful of finely-pow-
dered cream of tartar, is added to each bottle
before corking it, after which the whole is well
agitated. It is also a common practice to put
the crust on the bottle before putting the wine
into it, by employing a hot Saturated solution
of red tartar, thickened with gum and some
powdered tartar.
Deacetification. This is effected by the
cautious addition of either salt of tartar or
carbonate of soda. Wine so treated soon gets
insipid by exposure and age; and, without
care, the colour of red wines is thus frequently
spoiled. --
Deacidification.
low). -
Decanting. This only refers to small
quantities of wine, ready for consumption.
In decanting wine, care must be taken not
to shake or disturb the crust when moving it
about or drawing the cork, particularly of
port wine. Never decant wine without a
wine-strainer, with some clean fine cambric in
it, to prevent the crust and bits of cork going
into the decanter. In decanting port wine,
do not drain it too close; as there are generally
two thirds of a wine-glassful of thick dregs in
each bottle, which ought to be rejected. In
white wine there is not much settling; but it
should nevertheless be poured off very slowly,
the bottle being raised gradually.
Decolouring. The colour of wine is precipi-
tated by age and by exposure to the light. It
is also artificially removed by the action of
skimmed milk, lime water, milk of lime, and
fresh burnt charcoal. Wine merchants avail
themselves of this property for the purpose of
whitening wines that have acquired a brown
colour from the cask, or which are esteemed
pale; and also for turning ‘pricked’ red or
dark-coloured wines into white wines, in which
a small degree of acidity is not so much per-
ceived. In this way brown sherry is com-
monly converted into pale or gold-coloured
sherry. For the latter purpose, 2 to 3 pints
of skimmed milk are usually sufficient; but to
decolour red wine 2 to 3 quarts or more will
be required, according to the nature and in-
tensity of the colour, or the shades of påleness
desired. Charcoal is seldom used, as it re-
moves the flavour as well as colour, but a little
milk of lime may sometimes be advantageously
substituted for milk, when the wine has
much acidity, more particularly for red wines,
See Detartarization (be-
which may even be rendered quite colourless
by it. -
Detartarization. Rhenish wines, even of
the most propitious growths, and in the best
condition, besides their tartar, contain a cer-
tain quantity of free tartaric acid, on the
presence of which many of their leading pro-
perties depend. The excess of tartar is gra-
dually deposited during the first years of the
watting, the sides of the vessels becoming more
and more encrusted with it; but, owing to the
continual addition of new wine, and other
causes, the liquid often gains such an excess of
free tartaric acid, as to acquire the faculty of
redissolving the deposited tartar, which thus
again disappears after a certain period. The
taste and flavour of the wine are thus exalted,
but the excess of acid makes the wine less
agreeable in use, and probably less wholesome.
Amateurs and manufacturers should therefore
welcome a means of taking away the free
tartaric acid, without altering, in any respect,
the quality of the wine. This is pure neutral
tartrate of potash. When this salt, in con-
centrated solution, is added to such a fluid as
the above, the free acid combines with the
neutral salt, and separates from the liquid
under the form of the sparingly soluble bitar-
trate of potash. “If to 100 parts of a wine
which contains one part of free tartaric acid,
we add 1% part of neutral tartrate of potash,
there will separate on repose, at 70 to 75°
Fahr., 2 parts of crystallised tartar; and the
wine will then contain only ¥ part of tartar
dissolved, in which there are only 2 part of
the original free acid; 8 part of the original
free acid having been withdrawn from the
wine.” (Liebig’s “Annalen.") This method
is particularly applicable to recent must and
to wines which do not contain much free acetic
acid; but when this last is the case, so much
acetate of potash is formed as occasionally to
vitiate the taste of the liquor.
Fining. Wine is clarified in a similar manner
to beer. White wines are usually fined by
isinglass, in the proportion of about 1% oz.
(dissolved in 1% pint of water, and thinned
with some of the wine) to the hogshead, Red
wines are generally fined with the whites of
eggs, in the proportion of 15 to 20 to the pipe.
Sometimes hartshorn shavings, or pale sweet
glue, is substituted for isinglass.
Flatness. This is removed by the addition
of a little new brisk wine of the same kind;
or by rousing in 2 or 3 lbs. of honey; or by
adding 5 or 6 lbs. of bruised sultana raisins,
and 3 or 4 quarts of good brandy, per hogs-
head. By this treatment the wine will usually
be recovered in about a fortnight, except in
very cold weather. Should it be wanted
sooner, a table-spoonful or two of yeast may
be added, and the cask removed to a warmer
situation. -
Flavouring. Various ingredients are added
to inferior wines, to give them the flavour of
others more expensive, and to British wines,


1184
WINE.
to make them resemble those imported. Sub-
stances are also added in a similar manner to
communicate the aroma of the high-flavoured
grape wines. Among the first are bitter al-
monds, almond cake, or the essential oil of al-
monds, or, preferably, its alcoholic solution,
which are used to impart a ‘sherry’ or “nutty’
taste to weak-flavoured wines, as poor sherry,
white cape, and malt, raisin, parsnip, and other
similar British wines; rhatany, kino, oak saw-
dust and bark, alum, &c., to convey astringency,
and—tincture of the seeds of raisins, to impart
a ‘port wine’ flavour. Among the substances
employed to communicate the bouquet of the
finer wines, may be mentioned—orris root, eau
de fleurs d’oranges, neroli, essence de petit
grain, ambergris, vanilla, violet petals, essence
of cedrat, sweet briar, clary, and elder flowers,
quinces, cherry-laurel water, &c. By the skil-
ful, though fraudulent, use of the above flavour-
ing substances and perfumes, the experienced
wine-brewer manages to produce, in the dark
cellars of London, from white cape, currant
gooseberry, raisin, rhubarb, parsnip, and malt
wine, very excellent imitations of foreign wine,
and which pass current among the majority of
English wine-drinkers as the choicest produc-
tions of the grape, “genuine as imported.”—
A grain or two of ambergris, well rubbed down
with sugar, and added to a hogshead of claret,
gives it a flavour and bouquet much esteemed
by some connoisseurs.
Fretting-in. See Sweating-in (below).
Improving. This is the cant term of the
wine trade, under which all the adulteration
and ‘doctoring’ of wine is carried on. A poor
sherry is improved by the addition of a little
almond flavour, honey, and spirit ; a port
deficient in body and astringency, by the addi-
tion of some red tartar (dissolved in boiling
water), some rhatany, kino, or catechu, and a
little honey or foots, and brandy. See Miaming
(below).
Insensible Fermentation.
(below).
Insipidity. See Flatness (above).
Maturation, The natural maturation or
“ripening” of wine and beer by age depends
upon the slow conversion of the sugar which
escaped decomposition in the ‘gyle tun, orfer-
menting vessel, into alcohol. This conversion
proceeds most perfectly in vessels which en-
tirely exclude the air, as in the case of wine
in bottles; as when air is present, and the
temperature sufficiently high, it is accompanied
by slow acetification. This is the case of wine
in casks, the porosity of the wood allowing
the very gradual permeation of the air. Hence
the superiority of bottled wine over draught
wine, or that which has matured in wood.
Good wine, or well-fermented beer, is vastly
improved by age when properly preserved;
but inferior liquor, or even superior liquor,
when preserved in improper vessels or situa-
tions, becomes acidulous, from the conversion
of its alcohol into vinegar. Tartness or aci-
See Maturation
dity is consequently very generally, though
wrongly, regarded by the ignorant as a sign
of age in liquor. The peculiar change by
which fermented liquors become mature or
ripe by age is termed the “insensible fer-
mentation.” It is the alcoholic fermenta-
tion impeded by the presence of the already
formed spirit in the liquor, and by the low-
; of the temperature. See Ripening (be-
low). -
Miring. Few wines are sold without ad-
mixture. It is found that the intoxicating
properties of wine are increased by mixing
them with other wines of a different age and
growth. In many cases the flavour is at the
same time improved. Thus, a thin port is
improved by the addition of a similar wine
having a full body, or by a little Malaga,
Teneriffe, or rich sherry; and an inferior old
sherry may be improved by admixture with a
little full-bodied wine of the last vintage. In
this consists the great art of ‘cellar manage-
ment,’ and to such an extent is this carried,
both abroad and in England, that it may be
confidently asserted that few wines ever reach
the consumer in an unmixed or natural
state.
Mustiness. This may generally be removed
by violently agitating the wine for some time
with a little of the sweetest olive or almond
oil. The cause of the bad taste is the pre-
sence of an essential oil, which the fixed oil
seizes on, and rises with to the surface, when
it may be skimmed off; or the liquor under it
may be drawn off. A little coarsely powdered
fresh-burnt charcoal, or even some slices of
bread toasted black, will frequently have a
like effect. A little bruised mustard seed
is also occasionally used for the same pur-
pose.
Perfuming. This is chiefly performed on
British wines for family use. For its appli-
cation to foreign wine, see Flavouring (above).
Wines may be perfumed by the simple addi-
tion of any odorous substances previously well
mixed with a little of the wine, or dissolved in
a few fl. oz. of rectified spirit. -
Racking. This should be performed in cool
weather, and preferably early in the spring.
A clean syphon, well managed, answers better
for this purpose than a cock or faucet. The
bottoms, or foul portion, may be strained
through a wine-bag, and added to some other
inferior wine.
Ripening. To promote the maturation or
ripening of wine, various plans are adopted by
the growers and dealers. One of the safest
ways of hastening this, especially for strong
wines, is not to rack them until they have
stood 15 or 18 months upon the lees; or, whe-
ther ‘crude’ or ‘racked,' keeeping them at a
temperature ranging between 50 and 60°
Fahr., in a cellar free from draughts and not
too dry. Another method is to remove the corks
or bungs, and to substitute bladder tied or
fastened air-tight over the openings. Bottled
WINE.
1185
wine, treated in this way, ripens very quickly
in a temperate situation. Some dealers add a
little dilute sulphuric acid to the coarser wines
for the same purpose ; but a small quantity of
concentrated acetic acid or tartaric acid would
be preferable, since these acids are found in all
wines. 4 or 5 drops of the former, added to
a bottle of some kinds of new wine, imme-
diately give it the appearance of being 2 or 3
years old.
Ropiness, viscidity; Graisse. This arises
from the wine containing too little tannin or
astringent matter to precipitate the gluten,
albumen, or other azotised substance, occa-
sioning the malady. Such wine cannot be
clarified in the ordinary way, because it is in-
capable of causing the coagulation or precipi-
tation of the finings. The remedy is to supply
the principle in which it is deficient. M.
François, of Nantes, prescribes the bruised
berries of the mountain ash (1 lb. to the barrel)
for this purpose. A little catechu, kino, or,
better still, rhatany, or the bruised footstalks
of the grape, may also be conveniently and
advantageously used in the same way. For
pale white wines, which are the ones chiefly
attacked by the malady, nothing equals a little
pure tannin or tannic acid dissolved in proof
spirit. See WISCOUS FERMENTATION, MALT
LIQUORS, &c.
Roughening. See Flavouring (above).
Second fermentation ; La-pousse. Inordi-
mate fermentation, either primary or secon-
dary, in wine or any other fermented liquor,
may be readily checked by sulphuration, or by
the addition of mustard seed or sulphite of
lime. I oz. of brimstone, # to 1 lb. of bruised
mustard seed, and about 4 to 8 oz. of sulphite
of lime, are fully sufficient for a hogshead.
This substance seldom fails of arresting the
fermentation.—In addition to the above reme-
dies, a little sulphuric acid is sometimes em-
ployed, and the use of black oxide of manganese,
or chlorate of potash, has been proposed on
theoretical grounds.
Souring. This is either occasioned by the
wine having been imperfectly fermented, or
from its having been kept in too warm a cellar,
where it has been exposed to draughts of air
or to continual vibrations, occasioned by the
passage of loaded vehicles through the ad-
joining thoroughfare. The remedy commonly
recommended in books for this purpose is to
saturate the acid with chalk, milk of lime, or
calcined oyster shells; but such additions,
made in sufficient quantity to effect this object,
destroy the character of the wine, and render
it sickly and vapid. The best and only safe
remedy is a little neutral tartrate of potash,
cautiously added; or it may be mixed with a
considerable portion of full-bodied new wine of
its class, adding at the same time a little
brandy, and in 2 or 3 weeks fining it down,
when it should be either at once put into
bottles, or consumed as soon as possible. See
Deacetification and Detartarisation (above).
Sparkling, creaming, and briskness. These
properties are conveyed to wine by racking it
into closed vessels before the fermentation is
complete, and while there still remains a con-
siderable portion of undecomposed sugar.
Wine of this description, which has lost its
briskness, may be restored by adding to each
bottle a few grains of white lump sugar or
sugar candy. This is the way in which cham-
pagne is treated in France. The bottles are
afterwards inverted, by which means any sedi-
ment that forms falls into the necks, when the
corks are partially withdrawn, and the sedi-
ment is immediately expelled by the elastic
force of the compressed carbonic acid. If the
wine remains muddy, a little solution of sugar
and finings are added, and the bottles are
again placed in a vertical position, and, after
two or three months, the sediment is dis-
charged, as before.
Sweating-in. The technical terms “sweating-
in’ and ‘fretting in' are applied to the partial
production of a second fermentation, for the
purpose of mellowing down the flavour of
foreign ingredients (chiefly brandy), added to
wine. For this purpose 4 or 5 lbs. of sugar
or honey, with a little crude tartar (dissolved),
are commonly added per hogshead; and when
the wine is wanted in haste, a spoonful or two
of yeast, or a few bruised vine leaves, are also
mixed in, the cask being placed in a mode-
rately warm situation until the new fermen-
tation is established, when it is removed to the
wine cellar, and, after a few days, “fined
down.”
Taste of cask. The remedies for this ma-
lady are the same as those for mustiness.
*** For further information connected with
the nature and management of wines, and other
fermented liquors, see BREWING, FERMEN-
TATION, MALT LIQUORS, Port ER, SUGAR,
SYRUP, WINoUs FERMENTATION, WISCOUs
F., WORT, YEAST, &c., and below.
Wine, British. The various processes in
British wine-making depend upon the same
principles, and resemble those employed for
foreign wine.
The FRUIT should be preferably gathered in
fine weather, and not until mature, as evinced
by its flavour; for if it be employed whilst un-
ripe, the resulting wine will be harsh, disagree-
able, and unwholesome, and a larger quantity
of sugar and spirit will be required to render
it palatable. The common practice of em-
ploying unripe gooseberries for the manufacture
of British champagne, arises from a total
ignorance of the scientific principles of wine-
making. On the other hand, if ordinary
British fruit be employed in too ripe a state,
the wine is apt to be inferior, and deficient in
the flavour of the fruit.
The FRUIT, being gathered, at once under-
goes the operation of picking or garbling,
for the purpose of removing the stalks and un-
ripe or damaged portions. It is next placed
in a tub, and is well bruised, to facilitate the

75

1186
WINE.
solvent action of the water. Raisins are com-
monly permitted to soak about 24 hours pre-
viously to bruising them, but they may be ad-
vantageously bruised or minced in the dry
state. The bruised fruit is then put into a
vat or vessel with a guard placed over the tap-
hole, to keep back the husks and seeds of the
fruit when the must, juice, or extract, is drawn
off. The water is now added, and the whole
is allowed to macerate for 30 or 40 hours, more
or less, during which time the magma is fre-
quently roused up with a suitable wooden
stirrer. The liquid portion is next drawn off,
and the residuary pulp is placed in hair bags,
and undergoes the operation of pressing, to
expel the fluid which it contains. The sugar,
tartar (in very fine powder, or in solution), &c.,
are now added to the mixed liquors, and the
whole is well stirred or ‘rummaged up for
some time. The temperature being suitable,
the vinous fermentation soon commences, when
the liquor is frequently skimmed (if neces-
sary), and well ‘roused’ up, and, after 3 or
4 days of this treatment, it is run into casks,
which should be quite filled, and left purging
at the bung-hole. In about a week the fla-
vouring ingredients, in the state of coarse
powder, are commonly added, and well stirred
in ; and in about another week, depending
upon the state of the fermentation, and the
attenuation of the must, the brandy or spirit
is added, and the cask is filled up, and bunged
down close. In four or five weeks more the
cask is again filled up, and, after some weeks
(the longer the better), it is “pegged' or
‘spiled,’ to ascertain if it be fine or transpa-
rent; if so, it undergoes the operation of
racking; but if, on the contrary, it still con-
tinues muddy, it must be either again bunged
up, and allowed to repose for a few weeks
longer, or it must pass through the process of
fining. Its future treatment is similar to
that already noticed under FoEEIGN WINE.
(See above.)
The must of many of the strong-flavoured
fruits, as black currants, mulberries, &c., is
improved by being boiled before being made
into wine. The flavour and bouquet of the
more delicate fruits are either greatly dimi-
nished or utterly dissipated by boiling.
General Formulae for the Preparation of
BRITISH WINES:—
1. From ripe saccharine fruits. Take of
the ripe fruit, 4 to 6 lbs. ; clear soft water,
1 gal. ; sugar, 3 to 5 lbs.; cream of tartar
(dissolved in boiling water), 14 oz. ; brandy,
2 to 3% flavouring, as required. If the full
proportions of fruit and sugar are used, the
product will be good without the brandy, but
better with it. 13 lb. of raisins may be sub-
stituted for each pound of sugar.
In the above way are made the following
wines:–Gooseberry wine (‘British cham-
pagne’);-currant wine (red, white, or black);
—mixed fruit wine (currants and goose-
berries, or black, red, and white currants, ripe
black-heart cherries, and raspberries, equal
part), a good family wine;—cherry wine;—
colepress's wine (from apples and mulberries,
equal part); elder wine;—strawberry wine;—
raspberry wine;—mulberry wine (when fla-
voured, makes ‘British port');—whortleberry
wine (bilberry wine), makes a good factitious
‘port’;—blackberry wine ; – damson wine
(makes good factitious ‘port’);-morella wine;
apricot wine;—apple wine; grape wine, &c.
2. From dry saccharine fruit (as raisins).
Take of the dried fruit, 4% to 7% lbs.; clear soft
water, 1 gal.; cream of tartar (dissolved),
1 oz. ; brandy, 1% to 4%. Should the dried
fruit employed be at all deficient in saccharine
matter, 2 to 3 lbs. of it may be omitted, and
half that quantity of sugar, or two thirds of
raisins, added. In the above way are made—
date wine,—fig wine,—raisin wine, &c.
3. From ACIDULOUS, ASTRINGENT, or SCARCE-
LY RIPE FRUITs, or those which are deficient in
saccharine matter. Take of the picked fruit,
2% to 3% lbs. ; sugar, 3% to 5% lbs. ; cream of
tartar (dissolved), 3 oz. ; water, 1 gal.;
brandy, 2 to 6%.
In the above way are made—gooseberry
wine (‘British champagne’);—bullace wine
(which makes an excellent factitious ‘port');
—-damson wine, &c.
4. From FOOTSTALKS, LEAVES, CUTTINGS,
&c. By infusing them in water, in the pro-
portion of 3 to 6 lbs. to the gal., or q. s. to
give a proper flavour, or to form a good sac-
charine liquor; and adding 2% to 4 lbs. of
sugar to each gal. of the strained liquor. 13 lb.
of raisins may be substituted for each lb. of
Sugar.
In the above way are made—rape wine
(from the pressed cake of grapes);-English
grape wine;—rhubarb wine (“Bath cham-
pagne,” “patent c.’), from garden rhubarb;-
celery wine, &c.
5. From SACCHARINE ROOTS and STEMS OF
PLANTS. Take of the bruised, rasped, or
sliced vegetable, 4 to 6 lbs.; boiling water,
1 gal.; infuse until cold, press out the liquor,
and to each gal. add, of sugar, 3 to 4 lbs. ;
cream of tartar, 1 oz. ; brandy, 2 to 5%. For
some roots and stems the water must not be
very hot, as they are thus rendered trouble-
some to press.
In the above way are made—beet-root wine
(‘British Roussillon’);-parsnip wine (‘Brit-
ish malmsey’);-turnip w., &c.
6. From FLOWERS, SPICES, AROMATICS, &c.
These are prepared by simply infusing a suffi-
cient quantity of the bruised ingredient for
a few days in any simple wine (as that from
sugar, honey, raisins, &c.) after the active fer-
mentation is complete, or, at all events, a few
weeks before racking them.
In the above way are made—clary wine
(“muscadel”), from flowers, 1 quart to the
gal.);-cowslip wine (flowers, 2 quarts to the
gal.); — elder-flower wine (‘Frontignac'),
flowers of white-berried elder, 3 pint, and
|

WINE.
1187
lemon juice, 3 fl. oz., to the gal. ;-ginger
wine (13 oz. of ginger to the gal.;-orange
wine (1 dozen sliced oranges per gal.)—lemon
wine (juice of 12 and rinds of 6 lemons to
the gal.);-spruce wine (# oz. of essence of
spruce per gal); —juniper wine (berries,
# pint per gal);-peach wine (4 or 5 sliced,
and the stones broken, to the gal);-apricot
wine (as peach wine, or with more fruit);-
quince wine (12 to the gal); rose clove-
gillyflower, carnation, lavender, violet, prim-
rose, and other flower wines (distilled water,
1% pint, or flowers, 1 pint, to the gal);-balm
wine (balm tops, 4 oz. per gal.); &c.
7. From SACCHARINE JUICES, or INFUSIONs,
or from fermented liquors. Take of the juice
or liquor, 1 gal. ; honey or sugar, 2 to 3 lbs.
(or raisins, 3 to 5 lbs.); cream of tartar, 14 oz.;
brandy, 2 to 4%.
In this way are made—English grape wine;
—mixed fruit wine;—pine-apple wine;—cider
wine;—elder wine;—birch wine (from the sap,
at the end of February or beginning of
March); sycamore wine (from the sap);-
malt wine (‘English Madeira”), from strong
wort;-and the wines of any of the saccharine
juices of ripe fruit.
8. From SIMPLE SACCHARINE MATTER. Take
of sugar, 3 to 4 lbs.; cream of tartar, 3 oz.;
water, 1 gal.; honey, 1 lb.; brandy, 2 to 4%.
A handful of grape leaves or cuttings, bruised,
or a pint of good malt wort, or mild ale, may
be substituted for the honey. Chiefly used as
the basis for other wines, as it has little fla-
vour of its own; but makes a good “ British
champagne.”
Obs. In all the preceding formulae lump
sugar is intended when the wines are required
very pale, and good Muscovado sugar when
this is not the case. Some of the preceding
wines are vastly improved by substituting
good cider, perry, or pale ale or malt wort, for
the whole or a portion of the water. Good
porter may also be advantageously used in this
way for some of the deep-coloured red wines.
When expense is no object, and very strong
wines are wanted, the expressed juices of the
ripe fruits, with the addition of 3 or 4 lbs. of
sugar per gal., may be substituted for the
fruit in substance, and the water.
Examples of BRITISH IMITATIONS of Fo-
REIGN WINES :-
AMERICAN HONEY WINE. From good honey,
21 lbs. ; cider, 12 galls.; ferment, then add, of
rum, 5 pints; brandy, 2 quarts; red or white
tartar (dissolved), 6 oz. ; bitter almonds and
cloves, of each, bruised, 4 oz. ; powdered cap-
sicum, 3 drs. This is also called ‘mead wine.”
With the addition of 3 oz. of unbleached Ja-
maica ginger (finely grated), it forms the best
American ginger wine.
BRITISH BURGUNDY. By adding a little
lemon juice, and a “streak” of orris or orange-
flower water, to British port, the ingenious
wine-brewer converts it into ‘British Bur-
gundy.' It is also made by mixing together
equal parts of ‘British port’ and claret.
BRITISH CAPE. 1. (White.) Raisin wine,
well attenuated by fermentation, either alone
or worked up with a little cider and pale malt
wort.
2. (Red) British white cape, sound rough
cider, and mulberry wine, equal parts; well
mixed, and fined down.
BRITISH CHAMPAGNE. 1. From stoned
raisins, 7 lbs. ; loaf sugar, 21 lbs.; water,
9 galls. ; crystallised tartaric acid, 1 oz. ;
cream of tartar, 3 oz. ; Narbonne honey, 1 lb.;
sweet yeast, 4 pint; ferment, skimming fre-
quently, and, when the fermentation is nearly
over, add, of coarsely powdered, orris root,
1 dr.; eau de fleurs d'oranges, 4 pint ; and
lemon juice, 1 pint ; in 3 months fine it down
with isinglass, # oz.; in 1 month more, if not
sparkling, again fine it down, and in another
fortnight bottle it, observing to put a piece of
double-refined white sugar, the size of a pea,
into each bottle; lastly, wire down the corks,
and cover them with tin-foil, after the manner
of champagne.
2. As the preceding, but substituting 32 lbs.
of double-refined sugar for the sugar and
raisins therein ordered, with the addition of 3
galls, of rich pale-coloured brandy.
3. From amber hairy champagne goose-
berries, English grape juice, or the stalks of
garden rhubarb, and lump sugar; with a little
sweetbriar, orris, or orange-flower water, to
impart a slight bouquet. The last forms
what is known as ‘patent’ or “Bath cham-
pagne.'
4. (Pink.) To either of the preceding add
red currant juice, q. s. to colour; or 1 oz. of
coarsely powdered cochineal to each 10 or 12
galls. at the time of racking.
Obs. It is notorious that two bottles of wine
out of every three sold for “genuine cham-
pagne’ in England is of British manufacture.
“We have ourselves seen sparkling goose-
berry, rhubarb, and white sugar wines, sold
for imported champagne, at 7s.6d. per bottle,
and the fraud has passed undetected, even by
habitual wine drinkers.” (Cooley.)
BRITISH CLARET. 1. Rich old cider or perry
and port wine, equal parts.
2. To each gal. of the last add of cream of
tartar (genuine), 3 drs., with the juice of 1
lemon. Sometimes ; pint of French brandy
is also added.
Obs. If these mixtures are well fined down,
and not bottled for at least a month or 5 weeks,
they closely resemble good ‘Bordeaux. A
mixture of 4 parts of raisin wine, with 1 part
each of raspberry and barberry or damson wine
also forms, when so treated, an excellent facti.
tious ‘claret.”
BRITISH CYPRUS. From the juice of white
elderberries, 1 quart, and Lisbon sugar, 4 lbs.,
to water, 1 gal.; together with # dr. each of
bruised ginger and cloves. When racked, add
minced raisins and brandy, of each, 2 oz.

1.188
WINES (MEDICATED).
BRITISH HOCK, BRITISH RED HOCK. From
cream of tartar, 14 oz. ; tartaric acid, # oz. ;
(both in extremely fine powder;) juices of the
purple plum, ripe apples, and red beet, of each
(warmed), 5 pints; lemon juice, 1 pint ; with
white sugar, 2% lbs. per gal.
BRITISH MADEIRA. From very strong pale
malt wort, 36 galls., sugar candy, 28 lbs., and
cream of tartar, 3 oz. ; fermented with yeast,
2 lbs.; adding, when the fermentation is
nearly finished, raisin wine, 2% galls. ; brandy
and sherry wine, of each, 2 galls. ; rum and
brandy, of each, 3 pints; after 6 or 9 months,
fine it down, and in another month bottle it.
See BRITISH SHERRY (below).
BRITISH MALMSEY. From sliced or grated
parsnips, 4 lbs. ; boiling water, 1 gal. ; when
cold, press out the liquor, and to each gallon
add of cream of tartar, 3 oz., and good Musco-
vado Sugar, 3 lbs. ; ferment, rack, and add of
brandy, 3 to 5%. Good Malaga raisins may be
substituted for the sugar.
BRITISH SPARKLING MoSELLE. From rich
cider apples (carefully peeled and garbled),
pressed with 1-4th of their weight of white
magnum-bonum plums (previously stoned), and
the juice fermented with 24 lbs. of double-
refined sugar per gal., as champagne.
BRITISH RED MOSELLE. The last, coloured
with clarified elderberry juice.
BRITISH MUSCADEL. As ‘British sparkling
Moselle,” with some infusion of clary, or of the
musk plant, to flavour it.
BRITISH PoET, LONDON P., SouTHAMPTON
P. 1. From red cape, 2 galls. ; damson or elder
wine, 1 gal.; brandy, # pint; powdered kino,
# oz. *
2. Strong old cider, 6 galls.; elderberry
juice, 4 galls.; sloe juice, 3 galls.; sugar, 28 lbs.;
powdered extract of rhatany, 1 lb.; at the
time of racking add, brandy, # gal.; good
port wine, 2 galls.
3. Good port, 12 galls.; rectified spirit, 6
galls. ; French brandy, 3 galls. ; strong rough
cider, 42 galls. ; mix in a well-sulphured cask.
(‘Publican’s Guide.”)
4. Port wine, 8 galls. ; brandy, 6 galls.; sloe
juice, 4 galls. ; strong rough cider, 45 galls. ;
as the last. (“Licensed Victualler's Com-
panion.')
5. Cider, 24 galls.; juice of elderberries, 6
galls. ; sloe juice, 4 galls.; rectified spirit,
3 galls.; brandy, 1% gal. ; powdered rhatany,
7 lbs. ; isinglass, 4 oz., dissolved in a gal. of
the cider; bung it down; in 3 months it will
be fit to bottle, but should not be drank until
the next year; if a rougher flavour is required,
the quantity of rhatany may be increased, or
alum, 5 or 6 oz. (dissolved), may be added.
BRITISH SHERRY. 1. From cape or raisin
wine, slightly flavoured with a very little
bitter-almond cake, or, what is more con-
venient, a little of the essential oil dissolved
in alcohol (essence of bitter almonds). A mere
‘streak” or ‘thread” of sweet-briar, eau de
fleurs d’oranges, or orris, is occasionally added
by way of bouquet; but care must be taken
not to overdo it.
2. To each gallon of strong raisin must,
add, when racking, 1 Seville orange, and 3 or 4
bitter almonds, both sliced. By omitting the
almonds, and adding 1 green citron to each 2
or 3 gallons, this forms ‘British Madeira.”
3. Very strong pale malt wort, 36 galls.;
finest Muscovado sugar, 1 cwt. ; yeast, 1 pint;
ferment; on the third day add of raisins,
stoned, 14 lbs., and in another week add, of
rectified spirit, 1 gal., rum, # gal., and bitter
almonds, grated, 14 oz. ; bung down for 4
months, then draw it off into another cask,
add of brandy, 1 gal., and in 3 months bottle
it.
4. Teneriffe, slightly flavoured with cherry-
laurel or bitter almonds, forms an excellent
‘British sherry,” either alone or diluted with
an equal quantity of cape or raisin wine, or
good perry.
BRITISH TOKAY. To good cider, 18 galls. ;
add, of elderberry juice, 3 gal. ; honey, 28lbs. ;
sugar, 14 lbs. ; red argol (powdered), 3 lb.;
crystallised tartaric acid, 3 oz. ; mix, boil,
ferment, and, when the active fermentation is
complete, add of brandy, 1 gal, and suspend
in the liquor, from the bung-hole, a mixture of
cassia and ginger, of each, # oz. ; cloves and
capsicum, of each, # oz. ; the whole bruised,
and loosely enclosed in a coarse muslin bag.
It will be ripe in 12 months.
Obs. Some of the preceding formulae, by
skilful management, produce very good imi-
tations of some of the imported wines; but
(prejudice aside) many of the British fruit
wines possess an equally agreeable flavour, and
are frequently more wholesome. All British
wines require to be kept at least a year, to
‘mellow. Much of the superiority of foreign
wines arises from its age.
WINES (Culinary). Syn. WINES FOR
KITCHEN USE. These are prepared in a simi-
lar manner to the MEDICATED WINES noticed
below.
Wine, Basil. Prep. From green basil
leaves, 4 or 5 oz. ; sherry, cape, or raisin wine,
1 pint; digest for 10 days, press, and strain.
Used to give a turtle flavour to soups and
gravies. In a similar way may be made the
wines of celery leaves, celery seed, sage, shal-
lots, and the various green and dried herbs
used in cookery.
Wine, Cayenne. Prep. From capsicum or
cayenne, 1 oz. ; cape, 1 pint; steep for a fort-
night, and strain.
Obs. In a similar way may be made currie
(powder), ragoût (spice), and several other
similar wines used in the kitchen.
WINES (Medicated). Syn. IMPREGNATED
WINES; WINA MEDICATA, L. The medicated
wines of pharmacy are prepared by cold mace-
ration, in well-closed vessels, in precisely the
same way as tinctures. In the Ph. L. of 1824,
a diluted spirit was substituted for wine,
without altering the name of the preparation;
s
*

WINES (MEDICATED).
1189
but the use of wine (sherry) was restored in
that of 1836. The druggists commonly use
cape or raisin wine as a menstruum, from its
being cheaper than sherry, and, perhaps,
scarcely less power as a solvent. The ‘vinum’
of the Ph. U. S. was formerly Teneriffe. Dr.
B. Lane's process for preparing medicated
wines by fermentation is noticed at the end of
the alphabetical list given below.
“Medicated wines should be kept in stop-
pered glass vessels, and be frequently shaken
during maceration.” (Ph. L.)
The following are the principal medicated
wines at present in use:—
Wine of Al'oes. Syn. WINUM ALoïs (B. P.,
Ph. L. & E.), TINCTURA SACRA+, TINCT.
HIERAE PICRAE+, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Soco-
trine aloes, 1% oz. ; ginger, in coarse powder,
80 grs. ; cardamona seeds, bruised, 80 grs.;
sherry, 40 oz. ; digest seven days, strain, and
make it up to 40.—Dose. 1 to 2 drms.
2. (Ph. L.) Powdered Socotrine or hepatic
aloes, 2 oz.; powdered canella, # oz. ; sherry,
1 quart; macerate for 14 days, and filter.
In the Ph. E. cardamoms and ginger, of each,
1% dr., are substituted for canella.--Dose. As
a purgative, # to 2 fl. oz. ; as a stomachic, 1
to 2 fl. drs. . . .
Wine of Aloes (Al'kaline). Syn. WINUM
ALoïs ALKALINUM, L. Prep. (Dr. A. T.
. Thomson.) Carbonate of soda, 3 oz. ; myrrh
and extract of aloes, of each 6 drs. ; sesqui-
carbonate of ammonia, 4% drs.; sherry, 24
fl. oz. (say 13 pint); macerate, as before.
In dyspepsia, chlorosis, &c.—Dose. As the
last. - ? ºf
Wime, Antimo"mial. Syn. TARTAR EMETIC
WINE ; WINE OF POTASSIO-TARTRATE of
ANTIMONY; WINUM ANTIMONII POTASSIO-
TARTRATIs (Ph. L.), W. ANTIMONIALE (B. P.,
Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Tartarated
antimony, 2 grs. ; sherry, 1 oz.-Dose. 10 to
60 minims. (In consequence of the insolu-
bility of the tartarated antimony in the sherry,
Squire recommends it to be dissolved in about
ten times its weight of hot water, and that the
wine be added to the solution.)
2. (Ph. L. & E.) Potassio-tartrate of anti-
mony, 40 grs. ; sherry, 1 pint; dissolve. Each
fluid oz. contains 2 grs. of emetic tartar.—
Dose. As a diaphoretic and expectorant,
10 to 30 drops, frequently; as a nauseant, 1
to 2 fl. drs.; as an emetic, 2 to 4 fl. drs. The
corresponding compound of the Ph. D. is
ANTIMONII TARTARIZATI LIQUOR. See So-
LUTION OF POTASSIO-TARTRATE OF ANTI-
MONY. - -
Wime, Chalyb'eate. See WINE of IRON.
Wine of Col'chicum. Syn. WINE OF COL-
CHICUM Root; WINUM COLCHICI (B. P.);
WINUM RADICIS COLCHICI (Ph. L. & E.), L.
Prep. 1. (B. P.) Colchicum corms, dried and
sliced, 4; sherry, 20; macerate seven days,
and strain.— Dose. 20 to 30 minims.
2. (Ph. L.) Dried corms of meadow saffron
(sliced), 8 oz.; sherry wine, 1 quart; macerate
7 days, and strain; (press strongly the resi-
duum and filter the mixed liquor—Ph. E.).
A powerful sedative and purgative.—Dose.
# to 1 fl. dr.; in gout, acute rheumatism, and
other painful and inflammatory and nervous
affections.
Obs. The celebrated EAU MáDICINALE of
M. Husson (AQUA MEDICINALES HUSSoNII) re-
sembles, in composition and action, the above
preparation in every point except its strength,
which, we believe, is much above that of the
wine of the British Colleges.
Wine of Colchicum Seed. Syn. WINUM
SEM.INIS COLCHICI, W. SEMINUM C., L. Prep.
(Ph. U. S. & Dr. Williams.) Seeds of meadow
saffron (preferably ground in, a coffee-mill),
2 oz.; sherry, 16 fl. oz.; macerate for 14 days.
—Dose, 1 to 1% fl. dr.; in gout, &c.
Wine, Emetic. See ANTIMONIAL WINE,
WINE of IPECACUANHA, &c.
Wine of Gen'tian. Syn. BITTER win E,
ToNIC w; WINUM AMARA, W. GENTIANAE (Ph.
E.), L. Prep. (Ph. E.) Gentian, in coarse
powder, 3 oz. ; yellow bark (do.), 1 oz. ; dried
orange peel, 2 drs.; camella, in coarse powder,
1 dr.; proof spirit, 4} fl. oz.; digest for 24
hours, then add of sherry, 1 pint and 16 fl.oz.,
and further digest for 7 days. Tonic and sto-
machic.—Dose. # to # fl. oz.
Wine of Helſlebore. See WINE OF WHITE
HELLEBORE. :
Wine of Ipecacuan'ha. Syn. EMETIC win E ;
WINUM IPECACUANHF (B. P., Ph. L. E. & D.),
L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Ipecacuanha, bruised, l;
sherry, 20: macerate seven days, shaking
occasionally, strain, and make up to 20–Dose.
As an expectorant, 5 to 40 minims; as an
emetic, 3 to 6 drms. . .
tº 2. Ipecacuanha root, bruised, 23 oz. ; sherry,
1.Quart; macerate for 7 days (14 days, and
strain, with expression—Ph. D.). This is a
mild and excellent preparation.—Dose. As a
diaphoretic and expectorant, 10 to 40 drops, in
coughs, diarrhoea, dysentery, dyspepsia, &c.;
as an emetic, 2 fl. dr.s. to 1 fl. oz., in divided
doses; as an emetic for infants and young
children, 3 teaspoonful every 10 or 15 minutes
until it operates.
Wine of I'ron, Syn. CHALYBEATE WINE,
STEEL w; WINUM FERRI (B. P., Ph. L.), L.
Prep. 1. (B. P.) Fine iron wire (No. 35), 1
oz. ; sherry, 20 oz. ; digest thirty days with
frequent agitation. The bottle to be corked,
but the wire not wholly immersed.—Dose. 1
to 4 drms.
2. (Ph.L.) Iron wire, 1 oz. ; sherry, 1 quart;
digest, with frequent agitation, for 30 days,
and strain. Each fl. oz. contains less than 1%
gr. of metallic iron.
2. Ammonio-tartrate of iron (Aikin’s), 1% dr. ;
sherry, 1 pint; dissolve. Frequently substi-
tuted for the last, especially when the prepa-
ration is required in a hurry.—Dose, 1 to 5
fl. drs. ; as a mild chalybeate.
Obs. The formula for WINE OF. IRON was
modified in the Ph. L, 1824, omitted in that

1190
WINE-STONE–WINTER-GREEN.
of 1836, and restored, in its original character,
in that of 1851.
Wine of Meaſdow Saffron. WINE OF COL-
CHICUM.
Wine of 0"pium. Syn. SYDENHAM’s LIQUID
LAUDANUM: ; WINUM opiſ (B. P., Ph. L. E.
& D.), TINCTURA THEBAICA+, LAUDANUM
LIQUIDUM SYDENHAMIf, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.)
Extract of opium, 1 oz.: cinnamon bark, 75
grs. ; cloves, 75 grs. ; sherry wine, 20 oz.:
macerate for seven days and filter.—Dose, 10
to 40 minims.
2. (Ph. L.) Extract of opium (Ph. L.), 2}
oz.; cinnamon and cloves, of each, bruised,
2% drs. ; sherry, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days
(14 days—Ph.D.), and filter. In the Ph. E.,
opium, 3 oz., and in the Ph. D., opium, in coarse
powder, 3 oz., are ordered, instead of extract of
opium. The Dublin College also omits the
aromatics.
3. (Wholesale.) From extract of opium, 11
oz. ; oil of cassia, 25 drops; oil of cloves, 20
drops; wine, 1 gal.; (or rectified spirit, 1}
pint ; water, 6% pints; colouring, q. S.;) digest,
with agitation, until dissolved. Milder than
the tincture.—Dose. 10 to 40 drops; as an
anodyne and hypnotic.
Wine of Opium (Fermented). Syn. ROUS-
SEAU’s LAUDANUM, BLACK-DROP ; WINUM OPII
FERMENTATIONE PARATUM, GUTTA NIGRA, L.
Prep. (P. Cod.) Opium, 4 oz. ; boiling water,
5 lbs. ; dissolve, add, of honey, 1 lb. ; yeast, 2
drs. ; keep it at 86° Fahr. for a month, or
until the fermentation is complete; then
press, filter, distil off 16 oz., and evaporate the
residuum to 10 oz. ; distil the 16 oz. of spirit
obtained above until 12 oz. have passed over,
and from this, by a third distillation, obtain
4% oz., which add to the evaporated solution
(10 oz.), and filter. About four times as
strong as tincture of opium. See BLACK
DROP (page 530).
Wine of Potas'sio-tartrate of Antimony. See
ANTIMONIAL WINE (above).
Wine of Quinine'. Syn. WINUM QUINIAE, (B.
P.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Sulphate of quinina,
20 grs. ; citric acid, 30 grs. ; orange wine, 20
oz. ; dissolve the citric acid and then the sul-
phate of quinia in the wine; digest three days
and filter.—Dose. # to 1 oz.
2. (Magendie.) Sulphate of quinine, 14
grs. ; sherry, 1 quart; agitate frequently for
some time. “The sulphate of quinine requires
to be dissolved in a little dilute sulphuric acid
before it is added to the wine.” (Dr. Hayes.)—
Dose. 1 wine-glassful, as a tonic and stomachic.
Wine of Rhubarb. Syn. WINUM RHEI (B.
P., Ph. E. & D.), L.; TINCTURA RHAEI WINOSA.
Prep. 1. (B. P.) Rhubarb, in coarse powder,
1} ; canella bark, ; ; sherry, 20: macerate
seven days, filter, and make up to 20–Dose.
1 to 2 drums.
2. (Ph. E.) Rhubarb, in coarse powder, 5
oz.; camella, in coarse powder, 2 drs.; proof
spirit, 5 fl. oz.; sherry, 1% pint; macerate for
7 days, press, and filter.
3. (Ph.D.) Rhubarb, 3 oz. ; canella, 2 drs.;
sherry, 1 quart; macerate 14 days. Weaker
than the last.—Dose. As a stomachic, 1 to 3
fl. drs. ; as a purgative, # to 1 fl. oz., or more.
It does not keep well.
Wine of Tobacco. Syn. WINUM TABAC1,
(Ph. E.). L. Prep. (Ph. E.) Tobacco, 3% oz. ;
sherry, 1 quart; digest 7 days, strain, with
strong pressure, and filter. A powerful seda-
tive and diuretic.—Dose. 10 to 30 drops; in
dropsy, lead colic, ileus, &c.
Wine of White Helſlebore. Syn. WINUM
VERATRI (Ph. L.), TINCTURA VERATRI ALBI+,
L. Prep. (Ph. L.) White hellebore, sliced,
8 oz. ; sherry wine, 1 quart; digest for 7 days,
press, and filter.—Dose. 10 drops, gradually
increased to 25 or 30; as a substitute for col-
chicum, in gout and rhematism, &c. It is
less manageable than wine of colchicum, and
is now seldom employed.
Wine of White Hellebore (Opiated). Syn.
MooRE’s EAU MáDICINALE: WINUM VERATRI
OPIATUM, L. Prep. From wine of white hel-
lebore, 3 fl. drs. ; tincture of opium, 1 fl. dr.—
Dose. As the last.
Wines, Medicated (Dr. B. Lane's). Syn.
WINOUS ESSENCES; ESSENTIAE WINOSAE, LI-
QUORES VINOSI, L. Prep. From an infusion
or solution of the drug, of about 3 or 4 times
the usual strength, fermented with a little
yeast, and about 3 or 4 lbs. of sugar per gal-
lon; the fermented liquor being afterwards
set in a cool cellar until fit for bottling.
Compounds of CALUMBA, CASCARILLA, GEN-
TIAN, OPIUM, RHUBARB, SENNA, and VALERIAN,
have been thus prepared. That of OPIUM is
made of only twice the strength of the common
tincture.
WINE-STONE, CRUDE TARTAR, or ARGOL.
WINE.TEST.S. Prep. 1. (Hahnemann’s.)
From quicklime, 1 oz. ; flowers of sulphur, 1%
oz. ; mix, and heat them in a covered crucible
for 5 or 6 minutes; put 2 drs, of the product
and an equal weight of tartaric acid (sepa-
rately powdered), into a stoppered bottle, with
a pint of water, and shake them well; let the
liquid settle, pour off the clear portion, and add
of tartaric acid, 1% dr.
2. (Dr. Paris's.) From sulphide of cal-
cium and cream of tartar, of each (in powder),
% oz. ; hot water, 1 pint ; agitate, &c., as before;
decant the cold clear liquid into 1-oz. phials,
and add 20 drops of hydrochloric acid to each
of them.
Obs. The above tests will throw down the
least quantity of lead from wines, as a very
sensible black precipitate. As iron might be
accidentally contained in the wine, the hydro-
chloric acid is added to the last test, to prevent
the precipitation of that metal.
WINTER-GREEN (American). Syn. PIP-
SISSEWA; CHIMAPHILA (Ph. L. & E.), PY-
RoDA (Ph. D.), L. The herb of Chimaphila
wºmbellata. It is astringent, diuretic, tonic,
and stomachie; and has been successfully
administered in loss of appetite, dyspepsia,

WITCH MEAL–WOOL.
1.191
dropsy, chronic affections of the urinary
organs, scrofula, &c. It must not be con-
founded with ordinary winter-green (box
berry, chequer b., partridge b., mountain tea),
which is the Gaultheria procumbens, a plant
belonging to the Ericaceae, whilst the former
plant belongs to a genus of the Pyrolaceae.
See Pºw EXTRACT, and OILS (Essen-
tial.
WITCH MEAL. Syn. VEGETABLE SUL-
PHUR, LYCOPODIUM. The spores of Lycopo-
dium clavatum, or club moss.
WOAD. Syn. DYER's WOAD; PASTEL, Fr.
The Isatistinctoria. To prepare them for the
dyer, the leaves are partially dried and ground
to a paste, which is made into balls; these are
placed in heaps, and occasionally sprinkled
with water, to promote the fermentation;
when this is finished, the woad is allowed to
fall down into lumps, which are afterwards
reground and made into cakes for sale. On
mixing the prepared woad with boiling water,
and, after standing for some hours in a close
vessel, adding about 1-20th its weight of
newly slaked lime, digesting in agentle warmth,
and stirring the whole together every 3 or 4
hours, a new fermentation begins; a blue froth
rises to the surface, and the liquor, though it
appears itself of a reddish colour, dyes wool-
lens of a green, which, like the green from in-
digo, changes in the air to a blue. This is said
to be one of the nicest processes in the art of
dyeing, and does not well succeed on the small
scale. Woad is now mostly used in combina-
tion with indigo. 50 lbs. of woad are reckoned
equal to 1 lb. of indigo.
WOL'FRAM. See TUNGSTEN.
WOLFS/BANE. See ACONITE.
W00D is polished by carefully rubbing down
the grain with fine glass paper, sor pumice-
stone, and then rubbing it, first with finely-
powdered pumice-stone and water, and after-
wards with tripoli and linseed oil, until a
proper surface is obtained. For common pur-
poses, glass paper, followed by a metal bur-
nisher, is employed.
Wood is stained by the application of any of
the ordinary liquid dyes employed for wool or
cotton. They sink deeper into the wood when
they are applied hot. When the surface is
properly stained and dried, it is commonly
cleaned with a rag dipped in oil of turpentine
or boiled oil, after which it is either varnished
or polished with bees’ wax. . Musical instru-
ments, articles of the toilette, &c., are usually
treated in this way. -
Wood is preserved by any agents which de-
stroy the tendency to putrefaction of the
matter within its pores, or which enables it to
resist the attack of insects, or renders it un-
suited to the growth of minute fungi. See
DRY-ROT.
WOOD NAPH'THA. See SPIRIT (Pyroxylic).
WOODY FIBRE. See LIGNIN.
W0ODY NIGHT'SHADE. BITTER-SWEET,
Solanum dulcamara.
W00L. Syn. LANA, L. Wool is a fine,
soft, elasticvariety of hair, cellulated in its struc-
ture. Its filaments are cylindrical, like those
of silk; but the surface is covered with thin
scales or epidermic cells. In the finer qualities,
these filaments vary in thickness from Hºrn to
Tºrm of an inch ; and under a good microscope
distinctly exhibit, at intervals of about ##r of
an inch, a series of serrated rings, imbricated
towards each other, “like the joints of equi-
setum, or, rather, like the scaly zones of a ser-
pent's skin.” These appearances render it
almost impossible to mistake wool for silk,
linen, or cotton. From experiments made
by different competent authorities, it is found
that wool is one of the worst conductors of
heat known. This property renders woollen
fabrics particularly adapted for clothing in
cold, damp, and changeable climates, since it
enables them to maintain the surface of the
body at a proper and equable temperature.
Wool sometimes, however, proves too irrita-
tive for highly sensitive skins, and, moreover,
disturbs the electricity of the cutaneous sur-
face, on friction, even more than silk. On
these accounts there are persons who find it
unpleasant to wear woollen garments, of any
description, next the skin; in which cases all
the advantages that can be derived from their
use may be obtained by wearing them outside
one of linen or cotton. According to Erasmus
Wilson, this method “is preferable in warm
weather, since the linen absorbs the perspira-
tion, while the woollen garment preserves the
warmth of the body, and prevents the incon-
venience resulting from its evaporation. See
FLANNEI.
Identif: 1. By the microscope. (See
above.)
2. Its fibres, when inflamed, shrivel up, and
burn with difficulty, and evolve the peculiar
and characteristic odour of hair when similarly
treated, leaving a bulky charcoal; whereas
cotton and linen burn rapidly, leave no char-
coal, and evolve little or no odour. Silk acts
in nearly the same manner as wool.
3. Nitric acid, picric acid, and gaseous chlo-
rine, stain the fibres of wool and silk yellow.
Dr. J. J. Pohl recommends an aqueous or alco-
holic solution of picric acid as well adapted for
a test.—After immersion of a small portion of
the fabric or yarn for from 5 to 10 minutes in
the solution, it is to be taken out, and washed
in warm water. The linen and cotton in it
will then appear white, but the wool, silk,
or other animal fibre, will retain its yellow
colour. In stuffs, cloths, flannels, &c., the
mixed threads may be readily observed by
means of a pocket lens, and their relative
numbers may be ascertained by means of a
‘thread counter.” This test acts best with
white, but is also applicable to many other
colours. For dark colours nitric acid is pre-
ferable. -
4. A square inch of the fabric or a small
portion of the yarn, is boiled for a short time
1.192
WOORARA—WORMS.
in a solution of caustic soda or potassa, and
then withdrawn and washed. If it be of
pure wool, it will be dissolved, and wholly
disappear; if any threads or fibres are left
undissolved, they consist of either cotton or
linen; of these, such as have acquired a dark
yellow tinge, are linen, whilst those which
have retained their whiteness, or which are
only slightly discoloured, are cotton. The
relative proportion of the adulteration may be
ascertained as before. See CoTTON, LINEN,
and SILK.
Wool and woollen goods exhibit a greater
affinity for colouring matter than either cotton
or linen, and in many cases this exceeds even
that of silk. The most difficult dye to impart
to wool is a rich, deep, and permanent black.
See DEYING, MoRDANTS, &c.
Woollen goods are cleaned and scoured in
the manner noticed under BLEACHING and
SCOURING.
Wool, Spanish. Rouge crepons.
W0ORARA. Syn. OURARI, WouTALI. A
deadly poison employed in Guiana, obtained
from the Strychnos toxifera. See UPAs.
W00TZ. The Indian name of steel; applied
in this country to the steel imported from
Bengal. -
WORM BARK. Syn. CABBAGE-TREE BARK,
or GEOFFREYA INERMIS, L. The bark of
Andira inermis (Geoffraya i. of some bo-
tanists). A powerful astringent, purgative,
anthelmintic, and narcotic.—Dose. 10 to 30
grs. In larger doses, or if cold water be
drunk during its action, it is apt to occasion
sickness, vomiting, and delirium. The re-
medy for this is copious draughts of warm
Water.
WORM SEED. Syn. SEMEN CONTRA, SE-
MEN CINAE, L. The broken peduncles, mixed
with the calyces and flower-buds, of several
species of Artemisia imported from the Levant.
—Dose. 10 to 30 grs., in powder; as a vermi-
fuge. See SANTONIN.
WORMS. (Intestimal). Syn. VERMES, IN-
TESTINALIA (Cuvier), ENTOZOA (Rudolphi), L.
The principal parasites which are generated
and mourished in the human intestinal canal
are the—Ascaris lumbricoides (Gmelin), or long
round-worm, found in the small intestines,
and which is generally of the thickness of a
goose-quill, and varies in length from 10 to 15
inches;–Ascaris vermicularis (Gmelin), maw,
or thread-worm, which is thread-like in ap-
pearance, varies from 1% to 5 lines in length,
and confines itself chiefly to the rectum ;
—Tricocephalus hominis (Gmelin), or long
thread-worm, varying from 1% to 2 inches
in length, and found chiefly in the caecum;
—Taenia solium (Gmelin), or common tape-
worm, having a flattened riband-like appear-
ance, varying in length from 3 or 4 to 15 or
20 feet, and occupying the small intestines;–
Bothriocephalus latus or broad tape-worm, a
variety seldom found in this country, but
common in Switzerland and the north of
Europe; and Taenia mediocanellata, another
large species described by Küchenmeister.
Causes. A debilitated state of the digestive
organs, improper food, sedentary habits, im-
pure air, bad water, and, apparently, an occa-
sional hereditary tendency to worms.
Symp. Griping pains, especially about the
navel; acid eructations; slimy stools; occa-
sional nausea and vomiting, without any mani-
fest cause ; heat and itching about the anus;
tenesmus; emaciation; disturbed dreams;
grinding of the teeth during sleep; pallor of
countenance; discoloration round the eyes;
feverishness; headache; vertigo, &c. In many
cases these symptoms are often highly aggra-
vated, and mistaken for primary diseases. The
only absolutely positive evidence of the exist-
ence of worms is, however, their being seen in
the faeces.
Treat. In common cases, an occasional mo-
derately strong dose of calomel overnight, fol-
lowed by a smart purgative the next morning,
is an excellent remedy, where the use of mer-
curials is not contra-indicated. Cowhage, made
into an electuary with honey or treacle, is also
an excellent vermifuge. Oil of turpentine is
useful against nearly every variety of worms,
and, when taken in sufficient doses to reach
the rectum, is almost specific in ascarides
(thread-worms). When this is inconvenient,
an occasional enema of oil of turpentine is even
more effective. Enemas of aloes are also very
useful in such cases. Scammony, under the
form of basilic powder, has long been employed
to expel worms in children. Aloes, castor oil,
worm-seed, tin-filings, and sulphur, are likewise
popular remedies. Cabbage-tree bark is a
powerful anthelmintic ; but its use requires
caution. Most of the quack vermifuges con-
tain either aloes and gamboge, or calomel and
jalap. The substances which have been most
highly extolled for the destruction or expul-
sion of tape-worm (taenia) are kousso, oil of
turpentine, male fern, pomegranate, and tin-
filings. The first two are those on which the
most dependence may be placed. Madame
Nouffer's celebrated ‘Swiss remedy” for tape-
worm, for which Louis XVI gave 18,000 francs,
consisted of 2 or 3 drs. of powdered male
fern, taken in 4 pint of water, in the morning,
fasting, followed in 2 hours by a bolus made of
calomel and scammomy, of each, 10 grs.,
gamboge, 6 or 7 grs. ‘Swain's vermifuge' is
prepared from worm-seed, 2 oz. ; valerian, rhu-
barb, pink-root, and white agaric, of each, 1}
oz.; boiled in water, q. S. to yield 3 quarts of
decoction, to which 30 drops of oil of tansy,
and 45 drops of oil of cloves, dissolved in a
quart of rectified spirit, are added. All pur-
gatives may be regarded as vermifuges. Be-
sides our efforts to destroy and expel the
worms, the tone of the primae viae should be
raised by the use of stomachics and tonics, by
which the tendency to their equivocal genera-
tion will be either removed or lessened. See
DEcoCTION, ENEMA, PILLS, PATENT MEDI-
-


WORM TEA–WOUND BALSAM.
1193
CINES, VERMIFUGES, &c.; and also the several
vermifuges under their respective names.
Obs. Parasitic worms as existing in
animals are so remarkably prevalent and so
widely diffused that probably no creature can
be said to be secure against their attack.
Among domestic animals, sheep often suffer to
a most serious extent from these parasites, and
more especially from the nematoid, known as
Strongylus bronchialis. In some years lambs
are lost by hundreds from the complications of
disease which attend upon the presence of
these worms within the windpipe and the
bronchial tubes. Their existence is marked
by great wasting of the body, hurried breath-
ing, and distressing cough. After a time
diarrhoea sets in, which quickly carries off the
animal. It has been found that lambs fed on
clover, and other allied plants, which had been
pastured the year previously with sheep, suffer
the most, and are far more likely to be
affected than those which are differently
managed. Remedial measures too often prove
ineffectual, especially when structural disease
of the lungs has followed as a consequence.
The exhibition of oil of turpentine in doses of
about half an ounce, mixed with an equal
quantity of linseed oil, is sometimes found to
be beneficial; but it must be conjoined with
a corn diet, the free use of salt, and also sul-
phate of iron mixed with the manger food,
tincture of assafoetida, and the essential oil of
savin, in small.doses, are remedies greatly ex-
tolled by some persons. The inhalation of
diluted chlorine gas or of sulphuric acid gas
is often exceedingly beneficial; but remedies of
this kind ought always to be confided to the
superintending care of the veterinary surgeon.
WORM TEA. A preparation sold in the
shops of the United States, and much used,
consisting, according to Brande, of spigelia or
pink-root, savin, senna, and manna. -
WORM’WOOD. Syn. ABSINTHIUM (Ph. L.
& E.), L. The flowering herb of Artemisia
Absinthium, a well-known plant, indigenous to
this country, and largely cultivated for medi-
cinal purposes. It is a bitter tonic and sto-
machic, and also anthelmintic.—Bose. 20 to
40 grs. of the dried herb, either in powder or
made into a tea or infusion; in dyspepsia,
dropsy, scurvy, sympathetic epilepsy, &c. See
ABSINTHINE and ABSINTHIC ACID. -
WORT. The technical name for the fer-
mentable infusion of malted grain, tº it.
The strength of worts is ascertained by mean
of an instrument termed a saccharometer.
“Brewers, distillers, and the excise, sometimes
denote by the term “gravity” the excess of
weight of 1000 parts of a liquid by volume
above the weight of a like volume of distilled
water, so that if the specific gravity be 1045,
1070, 1090, &c., the gravity is said to be 45,
70, or 90; at others, they thereby denote the
weight of saccharine matter in a barrel (36
galls.) of wort; and again, they denote the
excess in weight of a barrel of wort over a
barrel of water equal to 36 gallons, or 360 lbs.
This and the first statement are identical,
only 1000 is the standard in the first case, and
360 in the second.” (Ure.) The last is that
commonly adopted by the brewers.
According to Dr. Ure, the solid dry extract
of malt, or ‘saccharine, has the specific gra-
vity 1.264, and the specific volume 7911;
“that is, 10 lbs. of it will occupy the volume of
7.911 lbs. of water. The mean sp. gr., by com-
putation of a solution of that extract in its
own weight of water, is 1*116; but by experi-
ment, the sp. gr. of that solution is 1:216,
showing considerable condensation of volume
in the act of combination with water.” The
quantity of solid saccharine or sugar in a wort
may be determined in the manner mentioned
under SYRUP. -
“According to the compilers of the tables
accompanying Field’s alcoholometer, 1.8 lb. of
saccharine is decomposed for the production
of 1% of proof spirit; but according to our
experiments, the proportion of saccharine
named is rather below the true equivalent.”
(Cooley.) º
The rapid cooling of worts is an important
object with the brewer and distiller. On the
large scale, the old system, in which shallow
coolers are employed, with all its numerous
inconveniences and accidents, is now for the
most part abandoned, being supplanted by the
method introduced by Mr. Yandall, nearly 40
years ago. This consists in theºuse of a ‘re-
frigerator,” which is an apparatus so con-
structed that any hot liquid may be cooled by
about its own volume of cold water, in a very
short space of time. The principle is that of
passing the two fluids through very shallow
and very long passages, in opposite directions,
being, essentially that of a “Liebig’s condenser’
on a gigantic scale. The apparatus may con-
sist of zigzag passages, flattened tubes or con-
voluted curves, of any convenient shape, so
that they possess little capacity in one direc-
tion, but great breadth and length. A refri-
gerator, having the passages for the fluids # of
an inch thick, is said to require a run of about
80 feet. The success of this method is such
as to leave nothing more to desire. See
BREWING, FERMENTATION, MALT, &c.
*WOUND. Syn. VUINUs, L. A solution of
continuity in any of the soft parts of the body,
arising from external violence.
* Wounds are distinguished by surgeons into
CONTUSED WOUNDS, INCISED W., LACERATED
W., PoſsoRED W., PUNCTURED W., &c.; terms
which explain themselves. Sword-cuts are
incised wounds; gun-shot wounds, lacerated
and contused ones. Slight wounds, and, in-
deed, all those not demanding material
surgical assistance, after dirt and foreign sub-
stances have been removed, may be treated
in the manner noticed under CUTS and ABRA-
SIONS.
WOUND BAL’SAM.
See TINCTURE OF
BENZOIN. -

1194
WRITING—YAWS.
WRIT"ING, executed in the ordinary tanno-
gallic ink, and which has been rendered illegible
by age, may be restored by carefully moisten-
ing it, by means of a feather, with an infusion
of galls, or a solution of ferrocyanide of potas-
sium slightly acidulated with hydrochloric acid,
observing to apply the liquid so as to prevent
the ink spreading.
WRITING FLU'IDS. A term commonly
applied, of late years, to easy flowing inks,
adapted for metallic pens; in contradistinction
to the old tanno-gallic compounds at one time
exclusively employed for writing.
Prep. 1. Dissolve pure basic or soluble
Prussian blue in pure distilled water, and dilute
the resulting solution with pure water until
the desired shade of colour is obtained. Very
permanent and beautiful. It is not affected
by the addition of alcohol, but is immediately
precipitated by saline matter. The precipi-
tate, however, still possesses the property of
dissolving in pure water.
2. From the soluble ferrocyanide of potas-
sium and iron, dissolved in pure water. Re-
sembles the last, but it is precipitated from its
solution by alcohol.
3. Powdered Prussian blue, 1 oz.; concen-
trated hydrochloric acid, 1} fl. oz. ; mix in a
matrass or glass bottle, and, after 24 or 30
hours, dilute the mass with a sufficient quan-
tity of water.
4. Dissolve sulphindylate of potassa or am-
monia in hot water, and, when cold, decant the
clear portion. It is an intense blue, and dries
nearly black; is perfectly incorrosive, and very
permanent and easy flowing.
5. (Horning.) Perchloride of iron, 4 parts;
water, 750 parts; dissolve, add of cyanide of
potassium, 4 parts, dissolved in a little water;
collect the precipitate, wash it with several
effusions of pure water, allow it to drain until
it weighs about 200 parts, then add of oxalic
acid, 1 part; and promote solution by agitat-
ing the bottle or vessel containing it.
6. (Mohr.) Pure Prussian blue, 6 parts;
oxalic acid, 1 part ; triturate with a little
water to a perfectly smooth paste, then dilute
the mass with a proper quantity of soft water.
The product resembles Stephen’s ‘patent blue
ink.”
7. (Rev. J. B. Reade—patented.)—a. A
sólution of his patent soluble Prussian blue in
distilled water. Blue.
b. Prepared by adding to good gall ink a
strong solution of his soluble Prussian blue.
This addition “makes the ink, which was pre-
viously proof against alkalies, equally proof
against acids, and forms a writing fluid which
cannot be erased from paper by any common
method of fraudulent obliteration without the
destruction of the paper.” This ink writes
greenish blue, but afterwards turns intensely
black. Stephen’s ‘patent ink,’ which does the
same, is a similar compound.
8. (Prof. Runge–CHROMIC INK.) Logwood,
in fine chips, 3 lb.; boiling water, 3 pints;
digest for 12 hours, then simmer the liquid
down gently to 1 quart, carefully observing to
avoid dust, grease, and smoke; when cold,
decant the decoction, and add to it of yellow
chromate of potash, 20 grs. ; dissolve by agi-
tation, after which it will be fit for use.
Cheap and good. It resists the action of all
ordinary destructive agents better than the
tanno-gallic inks; it may be washed after use
with a wet sponge, or steeped for twenty-four
hours in water, or even tested with dilute
acids, and yet preserve its original blackness.
It is perfectly liquid, it scarcely thickens by
age, and neither deposits a sediment nor cor-
rodes steel pens.
9. (Ure.) From vanadate of ammonia de-
composed with infusion of galls. It is of a
perfectly black hue, flows freely from the pen,
is rendered blue by acids, is unaffected by
dilute alkaline solutions, and resists the action
of chlorine.
Obs. The preceding formulae, under proper
management, produce excellent products, all
of which are extremely mobile, and most of
them of a more or less beautiful colour. The
blue ones, when concentrated, dry of a blue
black, whilst two or three of the others,
though at first pale, rapidly pass into a deep
black, when exposed to the air, Care must be
taken in all cases that the ingredients be pure.
The Prussian blue, except when directly pre-
pared for the purpose, should be washed in
dilute hydrochloric acid before attempting its
solution by means of oxalic acid. Unless these
precautions are attended to, success is unlikely.
A little gum may be added, if required, to pre-
vent the fluid spreading on the paper; but in
most cases the addition is no improvement.
Most of the blue fluids may be used as ‘in-
delible ink’ to mark linen, and will be found
very permanent, provided the part be first
moistened with alum water, and dried.
XYLOID/IN. When starch is immersed in
concentrated nitric acid (sp. gr. 1:45 to 1:50),
it is converted, without disengagement of gas,
into a colourless, tremulous jelly, which, when
treated with an excess of water, yields a white,
curdy, insoluble substance, which, after being
edulcorated with pure water, until every trace
of acid is removed, is xyloidin. Paper, sugar,
gum, mannite, and several other substances,
treated in the same manner, become in great
part changed to xyloidin or analogous com-
pounds. -
Obs. Pure xyloidin differs but slightly from
pyroxylin, or pure gun-cotton.
XYL'0L. A hydrocarbon, homologous to
benzol, foundin wood-tar and coal-gas naphtha.
YAWS. Syn. FRAMBOESIA, L. A péculiar
disease of the skin common in the Antilles
and some parts of Africa. It is characterised
by mulberry-like excrescences, which dis-
charge a watery humour. The treatment
chiefly consists in alleviating urgent symp-
YEAST.
1195.
toms (if any), and the adoption of a tempe-
rate diet and regimen, until the eruptions,
having run their course, begin to dry, when
tonics and alteratives, as cinchona bark, qui-
nine, and Sarsaparilla, with occasional small
doses of mercurials, generally prove advan-
tageous. The master (or principal) yaw,
which frequently remains troublesome after
the others have disappeared, may be dressed
with the ointment of nitric-oxide of mer-
cury, or of nitrate of mercury, diluted with
an equal weight of lard.
The yaws is not a dangerous, although a
very digusting, disease. It is contagious by
contact, and, like the smallpox, only occurs
once during life.
YEAST. Syn. BARM, FERMENT, ZUMINE;
FERMENTUM, L. Yeast, which consists almost
entirely of minute vegetable cells, termed Torula
cerevisiae, is either the froth or the deposit of
fermenting worts, according to the character
of the fermentation.
The top yeast, or superficial ferment, which
covers the surface of fermenting worts, is
called “oberhefe by the Germans; and the
bottom yeast, or the ferment of deposit, is
termed ‘unterhéfe.” The first is the common
yeast of the English brewer; the other, that
used in Bavaria for the fermentation of worts
from below (untergährung). Both varieties
yield their own kind under proper conditions.
Wort fermented with top yeast, at from 46
to 50° Fahr., yield both varieties, and each of
these furnishes its own kind, nearly pure, by
a second fermentation. See BREWING, FER-
MENTATION, &c.
Pres. 1. Ordinary beer yeast may be kept
fresh and fit for use for several months, by
placing it in a close canvas bag, and gently
and gradually squeezing out the moisture in a
screw press, until the remaining matter ac-
quires the consistence of clay or soft cheese,
in which state it must be preserved in close
vessels, or wrapped in waxed cloth. This is
the method generally adopted for the best
Flanders and German yeast.
2. Whisk the yeast until it forms a uniform
liquid mass, and then lay it with a clean and
soft painter's brush evenly and thinly on flat
dishes, or any convenient surface, on which it
can be exposed to the sun or air; this opera-
tion must be repeated as soon as the first coat
is sufficiently solid, and so on, until the layers
acquire a proper thickness, when it must be
detached and preserved as before. If ren-
dered quite dry, its power of exciting fermen-
tation will be destroyed.
3. By employing strips of clean new flannel
(well washed), as above; and, when sufficiently
dry, rolling these up, and covering them with
waxed cloth or paper, or placing them in tin
canisters or boxes. For use, a few inches of
one of the strips is cut off, and soaked in luke-
warm water, when the barm leaves the flannel,
and mixes with the water, which may then be
stirred up with the flour.
Yeast, Artifi"cial. “Although the conver-
sion of a small into a large quantity of
yeast is a very easy thing, yet to produce that
substance from the beginning is very difficult.”
(Berzelius.) Both cases are met in the for-
mulae below.
Prep. 1. (Without a ferment.)—a. (Fownes.)
Wheat flour is to be mixed with water into a
thick paste, which is to be slightly covered,
in a moderately warm place; about the third
day, it begins to emit a little gas, and to
exhale a disagreeable sour odour; about the
sixth or seventh day the smell changes, much
gas is evolved, accompanied by a distinct and
agreeable vinous odour, and it is then in a
state to excite either to vinous or panary
fermentation, and may be either at once em-
ployed for that purpose or formed into small
and very thin cakes, dried in the air, and pre-
served for future use. Wort fermented with
it in the ordinary way yields a large quantity
of yeast, of excellent quality, which is found
at the bottom of the vessel. “This is a revival
of a method which, although Mr. Fownes
seems to regard it as new, is to be found in the
‘Chemistry’ of Boerhaave.” (“Lancet.") It is,
indeed, a mere modification of the mode of
preparing leaven, as practised from the most
remote ages of antiquity; but is not the less
valuable on that account.
2. (With a ferment.)—a. Take of bean
flour, 4 lb.; water, 6 quarts; boil for ; an
hour, pour the decoction into any suitable
vessel, add of wheat flour, 3% lbs. ; stir the
whole well together, and, when the tempera-
ture reaches 55° Fahr., add of beer yeast, 2
quarts; mix well, and in 24 hours after the
commencement of the fermentation add of
barley or bean flour, 7 lbs. ; make a uniform
dough by thorough kneading, form it into
small cakes, as above, and then preserve these
in a dry situation. For use, one of these discs
is to be broken into pieces, laid in tepid water,
and set in a warm place during 12 hours,
when the soft mass will serve the purpose of
beer yeast.
b. (PATENT YEAST.) Take of hops, 6 oz. ;
water, 3 galls. ; simmer for 3 hours, strain, and
in 10 minutes stir in of ground malt, # peck;
next reboil the hops in water, as before, and
let the strained liquor run into the first mash,
which must then be well stirred up, covered
over, and left for 4 hours; after that time
drain off the wort, and, when the temperature
has fallen to 90° Fahr., set it to work with:
yeast (preferably patent), 1 pint; after stand-
ing for 20 to 24 hours in a warm place, take
off the scum, strain it through a coarse hair
sieve, and it will be fit for use. 1 pint is said
to be enough for 1 bushel of bread.
Obs. The preparation of artificial yeast,
and substitutes for yeast has long engaged
the attention of both the scientific chemist
and the practical tradesman. The subject is,
undoubtedly, of great importance to emigrants
and voyagers. The above processes, by good


1196
YELLOW DYES –YEIILOW PIGMENTS.
/
management, yield products which are all that
can be desired.
YELLOW DYES. The following substances
impart a yellow to goods, either at once or
after they have been mordanted with alumina
or tin —annotta, barberry root, dyer's broom,
French berries, fustic, fustet, quercitron bark,
and turmeric. Goods mordanted with acetate
of lead, and afterwards passed through a bath
of chromate of potash, acquire a brilliant
chrome-yellow colour;-solution of sulphate
or acetate of iron, followed by immersion in
potash or lime water, gives a buff or orange ;
—orpiment, dissolved in ammonia water, im-
parts a golden yellow. (See the above-
named substances, in their alphabetical places.)
An aniline yellow (chrysaniline) has recently
been obtained by Mr. Nicholson, which is said
to be a most valuable dye-stuff, comparable,
indeed, with the aniline reds and purples.
YELLOW FE”WER. The bilious remittent
fever of hot climates. It is very common in
the West Indies and the Southern States of
America. New Orleans has been several times
nearly depopulated by it. º:
YELLOW PIG/MENTS. Of these the prin-
cipal are— - !. -
Brown Pink. Prep. Take of French ber-
ries and pearlash, of each, 1 lb.; fustic chips,
# lb.; water, 2 gallons; boil in a tin or pewter
vessel, and strain the decoction through flannel,
whilst hot ; then dissolve alum, 1% lb. in hot
water, 2% galls.; add the solution to the strained
decoction as long as a precipitate falls, which
must afterwards be washed, drained, and dried.
Some manufacturers omit the fustic. A good
glazing colour, when ground in linseed, and
used with drying oil. f
Yellow, Chrome. Syn. CHROMATE OF LEAD,
YELLOW. C. OF L.; PLUMBI CHROMAS, PLUMBI
CHROMAS FLAVUM, L. The preparation of
the pure salt is noticed under CHROMIUM and
LEAD ; that of the commercial pigment is as
follows:— - * †
1. Add a filtered solution of nitrate or ace-
tate of lead to a like solution of neutral chro-
mate of potash, as long as a precipitate falls;
then collect this, wash it well with clean soft
water, and dry it out of the reach of sulphu-
retted vapours. -
2. To the lye of chromate of potash, pre-
pared by roasting the chrome ore with nitre,
and lixiviation with water, add a solution of
acetate of lead, and otherwise proceed as be-
fore. - }
3. Dissolve acetate of lead in warm water,
and add of sulphuric acid, q. S. to convert it
into sulphate of lead; decant the clear liquid
(vinegar), wash the residuum with soft water,
and digest it, with agitation, in a hot solution
of neutral (yellow) chromate of potash, con-
taining 1 part of that salt to every three parts
of sulphate of lead operated on ; afterwards
decant the liquid, which is a solution of sul-
phate of potash, and carefully drain, wash,
and dry the newly formed pigment. The
product contains much sulphate of lead, but
covers as well, and has as good a colour, as
pure chromate of lead, whilst it is much
cheaper. The shade may be varied by in-
creasing or lessening the quantity of the
chromate."
Obs. Four shades of this beautiful pigment
are met with in the shops, viz., pale yellow
or straw colour, yellow, deep yellow, and
orange. The former are made by adding
a little alum or sulphuric acid to the so-
lution of the chromate before mixing it with
the solution of lead; the last, by the addition
of a little subacetate of lead (tribasic acetate),
or by washing the precipitate with a weak
alkaline lye. The darker colour appears to
arise from a little ‘dichromate” being thrown
down intimately mixed with the neutral
chromate, and the paler shades from a slight
excess of acid, or from the presence of water-
sulphate of lead, and, occasionally, alumina,
The colour is also influenced by the tempera-
ture of the solutions at the time of admix-
ture. Anthon has found that, when hot so-
lutions of equal equivalents of acetate of lead
(190 parts) and chromate of potash (100 parts,
both neutral and in crystals) are mixed, the
yellow precipitate, when dried, is anhydrous;
but when the mixture is made at ordinary
temperatures, the precipitate has a paler
yellow, and when dried contains 1 eq., or
nearly 5}}, of water. (‘Buch. Rept.'). It
thus appears that the shades of colour of
chrome yellow may be varied, without any
foreign addition. In practice, the third for-
mula will be found very satisfactory. See
ORANGE CHROME and CHROME RED.
| Dutch Pink. Prep. Take of French ber-
ries, 1 lb.; turmeric, ; lb.; alum, # lb. ; water,
1% gal.; boil # an hour, strain, evaporate to
2 quarts, adding of whiting, 3 lbs., and dry by
a gentle heat. Starch, or white lead, is some-
times employed, instead of whiting, to give it
a body. Golden yellow. Used as a pigment;
but will not glaze like brown pink.
English Pink. Syn. LIGHT PINK. As the
last, but using 5 lbs. of whiting.
Indian Yellow. See:PURREE.
King's Yellow. Factitious tersulphuret of
arsenic.
Naples Yellow. Syn. MINERAL YELLOW.
Prep. Take of metallic antimony, in powder,
3 lbs. ; red lead, 2 lbs. ; oxide of zinc, 1 lb.;
mix; calcine, well triturate the calx, and fuse
it in a covered crucible; the fused mass must
be reduced to an impalpable powder by grind-
ing and elutriation.
2. Flake white, 1% lb. ; diaphoretic anti-
mony, 3 lb.; calcined alum, 1 oz. ; sal ammo-
niac, 2 oz. ; calcine in a covered crucible with
a moderate heat for 3 hours, so that at the
end it may be barely red hot. More antimony
and sal ammoniac turn it on the gold colour.
3. (Guimel.) Washed diaphoretic antimony,
1 Armengaud’s ‘Génie Industriel,” April, 1853.

YTTRIUM-ZINC.
1197
1 part; pure red lead, 2 parts; grind them to
a paste with water, and expose this mixture
to a moderate red heat for 4 or 5 hours, as
before. Used in oil, porcelain, and enamel
painting. Chrome has now nearly superseded
it for ordinary purposes.
Patent Yellow. Syn. CASSEL YELLow,
MoNTPELLIER Y., TURNER's Y. Prep. Take
of dry chloride of lead, 28 parts; pure car-
bonate of lead, 27 parts; grind them toge-
ther, fuse, and powder.
2. Common salt, 1 part, and litharge, 4
parts, are ground together with water, and
digested at a gentle heat for some time, water
being added to supply the loss by evapora-
tion; the carbonate of soda formed is then
washed out with more water, and the white
residuum heated until it acquires a fine yellow
colour. Works well in oil. Chiefly used in
coach-painting. See OXYCHLORIDE OF LEAD.
Weld Yellow. Prepared from a decoction of
weld brightened with a little alum, in the same
manner as Dutch pink. Used chiefly for paper
hangings.
YTTRIUM. Y. The oxide of this metal
(yttria), a rare, white earth, was discovered by
Gadolin, in 1794, in a mineral from Ytterby, in
Sweden, since called gadolinite. Yttrium was
obtained by Wöhler, in 1828, as a brittle, dark
gray metal, made from the chloride by the action
of sodium. Its salts have in general a sweetish
taste, and the sulphate and several others an
amethystine colour. Its solutions are pre-
cipitated by pure alkalies, but alkaline carbo-
nates, especially carbonate of ammonium, dis-
solve it in the cold. They are distinguished
from glucinium salts by the colour of the sul-
phate, by being insoluble in pure alkalies,
and by yielding a white precipitate with ferro-
cyanide of potassium. Yttria may be ob-
tained from gadolinite by a similar process to
that by which glucina is extracted from the
beryl.
According to Prof. Mosander, ordinary
yttria is a mixture of the oxides of not less
than three metals—yttrium, erbium, and ter-
bium. These metals differ from each other
in many important particulars. The first is a
powerful base, and the others are said to be
weak ones. They are separated with extreme
difficulty, and are only interesting in a scien-
tific point of view.
ZAF'FRE. Syn. SAFFRA, SAFFLOR, ZAFFER.
Crude oxide of cobalt, obtained by roasting
cobalt ore, reduced to an impalpable powder,
and then ground with 2 or 3 parts of very pure
quartzose or siliceous sand. Used as a blue
colour by enamellers and painters on porcelain
and glass. Chiefly imported from Saxony.
See SMALTS.
ZE’RO. See THERMOMETER.
ZESTS. See PoWDERS, SAUCE, SPICE, &c.
ZINC. Zn. Syn. ZINK, SPEITER ; ZIN-
CUM (Ph. L. E. & D.), L. This metal was
first noticed by Paracelsus, in the 16th cen-
tury, who called it “zinetum;’ but its ores
must have been known at a much earlier
period, as the ancients were acquainted with
the manufacture of brass.
Prep. The zinc of commerce is obtained
from the native sulphide (zinc blende), or car-
bonate (calamine), by roasting those ores, and
distilling the calx with carbonaceous matter
in a covered earthen crucible, having its bot-
tom connected with an iron tube, which ter-
minates over a vessel of water situated beneath
the furnace. The first portion that passes
over contains cadmium and arsenic, and is in-
dicated by what is technically called “brown
blaze; but when the metallic vapour begins
to burn with a bluish-white flame, or the ‘blue
blaze' commences, the volatilised metal is
collected.
The following method, by which several
pounds of chemically pure zinc may be obtained
in about 4 of an hour, will be found very useful:
—Melt the zinc of commerce in a common
crucible, and granulate it by throwing it into
a tolerably deep vessel of water, taking care
that the metal be very hot at the time; dry
the metallic grains, and dispose them by layers
in a Hessian crucible with # of their weight
of nitrate of potassium, using the precaution
to place a slight excess at the top and at the
bottom; cover the crucible, and secure the lid,
then apply heat; after the vivid deflagration
which occurs is over, remove the crucible
from the fire, separate the dross with a tube,
and, lastly, run the zinc into an ingot mould.
This zinc, tested in Marsh’s apparatus during
entire days, has never given any stain, and in
solution the most sensitive reagents, such as
hydro-sulphocyanic acid, have never indicated
the least atom of iron. (“Journ. de Pharm.')
Prop. Zinc is a bluish-white metal, having
the sp. gr. 6-8 to 7:2; tough (under some cir-
cumstances, brittle) when cold, ductile and
malleable at from 250° to 300° Fahr.; brittle
and easily pulverised at 400°; fuses at 773°
(Daniell); at a white heat it boils, and sub-
limes unchanged in close vessels; heated to
whiteness (94.1° Daniell) in contact with the
air, it burns with a brilliant green light, and
is converted into oxide. It is very soluble in
dilute sulphuric and hydrochloric acid, with
the evolution of hydrogen gas.” It is little
acted on by the air, even when moist. The
salts of zinc are colourless.
Pur. Commercial zinc is never pure. Its
specific gravity is 6-86. It is soluble in nitric,
hydrochloric, and dilute sulphuric acids.
Tests. 1. The solutions of zinc give a gela-
tinous white precipitate with the alkalies,
and carbonate of ammonium, which is com-
pletely redissolved by an excess of the pre-
cipitant—2. The carbonates of potassium
and sodium give a white precipitate of car-
bonate of zinc. All the above precipitates
acquire a lemon-yellow colour when dried and
heated, but again become whiteon cooling.—
3. Sulphide of ammonium gives, in neutral

1198
ZINC.
solutions, a white precipitate, insoluble in ex-
cess of the precipitant, or in solutions of
hydrate of potassium or ammonium, but freely
soluble in the dilute mineral acids.-4. Sul-
phuretted hydrogen, in neutral and alkaline
solutions, also gives a like white precipitate.—
5. Ferrocyanide of potassium gives a gelatinous
white precipitate.
Estim., &c.—a. 100 grs. are digested in
dilute hydrochloric acid in excess, and the in-
soluble portion, which is chiefly carbon, dried
and weighed.
b. The acidulous solution (see a) is next
treated with a current of sulphuretted hydro-
gen until it smells very strongly of that gas;
the whole is then left for some time in a warm
situation. The precipitate which subsides
consists of the sulphides of arsenic, cadmium,
copper, lead, &c., if any of these metals were
present in the sample.
c. The filtrate from b, after being boiled, is
treated with a little nitric acid, after which it
is again boiled, and, when cold, is precipitated
with carbonate of barium added in excess; the
precipitate (ferric hydrate) is then collected,
dried, ignited, and weighed. The weight, in
grains, multiplied by 7, gives the per-centage
of iron in the sample examined.
d. The filtrate from c is next precipitated
with dilute sulphuric acid, and solution of
carbonate of sodium is added in excess to the
filtered liquid; the whole is then boiled, after
which the new precipitate is washed, dried,
gently ignited for some time, and then cooled
and weighed. The weight, in grains, multi-
plied by '80247, gives the per-centage of pure
zinc in the sample.
Uses, &c. Zinc is used to form galvanic
plates; in fireworks, and in medicine. Of late
years it has also been extensively used in the
manufacture of vessels of capacity, tubing,
sheets for roofing, and other things that require
lightness and durability.
Zinc, Amalgamated which is employed for
voltaic batteries, is prepared as follows:—The
plates, having been scoured with emery, are
immersed for a few seconds in dilute sulphuric
, acid, then rinsed in clean soft water, and, after
the loose water has drained from their surface,
dipped into a strong solution of either mer-
curic nitrate or chloride, or into equal parts
of a mixture of saturated solutions of mercuric
chloride and acetate of lead; the plates are,
lastly, dipped into water, and then rubbed with
a soft cloth. Another and simpler method
is to rub mercury over the plates while wet
with dilute sulphuric acid.
Zinc, Granulated. Syn. ZINCUM GRANU-
LATUM (B. P.). Fuse commercial zinc in a
crucible, pour it in a very thin stream into a
bucket of cold water, and afterwards dry the
zinc.
Zinc, Ac'etate of Zn(CH3O3)3. Syn.
ZINCI ACETAs, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. D.) Ace-
tate of lead, 1 lb., is dissolved in distilled
water, 2% pints, and the solution being placed
in a cylindrical jar, sheet zinc, 4 oz., rolled
into a coil, is immersed therein; after 24
hours the liquid is decanted, evaporated to 15
oz., and solution of hypochlorite of calcium
added drop by drop, until a reddish precipitate
ceases to form; the liquid is then filtered,
acidulated by the addition of a few drops of
acetic acid, reduced by evaporation to 10 fl.
oz., and set aside to crystallise; the crystals
are dried on bibulous paper set on a porous
brick, and then preserved in a well-stopped
bottle. More crystals may be obtained from
the mother-liquor.
Prop., &c. Efflorescent, white, hexagonal
plates, having a powerful stypic taste; very
soluble in water; less soluble in alcohol; de-
composed by heat. It is tonic, antispasmodic,
and emetic.—Dose. 1 to 2 grs. ; as an emetic,
10 to 20 grs. ; externally, 2 or 3 grs. to water,
1 fl. oz., as an astringent lotion or injection.
Zinc, Broºmide of Zn Brs. Syn. ZINCI
BROMIDUM, L. Prepared like the correspond-
ing salt of iron. -
Zinc, Carbonate of ZnCOa. Syn. ZINCI
CARBONAS PURUM, ZINCI CARBONAs (B. P., Ph.
D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph.D.) Solution of chloride of
zinc (Ph. D.), 1 pint, is added, in successive
portions, to a solution of crystallised carbonate
of sodium of commerce, 2 lbs., dissolved in boil-
ing distilled water, 6 pints, and the whole is
boiled until gas ceases to be evolved; the pre-
cipitate is then washed, and dried, at first on
blotting-paper, and, finally, by a steam or
water heat.
Zinc, Chlo"ride of ZnCl2. Syn. BUTTER OF
ZINC, MURIATE OF z.: ; ZINCI CHLORIDUM
(B. P., Ph. L.), Z. MURIAS+, L. Prep. 1. By
heating metallic zinc in chlorine.
2. (Ph. L.) Hydrochloric acid, 1 pint;
water, 1 quart; add zinc (in small pieces), 7
oz. ; when the effervescence is nearly finished,
apply heat until bubbles cease to be evolved;
decant the clear, and evaporate to dryness;
fuse the resulting mass in a lightly covered
crucible, by a red heat, pour it out on a flat
smooth stone, and, when cold, break it into
small pieces, or cast it into rods in iron moulds,
and preserve it in a well-stoppered bottle.
3. (In SOLUTION.) — a. (LIQUOR ZINCI
CHLORIDI-Ph. D.) Hydrochloric acid and
water, of each, 2% pints; sheet zinc, 1 lb. ; dis-
solve, filter through calico, add of hypochlorite
of calcium, 1 fl. oz., and evaporate, by boiling,
to a pint ; when cold, pour it into a bottle,
add of prepared chalk, 1 oz., and water, q. s.
to make the whole measure 1 quart; agitate
occasionally for 24 hours, decant or filter, and
preserve the liquid in a stoppered bottle. Sp.
gr. 1593. See SoLUTIONs.
b. (E. Parrish.) Granulated zinc, 4 lbs. ;
hydrochloric acid, 4 lbs., or q. s. ; water, 9
quarts; dissolve, avoiding excess of acid. The
solution contains 1 in 12 of chloride of zinc. .
Recommended as of the proper strength for a
disinfectant.
Prop., &c. When pure, a colourless, amor-

ZINC.
1199
phous mass or crystals; generally a whitish-
gray, semi-transparent mass, having the con-
sistence of wax; fusible; volatile at a strong
heat, condensing in acicular crystals; freely
soluble in alcohol, ether, and water; highly
deliquescent; coagulates albumen and gelatin,
and corrodes animal substances. The solu-
tion possesses the same properties in a minor
degree.
Pur. From the aqueous solution, hydro-sul-
phuric acid or ferrocyanide of potassium being
dropped in, a precipitate is thrown down. What
is thrown down by ammonia or hydrate of potas-
sium from the same solution is white, and is
redissolved by either precipitant in excess. The
precipitate thrown down by the carbonate of
either ammonium or potassium is (also) white,
but is not redissolved when these are added in
exceSS.
Uses, &c. Dry chloride of zinc is chiefly
used as a caustic, for which it is highly recom.
mended by Voght, Canquoin, and others. It
is more powerful than chloride of antimony,
and its action extends deeper than does
nitrate of silver, whilst it exercises an influence
over the vital actions of neighbouring parts.
The sore is generally healthy after the separa-
tion of the eschar, and no constitutional dis-
order ensues. It has been given in scrofula,
epilepsy, chorea, &c.; and, combined with
hydrocyanic acid, in facial neuralgia.--Dose. }
gr. to 2 grs.; externally, as a lotion, 2 to 3 grs.
to water, 1 oz. In large doses it is poisonous.
The solution (LIQUID CHLORIDE) is also used
as a caustic, but chiefly as a disinfectant and
deodorizer, of which it is one of the very best,
possessing, as it does, the power of rapidly
decomposing sulphide of ammonium and the
organic matter of miasmata which convey
disease. -
Zinc, Cy'anide of ZnCys. Syn. CYANURET
OF ZINC; ZINCI CYANIDUM, ZINCI CYANU-
RETUM, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) Add a solution
of cyanide of potassium to another of pure sul-
phate of zinc.; wash, and dry the precipitate.
—Dose. # to 1 gr., twice a day ; in epilepsy,
hysteria, and other nervous affections, heart-
burn, worms, &c.; and as a substitute for
hydro-cyanic acid.
Zinc, Ferrocy'amide of Zn,FeCys. Syn.
ZINCI FERRoCYANIDUM, L. Prep. By adding
a hot solution of ferrocyanide of potassium to
a hot and strong solution of pure sulphate of
zinc, and washing, and drying the precipitate.
White.—Dose. 1 to 4 grs.; in the same cases
as the last.
Zinc, I'odide of. ZnT3, Syn. HYDRIODATE of
ZINC+; ZINCI IODIDUM, ZINCI HYDRIODAs, L.
Prep. 1. (Duflos.) Iodine, 2 parts; granu-
lated zinc, 1 part; water, 4 parts; proceed as
for ferrous iodide, only employing a glass or
porcelain vessel.
2. (Magendie.) Iodine, 17 parts; zinc (in
powder), 20 parts; mix, and sublime in a
matrass.
Prop., &c.
Deliquescent. Chiefly used ex-
termally; 15 grs. to water, 6 fl. oz., as a colly-
rium in scrofulous inflammation of the eye
(Poulet); 1 dr. to lard, 1 oz., as a powerful
resolvent in scrofulous and other glandular
swellings, rubbed on the part twice a day.
(Ure.)
Zinc, Lactate of Zn(C5H5O3)3. Syn. ZINCI
LACTAS, L. Prepared from zinc in the same
way as ferrous lactate is from iron.
Zinc, Oxide of. Syn. PROTOXIDE OF ZINC;
ZINCI oxy DUM (B. P., Ph.L. E. & D.), L. Prep.
1. (Ph. L.) Sulphate of zinc (pure), 1 lb. ;
carbonate of ammonium, 6% oz. ; dissolve each
separately in 6 quarts of water, filter, mix the
solutions, well wash the precipitate with water,
and calcine it for 2 hours in a strong fire. The
Ph. E. is nearly similar.
2. (Ph. D.) Place carbonate of zinc in a
covered clay crucible, and expose it to a very
low red heat, until a portion taken from the
centre of the mass ceases to effervesce on being
dropped into dilute sulphuric acid.
Prop., &c. A white, tasteless powder; in-
soluble in water; freely soluble in acids, the
solution yielding colourless and easily crys-
tallisable salts; strongly basic.
Uses, &c. It is tonic and antispasmodic,
and has been advantageously used in chorea,
epilepsy, and other nervous and spasmodic
affections.—Dose. 1 to 6 grs., twice a day. It
is also used as a dusting powder, and to make
an ointment. It has been proposed as a sub-
stitute for white lead in painting, than which
it covers better, but dries slower, and hence
requires the addition of dried white vitriol.
This oxide is the only compound which zinc
forms with oxygen.
Zinc, Sulphate of ZnSO4. Syn. WHITE
COPPERAS*, WHITE WITRIOL*; ZINCI SULPHAs
(B. P., Ph. L. E. & D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.)
Granulated zinc, 5 oz.; diluted sulphuric acid,
1 quart; dissolve, filter, evaporate to a pellicle,
and set it aside to crystallise.
2. (Ph.D.) Zinc (laminated or granulated),
4 oz. ; sulphuric acid, 3 fl. oz, ; water, 1 pint;
mix in a porcelain capsule, and, when gas
ceases to be evolved, boil for 10 minutes, filter
through calico, and evaporate the filtrate to
dryness; dissolve the dry salt in water, 1 pint;
frequently agitate the solution, when cold,
during 6 hours, with prepared chalk, 4 oz. ;
next filter, acidulate the filtrate with nitric
acid and dilute sulphuric acid, of each, 1 fl.
dr.; evaporate until a pellicle forms on the
surface, and set it aside to crystallise; dry the
crystals on bibulous paper, without heat, and
preserve them in a bottle. More crystals may
be obtained from the mother-liquor.
3. The common sulphate of zinc of commerce
frequently contains copper, cadmium, lead,
iron, and manganese, and nearly always one
or more of them. By digesting its concen-
trated solution for some time with metallic
zinc, it may be freed from copper, lead, and
cadmium, for these metals are all reduced and
precipitated in a metallic state; or, the acidu-
1200
ZINC. ETHYL–ZIRCONIUM.
lated solution may be treated with sulphu-
retted hydrogen as long as any precipitate
forms. In order to separate the iron, chlorine
gas may be passed into the solution, by which
the iron is converted into the ferrous chloride;
if this solution be exposed to the air for a
length of time, it absorbs oxygen, and oxide
of iron is deposited as a yellow powder, from
which the solution must be filtered. When
the sulphate contains manganese, which is not
very often the case, the solution must be boiled
up a few times with purified charcoal, filtered
and evaporated. ‘Jour. für prakt. Chem.')
The product of each of the above formulae is
nearly chemically pure.
4. (Commercial.) The crude sulphate of
zinc (white copperas, or white vitriol, of the
shops) is prepared by roasting native sulphide
of zinc (zincblende) in a reverberatory furnace,
exposing the calcined mass to the air and
humidity for some time, then lixiviating it,
and evaporating the resulting solution until
it forms a white semicrystalline mass on
cooling.
Prop. Pure sulphate of zinc forms inodo-
rous, colourless, transparent, quadrangular
prisms, closely resembling in appearance those
of Epsom salt, which effloresce slightly in the
air, and contain 7 equiv. of water; it has a
slightly acidulous and very styptic metallic
taste; the crystals dissolve in 2% parts of cold
and in less than their own weight of boiling
water; they are insoluble in alcohol. The
crude sulphate of zinc of commerce (white
vitriol) occurs in irregular granular masses,
which somewhat resemble loaf sugar.
When a solution of this salt, in 6 of water,
is boiled with a little nitric acid, and a solu-
tion of ammonia is then added until the oxide
of zinc at first precipitated is all redissolved,
no yellow precipitate remains, or a trace only,
and the solution is colourless.
Uses. In medicine, as a tonic, antispas-
modic, &c.; in doses of 1 to 2 grs, twice
daily; as an emetic, 10 to 30 grs. In large
doses it is poisonous. It has been employed
with benefit in dyspepsia, fluor albus, chorea,
epilepsy, hooping-cough, and other convulsive
and nervous affections, generally combined
with bitters, foxglove, hemlock, henbane, or
opium. As an emetic, it acts almost imme-
diately, and is therefore well suited to empty
the stomach at the commencement of a fit of
ague, and in cases of poisoning, &c. It is also
extensively used externally, to form astringent
and repellent collyria, injections and lotions.
Zinc, Wale"rianate of. Zn(C5H8O3)3. Syn.
ZINCI VALERTANAS, (B.P., Ph.D.) Prep. (Ph.
D.) Valerianate of sodium, 2% oz., and sulphate
of zinc, 2 oz. 7;drs., are each separately dissolved
in distilled water, 1 pint ; the solutions are
then heated to 200°Fahr., mixed, and the re-
sulting crystals skimmed off; the liquid is
next evaporated at a temperature not higher
than 200°, until it measures 4 fl. oz., the crys-
tals, as they form, being removed from the
surface; the salt thus obtained is steeped, for
an hour, in distilled water, just sufficient to
cover it, after which the whole is transferred
to a paper filter, on which it is at first drained,
and then dried at a heat not exceeding 100°.
Prop., &c. Brilliant white, pearly scales;
very light; astringent; smells strongly of
valerianic acid ; only slightly soluble in cold .
water, more so in hot water, and freely soluble
in alcohol and ether; exposure to heat rapidly
decomposes it ; exposure to the air also decom-
poses it, but more slowly. It is regarded as
powerfully antispasmodic and tonic.—Dose.
1 to 3 grs., thrice daily, made into pills; in
neuralgia, tic douloureux, nervous headaches
(more particularly hemicrania), hysteria, pal-
pitation of the heart, vertigo, chorea, epilepsy,
&c.
Obs. Butyrate of zinc, scented with valeri-
anic acid, which is often sold for the above
compound, may be detected by distilling it
with sulphuric acid; the distillate, tested
with a strong solution of acetate of copper,
gives a bluish-white precipitate if it contains
butyric acid. The valerianate is distinguished
from the other salts of zinc by its extreme
lightness.
ZINC-E'THYL. Zn(C5H5)2. A curious liquid
body, discovered by Dr. Frankland, and formed,
along with iodide of zinc, when iodide of ethyl
is heated with pure zinc in a sealed glass tube.
The mixed white product, by distillation in a
current of hydrogen, yields pure zinc-ethyl.
It is a highly volatile liquid, having a rather
disagreeable odour, and so rapidly decomposed
by contact with the air that it takes fire.
Water resolves it into hydride of ethyl, and
other products.
ZINC-METHYL. Zn(CH3)2. Obtained by
the action of zinc upon iodide of methyl, as
zinc-ethyl. It takes fire on coming in con-
tact with the air. -
ZINC'ING. Syn. ZINKING. Wessels of
copper and brass may be covered with a firmly
adherent layer of pure zinc, by boiling them
in a solution of chloride of zinc, pure zinc
turnings being at the same time present in
considerable excess. The same object may be
effected by means of zinc and a solution of
chloride of ammonium or hydrate of potassium.
The variety of zinced iron commonly known
by the name of ‘galvanised iron’ is prepared
by immersing the sheets of metal, previously
scoured and cleaned with dilute hydro-chloric
acid, in a bath of melted zinc covered with
powdered sal ammoniac, and moving them
about until they are sufficiently coated.
ZINC06/RAPHY. An art closely resembling
lithography, in which plates of zinc are sub-
stituted for slabs of stone.
ZIR/CON. See GEMS.
ZIRCONIUM. Zr. Syn. The oxide of this
metal, a white pulverulent earth, discovered in
the mineral jargon or zircon of Ceylon, by
Klaproth, in 1789. It has since been found in
the hyacinth,


ZIRCONIUM.
1201.
Prep. The stone is calcined and thrown
into cold water, and then powdered in an
agate mortar; the powder is mixed with 9
parts of pure hydrate of potassium, and the
mixture projected, by spoonfuls, into a red-hot
crucible, care being taken that each portion is
fused before another is added; after fusion,
with an increased heat, for an hour and a half,
the whole is allowed to cool; the calcined mass
is next powdered, and boiled in water; the
insoluble portion is then dissolved in hydro-
chloric acid, and the solution heated, that the
silicic acid may fall down; after which the
zirconia is precipitated with hydrate of potas-
sium; or, the zirconia may be precipitated
with carbonate of sodium, and the carbonic
acid expelled by heat.
From this metallic zirconium is obtained by
heating in a glass tube, with a spirit lamp, a
mixture of potassium and the double fluoride
of zirconium and potassium, carefully dried;
the product is washed with water, and digested
for some time in dilute hydrochloric acid.
Prop., &c. A black powder; it acquires a
feeble metallic lustre under the burnisher, and
takes fire when heated in the air. It has not
been thoroughly examined.
Oxide of zirconium, or zirconia, ZrO2, has
neither taste nor odour, is insoluble in water,
and forms salts with the acids. It is distin-
guished from all the other earths, except thorina,
by being precipitated when any of the neutral
salts of zirconium are boiled with a saturated
solution of sulphate of potassium. The salts
of zirconium are distinguished from those of
aluminium and glucinium by being precipitated
by all the pure alkalies, and by being inso-
luble when they are added in excess. The
precipitated hydrate and carbonate are readily
soluble in acids.

76
PRINTED BY J. E. ADLARD, BARTHOLOMEW CLOSE, E.C.
LONDON, NEW BURLINGTON STREET,
OCTOBER, 1873
A L IS T
OF
M E S S R S C H U R C H I L L’S
W O R K S -
ON
C H E M I S T R Y. M. A. T E R IA ME DI CA,
P H A R M A C Y, B O TA NY,
THE MI CROSCOPE,
AND
OTHER BRANCHES OF SCIENCE



A AV /O AE X
—º-
PAGE
Beasley's Pocket Formulary --- --- --- --- --- ix
Do. Druggist's Receipt Book --- --- --- - - - ix
Do. Book of Prescriptions ... --- --- -- --- ix
Bentley's Manual of Botany --- - - - --- --- --- xi
Bernays' Syllabus of Chemistry ... - - - -- --- --- iv
Bloxam's Chemistry ... --- -- - --- - - - iii
Do. Laboratory Teaching ... - - - --- --- - - - iii
Bowman's Practical Chemistry ... --- --- --- --- iv.
Do. Medical do. --- --- --- --- - - - iv
Brooke's Natural Philosophy --- --- --- --- - - XV
Brown's Analytical Tables --- --- --- - - - - --- iv
Carpenter's Microscope and its Revelations ... --- “. --- xii
Chauveau's Comparative Anatomy - - - --- --- ... xiii
Cooley's Cyclopædia of Receipts ... - - - - - - --- --- vi
Fayrer's Poisonous Snakes of India --- --- --- --- xii
Fownes' Manual of Chemistry ... ". . . - - - --- --- iv.
Fresenius' Chemical Analysis - - - - - - - - - -- V
Galloway's First Step in Chemistry --- --- - - - --- V
Do. Second do. do. ... - V
Do. Qualitative Analysis -- --- - - - - - - V
Do. Chemical Tables - - - --- --- - - - --- V
Greene's Tables of Zoology - - - - - - --- --- --- xiii
Griffiths' Chemistry of the Four Seasons --- . . . . -- --- V
Hardwich's Photography, by Dawson --- --- ... ... xiv.
Huxley's Anatomy of Vertebrates... - - - - - - ... ... xiii
Do. Classification of Animals... --- ... --- ... xiii
Kay-Shuttleworth's Modern Chemistry. --- ... ... --- V
Kolhrausch's Physical Measurements --- --- ---- --- XV
Lescher's Elements of Pharmacy ... --- -- --- . . . . * X
Martin's Microscopic Mounting ... --- - ... * . . . ... xii
Mayne's Medical Vocabulary --- --- ... --- ... . . xiv.
Microscopical Journal (Quarterly)... --- - - - ---- - - - xii
Nevins' Analysis of Pharmacopoeia --- - - - --- -- ix
Ord's Comparative Anatomy - - - --- - - - - --- ‘. . . xiv
Pereira's Selecta e Praescriptis ... --- --- --- ... ix
Pharmaceutical Journal and Transactions --- --- - - - - - xi
Prescriber's Pharmacopoeia --- --- --- -- - - - xi
Price's Photographic Manipulation - - - --- --- --- XV
Proctor's Practical Pharmacy --- ... - - - -- --- X
Rodwell's Natural Philosophy ... . --- --- --- . . . . XV
Royle's Materia Medica... - - - --- --- --- --- vii
Shea's Animal Physiology - - - --- ... ' - - - ... xiv.
Smith's Pharmaceutical Guide ... --- - - - - - - ... viii
Squire's Companion to the Pharmacopoeia ... --- - - - ... viii
Do. Hospital Pharmacopoeias --- --- - - ... viii
Steggall's First Lines for Chemists --- --- --- ... viii
Stowe's Toxicological Chart --- --- --- --- --- X
Sutton's Volumetric Analysis ... --- --- --- --- Vi
Tuson's Veterinary Pharmacopoeia --- --- - - --- xi
Valentin's Inorganic Chemistry ... --- --- - - - --- Vi
Do. Qualitative Analysis ... --- --- --- --- wi
Vestiges of Creation ... --- --- -- --- ... xiv.
Wagner's Chemical Technology ... --- --- --- --- vii
Wahltuch's Dictionary of Materia Medica ... --- --- --- vii
Wilson's Zoology --- --- --- --- --- ... xiv.
Wittstein's Pharmaceutical Chemistry, by Darby --- --- --- X
Year Book of Pharmacy --- --- --- xi
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
*** The Works advertised in this Catalogue may be obtained through any Bookseller
in the United Kingdom, or direct from the Auð/ishers, on Remittance being made.


A LIST OF
Messrs C// URCH// Z'S WORKS, &c
—-
C. L. Bloxam
C H E M I S T R Y, IN OR G A N I C and O R G A N I C :
With Experiments. By CHARLES L, BLOXAM, Professor of Chemistry in
King's College, London; Professor of Chemistry in the Department for
Artillery Studies, Woolwich. Second Edition. With 295 Engravings on
Wood . - - - 8vo, 16s.
*...* It has been the author's endeavour to produce a Treatise on Chemistry sufficiently
comprehensive for those studying the science as a branch of general education, and one
which a student may peruse with advantage before commencing his chemical studies at
one of the colleges or medical schools, where he will abandon it for the more advanced
work placed in his hands by the professor. The special attention devoted to Metallurgy
and some other branches of Applied Chemistry renders the work especially useful to those
who are being educated for employment in manufacture. -
“Professor Bloxam has given us a most is astonishing how much information he often
excellent and useful practical treatise. His conveys in a few paragraphs. We might
666 pages are crowded with facts and expe. quote fifty instances of this.” – Chemical
riments, nearly all well chosen, and many | AVews.
quite new, even to scientific men. . . It
By the same Author
LABORATORY TEACHING: Or, Progressive Exercises in
Practical Chemistry, with Analytical Tables. Second Edition. With 89
Engravings . - - - - Crown 8vo, 5s. 6d.
*...* This work is intended for use in the chemical laboratory by those who are com-
mencing the study of practical chemistry. It does not presuppose any knowledge of
chemistry on the part of the pupil, and does not enter into any theoretical speculations.
It dispenses with the use of all costly apparatus and chemicals, and is divided into
separate exercises or lessons, with examples for practice, to facilitate the instruction of large
classes. The method of instruction here followed has been adopted by the author,
after twenty-three years' experience as a teacher in the laboratory.

iv MESSRS CHURCHILL's WORKS
}ohn E. Bowman and C. Z. Bloxam
P R A CT I C A L C H E M I S T R Y, Including Analysis.
By JoHN E. BOWMAN and C. L. BLOXAM. Sixth Edition. With 98
Engravings on Wood - - - FCap. 8vo, 6s. 6d.
*...* The intention of this work is to furnish to the beginner a text-book of the prac-
tical minutiae of the laboratory. The various processes employed in analysis, or which
have been devised for the illustration of the principles of the science, are explained in lan-
guage as simple as possible. This edition has been embellished with a large number of
additional wood engravings from sketches made in the laboratory.
Also
MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. Fourth Edition, with 82 Engravings
on Wood. e - - - Foap. 8vo, 6s. 6d.
*...* This work gives instructions for the examination and analysis of urine, blood, and
a few other of the more important animal products, both healthy and morbid. It com-
prises also directions for the detection of poisons in organic mixtures and in the tissues.
–0 —
Albert J. Bernays
NOTES FOR STUDENTS IN CHEMISTRY: Being a
Syllabus of Chemistry and Practical Chemistry. By ALBERT J. BERNAys,
Professor of Chemistry at St. Thomas's Hospital. Fifth Edition, Revised.
[Foap. 8vo, 3s.6d.
*** A new feature is an Appendix giving the doses of the chief chemical preparations
of the “Materia Medica.”
‘‘The new notation and nomenclature are | book, and a close revision of the whole.”—
now exclusively used. We notice additional Scientific Opinion.
notes in apparently every paragraph in the
*
-
}. Campbell Brown
ANALYTICAL TABLES for STUDENTS of PRACTICAL
CHEMISTRY. By J. CAMPBELL BROWN, D.Sc. Lond., F.C.S.
[8vo, 2s. 6d.
G. Fozty/les
| A MANUAL OF ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY,
Theoretical and Practical, BY G. FOWNES, F.R.S. Edited by Henry Watts,
B.A., F.R.S. Eleventh Edition. With Wood Engravings. Crown 8vo, 15s.
MESSRS CHURCHILL's WORKS V
-
Remigius Fresenius
QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS. By C. REMIGIUS FRESENIUS.
Edited by Arthur Vacher. Eighth Edition, with Coloured Plate of Spectra
and Wood Engravings . - - - 8vo, 12s. 6d.
By the same Author
QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS. Edited by Arthur Vacher.
Sixth Edition, with Wood Engravings - 8vo, 18s.
-0–
Robert Galloway
THE FIRST STEP IN CHEMISTRY : A New Method for
Teaching the Elements of the Science. By ROBERT GALLOWAY, Professor
of Applied Chemistry in the Royal College of Science for Ireland. Fourth
Edition, with Engravings . - - FCap. 8vo, 6s. 6d.
-
By the same Author
THE SECOND STEP IN CHEMISTRY: or, the Student's
Guide to the Higher Branches of the Science. With Engravings.
FCap. 8vo, Ios.
Also
A M A N U A L OF QUAL IT AT IV E ANALYSIS
Fifth Edition, with Engravings . º Post 8vo, 8s. 6d.
Also
CHEMICAL TABLES. On Five large Sheets, for School and
Lecture Rooms. Second Edition - - The Set, 4s. 6d.
“Mr. Galloway has done much to simplify
the study of chemistry by the instructive
manner in which he places the principal
details of the science before his readers.”
—British Medical journal.
“We can always give praise to Mr. Gal-
loway's educational works. They are inva-
riably written on a system and founded on
experience, and the teaching is clear, and
in general complete.”—Chemical AVews.
º
–0-
T. Griffiths
CHEMISTRY OF THE FOUR SEASONS: Spring, Summer,
Autumn, Winter. By T. GRIFFITHS. Second Edition, with Engravings.
FCap. 8vo, 7s. 6d.
-0-
(Z. 3. Kay-Shuttleworth
FIRST PRINCIPLES OF MOD E R N C H E MISTRY.
By U. J. KAY-SHUTTLEWORTH, M.P. Second Edition. Crown 8vo, 4s. 6d.
“We can recommend the book.”— “Deserving warmest commendation.”—
Athenaeum. Popular Science Rev. -




vi MESSRS CHURCHILL's WoRKS
w
Prancis Suffont
H A N D B O O K OF V O L U M ET RIC ANALYSIS;
or, the Quantitative Estimation of Chemical Substances by Measure applied
to Liquids, Solids, and Gases.
Second Edition.
By FRANCIS SUTTON, F.C.S., Norwich.
With Engravings
8vo, 12s.
*** This work is adapted to the requirements of pure Chemical Research, Pathological
Chemistry, Pharmacy, Metallurgy, Manufacturing Chemistry, Photography, etc., and for
the Valuation of Substances used in Commerce, Agriculture, and the Arts.
“Mr. Sutton has rendered an essential service by the compilation of his work.”—
Chemica/AWezvs.
-
R. V. Thasoſt
C O O L E Y'S CY C L O PAE DIA OF P R A C T I C A L
RECEIPTS, PROCESSES, AND COLLATERAL INFORMATION
IN THE ARTS, MANU FACTURES, PROFESSIONS, AND
TRADES : Including Pharmacy and Domestic Economy and Hygiène.
Designed as a Comprehensive Supplement to the Pharmacopoeias and
General Book of Reference for the Manufacturer, Tradesman, Amateur,
and Heads of Families.
Contributors
“A much improved edition. -
Long recognised as a general book of re-
ſerence.”—Times. -
“The book is of considerable value for
household use, as well as professional pur-
poses, for it contains a quantity of interest-
ing information relating to the composition
Fifth Edition, Revised and partly Rewritten by
Professor RICHARD V. TUSON, F.C.S., assisted by several Scientific
8vo, 28s.
of articles in common use as food and
medicine.”—Pall Mall Gazette.
“Other of the articles, as on “brewing,”
“bread,' etc., are specimens of what cyclo-,
paedic writing should be, being concise and
thoroughly exhaustive of the practical por-
tion of the subject.”— Veterinarian.
—0—
W. G. Wa/e/f?/
INTRODUCTION TO INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. By
WM. G. VALENTIN, F.C.S., Principal Demonstrator of Practical Che-
mistry in the Royal School of Mines and Science Training Schools,
South Kensington.
With 82 Engravings . -
8vo, 6s. 6d.
Also
QUALITATIVE CHEMICAL ANALYSIS. With 19
Engravings . - -
8vo, 7s. 6d.
A/so
TABLES FOR THE QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS OF
SIMPLE AND COMPOUND SUBSTANCES, both in the Dry and Wet
Way. On indestructible paper
8vo, 2s. 6d.
–
MESSRS CHURCHILL's WORKS vii
R. Wagner and W. Crookes
HANDBOOK OF CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY. By
RUDOLF WAGNER, Ph.D., Professor of Chemical Technology at the
University of Wurtzburg. Translated and Edited from the Eighth German
Edition, with Extensive Additions, by WILLIAM CROOKES, F.R.S.
[8vo, 25s
*...* The design of this work is to show the application of the science of chemistry to
the various manufactures and industries. The subjects are treated of in eight divisions,
as follows:–1. Chemical Metallurgy, Alloys, and Preparations made and obtained from
Metals. 2. Crude Materials and Products of Chemical Industry. 3. Glass, Ceramic
Ware, Gypsum, Lime, Mortar. 4. Vegetable Fibres. 5. Animal Substances. 6. Dye-
ing and Calico Printing. 7. Artificial Light. 8. Fuel and Heating Apparatus.
|
“Full and exact in its information on “Mr. Crookes deserves praise, not only
almost every point.”—B'ngineer. for the excellence of his translation, but
| “This book will permanently take its also for the original matter he has added.”
| place among our manuals.”—AWature. | –American journal of Science and Arts.
- —0–
}. Forbes Æoyle and F. W. Headland
A MANUAL OF MATERIA MEDICA. By J. For BES
ROYLE, M.D., F.R.S., and F. W. HEADLAND, M.D., F.L.S. Fifth Edition,
with Engravings on Wood . - - - - - Feap 8vo, 12s. 6d.
*...* This edition has been remodelled throughout on the basis of the present edition of
the British Pharmacopoeia. The medicines of the British Pharmacopoeia will be found
arranged in natural order, the preparations described at length, and the formulae
explained. Other medicines and preparations, mentioned only in the London Pharma-
copoeia of 1851, are separately described and included in brackets. All remedies of
value, whether officinal or not, are noticed in their place in this Manual.
“This Manual is, to our minds, unrivalled and completeness of information.”—British
in any language for condensation, accuracy, Medical journal.
—0–
- Adolphe Wahltuch
A DICTIONARY OF MATERIA MEDICA AND THERA-
PEUTICS. By ADOLPHE WAHLTUCH, M.D. . - - 8vo, I5s.
*...* The purpose of this work is to give a tabular arrangement of all drugs specified in
the British Pharmacopoeia of 1867. Every table is divided into six parts :-(1) The
Name and Synonyms ; (2) Character and Properties or Composition ; (3) Physiological
| Effects and 7%erapeutics; (4) Form and Doses; (5) Preparations ; (6) Prescriptions.
Other matter elucidatory of the Pharmacopoeia is added to the work.
“A very handy book.”—Lancet.
*

viii MESSRS CHURCHILL's WORKS
Peter Square
COMPANION TO THE BRITISH PHARMACOPOEIA.
With Practical Hints on Prescribing; including a Tabular Arrangement
of Materia Medica for Students, and a Concise Account of the Principal
Spas of Europe. By PETER SQUIRE, Chemist in Ordinary to the Queen
and the Prince of Wales; late President of the Pharmaceutical Society.
Ninth Edition . - - - - - - - - 8vo, Ios. 6d.
By the same Author
PHARMACOPOEIAS OF LONDON HOSPITALS. Second
Edition . - - - e - - - - - FCap 8vo, 5s.
*...* Mr. SQUIRE has collected all the Formulae used in seventeen of the principal
Hospitals of London, and arranged them in groups of mixtures, gargles, &c., &c. These
Formulae were revised and approved by the medical staff of each of the Hospitals, and
may therefore be taken as an excellent guide to the medical practitioner, both as to dose
and best menstruum in prescribing.
5. B. Smith
PHARMACEUTICAL GUIDE. By JOHN BARKER SMITH,
Second Edition . . . - Crown 8vo.
[/n the Press.
FIRST AND SFCOND EXAMINATIONS
LATIN GRAMMAR–FRACTIONS — METRIC SYSTEM — MATERIA MEDICA — BOTANY
—PHARMACY-CHEMISTRY-PRESCRIPTIONS.
}ohn Steggal/
FIRST LINES FOR CHEMISTS AND DRUGGISTs
preparing for Examination at the Pharmaceutical Society. By JOHN
STEGGALL, M.D. Third Edition . - - - - I8mo, 3s. 6d.
CONTENTS
Notes on the British Pharmacopoeia, the Thermometers.
Substances arranged alphabeticallv. Specific Gravity.
Table of 1'reparations, containing Opium, Weights and Measures.
Antimony, Mercury, and Arsenic. Questions on Pharmaceutical Chemistry
Classification of Plants. and Materia Medica.



MESSRS CHURCHILL's WORKS ix
}. Birkbeck Nevins
THE PRESCRIBER'S ANALYSIS OF THE BRITISH
PHARMACOPOEIA. By J. BIRKBECK NEVINs, M.D. Lond., Lecturer on
Materia Medica in the Liverpool Royal Infirmary Medical School. Third
Edition, Revised and Enlarged - - - - Royal 32mo, 3s. 6d.
—0 —
}onathan Pereira
SELECTA E PRAESCRIPTIS: Containing Lists of the Terms,
Phrases, Contractions, and Abbreviations used in Prescriptions, with Ex-
planatory Notes; the Grammatical Construction of Prescriptions; Rules
for the Pronunciation of Pharmaceutical Terms; a Prosodiacal Vocabulary
of the Names of Drugs, &c.; and a Series of Abbreviated Prescriptions
illustrating the use of the preceding terms. To which is added a Key, con-
taining the Prescriptions in an Unabbreviated Form, with a Literal Trans-
lation for the Use of Medical and Pharmaceutical Students. By JONATHAN
PEREIRA, M.D., F.R.S. Sixteenth Edition . - - - 32mo, 5S.
–0—
Henry Beasley
T H E POC KET FOR MIUILARY AND SV NOPSIS
OF THE BRITISH AND FOREIGN PHARMACOPOEIAS: Compris-
ing Standard and approved Formulae for the Preparations and Compounds
employed in Medical Practice. By HENRY BEASLEY. Ninth Edition.
[18mo, 6s.
Ay the same Author
T H E D R U GGIST’S GENERAL RECEIPT - B O O K :
Comprising a Copious Veterinary Formulary and Table of Veterinary
Materia Medica; Patent and Proprietary Medicines, Druggists' Nostrums,
&c.; Perfumery, Skin Cosmetics, Hair Cosmetics, and Teeth Cosmetics ;
Beverages, Dietetic Articles and Condiments; Trade Chemicals, Mis-
cellaneous Preparations and Compounds used in the Arts, &c.; with useful
Memoranda and Tables. Seventh Edition . . . - - 18mo, 6s.
Also
THE BOOK OF PRESCRIPTIONS: Containing 3,000 Pre-
scriptions collected from the Practice of the most eminent Physicians and
Surgeons, English and Foreign. Fourth Edition . - - 18mo, 6s.
“Mr. Beasley’s “Pocket Formulary,’ reference admirably suited for the dispens-
‘Druggist's Receipt-Book,' and ‘Book of ing desk.”—Chemist and ZXruggist.
Prescriptions' form a compact library of

X MESSRS CHURCHILL's WoRKS
F. H. Lescher
AN INTRODUCTION to the ELEMENTS Of PHARMACY.
By F. HARWOOD LESCHER. Fourth Edition - 8vo, 7s. 6d.
Sec. I. MATERIA MEDICA: Characteristics of Drugs; Geographical Sources; Detec-
- tion of Spurious Specimens.
II. BotANY : Sketch of Organs, with their Functions ; Groupings of the
Characteristics; Natural Orders.
III. CHEMISTRY : Outline of Physics; Simple Primary Analysis; Detection of
Adulterations ; Poisons—Tests and Antidotes; Organic and Inorganic
Chemicals.
IV. PHARMACY : Pharmacopoeia ; Preparations ; Active Ingredients.
V. PRESCRIPTIONS: The Latin Language; Examples, with Errors and Unusual
Doses ; Tables of Doses.
VI. PRACTICAL DISPENSING : Groupings of Strengths of Solutions; Emulsions;
Pills, &c.; Changes in Mixtures.
O—
A. S. Proctor
L E. CT U R E S O N P R A CT I C A L P H A R M A C Y.
By BARNARD S. PROCTOR, Lecturer on Pharmacy at the College of Medi-
cine, Newcastle-on-Tyne. With 43 Wood Engravings - 8vo, 12s.
*...* The object of the writer is to assist earnest Students by indicating the direction
and manner in which the study of Pharmaceutical subjects should be pursued ; attention
being principally directed to such points as are not included in the usual Manuals of
Chemistry and Materia Medica. The object is divided into—
Abstract Processes: Drying, Grinding, Solution, Diffusion, Filtration, etc.
Official Processes.
Extempore Processes: Dispensing Mixtures, Pills, Plasters, Ointments, etc. Read-
ing difficult Autographs, illustrated with lithographic fac-similes.
Official Testing. Notes on the Qualitative and Quantitative Systems of the Pharma-
copoeia.
Pharmacy of Special Drugs, being Studies of Cinchona, Opium, Aloes, and Iron.
O—
William Stowe
A TOXICOLOGICAL CHART, Exhibiting at one view the
Symptoms, Treatment, and Mode of Detecting the Various Poisons,
Mineral, Vegetable, and Animal. To which are added concise Directions
for the Treatment of Suspended Animation. By WILLIAM STOWE,
M.R.C.S.E. Thirteenth Edition. - - - Sheet, 2s. ; Roller, 5s.
—— 0
- G. C. WZłżsfe?” -
PRACTICAL PHARMACEUTICAL CHEMISTRY : An
Explanation of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Processes; with the Methods
of Testing the Purity of the Preparations, deduced from Original Experi-
ments. By Dr. G. C. WITTSTEIN. Translated from the Second German
Edition by STEPHEN DARBY . - - - - - - I8mo, 6s.
“It would be impossible too strongly to recommend this work to the beginner, for the
completeness of its explanations, by following which he will become well grounded
in practical chemistry.”—A’rom the Zntroduction by Dr. Buchner.

MESSRS CHURCHILL's WoRKS xi
THE PRESCRIBER'S PHARMACOPCEIA : The Medicines
arranged in Classes according to their Action, with their Composition
and Doses. By A PRACTISING PHYSICIAN. Fifth Edition.
[Foap 16mo, cloth, 2s. 6d.; roan tuck, 3s. 6d.
-
—0—
THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL AND TRANSAC-
TIONS. Published weekly . - - - - - - Price 4d.
THE YEAR-BOOK OF PHARMACY: Containing the
Proceedings at the Yearly Meeting of the British Pharmaceutical Con-
ference, and a Report on the Progress of Pharmacy, which includes notices
of all Pharmaceutical Papers, new Processes, Preparations, and Formulae
published throughout the world. Published annually . - 8vo, 7s.6d.
A'. W. Tuso?!
A PHARMACOPOEIA, INCLUDING THE OUTLINES OF
MATERIA MEDICA AND THERAPEUTICS, for the Use of Prac-
titioners and Students of Veterinary Medicine. By RICHARD V. TUSON,
F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry and Materia Medica at the Royal
Veterinary College. Second Edition - - - - In the Žress.
“Not only practitioners and students of want in veterinary literature.”—Chemist
veterinary medicine, but chemists and and Druggist.
druggists will find that this book supplies a
Åobert Bentley
A MANUAL OF BOTANY: Including the Structure, Func-
tions, Classifications, Properties, and uses of Plants. By ROBERT
BENTLEY, F.L.S., Professor of Botany, King's College, and to the Pharma-
ceutical Society. Third Edition, with 1,127 Wood Engravings.
[Crown 8vo. 7 usi ready.
“As the standard manual of botany its position is undisputed.”—Chemist and
Zriggist.
xii MESSRS CHURCHILL's WORKS
W. B. Carpenter
THE MICROSCOPE AND ITS REVELATIONS. By
W. B. CARPENTER, M.D., F.R.S. Fifth Edition, with more than 500 Wood
Engravings . - - - - - - Crown 8vo. just ready.
*...* The author has aimed to combine within a moderate compass that information in
regard to the use of his instrument and its appliances, which is most essential to the
working microscopist, with such an account of the objects best fitted for his study as may
qualify him to comprehend what he observes, and thus prepare him to benefit science,
whilst expanding and refreshing his own mind.
}. A. Marzzzz
A MANUAL OF MICROSCOPIC MOUNTING ; with Notes
on the Collection and Examination of Objects. By JOHN H. MARTIN,
author of “Microscopic Objects.” With upwards of IOO Engravings.
[8vo, 7s. 6d.
*...* The aim of this work is to supply the student with a concise manual of the prin-
ciples of microscopic mounting, and to assist his progress in the manual dexterity, as far
as illustrations and words render it possible, necessary in their application.
THE QUARTERLY- JOURNAL OF MICROSCOPICAL
SCIENCE. (Established in 1852.) Edited by Dr. J. F. PAYNE, Demon-
strator of Morbid Anatomy, and Assist.-Physician at St. Thomas's Hospital;
Mr. E. RAY LANKESTER, Fellow of Exeter College, Oxford ; and W. T.
THISELTON DYER, Professor of Botany to the Royal Horticultural Society.
[Annual Subscription, 16s. ; Single Numbers, 4s.
*...* The Memoirs are, when needful, illustrated by Lithographic Plates, many of which
are Coloured. The Journal contains, in addition, Notes and Memoranda, Reviews of
Books, Quarterly Chronicle, and Proceedings of Societies.
— O—
3. Fayrer
THE THANATOPHIDIA OF INDIA ; being a Description
of the Venomous Snakes of the Indian Peninsula. With an Account of
the Influence of their Poison on Life, and a Series of Experiments. By
J. FAYRER, M.D., C.S.I., Honorary Physician to the Queen ; late President
of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. Second Edition, with 3 I Plates (28
Coloured) . - - - - - - - - - Folio, 7/. 7s.



MESSRS CHURCHILL's WORKS xiii
- A. Chauveau and G. Fleming
CHA UVE AU'S COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF THE
DOMESTICATED ANIMALS. Translated from the Second French
Edition, and Edited by GEORGE FLEMING, F.R.G.S., Veterinary Surgeon,
Royal Engineers; Author of “Travels on Horseback in Mantchu Tartary,”
“Horse-shoes and Horse-shoeing,” “Animal Plagues,” etc.
Engravings on Wood
“The want of a text-book on the Com-
parative Anatomy of the Domesticated
Animals has long been felt. The present
work is the fruit of a desire to fill a void in
medical literature which has always existed,
so far as the English language is concerned.
The care and attention with which hippo-
tomy has been cultivated on the Continent
are illustrated by every page in M. Chau-
veau’s work. -
description, say of the arteries of the head
and neck of the horse, as given in Chau-
veau's work, with the elaborate description
given in Quain or Ellis of the same arteries
in man, we shall find that in minuteness of
detail the anthropotomist has been very
closely rivalled by the hippotomist.
In taking leave of this book we may con-
gratulate Mr. Fleming on the completion
of so great and useful an undertaking. He
has translated his author into excellent
scientific English, and his contributions
(which in the text are placed between
brackets) are proof of the large amount of
study and research he has given to make
}. A'eay Greene
TABLES OF ZOOLOGY: indicating the Tribes,
of the Animal Kingdom, for Students,
By J. REAY GREENE, M.D., Professor of Natural
Orders, and Higher Groups
Lecturers, and others.
History in the Queen's University in Ireland.
the set; or, mounted on canvas, with roller and varnished
With 450
- . 8vo, A. I IIs. 6d.
the book as complete as possible. He has
not only produced a most valuable—and,
in fact, the only—anatomical text-book for
the veterinary student, but he has given us
a work to be prized by every scientific
man who wishes to become acquainted with
the anatomy of the higher vertebrata.”—
Medical Times and Gazette, May 10, 1873.
If we compare the
good.
“This is a valuable work, well con-
ceived and well executed by the authors,
MM. Chauveau and Arloing, and well
translated by Mr. Fleming. Altogether
the work reminds us very much of Quain
and Sharpey's, where the histological part
in the latter intercalated with the syste-
matic; and this is giving it no slight praise.
We have compared M. Chauveau's descrip-
tion of the bones and other organs, where
practicable, with those of Owen, Huxley,
Flower, and other English writers, and find
that they are in general very accurate and
The illustrations are very
numerous, and Mr. Fleming has introduced
a large number that are not contained in
the original work.”—Zanceſ, May 31, 1873.
O-
Sub-Orders,
Three large sheets, 7s. 6d.
18s.
*...* These Tables have been carefully prepared in accordance with the present state of
science, and with a view to remove the difficulties which arise from the various opinions
held by different zoologists.
–0-
T. H. Hurley
A MANUAL OF THE ANATOMY OF VERTEBRATED
ANIMALS.
ings. - - -
By Prof. HUXLEY, LL.D., F.R.S.
With numerous Engrav-
[Feap. 8vo, 12s.
By the same Author
INTRODUCTION to the CLASSIFICATION of ANIMALS.
With Engravings
- - - - - - 8vo, 6s.

xiv. MESSRS CHURCHILL's WORKS
- -
- W. M. Ord */
NOTES ON COMPARATIVE ANATOMY : a Syllabus of
a Course of Lectures delivered at St. Thomas's Hospital. By WILLIAM
MILLER ORD, M.B. Lond, M.R.C.P., Assistant-Physician to the Hospital,
and Lecturer in its Medical School . - - - . Crown 8vo, 5s.
“Compact, lucid, and well arranged. ‘‘We have gone through it carefully, and
These Notes will, if well used, be valuable we are thoroughly satisfied with the manner
to learners, perhaps still more so to in which the author has discharged his task.”
teachers.”—AWature. —Pop. Science Æeview.
-
-
}ohn Shea .
A MANUAL OF ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY. With Appendix
of Examination Questions. By JOHN SHEA, M.D., B.A. Lond. With
numerous Engravings . - - - • - - FCap. 8vo, 5s. 6d.
-
-O-
VESTIGES of the NATURAL HISTORY OF CREATION.
With Ioo Engravings on Wood. Eleventh Edition . Post 8vo, 7s.6d.
– 0–
Azadrezºy WZ/sozz
T H E S T U D E N T’S G U I D E T O Z, O O L O G Y.
By ANDREW WILSON, Author of “Elements of Zoology,” and Lecturer
on Zoology, Edinburgh. With Engravings - - . Izz AVoz/e/zóer
--
—O—
R. G. Mayne
MEDICAL VOCABULARY : an Explanation of all Names,
Synonymes, Terms, and Phrases used in Medicine and the Relative
Branches of Medical Science, giving their correct Derivation, Meaning,
| Application, and Pronunciation. Intended specially as a Book of Reference
for the Young Student. Third Edition . . . FCap 8vo, 8s. 6d.
“We have referred to this work hundreds | Botanical, and Pharmaceutical Terms are.
of times, and have always obtained the in- to be found on almost every page.”—
formation we required . . . Chemical, | Chemist and ZXruggist.
—- O
G. Dawson
A M A N U A L OF PHO TO G R A PHY. By GEORGE
DAWSON, M.A., Ph.D., Lecturer on Photography in King's College, London.
- Eighth Edition, with Engravings - - Foap 8vo, 5s. 6d.
| “The new edition of this excellent many new methods and materials which
manual, which is founded on and incorpo- | are so frequently being introduced, make it
rates as much of Hardwich’s “Photographic essential that any book professing to keep
Chemistry’ as is valuable in the present up to the times must be frequently revised,
further advanced stage of the art, retains and Dr. Dawson has in this work presented
its position as the best work on the subject the subject in its most advanced position.”
for amateurs, as well as professionals. The –AWature, May 29, 1873.

MESSRS CHURCHILL's WoRKS XV
Lake Price
A MANUAL OF PHOTOGRAPHIC MANIPULATION.
By LAKE PRICE. Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged, with numerotis
Engravings Crown 8vo, 6s. 6d.
*...* Amongst the Contents are the Practical Treatment of Portraits—Groups in the
Studio—Landscapes—Groups in Open Air—Instantaneous Pictures—Animals—Architec-
ture—Marine Subjects—Still Life—Copying of Pictures, Prints, Drawings, Manuscripts,
Interiors—Stereoscopy in Microphotography, &c., and Notices of the last Inventions
and Improvements in Lenses, Apparatus, &c.
“In these days, when mearly every intel-
ligent person can, after a few weeks, master
the manipulatory details of our art-science,
attention to the artistic treatment of sub-
jects is a matter for the serious considera-
desire to enter on this path, Mr. LAKE
PRICE, in the volume before us, proves
himself to be ‘a guide, philosopher, and
friend.’”—7%e British journal of Photo-
graphy.
tion of the Photographer; and to those who
0 —
C. Brooke
THE ELEMENTS OF NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. By
CHARLES BROOKE, M.B., M.A., F.R.S. Based on the Work of the late
Dr. GOLDING BIRD. Sixth Edition, with 700 Engravings on Wood.
[Foap 8vo, 12s. 6d.
CONTENTS
I, Elementary Laws and Properties of Matter : Internal or Molecular Forces—
2, Properties of Masses of Matter : External Forces—3, Statics—4, The Mechanical
Powers, or Simple Machines—5, Principles of Mechanism—6, Dynamics—7, Hydro-
statics—8, Hydrodynamics—9, Pneumatics—IO, Acoustics—II, Magnetism; Diamag-
netism – 12, Franklinic Electricity—13, Voltaic Electricity—14, Electro-Dynamics –
I5, Electro-Telegraphy — 16, Thermo-Electricity –17, Organic Electricity—18, Catop-
trics and Dioptrics–19, Chromatics—2O, Optical Instruments—21, Polarised Light –
22, Chemical Action of Light: Photography—23, Thermics —24, Radiant Heat.
0—
G. F. Rodwell
N O T E S O N N A T U R A L P H I L O S O P. H. Y.
By G. F. ROOWELL, F.R.A.S., Lecturer on Natural Philosophy in Guy’s
Hospital, Science Master in Marlborough College. With 48 Wood Engrav-
ings Crown 8vo, 5s.
of scientific terms.”—
Examination [the Preliminary Scientific | Nature.
(M.B.) of the University of London], it is “A well-arranged and carefully-written
quite the best one we have seen . The condensation of the leading facts and prin-
“As an introductory text-book for this the derivations
Notes’ chiefly consist of lucid and con- ciples of the chief elements of Natural
cise definitions, and everywhere bristle with | Philosophy.”—Chemical AV ws.
—0–
- A. Ko/h/razzsch
AN INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICAL MEASUREMENTS,
With Appendices on Absolute Electrical Measurement, etc.
KOHLRAUSCH. Translated from the Second German Edition by T. H.
WALLER, B.A., B.Sc., and H. R. PROCTER, F.C. S. With Engravings.
[8vo, 12s.
By Dr. F.
XV1 MESSRS CHURCHILL's WORKS
|
º-
THE following CATALOGUES issued by Messrs CHURCHILL
will be forwarded post free on application:
I. Messrs Churchill's General Zist of 400 works on Medicine,
Surgery, Midwifery, Materia Medica, Hygiene, Anatomy,
Physiology, Chemistry, &c, &c.
2. Selection from Messrs Churchill's General Zist, comprising:
all recent works published by them on the Art and Science
of Medicine.
3. A descriptive Zist of Messrs Churchill's works on Chemistry,
Pharmacy, Botany, Photography, and other Öranches of
Science. -
4. Messrs Churchill's Red-Leſter Zist, giving the Titles of
fort/coming New Works and New Editions. -
[Published every October.]
5. The Medical /nte//gencer, an Annual / ist of AVew Works
and Wew Editions published by Messrs J. & A. Churchill,
[Sent in January of each year to every Medical Practitioner in the United
Kingdom whose name and address can be ascertained. A large number
are also sent to the United States of America, Continental Europe, India,
and the Colonies.]
*vºv-vºv-v-va-vºvºvºvºrºvºvºvºvºvºvºvºvºv-
MESSRS CHURCHILL have concluded a special arrangement with
MESSRS LINDSAY & BLAKISTON, OF PHILADELPHIA, in accordance
with which that Firm will act as their Agents for the United States of
America, either keeping in Stock most of Messrs CHURCHILL's Books, or
reprinting them on Terms advantageous to Authors. Many of the Works
in this Catalogue may therefore be easily obtained in America.
-
| 5
º- T
M“Gowan & Danks, Printers, Great Windmill Street, Haymarket.
º -
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THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
GRADUATE LIBRARY
DATE DUE
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Liiiii.
39015 06370 5597
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