2187
ARTES
SCIENTIA
VERITAS
LIBRARY
OF THE
UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
TIEHOR
WALAN
SQUARIS PERINCIANAMZNAM
CIRCUMSTICE
VOLT 19
Museums

MUSEUMS
715
6:59
1892




AMERICAN
piata
Statural Histori
D. GODMAN M.D.
1
1 raun ly Martin
Engravat by Kamy
..
2'hiladelphia
R.W. POMEROY.


AMERICAN
NATURAL HISTORY.
BY
JOHN D. GODMAN, M.D.
TO WHICH IS ADDED
HIS LAST WORK,
THE RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST,
WITH
A BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF THE AUTHOR.
IN TWO VOLUMES.
VOL. I.
THIRD EDITION.
PHILADELPHIA:
PUBLISHED BY R. W. POMEROY,
1842

ENTERED according to Act of Congress, in the year 1836, by
R. W. POMEROY,
in the Clerk's Office of the Distric. Cuur. of the Easiern District of Pennsylvania.
C. SHERMAN AND CO., PRINTERS,
19, ST. JAMES STREET, PHILADELPHIA.

MUSEUMS
GIFT
GAIGE COM
6-3-83
2243799
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
OF
JOHN D. GODMAN, M.D.
JOHN D. GODMAN was born at Annapolis, in the state of Maryland, on
the 20th day of December, 1794. In early infancy he was deprived by
death of both his parents; and when scarcely two years old was left to the
care of an aunt then residing at Wilmington, in the state of Delaware. His
father when he died possessed but little property, and of that little young
Godman was soon after fraudulently deprived. To his aunt he was, in con-
sequence, solely indebted for nurture and education, at a period of life when
he stood most in need of the fostering care and watchful guardianship of a mo-
ther's and a father's love. His aunt appears, however, to have faithfully sup-
plied, as far as was within her power, the loss he had sustained by the death
of his parents. She is represented as "a lady, who, from the superiority of
her intellect and education, as well as the sweetness of her disposition and
her elevated piety, was eminently qualified to unfold, impress, and direct the
youthful mind.”
Under such culture young Godman received the first
rudiments of his education and his earliest moral impressions. During his
last illness he was often heard to speak in raptures of his aunt, and say,
“If I have ever been led to do any good, it has been through the influence
of her example, instruction, and prayers."
When he had attained his fourth year, his aunt removed from Delaware
to Chestertown upon the eastern shore of Maryland, and here the little
orphan was first placed at school.
He had already become the idol of the family, but he now manifested
such a precocity of intellect, such a fondness for books, so great an aptitude
to learn, and withal evinced so much sensibility, frankness, and sweetness
of disposition, that he gained the affection and excited the admiration of all
who knew him. His reverence to truth was such, even from his infancy,
that he was never known even to equivocate.
When he was seven years old his aunt died, and he was left without any
suitable protector or guide, exposed to the neglect and temptations so often
connected with adversity.
On the death of his aunt, young Godman was bound as an apprentice to
the printer of a newspaper in the city of Baltimore. With this situation

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BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
9
66
a
however, he was from the commencement extremely dissatisfied. In a letter
written in July, 1812, to Dr. Luckey, in whom he had found an early friend,
he declares that it was worse than "cramping his genius over a pestle and
mortar,"—it was “cramping it over a font of types, where there are words
without ideas."
Addicted to reading, remarks Dr. Drake, and aspiring to a more intel-
lectual pursuit, it is not probable that our young printer was much devoted
to the drudgery of the office, or performed his duties con amore; which may
sufficiently explain the origin of the difficulties set forth in the following
paragraph from a subsequent letter to the same gentleman.
Every thing is in statu quo with me. The same series of oppressions, im-
positions, and insults are still my lot to bear. But I will not bear them long.
From the oldest to the youngest, master and man, all seem to have a disposi-
tion to peck at me. You will, or may, be surprised to hear that I can never
make a printer. It is an erroneous opinion of some people, that no one can
make a printer unless he be a scholar. On the contrary, scholars can hardly,
if at all, be printers. I would not wish you to think that I count myself a
scholar. On the contrary I think myself no scholar.”
The following extract from another letter, dated in October of the ensuing
year, shows, that at this early period, young Godman was threatened with
the malady which ultimately destroyed him.
6 The disease for which I mentioned a recipe in my last has commenced
its direful effects on my poor body. A continued pain in my breast, and
at night a slow but burning fever, convince me that I am travelling down
a much frequented road to the place where disease has no effect. This,
my friend, is no phantasy. I do not say it from affectation. I feel it. I
cannot believe in this disease being contagious, or I should be certain that
I have caught it. I sleep with a youth who was born with it and has it
fully.”
In the opinion of Dr. Luckey, Godman, at that early period, laboured
under a hypertrophy of the heart.
His early predilection for intellectual pursuits, and his unbounded confi-
dence in his own powers and resources, are happily illustrated by the follow-
ing anecdote related by Dr. Luckey.
In the year 1810 the latter gentleman was student of medicine in the
office of Dr. Thomas E. Bond of Baltimore.
“ The office," he remarks," was fitted up with taste, and boys, attracted
by its appearance, would frequently drop in, to gaze on the labelled jars
and drawers. Among them I discovered, one evening, an interesting lad,
who was amusing himself with the manner in which his comrades pro-
nounced the hard words' with which the furniture was labelled. He ap-
peared to be quite an adept in the Latin language. A strong curiosity soon
prompted me to inquire, . Who are you?— Don't you recollect,' said he,
that you visited a boy at Mr. Creery's who had a severe attack of bilious
colic ?I do. But what is your name, my little boy ?' He was small of
his age. My name, sir, is John D. Godman.' Did you study the Latin
-
6

OF JOHN D. GODMAN.
-
language with Mr. Creery? No, he does not teach any but an English
school.' • Do you intend to prosecute your studies alone ? "I do. And I
will, if I live, make myself a Latin, Greek, and French scholar.”
Throughout the whole of his apprenticeship, young Godman evinced a
strong desire to study medicine, but his guardian was opposed to any change
in his destination. Early in the month of January, 1814, he wrote to Dr.
Luckey as follows :-
“ At the suggestion of Dr. Anderson, I have determined to commence the
study of chemistry, as he says it will be a great improvement to the mind,
and more so, I may be enabled, the ensuing season, if I should live so long,
to attend the lectures at the University (of Maryland,) and it seems to run
greatly in Dr. A.'s head that I shall one day be a physician. How far this
surmise may be right, time will disclose. It may indeed so happen, and
should I study chemistry now, I shall not have it to do at a future period.
I must however ask your opinion in this affair.”
Soon after he wrote thus to the same gentleman :-“I have read the
catechetical part of Parkes' Chemistry, and I can assure you I liked it not
a little. But my knowledge, so far as I may obtain it, will only be theo-
retical."
In the same letter he sets forth his early views of the Christian religion :
“ I have not ever had a fixed determination to read the works of that modern
serpent, (Thomas Paine,) nor had I determined not to do it; and it seems
to me surprising, that a fellow student of yours should recommend the
perusal of such writings as Thomas Paine's.
“I had, thank heaven, before I asked you the question, and still have the
• Apology for the Bible,' by the celebrated Lord Regius of Landaff, (Bishop
Watson.) There is a great comfort in the belief of that glorious doctrine
of salvation, that teaches us to look to the great Salvator for happiness in a
future life; and it has always been my earnest desire, and I must endea-
vour to die the death of the righteous, that my last end and future state may
be like his. It would be a poor hope indeed—it would be a sandy founda-
tion for the dying soul, to have no hope but such as might be derived from
the works of Bolingbroke and Paine ; and how rich the consolation and
satisfaction afforded by the glorious tidings of the blessed Scriptures. It is
my opinion, there has never one of these modern deists died as their
writings would lead us to believe; nor are but few of their writings read
at the present day.”
In the year 1814, when the fleet of the enemy had entered the Chesa-
peake, and was laying waste many of the villages upon its shores, young
Godman became a sailor under Commodore Barney, and was engaged in
service at the bombardment of Fort McHenry.
Early in the next year, Dr. Luckey, who had become captivated by his
genius and touched by his misfortunes, resolved to invite him to his house
in Elizabethtown, and afford him all the facilities in his power for study-
ing the profession to which he aspired. It does not appear in what manner
he had rid himself of his apprenticeship, but it seems he was at liberty to

vi
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
accept the doctor s generous invitation, which he did with emotions of joy
that are expressed in the following simple and affecting reply, dated on the
4th of April, 1815.
“I have this hour received your last letter, and I can assure you, that
language is inadequate to express to you my sincere, unfeigned joy, for the
pleasing news you have communicated to me. Let the manner in which
these lines are penned, convince you of the state of my mind at present. I
was, thirty minutes before I received your letter, on the point of going to a
printer, in this city, to seek employment, and, but for Providence, I
should have done so. You may suppose, that as soon as I read your letter,
I abandoned this intention and returned to my sister's house,* with fire in
each eye, and paper in each hand,' to answer your epistle of friendship’s
own dictating. I must lay this aside for a short time, till my mind becomes
settled and undisturbed. I stopped at the line above, in order that I might
recover a small degree of composure, in order to express myself as I ought,
to so good a friend. I will certainly comply with your request, should it
please God to continue my health and strength during the ensuing week.
Should it please the mercy of Providence to suffer me to take up my resi-
dence with
you, I shall endeavour, by the most indefatigable study and dili-
gence, to give you the satisfaction your kindness to me deserves. I am in
hopes that I shall be able to come some day in the course of the next week,
but as my journey must be a pedestrian one, I should not wish to mention
a particular day.”
“ Four days after the date of this letter, he arrived,” remarks Dr. Luckey,
“at my house, and took up his residence in my family. He made his
promise good, for in six weeks he had acquired more knowledge in the
different departments of medical science, than most students do in a year.
During this short period he not only read Chaptal, Fourcroy, Chesselden,
Murray, Brown, Cullen, Rush, Sydenham, Sharp and Cooper, but wrote
annotations on each, including critical remarks on the incongruities in their
reasonings. He remained with me five months, and at the end of that
time, you would have imagined from his conversation, that he was an Edin-
burgh graduate. When he sat down to study, so completely was he ab-
sorbed by his subject, that it seemed as though the amputation of one of
his limbs would scarcely withdraw his attention.”
A circumstance, in no manner connected with the relation existing be-
tween young Godman and his benefactor, as pupil and preceptor, but in-
volving them both, led to a premature separation. One or both of them
were requested by the political party to which they were attached, to deli-
ver orations on the approaching fourth of July. Dr. Luckey began at the
appointed hour, and went through with his address, but attempts were made
by individuals of the opposite party to offer insult and create disturbance,
at which our young hero became indignant, and yielding to his naturally
strong feelings, not only refused to deliver what he had prepared, but re-
* Mrs. Stella Miller, of Baltimore.

OF JOHN D. GODMAN.
vii
6
solved on returning forthwith to Baltimore. His oration was left with his
preceptor, who speaks of it as not unworthy of Patrick Henry.
Departing from Elizabethtown, young Godman returned to Baltimore,
and became a pupil of Dr. Hall of that city; and, in the succeeding autumn,
began to attend the medical lectures. His pecuniary difficulties, however,
were pressing, and in the ensuing February, 1816, he wrote to his benefac-
tor in the following eloquent and affecting style.
“ Need I then inform you how high my expectations were raised, when
I commenced attending the lectures this winter ? need I say, I was almost
certain of future competency ? Alas! my friend, the great Ruler of events
has interposed, in order to teach me resignation to his will, this heavy dis-
appointment. By unforeseen events, by domestic calamities, I have been
compelled to relinquish the study of medicine, so long the ultimatum of all
my hopes. FATHER OF ALL, THY WILL BE DONE.
I have made this my
motto—my consolation; and did I not daily see the truth of omnia pro
optimo,' I might perhaps repine. I am now in expectation of a situation
with an eminent apothecary of this city, and I may be enabled, at a future
period, to recommence the study of medicine."
The situation here alluded to he did not, however, obtain.
“Let me now give you," he continues, "a retrospect of the days of my
life! Since I have returned from you, I have discovered my real age, in an
old book of my father's, and you would hardly suppose it, I was twenty-
,
I
one years old the twentieth day of December, 1815. Before I was two
years old I was motherless—before I was five years old I was fatherless
and friendless I have been cast among strangers I have been deprived
of property by fraud, that was mine by right-I have eaten the bread of
misery-I have drunk of the cup of sorrow-I have passed the flower of my
days in a state little better than slavery, and have arrived at what ? man-
hood, poverty, and desolation. Heavenly Parent, teach me patience and
resignation to thy will !"
About this period he appears to have found an active patron in Professor
Davidge, and, on the 18th of April following, he wrote to Dr. Luckey.
“I still continue to study with Dr. Wright, (the partner of Dr. Davidge,)
and provided it shall be the will of Heaven, I may possibly procure admis-
sion in the course of the next year, into the venerable circle of medicine."
In speaking of his perplexed and embarrassed situation, and of the muta-
tions of fortune, he says:
“ There is only one thing which points to, and affords immutable conso-
lation, and that is, the observance of religion. Although we should be in-
capable of reaping enjoyment in this world, even from uninterrupted pros-
perity, yet we can ardently long for, and sincerely believe, we may be
eternally happy in the next."
With Professor Davidge and his partner, Dr. Wright, young Godman
completed his medical education. In the language of Professor Sewall :-
“Here he pursued his studies with such diligence and zeal, as to furnish,
even at that early period, strong intimations of his future eminence. So

viii
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
indefatigable was he in the acquisition of knowledge, that he left no oppor-
tunity of advancement unimproved, and notwithstanding the deficiencies of
his preparatory education, he pressed forward with an energy and perseve-
rance, that enabled him not only to rival, but to surpass all his fellows."
He appears to have attended the lectures in the Baltimore school, through
the sessions commencing in the autumns of 1816 and 1817. In the course
of the last, Professor Davidge was disabled by an accident, for several
weeks, and Mr. Godman was appointed to supply his place. This, as he
had been an apprentice to a trade, not three years before, in the same city,
was an honourable testimony to his talents and industry, and must have
been highly gratifying to his ambition. According to Professor Sewall,-
“ This situation he filled for several weeks with so much propriety-he
lectured with such enthusiasm and eloquence, his illustrations were so clear
and happy, as to gain universal applause; and at the time he was examined
for his degree, the superiority of his mind, as well as the extent and accu-
racy of his knowledge, were so apparent, that he was marked by the profes-
sors of the university as one who was destined at some future period to confer
high honour upon the profession. Upon this occasion a prize medal was
awarded him for the best Latin thesis."
In reference to his graduation Dr. Godman wrote to his friend Dr. Luckey
in these emphatic words :-
“ I know not what to tell you for news, unless I tell you that I passed
my graduate examination, on Saturday, (February 7, 1818;) which lasted
twenty minutes, and of course I have now the vast unbounded prospect all
before me;' though shadows, clouds, and darkness rest upon it.' I will
go to the country to practice, most probably to Frederic county."
In the United States, remarks Professor Drake, to whose very excellent
biographical notice of Dr. Godman we are chiefly indebted for the materials
of which the present sketch is composed, it is common to see young men,
without preparatory education or fortune, become practitioners of medicine;
but most of this class struggle into the ranks of the profession, totally unpre-
pared, and depart from it for other pursuits, or for the grave, unknown and
unhonoured by the scientific world. Such an admission must not be confounded
with that of young Godman, who scorned to enter the profession unqualified
and unauthorized by those who guard, or ought to guard, its portals. In
this respect he was a shining example; and his subsequent success should
animate every friendless young man, who may engage in the study of medi-
cine, to imitate his industry and unfaltering perseverance. By these means,
if not blessed with his genius, they may prepare themselves for extensive
usefulness, and earn respectability, if not renown.
We come now to contemplate Dr. Godman as a member of the profes-
sion. Having, notwithstanding the apparently insurmountable difficulties
against which he had to contend, originating in the want of influential
friends, and in the extreme poverty in which he was plunged from infancy,
succeeded in completing his medical studies and obtaining his degree, he
commenced forthwith the practice of his profession in the village of New
6

OF JOHN D. GODMAN.
ix
a
Holland, on the banks of the Susquehanna ; at the termination of a few
months he left this situation, and repaired to a small village in Anne Arun-
del county in his native state ; whence he wrote to Dr. Luckey in July,
1819, as follows:
· My success in business has been considerable, or my practice, at least,
has been as extensive as I could rationally expect—what my success may
be in the end is at present very doubtful. I still have considerable expecta-
tion of being recalled to Baltimore, in order to fill the place which I held
in the university. If it so happen, I shall be much delighted, as a country
life is very little, or not at all, to my taste.”
In these rural situations the active mind of Dr. Godman was not content
with those scientific pursuits more immediately connected with his profes-
sion; he devoted himself with the utmost enthusiasm to the study of nature;
and at a subsequent period, set forth the fruits of his observations in a series
of
papers, entitled the Rambles of a Naturalist. These beautiful sketches,
which appeared originally in a weekly journal published in Philadelphia,
although struck off on the spur of the occasion, possess all the characteristic
freshness and vigour which marked Dr. Godman's style of writing. They
were composed while the author was confined to a bed of sickness, and from
which he was removed in a few weeks afterward to the tomb. The series
was consequently left incomplete.
The ardent temperament of Dr. Godman was little adapted to the stag-
nant existence of a village doctor. He thirsted for competition, and longed
to engage in the rivalries which prevail among the candidates for fame.
Nature seems to have urged him on. It was she who revealed to him the
compass of his intellectual powers; and bid him seek a theatre commensu-
rate with their efficiency.
A different arrangement was made in the Baltimore school from what he
had anticipated, and he was thus disappointed in receiving the appointment
of public teacher, to which he had evidently looked forward with no little
anxiety, and for fulfilling the duties of which, with honour to the school and
advantage to its pupils, he was even then so well qualified. He nevertheless
returned to Baltimore as a situation which afforded him more ample oppor.
tunities for the study of anatomy, which he justly regarded as the founda-
tion of medical science.
About this time Dr. Godman formed a connexion by marriage, an event
which contributed equally to his domestic happiness and literary advance-
ment. Soon after his marriage he removed to Philadelphia, but had scarcely
settled in that city, when he received a pressing invitation to accept the pro-
fessorship of anatomy in the medical college of Ohio; an institution then
recently established. His qualifications for this situation were expressed
by Professor Gibson, then of the university of Pennsylvania, but previously
a member of the Baltimore institution, in the following unequivocal and
prophetic language. “In my opinion, Dr. Godman would do honour to
any school in America." He was forthwith appointed, and arrived in
В
B.

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BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
a
a
Cincinnati the ensuing October, (1821,) in time to enter on the duties of
his chair with the commencement of the second session of the school.
For the practical details of such a professorship, remarks Dr. Drake, he
could not, of course, be well prepared, as his surgical experience was ex-
ceedingly limited, but he was learned in the institutes of the science, and
his knowledge of anatomy was comprehensive, accurate, and commanding.
As a dissector, he was equally rapid and adroit. His lectures were well
received by the class, who admired his genius, were captivated by his
eloquence, and charmed with the naïveté of his manners.
In the course of the session, difficulties, of which he was neither the
cause nor the victim, were generated in the faculty; the class was small,
and the prospects of the institute overcast : under these circumstances, Dr.
Godman resigned his professorship, but did not at that time return to the
east.
A short time previously Dr. Drake of Cincinnati had issued proposals
for a medical journal, to be edited by the professors of the college, and ob-
tained a number of subscribers; but the distracted state of the institution
prevented the fulfilment of the design. To this enterprise, as soon as he
had resigned, Dr. Godman directed his attention; and assisted by Mr.
Foote, a liberal and literary bookseller of Cincinnati, in a few weeks issued
the first number of the Western Quarterly Reporter. Thus, if not the first to
project, Dr. Godman had the honour of being the first to commence, a jour-
nal of medicine in the Valley of the Mississippi. At the termination of six
numbers, of a hundred pages each, the work was discontinued, for, previously
to that time, its editor had returned to Philadelphia. More than three hun-
dred pages of this periodical were from his own pen, chiefly in translations
and reviews of anatomy, physiology, and medical jurisprudence.
Dr. Godman resided only one year in Cincinnati, but in that short period
he deeply inscribed himself on the public mind, and acquired the confidence
and affection of a respectable circle of friends. In addition to writing for
the medical journal just referred to, and to his practice, which was consi-
derable for a stranger, he erected an apparatus for sulphurous fumigation,
and translated and published a French pamphlet in relation to that remedy;
he read medical books, and many current works of general literature; pro-
secuted the study of the German and Spanish languages; and labelled the
ancient coins and medals of the Western Museum. In the midst of the whole,
he found sufficient time to cultivate his social relations; and every day
added a new friend to the catalogue of those, who loved him for his simpli-
city and frankness of manners, not less than they esteemed him for his
virtues, and admired him for his genius, vivacity, and diligence. Thus,
to use an idiomatic expression, he was a growing man, and might have re-
mained there and done well. But the hand of destiny was upon him.
He had left the banks of the Patapsco to be a public teacher; the same
object had drawn him from Philadelphia to Cincinnati; and that object,
.at length, restored him to the great emporium of the medical science.
Contrary to the wishes and importunities of his western friends, he set

OF JOHN D. GODMAN.
xi
a
off, in the autumn of 1822, with his young family, for the theatre of his
future glory; which he reached in safety, though not without some of the
many difficulties, at that time connected with a journey across the state of
Ohio, of which, in a letter written from Wheeling to a friend in Cincinnati,
he gave a familiar account, in all respects so characteristic, that we shall be
excused for extracting it.
“We arrived last night, after a journey which exceeded in miseries any
twenty journeys I ever made in my life. Thank God, the whole has been
productive of nothing worse, than some hoarseness to my wife, and a gai-
loping consumption of my bank notes. We were thirteen days on the way,
twelve of which gave us as heavy rains as ever poor mortals could venture
to travel in ; and this produced such a delightfully soft state of the roads,
that but for the rocks, (which fortunately were not twenty feet below the
surface,) we might have been extracted some thousand years hence, in a
high state of preservation, to decorate Best's Museum, having one of Dor-
feuille's mummy labels around our necks.
“If I were one of the tristful travellers,' I might draw much matter of
melancholy' from these misadventures,' as my friend Sancho Panza calls
them. But as the blessed sun of heaven has driven forth once more in his
beamy chariot, and the clouds are scattered from their long held seats, those
which have loured on my mind have also fled ; and with a light heart,' I
am once more preparing to encounter all the good that God may send."
The difficulties which Dr. Godman encountered during the whole of his
western tour, would have broken down a spirit less buoyant and energetic
than his own; but he bore up under his accumulated labours and privations
with unshaken firmness and steady perseverance. Arriving at Philadelphia,
he commenced that career of research and discovery which laid the foundir-
tion of his future eminence.
More ambitious of fame, and more eager for the acquisition and diffusion
of useful knowledge, than for the accumulation of wealth, Dr. Godman, on
settling in Philadelphia, rather retired from the field of practice, that he
might employ all his time, and exert all his powers, in scientific pursuits.
He was thus, in a great measure, removed from the pitiful rivalries and
jealousies of the profession; and placed in a situation which enabled him
to enjoy the friendship without alarming the fears of his medical contempo-
raries.
His main object was to make himself a thorough anatomist, and to qualify
himself for teaching the science. To this end he opened a room, under the
patronage of the university of Pennsylvania, for giving private demonstra-
tions; and in the first winter he drew around him a class of seventy stu-
dents. He now found himself occupying a field which furnished ample
scope for the exertion of his powers, as well as for the gratification of his
highest ambition. It was while thus engaged in the discharge of the
arduous and laborious duties of this situation, that the foundation was laid
of that fatal disease of which he died; for so eager was he to acquire know-
ledge himself, as well as to impart it to those around him, that he would

xü
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
a
not only expose himself to the foul atmosphere of the anatomical theatre
during the whole day, but often subject himself to the severest toil for a
considerable part of the night; while the moments which were spared from
these labours, instead of being spent in relaxation, or in exercise in the open
air, for the benefit of his health, were employed in composing papers for
the medical journals, in copying the results of his anatomical and physiolo-
gical investigations, in preparing parts of his natural history; or in carrying
on other literary and scientific studies. It is impossible that a constitution,
naturally delicate and predisposed to disease, could long remain unimpaired
under such strenuous and unremitting exertions.
After Dr. Godman had prosecuted his anatomical studies in Philadelphia
for four or five years, his reputation as a teacher became so generally
known, his fame so widely extended, that the eyes of the profession were
directed to him from every part of the country; and in 1826 he was
called to fill the chair of anatomy in Rutger's Medical College, recently esta-
blished in the city of New York.
There could scarcely have been a stronger testimony of the high estima-
tion in which he was held, or of his reputation as a teacher of anatomy,
than this appointment, in an institution, around which several of the most
eminent professors in the country had already rallied ; and which was
called into existence under circumstances of rivalry, that demanded the
highest qualifications in those who were called upon to establish and main-
tain its reputation.
This situation, as well as every other in which Dr. Godman had been
placed, he sustained with a popularity almost unparalleled. He never exhi-
bited in public his talents as a lecturer, but he gathered around him an
admiring audience, who hung with delight upon his lips. But the duties
of the anatomical chair, together with his other scientific pursuits, were too
arduous, and the climate too rigorous, for a constitution already subdued by
labour and confinement, and invaded by disease ; hence, before he had com-
pleted his second course of lectures, he was compelled to retire from the
school, and seek a residence in a milder climate. He repaired with his
family to one of the West India Islands, where he remained until the ap-
proach of summer, when he returned, and settled in Germantown. In this
place and in Philadelphia, he spent the residue of his life.
During the seven years that Dr. Godman resided in Philadelphia and
New York, his life was one of unmitigated toil. Although suffering from
the effects of a disease, (pulmonary consumption,) the incurableness of which
he fully understood, he still pursued with undiminished zeal and industry
his literary and scientific labours.
As far back as November, 1823, he wrote to his friend, Dr. Best,
“Whatever you may think of my long-continued silence, it has been
unavoidably produced by the incessant and laborious employments which
have occupied the whole of my time.”
In 1824, in a letter to another friend, he says:
6 My time has been very much occupied in the various duties which
a

OF JOHN D. GODMAN.
xiii
-
6
devolve on me here, and I am obliged to neglect my friends, in appearance,
because it is out of my power to bestow the necessary attention to corres-
pondence.”
Again, in 1825, he writes to the same :-
"It is needless to tell you that I am excessively occupied, and shall be
more so as the winter approaches.”
.
In the ensuing year we find him still in the same condition :-
“ If you expect news at my hand,” he says to Dr. Best, " you expect in
vain. My life is one monotonous round of incessant toil after bread and
fame, that certain portion of uncertain paper! Of my success in the bread
making way, I can, thank God, speak more satisfactorily than when we
last met, though still nothing to boast of.”
Again, in the same year, he writes :-
“ You recollect how much and how hard I had to work when you were
here—that was nothing to what I have to do now, as vigilance and labour
are incessantly demanded, not only to gain mere reputation, but to retain
that which I have already with vast toil acquired."
In the following year, after he had removed to New York, and was there
a candidate for professional business, he wrote to the same friend :-
“ The prospects of our college are fair enough at present, but what will
be the event, cannot be told until the time of trial arrives. For my part,
I am not a little sick of the life such business occasions, and think you far
better off, in a situation where you can acquire a subsistence and respect
without the incessant worry and vexation attendant on a life of professional
ambition. For my own part, I shall lay myself out for the profession as I
can, though I fear not the best subject for improvement in that
way.
My
situation is such, that I am obliged to rely, in a very great degree, on my
pen, and that, you will say, produces habits very little compatible with the
introduction of one's self into practice, where there are so many professed
bowers, scrapers, and flatterers.”
It was in the subsequent winter that he was seized with the disease of
the lungs of which he finally died, and was compelled to suspend his lec-
tures. In the following January, 1829, he speaks to the same gentleman
of his situation and labours, in these affecting words :-
“My excessive exertion and the exposure to a dreadful climate destroyed
me. My lungs became diseased, and last winter, I was threatened with so
rapid a deeline as to force me to escape from the climate of New York, by
going to the West Indies. The months of February, March, and April, my
wife and I spent in the Danish Island of Santa Cruz, where I very nearly
perished from my disease, though I should certainly have done so in New
York. On my return to Philadelphia in May, I took a house in German-
town, within seven miles of the city, where I have since resided. During the
warm weather I was able to creep about, but since the first of the fall have
been confined to a single room. My health during all this time has been in
a very wretched state, and my consumption very obvicus indeed ; for I
wasted to bores, and lost all my strength. Until the last three weeks past,
-

xiy
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
a
I was exceedingly low, unable to sit up, eat, or perform any function advan-
tageously. Since the time mentioned I have greatly recovered in all
respects. My cough is by no means troublesome, and I eat and sleep well.
What is best of all, is that I have never had hectic since leaving New
York, where I was not properly prescribed for. Notwithstanding all these
drawbacks, I have had my family to support, and have done so merely by
my pen. This you may suppose severe enough for one in my condition,
nevertheless necessity is a ruthless master. At present, that I am compara-
tively well, my literary occupations form my chief pleasure, and all the
regret I experience is, that my strength is so inadequate to my wishes.
Should my health remain as it is now, I shall do very well, and I cannot
but hope, since we have recently passed through a tremendous spell of cold
weather without my receiving any injury. All my prospects as a public
teacher of anatomy are utterly destroyed, as I can never hope, nor would I
venture if I could, again to resume my labours. My success promised to
be very great, but it has pleased God that I should move in a different direc-
tion."
From the time Dr. Godman left New York, his disease advanced with
such a steady pace as to leave but little hope, either to himself or his friends,
of his final recovery. He lingered but a few months; his death occurring
on the morning of the 17th of April, 1830; he being then in the thirty-sixth
year of his age.
From the letters which he wrote during the latter portion of his life, we
gather some interesting particulars of his occupations as well as of the state
of mind, whilst disease was gradually destroying his body; and he looked
forward to the period of his dissolution, which he was well aware could not
be far removed. In a letter to Professor Sewall, under date of February
17, 1829, he remarks,—“Since my last to you, my health has suffered various
and most afflicting changes. The unusual severity of the weather, and
other scarcely perceptible causes, induced an attack of inflammation in the
diseased lung, which, in my enfeebled condition, required more of depletion
and reduction of diet than could be readily borne; hemorrhage ensued on
the third or fourth day, which relieved the local affection considerably, and
by the aid of blistering frequently, and perfect rest, I gradually amended ;
still the great suffering caused by the mental and corporeal debility, was
beyond any thing ever before experienced by me, even after the active con-
dition of disease was cheeked. But thanks to the mercies of Him who is
alone able to save, the valley and shadow of death were stripped of their
terrors, and the deseent to the grave was smoothed before me. But I have
been restored to a state of comparative health, and I am again allowed to
think of the education of my children, and the support of my family."
In October of the same year, he writes to the same gentleman, as
follows:
“My health is, as for a considerable time past, in a very tolerable condition ;
that is, I can sit up a great part of the day writing or reading without much
injury. My emaciation is great, and though not very rapid, is steady, so
-

OF JOHN D. GODMAN.
XV
a
that the change in my strength takes place almost imperceptibly. On the
whole, though I suffer greatly, compared with persons in health, yet so
gentle have the chastenings of the Lord fallen upon me, that I am hourly
called upon for thankfulness and gratitude for his unfailing mercies. Equal
cause have I had for rejoicing, that I have learned to put my whole trust in
Him; as he has raised me up help and friends in circumstances which
seemed to render even hope impossible, and has blessed me and mine with
peace and content in the midst of all afflictions, trials, and adversity."
In a letter written a short time previously to his decease he observes,-
"I have just concluded the publication of the translation of Levasseur's
account of Lafayette's progress through the United States, which will appear
next week.
“My health has, for the last week or two, been very good for me, since,
notwithstanding my rather excessive application during the time, I conti-
nued to do well. My cough and expectoration are sufficiently troublesome;
but by light diet, and avoiding all irritation, I have but very little trouble
from night sweats, and generally sleep tolerably well. My emaciation
does not appear to advance very rapidly, though there is no reason to believe
it will cease.
“My time is so exceedingly occupied by the literary business I am
engaged in, that it is with great difficulty I can attend to any other affairs.
However, I have always intended to leave behind me the sort of memoranda
you wish for, which my friends may use at their discretion. .
“I have to-day, as above mentioned, concluded one book, which leaves
me at liberty to write some long-deferred letters. To-morrow, I must
.
resume my pen, to complete some articles of zoology for the Encyclopædia
Americana, now preparing in Boston. It shall be my constant endeavour to
husband my strength to the last; and by doing as much as is consistent
with safety, for the good of my fellow creatures, endeavour to discharge a
mite of the immense debt I owe for the never failing bounties of Provi-
dence."
He did, with unexampled care, husband his strength, and he toiled with
his pen almost to the last hours of his life. But for what purpose did he
thus toil ? not for the acquisition of wealth, for this he could not enjoy ;
nor for posthumous fame, for this be did not desire. It was, as he affect-
,
ingly tells us, for more noble purposes, the support of his family, and the
good of his fellow creatures.
The closing scene of Dr. Godman's life is thus described, by a friend
who was his constant companion during his sickness and witnessed his
last moments :
"You ask me to give you an account of his last moments; they were
such as have robbed me of all terror of death, and will afford me lasting
comfort through life. The same self-composure and entire resignation
which were so remarkable through his whole sickness, supported him to
the end. O, it was not death-it was a release from mortal misery to ever-
lasting happiness. Such calmness when he prayed for us all, such a

xvi
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a
heavenly composure, even till the breath left him, you would have thought
he was going only a short journey. During the day his sufferings had been
almost beyond enduring. Frequently did he pray that the Lord would give
him patience to endure all till the end, knowing that it could not be many
hours; and truly his prayers were heard. Lord Jesus, receive my soul, were
the last words he uttered, and his countenance appeared as if he had a
foretaste of heaven even before his spirit left this world.”
From a passage in one of his letters already quoted, the reader will per-
ceive that it was the intention of Dr. Godman to have drawn up a sketch
of his life for the use of his children and friends. In answer also to a sug-
gestion made to him by Professor Sewall on this subject, he remarks," It
has long been my intention, as my life has been a curious one, to put a short
account of it together for the benefit of my children and others." It appears,
however, from some lines which he wrote at the latter period of his life,
that he never accomplished this object. In a manuscript volume which he
sent to a friend, and which he intended to fill with original pieces of his
own composition, he wrote as follows:
“ Did I not in all things feel most thoroughly convinced, that the over-
ruling of our plans by an all wise Providence is always for good, I might
regret that a part of my plan cannot be executed. This was to relate a few
curious incidents from among the events of my most singularly guided life,
which, in addition to mere novelty or peculiarity of character, could not
have failed practically to illustrate the importance of inculcating correct
religious and moral principles, and imbuing the mind therewith from the
very earliest dawn of intellect, from the very moment that the utter imbe-
cility of infancy begins to disappear! may his holy will be done, who can
raise
up abler advocates to support the truth! This is my first attempt to
write in my token—why may it not be the last? O should it be, believe
me, that the will of God will be most acceptable. Notwithstanding the
life of neglect, sinfulness, and perversion of heart which I so long led
before it pleased him to dash all my idols in the dust, I feel an humble hope
in the boundless mercy of our blessed Lord and Saviour, who alone can
save the soul from merited condemnation. May it be in the power of those
who chance to read these lines to say, into thy hand I eommend my spirit,
for thou hast redeemed me, O Lord, thou God of truth."
The productions of Dr. Godman's pen, and the fruits of his labours, are
too numerous to be specified. Most of them have been before the public
for a considerable time, and have been reeeived with high approbation ;
several of them have also been favourably noticed and even republished in
foreign countries.
In 1824, Dr. Godman was the principal editor of the Philadelphia Journal
of the Medical Seienees; and continued a liberal contributor to that respect-
able periodical, to the last weeks of his life.
Although actual discoveries in anatomy are now scarcely to be expected,
nevertheless Dr. Godman, with admirable skill, revealed many new con-
nexions and relations of certain parts of the human frame, and described
a

OF JOHN D. GODMAN.
xvii
a
them in a volume which he entitled Anatomical Investigations. He also
published an account of some Irregularities of Structure and Morbid Ana-
tomy; and Contributions to Physiological and Pathological Anatomy.
He was the writer of several elaborate analytical and critical reviews, in
the American Quarterly.
He translated and published, from the Latin, French, and German lan-
guages, a variety of papers, and distinct treatises and works; several of
them on subjects not professional; as for example, Lavasseur's Narrative of
La fayette's Visit to the United States.
He wrote critical and emendatory notes on several important English and
Continental works, which the booksellers of this country were about to
publish.
The article, Natural History, in the Encyclopædia Americana, was exclu-
sively confided to him, and his labours upon it ended only with his life.
The Rambles of a Naturalist we have already alluded to.
He studied the zoology of North America, both existing and fossil, and
favoured us with an interesting and extended history of all the quadrupeds
of this continent, embracing a great variety of new observations.
At different times he published a number of interesting and eloquent
introductory lectures and public addresses, delivered on different occasions,
which were collected in a volume some time before his death.
Although Dr. Godman wrote with great rapidity, and sometimes without
much care, yet all his works bear the impress of a mind naturally vigorous,
bold, and original, and much disposed to draw from its own resources; most
of them are written in a style of great beauty and even elegance.
Those of his productions which are purely medical have been read with
great interest by the profession, and contain much new and valuable infor-
mation. His investigations of the fasciæ of the human body, and his de-
scriptions of this intricate portion of the animal structure, while they disclose
some important views in relation to it, original with the author, exhibit the
whole subject in a manner so plain and simple, as to divest it of its obscurity,
and to bring it within the comprehension of the youngest student—a subject
which, until his researches were made known, was but little understood even
by the best anatomists. His contributions also to Physiological and Patholo-
gical Anatomy, though but the scattered fragments of a great work which
he had designed to prepare, contain discoveries and observations which will
be read with the deepest interest by the inquirer after truth.
Of his works not immediately connected with his profession, his Natural
History of American Quadrupeds is the most elaborate. This production
will long remain a splendid monument of the genius and industry of its
author, and be regarded as a model of composition for works of that descrip-
tion. It should have a place upon the table of every family, and be put
into the hands of all the youths of our country.
Among the latest productions of Dr. Godman's pen, are his essays entitled
Rambles of a Naturalist, which were written during the intervals of extreme
pain and debility. For strong, lively, and accurate description, they have
с
a

Xviii
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
scarcely been surpassed. He always came to his subject as an investiga-
tor of facts,—one who had nothing to learn, but every thing to discover,
and like the celebrated Buffon, never availed himself of the labour of others,
until he had exhausted his own resources. It was this spirit which enabled
him to disclose so many new truths, and which gave to all his works the
stamp of originality. The value which he placed on original observation,
as well as the zeal with which he sought information from this source, may
be learned from a single incident, “ that in investigating the habits of the
shrew mole, he walked many hundred miles."
The volume of his Public Addresses has been greatly admired for the
pure and elevated sentiments they contain, as well as for their high-wrought
eloquence ; in which respect they rank among the finest compositions of
that class in our language.
His published works constitute, however, but a part of the labours of his
pen, and many things which he sent forth were only fragments of a great
system, or the commencement of future researches. He had formed vast
plans for prosecuting new investigations in various departments of science,
which he did not live to accomplish.
The amount he did accomplish, considering his age and the adverse cir-
cumstances under which all his labours were performed, is truly wonderful.
He did not enjoy early opportunities of self improvement, but he culti-
vated his talents, as he approached manhood, with a degree of ardour and
success which supplied all deficiencies; and he finally became one of the
most accomplished general scholars and linguists, profound and accurate
anatomists, acute and erudite naturalists, ready, pleasing, and instructive
lecturers and writers of this country. With a body preyed upon for years by
disease, and a mind labouring under the consciousness that his end was
rapidly approaching, and that while upon his unremitting exertions depended
the present support of his wife and children, who by his death would be
left destitute, he nevertheless performed prodigies as a student, an author,
and a teacher; he prosecuted extensive and diversified researches; composed
superior disquisitions, and reviews, and large and valuable volumes; and
in the great number of topics which he handled simultaneously, or in
immediate succession, he touched none without doing himself credit, and
producing some new developement of light or happy forms of expression."
Twelve years of unfaltering industry, that had carried his name into all
the countries where science is cultivated, did not enable Dr. Godman to
accumulate the least portion of property; and ended by consigning him to
the grave, ere he had reached the noonday of life, or had put forth, to their
full extent, the vast intellectual powers with which he was endowed. In
all this there is much more to grieve than to astonish us.
As a physician and surgeon, Dr. Godman's business was never considerable.
At the very commencement of his professional career, his mind took such a
turn as prevented him from devoting himself to the cares and drudgery of an
extensive practice. No human heart was ever imbued with a deeper thirst
for knowledge, or warmed with a nobler love of fame. He made the former
66

OF JOHN D. GODMAN.
xix
subservient to the latter ; but the objects of his ambition were teaching and
writing, not the practice of his profession. Perhaps, indeed, he adapted
the aims of his ambition to his taste. He relished reading, writing, and
lecturing, more than he did the practice of medicine; and sought to derive
from them that emolument which in this country they seldom afford, and
which can much more certainly be drawn from a close attention to the prac-
tical duties of the profession. Had he possessed a patrimony, this course
would have been unexceptionable; without such a reliance, no young
physician should neglect the means of acquiring professional business at
the outset of his career.
Dr. Godman's intellectual character was very extraordinary. He possessed
naturally all the characteristic features of a mind of the highest order.
Naturally bold, ardent, and enterprising, he never stopped to calculate con-
sequences, so far as they regarded himself; but rushed forward with
impetuosity to perform whatever he undertook. Great and lofty intellectual
purposes seemed to be the natural element in which he lived. His
percep-
tion was quick and accurate ; his memory exceedingly retentive; and he
possessed an uncommon facility of abstracting his attention from surrounding
objects, and of concentrating all his powers upon the subject of his pursuit.
It was this latter trait of mind, no doubt, which gave such effect to all his
efforts : while he was indebted to the power of his memory for the remark-
able facility he possessed of acquiring languages; for although, as we have
already stated, his early education had been exceedingly limited, he ac-
quired such a knowledge of the Latin, Greek, French, German, Danish,
Spanish, and Italian languages, as to read and translate them with fluency,
and to write several of them with elegance. His quick and discriminating
powers of observation naturally inclined him to notice the habits and
economy of animals, and gave him a taste for the study of natural history.
The most striking character of his mind however, was, undoubtedly phi-
losophical imagination. It was this trait which conferred upon himn such
powers of description and illustration, and important freshness and splen-
dour to every thing he touched. All his conceptions were strong, clear, and
original, and he possessed the power of holding before him whatever object
engaged his attention, until all its parts and relations were brought to view.
By those who have listened to his extemporaneous discussions, it is said,
that while he was speaking, a thousand images seemed to cluster around
the subject, and that he had just time to select such as imparted beauty or
furnished the happiest illustration of the object he wished to explain. Yet,
while he possessed all this richness and fertility of mind, taste and judg-
ment ever controlled its operations.
He was a laborious and untiring student, and possessed in a high degree
the requisites of all true intellectual greatness—the habit of patient investi-
gation, long-continued attention, and a singular love of labour. " How
often,” says one, to whom he unbogomed the secrets of his heart, “have 1
entreated him, while poring half the night over his books and papers, which
were to yield him nothing but empty honour-how often have I begged him

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a
to consider his health ; but his ambition and thirst for knowledge were such,
that having commenced an investigation, or a language, no difficulty could
stop him; and what he had no time to accomplish in the day he would do
;
at night, instead of enjoying that rest of which he stood in so much need.”
It has been truly and happily said, by one who knew him intimately, that
his eagerness in the pursuit of knowledge seemed like the impulse of
gnawing hunger, and an unquenchable thirst, which neither adversity nor
disease could allay. Variety of occupation was the only relaxation which
he sought for or desired.
He composed with rapidity, but not without a high degree of intellectual
excitement, and the most abstracted attention. Under such an influence, some
of his best essays were sent to the press as they first came from his pen,
without the smallest correction.
There are few subjects of general literature and science, excepting the pure
and mixed mathematics, with which Dr. Godman was not more or less
familiar. Among other pursuits to which his attention had been turned,
was the study of ancient coins and medals, of which he acquired a critical
knowledge. But it was his accurate knowledge of anatomy and physiology,
and his uncommon power of teaching these branches of medicine, which
give him his strongest claims to our regard as a man of science. Had his
life and health been prolonged so as to have directed the whole energy of
his mind to the cultivation of this department of medicine, we have reason
to believe that he would have laid open new sources of knowledge, dis-
covered new laws, and reduced to order those scattered materials already
known; and that the whole study would have thus been simplified and
enriched by his labours.
His method of teaching anatomy was entirely analytical, and in this
respect, peculiar, that he performed all his dissections in the presence of
the class, demonstrating the different parts of the animal structure in suc-
cession, as they were unfolded by the knife. But this method, however
well suited to a private class in the dissecting room, causes too much con-
fusion and delay to be practised with success, while lecturing, by one less
dexterous and skilful than its author himself.
Dr. Godman came to the study of natural history as an investigator of
facts, and not as a pupil of the schools; and while he regarded systems
and nomenclature with perhaps too little respect, his great aim was to learn
the instincts, the structure, and the habits of all animated beings. This
science was his favourite pursuit, and he devoted himself to it with inde-
fatigable zeal. Those parts of his Natural History in which he relates the
results of his own observation, are among the most interesting essays on
that subject in our language. This praise is due in a still greater degree
to his Rambles of a Naturalist, although in their present form they present
a mere sketch of what he intended; had he lived to fill up and complete
them, he would have left a work and a name of enduring popularity.
In his manners, Dr. Godman was plain, simple, and unostentatious; yet
he possessed that warmth and affabilty, which rendered him accessible to

OF JOHN D, GODMAN.
xxi
all, and the delight of the social circle. He was devotedly attached to his
friends—towards his enemies he was impatient, and felt keenly their revil-
ings. In his conversation he was fluent, and, though unstudied, was often
brilliant, and always full of point and power.
He was particularly distinguished for simplicity and directness in uttering
his thoughts, which always indicated to those he addressed the absence of
selfishness and concealment. No enigmatical expressions, no innuendos
were ever heard from his lips. Dark and distant insinuations were his
utter abhorrence. In whatever he said, and in whatever he did, he put
forth his whole soul. He was always cheerful, and apparently happy,
even amidst the deepest adversity and the keenest suffering.
When we consider the circumstances under which Dr. Godman made his
way to the profession, and afterward prosecuted his studies, the multiplicity
of objects which he carried forward, and the honour he conferred on every
department of science which he touched—when we consider the power of
his intellect, the versatility of his genius, and the intensity of his applica-
tion, we cannot but regard him as altogether an extraordinary personage ;
one who, had it pleased Providence to heal his mortal wound, and prolong
his life and strength, would have borne away the palm from all his contem-
poraries.
“ We do not recollect," says Mr. Walsh, “to have known any individual
who inspired us with more respect for his intellect and heart, than Dr. God-
man; to whom knowledge and discovery appeared more abstractly precious ;
whose eyes shed more of the lustre of generous and enlightened enthusiasm ;
whose heart remained more vivid and sympathetic, amidst professional
labour and responsibility, always extremely severe and urgent.'
It had been the misfortune of Dr. Godman, as that of many men of dis-
tinguished talent who preceded him, to form his philosophical and religious
opinions after the model of the French naturalists of the last century—the
most noted of whom were either deists or atheists. While assisted by such
lights as these, and guided alone in his investigations by perverted reason,
he became, as he tells us, an established infidel, rejecting revelation, and
casting all the evidences of an existing God beneath his feet.
It was not till the winter of 1827, says Professor Sewall, while he was
engaged in his course of lectures in New York, that he was arrested in his
career, and brought to an experimental knowledge of the truth. At this
time an incident occurred which led him to a eandíd perusal of the gospels,
as contained in the New Testament. It was a visit to a death-bed; the
death-bed of a Christian; the death-bed of a student of medicine. There he
saw what reason could not explain, nor philosophy fathom. He opened his
Bible, and the secret was unfolded. From this time he beeame a devoted
student of the Scriptures. How far they were made the efficient cause of
his conversion to Christianity, will best appear from his own eloquent pen,
in the following extract from a letter addressed to a medieal friend, Dr. Jud-
son of Washington city, a surgeon in the navy of the United States, who
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a
a
source.
was at that time in the last stage of consumption. The letter is dated
December 25, 1828.
"In relation to dying, my dear friend, you talk like a sick man, and just
as I used to do, when very despondent; death is a debt we all owe to
nature, and must eventually ensue from a mere wearing out of the machine,
if not from disease. The time when, makes no difference in the act of
dying to the individual ; for after all, it terminates in corporeal insensibility,
let the preceding anguish be never so severe. Nature certainly has a strong
abhorrence to this cessation of corporeal action, and all animals have a dread
of death, who are conscious of its approach. A part of our dread of death
is purely physical, and is avoidable only by a philosophical conviction of its
necessity; but the greater part of our dread, and the terrors with which the
avenues to the grave are surrounded, are from another, and a more potent
'Tis conscience that makes cowards of us all,' and forces us by
our terrors to confess that we dread something beyond physical dissolution,
and that we are terrified, not at merely ceasing to breathe, but that we have
not lived as we ought to have done ; have not effected the good that was
within the compass of our abilities, and neglected to exercise the talents we
possessed to the greatest advantage. The only remedy for this fear of
death is to be sought by approaching the Author of all things in the way
prescribed by himself, and not according to our own foolish imaginations.
Humiliation of pride, denial of self, subjection of evil tempers and disposi-
tions, and an entire submission to his will for support and direction, are the
best preservatives for such an approach. A perusal of the gospels, in a
spirit of real inquiry, after a direction how to act, will certainly teach the
way. In these gospels the Saviour himself has preached his own doctrines,
and he who runs may read. He has prescribed the course; he shows how
the approval and mercy of God may be won; he shows how awfully cor-
rupt is man's nature, and how deadly his pride and stubbornness of heart,
which cause him to try every subterfuge to avoid the humiliating confes-
sion of his own weakness, ignorance, and folly. But the same blessed
hand has stripped death of all the terrors which brooded around the grave,
and converted the gloomy receptacle of our mortal remains into the portal
of life and light. 0! let me die the death of the righteous, let my last end
and future state be like his.
“ This is all I know on the subject. I am no theologian, and have as
great an aversion to priestcraft as any one can entertain. I was once an infi-
del, as I told you in the West Indies. I became a Christian from conviction,
produced by the candid inquiry recommended to you. I know of no other
way in which death can be stripped of its terrors; certainly none better can
be wished. Philosophy is a fool, and pride a madman. Many persons die
with what is called manly firmness, that is, having aeted a part all their
lives according to their prideful creed, they must die game. They put on
as smooth a face as they can, to impose on the spectators, and die firmly.
But this is all deception, the true state of their mind at the very time, nine
times out of ten, is worse than the most horrible imaginings of hell itself.

OF JOHN D. GODMAN.
xxiii
a
Some who have led lives adapted to sear their conscience, and petrify all the
moral sensibilities, die with a kind of indifference similar to that with which
a hardened convict submits to a new infliction of disgraceful punishment.
But the man who dies as a man ought to die, is the humble-minded, believ-
ing Christian ; one who has tasted and enjoyed all the blessings of creation;
who has had an enlightened view of the wisdom and glory of his Creator;
who has felt the vanity of merely worldly pursuits and motives, and been
permitted to know the mercies of a blessed Redeemer, as he approaches the
narrow house appointed for all the living.
Physical death may cause his senses to shrink and fail at the trial; but
his mind, sustained by the Rock of ages, is serene and unwavering. He
relies not on his own righteousness, for that would be vain ; but the arms
of mercy are beneath him, the ministering spirits of the Omnipotent are
around him. He does not die manfully, but he rests in Jesus, he blesses
his friends, he casts his hope on One all powerful to sustain and mighty to
save, then sleeps in peace. He is dead, but liveth; for He who is the
resurrection and the life has declared, Whoso believeth on me, though he
were dead, yet shall he live.' And whosoever liveth and believeth in me,
shall never die.'"
This letter, which so truly contrasts the death-bed scene of the infidel
with that of the Christian, so beautifully pourtrays the history of the change
which had been effected in Dr. Godman's own sentiments and affections,
and so clearly points the benighted wanderer to the true source of life and
light, was not lost upon his friend to whom it was addressed. It described
his condition, and it reached his heart.
Though religiously instructed in his youth, Dr. Judson had long freed
himself from, what he called, the prejudices of education, the shackles of
priestcraft, and was sunk in infidelity. At the time, however, when he
received Dr. Godman's letter, he was gloomy and despondent; looking for-
ward with fearful forebodings to the period of his dissolution, which seemed
not far distant. Aware of the fatal nature of the disease under which he
had lingered for years, he had long been arming himself to meet the king
of terrors with composure, that he might die like a philosopher—" with
manly firmness,” but as he drew nearer to the grave, the clouds and
darkness thickened around him, and he began to fear that there might be
something beyond this narrow prison. He at length consented to make the
investigation recommended by Dr. Godman. He took up the New Testa-
ment, and read it in the spirit of candid inquiry. Yet he could not consent
to relinquish the sentiments which he had so long cherished without the
clearest proof, and he disputed every inch of ground with great acuteness
and abílity; but the truth was at length exhibited to him with such force
that it overcame every objection he could produce, and he saw clearly the
folly of his sceptical opinions. The clouds were dissipated, light broke in
upon his mind, and he was enabled to take hold of the promises. The
remaining days of his life were devoted to fervent prayer, and the constant
study of the Scriptures, which filled his soul with divine composure, and

xxiv
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
enabled him to rely with undoubting confidence on the infinite merits of his
Redeemer. If he did not die with manly firmness," he “rested in Jesus."
In answer to a friend who communicated to him an account of the last
moments of his friend Judson, Dr. Godman remarks :-
“ The bare possibility of my having been even slightly instrumental in
effecting the blessed change of mind he experienced, excites in me emotions
of gratitude to the Source of all good which words cannot express.
“I am afraid you did not examine his lungs after death. It is much to
be regretted that the body of any physician should be interred without ex-
amination. They owe the example to their surviving friends, and I should
be far more grieved to think that my body should be buried without exami-
nation, than to know that it would be left in the open air without the rites
of sepulture.”
That love of science, remarks Professor Sewall, that professional ardour
which dictated the foregoing sentiment, and which still continued to burn
with a vivid flame, it would seem neither lessened the sensibilities of his
heart, nor diminished his dependence upon his Saviour. Indeed there was
nothing of that monkish austerity, nothing of that gross materialism in his
belief, which caused him to hover over the gloom of the grave, and to cling
to the crumbling and lifeless tenement of the soul after the spirit has fled.
His religion was too spiritual and elevated, his communion with his Saviour
too intimate, and his assurance of a blessed immortality too strong, to per-
mit him to indulge such degraded and narrow views. His religious feelings,
though ardent, were not bigoted. In him religion was not that cold, selfish,
and narrow principle which shuts out from his confidence all not of his
own faith ; nor did it consist in a loud profession of a particular doetrine or
creed. It was the religion of the heart, deep, sincere, and as comprehen-
sive as the charity of Heaven-embracing all the humble, faithful, and
really good of every sect and denomination of Christians.
The fine imagination and deep enthusiasm of Dr. Godman occasionally
burst forth in impassioned poetry. He wrote verse and prose with almost
equal facility, and had he lived and enjoyed leisure to prune the exuberance
of his style, and to bestow the last polish upon his labours, he would have
ranked as one of the greatest masters of our language, both in regard to the
curious felicity, and the strength and elearness of his diction.
The following specimens of his poetical compositions are selected less
for their intrinsic excellence, than for the picture which they furnish of his
private meditations.
a
A MIDNIGHT MEDITATION.
'Tis midnight's solemn hour! now wide unfurl'a
Darkness expands her mantle o'er the world:
The fire-fly's lamp has ceased its fitful gleam;
The cricket's chirp is hush'd ; the boding scream
Of the grey owl is still'd; the lofty trees
Scarce wave their summits to the failing breezes

OF JOHN D. GODMAN.
XXV
All nature is at rest, or seems to sleep;
'Tis thine alone, o man ! to watch and weep:
Thine 'tis to feel thy system's sad decay,
As flares the taper of thy life away
Beneath the influence of fell disease:-
Thine 'tis to know the want of mental ease
Springing from memory of time mispent;
Of slighted blessings; deepest discontent,
And riotous rebellion 'gainst the laws
Of health, truth, heaven, to win the world's applause !
Such was thy course, Eugenio, such thy harden'd heart,
Till mercy spoke, and death unsheath'd the dart,
Twang'd his unerring bow, and drove the steel
Too deep to be withdrawn, too wide the wound to heal;
Yet left of life a feebly glimmering ray,
Slowly to sink and gently ebb away.
-And yet, how blest am I!
While myriad others lie
In agony of fever or of pain,
'With parching tongue and burning eye,
Or fiercely throbbing brain;
My feeble frame, though spoild of rest,
Is not of comfort dispossess'd.
My mind, awake, looks up to thee,
Father of mercy! whose blest hand I see
In all things acting for our good,
Howe'er thy mercies be misunderstood.
-See where the waning moon
Slowly surmounts yon dark tree tops,
Her light increases steadily, and soon
The solemn night her stole of darkness drops :
Thus to my sinking soul in hours of gloom,
The cheering beams of hope resplendent come,
Thus the thick clouds which sin and sorrow rear
Are changed to brightness, or swift disappear.
Hark! that shrill note proclaims approaching day;
The distant east is streak'd with lines of gray;
Faint warblings from the neighbouring groves arise,
The tuneful tribes salute the brightening skies.
Peace breathes around ; dim visions o'er me creep,
The weary night outwatches, thank God! I too may sleep.
LINES WRITTEN UNDER A FEELING OF THE IMMEDIATE APPROACH
OF DEATH.
The damps of death are on my brow, the chill is in my heart,
My blood has almost ceased to flow, my hopes of life depart;
The valley and the shadow before me open wide,
But thou, O Lord! e'en there will be my guardian and my guide.
D

xxvi
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH.
For what is pain, if thou art nigh its bitterness to quell?
And where death's boasted victory, his last triumphant spell?
O! Saviour, in that hour when mortal strength is naught,
When nature's agony comes on, and every anguish'd thought
Springs in the breaking heart, a source of darkest wo
Be nigh unto my soul, nor permit the flood's o'erflow.
To thee! to thee alone ! dare I raise my dying eyes ;
Thou didst for all atone, by thy wondrous sacrifice;
O! in thy mercy's richness extend thy smiles on me,
And let my soul outspeak thy praise throughout eternity!
Beneath the above stanzas is the following note :-
“Rather more than a year has elapsed since the above was first written.
Death is now certainly at hand; but my sentiments remain unchanged,
except that my reliance on the Saviour is stronger. '
This reliance on the mercies of God through Christ Jesus became indeed
the habitual frame of his mind, and imparted to the closing scenes of his
life a solemnity and a calmness, a sweet serenity and a holy resignation,
which robbed death of its sting, and the grave of its victory.
It was a melancholy sight to witness the premature extinction of such a
spirit; yet the dying couch on which genius, and virtue, and learning thus
lay prostrated, beamed with more hallowed lustre, and taught a more salu-
tary lesson, than could have been imparted by the proudest triumphs of intel-
lect.
The memory of Dr. Godman, his blighted promise, and his unfinished
labours, will long continue to call forth the vain regrets of men of science
and learning. There are those who treasure up in their hearts, as a more
precious recollection, his humble faith and his triumphant death, and who
can meet with the eye of pity the scornful glance of the scoffer and the
infidel, at being told that if Dr. Godman was a philosopher, he was also a
Christian.

TO
ROBERT OLIVER,
OF
BALTIMORE, MARYLAND,
WHOSE NAME
IS ONLY ANOTHER EXPRESSION
FOR
LIBERALITY AND MUNIFICENCE,
THIS WORK IS RESPECTFULLY
AND GRATEFULLY INSCRIBED,
BY HIS FRIEND,
THE AUTHOR.


PREFACE.
This work was begun in the spring of 1823, under a
belief that the whole of the first part would be published
within a year, or at farthest eighteen months from its
commencement. Experience soon proved that the difficul-
ties of this enterprize had not been correctly estimated, and
that a vast labour remained to be performed after all the
facts and observations were systematised, which remained
to be gleaned from works that professedly or incidentally
treated of American Natural History. How meagre and
unsatisfactory the best of these books are, can only be ima-
gined by those persons who have been obliged to examine
them carefully; by them alone can an adequate idea be
formed of the toil and disgust to be endured by whoever
makes such search in hopes of collecting original observa-
tions, statements of facts worthy of repetition, or remarks
properly illustrative of the manners and habits of our ani-
mals.
To account for the delay which has inevitably occurred
in the preparation of this work, it may be sufficient to state
that it has been frequently necessary to suspend it for weeks
and months, in order to procure certain animals, to observe
their habits in captivity, or to make daily visits to the woods
and fields for the sake of witnessing their actions in a state
of nature. On other occasions we have undertaken con-
siderable journies, in order to ascertain the correctness of
statements, or to obtain sight of an individual subject of
description. It would be far more agreeable thus to obtain
materials for the whole work from nature, than to depend
in the slightest degree upon books; but a long lifetime
spent in this way on such a work, would not be too much to
give it the requisite degree of perfection.
Another cause of delay has been the necessity we have
frequently been under of collecting materials for the second
volume, when very solicitous to expedite the first ; but as
similar oportunities might not again occur, it was impera-
tively necessary to profit by them. This retardation of the
first will operate, however, in equal proportion to increase

vi
PREFACE.
the value and hasten the publication of the second volume,
which will be completed with as much speed as is consistent
with propriety.
Our great aim in preparing this work has been to render
it as useful and agreeable as possible, and to this end we
have freely drawn upon all accessible authentic sources,
with due acknowledgment for the benefits received. In
addition to the references made in the body of the work, we
shall give in the second volume an alphabetical catalogue of
all the books whence we have derived assistance, or which
we have consulted with advantage. This we do not only
because we believe that there is no crime more despicable
then an attempt to deprive another of the fruits of his in-
tellectual exertions, but in order to facilitate the labours of
those who may be desirous of extending their researches
through the most authentic works.
We should act with injustice to our own feelings if we
omitted to avow the liberal and valuable assistance we have
received from one whose name is sufficient to justify any
encomiums on expanded views and zeal in the cause of
scientific truth. The prince of Musignano, CHARLES L.
BONAPARTE, has at all times thrown open to our use his
rich library and cabinets, and still farther enhanced this
kindness by contributing in numerous instances the result
of his own scientific observations. Similar liberality in the
cause of science has long since secured to him the esteem
and respect of those who are devoted to its cultivation, and
the warm admiration of all who have the advantage of his
acquaintance.
To our distinguished countryman Say, we are indebted
for numerous excellent suggestions and much interesting
information. Mr. GEORGE ORD, the respectful vice-pre-
sident of the Academy of Natural Sciences, has on several
occasions yielded the most acceptable assistance, and allow-
ed us the use of his note-book, by which we have profited
considerably. From Mr. TITIAN PEALE, who in practical
acquaintance with the natural history of his country has few
equals, we have received frequent aid. To our friend
ROBERT BEST, M.D. of Lexington, who was formerly
conservator of the Western Museum, we feel especially
grateful for the communication of his most interesting notes
and observations, made on the animals of the western coun-
try during a residence of twenty-five or thirty years in the
state of Ohio.

PREFACE.
vii
The kindness of the venerable librarian of the Philoso-
phical Society, JOHN VAUGHAN, Esq. has been amply ex-
ercised towards us in furnishing the freest opportunities
of examining the admirable library of that respectable insti-
tution. Although he considers himself sufficiently repaid
by the consciousness of having discharged what he is pleased
to call his duty, we feel none the less grateful for his urbanity
and the extent of his good will.
We have also received manifold acts of kindness from all
the respectable naturalists of our acquaintance, both in this
city and New York. All of these have exhibited the most gra-
tifying willingness to aid in the advancement of our under-
taking, and we beg them to accept of our sincerest thanks,
for the spirit in which they have contributed to its success.
The following circumstance, to be enumerated among
the services rendered to this work, is one which we feel sure
the reader will unite with us in considering as worthy of the
highest commendation, and evincing a spirit which every
generous mind must regard with unmingled pleasure. An
American artist had painted two original portraits of dis-
tinguished Indian chieftains, which were regarded by all
who saw them as admirable for their force and truth of
character. He was repeatedly solicited to sell them at his
own price, but uniformly refused; neither would he sell
copies of them, although on one occasion they were sought
by a foreign gentleman in order to be sent to Russia. On
learning that an American work was about to be published,
for which illustrations of aboriginal physiognomy and cos-
tume were desirable, the artist presented both these pictures,
rejecting every offer of compensation with a feeling truly
American. These interesting specimens of the talents and
liberality of Mr. JOHN NEAGLE are given in this volume,
the full length being a likeness of PETALESHAROO,* son of
*“Almost from the beginning of this interesting fete our attention
had been attracted to a young man who seemed to be the leader or
partizan of the warriors. He was about twenty-three years of age, of
the finest form, tall, muscular, exceedingly graceful, and of a must
prepossessing countenance. His head-dress of war-eagles' feathers
descended in a double series upon his back, like wings, down to his
saddle croup; his shield was highly decorated, and his long lance was
ornamented by a plaited casing of red and blue cloth. On inquiring of
the interpreter, ouradmiration was augmented by learning that he was no
other than PETALESHAROO, with whose name and character we were
already familiar. He is the most intrepid warrior of the nation, eldest
son of LATELESHA, [the Knife-chief] destined as well by mental and
physical qualifications as by his distinguished birth, to be the future
*

vii
PREFACE.
the knife-chief of the Pani-Loups, and the bust a portrait of
ONGPATONGA, or Big Elk, distinguished as the great chief
and orator of the Omawhaws. The first was engraved by
MAVERICK of New York, the second by BRIDPORT of Phila-
delphia.
The vignette which ornaments our engraved title page
is from an original design by JAMES PEALE, jr. an amatuer
who unites to the correct execution of a professed artist the
happiest talent for perceiving and delineating the pictu-
resque and beautiful.
In relation to the animals described in this work, it has
been our constant aim to give none but such as certainly
belong to this country, being much more desirous of pre-
senting a faithful account of those known to inhabit it, than
to produce an imposing catalogue of "NEW SPECIES,”
which at best might be little better than a string of bar-
barous new names applied to old and well known things.
leader of his people. The name of PETALESHAROO is connected with the
abolition of a custom formerly prevalent in this nation, at which humanity
shudders.
“An Ietan woman, brought captive into the village, was doomed to
the Great Star by a warrior whose property she had become by the
fate of war; she underwent the usual preparations, and on the appointed
day was led to the cross amidst a great concourse of people, as eager
perhaps as their civilized fellow men to witness the horrors of an execu-
tion. The victim was bound to the cross with thongs of skin, and the
usual ceremonies being performed, her dread of a more terrible death
was about to be terminated by the tomahawk and arrow. At this
critical juncture PETALESHAROO stepped forward into the area, and in
a hurried but firm manner declared that it was his father's wish to
abolish this sacrifice; that he presented himself for the purpose of laying
down his life upon the spot or of releasing the victim. He then cut the
cords which bound her, carried her swiftly through the crowd to a horse
which he presented to her, and having mounted another himself, con-
veyed her beyond the reach of immediate pursuit.”-Long's Exped. to
the Rocky Mountains, vol. i. p. 357.
This distinguished man, (together with ONGPATONGA and various
other chiefs) was in Philadelphia a few years since, on his way to the
city of Washington, accompanied by Major O'FALLON. Through the
friendship of that gentleman Mr. NEAGLE enjoyed the most excellent
opportunities of obtaining the portraits which adorn this volume.
* In consequence of having mislaid the manuscript containing the
description of the wild cat or bay lyx, (Felis Rufa,) that species was
accidentally omitted, and the inadvertence not perceived until it was too
late to rectify it at the proper place. As this species will be fully de-
scribed in the appendix, and we give a good figure of it on the same
plate with the Canada Lynx, (Felix Canadensis) which it closely re-
sembles in habits and manners, the omission will not be productive of
inconvenience or injury to the reader.

PREFACE.
ix
In our second volume we shall give a complete synopsis of
the mammalia inhabiting this country, with distinctive
specific phrases, drawn up by the distinguished author of
the recent splendid work on American Ornithology. In
this synopsis all the doubtful and ridiculous species hitherto
proposed as inhabitants of this country will be noted and
rejected.
Although we are conscious of having used every exertion
to render this book correct, we are far from believing that
it is free from error; it has been prepared under too many
disadvantages to allow us for a moment to hope that it will
not be obnoxious to some censure. We regard it rather
as a ground-work upon which we hope hereafter to erect a
more perfect superstructure, having determined henceforth
zealously to continue our efforts to obtain the materials
necessary to give it the degree of permanence and beauty
of which the subject is in every respect worthy; we shall
therefore thankfully receive every suggestion made by can-
did critics for its improvement.


INTRODUCTION.
In this work the systematic arrangements of LINNE and
CUVIER are principally followed ; the LINNEAN names of
the orders, genera, &c. have uniformly been retained
whenever they are entitled to such preference by right of
priority. As long as every succeeding writer is at liberty
to overturn systems and change names according to his own
views or caprice, the most serious injury will result to natu-
ral science, and her votaries be effectually deterred from
engaging in studies to which every avenue is barricaded by
aggregations of learned lumber. We are happy already to
have an excellent precedent in this country for adhering to
original nomenclature; Say, in all his scientific writings,
has evinced the same determination to give credit to whom
credit is due, regardless of all arbitrary changes.
We have introduced the dental systems from F. CUVIER,
with the view of enabling the reader more fully to appre-
ciate the true importance of this part of animal organiza-
tion, which indicates the relations in point of regimen exist-
ing between animals, not their places in a SYSTEM of classi-
fication. The peculiarities of the teeth have immediate re-
ference to the food upon which animals subsist, and by con-
sequence to the general character of their digestive organs;
by comparing different genera, we trace their degree of
relationship in this respect, and form a better idea of their
natural affinities. But if we arrange animals according to
their proximity of dentition and regimen, we adopt a method
(and there may be as many methods as organs) which will
separate to great and unnatural distances animals whose
striking similarity in all other respects would render such
separation absurd.*
* According to the dentition, F CUVIER properly places the cat first
and the bear last of the carnivorous animals, the walrus after the ru-
minant animals, and the beaver among the last of the gnawers instead
of the first. Various genera, well separated by other characters, are
by their dentition reduced to mere species or varieties of the same ge-
nus. Thus, while the system of Cuvier arranges animals according to

хіі
INTRODUCTION.
Beginners of the study of natural history are generally
liable to form erroneous conclusions, among which none is
more common and prejudicial than that of mistaking the
system of classification for the subjects classed, or in other
words, the arrangement of the names for the things them-
selves; nomenclature for natural history. The best system
of classification in the nature of things must be in a great
degree arbitrary and imperfect, and so far from being
natural history, is but a summary of distinctive epithets
and characters to aid in the arrangement of knowledge,
which can only be derived from a proper observation of
natural objects. Had these obvious truths been attended
to, we should never have had so great a number and such
a farrago of new systems as have been offered to the world,
neither would the study of natural history have been so
long regarded by the mass of mankind as the study of any
thing rather than the study of nature.
A good system is an invaluable assistant ; an imperfect
one is infinitely preferable to the entire absence of such an
aid. The
The system, however, should always be secondary to
the science, whose object is to teach the general and indivi-
dual characters of living beings from an actual observation
of their peculiarities of form and modes of living. The
mistake above pointed out is continually urging many who
would be esteemed naturalists to the formation of new
genera and species, founded on trivial, accidental, or
imperfectly noted differences between creatures which, to
all rational observers, appear the same.
This retards
science, and misleads individuals as to the character and
objects of natural history, which, judged by the conduct of
some who are regarded as authorities, would appear to be
the science of magnifying trifles and bewildering the under-
standing.
In natural history, as in other departments of human
knowledge, none but sciolists are pedants ; such persons
struggle to impart to their implements the dignity and
importance that should belong to the work alone, and, “ in
self adoring pride securely mailed," seek but to glorify
the closeness of their approach to the structure of the human body,
which determines their comparative perfection, the method of his bro-
ther, having merely reference to their dentition, throws them into
situations both curious and unnatural, because dependent upon the
comparison of a single set of organs.

INTRODUCTION.
xiii
themselves, considering the interests of science as nothing
when weighed against the gratification of their own
vanity.*
* “New nominal species perplex the student, increase the labours
of the critical naturalist, and render the study of natural history tedious
and difficult. If it was generally understood that it is more meritori-
ous to extinguish a single nominal species than to establish a dozen
new ones, it would effectually check the present mania for making new
species often on slight foundations. This also leads to an overween-
ing anxiety to secure priority; and hence descriptions are liable to be
drawn up in a crude and hasty manner, without reference to the co-
ordinate characters.” DE KAY's Address to the New York Lyceum,
p. 76.



Engr.' Peter Maverick from a sketch in oil hy in." Neagle.
PETALESHAROO,
Son of Lütlesha, Knife Chief of the
Kuisi
Primi Ponpes:
Louhr: in full dress.

AMERICAN
NATURAL HISTORY.
CHAPTER I.
CLASS 1. MAMMALIA.
ORDER I. Primates.-FAMILY I.-Bimana.
GENUS I. MAN; Homo; L.-SPECIES I. H. Sapiens ; L.
VARIETIES, a. Caucasian ; fair or white, originally from Europe.
b. Mongolian; Esquimaux; dark olive or swarthy,
from the north of Asia.
C. American; red, indigenous ?
d. Ethiopian ; black, from Africa.
SECTION I.
Origin of the American Variety.
AMERICA, although undiscovered until near the conclu-
sion of the fifteenth century of the christian era, must have
been for ages previous the residence of an extensive and
increasing population, since great numbers of native
inhabitants were found on the southern portion of this
continent by the adventurous voyagers who, under the
guidance of CHRISTOFORO COLOMBO,* first visited these
shores. What must have been the mutual surprise of the
inhabitants of the old and new worlds at this first meeting?
The Europeans, astonished to encounter a numerous and
eager crowd where they had anticipated one vast solitude-
and the aborigines, lost in amazement at the unimagined
spectacle of a huge body which had slowly risen before their
eyes from the remotest verge of ocean, and borne to their
soil a strange assemblage of men, differing from them in
colour, language, and apparel.
* Latinized, Columbus.

16
ON THE ORIGIN OF THE
The origin of the North American Indians has justly
attracted the attention of philosophers, and produced many
interesting researches, as well as fruitless speculations.
So long as those engaged in this investigation were content
with mere theory without established data, or speculation
without fact, no result was obtained except the useless
multiplication of words; but, when the geography of the
country, the nature of the climate, and the history, manners
and polity of the various tribes were studied, the mystery
involving the subject gradually lessened; so that at present,
without much difficulty or error, we may come to a satis-
factory conclusion relative to the manner in which this
continent was peopled.
Preliminary to our investigation we must refer to the
fact, that the laws of nature, governing the continuance of
different races of animals profusely multiplied over the
earth, are fixed and immutable, and what we observe of
Nature's regular modes of operating at one period, is un-
questionably true of all preceding times. Animals which
are of different kinds, or generically distinct, are incapable
of producing offspring together ; but animals of the same
kind, though of different species, may and do produce offspring
resembling both parents by their union ; yet this confusion
ceases with the first product, inasmuch as these hybrids, or
mules, are universally sterile, or incapable of propagating
their similitude. This circumstance furnishes the most
satisfactory and unequivocal means of deciding whether
any beings we examine are specifically distinct or not,
since, if they are merely varieties of the same species, they
are capable of producing offspring in illimitable progres-
sion; but, if they are of different species, the first offspring
terminates the race.
By the application of this test, we are able to pronounce
with certainty, that the human race, wherever found, or
however different in colour, are merely varieties of the same
species, and evidently descended from the same parents.
In all countries the marriage of Europeans with the natives,
whether Asiatics, Africans, or Indians, is followed by chil-
dren more or less resembling their parents, and this off-
spring is perfectly capable of continuing the race.
If there be any mode of accounting for the arrival of
even a single male and female on this continent, we shall
find no difficulty in understanding how so many nations be-
came distributed over this vast region, nor can we, on any

AMERICAN, OR RED VARIETY.
17
unprejudiced view of the whole subject, find any difficulty
in believing that the myriads of human beings that have
lived from the beginning of time to the present hour,
have all descended from two individuals. The history of
the world, as presented to us by the most authentic records,
or by the voice of universal tradition, leads us inevitably
to conclude that from some point on the Eastern continent
the human race originated, and gradually extended in
various directions, subject to the influence of all accidents
of place, climate, disease, and facility or difficulty of pro-
curing food: hence, notwithstanding that the connexion of
many nations with the parent stock is entirely lost, there
is not the slightest evidence that such nations are derived
from any but the source we have stated: neither, when
philosophically considered, is there any necessity that they
should have originated in a different manner, since the
cause is perfectly adequate to the effect; and where one
sufficient cause is given no other should be sought.
Under the operation of different motives we find the
scattered members of the human family removing by degrees
from the centre towards the extremes of the old continent,
and subsisting in such remote situations until the disposition
or ability to return was entirely lost, and they became in-
ured to the climate, however dreadfully inclement.
Though the human race always remains specifically
unchanged in every condition, yet the action of external
causes is capable of producing considerable variations in
the appearance of individuals or tribes exposed to their
influence. Thus we find those who reside in uniformly
warm and spontaneously productive countries, of a slender
frame, a relaxed and delicate habit, and of a sallow or
tawny complexion. The natives of Africa, who are expo-
sed to the most intense heat of the sun, are full framed,
robust and vigorous, being endowed with short, crisped and
coarse hair, and a skin whose colour shields them from
the destructive fierceness of the solar rays. In the middle
latitudes, where the means of subsistence are readily pro-
cured, and the vicissitudes of season are never remarkably
severe,we find the human frame in every variety of develop-
ment, and distinguished by fairness and delicacy of com-
plexion. But on leaving these favoured regions behind us,
and visiting the far northern portions of the earth, we see
man, like most of the other productions of nature, stunted
and dwarfish, displaying little or no mental energy, barely
VOL. I.
3

13
ON THE ORIGIN OF THE
capable of securing the scanty subsistence allowed him by
the rigours of his situation, and maintaining an existence
scarcely superior to that of the whale or seul, the hunting
of which constitutes his highest ambition, as their flesh and
oil are his greatest luxuries.
Since it is not only possible, but unquestionable, that the
whole human race are varieties of the same species, most
probably descended from one male and female, it remains
for us to show in what manner the descendants of this stock
may have reached America, and whether our observations
can be supported by arguments drawn from the condition
of the new world. A reference to a map of the globe
will show us that immediately within the arctic circle, the
eastern extremity of the old continent is separated from
the new by a strait which is but thirty-nine miles across,
and this is solidly frozen over during the severities of win-
ter. Kamtschatka, the extremity of Asia, situated between
the fortieth and fiftieth degree of north latitude, is peopled
by natives who are thoroughly accustomed to endure all the
rigours of this climate, and is provided with many animals
equally capable of existing through all its inclemencies.
Under such circumstances we can see no difficulty in con-
cluding that from the eastern extremity of Asia, both men
and animals have passed to America, and subsequently
been multiplied over the whole continent. In regard to
man, it is not necessary to insist that he passed to the
American shore during winter, since the distance is not too
great for us to believe that even the rudest navigators,
when driven by stress of weather from their own coast, (as
often happens to the Eskimaux,) could with little difficul-
ty, reach this continent, where they would be compelled to
remain by necessity, or induced by a disposition either to
extend their acquaintance with a strange land, or to seek
for a more agreeable place of abode.
The Aleutian islands, which are very numerous, and
form an almost perfectly continuous chain, beginning with
Behring's island, and extending from opposite to Kamts-
chatka, in about the fifty-fifth degree of north latitude, to
Alyaska, the same paralell in America, may have afforded
a much easier and more certain approach, and that without
appearing at all extraordinary to the voyagers themselves,
who might pass from one isle to another without having
any idea of the land to which they were going. These is-
lands are in the same parallels of latitude as the greater part

AMERICAN, OR RED VARIETY.
19
of Labrador, Hudson's bay, &c. where even Europeans
are able to endure the climate during the severest seasons.
There is, in fact, the most irrefragable testimony to prove
that the rein-deer cross over in vast herds on the ice, sub-
sisting on the moss found in these islands during their pas-
sage.
In strictness of reasoning we have nothing to make it
absolutely necessary that we should refer the peopling of
America to so recent a period as the separation of the old
and new continents by Behring's strait. There is neither
extravagance nor impropriety in the opinion that the two
continents were originally one, and being continuous, the
only difficulty is removed that could be urged against the
approach of population from the extremity of Asia. But,
in addition to all the reasons that can be urged in support
of the doctrine, we maintain it should not be forgotten that
there are strong evidences derived from astronomical and
geological observations, proving the axis and poles of our
globe to be not now precisely where they originally stood.
It is therefore very unfair to decide against the probability
of peopling America from the extremity of Asia, if we rea-
son from the existing climate of the countries adjacent to
East cape, or cape Prince of Wales, the two nearest points
,
of Asia and America.
The greatest difficulty thrown in the way of this opin-
ion, was thought to be the striking difference between the
Eskimaux and the common Indian, seeming to prove that
they were derived from different races or kinds. We are
informed in Crant’z History of Greenland, that the Mora-
vian missionaries who visited the countries inhabited by
the Eskimaux, were much surprised to find that they were
in all respects similar to the Greenlanders, and made use
of the same language; showing that the Eskimauw had
sprung from the same race, and had gradually reached
their present residence from the extreme northern parts of
Europe. This fact, now rendered undeniable by more re-
cent researches, entirely invalidates the conclusion that the
Eskimaux were derived from another species.
The re-
semblance existing between these people and the Siberi-
ans, Kamtschadales, Tunguse, &c. is manifest ; notwith-
,
;
standing they differ in many respects from other inhabi-
tants of the new world, they are undeniably descended
from the same parent stock, coming from different parts
of the globe. The copper-coloured natives of America,

20
ON THE ORIGIN OF THE
who are the most numerous of the aborigines, approach
more closely to the Asiatic Tartars in colour and stature,
and this because they are descendants of that race arriv-
ing in America from the extremity of Asia.
The land animals common to the old and new world
doubtless reached America by the same route with the
human race; but the species which are peculiar to Ame-
rica, were originally placed on this soil, as we find no tra-
ces of their existence in Asia or elsewhere. The first
inference is drawn because the community of species ren-
ders it necessary : the second is a fair and natural induc-
tion from the exclusive existence of certain species in this
country, as we see no reason why animals may not have
been from the beginning peculiar to America, as that crea-
tures of a singular construction should be found exclu-
sively pertaining to New Holland. This last named coun-
try, differing from all others in its animal and vegetable
productions, is peopled by human beings, degraded and
abject it is true, but still a variety of the common stock
whence all mankind have sprung.
Those who endeavour to dispute the correctness of the
doctrine we support, state, that if America were peopled
from the shores of Asia, many thousand years must have
elapsed subsequent to the creation, before the population
of the old world could have become sufficiently numerous
to extend to its remote borders, and thence attain the
American continent. It is also repugnant to their ideas
that so large a part of the globe should have remained
during " so long a time” unpeopled, or only tenanted by
inferior animals. This is truly a convenient mode of ob-
jecting, but unfortunately for the theorist, duration of time
is a very immaterial circumstance in the great operations
of nature. If we may credit the testimony of our senses,
and rely on our reason when guided by the clearest lights
of geological science, many ages elapsed after the creation
of our globe, and numerous races of inferior animals, pre-
vious to the existence of man. In very ancient strata,
forming the crust of the earth, organic remains of various
animals are preserved, but not a single relic of the human
kind has yet been obtained from similar situations. He
certainly forms a poor idea of DEITY who attempts to
measure his power or works by notions drawn from hu-
man art, or supposes, because one part of the globe must
have remained even ten thousand years in one vast unin-

AMERICAN, OR RED VARIETY.
21
habited solitude,” that it is therefore repugnant to all the
operations of the wonderful system of nature.
With as
much correctness might he conclude that the time required
by the planet Herschell to describe his orbit around the
sun should be reduced to the same duration as that neces-
sary for the Earth, or Mars, or Venus—because to his
comprehension the orbit of Herschell is almost unimagi-
nable.
Another objection, founded on a similar mode of view-
ing the subject, has led Mr. JEFFERSON and others to be-
lieve that the number of different languages spoken in
North and South America is incompatible with the idea of
so recent an arrival on this continent as even three or four
thousand years.
“How many ages,” says Mr. J.“ have
elapsed since the English, the Dutch, the Germans, the
Swiss, the Norwegians, Danes and Swedes, have separa-
ted from their common stock, and yet how many more
must elapse before the proofs of their common origin will
disappear? A separation into dialects may be the work
of a few ages, but for two dialects to recede from each
other until they have lost all vestiges of their common
origin, must require an immense course of time, perhaps
not less than many people give to the age of the world."*
Granting, as we are perfectly willing to do, the great
lapse of time which would be requisite for the production
of such radical changes, we do not think the objection de-
rived from the languages more solid than those heretofore
mentioned. As far as the researches of philologers have
extended, we do not find that there is so much difference
in the dialects of our aborigines as the arguments of these
objectors would imply. Throughout a large mass of this
native population a very perceptible connexion of language
is apparent, and the relation to a parent stock is fairly
evident. Even allowing that the amount of difference is
as great as could be desired by our opponents, the compa-
rison of the aboriginal dialects with those of European
nations is by no means a correct mode of deciding the
point. If, according to our idea, people reached this
country at different times from the extreme north of Eu-
rope or the north-east of Asia, the immense extent of
country they were gradually to be scattered over, the new
* Notes on Virginia, p. 148.

22
ON THE ORIGIN OF THE
causes.
situations they were placed in, the new objects by which
they were surrounded, and the new modes of life they as-
sumed, would all conspire to produce a change in their
language in a much shorter time than could take place on
the old continent, where their wanderings must have been,
not only comparatively circumscribed, but their modes of
living subject to very few variations. A reference to well
authenticated and recently observed facts, will show how
great an influence is exerted over language by these
Indian nations, which have commenced their mi-
grations in the northern and eastern parts of this conti-
nent, and journeyed to the western regions, have on their
route detached various colonies from their main body, and
these, in many instances, now differ so much in language
from their parent stock, as to exhibit none but faint traces
of relationship. If changes of this kind can be produced
under such circumstances, what difficulty is there in be-
lieving that still greater could occur, when the whole ex-
tent of this vast continent was before the original adven-
turers, and the last comers might not only be separated
from the first by thousands of miles, but live under other
skies, and be surrounded by natural objects of a totally
dissimilar character.
In the present condition of our knowledge, we have no
right to state that the traces of affinity between the Ame-
rican dialects are entirely obliterated; it would be far more
correct to say that we do not possess the means of making
the necessary inquiries and decisions ; our knowledge of
their languages is confined to a few meagre vocabularies,
frequently derived from persons whose statements cannot
be implicitly relied on, however correct their intentions
may have been, to say nothing of the almost insuperable
difficulty of writing such languages from the hearer's idea
of their pronunciation. We may with sufficient correct-
ness trace the descent of words in our own language from
the Hebrew, Sanscrit, &c. because we have established
signs to indicate the ideas, and we have no doubt but that
the same could be done to nearly an equal extent with our
aboriginal tongues, provided we enjoyed a similar advan-
tage of written characters, a proper knowledge of their
languages, and a better acquaintance with the natural and
other objects most frequently the subjects of their conver-
sation.
Considering all the essential circumstances which are
a

AMERICAN, OR RED VARIETY.
23
a
entirely wanting in this inquiry, we can place very little
reliance on inferences from the aboriginal languages, more
especially such as were drawn by a late writer, respecting
the affinities of dialect between some of our Indians, and
that of the Yolofs, the blackest of the African tribes. We
must believe that these affinities were either totally acci-
dental, or founded on misconception, arising from the na-
ture of the subject, or rather from want of necessary in-
timacy with the languages examined. It may be taken as
a very safe rule of judgment, that a man, whose knowledge
of any language is derived exclusively from books, however
perfectly he may be able to judge of its philosophy or gram-
mar, can have but few and faint ideas of the nice shades of
distinction in the value and application of a very large pro-
portion of words in such a tongue, and by consequence, is
very little qualified to do more than conjecture their affinities
with words used by people living under totally different
circumstances.
The learned Pennant, in treating of this subject, ex-
presses his belief that the inhabitants of the American con-
tinent were originally derived from Eastern Asia, and
sup-
ports this conclusion by an examination of the customs
common to the inhabitants of both continents.
“The custom of scalping, says he, was a barbarism in
use with the Scythians, who carried about them at all times
this savage mark of triumph: they cut a circle round the
neck, and stripped off the skin, as they would that of an
ox. A little image found among the Kalmucs, of a
Tartarian Deity, mounted on a horse, and sitting on a hu-
man skin, with scalps pendant from the breast, fully illus-
trates the custom of the Scythian progenitors, as described
by the Greek historian. This usage, as the Europeans
know by horrid experience, is continued to this day in
America. The ferocity of the Scythians to their prisoners
extended to the remotest part of Asia. The Kamscha-
dales, even at the time of their discovery by the Russians,
put their prisoners to death by the most lingering and ex-
cruciating inventions; a practice in full force to this very
day among the aboriginal Americans. A race of the
* Herodotus, lib. iv.—Compare the account given by the historian
with the Tartarian icunculus in Dr. Pallas's Travels, i, tab x. a.
† Hist. Kamtschat. 57.

24
ORIGIN OF THE
Scythians were styled Anthropophagi* from their feeding
on human flesh.
The people of Nootka Sound still make
a repast of their fellow creatures, but what is more won-
derful, the savage allies of the British army have been
known to throw the mangled limbs of the French priso-
ners into the horrible cauldron, and devour them with the
same relish as those of a quadruped. I
“ The Scythians were said, for a certain time, annually
to transform themselves into wolves, and again to resume
the human shape. S The new discovered Americans about
Nootka Sound disguise themselves in dresses made of the
skins of wolves and other wild beasts, and wear even the
heads fitted to their own.|| These habits they use in the
chase to circumvent the animals of the field. But would
not ignorance or superstition ascribe to a supernatural
metamorphosis these temporary expedients to deceive the
brute creation? In their march the Kamtschadales never
went abreast, but followed one another in the same track.T
The same custom 'is exactly observed by the Americans.
“ The Tungusi, the most numerous nation resident in
Siberia, prick their faces with small punctures, with a nee-
dle, in various shapes; then rub charcoal into them, so that
the marks become indelible.** This custom is still observed
in several parts of America. The Indians on the back of
the Hudson's Bay to this day perform the operation exactly
in the same manner, and puncture the skin into various
figures, as the natives of New Zealand do at present, and
as the ancient Britons did with the herb glastum, or woad,ti
and the Virginians, on the first discovery of that country by
the English.II Herodian delivers down to us this custom
of the Britons :-He says that they painted their bodies
with figures of all sorts of animals, and wore no clothes lest
they should hide what was probably intended to render
themselves more terrible to their enemies.
* Mela, lib. ii. c. i.
† Voyage ii.
# Colden's Five Nations, i, 155.
S Herodotus, lib. iv.
i Voyage ii, 311, 32).—A very curious head of a wolf, fitted for this
use, is preserved in the Leverian museum.
1 Hist. Kamtschat. 61.
** Bell's Travels, i. 240, Svo.
tt Herodian in Vita Severi.
#1 De Bry, Virginia, tab. üi. 111,

AMERICAN, OR RED VARLETY.
25
“The Tungusi use canoes made of birch-bark, distended
over ribs of wood and nicely sewed together.* The Cana-
dian and many other American nations use no other sort
of boats. The paddles of the Tungusi are broad at each
end ; those of the people near Cook's
river and of Oonalaska
are of the same form.
“In burying of the dead many of the American nations
place the corpse at full length, after preparing it accord-
,
ing to their customs; others place it in a sitting posture,
and lay by it the most valuable clothing, wampum, and
other matters. The Tartars did the same, and both peo-
ple agree in covering the whole with earth, so as to form a
tumulus, barrow, or carnedd.+ In respect to the features
and form of the human body, almost every tribe found along
the western coast has some similitude to the Tartar nations,
and still retain the little eyes, small noses, high cheeks, and
broad faces. They vary in size from the lusty Calmucs
to the little Nogaians. The internal Americans, such as
the Five Indian Nations, who are tall of body, robust in
make, and of oblong faces, are derived from a variety
among the Tartars themselves. The fine race [tribe] of
Tschutski seem to be the stock from which those Americans
are derived. The Tschutski again from that fine race of
Tartars, the Kabardinski, or inhabitants of Kabarda.”I
Independent of all other arguments in favour of the
Asiatic origin of the aboriginals of America, the circumstance
of but one species of the human race existing throughout
the world is sufficient to reduce us to the necessity of ac-
knowledging that mankind have descended from one parent
stock, however their external appearance may have been
modified by accident, disease, or situation. We are aware
that some persons talk of the possibility of there having
been various centres of creation to the human race, as
among inferior animals; but we consider it very unphiloso-
phicalto suppose the existence of various centres of creation
for the same species. Occasionally we hear still more
ridiculous opinions advanced by persons who have not been
at the trouble of examining the facts which have been
collected on the subject, or are desirous of rendering them-
* Isbrandt Ides in Harris's Coll. ii. 919.
| Compare Colden, i. 17, Lafitau, i. 416, and Archeologia, ii. 252,
tab. xiv.
† Pennant's Introduction to the Artic Zoology, p. 260.
VOL. I.
4

26
ON THE ORIGIN OF THE
a
selves notorious by supporting any opinion, however al-
surd.
Thus far we have paid a deference to those who are un-
willing to suppose that this continent was peopled from the
old, and we have bestowed on their arguments a sufficient
degree of attention.* But, as we have already hinted, all
this discussion, relative to the human inhabitants of this
continent may be dispensed with; first, because the human
race, from the equator to the poles, are one and the same,
without presenting a single specific difference; and, in the
second place, because a very adequate and perfectly natu-
ral means of approach is given, by which all the results
desired could be readily produced. We have shown that
limitation of time relates merely to our own narrow con-
ceptions of its duration, and has reference neither to
the Deity nor to the order of nature; nor is it rendered
necessary by any knowledge we possess relative to the
creation of the world. Even allowing a most immense
lapse of ages to have intervened from the creation to the
peopling of this continent, we should rather discover in it
a proof of the correctness of our position, than a circum-
stance repugnant to the plan of nature. Had a race of
men been created on this continent simultaneous with that
established in the old world, the vast increase of population
would have long since required more than the ordinary de-
vastation of human life, by pestilence, famine, and mur-
derous war.
An idea of creation, more consonant with enlightened
intelligence than the one recently glanced at, is that which
considers the ETERNAL as having given existence to a few
laws, or rules of action, which, through his omniscience,
comprise all subsidiary operations, and by their influence
the whole admirable system becoming in due succession
developed and perfected-each joined to each in proper
* The theory of Clavigero, which supposes that a country fifteen
hundred miles in length, and of an unknown breadth, was sunk between
America and the old continent, and that by this land the human
race anciently passed to this country, is too extravagant and unfoun-
ded to require more than a passing notice. Instead of having islands
or regions sunk in the neighbourhood of the American shores, they are
continually forming and increasing with great rapidity, being almost
uniformly founded by the labours of the coral molluscæ, and after being
built up by them from great depths to the surface of the ocean, collect
weeds, sand, and other matters, for the commencement of a soil.


ONGPATONGA,
Big Elk
Chief of the Omawhawezi
Engraved by Hugh Bridport from an original Painting by Naylo.

AMERICAN, OR RED VARIETY.
27
corelation, and all approaching his immediate presence by
a point too ineffably distant to be appreciated by finite
comprehension. Such an evaluation of the plan of divine
providence, or creative power, would shame us out of theo-
ries in which we attempt to reduce infinitude to our own
standard, and mete out the operations of the mighty sys-
tem of nature by our own miserable span of three score
and ten years!
SECTION II.
General Character of the American Indians.
In various situations the North American Indians ex-
hibit very considerable differences in stature, colour, and
physiognomy; their medium height may be stated to cor-
respond with that of the Europeans, though many indi-
viduals may be found in various tribes far exceeding the
ordinary size. Their colour varies from a cinnamon brown
to a deep copper colour, and some that I have seen were
rather of an olive yellow hue. They almost universally
have black, straight and rigid hair, though it frequently
appears more harsh from their modes of dressing it, than
it otherwise would be.
The features of the face are all large and strongly mark-
ed, if we except the eyes, which are generally deep seated,
or sunk in large sockets, and placed rather horizontally ; in
;
this respect, and in general beauty of person, they more
nearly resemble the European than any other variety of the
human race. The forehead is most commonly low,
somewhat compressed at the sides, and slightly retreating
from the perpendicular. The facial angle is about eighty
degrees. The nose is generally elevated from the face, and
sometimes prominent, or even arched ; the cheek bones are
high and widely separate ; the angle of the jaw is broad
and the chin square. These latter circumstances give a
peculiar fulness to the lower part of the face, and occasion
much of the remarkable expression of the Indian counte-
nance.
The Indians have been often supposed to be naturally
destitute of hair on their bodies, but this deficiency is pro-
duced by the sedulous attention with which they eradicate
the hair from the chin and other parts of the body. The

28
GENERAL CHARACTER OF
hair of the head is also in great part removed, a small lock
being usually left on the centre or crown, which is com-
monly decorated with feathers, porcupine quills, or other
ornaments.
The habit of painting the body, either on occasions of
ceremony or preparatory to battle, is very universal
among the Indians, and hence vermilion has always been
a substance of great value to them. Under ordinary cir-
cumstances, where this pigment is not to be obtained, they
employ various coloured clays, charcoal, &c. which are
smeared over different parts of the skin in fantastic figures.
To estimate the moral character of the Indians correct-
ly, our inferences must be drawn from tribes undebased by
their proximity to the whites, or from periods which preceded
the introduction of European vices and corruptions amongst
them. It is thus that the venerable and excellent HECKE-
WELDER gave his valuable recollections of the Lenapes or
Delawares, not as they were at the time he wrote, but as
they had been when he first knew them, many years before.
Born and nurtured in the most uncontrolled liberty, the
restraints of civilized life have as yet only served to bring
the Indian still lower than the quadruped tenants of the
forest that have been subdued by the white man. Instead
of displaying the energies of nature, improved by cultiva-
tion, the civilized aboriginal has sunk into a state of hope-
less apathy, incapable of any thing better than an imitation
of the worst vices of the worst of men.
But, when free, in his native wilds, the American dis-
played a form worthy of admiration, and a conduct which
secured him respect. Brave, hospitable, honest and con-
fiding, to him danger had no terrors, and his house was ever
open to the stranger. Taught to regard glory as the high-
est reward of his actions, he became a stoic under suffer-
ing, and so far subjugated his feelings as to stifle the
emotions of his soul, allowing no outward sign of their
workings to be perceived. His friendships were steadfast,
and his promises sacredly kept ; his anger was dreadful;
his revenge, though often long cherished, was as horrible as
it was sure; necessity and pride taught him patience-habit-
ual exercise made him vigilant and skilful; his youth was
principally spent in listening to the recital of his father's and
ancestors' deeds of renown, and his manhood was passel
in endeavouring to leave for his children an inducement to
follow his example,

THE AMERICAN INDIAN.
29
Grave, dignified and taciturn, under ordinary circum-
stances—in the assembly of his nation, the Indian frequent-
ly became fluent, impassioned, eloquent, sublime. With
few words, and no artificial aid, drawing his images exclu-
sively from surrounding objects,and yielding to the influence
of his own ardent impulses, he roused his friends to enthusi-
asm, or inspired his enemies with dread, as he depicted,
with few and rapid touches, the terrors of his vengeance,
or the horrible carnage of his battles.
An Indian suffering with hunger complained not-nor
when long absent from home expressed emotion on his re-
turn."I am come,” would be his simple salutation—it
is well,” the only reply. When refreshed by eating and
smoking, he related the story of his enterprise to his assem-
bled friends, who listened in respectful silence, or only tes-
tified their interest in his narrative by a single ejaculation.
The Indians almost universally revere the aged, and are
exceedingly indulgent to their offspring, whom they rarely
chastise, unless by casting cold water on them. They are
not so kind to their women, who, as a general rule, are
treated rather as domestic animals than as companions,
and are seldom exempted from severe toils, even when
about to give birth to their children. Notwithstanding
this, the women appear contented with their situation, and
not unfrequently exhibit excellent traits of character. At
times their jealousy, or other depressing passions, lead
them to the commission of suicide, which is particularly
frequent among some of the tribes. Indian habits of think-
ing, varying with their modes of education, differ very
much in different nations. The want of chastity before
marriage is not universally considered as a loss of charac-
ter, neither is incontinence in the female, after marriage,
regarded as a crime, provided the husband gives his con-
sent. Yet the same people will treat as infamous, and
even put to an ignominious death, a woman who receives
the addresses of another man without the permission of
the husband. The number of wives taken by the men is
most commonly limited only by their ability to maintain
them, as almost all Indians are polygamous. Their wan-
dering modes of living and precarious subsistence, render
increase of population far inferior among them to what it
is among the whites.
The government to which they submit, is that exercised
by their chiefs, who are,
very few exceptions, chosen
with

30
GENERAL CHARACTER OF
in consequence of their superior courage, physical strength,
or great experience and wisdom. The deference paid to
them is not at all to be compared with that manifested by
Europeans to their rulers ; it is a respect for qualification
and standing, but confers no other privilege than that of
leading them to battle, or directing the movements of their
camp; it does not entitle the individual to interfere with
the rights of others of his tribe, nor can his will be carried
into effect, unless it be supported by the general opinion of
his people.*
The most universal and enduring passion among the
Indians is that for warlike glory. The earliest language
he hears is the warrior's praise—the first actions he is
taught to perform have for object the eventual attainment
of this distinction, and every thought is bent towards the
achievement of heroic deeds. Hence death is despised,
suffering endured, and danger courted; the song of war
is more musical to his ear than the voice of love, and
the yells of the returning warrior thrill his bosom with
pleasing anticipations of the time when he shall leave blood
and ashes where the dwelling of his enemy stood, and hear
the triumphant shouts of his kinsmen, responsive to his own
returning war cry!
If we except the skill in hunting, and the great excel-
lence of observation, by which they can detect the footsteps
of game or of their enemies, we must admit that the In-
dians have but little knowledge, and their acquaintance
with mechanic arts is still less perfect. They construct
lodges, with skins, bark, or earth, sustained by rude poles ;
make canoes of bark, shape bowls out of wood with vast
labour, by the aid of sharp flints and other stones; make a
rude and sun-dried pottery, fashion tobacco pipes of clay
or stone, dress the skins of animals by rubbing them, when
moistened with brains, until they are pliable, and from
these skins form moccasins, pouches, &c. variously orna-
mented with porcupine quills, which they know how to dye
of several brilliant colours.
They cannot be said to have any acquaintance with as-
tronomy, if we except the ability some of them possess to
* TACITUS, in his excellent account of the ancient Germans, informs
us that their leaders were chosen in a similar way. The reader may
derive much pleasure from examining his 4th Chap. de Moribus
Germaniæ, beginning Reges ex nobilitate, duces ex virtute sumunt.” &c.

THE AMERICAN INDIAN.
31
guide their course by the polar star; their knowledge of
medicine and surgery is exceedingly imperfect and rude,
or more properly it consists of a very few actual remedies
and a great deal of juggling mummery.*
Their modes of living vary throughout the countries they
inhabit, according to the peculiar nature of circumstances.
Those who reside where game is plenty, live entirely by
hunting—others, in the neighbourhood of lakes and rivers,
derive their support principally from fishing; many tribes
raise small quantities of maize and tobacco. The Indians
who live on the prairies or in level countries, are fond of
horses, and are excellent horsemen, while such as frequent
the forests are more remarkable for the celerity and saga-
city with which they travel on foot.
Their ideas of Deity are very rude and imperfect, though
they all seem to have an idea of a future state, as well as
of a great Spirit and Director of the universe. Many
tribes have some notion of rewards and punishments in a
future life; their ideas on this subject are necessarily
founded on their appreciation of what is at present agreea-
ble or disagreeable to themselves. They believe in bad as
well as good spirits, and are as much addicted to the wor-
ship of the former from fear, as they are to adore the latter
from love and respect.
The Eskimaux, who inhabit the most northern parts of
North America, differ considerably from the aboriginals ge-
nerally diffused over this country, as they are far inferior in
stature, and the features of their faces are extremely harsh
and disagreeable to Europeans. Their cheek bones are
very prominent, their cheeks tumid and somewhat globose,
their noses small, flat, or sunk, and their whole physiogno-
my resembling considerably that of the most ill-favoured
Tartar tribes.
The appearance of the Eskimaux varies from Prince
Williams' sound, where they are of the largest size;
as they extend to the more northern regions, to the coast
of the Icy sea and the maritime parts of Hudson's bay,
Greenland and Terra de Labrador, they became dwarfish,
in comparison with the European, and have heretofore
* Lucretius gives a very interesting description of savage man, which
may in a great degree be applied to the aboriginal inhabitants of Ame-
rica.-See his 6th Book line, 920, beginning “et genus humanum
multo fuit illud in arvis."
9

32
DENTAL SYSTEM OF
given rise to accounts of pygmies inhabiting these icy re-
gions.
In the Eskimaux we have an admirable exemplification
of the effects of severe climate on the human race, for the
extreme cold seems in them to have repressed all super-
fluity of growth, as if to accommodate the body to a situa-
tion where food and raiment cannot be procured without
great difficulty and danger.
SECTION III.
Dental System of the Human Race.
16 Upper
32 Teeth.
4 Cutting
2 Canine
10 Grinders.
4 Cutting
2 Canine
10 Grinders.
16 Lower.
The ca-
IN THE UPPER JAW, the first cutting tooth is termina-
ted inferiorly by a straight line; it is shaped like a wedge,
and is larger than the second. This latter is straighter
than the first cutting tooth, and terminates by two lines,
which form between them an open angle, that is to say, its
point is obtuse. Both these teeth are rounded externally,
and their internal surface is slightly excavated.
nine has exteriorly the form of the second grinder, but dif-
fers from it, because its internal surface is salient instead
of being depressed ; this gives it a thickness not to be
found in the other.
The first and second grinders (which are called false mo-
lars, on account of their slenderness when compared with
the thickness of the true grinders,) resemble each other
entirely in form and size. Externally examined, they are
but slightly distinguished from the second cutting and ca-
nine tooth; but they have on the crown two very thick and
very obtuse tubercles, one on their internal, the other on
their external border, separated by a deep groove.
The next tooth is a true grinder,* and is the largest of
all the teeth in the upper jaw. On its external edge it is
* True grinders, or simple grinders, are all teeth covered with tur-
bercles, evidently fit for crushing or triturating food.

THE HUMAN RACE.
33
divided into two equal parts, forming two very obtuse tu-
bercles, by a deep groove which only comes to the middle
of the crown, and when there, separates into two very slight
branches, which form with the principal groove, nearly the
same angle as they form with one another. On its inter-
nal edge this tooth is also divided, but unequally, by a
groove situated much nearer its posterior than its anterior
edge, so that the tubercle produced by this part of the
groove is stronger than that of the other portion: the tu-
bercles on this inner edge have their summits much nearer
to the middle of the tooth than those on the opposite bor-
der.
The two succeeding grinders are of the same size and
form, having on their external edge two equal tubercles,
formed by a groove which divides the tooth to the middle
of the surface, where it parts in two branches, like the
groove of the great grinder ; but these branches sometimes
cxtend even to the anterior and posterior edges of the tooth.
Their internal edge is composed of a single but very obtuse
tubercle, and these anterior and posterior parts are separa-
ted by a deep depression..
IN THE LOWER JAW, the first cutting tooth is one-third
straighter than that in the upper jaw, and is equally ter-
minated by a straight line; the second is nearly of the same
size as the first, and terminates by a point analogous to
that of the upper jaw, but this point is much nearer to the
first cutting tooth than to the canine.
The canine resembles the one described in the upper jaw,
except that it is not so thick.
The two false grinders have also much resemblance to
those of the upper jaw, except that they are somewhat
smaller, their external tubercle is much thicker than the
internal, and a projection on their middle divides the groove
which separates them into two parts, and forms their two
principal tubercles.
The succeeding grinder, which is also the largest of this
jaw, is divided into four principal parts, or four large tur-
bercles, by two grooves which cross each other at right an-
gles at the middle of the tooth; and these tubercles pre-
sent irregular inequalities, produced by some isolated de-
pressions, and also by some slight branches of the principal
grooves. The two succeeding grinders are smaller than
the preceding, and present the same principal divisions,
that is, they have four tubercles and two grooves; but the
VOL. I.
a
5

34
DENTAL SYSTEM, &c.
groove which cuts the tooth transversely is deeper than
that running from behind forwards, which makes it some-
times scarcely perceptible on the posterior half of these teeth.
The three last teeth are true grinders.
IN THEIR RECIPROCAL POSITION, the lower teeth, as
far as the middle cutting teeth, are more advanced ante-
riorly than the upper ones, that is to say, the posterior
part of the lower teeth correspond to the anterior of their
analogues in the opposite jaw, which appears to show the
reason of the narrow dimensions in the lower middle cut-
ting teeth, compared with the upper, and all are opposed
to each other crown to crown, except the cutting teeth
which stand face to face; the lower by their anterior face
to the posterior face of the upper.*
* The Dental Systems of the different genera described in this work,
and translated from FREDERICK CUVIER's celebrated work, “Des
Dents des Mammiferes Considerees, comme Caracteres Zoologiques.

CHAPTER II.
ORDER III.* Fere.—Bcasts of Prey.
-
SECTION I.
UNDER this order are arranged the animals which are
unguiculated or provided with claws, are destitute of hands
to their anterior extremities, and possess the three sorts of
teeth called carnivorous, false molars, and tuberculous ;
those which have the teeth either entirely or partially
tuberculous, feed to a greater or less degree on vegetable
matter, while such as have their teeth studded with coni-
cal points, feed principally on insects. In proportion to the
sharpness of the teeth we may decide whether or not they
are exclusively carnivorous.
In all the species belonging to this order, the articula-
ting or condyloid process of the lower jaw is semicylindric
and transversely placed, corresponding so precisely with
the glenoid cavity of the temporal bone, that it can only be
moved in one direction, or is incapable of any motion ex-
cept that of opening and shutting.
In some species the zygomatic arches are very large,
and the skull, especially at the posterior part, is much com-
pressed, which gives the space requisite for the large and
powerful muscles concerned in the act of mastication.
Their brain is destitute of the third lobe, although sufficient-
ly furrowed, and does not cover the cerebellum. The orbit
of the eye is not separated by bone from the temporal fossa
or hollow, in the skeleton.
Beasts of prey possess the sense of smelling in a high
degree of perfection, and their olfactory nerves are gene-
rally spread out over very numerous plates of convoluted
bony texture. They can turn the fore-arm, but by no
means with the same facility as is done by the quadru-
manous animals, and their forelimbs are uniformly desti-
tute of thumbs capable of antagonizing the other fingers.
The stomachs of beasts of prey are, generally speaking,
* The second family, (quadrumana, or four handed animals,) is not
found in North America.

36
GENERAL HISTORY
simple, and their intestines are less voluminous than those
of other quadrupeds, on account of the greater degree of
facility with which the digestion of animal matter can be
effected.
The greatest part of these creatures are forced, by the
necessity of procuring animal food, to attack and destroy,
the lives of other animals, which they are well qualified to
do by their great muscular strength, and the offensive
armour of teeth and nails with which they are provided.
As the forms and particulars of construction are very
various in these animals, we may expect corresponding
variations in their habits and actions. Hence they have
been arranged in different families, connected with each
other by various relations.
SECTION II.
FAMILY I.-CHEIROPTERA; Wing-handed.
The animals comprised in this family are generally
known by the name of bats, and are strikingly characteri-
zed by the manner in which the skin of the body is exten-
ded between and connects the anterior and posterior ex-
tremities, and is also prolonged over the bones of the
fingers, so as to form a large and efficient wing. The
clavicles, or collar-bones, are necessarily strong, and the
scapulæ, or shoulder-blades, are large, in order that the
shoulder-joint may have the necessary degree of solidity.
The fore-arm is incapable of supination,* as the power of
flying would thereby be impaired. Bats have two teats,
which are situated on the chest.
Dental-system of the Bat.
This family has been divided into many genera on ac-
count of the differences of the cutting teeth, and the modi-
The hand is said to be prone, when the palm is turned down-
wards, or towards the earth; supine, when the palm is turned up-
wards.
† Penis illis, generis humani more, propendens; character profecto)
talibus animantibus mirum.

OF THE BAT.
37
fications observed in the organs of sense and motion. In
fact these are almost the only particulars in which bats
differ from each other; in all, without exception, the true
grinders and canine teeth are of the same form and num-
ber; yet they differ in the number of their false molars,
which do not always correspond with the number of their
cutting teeth, and in other modifications on which the
ge
nera of this family is founded.
IN THE UPPER JAW, the canine is strong and angular,
having the general form of this sort of tooth, and receives
by an anterior, and sometimes very deep depression, as
well as an internal very deep depression, a triangular form.
In some species there is a salient point on the exterior of
this tooth, which in all the cheiroptera seems to be a very
important instrument in securing their prey, or as a weap
on of attack and defence.
The false molars, which are most developed, and may
be considered regular in these animals, have a point, and
a base which extends from their internal and posterior side,
sometimes producing a small point at its anterior part ;
these teeth always have two roots. The molars are three
in number, the first and second having the same form, and
differing but little in size. They present on their exter-
nal surface two parallel prisms, a section of which is ter-
minated by a point at each of its angles. These two prisms
rest upon a base which is developed on the interior of the
tooth, and is composed on its anterior part of a slightly
salient and triangular tubercle, and at its posterior part,
by a small simple point. The last molar, one half smal-
ler than the others, appears to be one of these first teeth,
obliquely truncated at its external and posterior part on
account of the sudden termination of the maxillary bone,
as if the half of the posterior prism was removed, as well
as the like posterior point.
IN THE LOWER JAW, the canines, equally strong as those
of the upper jaw, are rounded in front, but flattened on
the posterior surface, and strongly grooved at their base
on this part.
The regular false molars are slender, with a middle
principal tubercle, that is to say, having all the general
characters of these teeth. The molars, three in number,
are composed of the two prisms, which we have seen form
an essential part of the molars in the opposite jaw ; but
where they present one of their faces outward in the upper

38
GENERAL HISTORY
jaw, in the lower they present one of their angles, and the
point of this angle is commonly stronger than those of both
the others. The two first of these teeth are of equal size,
and the third a little smaller, because the posterior angle
is not entirely developed.
In their reciprocal position, the inferior canines are in
advance of the superior, as in the carnivorous animals, and
the projections of the grinders interlock with the hollows
of the opposite teeth.*
GENUS II. BAT; Vespertilio; L.
Gr. MixTEOLO
Germ. Fledermaus, Speckmaus.
Dutch. Vlarmuis Vledermaus,
Sued. Flædermus, Læderlapp.
Russ. Letukscka, Neotopyr.
Fr. (anc.) Chaude souris, Ratepenade,
Mod.) chauve souris.
Ital. Pipistrello, nottola, sportiglione,
Rattopennago, &c.
Span. Murciegalo, Murceguillo.
Portug. Morcego.
GENERIC CHARACTERS.
Dental Formula.
14 Upper
2 False Molars
6 Molars.
2 regular
0 anomalous.
32 Teeth:
4 Incisive
2 Canine
8 Molar.
6 Incisive
2 Canine
10 Molar.
18 Lower
4 False Molars
6 Molars.
2 regular
2 anomalous.
The anterior limbs, or arms and fore-arms of Bats, are
peculiarly elongated, and the bones of the fingers are still
more lengthened, exceeding the total length of the arm.
It is over the finger-bones, especially, that the skin of the
body is extended, in the form of a soft and delicate mem-
brane, which thus constitutes wings as extensive and effec-
tual as those of many birds. The pectoral muscles, which
are the principal agents in moving the wings, are thick
The author has been informed by Prince MUSIGNANO, that the
celebrated TEMMINCK of Amsterdam has made some recent discoveries
relative to the dental system of the Bat, which will most probably pro-
duce a considerable change in the classification of these animals.
Should the observations of Temminck be published in time, we shall give
them in the appendix to this work.

OF THE BAT.
39
and strong, to correspond with the nature of the service
they are to perform, and the middle of the sternum, or
breast bone, has a projection to give these muscles a large
surface of attachment, resembling considerably a similar
part in birds.
In consequence of these arrangements they
are able to fly with rapidity, and at great heights in the
air.
These curious wings are provided with a short thumh,
armed with a crooked nail, which serves them to hang by
when they wish to repose, or to climb with against the sides
of caverns or other places. Their hind feet are weak and
divided into five equal toes, all armed with nails. The
eyes of these animals are quite small, and their ears are
often very large; these, together with their wings, form a
vast membranous surface, almost naked, and exquisitely
sensible.
The perfect wisdom of the Author of Nature becomes
more clearly evident, in proportion as we carefully study
the relations existing between his creatures, the situations
they occupy, and the offices they are intended to perform.
As our inquiries are extended, we feel continually incited
to express our admiration at the excellent adaptation of
means to the end, and are induced to consider with plea-
sure, from their appropriateness, beings which, from a
superficial view, would be thought frightful or disgusting.
This may be well exemplified by the animals now to be
investigated ; a slight glance at their mere external form
and
appearance presents them as disagreeable, almost de-
formed, or most probably useless. A judicious observation
of their structure and modes of living causes admiration at
the excellent contrivance of their organization, and con-
vinces us that they may be eminently serviceable, even to
mankind.
The Bat certainly seems to occupy a very equivocal
rank in creation, since, though bearing a marked resem-
blance to a quadruped, a great part of his life is spent in
the air like a bird. Yet it is only in the latter circum-
stance that he can be compared with the feathered tribes,
being not only destitute of beak, plumes and talons, but
suspending himself in air by means of a velvet or leather-
like membrane.
When the
gray and dusky twilight succeeds the depart-
ing glories of the sun, myriads of insects, warmed into life
and activity by his heat, take wing in search of their females,

40
GENERAL HISTORY
sects.
to increase the innumerable hosts of their own race. At
the same moment the Bats, which have shrouded them-
selves during the glare of daylight, emerging from subter-
raneous recesses, or the gloomy vaults of time-worn ruins,
speed with rapid flight along, glutting a voracious appetite
on insects, which, but for their exertions, conjoined with
those of other creatures, would soon swarm so profusely as
to render the earth loathsome or uninhabitable.
The advantages of the Bat's peculiar structure are now
seen-his soft and velvet wings, though plied with vigour-
ous celerity, stir the air, but make no sound; their pecu-
liarly delicate sensibility enables him to feel the proximity
of every object, and unerringly directs his flight ; his large
ears catch every hum produced by the motions of his destin-
ed prey, and he noiselessly flits through the gloom, gather-
ing a plenteous meal, and destroying great numbers of in-
His strong sharp teeth and powerful jaws are em-
ployed in seizing and crushing his prey with slight effort,
nor does he relinquish the chase until the night is far
advanced and the cravings of hunger are entirely satis-
fied.
The Bat flies with a tremulous flickering movement of
its membranous wings, and its progression is irregular,
now rising with swiftness, then suddenly darting downwards,
or to one side, with apparent capriciousness, though it is
engaged in seizing its prey, which it distinguishes with
great quickness. This disposition to dart at any object
seen in the air is often employed for the destruction of Bats,
as they are shot or struck down with a long switch or whip
at the moment they descend to examine objects thrown
into the air, In general the Bat flies at no great distance
from the earth, though it occasionally ascends above the
tops of trees or houses, and even much higher. During the
time of feeding it appears to be continually in motion,
searching for food with much dilligence, as if con-
scious that the opportunity of procuring it would soon
а
pass by,
When on the ground, it is very evident that the Bat is a
quadruped, and what are commonly called wings, are
entirely analogous to the members of other four footed
animals, though varying greatly from the original type.
« The elbow is found near the knee; the fore arm is very
long, and obliquely extended from above downwards, and
from behind forwards, as far as the nose of the animal. The

OF THE BAT.
41
*
wrist is placed against the ground, and there is but one
finger on the anterior extremity, which is the thumb. The
knee is raised as high as the lower part of the rump, and
the five toes of the hind feet are of equal length, and turned
outwards. The arm is extended horizontally from the
front to the back part, and the thigh vertically from above
downwards; the arm is concealed behind the fore-arm,
;
and the thigh behind the leg ; they are moreover enveloped
in the membranes which conceal the tail and all the hinder
parts of the body. Besides the thumb seen on the anterior
extremities, there are four other very long fingers extending
from the fore-arm, enveloped in the membrane, and folded
near the elbow by their extremity."*
From these singularly lengthened extremities, the ani-
mal derives little or no assistance while on the ground, as
it rests on the breast and belly, rather propped up than
standing. In this situation the motions of the Bat are
slow and heavy, more resembling the dragging along
of the body and limbs than a fair and regular act of pro-
gression. It is by no means easy for the Bat to take wing,
and some of the species cannot readily escape if placed on
the ground; but it is an error to suppose that it is impos-
sible for them to take to flight, while in this situation.
Their mode of alighting or resting is, by fixing the hook of
their hind feet to the projections of caves or old buildings,
with their wings folded on their bodies, and their heads
hanging down, until forced by hunger to resume their flight.
This singular inverted position is one which enables them
to take wing with ease, inasmuch as they can launch
themselves in air with great facility, merely by letting go
their hold. In order to void its excrement, which is very
frequently found in vast heaps in caves much frequented
by them, they bend their bodies upwards, and extend the
wing until they can lay hold of a projection with the hook
on the thumb. When this is accomplished they relinquish
their hold with the posterior claws, and thus perform their
evacuations, resuming their original inverted position, by
renewing their hold with the claws of the hind feet.
The Bat is entitled to the place it holds in our systema-
tic arrangements, from the circumstance of having paps
or teats placed on the chest, analagous to those of the hu-
* Daubenton,
6
VOL. I.

42
GENERAL HISTORY
man race. They suckle their young, who remain firmly
attached to the teat during the flight of the parent, until
they attain a considerable size.
These creatures are not deficient in those affections,
which, in other animals, are supposed to denote much sen-
sibility, and always excite the sympathies of mankind.
The Bat has been known to exhibit the most devoted at-
tachment to her young, and forego all efforts at self-pre-
servation, in order to be near when she could not release
her captive progeny. The following circumstance, made
known by that enterprising naturalist, my friend TITIAN
PEALE, will show to what an extent they may evince this
feeling :
“ In June 1823, the son of Mr. Gillespie, keeper of the
city square, caught a young red Bat, (Vespertilio Nov-Eb-
oracensis, L.) which he took home with him. Three hours
afterwards, in the evening, as he was conveying it to the
Museum in his hand, while passing near the place where
it was caught, the mother made her appearance, followed
the boy for two squares, flying around him, and finally
alighted on his breast, such was her anxiety to save her
offspring. Both were brought to the Museum, the young
one firmly adhering to its mother's teat. This faithful
creature lived two days in the Museum, and then died of
injuries received from her captor. The young one, being
but half grown, was still too young to take care of itself,
and died shortly after."
We have already glanced at the singular fact, that Bats
have the power of directing their flight with perfect.cor-
rectness, even when deprived of their -sight. In 1793
Spallanzani put out the eyes of a Bat, and observed that it
appeared to fly with as much ease as before, and without
striking against objects in its way, following the curve of
a ceiling, and avoiding, with accuracy, every thing against
which it was expected to strike. Not only were blinded
Bats capable of avoiding such objects as parts of a building,
but they shunned, with equal address, the most delicate ob-
stacles, even silken threads, stretched in such a manner as
to leave just space enough for them to pass with their wings
expanded. When these threads were placed closer togeth-
er, the Bats contracted their wings, in order to pass be-
tween them without touching. They also passed with the
same security between branches of trees placed to intercept
them, and suspended themselves by the wall, &c. with as

OF THE BAT.
43
.
ease as if they could see distinctly. Similar experiments
were made by JURINE of Geneva, who attempted to ac-
count for the fact by attributing it to the delicacy of the
nerves expanded about the muzzle, ears, &c. Mr. Carlisle,
who experimented in England with the large-eared Bat
(V. Auritus) concluded that this faculty was owing to ex-
treme acuteness of hearing, as the Bat, when its ears were
covered, flew against objects, as if unconscious of their
presence; it is probable, however, that there was some
unobserved source of fallacy in this experiment.
A much more satisfactory and philosophical mode of ex-
plaining this curious circumstance was offered by the cele-
brated CUVIER, who sheds light wherever he directs his
attention.
In a paper read May 1796, this naturalist re-
ferred it to the exquisite sense of touch resident in the
membranous skin forming the wings, ears, &c. as had
been previously hinted at by Odier. During the flight of
.
the blinded Bat, whenever it approaches any object, the air
set in motion by its wings reacts against their surface
with a greater or less degree of force, and being in this
manner warned of the proximity of the object, it avoids in-
jury by changing its course.
Immediately preceding thunder-storms, Bats have been
known to take shelter in dwelling-houses in great-num-
bers ; no less than thirty were recently captured in the
house of a friend, where they had thus entered for refuge
against an approaching gust.
The Bat brings forth in the month of June and July,
generally from one to three young at a birth, which are
carefully suckled by the parent until they grow to a consid-
erable size.
As soon as the cold weather approaches, the Bat retires
to places of security, and frequently gathers in large clus-
ters, apparently for the sake of warmth. They gradually
become entirely torpid, and in this state the circulation of
the blood and other functions of the animal economy seem
to be perfectly suspended. With the return of the warm
season they slowly acquire the ability to move, and when
their torpor has entirely passed away, they again sally
forth to renew their wonted destruction of the insect tribe.
The singular structure and habits of the Bat have long
since afforded the poets an emblem of darkness and terror,
and induced them to consecrate this creature to Proserpine,
their queen of Hades. Æsop, with his usual shrewdness
a

44
GENERAL HISTORY
to
of observation, has turned the Bat to good account in his
fable of the war between the birds and beasts, in which he
severely reproves those who in important affairs are dis-
posed to belong to no party. He represents the Bat as
unwilling to declare for either host, but to hover between
both during the fight, in consequence of which it was no
longer considered either as bird or beast, and was obliged
to avoid appearing abroad until other animals had
gone
repose.
The fact, as has already been shown, is, that the Bat is
one of a large number of animals whose structure is adapt-
ed for activity and usefulness only when the light is fee-
ble, and food is to be obtained. However amusing it may
be in poetry or apolouge to consider such creatures as
choosing night for their appearance from a desire of con-
cealment, it is by no means allowable for students of natural
history to forget that all beings must live in conformity to the
laws of their organization, that the perfection of every spe-
cies is relative to the situation in which it exists, and that
our notions of beauty and deformity are neither true tests
of the excellence nor importance of any inferior animal.
SECTION I.
Sometime after the preceding observations were written,
I received a paper on Bats, by the distinguished GEOF-
FROY ST HILIARE, published in the French Dictionary of
Natural Sciences. As this learned man has devoted a
great deal of time to the study of these creatures—as he
has had the fullest opportunities of making observations-
and as he may be relied on, I shall, for the benefit of my
,
readers, introduce some of his remarks from the paper just
mentioned.*
“ The writings of naturalists attest the ignorance which
formerly existed relative to Bats. Aristotle defined them
* We anticipate, with great satisfaction, a paper on the subject of
the bats of this country from that indefatigable and distinguished natu-
ralist Capt. J. LE CONTE, who, during many years past, has been en-
gaged in making the necessary observations. We understand that he
has many new and very interesting species,

OF THE BAT.
45
as birds with skinny wings; he was not positive they were
volatile, on account of their feet ; but on the other hand,
he could not resolve to view of them as quadrupeds, since
they were not provided with four distinct feet. His reflec-
tions on their want of tail and rump led him to theoretical
notions, which were not based on any positive observation.
“ Pliny speaks of Bats only to remark, that they are
birds which bring forth their young alive, and suckle them.
“At the restoration of learning in Europe, naturalists
confined themselves to copying the ancients. Aldrovan-
dus first began to advance farther in relation to Bats :
yielding uniformly to the prejudices of his time, he placed
them in the same family with the ostrich, and the reason he
gives is, that these two species of birds partake equally of
the nature of quadrupeds !
Scaliger makes out the Bat to be a perfectly marvel-
lous being; he finds in it two and four feet; it walks with-
out paws, and flies without wings—sees when there is no
light, and becomes sightless when the dawn appears. It
is, adds he, the most singular of all birds, because it has
teeth, and is without a beak.
“ The Bat has, like all viviparous quadrupeds, a double
heart,* cellular lungs, suspended and surrounded by the
pleuro,a muscular diaphragm,interposed between the cavity
of the chest and that of the belly, an ample and solid brain,
and a skull composed of the usual number of pieces, joined
to each other by sutures.
“ They have the same sentient system, and the same
organs of digestion and secretion. Their teeth are also of
three sorts; their bodies equally covered with hair, and, as
;
was long since known, without leading to the proper con-
clusion, their young are brought forth alive, and suckled at
their teats, exactly as in all viviparous quadrupeds. Such
is the degree of resemblance, that the smallest details of
their organization suffice alone, and separately, to show
that they are true mammalia,and must be classed with
them.
a
* That is, with two auricles and two ventricles: the right auricle
and ventricle to throw the blood through the lungs, the left, through
the general circulation of the body.
t Or animals giving suck. It is to be regretted that we cannot
express this term in English without circumlocution; the Germans have
a word "saeugthiere” which conveys the true idea.

46
GENERAL HISTORY
“ The Bat, though accustomed to move in the air like
birds, nevertheless is sustained by very different instru-
ments ; hence all the anomalies observed in its structure
are derived from the mammalious type.
“ The parts which in birds answer to the fingers of the
human body are almost effaced; they only exist in a rudi-
mental form, attenuated and solidified with each other,
whence it results that the hand of birds is nothing but a
stump. The wing exists beyond this, supported and ad-
justed on the extremity of the member, and consisting of long
terminal quills, that is to say, on a fair analysis, the most
useful portion is actually composed of shoots or elements
belonging to the epidermal or scarf-skin system.
“In the Bat, on the contrary, it is the fore-limbs them-
selves, and principally the hands, which are enlarged. If
we can imagine the hand of'an ape drawn out (as if through
a wire-drawer's plate) and spreading from the wrist like
rays through the segment of a circle, we shall have a clear
notion of the construction of a Bat's hand.
“ The thumb alone does not suffer the same modifications:
it remains short, free from all connexioris, and capable of
very various movements; in this it resembles the thumb of
monkeys, since it is not employed as an organ of flight ;
that it may preserve its ordinary function, and remain a
finger as to use, it is maintained in its integrity—that is to
it is provided with a last phalanx and nail.
“ The four fingers, on the contrary, which by their ex-
cessive length change to instruments of flight, passing to so
strange an employment, are no longer susceptible of the
accustomed action; it is with much trouble and fatigue
that the Bat occasionally is merely able to use them for
the purpose of dragging itself along a horizontal plane, or
to secure its young.
“ Another anomaly renders these four fingers particular-
ly worthy of attention, they are not complete, being desti-
tute of nails, and, what is remarkable, the terminal phalanx,
which in all other instances is formed to suit the nail, is
wanting also.
“ These long finger-bones of the Bat answer the same
end in their wings that the sticks of a parashute do to that
instrument, that is, they are supports designed to enable a
material to resist the air. This material in the Bat is a pro-
longation of the skin of the flanks: the back and the bel-
ly each furnish a layer, as we may ascertain by separating
say,
a

OF THE BAT.
47
in two equal thicknesses the membrane of the wings.
Notwithstanding that this membrane is formed thus, it
always appears to us as a thin, transparent and slight net-
work.
As the bones of the hand diminish in thickness in propor-
tion as they are increased in length, the integuments are in
like manner, thinned in proportion to their extension. It is,
moreover, remarkable that this, which is here an effect of a
general law of organization, wonderfully completes the
means of flight in the Bat, since more compact bones, or a
thicker and denser membrane, especially at so great a dis-
tance from the moving power, would have increased the
weight of the animal so much as to render its flight im-
possible.
“We may judge how much the anterior extremities are
enlarged, by comparing them with the posterior, which are
of ordinary dimensions. These are only partially included
in the lateral membrane, the feet being free.
The mem-
brane has its last attachments on the tarsus, or instep,
the little bones of which, projecting in front, in form of a
spine, give the interfemoral membranes a firm hold.
“ The toes of the hind feet are small, compressed, equal
in length, and always five in number. They are all termi-
nated by claws, or small horny plates, making a quarter
circle, very sharp at the points, and remarkable for their
equality and parallelism.
“ The whole of the functions ordinarily performed by fin-
gers seem concentrated in the hinder toes of the Bat,
which are invariable in their forms, or they are, in reality,
the only fingers possessed by this genus. We have here-
tofore shown that only one is found on the anterior extremi-
ties, the rest being virtually nothing but solid supports to
extend or fold the membraneous wings.
“When the Bat is not on the wing, we could scarcely
imagine how it would use its limbs, in order to move on the
ground; yet, when it is necessary, they employ them ad-
vantageously for the purpose. The folded wings then
become fore-legs; they are sustained on four feet ; they
advance, and draw themselves along with sufficient quick-
ness to justify us in saying that they run fast.
" To effect this, how much trouble, how many efforts
and how many different actions are necessary! At first,
they reach forward, and slightly to one side, the extremity
or stump of the wing, fastening the claw of the thumb on
the ground; retaining thus a strong hold, they draw up the

48
GENERAL HISTORY
hind legs under the belly, and to start from this crouching
position they raise themselves on their hinder parts, and
tumble the whole body forwards. But as they only take
hold of the ground with the claw of one wing, they advance
diagonally, throwing themselves towards the fixed point;
to make the next step, they use the other wing and tumb-
ling in the contrary direction, in spite of these alternate
deviations, they move forward in a right line. As this
exercise is very fatiguing, they do not attempt it unless
when in perfect security, or else when they have accidental-
ly fallen on a level surface.
“ In the latter condition the Bat makes an effort to es-
cape from it as speedily as possible, because while thus
situated, it is almost impossible to raise itself in the air.
The wings are too extensive, and the struggles made in
general, merely produce a new fall; if, on the contrary, it
can gain a high place, a tree, or a stump, it speedily makes
its escape."*
Professor JACOB GREEN has kindly furnished us with
the following note of his observations, made on the Bat, in
a cavern explored by him on the 1st of November 1816.
“I this day visited an extensive cavern, about twelve
miles south of Albany, N. Y. I did not measure its extent
into the mountain, but it was at least three or four hundred
feet. There was nothing remarkable in this cave, except
the vast multitudes of Bats which had selected this un-
frequented place, to pass the winter. They did not appear
to be much disturbed by the light of the torches carried by
our party, but, upon being touched with sticks, they instant-
ly recovered animation and activity, and flew into the dark
passages of the cavern. As the cave was, for the most
part, not more than six or seven feet in height, they could
very easily be removed from the places to which they were
suspended, and some of the party, who were behind me,
disturbed some hundreds of them at once, when they swept
by me in swarms to more remote, darker, and safer places
of retreat. In flying through the caves they made little or no
noise ; sometimes upon being disturbed in one place they
flew but a few yards and then instantly settled in another,
in a state of torpor apparently as profound as before.
These Bats, in hibernating, suspended themselves by the
hinder claws, from the roof or upper part of the cave; in no
a
* See Dict. des Sciences Naturelles, Art. Cheiropteres.

OF THE BAT.
49
instance did I observe one along the sides. They were not
promiscuously scattered, but were collected into
groups or
clusters, of some hundreds, all in close contact. On hold-
ing a candle within a few inches of one of these groups,
they were not in the least troubled by it: their eyes con-
tinued closed, and I could perceive no signs of respiration.
On opening the stomach of one of these Bats, it was found
entirely empty; the species, I believe, was the V. Novebo-
racensis.
" While making some experiments in my Laboratory at
Princeton, in a cold dark afternoon in December, a good fire
being in the stove, and the room being warm, a small red-
dish coloured.Bat, (probably the V. Noveboracensis,) which
had secreted itself behind some of the cases which held the
philosophical apparatus, made its appearance. It flew a
short time about the room, and then retired; I saw it, how-
ever, once or twice afterwards, in the course of the
winter.'
a
SPECIES I.-Carolina Bat.
Vespertilio Carolensis.-GEOFF.
The essential characters of this species are the follow-
ing ;—the ears are oblong and of the length of the head ;
and partly velvet-like. The auricle or projecting portion
of the ear is half heart-shaped. The pelage is chesnut
brown coloured above, and yellowish below.
This Bat is most like the common or murine Bat of
Europe, (V. Murinus, L.) The ears are of middling size,
showing no folds on their internal larger edge, and having
the first half of their external surface covered with fine
hairs. The auricle is almost heart-shaped ; the tail is al-
together enveloped by the interfemoral membrane, except-
ing a small point of its extremity, which is free. The hair
is, at base, of a blackish ash colour.
As the name implies, this Bat is a native of Carolina,
where it is found in the vicinity of Charleston. The first
specimens were sent to Europe by Mr Bosc, and described
by GEOFFRY, in the eighth volume of the Annals of the Mu-
seum of Natural History.
VOL. I.
7

GENERAL HISTORY
50
SPECIES II.-New-York Bat.
Vespertilio Noveboraeensis.-L.
Red Bat of Pennsylvania, figured in Volume VI. of Wilson's Ornithology.
Essential characters.The ears are short, broad, and
rounded, and the whole of the tail is comprised in the in-
terfemoral membrane.
The nose of this species is short, and rather pointed; the
interfemoral membrane, which completely includes the
tail, is velvet-like above, and of the same reddish brown
colour as the back and upper part of the neck. The belly
is of a paler colour, and there is a white spot at the origin of
the wings. The hair covering the body is soft and furry.
This species is found in the state of New York, Pennsyl-
vania, New Jersey, on the Missouri, &c.
SPECIES III.--Hoary Bat.
Vespertilio Pruinosus.-SAY.
Long's Expedition to the Rocky Mountains, Vol. i. p. 168.
The ears of this species are large and short, not equal-
ling the length of the head, and are hairy on their outside,
for more than half their length. The tragus* is very ob-
tuse at tip, and arcuated or bow-shaped. The nostrils
open
at a distance from each other; the canine teeth are large
and prominent; there is but one distinct cutting tooth on
each side, placed very near the canine, and almost on a
line with it; it is of a conical form, and furnished with a
tubercle on its exterior base. The brachial membrane is
densely hairy on the anterior margin beneath, and the in-
terfemoral membrane is covered with fur.
The fur of the back is long, and of a black brown colour
at base, then of a pale brownish yellow, then blackish, and
then white; towards the rump dark ferruginous takes the
a
* That part of the external ear which corresponds to the projection
on the human ear, situated immediately next the face, over the joint
of the jaw-bone; the antitragus is immediately opposite, and a little
lower down, on the outer portion of cartilage, leaving between the two,
the little gutter directly above the lobule or fleshy part of the ear.

2
Rider Del
EXearnу ѕе.
1.2.
Vew York. But a Heary
. 3
Heary Bab.


OF THE BAT.
51
place of the brownish yellow. The colours beneath are
similar to those of the back, but on the anterior portion of
the breast the fur is not tipped with white, and on the
throat it is of a dull yellowish white, and is dusky at base.
This Bat is nearly four and a half inches long, and was
common in the vicinity of Engineer Cantonment, where
the expedition to the Rocky Mountains wintered. Mr.
THOMAS NUTTALL, the justly distinguished botanist, ob-
served it also at Council Bluffs. A specimen captured
near Philadelphia, was presented to the Philadelphia Mu-
seum by the late professor BARTON.
This fine large species, remarkable for its variously co-
loured fur, was first scientifically described by Say, in the
work above quoted, and we are indebted to him for all we
have said relative to it. He states it to have much affinity
with the New York Bat, before described, but is of
twice the size, and distinguished from that species by va-
rious minor characters.
SPECIES IV.-Arcuated Bat.
Vespertilio Arcuatus.-SAY.
Long's Expedition to the Rocky Mountains, Vol. i. p. 168.
The head of this species is large, and the ears, rather
shorter than the head, are wide, rounded at tip and hairy
at base.
The posterior edge has two slight and very obtuse
emarginations : the anterior base is distant from the eye.
The tragus is arcuated, and obtuse at tip; the interfemo-
ral membrane is naked, including all the tail, except one
half of the joint next the last. The total length of this
species is five inches; the tail being one inch and a half
long. In expansion it is more than thirteen inches. The
upper cutting teeth, like those of various species of our Bats,
are not prominent, but much inclined forwards, not rising
at their tips above the intervening callosity.
Mr. Say remarks, that “this Bat might readily be mis-
taken for the Carolina Bat (V. Carolinensis, GEOFF.)
which it resembles in colour, but differs from it in being of
a larger size, the ears broader and proportionally shorter,
and an arcuated tragus curving in an almost uniform man-
ner towards the anterior portion of the ear, like that of the
V. Serotinus, DAUB. GEOFF. though not so broad.”

52
GENERAL HISTORY &3.
This Bat was obtained from the same vicinity as the
preceding.
SPECIES V.- Subulate Bat.
Vespertilio Subulatus. SAY.
Long's Expedition to the Rocky Mountains, Vol. ii.p. 63.
The ears are longer than they are broad, and nearly as
long as the head ; the half nearest the head is hairy, a lit-
tle ventricose on the anterior edge, and extending near to
the eye. The tragus is elongated and subulate. The hair
above is blackish at base, and at tip dull cinereous; the
interfemoral membrane hairy at base, the hair of one
colour ; a few are also scattered over its surface, and along
its edge, as well as that of the brachial membrane. Beneath,
the hair is black, the tip yellowish white. The hind feet
are rather long, a few bristles extending over the nails;
only a minute portion of the tail protrudes beyond the
membrane.
The total length of this species is two inches and nine-
tenths; the tail being one inch and one-fifth long.
On this species Mr Say. makes the following remarks,
“It appears to be an immature specimen, as the molars
are remarkably long and acute; the canines are very much
incurved, and the right one is singularly bifid at tip, the
division resembling short bristles. This species is, beyond
a doubt, distinct from the Carolina Bat, (V. Carolinensis,
Geoff.) with which the ears are in proportion equally
elongated, and, as in that Bat, a little ventricose on the
anterior edge, so as almost to extend over the eye ; but the
tragus is much longer, narrower, and more acute, resembling
that of the Emarginatus, GEOFF., as well in form as in
proportion to the length of the ear."*
* The Prince of Musignano has several new species of American
Bats, the descriptions of which he at present defers publishing, in
order to gain more information relative to them. Should he publish
his descriptions in time, we shall insert them in our appendix.

CHAPTER III.
FAMILY II.-INSECTIVORA; Insect-eaters.
The designation by which this family is known, is not
intended to imply that the animals it comprehends feed
more exclusively on insects, than those treated of in the
preceding chapter ; but the division, by aiding the memory,
serves the purpose of facilitating our studies. The mem-
bers of this family resemble the cheiroptera in the form of
their molar teeth and in the nature of their food, but they
are destitute of every thing like the lateral membrane,
which in the former supplies the place of wings.
Their chief food is insects, and most of them in cold
countries
pass
the winter in a state of torpidity.
They all
have clavicles; but their limbs are short, and their motions
feeble. Their paps, or teats, are mostly placed on the
belly; the intestines are destitute of cæcum.* They tread
on the whole sole of the foot, pass a great part of their
lives beneath the surface of the earth, and most generally
leave their subterranean retreats only at night.
GENUS V. Shrew; Sorex, L.
Gr. Mvyaan
French (Ancient). Muserain; Muzer-
Ang. Sax. Screawa, Scirfemus
aigne, Muset, Musette, Sery, Sri. (Mod-
Germ. Die Spitzmaus, Reutmaus. ern). La Musaraigne.
Zismaus, Müger, Mützer, Bissam- Ital. Toparagno.
inaus.
Spar. Musgaño, Musaraño Murgaño.
Dutch. Spitzmuis.
Port Musaranho, Muferanho.
Dan. & Norse.Spidsmuus, Nebbemuus, Polish. Keret.
Angelmus, Museskiser.
Hungar. Patkaani. Lap. Zibak.
Swed. Nábbemus.
GENERIC CHARACTERS,
The head of the shrew is elongated, conical, and the
eyes are visible, though extremely minute ; the snout is
* Illis invagiratus est penis.

54
GENERAL HISTORY
long and movable. The ears are short, rounded and
broader than they are long; the body is covered with short
fine hair. The fingers and toes are very small and feeble,
stand separate from each other, and are provided with
hooked nails, which are unfit for burrowing. The teats,
from six to ten in number, are partly placed on the chest,
and partly on the belly. The feet are short, having five toes
with slight nails.
Dental System.
18 Upper
10 False
8 True
Molars.
30 Teeth:
2 Incisor
10 Canine
6 Molar.
2 Incisor
0 Canine
10 Molar.
12 Lower
4 False
6 True
Molars.
IN THE UPPER JAW there is a very strong hooked cutting
tooth, terminating in a point, and strengthened at its base
posteriorly by a strong edge, which is itselfdivided in two by
a furrow on its internal face,which forms another uneven edge
at that part. Immediately next this, is a regular very strong
false molar, which is followed by two others, both of the
same size, equally regular in form, but one-half smaller than
the first. The fourth false molar is rudimental, and con-
cealed between the third and the fifth. The latter is very
large, cutting, with a flat and salient part at its internal
basis, which causes it to resemble the tearing grinders of
the most carnivorous animals. The three following molars
are similar to those thus far described, only that the base
on which the prisms are placed are composed anteriorly of
a pointed tubercle, and posteriorly of a smooth and flatten-
ed
part: moreover, the anterior prism of the first is less
developed than the other, and the posterior prism of the
last is not at all perceptible.
IN THE LOWER JAW there is a strong, long and crooked
cutting-tooth, terminating in a point, and reclining in front
next to this follow two regularly formed false molars, the
first a little smaller than the second ; the three true molars
resemble those of the Shrew-mole and Star-nose, except
that the last has only the anterior point of its posterior
prism.
In their reciprocal position, the lower cutting-teeth cor-
respond, by their points, with the inside of the upper ones,
3
a

OF THE SHREW.
55
and fill up the furrow which separates the principal part
of these teeth from that which exists at their base, pog-
teriorly. The false molars leave a large space between
them, except the two last, which touch each other, the
anterior edge of the upper being applied to the posterior
edge of the lower. The anterior face of the first lower
molar is opposed to the internal surface of the last upper
false molar, which we have seen is small; it is between
these two teeth that the cutting is performed by this system
of dentition. The other teeth have the same relations as
those heretofore described.
The shrews belonging to this country are remarkable
for their diminutive size and apparent helplessness, and
were we to judge of their utility or capacity for enjoyment
by their size or strength, we should conclude that their use-
fulness is very equivocal, and their lives exceedingly com-
fortless. But their small bodies and slight strength only
fit them more perfectly for the places they inhabit, and
their senses being planned on a scale relative to their con-
dition, leave us every reason to infer, that they may derive as
much pleasure from their peculiar food, and the society of
their mates, as the largest animals in existence, whose
massive frames seem to make earth tremble beneath their
footsteps.
Shrews are most generally found in the country, where
their residence is either in burrows, or among heaps of
stones, or in holes made by other animals; near dung
heaps, hay ricks, or privies, they are more numerous than
elsewhere. Insects are their principal subsistence, but
they seem no less fond of grain, putrid flesh, and filth of
various sorts, as they have been occasionally seen rooting
in ordure in a manner similar to that of the hog.
These animals rarely come out in the day time, and are
so small as to require very close attention to observe their
modes of living. As the autumnal season advances, they
are found resorting in considerable numbers to the barns
and granaries, where they find a large supply of food and
more comfortable quarters for their winter's sleep.
A very ridiculous notion formerly existed relative to
the bite of these inoffensive creatures. It was thought
they bit and poisoned cattle ; hence we find, among other
appellations, the name of “poisonous mouse” has been bes-
towed. This notion most probably originated in conse-

56
GENERAL IIISTORY
quence of associating the existence of shrews in the vicini-
ty of stables with the appearance of some disease on the
extremities of horses, &c. As the mouth of the shrew
can scarcely be opened wide enough to grasp the doubling
of skin necessary to allow of a bite, we must perceive that
the accusation of poisoning is erroneous.
Cats and other animals will hunt and destroy shrews,
but cannot sufficiently surmount the disgust caused by their
offensive odour to eat them. The cause of their peculiar
smell has been discovered by the celebrated GEOFFROY, who
gives a description of the secretory apparatus in the Me-
moirs of the Museum of Natural History, vol. i, 1815.
These odoriferous glands, unlike those of various other
animals, are in the shrew, found on the side, nearer to
the anterior than the posterior extremities, and are of an
oval form. Externally, they are rendered visible by an
oval-shaped disk, composed of two ranges of short, stiff
hairs. The ranges in crossing each other are placed back
to back, and are thus retained; they are constantly mois-
tened by a viscous humour, which is furnished by the in-
ternal organ, and gives them a greasy or oily appearance.
The situation of these glands is rendered still more distinct
by a circle round them, caused by the nakedness of the
parts.
The results of numerous observations induced GEOFFROY
to conclude, that this glandular apparatus is not in the same
state of enlargement throughout every season of the year.
It is more remarkable in the males than in females,
and in the former it is much larger at the approach of the
breeding season. Fom this circumstance, the French na-
turalist has concluded, that the only use of this gland is to
furnish a guide to conduct the sexes to each other, during
the season of their loves, through the long subterranean
galleries they inhabit.
If we consider the long and pointed nose of the shrew,
which is extended considerably beyond the jaws, we perceive
a distant resemblance to the scalops, or shrew-mole, while
its legs and tail give a slight resemblance to the mouse.
This comparison does not, however, bear examination in
reference to either animal, as will be fully seen when we
come to speak of them, especially in reference to the
eyes,
ears and hands of the shrew, mole, and the teeth, &c. of
the mouse. Nevertheless there is no other animal we can
well compare it with, and the first view of one of the


1
2
Eng! by Gb Ellis
Drawn by Puder
1 Short Tail Shrew. 2 Small Shrew". 3 Shrew Molo

OF THE SHREW
57
shrews does not fail to excite a recollection of the mouse,
if not of the shrew-mole.
SPECIES I.-Small Shrew.
Sorex Parvus.--SAY.
Long's Expedition to the Rocky Mountains, Vol. i. p. 163.
The small shrew is of a brownish ash colour on the body
above, and cinereous beneath. Its head is elongated, ha-
ving the eyes and ears concealed; the whiskers are long, the
longest reaching nearly to the back of the head. The nose
is naked and emarginated: the front teeth are black, and
the lateral ones piceous. The feet are whitish and five
toed; the nails prominent, acute, and white; the tail is
short, subcylindric, moderately thick, slightly thicker in the
middle, and whitish beneath.
The length from the tip of the nose to the root of the tail
is two inches and three-eighths. The tail measures three-
fourths of an inch. The length from the upper teeth to
the tip of the nose is three-twentieths of an inch.
This species was obtained at Engineer Cantonment, on
the Missouri, where it was caught in a pitfall set for a wolf
by Mr TITIAN PEALE. It may properly be considered as
one of the smallest mammiferous animals belonging to this
continent,
a
SPECIES II.-Short-tail Shrew.
Sorex Brevicauds.--SAY.
Long's Expedition to the Rocky Mountains, Vol. i. p. 164,
The body of the small shrew, when seen from before, is
of a blackish lead colour above; when viewed from behind,
it is of a silvery plumbeous hue, the fur, which is dense and
rather long, is of a paler colour beneath. The head is large,
the
eyes very minute; the ears are white, entirely conceal-
ed beneath the fur. The passage to the internal ear is
very large, with two distinct half divisions (tragus and an-
titragus?) which are at tip sparsely hairy. The mouth is
short, with a slightly impressed abbreviated line above.
Vol. I,
8

58
GENERAL HISTORY
а
The nose is of a livid brown colour, and emarginated; the
mouth is margined with whitish and with scattered short
hairs; the teeth are of a pitchy black at tip. The feet
are white, the second, third, and fourth toes being subequal;
the first and fifth are shorter, the former rather shortest,
the anterior having but few hairs and nearly naked.
The nails are nearly as long as the toes; the tail is co-
vered with scattered hairs; it is of nearly an equal diame-
ter, but slightly thickest in the middle, depressed and
nearly as long as the posterior feet.
The total length of this shrew is four inches and five-
eighths; length of the tail one inch ; from the upper teeth
to the tip of the nose one-eighth.
This species bears a close resemblance to the one first
described, but it is proportionally much larger : the head is
much larger and more elongated, the tail is more robust,
and the inferior anterior pair of incisors are similar to those
of the Sorex Constrictus of GEOFFROY. Mr. Say inclines
to the opinion that this is the same species as that mention-
ed by Barton as “the black shrew."
66
SPECIES III.
pre-
The description of this species is postponed for the
sent, as Mr. TITIAN PEALE, to whom it belongs, has not
yet decided on its name. It has, however, been described
by a recent writer as the Sorax Araneus of Europe, with
the description of which it by no means agrees.

CHAPTER IV.
GENUS VI. SHREW-MOLE; Scalops, Cuv.
Fr. Musaraigne Taupe.
Ital. Scalopo.
Germ. Wassermaus.
Eng. Brown Mole.
GENERIC CHARACTERS.
The head is elongated, and terminates in an extended
and cartilaginous snout, which is very flexible.
flexible. The eyes
are exceedingly small and entirely concealed by the hair,
requiring the closest attention for their detection. Not
only is the auricle or external cartilaginous part of the ear
entirely wanting, but the integument of the head nearly
covers over the cartilaginous tube leading to the internal
ear, and its situation is only known by a small naked spot,
in which there is a minute opening.
The feet are very short and five toed; the anterior ter-
minate in a remarkably large hand, having the fingers
joined together by the integuments up to the last phalanx.
These fingers are armed with long, flat, and linear nails,
increasing in length from the thumb to the third finger;
the two others are less in size, and the external is smallest
of all. The extraordinary breadth of the hand is produced,
as we shall hereafter see, by a singular supplimentary bone,
&c. The hind feet are very delicate, and the toes are
provided with small hooked nails.
Dental System.
20 Upper
12 False
6 True
Molars.
36 Teeth:
2 Incisive
0 Canine
18 Molar.
4 Incisive
O Canine
12 Molar.
16 Lower
6 False
6 True
Molars.
IN THE UPPER JAW we find an incisor with a rounded,
cutting edge, its front surface being also rounded, and its

60
GENERAL HISTORY
posterior one very flat. There is much analogy between
the incisors of this animal and those of the gnawers, more
especially as they stand side by side on the same line.
Behind these teeth come six false molars; next to these,
two small ones resembling threads, such is their tenuity ;
afterwards there is another much larger, cylindrical and
pointed, and after that a fourth, equally cylindrical and
pointed, but much smaller. The fifth is obliquely truncated
at its summit, from before backwards, the section resembling
the head of a lance, the point being bent backwards; the
sixth is entirely similar to the preceding, except that it is
twice the size. The three molars are, in general, similar
to those of the bat; the only difference is, that the anterior
prism of the first molar is imperfect, its anterior half not
being developed, and the same is the case with the posterior
prism of the last one, by the obliteration of the posterior
half of this prism. Finally, the interior projection of each
of these three teeth is simple, and consists of nothing but a
tubercle at the base of the anterior prism.
IN THE LOWER JAW there are two incisors; the first is
very small and cutting, the second pointed, and slightly
hooked, leaning forward, and destitute of roots, properly
speaking, like the tusks of certain animals, in which the den-
tal capsule remains always free: we call them incisors, only
because they act in mastication against the upper incisors.
The three succeeding false molars have a single point, with
a small notching posteriorly, slightly inclined forwards, and
resembling each other, except in size, the first being the
smallest and the third the largest. The three molars are
exactly similar to those of the bat, that is to say, composed
of two parallel prisms, terminated each by three points, and
presenting one of their angles on the outer side, and one of
their faces on the internal surface. The two first are of the
same size; the last somewhat smaller.
In their reciprocal position, the lower incisors correspond
to the internal face of the upper; the false molars are
alternate, and the molars are so related, that the anterior
prisms of the lower fill the hollow found between two teeth,
and the posterior prism that which exists between the two
prisms of a single upper tooth. The lower are the thick-
ness of one prism in advance of the upper
molars.

OF THE SHREW-MOLE.
61
SPECIES I.-Shrew-Mole.
-
Sealops Canadensis.-Cuv.
Sorex Aquaticus, Lin. Syst. Nat. Vol. i. p. 112, Sp. 3.
Musaraigne brune, Enc. plate 30, fig. 2.
Talpa Fusca, Penn. Quad. p. 314.
Scalops Canadensis, Desm. Mam. p. 155.
The Shrew-Mole when at rest bears inore resemblance to
a small stuffed sack than to a living animal, its head being
entirely destitute of external ears, and elongated nearly to a
point, and its eyes so extremely small and completely hidden
by the fur, that it would not be surprising should a casual
observer conclude this creature to be blind. But we must
be continually guarded against hasty conclusions, or idle
conjectures, drawn from slight observations; this apparent-
ly shapeless mass is endowed with great activity and a
surprising degree of strength, and is excellently suited for
deriving enjoyment from the peculiar life it is designed
to lead.
The shrew-mole is found abundantly in North America,
from Canada to Virginia ; often living at no great distance
from water-courses, or in dykes thrown up to protect mea-
dows from inundation. But so far from exclusively inhabiting
such places, as stated in various books, I have found them
in far greater numbers at a very considerable distance from
any water-course, and in high oftener than low grounds. In
the country they frequent the gardens, where their subter-
ranean galleries are sometimes productive of vexation to the
farmer, especially as the animal occasionally courses along
the rows of pea-vines, &c. apparently for the purpose of
feeding on their roots. This, we shall hereafter learn,
is most probably an error, and we may find good reasons for
believing that the shrew-mole should be considered rather
as a benefactor than a depredator.
The shrew-mole burrows with great quickness, and tra-
vels under ground with much celerity: nothing can be bet-
ter constructed for this purpose than its broad and strong
hands, or fore-paws, armed with long and powerful claws,
which are very sharp at their extremities, and slightly cur-
yed on the inside. These are thrust forward so as to be
even with the extremity of the flexible snout, and the earth
to be removed is pressed outwards, and at the same time
thrown backwards with remarkable quickness. The soft

62
GENERAL HISTORY
and polished fur with which this animal is covered, prevent-
ing a great degree of friction, tends to facilitate its subter-
ranean march.
Numerous galleries, communicating with each other, en-
able the shrew-mole to travel in various directions, without
coming to the surface, which they appear to do very rarely,
unless their progress is impeded by a piece of ground so
hard as to defy their strength and perseverance. The
depth of their burrows depends very materially on the cha-
racter of the soil, and the situation of the place : sometimes
we find them running for a great distance, at a depth of
from one to three inches, and again we trace them much
deeper; after following such a gallery for several yards, it
occasionally communicates with another going deep into
the earth.
The most remarkable circumstance connected with these
burrows is the number of hills of loose dirt which are frequent-
ly formed over the surface of them. These hills of loose earth
are usuallyfound in considerable numbers,at a distance of two
feet or a little more apart, being from four to six inches high,
and about the same in diameter. I have often examined
these eminences, in the neighbourhood of Philadelphia, and
have never been able fully to understand how they are for-
med ; a slight motion is observed at the surface, and pre-
sently this loose earth is seen to be worked up through a
small orifice, whence, falling on all sides, by its accumula-
tion the hills just mentioned are produced. - It seems to be
brought from some distance, for on breaking up the gallery,
it was evident that more earth had been thrown out than
could have been removed in excavating the immediately
adjoining portions of the burrow. In one instance I have
seen the shrew-mole show the extremity of its snout from
the centre of one of these loose hills, where it had come at
mid-day, as if for the purpose of enjoying the sunshine,
without exposing its body to the full influence of the exter-
nal air.
Under ordinary circumstances the burrows are simply
oval arched galleries, running forward either straight or in
gentle curvatures, at the depth heretofore mentioned, and
they are most regular in soils abounding in earth-worms.
In the dry and sandy soil of Jersey, I have found them very
irregular in direction and depth, and in the woods, uniform-
ly leading round the root of trees, under which large exca-
vations are frequently to be traced. We can readily un-

OF THE SHREW-MOLE.
63
and may
derstand the object of these excavations when we recollect
that the ants very often have their nests in such situations,
and their larvæ, or eggs, constitute a favourite food of the
shrew-mole. The burrows made by this animal are some-
times found to terminate under large stones, where it re-
sorts to gather the insects, which are numerous in such sit-
uations. I have traced a burrow of this sort close to a barn
wall, and then following it nearly around the whole house,
have found that it passed under every large stone in its vi-
cinity, although not directly in the general course of the
gallery, the cavity being much larger beneath the stones
than elsewhere.
The favourite food of the shrew-mole is the earth-worm ;
grubs and insects of various kinds he destroys in great
quantities, and it may fairly be questioned whether the good
done in this way does not more than overbalance any evil
attendant on his presence. It is true that this animal is accu-
sed of eating grass roots, and roots of succulent vegetables,
thus be productive of some mischief in gardens, but
scarcely to so great a degree as to constitute a serious evil.
The presence of the shrew-mole in fields of Indian corn
appears to be decidedly advantageous from the destruction
of great numbers of slugs and worms; but in dry seasons
;
these animals, if numerous may injure small grain or gras-
ses to a considerable extent, not only by the wounds they
inflict on the root with their sharp claws, but by raising the
sod while forming their burrows, so as to withdraw the
roots from the influence of the moist soil below.
It is remarkable how unwilling they are to relinquish a
long frequented burrow; I have frequently broken down or
torn off the surface of the same burrow for several days in
succession, but would always find it repaired at the next vi-
sit. This was especially the case with one individual whose
nest I discovered, which was always repaired within a short
time, as often as destroyed. It was an oval cavity, about
six or seven inches in length by three in breadth, and was
placed at about eight inches from the surface in a stiff clay.
The entrance to it sloped obliquely downwards from the
common gallery, about two inches from the surface; three
times I entirely exposed this cell by cutting out the whole
superincumbent clay with a knife, and three times a similar
one was made a little beyond the situation of the former,
the excavation having been continued from its back part.
I paid a visit to the same spot two months after capturing
a
a

64
GENERAL HISTORY
a
its occupant, and breaking up the nest, all the injuries were
found to be repaired, and another excavated within a few
inches of the old one. Most probably numerous individuals,
composing a whole family, reside together in these extensive
galleries. In the winter they burrow closer to the streams,
where the ground is not so deeply frozen.
The shrew-mole is not only able to make his way rapidly
under ground, but can run quite fast when on the surface,
notwithstanding the apparent disadvantages under which
he labours. When placed on a smooth path-way, or a
floor, and especially if alarmed, he runs with far more speed
than could possibly be anticipated from the structure of his
limbs. In attempting to escape by running, his motions
are very similar to those performed while burrowing ; the
broad fore-paws are placed on edge, with the thumb to the
ground, and both fore and hind feet are moved in rapid
succession, the body being trailed along with a slight un-
dulatory motion.
The strength of the shrew-mole is really surprising, and
altogether beyond what we should deem possible in so small
a creature. One which we had in a basket on the mantle-
piece of a parlour made its escape, and fell to the hearth;
apparently it sustained little injury by the fall, but hurried
on until it reached the wall, where it began to travel round
the room.
Whenever its course was impeded by the feet
of the chairs, which were of large size, it would not go
round them, but wedging itself between them and the wall,
pushed them with apparent ease far enough to obtain a free
passage, and it thus continued to move several in succes-
sion. What was more astonishing, it passed in a similar
manner behind the legs of a small mahogany breakfast-
table, and pushed it aside in the same way it had done the
chairs, finally hiding itself behind a pile of quarto volumes,
more than two feet high, which it also moved out from the
wall.
When endeavouring to escape a pursuer, while in his
burrow, the shrew-mole displays his utmost strength. In
this case, although you may have succeeded in catching him
by his posterior extremities, it is exceedingly difficult to
draw him from the hole without violence. His broad and
strong fore-paws are then struck outwards against the sides
of the excavation, with all the energy of despair, and when
the animal is finally dragged from his retreat, he frequently
inflicts a severe bite on his disturber.
a

OF THE SHREW-MOLE.
65
Shrew-moles are most active early in the morning, at
mid-day, and in the evening; after rains they are particu-
larly busy in repairing their damaged galleries, and in long
continued wet weather we find that they seek the high
grounds for security. The precision with which they daily
come to the surface at twelve o'clock is very remarkable,
and is well known in the country. In many instances when
we have watched them, they appeared exactly at twelve,
and at this time only have we succeeded in taking them
alive, which is easily done by intercepting their progress
with a spade, broad knife-blade &c. and throwing them on
the surface. These animals do not appear to be well suited
for living in the open air, especially if it be somewhat cool :
for, after being a few minutes exposed, we have always
observed them shiver, as if from the change of temperature.
That an animal of this kind should be domesticated with
facility would seem hardly possible, yet our friend TITIAN
PEALE tamed a very fine one, which he caught while we
were together examining their modes of burrowing. This
shrew-mole is kept in a box containing some loose earth
and dried grass for his bed; he eats considerable quantities
of fresh meat, either cooked or raw, drinks freely, and is
remarkably lively and playful, following the hand of his
feeder by the scent,—burrowing for a short distance in the
loose earth, and after making a small circle, returning for
more food. When engaged in eating he employs his flex-
ible snout in a singular manner to thrust the food into his
mouth, doubling it under so as to force it directly backwards.
When he has obtained one piece of meat, he will not relin-
quish it even for the sake of earth-worms, or other favourite
food ; he is also fond of burying himself when he has re-
ceived any thing, in order to eat it undisturbed.
The shrew-mole is covered with a soft, glossy fur, which
is about half an inch in length, and of a uniform colour over
the whole of the body. This general tint is bright plum-
beous, having silvery reflexions when viewed from the front
of the animal, and appearing of a darker hue when seen
from the posterior part, with faint purple reflexions,
varying according to the incidence of light. The fur is
very closely set, and the direction of it is in all parts from
before backwards. The only places where any differences
of colour are distinguishable, is around the base of the snout
where it is faintly ferruginous, and this ferruginous tint
may be traced for a short distance on the base of the fur
VOL. I.
9
-

66
GENERAL HISTORY
a
towards the situation of the ear, which, though destitute of
external appendages, may be discovered on the lateral part
of the head, by carefully turning away the surrounding fur.
Immediately posterior to the chin, or in the fold of the
neck, there is a narrow but well marked ferruginous hori-
zontal streak for about half an inch, and a faint trace of the
same colour may be distinguished along the centre of the
belly.
The whole fore-arm of the shrew-mole is concealed by
the skin, so as to give no external mark of its figure, leaving
the broadly expanded palm, with its long nails, resting on
its internal or inferior edge, projecting from the fore part
of the body in an awkward manner, if it be compared with
the anterior extremity of other animals. All the joints of
the fingers are movable, and the carpus is articulated with
the fore-arm, so as to be flexed with much force by a strong
muscle, whose tendon is broadly expanded to be inserted
into the extremities of the phalanges. The nails of the
hands are strong, nearly straight, and edged at their extrem-
ities, being convex externally, and rather flattened on the
posture or inner side. In addition to the bones of the hand,
which the shrew-mole has in common with various animals,
it is provided with an additional bone on the radial edge of
the hand, or exterior to the thumb, articulated with the
wrist, and of a semicircular, or rather scythe-like figure.
There is also a rudiment, somewhat similar in character,
exterior to the little finger. To the larger one first men-
tioned, a small tendon from the muscles is attached, and
this bone, although entirely covered by the skin of the palm,
appears to serve the purpose of very much increasing its
breadth, and adding to the usefulness of the hand as an
instrument for burrowing. An extension of the skin of the
palm on the outside or under edge of this bone, so as to
form a small fold, still farther increases the breadth of the
hand. The palms of the hands are seven-eighths of an inch
in breadth, and of a light flesh-colour when the animal is
first caught.
The soles of the hind feet are placed on the earth, as in
other insectivorous animals; the toes are delicate, and the
joints movable, having small curved claws : from the heel
to the base of the claws, the distance is five-eighths of an
inch.
The snout is composed of a cartilage articulated with the
premaxillary bones, and moved in various directions by
a

OF TIIE SHREW-MOLE.
67
a
muscles situated on the side of the head ; it is naked, and
of a very light flesh-colour when the animal is first exposed
to the open air ; it is half an inch long, and feels somewhat
horny at the extremity. The under surface is at the end
slightly prolonged, or projects a little beyond the nostrils,
which open on its upper surface, and are rather oblong.
The mouth of the shrew-mole is comparatively large, and
the tongue is considerable in size. The roof of the mouth is
marked by nine transverse projections or ridges and hollows,
which are beautifully distinct. The eyes of this creature
are exceedingly small, and very difficult to be discovered
externally without a good glass. They are entirely con-
cealed by the surrounding hair, which being cleared away,
leaves a naked space equal in circumference to the head of
a middling sized pin; in the centre of this space a small
dark speck may be distinguished with the naked eye. On
examining one adult individual with a microscope, (No. 9,)
this proved to be a number of hairs arranged in a semi-
elliptical manner, the eye-ball being scarcely discoverable.
When the skin was carefully removed, the eye-balls were
found corresponding to the situation of these hairs, and
were less in size than a grain of mustard-seed. On holding
the skin up to the light, and examining it attentively, the
exceedingly small aperture, or separation of the eyelids,
was visible; it would allow the passage of an ordinary
sized human hair, and possibly of a very fine horse hair.
Hence we perceive that the vision of this animal must be
extremely limited, as the focus of so microscopic an eye is
almost inconceivably small. It seems to be barely sufficient
to give the shrew-mole an intimation of light, without
allowing it to distinguish the figures of bodies; this con-
clusion is farther supported by the careful manner in which
the
eye
is concealed by the fur, and the minute aperture
through the lids of the skin. The orifice leading to the in-
ternal ear is curiously situated, being placed about three-
fourths of an inch behind the eye, and opening nearly over
the shoulder-joint of the animal. In the specimen first exami-
ned, this opening was so small that it was not detected, and I
thought the skin continuous over the cartilaginous tube; but
a recent search enabled me to ascertain its position. The aper-
ture is nearly circular, and would admit an ordinary pin; the
cartilaginous tube, leading to the internal ear from imme-
diately within the skin, where it is expanded somewhat

68
GENERAL HISTORY.
a
trumpet-form, to its entrance into the skull, is five-sixteenths
of an inch long.
When the skin of the animal is removed, a much better
idea of its peculiar adaptation to its mode of life is obtained.
The muscles surrounding the shoulder-blade, arms, and
fore-arm, are of great size, and occupy all the space an-
terior to the greater convexity of the chest, so as to
destroy all appearance of neck, giving to the fore part of the
body a robust and clumsy appearance.
The head is how-
ever, capable of some motion, both laterally and vertically.
All the appearances of strength seem concentrated about
the fore shoulders, where the muscles swell out with strong
fibres, and of a deep red colour. The
The posterior extremities
are delicate and slender when compared with the anterior,
the thighs being flattened and thin, as if of less importance
to the motion of the animal.
Every circumstance seems to be studied in the shrew-mole
with a view to facilitate its progression under the surface of
the earth. We observe this attention not only in its silky
and polished fur, its pointed head, broad and powerful hands,
and muscular limbs, but all its internal structure seems
equally to co-operate. The pelvis is a single, slight and
flattened bone ; the pubic portions, instead of uniting in
the centre, and projecting, as in other animals, are very
small, rise but slightly, and do not unite with each other :
but from their extremities the curra penis with the erector
muscles take their origin. The penis itself, after passing
forwards for half an inch, as it approaches the surface is
curved backwards, that it may present no resistance to the
motion of the body through the ground. Neither do the
testes present externally ; a small portion, about the size
of a large pin's head, is exterior to the abdominal ring, and
this part corresponds very closely with the head of the
epididymis in the human subject, but the body of the testis
is within the cavity of the abdomen, being half an inch long
and one-fourth of an inch broad. Near the anus, and
situated between the upper part of the thigh and tail, we
find on each side an odoriferous gland, which is about half
an inch long, of a dark greenish tint, and having a strong
musky odour, which imparts to the animal, during life a
very peculiar smell.
The total length of the shrew-mole, from the point of the
snout to the beginning of the tail is five inches, and the tail
one inch long The longest fur on the body was half a
a

OF THE SHREW-MOLE.
69
inch in length. The specimen from which this description
is made was a fine adult male, which, with the assistance
of my friend W. W. Wood, was caught on the banks of
the Delaware, and kept alive for some time. We have
since had an opportunity of examining several specimens,
and find no difference between them in colour, except that
the ferruginous marking on the head and neck does not
appear to be a constant character. A living specimen,
kept for many weeks in a room, was nearly as tame as the
one already mentioned ; this individual spent the greater
part of the day asleep, and was very active at night. He
could not see in any light, as he uniformly ran his nose
with some violence against every obstacle several times,
before he learned to avoid those that were permanent.
We have, at the suggestion of a scientific friend, applied
to this animal the name of Shrew-mole, which is a translation
of the French designation, rather than run a risk of having
it confounded with the European genus TALPA, by calling
it simply “the mole," a name by which it is popularly
known
a

CHAPTER V.
GENUS VII. CONDYLURA ; Illiger.
Fr.-La Taupe du Canada.
Germ. Die Haarnase Spitzmause.
GENERIC CHARACTERS.
THE head is long, conical, terminating in a snout, which
is encircled by a cartilaginous fringe or stellated disk, hav-
ing about twenty points. There are no external ears; (but
a large meatus externus, or auricular orifice, with a divi-
sion analagous to a tragus and anti-tragus, leads to the in-
ternal ear;) the eyes are very small, and concealed by fur.
The anterior extremities are very short: the paws, or fore-
feet, are broad, five-toed, (the toes being united by the in-
teguments as far as the second phalanx,) covered by cor-
neous scales, and terminated by long, straight, and robust
nails. The posterior extremities are one-third longer than
the anterior, having five slender toes, (the phalanges of
which are not kept together by the integuments,) provided
with small hooked nails. The body is thick, covered with
fine, short, soft fur, arranged perpendicular to the length
of the body: the tail has sixteen joints or vertebræ ; it is
compressed near the body, then swells slightly, and tapers
thence to its extremity, showing no inequalities caused by
the vertebræ.
Dental System.
20 Upper
40 Teeth:
6 Incisor
6 Conical, $(which may be considered as
8 Molar.
canine, or false molar teeth.)
4 Incisor
10 Conical (as above)
6 Molar.
20 Lower
IN THE UPPER JAW there are six anomalous cutting teeth,
situated in the premaxillary bones; the two intermediate
are very large, contiguous, and ranged along the whole
border of the jaw, hollowed in the form of a spoon, having

STAR NOSE-MOLE.
71
a slightly oblique cutting edge, and the angle by which they
touch more salient externally than internally. The next
cutting-tooth on each side touches the intermediary, and
resembles a very long canine tooth, being conical and slight-
ly triangular at its base, where it has two very small tub-
ercles, the one before and the other behind. The external
or lateral incisor, the smallest of all the teeth in this jaw,
is simply conic, a little compressed, slightly curved forwards
at its point, and placed at some distance from the incisor,
in the manner of a canine tooth. There are seven molars
a
on the right and left, the three first of which are smaller
than the posterior, separated from each other, all three
moderately large, and furnished with a small pointed lobe
at the front of their base, and another behind. The four
last molars are larger than the anterior ones, and each of
them composed of two folds of enamel, forming two acuto
tubercles on the inner side, and obliquely hollowed to a
gutter on the outside : there is a projection hollowed to a
cupola at the internal bases of these teeth. The most an-
terior of these four last molars, and the smallest, are placed
on a level with the commissure of the lips; the following
one is higher, the third still more so, and the last smaller
than the third.
IN THE LOWER JAW, which is very delicate, there are
four flattened cutting teeth, reclined in the form of a spoon
or ear-pick, the lateral ones in part horizontally inclined on
the intermediary, and rising slightly at their external edge.
Five teeth, with many lobes, then follow on each side, and
may be considered as false molars, as much separated from
each other as those of the upper jaw, the first being much
larger than the others, and in this alone resembling a canine,
having three lobes, the principal of which is intermediate,
the second very much effaced, and the third slightly salient.
The second is nearly similar, but shorter and more com-
pressed, having the posterior lobe more apparent than in
the preceding. The third has four lobes, the anterior of
which is the least, the second the largest and most apparent
of all, and two small posterior ones; the fourth is nearly
similar to the third, with this difference, that the first
pos-
terior lobe is more internal, and this tooth consequently
thicker : the fifth only differs from the fourth by its greater
width, and is almost equal to the first true molar. There
are only three molars in this jaw, presenting, like those of
the
upper jaw, two folds of enamel, forming a point; but

72
GENERAL HISTORY
these folds are inverted, the points being external instead
of internal; the grooves, on the contrary, are internal, and
the lower part of the tooth, instead of exhibiting the whole
projection presents a perpendicular wall, and has two de-
pressions at its summit, each of these depressions corres-
ponding to the groove that descends from one of the two
points.*
SPECIES I.-Star-nose Mole.
Condylura Cristata ; ILLIGER.
Taupe du Canada ; Delafaille; Ess. sur L'hist. Nat. de la Taupe. fig. 1769.
Sorex Cristatus ; Linn. Erx.
Radiated Mole ; Penn. Syn. Quad.
Condylure a Museau Etoilé; Desm. Mam. p. 157.
The Star-nose mole frequents the banks of rivulets, and
the soft soil of adjacent meadows, where their burrows are
most numerous, and apparently interminable; in many
places it is scarcely possible to advance a step without
breaking down their galleries, by which the surface is
thrown into ridges, and the surface of the green
sward in no
slight degree disfigured. The excavations which are most
continuous, and appear to be most frequented, are placed
at a short distance below the grass roots, on the banks of
small streams; these are to be traced along their margins,
following every inflexion, and making frequent circuits in
order to pass large stones or roots of trees, to regain their
usual proximity to the surface nearest the water.
The form of the burrow does not perceptibly differ from
that made by the shrew-mole; but very few hills are to be
found in the localities inhabited by the star-nose. The cham-
ber-cell resembles that described in the last chapter,
being a space of several inches dug out of some spot where
the clay is tenacious, and the cell least exposed to injury
from the weather or other accidents.
The system of dentition peculiar to this
lead to the inference that the quality of its food must in
some respects differ from that used by the shrew-mole;
genus, would
*This dental system is from DESMAREST. See his excellent note on
the
genus Condylura, in the Journal de Physique for September, 1819.

*
Rider. Det
Elan SC
The Plar nose. Holo.
End of the line magnified:
+


OF THE STAR-NOSE MOLE.
73
but on this point it is not easy to say more, than that as the
star-nose prefers moist and low situations, and the shrew-
mole is most frequently found in dry and rather elevated
spots, they feed on the larvæ and insects proper to such
places, which are doubtless of dissimilar kinds. In a state
of captivity both animals feed readily on flesh, either raw
or cooked, and neither seem to show any fondness for or
willingness to eat, vegetable matter.
The star-nose mole is about four inches in length, and
of a blackish-gray colour ; its pelage being short and very
fine. Its head is much elongated, and the snout is distin-
guished by a remarkable disk, or naked cartilaginous fringe,
which surrounds the nostrils. This disk has about twenty
points or rays, the two superior and the four inferior inter-
mediate of which are united at their bases, and are situated
on a plane slightly in advance of the others; the surface of
these fringes is granulated, and somewhat of a rose colour.
The neck is not distinguishable in consequence of the
position and great size of the muscles that are destined to
move the anterior extremities, which are very short, and
broad, covered with scales, and provided with large straight
nails, the shortest of which is on the finger corresponding
to the thumb; the second, third, and fourth are successive-
ly and proportionally longer than each other : the nail on
the superior or little finger is exactly of the same size as
that of the second or index finger: all the fingers are uni-
ted as far as the second phalanx. The hind feet are a
third longer than the fore ones, being slender, delicate and
weak; the phalanges are separated from each other through-
out, and have small, curved, and sharp nails.
The situation of the eyes is marked by three or four
equal hairs, which may be readily discovered, and are not
so stiff or large as those of the whiskers, the direction of
which is not horizontal and lateral, like most other mammife-
rous animals, but raised nearly parallel, and turned towards
the snout.
Seven transverse wrinkles occupy the space in
thepalate between the cutting teeth and the first three molars.
There are several very interesting external characters
peculiar to the star-nose, which have been much overlook-
ed by those who have hitherto written on this subject; we
will introduce them in this place, as they may be serviceable
in enabling us to compare the present genus with some
others.
The star-nose is destitute of an auricle projecting above
VOL. I.
10

74
GENERAL HISTORY
the level of the skin, but, nevertheless, has a large auricular
orifice. This meatus externus is half an inch long, having a
distinctly marked tragus and anti-tragus, and is situated
at a short distance from the shoulder, in the broad
triangular fold of integument connecting the fore-arm and
head. From the meatus, the course of the cartilaginous
tube is obliquely downwards, forwards, and inwards, until
it terminates in a delicate bony tube, previous to reaching
the tympanum, which is large and composed of a very
delicate membrane.
The scales on the anterior and posterior extremities
have been mentioned in general terms by several writers,
especially by DESMAREST, who gave the first correct
description of this animal. But these scales are so peculiar
and uniform in their position, that a naturalist should not
pass over the particulars of their arrangement in silence.
On the anterior extremities, the superior or ulnar edge
of the hand has on its anterior surface (regarding the
position of the animal), a row of corneous scales, about
nine in number, which are broadest midway from the carpus
to the first phalanx of the fifth finger. Another row of
scales commences on the inferior part of the little finger,
becoming broader and of a semilunar figure as they extend
towards the metacarpus; between these two a much
smaller row is placed. The fourth finger has a single row
of small scales on its upper posterior side, and a large one
extending along the back of the finger to the metacarpus ;
the middle finger has a small central row, which is just
distinguishable; that on the fore finger is still more faint ;
the thumb has none but very small ones on its central
posterior part, but on its inferior posterior part, or radial
edge, it has one scale of considerable size on the phalanx,
and four or five between this part and the carpus ; the two
;
nearest the scale on the phalanx are largest.
The surface of the palm of the hand is covered with
small cireular scales, extending most numerously, and of
a darker colour, from the opposite root of the thumb,
obliquely outward to the basis of the little finger.
On the inferior extremities, the whole of the superior
surface of the foot is covered with minute, blackish,
circular scales, which increase slightly in size as they
approach the toes. On the anterior part of the fourth toe
is a large central row of black scales, and on the fifth a
rather smaller one; hence these toes have a very considera-

OF THE STAR-NOSE MOLE.
75
ble resemblance to the toes of a bird. The other toes of
the hind foot being applied with their anterior surfaces to
the ground, have their scales very minute and almost
colourless.
The colour of the scales varies on different parts of the
hand. On so much of the back of the hand as is formed
by the fourth and little fingers, the scales are a very dark
blue, approaching to black, in the living animal ; hence to
the large scales of the thumb the colour changes to a faint
purplish blue, which is little more than distinguishable.
Two other excellent characters belonging to the palm of
the hand have been neglected; the first is the enlargement
of the carpal edge of the palm by an elongation of the
integuments; this in addition to the row of bristles that
margins all the rest of the palm, has two distinct bristly
hairs at its superior and inferior edge, more than one-eight
of an inch long. The second character is still more
striking; it is a process of the palmer cuticle on the
superior edge of the thumb and three succeeding fingers.
These processes are separated and directed obliquely
upwards and outwards; the serrations on the thumb being
two, and on the three succeeding fingers three in num-
ber.
On the soles of the (posterior) feet another character is
found, which consists of five circular, distinct spots, so
arranged that the two nearest the body are parallel with
each other, opposite the commencement of the first toe,
counting, as in the human subject, from the one nearest
the median line of the body; the superior spot is nearly in
a line with the fourth toe, and larger and darker coloured
than the inferior; the two succeeding spots (nearer the
extremity of the toes) are also parallel with each other ;
the exterior one is the largest of all these plantar scales,
and placed nearly over the extremity of the metatarsal of
the fourth toe; the fifth, or single scale, is placed in advance
of all the rest, and is situated immediately over the centre,
and behind the separation of the third and fourth toes.
A very analogous arrangement may be observed in the
soles of the feet of the Sigmodon Hispidum ; ORD.
By comparing the condylura with the scalops, we are led
to several interesting observations. We have seen that
the condylura has a remarkable and large external ear,
though it is destitute of a projecting auricle. The scalops

76
GENERAL HISTORY, &c.
has no auricle, and but an extremely small meatus exter-
nus opening on the side of the head near the shoulder.
The hand of the scalops is peculiar for its great breadth
and strength; the extraordinary breadth is produced by
an additional metacarpal bone, inferior or external to the
thumb, articulated with the carpus, and having a tendon
for moving it from the common flexor of the fingers.
On the superior or ulnar edge of the hand, there is a
cartilaginous additament, connected with the little finger
by a tendon. The condylura has the additional metacarpal
bone, but rather like a rudiment, and has not the cartilagi-
nous additament at the superior edge of the hand; hence
the very great difference in breadth in the hands of the
two genera. The scalops has a slight process or elongation,
not at the carpal extremity of the palm, but on the inferior
or outer edge of the supplementary bone.
* This structure resembles that of the Talpa Europea, or common
mole of Europe, which has recently been asserted to inhabit Pennsyl-
vania, on the authority of the MS. notes of the justly celebrated
WILLIAM BARTRAM. These notes having been made long before the
genera Scalops and Condylura were established, can have no weight,
unless along with the name Talpa Americana, Bartram had given such
a description as to convince us that it was not the scalops he observed,
of which we have little doubt. However this may be, we shall con-
tinue to discredit the existence of Talpa Europea in this country, until
more positive testimony is adduced.

CHAPTER VI.
FAMILY III.-CARNIVORA; Flesh-Eaters.
The animals belonging to this family are certainly not
the only ones which feed on flesh, since all others provided
with claws, and the three sorts of teeth, in different degrees
feed on animal matter. The creatures now about to
become the subject of our attention, are fairly and fully
entitled to the appellation of carnivorous, as nature has
endowed them with sanguinary appetites and ferocious
dispositions, and supplied the strength and weapons neces-
sary to their gratification.
They have four large and long canine teeth, which are
separated in each jaw by six incisors, the second of which,
in the lower jaw, is always more deeply set than the others.
The jaw-teeth are uniformly either entirely trenchant, or
partly supplied with blunt tubercles, and never with conical
points. The anterior molars of these animals are the most
trenchant; to these succeed a larger molar, which com-
monly has an additional tuberculous point, varying in size;
and behind this tooth we find one or two small entirely flat
teeth. These small teeth at the back of the mouth, enable
dogs to chew the grass which they occasionally eat. Το
these three sorts of teeth the following names have been
appropriated by FREDERIC CUVIER: the large molar in
the upper and lower jaw he calls carnivorous ; the anterior
pointed jaw-teeth, false molars, and the posterior blunt ones,
tuberculous. We may readily and correctly decide on the
degree of exclusiveness with which the animals of this
family feed on flesh, by observing the proportion between
the trenchant and tuberculous surfaces of their teeth.
Many genera comprised in this family apply the whole
sole of the foot to the ground while walking or standing
erect, as may be perceived by the nakedness of the inferior
surface of the hind feet. A much larger number walk on
the tips of the toes; hence their speed is much greater, and
their general habits are also very different. All of them

78
GENERAL HISTORY, &o.
are equally destitute of clavicles, having in its stead noth-
ing but a bony rudiment.
TRIBE I.-PLANTIGRADA; Plantigrade Animals.*
The individuals of this tribe have five toes on the fore
and hind feet, and in walking they place the whole sole of
the foot on the ground, which enables them to walk or
stand erect better than any other beasts of prey. They
are destitute of a cæcum ; and partake of the sluggish gait
and nocturnal habits of the insect-eaters. The greater part
of those found in cold countries pass the winter in a state of
torpidity.
* Treading on the whole sole of the foot.

CHAPTER VII.
GENUS VIII. Ursus, L.; Bear,
Gr. Αρκτοσ
Ital. Orso.
Swed. Biörn.
Germ. Der Bär.
Sp. Orso.
Fr. L'ours.
GENERIC CHARACTERS.
The head is large, the muzzle varying in length, and
terminating in a movable cartilage. The eyes and ears
are small, and the tongue smooth. The body and limbs
are large, powerful, and covered with a thick woolly hair.
The teats are six in number ; four of them are placed on
;
the chest, and two on the belly. The nails are incurved,
very large and strong ; the soles of the hind-feet are cal-
lous, and the tail is short.
The bear is an animal of great strength and ferocity of
disposition ; slow in his movements, and of sluggish habits.
His teeth being most fitted for subsisting on fruits and
vegetable matters, he does not frequently attack other ani-
mals, unless impelled by necessity. During winter bears
generally pass a great portion of time in a state of inaction
and torpidity. They are most generally found in the re-
mote and mountainous districts of North America, and are
gradually becoming more scarce as population increases.
As we shall give a full account of the species, we refer the
reader to what is there said for a better understanding of
the character and habits of this
genus.
а
Dental System.
42 Teeth:
6 Incisor
20 Upper
2 Canine
12 Molar.
6 Incisor
22 Lower 2 Canine
14 Molar.
6 False Molars
2 Carnivorous
4 Tuberculous.
8 False Molars
2 Carnivorous
4 Tuberculous.

80
GENERAL HISTORY
IN THE UPPER JAW the two first incisors resemble those
of the dog, but the middle lobe almost entirely effaces the
lateral, both being very small. Internally they are divided
into two parts by a transverse depression, and the internal,
much less salient than the opposite part, is itself divided
into two lobes by a depression which is perpendicular to the
transverse furrow. The third incisor is divided into two
parts by an oblique furrow, and its hooked form gives it
some relation to the canine,
The canine comes next, after a small unoccupied inter-
val; it is conical, slightly hooked, and has longitudinally
;
from before backwards a cutting edge. Immediately at
the base of the canine is a rudimental false molar; then at
a short distance we find a second, which sometimes falls
out with age ; and after another gap there is a third at the
base of the carnivorous, very slightly developed, but some-
times provided with two roots. The carnivorous is reduced
to its smallest dimensions ; exteriorly we may recognize
the middle tubercle, proper to this species of tooth, and the
posterior tubercle, but the anterior lobe is almost effaced ;
at its internal side we find posteriorly a tubercle much
smaller than the preceding, which increases its thickness.
This particular position of the internal tubercle, which we
always find at the interior part of the upper carnivorous,
while at the same time it is at the posterior part that the
false molars become tuberculous, induces us to consider the
tooth just described as only a false molar ; but the upper
carnivorous has entirely disappeared, and the only regular
false molar existing, supplies its place.
The next tooth has at its extreme edge the two principal
tubercles of the first tuberculous teeth ; at its internal
edge there are two tubercles parallel to the two first, but
separated from each other by a much smaller tubercle. This
tooth is nearly twice as long as it is broad.
The last molar is one third larger than the preceding,
but its proportions are the same in relation to length and
breadth ; it has on its external edge, at the anterior part,
two tubercles, which seem analogous to those of the pre-
ceding tooth, but rather smaller. At the internal border
of the same part, there is a crest divided in three, by two
small
grooves. The posterior part is a projection or spur,
'
making nearly a third of the extent of the tooth, and border-
ed by a crest regularly divided by three principal grooves;

OF THE BEAR.
81
all the interior of the crown is covered by small furrows and
asperities, which are peculiar to the bears.
IN THE LOWER JAW the incisors are bilobated like those
of the dog, and the canine are shaped at the sides like those
of the upper jaw. The false molars are two or three in
number, and sometimes four; the first are at the base
of the canine, the others are separated by an unoccupied in-
terval, and have some relation to the true molars.
The first is larger than the second, and remains in the
adult animal; the second, very small, falls out with age,
and in these different relations the third resembles it ;
the
fourth alone has a regular form.
After this comes a tooth, narrow in proportion to its
length, but not trenchant. We observe a tubercle on its
anterior part, another on its external surface, and two
smaller on its internal face, opposite the preceding. These
four tubercles form nearly one-half of the tooth; to these
succeed a deep groove, and the tooth terminates behind a
pair of tubercles. The next molar, which is the largest
tooth of this jaw, is very irregular in relation to the disposi-
tion of its grooves, tubercles, and the hollows or depressions
which
separate them. We may distinguish, however, two
principal tubercles at its anterior half, one on its internal,
and the other on its external face, which are united by a
transverse crest ; but these tubercles are subdivided, espe-
cially the internal one, by small depressions, which separate
it into two or three others. We may say the same of the
posterior part, and in fact the engraving alone can give a
clear idea of it, because it is much more irregular than the
other. The last tooth is still less susceptible of a detailed des-
cription than the preceding ; it is smaller, has an elliptic
form, is bordered at its circumference by an irregularly
notched crest, and is internally marked by still more irre-
gular rugosities.
In their reciprocal position, all these teeth are opposed
crown to crown, except the first lower molar, whose ex-
ternal edge, at its anterior part, is in relation with the
internal edge of the superior carnivorous ; these are the
only teeth belonging to animals of this genus, suited to the
comminution of flesh, which, in fact, they can but imper-
fectly perform
VOL.I.
11

82
THE BROWN BEAR.
[The Brown Bear.
Ursus Arctos : Lin. Erxleb. Bodd.
Ours : Buff. tom. 8, pl. 31, Briss. Reg. An. p. 258.
Alpine Bear, of Europe.
This animal has so frequently been described as a native
of this country, that persons unacquainted with the man-
ner in which writers have copied each other, in relation to
American natural history, may be surprised that we entire-
ly reject the species as an inhabitant of the northern part
of this continent.
It is true that various travellers have made an occasional
mention of “brown bears,” but there is abundant reason
to believe that they have mistaken young or adult black
bears, in a particular state of pelage, for them; this is rend-
ered the more probable from the fact that no real “brown
bear” has yet been seen by any of the expeditions which
have traversed the vast forests, plains, and mountains of
the western regions, where they would almost certainly
have been encountered had they existed. Lewis and Clark,
in several instances, speak of brown bears;" but these
attentive observers expressly state, that they were uniform-
ly found in the same districts, and were specifically the
same as the grizzly, white or variegated bear, which we
shall hereafter describe. We have made many inquiries
of persons who have resided in parts of the country where
the brown bear would most probably be found, if it were a
native, but have not yet met with an individual who has seen
any other species than the common black, or American bear,
and the great grizzly bear of the West.
Taking all circumstances into consideration, we feel
authorised to believe that the Ursus Arctos is not found in
America, and in this belief we shall remain, at least until
there is unequivocal testimony adduced to establish the
.contrary.]

C.AZ. Sucur Del
Kearny. Se
1.
Broirn & Beur. 2 Polar Bear.
2.


THE BLACK BEAR.
83
SPECIES I. — American, or Black Bear.
Ursus Americanus.-PALLAS.
Ours D'Amerique; Cuv. Men. du Mus.
Ours Gulaire : GEOFF. Coll. du Mus.
This bear is found throughout North America, from the
shores of the Arctic Sea, to its most southern extremity.
That they must have existed in vast numbers throughout
this great extent of country, previous to its settlement by
Europeans, we may readily conceive from the immense
number of skins of this animal which are procured even at
the present day. From the year 1798 to 1802 one hundred
and ninety-two thousand four hundred and ninety-seven
bear skins were exported from Quebec, and in the year
1822 the Hudson's Bay company alone exported three
thousand skins of the black bear.
Captains Lewis and Clark observed black bears on the
wooded portions of the Rocky Mountains, and subsequent-
ly found them on the great plains of Columbia, and in the
tract of country lying between these plains and the Pacific
Ocean. They are occasionally found throughout the ter-
ritories of the United States, in the wooded and mountain-
ous regions, and in unsettled districts, where their skins
are of great value to the inhabitants as a substitute for
blankets and other manufactured woollens.
The black bear, under ordinary circumstances, is not
remarkably ferocious, nor is he in the habit of attacking
man without provocation. But when wounded, he turns
on the aggressor with great fury, and defends himself des-
perately. This disposition is more fully manifested dur-
ing the coupling season, because the males are then highly
excited, and are not so inert and clumsy as in the autumn,
when they are exceedingly fat.
If taken when young, this bear is readily domesticated,
and taught numerous tricks; we see him frequently exhibit-
ed by itinerant showmen, as a “learned” bear, though it
requires a long continuance of severe and cruel discipline
to bring him to this state of "improvement.” In captivity
they are always remarkable for the persevering manner
in which they keep moving backward and forward at the

84
THE BLACK BEAR.
extremity of their chain, thus expressing their impatience
of confinement, or rather, as if solicitous to take exercise.
This feeling of the necessity for exercise is manifested in
an especial manner when the animal is confined in a very
small cage, where he has not room even to turn entirely
round. Under such circumstances he perseveringly moves
himself in every direction that his narrow limits will allow,
stepping with his fore-feet first to one side and then to the
other, and finally, by raising and depressing his body quick-
ly, as if jumping from the ground, he gives his whole frame
a degree of exercise, which must tend to the preservation
of his health and strength.
When the winters are severe at the north, and they find
a difficulty of procuring food, they travel to the southern
regions in considerable bodies. Dr. Libley states, in his
report to the secretary of war, relative to the territory bor-
,
dering on Red River, that from all the information he could
gain, immense and almost incredible numbers of these ani-
mals descended the mountains, and passed southwardly into
the timbered country.
The sight and hearing appear to be the most acute of the
senses in this bear, as well as in those hereafter to be des-
cribed. Although he kills many small animals, yet he does
not follow them by the smell. When he walks, his gait is
heavy and apparently awkward, and when running is not
much less so, but his strength of body enables him to move
with considerable celerity, and for a long time.
The females bring forth their young in the winter time,
and exhibit for them a degree of attachment which nothing
can surpass. They usually have two cubs, which are
suckled until they are well grown. The fondness existing
between the mother and cubs seems to be mutual, and no
danger can separate her from them, nor any thing, short of
death itself, induce her to forsake them.
“ Near the old village of Catharine, in the state of New
York, a young man of seventeen, passing through the
woods early in the morning, met with a young cub, which
he pursued and caught, and seizing by the heels, swung
it against a log repeatedly, to kill it. The noise it made
alarmed the dam, and the lad, lifting his eyes, saw a large
bear making towards him with great fury. Dropping the
cub, he seized his gun in time to discharge the contents,
which only wounded her, when instantly clubbing the mus-
ket, he belaboured her on the sides, snout, head, &c. till

THE BLACK BEAR.
85
a
the stock of the gun was shivered, and the barrel wrenched
and twisted in an extraordinary manner.
After a sus-
tained combat, in which the bear tore his clothes to pieces
and scratched him severely, he took an opportunity (when,
from the bleeding of her wounds and weakness, she began
to filag,) to run away for assistance. On returning with his
master they killed the old bear and both her cubs.""*
A friend of the author's, while traversing a wood near
Fort Snelling on the Mississippi, saw a she-bear, accom-
panied by two cubs, (about the size of puppies at a month
old) a short distance before him. The cubs immediately
ascended a tree, and the dam, raising herself on her hind
legs, sat erect at its foot in order to protect them : the rifle,
discharged with a fatal aim, laid the parent lifeless on the
earth. The hunter then approached and stirred the body
with the butt of his gun, on which the little cubs hastily de-
scended the tree and attacked him with great eagerness
atempting to bite bis legs and feet, which their youth and want
of strength prevented them from injuring. When he retired
to a short distance, they returned to the dead body of their
dam, and by various caresses and playful movements endeav-
oured to rouse her from that sleep which“knows no waking.”
Black bears are still numerous in the wooded and thinly
settled parts of Pennsylvania, as well as in most of the other
states of the Union, and where their favourite food is plen-
teous they grow to a great size, and afford a large quantity
of oil. BARTRAM relates that he was present at the cutting
up of one which weighed five or six hundred pounds, and his
hide was apparently as large as that of an ox of six or seven
hundred weight.
The food of this animal is principally grapes, plums,
whortle-berries, persimmons, bramble and other berries;
they are also particularly fond of the acorns of the live oak,
on which they grow excessively fat in Florida, &c. In at-
tempting to procure these acorns they subject themselves
to great perils, for after climbing these enormous oak-trees,
they push themselves along the limbs towards the extreme
branches, and with their fore-paws bend the twigs within
reach, thus exposing themselves to severe and even fatal
accidents in case of a fall. They are also very fond of
the different kinds of nuts and esculent roots, and often
* Vide, Cyclop. Am. Ed. vol. iy.

86
THE BLACK BEAR.
ramble to great distances from their dens in search of
whortle-berries, mulberries, and indeed all sweet flavoured
and spicy fruits : birds, small quadrupeds, insects, and eggs,
are also devoured by them whenever they can be obtained.
They are occasionally very injurious to the frontier settlers,
by their incursions in search of potatoes and young corn, both
of which are favourite articles of food ; their claws enable
them to do great mischief in potato grounds, as they can
dig up a large number in a very short time, and where the
bears are numerous their ravages are occasionally very ex-
tensive.
In the north, the flesh of the black bear is fittest for the
table after the middle of July, when the berries begin to
ripen, though some berries impart a very disagreeable flav-
our to their flesh. They remain in good condition until the
following January or February; late in the spring they are
much emaciated, and their flesh is dry and disagreeable in
consequence of their long fasting through the season of their
torpidity. Their flesh is also rendered rank and disagree-
able by feeding on herring spawn, which they seek and de-
your with greediness, whenever it is to be obtained. The
southern Indians kill great numbers of these bears at all
seasons of the year, but no inducement can be offered to
prevent them from singeing off the hair of all that are in
good condition for eating, as the flesh of the bear is as
much spoiled by skinning as pork would be ; the skins these
people bring the traders are consequently only such as are
obtained from bears that are too poor to be eaten.
In the vicinity of Hudson's Bay the black bear has been
observed to feed entirely on water-insects during the month
of June, when the berries are not ripe. These insects, of
different species, are found in astonishing quantities in some
of the lakes, where, being driven by gales of wind in the
bays, and pressed together in vast multitudes, they die, and
cause an intolerable stench by their putrefaction, as they lie
in some places two or three feet deep.* The bear swims
with his mouth open, and thus gathers the insects on the
surface of the water : when the stomach of the animal is
opened, at this season, it is found to be filled with them, and
emits a very disagreeable stench. They are even believ-
ed to feed on those which die and are washed on shore.
See Hearne's Journey, p.871, 8vo. ed.

THE BLACK BEAR.
87
The flesh of the animal is spoiled by this diet, though indi-
viduals killed at a distance from the water are agreeably fla-
voured at the same time of year.
The black bear is in fact very discriminate in his feeding;
and though suited by nature for the almost exclusive con-
sumption of vegetable food, yet refuses scarcely any thing
when pressed by hunger. He is moreover voracious as
well as indiscrimate in satisfying his appetite, and frequent-
ly gorges until his stomach loathes and rejects its contents.
He seeks, with great assiduity, for the larvæ or grub-worms
of various insects, and exerts a surprising degree of strength
in turning over large trunks of fallen trees, which, when-
ever sufficiently decayed to admit of it, he tears to pieces
in search of worms.
During the season when the logger-head turtles land in
vast multitudes from the lagoons at the south, for the pur-
pose of laying, the black bears come in droves to feast on
their eggs, which they dig out of the sand very expeditious-
ly, and they are so attentive to their business, that the tur-
tle has seldom left the place for a quarter of an hour, before
the bear arrives to feast on her eggs.
While Major Long's party were passing through the
country west of the Missouri, they often saw black bears,
which they observed most commonly to feed on grapes,
plums, dog-wood berries, &c.; but they were also frequent-
ly seen disputing with the wolves and buzzards for a share
of the carcasses of animals abandoned by the hunters, or
of such as had perished by disease. When the bear seizes
a living animal, he does not, as most other beasts do, first
put it to death, but tears it to pieces and devours it, with-
out being delayed by its screams or struggles, and may be
actually said to swallow it alive.
DUPRATZ, who has been properly considered an intelli-
gent and veracious historian, relates the following circum-
stance, in his History of Louisiana, to prove that the black
bear is by no means carnivorous. We must in this case
believe that he was misinformed, or mistaken, since this
bear is well known to feed on flesh, even where the provo-
cation is much less than that he relates.
“The black bears," says he, “appeared in Louisiana
during the winter, being driven from the northern regions
by the snow which covered the earth, and prevented them
from obtaining their food. They fed on fruits, acorns,
and roots, and were most fond of honey and milk, which,
a

88
THE BLACK BEAR.
a
when obtained, they would sooner be killed than relinquish.
In spite of the prejudice which supposes this bear to be
carnivorous, I maintain, with all the inhabitants of this
province and the surrounding country, that this is not the
fact. It has never happened that they have devoured a
man, notwithstanding their numbers and the extreme hun-
ger they sometimes suffer; they even do not eat flesh when it
is thrown in their way, During the time that I resided in
Natchez, there was a very severe winter in the northern
regions, and the black bears came south in great numbers;
they were so numerous that they were all starving and
very poor. Their great hunger drove them out of the
woods bordering the river ; they were seen at night enter-
ing yards which were not well closed, and where fresh meat
was exposed, yet they left it untouched, and ate nothing
but such grain as they could find. It was certainly on
such occasions that their carnivorous disposition should
have been displayed. They never killed animals to devour
them, and so little carnivorous are they, that they abandon
the snow-covered countries, where they could kill men and
animals at pleasure, to wander so far to the south in
search of fruits and roots that a carnivorous animal would
not touch." Sweet creatures !-either the Abbe Dupratz
was sadly misinformed, or the disposition of the black bear
has astonishingly deteriorated since the year 1755, as those
of the present day, so far from refusing meat left in their
way, will break into enclosures in search of it, and if oppor-
tunity offers, when pressed by hunger, they do not scruple
to kill pork for their own use.
The following instance occurred in the western part of the
the state of New York, in the year 1824. The back
window of a farm-house was forced open one night, and a
considerable quantity of pork carried off. The proprietor,
without suspecting the nature of the plunderer, placed a
loaded musket opposite the window, having a string so
adjusted that the gun would be discharged by any thing
attempting to enter the room through the window. During
the night the report of the gun was heard, and in the
morning the body of a large black bear was found at
a short distance from the spot where he had received his
death wound.
The usual residence of the black bear is in the most re-
mote and secluded parts of the forest, where his den is either
in the hollow of some decayed tree, or in a cavern formed
a

THE BLACK BEAR.
89
among the rocks. To this place he retires when his hunger
is appeased, and in the winter he lies coiled
up
there during
the long period of his torpidity. The female of the black
bear, during the period of gestation, which commences in
the month of October, and continues for about one hun-
dred and twelve days, leads a retired and concealed life, -
for we have not a single instance on record of a pregnant
bear being killed either by white men or Indians, though the
mother and very young cubs are frequently destroyed.
During an extremely hard winter the inhabitants of the
borders of James's river, Virginia, killed several hundred
bears, among which two only were females, and those not
with young
In the northern parts of this continent, the subterran-
eous retreats of the black bear may be readily discovered
by the mist which uniformly hangs about the entrance of
the den, as the animal's heat and breathing prevent the
mouth of the cave from being entirely closed, however
deep the snow may be. As the black bear usually retires
to his winter quarters before any quantity of snow has
fallen, and does not again venture abroad, if undisturbed,
until the end of March or beginning of April, he must
consequently spend at least four months in a state of tor-
pidity, and without obtaining food. It is therefore not sur-
prising that, although the bear goes into his winter quarters
in a state of excessive fatness, he should come out in the
spring of the year extremely emaciated.
The northern Indians occasionally destroy the bear by
blocking up the mouth of the cave with logs of wood, and
then, breaking open the top of it, kill the animal with a
spear or gun; yet this method is considered both cowardly
and wasteful, as the bear can neither escape nor offer the
slightest injury to his disturbers. Sometimes they throw
a noose round his neck, draw him up to the top of the hole,
and kill him with a hatchet.
The black bear is occasionally captured in large and
strong steel-traps, well secured by a chain to a neighbouring
tree, and laid in a path over which a freshly-killed carcass
has been drawn along, -or he is taken in a noose suspen-
ded from a strong sapling. A common mode of hunting
this animal is to follow him with two or three well trained
dogs. When he finds that he is pursued, he generally
pushes directly forward for eight or ten miles, or farther,
if not overtaken; as the dogs came up with him their re-
VOL. I.
a
a
12

90
THE BLACK BEAR.
peated attacks cause him to turn for the purpose
of striking
at them, and if they do not dexterously avoid his blows
they will be killed, as he strikes with very great force. To
avoid the vexation produced by the dogs, he mounts a tree,
ascending for twenty or thirty feet, but is allowed very
little rest, for the hunter now approaching, he throws him-
self to the earth, and hurries onwards, being still pursued
and worried by the dogs. Again he is obliged to take re-
fuge in a tree, and sometimes climbs as near as possible to
the top, endeavouring to conceal himself among the foliage.
The hunter now strikes against the trunk of the tree, as if
engaged in cutting it down; the poor bear soon betrays his
hiding place, and slipping to the end of the longest branch,
gathers his body up, and drops from a vast height to the
ground, whence he often appears to rebound for several
feet, and then runs off as actively as he can. At length,
worn out by frequently repeated exertions to escape, he
is finally shot, while attempting to screen himself by aid
of the trunk of a tree, or while employed in resisting the
attacks of the dogs.
Among other modes of killing the black bear the Indians
employ a trap composed of logs, which, when the animal
attempts to remove the bait, either falls on his body and
kills him outright, or secures him until he is put to death by
the proprietor of the snare. Our enterprising countryman,
SCHOOLCRAFT, relates an instance of his having seen one
thus caught. “The animal sat upon his fore-paws facing
us, the hinder paws being pressed to the ground by a heavy
weight of logs, which had been arranged in such a manner
as to allow the bear to creep under, and by seizing the bait
he had sprung the trap and could not extricate himself, al-
though with his fore-paws he had demolished a part of the
works. After viewing him for some time a ball was fired
through his head, but it did not kill him. The bear kept
his position and seemed to growl in defiance. A second
ball was aimed at the heart, and took effect, but he did not
resign the contest immediately, and was at last despatched
with an axe. As soon as the bear fell, one of the Indians
walked up, and addressing him by the name of muck-wah,
shook him by the paw, with a smiling countenance, as if he
had met with an old acquaintance, saying, in the Indian
language, he was sorry they had been under the necessity
of killing him, and hoped the offence would be forgiven, as-

THE BLACK BEAR.
91
pecially as the che-mock-o-mem (white men) had fired one of
the balls."
The Indians consider this bear as one of the noblest
objects of the chase, and they always manifest the highest
degree of exultation when they are successful in killing
one. Every part of the animal is valuable to them, even
.
to its intestines and claws; the latter are bored at the base
and strung on deer sinews to be worn as ornaments. The
flesh is considered most delicious food, and the fore-paws
as an exquisite dainty.
The fat of the bear is accumulated in different parts of
the body to an excessive degree towards autumn, after the
animal has been plentifully supplied with food ; the oil ob-
tained by liquifying it, is a well known popular remedy
against baldness, as well as for rubbing stiff or rheumatic
joints. The fat obtained from the paws is most highly priz-
ed, either because it is most difficult to procure in any
quantity, or because it is really finer than that obtained from
the body generally. It is very certain that few, or indeed
perhaps none, of the animal oils are finer when properly
prepared than that of the bear, and hence, in any case where
the external application of oil is thought to be proper, bear's
oil will be preferable to any other ; but that it possesses
many other virtues except those depending on its tenuity,
we are not prepared to admit.
The black bear, like all the species of this genus, is very
tenacious of life, and seldom falls unless shot through the
brain or heart. An experienced hunter never advances
on a bear that has fallen, without first stopping to load his
rifle, as the beast frequently recovers to a considerable de-
gree, and would then be a most dangerous adversary.
,
The
skull of the bear appears actually to be almost impenetrable,
and a rifle ball, fired at a distance of ninety six yards, has been
flattened against it, without appearing to do any material
injury to the bone. The best place to direct blows against
the bear is upon his snout ; when struck elsewhere, his dense
woolly coat, thick hide, and robust muscles, render manual
violence almost entirely unavailing.
When the bear is merely wounded, it is very dangerous to
attempt to kill him with such a weapon as a knife or toma-
hawk, or indeed any thing which may bring one within his
reach. In this way hunters and others have paid very dear-
ly for their rashness, and barely escaped with their lives; the
ܕ

92
THE BLACK BEAR.
following instance may serve as an example of the danger
of such an enterprise :
“Mr. Mayborne, who resides in Ovid township, Cayuga
county, between the Seneca and Cayuga lakes, in the state
of New York, went one afternoon through the woods in
search of his horses, taking with him his rifle and the only
load of ammunition he had in the house. On his return
home, about an hour before dusk, he perceived a very large
bear crossing the path, on which he instantly fired, and the
bear fell, but immediately recovering his legs made for a deep
a
ravine a short way onwards. Here he tracked him awhile
by the blood, but night coming on, and expecting to find
bim dead in the morning, he returned home. A little before
day-break the next morning, taking a pitchfork and hatchet,
and his son, a boy of ten or eleven years of age with him,
a
he proceeded to the place in quest of the animal. The glen
or ravine into which he had disappeared the evening before
was eighty or ninety feet from the top of the bank to the
brook below: down this precipice a stream of three or four
yards in breadth is pitched in one unbroken sheet, and,
forming a circular basin or pool, winds away among the
thick underwood. After reconnoitering every probable
place of retreat, he at length discovered the bear, who had
made his way up the other side of the ravine, as far as the
rocks would admit, and sat under a projecting cliff, sted-
fastly eyeing the motions of his enemy. Mayborne, desir-
ing his boy to remain where he was, took the pitchfork, and
descending to the bottom, determined from necessity to at-
tack him from below. The bear kept his position until the
man approached within six or seven feet, when, on the in-
stant, instead of being able to make a stab with the pitch-
fork, he found himself grappled by the bear, and both to-
gether rolled towards the pond, at least twenty or twenty-five
feet, the bear biting on his left arm, and hugging him almost
to suffocation. By great exertion he thrust his right
arm partly down his throat, and in that manner endeavour-
ed to strangle him, but was once more hurled headlong down
through the bushes, a greater distance than before, into
the water :Here, finding the bear gaining on him, he
made one desperate effort and drew the animal's head
partly under water, and repeating his exertions, at last
weakened him so much, that calling to his boy, who stood
on the other side in a state little short of distraction for the
fate of his father, to bring him the hatchot, he sunk the edge

THE BLACK BEAR.
93
of it by repeated blows into the brain of the bear. This man,
although robust and muscular, was scarcely able to crawl
home, where he lay for nearly three weeks, the flesh of his
arm being much crushed, and his breast severely mangled.
The bear weighed upwards of four hundred pounds.”
The black bear, in common with other species of the
genus,
endeavour to suffocate an adversary by violently
hugging and compressing its chest. A man might end
such a struggle in a few instants, if one hand be sufficiently
at liberty to grasp the throat of the animal with the thumb
and fingers, externally, just at the root of the tongue, as a
slight degree of compression there will generally suffice to
produce a spasm of the glottis, that will soon suffocate it
beyond the power of offering resistance or doing injury.
The black bear differs from other species of the genus
by having the nose and forehead nearly on the same line,
though the forehead is slightly prominent. This projection
of the front is less at the upper part than in the brown bear
of Europe.* The palms of the hands and soles of the
feet are very short, and the whole body is covered with
long, shining, straight black hair, which is by no means
harsh to the touch. The sides of the face are marked
with fawn colour, and a small spot of the same exists in
some individuals in front of the eye; others have the muz-
zle of a clear light yellow, with a white line commencing
on the root of the nose and reaching to each side of the
angle of the mouth. This continues over the cheek to a
large white space, mixed with a slight fawn colour, covering
the whole of the throat, whence a narrow line descends
upon
the breast. It was this variety which Geoffroy called
Ours Gulaire. The yellow bear of Carolina is also a
variety of the black or American bear. Capt. FRANKLIN
saw adults of this species in the vicinity of Cumberland
house which were red, and remarked that the cubs of these
red bears were black; while the cubs of the black individ-
uals were as frequently of a red colour.
* We are informed by Capt. J. LE Conte, who, as a naturalist,
ranks deservedly high, that the black bear is distinguished with still
greater certainty from the brown or European bear by having one
more molar tooth than that animal.

94
THE GRIZZLY BEAR.
SPECIES II.-The Grizzly Bear.
Ursus Horribilis.--Ord.
Ursus Horribillis. Say. Long's Exped, to the Rocky Mountains. vol. ii.
Ursus Cinereus. DESM. Mam. p. 164.
Ursus Ferox. The Grizzly, White, Variegated and Brown Bear of Lewis &
CLARKE.*
This bear, justly considered as the most dreadful and
dangerous of North American quadrupeds, is the despotic
and sanguinary monarch of the wilds over which he ranges.
Gigantic in size and terrific in aspect, he unites to a fero-
ciously blood-thirsty disposition a surpassing strength of
limb, which gives him undisputed supremacy over every
other quadruped tenant of the wilderness, and causes man
himself to tremble at his approach, though possessed of
defensive weapons unknown to any but the human race.
To the Indians the very name of the Grizzly Bear is
dreadful, and the killing of one is esteemed equal to a great
victory:—the white hunters are almost always willing to
avoid an encounter with so powerful an adversary, and
seldom or never wantonly provoke his anger.
This formidable bear unhesitatingly pursues and attacks
men or animals, when excited by hunger, or passion, and
slaughters indiscriminately every creature whose speed or
artifice is not sufficient to place them beyond his reach.
The Bison, whose size and imposing appearance might
seem to be a sufficient protection, does not always elude his
grasp, as the grizzly bear is strong enough to overpower
this animal, and drag its carcass to a convenient place to
be deposited and devoured at leisure.
-
a
In the English translation of Cuvier's Regne Animal, the trans-
lator has given to this bear the name of Ursus Candescens, proposed
by Major HAMILTON SMITH, which must of necessity be rejected,
along with all others, except the one we have adopted, because no
person has a right to change a name given by the original describer of
an animal, according to the rules now well established and almost uni-
versally accepted by naturalists, to prevent the confusion resulting
from changes of nomenclature, which are frequently proposed with
no better reason than the mere pleasure of an individual. Say, who
first sytematically described this species, adopted the name proposed
for it by Ord, which cannot now, with any shadow of propriety be
changed.

1
Albo
mui
So
Cal. Lesueur Del.
Kearny
1. Black Bear
1
2.
Brezily. Bear
.


THE GRIZZLY BEAR.
96
However singular it may appear that an animal endowed
with such a fondness for destruction and blood, can exist
altogether on vegetable food, it is a fact that the grizzly
bear, no less than all other species belonging to the same
genus, is capable of subsisting exclusively on roots and
fruits: this may be inferred from the peculiarities of their
system of dentition. It is by no means surprising that
hunters and travellers should suppose the grizzly bear to be
almost wholly carnivorous, seeing that he displays such an
unappeasable ferocity of disposition, and so uniform an ea-
gerness to destroy the life of any animal that falls within his
power.
This bear at present inhabits the country adjacent to
the eastern side of the Rocky Mountains, where it fre-
quents the plains, or resides in the copses of wood which
skirt along the margin of water courses.
There is some
reason to believe that the grizzly bear once inhabited the
Atlantic regions of the United States, if we may be allow-
ed to form any inference from traditions existing among
the Delaware Indians, relative to the Big Naked Bear
which formerly existed on the banks of the Hudson. The
venerable HECKEWELDER informs us that Indian mothers
used to frighten their children into quietness by speaking
to them of this animal.
Notwithstanding it was mentioned a long time since by
LA HONTAN and other writers, it has been but recently
established as a distinct species in the works of systematic
Zoologists. Say was the first to give a full description of
it, in the well known work we have quoted at the head of
this article.
Two cubs of the grizzly bear were sometime since kept
alive in the menagery of PEALE's (now the Philadelphia)
Museum. When first received they were quite small, but
speedily gave indications of that ferocity for which this
species is so remarkable. As they increased in size they
became exceedingly dangerous, seizing and tearing to
pieces every animal they could lay hold of, and expressing
extreme eagerness to get at those accidentally brought
within sight of their cage, by grasping the iron bars with
their
paws and shaking them violently, to the great terror
of spectators, who felt insecure while witnessing such
displays of their strength. In one instance an unfortunate
monkey was walking over the top of their cage, when the
end of the chain which hung from his waist dropped through

96
THE GRIZZLY BEAR.
within reach of the bears; they immediately seized it,
dragged the screaming animal through the narrow aperture,
tore him limb from limb, and devoured his mangled carcass
almost instantaneously. At another time a small monkey
thrust his arm through an opening in the bear cage to reach
after some object; one of them immediately seized him,
and, with a sudden jerk, tore the whole arm and shoulder-
blade from the body, and devoured it before any one could
interfere. They were still cubs, and very little more than
half
grown, when their ferocity became so alarming
as to excite continual apprehension lest they should
escape, and they were killed in order to prevent such an
event.
To the venerable founder of the Philadelphia Museum,
CHARLES WILSON PEALE, to whom American students
of natural history are under the most lasting obligations for
his zeal and liberality, we are indebted for the following
letter, written by the gallant and lamented PIKE, relative
to the two grizzly bears above mentioned :
Washington Feb. 3d, 1808.
SIR,-I had the honour of receiving your note last
evening, and in reply to the inquiries of Mr. PEALE, can
only give the following notes :
The bears were taken by an Indian in the mountains
which divide the large western branches of the Rio Del
Norte, and some small rivers which discharge their waters
into the east side of the gulf of California, near the dividing
line between the provinces of Biscay and Senora. We
happened at the time to be marching along the foot of those
mountains, and fell in with the Indian who had them, when
I conceived the idea of bringing them to the United States,
for
your Excellency, although then more than 1600 miles
from our frontier post, (Natchitoches) purchased them of
the savage, and for three or four days made my men carry
,
them in their laps, on horseback. As they would eat
nothing but milk, they were in danger of starving. I then
had a cage prepared for both, which was carried on a mule,
lashed between two packs, but always ordered them to be
Jet out the moment we halted, and not shut up again, until
we were prepared to march. By this treatment they
became extremely docile when at liberty, following my men
(whom they learned to distinguish from the Spanish
dragoons by their always feeding them and encamping with

THE GRIZZLY BEAR.
97
them), like dogs through our camps, the small villages
,
and forts where we halted. When well supplied with
sustenance they would play like young puppies with each
other and the soldiers ; but the instant they were shut up
and placed on the mule they became cross, as the jostling
of the animal knocked them against each other, and they
were sometimes left exposed to the scorching heat of a
vertical sun for a day without food or a drop of water, in
which case they would worry and tear each other, until
nature was exhausted, and they could neither fight nor
howl any longer. They will be one year old on the first
of next month, (March, 1808) and, as I am informed, they
frequently arrive at the weight of eight hundred pounds.
Whilst in the mountains we sometimes discovered them
at a distance, but in no instances were we ever able to
come up with one, which we eagerly sought, and that
being the most inclement season of the year, induces me
to believe they seldom or never attack a man unprovoked,
but defend themselves courageously;* an instance of this
kind occurred in New Mexico, whilst I sojourned in that
province; three of the natives attacked a bear with their
lances, two of whom he killed, and wounded the third,
before he fell the victim.
With sentiments of the
highest respect and esteem,
Your obedient servant,
Z. M. PIKE.
His Excellency, Thomas Jefferson,
President of the United States.
The grizzly bear is remarkably tenacious of life, and on
many
occasions numerous rifle-balls have been fired into
the body of an individual without much apparent injury,
Instances are related by the travellers who have explored
the countries in the vicinity of the Rocky Mountains, of
from ten to fourteen balls having been discharged into the
body of one of these bears before it expired. In confirmation
of these statements we shall here introduce some sketches
* It is very possible that the bears thus seen may have been
common black bears; the reader will find in the sequel abundant proofs
that it is not difficult to come up with the grizzly bear, and that this
animal does not often wait to be attacked.
Vol. I.
13

98
THE GRIZZLY BEAR.
from narratives given in the journals of Lewis and Clark,
and Long's Expedition to the Rocky Mountains.
One evening the men in the hindmost of one of Lewis
and Clark's canoes perceived one of these bears lying in
the open ground about three hundred paces from the river,
and six of them, who were all good hunters, went to attack
him. Concealing themselves by a small eminence, they
were able to approach within forty paces unperceived ; four
of the hunters now fired, and each lodged a ball in his body,
two of which passed directly through the lungs. The
bear sprang up and ran furiously with open mouth upon
them; two of the hunters, who had reserved their fire,
gave him two additional wounds, and one breaking his
shoulder-blade, soinewhat retarded his motions. Before
they could again load their guns, he came so close on them,
that they were obliged to run towards the river, and be-
fore they had gained it the bear had almost overtaken
them. Two men jumped into the canoe; the other four
separated, and concealing themselves among the willows,
fired as fast as they could load their pieces. Several times
the bear was struck, but each shot seemed only to direct
his fury towards the hunter ; at last he pursued them so
closely that they threw aside their guns and pouches, and
jumped from a perpendicular bank, twenty feet high, into
the river. The bear sprang after them, and was very near
the hindmost man, when one of the hunters on the shore
shot him through the head and finally killed him. When
they dragged him on shore, they found that eight balls had
passed through his body in different directions.
On another occasion the same enterprising travellers met
with the largest bear of this species they had ever seen;
when they fired he did not attempt to attack, but fled with
a tremendous roar, and such was his tenacity of life, that
although five balls had passed through the lungs, and five
other wounds were inflicted, he swam more than half across
the river to a sand bar, and survived more than twenty
minutes. This individual weighed five or six hundred
pounds at least, and measured eight feet seven inches and
a-half from the nose to the extremity of the hind feet, five
feet ten inches and a half around the breast, three feet
eleven inches around the middle of the fore-leg, and his
claws were four inches and three-eighths, long.
In fact the chance of killing the grizzly bear by a single
shot is very small, unless the ball penetrates the brain, or

THE GRIZZLY BEAR.
99
passes through the heart. This is very difficult to effect,
since the form of the skull, and the strong muscles on the
side of the head, protect the brain against every injury ex-
cept a very truly aimed shot, and the thick coat of hair,
the strong muscles and ribs, make it nearly as difficult to
lodge a ball fairly in the heart.
Governor CLINTON, in the notes to his discourse delivered
before the Literary and Philosophical Society of New York,
says, “that Dixon, an Indian trader, told a friend of his,
that this animal had been seen fourteen feet long; that not-
withstanding its ferocity, it had been occasionally domesti-
cated, and that an Indian belonging to a tribe on the head
waters of the Mississippi, had one in a reclaimed state,
which he sportively directed to go into a canoe belonging
to another tribe of Indians, then returning from a visit : the
bear obeyed, and was struck by an Indian. Being con-
sidered as one of the family, this was deemed an insult,
resented accordingly, and produced a war between these
nations."
Mr. John DOUGHERTY, a very experienced and respec-
table hunter, who accompanied Major Long's party during
their expedition to the Rocky Mountains, several times very
narrowly escaped from the grizzly bear. Once, while
hunting with another person on one of the upper tributa-
ries of the Missouri, he heard the report of his companion's
rifle, and when he looked round beheld him at a short dis-
tance endeavoring to escape from one of these bears,
which he had wounded as it was coming towards him.
Dougherty, forgetful of every thing but the preservation
of his friend, hastened to call off the attention of the bear,
and arrived in rifle-shot distance just in time to effect his
generous purpose. He discharged his ball at the animal,
and was obliged in his turn to fly; his friend, relieved froni
immediate danger, prepared for another attack by charging
his riflo, with which he again wounded the bear, and saved
Mr. D. from further peril. Neither received any injury
from this encounter, in which the bear was at length killed.
On one occasion several hunters were chased by a griz-
zly bear, who rapidly gained upon them. A boy of the party,
who could not run so fast as his companions, perceiving the
bear very near him, fell with his face towards the ground.
The bear reared up on his hind-feet, stood for a moment,
and then bounded over him in pursuit of the more distant
fugitives.

100
THE GRIZZLY BEAR.
up,
Mr. DOUGHERTY, the hunter before mentioned, relates
the following instance of the great muscular strength of the
grizzly bear: Having killed a bison, and left the carcass for
the purpose of procuring assistance to skin and cut it he
was very much surprised on his return to find that it had
been dragged off, whole, to a considerable distance, by a
grizzly bear, and was then placed in a pit, which the an-
imal had dug with his claws for its reception.
This bear strikes a very violent blow with his fore-paws,
and the claws inflict dreadful wounds. One of the cubs
before mentioned as belonging to the Philadelphia Muse-
um, struck the other a blow over part of its back and shoul-
der, which produced a large wound like a sabre cut. It is
stated in Long's Expedition, that a hunter received a blow
from the fore-paw of a grizzly bear, which destroyed his
eye and crushed his cheek bone.
The grizzly bear is unable to climb trees like other
bears; he is much more intimidated by the voice than the
aspect of man, and on some occasions, when advancing to
attack an individual, he has turned and retired merely in
consequence of the screams extorted by fear. The degree
of ferocity exhibited by the grizzly bear appears to be con-
siderably influenced by the plenty or scarcity of food in the
region it inhabits. Anterior to the time of Lewis and
Clark's expedition, nothing very satisfactory was known
relative to this bear, and it was not until the publication
of the journal of Long's Expedition to the Rocky Moun-
tains, that a correct scientific description was given by that
distinguished naturalist, Say.
It
may be with certainty distinguished from all the known
species of this genus, by its elongated claws, and the rec-
tilinear or slightly arched figure of its facial profile. Its
general appearance may be compared with the Alpine bear
of Europe (U. Arctos), especially with the Norwegian va-
riety. The Alpine bear has not the elongated claws, and
the facial space is deeply indented between the eyes. This
bear is also a climber; the grizzly bear is not.
On the front of the grizzly bear the hair is short, and
between and anterior to the eyes it is very much so. On
the rest of the body it is long and very thickly set, being
blacker and coarser on the legs, feet, shoulders, throat, be-
hind the thighs, and beneath the belly ; on the snout it is
paler. The ears are short and rounded, the forehead
somewhat convex or arcuated, and the line of the profile

THE GRIZZLY BEAR.
101
continues on the snout without any indentation between the
eyes.
The eyes are quite small, and have no remarkable sup-
plemental lid. The iris is of a light reddish brown, or burnt
Sienna colour. The muffle of the nostrils is black, and the
sinus very distinct and profound. The lips are capable of
being extended anteriorly, especially the upper one, which
has on it a few more rigid hairs or bristles than the lower lip.
The tail, which is very short, is concealed by the hair.
The length of the hair gradually diminishes on the legs,
but is still ample in quantity on the upper part of the foot.
The claws on the fore-feet are slender and elongated,
and the fingers have five sub-oval naked tubercles, separa-
ted from the palm, each other, and the base of the claws,
by dense hair. The anterior half of the palm is naked, and
is of an oval figure transversely; the base of the palm has
a rounded naked tubercle encircled by hair.
The soles of the (hind) feet are naked, and the nails are
more curved and not so long as those on the fore-paws.
The nails are not in the least diminished at tip, but they
grow sharper at that part only by lessening from beneath.*
The colour of the grizzly bear varies very considerably,
according to age and its particular state of pelage. Hence
they have been described as brown, white, and variegated,
by Lewis and Clark, although, evidently of the same species,
judging by all the other characters. The colour of the
young animal approaches more nearly to the brown bear
of Europe than any other ; in advanced life the colour is
that peculiar mixture of white, brown, and black, which
has procured for this bear the appropriate designation of
6 grizzly."
The following are the dimensions of the specimens pro-
served in the Philadelpia Museum, as given by Say.
Length from the tip of the nose to the origin of the
tail,
5 ft. 2 in.
The tail exclusive of the hair at tip,
1
From the anterior base of the ear to the tip of the
nose,
6
Orbit of the eye,
을
​Between the eyes,
63
-
-
* Ursi Horribilis testes saccis duobus distinctis, etiam ad quatuor pol-
licum segregatis pendunt.

102
THE GRIZZLY BEAR.
-
Alw
41
Ears from their superior base,
3
Longest claw of the fore-foot,
4}
Shortest,
Longest claw of the hind-foot,
3
Shortest,
18
Hair at the tip of the tail,
Length of the hair on the top of the head, 1 to 2
Beneath the ears,
2 to 31
On the neck above,
3
On the shoulders above,
4)
On the throat,
4
On the belly and behind the fore legs the longest
hairs are -
6
These measurements are taken from two individuals
which were by no means full grown, as may be perceived by
comparing them with the measurements heretofore cited
from Lewis and Clark. They will serve, however, to give
a fairer idea of the proportions of this animal than any which
have been previously given, as they are so much more de-
tailed and very carefully made.
-
-
-
SPECIES III.-The Polar Bear.
Ursus Maritimus.-LIN.
1
Ursus Albus ;: BRISS. Régne Anim. p. 260. Sp. 2.
Ours Blanc ; Burf. Supp. tom. 3. pl. 34.
Ours Blanc; DESM. Mam. p. 16.Sp. 257.
The Polar Bear ; Pen. Syn. quad. p. 192. tab. 20. fig. 1. PALLAS, spicil. Zool.
XIV. tab. 1.
In the desolate regions of the north, where unrelenting
winter reigns in full appanage of horrors during the great-
er part of the year, and even the stormy ocean itself is long
imprisoned by “ thick ribbed ice," the Polar Bear finds his
most congenial abode. There, prowling over the frozen
wastes, he satiates his hunger on the carcasses of whales
deserted by the adventurous fishermen, or seizes on such
marine animals as come up to bask in open air ; and when
;
occasion calls, he fearlessły plunges into the sea in pursuit
of his prey, as if the deep were his native and familiar ele-
ment. To most other animals extreme cold is distressing
and injurious ; to him it is welcome and delightful : to him

THE POLAR BEAR.
103
the glistening ice bank or snow-wreathed shore, canopied
by louring and tempestuous clouds, are far more inviting
and agreeable than verdant hills or sunny skies.
Being endowed with extremely acute senses, great
strength, and a savagely ferocious disposition withal, it is
not surprising that this animal is dreaded as the most for-
midable quadruped of the region he inhabits. Notwithstand-
ing his great size and apparent heaviness, he is very active
and though his ordinary gait may appear clumsy, when ex-
cited by rage or hunger, his speed on the ice far exceeds
that of the swiftest man.
When on an extensive ice-field, the polar bear is often
observed to ascend the knobs or hummocks, for the purpose
of reconnoitring, or he stands with head erect to snuff the
tainted air, which informs him where to find the whale car-
rion at astonishing distances. This substance, so unpleas-
ant and disgusting to human sense, is a luxurious banquet
to the bear, and a piece of it thrown on a fire will allure him
from a distance of several miles.
A considerable part of the polar bear's food is supplied
by seals, but very probably he suffers long fasts and extreme
hunger, owing to the peculiar vigilance of these creatures ;
occasionally he is much reduced by being carried out to sea
on a small island of ice, where he may be forced to remain
for a week or more without an opportunity of procuring
food. In this situation they have been seen on ice-islands
two hundred miles distant from land, and sometimes they
are drifted to the shores of Iceland, or Norway where they
are so ravenous as to destroy all the animals they find.
Most commonly such invaders are soon destroyed, as the
natives collect in large numbers and commence an imme-
diate pursuit, but frequently do not succeed in killing them
before many of their flocks are thinned. An individual
polar bear has occasionally been carried on the ice as far
south as Newfoundland, but this circumstance very rarely
occurs.
This animal swims excellently, and advances at the rate
of three miles an hour. During the summer season he
principally resides in the ice-islands, and leaves one to visit
another, however great be the distance. If interrupted
while in the water, he dives and changes his course ; but he
neither dives very often, nor does he remain under water
for a long time. Captain Ross saw a polar bear swimming
midway in Melville Sound, where the shores were full forty

104
THE POLAR BEAR.
a
miles apart, and no ice was in sight large enough for him
to have rested on. The best time for attacking him is
when he is in the water; on ice or land he has so many ad-
vantages that the aggressor is always in danger. Even in
the water he has frequently proved a formidable antagonist,
has boarded and taken possession of a small boat, forcing the
occupants to seek safety by leaping overboard. Instances
are related in which this animal has climbed up the sides of
small vessels, and been with difficulty repelled from the
deck.
Generally the polar bear retreats from man; but when
pursued and attacked he always resents the aggression,
and turns furiously on his enemy. When struck at with a
lance, he is very apt to seize and bite the staff in two, or
wrest it from the hands. Should a ball be fired at him,
without taking effect in the head or heart, his rage is in-
creased, and he seeks revenge with augmented fury. It
has been remarked that, when wounded and able to make
his escape, he applies snow to the wound, as if aware that
cold would check the flow of blood.
A great majority of the fatal accidents following engage-
ments with the polar bear, have resulted from imprudently at-
tacking the animal on the ice. SCORESBY, in his interesting
narrative of a voyage to Greenland, relates an instance of
this kind. "A few years ago, when one of the Davis's
Strait whalers was closely beset among the ice at the south
west,' or on the coast of Labrador, a bear that had been for
some time seen near the ship, at length became so bold as to
approach alongside, probably tempted by the offal of the
provision thrown overboard by the cook. At this time the
people were all at dinner, no one being required to keep the
deck in the then immovable condition of the ship. A hardy
fellow who first looked out, perceiving the bear so near, im-
prudently jumped upon the ice, armed only with a hand-
spike, with a view, it is supposed, of gaining all the honour
of the exploit of securing so fierce a visiter by himself.
But the bear, regardless of such weapons, and sharpened
probably by hunger, disarmed his antagonist, and seizing
hiin by the back with his powerful jaws, carried him off with
such celerity, that on his dismayed comrades rising from
their meal and looking abroad, he was so far beyond their
reach as to defy their pursuit.”
“A circumstance, communicated to me by Capt. Munroe
of the Neptune, of rather a humorous nature as to the re-
29

THE POLAR BEAR.
105
a
sult, arose out of an equally imprudent attack made on a
bear, in the Greenland fishery of 1820, by a seaman em-
ployed in one of the Hull whalers. The ship was moored
to a piece of ice, on which, at a considerable distance, a
large bear was observed prowling about for prey. One of
the ship's company, emboldened by an artificial courage,
derived from the free use of rum, which in his economy he
had stored for special occasions, undertook to pursue and
attack the bear that was within view. Armed only with a
whale-lance, he resolutely, and against all persuasion, set
out on his adventurous exploit. A fatiguing journey of
about half a league, over a yielding surface of snow and rug-
ged hummocks, brought him within a few yards of the enemy,
which to his surprise, undauntedly faced him, and seemed
to invite him to the combat. His courage being by this
time greatly subdued, partly by evaporation of the stimu-
lus, and partly by the undismayed and even threatening
aspect of the bear, he levelled his lance in an attitude either
for offensive or defensive action, and stopped. The bear
also stood still; in vain the adventurer tried to rally courage
to make the attack ; his enemy was too formidable, and
his appearance too imposing. In vain also he shouted, ad-
vanced his lance, and made feints of attack ; the enemy,
either not understanding or despising such unmanliness,
obstinately stood his ground. Already the limbs of the
sailor began to quiver; but the fear of ridicule from his mess-
mates had its influence, and he yet scarcely dared to retreat.
Bruin, however, possessing less reflection, or being regard-
less of consequences, began, with audacious boldness, to ad-
His nigh approach and unshaken step subdued the
spark of bravery and that dread of ridicule that had hitherto
upheld our adventurer; he turned and fled. But now was
the time of danger ; the sailor's flight encouraged the bear
;
in turn to pursue, and being better practised in snow tra-
velling, and better provided for it, he rapidly gained upon
the fugitive. The whale-lance, his only defence, encumbering
him in his retreat, he threw it down, and kept on. This fortu-
nately excited the bear's attention ; he stopped, pawed it,
;
bit it, and then renewed the chase. Again he was at the
heels of the panting seaman, who, conscious of the favour-
able effects of the lance, dropped one of his mittens, the
stratagem succeeded, and while Bruin again stopped to ex-
amine it, the fugitive, improving the interval, made con-
VOL. I.
vance.
14

106
THE POLAR BEAR.
siderable progress a-head. Still the bear resumed the
pursuit with a most provoking perseverance, except when
arrested by another mitten, and, finally, by a hat, which he
tore to shreds between his fore-teeth and paws, and would,
-
,
no doubt, soon have made the incautious adventurer his
victim, who was now rapidly losing strength, but for the
prompt and well-timed assistance of his shipmates—who,
observing that the affair had assumed a dangerous as-
pect, sallied out to his rescue. The little phalanx opened
him a passage, and then closed to receive the bold assail-
ant. Though now beyond reach of his adversary, the
dismayed fugitive continued onwards, impelled by his fears,
and never relaxed his exertions until he fairly reached the
shelter of his ship. The bear once more came to a stand,
and for a moment seemed to survey his enemies with all
the consideration of an experienced general ; when, find-
ing them too numerous for a hope of success, he very wise-
ly wheeled about, and succeeded in making a safe and
honourable retreat."*
The polar bear is stated to be generally four or five feet
high, from seven to eight feet long, and nearly the same in
circumference. Individuals have frequently been met
with of much greater size; Barentz killed one in Cherie
Island, whose skin measured thirteen feet. The weight
is generally from six to eight hundred pounds. The hair
of the body is long, and of a yellowish white colour, and
is very shaggy about the inside of the legs. The paws are
seven inches or more in breadth, with claws two inches
long. In some individuals, the canine teeth have been
found an inch and a half long, exclusive of the portion
imbedded in the jaw : the strength of the jaws is very
great, and enables the animal to inflict dreadful injury
when he bites.
* Scoresby's Greenland Voyage.
+ DESMAREST states in a note that the largest individuals of this
species which have been observed, are not more than six feet seven
inches long. This does not agree with the accounts given by many
northern voyagers : we have selected Captain Ross's measurements,
(not because the individual from which they were taken is the largest
that has been seen, but) because his scientific character is so generaily
and advantageously known. It would have been very easy to have
selected measurements of larger specimens, from other sources.

THE POLAR BEAR.
107
The following measurements are from an individual,
killed during Capt. Ross's voyage, in the vicinity of Prince
William's Sound :
O ONO
the eyes,
O 00
راته واه
Length, from the snout to the tail, 6 ft. 8 in.
to the shoulder blade, 2 10
Circumference near the fore-legs,
6
of the neck,
3 9
Breadth of the fore-paw,
10
of the hind foot,
81
Circumference of the hind leg,
1 10
of the fore-leg,
1 8
of the snout before
1 8
Length of the snout to the occiput, 1
6
Height to the fore-shoulder,
4
Fore-claws,
23
Hind-claws,
13
Tail,
4
Weight of the animal, after losing thirty pounds of blood,
1131 pounds.
We have stated that the polar bear preys on seals, fish,
and the carcasses of whales; it also preys on birds, and
their
eggs, and not unfrequently destroys young whales and
walruses; it is also said to disinter human bodies, and
devour them with great greediness. Occasionally they
break into the huts of the Greenlanders, attracted by the
smell of seal's flesh, on which these people almost
exclusively subsist. Yet we are credibly informed, that,
when their accustomed food is to be obtained in sufficient
quantity, they neither show much disposition to attack men
nor cattle, however accessible these may be.
In the morse or walrus this bear has an enemy of great
power and fierceness, with which he has at times dreadful
combats, most generally terminating in the defeat of the
bear, as the walrus is armed with long tusks, capable of
giving deadly wounds. The whale is also a perpetual ene-
my of the polar bear, chasing him from the waters it fre-
quents, and killing him by blows with its tail. Notwith-
standing, the bear succeeds in catching and feasting on many
of the young whales.
The dwelling-place of the polar bear on shore is by no
means well ascertained, but is most probably in caves, or
some well concealed situation ; it has been stated that they

108
THE POLAR BEAR.
reside, during winter, in excavations made in the perma-
nent ice ; but Fabricius, from personal observation, de-
clares the statement to be incorrect. Certainly this animal
does not often go to any great distance from the sea, on
which he is almost exclusively dependent for food. Hence
the flesh of the polar bear is generally fishy and rank,
though it is said to be whitish, and similar to mutton.
Captain Cook's people always preferred it to the flesh of
the walrus or morse, yet they never considered it a very de-
sirable food, except when none other was to be obtained.
The fat resembles tallow, becoming as clear as whale-oil
after liquefaction, and free from disagreeable smell; the
oil obtained from the feet has been used medicinally, but
except in fineness, has no qualities which the oil of other
parts does not possess.
One of the most singular facts relative to the polar bear
is, that its liver is to a great degree poisonous, a circum-
stance unknown in almost every other animal. Three of
BARENT’z sailors were very much injured by eating of it ;
and Capt. Ross, in his late Arctic voyage, verified the ob-
servation by experiment. The principle which imparts
this noxious quality to the liver is as yet undiscovered ;
we know of no article of diet used by the animal, to which
it can be attributed, and even if we did, this would
not account for the deleteriousness of the liver, while all
other parts of the body remain free from any injurious pro-
perty.
The skin of the polar bear, dressed with the hair on, forms
very substantial mats for carriages, or hall floors. The
Greenlanders sometimes take it off without ripping up, and
inverting the skin, form a very warm sack, which serves
the
purpose of a bed, the person getting into it in order
to sleep comfortably. It cannot well be dressed at any
other than the winter season, on account of its great grea-
siness when freshly removed from the animal. The nations
residing in the vicinity of Hudson's Bay dress it in the fol-
lowing manner; they first stretch it out on a smooth patch
of snow, and stake it down, where it soon becomes stiffly
frozen. While in this condition the women scrape off all
the fat till they come to the very roots of the hair. It is
occasionally permitted to remain in that situation for a
considerable time, and when taken up it is suspended in the
open air. When the frost is very intense, it dries most per-
.
fectly ; with a little more scraping it becomes entirely dry

THE POLAR BEAR.
109
ar 1
supple, both skin and hair being beautifully white. Not-
withstanding that this bear is so large and powerful, his skin
is both light and spongy.
The time of the year at which the sexes seek each other
is not positively known, but it is most probable in the month
of July, or of August. HEARNE, who is an excellent author-
ity, relates that he has seen them killed during this season,
when the males exhibited an extreme degree of attach-
ment to their companions. After a female was killed, the
male placed his fore-paw over her, and allowed himself to
be shot rather than relinquish her dead body.
The pregnant females during winter seek shelter near
the skirt of the woods, where they excavate dens in the
deepest snow-drifts, and remain there in a state of torpid
inaction, without food, from the latter part of December or
January till about the end of March ; then they relinquish
their dens to seek food on the sea shore, accompanied by
their cubs, which are usually two in number. The size of
the cubs is very small; when they first leave the cave with
the mother they are not larger than rabbits; yet we have
seen that the weight of the full grown animal sometimes
exceeds a thousand pounds. HEARNE states that he has
seen them not larger than a white fox, and their foot-prints
on the snow not larger than a crown-piece, when the im-
pression of their dam's foot measured upwards of fourteen
inches long by nine in breadth. This length and breadth
appear excessive, and were probably rather more than the
actual size of the foot itself, as the impression of the hair
projecting over the feet would give an appearance in the
snow which might lead to an incorrect notion of the size
of the animal. The enterprising observer above mention-
ed is of opinion that these animals breed when very young, or
at least when half grown, as he has killed young females
“not larger than a London calf,” having milk in their
teats; “whereas one of the full-grown ones are heavier
than the largest of our common oxen. Indeed, I was once
at the killing of one, when one of its hind feet, being cut
off at the ancle, weighed fifty-four pounds.
The female polar bear is as rugged in her appearance,
and as savagely ferocious in disposition, as her mate; yet
to her offspring she displays a tenderness of affection
which strongly contrasts with her fierce and sanguinary
temper. When her cubs are exposed, danger has no ex-
istence to her, and nothing but death can compel her to

110
THE POLAR BEAR.
а
desist from struggling desperately to defend or save them.
The death of her offspring is with great difficulty acknowl-
edged by the parent ; when they are shot by her side the
poor
beast solicits their attention by every fond artifice,
and endeavours to awaken them from their unnatural
sleep: she offers them food, licks their wounds, caresses
and moans over them in such a manner as to evince a degree
of feeling which could scarcely be anticipated from so rude
and terrible a quadruped.
Numerous instances of this fondness of attachment have
been observed, and some of them attended with most sin-
gular displays of sagacity on the part of the mother. The
following circumstance is related in SCORESBY's account of
the Arctic Regions, and is entitled to the fullest credence,
because coming from so competent and excellent an ob-
server:
"A she bear, with her two cubs, were pursued on the
ice by some of the men, and were so closely approached, as
to alarm the mother for the safety of her offspring. Find-
ing that they could not advance with the desired speed, she
used various artifices to urge them forward, but without
success. Determined to save them, if possible, she ran to
one of the cubs, placed her nose under it, and threw it
forward as far as possible; then going to the other, she
performed the same action, and repeated it frequently,
until she had thus conveyed them to a considerable dis-
tance. The young bears seemed perfectly conscious of
their mother's intention, for as soon as they recovered their
feet, after being thrown forward, they immediately ran on
in the proper direction, and when the mother came up to
renew the effort, the little rogues uniformly placed them-
selves across her path, that they might receive the full ad-
vantage of the force exerted for their safety.
The most affecting instance on record of the maternal
affection exhibited by this bear, is related in one of the
Polar Voyages; it conveys so excellent an idea of this
creature's strong feeling of parental love, that we should
deem the history of the animal imperfect, were such an il-
lustration omitted.
“Early in the morning the man at the mast-head gave
notice that three bears were making their way very fast over
the ice, and directing their course towards the ship. They
had probably been invited by the blubber of a sea-horse,
which the men had set on fire, and which was burning on

THE POLAR BEAR.
111
paws first
the ice at the time of their approach. They proved to be
a she bear and her two cubs ; but the cubs were nearly as
large as the dam. They ran eagerly to the fire, and drew
out from the flames part of the flesh of the sea-horse,
which remained unconsumed, and ate it voraciously. The
crew from the ship threw great pieces of the flesh, which
they had still left, upon the ice, which the old bear carried
away singly, laid every piece before her cubs, and dividing
them, gave each a share, reserving but a small portion to
herself. As she was carrying away the last piece, they
levelled their muskets at the cubs, and shot them both
dead; and in her retreat they wounded the dam, but not
mortally
“ It would have drawn tears of pity from any
but unfeel-
ing minds, to have marked the affectionate concern mani-
fested by this poor beast in the last moments of her expiring
young. Though she was sorely wounded, and could but
just crawl to the place where they lay, she carried the lump
of flesh she had fetched away, as she had done the others
before, tore it in pieces, and laid it down before them; and
when she saw they refused to eat, she laid her
upon one, and then upon the other, and endeavoured to
raise them up. All this while it was piteous to hear her
When she found she could not stir them, she went
off, and when at some distance, looked back and moaned;
and that not availing to entice them away, she returned,
and smelling around them, began to lick their wounds.
She went off a second time, as before ; and having crawled
a few paces looked again behind her, and for some time
stood moaning. But still her cubs not rising to follow her,
she returned to them again, and with signs of inexpressible
fondness, went round first one and then the other, pawing
them, and moaning. Finding at last that they were cold and
lifeless, she raised her head towards the ship, and growled
her resentment at the murderers, which they returned with
a volley of musket balls. She fell between her cubs and
died licking their wounds.
The sagacity of the polar bear is well known to the whale
fishers, who often find all their ingenuity insufficient to en-
trap him, as the following instance may serve to show. A
noose, baited with a piece of " kereng," or whale carcass,
“
was placed at a proper distance from the ship, which soon
attracted the attention of a large bear. In attempting to se-
cure the bait, the animal by some movement drew the noose,
moan.

112
THE POLAR BEAR.
a
so as to catch him by one of his fore-paws. Apparently
unconcerned by this circumstance, and conscious of know-
ing how to free himself from restraint, he quietly loosened
the slip-knot with the other paw, and leisurely walked off
,
to enjoy his morsel. The trap was again baited and the
bear once more approached to obtain his favorite food, but,
grown wise by experience, he carefully avoided the rope, and
carried off the bait, to the mortification of the captain, who
wished to obtain his skin. The whaler, resolved to baffle
the address of the bear, re-arranged his noose once more,
carefully burying the rope at a considerable depth in the
snow: but his precautions were unavailing; the bear cau-
tiously examined the vicinity, scented the ground with atten-
tion, detected the situation of the rope, dug it up and threw
it out of his way; then securing his prize, he once more tri-
umphantly withdrew to enjoy it.*
Captain SCORESBY shot a she-bear and took her two cubs
alive, as they did not offer to leave the body of their moth-
er, and he kept them on board of his ship until they were
tame enough to be allowed to go about the deck. On one
occasion a cub, tied by the neck with a long rope, was allow-
ed to go out of the ship, when he immediately swam to the
ice, and as soon as he attained it, made a violent effort to
break the rope by running at full speed until he put
the
rope
as suddenly on the stretch as possible. Failing in his first
attempt, he went back far enough to slacken the cord, and
again renewed his race, in order, if possible, to break it.
Convinced by these experiments that it was a hopeless at-
tempt, he lay down, sullenly growling his vexation. Ano-
ther artifice resorted to by this animal was still more sin-
gular; passing a chasm or fissure in the ice, about eighteen
inches or two feet wide, and three or four feet deep, the
slack (or bight) of his rope dropped into it; young Bruin
returned, and going down head foremost into the chasm, he
hung by the edges, holding on with one hind-foot on each
side of it, and tried with both his fore-paws to loosen the
rope and slip it off his head, as if he was aware that in this
position he would be assisted by the weight of the portion
which had dropped lower into the cavity.
The polar bear, like the other species of this genus, is able
a
* See Scoresby's Arctic Regions, vol, i. whence several of these an.
ecdotes are sketched.

THE POLAR BEAR.
113
to live exclusively on vegetable food, as has been repeatedly
proved by experiment on those brought to Europe. One
which was exhibited in France ate six pounds of bread a
day, and was altogether fed with this substance. It
ap-
pears that the carnivorous habits of this animal are greatly
dependent on the circumstances of its situation, for being
placed where vegetation is exceedingly scanty, if it even
exist at all, and surrounded by seals, fish, &c. there can be
no choice; notwithstanding the animal is provided by na-
ture with proper organs for the mastication and digestion
of vegetable food.
The polar bear in captivity seems to suffer much from
heat, which renders his confinement very uncomfortable,
as is expressed by his restlessness and roaring. This is in
some degree quieted by repeatedly throwing buckets of
cold water over his body, which is always grateful and re-
freshing.
As far north as navigators have yet advanced, polar
bears have been found, but their numbers evidently di-
minish where seals are scarce, while they are very nume-
rous where seals are found in greatest abundance. Near
the east coast of Greenland they have been seen in large
flocks, at a distance resembling sheep more than beasts of
prey.
On the shores of the Arctic Ocean, Spitszbergen,
Greenland, and Nova Zembla, from the river Ob in Si-
beria to the mouths of the Jenesei and Lena, and in the
vicinity of Hudson's Bay, they are found in various de-
grees of abundance.
The polar bear is peculiarly distinguished from other
species of this genus by the length of the body, compared
with its height, by the length of the neck, the smallness
of the external ears, and length of the soles of the feet ;
which, according to CUVIER, are one-sixth of the whole
length of the animal. In the fineness and length of its pe-
lage it also differs materially from the other species. The
fore-head and muzzle of the polar bear are nearly on the
same line, or flat; while in the European or brown bear,
they are separated by a deep depression. In the black, or
American bear, the profile is rather an arched line, and in
the grizzly bear it is slightly convex between the eyes.
The fore-head of the polar bear is flat; the European bear
has it rounded. The polar bear has the head narrow and
Vol. I.
15

114
THE POLAR BEAR.
the muzzle large; the brown bear has the head large and
the muzzle narrow.*
* The following measurements of the polar bear are given by Capt.
Lyon, in the excellent and interesting narrative of his Arctic Voyage
in company with Captain PARRY.
Length-From the snout to the insertion of the tail, 8 ft. 7} in.-the
head only 1 ft. 6 in.-from the eye to the ear, 10 in.-from the nose to
the centre of the eye, 8 in.--of the ear alone, 4} in.—the tail from
root to tip, 5 in.-fore-claws, 5} in.-hinder claws, 13 in.-canine
teeth, 24 in.
Girth-Round the body, 7 ft. 11 in.-neck, 3 ft. 4} in.-fore-leg,
2 ft. 3 in.-hind-leg 8 ft. 3 in.-round the snout, 1 ft. 9} in.-round the
forehead, 2 ft. 1 inch.
Breadth—Paws 10 in-between the ears, 1 ft. 3 in.—canine teeth,
3 in.-[Weight 1600 lbs.]
Capt. Lyon, in consequence of having seen a polar bear prowling
about during the coldest part of the year, infers that naturalists are
mistaken in thinking that this animal becomes torpid during winter.
We do not feel authorised to draw a similar conclusion from Čapt. L's
observation; especially as the habits of the genus in this respect are
well known, and because the usual food of the polar bear must be
extremely difficult to obtain, if it be at all accessible to the animal,
during the severest part of the winter.
-


2
Drawn by CA Lesueur.
Eng Ty C.B. Els
Rawon - American Badger
1

CHAPTER VIII.
GENUS IX. RACCOON; Procyon, STORR. C.
Germ. Waschthier.
Fr. Raton.
GENERIC CHARACTERS.
The head is short and triangular, having the nose to
project beyond the lower jaw. The tongue is smooth; the
eyes not large; the ears short and oval; the body short
and rather slender. The teats are six in number, and
situated on the belly. The feet are five-toed, and provided
with large and strong nails: the soles of the (posterior)
feet are naked, but the animal does not always place their
whole length on the ground in walking. The tail is long
and pointed, but not prehensile. The habits of the genus
are given with the description of the species belonging
to it.
Dental System.
20 Upper
40 Teeth:
6 Incisor
2 Canine
12 Molar.
6 Incisor
2 Canine
12 Molar.
S6
6 False Molars
2 Carnivorous
4 Tuberculous.
8 False Molars
2 Carnivorous
2 Tuberculous.
20 Lower
IN THE UPPER JAW we find three incisors, the two
central being smaller than the external, which is slightly
separated from them, longer and more conical. The
canine tooth is more slender and trenchant than that of
the dog. There are three false molars; the first touching
the canine is rudimental, the second is regular, but smaller
and more delicate than the third, and remarkable by the
thickness of its base, and the rudiment of a tubercle. The
carnivorous tooth, on its exterior surface, still presents the
a

116
THE RACCOON.
three characteristic divisions peculiar to this aspect of all
carnivorous teeth in the upper jaw, but the internal and
anterior tubercle has a considerable development, and a
second tubercle arises behind this on the posterior edge,
which changes it into a true tuberculous tooth. The
tuberculous tooth which succeeds to the carnivorous, also
presents on its external face two divisions, or the two
turbercles which are observed in the analogous tooth of
dogs; but like the carnivorous, it is thickened, and has on
its interior (after the two external turbercles) three other
turbercles placed on the same line, and separated from the
first by a deep depression; in short, a fourth tubercle
shows itself on the internal border of this tooth, at its
posterior part, so as apparently to be a mere division of
the third internal turbercle. The last upper tuberculous
tooth, one-third smaller than the foregoing, and much
smaller on its internal than on its external surface, seems to
present the same number of tubercles, but those of the
middle of the crown, instead of standing on the same line,
are placed in a triangle on account of the narrowing of the
part they occupy.
IN THE LOWER JAW the incisors are all similar to each
other, and the external closely approaches the canine tooth.
The latter is long, inclining forwards, and slightly recurved
at the point; its posterior face being concave. The false
molars are four in number; the first, placed at the base of
the canine, is rudimental; the three others increase
progressively to the last, which is thickened and ex-
tended at its posterior part. The carnivorous tooth, at
its anterior part, is composed of three principal tubercles,
disposed in triangles, and a small point is seen at the base
of the first tubercle, and its posterior part is composed of
two thick and blunt tubercles. The tuberculous tooth,
nearly as large as the carnivorous, appears to be nothing
but the latter reversed; that is, it has anteriorly two
tubercles, one on its external and another on its internal
edge, and posteriorly three tubercles disposed in a
,
triangle.
In their reciprocal position, the relations of these teeth
consist in the interlocking of their tubercles with the inter-
vals left between those of the other jaw.

THE RACCOON.
117
SPECIES I.-The Raccoon.
Procyon Lotor.-L.*
Ursus Lotor; Lin. ErxL. BODD.
Vulpes Americana; CHARLETON.
Le Raton ; BUFF. Hist. Nat. 8, pl. 43.
Procyon Lotor; Cuv. Reg. An. pl. 143. SABINE, App. p. 649.
Coati Brasilensium ; KLEIN.
Mapach, etc. Mexicanorum.
There are few parts of the American continent in which
the Raccoon has not, at some period, been found native,
from the borders of Nootka Sound to the forests of Mexico,
and still more southern regions. Yet the Count de Buffon
asserts, that this animal was originally from South America,
and is most numerous in hot climates, without giving any
fact on which his opinion is founded, or supporting his de-
claration by the observations of other naturalists. Sonini
properly observes, that neither Frezier, Ulloa, nor Molina,
who have given descriptions of the animals of Peru, Brazil
and Chili, make any mention of the raccoon; and, in his own
long and numerous journeys in Guiana, he never found one
among the great number of quadrupeds which hold undisturb-
ed possession of the vast forests by which that interesting
region is overshadowed.
But the most positive proofs of their existence, in the
northern parts of this continent, are to be found in the
journals of the most respectable observers. By Dampier,
they were seen near the southern point of California, in the
22° of N. latitude ; Bartram found them on the isle of St.
Simon, near the coast of Georgia, in 30° of N. latitude ;
and the celebrated Capt. Cook saw them in considerable
numbers at Nootka and Prince William's Sound. Most
probably, had this enterprising voyager landed still farther
north, he would have discovered the raccoon there, as the
natives of Prince William's Sound were in a great degree
clothed with skins of this animal.
Were we to form an opinion of this animal's character
solely from external appearances, the mingled expression of
sagacity and innocence exhibited in his aspect, his personal
* The specific name “ Lotor” was given by LINNE. The remo-
val of this species from the genus Ursus, by STORR, to form his
Procyon, will not justify the appropriation of the species to the latter
naturalist.
genus

118
THE RACCOON.
a
neatness and gentle movements, might all incline us to be-
lieve that he possessed a guileless and placable disposition.
But in this, as in most other cases, where judgments are
formed without sufficient examination, we should be in
error, and find, that to the capricious mischievousness of
the monkey, the raccoon adds a blood-thirsty and vindictive
spirit, peculiarly his own. In the wild state, this sanguin-
ary appetite frequently leads to his own destruction, which
bis nocturnal habits might otherwise avert ; but as he
slaughters the tenants of the poultry-yard with indiscrimin-
ate ferocity, the vengeance of the plundered farmer speedily
retaliates on him the death so liberally dealt among the
feathered victims. This destructive propensity of the rac-
coon is more remarkable, when we observe that his teeth
are not unsuited for eating fruits. When he destroys wild
or domesticated birds, he puts to death a great number,
without consuming any part of them, except the head, or
the blood which is sucked from the neck.
Being peculiarly fond of sweet substances, the raccoon is
occasionally very destructive to plantations of sugar cane, *
and of Indian corn. While the ear of the Indian corn is
still young, soft and tender, " in the milk,” it is very sweet,
and is then eagerly sought by the raccoons; troops of them
frequently enter fields of maize, and in one night commit
extensive depredations, both by the quantity of grain they
consume, and from the number of stalks they break down
by their weight.
The raccoon is an excellent climber, and his strong sharp
claws effectually secure him from being shaken off the bran-
ches of trees. In fact, so tenaciously does this animal hold
to any surface upon which it can make an impression with
its claws, that it requires a considerable exertion of a man's
strength to drag him off ; and as long as even a single foot
remains attached, he continues to cling with great force.
I have had frequent occasions to pull a raccoon from the top
of a board fence, where there was no projection which he
could seize by; yet, such was the power and obstinacy with
which the points of his claws were stuck into the board, as
repeatedly to oblige me to desist for fear of tearing his skin,
or otherwise doing him injury by the violence necessary to
detach his hold.
a
* Sir Hans Sloane ; Natural History of Jamaica.
ܪ

THE RACCOON.
119
The conical form of the head, and the very pointed and
flexible character of the muzzle or snout, are of great im-
portance in aiding the raccoon to examine every vacuity and
crevice to which he gains access ; nor does he neglect any
opportunity of using his natural advantages, but explores
every nook and cranny, with the most persevering diligence
and attention, greedily feeding on spiders, worms, or other
insects which are discovered by the scrutiny. Where the
opening is too small to give admittance to his nose, he 'em-
ploys his fore-paws, and shifts his position or turns his
paws sidewise, in order to facilitate their introduction and
effect his purpose. This disposition to feed on the grubs
or larvæ of insects must render this animal of considerable
utility in forest lands, in consequence of the great numbers
of injurious and destructive insects he consumes. He is
also said to catch frogs with considerable address, by slily
creeping up, and then springing on them, so as to grasp
them with both paws.
The circumstance which has procured for the raccoon
the specific name of "LOTOR,” or the WASHER, is very
remarkable and interesting : this is, the habit of plunging
its food into water, as if for the purpose of soaking or cleans-
ing it. To account for this disposition some naturalists
have supposed that the raccoon is not as liberally supplied
with salivary organs as other animals, and is therefore oblig-
ed to prepare its food by softening it in water.
The rac-
coon, however, does not invariably wait to subject his food
to this preparation, but frequently devours it in the condi-
tion he receives it, although it may be nothing but dry bread,
and clean water be within a few steps of where he stands.
Water seems to be essential to their comfort, if not of
absolute necessity for the preparation of their food. I have
had for some time, and at the moment of writing this have
yet, a male and female raccoon in the yard. Their greatest
delight appears to be dabbling in water, of which a large
tub is always kept nearly full for their use. They are fre-
quently seen sitting on the edge of this tub, very busily en-
gaged in playing with a piece of broken china, glass, or a
small cake of ice. When they have any substance which
sinks, they both paddle with their fore-feet with great
eagerness, until it is caught, and then it is held by one, with
both
paws,
and rubbed between them; or a struggle en-
sues for the possession of it, and when it is dropped the
same sport is renewed. The coldest weather in winter does

120
THE RACCOON.
not in the least deter them from thus dabbling in the water
for amusement; nor has this action much reference to their
feeding, as it is performed at any time, even directly after
feeding till satiated. I have frequently broken the ice on the
surface of their tub, late at night, in the very coldest winter
weather, and they have both left their sleeping place with
much alacrity, to stand paddling the fragments of ice about,
with their fore-legs in the water nearly up to the breast.
Indeed, these animals have never evinced the slightest dis-
like to cold, or suffered in any degree therefrom; they have
in all weathers slept in a flour-barrel thrown on its side,
with one end entirely open, and without any material of
which to make a bed. They show no repugnance to being
sprinkled or dashed with water, and voluntarily remain ex-
posed to the rain or snow, which wets them thoroughly,
notwithstanding their long hair, which being almost erect,
is not well suited to turn the rain. These raccoons are
very fond of each other, and express the greatest delight on
meeting after having been separated for a short time, by
various movements, and by hugging and rolling one an-
other about on the ground.
My raceoons are, at the time of writing this, more than a
year old, and have been in captivity for six or eight months.
They are very frolicsome and amusing, and show no dispo-
sition to bite or injure any one, except when accidentally
trodden on. They are equally free from any disposition to
injure children, as has been observed of other individuals.
We frequently turn them loose in the parlour, and they ap-
pear to be highly delighted, romping with each other and
the children, without doing any injury even to the youngest.
Their alleged disposition to hurt children especially, may
probably be fairly explained by the fact above mentioned,
that they always attempt to bite when suddenly hurt, and
few children touch animals without pinching or hurting
them. They exhibit this spirit of retaliation, not only to
man, but when they accidentally hurt themselves against an
inanimate body; I have many times been amused to ob-
serve the expression of spite with which one of them has
sprung at and bit the leg of a chair or table, after knocking
himself against it so as to hurt some part of his body.
These animals may be tamed while young, but as they
grow to maturity most generally become fierce and even
dangerous. I have had one so tame as to follow a servant
about through the house or streets, though entirely at lib-
а.

THE RACCOON.
121
a
a
erty ; this was quite young when obtained, and grew so fond
of human society as to complain very loudly, by a sort of
chirping or whining noise, when left alone. Nothing can
possibly exceed the domesticated raccoon in restless and
mischievous curiosity, if suffered to go about the house.
Every chink is ransacked, every article of furniture explor-
ed, and the neglect of servants to secure closetdoors, is sure
to be followed by extensive mischief, the evil being almost
uniformly augmented by the alarm caused to the author of
it, whose ill directed efforts to escape from supposed peril,
increase at the same time the noise and the destruction.
To complete the history of the raccoon in a state of cap-
tivity, we shall insert here the greater part of a letter writ-
ten by Mr. BLANQUART DE SALINES to Count de BUFFON,
on the correctness of which full reliance may be placed.
My raccoon was always kept chained before he came
into my possession, and in this captivity he seemed suffici-
ently gentle, though not caressing; all the inmates of the
house paid him the same attention, but he received them
differently ; treatment he would submit to from one person
invariably offended him when offered by another. When
his chain was occasionally broken, liberty rendered him inso-
lent; he took possession of his apartment, suffering no one
to approach bim, and was, with difficulty, again confined.
During his stay with me, his confinement was frequently
suspended; without losing sight of him, I allowed him to
walk about with his chain on, and he expressed his gratitude
by various movements. It was otherwise when he escap-
ed by his own efforts: he would then ramble for three or
four days together over the neighbouring roofs, and only
descended at night into the yards, enter the henroosts and de-
stroy the poultry, especially the Guineafowls, eating nothing
but their heads. His chain did not render him less san-
guinary, though it made him more circumspect; he then em-
ployed stratagem, allowing the poultry to familiarize them-
selves with him by partaking of his food, nor was it until he
had induced them to feel in perfect security that he would
seize a fowl and tear it to pieces : he also killed kittens in
the same manner.
“ If the raccoon be not very grateful for favours received,
he is singularly sensible of bad treatment ; a servant one
day struck him some blows with a stick, and often after-
wards vainly endeavoured to conciliate him, by offering
VOL.I.
16
و

122
THE RACCOON.
eggs and shrimps, of which the animal was very fond. At
the approach of this servant he became enraged, and with
sparkling eyes would spring towards him, making violent
outcries : under such circumstances he would accept of no-
thing until his enemy had withdrawn. The voice of the
raccoon, when enraged, is very singular, sometimes re-
sembling the whistling of a curlew, and at others the hoarse
barking of an old dog. When struck by any one, or attacked
by any animal stronger than himself, he offered no resistance;
like the hedge-hog, he hid his head and paws, by rolling his
body in form of a ball, and would have suffered death in
that position. I have observed that he never left hay nor
straw in his bed, preferring to sleep on the boards; when
litter was given, he threw it away immediately. He did
not seem very sensible to cold, and passed two out of three
winters exposed to all the rigours of the season, and did
well, notwithstanding he was frequently covered with snow.
I do not think he was solicitous to receive warmth; during
some frosts I gave him separately warm water and water
almost frozen, to soak his food in, and he always preferred
the latter. He was at liberty to sleep in the stable, but
often preferred passing the night in the open yard."
Captivity and domestication produce great changes in
the habits of this animal, as he learns to spend nearly the
whole of the day-time in active excercise, and sleeps during
the greater part of the night. When inclined to sleep, the
-
raccoon forms itself into a sort of ball, by sitting on its hind
legs and doubling the head under the body, so as to apply
the forehead to the ground; the tail is then brought forward
so as to conceal the feet and face on one side, and the true
figure of the animal is no longer discernible. In this
position the raccoon sleeps profoundly, and is not startled
readily, nor by slight sounds.
The size of the raccoon varies with the age and sex of
the individual. A full grown male may be stated to have
the body a foot, or a few inches more, in length; the
highest part of the back is about a foot from the ground,
while the highest part of the shoulder is ten inches. The
head is about five, and the tail rather more than eight
inches long. The female is larger than the male in every
respect, at least such is the fact in relation to the raccoons
now in my possession, which, however, have not yet attain-
ed their full growth. They are of the same age, and the
female is strongly distinguished from the male by the black

THE RACCOON.
123
a
markings on all parts of the body being more purely black,
and the fur and hair longer, thicker, and more glossy than
that of the male; these peculiarities, in addition to her
greater size, uniformly lead strangers to suppose this
individual to be the male, instead of the female. The pelage
of the male is not only less purely black at the extremities of
the hairs, but there is a much greater intermixture of fawn-
coloured hair than in the female, giving more of a rusty
appearance to the whole surface of his body. A young
A
raccoon of thirty days old is about the size of a common
cat of a year old, though the greater length of its legs, and
the bushiness of its pelage, make it at first sight appear
much larger.
The general colour of the body is a blackish gray, which
is paler on the under part of the body, and has over
considerable part of the neck, back and sides, some fawn or
light rust-coloured hair intermixed. The general gray
colour is owing to the manner in which the hairs are
alternately ringed with black and dingy white. The tail
is very thickly covered with hair, and is marked by five or
six black rings around it, on a yellowish white ground.
The head, which is about five inches long, is very
triangular, and from its pointed snout reminds us of the
aspect of the fox: the snout terminates in a smooth and
shining black membrane, through which the nostrils open,
having the slit to rise slightly at the sides. The nose is
prolonged considerably beyond the upper jaw, and this,
together with its great flexibility, gives the animal great
advantages in exploring little crevices and crannies for
insects, &c. The pupils of the eyes are round; the ears
are oval, or rather elliptic, and of a yellowish white colour
on their extremities and anterior edges. The face is whitish,
in front, but there is a black patch surrounding the eye,
that descends entirely to the lower jaw, over the posterior
part of which it is diffused, and a black line running from
the top of the head down the middle of the face, ending
below the eyes. The rest of the hair between the eyes,
the
ears, and eye-brows, is almost entirely white, and directed
downwards. The hair on the muzzle is usually very
short ; on the feet also, and on one half of the legs; the
short hair of the feet and legs is of a dirty whitish colour.
The whiskers on the upper lip are long and strong.
All the feet have five toes each, terminated by strong
curved and pointed claws; and each foot is furnished with

124
THE RACCOON.
five thick and very elastic tubercles beneath. The first toe
or thumb of the fore-foot is the shortest of all; the little or
external finger is next in length, and then the fore-finger:
the remaining two are equal. The first tubercle, which is
a very strong one, is situated near the wrist; the second is
at the base of the little finger: the third at the root of the
inner finger or thumb; the fourth opposite the second digit,
and the fifth opposite the two longest. The hind feet are
throughout similar, except that the first tubercle is farther
distant from the heel.
The raccoon has a gland on each side of the anus, which
,
secretes a strong scented fluid ; but this does not impart
an unpleasant smell to the animal. Its liver has five lobes,
and is provided with a large gall-bladder; the bowels have
no cæcum, and the stomach, which is situated entirely on
the left side, is elongated and small, compared with the size
of the animal.
The pelage of the raccoon is subject to considerable
variations of colour at different periods of life, and in
different individuals. The rings on the tail and the patches
around the eyes are, however, uniform and constant.
The tail of the raccoon is not affected by the coldest
weather ; hence this quadruped is never known to gnaw
;
his tail, as has been observed of animals closely allied
to it in configuration and habits.*
The fur of the raccoon forms an article of considerable
value in commerce, as it is largely employed in the fabrica-
tion of hats. Vast numbers of raccoon skins are collected
by the different fur companies; and we occasionally see in
our furrier shops, skins which must have belonged to indi-
viduals of much larger size than those from which the mea
surements have been hitherto taken.
Raccoons are found throughout the whole of North Ameri-
ca, and they still continue to be numerous in many of the
* This is especially the case with the coati or coatainundi of South
America, and it has been considered very wonderful that the animal
should eat its own tail, which certainly appears to be the fact. The
extreme length of its tail, in which the blood circulates but feebly,
exposes it to the influence of the cold or frost; and the exceedingly
tormenting irritation produced thereby, leads the animal to gnaw and
scratch the tail to relieve the excessive itching. The disease spreads,
and the anguish induces the coatamundi to gnaw more furiously, and
eventually his life is destroyed by the extension of the inflammation
and irritation to the spine, &c.

THE POLAR BEAR.
125
well peopled parts of the United States. Occasionally their
numbers are so much increased as to render them very
troublesome to the farmers in the low and wooded parts of
Maryland, bordering on the Chesapeake Bay. Their sea-
son of sexual intercourse begins in the first week of March :
the female usually produces two or three cubs at a litter;
her den is then made in some hollow tree or very secure
situation.*
Os peni inest, leviter versus glandem curvatum ; testiculi et caput
penis, tempore amoris incipiente, notabiliora pendentioraque deveniunt.
Feminam contra terram vel aliquod durum, frequentissime genitalia
fricare notavi ; profecto et marem aliquando, simili modo, sese diligenter
agitare vidi.
M

CHAPTER IX.
GENUS X. BADGER; Meles, Briss.*
Gr, Μελις
Lat. Taxus, Meles.
Ital. Tasso.
Swed. Graf-Svin.
Fr. Blaireau.
Sp. Tassugo, Texon.
Ger. Tachs, Dachs, Dar.
Scot. Brock, Tod, Pate, &c.
GENERIC CHARACTERS.
THE head is conical and the muzzle elongated; the ears
are rounded and the eyes small. The body is robust and
the limbs comparatively short, the digits being all covered
by the integuments, as far as to the roots of the claws,
which on the fore-feet are long and admirably adapted for
burrowing. The teats are six in number, two of them are
placed on the lower part of the chest, two on the belly, and
two in the groin. The most remarkable character which
distinguishes this genus, is a pouch situated beneath the
tail, whence an unctuous and fetid substance is discharged.
Dental System.
6 Incisive 4 False Molars
16 Upper
2 Canine 2 Carnivorous
8 Molar. 2 Tuberculous.
6 Incisive 8 False Molars
20 Lower 2 Canine 2 Carnivorous
12 Molar. 2 Tuberculous.
36 Teoth:
* DESMAREST has incorrectly quoted Linne as having appropriated
the name “ Taxus” to this genus. In this, as in almost every other
inaccuracy, the French naturalist has been servilely copied in this
country.
Linne, made Taxus a species of his genus Ursus, (see ed. 6, genus
10, sp. 1.] and it occupies a place in the same genus in Gmelin's edition
of the Systema Naturæ, p. 102, vol. i. The term Taxus is pre-oc-
cupied in Botany: we have adopted the name given to this genus by
Brisson, which has the advantage of being the same as that used by
Varro and other Latin writers for the only species of badger then
known. This name of the genus, in some of the books, is innacurately
attributed to Store : [See Ranzani, Elem. di Zoologia, ii. p. 249.]

THE BADGER.
127
The dental system of the badger is very analogous to
that belonging to the genus mephitis, or skunk, hereafter to
be described; differing from it, however, by some modifi-
cation of the carnivorous and superior turberculous teeth.
IN THE UPPER JAW the incisors and canine teeth are
similar to those of the martens, which we shall treat of in
another part of this work. The false molars have the regular
forms of such teeth. The carnivorous tooth, (remarka-
ble by its small size, owing to the diminution of its poste-
rior part, which gives it when externally viewed the
ap-
pearance of a false molar,) is composed at the internal part
of a base furnished with three small tubercles separated
by a perceptible depression. The tuberculous tooth is dis-
proportionately large, and is as broad as it is long; hav-
ing on its external edge three tubercles, on its internal edge a
serrated crest, and on its middle another crest, separated
into two principal parts by a slight groove.
IN THE LOWER JAW the incisors and canine teeth offer
nothing remarkable. Of the four false molars, the first is
rudimental and has but one root, the three others have the
regular forms of such teeth. The carnivorous, at its an-
terior part, is composed of three tubercles, (as in the skunk
and others, but its posterior part, besides two tubercles,
has a spur terminating in a serrated crest. The tubercu-
lous is a small rounded tooth marked on its surface by some
irregular projections and depressions.
In their reciprocal position, the principal character con-
sists, as we have seen, in the lower carnivorous and upper
tuberculous teeth; thus the relations existing between these
teeth are more extended. The two first tubercles of the
superior carnivorous are in relation with the posterior edge
of the opposite carnivorous; (this is the carnivorous por-
tion of this dental system;) the extremity of the first of
these two tubercles fills the hollow separating the three
small tubercles of the enlarged base, which belongs to the
inner face of the upper carnivorous. The whole remain-
der of the inferior carnivorous is opposed to two-thirds of
the superior, tuberculous tooth. The last third corres-
ponds with the lower tuberculous tooth.
From this dental system it is evident that the badger is
an animal partly frugivorous, and the arrangement for tri-
turating vegetable substances much exceeds that for the
mastication of flesh.

128
THE AMERICAN BADGER.
SPECIES I.-American Badger.
Meles Labradoria.-SABINE.
Ursis Labradorius: L. GMEL.
Carcajou : BUFF. Sup. 3, p. 49.
Braro : Lewis and CLARK, vol. ii. p. 177.
Meles Labradoria : SABINE, App. to Franklin's Journey, p. 649.
a
The American Badger has been for a long time known
to naturalists, though it is but recently established as a spe-
cies distinct from the badger of Europe. By some of the
European naturalists and compilers, our badger has been
considered as a mere variety of the European species, while
by others it has been regarded as entirely the same; the
fact was never fairly decided, until the publication of Sa-
BINE's Appendix above cited. Say had, however, arrived
at the same conclusion, and applied nearly the same name
to it in the Journal of Long's Expedition to the Rocky
Mountains, previous to the appearance of Sabine's observa-
tions.
SCHREBER was the first author who considered the
American to be a distinct species, and Gmelin adopted this
conclusion in his edition of Linne, though he was led to give
the incorrect specific character of "palmis tetradactylis,
in consequence of Buffon's statement, that the carcajou had
but four toes on its anterior feet."'*
Nature has destined this animal to a subterraneous and
solitary mode of life, which, together with its timid disposi-
tion and nocturnal habits, throw great difficulties in our
way while endeavouring to ascertain its peculiarities. It is
entirely inoffensive, and apparently feeble, but if denied the
advantages of swiftness of motion or great size, it has not
been left entirely destitute of the means of providing for its
own safety. The long claws on its fore-feet are admirably
adapted for removing the earth, and the celerity with which
it can escape from danger, by burrowing, is really suprising.
It is altogether fruitless to attempt to secure the animal by
digging after it, as its progress is too rapid, and the depth
to which it descends too great. It is only by artifice that
the badger can be brought from its retreat ; this is effected
* Sabine.

THE AMERICAN BADGER.
129
by the aid of dogs, smoke, &c. and when driven to the last
extremity, the strength of its jaws and the sharpness of its
teeth, enable the animal to inflict the severest injury on its
persecutors. The body of the badger is thick and heavy,
and its movements on the ground slow and creeping ; there
is little appearance of vivacity or intelligence in its aspect,
yet it does not exhibit any appearance of dulness or stupid-
ity. It is in fact endowed with exactly the degree of un-
derstanding which is suited to its peculiar condition : hav-
ing the proper instruments for securing itself from ordinary
enemies, as well as strength and courage enough to defend
itself when pressed, but little sagacity is necessary to en-
able it to obtain the requisite food, or to continue its kind.
Neither should we indulge in reflections similar to those
found in many books of natural history, and believe that the
life of this animal is gloomy or wretched. To men it may
appear gloomy or dreadful to live under ground, or to steal
forth under cover of the night in search of food ; but this is
the only mode of life the badger is susceptible of enjoying,
and the only kind of action he is capable of.
The burrows of the badger are deep and extensive, and
several individuals have been found inhabiting one exca-
vation. Within his subterraneous retreat he passes the day
in sleep, and it is not until night veils all objects in shade
that he comes forth to seek his subsistence. Then, fruits of
different sorts, frogs, insects, and most probably any small
animals to be procured, constitute his food.
The badger has its young in summer, and generally two,
three, or four, at a litter, which are occasionally brought
out to the mouth of the burrow to enjoy the sunshine. The
young become capable of procreating when two years old,
and the period of their lives is extended to ten, twelve, or
fifteen years. If taken when young, the badger is easily
tamed, soon becoming quite familiar and obedient.
The American badger is a pretty little animal, and its
aspect is not unlike that of some small pugfaced dogs. It
is found most frequently on the plains adjacent to the Mis-
souri and its tributaries, as well as on those near the Co-
lumbia river. It is not uniformly found in the open country;
Lewis and Clark sometimes observed them in the woods.
This animal is about two feet five inches long, including
the tail, which measures three inches, and its body appears
long in proportion to its thickness. The fore and hind legs
are short, but remarkably muscular; the fore paws are
VOL. I.
17

130
THE AMERICAN BADGER.
than on
-
provided with the long claws peculiar to this genus,
which
gives them the means of burying themselves with great ce-
lerity even in a hard soil. The neck is short and the
inouth wide ; the eyes are black and small; the ears short,
wide, and appearing as if a portion had been cut off them.
The whiskers are arranged in four points on each side near
the nose, and on the jaws close to the opening of the mouth.
,
The hairs are much shorter on the sides and
rump
the other parts of the body, which imparts an appearance
of flatness, especially when the badger rests upon its
belly.—The length of the hair is upwards of three inches,
especially upon the rump, whence it extends so far towards
the extremity of the tail as to conceal it entirely, and gives
to the w.hole of the posterior parts of the body “the appea-
rance of a right angled triangle, of which the tail forms
an acute angle." Intermixed with the hair we find a small
quantity of coarse pale reddish yellow fur.
The American badger differs from the European by
generally being smaller and more slenderly formed ; its
head is full as long, but not so pointed towards the nose ;
neither is the profile at all similiar to the badger of Europe.
In the European animal, the outline drawn from the fore-
head to the nose is quite straight, while in the American
there is a considerable depression on a line with the eyes.
There is also a very striking difference between the
markings of these animals. In the American badger there
is a narrow white line running from between the eyes to
wards the back; the remainder of the superior part of the
head is brown, the under jaw and whole of the throat are
white. A semicircular brown spot is seen between the
ears and the light coloured part of the cheeks. Above
the eyes the white marking extends triangularly for a short
distance, and below it runs in a line with the
eyes
towards
the fore part of the mouth; yet the whole eye is within the
dark colour of the upper part of the head, and this colour
runs at the corner of the eye, with an acute angle, into the
white.
The badger of Europe has three broad white marks,
one on each side and one on the top of the head, between
which there are two broad black lines, including the eyes
and ears.
All the parts under the throat and jaw are
black. The hairs on the upper part of the body and sides
of the American badger, are fine, long and grayish; in

THE AMERICAN BADGER.
131
the European the hairs on the same parts are darker, longer,
,
and coarser. In the American the under are lighter than
the upper parts; in the European they are darker.
. In
our animals the legs are of a dark brown; in the European
;
quite black. Notwithstanding the European badger is
generally the largest, its dark coloured nails are smaller
than those of the American, which are of a light horn co-
lour. The tail of the American badger is shorter than
that of the European.*
The American badger weighs from fourteen to eighteen
pounds.
**
* For the details of difference in the markings of the two species,
we are indebted to Capt. SABINE's Appendix, above quoted. We have
no specimen of the European badger in the collection of the Philadel-
phia Museum.

CHAPTER X.
GENUS XI. GLUTTON; Gulo. STORR.
Ger. Vielfrass; Rosomak.
Fr. Glouton.
Russ. Rosamaka; Rosamak.
Swed. Jarff'; Filfras; Snop.
GENERIC CHARACTERS.
THE head is but moderately elongated, and the body is
long in proportion to its distance from the ground. The
ears are very short and rounded ; the tail is intermediate in
length to the tails of the badger and raccoon. There is a
simple fold of the integuments below the tail, instead of the
pouch observed in the badger, to which animal the move-
ments of those belonging to the present genus bear some
resemblance. The feet are five-toed, the toes being
distinctly separated and armed with hooked claws. The
soles of the (posterior) feet are capable of being applied
either wholly or partially to the ground.
Dental System.
16 or 19
Upper
36 or 88
Teeth:
6 Incisive 6 or 8 False Molars.
2 Canine
2 Carnivorous
8 or 10 Molar. 2 Tuberculous.
6 Incisive 6 or 8 False Molars.
2 Canine 2 Carnivorous
10 or 12 Molar. (2 Tuberculous.
18 or 20
Lower
The dental system of this genus offers nothing peculiar
in the different sorts of teeth to distinguish them from those
hereafter to be described as proper to the mustelæ or mar-
tens, between which and this genus there is a very close
affinity. This genus may be considered as intermediate
to the true plantigrade and digitigrade animals.


CA Lesueur Del
2
WW Wood, Del
F. Kearny S:
i Wolverene
Fisher

THE WOLVERENE.
133
SPECIES I. - The Wolverene.
Gulo Luscus. L.*
Gulo Luscus : SAB.
App. p. 650.
Ursus Gulo: Pal. Spicil. 14, 125, pl. 2. SCIREB. PL. 144.
Glouton : BurF. Sup. 3. pl. 48.
Meles Gulo : Bon, Elench. Anim. p. 80, sp. 5.
Ursus Luscus: L. GMEL.
Ursus Freti Hudsoni: BRISS. quad. 138.
Quickhatch, or Wolverene: Edw. av. 2. p. 103. pl. 108.
Wolverene: Penn. quad. p. 195, no. 140, pl. 20. fig. 2.
PENN
Gulo Arcticus : DESM. Mammal. p. 174.
Quickhatch : CATESBY's Carolina, App. xxx.
Carcajou : (so called by the Canadians.]
The Wolverene has served as a fruitful theme for
exag-
geration and fiction, which has continued the longer in
proportion to the remoteness of the animal, and the diffi-
culty of ascertaining its real manners. It is true that fero-
city and destructiveness are among its most striking cha-
racteristics, and it is known to feed ravenously and fully
when it has secured its prey, yet in none of these respects
is the wolverene different from numerous other animals,
nor is it at all the prodigy that book-makers have heretofore
represented it to be.
The wolverene inhabits the northern parts of America
generally, quite to the Arctic Sea, and it is probable that
its visits extend beyond the continent towards the Pole, as
a skull of this animal was found on Melville Island by
Capt. Parry. It is an inhabitant alike of the woods and
barren grounds, and is capable of enduring the severest
cold. The motions of the wolverene are necessarily slow,
and its gait heavy, but the acuteness of its sight and power
of smelling are an ample compensation; as they are sel-
dom or never killed without being found fat, there is good
reason for believing that they rarely suffer much from hun-
ger. This animal is surprisingly strong, and an overmatch
for any quadruped near its own size;-indeed its sharp
claws and teeth enable it to offer a very effectual resistance
even to the bear.
* The specific name of "Luscus" was bestowed on this species by
LINNE, who arranged it in his genus Ursus, in consequence of its
plantigrade character. Though it is now removed to Storr's genus
Gulo, we believe it improper to withdraw the credit of the specific title
from Linne, since, notwithstanding the change stated, his specific name
must always be continued.

134
THE WOLVERENE.
The strength of the wolverene, joined to its great gust
for animal food, causes much trouble to hunters and travel-
lers who attempt to secure provisions by burying them in
the snow, or protect them by coverings of boughs and
trunks of trees. It is almost impossible to prevent this
creature from finding access to such places of deposit,
either by strength or stratagem, and destroying the stock
on which the voyager may have counted for his future sub-
sistence and safety. To the hunters the wolverene is also
very injurious, by robbing their traps of the animals which
are taken in them, before the arrival of the owners. The
wolverene is fierce and dauntless, and has been seen to take
away from the wolf the carcass of a deer, and when itself
engaged in feeding, has refused to move, though warned of
the approach of an armed hunter, who shot it while stand-
ing, as if prepared to maintain its prize.
It is stated in all the books of natural history, that this
animal is in the habit of ascending trees for the purpose
of
leaping down upon the necks of rein-deer and other similar
animals; and that it has sagacity enough to carry with it
into the top of the tree some of the moss of which the deer
are fondest, and drop this immediately under it, so as to
secure the intended victim, by placing it in the most
favourable position for being leaped on. When the deer
approaches to pick up this moss, the watchful glutton is
said to drop from his perch upon the neck of the animal,
drive his crooked claws into the flesh, fasten himself firmly,
and from some deep wound to drink the blood of the
unfortunate deer, until exhaustion and death is produced.
Such relations are so frequently repeated of this animal that
they have long ago ceased to be doubted, and it may seem
like supererogatory scepticism to doubt on the subject at
present. Thus much, however, it is due to truth to state,
that we have examined with some interest the authorities
originating such accounts of the sagacity or instinct of the
wolverene, and have not been able to find any thing more
satisfactory than mere assertions relative to the European
glutton. It is not objected here that these assertions
are unfounded, but they are gratuitous, at least as applied
to the wolverine or American glutton, since HEARNE and
other travellers residing in the regions where this animal is
most abundant, make no mention of any such thing concern-
ing it. The necessity of scepticism relative to the habits
of the wolverene becomes the more obvious, when it is

THE WOLVERINE.
135
recollected how much of what was formerly believed as
unquestionable, has been proved to be fable, resting on
nothing better than the fancy of Olaus Magnus.*
The regions inhabited by this animal are supplied most
abundantly with small quadrupeds, and with birds as well
as with the larger animals, so that it is quite probable that
without any very great exercise of ingenuity it is capable
of procuring a plentiful subsistence. When taken captive
and retained in confinement, its disposition does not seem
by any means untameable, nor is its voracity especially
remarkable.
Nothing however is better ascertained, than that the
wolverine is one of the most destructive animals found in
the northern part of this continent. It destroys great num-
bers of young foxes during summer, while they are small,
discovering their burrows by its keen scent, and if necessary,
enlarging the cavity so as to gain access to the bottom of
the den, where the mother and cubs are speedily destroyed.
The wolverene is not less inimical or destructive to the
beaver than other animals, though the habits of the beaver
expose
it less to this sanguinary quadruped, which is gener-
ally successful in securing his prey only when the beaver
is caught at any distance from the margin of the water.
The fur of the wolverene is of considerable value, and
the natives of the northern parts of Asia highly esteem the
skin of the glutton for making or ornamenting their robes.
The skin of the wolverene is not so highly valued by the
Indians, nor by the fur traders. The animal does not
breed in sufficient numbers to furnish any great collection
to the fur traders, and but few skins are sent by the com-
panies to the merchants.
The wolverene is about two feet two inches long from
the end of the nose to the origin of the tail, and the latter
is about eight inches in length, if the hair on its extremity
be included; without measuring the hair, the length of the
tail is but four inches. The fore legs are upwards of ele-
ven inches long, and the hind legs one foot. The face is
blackish as high as the eyebrows, and between these and
* Hoc animal voracissimum est, reperto namque cadavere tantum
vorat ut violento cibo corpus instar tympani extendatur: inventaque
angustia inter arbores se stringit ut violentius egerat : sicque extenu-
atum revert tur ad cadaver et ad summum usque repletur, iterumque
se stringit angustia priore !" Ol. Mag. Hist. de Gent. Septen-
trion

136
THE WOLVERENE.
the ears we find a space of a whitish and brownish tint.
The ears are covered with harsh hair, the lower jaw and
inside of both fore legs are spotted with white; the upper
part of the back, thighs, and the under part of the belly
are brown, or brownish black. The sides are of a fine
chesnut colour, from the shoulders to the beginning of
the tail. There is a white spot over the navel ; the parts
of generation are reddish. The short hair of this animal
is whitish. The eyes are small and black.
There is a small tubercle at the under part of each digit,
and four others under the palm, forming a semicircle with
another posterior tubercle; the hind feet have a similar ar-
rangement, but have no tubercles at the heel, which are
slightly raised from the ground in walking.* There is con-
siderable difference in the markings of the skins brought
from Hudson's Bay, some being darker than others, and
some having the band of lighter hairs, which runs along
the sides and over the back and tail, very obscure. In
numerous individuals greater variations may be found,
owing to the circumstances of age, state of pelage, &c.
* See Desmarest, Mammalogie, p. 174.

CHAPTER XI.
TRIBE II.—DIGITIGRADA; Digitigrade Animals.
The animals belonging to this tribe are characterized
by moving on the extremities of their digits, and being en-
dowed with a greater degree of agility than that possessed
by the plantigrade tribe.
The first subdivision of this second tribe has but one
tuberculous behind the upper carnivorous tooth. The
length of their bodies, and the shortness of their legs, en-
able them to pass through very small openings with facility,
and their vermiform appearance has procured for them the
general appellation of vermin. They are small and weak
creatures, but are extremely sanguinary and destructive,
living in a great degree on the blood of their victims.
They have no cæcum, and do not become torpid during the
winter.
GENUS XII.-Mustela; L. MARTEN.
-
GENERIC CHARACTERS.
A slender vermiform and very long body, the back of
which is convex when the animal is in a state of repose.
The head is small, oval, and apparently flattened above,
having short and rounded external ears. The limbs are
very short and five-toed, the digits being armed with very
sharp and crooked nails; the tail is of a middling length.
There are some small glands on each side of the anus,
which secrete a very fetid fiuid, of a powerful musky and
unpleasant odour. The teats are situated
The teats are situated upon the belly.
Vol. I
18

138
THE MARTEN.
Dental System.
16 or 18
Upper
34 or 38
Teeth:
6 Incisive
2 Canine
8 or 10 Molar.
6 Incisive
2 Canine
10 or 12 Molar.
4 or 6 False Molars.
2 Carnivorous
2 Tuberculous.
6 or 8 False Molars.
2 Carnivorous
2 Tuberculous.
18 or 20
Lower
IN THE UPPER JAW we find three incisive, one canine,
two or three false molars, one carnivorous and one tubercu-
lous tooth. The incisive and canine offer nothing re-
markable, except that their internal lobe is very small.
The first false molar is a very small tooth with a single root;
the crown of this is terminated by a very blunt point, and
the tooth is rudimental. The two succeeding teeth have
several roots, thin from without inwards, broad from be-
fore backwards, and very pointed. The first is rather
smaller than the second, and they are both regular. The
carnivorous does not differ materially from that of the cat,
except that the internal tubercle is more distinct, and the
middle part larger and more acute.
IN THE LOWER JAW there are three incisive teeth, one
canine, three or four false molars, one carnivorous, and one
tuberculous tooth. The false molars come immediately
after the base of the canine. The first is rudimental and
has but a single root, the three following have two roots,
and the form of regular false molars, and are placed some-
what obliquely in the jaw. The carnivorous tooth resembles
that of the cat, except in the spur, which is developed at
its posterior part. The tuberculous is small and round, its
crown being terminated by three small points.
In their reciprocal position, the relations of these teeth
are nearly the same as those we have heretofore examined.
All the difference is, that the anterior part of the lower
tuberculous rests against the posterior portion and internal
part of the upper tuberculous tooth; the great develop-
ment of the internal tubercle of the inferior carnivorous, cor-
responds to the superior tuberculous tooth.
-


1
Il'. W. Wood D.
kanny ?
Helsiiral

THE ERMINE WEASEL.
139
SPECIES I.-The Ermine Weasel.*
Mustela Erminea.-L.
-
Mustela Candida sive animal Ermineum recentiorum; Ray. Syn. quad. p. 198.
Hermellanus ; CHARLET. Exer. p. 20.
L'Hérmine; BUFF. t. 7, p. 29, fig. 2.
The Ermine ; Penn. quad. i. p. 35.
Sloat Ermine; SABINE, App. p. 652.
Among the small quadrupeds inhabiting this continent,
few are to be found equalling the ermine in beauty-per-
haps none that excel it in the qualities of courage, graceful
celerity of movement, and untiring activity. Its whole as-
pect inspires the beholder with an idea of its character
which is well supported by its actions. The long and slen-
der body, bright and piercing eyes, keen teeth and sharp
claws, clearly show that, however diminutive the animal
may appear, it is destined by nature to destroy other crea-
tures more numerous and less powerful than those of its own
race; this length and slenderness of body is accompanied
by a peculiar degree of flexibility, and by a strength of
limb, which, in so small an animal, may be fairly esteemed
surprising There is scarcely an opening through which
its prey can enter, where the ermine cannot follow, and
having once gained access, its instinctive destructive-
ness is only allayed when no other victim remains to be
slaughtered.
In the northern parts of this continent, and the northern
portions of Asia, the ermine is found in the greatest abun-
dance; yet it is by no means limited to northern regions,
since it is found throughout a vast expanse of country,
reaching from the highest northern latitudes to the middle
states of the Union. In the middle and eastern states it is
* Germ. Hermelin, Hermelinwiesel ; Dutch, Hermyn ; Swed.
Sekat ; Norw. Roskat; Russ. Gornostai ; Fr. Rosselet, Hermine;
Ital. Armellino, Ermellino.
# The beautiful animal generally known throughout North America
as the weasel, or common weasel, and considered by naturalists as the
common weasel of Europe, (m. vulgaris.) has, by recent examination
and comparison, been proved to be the ermine in summer pelage.
For this interesting observation we are indebted to the researches
of that assiduous cultivator of Natural Science, CHARLES L. BONA-
PARTE.

140
THE ERMINE WEASEL.
pure white.
most generally known as the weasel; farther north it is call-
ed stoat in its summer, and ermine in its winter pelage of
The habits of the ermine weasel are very analogous to
those of the common weasel of Europe, and as its general
configuration is so nearly similar, it is not surprising that
this animal should have been confounded with the Europe-
an species. This weasel frequents the barns and out-hous-
es of plantations, and its retreat is generally well secured
beneath the floors or rafters, amid accumulations of timber
or stone, or in similar situations. Mice and various other
depredators on the granary, are the special objects of its
pursuit, and the rapid multiplication of many of these de-
vourers of grain could scarcely be sufficiently restrained,
were it not that the ermine is capable of tracing them through-
out their labyrinths, and possesses the disposition to destroy
all that come within its reach. If the efforts of this weasel
were confined to the destruction of these little depredators,
we might consider it as the best friend to the husbandman;
but occasionally a contribution is levied on the hen-roost,
and the morning's light exhibits an universal slaughter of
the poultry, whose throats are cut, or heads eaten off. It
is scarcely possible to prevent such occurrences when these
animals are resident in the vicinity, as they can gain access
where few other creatures can enter; then their swiftness
of motion and keen bite soon render the escape of their vic-
tims impossible.
Still it must be acknowledged that there are many situa- .
tions in which the services of this little animal may be es-
teemed a positive good; for such is the fecundity of many
of the depredators on the grain, that nothing short of the
destruction of the whole crop would ensue, were it not that
the weasel is continually thinning their ranks and killing
greater numbers than are required for its mere subsistence.
The disposition which makes this weasel so useful under
ordinary circumstances, forbids an attempt to increase its
usefulness by doinestication, for the purpose of freeing our
houses from mice, &c. Notwithstanding it might be so
far tamed as to take up its residence about our dwellings,
it would be exceedingly dangerous to expose the lives of
the inmates to the blood-thirstiness of this quadruped, which
,
is rendered doubly dangerous from the circumstance of seek-
ing its prey during the hours devoted by man to sleep.

THE ERMINE WEASEL.
141
The ermine is very common in the vicinity of Hudson's
Bay, yet it is found in greater abundance on barren grounds
or open plains than in the woods, which in all probability is
owing to the greater number of mice that frequent the for-
mer situations.
While pursuing their prey, ermines are said to resemble
little hounds running upon a trail; their tails are carried
horizontally, while with eager haste and most agile move-
ments they follow their prey by the scent. Except when
in their summer dress, it is very difficult to distinguish their
actions, as in winter their pure white pelage is so nearly
the colour of the snow, as to render it almost impossible
to see them. When the ermine is hunted and closely pur-
sued, like other species of this genus, it has the faculty of
ejecting from a peculiar gladular apparatus, a fluid of a
powerful musky odour ; this, though it may serve to retard
the pursuit of some of its enemies, is too harmless a resource
to save the ermine from the hands of man.
There is but little probability of taming the ermine un-
less it be captured very young, and even then the period of
its mildness would pass away with its early youth. When
caught in a trap and subsequently kept in a cage, it exhibits
every sign of the most unappeasable disposition to kill or
injure every being it is able to master. Various attempts
have been made to domesticate the ermine, but all without
success, and frequently the restlessness and impatience of
the animal has appeared to increase with the duration of its
imprisonment.
The following interesting account of an attempt to tame
the ermine is from the pen of Capt. R. LYON, of the Brit-
ish navy, (to whom we owe many of the facts here stated,)
whose excellent observations, conveyed in a delightful style,
while they impart the purest satisfaction, always awaken
our regret, that his opportunities of studying from living
nature were not more ample, in order that our instruction
and pleasure might have been extended in the same degree
“In the night my servant caught in a small trap a very
beautiful ermine, and I had soon a convenient cage made,
for perhaps the first of these animals which was ever caught
on board a ship four hundred yards from the land. He
was a fierce little fellow, and the instant he obtained day-
light in his dwelling, he flew to the bars and shook them
with the greatest fury, uttering a shrill passionate cry, and
emitting the strong musky smell which I formerly noticed.

142
THE ERMINE WEASEL.
a
No threats nor teazing could induce him to retire to the
sleeping place, and whenever he did so of his own accord,
the slightest rubbing on the bars was sufficient to bring
him out to the attacks of his tormentors. He soon took
food from the hand, but not until he had used every exer-
tion to reach and bite the fingers which conveyed it; this
boldness gave me hopes of being able to keep my little
captive alive through the winter; but he was killed by an
accident in a few days."*
a
We have mentioned that in the eastern and middle part
of the United States the ermine weasel frequents out-houses
stone-heaps, piles of timber, &c., and though capable of
following its prey into small holes, does not burrow in the
earth. Captain Lyon had an opportunity of observing a
singular kind of burrow made by this animal in the snow,
resembling the elevations of the soil produced by the pas-
sage
of a mole. These galleries in the snow were serpen-
tine in their direction, and in the neighbourhood of the hole
or residence the circles were multiplied, as if to render the
approach more intricate.
The ermine weasel, in its summer pelage, is of a light
ferruginous or chesnut-brown colour over the whole of the
head; this colour extends in a rounded spot below the angle
of the jaw; the whole back, sides, and half of the tail next
the body being of the same colour. The other portion of
the tail is blackish, becoming gradually darker as it ap-
proaches the extremity, where it is quite black, and the
hairs terminate in a point resembling that of a camel's hair
pencil. The external and anterior half of the fore-legs
are of the same colour as the upper part of the body, and
there are three small spots of white over the base of the
toes of the right foot, and one on the left, over the first or
shortest digit, in the specimen before me.
The under part of the animal is nearly of a pure white,
beginning at the extremity of the under jaw and spreading
broadly as it passes over the throat, where it forms a point
on each side, almost reaching to the base of the ear. The
white then narrows slightly in descending the neck, spreads
broadly upon the breast, and then suddenly growing nar-
rower passes down the inner and posterior part of the fore
legs. Thence it passes along the belly, where it is again
*Lyon's Narrative, &c.

THE ERMINE WEASEL.
143
narrowed, and then spreading out widely at the groin, it
terminates at the upper and anterior part of the thigh, be-
coming visible for a short distance on its outside.
The fur in summer is short, soft and silky to the touch,
not varying perceptibly in length except on the snout, where
it is quite short, and covering the digits of the fore and
hind feet, where it is rather longer than on the other parts,
and conceals the nails entirely. On the tail the hairs are
longer and coarser then on the rest of the body, though
still soft.
The ermine weasel, in its winter pelage, is of a pure white
over the whole head, body and limbs; half of the tail to its
extremity only retaining its black colour. This white
colour is so pure in the northern regions as to render it almost
impossible to distinguish these animals upon the snow,
when the ends of their tails are not in sight. The white-
ness is not always thus pure, but the fur is slightly tinted
with pale yellow on the tip.
The ear of the ermine weasel is broad at its basis, and the
orifice leading to the internal ear large; the ears are not
covered with fur on their posterior surface, but by a very
short down. On the superior and anterior part of the ex-
ternal ear, there is some hair of considerable length grow-
ing from that part of the ear which would correspond with
the helix and anti-helix of the human ear, and almost cover-
ing the concha. The eyes of this animal are small and
black, yet prominent, clear and lustrous.
The fur of the ermine becomes longer, thicker, and finer
in winter than in summer; this effect seems to be a general
consequence of rigorous seasons on all animals, without re-
ference to the permanence or mutability of their colouring.* *
* See Sabine, p. 653.

144
THE PINE MARTEN.
SPECIES II.-The Pine Marten.
Mustel Martes ; L.
Mustela Martes ; L. GMEL. p. 95.
Mustela Abietum ; Rail. quad. p. 200.
p
Martes Gutture Luteo; AGRIC. An. Subter. 485.
La Marte; BUFF. vii. 185., pl. 22.
Baum Marter ; KLEIN, quad. p. 64.
Yellow Breasted Marten: PENN. quad. ii. p. 42. No. 244.
Pine Weasel ; Penn. quad. ii. p 42. No. 244.
Pine Marten; SABINE, Zool. App. to Franklin's Exp. p. 651.
The pine forests of the northern parts of this continent
are inhabited by vast numbers of these martens, and the
common name by which the species is known is derived
from the preference they show for the pines, in whose lofty
tops they reside. This species is also found in Northern
Asia and in Europe ; its fur is highly esteemed wherever to
be obtained, and the numbers of the pine marten may be
fairly inferred from the vast amount of skins annually col-
lected. In the
In the year 1743 the Hudson's Bay company sold
12,370 good, and 2,367 damaged skins of the pine marten;
in the same year the French sent from Canada 30,325; if
to these be added the numbers consumed in America, and
those rejected by the traders when finally arranging their
packages, we must believe that this species is one of the
most numerous belonging to our continent.
The pine marten very closely resembles the common
European marten, (M. Foina,) and the two species may be
readily mistaken for each other when inattentively observ-
ed. But they may be distinguished with facility by re-
marking that the head of the pine marten is not so long as
that of the European, neither is its body as large. The
pine marten has longer legs, finer, thicker and more glossy
fur, and the throat is marked by a broad yellow or orange
coloured spot, while the same part in the European marten
is white.
The pine marten resembles the ermine weasel in habits
and disposition, destroying great numbers of small quadru-
peds and birds, but shows no disposition to approach the
habitations of man. The pine marten frequently has its
den in the hollows of trees, but very commonly takes posses-
sion of the nest of some industrious squirrel, which it en-
larges to suit its own convenience, after putting the builder

THE PINE MARTEN.
145
to death. It is said to feed occasionally on fruits, berries,
honey, &c., but with the exception of the last substance,
we should have strong doubts of the statement ; when very
much pressed by hunger, this marten may feed on“ fruits,
berries, &c.” but it is too exclusively carnivorous to use such
food if animal matter is to be obtained.
The pine marten is of a brilliant fulvous brown colour,
over the whole of the body, with the exception of the throat
and anterior part of the breast, which are of a yellow or
orange hue, varying in depth in different individuals. The
general colour of the fur is owing to the intermixture of
two sorts of hair, one of which is longer and coarser, of an
ash colour, near the body, then of a clear fawn colour, and
ending at the tip with a brown mixed with bright red: the
other is a soft, fine, downy hair, slightly coloured with white
and pale brownish yellow. The end of the snout is of a
blackish brown colour, and the legs and tail are of the same,
having little or none of the yellow brown. The margins and
internal surface of the ears are covered by a whitish yellow
fur.
The pine marten is most frequently obtained in its sum-
mer pelage, which is neither so brilliant, nor of the silky
fineness which it possesses in winter. The colour becomes
paler, particularly about the head ; the yellowness on the
throat cannot be easily distinguished from that on the rest
of the body, as it changes to a dingy white, which runs into
and becomes blended with the lighter brown of the surround-
ing parts.*
The fur of this marten is extensively used
in the manufacture of hats, and is most generally prefer-
red for ornamenting and increasing the warmth of winter
dresses.
The length of the body of this animal is about eighteen,
and that of the tail about ten inches. There is a very
marked difference in the size of the sexes, the male being
one-third larger then the female. Their season of sexual
intercourse, according to Linne, is the month of February,
and in December the female brings forth seven or eight
young; hence there is not much probability of the species
being speedily extinguished, notwithstanding the vast num-
bers annually killed for the sake of their skins. A little
care on the part of the hunters to avoid destroying animals
* SABINE.
19
VOL. I.

146
PENNANT'S MARTEN.
during their breeding seasons, would in all cases tend to
secure the permanence of their sources of profit.*
SPECIES III.- Pennant's Marten.
(Commonly called the FISHER.)
Mustela Pennanti; ERXL.
Mustela Pennanti ; ERXL. Syst. Mam. p. 470, sp. 10.
Mustela Melanorrhynca ; BODD. Elench. an. p. 88, sp. 13.
Mustela Piscator; of various authors.
Fisher Weesel ; Peen. Hist. Quad. Ed. 3. p. 50. No. 246. Arct. Zool. i. p. 94.
Fisher; SABINE, App. to Franklin's Exped. p. 652.
Weejack ; HEARNE, Journey, &c. 8vo. ed. p. 378.
may
The impropriety of giving to animals names that
mislead the inexperienced, is clearly shown in the case of
the present species. As it is commonly called the fisher,
most persons directly infer that the animal subsists on fish,
and hence resembles the otter and other quadrupeds in its
fondness for an aquatic mode of life. Neither of these
conclusions is correct. Like the pine marten and various
kindred species, this animal subsists by preying on various
small quadrupeds, birds, eggs, &c. and so far from being
addicted to the water, Hearne states that it manifests as
much repugnance to that fluid as a domestic cat. That
it will eat fish when they are thrown on shore there is little
doubt, as almost all the carnivorous animals are delighted
with such food; but we have no proof that this marten is in
the habit of fishing for itself.
Since the common name is injudicious, by inducing er-
roneous notions of the habits and manners of the animal, and
has no connexion with any distinctive character, we have
preferred a translation of the scientific name given to this
species by ERXLEBEN, which, if equally inexpressive of any
peculiarity, does not produce any false or incorrect opinions.
* The names of northern Indian girls are chiefly taken from some
part or property of a marten; such as the white marten, the black
marten, the summer marten, the marten's head, the marten's foot, the
marten's heart, the marten's tail, &c. Matonabbee had eight wives,
and they were all called Martens. Hearne, p. 94. This variety of
names may serve to remind the reader of Dandie Dinmont's celebra
ted family of Pepper and Mustard terriers.

PENNANT'S MARTEN.
147
Pennant's marten is found in various parts of North
America, from the state of Pennsylvania to as far north as
the Great Slave Lake, where it was seen by Capt. Franklin.
Its habits are stated to be very similar to those of the pine
marten, climbing trees, catching mice, rabbits, and par-
tridges, with as much facility as that animal. Hearne in-
forms us that this species is easily domesticated, becomes
fond of tealeaves, is very playful, and has a pleasant musky
smell. We may correctly infer that this species is not very
scarce or uncommon, if we remark the numbers of them
which are collected by the fur traders. Pennant
Pennant says that
five hundred and eighty skins were sent in one year
from
the states of New York and Pennsylvania, and Sabine re-
marks that the Hudson's Bay-company sent eighteen hun-
dred skins to England in one year.
The length of this marten is from twenty-four to thirty
inches without the tail, which is from thirteen to seventeen
inches long. The snout is pointed, and the fur near the
nose is brown, in some individuals approaching to black :
the ears are broad, short, and rounded, having a dusky fur
on the outside, which appears lighter on their tips, the throat
is brown, with a few white tipped hairs; the belly and legs
are of a dark brown. The feet are very broad and cover-
ed with hair, which conceals the sharp, strong, white claws.
All the fur on the superior part of the body is dark at the
base, yellowish above, then tipped with black. The fur on
the head is short, but gradually increases in length towards
the tail, and its colour changes, losing much of the yellow-
ish, and assuming a chesnut hue. The tail is full, bushy,
black and lustrous, being smallest at the end.*
* Penis hujus, P. Lotori, simillimum est.

148
THE MINK.
SPECIES IV.-The Mink.
---
Mustela Lutreola; L.
Viverra Lutreola; PALLAS, Spicil. Zool. xiv. p. 46. t. iii. p. 462.
Lutra Minor : ERXL. Mamin. p. 451, No.3. SCHREB. Saeugth, iii. p. 462. .
Lesser Otter : Penn. Quad. ii. p. 51. No. 249, Arct. Zool. i. p. 89. No. 28.
Jackash of the fur traders; HEARNE, Journey, &c. 8vo. ed. p. 377.
Mænk, of the Swedish colonists in America.
This animal is found throughout a great extent of coun-
try from Carolina to Hudson's Bay, and in its habits and
appearance so much resembles the otter, as to have ac-
quired the common name above quoted from Pennant.
The favourite haunts of this species are the banks of
streams, especially in the vicinity of mill-seats or farm
houses, where it inhabits holes near the water, or in the ruins
of old walls, &c. Its food in a great degree consists of
frogs and fish, but it frequently invades the poultry yards
and commits as extensive ravages as any of its kindred
species, cutting off the heads and sucking the blood of the
fowls in a similar manner. Rats, mice, and other small
animals, also fall victims to the mink, and when this animal
takes up its residence about wharves or bridges, it does
great service by the destruction of such vermin. Lawson,
in his history of Carolina, says that the mink is very des-
tructive to the tortoise, scraping their eggs out of the sand
and destroying them, and adds that it feeds upon the fresh
water muscles, the shells of which are often found in con-
siderable quantity about the mouth of its hole.
The mink is an excellent swimmer and diver, and can
remain much longer under water than the musk rat. When
provoked this animal ejects from its anal glands a fetid
liquor, which is exceedingly unpleasant.
HEARNE states that like the larger otter they are fre-
quently found in winter several miles from
any water, andare
often caught in traps set for martens. They are supposed
to prey on mice and partridges like the marten ; but when
near the rivers and creeks they generally feed on fish.
They vary very much in size and colour.
“ They are very
easily domesticated, and in a short time become so familiar
that it is scarcely possible to keep them from climbing up
one's legs and body, and never feel themselves happier than
when sitting on the shoulder of their master. They sleep
و

Engby CB.EE
Drawn by lider
Ger
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Man ir IV.07.
1. Plant
Crmine
link


THE MINK.
149
it
very much during the day, but prowl about and feed in the
night ; they are very fierce when at their meals, not suffer-
ing those to whom they are most attached to take it from
them. I have kept several of them, but their over-fondness
made them troublesome, as they were always in the way,
and their so frequently emitting a disagreeable smell render-
ed them quite disgusting. *"
In addition to the latter circumstances, may
be
sug-
gested that an animal naturally so much addicted to de-
struction and so blood-thirsty might be a dangerous pet in
case it were not regularly supplied with food, especially in
a house in which there might be small children to tease or
excite its anger.
.
This animal is about twenty inches in length from head
to tail, and the tail is four inches long. The ears are round-
ed, the top of the head in some individuals hoary, in others
tawny; the hair of the body is of two sorts, the short being
of a tawny colour and the longer of a dusky hue. The feet
are broad, webbed, and covered with hair. The tail is
dusky and ends in a point. The fur is principally used by
the hatters.t
a
SPECIES V.-The Sable.
Mustela Zibellina ; L
Martes Zibellina; Briss. Quad. p. 248.
Zibeline; BUFF. Hist. Nat. xi. p. 309.
Sable Weesel ; PENN. Quad. ii. p. 43, Arct. Zool. 1, p. 90. A specimen in winter
pelage in the Philadelphia Museum
In Siberia, Kamtschatka, and the Kurile islands, this
species is very common, while in North America it is almost
* Octave edition, p. 377–8.
† From a careful comparison of the descriptions given by the sys-
tematic writers, and an examination of numerous skins of the ani-
mals, we are inclined to believe that the PEKAN, (M. Canadensis,
and Vison, (M. Vison,) are both nothing more than mere varieties of
the Mustela Lutreola, which we have seen having all the markings by
wbich they would distinguish the species above mentioned. Nothing
but a reference to living nature can decide the doubt, and this refer-
ence is not at present in our power. A new species has been pro-
posed on no better foundation than an over stuffed and faded skin of
the common mink, belonging to the Philadelphia Museum.

150
THE SABLE.
unknown; more we believe because the northern parts of
this continent have not been sufficiently explored, than
owing to the absence of the animal. PENNANT, in his Arc-
tic Zoology, states, on the authority of PALLAS, that this
animal “ extends across the whole continent, the skins
being frequently found among the furs which the Americans
traffic with among the inhabitants of the Tschutsckinoss.”
The skin from which the first named author described the
species was from Canada, and “ was of the bleached or
worst kind.”
Captains Lewis and Clark, while on their expedition,
obtained one of these sables, and the specimen was prepar-
ed and mounted for the Philadelphia Museum, in which it
may now be seen. It is in that state of pelage which Pen-
nant speaks of above, the fur being “ bleached,” or rather
the individual is in its winter dress, the colour being of a
dingy white, or white so tipped with brownish red as to give
something of a faintly reddish hue to the whole animal, ex-
cept the tail, which is distinctly brownish, becoming darker
towards the extremity. The person who prepared this
.
individual was led to believe it an albino from the colour of
the fur, and hence has inaccurately given it pink-coloured
or albino eyes, but, with this exception, the specimen is still
in good condition.
The habits of the sable very closely resemble those of
the martens we have before described, but we have so little
positive information relative to the species as it exists on
this continent, that we do not feel at liberty to enter into any
details merely inferred from what is known of the European
species. The skins of sables are esteemed among the most
precious peltries, and yield large sums annually to the Rus-
sian government.
The length of the animal from the nose to the tail is about
twenty inches; the tail, including the hair at the extremity
is eight inches long, half of which length is due to the hair.
The general colour, when in winter dress, is an obscure
fulvous or tawny hue. The head and ears are whitish
and broad, somewhat triangular in shape, and rather
pointed at top. The feet are very large and covered with
hair on the upper and under surfaces, which conccal the
nails.

CHAPTER XII.
GENUS XIII. SKUNK; Mephitis, C.
Fr. Chinche; Enfant du diable; Bête puante.
Germ. Stinkthier.
GENERIC CHARACTERS.
THE head is conical and small, having a somewhat blunt
snout, and small rounded ears. The feet have five toes,
those on the fore-feet being large, strong and suited for
burrowing.
Dental System.
6 Incisive 2 False Molars
14 Upper 2 Canine 2 Carnivorous
6 Molar. 2 Tuberculous.
6 Incisive 6 False Molars
18 Lower 2 Canine 2 Carnivorous
10 Molar. 2 Tuberculous.
32 Teeth:
IN THE UPPER JAW the incisors and canines are exactly
similar to those of the martens. There are two false
molars, one of which is very small and rudimental, and
the other regular, with two roots and one point. The
carnivorous tooth is remarkable for the great development
of the internal tubercle, which adds much to its thickness,
and gives it a triangular form; and the tuberculous tooth is
also peculiar in its dimensions, which are nearly the same
from the anterior to the posterior edge as from the internal
to the external. In the martens this tooth is only extended
in the latter direction, and its slightly salient and rounded
tubercles are not distinctly marked. In the present genus
these tubercles are very strong and angular, which makes
this really a triturating tooth; there are four principal
tubercles separated by depressions of some depth, but
their extremely irregular figure sets description at de-
fiance.

152
THE SKUNK.
IN THE LOWER JAW the incisors and canines are similar
to those of the martens, without exception, and the same
is the fact relative to the three false molars: the first is
much smaller than the other, which has the form and
proportions of the regular false molar. The carnivorous is
divided into two nearly equal parts by a rather deep cavity:
the anterior is formed by three pointed tubercles arranged
triangularly, and the posterior by a spur ending in two
sharp and rather slender tubercles, separated by a deep
depression. The tuberculous tooth is similar to that of the
martens.
In their reciprocal position, the peculiar characters of
the carnivorous and tuberculous teeth cause the only differ-
ence between the relations of these teeth and those we have
remarked to exist in the martens. The great internal
tubercle of the upper carnivorous tooth fills the space
between the three triangularly ranged tubercles of that
belonging to the lower jaw, and the spur of the latter is in
relation with the anterior half of the great superior tuber-
culous tooth, the posterior part of which corresponds with
the inferior tubercle.
The genus mephitis is therefore much less carnivorous
than the marten and wolverene, on account of the thicken-
ing of the cutting teeth, and more frugivorous in conse-
quence of the enlargement of the tuberculous teeth.
SPECIES I.The Skunk.
Mephitis Americana ; DESM.
Viverra Mephitis ; GMEL. (L.) Syst. Nat. p. 88. No.13.
Chinche; BUFF, Nat. tom. 33. pl. xx. fig. 2.
Enfant du diable; CHARLEV. Nouv. France v.196.
Skunk Weesel ; Penn. Quad. ü. p. No. 263.
Pedestrians, called by business or pleasure to ramble
through the country during the morning or evening twi-
light, occasionally see a small and pretty animal a short
distance before them in the path, scampering forward with-
out appearing much alarmed, and advancing in a zig-zag
or somewhat serpentine direction. Experienced persons gen-
erally delay long enough to allow this unwelcome fellow-trav-
eller to withdraw from the path: but it often happens that a
view of the animal arouses the ardour of the observer,

THE SKUNK.
153
who in his fondness for sport thinks not of any result but
that of securing a prize. It would be more prudent to
rest content with pelting this quadruped from a safe dis-
tance, or to drive it away by shouting loudly; but almost
all inexperienced persons, the first time such an opportuni-
ty occurs, rush forward with intent to run the animal down.
This appears to be an easy task; in a few moments it is
almost overtaken; a few more strides and the victim may
be grasped by its long and waving tail--but that tail is
now suddenly curled over the back, its pace is slackened,
and in one instant the condition of things is entirely revers-
ed ;—the lately triumphant pursuer is eagerly flying from
his intended prize, involved in an atmosphere of stench,
gasping for breath, or blinded and smarting with pain, if
his approach were sufficiently close to allow of his being
struck in the eyes by the pestilent fluid of the skunk.
Should the attack on this creature be led by a dog, and he
be close at hand when the disgusting discharge is made, he
runs with tail between his legs howling away, and by
thrusting his nose into the soil as he retreats, tries to es-
cape
from the horrible effluvium which renders the air in
the immediate vicinity of the skunk too stifling to be endur-
ed. Thus is an animal, possessed of very trifling strength and
no peculiar sagacity, protected by the hand of nature against
the most powerful and destructive enemies. A few glands
secrete a most noisome and intolerably stinking fluid, and
this scattered with peculiar force upon the body of his ene-
mies, or even in the air, is sufficient to disarm the violence
of most quadrupeds, and induce man himself rather to
avoid than to seek an encounter.
The organs by which this fluid is formed, are placed
near the termination of the digestive tube, and the ducts
from the glands open into the rectum, by the aid of whose
muscles the fluid is ejected with astonishing force, and is
aimed with great accuracy, rarely missing the object, if
discharged while within the proper distance. The faculty
this animal possesses of annoying its enemies by the dis-
charge of the fluid just mentioned, causes it rather to be
shunned than hunted, which the value of its skin would
otherwise be sure to occasion.
The skunk inhabits the whole of North America, and
is also found throughout a considerable part of the south-
ern portion of this continent. As the coloured markings
vary exceedingly in different individuals, it is not sur-
VOL. I.
a
20

154
THE SKUNK.
prising that naturalists have made several species of this
animal, though without any foundation in nature. Of
several specimens in the Philadelphia Museum there is not
one corresponding with the other in colour; neither have we
ever seen two exactly alike. Sometimes they are of a uni-
form dark brown colour, having a white spot on the top
of the head; sometimes they have two white stripes, com-
mencing from a white patch on the back of the head and
neck, passing outwards as far as the middle of the back,
while only the tip of the tail is pure white; again other in-
dividuals are found with white and black rays on the back
and sides, and the tail in great part white, as the skunk is
represented in the ordinary figures. All the species pro-
posed by systematic writers are reducible to one, the sub-
ject of this article, Mephitis American, or American
skunk.
The fetor produced by the skunk is especially character-
ized by all who have experienced it as suffocating or
stifling, which is owing to its peculiar concentration. The
predominant odour is that of muskiness, but in so con-
densed and aggravated a form as to render it almost in-
supportable, even at a considerable distance from the spot
where it is first discharged. A very good idea may be
formed of this stench by breaking and smelling a leaf or
stalk of the plant called skunk cabbage, (the Dracontium
fetidum, or pothos fetidum) resembling it in every respect
except in strength,which perhaps no artificial accumulation
of this vile scent could ever equal.
The fluid ejected by the skunk is not merely offensive
by it stench, but also in consequence of its highly stimulating
and acrimonious qualities. When any of it is thrown into
the
eyes, it is productive of very violent and dangerous
inflammation ; we must suppose that this peculiar acri-
mony, rather than any mere offensiveness of odour, is the
cause of the marked repugnance evinced by dogs, as th se
animals show not the slightest sign of uneasiness from the
presence of the most nauseous and putrid effluvia from
animal or vegetable substances, yet run howling and trying
to thrust their noses into the ground after having been
exposed to this pungent perfume from the skunk.
In its extreme volatility it bears a considerable resem-
blance to true musk. The smallest drop is sufficient to
render a garment detestable to the wearer and his com-
panions for a great duration of time, and without any

THE SKUNK.
155
perceptible diminution of intensity. Washing, smoking,
baking and burying articles of dress, and in fact every
effort short of destroying the materials of which they are
made, seem to be equally inefficient for its removal. This
scent is not only thus enduring when the fluid is sprinkled
upon clothing, but the spot where the animal is killed, or
where the matter was ejected, retains it for a great lapse
of time. “When I was at Cumberland House, (says Hearne,
p. 378) in the fall of 1774, some Indians that were tenting
on the plantation killed two of these aniinals, and made a
feast of them, when the spot where they were singed and
gutted was so impregnated with the nauseous smell which
they emit, that after a whole winter had elapsed, and the
snow had thawed away in the spring, the smell was still
intolerable.” A friend informed the author of this work,
that he had plainly perceived the odour of the fluid ejected
by this animal from across the Husdon river, near Albany;
we have no doubt of its being possible to smell it at a
much greater distance when the wind blows from the spot
where the effluvium is thrown out.*
However singular the fancy may appear, we are assured
by Catesby that he has seen one of these animals tamed
as a pet, and following its owner like a little dog, without
offering to offend any one by its peculiar odour, which it
has the power of dispensing at will. When it is recollect-
ed that on any provication or threatened injury, the skunk
immediately fires upon his disturber, it will be conceded
that such a pet must require a very cautious management,
for to startle it suddenly, or injure it accidentally, would
expose both friends and enemies to a shower of " liquid
sweets," which all “the odours from the spicy shore of
Araby the blest” could not correct.
* Professor Kalm gives the following anecdotes in his travels :
“In 1749 one of these animals come near the farm-house in which I
lodged; it was winter, and during the night the dogs were aroused
and pursued it; in a moment so fetid an odour was diffused, that, be-
ing in bed, I thought I should have been suffocated. About the end
of the same year, another slipped into our cellar, but did not make the
least unpleasant smell, because it only diffuses this when hunted or dis-
turbed. A woman who discovered it at night by its shining eyes, kill-
ed it, and at the instant it filled the cellar with such a stench, that
not only way the woman sick during several days, but the bread, meat
and other provisions kept in that cellar were so infected as to be en-
tirely spoiled, and required to be thrownaway."

156
THE SKUNK.
If the skunk be killed while unsuspicious of the approach
of danger, or before time has been allowed for the discharge
of his artillery of perfume, the animal is not in any way
disagreeable, and may be approached closely or even eaten
without the least unpleasantness, if the glands be carefully
taken out. Its flesh, when the odorous parts have been
carefully removed, is said to be well flavoured, and resem-
bles that of a pig considerably. It is eaten by the Indians,
and occasionally by hunters, with much relish.
The skunk is most generally found in the forests or their
immediate vicinity, having its den either in the hollow of
an old tree or stump, or an excavation in the ground. It
feeds upon the young and eggs of birds, and on small
quadrupeds, wild fruits, &c. Occasionally the skunk gains
access to the poultry-yard, where it does much mischief by
breaking and sucking the eggs, or by killing the fowls.
When resident in the vicinity of farm-houses, it remains
for a long time without giving notice of its presence by
emiting its offensive fluid, which proves how ridiculous is
the notion that the urine of this animal is the source of its
disgustivg fetor ; for, as Hearne justly observes, were this
the fact, the whole country it inhabits would be rendered
almost insupportable to every other creature.
We have already stated that the colour of the hair is vari-
ous in different individuals of this species at different seasons
and periods of life. Very commonly it is of a blackish brown
over the whole of the body, except on the top of the head,
or immediately between the ears, where there is a white
spot, and the tip of the tail, also, is white. Some individuals
have a slight white mark on the breast. The hairs of the
tail are long and bushy, and, with the exception of their
tips, are of a dark brown colour. But, as heretofore stat-
ed, scarcely two of them are coloured precisely in the same
way. The length of a full grown skunk is about eighteen
inches, and the tail about seven, the long hair at the ex-
tremity making nearly one half of this length.
a
a
* For a very long time the offensive fluid of this animal was almost
universally believed to be its urine, with which it was said first to wet
its bushy tail, and then, by a vigorous flourish, to scatter the perfume
far and wide against its disturbers. It is not surprising that common
observers should mistake the action intended to withdraw the tail from
the course of the discharge, for the manner in which the fluid is scat-
tered. We are informed by our friend Mr. T. KEARNEY, that onone oc-


1
2
WWWood Del
Kearny."
Kom ter z, Omerican Heri
Sea .
2

CHAPTER XIII.
GENUS XIV. OTTER; Lutra, Briss.
Ger. Fischotter; Flussotter; Fischdieb, &o.
Fr. Loutre.
Ital. Lontra.
Swed. Utter.
5
GENERIC CHARACTERS.
The animals belonging to this genus are characterized
by a broad and flat head, which terminates in a blunt
snout; small eyes and very short rounded ears.
;
The
whiskers are large; the tongue, though not very rough, is
papillous. The body is larger in proportion than that of
the marten. The very short legs are terminated by five
toes, which have their phalanges united by a web or mem-
brane, and are armed with sharp, not retractile claws.
The pelage is composed of two sorts of hair, one of which
is silky, soft, thick and short, the other long, scattered and
rather bristly. The teats are placed upon the belly; on
each side of the anus is situated an orifice leading to a
small sack containing a fetid matter. These animals are
excellent swimmers, reside in holes along the banks of
fresh water streams, and feed almost entirely upon fish.
Dental System.
6 Incisive
18 Upper 2 Canine
10 Molar.
6 Incisive
18 Lower 2 Canine
10 Molar.
6 False Molars
2 Carnivorous
2 Tuberculous.
( 6 False Molars
2 Carnivorous
2 Tuberculous.
casion, while going to visit a trap before day-light, he disturbed a
skunk which was running along the path at some distance in advance
of him, and was much surprised to observe that the course of the
fluid discharged was rendered perfectly visible by a distinct phos-
phorescent light; the odour left no doubt of the animal whence it
proceeded.

158
THE AMERICAN OTTER.
.
IN THE UPPER JAW the incisor and canine teeth are
exactly similar to what we have seen in the marten, the
glutton and skunk. The false molars are three in number;
the first is very small and rudimental, the second, slightly
,
larger than the first but much smaller than the third, is
regularly conformed like all normal false molars. The
carnivorous tooth is principally remarkable for the extent
and form of its internal tubercle. It is no longer a salient
point reposing upon a very large base as in the skunk,
but a broad surface terminated at the inner side by a circu-
lar line, and bordered at this part by a continuous and
salient spine. The tuberculous tooth has the dimensions
and form of the same tooth in the marten; it is also more
extended from the out to the inside than from before back-
ward, and the inequalities which divide its surface differ in
nothing from what we have observed in the animal just
referred to.
IN THE LOWER JAW the incisors and canines have
nothing to distinguish them from the dental system of the
skunk; and the same is true of the false molar, the carni-
vorous and tuberculous teeth.
In their reciprocal position it results from the differences
we have pointed out between the skunk and otter, that in
the latter no tubercle fills the space left by the tubercles
arranged in a triangle on the inferior carnivorous tooth.
The first of these tubercles is at the anterior part of the
tooth, and opposed to the hollowed centre of the broad sur-
face, bordered by a spine which replaces in these animals
the tubercle found in the same tooth of the skunk. The
two other tubercles fill the void remaining between the
carnivorous and opposite tuberculous tooth, and this last
presents almost the whole of its crown to the posterior spur
of the lower carnivorous tooth. Nothing is opposed to the
inferior tuberculous tooth but the posterior edge of the
analogous tooth of the upper jaw.
It is well known that the otters subsist principally upon
fish ; they also may be fed with flesh, and may be accustomed
without difficulty to use vegetable food. Nevertheless, it
would be difficult to determine by the teeth whether they
are more carnivorous than the skunk ; because, while they
appear to have carnivorous teeth which separate them far-
ther from the marten than the carnivorous teeth of the
skunk remove that animal, they have, on the other hand,

THE AMERICAN OTTER.
159
less extensive tuberculous teeth than those of the latter
genus.
SPECIES I.-The American Otter.
Lutra Brasiliensis; Ray.
Mustela Lutra Brasiliensis : GMEL. L. p. 93.
Lutra Brasiliensis : RAY. Syn. Quad. p. 91.
Lutra Brasiliensis: Briss. Quad. p. 278.
Saricovienne de la Guyane : BUFF. Supp. 6. p. 287.
Loutre d'Amerique : Č. Reg Anim. i. p. 151. tom. iv. fig. 3.
Lutra Canadensis : SABINE, App. to Franklin's Exp. p. 654.
Though the Brasilian Otter has long been regarded as
a distinct species, the North American or Canadian Otter
was almost uniformly confounded with its European ana-
logue, until the distinctive characters were accurately
pointed out by Sabine in the work above quoted. Cuvier
considered the North American as identical with the Brasi-
lian species, and in this correct opinion he has been follow-
ed by most of the naturalists.
This otter inhabits South, as well as various parts of
North America, along the fresh water streams and lakes,
as far north as to the Copper mine river. In the southern,
middle and eastern states of the Union, they are compara-
tively scarce, but in the western states they are in many
places still found in considerable numbers. On the tributa-
ries of the Missouri they are very common; but it is in the
Hudson's Bay possessions that these animals are obtained
in the greatest abundance, and supply the traders with the
largest number of their valuable skins. Seventeen thou-
sand three hundred otter skins have been sent to England
in one year by the Hudson's Bay company.
Nature appears to have intended the otter for one among
her efficient checks upon the increase of the finny tribes,
and every peculiarity of its conformation seems to have this
great object in view. The length of body, short and flat
head, abbreviated ears, dense and close fur, flattened tail,
and disproportionately short legs with webbed feet, all con-
spire to facilitate the otter's movements through the water.
In the crystal depths of the river few fish can elude this
swiftly moving and destructive animal, which unites to the
qualities enabling him to swim with fish-like celerity and

160
THE AMERICAN OTTER.
a
ease, the peculiar sagaciousness of a class of beings far
superior in the intellectual scale to the proper tenants of the
flood. In vain does the pike scud before this pursuer,
and
spring into the air in eagerness to escape; or the trout dart
with the velocity of thought from shelter to shelter; in vain
does the strong and supple eel seek the protection of the
shelving bank or the tangled ooze in the bed of the stream;
the otter supplies by perseverance what may be wanting
in swiftness, and by cunning what may be deficient in
strength, and his affrighted victims, though they may for a
short time delay, cannot avert their fate. When once his
prey is seized, a single effort of his powerful jaws is suffi-
cient to render its struggles unavailing; one crush with his
teeth breaks the spine of the fish behind the dorsal fin, and
deprives it of the ability to direct its motions, even if it still
retain the least power to move.
The residence of the otter is a burrow or excavation in
the bank of a stream or river, and the entrance to this re-
treat is under water; at some distance from the river an
air-hole is generally to be found opening in the midst of a
bush or other place of concealment. The burrow is fre-
quently to be traced for a considerable distance, and in nu-
merous instances leads to the widely spreading roots of
large trees, underneath which the otter finds a secure and
comfortable abode. The winter residence is generally
chosen in the vicinity of falls or rapids where the water is
least liable to be closed from the severity of the cold, and
where the otter may find the readiest access to the fish
upon
which his subsistence depends. Otters have been seen
during the coldest parts of winter at very considerable
distances from their usual haunts, or from any known open
water, as well as upon the ice of large lakes, a circum-
stance that
appears the more singular as this animal is not
known to kill game on land at this season. When the
otter is in the woods where the snow is light and deep, it
dives if pursued, and moves with considerable rapidity un-
der the snow. But its route is always betrayed by the rising
of the superincumbent mass, and numbers of them are oc-
casionally killed with clubs by the Indians, while thus en-
deavouring to make their escape. The old otters, how-
ever, are often able to disappoint their pursuers by force, if
not by address, for they turn upon them with great fury
and ferocity, and so desperate are the wounds inflicted by
their teeth, that few individuals are willing to encounter the

THE AMERICAN OTTER.
161
severity of their bite. The Indians have various methods
of killing the otter, one of which is that of concealing them-
selves near the haunts of the animal on moon-light nights,
and shooting them when they come forth for the pur-
pose of feeding or sporting. A common mode of taking
them is by sinking a steel-trap near the mouth of their bur-
row, over which the animal must pass in entering or leav-
ing the den.
We have alluded to the sporting of the otter, and may
now remark that its disposition in this respect is singular
and interesting. Their favourite sport is sliding, and for
this purpose in winter the highest ridge of snow is selected,
to the top of which the otters scramble, where lying on the
belly, with the fore-feet bent backwards, they give them-
selves an impulse with their hind-legs, and swiftly glide
head-foremost down the declivity, sometimes for the distance
of twenty yards. This sport they continue, apparently with
the keenest enjoyment, until fatigue or hunger induces them
to desist.
In the summer this amusement is obtained by selecting
a spot where the river-bank is sloping, has a clayey soil, and
the water at its base is of a considerable depth. The otters
then remove from the surface, for the breadth of several
feet, the sticks, roots, stones and other obstructions, and
render the surface as level as possible. They climb up the
bank at a less precipitous spot, and starting from the top
slip with velocity over the inclining ground, and plump into
the water to a depth proportioned to their weight and rapid-
ity of motion. After a few slides and plunges the surface
of the clay becomes very smooth and slippery, and the rapid
succession of the sliders show how much these animals are
delighted by the game, as well as how capable they are of
performing actions, which have no other object than that of
pleasure or diversion. This amusement is so congenial to
the frolic spirit of boyhood, that in vicinities where otter
slides are found, youngsters while bathing sometimes take
possession of one, and sitting at the top glide thence with
great glee into the water, in imitation of the disports of the
otter. * But not recollecting that the skin of the otter is
* “We had an opportunity of seeing on the ice of Boyer Creek a
considerable number of the tracks or paths of otters; they were the
more readily distinguishable from there being snow of but little depth
on the ice, and they appeared as if the animal was accustomed to slide
Vol. I.
21

162
THE AMERICAN OTTER.
protected by a thick and fine fur against the effects of fric-
tion, the poor lads find, on relinquishing their play, that, not-
withstanding the apparent smoothness of the slide, the fine
sand mingled with the clay has robbed them of a broad sur-
face of cuticle, the loss of which experimentally convinces
them, before they can limp home, that an otter slide, in the
end, is not altogether well suited for the recreation of human
bathers.
The American otter is about five feet in length, including
the tail, the length of which is eighteen inches. The colour
of the whole of the body, (except the chin and throat, which
are dusky white) is a glossy brown. The fur throughout
is dense and fine.
The differences between this species and the European
otter are thus pointed out by Capt. SABINE. " The neck
of the American otter is elongated, not short, and the head
narrow and long in comparison with the short broad visage
of the European species; the ears are consequently much
closer together than in the latter animal. The tail is more
pointed and shorter, being considerably less than one half of
the length of the body, whilst the tail of the European otter
is more than half the length of its body.”
The fur of the otter is much valued by the hatters and
other consumers of peltries, and as the animal is hunted at
all times without any regard to the preservation or increase
of the species, it must ultimately become as rare in North
America as the kindred species has long since become in
Europe.
in his movements on the ice, as there were in the first place the im-
pressions of two feet, then a long mark clear of snow for the distance
of a yard or more, then the impressions of the feet of the animal, after
which the sliding mark, and so on alternately. These paths were
numerous, and passed between the bank and a situation where a hole
had been in the ice, now frozen over.”—Long's Exped. to the Rocky
Mountains, vol. i. p. 455.

THE SEA OTTER.
163
SPECIES II.-The Sea Otter.
Lutra Marina ; ERXL.
Latra Marina, Kalan, Nov, Com. Petrop.ii. p. 367.
Castor Marin: Hist. Kamtschatka, p. 444.
Mustela Lutris: L. GMEL. p. 92.
See Biber, oder See Ouer: STELLER, Kamtschatka.
This animal is very interesting on account of its habits
and manners, the peculiar beauty, fineness and value of its
fur, and from the singular circumstance of the comparative-
ly narrow limits within which the species is restricted.
The sea otter spends the greater part of its life in the ocean,
,
where it is abundantly supplied with food, and to all appear-
ance there is nothing to prevent it from roving wherever
inclination or curiosity invites; yet the species is exclusive-
ly resident within the 49th and 60th degrees of north lati-
tude, and from the 126th degree west longitude to the 150th
east from London, on the north-eastern coasts and seas of
North America, and on the shores of Kamtschatka and of
the islands lying between the two continents.
The sea otter when full grown is about the size of a
large mastiff, and weighs from seventy to eighty pounds.
In general appearance there is a considerable degree of re-
semblance between this animal and the seal, especially in
the flat and webbed feet of the hinder extremities. It is
always found on the coast, or in the immediate vicinity of
the salt water, and in tempestuous weather seeks shelter
among the weeds which are collected in great quantities in
many parts of the seas it inhabits. Its food is various, but
principally cuttle-fish, lobsters and other fish.
The sea otter, like most other animals which are plenti-
fully supplied with food, is entirely harmless and inoffensive
in its manners, and might be charged with stupidity, accord-
ing to a common mode of judging animals, as it neither
offers to defend itself nor to injure those who attack it. But
as it runs very swiftly and swims with equal celerity, it
frequently escapes, and after having gone some distance
turns back to look at its pursuers. In doing this it holds a
forc-paw over its eyes, much in the manner we see done
by persons who in a strong sunshine are desirous to observo
a distant object accurately. It has been inferred that the

164
THE SEA OTTER.
sight of this animal is imperfect; its sense of smelling how-
ever is said to be very acute. .
The female sea otter brings forth on land after a preg-
nancy of eight or nine months, and but one at a birth; the
extreme tenderness and attachment she displays for her
young are much celebrated. Before the cub can swim she
is observed to play with and fondle it in various ways;
sometimes she carries it about, holding it carefully in her
mouth ; at other times is observed to play with it by throw-
ing it up into the air and catching it between her fore-paws;
and before the young otter has learned to swim, she carries
it in her arms, swimming about on her back. Nothing but
death can induce the parent to relinquish her offspring, and
instances are related of the sea otter pining and dying in the
vicinity of the spot where her young has died or been kill-
ed. The young continues with the dam until it becomes
old enough to seek a mate, and after pairing, the male and
female are very constant to each other, their union not being
disturbed by the wanderings of either party. Sea otters
swim on their backs, their sides, and sometimes as if placed
upright in the water, and they are frequently observed in
this attitude, as if embracing and carressing each other, or
engaged in play.
The method of capturing the sea otter is commonly that
of placing a net among the sea weed ; occasionally they are
hunted with two boats, by means of which the animal is
soon tired down, being unable to remain a very long time
under water : they are also killed by clubs or spears when
they are found asleep upon the rocks. The flesh is eaten
by the hunters, but its qualities are very differently repre-
sented ; some have stated it to be tender, juicy, and fla-
voured like young lamb, and by others it is declared to be
hard, insipid, and tough as leather; this variance we sup-
pose to arise from the different ages of the individuals eaten,
the young being doubtless tender and delicate, and the old
being tough and unsavory.
The length of the sea otter, (including the tail, which is
ten or twelve inches long,) is about five feet, and the whole
of the body appears to vary but little in thickness. The
upper jaw is long and considerably broader than the lower;
the ears are not an inch long, and are pointed, thick, and
fleshy, stand erect, and are covered with short bair. The
fore-legs are very short, thick and covered with fur, hav-
ing five broad toes covered with short hair, and joined by

THE SEA OTTER.
165
a membrane. The hind-feet, which we have stated to bear
much resemblance to those of the seal, have a strong and
larger membrane between the toes, which is somewhat like
the shark skin called shagreen; on the outside of the exter-
nal toe there is a skin skirting it, analogous to what is seen
in some water fowl.
The colour of the sea otter when in full season is perfect-
ly black, at other times of a uniform dark brown. When
the fur is opened it is of a lighter colour than on the surface,
and intermixed with the fur are some longer, black and
shining hairs, which greatly increase the beauty of the pe-
lage. In some individuals the fur about the ears, nose and
eyes is of a lighter colour, sometimes brown. The young
are sometimes of a cream colour, with white about the nose,
eyes and forehead. The fur of the young animal is not
equal to that of the adult, which is unrivalled for richness
and beauty. The prices at which they have been sold in
China appear enormous, from seventy to a hundred rubles
having been given for a single skin.

CHAPTER XIV.
GENUS XV. Dog: Canis, L. C.
Gr. Kvar
Ger. Hund.
Fr. Chien.
Russ. Pes, Sobeaka.
Dutch, Hond.
Ital. Cane.
Span. Perro.
Port. Caô.
GENERIC CHARACTERS.
The face is prolonged, and the naked glandulous part of
the nose rounded; the cheeks are somewhat elevated, the
tongue smooth, and the ears (in the wild animals) erect and
pointed. The teats are in the greatest number of instan-
ces placed in part on the belly and in part on the chest. On
the fore feet there are five, and on the hind-feet four toes,
armed with strong, slightly curved nails, which are not re-
tractile.
Frederick Cuvier remarks that the animals of this
genus
may be considered in point of carnivorous regimen, as
standing between the glutton and skunk, but nearer the
former than the latter. We have seen that the appetite for
animal food, or the disposition to feed upon flesh, diminish-
es both in proportion to the increased numbers of tubercles
and the augmented thickness of the carnivorous teeth, which
in undergoing this change proportionally loose their tren-
chant character,
42 Teeth:
Dental System.
6 Incisive 6 False Molars
20 Upper
2 Capine 2 Carnivorous
12 Molar. 4 Tuberculous.
S
6 Incisive 8 False Molars
22 Lower 2 Canine 2 Carnivorous
14 Molar. 4 Tuberculous.
IN THE UPPER JAW the number, proportion and resper-
tive situation of the incisive teeth resemble those of the
marten, but in their forms they have characters peculiar

1
Silicon
indo: Del
Fkeamy. sc.
Vcfoundland?
2. Eskimaux: 00g
Dog


OF THE DOG.
167
to themselves; they are trilobed, having a principal middle
lobe and two smaller ones on each side; their internal
surface is not divided by a transverse groove, but is bor-
dered by a crest or spine, which rises upon the edges of
the two small lobes, and by reuniting at the commencement
of the root, forms an angle varying in acuteness in different
individuals. The canine teeth also resemble those of the
marten, and the false molars exhibit an equal similarity,
except that they are separated by a vacant space from the
canine, and the two last have their posterior part prolonged
into a very evident spur, formed by a particular lobe sepa-
rated from the principal one by a groove. The carnivorous
is entirely like the analogous tooth of the marten: its prin-
cipal part is divided into two lobes, an anterior, which is
larger and more pointed, and a posterior, which is more
trenchant, and presents on its internal surface anteriorly
only a very small blunt or rounded tubercle, according to
the species. The first tuberculous tooth is very large, and
its external is larger than the internal part, by which it is
distinguished from that belonging to the marten. On its
external face it has two pointed tubercles, bordered exter-
nally by a spine ; in its middle there are two small eminen-
ces which appear to be connected with the exterior spine,
and between these and the tubercle on the external face
there is a broad and deep depression; finally, the internal
face, which is rounded, has on it a spine, which marks its
outline, and terminates in a groove that separates it poste-
riorly from the eminences before mentioned. Between
these eminences and this last spine is found a second well
marked depression. The second tuberculous tooth resem-
bles the one we have described, only that it is more than
one-third smaller.
IN THE LOWER JAW the incisors are merely bilobed,
and the lobe nearest to the canine is one-half larger than
the other. The canine does not at all differ from that of
the marten. After a vacant space come four false molars;
the first is merely rudimental, and the three others, which
have all the characters of these teeth, do not differ from
each other, except that they increase slightly in size, from
the second to the fourth, and in having their posterior part
divided by two serrations. The anterior part of the carni-
vorous resembles the analogous tooth of the cat; its edge
is trenchant and divided in its middle by a groove into two
parts, but the anterior is less elevated than the other, and
a

168
GENERAL HISTORY
we find at its base, interiorly, and rather at the back part,
the little pointed tubercle which we have mentioned in des-
cribing the dentition of the marten. Its posterior part is a
spur, which is principally composed of two obtuse tubercles,
one on the outside and the other on the inside. The first
tuberculous is twice as long as it is broad. Its anterior
part is composed of two tubercles, one below and the other
on the outside ; the posterior consists of a spur edged
by an irregular spine. The second tuberculous tooth
is very small, circular, and composed of two small tubercles,
and is surrounded, especially on the inside, by a small
spine.
In their reciprocal position, the relations of these teeth,
as to the incisor, canine and false molars, are such as we
have heretofore described. The internal tubercle of the
superior carnivorous fills the space which separates the
fourth false molar and the inferior carnivorous.
The ex-
ternal face of the anterior part of the latter is found in re-
lation with the internal part of the posterior surface of the
opposite tooth, and the spur of the first tuberculous fills
the vacuities of the opposite tuberculous tooth, and these
in turn occupy the vacuities on the spur of the lower car-
nivorous. The first part of the lower carnivorous fills the
vacuity which exists between the two superior tubercles,
and the second pair of tubercles of this first tooth is in
opposition with the second lower tuberculous, which ap-
pears to be merely rudimental and without function.
The species belonging to this genus are endowed with
very acute senses, especially of sight, smell, and hearing.
Their food varies accordingly to circumstances, and is
composed wholly or in part of animal matter, either re-
cently killed, or in a putrid state.*
Were we desired to propose a creature fit to be an em-
blem of incorruptible fidelity, unwavering friendship, for-
bearing and enduring affection, combined with all that
renders gratitude commendable, and honesty of high value,
we know not one more worthy to be thus distinguished than
the dog, which, under all circumstances of adverse or pros-
perous fortune, adheres with untiring and zealous vigilance
to the cause of his master, being ever ready to lay down
* Illis omnibus penis nodosus est, quo pacto, cohærent copula junc-
tis. Secundum Clariss. Linnei verba,"gravida lxiii. diebus parit, sæpe
iv. ad viï ; masculis patri similibus, femineis matri."
>

OF THE DOG.
169
his own life in defence of him he has chosen to serve and
obey. Without the co-operation of this highly gifted quad-
ruped, how could man have opposed the noxious animals
by which his path was beset, or his dwelling surrounded ?
In those dreary regions of the earth, where the face of
nature wears a veil of almost perpetual gloom, and the
wretched wanderers of the human family are forced to main-
tain a perpetual struggle against the combined severities
of cold and famine, how much more abjectly miserable
would their condition be, had not nature endowed this ani-
mal with the disposition to seek the society of man, despite
of all the sufferings incident to his poverty, and all the in-
juries inflicted through his barbarity or neglect.
We have to regret, however, that the good mankind
derives from the faithful services of this animal, is closely
connected with the possibility of receiving from it the most
terrible of evils, as if nature could not operate without
balancing or antagonizing every thing by its opposite. It
is the dog kind that from time to time inflicts on our race a
malady, perhaps the most agonizing and horrific to which
humanity is liable, from whose aspect or endurance the
stoutest hearts and best regulated minds shrink away in
terror. Against this dreadful disease the resources of
medicine have hitherto proved inadequate and unavailing,
and though we continue to hope that the augmentation
of power which medicine is daily acquiring through the
zeal of its cultivators may ultimately triumph over this af-
flicting disorder, experience teaches us how much cause
there is to fear that many must still perish before a remedy
can be found.*
An examination of dogs bred in long civilized countries
will speedily convince us of the impossibility of arriving,
through them, at any satisfactory conclusion as to the
source or origin of the species, because the influence of
domestication and intermixture of races has produced
* A dog which has bitten any person, and is supposed to be mad,
should not be immediately killed, but securely confined, in order that
the madness may be positively ascertained. There is no reliance to
be placed on any other preventive treatment than the immediate and
perfect excision of the part bitten, or the removal of the poison by
sucking the wound forcibly and for a considerable time. Experience
leads us to believe that the excision of the bitten part at any time,
before the general symptons of the disease have appeared, will avert
the disease.
Vol. I.
22

170
GENERAL HISTORY
changes and varieties so numerous and interminable, as to
set at defiance the most scrutinizing and indefatigable re-
search. But if we visit the regions where man has long
remained almost entirely stationary, and is still under the
governance of few other feelirgs than those relating to his
animal wants, we shall find the dog, though long domesti-
cated, continuing to exhibit as much of peculiar and spe-
cific character as if yet in the wild state.
The inhabitants of the northern parts of this continent,
and of the north of Asia, have for ages beyond the memory
of man employed dogs as beasts of burden, or for draught :
the dogs thus used by the Eskimaux, as well as those kept
about the lodges of our southern and western Indians, re-
tain so much of the external appearance and general car-
riage of the wild animal, as to leave no question of their
descent from the same stock as the wolf residing in the
vicinity, and do not appear to be distantly removed from
that species, however long they may have been in the ser-
vice of man.
Notwithstanding the endless varieties produced by the
causes first referred to, and the fact that between the dog
and wolf there are striking external differences, yet they
actually constitute but one natural group, of which the in-
dividuals should be regarded as varieties rather than species,
because they may all be indiscriminately bred together, in
such a manner as to result in new and prolific races, bear-
ing but slight resemblance to the parent individuals, and
exhibiting new modifications of external characters, of
mental qualities, and of internal configuration.
This is the best, and perhaps the only sufficient test of
the appropriateness of specific sudivisions, formed in what
is called systematic natural history, and affords the most
satisfactory proof of the natural alliance of various portions
of the animal kingdom. Wherever we find one race of
animals capable of having its peculiarities entirely obliterat-
ed by intermixture with another, and the altered offspring
is as prolific as the parent stock, we may feel certain that
such races are but varieties of a natural family, however
they may be arranged in arbitrary nomenclatural catalogues.
We have heretofore adverted to the fact that there is a law
of nature shown by the prolonged experience of ages to be
invariable, which is, that although two species of the same
genus may produce offspring partaking in a great degree of
the qualities of both parents, yet that offspring is sterile

OF THE DOG.
171
and unproductive, thus opposing an impassable barrier to
the confusion of species which would inevitably result were
these mule or hybrid beings capable of continuing their race.
The converse of the proposition is equally true: animals
of the same species, however dissimilar in external charac-
ter, habits, or manners, are capable of breeding with varie-
ties of their own species in illimitable progression, and
every successive crossing of breed may result in new modi-
fications of form and in improved physical and intellectual
conditions. In domestic economy this has been carried to
the greatest extent in the improvement of animals raised
for various purposes of utility or luxury, especially in the
instance of horses, cattle, sheep, swine, poultry, &c.
In proof of the specific identity of the wolf and dog, we
may here introduce the following very interesting account
of a tamed wolf, given by FREDERICK CUVIER, one of the
most distinguished scientific naturalists of the present age,
and perhaps second to no man, but his illustrious brother,
the acknowledged Coryphæus of Zoologists throughout the
world.
This wolf was brought up like a young dog, and became
familiar with every person whom he was in the habit of
seeing, followed his master everywhere, appeared to suffer
much from his absence, obeyed his voice, always exhibited
the most entire submission to his commands, and in fact
differed in no respect from the tamest domestic dog.
When his master set out upon his travels, this wolf was pre-
,
sented to the menagerie at Paris, and there, shut up in his
den, he remained for many weeks without showing any
signs of gaiety, and almost refusing to eat. From this state
of depression he gradually recovered, attached himself to
his keepers, and had apparently forgotten all his former
attachments, when his master returned after an absence of
eighteen months. At the first word which he uttered, al-
though he was surrounded by a crowd and could not be seen
by the animal, the wolf instantly recognized him, and ex-
pressed his joy by his movements and cries, and when set at
liberty exhibited all the fondness that is commonly express-
ed by a dog after a separation of a few days, almost over-
whelming his old master with carresses.
In a short time
he was left as before in the menagerie, and again evinced
the deepest distress at the absence of his master, but in
time resumed his vivacity. After an absence of three years
his master visited him in the evening, when the den was

172
GENERAL HISTORY
shut
ир. and there was no possibility that the wolf could
discover him by sight; but the moment he heard the voice,
he was recognised, and responded to it by cries expressive of
the most impatient anxiety to approach his master. As
soon as the door was opened his cries were redoubled, he
rushed forward, placed his two fore-feet on the shoulders of
his old friend, licked every part of his face, and threaten-
ed his keepers with his teeth for venturing to approach,
though an instant before he had testified to them the warm-
est affection. When his master was under the necessity
of again leaving him, the poor wolf became sad and im-
movable, refusing all sustenance ; he pined away, his hairs
bristled
up, and in eight days' time he was scarcely to be
known by those who had previously seen him. It was ex-
pected that he would die ; however, he eventually recover-
ed, resumed his healthy condition and glossy coat, but his
keepers dared no longer to approach him; he would not en-
dure the caresses of any one, and answered strangers only
by threats of injury.*
It is nevertheless true, that ocasional and apparent ex-
ceptions to the great law of nature heretofore stated are
on record; but granting them the fullest force, they
are few and mere exceptions, which, by their singularity
and rareness, confirm rather than disturb the stability of
the general rule. If the united experience of all observers
throughout the world, during a period of three or four
thousand years, cannot produce more than two, three, or
four instances of exceptions, of which number few or none
are adduced in any other than a “ questionable shape," we
need nothing better to show that this law is as old as nature
herself, and must continue to operate in the same manner
until time shall be merged in eternity.
We shall not enter into any farther discussion of the
circumstances which may have led to the production of
many of the permanent varieties to be found among an-
mials, of which the (so called) species are capable of pro-
ducing prolific offspring together. We know that, in their
9
* In the year 1800, a full grown she-wolf that had been caught in
a trap was brought to the Royal Menagerie. This animal became so
tame as to live among the dogs, and produced with them repeatedly.
She barked as they did at all strangers, and so far laid aside her carni-
vorous disposition as to offer no injury to the poultry, to which she
had free access.

OF THE DOG.
173
wild state, similarity of instinct and mode of life is sufficient
cause for the association of races with individuals having
similar peculiarities, and this preserves the characters of
the race from change or deterioration during an indefinite
lapse of time; but circumstances occasionally place animals,
;
apparently of different species, together at times when they
are under the influence of an imperious necessity, and the
result is the commencement of a new race, which, by sub-
sequent association and multiplication with each other,
may present such a permanence of external characters as
to induce observers to consider them as specifically distinct
from all others.
The breed of dogs produced from the wolf and varieties
of the domestic doe, during a considerable succession of
generations, is characterized by a marked predominance
of the qualities inherited from their savage progenitors, in
the keen and vivid expression of the eye, ferocity of dispo-
sition, and severity of their bite. It is impossible, however,
without a fuller and more authentic history of the dog from
the earliest day to the present time than we possess, to
decide by what combinations all the different varieties lave
been produced. That such changes are still going on
among these animals daily observation proves; and we
have occular demonstration that the most curious of these
varieties may propagate its kind with others, which, if
external characters were to be relied on, might be con-
sidered radically and specifically distinct. The domestic
dog and wild fox breed together, but there is every reason to
believe that the offspring are true mules, or incapable of con-
tinuing their kind.
SPECIES I.-The Domestic Dog.
Canis Familiaris ; L.
The dogs of the Eskimaux and other aboriginals of this
continent differ much in size and colour, yet they are all of
a breed, apparently intermediate to the wolf and the fox.
They have sharp noses, pointed and erect ears, and long
bushy tails, which are most commonly carried over the
back and curled toward the left side. They are strong, fierce,
and courageous, biting with so much vigour and keenness,

174
THE DOMESTIC DOG.
that the smallest of them, when he can get into a corner,
is able to keep several large European dogs at bay.
These dogs serve the Eskimaux, and the traders to the
snow covered countries of the North, instead of horses and
other animals, and though at first view they may appear
inadequate to the task of drawing heavy burdens for great
distances, yet on a closer examination we shall perceive
that they are better adapted for such service in those re-
gions than any other quadruped. In the first place, the
ground during great part of the year is deeply buried in
snow, and the slight vegetation is beyond the reach of any
animal not taught by necessity how to remove the snow
with its feet, even if a sufficiency of food were then to be
obtained. To employ in such countries the animals com-
monly used for draught, it would be necessary to make up
the lading chiefly of provender for their support;
and their
own weight would speedily fatigue and disable them, on
account of their repeatedly sinking into the snow, on which
the crust is generally too thin to bear a large animal. But
the dog is not only light and strong, and can draw a sledge
or slide carrying a considerable weight, but, in consequence
of his carnivorous regimen, can live on the offal of the
provision on which his driver subsists; to this may be added
the fact, that the facility of procuring flesh is far greater
in those countries than almost any other substance. We
need not feel surprised that the European and American
traders should have uniformly adopted the modes of trav-
elling used by the aborigines, or have substituted their sim-
ple conveyances for the more artificial though less appro-
priate European vehicles.
In the country north of Hudson's Bay these animals are
employed by the Indians and traders to draw their fürs and
other baggage, though the Indians are frequertly too indo-
lent to be at the trouble of making sledges, and then the
women are under the necessity of placing a part of their
load upon the dogs, which they do by lashing their tents,
kettles, and other utensils, on the backs of the animals, as
is usually done with pack-horses. In the fall of the
year
and beginning of winter, the squaws sew the skins of deer
legs together in the shape of long portmanteaus, which,
when hauled on the snow as the hair lies, soon become
quite slippery, and answer very well instead of sledges while
travelling over the open country.
The sledges made by the northern Indians vary in size,

THE DOMESTIC DOG.
175
accordingly as they are designed for women or the dogs.
Occasionally they are used as long as twelve or fourteen
feet, and from fifteen to sixteen inches wide ; but the com-
mon length is eight or nine feet, and the breadth from
twelve to fourteen inches.
These sledges are made of boards, which are not more
than a quarter of an inch thick, and from five to six inches
wide. As the Indians have no other tool with which to
fashion their boards than a common knife, slightly turned up
at the point, they sew the boards together with thongs made
of parchment deer skins; and on the upper side several
cross bars of wood are lashed, which serve to increase the
strength of the sledge, and secure the ground-lashing, to
which the load is always fastened by small strips or thongs
of leather.
The fore part or head of the sledge is turned up, so as to
form a semicircle of at least fifteen or twenty inches in di-
ameter, which prevents it from plunging into light snow,
and enables it to slide over the snowdrifts and solid projec-
tions. The dogs are harnessed to these vehicles by traces
of raw hide, which are fastened to leathern collars round
their necks. They are generally harnessed two abreast,
and the whole number attached to a sledge is commonly
five; the foremost or leader being always, if possible, a well
broken and long trained dog.*
These faithful and invaluable drudges are treated with
shameful neglect and cruelty both by the Indians and the
scarcely less savage Voyageurs or Engagees employed in
the fur trade. They not only flog them unmercifully, and
vent all their ill humour upon these suffering quadrupeds,
but overload, overdrive, and starve them most barbarously,
In consequence, these poor animals are almost always in
wretched plight, and their dispositions rendered so ferocious
and irritable as to keep them, whenever they halt on a
march, continually worrying and teasing each other. The
consequences are sometimes severe to the Voyageurs, for
occasionally a team of dogs, when unobserved, take off
at full speed in chase of some animal with a view of run-
ning it down, and either dash with their sledge so furiously
against stones, trees, &c. as to break it and lose the lading,
or they escape so far as to be entirely lost to their unworthy
drivers.
* See Hearne's Journey to the Northern Ocean.

176
THE DOMESTIC DOG.
The sledges of the Eskimaux* are exceedingly various
in their forms, and in the materials of which they are com-
posed, scarcely two of them resembling each other. The best
of these vehicles are made from the jaw-bones of the whale,
sawed to about two inches in thickness, and from six inches
to a foot in depth. These bones form the runners, and are
shod with a plank of the same substance: pieces of bone,
wood, or deer's horn, are lashed across within a few inches
of each other, to connect the side pieces, and these yield to
any great strain which the sledge receives. The upper part
of the sledge is generally twenty inches broad, but as the
runners lean inwards, the breadth is somewhat greater at
the bottom. The weight of these bone sledges is very great;
one of moderate length, or not more than ten or twelve feet
long, weighed 217 lbs.
In the coldest part of the winter the skin of the walrus
is very frequently used for runners, and when frozen stiff
answers very well, being more than an inch in thickness
and exceedingly tough. The Eskimaux have another
ingenious contrivance to make runners, which is to case
earth and moss in seal skin, and by pouring in some water
a hard bolster is easily formed. The sticks, bones, &c.
are placed across the upper part of the runners, as before
mentioned, and the surface that is to move upon the snow,
is covered with ice by mixing snow with fresh water and
allowing it to freeze on the runner, which enables the sledge
to slide along with great facility. An Eskimaux who owns
but one or two dogs, sometimes drives them in a little tray
made of a rough piece of walrus hide, or a flat slab of ice
hollowed to resemble a bowl. Boys are often seen to divert
themselves by yoking several dogs to a small piece of seal
skin, sitting on which they hold by the traces. They then
dash off at full speed, and the one who sustains the greatest
number of bumps before he relinquishes his hold is the
cleverest fellow.
The following spirited description of Eskimaux sledge
travelling, we give in the words of Capt. Lyon, whom we
are always happy to have an opportunity of quoting. 6. Our
eleven dogs were large and even majestic looking animals,
and an old one of peculiar sagacity was placed at their
*All the facts here stated relative to the Eskimaux sledges and
dogs are from the “Private Journal of Capt. G. F. Lyon, R. N.”

THE DOMESTIC DOG.
177
head by having a longer trace, so as to lead them through
the driest places, these animals having such a dread of water
as to receive a severe beating before they will swim a foot.
The leader was instant in obeying the voice of the driver,
who never beat, but repeatedly called to him by name.
When the dogs slacked their pace, the sight of a seal or
bird was sufficient to put them instantly to their full speed,
and even though none of these might be seen on the ice,
the cry of a seal, a bear, a bird, &c. was enough to give
play to the legs and voices of the whole pack. It was a
beautiful sight to observe the two sledges racing at full
speed to the same object, the dogs and men in full cry,
and
the vehicles splashing through the holes of water with the
velocity and spirit of rival stage coaches. There is some-
thing of the spirit of professed whips in these wild races ;
for young men delight in passing each other's sledges, and
jockeying the hinder one by crossing the path. In passing
on different routes, the right hand is always yielded, and
should an inexperienced driver endeavour to take the left,
he would have some difficulty in persuading his team to do
so. The only unpleasant circumstance attending these races
is, that a poor dog is sometimes entangled and thrown
down, when the sledge, with perhaps a heavy load, is una-
voidably drawn over his body. The driver sits on the fore
part of the vehicle, whence he jumps when requisite to pull
it clear of any impediments which may lie in the way, and
he also guides it by pressing either foot upon
the ice. The
voice and long whip answer all purposes of reins, and the
dogs can be made to turn a corner as dexterously as horses,
though not in such an orderly manner, since they are con-
stantly fighting, and I do not recollect to have seen one re-
ceive a flogging without instantly wreaking his passion on
the ears of his neighbours. The cries of the men are not
more melodious than those of the animal, and their wild
looks and gestures when animated, give them the appear-
ance of devils driving wolves before them. Our dogs had
eaten nothing for forty-eight hours, and could not have
gone over less than seventy miles of ground; yet they
returned to all appearance as fresh and active as when they
first set out."
The Eskimaux dog bears a considerable resemblance to
the English shepherd dog, but is much stronger and broad-
er across the breast, in consequence of the severe labour
he is constantly engaged in. A fine dog about equals a
Vol. I.
23

178
THE DOMESTIC DOG.
Newfoundland dog in size, but the nose is broad like that of
the mastiff. Both in the winter and summer the hair is
very long, but there is a soft down under covering in cold
weather, which is not found in the warm season.
As soon as these dogs can walk they are put into harness,
and are soen taught to pull, by their continual efforts to
regain their liberty, or to go in search of their dams.
When two months old, sometimes eight or ten little ones
are harnessed to the sledge, along with an old steady animal,
where, by dint of repeated and severe beatings, they are
at length educated for service. Each dog has his name,
which, when it is angrily called out, has an immediate ef-
fect on the animal. The whip has a lash of seemingly
immoderate length, it being from eighteen to twenty-four
feet long, and the handle but one foot. The dogs are guid-
ed or stopped by throwing this lash on one side or the other
of the leader, and by speaking certain words. They are
taught to lie down by throwing the whip gently over their
backs, and will remain in this position during whole hours.
The weight these animals are capable of moving over the
ice or snow is really surprising. Capt. Lyon has seen a walrus
drawn along by three or four of them. He found by several
experiments that three dogs could draw a man on a sledge
weighing one hundred pounds, at the rate of one mile in six
minutes; and in evidence of the strength of a well grown
dog, his leader drew one hundred and ninety-six pounds
singly, and to the same distance, in eight minutes. On
another occasion, seven of his dogs ran a mile in four
minutes and thirty seconds, drawing a heavy sledge full of
Afterwards nine dogs drew one thousand six hun-
dred and eleven pounds one mile in nine minutes! The
sledge was on wooden runners, neither shod nor iced ; had
they been iced, Capt. L. thinks forty pounds might have
been added for each dog.
The Eskimaux dogs notwithstanding the intensity of
cold to which they are subjected, have no particular breed-
ing season, but their females bring forth their young at any
season, seldom having more than five at a litter. These
dogs also sleep in the open air, during the coldest weather,
without inconvenience. They are very poorly fed, thin,
gaunt and savage looking animals; they are remarked to
be more insolent and irritable when well supplied with food
than in their ordinary half starved condition.
men.

THE DOMESTIC DOG.
179
a
We have examined the observations of the late Profes-
sor Barton, relative to the native American or Indian dog,
with much interest, and should be very happy to believe that
he has thrown light upon the origin of this variety of the
species. The facts he adduces are too few, and of too nega-
tive a character, to lead to any other conclusion than that the
domesticated dog of the Indians bears a closer resemblance
to the wolf, or to “ a half breed” between the wolf and the
fox, than to any other animal. The conjectures of the learned
Professor, however ingenious, we do not feel at liberty to
receive, except as an evidence of the vividness of his imagi-
nation. Fortunately for mankind the reign of imagination
is rapidly passing, if it have not already entirely passed
away, and the conjectures of the highest authorities are
svoid, and of none effect” when opposed by facts, and
subjected to the scrutiny of common sense.
It is with much pleasure, however, that we witness the
feeling with which Dr. Barton replies to the illiberal observa-
tions of celebrated European authors, concerning the char-
acter of the aboriginals of this continent. As we fully
conincide with him on this subject, we give his remarks at
full length.
" It is well known how much ingenuity, eloquence and
science have, within the last fifty years, been employed to
represent the Americans as the degenerated or imperfectly
organized children of the earth. To complete the large
volume of calumny against these poor people, even the man-
ner in which they treat their dogs is not suffered to pass
unnoticed by the historians of the new world. Prior to
their intercourse with the people of Europe,' says the elo-
quent Dr. Robertson, 'the North Americans had some tame
dogs which accompanied them in their hunting excursions,
and served them with all the ardour and fidelity peculiar to
the species. But instead of that fond attachment which
the hunter naturally feels towards those useful companions
of his toils, they requite their services with neglect, seldom
feed, and never caress them.'
“It would, I believe, (adds Dr. Barton) be a much easier
task to prove that Dr. Robertson was unqualified to write
the history of America ; than to prove that the Indian-
Americans are not the inferiors of the people of the old
world, in the measure of their intellectual endowments; and
to show that more than one-half of the charges which have
been brought against these people, are charges resulting

180
THE DOMESTIC DOG.
from ignorance, or from systematic zeal, than to prove that
the Indians are peculiarly entitled to the character of kind
and tender dog-masters. After some attention to this sub-
ject, I must candidly confess that I possess not the mate-
rials for a satisfying defence of the Indian.* The charges
which have been brought against him by the writers whom
I have mentioned, will be convictive. But why, in this in-
quiry, if the historian will condescend to mention the fact
and interweave it with his eloquence, should he forget the
hardships of the savage life? Where the master labours
under a scarcity of food, his servants, the animals which de-
pend upon him for their subsistence, must share in the
hardships and the evils of his state. The miserable con-
dition of the Indian dog is a necessary result of the mis-
erable condition of the Indians themselves.”
Captains Lewis and Clark, while on their celebrated ex-
pedition, were, on several occasions, under the necessity of
subsisting their men upon the flesh of dogs purchased from
the Indians. Their prejudices against such food were soon
overcome, and they quickly learned to prefer it to the poor
fare of the Indians, who held the “ dog eaters" in sovereign
contempt. I
The DOG OF NEWFOUNDLAND is remarkable for its
sagacity, size, strength and beauty, and in external cha-
racters differs almost entirely from the Eskimaux and
Indian dog. The Newfoundland dog has a broader and
more expressive visage, and a blunter nose than either of
the dogs yet mentioned, the orbits of his eyes have more
prominent superciliary ridges, the ears are broad, soft and
pendulous, and the whole body is more robust, and cover-
ed with long, soft and glossy hair. On the tail the hair is
* In our opinion no defence is necessary; the treatment of the un-
tutored savage to his dog is comparatively as good
as the treatment of
many illiterate Europeans to their own children. The Indian may be
cruel and neglectful; more brutal than the lower classes of many parts
of Europe he cannot be.
† Medical and Physical Journal, vol. i. p. 27.
I “The dog is unusually small, about the size of an ordinary cur; he
is usually parti-coloured, amongst which the black, brown, white, and
brindle, are the colours most predominant; the head is long, the nose
pointed, the eyes small
, the ears erect and pointed like those of the wolf;
the hair is short and smooth, except on the tail, where it is long and
straight like that of the ordinary cur dog. The natives never eat the
flesh of this animal, and he appears to be in no way serviceable to them,
except in hunting the elk.”—Lewis and Clark, ii. p. 165.


1
K
Sc.
Kwaya
CA. Lesueur Del
1
sobrense Post vous

THE DOMESTIC DOG.
181
still longer than on the body, and forms a handsome brush,
which appears to greater advantage when the animal is in
motion, as it is then carried slightly curved upwards at its
extremity. The Newfoundland dog is very fond of the
water, and swims with great ease; the Eskimaux dog is
by no means disposed to enter the water, most probably
from experience of the effects of extreme cold on coming out
again. The Newfoundland dog is employed with great
advantage by the settlers to draw heavily laden sledges,
and is an invaluable servant. Of his peculiar sagacity
numerous instances are on record, and almost every one
has made observations enough in relation to this dog, to
render any repetition of such instances unnecessary in this
place. He breeds with all the known varieties of the do-
mestic dog, and also with the common wolf.*
Species II.—The Common Wolf.
Canis Lupus ; L.
When the aboriginal Americans first gave place to
European adventurers, and the forests which had flourished
for ages undisturbed, began to fall before the unsparing
axe, the vicinity of the settler's lonely cabin resounded with
the nightly howling of wolves, attracted by the refuse pro-
vision usually to be found there, or by a disposition to prey
upon the domestic animals.
During winter, when food
was most difficult to be procured, packs of these famished
and ferocious creatures were ever at hand, to run down and
destroy any domestic animal found wandering beyond the
enclosures, which their individual or combined efforts could
overcome, and the boldest house-dog could not venture far
from the door of his master without incurring the risk of
Scientia naturali multum versato et fide digno viro SABINE, se
canem Terræ-novæ cum lupa coire frequenter vidisse dictum est; ex
quo nobis ejusdem speciei esse ambos, minime lubitare licet. Tamen,
si sciolo aliquo, canem sue etiam coire aliquando tentare objectum sit;
respondendum est, nemini unquam visuin cognitumve canem vere
copulari, aut speciem vel suam, vel abnormem ex sue procreare. Ge-
nitalia lupi canisque nullo modo inter sese differunt: dentes, viscera,
victus, vivendique modus eadum sunt; alter ex altero catulos gignere
potest

182
THE COMMON WOLF.
being killed and devoured. The common wolf was then to
be found in considerable numbers throughout a great ex-
tent, if not the whole of North America ; at present it is
only known as a resident of the remote wooded and moun-
tainous districts where man has not fixed his abode, nor laid
bare the bosom of the earth to the enlivening radiance of
the sun.
The common wolf of America is considered to be the
same species as the wolf of Europe, and in regard to habits
and manners, gives every evidence of such an identity.
Like all the wild animals of the dog kind, they unite in
packs to hunt down animals which individually they could
not master, and during their sexual season, engage in the
most furious combats with each other for the possession of
the females.
The common wolf is possessed of great strength and
fierceness, and is what is generally called a cruelanimal, tear-
ing the throat of his victim, drinking its blood, and rending
it
open
for the purpose of devouring its entrails. The
great strength of its jaws enables the wolf to carry off with
facility an animal nearly as large as itself, and makes its
bite exceedingly severe and dangerous. Aged or wounded
individuals, as well as the hinds and fawns of the deer,
sheep, lambs, calves and pigs, are killed by these wolves,
and the horse is said to be the only domestic animal which
can resist them with success. They gorge with much greedi-
ness upon all sorts of carrion which they can discover at
great distances; and where such provision is to be obtained
in great plenty, they become very fat and lose their ferocity
to a singular degree.
When this wolf has been caught in a trap, and is ap-
proached by man, it is remarked to be exceedingly coward-
ly, and occasionally suffers itself to be beaten without offer-
ing the slightest resistance. If a dog be set upon a wolf
thus captured, the assault is patiently endured so long as
his master is present ; but as soon as the wolf is freed from
the restraint imposed by the presence of his captor, he
springs upon and throttles the dog, which, if not speedily
assisted, pays the forfeit of his presumption and temerity
with his life. When kept in close confinement and fed
upon
vegetable matter, the common wolf becomes tame and
harmless, but is very shy, restless and timid, expressing
the greatest alarm at the approach of a stranger, and striv-
ing to escape from observation. The voice of this wolf

THE COMMON WOLF.
183
is a prolonged and melancholy howl, which, when uttered
by numerous individuals at once, is discordant and frightful.
The period of gestation, &c. in this species is in every res-
pect analogous to that of the common dog.
In the regions west of Hudson's Bay wolves are often
seen, both in the woods and on the plains, though their
numbers are inconsiderable, and it is not common to see
more than three or four in a pack. They appear to be very
fearful of the human race, but are destructive to the Indian
dogs, and frequently succeed in killing such as are heavily
laden, and are unable to keep up with the rest. The males
are not so swift as the females ; and they seem to lead a
forlorn life during the winter, being seldom seen in pairs
until the commencement of spring. They bring forth their
young in burrows, and though it might well be inferred
that they are fiercer at those times than under ordinary cir-
cumstances, yet Hearne states that he has frequently seen
the Indians take the young ones from the dens and play with
them. They never hurt the young wolves, but always re-
place them in the dens, sometimes painting the faces of
these whelps with vermillion or red ochre.
In the highest northern latitudes which have yet been
explored, the wolves are very numerous and exceedingly
audacious. They are generally to be found at no great
distance from the huts of the Eskimaux, and follow these
people from place to place, being apparently very much de-
pendent upon them for food, during the coldest season of
the year. They are frequently seen in packs of twelve or
more, prowling about at a short distance from the Eski-
maux huts, lying in wait for the domestic dog, which they
are successful in killing if he wanders so far as to be out of
reach of assistance from his master. In one instance two
of them rushed upon a fine Newfoundland dog belonging to
Capt. Lyon, in the day time, and would have killed him but
for the timely interference of his master. Capt. Lyon re-
lates the following singular instance of the cunning of one
of these wolves which had been caught in a trap, and,
after being to all appearance dead, was dragged on board
of the ship :-“ The eyes, however, were observed to wink
whenever any object was placed near them ; some precau-
tions were therefore considered necessary, and the legs
• See Hearne, p. 362, Svo, ed

184
THE COMMON WOLF.
being tied, the animal was hoisted up with his head down-
wards. He then, to our surprise, made a vigorous spring
at those near him, and afterwards repeatedly turned him-
self upwards, so as to reach the rope by which he was sus-
pended, endeavouring to gnaw it asunder, and making
angry snaps at the person who prevented him. Several
heavy blows were struck on the back of his neck, and
a bayonet was thrust through him, yet above a quarter
of an hour elapsed before he died, having completely
convinced us that for the future we should not too easily
trust to the appearance of death in animals of this descrip-
tion.'
Animals exposed to so much suffering from hunger, we
may readily believe, are no in way exclusive in their prefer-
ence of food, and these wolves may be said to feed on every
creature they can master, or on the remains of any
animal
left by the natives.
The common wolf is about four feet and a-half in length,
including the tail, which is rather more than a foot long.
The height, before, is two feet three inches; behind, it is two
feet four inches. The tail is bushy and bending downwards,
having upon it hairs upwards of five inches in length.
The general colour of this wolf is reddish brown, inter-
mixed with ferruginous and black; but a great variety is
to be observed in the colouring of the wolf as found in the
northern, middle and southern regions, exhibiting various
gradations from grizzly white to pure black.* The wolf
found in Pennsylvania has more of the reddish brown
colour, the hair being tipped with black, but especially so over
the fore shoulders and sides.
SPECIES III.-The Prairie or Barking Wolf.
Canis Latrans ; Say.
Canis Latrans : Say, Long's Exp. to the Rocky Mountains, vol. i. p. 168. A well
prepared specimen in the Philadelphia Museum.
This wolf frequents the prairies or natural meadows of
the west, where troops or packs containing a considerable
* “ The wolves of Florida are larger than a dog, and are perfectly
black, except the females, which have a white spot on the breast, but

THE BARKING WOLF.
185
number of individuals are frequently seen following in the
train of a herd of buffalo or deer, for the purpose of
prey-
ing on such as may die from disease, or in consequence
of wounds inflicted by the hunters. At night they also ap-
proach the encampments of travellers, whom they sometimes
follow for the sake of the carcasses of animals which are re-
linquished, and by their discordant howlings, close to the
tents, effectually banish sleep from those who are unac-
customed to their noise. According to Say's observation
they are more numerous than any of the other wolves which
are found in North America.
The barking wolf closely resembles the domestic dog of
the Indians in appearance, and is remarkably active and
intelligent. Like the common wolf, the individuals of this
species frequently unite to run down deer, or a buffalo calf
which has been separated from the herd, though it requires
the fullest exercise of all their speed, sagacity and strength,
to succeed in this chase. They are very often exposed to
great distress from want of food, and in this state of famine
are under the necessity of filling their stomachs with wild
plums, or other fruits no less indigestible, in order to allay
in some degree the inordinate sensations of hunger.
This wolf barks in such a manner as to resemble the
domestic dog very distinctly; the first two or three notes
are not to be distinguished from those produced by a small
terrier, but differs from that dog by adding to these sounds
a lengthened scream. On account of this habit of barking,
Say has given the specific name of " latrans” to this wolf,
which we prefer to translate for a trivial name, instead of
using that of " prairie wolf” which is equally applicable to
other species.
In confirmation of the sagacity of this wolf we shall quote
from Say, to whom we owe all that has yet been made
known on this species, some anecdotes respecting it.
“Mr. [Titian] Peale constructed and tried various kinds
of traps to take them, one of which was of the description
called a " live trap," a shallow box reversed and supported
at one end by the well known kind of trapsticks usually
called the “figure four,” which elevated the front of the
trap upwards of three feet above its slab flooring ; the trap
they are not so large as the wolves of Canada and Pennsylvania, which
are of a yellowish brown colour."-Bartram's Travels in Florda, p. 199.
VOL. I.
24

186
THE BARKING WOLF.
was about six feet long, and nearly the same in breadth,
and was plentifully baited with offal. Notwithstanding this
arrangement a wolf actually burrowed under the flooring,
and pulled down the bait through the crevices of the floor:
tracks of different size were observed about the trap. This
procedure would seem to be the result of a faculty beyond
mere instinct."
“ This trap proving useless, another was constructed in
a different part of the country, formed like a large cage,
,
through which the animals might enter but not return; this
was equally unsuccessful; the wolves attempted in vain to
get at the bait, as they would not enter by the route pre-
pared for them. A large double “ steel trap” was next
tried ; this was profusely baited, and the whole, with the
exception of the bait, was carefully concealed beneath the
fallen leaves. This was also unsuccessful. Tracks of
the anticipated victims were next day observed to be im-
pressed in numbers on the earth near the spot, but still the
trap with its seductive charge remained untouched. The
bait was then removed from the trap and suspended over it
from the branch of a tree; several peices was also suspen-
ded in a similar manner from trees in the vicinity. The
following morning the bait over the trap alone remained.
Supposing that their exquisite sense of smell warned them
of the position of the trap, it was removed and again cover-
ed with leaves, and the baits being disposed as before, the
leaves to a considerable distance around were burned, and
the trap remained perfectly concealed by ashes ; still the
bait over the trap was avoided."* It was not until a log-
trap was used that an individual of this species was caught.
This log-trap is made by raising one log above another at
one end by means of an upright stick, which rests upon a
rounded horizontal trigger on the lower log.
The barking wolf is about three feet and a half in length,
of which the tail forms thirteen and a-half inches, exclusive
of the hair at its extremity. The ears are four inches long
from the top of the head, and the distance from the ante-
rior canthus of the eye to the end of the snout is three in-
ches and three-fourths.
The general colour of the barking wolf is cinereous, or
gray intermingled with black, and dull fulyous or cinnamon
See Journal of Long's Expedition to the Rocky Mountains, vol.
I. p. 168.

THE BARKING WOLF.
187
a
above. The hair is of a dusky lead colour at base, of a dull
cinnamon in the middle of its length, and gray or black at
tip, being of greater length along the middle of the back and
other parts of the body. The ears are erect and rounded at
tip, having the hair on the back part of a cinnamon colour,
and dark plumbeous at base, while that on the inside is gray.
The eyelids are edged with black; the superior eyelashes are
black beneath,and on the superior surface of their tips. The
supplemental lid is margined with black brown before, and
edged with black brown behind. The iris is yellow, and the
pupil of a black blue ; upon the lachrymal sack is a spot of
black brown. The face is cinnamon coloured, tinted with
grayish on the nose; the lips are white edged with black,
and have three series of black bristles. The colour of the
head between the ears is an intermixture of
gray
and dull
einnamon; the colour of the sides is paler than that of the
back, and faintly banded with black above the legs, which
are cinnamon coloured on the outside, and more distinctly
so on the posterior hair. The tail is straight, broad and
bushy, of a gray colour, mingled with cinnamon above, and
black at the tip. The extremity of the trunk of the tail
reaches to the projection of the os calcis when the leg is ex-
tended.
Different individuals exhibit very considerable variations
in colouring, and hence many of the minute markings given
by Mr. Say, in the above description, may not be found
applicable. He states himself that other specimens which
he saw differed much from his first description ; one“ was
destitute of the cinnamon colour, except on the snout,
where it was but slightly apparent ; the general colour was
therefore gray, with an intermixture of black, in remote
spots and lines, varying in position and figure with the
direction of the hair.” Perhaps no two individuals could
be found exhibiting throughout precisely the same arrange-
ment of coloured markings.
66

188
THE DUSKY WOLF.
SPECIES IV.—The Dusky Wolf.
Canis Nubilus; Sav.
Canis Nubilus ; SAY. Long's Exp. to the Rocky Mountains, vol. i. p 169.
A well prepared specimen in the Philadelphia Museum.
This wolf is more robust in form, and fiercer and more
formidable in appearance, than either of those we have
described. It is found in the Missouri country, frequenting
the same districts as the prairie or barking wolf, but is by no
means in equal numbers. It is distinguished from the com-
mon wolf by the length of its ears and tail, while it is se-
parated from the barking wolf by its greatly superior size,
difference of colour, &c. But little is known of the pecu-
liar habits of this species, though there is no reason for be-
lieving that they differ much from those of its kindred
species or varieties. It is remarkable for diffusing a strong
and disagreeable odour.
The general colour of this wolf is dusky, the hair being
ash-coloured at base, then brownish black, then gray,
and next black. The proportion of black upon the hairs is
so considerable as to impart a much darker colour to the
whole animal than is found in the darkest of the barking
wolves, but in the general effect a mottled appearance is
produced by the gray of the hairs combining with the black
of the tips. The gray colour predominates on the lower
.
part of the sides. The ears are short and of a deep
brownish black, with a patch of gray hair on the anterior
side within. The muzzle is blackish above, and the supe-
rior lips, anterior to the canine teeth, are gray ; the same
colour extends from the tip of the lower jaw, in a narrow
line backwards, nearly to the commencement of the neck.
On the under part of the body the colour is dusky ferrugi-
nous, with long grayish hairs between the thighs, and with
,
a large white spot on the breast. On the neck the ferrugi-
nous colour is very much narrowed, but it becomes broad-
er on the lower part of the cheeks. The legs are of a
brownish black, having but a slight admixture of gray hairs,
except on the front ridge of the thighs, and the lower edg-
ing of the toes, where the gray predominates. The tail is
short and fusiforni, slightly tinged with rust colour; near

THE DUSKY WOLF.
189
the base and at the tip it is black on the upper surface; the
end of the tail itself does not quite reach the os calcis. The
longer hairs of the back, particularly over the shoulders,
resemble a short spare mane.
Length from the tip of the nose to the origin of the tail,
4 feet 3 inches.-Length of the trunk of the tail, 1 foot 1
inch.-Ear, from the anterior angle to the tip, 3 inches.-
From the anterior angle of the ear to the posterior canthus
of the eye, 4 inches.-From the anterior canthus of the
eye to the middle of the tip of the nose, 52 inches.-Be-
tween the anterior angles of the ears rather more than 3
inches. *
-
SPECIES V.- The Black Wolf.
Canis Lycaon; L.
Canis Lycaon; SCHREB. Saeugthiere, pl. 89.
Loup noir ; BUFF. 9. pl. 41.
Black Wolf; Say. Long's Exp. to the Rocky Mouutains, p. 102, vol.i.
p
The Black Wolf has been found in the Missouri country,
and the British possessions in North America, but not in
such numbers as either of the foregoing species. It is not
yet satisfactorily established that this wolf is precisely of
the same species as the European black wolf, whose scien-
tific name is applied to it. DESMAREST is much inclined to
think it a new species, and it is most probable that a close
comparison of the two will show differences between them
supporting his opinion.
In general appearance, and in the relative proportions of
the different parts of its body, this wolf resembles the com-
mon wolf, (C. Lupus) but in size it is intermediate to the fox
and common wolf. The colour of the animal is its most re-
markable characteristic, as it is entirely black, without the
slightest admixture of any other colour.
In passing through the Missouri country, where this wolf
is quite common, Mr. Say had an opportunity of examin-
ing a young black wolf, which was chained near the door at
a settler's hut. This individual was one of five which had
* The descriptions of this and the preceding species are given nearly
in Mr. Say's words, from the work cited at the head of this article

190
THE BLACK WOLF.
been taken from the same den ; it had become familiar with
the family, but was shy towards strangers. It was com-
monly fed on bread and milk ; when fed on meat it became
ferocious, and attempted to bite the children.
SPECIES VI.-The Isatis, or Arctic Fox.*
Canis Lagopus; L.
Le Renard Bleu ; BUFF. 13. p. 272.
C. Lagopus, Arctic Fox; SABINE, Zool. App. p. 858.
Arctic Fox, PENN Arct. Zool 1, p. 48, No. 10.
In the highest northern latitudes which have yet been ex-
plored, this fox is found in great abundance, and does not
come lower than a few degrees south of the polar circle.
Vast numbers are annually killed in the Hudson's Bay pos-
sessions for the sake of their skins, which at the proper sea-
son are covered with a thick and fine coat of hair. This
species is also found on all the Arctic islands, and in the
northern parts of Asia.
The Arctic Fox is a pretty and an intelligent animal,
bearing a considerable resemblance in figure to the common
fox, though its head is not so pointed, and it is of smaller
size. In its winter dress the soft woolly white hair gives it
some similarity to a small shock dog. Its eyes are of a
clear light hazel colour, and are bright and piercing in ex-
pression; the ears are thickly clothed with hair, short and
apparently doubled in or cropped on the edges. A projecting
ruff of hair descends from behind the ears and surrounds
the lower part of the face, producing a very pleasing ap-
pearance.
The legs are strong and muscular; the large
feet are armed with strong claws, and the toes are covered
with hair of considerable length above and below ; from this
character the scientific name of the animal is made, signi-
fying the hair-footed fox.
It has been stated that the Arctic foxt visits the Hud-
son's Bay settlements only once in five or seven years.
* Cuvier forms a subgenus of the foxes, on account of their longer
and more bushy tail, more pointed muzzle, nocturnal pupils, less slan-
ting superior incisive teeth, ſetid odour and habit of burrowing.
Pennant from Graham.

1
காராரைமராuைnite
תקשlir
Drawn by I Landseer
2
மாயம்மா
12
Drawn by CA. Lesueur
RO
Eng by GB.EUS
coides
1. Black Wolf. 2. Arctic Fox.


THE ARCTIC FOX.
191
Hearne* remarks on this subject, that there is not one
year in twenty in which they are not taken in greater or
less numbers at Churchill, and he has known not less than
from two to four hundred to be caught each year,
for three
successive years, within thirty miles of the fort. The Arc-
,
tic foxes always come along the coast from the north,
generally making their appearance at Churchill towards the
middle of October ; their skins are not in the best condition
until November. In the interval they are never molested,
and are permitted to feed in the vicinity of the fort until
they become almost tame. The large numbers of these
animals, which visit Churchill river in some years do not
come together, as they could not find subsistence enough
for one-fourth of them while on the way. When they ap-
proach the fort the whale carcasses lying along the shore,
and the offal left after boiling out the oil, furnishes them
abundantly with food, and detains them about the fort
until, by frequent reinforcements from the north, they
are increased in such vast numbers as almost to be beyond
credibility.
They are caught in traps, or killed by guns set for the
purpose by the Hudson's Bay people, principally during the
month of November, though some few are found to remain
during the winter. Upwards of forty have been killed in
one night within half a mile of Prince of Wales' fort ; this
however, is rarely done, except on the first or second night
of the season. The main body of the survivors cross
Churchill river near its mouth after it is frozen over, and
move to the southward, in some years assembling in con-
siderable numbers at York fort and Severn river. It is not
known that any of them ever again return to the north.
Their breeding places have not been positively determin-
ed, but Hearne states without doubt that they breed during
the summer season in every part of the coast they frequent.
He has known them to breed near Churchill, and along the
west coast of Hudson's Bay, particularly at Cape Eski-
maux, Whalecove, and also on Marble Island. They
bring forth from three to five whelps at a litter, which when
young are almost entirely of a sooty black colour ; as the
autumn advances, the belly, sides and tail change to a light
ash, while the back, legs, part of the face and tip of the tail
* P. 363. All the facts relative to this species in the vicinity of
Hudson's Bay are from Hearne.

192
THE ARCTIC FOX.
a
a
become of a lead colour. As the winter commences they
grow perfectly white, changing colour last on the ridge of
the back and the tip of the tail, on which a few dark hairs
are to be found almost at all times. *
The Arctic fox preys upon various small quadrupeds, such
as hares, marmots, lemings, &c. and upon partridges and
other birds, as well as their eggs, the carcasses of fish left
on shore, and, when driven by necessity, they eat indiscri-
minately whatever may promise to allay their hunger.t
The Arctic foxes which are killed at a sufficient distance
from the sea coast are said to be very fit for the table, their
flesh being as well flavored as the rabbit on which they feed.
But near the sea they devour great quantities of putrid
whale flesh and similar matters, which impart a disgusting
rankness to their flesh.
These foxes are taken with great facility in traps, and,
unlike the wolves, seem to have no idea of the design of
such contrivances. They are also occasionally shot while
they are feeding together in considerable numbers. This
shooting is most successful on moonlight nights, as they lie
hid during the day time in the holes among the rocks, or
under the hollowice above the high water mark. It is sin-
gular that these animals will prey upon each other when they
find individuals killed, wounded, or caught in traps, as
readily as upon other animals, a fact which altogether in-
validates the old saying that “dog will not prey upon dog."
Hearne informs us that he has known upwards of a hun-
dreu and twenty foxes which were caught in traps to be
destroyed and eaten by their comrades during a single win-
ter, within half a mile of the fort.
We shall conclude this account of the Arctic fox by in-
troducing the observations Capt. G. F. Lyont made on
different individuals which he kept on board his ship during
the tedious winter spent by the expedition under Capt.
PARRY at the North Georgian islands.
9
* Penis calamo communi similis magnitudine; testes (qui vix con-
spicui) amygdalis æquant.
† “As a proof of what foxes will eat to satisfy hunger, I may men-
tion having - examined the stomach of one which contained a mass of
rope-yarn and a line of the size of the doubled fist; amongst which
some pieces of sinnet or plaited stuff were above six inches in length.
-Lyon's Private Journal, p. 100.
I The name of this excellent observer is inaccurately given as Capt.
R. Lyon in p. 141 of this work.
22

THE ARCTIC FOX.
193
"The Arctic fox is an extremely cleanly animal, being
very careful not to dirt those places in which he eats or
sleeps. No unpleasant smell is to be perceived even in a
male, which is a remarkable circumstance. To come un-
awares upon one of these creatures is impossible, for even in
an apparently sound sleep they open their eyes at the slight-
est noise which is made near them, although they pay no
attention to sounds at a short distance. The general time
of rest is during the daylight, in which they appear listless
and inactive; but the night no sooner sets in than all their
faculties are awakened; they commence their gambols and
continue in unceasing and rapid motion until the morning.
While hunting for food they are mute, but when in çap-
tivity or irritated, they utter a short growl like that of a
young puppy; it is a singular fact, that their bark is so
modulated as to give an idea that the animal is at a dis-
tance although at the very moment he lies at your feet. It
strikes me that nature has gifted these creatures with this
kind of ventriloquism in order to deceive their prey as to
the distance they are from them. Although the rage of a
newly caught fox is quite ungovernable, yet it very rarely
happened that on two being put together they quarrelled.
A confinement of even a few hours sufficed to quiet these
creatures, and some instances occurred of their being per-
fectly taine, although timid, from the first moment of their
captivity. On the other hand there were some which after
months of coaxing never became more tractable. These
we supposed were old ones.
“Their first impulse on receiving food is to hide it as
soon as possible, even though suffering from hunger, and
having no fellow prisoners of whose honesty they are
doubtful. In this case snow is of great assistance, as being
easily piled over their stores, and then forcibly pressed
down by the nose.t I frequently observed my dog-fox,
when no snow was obtainable, gather his chain into his
mouth, and in that manner carefully coil it so as to hide
the meat.
On moving away, satisfied with his operations,
*
* “If taken young they are easily domesticated in some degree, but
I never saw one that was fond of being caressed ; and they are always
impatient of confinement.”—Hearne, p. 366.
# We have seen the domestic dog covering up food with earth in
the same manner, first pushing the dirt forward, and then pressing it
down with the end of the nose.
Vol. I.
25

194
THE ARCTIC FOX.
he of course has drawn it after him again, and sometimes
with great patience repeated his labours five or six times,
until in a passion he has been constrained to eat his food
without its having been rendered luxurious by previous con-
cealment. Snow is the substitute for water to these crea-
tures, and on a large lump being given them, they break it
in pieces with their feet and roll on it with great delight.
When the snow was light scattered on the decks they did
not lick it up as dogs are accustomed to do, but by repeat-
edly pressing it with their nose, collected a small lump at
its extremity, and then drew it into the mouth with the
assistance of the tongue.
“On the 19th of December I was so fortunate as to catch
one of these foxes in a trap. He was small and not per-
fectly white, but his temper was so remarkable that I could
not resolve to kill him, but confined him on deck in a small
hutch with a scope of chain. The little animal astonished
us very much by his extraordinary sagacity, for, during the
first day, finding himself much tormented by being drawn
out repeatedly by his chain, he at length, whenever he
retreated to his hut, took this carefully up in his mouth and
drew it so completely after him, that no one who valued
his fingers would endeavour to take hold of the end attach-
ed to the staple.”
SPECIES VII.-The Black or Silver Fox.
Canis Argentatus.
Renard Noir ou Renard Argenté : GEOFF. Coll. du Mus. CHARLEVOIX, Nouv.
France, 3. p. 123.
Renard Argenté: F. CUVIER, Mam. Lithog. livr. 5.
Canis Argentatus : SABINE, Zool. App. p. 657.
Were it not for the copious and beautiful black fur of
this species, there would be scarcely a characteristic by
which to distinguish it from the common fox, (C. Cinereo-
argenteus) to which in all other respects it is strikingly
similar. In form and proportions, as well as in gait and
expression of countenance, in sports, mode of feeding and
exhibition of anger, there is nothing which may not be
equally applied to this and the species above mentioned.
The colour of this fox, as its name implies, is a richly
lustrous black, having a small quantity of white mingled

THE BLACK FOX.
195
with it in different proportions on different parts of the body.
Individuals vary considerably in this respect; some have no
white except at the extremity of the tail, or a few white hairs
scattered along the middle of the breast, or else at irregular
intervals a sprinkling of solitary white hairs along the sides,
which by contrast add to the intensity and brilliance of the
black. This last colour is produced by the longer silken hair
which forms the great mass of the pelage, and is occasion-
ally tipped with white ; there is a grayish silken hair that
constitutes the immediate covering of the skin. Over the
whole body and tail the hair is long and tufted, on the
paws
it is short, and on the face still shorter, the colour of the
latter being mostly whitish on the fore part; the eyes are
of a yellowish tint.*
This fox resembles the kindred species in the unpleasant
odour it diffuses, which is in a considerable degree owing
to its urine, as well as to a peculiar glandular secretion.
After having satisfied its hunger, it hides the remainder
of the food, and when disturbed, expresses its anger by
growling like a dog. A comparison of the American black
fox with the black fox of Europe may hereafter show differ-
ences sufficient to authorise it to be considered as distinct
from that species. But until better opportunities of
examination are afforded we shall hazard no opinion on
the subject. The black fox is found throughout the north-
ern parts of America, and is also obtained in the north of
Asia, where it is considered among the richest and most
valuable of furs.
* « The silver fox is an animal very rare even in the country he in-
habits. We have seen nothing but the skins of this animal, and those
in the possession of the natives of the woody country below the Colum-
bia falls, which makes us conjecture it to be an inhabitant of that coun-
try exclusively. It has a long deep lead coloured fur for a foil, intermixed
a
with long hairs, either of a black or white colour, at the lower part, and
invariably white at the tip, forming a most beautiful silver gray.”—
Lewis & Clark, ii. p. 169.
The black fox of Lewis & CLARK is Pennant's marten, (M.pennan-
ti,) improperly called fisher, described at p. 203 of this work.
† Colle pelli si fanno pelliccie bellissime, e ricercatissime ordinaria-
mente il valore di una pelle corrisponde a tanti scudi, quanti ne può la
medesima contenere. Le piu belle fra le testè indicate pellicie si pagano
a Costantinopoli sino 50 mila piastre.—Ranzani, tomo 2º, parte 2º.

196
THE RED FOX.
SPECIES VIII.-The Red Fox.
-
Canis Fulvus ; DESM.
Renard de Virginia : DE BEAUVOIS, Bullet. de Soc. Philom.
Red Fox: LEWIS & CLARK, vol. p. 159.
Canis Fuldus: SABINE, Zool. App. 656.
This beautiful fox is found throughout North America,
and is the species which frequently has been thought iden-
tical with the common fox of Europe, to which it bears a
resemblance sufficiently striking to mislead an incidental
observer. But by the fineness of its fur, the liveliness of
colour, length of limbs and slenderness of body, as well as
the form of its skull, it is obviously distinguished.
Red foxes are very numerous in the middle and southern
states of the Union, and are every where notorious dep-
redators on the poultry-yards. Their haunts are most com-
monly in exceedingly dense thickets of young pine, where
they can scarcely be followed even by dogs.
Like all his kindred species, the red fox is distinguished
by the possession of keen senses and great sagacity or craf-
tiness, which enables him almost to bid defiance to traps,
while his strength and swiftness of foot render it extremely
difficult to capture him in the chase. Once fairly roused
by the hounds, this animal dashes off with great speed, and
soon far outstrips pursuit, and did he not lose the advan-
tage of his celerity by remitting his efforts, might soon
render the exertions of the sportsman nugatory. But the
persevering hounds again and again drive him to his ut-
most speed, and eventually wear him down, though not
until a wide extent of country has been traversed, and
huntsmen, horses and dogs have suffered severely from
fatigue.
The general colour of this fox when in full summer pe-
lage, is bright ferruginous on the head, back and sides, but
less brilliant towards the tail. Beneath the chin it is white,
while the throat and neck are a dark gray, which colour is
continued along the anterior part of the belly in a narrower
stripe that passes along the breast. The under parts of
the body towards the tail are very pale red; and the an-
terior parts of the fore legs and feet, as well as the fronts
of the inferior part of the hind legs, are black. The tail

2
G.B. Ellis
Drawn by GA. Lesueur
Engah by
sm
பாயர்
1 Red Fox. 2 Barking Wolf
".


THE RED FOX.
197
is very bushy, but less ferruginous than the body, the hairs
being mostly terminated with black, which is more obvious
towards the extremity than at the origin of the member,
giving the whole a dark appearance. A few of the hairs
are lighter at the end of the tail, but not sufficiently to
allow us to state that it is tipped with white.
In summer the fur of the red fox is long, fine, brilliant
in colour, and lustrous over the whole body. In winter
its length and denseness is considerably increased. The
red fox is nearly two feet long and about eighteen inches
high: the tail is about sixteen inches long. The peltry is
cf considerable value, and employed in various ways by
the manufacturers.
The red fox when caught young may be domesticated to
a considerable degree, but it is rendered extremely un-
pleasant by the fetor of its urine, which very strongly re-
sembles the abominable odour of the skunk, (Mephitis
Americana.) We have lately had the pleasure of seeing a
female red fox in the possession of D. BETTON, of Ger-
mantown; this animal is very interesting by its playfulness
and vivacity. It lives in the same cage, and in perfect
harmony with a raccoon, (Procyon Lotor); shows no fear
nor enmity towards the dogs of the farm, but always ex-
hibits the greatest delight on being allowed to play with
We subjoin in this note a description of the Canis Decussatus,
GeoFF. given by Sabine in the work above quoted, as the species is en-
tirely doubtful, and may prove to be a variety of the black fox, (C. Ar-
gentatus), or a mule produced between the fox last named and the red
fox. “ The cross fox, in comparison with the red, is shorter on its
legs, and has a larger and longer body, being altogether a stronger ani-
mal. The front of the head is gray, composed of black and white
hairs, the latter predominating on the forehead; the ears are large,
covered with short, soft, black fur behind, and within by long yellow-
ish hairs; the back of the neck and shoulders are pale, ferruginous,
crossed with dark stripes, one extending from the head to the back,
the other passing the first at right angles. The rest of the back is
gray, composed of black fur tipped with white; the feet are white be-
neath the under part of the tail, and the adjacent parts of the body
are pale yellow; the gray character of the back extends to the upper
part of the tail, at the commencement; the rest of the tail is dark above
and lighter beneath, being tipped with white. The character of the
fur is thick and long. The specimen when set up will stand about
fourteen inches high; it is two feet four inches in length, and the tail,
which is thick and bushy, is sixteen inches long." The colours are
very variable in different individuals, some being very nearly of the co-
lour of the red fox, while others more closely approach the black or
silver fox.

198
THE RED FOX.
them. All the gestures and movements of this fox are ex-
ceedingly similar to those of a small dog, but are performed
with remarkable quickness.
A
very young whelp of this fox was some time ago
brought to the Philadelphia Museum in company with its
foster mother, a common cat, which had adopted and ap-
peared to be very fond of it.
fond of it. She continued to nurse the
little fox for several weeks, expressing much affectionate
solicitude when he wandered from her, notwithstanding
the frequent ungrateful bites inflicted by her vicious found-
ling. How long this singular relation might have contin-
ued, or to what result it would have led, is unknown. The
fox strayed too far from his cautious nurse, fell from the
platform of a tall staircase to the ground, and was killed :
the poor cat evinced as much sorrow for her loss as if it
had been really her own offspring.
SPECIES IX.- The Gray Fox.
Canis Cinereo-Argentatus ; GMEL.
Renard Griss : BRISS. Quad. p. 41.
Agourachay: AZARA, Quad. du Paraguay, i.p.317.
Canis Cinereo-Argentatus : SABINE, Zool. App. p. 657.
Fulvous Necked Fox : SHAW, Zool. Miscel.
The gray fox is very common throughout this country and
is found more immediately in the vicinity of human habi-
tations than either of the other species. It is pursued by
our sportsmen with more pleasure than the red fox, be-
cause it does not immediately forsake its haunts and run
for miles in one direction, but, after various doublings, is
generally killed near the place whence it first started.
The gray fox, like all the species we described, exhibits
considerable differences of colour at different ages and in
different states of pelage. The length of the head and
body is about twenty-four, and of the tail eleven inches.
The general colour of the animal is grizzly, becoming
gradually darker from the fore shoulders to the posterior
parts of the back, produced by the intermixture of fulvous
hairs with those constituting the mass of the pelage, which
are thus coloured; near the body the hair is rather plum-
beous, then yellowish, then white, and then uniformly tip-

1
2
E'Larry
Se
C. l.reueur. Del.
1. Black For
2
1. Gry
Fox


THE GRAY FOX.
199
ped with lustrous black. The front, from the top of the
head to the edge of the orbits, is gray, while the rest of
the face, from the internal angle of the eye to within half
an inch of the extremity of the snout, is blackish; at the
extremity on each side of the granulated black tip of the
nose it is of a yellowish white. A fine line of black tipped
hairs extends upwards and outwards, from half an inch
below the internal angle of the eyes until it is intersected
by a similar black line about half an inch beyond the ex-
ternal angle of the eye, thus forming a very acute triangle,
,
whose basis is on the side of the face. This blackish gray
triangle, joined to the peculiar sharpness of the face, and
the line produced by the black whiskers on the sides of the
nose, singularly increase the appearance of slyness and
cunning expressed in the physiognomy of this animal.
The face below this triangle is white, and the latter colour
is continued semicircularly upon the upper part of the
throat.
The under jaw is blackish, this colour extending along
the line of the mouth, and passing about half an inch be-
yond the junction of the lips at the angle. The inner sur-
face of the ears is clothed with short light yellowish hair;
their tips on the outside are blackish gray, and the whole
of the rest of their posterior surface is yellow, which col-
our descends encircling the neck, and is the only colour on
the anterior parts, with the exception of a white spot on
the breast. The inferior parts of the body are white, tint-
ed slightly in some individuals with faint reddish brown.
The tail is thick and bushy, and the fur on the upper side
is pale yellow, slightly tipped with black; the under parts is
rust coloured, and the end entirely black.

200
THE SWIFT FOX.
SPECIES X.-The Swift Fox.*
Canis Velox ; Sav.
Burrowing Fox: LEWIS & CLARK, ii. p. 351.
Canis Velox: SAY. Long's Exp. to the Rocky Mountains, i.p. 486.
This interesting species inhabits the open plains which
extend from the base of the Rocky Mountains towards
the Missouri River, and forms its dwelling by burrowing in
the soil. It is smaller than any other fox we have describ-
ed, and is not known to frequent forest countries.
The most remarkable circumstance peculiar to this fox
is its extraordinary swiftness, which all who have seen it
agree in declaring to surpass that of any other animal with
which we are at present acquainted. The fleetest antelope
or deer, when running at full speed, is passed by this little
fox with the greatest ease, and such is the celerity of its
motion, that it is compared by the celebrated travellers
above quoted, to the flight of a bird along the ground, rather
than the course of a quadruped. Other observers have
stated that when in full speed over the plain, the effect pro-
duced on the eye makes the animal resemble a line drawn
rapidly along the surface, so impossible is it to distinguish
any of the parts of its body on account of the surprising
velocity of its motion.
Unfortunately, for us, the notes taken by Say of the ex-
ternal characters of this animal were lost, and he was
obliged to make known the species from nothing but the
head and part of the neck of one individual, and the cranrum
of another. He gives a full account of the peculiarities of
the skull of this animal in order to prove its specific distinc-
tion from the red fox, (C. Fulvus) which we do not think
it necessary to repeat in detail, but shall append to this
slight notice of the animal his description of the head and
skull which were preserved.
“ The entire length, from the insertion of the superior
incisors to the tip of the occipital crest, is rather more than
* We prefer to translate Sar's specific name for the trivial appella-
tion of this fox, rather than adopt the common name of burrowing fox,
since all the foxes burrow more or less, and the surpassing swiftness
of this animal is a much more distinctive attribute of the species.

THE SWIFT FOX.
201
inches and three-tenths ; the least distance between the or-
bital cavities nine-tenths of an inch; between the tips of the
orbital processes less than one inch and a-tenth ; between
the insertions of the lateral muscles at the junction of the
frontal and parietal bones half an inch. The greatest
breadth of this space on the parietal bones thirteen-twen-
tieths of an inch.
“ The hair is fine, dense and soft. The head above is
fulvous, verging on ferruginous intermixed with gray, the
fur being of the first mentioned colour, and the hair whitish
at base, then black, then grey, then brown. The ridge of
the nose is somewhat paler, and a more brownish line
passes from the eye to the nostrils, (as in the C. Corsac.)
The margin of the upper lip is white; the orbits are gray;
the ears behind are paler than the top of the head, inter-
mixed with black hairs, and the margin, excepting at tip,
white; the inner side is broadly margined with white hairs;
the space behind the ears is destitute of the intermixture
of hairs; the neck above has longer hairs, of which the
;
black and gray portions are more conspicuous; beneath the
head is pure white. The body is slender and the tail rath-
er long, cylindrical and black.”
VOL. I.
26

CHAPTER XV.
GENUS XVI. CAT; Felis, L.
Gr. Αιλον ροσ
Ger. Katze.
Fr. Chat.
Lat. Felis, Catus, Cattus.
Ital. Gatto; Span. Gato.
Russ. Kot; fem. Kotscha.
GENERIC CHARACTERS.
THE head is rounded, having a short face and large eyes,
of which the pupils open either circularly or vertically.
The tongue is covered with horny prickles or papillæ, which
have their points turned backwards. The body is long,
compared with the length of the legs; the teats are either
four in number, and situated on the belly, or three or four
on the chest and four on the belly. The anterior feet have
five toes, not joined by an intervening membrane; the toes
on the posterior feet are generally four in number; all the
toes are armed with sharp hooked claws, which the animals
have the power of projecting or retracting at will. The
tail varies in length according to the species.
Dental System.
16 Upper
30 Teeth:
6 Incisive
2 Canine
8 Molar
6 Incise
2 Canine
6 Molar.
4 False Molars
2 Carnivorous
2 Tuberculous.
4 False Molars
2 Carnivorous
0 Tuberculous.
14 Lower
IN THE UPPER JAW the incisors are ranged side by side
in a straight line. The two first are of equal size, wedge-
shaped and transversely grooved on their internal face; the
third is twice as large as these two, pointed and grooved on
its internal face. A vacant space separates the last incisor
from the canine, which is very large, conical, slightly hook-
ed, rounded on its internal and external face, and angular
at its anterior and posterior edges. The first false molar

OF THE CAT.
203
a
succeeds the canine, and is a small, very obtuse tooth, with
a single root. A vacant space separates that tooth from the
succeeding one, or second false molar, which we regard as
having the regular form; it is very broad, has several roots,
broad from before backwards, compressed from within out-
wards, trenchant, and presenting nearly the form of a right
angle ; its edges are divided by two grooves, or rather by two
serrations, which augment the trenchant power. The carni-
vorous, which has at least three roots, succeeds the false molar
immediately; it is a third larger than that tooth from before
backwards, and is in this direction divided into three
parts; the first is a small tubercle with cutting edges; the
second or middle one presents a large tubercle trenchant on its
edges, of a right angled figure; the third is terminated by
a nearly straight line, only a little inflected in its middle,
and with cutting edges. At the internal face of this tooth,
and at the base of the small obtuse tubercle, is a still smaller
tubercle, which is connected by a salient point to the middle
tubercle. Finally, the tuberculous molar is a very
small
tooth, very narrow from before backwards, broader from
the external to the internal side, rounded, and having one
or two roots; this tooth, concealed at the base of the carni-
vorous tooth, is entirely rudimental.
IN THE LOWER JAW the first incisive is somewhat small-
er than the second, and this than the third ; they are shaped
like blunt wedges, and show a slight groove from before
backwards, narrower on the side next to the canine than to
the opposite side. The canine, which immediately follows
the incisors, is strong, conical, and more hooked than that
of the opposite jaw, rounded on its anterior and exterior,
and angular at its internal face and exterior edge. A large
vacancy separates this tooth from the first false molar,
which is broad from before backward, slender from the
inner to the outside, with trenchant edges, and having the
right angled figure, whose edges are divided by a groove as
in the upper jaw. The succeeding false molar does not
differ except in being larger and having an additional groove
on its posterior edge; both of these teeth are normal. The
carnivorous tooth is, like the preceding, compressed from
within outwards, having cutting edges; but it is divided
into two nearly equal parts by a deep groove in its
middle, still more evident on its internal than its external
face.
In their reciprocal position the incisors are opposed

204
GENERAL HISTORY
crown to crown, whence in old animals the grooves of which
we have spoken wear away, and as these teeth are alternate,
that is, the middle of these teeth in one jaw corresponds
with the interval which separates the two opposite incisors,
they wear unequally, and become pointed instead of remain-
ing in a straight line. The anterior edge of the upper
canine is in relation with the posterior and exterior edge of
the lower canine. The superior false molar only fills the
void between the canine and the first inferior false molar.
The posterior edge of the last named tooth acts against the
anterior edge of the opposite false molar; the latter, by its
posterior edge, acts upon the internal and the anterior face
and internal tubercle of the opposite carnivorous tooth. The
whole breadth of this tooth is opposed to the external face
of the lower carnivorous, which only touches the tuberculous
tooth by its basis, or by that part of it which at its posterior
part is nearest to the roots.
It will be seen by the number, form and disposition of
these teeth, that the jaws of the cat are very short, and
that the teeth being situated near the power which moves
the jaws, they can act with great force, more especially as
the points of articulation of the jaws, or condyles, are on a
line with the teeth. The cat is absolutely carnivorous,
eating nothing but flesh, and preferring much that of
animals recently killed ; they do not eat bones, except
such as are not very hard, or when strongly pressed by
hunger.
Nature having destined the animals of this genus to sub-
sist exclusively on the flesh of other creatures, has endowed
them with insatiably blood-thirsty dispositions, and furnish-
ed them with the most effective means of destruction.
Their muscular strength especially that moving the jaw, is
exceedingly great, and gives their keen lacerating teeth,
and strong, sharp edged, pointed claws, terrific efficacy in
the infliction of wounds, while their peculiarly flexible
bodies and agility of motion enable them to spring with
vast force upon their destined victims. They are sly, in-
sidious and ferocious, approaching their prey by stealth or
stratagem, and secure it by a sudden bound, or, failing in
their first attempt, sneak off as if ashamed, but in reality
because they are not well adapted to succeed in running it

OF THE CAT.
205
a
down. Most of them climb with great facility, the larger
species especially bounding with a few efforts into the tops
of lofty trees; all of them (with the exception of one species
not found in this country) have their horrid claws entirely
concealed in a sheath, and protected from wearing or be-
coming blunted, unless protruded at the will of the animal
when about to strike its prey, or to aid in ascending trees,
&c.
Few creatures exist which are destitute of peculiar
beauties, either of adaption or ornament, and it may appear
singular to such as examine but slightly, that nature should
have been lavish of adornment to a race of animals so
generally injurious and hateful, or that the species most
remarkable for invincible ferocity and destructive habits
should be most eminently beautiful. From the dread
monarch of the desert, whose limbs combine every attribute
of vigour, and whose tawny mane adds terrific grandeur
to his aspect of savage defiance, down to the domestic cat,
whose smooth glossy fur and demure countenance might
induce a belief in her peculiar innocence, we may observe
every degree of beauty connected with fine proportions,
graceful forms and agile movements, clothed with skins
most richly variegated; an unequivocal evidence that ex-
ternal ornament is no test of disposition, and that mere
beauty should not persuade us that the possessor is there-
fore excellent.
All these animals are called cruel, and their disposition
to destroy the lives and drink the blood of other creatures
growing out of a physical necessity, has been termed cruelty.
Such expressions applied to animals are entirely incorrect,
because it implies a power of discrimination which we do
not believe them to possess. It would be exceedingly cruel
in a human being to play with the terrors of an animal
about to be put to death, and allow it to make numerous
fruitless efforts to escape; yet this act is perfectly natural
to the cat, and not more cruel than the most ordinary
movement, inasmuch as the cat can have no idea of the
suffering inflicted.
We must not rashly conclude that these animals are an
evil unattended by any utility or good. They are designed
by nature to occupy regions where animal life is most likely
to increase in undue proportion, and it is their province to
keep this increase from becoming excessive. It is in the
sultry deserts of Africa and the vast plains of Asia, that the

206
THE COUGAR.
gaunt lion raises his hollow roar, threatening destruction ;
it is in the jungles of India that the untameable tiger lurks
for his prey, and in the dense and remote forests of our
own country that the fierce and vindictive cougar utters his
startling scream. In all cases their haunts are in the vicinity
of numerous herds of animals, whose superabundant in-
crease they are engaged in restraining. They live far
retired from the habitations of man, are principally solitary
and nocturnal, and appear to diminish in direct proportion
to the advances of the human race, and the extension of
cultivation. Hence we find that nature has not in these
animals entailed a curse on mankind, they being so circum-
stanced, that their number may be diminished, and their
race even finally extinguished, as their services become less
required. *
SPECIES I.-The Cougar.
(Improperly called PANTHER.)
Felis Concolor; L.
Felis Concolor et discolor; L. GMEL. Syst. Nat. i. p. 79, Sp. 9–12.
Le Cougar; Buff. Quad. vol. 9, tab. 59; Cougar de Pennsylvanie et Cougar
Noir; BUFF. Supp. 3. p. 41, 42.
Pouma; GARCILASSO, liv. 8. chap. 18.
Gouzara ; DE AZZARA, Quad. du Paraguay, vol. i. p. 133.
Felis Concolor et discolor; TEMMINCK, Monog. de Mam. livrais 4, r. 134.
The Cougar is the largest animal of the cat kind found
in North America, and has occasionally received the name
of American lion, from the similarity of its proportions and
* For the gratification of our readers, we subjoin a note on this
genus in the words of LINNE, not only the most learned, but one of
the most eloquent naturalists whose writings we possess.
“Felis genus sobrium, scandit facile arbores, cursu celer, noctu pot-
issimum speculatur, casu delabitur in pedes contusioni vix obnoxium;
glans penis ipsis muricatus retrorsum ; retractis unguibus acutissimis
incedunt, iisque sæviunt; inhiando sanguinem hauriunt; visa præda
caudam movent; vegetabilibus ultro non vescunt."
† There is a great deal of confusion in the books relative to the true
panther, which Temminck has decided to be the Felis Pardus of
Linne. The name employed by our country people generally, is
“Painter,” evidently a corruption of Panther. We have deemed it
advisable to use the term cougar for a trivial name, to avoid the con-

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交车​长
​Kearny. Se
Pengar!


THE COUGAR.
207
>
colour to the lion of the old world. It is very little inferior
in size, and not at all in the qualities of magnanimity, cle-
mency, and generosity which have been so lavishly yet so
falsely attributed to the “king of beasts," whom we might
believe to have been distinguished as royal in derision of
some of the human species, who despotically rule over
their fellow creatures by virtue of the “ right divine” of
power.* The cougar may be stated to be about one-third
less in size than the lion, and has no mane nor tuft at the
extremity of the tail, which is about half the length of the
body and head.
The skin of this animal is clothed with a soft and close
hair over the limbs and body, of a brownish yellow colour,
or a mixture of red and blackish, with occasional patches of
a rather deep reddish tint, which are only remarkable in
certain lights, and disappear entirely with the advancing
age of the individual. A dark red is spread over all the
upper parts, produced by the tips of the hair, which is
black at base, and this colour is deeper upon the back, the
head and upper part of the tail, than upon the sides. The
belly is pale red; the breast, inside of the thighs and legs,
are of a reddish white, and the lower jaw and throat entirely
white. The ear is whitish internally and black externally,
a
fusion which would be occasioned by that of panther, more especially
as the former is more generally known and used than that of рита,
applied by some European naturalists to this animal.
* The lordly lion” conceals himself near the places where deer
and other animals come to drink, and springs upon them from his
ambush, like the veriest tom-cat; having feeble sight, and being unfit
for the chase, he follows the wild dogs and chacals, which run down buf-
faloes, antelopes, &c. and when they have succeeded, drives them off
and gorges to repletion; as he relinquishes the carcass when satiated,
he is called generous ; as he does not attack and devour men, when not
hungry, he is considered magnanimous; he retires slowly, facing his
enemies, being unable to run with speed, and is celebrated for his noble
spirit; and as he does not kill the wild dogs and other small animals,
because it is not in his power to catch them, he is then called clement;
while, in virtue of his great strength, dreadful claws, horrid teeth and
awful roar, he is considered as altogether royal. Yet this king of quad-
rupeds has not half the moral excellence of a poodle dog, nor a thou-
sandth part of the dignity of character possessed by the elephant. He
is, moreover, no match for the great tiger of Asia, which, in ferocity,
savage daring, audacious destructiveness, unconquerable and inap-
peasable hatred to mankind, is infinitely more royal, and a more con-
sistent emblem of a great number of human kings who have aided in
various ages and countries to retard the progress of improvement and
the march of mind.

208
THE COUGAR.
a
with the exception of the small external lobule, which is
reddish gray. The head has a great many gray hairs
upon
it; the whiskers are white and rise in a blackish
space;
the
end of the tail is black. The round spots varying in size,
are more or less distinct according to the age of the indivi-
dual, and are found in greatest number on the thighs, where
they are not so close together. The sexes are not distin-
guishable by the colour of the pelage.*
The cougar was at an early period distributed in con-
siderable numbers over the whole of the warm and temper-
ate regions of this continent, and is still found, though by
no means abundantly, in the southern, middle and north-
western parts of the Union, becoming, however, gradually
more rare as the population increases and cultivation is
extended. It is a savage and destructive animal, yet timid
and cautious: in ferocity it is quite equal to most of its
kindred species, and kills numbers of small animals for the
sake of drinking their blood, and when pressed by hunger
attacks large quadrupeds, though not always with success.
When the cougar seizes a sheep or calf, it is by the throat,
and then flinging the victim over its back it dashes off with
great ease and celerity to devour at leisure; deer, hogs,
sheep and calves are destroyed by the cougar whenever
they are within reach, and occasionally one or two of these
animals have committed extensive ravages among the
stock of the frontier settlers. They climb or rather spring
up large trees with surprising facility and vigour, and in
that way are enabled, by dropping suddenly upon deer and
other quadrupeds, to secure prey which it would be impos-
sible for them to overtake.
In the day time the cougar is seldom seen, but its pecu-
culiar cry frequently thrills the experienced traveller with
horror, while camping in the forest at night, or he is startled
to hear the cautious approaches of the animal, stealing step
by step towards him over the crackling brush and leaves,
in expectation of springing on an unguarded or sleeping
victim, whom nothing but a rapid flight can save.
That
* We have chosen to draw up this description from the excellent
monography of TEMMINCK, on account of the admirable opportunities
he has enjoyed and profited by, of visiting all the rich collections of
Europe, especially of Paris, where there is a full series of cougars
preserved in the museum. In this city there are very few specimens,
and of these a still smaller number fit to furnish materials for a des-
cription of extensive application.

THE COUGAR.
209
the cougar will attack animals of large size and great
strength is well known to those who have resided where this
beast is found, in proof of which we may here insert a
letter received from a scientific friend, who, during
twenty-five or thirty years, has resided in the state of
Ohio, and made the study of natural history his chief
amusement.
Lexington, Ky. March. 26, 1826.
DEAR FRIEND.--About the first of December, 1819, I
visited Shane's prairie with the view of procuring specimens
of every quadruped to be obtained in that district of country.
I made early inquiry of SHANE* as to what animals might
be collected, and whether it was possible a cougar could be
found. On the subject of the cougar he expressed some
doubt, but believed that one was still lurking somewhere
between Shane's crossing of St. Mary's river and Fort
Wayne. This individual, he was of opinion, was the only
one which for many years past had resided within his vici-
nity. He related various anecdotes of the alarm caused to
travellers by this animal, especially at the twelve mile
swamp, then a common camping ground on the Fort Wayne
road. The following is the most interesting :
About the close of the late war, a merchant of Piqua
named Herse, received a considerable sum of money in small
bills, which made it appear of still greater magnitude to
* “We travelled for twelve miles over a swampy country through
which the St. Mary flows, after which we struck a dry plain, known
by the name of Shane's prairie, and at eighteen miles from Fort St.
Mary, we crossed the river at a settlement called Shanesville ; both
the prairie and the settlement (which consists of but one family) owe
their appellation to an interpreter, who is a half bred Indian ; his fa-
ther was a Canadian and his mother an Ottawa. He was employed
as an interpreter and spy by General Harrison during his western
campaigns, and is considered as having acquitted himself of his duties
faithfully; on the conclusion of the war he was rewarded by the
grant of half a section of land (320 acres), which he has divided into
town lots; he resides within a short distance of Shanesville on part
of his grant. No man is better known in this part of the country
than Shane ; his influence among the Indians is great, and he enjoys
a high degree of popularity among the whites, founded upon the
uniformly good character which he maintained during the war, and
upon the unbounded confidence reposed in him by General Harrison.-
Long's Expedition to the Source of St Peter's River. By W. H.
Kearing, A. M. vol. i. p. 76.
VOL. I.
27

210
THE COUGAR.
care.
several suspicious looking persons who were present when
it was received. Mr. Herse being unarmed, was apprehen-
sive that an attempt would be made to rob him at the
camping ground, and expressed his apprehensions to a single
fellow traveller, who was also unprovided with arms. In
consequence, they resolved not to go to the camping ground,
but to pass the night in the woods without fire ; there,
;
turning their horses loose, they lay down in their blankets
on the leaves. In the night they were aroused by hearing
the horses snort, as they are apt to do on the approach of
Indians, and shortly after they were heard to make several
bounds through the woods, as if some one had unsuccessfully
attempted to catch them. After some time had elapsed
they both distinctly heard what they supposed to be a man
crawling towards them on his hands and feet, as they could
hear first one hand cautiously extended and pressed very
gently on the leaves to avoid making a noise, then the other,
and finally the other limbs in like manner and with equal
When they believed that this felonious visiter was
within about ten feet of them, they touched each other,
sprang up simultaneously, and rushed to some distance
through the woods, where they crouched and remained
without further disturbance. A short time after they heard
the horses snorting and bounding furiously through the
woods, but they did not venture to arise until broad day-
light, being still ignorant of the character of their enemy,
When sufficiently light to see, by climbing a sapling they
discovered the horses at a considerable distance on the
prairie. On approaching them it was at once evident that
their disturber had been nothing less than a cougar. It had
sprung upon the horses, and so lacerated with its claws and
teeth their flanks and buttocks, that with the greatest dif-
ficulty were they able to drive the poor creatures before
them to Shane's. Several other instances of annoyance to
travellers had happened at the same place, and Shane be-
lieved by the same cougar.
I now offered, through Shane, a reward of ten dollars to
any of the Indians who would bring in this animal, and a
few evenings after on returning from a day's hunting, I found
an Indian waiting with the body of the cougar, which he
had killed about two hours before. This Indian found its
track about fourteen miles from Shane's, and tracked it to
within about two miles of Shane's house, where he was on
the point of abandoning the chase. At this moment he

THE COUGAR.
211
heard the bushes rustle, and turning he saw the beast,
which had sprung against the body of a tree to observe its
pursuer. He instantly fired, and shot him through the
heart, as I found on dissecting the animal. The Indian
dragged the body about a quarter of a mile on the snow,
but finding it too heavy, came to Shane's and obtained a
sledge, on which he brought it in.
The following measurements were made by myself on
the spot :-Length from the tip of the nose to the root of
the tail, 4 feet 5 inches.-Length of the tail, 2 feet 4 inches.
Height before and behind, (toes extended) 2 feet 7 inches.
-Circumference immediately before the fore legs, 2 feet
7 inches.-Around the body, just before the hind legs, 2 feet
6 inches.—Of the neck, close to the head, 1 foot 5 inches.
-Of the wrist, 7 inches.-Length of the fore leg to the
body, 11 | inches.—Of the hind leg in the same way, 20
inches.—Of the head, just before the ears, 20 inches.-
The eyes were brown.
ROBERT BEST, M. D.
.
-
This fine specimen was carefully prepared, and is now
in the Western Museum at Cincinnati, Ohio. We have
been furnished with a drawing of this animal from the
pencil of Mr. C. CORWINE, a respectable and promising
artist resident in that city, through the kindness of DANIEL
DRAKE, M. D. a gentleman who is not less distinguished
by his profound acquaintance with his profession, than for
the zeal and liberality with which he devotes himself to the
advancement of natural science.
In the remote and thinly settled parts of Pennsylvania
the cougar is still occasionally found, and the following
relation of the manner in which two of these animals were
recently killed, will be read with interest from the singula-
rity of the attendant circumstances. We have the account
through our friend ISAAC Hays, M. D. direct from Mr.
JOHN MITCHELL, the respectable gentleman who killed
them, and presented their skins and heads to the Philadel-
phia Academy of Natural Sciences.
About five miles from Philipsburg, Centre county, Mr.
Mitchell, on the 8th of December, 1825, shot at a buck
(Cervus Virginianus,) and wounded him in the shoulder.
He followed the animal for some time, and at length
perceived him at the distance of about forty yards, lying
with his heels upwards, and a cougar holding him by the

212
THE COUGAR.
throat. The hunter discharged his rifle at the cougar and
shot him through the heart, when this animal relinquished
the buck, advanced four or five yards, and fell lifeless.
Having again charged his rifle, and believing the panther
to be dead, Mr. Mitchell, turning towards the wounded
buck, was surprised to see another cougar in the act of
pulling down the head, and as it now appeared, the buck
had been held down by the throat by both cougars at the
moment the first was killed. The body of the buck was
between the hunter and the second cougar, nothing but the
head of which was visible. At this Mr. Mitchell levelled
his rifle, and the ball entered it at the angle of the eye.
The beast remained still for a few minutes, and then, for
the first time, relinquished his hold of the buck and walked
over it towards the hunter, who fired his rifle a second
time and shot him through in the neighbourhood of the
heart. At this moment the buck recovered his legs, stum-
bled over the body of the cougar, finally extricated himself,
and ran off. A third discharge of the rifle pierced the
cougar with another ball, yet he still remained on his feet,
and it was not until the rifle was again charged and a
fourth ball driven through the back part of the under jaw,
that the animal fell and expired. What is most singular
is, that the male should not have relinquished his hold of
the buck when the female was killed, but continued in the
same position until the ball entered his own head near the
The buck ran near a mile before he was finally
overtaken and killed. During his walk home, loaded with
the trophies of his success, Mr. Mitchell killed another
buck, having, during an absence of four days, killed two
cougars and four bucks.
The following account of the destruction of a large cou-
gar, which is still preserved in the New York Museum, was
given by the late Mr. Scudder. Two hunters, accompa-
nied by two dogs, went out in quest of game near the Cat-
skill mountains. At the foot of a large hill, they agreed to
eye. *
* “ Major Smith witnessed an extraordinary instance of the ab-
stracted ferocity of this animal, when engaged with its food. A puma
[cougar] which had been taken and confined, was ordered to be shot.
which was done immediately after the animal had received its food. The
first ball went through its body, and the only notice he took of it was
by a shrill growl, doubling his efforts to devour his food, which he
actuaily continued to swallow with quantities of his own blood till he
fell.”—Griffith's Translation of Cuvier, p. 438.
-


OM
2
Of
1
Sc
F.Krawy
Kider. Det
2. Wild Cat
1
Canada Lyne

THE COUGAR.
213
go round it in opposite directions, and when either discharg-
ed his rifle the other was to hasten towards him to aid in
securing the game. Soon after parting, the report of a
rifle was heard by one of them, who, hastening towards
the spot, after some search, found nothing but the dog,
dreadfully lacerated and dead. He now became much
alarmed for the fate of his companion, and while anxiously
looking around, was horror struck by the harsh growl of a
cougar, which he perceived on a large limb of a tree,
crouching upon the body of his friend, and apparently me-
ditating an attack on himself. Instantly he levelled his
rifle at the beast, and was so fortunate as to wound it mor-
tally, when it fell to the ground along with the body of his
slaughtered companion. His dog then rushed upon the
wounded cougar, which with one blow of its paw laid the
poor animal dead by its side. The surviving hunter now
left the spot, and quickly returned with several other per-
sons, when they found the lifeless cougar extended near the
dead bodies of the hunter and the faithful dogs.*
SPECIES II.-The Northern Lynx.
Felis Canadensis ; GEOFF.
Felis Lynx : L. Syst. Nat. p. 83.
Le Lynx du Canada : BUFF. Hist. Nat. Suppl. iii. p. 44.
Lynx du Canada : C. Ossem. Fossiles, Nouv. ed. iv. p. 443.
Gatto Lince: RANZANI, ii. p. 309, sp. 8.
Felis Canadensis ; GEOFF. Catal. des Mammiff. p. 120.
Felis Canadensis : SABINE, Zool. App. to Franklin's Exped. p. 659.
Felis Borealis : TEMMINCK, Monog. de Mammal. livr. 4e. p. 111.,
[Loup-Cervier; Lynx de Suède of the Furriers.]
The researches of the justly distinguished TEMMINCK have
reduced the catalogue of lynxes or wild cats inhabiting
North America to two species, of which one is common to
* These incidents may remind many of our readers of the spirited
and highly interesting account given in Cooper's “Pioneers of the
Susquehanna,” of a combat between a female cougar and a mastiff,
which may be referred to with pleasure and advantage, on account
of its verisimilitude; a merit by no means common in such works, and
more especially in relation to American animals. Nothing can well
be productive of deeper disgust to one who has any knowledge of
natural history, than the inappropriate and ridiculous relations of the

214
THE NORTHERN LYNX.
а.
both continents, and one proper to the American. The
species now to be described is found only in the northern
regions of both continents.
The northern lynx* is a fierce and subtle creature, ex-
hibiting most of the traits of character which distinguish
animals of the cat kind. To the smaller quadrupeds, such
as rabbits, hares, lemmings, &c. it is exceedingly destruc-
tive, never leaving the vicinities they frequent until their
numbers are altogether destroyed, or exceedingly thinned.
But the ravages of the northern lynx are not confined to
such small game; it drops from the branches of trees on
the necks of deer, and clinging firmly with its sharp hook-
ed claws, ceases not to tear at the throat and drink the blood
of the animal until it sinks exhausted and expires. It at-
tacks sheep and calves in the same manner, and preys upon
wild turkies and other birds, which it is capable of surpris-
ing, even on the tops of the highest trees.
The northern lynx is found in great abundance in the
country south-west of the Hudson's Bay settlements, but it
is scarce to the north of Churchill river. Large packages
of the skins of this species are exported by the Hudson's
Bay company to Europe annually ; in one year nine thous-
and were sent. The fur is highly esteemed by the dealers
in peltry
The northern lynx is fearful of man, offers very little
resistance when attacked, and is easily killed by a smart
blow over the back. This animal is not often found to ap-
proach closely to the European settlements, but frequents
the plains and woods where the animals on which it subsists
are obtained in greatest abundance. The flesh of this lynx
is considered good food by hunters, being fat, white, and
flavoured like the hare, on which it principally feeds.
The northern lynx has a large body and strong legs, and
measures about three feet from the tip of its nose to the
end of its tail, which is about six or seven inches long, and
black for half its length towards the extremity. The head
is thick and round, and the ears sharp and tipped with a
habits and appearance of animals frequently introduced into popular
books ; when given correctly or consistently with the true character of
the animals, references to nature always impart pleasure, and add to
the durability of the work they are intended to adorn.
* The description of the Felis Rufa, bay lynx, or wild cat, will be
given in the appendix.

THE NORTHERN LYNX.
215
tuft of black hair. There are four or five small undulating
bands on the cheeks, and the labial whiskers are white.
The animal is about sixteen inches high.
The general colour of the northern lynx is deep reddish,
marked on the flanks with small oblong spots of a reddish
brown, with small round spots of the same colour on the
limbs. The ears are black externally, but covered by an
angular space of shining ash colour; the eyes are surround-
ed by a whitish circle to a black longitudinal mark above
them, running from each side towards the front. The back
is never marked by a black band along its middle.
In summer dress the pelage is short, the hair being brown
at the base and of a bright red at the point. In winter the
hairs are longer and all their points are whitish; the silky
hairs, which are most numerous and long in winter, render
the colour of the animal ash or whitish, which in summer
gives place to the more decided red, marked with brown
spots.
* Temminck, Mong. de Mammal livr. 4e. p. 111.

CHAPTER XVI.
FAMILY IV.-CARNIVORA AMPHIBIA; Amphibious Flesh-Eaters.
THE peculiarities of conformation observable in these
animals clearly demonstrate that they are destined to pass
the greater part of their lives in the water. Their bodies
are elongated, tapering from the anterior part of the chest
to the posterior extremities, very flexible and powerfully
muscular. The members are so modified as to be enclosed
by the skin of the body, allowing only their flexible extremi-
ties to project, the hind legs presenting backwards, and
placed in such a manner as to correspond to the tail of a
fish, both in use and position. The heads of these animals,
are either entirely destitute of projecting ears, and have a
small slit, which is closed by muscular action to prevent the
entrance of water, or they have very small triangular ears,
little more than perceptible. The nostrils are provided with
a peculiar muscular apparatus, by which their orifices are
perfectly closed at the will of the animal, effectually excluding
water from the lungs during submersion. Their power of
swimming is still further augmented by their coats of close
smooth hair, which uniformly has the points presenting to-
wards the posterior extremities. The feet are very imper-
fectly adapted for walking.
GENUS XVII. SEAL ; Phoca, C.
Gr. Φοκη
Ger. Robbe, Seebund,
Fr. Veau Marin, Phoque.
Dutch, Rob : Zeehond.
Den. Sælhund, Sæl.
Swed. Själ.
Ital. Foca.
GENERIC CHARACTERS.
The seals, like other mammiferous animals, are provid-
ed with four limbs, yet nothing but their extremities appear
externally, being closely covered up by the integument of

OF THE SEAL.
217
the trunk of the body, the fore limbs to the wrist, the hind-
er to the heel. The digits of the fore feet are successively
shorter from the thumb, which is the longest. The pos-
terior feet have lateral digits either longer than the inter-
mediate, or the whole nearly of an equal length. On the
upper, lip are strong erectile whiskers; the tongue is
smooth and bifid at tip. The stomach is simple, the cæcum
short, the digestive tube long and nearly equal in size.
The nose is closed by the action of muscles at the extremity
of the nostrils. The heart is formed in all respects analo-
gous to terrestrial warm blooded animals, but their blood is
very
black and abundant. They have a large venous sinus
in their liver, which (Cuvier thinks) may aid them in diving,
by rendering respiration less necessary to the circulation of
their blood.
Dental System.
We have seen, describing the dental systems of insect-
ivorous and carnivorous animals, what strong resemblance
exists between the molars of the former and the tubercu-
lous molars of the latter, being alike in their forms and
destinations, composed of the same tubercles, and arranged
according to the same relations, but only a little more ob-
tuse in the carnivorous than in the insectivorous animal,
and in all better suited for crushing than cutting.
We shall now see in the seals of our first division all
the molars assume the form of the regular false molars,
varying in their degree of slenderness and trenchant char-
acter, with deeper or more numerous serrations on their
edges, and having several roots; and in those of the second
division, we shall find them take in thickening a more or
less conical form, which seems so much the more to make
the transition from these teeth to those of some cetaceous
animals, as each of them appears to have but a single root.
These are the only two general forms under which we
find the molars of seals; but the divisions they characterize,
and which may be considered as suborders or families, are
divided into several groups by other considerations, and
among these by the incisive teeth, which differ in number
in different species. In this respect the seals, having teeth
with several roots, form three divisions : 1st, those having
six superior and four inferior incisors, among which we find
the common seal :2nd, with four superior and four in-
ferior, (as in the P. Monachus) :--3d, having four superior
Vol. 1.
29

218
GENERAL HISTORY
and two inferior (the only example of which is the P.
Mitrata.*)
*
Scals having several roots to their Teeth.
34 Teeth
6 Incisive
18 Upper 2 Canine
10 Molar. .
4 Incisive
16 Lower 2 Canine
2 10 Molar.
IN THE UPPER JAW the first incisor is rather smaller than
the second, and that, half the size of the third ; all are hook-
ed, terminating in a point resembling canine teeth in form,
especially the last one. The canine follows after a vacant
space; it is strong, uniformly rounded, except on its inner
surface, where there are slight longitudinal ribs, separated
at the base and united at their points. The first molar,
situated at the base of the canine, is one half smaller than
the others, rounded, terminated by a point, around which
are placed some other very small points irregularly dispos-
ed. The four which follow and resemble each other have
the forms of false molars, but their posterior cutting edge
is separated by two grooves into two serrations, the first
very deep and the second slighter. These grooves are not
so distinctly marked upon the last of these teeth.
IN THE LOWER JAW the first incisor is much smaller
than the second, and they both partake slightly of the canine
form. The canines resemble those of the other jaw, as do
the molars, except that there are one or two grooves, and
by consequence one or two serrations on the anterior cut-
ting edge of those in the lower jaw.
In their reciprocal position the incisors and canine teeth
of both jaws have the same relations as in the carnivorous
animals, and the molars also resemble, in this respect, the
false molars of these quadrupeds. They are alternate,
and do not pass each other so as to cut like scissor-blades,
but the trenchant surfaces of the opposite teeth are applied
immediately against each other, dividing the food by direct
compression.
The common seal(Phoca Vitulina )furnish Mr.F. CUVIER
with this type of dentition.
* Sent from New York to Paris, and thus named by Mr. MILBERT.

OF THE SEAL.
219
A comparitively short time has elapsed since the animals
of this genus served as fruitful themes to declaiming theo-
rists, and gave ample scope to their ingenuity in explaining
the supposed relations existing between them and other
parts of the animal kingdom. From the ponderous volumes
of Aldrovandus and Gesner, down to the fascinating elo-
quence of the inaccurate Buffon, these beings have been
considered as a sort of anomaly, bearing the same relation
to fish as that in which the bat was supposed to stand to
birds; they have been invested by ignorant observers with
various imaginary attributes, which have been frequently
perpetuated through the heedlessness and prejudices of the
learned. Happily for us, the absurdities involving this
part of our subject have gradually and finally disappeared
before the increasing light of science, leaving no food for
wondering credulity, but developing innumerable objects
for enlightened admiration, in the study of the beautiful
modifications of structure by which the great Author of
nature has enabled breathing and warm blooded quadru-
peds to dwell in the vasty deep" without in the slightest
degree depriving them of the intelligence or other charac-
teristics of their order.
The natural history of the seal has been known during
a great lapse of time, and what is more singular, is as cor-
rectly given by Aristotle as by Buffon, with all his advantages.
This difference may be readily accounted for by observing
that Aristotle states the facts which he had ascertained,
without endeavouring to suit them to any preconceived
opinion. De Buffon, believing in the absurd notion that
animals capable of living for a considerable time under
water had an opening between the right and left auricles
of the heart, insists upon the existence of such a commu-
nication in the seal, even in opposition to positive demon-
stration. The prejudicial influence of error, when favour-
ed by great men, is very clearly seen in the instance of the
French naturalist, for the mere expression of his opinion
was sufficient to induce M. La Verniere, who had dissect-
ed a seal and disapproved the existence of the opening in
che heart, to discredit the testimony of his own senses, *
a
* " Je ne sais si le changement d'habitudes que cet animal avoit
contractées auroit pu former une membrane de cette structure ; mais
il me suffit, monsieur, que vous en affirmiez la possibilite, pour être
de votre sentiment.”- Rep. de M. de la Verniere ; BUFF. 34. p. 47.

220
GENERAL HISTORY
degree of complaisance which we may hope will meet with
few imitators at the present day.
Seals are found on the sea coasts throughout the world
in various degrees of abundance, and some species are
peculiar to certain latitudes. They are most numerous
very far to the north, where they almost exclusively
furnish the Eskimaux resident in those chill regions with
food, clothing, and implements made from their bones, &c.
Seals are viviparous, bringing forth and suckling their
young on land: they are polygamous and gregarious, living
in large families together, and exhibiting curious traits of
character which will be described when treating of the spe-
cies. They swim with admirable facility, remain for a
considerable time under water, and derive their food en-
tirely from the sea. They are very fond of sunning them-
selves
upon
the sea-beach or on ice-banks, scrambling upon
them by aid of their flippers or fore feet. On land their
movements are awkward and heavy, but not so slow as we
might suppose from their appearance: to this motion of
the seal the term “walloping” has been aptly applied. They
are vigilant, intelligent, and tenacious of life. It was from
imperfectly made observations on these animals, that the
ancient fictions of sea-nymphs, mermaids, sirens and tritons
were founded.*
De Buffon proposed to divide this genus into two parts
* We subjoin a translation of Aristotle's account of the seal, that the
reader may judge of the accuracy of this very ancient and truly illus-
trious naturalist, who flourished upwards of three hundred years be-
fore the christian era. The parts of his statement which are incor-
rect or doubtful are italicised.
“The seal is an amphibious animal; it does not inhale water, but,
on the contrary, breathes the air; sleeps, and brings forth its young on
land as if it were a terrestrial animal, but couples on the margin of the
sea. It passes the greater part of its life in the water, and there obtains
,
its food, absolutely viviparous internally and externally, the female bring-
ing forth living animals enveloped in a chorion; she has milk like a sheep.
;
The young are one, two, or at most three in number. The teats are
two in number, which the young suck like other quadrupeds. The
seal brings forth like the human race at all seasons of the year ;
nevertheless most frequently in the season when the kids are dropped.
When the young are about eleven days old, the mother leads them
several times a day to the sea, to accustom them gradually thereto;
but as their feet are not yet able to sustain them, they allow themselves
to slide along without walking. The seal can easily draw up its
body and double it on itself,* because it is fleshy, supple, and the bones
* This is entirely true of the neck of the seal,


UNITY
( יחייך חייך
PS
Ekrarny. Se
Reder. Det
ce
I

OF THE SEAL.
221
or subgenera, founded on a character which to him appear-
ed very striking and natural, the absence or presence of
external ears.* This division was subsequently adopted
by PERON, who formed his subgenera phoca and otaria for
the reception of the species thus distinguished. The same
arrangement is followed by Cuvier and Mr. DESMAREST
but is rejected by FRED. CUVIER for the following reasons :
-he thinks there is nothing sufficiently absolute in this
character, and that the common seal, which is considered to
belong to phoca and not to otaria, has nevertheless a per-
fectly formed though a very small external ear. Accord-
ing to his views, the character drawn from the incisor teeth,
first employed by Mr. Blainville for the divisions of an in-
ferior order, is preferable to that commonly adopted, after
BUFFON and PERON.
SPECIES I. - The Common Seal.
Phoca Vitulina ; L.
Vitulus Oceani : ROND. 453.
Kassigiak : CRANTZ, Hist. of Greenland, i. 123.
Le Phoque Commun: BUFF. p. 34.
Our impressions relative to this animal will be very op-
posite, according as we see it for the first time upon the
*
are cartilaginous. Its great quantity of flesh renders it difficult to kill,
if it be not struck on the side of the head.* Its voice resembles that
of the bull.
* Αν μη τισ παταξη παρα τον κρσταφoν.” Κεφ. F.
Buffon, par Sonnini, tom. 34. p. 3.
+ “Sans examiner la valeur physiologique de ce caractére, je ferai
seulement remarquer qu'il n'a rien d'assez absolu, et que le phoque
commun qui est considéré comme un phoque et non point comme un
otarie, a une conque externe trés petite il est vrai, mais trés nettement
formée. Quoiqu'il en soit cette division a généralement été suivie, et
les derniers travaux des zoologistes la reproduisent. Le point de vue
sous lequel j'envisage les phoques, ne me permet pas de m'y conform-
er; je crois méme que les caractères pris des incisives, et que M.
Blainville a le premier employé pour les divisions d'un ordre inférieur,
est préférable à celui qui est tiré de l'oreille, quoiqu'il ne produise point
encore de reunions naturelles d'espéces comme nous aurons occasion
de le faire remarquer. Ce sont donc les divisions formées par les
dents que je suivrai dans les dtaiels ou je vais entrer."--Des Dents
Des Mammif. p. 317.

222
THE COMMON SEAL.
land or in the water. Viewed while basking on shore, its
peculiar form and seeming helplessness leads us to misjudge
its strength and activity, while its motions are so clumsy
and awkward that it excites a degree of compassion for its
apparent deformity and imperfection. But, beheld in that
fluid to which every peculiarity of its conformation is so
admirably adapted, we relinquish all ideas of its imperfect-
ness, with surprise that we could for a moment have indulg-
ed in them. Its countenance, enlivened by large, dark,
and lustrous eyes, which vigilantly regard surrounding ob-
jects, is remarkably expressive of intelligence. All its
actions indicate the exertion of great strength, which is
every moment displayed in movements of most graceful ac-
tivity, whether while surmounting with head erect the foam-
ing crest of the billow, and cleaving the waves with wonder-
ful swiftness in chase of the finny tenants of the deep, wheel-
ing in easy circles by gentle flexures of the body while
sporting with its frolicsome companions, or diving profoundly
to elude the pursuit of an eager enemy.
The common seal frequents the sea-coasts perhaps
throughout the world, but is most numerous in high north-
ern latitudes, and furnishes the inhabitants of those frigid
regions with nearly all their necessaries and luxuries. In
such situations, the Eskimaux are denied the opportunity
of deriving their subsistence from animals which depend
upon the vegetable kingdom for nutriment, but to compen-
sate for this disadvantage, the seas which wash their
ice-bound shores are thronged with seals and walruses,
supplying to them the place of flocks and herds, without
requiring from those fed and clothed by them any provision
for their maintenance.
This seal has a round head, which at the fore part bears
considerable resemblance to that of an otter, though the
whole aspect is not unlike that of some varieties of the
dog, whence the name of sea-dog, sea-wolf, &c. has been
applied to different species of seal. The extremity of the
snout or muzzle is flat and broad; the posterior part of
the head is very large and without bony projections; the
upper lip is peculiar, movable and extensive, garnished
with long, unequally thick, strong whiskers, which are ca-
pable of being erected, or thrown forward by the action
of a peculiar muscle. The seal has no external ear, but
instead of it a very small tubercle on the anterior edge of
the opening to the tympanum, which is placed considera-

THE COMMON SEAL.
223
bly posterior to the orifice. Over the eyes,
,
which are
much nearer to the ears than the nose, there are seven or
eight bristles similar to the whiskers, but smaller. The
fore limbs are short, and the feet have five digits, joined
together by a membrane, having thick, long, black nails,
projecting from their extremities: these nails are longer
on the hind than they are on the fore feet.
The general colour of the seal is of a yellowish gray,
,
varied or spotted with brown or blackish in different de-
grees, according to the age of the animal. On the head
and back the colour is generally darkest, while on the flanks
and belly it is pale. In advanced age the colour is gene-
rally whiter. The hair in this species differs remarkably
from what we find in others, being close and not present-
ing entirely backward. The hairs are individually stiff,
harsh, flat and pointed, yet slender, dry and shining ; they
are blackish brown until near the point, and then yellow-
ish gray.
From the organization of the common seal, as well as
on account of the medium in which the greater part of its
life is spent, we should not be induced to believe that any
of its senses are remarkably acute. Its powers of vision
appear to be considerable, though it sees much better in a
moderate than in a strong light; its sense of smelling can-
not be exercised to much advantage while the animal is
under water, as at that time the nostrils are perfectly
closed by muscular action. From the manner in which
the whole external surface excepting the end of the nose
is covered with hair, the sense of touch would appear to be
slight, and the small size of the ears, as well as the man-
ner in which they are generally immersed, lead to a belief
that this sense also is not very acute.
Notwithstanding all these apparent defects, the seal is
susceptible of a remarkable degree of education, learns to
distinguish his feeder, to perform various actions when
commanded, both in the water and on land, and acquires
fondness enough for the society of domestic animals kept
with him to attempt following them, in spite of his awk-
ward and disadvantageous movements. The brain of the
seal is very large, when compared with that of various
other quadrupeds of less remarkable intelligence, and it is
fair to infer that to this circumstance its intellectual supe-
riority is attributable.

224
THE COMMON SEAL.
a
The manner in which the seal feeds is very interesting ;
when fish are thrown into a tub where several of these
animals are kept together, they eagerly spring to a consid-
erable distance in the air, raising half their bodies out of
water and elogating their necks to the utmost. In most
instances the fish is swallowed directly, without the slightest
chewing, the swallowing being facilitated by the elevation
of the head and straightening of the neck. If the fish be
caught by the tail, it is immediately disabled by being crush-
ed between the teeth, and is then turned head foremost and
swallowed without chewing. When a fish too broad to be
thus bolted is given, then the seal chews it rather with a view
of compressing it sufficiently to allow of its passage into the
stomach than for the purpose of comminution. While en-
gaged in feeding, the aspect of the seal is very different
from what it is when the animal is quiescent. The upper
lip is thickened and projected forwards, the bristles or whis-
kers fiercely erected, and the nostrils dilated and closed
with force. They also feed while under water and swallow
with as much ease as in the air, but in a different manner.
Under water it opens the mouth but partially, and lowers
the under jaw, while it separates the lips at the extremity,
apparently drawing in the prey by suction. It is not yet
ascertained in what manner the animal avoids the ingur-
gitation of water at the moment of thus swallowing.
In a state of captivity the seal expresses little or nothing
of fearfulness, and does not avoid either man or animals,
except when very closely approached. They are not in-
clined to bite or injure persons examining them, so long as
no attempt is made to touch them with the hand, or other-
wise disturb them, but if thus annoyed they snap fiercely,
and also strike with their flippers or fore feet. Their char-
acteristic vigilance never appears to forsake them a
moment. Three of these animals, two adults one and
nearly full grown, were exhibited in this city last season, in
a large box or tub containing water. Though they ap-
peared to be very sleepy at times, and unwilling to be dis-
turbed, yet every half minute the eyes were slowly opened,
and it was almost impossible to succeed in touching them
with out their being first alarmed. These were caught in a bay
on the coast of Massachusetts, by aid of a net; when first
captured they fought desperately, and were with great dif-
ficulty secured. After being a few months in captivity they
became quite harmless, and the younger one learned to

THE COMMON SEAL.
225
a
a
perform several tricks, placing himself in different attitudes
at the command of the keeper. They all died during the
winter, in consequence of too much exposure to cold, in a
small quantity of nearly fresh water, together with a sus-
pension of all their natural habits. One of these animals
occasionally made a noise resembling the loud snorting of a
horse, and all of them were in the habit of drawing the
head under water every few minutes, as if to moisten the
eyes.
FREDERICK CUvier has published, in his splendid work
on mammiferous animals, some very interesting observa-
tions on two young seals kept in the menagerie at Paris,
from which we shall here introduce a sketch. These indi-
viduals showed no fear in the presence of men or other ani-
mals, never attempting to escape or withdraw themselves,
unless to avoid being trodden on, and then merely remov-
ing to a short distance. One of them would occasionally
threaten with its voice and strike with its
paw,
but would
never bite unless extremely provoked. They were very
voracious, yet showed no ill temper when their food was
taken from them, and some young dogs, to which one of the
seals was attached, would snatch the fish from his mouth
just as he was about to swallow it, without the seal showing
any sign of anger. When both the seals were suffered to
eat together, they usually fought with their paws,
and the
strongest drove the other away.
One of these seals was at first very shy, and retreated
when any one attempted to caress him, yet in a few days
he became quite tame and confident of the kindness of
those who approached him.-When shut up with two little
dogs that used to mount upon his back and playfully bark
and bite at him, he soon entered into the spirit of their ac-
tions, and took pleasure in their frolics, striking them gently
with his paw rather to encourage than repress them.
When the dogs ran off he would follow them, though the
ground was covered with stones and mud. During cold
weather he would lie in close company with the dogs for the
sake of their mutual warmth. The other seal evinced a
strong degree of attachment to the keeper, recognising him
at a considerable distance, and using many expressive ges-
tures and looks to solicit his attention and obtain food, the
idea of which was no doubt associated with the
the keeper. These seals barked commonly in the evening,
or on a change of weather, though with a much feebler
VOL. I.
presence of
29

226
THE COMMON SEAL.
a
voice than that of the dog ; their anger was exhibited by a
kind of hissing noise.*
The common seal brings forth two young in autumn,
and suckles them on shore until they are six or seven
weeks old, when they are gradually accustomed by their
parents to frequent the sea. At this period they are gener-
ally of a whitish or light fawn colour, covered with soft or
woolly hair, and when in distress or hurt have a sort of
whining voice. Seals are mostly associated in families con-
sisting of a few males and a large number of females and
young ones. They are fond of landing on the sea-beach,
ledges of rocks or ice-banks, for the purpose of basking in
the sun, and in fine weather prefer being on the ice to re-
maining in the water; sometimes indeed they are very
averse to take to the water when they have been out of it
long enough to become perfectly dry.
When on their passage from one place to another they
swim in very large flocks or shoals, and become visible to
the mariner every few minutes, as they are obliged to come
to the surface to breathe; this is generally done by the
whole
company nearly at the same time, when they spring
up so as to raise their heads, necks, and even their whole
bodies, out of the water. From the peculiar vivacity of
their movements and general sportiveness of the company,
such a shoal of these animals has obtained from the sailors
the designation of a “seal's wedding."
The seal is peculiarly vigilant, and whenever a herd of
them visit the shore some are always on the look out, and
a seal when alone is observed very frequently to raise its
head for the purpose of discovering the approach of ene-
*" A young seal, which was given by the master of a whaler to
the officers of the Alexander, one of the ships on the former voy-
age, became so entirely domesticated and attached to the ship, that it
was frequently put into the sea and suffered to swim at perfect liberty,
and when tired would return of itself to the boat and be taken in."
Sabine, p. 191.
† The principal part of the materials used in preparing the rest of our
account of the seals and walrus is obtained from the valuable writings
of Crantz, Scoresby, Parry and Lyon. A very considerable number of
other respectable authorities have been carefully examined, and thsir ob-
servations compared, with a view of correcting and enlarging the natu-
ral history of these useful and interesting animals. Much still remains
to be desired to render this account complete; yet we may be allow-
ed to hope that the reader will find a more ample collection of facts
in the present instance than has yet been presented at any one view.

THE COMMON SEAL.
227
mies. Should they be on a large field of ice, they are al-
ways careful to secure a retreat by lying near the edge of
it, or keeping a hole in the ice always open before them.
The old ones are exceedingly vigilant and distrustful, the
largest crowd of them immediately disperse at the ap-
proach of a boat, and few or none of them are taken, while
the young ones, which are not so cautious, frequently fall
victims to their inexperience by suffering the hunters to
approach. The food of the common seal is fish, crabs and
birds, which last it contrives to secure by rising under them
and seizing their feet before they can be aware of its ap-
proach. Feeding on much the same food as some whales,
the latter are not found where seals are very numerous.
In the spring of the year the seals are fattest, and yield
several gallons of blubber, small ones affording four or
five gallons of oil.
In the high northern latitudes, during the winter season,
the common seal is found many miles from any open water,
and makes a very circular hole through the ice, even when
it is several feet in thickness, and there comes up to
breathe. This opening is continually kept clear, and allows
the entrance of the seal's body, the top being permitted
partially to freeze over. These breathing places bear a
considerable resemblance to mole-hills, and have a small
crack through their upper part.
Since the whale fishery has in some degrees declined in
productiveness, seal hunting has risen in importance to
Europeans and Americans, some ships being now sent al-
most expressly for the purpose of procuring the oil and
skins of these animals, which are of extensive importance
in commerce and manufactures. We shall make mention
of the methods used by the sealers to take these creatures,
before we refer to the implements and hunting of the Es-
kimaux, to whom the seal is more important than bread
to other people, inasmuch as they depend on it almost for
every thing.
Seals are sometimes enticed to the surface by music, or
the whistling of an individual who is prepared to shoot
them, and this proves that they can hear far better when
under water than we might be inclined to believe from a
mere glance at their external ears. When they hear this
sound they come to the surface, elongate their necks to the
utmost extent, and expose them fully to the aim of the hun-
ter. They are most effectually secured however by firing

228
THE COMMON SEAL.
duck or other shot, which blinds them, so that they may be
approached and despatched; when killed at once by a sin-
gle bullet they most commonly sink. Another mode of
killing the seal is to go to the caves on shore, into which
herds of seals occasionally enter. When the sealers are
properly placed they raise a simultaneous shout, at which
the affrighted animals rush out in great confusion, and are
despatched with wonderful quickness by a single blow on
the nose, struck with a club. They are very tenacious of
life when struck or wounded on any other part of the body.
The best situation for sealing in the Arctic Seas is stated
by SCORESBY to be in the vicinity of Jan Mayen's Island,
and the best season the months of March and April.
When the boats arrive at the ice, the sealers immediately
attack the animals with clubs and stun them by a single
blow over the nose, which mode enables one person to de-
stroy a large number of seals; when they are seen on pieces
of drift-ice they are hunted by means of boats, each boat
pursuing a different herd ; should the seals attempt to leave
the ice before the arrival of the boat, the sealers shout as
loudly as possible, and produce such amazement in the
seals by this uproar as to delay their flight till the boat ar-
rives and the work of destruction is begun. Where the
seals are very numerous the sealers stop not to flay those
they have killed, but set off to another ice-field to kill more,
merely leaving one man behind to take off the skins and fat.
When the condition of the ice forbids the use of boats, the
hunter is obliged to pursue the seals over it, jumping from
piece to piece, until they succeed in taking one, which he
then stops to flay and flense, or to remove the skin and fat.
This sometimes is a horrible business, since many of the
seals are merely stunned, and occasionally recover after
they have been flayed and flensed. In this condition, too
shockingly mangled for description, they have been seen to
,
make battle, and even to swim off.
The number of seals destroyed in a single season by the
regular sealers may well excite surprise ; one ship has been
known to obtain a cargo of four or five thousand skins and
upwards of a hundred tons of cil. Whale ships have acci-
dently fallen in with and secured two or three thousand of
these animals during the month of April. The sealing
business is, however, very hazardous when conducted on
the borders of the Spitzbergen ice. Many ships with all
their crews are lost by the sudden and tremendous storms

THE COMMON SEAL.
229
occurring in those seas, where the dangers are vastly mul-
tiplied by the driving of immense bodies of ice. In one
storm that occurred in the year 1774 no less than five seal
ships were destroyed in a few hours, and six hundred valu-
able seamen perished.
Seal oil when properly prepared is pure and fine, and may
be employed for all purposes to which whale oil is adapted.
The skins of these animals are extensively consumed in
various manufactures, especially in trunk making, saddle-
ry, &c. The leather made from seal skin is perhaps the
most pleasant material which can be worn in boots, on
account of its lightness, softness and pliability, but it is
too porous to be worn during the winter season, or in wet
weather.
The Eskimaux hunt the seal in various modes, accord-
ing to circumstances. When the breathing place already
described is discovered, the hunter raises near it a small
wall about four feet high, of slabs of snow, to shelter him-
self from the wind, and sits under the lee of his snow shelter,
having deposited his spear, lines and other implements upon
several little forked sticks set up in the snow, in order to
avoid making the slightest noise in moving them when want-
ed. The most curious precaution, taken with a similar
intention, is that of tying his own knees together with a
thong to prevent any rustling of his dress, which would
alarm the seal. In this situation the Eskimaux will fre-
quently sit for many hours, when the thermometer is below
zero, attentively listening to ascertain whether the animal
is working below.
When he thinks the hole is almost completed, he careful-
ly raises his spear, to which the line is previously tied, and
the moment the breathing of the seal is distinctly heard, the
ice being then of course very thin, he strikes the spear into
him with both hands, and cuts away the ice with his knife
to repeat his blow. At other times, having enlarged the
breathing place, he takes his position behind the shelter,
and the animal, when he next comes to the hole, raises fear-
lessly out of the water, exposing his head and shoulders,
and repeats this action with increased confidence. As he
is not in haste to dive again, the hunter now starts up sud-
denly and drives his spear forcibly into him. Another
method adopted consists in covering the breathing hole
with light snow, and making an opening through the top of
it with the spear handle about as large as the mouth of a

230
THE COMMON SEAL.
bottle. The hunter then withdraws the spear and takes
his place behind his snow-screen, listening vigilantly until
he hears the seal breathing beneath the snow, when he
silently rises and plunges his weapon through the snow-
covering into the body of the seal. The moment the seal
is struck, the hunter endeavours to catch the line behind one
leg to act as a strong check; and as an additional security,
a hitch is taken round the ring finger, which is sometimes
either dreadfully lacerated or entirely torn off by the violent
struggles of a large seal. The animal is then stabbed
until dead; the hole being enlarged, it is drawn out on the
ice, where it speedily freezes and is in condition to be drawn
home.
When seals are seen on the edge of the ice next the
open sea, the seal hunters dispose themselves in a single
file, so as to conceal their number, and appear as few as
possible when viewed from the point towards which they
are moving. In this manner they creep cautiously towards
the edge of the ice. When nearly close enough to throw
the spear they all crouch low, and remain in this position
for a quarter of an hour, during which time they get all
their implements in readiness for immediate service. Then
when the seals are intercepted from view, they creep for-
ward, gaining a few paces at a time, until they approach
close enough to throw the spear, which is done suddenly
and with full force. This mode of hunting the seal is oc-
casionally attended by fatal consequences to the
maux, especially if the ice be of recent formation, as large
cakes are at times detached by the force of the tide, and
swept out to sea without allowing the slightest opportunity
for escape.
When a seal is observed to come up through a
hole in the ice, a hunter sets off for the purpose of approach-
ing it by stratagem. He crawls through the snow on his
hands and knees, taking care to remain stationary when-
ever the seal raises his head, and advancing as soon as the
animal allows it again to rest on the snow. When station-
ary as well as when moving forward, the hunter imitates
the actions of a seal with singular fidelity, and improves
every opportunity of approaching, until he comes near
enough to strike his spear into the body of his victim and se-
cure his prize.
The implements used by the Eskimaux in the vicinity of
Winter Island in their seal hunting are principally the
spear and the knife. The spear is called akliak or oonak,
.
,
poor Eski-
a

THE COMMON SEAL.
231
a
a
has an ivory point, which is not fastened to the handle, but
attached to it by a line, and when struck into the animal
is immediately liberated from the handle, which is provided
with a float or bladder. A few of the spears are made of
a single narwal's horn of solid ivory, about four feet long,
well rounded and polished. The bone of whale ribs is
used for spear handles, or wood, when it can be procured,
but the ivory of the sea-unicorn or narwal is more easily
procured at Igloolik or Winter Island than either of these
substances. When engaged in sealing on the ice the spear
and knife are generally the only weapons used.
While hunting on the ice the Eskimaux use a long bone
feeler, both for the purpose of sounding the cracks through
which seals are thought to breathe, as well for ascertaining
the safety of the road. An instrument is occasionally used
by them, when watching a breathing hole, serving the same
purpose as the float of a fishing line. This is an exceed-
ingly delicate rod of ivory, about a foot long and as thick as
a fine knitting needle, having a small knob at the lower end
not larger than a pin's head, and a very fine piece of sinew
to the upper extremity, by which it is loosely attached to
the side of the hole. This small object is not observed by
the seal on rising in the hole, and as he raises it with his
nose, the watchful Eskimaux strikes the unsuspecting ani-
mal he approaches the surface. Whenever the seal is
secured, the orifices made by the spear and knife are care-
fully closed by small pins of bone or ivory, to prevent the
loss of the blood, which is highly prized by the Eskimaux.
The seal is generally very fat, as his supply of food is
abundant, and the amount of blood contained in his body is
far greater than would be inferred from comparing him with
other animals. The flesh is of a very dark red colour, and
rather soft ; that of the young animal is thought to be quite
good by Europeans, but the Eskimaux are extremely fond
of it at every age and under all circumstances.
The common seal or neitiek is the only seal the women
are allowed to cut up among the Eskimaux residing near
Winter Island. Before the knife is used on the animal
they pour into its mouth a little water as it lies on its back,
and with a little lampblack and oil taken from the under
part of the lamp they touch each flipper and the middle of
the belly. The object of this ceremony is unknown, but
from the seriousness with which it is performed, seems to
be one of high importance. The first operation in the
as
a
a

232
THE COMMON SEAL.
division of the seal consists in cutting the animal into two
parts, laying open the cavity of the belly. The boys then.
come eagerly forward to have a small piece of membrane
or bladder stuck upon their foreheads, of which they are
very proud, as it is to make them expert seal hunters. The
intestines are them removed; next the blood is carefully
collected and put into the cooking pot over the fire. The
head and flippers are then separated from the carcass and
the ribs divided.
The loose scraps are then put into the pot for immedi-
ate use, except such as the lady butchers occasionally
cram into their own mouths with great relish, or distribute
to the bystanders, who are all eager to catch such precious
favours. The little children, old enough to make their way
between the legs of their friends, also present themselves
to the attention of those who are engaged in this division
of food, and are highly delighted when their efforts are
rewarded by lumps of raw meat which are thrust into their
mouths. The poor dogs seem to be the only visitants not
.
allowed to participate at this preliminary banquet, as their
attempts to substract some small portion is always reward-
ed by heavy blows with the knife-handle. During the
whole operation the surrounding friends are eagerly en-
gaged in chewing portions of the raw intestines, which they
sometimes allow to become frozen, and then snap off with
the same kind of glee as is displayed by our youngsters
in munching molasses-candy. One of the women from
each of the different huts attends with their cooking pot
to receive her portion of the flesh. When nothing is left
but the blubber attached to the skin, it is removed, and
the two portions of the latter are rolled up and laid by with
the store of flesh and blubber.
Then the feasting may be truly said to begin, and the
voracious Eskimaux seem determined to indemnify them-
selves for all the privations to which they have ever been
subjected. They gorge until they are absolutely stupified,
and frequently are only saved from death by the occurrence
of copious bleeding from the nose. One good trait, how-
ever, has been observed among them, and that is worthy
of record; however hungry they may be, the children are
supplied before any of the grown persons touch the food.
The descriptions given by various eye-witnesses of
their filthy feasts, are such as almost to turn the stomach
of a reader, though several of these accounts are given

THE COMMON SEAL.
233
with great spirit and truth. We shall here introduce
Capt. Lyon's picture of one of these entertainments in
his own words, referring those who may wish to form a
more extended acquaintance with the habits of the Es-
kimaux to his highly entertaining volume.
“On the 16th I was rejoiced to find the seal hunters had
been successful; blood, blubber, entrails, skins and flesh,
lying sociably intermixed in savoury heaps. Abundant
smoking messes were in preparation, and even the dogs
looked happy as they uninterruptedly licked the faces of
the children, who were covered with blood and grease from
the chin to the eyes. Universal merriment prevailed, and
such men and children as could bear more food stood
lounging round the women, who sat sucking their fingers
and cooking as fast as possible. While the messes were
preparing, the children solaced themselves by eating such
parts of the raw uncleaned entrails as their young teeth
could tear, and those morsels which proved too tough were
delivered over to their mothers, who soon reduced them
to a proper size and consistency for their tender offspring.
“ At the distribution of the contents of one of the pots I
was complimented with a fine piece of half stewed seal's
flesh, from which the kind donor, a most unsavoury looking
old lady, with the most obliging politeness, had first licked
the
gravy and dirt, and bitten it all round in order to as-
certain the most tender part on which I should make the
first attack. My refusal of this delicacy did not offend, and
we had much laughing on the subject, particularly when
the old woman, with well feigned disgust and many wry
faces, contrived to finish it herself. In my rambles on this
day of plenty I found, beyond a doubt, that the women do
not eat with the men, but waiting till they are first satisfied,
then enjoy a feast by themselves. In the meantime, how-
ever, the females who superintend the cooking have the
privilege of licking the gravy from the lumps of meat as
they are taken out and before they are presented to their
husbands. Both sexes eat in the same manner, although
not in equal proportions, the females very seldom, and the
men very frequently stuffing until they become quite stupi-
fied. A lump of meat being given to the nearest person,
he first sucks it all round and then pushes as much as he
can into his mouth, cutting it from the larger piece close
to his lips, to the great danger of them and his nose. The
meat then passes round until it is consumed, and the person
Vol. I.
30

234
THE COMMON SEAL.
before whom it stops is entitled to the first bite of the next
morsel. In this manner a meal continues a long time, as
each eats or rather bolts several pounds, and the pots are
in consequence frequently replenished. In the intermediate
time the convives suck their fingers or indulge in a few
lumps of delicate raw blubber. The swallows of the Eski-
maux are of such a marvellous capacity, that a piece of
flesh of the size of an orange, very rarely receives half a
dozen bites before it is bolted, and that without any appa-
rent exertion. The rich soup of the meat is handed round
at the close of the repast, and each takes a sup in turn until
it is finished, when the pot is passed to the good woman of
the house, who licks it carefully clean and then prepares to
make a mess for herself. On all occasions the children are
stuffed almost to suffocation. The meals being finished,
every one scrapes the grease, &c. from his face into his
mouth, and the fingers are then cleaned by sucking.'
The food of the Eskimaux is cooked by the aid of a
lamp, which is supplied with seal oil, the wick being com-
posed of moss. On this lamp are they also dependent for
warmth in their huts, which are made of snow, as well as
for their supply of water to drink, which during a great
part of the year, is only to be obtained by melting snow.
A scarcity of seals, therefore, is accompanied by a series of
ills, the hut is deprived of light and warmth, and the suffer-
ings of famine are increased by the torment of thirst, against
which they have no other resource under such circumstances
except to eat the snow, which affords but a partial relief.
In judging of the filth and voracity of these poor creatures, ,
we must ever bear in mind the circumstances which during
so much of the time render water almost unattainable, ex-
cept to quench their thirst, as well as the frequent and se-
vere starvation to which they are subjected.
The Eskimaux apply the skins of seals to various pur-
poses, amongst which the most important is the construction
of their boats. The small boat to carry but one person is
called kayak, and has been aptly compared in shape to a
weaver's shuttle, having the head and stern equally sharp.
There is an opening or hole in which the rower sits, having
a rim or projection to which a part of the dress may be fas-
tened in such a manner as entirely to exclude the water.
Private Journal of Capt. G. F. Lyon, p. 141.

THE COMMON SEAL.
235
a
The weight of the whole does not exceed fifty or sixty
pounds, so that the boat may be readily carried by the
owner on his head, and from the peculiar form of the rim,
without applying his hands.
The Eskimaux are very proud of their boats; they place
a warm skin in the bottom to sit upon, and the position of
the paddler is with the legs extended and the feet pointed
forwards. Whenever any weight is to be raised, or the
stowage of the boat to be changed, two kayaks lie together,
and the paddles of each being laid across, a steady double
boat is formed. When not paddling the occupant must pre-
serve a very nice balance, and a tremulous motion is always
to be observed in the boat. The Eskimaux in the vicinity
of Winter Island have not the art of regaining the upright
position when overturned, by a dexterous use of the paddle.
An inflated seal bladder is a constant appendage to the canoe
equipage ; the weapons are kept in their places on the
up-
per surface of the boats by small lines of whale-bone, tightly
stretched across so as to receive the points or handles of
the spears beneath them. The stem or stern of the boat
is frequently stowed with flesh, birds or eggs; a seal not-
withstanding its roundness and liability to roll, is so care-
fully balanced on the boat as seldom to require being tied
When going before the wind while a smart swell is
running, the kayak requires the nicest management, as the
slightest inattention would expose the broadside to the sea
and be followed by immediate peril to this frail vessel. The
extreme velocity with which the kayak is impelled, and the
dexterity with which it is turned and guided, render it a
very interesting object.*
on.
*"A flat piece of wood runs along each side of the frame, and is in
fact the only piece of any strength in the kayak. Its depth in the
centre is four or five inches, and its thickness about three-fourths of
an inch; it tapers to a point at the commencement of the stem and
stern projections. Sixty-four ribs are fastened to the gunwale piece,
and seven slight rods run the whole length of the bottom and outside
the ribs. The bottom is rounded and has no keel : twenty-two little
beams, or cross pieces (made of ground-willow or small whale-bones)
keep the frame on a stretch above; and one strong button runs along
the centre from stem to stern, being of course discontinued at the
"Length.—Body, 19 feet; stem projection, 3 feet 2 inches; stern
projection, 2 feet 10 inches; total, 25 feet. Abaft the hole, 8 feet;
before it, 9 feet 7 inches. Height.-Rim in front, 10 inches; behind,
1 inch and three-fourths; breadth at centre, 1 foot 9 inches; depth at
seat part.

236
THE COMMON SEAL.
The Eskimaux use another boat made of seal-skin, which
is larger and destined to carry luggage, or to transport their
families. This is called umiak or oomiak, and is made
nearly square at the head and stern. Its frame is made
of whale-bone or wood, and the bottom is flat. The seal
skins with which the frame is covered are deprived of the
hair, and are at all times transparent, but especially so
when wet. Each of these boats has five or six seats or
thwarts, placed as in ours, and is moved by two very clum-
sy oars, with flat blades, which are used by the women and
steered with a similar oar by another. They vary much
in size, having the sides very flat and about three feet
high. Sometimes they are as large as twenty-five feet in
length by eight in breadth, and are capable of containing
women, boys and small children, to the number of twenty-
one persons.
To those who wish to become well acquainted with the
details of Eskimaux manners and ingenuity, the works of
Crantz, Ross, Parry and Lyon, will afford a fund of the
most satisfactory information, more especially as in these
works will be continually experienced the force of that
charm which always accompanies statements made by zea-
lous and well qualified observers.*
When Lewis and Clark wintered on the Columbia
river they found the seals very abundant on the coast, and
believed that several species frequented the shores which
they had no opportunity of examining. The common
seal was observed in the river as far up as the great falls.t
-
the same place, 10 inches. Circunference of the rim, 5 feet 1inch.”—
Lyon's Private Journal, p. 321.
* An interesting paper, by the celebrated Otho Fabricius, publish-
ed in the fifth volume of the Royal Danish Society's Transactions,
gives a complete account and representation of the weapons and im-
plements used by the Greenland Eskimaux in seal hunting. These
implements are very similar to those used by the American Eski-
maux, and what is more interesting, are called by the same names by
both people. This identity of language we have heretofore referred to
as being of the highest importance in aiding us to form an opinion as
to the original peopling of this continent.
Lewis and Clark, vol. ii. p. 172.

THE HOODED SEAL.
237
SPECIES II.--The Hooded Seal.
Phoca Cristata ; L.
Phoca Leonina : FABRICIUS, Faun. Grænl.
Klap-Myssen: EGEDE Greenl. p. 84. (Eng. trans.)
Neitersoak ; Klapmütz : Crantz, Greenl.
Hooded Seal : PENN. Syn. No. 268, p. 342.
Phoca Cristata : DE KAY, Ann. of the Lyceum of N. Y. vol i. p. 94.
The hooded seal is most commonly found on the shores
of Greenland, of Davis's Strait, and occasionally of New-
foundland. Recently an individual of this species has been
captured in a small creek emptying into Long Island Sound,
at East Chester, about fourteen miles from the city of New
York.
The species is very obviously distinguished by the singu-
lar appendage it has on the head, formed by an extension
of the skin of the front, which communicates with the nos-
trils, and can be inflated or elevated and depressed at the
pleasure of the animal. The size of this hood, which ex-
tends from the end of the snout to five inches behind the
eyes, is twelve inches, and its height nine. Through the
anterior part of this hood the nostrils open, each two inches
in diameter, and when the hood is undistended the cartila-
ginous partition of the nose may be felt from the outside,
rising about six inches at its greatest elevation.
Internally the hood is strongly muscular, with numerous
muscular fibres surrounding the orifices of the nostrils, and
most probably corresponding to the sphincters which close
the nostrils of other seals to prevent the entrance of water.
Externally it is covered with short, bright brown hairs, and
is slightly sprinkled transversely in many places.- Where
the skin of the hood joins the common integuments of the
head, a few strong hairs are found, which are considered to
resemble those which in other animals of this genus pertain
to the eye. Over the sides of this appendage, as well as
the cheek, we find twenty-five or thirty strong bristly whis-
kers arranged in rows and converging forwards. These are
black and small in the upper rows; whitish, flattened and
very stout in the lower, being about five inches long, all
directed downwards, and when minutely examined appear
to have a series of short alternate bevels on each edge, but
no spiral turns.
a

238
THE HOODED SEAL.
Such is the curious structure with which the head of this
seal is provided, and the question immediately occurs, what
can be the use of so peculiar a contrivance? To this ques-
tion no satisfactory answer has yet been given, nor have
we any thing better than conjecture to offer. As it projects
over the eyes at the inner angle when depressed, the opin-
ion was long since advanced, that the hood was intended to
protect those delicate organs from the sand and other sub-
stances thrown into the air by the violent storms common
on the shores frequented by the animal. But none of the
other seals residing under circumstances of similar expos-
ure, have any such protection, and their eyes are equally
liable to injury from the same causes. The fishermen con-
sider it a reservoir for air, to be used while the seal is under
water. Dr. DE KAYthinks that its great bulk when distended
would prevent the animal from descending into or movingwith
facility beneath the water. If we compare the extent of this
appendage when distended with the bulk and weight of the
animal, which is estimated at about five or six hundred
pounds, this objection does not appear to us sufficient to in-
validate the probability of the last mentioned use of the
hood. The opinion suggested by Dr. DE KAY is, that the
hood is subsidiary to the sense of smell, which he concludes
to be peculiarly necessary to this animal, nature having left
it unprovided with efficient weapons of offence or defence.
It would be a very easy matter to speculate upon this sub-
ject, and remark that the use last suggested for the hood
is by no means incompatible with that generally attribut-
ed to it by the fishermen, and that the offensive and defen-
sive weapons of this seal are as efficient as those possessed
by most other species which have no such subsidiary appen-
dage to the nose. To this might be added the probable
correctness of what has been often stated, that this hood is
a merely sexual distinction, &c. but we believe that all
spe-
culation not based on an actual and frequently repeated ex-
amination of the animal in its living state, and in its proper
haunts, can lead to nothing better than multiplication of
words. When the individual described by Dr. DE KAY
was attacked, he inflated the hood and uttered a bellowing
noise, until killed by repeated discharges of a musket.
The hooded seal is seven feet long from the centre of
the chin, or symphysis of the lower jaw, to the root of
the tail, which is six inches and a half long, and three
broad at its base. The body is cylindrical, gradually de-

THE HOODED SEAL.
239
creasing to the tail, which is flat and tapering to a point,
the whole skin being covered with flat hairs about an
inch in length. The general colour is gray
and dark
brown, distributed in irregular patches, the grayish ap-
pearance arising from very short hairs beneath the white.
The head, when the hood is undistended, appears small
compared with the body, and the eyes are large, of a dull
greenish hue, and distant six inches and a half from the
extremity of the upper jaw. The orifices of the ears are
distinct, situated about two inches and a-half behind the
eyes,
without
any rudiment of external cartilage or concha.
The fore paws or flippers resemble those of the com-
mon seal, but appear small in proportion to the size of the
animal, are of a uniform dark brown colour, except near
the body, where they assume the common mottled appear-
ance, and are twenty inches distant from the end of the
jaw; their length is fifteen inches. Each digit is furnish-
ed with a strong compressed channelled claw, the exterior
of which is largest ; at the base these are dark coloured;
their tips are light horn colour. The hind paws are of
the same length as the flippers, and lunated at their ex-
tremities, which are fifteen inches broad when expanded.
They have five depressed claws or horny laminæ, of which
the external are largest, all placed at some distance with-
in the webbed extremities.
To the above description, which is drawn up from that
given in Dr. De KAY's excellent paper quoted at the head
of this article, we shall subjoin at full length his remarks
on the peculiar dentition of this animal.
“ “ Teeth, thirty in number; above, four incisors, two
canine and ten jaw teeth; below, two incisors, two can-
ine and ten jaw teeth. The incisors above are cylin-
drical and approximated; the two inner are small; the
exterior much larger, and nearly half the size of the
neighbouring canine. The canine are considerably larger
than those of the lower jaw, and more incurved. The
incisors of the lower jaw are very small and cylindrical;
the jaw teeth above and below are small, distant, and
have each a cutting edge; on the posterior part of this
edge a notch of transverse indentation is visible. The
first is placed at some distance from the canine, and is
much smaller than the others. -
“In the foregoing description the remarkable peculiari-
ties presented by the teeth cannot escape notice. The

240
THE HOODED SEAL.
incisors resemble the canine so much in form that their
actual position alone can serve to point out their nature.
Pennant, in the Arctic Zoology, describes four above and
four below, being led into this error by confounding the
laniary teeth with the incisors. The molares, or what
may with more propriety be designated as jaw teeth, are
very small in proportion to the size of the animal, hardly
exceeding those of a child of five years old. The whole
number of teeth in this tribe varies from thirty to thirty-
six. It is a curious coincidence that the different species
distinguished by a great development of the hood, or ap-
pendage to the head, are equally remarkable for the same
number of teeth. Thus the P. Leonina, Gm. (preboscidea,
Peron,) and the P. Christata, Gm. have but two incisors
below, indicating a natural division in this partially known
family."*
We have mentioned (p. 218,) a seal sent to Paris by Mr.
Milbert under the name of Phoca Mitrata, which corres-
ponds, in relation to the teeth, very exactly with the above.
On this Dr. DE KAY remarks, “it is possible that this may
have been brought here from the north by a whaling ves-
sel; should this prove to be the case, I should incline to
believe it absolutely identical with the Phoca Cristata des-
cribed above."
SPECIES III.-The Great Seal.
Phoca Barbata ; MULL.
Urksuk utsuk: CRANTZ, Greenl. (Eng. trans.) i. 125.
Lakktak: Hist. Kamtschatka, 420.
Urskuk: EGEDE, Dict. Greenl. Hafn. 1750.
Ogiuke: PARRY'S Voyage; Oghioo: Leon's Journal, 830.
Phoca Barbata : O. FABRICIUS, Faun. Grænl. p. 15.
Phoca Major: PARSONS, Phil. Trans. 47. p. 121.
Grand Phoque : BUFF. p. 34.
Great Seal : PENN. Arct. Zool. i. 185. Sp.73.
This seal, which grows to the size of ten or twelve feet,
is found in the Greenland seas and on the northern extremi-
* Dr. De Kay's paper in the annals of the Lyceum, is followed by
a very interesting detail of the appearances observed on dissection of
this seal, by Drs. Ludlow and King, which may be referred to by the
reader with much advantage.


1
F. Kearny. Se
.
Rider Det
1. Harp Scal. 2. Walrus

THE HOODED SEAL.
241
ties of this continent. It most commonly rests upon the
floating ice, and when it comes upon the fixed ice it is
through holes near the outer edge of the field.
Its skin is about half an inch in thickness and covered
with black hair, which in summer is almost entirely shed,
leaving the animal bare. The whiskers of the great seal
are long, pellucid and white, having the points softer than
the other part and curled. The middle digits of the fore-
feet are longer than the others, which in relative length are
like the fingers of the human hand.
The great seal breeds in the month of March, having a
single cub, usually upon the ice among the islands; it
approaches the land more closely at that season than at any
other.
The great seal resembles the common seal in habits as
well as in general appearance, being distinguished from it
readily by its great size and large beard-like whiskers.
The adults of this species swim slowly; their peculiar
timidity and watchfulness render it difficult to approach
them, so that very little has been observed relative to their
peculiar habits.
At some seasons the great seal is found to be remarkably
fat, and its flesh is said to be very similar to veal. The
Greenland Eskimaux cut its skins into thongs, and twist
them into ropes, to be used in their whaling, and for various
other purposes.
SPECIES IV.-The Harp Seal.
Phoca Grænlandica ; MULL.
Phoca Grænlandica : O. FAB. Faun. Grænl.
p.
11.
Svart-side: EGEDE, Nat. Hist. Greenl. pl. 3.
Atlarsoak: CRAFTz, i. p. 124. (Eng. trans.)
Harp Seal: PENN. Arct. Zool. i. p. 190. Sp. 37.
The harp seal measures from six to nine feet in length
from the tip of the nose to the end of the tail, which is from
five to seven inches long. In circumference at the thick-
est part of the body it is from four to six feet. It has a
round head and high forehead, with a short nose, large
black
eyes, and whiskers disposed in ten rows of hairs.
CRANTZ informs us that this seal when full grown is al-
Vol. I.
31

242
THE HARP SEAL.
و
most entirely of a white gray colour, having a black figure
on its back like two half moons, with their horns uniformly
directed towards each other. No seal varies its colour so
much as this, and the Greenland Eskimaux change its
name with these variations of colour. The fætus, which
is white and woolly, they call iblau ; in the first year it is
cream coloured and the name is attarak; in the second
year it is gray and then called atteitsiak ; in the third year
aglektook or painted; in the fourth milektrok or spotted ;
and in the fifth year, when it has attained its adult age and
the half-moon mark, it is called attarsook. At this period
the Russians call them krylatka or winged, on account of the
half-moon marks.
The harp seal is quite common in the Greenland seas,
where it frequents the deep bays, migrates twice a year,
going in the month of March and returning in May, and
again in June to return in September. It is also found
near the shores of Newfoundland. The breeding season
begins in July, and the female has one cub near the end of
March, or the beginning of April, which she suckles on frag-
ments of ice remote from land.
The harp seal is very incautious, and shows much of the
frisky or frolicsome disposition of the common seal. It is
occasionally seen swimming in various attitudes, and
whirling about as if for sport. This species lives in great
herds that swim apparently under direction of a leader,
who watches over the safety of the whole. They do not
frequent the field or fixed ice, but the floes or large drifting
ice. They are said greatly to dread the Physeter Microps,
which forces them to seek safety on shore. The Green-
landers also drive them on shore by surrounding and pur-
suing them with loud noises whenever they come to the sur-
face to breathe.
The harp seal has a large quantity of blubber, which
yields a greater proportion of pure oil than is obtained from
any
other seal. Its skin is used by the Eskimaux to cover
their tents and boats. The skins of the
The skins of the young make excel-
lent boot-leather.

THE FETID SEAL.
243
SPECIES V.-The Fetid Seal.
Phoca Fetida ; MULL.
Neitsek : CRANTZ, Greenland, i. p. 124. (Eng. Trans.)
Phoca Fetida: O. FABR. Faun. Grænl. p. 13.
Phoca Hispida: SCHREB. Saeugth. tab. 86.
Phoque Neitsoak: BUFF. xxxiv.
a
The fetid seal when full grown is about four feet and a-
half long, and its skin is covered with a brownish or dingy
white hair, spotted above and whitish beneath, composed
of stiff bristles intermixed with a softer material. The
hair does not lie smooth, but is rough and similar to that
of a pig. The old animals are remarkably fetid, and this
nauseous odour taints their flesh and fat equally.
The head of the fetid seal is short and rounded, about a
third of its length being formed by the snout. The whiskers
are pale, pointed, and compressed, having all their border
undulated; the smallest of them are black. The eyes are
small, the iris brown. The feet, ears, tongue and tail are
similar to those of the common seal. The heels of the
hind feet are scarcely apparent on account of the fatness
of the animal.* The colouring varies very much accord-
ing to the age.
When the skins are wrought into clothing
by the Greenlanders, the rough side is generally turned
inwards.
The fetid seal frequents the fixed ice near frozen lands,
and never relinquishes its haunts when old. It has holes
in this ice for the purpose of fishing, and is solitary in its
habits, pairs being rarely seen together. It is not a timid
animal, and is occasionally preyed upon by the eagle, be-
ing taken while asleep upon the surface. The flesh is not
esteemed as food even by the Eskimaux, though they em-
ploy the different parts of its body as they do those of
other seals.
* Desmarest, Mammalogie, p. 246.

244
THE URSINE SEAL,
SPECIES VI.-The Ursine Seal.
Phoca Ursina; L.*
Ursus Marinus : STELLER, Nov. Com. Petropol. ii. 231.
L'ours Marin : Briss. Quad. 166; SCHREB. Saeugth. 122.
Ours Marin : BUFF. xxxiv. p. 94. (Ed. Sonnini.)
Chat Marin: KRACHENINIKOW, Hist. du Kamtschatka.
Ursine Seal: Penn. Quad. ii. 281. No 485.
Otaria Ursina : Desm. Mammal. 240. Sp. 381.
The ursine seal is a large animal, being when full
grown eight feet in length by five in circumference, and
weighing about eight hundred pounds. The female is much
smaller than the male, but otherwise they are very similar
to each other in appearance. The anterior part of the body is
very thick, the posterior slender and tapering to the tail.
The head is rounded, rising suddenly from the nose, which
projects like that of a pug-dog ; the eyes are large and pro-
minent, and the ears conical and pointed. The whiskers
are very long and white, and the lips thick.
The ursine seal differs very materially from most other
seals in having the anterior limbs entirely at liberty, or not
enveloped by the integument of the body. But the wrist-
bones of the palm and digits, are covered with a naked
skin, which is smooth on the superior and wrinkled on the
inferior surface. The thumb is the longest of the digits,
which decrease successively to the external or little one. All
of them have a small nail. The posterior extremities are
This species belongs to Peron's subgenus otaria, and to F.
Cuvier's second division, or seals having single roots to their teeth.
The dental formula is the following:
20 Upper
36 Teeth:
6 Incisive
2 Canine
12 Molar.
4 Incisive
2 Canine
10 Molar.
16 Lower
These teeth interlock when the mouth is closed, and in their form
and arrangement differ very considerably from those of the other
seals. Their roots are remarkable for having a narrowing immediately
below the crown; they then swell out strongly, and elongated so as to
form a cone twice as long as the crown of the tooth. The same dental
formula is applicable to the Phoca Jubata. See Dents des Mammif.
p. 22.

THE URSINE SEAL.
245
about twenty-two inches in length, articulated like those of
other seals, but they can on account of their length be used
by the animal to scratch the head. They have five toes, the
internal of which is as long as the three next it, and the last is
smallest of all. Each toe is united to the others by a broad
web, which gives a breatdh of twelve inches to the hinder
feet when spread out.
The general colour of the ursine seal is black, which in
old individuals becomes of a dull gray. The hair is long
and stiff, having a soft down of a bay colour intermixed.
The colour of the females differs as much from that of the
male as her size. Sometimes they are ash coloured, and
sometimes of a reddish brown.
The species is principally found on the islands which lie
between America and Kamtschatka, and like the sea
otter are there only seen between the 50th and 60th degree
of latitude. Ursine seals have also been killed on the
shores of New Zealand, Staten Land, New Georgia and
Falkland islands.
They arrive at the islands between America and Kam-
schatka in the month of June, and remain until September.
When they first arrive they are excessively fat and lazy,
moving very seldom, and sometimes remaining for several
days near one spot, without being at the trouble of seeking
food.*
They lie upon the shores in vast herds, but are separat-
ed into distinct families, each male having a seraglio of
from eight to thirty or more females, over which he watches
with incessant jealousy. The family, with the young and
half grown individuals, sometimes amount to a hundred or
more.
The old seals which are deserted by the females live by
themselves, and are very fierce, irrascible and quarrel-
some ; every intruder upon their resting places is imme-
diately attacked, and they will incur any danger rather than
resign their accustomed seats. At the approach of a dis-
turber of their own species they relinquish their indo-
*
Tempus illis coeundi, ad solis occasum est; mas feminaque ad
horam ante, se mare immergunt, leniter natant, unaque littus petunt.
Femina prius ascendit, se resupinat et mari amore flagranti cedit.
Ne tam magno ardore, quam suo pondere, feminam in arena lutove
præter caput et pedes sepelit: tunc temporis, sic ad voluptatem inten-
tus et sui oblitus est, ut cuique illum accedere et impune tangere
liceat.

246
THE URSINE SEAL.
wounds upon
lence and attack him, and should the two in their strug-
gles disturb another, this third mingles in the fray, and
thus at times the war extends throughout the whole flock
on shore.
The younger males are excessively provoked at any at-
tempt made by their neighbours to entice away one of
their wives, and furious contests are the result of such in
terference with their families. After the battle, however,
the females go quietly over to the conqueror, and become
a part of his establishment. They inflict very severe
each other during their combats, and when
they cease to fight plunge into the sea, in order to wash off
the blood with which they may be stained.
.
The males are quite fond of their offspring, but cruelly
tyrannical to the females. When any one attempts to
catch one of their cubs the male
opposes
the
agressor, while
the female tries to secure the cub by carrying it off in her
mouth. But should she unfortunately drop it, the male at-
tacks her and beats her dreadfully against the stones.
When she recovers she crawls towards his feet with signs
of great submission. Should the young be carried off the
male then appears to be much afflicted. The female has
commonly but one cub, which she brings forth in the month
of January. The cubs are quite fierce, and bark and bite
at the sailors passing them.*
The ursine seal is a very swift swimmer, moving at the
rate of seven or eight miles an hour, and is able to remain
under water a much longer time than the common seal. It
is very tenacious of life, and survives dreadful wounds for
a considerable time. The old ones have a very disagree-
able odour, which taints their flesh and fat. The flesh of
the female and young is pleasant to the taste and similar to
that of a lamb.
See Foster's Voyage, ii. 429, 514.

CHAPTER XVII.
GENUS XVIII. MORSE; Trichecus; L.
THESE animals resemble the seals in their elongated
and conical bodies, and the construction of their anterior
extremities. They have a round head, no external ears,
and small eyes. The orifices of the nostrils are far distant
from the upper lips. The posterior feet are horizontally
placed, having five digits, of which the two external are the
longest, all being provided with small incurvated nails and
united by a membrane. The most striking peculiarity of
the genus is the tusks or prolonged canine teeth, which
descend from the superior maxillary bone, and project far
below the lower jaw, serving the animal as offensive wea-
pons as well as instruments to aid in climbing on ice-
banks, &c.
Dental System.
14 Upper
22 Teeth :
4 Incisive
2 Canine
8 Molar.
0 Incisive
0 Canine
8 Molar.
8 Lower
IN THE UPPER JAW the first incisor, (separated by a va-
cant space of some extent from its fellow in one species,
and very close in another, when it first emerges from the
socket, is a very small, conical and hooked tooth, and be-
ing rudimental is soon worn out and disappears. The
second, which is much larger than the first, is cylindrical
and obliquely cut from the outer to the inside of the jaw.
The canine is a very large tusk which is directed down-
wards, being curved towards the body; it is rounded on
its external face, marked by a longitudinal groove on its
internal surface, and rises from the maxillary bone as
high as the nostril. The first molar, separated by a va-

248
THE COMMON SEAL.
cant space from the second incisive, and much larger than
that tooth, is, like it, cut obliquely, but the oblique sur-
face is slightly hollowed. The second molar, twice as
large as the preceding, is cut in the same direction, but
has two depressions or hollows at this part, one anterior and
the other posterior, separated by an obtuse prominence,
and narrow at its summit; the third strongly resembles
the second, and the fourth is merely a rudimental tooth
which falls out by age. All these teeth have but one very
strong conical root, and they are formed entirely of a very
hard compact substance analogous to that of the tusks.
IN THE LOWER JAW it appears that in early life the
first tooth falls out, for which reason we have not counted
it among the others. The four molars appear to have
the same form, and are more extended from before back-
wards than from right to left, and the surface of their
crowns is slightly convex. The last is somewhat smaller
than the others, which are of equal size. These teeth are
of the same nature as those of the upper jaw.
In their reciprocal position the first molars are opposed
crown to crown; the second are alternate. These teeth
are described from several heads, which appear to have
belonged to two distinct species, judging from the propor-
tion of some of their parts, and not merely by the ex-
tent of the tusks. The differences observed in the latter
led SHAW to conclude that there are two species of wal-
rus, which, however, has not yet been ascertained.*
-
* Introductory to this dental system F. CUVIER has the following
remarks “We have seen that the seals are related by their dental
systems on the one hand to terrestrial carnivorous, and on the other
to the cetaceous animals. The morse, whose organs of motion are
very similar to those of the seal, is widely different from that animal
in respect to the teeth. In this particular the present genus has a
system altogether singular, as it is not better adapted for bruising
vegetable than for cutting animal matter. We might say that the teeth
of these amphibia are especially destined to crush hard materials,
because by their stucture and relation to each other they act like a
pestle against a mortar. They form one of those insulated groups
which break the necessarily continuous series of classifications and may
be connected almost indifferently, according to the point of view un
der which we consider them, with either of the branches of the gen
eral system we admit. We should have placed them next to the
seals, which would leave a large void between them and the frugivo-
rous marsupial animals, but induced by certain analogies, which have
also some foundation, we are led to treat of them after the ruminant
quadrupeds. Furthermore, we should remark, that in these animals

THE WALRUS.
249
SPECIES I.-The Walrus.
Fricheus Rosmarus ; L.
Anak: CRANTZ, i. 125. (Eng. trans.)
Wallross : MARTEN's Spitzbergen, 78.
Equus Marinus &c. : RAY. Quad. 191.
Odobenus : Briss. Quad. 48.
Le Morse : BUFF. xxxiv. p. 158, Sonn.
Aywek of the Eskimaux : Lyon's Journal, p. 829.
This large and unwieldy creature bears a stronger re-
semblance to the seal than to any other quadruped, but is
strikingly distinguished by the proportions of its body and
its elephant-like tusks. Vast herds of this species former-
ly frequented the shores of the islands scattered between
America and Asia, the coasts of Davis's Straits and those
of Hudson's Bay, in latitude 620. They have been found
as far south as the Magdalen Islands in the Gulf of St. Law-
rence, between latitude 47° and 480. At present they are
not met with in very great numbers, except on the icy shores
of Spitzbergen and the remotest northern borders of this
continent,
The walrus attains the size of an ox, being when full
grown from twelve to fifteen feet in length, and from eight
to ten in circumference. The head is oval, short, small,
and flat in front, having the eyes set in deep sockets so as
to be moved forwards or retracted at pleasure. The flat
portion of the face is set with very strong bristles, which are
pellucid, a span long, as thick as a straw, and twisted like
a three plied rope. The orifices of the ears are very small,
placed far back on the head, and destitute of external carti-
we begin to see the number of teeth vary in the individuals, because
those which are rudimental disappear according to the age of the an-
imal. We may say that these organs diminish in importance, and
should be considered rather in relation to their number than to their
form and structure.”
Fully assenting to the general correctness of the views of this dis-
tinguished naturalist, we do not deem the analogy above stated of
sufficient force to authorize us to swerve from the arrangement of his
brother, which places the morse next to the seal. The resemblance
of form, structure, modes of life and action, existing between these
animals, render it not only more useful but more natural, and there
fore more correct to view them in succession, rather than to separate
them to so great a distance as has been done in the “ Dents Des
Mammiferes."
Vol. 1.
32

250
THE WALRUS.
a
a
Jages. The nostrils open on the upper part of the snout ;
through these the walrus is accustomed to blow the water
in a manner similar to that of the whale. The fore feet are
from two to two and a half feet long, and when extended
are fifteen or eighteen inches broad, the digits being con-
nected by a membrane forming a sort of webbed hand.
The palms of old individuals have the cuticle on them
a quarter of an inch in thickness, in consequence of the
friction to which they are subject in clambering up the
rocks, &c. The hind feet are from two to two and a half
feet in length, and their breadth when fully extended is from
two and a half to three feet. Each toe is terminated by a
small nail.
The ivory tusks or prolonged canine teeth, measure from
ten to twenty inches, exclusive of the portion which is im-
bedded in the jaw, of seven inches and upwards in length.
Tusks of the walrus have been seen thirty-six inches long,
and weighing from five to ten pounds. The circumfer-
ence of one twenty-seven inches in length is about eight
inches at base. The inside is more compact and of finer
grain than the ivory of the elephant ; in the centre the co-
lour is somewhat brownish, but otherwise it is pure white,
though speedily growing yellow from exposure to the air.
They are slightly hollowed where they arise from the skull,
are somewhat notched, and not entirely round. At the base
they are about three inches distant from each other, and at
the point about nine inches.
The skin of the walrus is generally about an inch thick,
but is thicker on the neck than any other part of the body.
The hair is short and of a yellowish brown colour, and the
whole surface of the skin is marked by numerous chaps and
wrinkles.
This thick skin is used by the Eskimaux for various
pur-
poses, such as the fabrication of cordage and coverings for
tents, &c. It is used by the whale-fishers instead of mats,
.
for protecting the yards and rigging of ships from being in-
jured by friction. By tanning it is converted into a thick
porous or spongy leather, by no means so serviceable as
the raw hide. Previous to the establishment of the whale
fishery near Spitzbergen the walrus was considered of some
importance, and voyages were made expressly to obtain
them, for the sake of their ivory and oil. Since the whal-
ing business has become so successful the walrus is allowed
to escape unmolested, except by the Eskimaux, who feed

THE WALRUS.
251
upon its flesh with an eagerness only second to that with
which they devour the seal.
On land the walrus is a slow and clumsy animal, but in
the water its motions are sufficiently quick and easy.
The head of a young walrus without tusks, when observed
from some distance above water, bears considerable resem-
blance to the human face, and has been occasionally mis-
taken by persons unaccustomed to their appearance for
that of a man.
The walrus is a fearless, but when undisturbed an innof-
fensive animal; it is monogamous, and displays great at-
tachment to its mate and young. The season in which the
sexes seek each other is about the month of June; the fe-
male brings forth her cub early in the spring. When at-
tacked the walrus is both fierce and formidable, more
especially if in company with its young. Under such cir-
cumstances they become very furious, attempting to destroy
their enemies by rising and hooking their tusks over the
sides of the boat, in order to sink it. Frequently the
violence of their blows is sufficient to stave in the planks
of small boats. In speaking of an instance in which an
attack was made on a herd of walruses, Capt. Lyon re-
marks," Mr. Sherer described the fury of the wounded
animals as being quite outrageous, but those which were
unhurt quickly forsook their suffering companions. The
beast which sank the boat struck his tusks repeatedly
through her bottom, and she filled immediately. Had she
been alone not a soul of her crew could have been saved,
for there was no ice within three miles, and to swim would
have been impossible in such cold water."
The same author gives in another place the following
account of a battle with some of these animals :—6 On
some stream-ice near us were several herds of walruses
basking in the sun. They allowed us even to land on the
pieces of ice on which they lay, before they commenced
their cumbrous retreat, facing us with open mouth. We
killed one, but he sunk before we could get the boat to him,
and wounded several others, when seeing the Fury's boat
had been more successful, we went to assist in towing her.
On our way we met a male and female, attended by their
cub, and soon wounded the two old ones. They fought us,
however, with desperation, and would not retreat. The
female, on being killed was secured alongside, but the
male, even when shot in three places, and having two lan-

252
THE WALRUS.
ces sticking in him, attacked us furiously, although each
time he approached he received a bayonet to the socket.
Having at last driven him near to the Fury's boat, our
joint efforts despatched him, after about ten minutes strug-
gle. This brave animal had repeatedly attempted to hook
his tusks over the gunwale of the boat, had stove her slight-
ly in three places, and left eight deep marks on her bow.
The cub, which was black and without tusks, continued by
its parents during the whole combat, and frequently endeav-
voured to mount on the back of which-ever first rose to the
surface. To this may be attributed the more than usual
fierceness of the old ones, whose fears for their offspring
prevented their own escape. The female, on being hoisted
in, was considered as rather small by those who were
judges. On each side she had two teats almost concealed
in the belly, but they could be pulled out to the size and
length of those of a sow. The stomach contained only
about three pounds of pebbles and a handful of sea-weed.”
It has been frequently stated that the food of the walrus is
sea-grass, shell-fish, and not flesh.* Capt. Scoresby states
that he has found, in addition to such substances, parts of
young seals in the stomach of the walrus.
The flesh of the walrus is occasionally eaten by the
whale-fishers and other voyagers, but it is not considered
to be a very desirable food, as it is dark coloured
and very coarse grained. To the crews of ships which
have been long at sea and confined to salted provisions,
the use of this flesh at times proves very acceptable and
serviceable.
One of the Eskimaux modes of killing the walrus in
summer is the following: Perceiving a large herd asleep
on the floating ice, as is their custom, they paddle to some
other piece near at hand which is small enough to be
moved. On this they lift their canoes, and then bore
holes, through which they fasten their lines. As soon as
every thing is prepared they quietly paddle the cake of ice
towards the herd, each hunter sitting by his own spear and
line. When arrived at the place where the animals lie
snoring, each man if so disposed strikes a different one,
though two generally attack the same. The wounded
* “Fucis, corallinis, testaceis, non carne victitant.” LIN. Syst.
Nat. p. 59.

THE WALRUS.
253
-
and terrified walrus now tumbles into the water, but can-
not escape from the ice to which the hunters have fast-
ened their lines. As soon as his victim becomes tired, the
hunter launches his canoe, and, lying at a safe distance,
spears him to death.
We have given Capt. Lyon's picture of Eskimaux feast-
ing and gluttony when speaking of the common seal; in
this place we shall introduce another sketch from the same
masterly hand, which is inimitable of its kind :" We
found, on the 3d, that the party which had been adrift
had killed two large walruses, which they had carried
home during the early part of the night. No one there-
fore came to the ships, all remaining in the huts to gor-
mandize. We found the men lying under their deer-skins,
and clouds of steam rising from their naked bodies. From
Kooilittuk I learned a new Eskimaux luxury; he had
eaten until he was drunk, and every moment fell asleep
with a flushed and burning face and his mouth open. By
his side sat Arnalooa, who was attending her cooking-pot,
and at short intervals awakened her spouse, in order to
cram as much as was possible of a large piece of half
boiled flesh into his mouth with the assistance of her fore
finger, and having filled it quite full, cut off the morsel
close to his lips. This he slowly chewed, and as soon as
a small vacancy became perceptible, this was filled by a
lump of raw blubber. During this operation the happy
man moved no part of him but his jaws, not even open-
ing his eyes; but his extreme satisfaction was occasionally
shown by a most expressive grunt whenever he enjoy-
ed sufficient room for the passage of sound. The drippings
of the savoury repast had so plentifully covered his face
and neck, that I had no hesitation in determining that a
man may look more like a beast by over-eating than by
drinking to excess.
The fifty-fifth volume of the Philosophical Transac-
tions, contains the following account of the walrus, given
by Lord SHULDHAM :-“The walrus, or sea-cow as it is
called by the Americans, is a native of the Magdalen
Islands, St. John's and Anticosti in the gulf of St. Law-
rence. They resort very early in the spring to the former
* Private Journal, &c. p. 182.
† Cited in Pennants Arctis Zoology, vol. i. 173.

254
THE WALRUS.
they carry
of these places, which seems peculiarly adapted to the na-
ture of the animals, abounding with clams (escallops) of a
very large size, and the most convenient landing places,
called echoueries. Here they crawl up in great numbers,
and remain sometimes for fourteen days together with-
out food when the weather is fair, but on the first appear-
ance of rain they retreat to the water with great precipi-
tation. They are when out of the water very unwieldy,
and move with great difficulty. They weigh from fifteen
hundred to two thousand pounds, producing from one to two
barrels of oil, which is boiled out of the fat lying between
the skin and the flesh. Immediately on their arrival the
females calve, and engender in two months after, so that
their
young
about nine months. They never
have more than two at a time, and seldom more than one.
“ The landing places are formed principally by nature,
being a gradual slope of soft rock, with which the Magdalen
Islands abound, about eighty or a hundred yards wide at
the water side, and spreading so as to contain near the
summit a very large number of these animals. Here they
are suffered to come on shore and amuse themselves for a
considerable time, till they acquire a degree of boldness,
being at their first landing so exceedingly timid as to make
it impossible for any person to approach them.”
“In a few weeks they assemble in great multitudes;
formerly, when undisturbed by the Americans, to the
amount of seven or eight thousand. The form of the land-
ing place not allowing them to remain contiguous to the
water, the foremost are insensibly pushed above the slope.
When they are arrived at a convenient distance, the hunt-
ters, being provided with a spear, sharp on one side like
a knife, with which they cut their throats, take advantage
of a side-wind, or a breeze blowing obliquely upon the
shore, to prevent the animals from smelling them, because
they have that sense in great perfection. Having landed,
the hunters, with the assistance of good dogs trained for
that purpose, in the night time endeavour to separate those
which are most advanced from the others, driving them dif-
ferent ways. This they call making a cut ; it is generally
looked upon to be a most dangerous process, it being im-
possible to drive them in any particular direction, and dif-
ficult to avoid them; but as the walruses which have ad-
vanced above the slope of the landing are deprived by the
darkness of the night from every direction to the water,
و

THE WALRUS.
255
they are left wandering about and killed at leisure, those
that are nearest the shore being the first victims. In this
manner have been killed fifteen or sixteen hundred at a
cut.'
Balls discharged from a musket are by no means very
efficient in killing the walrus, unless aimed with care at
vital parts. By shooting them with duck or other small
shot, so as to blind them, they may be readily killed with
lances or axes.
When the walrus makes an attack upon
a boat, endeavouring to mount upon the gunwale, the most
successful mode of repelling it is by throwing a handful of
sand into its eyes, which causes the animal to retire for a
time, affording an opportunity to escape or to make better
preparations for defence.

CHAPTER XVIII.
FAMILY V.—MARSUPIALIA ; Pouched or Marsupial Animals.
--
THE beings at present considered as members of this
family, offer so many peculiarities and striking differences
in their construction and economy, as in strictness to con-
stitute a distinct order of animals; or if not, the remarkable
differences which exist between the species in relation to
their teeth, organs of digestion, food and habits, fully justify
the arrangement of them under different orders in our ex-
isting classification.
They are wonderfully unlike all other animals in relation
to the production of their offspring, which are brought forth
in a condition apparently imperfect or premature. The
young, when they are first to be discovered in the external
,
pouch, seem scarcely formed, are incapable of movement,
exhibit but slight traces of limbs or other external organs,
are found attached to the teats of the mother, and are unable
to resume their hold if it be broken. They remain thus
attached until they acquire size and strength enough to move
about at will, and continue to take refuge in this curious
retreat until they attain the size of a common rat, or are
even larger. The pouch is formed by a process or elonga-
tion of the skin of the belly, and is supported by two peculiar
bones which arise from the pubis, and are sustained by the
abdominal muscles. What is more singular, the males of
these animals also have such bones, although they have
no pouch, and similar bones are observed in both sexes
of species which have little or nothing of the pouch
itself.*
* - La matrice des animaux de cette famille n'est point ouverte par
un seul orifice dans le fond du vagin; mais elle communique avec ce
canal par deux tubes latéraux en forme d'anse. Il parait que la naiss-
ance prematurée* des petits tient à cette organisation singuliere. Les
måles ont le scrotum pendant en avant de la verge au contraire des
autres quadrupedés.”—CURVIER; Régne An. i. 170.
* We cannot avoid objecting in this place to the inaccuracy of expression occa-


Drawn by C Burton
Engraved by WE Tucker
Opossum Male 8: Female
with their Young.

THE OPOSSUM.
257
Genus XIX.-Opossum; Didelphis; L.
Germ. Beutelthier.
Fr. Sarigue.
GENERIC CHARACTERS.
The head is conical, with a pointed muzzle and lateral
nostrils; rounded, nearly naked and delicate ears. The
thickness of the body is great when compared with the
length of the limbs. The digits on the anterior extremities
are five in number, armed with hooked claws, and all lying
parallel to each other. On the posterior extremities the
internal digits are not in the same range with the rest, but
are opposable, or constitute proper thumbs. They are
rounded at the extremity, without nails, broad and fleshy.
The soles of the posterior feet are provided with large
fleshy tubercles, which materially aid in grasping small
objects. The females of this genus have a fold of the skin
of the belly, so arranged as to form a marsupium or pouch
capable of receiving the young after birth; the teats, eight
in number on each side, are within this pouch, which is sup-
ported by two bones of considerable length, articulated
with the pubis and connected with the muscles of the belly.
The males also have similar bones, but no pouch.
Dental System.
26 Upper
6 False Molar
8 Molar.
50 Teeth:
10 Incisive
2 Canine
14 Molar.
8 Incisive
2 Canine
14 Molar.
24 Lower
6 False Molar
8 Molar.
IN THE UPPER JAW the incisors are situated at the ex-
tremity of a very elongated ellipsis. The first is cylindri-
cal, hooked, and longer than the four following, which re-
sionally indulged in by the most celebrated men, since the influence of their ex-
ample under such circunstances, is as injurious as in opposite conditions it is
beneficial. The birth of the young is not premature in these animals, but takes
place in a perfectly regular and mature manner, according to their peculiar organ-
ization and nature, though it may be apparently premature when compared with
other animals. M. DESMAREST gives as the most striking characteristic of this fam-
ily, “birth of the young premature," ("naissance des petits prematurée") which is
entirely at variance with fict and philosophy. An American translator of Des-
marest has advanced still farther, and" capped the climax" of absurdity by rendering
the words above quoted, "GROWTH of the young premature !"
Vol. I.
33

258
THE OPOSSUM.
semble each other and are trenchant. To these succeed
a very marked depression, and then the canine, which is
a
compressed, terminates in a point and is hooked, but with
rounded edges.. At its base there is a very small but nor-
mal false molar, to which succeeds a vacant space, and
then two equally regular false molars, the last of which is a
little larger than the preceding. The three first molars
successively and gradually increase in size, and have the
same forms. At first the inner base is elevated nearly as
high as the prisms; these are merely distinguished by the
points, which are only developed at the three angles pre-
sented by a section of them, the anterior being much small-
ler than the posterior ; its anterior point is very small.
Finally, the inner base is carried obliquely forward in con-
sequence of which there is left between each tooth on the
inside of the jaw an angular vacuity, much larger than in
the insectivorous animals, where this base is uniformly de-
veloped. The last molar only differs from the other in being
truncated at its posterior part, like all the last upper molars
in animals of this order.
IN THE LOWER JAW, we find four incisors, obliquely in-
clined forwards, of a cylindrical form, and nearly equal in
size. The canine, which are in no respect peculiar follow;
then come three false molars, one very small, at the base of
the canine, and after a vacant space the two others some-
what larger than the first, but the middle is the largest, and
all three are normal. The four molars are composed,
anteriorly, of three points, disposed in a triangle, and
posteriorly of a spur also composed of three tubercles, but
less regularly disposed and less elevated than those of the
anterior part : the external is the largest.
There is nothing very peculiar to be observed respecting
the relative position of these teeth.

THE COMMON OPOSSUM.
259
SPECIES I.— The Common Opossum.
Didelphis Virginiana ; Penn GMEL. &c.
Le Manicou : FEUILLE, Obs. Peru, iii. 206,
Tlaquatzin : HERNAND. Mexico, 330.
Opossum: Lawson's Carolina, 120. CATESBY's Carolina, App. xxix.
Sarigue des Illinois : Buff. Sup. tom. vi. pl. 33. Sarigue à long poil. Ibid. pl.
34.
Didelphis Opossum : L. GMEL. Syst. Nat. i. p. 105.
Micouré Premier : D'AZZARA, Quad du Paragua, Trad. Fran. i. p. 244.
Virginian Opossum; Penn. Quad. ii. p. 18, No. 217, Shaw, i. part 2, pl. 107.
Didelphis Woapink : Barton, Facts and Conjectures, &c.
Centuries have elapsed since this species was first ob-
served by European naturalists, and it has long been a fre-
quent theme of admiration and discussion to those of
America, yet it is still considered as a sort of anomaly among
animals, and the peculiarities of its sexual intercourse,
gestation, and parturition, are to this day involved in pro-
found obscurity. Perhaps nothing can more clearly de-
monstrate the impatience of the human mind, and the re-
luctance with which men yield to the hard necessity of care-
fully observing the operations of nature, than the history of
this animal. Volumes of facts and conjectures have been
written on the subject, in which the proportion of conjec-
ture to fact has been as a thousand to one, and the difficul-
ties still remain to be surmounted. The animal is
among the most common within our borders, and is annual
ly killed or captured in large nnmbers; faithful investiga-
,
tions into the habits of a few individuals would be sufficient
to settle all doubts forever, and yet these still remain to be
made. Very full and interesting observations have been
made at almost every other period ; but the great question
how the helpless offspring, weighing scarcely a grain, are
conveyed into the external pouch and attached to the teat
of the mother, has never been properly answered.
For obvious reasons we shall wave for the present the
consideration of these particulars. In our appendix we hope
to give a full description of the sexual peculiarities of this
very singular animal, and may then have it in our power to
remove all the obscurities from the subject, by the only
true method, that of a patient and vigilant observation of
nature.
The opossum is very remarkable from other peculiarities
besides those which relate to the continuation of its kind.

260
THE COMMON OPOSSUM.
a
In the first place, we have already seen that it has a very
large number of teeth, and its hind feet are actually ren-
dered hands by short, fleshy and opposable thumbs, which,
together with the prominences in the palms of these pos-
terior hands, enable the animal to take firm hold of objects
which no one would think could be thus grasped. An
opossum can cling by these feet-hands to a smooth silk
handkerchief or a silk dress, with great security, and climb
up by the same. In like manner he can ascend by a skein
of silk, or even a few threads. The slightest projection or
doubling of any material, affords him a certain mean of
climbing to any desired height. Another curious and
amusing peculiarity is his prehensile tail; by simply curving
this at the extremity, the opossum sustains his weight and
depends from a limb of a tree, or other projecting
body, and hanging in full security, gathers fruit or sei-
zes any prey within his reach ; to regain his position on
the limb it is only necessary to make a little stronger ef-
fort with the tail and throw his body upward at the same
time.
In speaking of the more obvious peculiarities of the
opossum, we may advert to the thinness and membranous
character of the external ears, which remind us in
some degree of what has been heretofore said relative to
the perfection of the sense of touch possessed by the bat, in
consequence of the delicacy of the extended integument
forming the ears and wings. The extremity of the nose
of our animal is also covered by a soft, moist and delicate
integument, which is no doubt very sensitive. On the
sides of the nose, or rather on the upper lip, there are nu-
merous long and stroug divergent whiskers or bristles,
projecting to the distance of nearly three inches; over each
eye there are two long black bristles, rather softer than the
others, somewhat crisped or undulated, and slightly decurv-
ed; while, on the posterior part of the cheek, and about an
inch below, and in front of the ear, there is a bunch of
long, straight bristles, (very similar to those of a hog) six
or eight in number, projecting laterally so as to form a right
angle with the head. When the elongated conical form
of the opossum's head is recollected, together with its noc-
turnal habits, we cannot avoid remarking that all these ar-
rangements appear to have immediate reference to the
safety of the animal, furnishing the means of directing its
which may

THE COMMON OPOSSUM.
261
pre-
а
course, and warning it of the presence of bodies which
otherwise might not be discovered until too late.
The mouth of the opossum is very wide when open,
yet the animal does not drink by lapping, but by suction.
The wideness of the mouth is rendered very remarkable
when the female is approached while in company with her
young. She then silently drops the lower jaw to the great-
est distance it is capable of moving, retracts the angles of
the lips, and shows the whole of her teeth, which thus
sent a formidable array. She then utters a muttering kind
of snarl, but does not snap until the hand or other object
be brought very close. If this be a thick or any hard or
insensible body, she seldom closes her mouth on it after the
first or second time, but maintains the same gaping and
snarling appearance, even when it is thrust into her mouth.
At the same time the young, if they have attained any size,
either exhibit their signs of defiance, take refuge in the
pouch of the mother, or, clinging to various parts of her
body, hide their faces amidst her long hair.
The general colour of the opossum is a whitish gray.
From the top of the head along the back and upper part of
the sides the gray is darkest, and this colour is produced by
the intermixture of coarse white hairs, upwards of three
inches long, with a shorter, closer, and softer hair, which
is white at base, and black for about half an inch at tip.
The whole pelage is of a woolly softness, and the long white
hairs diverging considerably, allow the black parts to be
seen, so as to give the general gray colour already mention-
ed. On the face the wool is short and of a smoky white
colour ; that on the belly is of the same character, but longer
on the fore and hind legs; the colour is nearly black from
the body to the digits, which are naked beneath. The
tail is thick and black for upwards of three inches at base,
and is covered by small hexagonal scales, having short rigid
hairs interspersed throughout its length, which are but
slightly perceptible at a little distance. The opossum is
generally killed for the sake of its flesh and fat. Its wool
is of considerable length and fineness during the winter
season, and we should suppose that in manufactures it
would be equal to the sheep's wool which is wrought into
coarse hats.
The opossum is a nocturnal and timid animal, depending
more on cunning than strength for his safety. His motions
are slow, and his walk when on the ground entirely planti-

262
THE COMMON OPOSSUM.
grade, which gives an appearance of clumsiness to his
movements. When on the branches of trees he moves
with much greater ease, and with perfect security from
sudden gusts of wind; even were his weight sufficient to
break the limb on which he rests, there is no danger of his
falling to the earth, unless when on the lowest branch, as
he can certainly catch and securely cling to the smallest in-
tervening twigs, either with the hands or the extremity of
the tail. This organ is always employed by the animal
while on the smaller branches of trees, as if to guard against
such an occurrence, and it is very useful in aiding the opos-
sum to collect his food, by enabling him to suspend himself
from a branch above, while rifling a bird's nest of its eggs,
or gathering fruits.
The food of the opossum varies very much according to
circumstances. It preys upon birds, various small quadru-
peds, eggs, and no doubt occasionally upon insects. The
poultry-yards are sometimes visited, and much havoc com-
mitted by the opossum, as, like the weazel, this animal is
fonder of cutting the throats and sucking the blood of a
number of individuals, than of satisfying his hunger by eat-
ing the flesh of one. Among the wild fruits the persimmon
(Diospyros Virginiana) is a great favourite, and it is gener-
ally after this fruit is in perfection that the opossum is kil-
led by the country people for the market. At that season
it is very fat, and but little difference is to be perceived be-
tween this fat and that of a young pig. The flavour of the
flesh is compared to that of the roasting pig ; we have in
several instances seen it refused by dogs and cats, although
the opossum was in fine order and but recently killed
This may have been owing to some accidental circumstance,
but it was uniformly rejected by these animals, usually not
very nice when raw flesh was offered.
The hunting of the opossum is a favourite sport with the
country people, who frequently go out with their dogs at
night, after the autumnal frosts have begun and the per-
simmon fruit is in its most delicious state. The opossum,
as soon as he discovers the approach of his enemies, lies
perfectly close to the branch, or places himself snugly in
the angle where two limbs separate from each other. The
dogs, however, soon announce the fact of his presence by
their baying, and the hunter ascending the tree discovers
the branch upon which the animal is seated, and begins to
shake it with great violence to alarm and cause him to re-
a

THE COMMOM OPOSSUM.
263
lax his hold. This is soon effected, and the opossum
attempting to escape to another limb is pursued immediate-
ly, and the shaking is renewed with greater violence, until
at length the terrified quadruped allows himself to drop to the
ground, where hunters or dogs are prepared to despatch
him.
Should the hunter, as frequently happens, be unaccom-
panied by dogs when the opossum falls to the ground, it
does not immediately make its escape, but steals slowly
and quietly to a little distance, and then gathering itselt
into as small a compass as possible, remains as still as if
dead. Should there be any quantity of grass or under-
wood near the tree, this apparently simple artifice is fre-
quently sufficient to secure the animal's escape, as it is
difficult by moonlight or in the shadow of the tree to dis-
tinguish it, and if the hunter has not carefully observed
the spot where it fell, his labour is often in vain. This
circumstance, however, is generally attended to, and the
opossum derives but little benefit from his instinctive
artifice.
After remaining in this apparently lifeless condition
for a considerable time, or so long as any noise indicative
of danger can be heard, the opossum slowly unfolds him-
self, and creeping as closely as possible upon the ground
would fain sneak off unperceived. Upon a shout or out-
cry in any tone from his persecutor, he immediately re-
news his death-like attitude and stillness.
proached, moved or handled, -he is still seemingly dead,
and might dcceive any one not accustomed to his actions.
This feigning is repeated as frequently as opportunity is
allowed him of attempting to escape, and is known so well
to the country folks as to have long since passed into a
proverb. “He is playing 'possum” is applied with great
readiness by them to any one who is thought to act deceit-
fully, or wishes to appear what he is not.
The usual haunts of the opossum are thick forests, and
their dens are generally in the hollows of decayed trees,
where they pass the day asleep, and sally forth mostly af-
ter night-fall to seek for food. They are occasionally
seen out during day-light, especially when they have
young ones of considerable size, too large to be carried in
the maternal pouch. The female then offers a very
a
singular appearance, as she toils along with twelve or six-
teen cubs nearly of the size of rats, each with a turn of
If then ap-

264
THE COMMON OPOSSUM.
his tail around the root of the mother's, and clinging on
her back and sides with paws, hands and mouth. This
circumstance was thought distinctive of another species,
hence called dorsigera, but is equally true of the common
or Virginian opossum. It is exceedingly curious and in-
teresting to see the young, when the mother is at rest,
take refuge in the pouch, whence one or two of them may
occasionally be seen peeping out, with an air of great
comfort and satisfaction. The mother in this condition,
or at any time in defence of her young, will make battle,
,
biting with much keenness and severity, for which her
long canine teeth are well suited.
If taken young the opossum is readily tamed and be-
comes very fond of human society, in a great degree relin-
quishes its nocturnal habits, and grows troublesome from its
familiarity. We had one thus tamed which would follow
the inmates of the house with great assiduity, and com-
plain by a whining noise when left alone. As it
As it grew older
it become mischievous from its restless curiosity, and there
seemed to be no possibility of devising any contrivance
effectually to secure it. The same circumstance is fre-
quently remarked by persons who have attempted to de-
tain them in captivity, and of all the instances which have
come to our knowledge, where even a great number were
apparently well secured, they have in a short time enlarged
themselves and been no more heard of. In some such in-
stances these animals have escaped in the city, and for a
long time have taken up their quarters in cellars, where
their presence has never been suspected, as during the day
they remain concealed. In this way it is very probable that
many are still living in the city of Philadelphia obtaining a
plentiful food by their nightly labours.
In Dr. Barton's facts and conjectures on the opossum,
he mentions as a circumstance worthy of curiosity, the fa-
culty the opossum has of lying on its back. We have ob-
served this action of the animal, but could see nothing in it
very different from what is very frequently done by the dog,
cat, marmot, squirrel, and various other animals, which
occasionally place themselves sufficiently on the back to
expose the inferior surface of the body fully ; but that this
action in the opossum is indicative of any peculiarity, or is
the ordinary position chosen by the animal, is what we can-
not state from our own observation.
The size of the full grown opossum is about twenty inches,
a

THE COMMON OPOSSUM.
265
and that of the tail twelve ; the weight is about fourteen
pounds. The number of
The number of young is from twelve to six-
teen. There is therefore not much probability of the
species becoming very scarce, especially as their nocturnal
mode of life renders it by no means necessary that they
should fly to very remote distances from the habitations of
man.*
-
* It is amusing to read the accounts of the wonderful medical vir-
tues which have been attributed to the tail of this animal, in some of
the older writers on the natural history of our continent. The fol-
lowing is a good specimen of the credulity and disposition to deal in
the marvellous, which was formerly thought to form an almost essen-
tial quality in the natural historian: The tail of this animal (says
MARCGRAVE) is a singular and wonderful remedy against inflammation
of the kidneys; for if it be broken, and the quantity of a drachm of the
water in which it is steeped be drunk sometimes, fasting, it wonder-
fully cleanses the ureters, expels calculi and other obstructions, [ex-
citat venerem, et generat lac, medetur colicis doloribus prodest par-
ientibus et accelerat partum, promovet menses,] and if it be chewed
and placed on a part into which thorns have been thrust, it extracts
them, loosens the bowels, and I believe in all New Spain there is not
to be found another remedy as useful in so many cases.”-Hist. Ker.
Nat. Brasil, lib. vi. p. 22.
The above passage may have served as a hint to the celebrated
CUMBERLAND, who, in one of his amusing works, introduces a quack,
soliloquising on the virtues of a dried lizard's tail in the following
words:
“ Thou wilt pulverize most featly," quoth he, “when I have thee
under the pestle; but before I consign thee to the mortar and reduce
thee to dust, let me ponder upon thy properties, and do nothing with-
out forecast and circumspection. Poisonous thou can’st not be, for
though I have never eaten of thy species myself, I know that others
have; and if thy flesh be delicate, thy dust cannot fail to be whole-
some; nay, I doubt not but it is medicinal. Thou hast other virtues,
if I could but recollect them; there is something more about thee;
something I have read in learned authors of the back-bone of a lizard;
and thine, heaven be prais'd, I perceive is perfect and entire; but
whether it is recorded as a provocative to incontinency, or as a pre-
ventive, I cannot to a certainty recollect: upon second thoughts, I
suspect thou art a stimulative; as I'm a sinner, I suspect thou art of a
stirring quality, for thy tail betokeneth it.”
Vol. I.
34

CHAPTER XIX.
ORDER IV. GLIRES; L. Gnawers.
SECTION 1.-CLAVICULATA.
Having perfect, and in some, very strong clavicles.
The animals belonging to this order have the brain
nearly smooth and without convolutions; the orbits of the
eyes are not separated from the temporal cavities, which
are slight; the eyes are directed laterally; the zygomatic
arches are delicate and curved downwards, indicating
feebleness in the jaws; the fore arm can scarcely be turned,
and the two bones are often consolidated. Those possess-
ing the strongest clavicles exhibit some intelligence, and
use their fore feet to convey their food to their mouth.
They have the posterior extremities generally higher than
the anterior, by which they are rendered fitter for leaping
than running. Their intestines are very long, and the
stomach is simple, or but little divided ; the cæcum is often
larger than the stomach itself.
These animals are provided with two large cutting teeth
in both jaws, separated by a vacant space from the molars,
and such teeth are exclusively destined to disintegrate
solid bodies by repeated efforts, by nibbling or gnawing;
the name of the order has been derived from this circum-
stance in various languages. The cutting teeth are enam-
elled only on the anterior surface, so that as the posterior
surfaces wear away first, they always preserve a bevelled
edge. They grow from the root as rapidly as they wear
at the edge, and when an opposing tooth is broken or lost,
the other grows so rapidly as to become monstrous. The
lower jaw is articulated by a longitudinal condyle, and has
no other horizontal movement than from behind forwards
and the reverse. The molar teeth have flat crowns, with

THE BEAVER.
267
transverse projections of enamel, in opposition to the hori-
zontal motion of the jaw.
Those which have simple lines on the crowns instead of
projections, and the whole surface of the molars very plane,
are more exclusively frugivorous. Those whose teeth have
these projections divided into blunt tubercles, are omnivo-
rous; the small number which have points to these teeth,
attack other animals more readily and slightly approach
carnivorous animals.*
GENUS XX. BEAVER; Castor; L.
Gr. Kasop.
Fr. Biévre.
Ger. Biber.
Ital. Bevero.
Pol. Bobr.
Swed. Beeffwer.
GENERIC CHARACTERS.
The head is large, with a short and blunt snout, small
ears and eyes, and the upper lip divided. The trunk of
the body is thick, having four teats, two near the fore
limbs, and two at the posterior part of the chest. The
limbs are short, the anterior being somewhat larger than
the posterior; all the feet have five short, free and flexi-
ble toes, which are webbed, and the posterior toes have
the membrane longer and broader. The middle toe is
always longest in the fore and hind feet; the thumb and
little finger, on the external and internal digits, are the
shortest, and equal to each other; the intermediate toes
are of middling size and equal in length. All the digits
are furnished with strong and slightly incurvated nails,
which are fit for burrowing; those on the hind feet are
rather the largest. The tail is peculiarly flattened, of an
oblong, oval shape, broad and covered at base with thick
fur; the remainder has a covering of scales.
* See Cuvier, Régne Animal, p. 186.

268
THE BEAVER.
Dental System.
10 Upper
2 Incisive
8 Molar.
20 Teeth :
10 Lower
2 Incisive
8 Molar.
IN THE UPPER JAW the incisors are flat, smooth and
of a very great breadth, arising from the inferior and an-
terior part of the maxillary bone. The molars differ
slightly from each other in size, and appear all to be com-
posed of one internal and three external grooves, which
being interrupted by the wearing of the teeth, at length
merely present elliptical figures. Many of these external
.
grooves are characterized by enlarging at their extremity.
The germs of these teeth show the same number of
grooves as we have described from partly worn teeth.
IN THE LOWER JAW the incisors are similar to those
of the upper, and not less remarkable for great size;
they rise far beyond and beneath the molars, between the
coronoid process and condyle. The molars present abso-
lutely the same characters, that is, the same figures as
those in the opposite jaw; excepting that the three grooves
are on the inner side of the tooth, and the external has
but one.
The
germs
of these teeth have also the strong-
est resemblance to the figures which are seen when the
teeth are partly worn away.
SPECIES I.-The Beaver.
Castor Fiber ; L. ERXL. &c.
Le Castor ou le biévre : Briss. Regn. An. p.
133.
Le Castor : BUFE. viji. pl. 36.
Castor Fibre : SABINE, App. p. 659. Say, Long's Exped. to the Rocky Mount-
ains, i. p. 464.
Truth, alike the object and reward of all rational inquiry
is too delicate and unobtrusive to be advantageously ap-
proached or estimated, unless the mental vision be entirely
free from prejudice, and her votaries, for the sake of her

hwn by Rode
Ingby G B Els
Beaver
2
Muskrat.


THE BEAVER.
269
unostentatious though unfading charms, forego the pride
of worshipping the fantastic creatures of their own ima-
ginations. Accessible to all who in the proper disposition
seek her presence, how many ages have elapsed during
which fiction has been pursued in her stead, till at length
opinion gains such strength, and prejudice so deep a root,
that the semblance passes into general acceptation for the
substance, and what was at first the mere breath of specu-
lation, becomes finally received and accredited as indubi-
table. Thankless is the office of the individual who ven-
tures to overturn any of these idols of the mind ;* to dis-
place the illusions of fancy by cold reality, and disperse into
thin air the fairy world which credulity first called into ex-
istence, and indolent imagination perpetuates. It must be
confessed that occasionally this is no pleasant task ; yet it
is one of the duties especially incumbent on the teacher of
natural history, inasmuch as the exercise of imagination is
always prejudicial to the study of nature, the sober reality
of which, when correctly examined, possesses an interest far
transcending that of all the fugitive beauties bestowed by
this deluding faculty of the mind.
Who has not heard of the wonderful sagacity of the
beaver, or listened to the laboured accounts of its social and
rational nature? Who that has read the impassioned elo-
quence of BUFFON, to which nothing is wanting but truth
in order to render it sublime, can forget the impression
which his views of the economy and character this species
produced ? The enchanter waves his wand and converts
animals, congregated by instinct alone, and guided by no
moral influence, into social, rational, intelligent beings.
superior to creatures high above them in organization, and
even far more exalted than vast tribes of that race which
has been justly and emphatically termed “lords of creation.”
Alas, for all these air-drawn prospects ! while we endea-
* “Excrevit autum mirium in modum, istud malum ex opinione
quadam sive æstimatione invetera'a verum tumida et damnosa; minui
nempe mentis humanæ majestatem, si experimentis et rebus partic-
ularibus sensui subjectis et in materia determinatis diu ac multum
versetur; præsertim quum hujusmodi res ad inquirendum laboriosæ, ad
meditandum ignobiles, ad dicendum asperæ, ad practicam illiberales ;
numero infinitæ et subtilitate tenues esse soleant. Itaque jam tandem
huc res rediit ut via vera non tantum deserta sed etiam interclusa et
obstructa sit; fastidita experientia ; nedum relicta, aut male adminis-
trata.-BACON; Nov. Organ.

270
THE BEAVER.
vour to gaze upon their beauties they fleet away and leave
no trace behind.
The injury the mind receives from this source is scarcely
to be appreciated, and among others, the false notions we
form concerning the relative perfection and excellence of
the plan of nature, may be considered as of the first magni-
tude. The beaver, for instance, is endowed with singular
instincts, and performs actions worthy of our admiration ;
;
yet the beaver is not more sagacious than the ant or the
bee, creatures far removed from it in every respect, nei-
ther are its moral qualities better than those of the common
rat. Each, according to its instinct, provides for the safe-
ty and support of itself and offspring, each obeys the im-
pulse of a power beyond its own control, and each remains
through countless generations the same in point of intelli-
gence ;—untaught, incapable of teaching, and as well
qua-
lified to perform all the singular actions of its predecessors,
if removed at the earliest age from its kind, as if it had
grown to maturity in their midst, and aided in their opera-
tions from the time its strength became sufficient to the
task.
After rejecting the exaggerated facts, as well as the nu-
merous fictions relative to this animal, ample scope will
still remain for the exercise of our admiration; for although
the beaver is in no respect exclusively wonderful, yet its
character and habits are such as to render it highly inter-
esting. We shall therefore give a plain, unvarnished
statement of facts obtained from the most authentic sourc-
es, and afterwards present some sketches of what, although
frequently repeated in books of acknowledged authority,
may be termed the fabulous history of the animal. This
will prove serviceable as well as amusing, as it will lead the
inexperienced to receive wonderful narrations of the intelli-
gence, &c. of animals, with enough of scepticism to pre-
vent them from being betrayed into error.
The general aspect of the beaver, at first view, would
remind one of a very large rat, and seen at a little distance,
it might be readily mistaken for the common musk-rat.
But the greater size of the beaver, the thickness and
breadth of its head, and its horizontally flattened, broad
and scaly tail, render it impossible to mistake it for any
other creature when closely examined. In its movements,
both on shore and in the water, it also closely resembles
the musk-rat, having the same quick step, and swimming

THE BEAVER.
271
with great vigour and celerity either on the surface, or in
the depths of the water.
In a state of captivity or insulation, the beaver is a quiet
or rather stupid animal, evincing about as much intelli-
gence as a tamed badger, or any other quadruped which
can learn to distinguish its feeder, come when called, or
grow familiar with the inmates of the house where it is
kept. It is only in a state of nature that the beaver dis-
plays any of those singular modes of acting which have so
long rendered the species celebrated : these may be summed
up in a statement of the manner in which they secure a
sufficient depth of water to prevent it from being frozen to
the bottom, and their mode of constructing the huts in which
they pass the winter.
They are not particular in the site they select for the
establishment of their dwellings, but if in a lake or pond
where a dam is not required, they are careful to build where
the water is sufficiently deep. In standing waters, how-
ever, they have not the advantage afforded by a current
for the transportation of their supplies of wood, which,
when they build on a running stream, is always cut
higher up than the place of their residence, and floated
down.
The materials used for the construction of their dams
are the trunks and branches of small birch, mulberry,
willow, poplar, &c. They begin to cut down their tim-
ber for building early in the summer, but their edifices are
not commenced until about the middle or latter part of
August, and are not completed until the beginning of the
cold season. The strength of their teeth and their perse-
verance in this work, may be fairly estimated by the size
of the trees they cut down. Dr. Best informs us that he
has seen a mulberry tree, eight inches in diameter, which
had been knawed down by the beaver. We were shown,
while on the banks of the little Miami river, several
stumps of trees, which had evidently been felled by these
animals, of at least five or six inches in diameter.
. These
are cut in such a manner as to fall into the water, and
then floated towards the site of the dam or dwellings.
Small shrubs, &c. cut at a distance from the water, they
drag with their teeth to the stream, and then launch and
tow them to the place of deposite. At a short distance
above a beaver-dam the number of trees which have been
cut down appears truly surprising, and the regularity of the

272
THE BEAVER.
a
stumps which are left might lead persons unacquainted
with the habits of our animal to believe that the clearing
was the result of human industry.
The figure of the dam varies according to circumstances.
Should the current be very gentle, the dam is carried near-
ly straight across; but when the stream is swiftly flowing,
it is uniformly made with a considerable curve, having the
convex part opposed to the current. Along with the
trunks and branches of trees they intermingle mud and
stones, to give greater security, and when dams have
been long undisturbed and frequently repaired, they ac-
quire great solidity, and their power of resisting the pres-
sure of water and ice is greatly increased by the willow,
birch, &c. occasionally taking root, and eventually grow-
ing up into something of a regular hedge. The ma-
terials used in constructing the dams are secured solely
by the resting of the branches, &c. against the bottom, and
the subsequent accumulation of mud and stones, by the
force of the stream or by the industry of the beavers. In
various parts of the western country, where beavers are at
present entirely unknown, except by tradition, the dams
constructed by their labours are still standing securely, and
in many instances serve instead of bridges to the streams
they obstruct. There are few states in the Union in
which some remembrance of this animal is not preserved
by such names as Beaver-Dam, Beaver-Lake, Beaver-
Falls, &c.
The dwellings of the beaver are formed of the same
materials as their dams, and are very rude, though strong,
and adapted in size to the number of their inhabitants.
These are seldom more than four old and six or eight
young ones.
Double that number have been occasionally
found in one of the lodges, though this is by no means a
very common occurrence.
When building their houses, they place most of the wood
crosswise and nearly horizontally, observing no other order
than that of leaving a cavity in the middle. Branches
which project inward are cut off with their teeth and thrown
among the rest.
the rest. The houses are by no means built of sticks
first and then plastered, but all the materials, sticks, mud
and stones, if the latter can be procured, are mixed up to-
gether, and this composition is employed from the founda-
tion to the summit. The mud is obtained from the adja-
cent banks or bottom of the stream or pond near the door

THE BEAVER.
273
of the hut. Mud and stones the beaver always carries by
holding them between his fore paws and throat.
Their work is all performed at night, and with much ex-
pedition. When straw or grass is mingled with the mud
used by them in building, it is an accidental circumstance,
owing to the nature of the spot whence the latter was taken.
As soon as any part of the material is placed where it is in-
tended to remain, they turn round and give it a smart blow
with the tail. The same sort of blow is struck by them upon
the surface of the water when they are in the act of diving.
The cutside of the hut is covered or plastered with mud
late in the autumn, and after frost has begun to appear.
By freezing it soon becomes almost as hard as stone, ef-
fectually excluding their great enemy, the wolverene, dur-
ing the winter. Their habit of walking over the work fre-
quently during its progress, has led to the absurd idea of
their using the tail as a trowel. The habit of flapping with
the tail is retained by them in a state of captivity, and, un-
less it be in the acts already mentioned, appears designed
to effect no particular purpose. The houses, when they
have stood for some time, and been kept in repair, become
so firm from the consolidation of all the materials, as to re-
quire great exertion and the use of the ice-chisel or other
iron instruments to be broken open. The laborious nature
of such an undertaking may easily be conceived, when it is
known that the tops of the houses are generally from four to
six feet thick at the apex of the cone. HEARNE relates hav-
ing seen one instance in which the crown or roof of the hut
was more than eight feet in thickness.
The door or hole leading into the beaver hut is always
on the side farthest from the land, and is near the founda-
tion of the house, or at a considerable depth under water
This is the only opening into the hut.
The large houses are sometimes found to have projections
of the main building thrown out, the better to support the
roof, and this circumstance has led to all the stories of the
different chambers or apartments in beaver-huts. But
these larger edifices, so far from having several apartments,
are either double or treble houses, each part having no
communication with the other, except by water. Upwards
of twelve such dwellings have been seen under one roof,
and excepting two or three of them, the whole of the re-
mainder had no communication unless by water, each hav-
ing its own door into the dam which is doubtless well
Vol. 1.
85

274
THE BEAVER.
known to the inmates, who may have comparatively little
intercourse with each other. It is a fact that the musk-rat
is sometimes found to have taken up his abode in the huts
of the beaver; the otter also occasionally intrudes his com-
pany.
The latter animal, however, is a dangerous guest,
for, if provision grows scarce, it is not uncommon for him to
devour his host.
The northren Indians believe that the beaver always
thicken the northern walls of their houses much more than
the others, in order more effectually to resist the cold. In
consequence of this belief, these Indians always break into
the huts from the south side.
All the beavers of a community do not co-operate in the
fabrication of houses for the common use of the whole. Those
which are to live together in the same hut, labour together
in its construction, and the only affair in which all seem to
have a joint interest, and upon which they labour in concert,
is the dam, as this is designed to keep a sufficient depth of
water around all the habitations.
In situations where the beaver is frequently disturbed
and pursued, all its singular habits are relinquished, and its
mode of living changed to suit the nature of circumstances,
and this occurs even in different parts of the same rivers.
Instead of building dams and houses, its only residence is
then in the banks of the stream, where it is now forced to
make a more extensive excavation, and be content to adopt
the manners of a musk-rat. More sagacity is displayed by
the beaver in thus accommodating itself to circumstances,
than in any other action it performs. Such is the caution
which it exercises to guard against detection, that were it
not for the removal of small trees, the stumps of which in-
dicate the sort of animal by which they have been cut down,
the presence of the beaver would not be suspected in the
vicinity. All excursions for the sake of procuring food are
made late at night, and if it pass from one hole to another
during the day time, it swims so far under water as not to
excite the least suspicion of the presence of such a voyager.
On many parts of the Mississippi and Missouri, where the
beaver formerly built houses according to the mode above
described, no such works are at present to be found, al-
though beavers are still to be trapped in those localities.
The same circumstances have been remarked of the Euro-
pean beaver, which has been thought to belong to another
species, because it does not build. This, however, as may

THE BEAVER.
275
a
readily be inferred from what we have just stated, is no test
of difference of species.
These animals also have excavations in the adjacent
banks, at rather regular distances from each other, which
have been called washes. These excavations are so en-
larged within, that the beaver can raise his head above
water in order to breathe without being seen, and when
disturbed at their huts, they immediately make way under
water to these washes for greater security, where they are
more readily taken by the hunters, as we shall presently
discover.
The beaver feeds principally upon the bark of the aspen,
,
willow, birch, poplar, and occasionally the alder, but it
rarely resorts to the pine tribe, unless from severe necessity,
They provide a stock of wood from the trees mentioned,
during the summer season, and place it in the water oppo-
site the entrance to their houses. They also depend in a
great degree upon the large roots (of the nuphar luteum,)
which grow at the bottom of the lakes, ponds and rivers,
and may be procured at all seasons. It is remarked that
these roots, although they fatten the beaver very much, in-
part a rank and disagreeable taste to their flesh.
The number of young produced by the beaver at a
litter is from two to five. Females have been killed in
which six young were found, but this occurred only in
two instances out of many hundreds examined at diffe-
rent stages of gestation.* During the season of union,
the voice of both sexes resembles a groan, the male ha-
ving a much hoarser note than the female.
beavers whine in such a manner as closely to imitate the
cry of a child. Like the young of most other animals
they are very playful, and their movements are peculiarly
interesting, as may be seen by the following anecdote, re-
lated in the narrative of Capt. FRANKLIN's perilous jour-
ney to the shores of the Arctic Sea.
“One day a gen-
tleman, long resident in the Hudson's bay country, espied
five young beavers sporting in the water, leaping upon the
trunk of a tree, pushing one another off, and playing a
thousand interesting tricks. He approached softly, under
cover of the bushes, and prepared to fire on the unsus-
pecting creatures, but a nearer approach discovered to
The young
* Hearne.

276
THE BEAVER.
him such a similitude betwixt their gestures and the in-
fantile caresses of his own children, that he threw aside
his gun and left them unmolested.”
The beaver is a cleanly animal, and always leaves the
house to attend to the calls of nature; the excrement be-
ing light, rises to the top of the water and soon separates
and disappears. Thus, however great may be the number
of individuals occupying the hut, no accumulation of filth
of this kind occurs.
The beaver swims to considerable distances under wa-
ter, but cannot remain for a long time without coming to
the surface for air. They are therefore caught with
greater ease, as they must either take refuge in their
vaults or washes in the bank, or seek their huts again for
the sake of getting breath. They usually, when disturbed,
.
fly from the huts to these vaults, which, although not so ex-
posed to observation as their houses, are yet discovered
with sufficient ease, and allow the occupant to be more rea-
,
dily captured than if he had remained in the ordinary
habitation.
To capture beavers residing on a small river or creek,
the Indians find it necessary to stake the stream across to
prevent the animals from escaping, and then they try to
ascertain where the vaults or washes in the banks are si-
tuated. This can only be done by those who are very
experienced in such explorations, and is thus performed:-
The hunter is furnished with an ice-chisel lashed to a han-
dle four or five feet in length; with this instrument he
strikes against the ice as he goes along the edge of the
banks. The sound produced by the blow informs him
when he is opposite to one of these vaults. When one
is discovered, a hole is cut through the ice of sufficient
size to admit a full-grown beaver, and the search is con-
tinued until as many of the places of retreat are discove-
red as possible. During the time the most expert hunters
are thus occupied, the others with the woman are busy
in breaking into the beaver-houses, which, as may
be
sup-
posed from what has been already stated, is a task of some
difficulty. The beavers, alarmed at the invasion of their
dwelling, take to the water and swim with surprising
swiftness to their retreats in the banks, but their entrance
is betrayed to the hunters watching the holes in the ice,
by the motion and discolouration of the water.
The en-
trance is instantly closed with stakes of wood, and the

THE BEAVER.
277
beaver, instead of finding shelter in his cave, is made pri-
soner and destroyed. The hunter then pulls the animal
out, if within reach, by the introduction of his hand and
arm, or by a hook designed for this use, fastened to a
long handle. Beaver-houses found in lakes or other
standing waters offer an easier prey to the hunters, as
there is no occasion for staking the water across.
Among the Hudson's bay Indians every hunter has the
exclusive right to all the beavers caught in the washes dis-
covered by him. Each individual on finding one places
some mark, as a pole or the branch of a tree stuck
up,
in
order to know his own. Beavers caught in any house are
also the property of the discoverer, who takes care to mark
his claim, as in the case of the washes.*
The number of beavers killed in the northern parts of
this country is exceedingly great, even at the present time,
after the fur trade has been carried on for so many years,
and the most indiscriminate warfare waged uninterruptedly
against the species. In the year 1820, sixty thousand
beaver skins were sold by the Hudson's bay company, which
we can by no means suppose to be the whole number killed
during the preceding season. If to these be added the
quantities collected by the traders from the Indians of the
Missouri country, we may form some idea of the immense
number of these animals which exist throughout the vast
regions of the north and west.
It is a subject of regret that an animal so valuable and
prolific should be hunted in a manner tending so evidently
to the extermination of the species, when a little care and
management on the part of those interested, might prevent
unnecessary destruction, and increase the sources of their
revenue. The old beavers are frequently killed within a
short time of their littering season, and with every such death
from three to six are destroyed. The young are often kill-
.
ed before they have attained half their growth and value,
and of necessity long before they have contributed to the
continuance of their species.
Lewis and Clark relate an instance which fell under their obser-
vation of one beaver being caught in two traps belonging to different
owners, it having one paw
in each. The proprietors of the traps were
engaged in a contest for the beaver, when the above named distin-
guished travellers arrived and settled the dispute between them by an
equitable arrangement.

278
THE BEAVER.
а
dividuals may,
In a few years, comparatively speaking, the beaver has
been exterminated in all the Atlantic and in the western
states, as far as the middle and upper waters of the Mis-
souri; while in the Hudson's bay possessions they are be-
coming annually more scarce, and the race will eventually
be extinguished throughout the whole continent. A few in-
for a time elude the immediate violence of
persecution, and like the degraded descendants of the
aboriginals of our soil, be occasionally exhibited as melan-
choly mementos of tribes long previously whelmed in the
fathomless gulf of avarice.
The Indians inhabiting the countries watered by the tri-
butaries of the Missouri and Mississippi, take the beavers
principally by trapping, and are generally supplied with
steel-traps by the traders, who do not sell, but lend or hire
them, in order to keep the Indians dependant upon them-
selves, and also to lay claim to the furs which they may
procure. The name of the trader being stamped on the
trap, it is equal to a certificate of enlistment, and indicates,
when an Indian carries his furs to another trading establish-
ment, that the individual wishes to avoid the payment of his
debts. The business of trapping requires great experience
and caution, as the senses of the beaver are very keen, and
enable him to detect the recent presence of the hunter by
the slightest traces. It is necessary that the hands should
be washed clean before the trap is handled and baited, and
that every precaution should be employed to elude the vigi-
lance of the animal.
The bait which is used to entice the beavers is prepared
from the substance called castor (castoreum,) obtained from
the glandulous pouches of the male* animal, which contain
sometimes from two to three ounces. This substance is
called by the hunters bark-stone, and is squeezed gently into
an open mouthed phial.
The contents of five or six of these castor bags are mix-
ed with a nutmeg, twelve or fifteen cloves, and thirty grains
of cinnamon, in fine powder, and then the whole is stirred
up with as much whiskey as will give it the consistency of
mustard prepared for the table. This mixture must be
kept closely corked up, and in four or five days the odour
becomes more powerful, with care it may be preserved for
* Juxta preputium utroque latere existunt.

THE BEAVER.
279
months without injury. Various other strong aromatics are
sometimes used to increase the pungency of the odour.
Some of this preparation, smeared upon the bits of wood
with which the traps are baited, will entice the beaver
from a great distance.
The castor, whose odour is similar to tánner's ooze,
gets the name of bark-stone from its resemblance to
finely powdered bark. The sacks containing it are about
two inches in length. Behind these, and between the
skin and root of the tail, are found two other oval cysts,
lying together, which contain a pure strong oil of a rancid
smell.
During the winter season the beaver becomes very fat,
and its flesh is esteemed by the hunters to be excellent food.
But those occasionally caught in the summer are very thin,
and unfit for the table. They lead so wandering a life at
this season, and are so much exhausted by the collection of
materials for building, or the winter's stock of provision, as
well as by suckling their young, as to be generally at that
time in a very poor condition. Their fur during the sum-
mer is of little value, and it is only in winter that it is to be
obtained in that state which renders it so desirable to the
fur traders.
The different appearances of the fur, caused by age,
season, disease, or accident, has at times led individuals
to state the existence of several species of beaver in this
country. No other species, however, has yet been dis
covered, but that whose habits we have been describing.
Beavers are occasionally found nearly of a pure white,
which is owing to the same cause that produces albino va-
rieties of various animals. A specimen of the albino bea-
ver may be seen in the Philadelphia Museum; HEARNE
saw but one such specimen during a residence of twenty
years in the Hudson's bay country. This was considered
a great curiosity, and no other was afterwards procured
there during the ten ensuing years, notwithstanding he of-
fered a large reward to the Indians for as many of the
same colour as they could procuie.
The traits of character exhibited by the beaver in cap-
tivity are not very strikingly peculiar, though sufficiently
interesting. It learns to obey the voice of its master, is
pleased to be caressed, and cleanly in its habits. HEARNE
states that he has kept various individuals about his house
during his residence at Hudson's bay, and remarks, "they

280
THE BEAVER.
made not the least dirt, though they were kept in my own
sitting room, where they were the constant companions of
the Indian women and children, being so fond of their
company that when the Indians were absent for any con-
siderable time, the beaver discovered great signs of unea-
siness, and on their return showed equal marks of pleasure
by fondling on them, crawling into their laps, laying them-
selves on their backs, sitting erect like a squirrel, and be-
having to them like children that see their parents but
seldom. In general during the winter they lived on the
same food as the women did, and were remarkably fond of
rice and plumb-pudding. They would eat fresh venison
and partridges very freely, but I never tried them with
fish, though I have heard they will at times prey on
them."*
Fabulous History of the Beaver.
This part of our subject is richer in materials than any
other which comes within the scope of our work. We
have in the beginning adverted to the grand source of
error in this and other departments of natural history,
but there is one circumstance peculiar to the history of the
beaver, whibh has thrown over it more delusion than in
the case of almost any other animal. The fur-traders,
Indian interpreters, and Indians themselves, have furnished
the greater part of the information which we possess of
the habits and manners of this animal. To these persons
*“ It is well known that our domestic poultry will eat animal food;
thousands of geese that come to London market are fattened on tal-
low craps, and our horses in Hudson's Bay would not only eat all
kinds of animal food, but also drink freely of the wash or pot-liquor
intended for the hogs. We are assured by the best authorities, that
in Iceland not only black cattle, but also the sheep, are almost entirely
fed on fish and fish-bones during the winter season. Even in the
isles of Orkney, and that in the summer, the sheep attend the eb-
bing of the tide as regularly as the Eskimaux curlew, and go down to
the shore which the tide has left to feed on the sea-weed. This,
however, is through necessity, for even the famous island of Pomona
will not afford them an existence above high-water-mark.”—Hearne,
8vo. p. 245. It must always be borne in mind that observations
made on the diet of captive animals, will not at all apply to them
when they are free to follow the dictates of nature. It is, however,
highly interesting to know how far they can accommodate themselves
to necessity.
-

THE BEAVER.
281
the beaver is a most important object, and regarded with
a degree of admiration and superstition exactly proportion-
ed to their ignorance. Hence they have in numerous
instances been led to magnify facts actually observed,
and to state their own notions of the sagacity of the ani-
mal as realities, not intending to deceive, although they
have deceived themselves. To become acquainted with
the peculiarities of a species both nocturnal and ex-
ceedingly timid and vigilant, requires years of patient
and assiduous attention. It is not surprising, therefore,
that persons seeking information should resort to those
who are devoted to the pursuit of the animal, and receive
their statements, given with seriousness and minute detail,
as worthy of credit. In addition to the errors which spring
from the ignorance of these observers, there is a worse
evil to which inquirers are exposed. The traders, hunt-
ers, and interpreters have, for various reasons, considera-
ble jealousy of all those who are too inquisitive about
their peculiar concerns, and it is an occurrence of almost
daily repetition, that when they are questioned on these
subjects, they take a malicious pleasure in palming, with
truly Indian gravity and patience, the most false and mar-
vellous relations upon their auditor.
This is frequently done with so much art as by no means
to outrage probability, and the whole is made to appear
so consistent, and is to the eager inquirer so highly inte-
resting, as to prevent him for a moment from supposing
that the whole is an extempore fable. We have been
informed by an ear witness on one such occasion, that he
was astonished to hear a trader giving a long account, full
of the most extraordinary and interesting particulars, of
the habits of the beaver, to an ardent inquirer, who was
writing it down with great delight. As soon as the col-
lector of notes on natural history had retired, after listen-
ing to the whole story with the most unsuspecting confi-
dence, the other inquired of the trader how it happened
that he never had before given this information, which
he must have known would have been so very accepta-
ble.
The answer to this question was a roar of laughter,
and an assurance that there was not a word of truth in
the whole statement; but that, having been exceedingly
annoyed by the inquisitiveness of the individual, he had
chosen to get rid of him at once by appearing to tell him
all he knew.
Vol. I,
36

282
FABULOUS HISTORY
As the reader is already in possession of all the well
attested facts to be procured in illustration of its habits
and character, we may safely present a few of the marvel-
lous relations which have been heretefore given of the
beaver, leaving him to separate the great mass of fiction
from the few truths with which they may be mingled. We
therefore begin with the most ancient of these fictions,
and come down to the latest writers who have contributed
to the perpetuation of such erroneous views.
“The castor, or beaver, when in the rivers, feeds upon
shell-fish and such other prey as it can catch. This variety
of food is the reason why its hinder parts, to the ribs, have
the taste of fish, and that they are eaten upon fast days, and
all the rest has the taste of flesh, so that it is not used at
other times.
“ It has pretty large teeth, the under standing out be-
yond their lips about three fingers breadth; the upper
about half a finger, being very broad, crooked, strong, and
sharp, growing double, very deep in their mouths, bending
circular, like the edge of an axe, and are of a yellowish red.
They take fishes upon them as if they were books, being
able to break in pieces the hardest bones. When he bites
he never loses his hold until his teeth meet together. The
bristles about their mouths are as hard as horns; their
bones are solid and without marrow; their fore feet are
like a dog's, and their hinder like a swan's. Their tail is
covered over with scales, being, like a soal, about six inches
broad and ten inches long, which he uses as a rudder to
steer with when he swims to catch fish ; and though his
teeth are so terrible, yet when men have seized his tail
they can govern the animal as they please.
“The beavers make themselves houses of square timber,
which they gnaw down with their teeth almost as even as
if they were sawed, and almost as equal as if it were mea-
sured. They lay these pieces across, and each is let down
by large notches into the other, so that, having dug a
hole for their foundation, they build several stories,
that they may rise higher or lower, according to the fall of
a
water."*
“Amongst the beavers some are accounted masters,
some servants. They are cleanly in their houses; for the
* Pomet, Hist. of Drugs.

OF THE BEAVER.
283
making of which, they draw the timber on the belly of their
ancients, they lying on their backs."*
" While some are engaged in cutting down large trees
for the dam, others traverse the vicinity of the river and
cut smaller trees, some as thick as one's leg, and others as
large as the thigh. They trim these and gnaw them in two
at a certain height to make stakes : they bring these pieces
first by land to the edge of the stream, and there float them
to the dam ; they then form a sort of close piling, which is
still farther strengthened by interlacing the branches be-
tween the stakes. This operation supposes many diffi-
culties vanquished; for to prepare these stakes, and
place them in a nearly perpendicular situation, they must
raise the large end of the stake upon the bank of the river,
or against a tree thrown across it, while others at the same
time plunge into the water and dig a hole with their fore-
feet for the purpose of receiving the point of the stake or
pile, in order to sustain it erect. In proportion as some
thus plant the piles, others bring earth, which they temper
with their fore-feet and beat with their tails; they carry it
in their mouths and with their fore-feet, and convey so
large a quantity that they fill all the intervals of the piling.
This pile work is composed of several ranges of stakes of
equal height, all planted against each other, extending
from one side of the river to the other : it is piled and plas-
tered throughout. The piles are planted vertically on the
side next to the water-fall; the whole work is sloping on
the side sustaining the pressure, so that the dam, which is
ten or twelve feet wide at base, is only two or three feet
thick at the summit. It has therefore not only all the so-
lidity necessary, but the most convenient form for raising
the water, preventing it from escaping, sustaining its
weight, and breaking its violence. At the top of the dam,
that is at the thinnest part, they make two or three sloped
openings for the discharge of the superfluous water, and
these are enlarged or closed up as the river swells or dimin-
ishes, &c.
" It would be superfluous after such an exposition of
their public works, to give a detail of their private edifices,
if in a history it were not necessary to relate all the facts,
and if this first great work were not done with a view to
* Lemery.

284
FABULOUS HISTORY
render their little dwellings more commodious. These
dwellings are cabins or rather little houses, built in the
water on close piles, near the edges of the pond, having two
doors or issues, one on the land and the other on the water
side. Sometimes they are found to have two or three stories,
the walls being as much as two feet thick, elevated per-
pendicularly upon the piles which serve at the same time
for the foundation and floor of the house, &e. The walls
are covered with a sort of stucco, so well tempered and so
properly applied, that it appears as if it had been done
by human hands. Their tail serves them as a trowel
for applying this mortar, which they temper with their
feet, &c.
These retreats are not only very secure, but also very
neat and commodious; the floor is strewed with verdure ;
boughs of box and fir serve for a carpet, upon which they
never leave the least dirt. The window which looks out
upon the water serves them for a balcony for the enjoy-
ment of the air, or to bathe during the greater part of the
day. They sit with the head and anterior part, of the body
elevated and the posterior plunged in water ; the opening
is sufficiently elevated never to be closed by the ice, which,
in the climates where the beavers reside, is sometimes
three feet thick; they then lower the shelf by cutting the
piles upon which it rested aslope, and make an opening into
the water below the ice!
“ The habit which they have of continually retaining the
tail and hinder parts in the water, appears to have chang-
ed the nature of their flesh. Thus the foreparts, as far as
to the loins, has the quality, taste and consistence of land
animals; that of the thighs and tail has the odour, savour,
and all the qualities of fish ; this tail, a foot long, an inch
thick, and five or six broad, is really an extremity, a
true portion of a fish attached to the body of a quadruped.
“ However admirable, or marveilous the statements we
have made on the labours and society of the beaver
may appear, we dare to say that no one will doubt their
reality.* All the relations made by different witnesses,
at various times, agree together as to the facts we have
related ; and if our statement differ from some among
them, it is only at points where they have swelled the
a
* O! magnus posthac inimicis risus !-Uterne
Ad casus dubios fidet sibi certius? HOR. Serm. lib. ii.

OF THE BEAVER.
285
marvellous, surpassed the truth, and even transcended pro-
bability !*
“ Beavers are most industrious animals; nothing equals
the art with which they construct their dwellings. They
choose a small piece of ground with a rivulet running
through it. This they form into a pond by making a dam
across, first by driving into the ground stakes five or six
feet long, placed in rows, walling each row with pliant
twigs, and filling the interstices with clay, ramming it down
close." +
“ They have a chief or superintendant in their works,
who directs the whole. The utmost attention is paid to
him by the whole community. Every individual has his
task allotted, which they undertake with the utmost alac-
rity. The overseer gives a signal, by a certain number
of smart slaps with his tail, expressive of his orders. The
moment the artificers hear it they hasten to the place thus
pointed out, and perform the allotted labour, whether it is
to carry wood, or draw the clay, or repair any accidental
breach. They have also their sentinels, who, by the same
kind of signal, give notice of any apprehended danger. They
are said to have a sort of slavish beaver among them (ana-
logous to the drone) which they employ in servile works and
domestic drudgery."!
“ In 1792, Capt. G. Cartwright published a journal of
transactions, &c. on the Labrador coast, where he had re-
sided nearly sixteen years. In this he apprises the reader
that his account will appear very different from what Buffon
and others have written on the subject, and begs it may be
remembered that they wrote chiefly from hearsay, but
what he advances is the result of his own actual observa-
tion.”'S
Yet, with a very trifling exception, this actual observer
repeats all the trash of preceding hearsay writers, nearly in
their own words, only expressing doubts about the tail be-
ing used us a trowel, or a sledge upon which they haul
stones and clay. The following is his version of Buffon's
* Buffon ed. Sonnini, vol. xxvi. p. 102. .
† Pennant's History of Quadrupeds. The whole of the obser-
vations in that work on the habits of the beaver are transcribed from
Buffon.
I Pennant's Arctic Zoology, p. 117, vol. i.
Ś Church's Cabinet of Quadrupeds.

286
FABULOUS HISTORY.
account of the solitary or hermit beaver :"Sometimes a
single beaver lives by itself, and is then called a hermit or
terrier. Whatever may have been the cause which has
separated these individuals from society, it is certain that
they always have a black mark on the inside of the skin
upon their backs, which is called a saddle, and distinguishes
them from the others. Cartwright supposes this separation
from society may arise from their fidelity and constancy to
each other, and that, having by some accident lost their
mate, they will not readily pair again. He thinks, likewise,
that the mark on the back may proceed from the want of a
companion to keep that part warm."'*
“ Three beavers were seen cutting down a large cotton-
wood tree : when they had made considerable progress one
of them retired to a short distance and took his station in
the water, looking steadfastly at the top of the tree. As
soon as he perceived the top of the tree begin to move
towards its fall, he gave notice of the danger to his com-
panions, who were still at work, gnawing at its base by
slapping his tail upon the surface of the water, and they im-
mediately ran from the tree out of harm's way.”+
“It is difficult for a traveller to publish his travels with-
out speaking of the beaver, although he should have travel-
led only in Africa, where there are none. I should wish to
avoid repetition, but I have no recollection of what those
gentlemen individually, even Buffon from his closet, have
written. I will communicate what I have seen and learned
on the spot, respecting this surprising animal. If I say
the same that others have said, it will serve to confirm you
the more in what you already know, if there should be any
thing new, you will be obliged to me for adding to your stock
of information.
“On the west side a small stream enters the lake. The
beavers have barricaded the mouth of it, by means of a
causeway, which a regiment of engineers could not have
made better ; the water is thrown back and forms a pond,
Church, Cab. Quad. Bachelors of the human species have good
cause to rejoice that their backs are clothed, if Capt. Cartwright's
doctrine holds good throughout, otherwise their forlorn condition
would be at once indicated by something like the aforesaid saddle.
† Long's Exped. to the Rocky Mountains, vol. i. p. 464. It is but
just to state that this is given in that work as a “hunter's story,'
which is too often synonymous with an English word of three let-
ters.
כל

OF THE BEAVER.
287
where they have erected their town. It must be observed
that they know that this river is never dry; for otherwise,
they would not have chosen it.
“ The stakes planted in the earth, and the trunks of
trees which cross them, are of a considerable thickness and
length. It is incredible how this little animal could trans-
port such enormous pieces ; but what is most astonishing,
they never use trees thrown down by the wind or felled by
men, but they make their own selection, and cut those which
seem to them best adapted for their buildings.
“ Whilst five or six of them cut or gnaw with their teeth
at the foot of the tree, another remains in the middle of the
river, and informs them, either by a whistle, or by a blow
with his tail on the water, when he observes the top inclin-
ing, in order that, continuing not the less their labour, they
may be cautious and remain on their guard. Observe, they
never gnaw the tree on the land-side, but always on that
next the water, in order that it may certainly fall in that
direction.
166 All the tribes then unite their efforts and float it to the
place proposed. Then, with their teeth, they sharpen the
stake, with their claws they make deep holes in the earth,
and with their paws they plant and drive it in. They place
branches of trees crossways against these stakes, they then
fill
up
the interstices with mortar, which some prepare,
while others are cutting the trees, or are occupied with
other labours, for the tasks are so distributed that none
remain idle. This mortar becomes harder and more solid
than the celebrated cement known among the Romans.
“When the causeway is completed and they have tried
it, in order to know if it answers their purposes, they work
out at the lower part of it an opening, in the nature of a
sluice, which they open and shut at need, in order to let
the river flow again; they then begin to build their house
in the midst of the ground destined to form the pond.
They never build the house before the causeway, lest this
last should not succeed according to their wishes, and
they should thus lose their time and trouble.
“ Their house, built likewise of wood, and plastered, is
of two stories, and double. It is long in proportion to the
number of the tribe which are to inhabit it.
“The first story serves them in common as a magazine
for provisions, and is under the water; the second is above,

288
FABULOUS HISTORY
and serves them for lodging-rooms, where each family has
its apartment.
"Under the foundation of the house they work out a
number of passages, by means of which they enter and
go out under ground, without being perceived even by the
most vigilant Indian; these open at some distance from
the house, and at that part which forms the pond, or at the
lakes or rivers, near which they commonly establish them-
selves, in order to have the choice of taking that direction
which may be most convenient to them, or least dange-
rous in the different incidents of their life.
“ The beavers are divided into tribes, and sometimes
into small bands only, of which each has its chief, and
order and discipline reign there, much more, perhaps, than
among the Indians, or even among civilized nations.
“Their magazines are invariably provisioned in sum-
mer, and no one touches them before the scarcity of win-
ter is felt, unless extraordinary circumstances render it ab-
solutely necessary, but never in any case does any one en-
ter except by the authority and in the presence of the
chief. Their food consists in general of the bark of trees,
principally that of willow, and of all the trees which be-
long to the poplar family. Sometimes when bark is not
found in sufficient quantity, they collect the wood, and in
this case they cut it into bits with their teeth.
“ Each tribe has its territory. If any stranger is caught
trespassing, he is brought before the chief, who for the
first offence punishes him ad correctionem, and for the
second deprives him of his tail, which is the greatest mis-
fortune that can happen to a beaver, for their tail is
their cart, upon which they transport, wherever it is
desired, mortar, stones, provisions, &c. and it is also the
trowel, which it exactly resembles in shape, used by them
in building. This infraction of the laws of nations is con-
sidered among them as so great an outrage, that the whole
tribe of the mutilated beaver side with him, and set off
immediately to take vengeance for it.
“In this contest the victorious party, using the rights of
war, drives the vanquished from their quarters, takes pos-
session of them, and places a provisional garrison, and
finally establishes there a colony of young beavers. With
respect to this point, another particularity of these admira-
ble animals will not appear less astonishing.

OF THE BEAVER.
289
* The female of the beaver produces her young usually
in the month of April, and has as many as four. She nour-
ishes them, and carefully instructs them during a year, that
is to say, until the family is about to have another increase,
and then these young beavers, obliged to give place, build
a new dwelling by the side of the paternal mansion, if they
are not very numerous, otherwise they are obliged to go
with others in order to form elsewhere a new tribe and a
new establishment. If then, at this time, the enemy is driven
from his quarters, the victors, if their young of that year
are arrived at the period of emancipation, (that is to say of
governing themselves) instal them there. The Indians
have related to me in a positive manner another trait of
these animals, but it is so extraordinary that I leave you at
liberty to believe or reject it. They assert, and there are
some who profess to have been ocular witnesses, that the
two chiefs of two belligerent tribes sometimes terminate the
quarrel by single combat, in the presence of the two hostile
armies, like the people of Medieve, or three against three,
like the Horatii and Curiatii of antiquity. Beavers marry,
and death alone separates them. They punish infidelity
in the females severely, even with death.
“When they are sick, they are carefully nursed. The
sick have also their plaintive cries, like human beings.
The Indians hunt them in the same manner in which, as
you have seen in our sixth promenade, they hunt the musk-
rat. The musk-rat is a beaver of the second degree. He
has the same form in miniature, and many of his qualities,
although his fur is inferiour in beauty and fineness. The
Indians, moreover, in winter make holes in the ice which
cover the ponds surrounding the houses of the beaver,
watch for the moment when they put out their heads to take
the air, and shoot them.
“ The Great Hare at Red Lake wished to make me be-
lieve that, having come to the spot where two tribes of bea-
ver had just been engaged in battle, he found about fifteen
dead or dying on the field ; and other Indians, Sioux and
Chippeways, have also assured me that they have obtained
valuable booty in similar circumstances. It is a fact that
they sometimes take them without tails. I have seen such
myself. In fine, these animals are so extraordinary, even
in the eyes of the Indians themselves, that they suppose
them men, become beavers by transmigration, and they
Vol. 1.
37
a

290
FABULOUS HISTORY.
think in killing them to do them a great service, for they
say they restore them to their original state."*
We may advantageously conclude the fabulous history
of the beaver by introducing the judicious observations
made on the subject by HEARNE, whose excellent remarks
on this animal have been, hitherto, altogether overlooked.
“I cannot refrain from smiling when I read the ac-
counts of different authors who have written on the eco-
nomy of these animals, as there seems to be a contest
between them who shall most exceed in fiction. But the
compiler of the Wonders of Nature and Art seems in my
opinion to have succeeded best in this respect, as he has
not only collected all the fictions into which other writers
on this subject have run, but has so greatly improved on
them, that little remains to be added to his account of the
beaver, besides a vocabulary of their language, a code of
their laws, and a sketch of their religion, to make it the
most complete natural history of that animal which can
possibly be offered to the public.
“ There cannot be a greater imposition, or indeed a
grosser insult on common understanding, than the wish to
make us believe the stories of some of the works ascribed
to the beaver; and though it is not to be supposed that the
compiler of a general work can be intimately acquainted
with every subject of which it may be necessary to treat,"
yet a very moderate share of understanding would be suf-
ficient to guard him against giving credit to such marvel-
lous tales, however smoothly they may be told, or however
boldly they may be asserted by the romancing travel-
ler."'+
Most of the wonders related of the beaver are to be
found in Gesner's work, De Quadrupedibus, which contains
a collection of all the statements made anterior to this
time. These extravagances will be found, with slight
variations, repeated down to the present day, by Buffon
and his successors. We subjoin a few of these, which
it is unnecessary to translate, as specimens of the close re-
petition indulged in by various writers, who should have
drawn more largely upon nature instead of aiding in the
diffusion of fictions and error.
* Beltrami ; La Decouverte des Sources du Mississippi, &c.
1825.
† Octavo ed. 1796, p. 231.

OF THE BEAVER.
291
“Morsu potentissimum adeo ut cum hominem invadit,
conventum dentium non prius laxet quam concrepuise per-
senserit ossa fracta: Plin. et Solin. Apud Gesnerum.
“Gaudent enim, ripis magnorum fluvium cum animal
sit amphibium, non solum ut reliqua quibus hoc nomen
tribuitur
quæ victus tantum gratia aquas petunt, sed etiam
quadam natura affinitate, ut jam in caudæ et pedum
posteriorum mentione diximus quæ ad piscium naturam
accedunt.
“ Castores gregatim ad sylvas lignatum pergunt impo-
nunt autem ligna super ventrem resupinati unius qui pro
vehiculo sit et inter crura ejus artificiose componunt: qui
ne delabantur compressis ea cruribus ante et retro strin-
git ; hunc sic onustum cæteri cauda ad casas usque per-
trahunt. Hanc injuriam fieri negant nisi peregrino casto-
ri qui aliunde ad eos confugerit aut fortuito pervenerit ad
castores loci alicujus incolas: illum enim hoc pacto in
servitutem ab eis redigi. Alii non peregrino sed natu
grandi et laboribus confecto qui propter dentes obtusos
lignis secandis ineptus jam sit, hoc fieri aiunt. Ita trac-
tati castores in dorso glabrescunt, quo signo a venatori-
bus agniti illæsi interdum dimittuntur.
“Falsum est quod agitatus a venatore castret seipsum
dentibus ac testes projici at et postea si ab alio venatore
urgeatur erecto corpore, castratum se ostendat, ut sæpe
in regionibus nostris compertum est."-Alb. Mag. *
Description of the Beaver.
The beaver is about two feet in length, having a thick
a
and heavy body, especially at its hinder part. The head
is compressed and somewhat arched at the front, the upper
part being rather narrow, and the snout, at the extremity,
quite so; the neck is very short and thick. The eyes are
situated rather high up on the head, and have rounded pu-
pils; the ears are short, elliptical, and almost entirely con-
cealed by the fur. The whole skin is covered by two sorts
* "Imitatus castora, qui se Eunuchum ipse facit, cupiens evadere
damno testiculorum. Juvenalis, xü. liv. xxxiv.

292
THE BEAVER.
of hair; one which is long, rather stiff, elastie, and of a
gray colour for two-thirds of its length next the base, and
terminated by shining, reddish, brown points, giving the
general colour to the pelage; the other is short, very fine,
thick, tufted and soft, being of different shades of silver gray
or light lead colour. On the head and feet the hair is
shorter than elsewhere. The tail, which is ten or eleven
inches long, is covered with hair similar to that of the back,
for about one-third of its length nearest the base, the
rest of it is covered by hexagonal scales, which are not im-
bricated.*
The only species of beaver known is the one we have
described ; all the others which have been noticed are va-
rieties of this species.
During the first year of their lives, the beavers are
termed pappooses by the hunters; when two years old,
small meddlers; at three years of age, large meddlers. In
their fourth year they are called beavers, and after that old
or great beavers.t
* When the beaver sits erect upon its hinder limbs, as in the act of
conveying his food to the mouth with his fore paws, like the squirrel,
the tail is doubled under, or thrown forwards, lying between the legs.
Castoris penis modo profecto singulari ab ano, copulandi gratia
protensus est; dehinc inter ista, et monotremata, sive animalia unico
communi que foramine prædita, similitudo.
† It was our intention to have concluded the account of the beaver,
by presenting a sketch of the history of the American fur trade, so
intimately connected with this animal. But the difficulty of collecting
the necessary data is so great, and our inquiries thus far have been
so unproductive of satisfaction, that we are reluctantly obliged to
defer our observations on this interesting subject until a future period.

CHAPTER XX.
Genus XXI. MUSK-RAT; Fiber ; ILL.
Germ. Zibethratze: Bisambiber; u. s. f.
Swed. Desmansrotta.
Fr. Rat Musqué.
Eng. Musk-Beaver.
GENERIC CHARACTERS.
THE head is rather long and blunt at the snout, with
eyes of a moderate size and short ears. The limbs are
short, the anterior having four toes, not united, but bordered
by a membranous edging somewhat fringed. All the toes
are furnished with incurvated nails of moderate size. The
tail is long, compressed, or flattened vertically, covered
with a naked granulous integument, with a few hairs inter-
spersed. The teats, which are six in number, are placed
on the belly. A peculiar matter, having a strong
musky odour, is secreted by glands situated in the pubic
regions.
Dental System.
8 Upper
2 Incisive
6 Molar.
16 Teeth :
8 Lower
2 Incisive
6 Molar.
The teeth of this genus do not differ from those of the
Campagnole Arvicola ; Lacep. hereafter to be described,
except in having distinct roots, and in the lower jaw the first
molar having two triangles, one on each side, more than the
Arvicolæ.

294
THE MUSK-RAT.
SPECIES I.--Musk-Rat.
Fiber Zibethicus.
Rat Musqué du Canada: Briss. Reg. An. p. 136. .
Castor Zibethicus: L. ERXL. Bod.
Mus Zibethicus : GMEL.
Ondatra : BUFF. x. pl. i.
Ondatra Zibethicus : SAY, Long's Exped. to the Rocky Mountains.
Fiber Zibethicus : SAB. App.p. 659.
Musquash of the Traders and Indians.
The musk-rat, which is so closely allied in form and ha-
bits to the beaver, does not, like that timid animal, retire
from the vicinities inhabited by man, but relying on its pe-
culiar instinct for concealment, remains secure, notwith-
standing the changes induced by cultivation, and multiplies
its species in the very midst of its enemies. Thus, while
the beaver has long since entirely disappeared and become
forgotten in the Atlantic states, the musk-rat is found with-
in a very short distance of our largest and oldest cities,*
and bids fair to maintain its place in such situations during
an indefinite future period.
The musk-rat owes this security to its nocturnal and
aquatic mode of life, as well as to the peculiar mode in
which its domicile is constructed. Along small streams,
mill-races and ponds, where the banks are of some eleva-
tion and strength, the musk-rats form large and extensive
burrows. These have the entrance always in the deep
water so as to be entered or left without betraying the
presence of the animal. The mouth of the burrow ascends
from its commencement near the bottom, and slopes up-
wards until it is above the level of the high water. The
burrow then extends to great distances, according to the
numbers or necessities of the occupants. Like most other
animals residing in such burrows, they frequently excavate
them beneath the roots of large trees, where they are per-
fectly secure from being disturbed by having their burrow
broken into from above.
The injuries done by the musk-rat to the banks thrown
up to exclude the tide from meadows and other grounds,
* Within a mile of Philadelphia, on every side, this animal may be
found, along the banks of all the streams emptying into the Delaware
and Schuylkilla

THE MUSK-RAT.
295
are frequently very extensive. The tide encroaches more
and more on the burrow as the soil softens and is washed
away; the animals extend their excavations in various
directions, in order to free themselves from the inconve-
nience of the water, and at length, from the co-operation of
both causes, the bank caves in and the water is allowed free
access, often laying waste the most valuable parts of the
farm. To understand the extent to which such mischief
may be carried, it is sufficient to take a walk along the banks
thrown up to protect the meadows on the Delaware, on both
sides of the river. Similar, though not as extensive injury
is produced along the borders of ponds, races and small
streams, by the caving in of the burrows formerly tenanted
by the musk-rat.
Where musk-rats frequent low and marshy situations,
they build houses, which, in form and general appearance,
resemble those made by the beaver. These edifices are
round, and covered at top in form of a dome, and are built
of reeds, flags, &c. mingled with mud. Instead of one
place of entrance and exit there are several subterraneous
passages, leading in different directions, and as these are
extensive, the musk-rats when disturbed take refuge in them.
Numerous individuals, composing several families, live to-
gether during the winter season ; but, in the warm weath-
er, the house is entirely deserted ; and the musk-rats live
in pairs and rear their young, of which they have from three
to six at a litter.
The musk-rat builds in a comparatively dry situation at
least not in a stream or pond of water, but in the marsh or
swamp. He requires no dam, and does not, like the bea-
ver, lay up a stock of winter provision, neither does he
erect so strong and durable a dwelling, as it is not to
be repaired, but deserted for a new one the following sea-
son.
Speaking of the musk-rat, as observed by him in the
Hudson's Bay country, HEARNE remarks, that “instead of
making their houses on the banks of ponds or swamps, like
the beaver, they build on the ice, as soon as it is skinned
over, and at a considerable distance from the shore, always
taking care to keep a hole open in the ice to admit them to
dive for their food, which consists chiefly of the roots of
grass. The materials made use of in building their houses
are mud and grass, which they bring up from the bottom.
It sometimes happens in very cold winters that the holes in

296
THE MUSK-RAT.
them open.
their houses freeze over, in spite of all their efforts to keep
When that is the case, and they have no pro-
vision left in the house, the strongest prey upon the weak-
'
est, till by degrees only one is left in the whole lodge. I
have seen several instances sufficient to confirm the truth
of this assertion : for when their houses were broke open,
the skeletons of seven or eight have been found and only
one entire animal. Though I have before said that they
generally build their houses on the ice, it is not always the
case : for in the southern parts of the country, particularly
about Cumberland House, I have seen, in some of the deep
swamps that were overrun with rushes and long grass,
many small islands that have been raised by the industry
of those animals, on the tops of which they had built their
houses like the beaver, some of which were very large.
'The tops of these houses are favourite breeding places for
the geese, which bring forth their young brood there without
the fear of being molested by foxes, or any other destructive
animal, except the eagle.”
The musk-rat feeds upon the roots, &c. of aquatic plants,
and is especially fond of the acorus verus, or calamus aro-
maticus, which grows abundantly in most of the marshy
vicinities inhabited by the musk-rat. It has been imagin-
ed that this animal feeds also upon fish, merely from its
habit of living much in the water. There is the same rea-
son for believing that the beaver is piscivorous, an opinion
which the structure of the teeth, stomach and intestines of
both animals, sufficiently contradict.
The musk-rat is an excellent swimmer, dives well, and
remains for a considerable time under water. It is rare to
have an opportunity of seeing the animal during the day
time, as it lies concealed in its burrow, but by watching
during moonlight nights, in situations not much frequented
by human visiters, the musk-rat may be seen swimming in
various directions, and coming on shore for the sake of seek-
ing food, or for recreation.
The musk-rat has its nose thick and blunt at the end,
and short ears, nearly concealed in fur. Its body and head
very much resemble those of the beaver, but differ from it
in colour, being a reddish brown. The belly and breast
are ash colour, mingled slightly with ferruginous. The
feet and tail of the musk-rat are also remarkably different
from those of the beaver; all the toes are free and uncon-
nected. On the hinder, instead of a web uniting the toes,
.

THE MUSK-RAT.
297
there is a stiff fringe of bristly hair, closely set and project-
ing from the sides of the toes. The tail is thin at the edges,
compressed so as to be vertically flattened, covered with
small scales, having a slight intermixture of hair, and is
about nine inches long, being nearly of the length of the
body, which measures about twelve inches from the end of
the nose to the root of the tail. The powerful odour of musk
renders the flesh of the musk-rat of little value, and few can
eat it. The skin is highly valued on account of the fineness
of its fur.*
* « The musk-rat is never seen in Carolina, Georgia, or Florida,
within one hundred miles of the sea coast, and very few in the most
northern parts of these regions; which must be considered as a most
favourable circumstance by the people in countries where there is so
much banking and draining of the land, they being the most destruc-
ctive creatures to dykes.”-Bartram's Travels, 281.
Vol. I.
38

CHAPTER XXI.
GENUS XXII. FIELD-MOUSE; Arvicola ; LACEP.
Germ. Feldmaus: Heerdenmaus; u. s. f.
Fr. Campagnol; Rat des Champs.
Ital. Topo Terrajuolo: Campagnuolo.
Swed. Molle.
GENERIC CHARACTERS.
The animals belonging to this genus are in general ap-
pearance very similar to the common rat, have a rudiment
of a thumb on the anterior feet, and the toes of these feet
armed with slender nails. The posterior feet have five
toes, provided with nails, and destitute of connecting mem-
brane, or fringing of hairs on their edges. The teats,
which vary in number from eight to twelve, are situated on
the chest and belly. The tail is nearly of the length of the
body, round, and covered by a velvet-like tegument.
a
Dental System
8 Upper
2 Incisive
6 Molars.
16 Teeth:
8 Lower
2 Incisive
6 Molars.
This system of dentition is composed of small triangles,
surrounded by enamel, and disposed alternately on each
side of a common axis, so that there is a triangular vacan-
cy between each of them, that forms a deep groove on the
outside of the tooth.
IN THE UPPER JAW the incisors are even, and slightly
rounded on their anterior surface. The first molar is com-
posed of five triangles,-one anterior, two external, and
two internal, and these correspond to the interval left be-

THE FIELD-MOU SE.
299
tween the others, so that they are closer than those of the
anterior triangle. The second is composed of four triangles,
one anterior, two external, and two on the inner side, cor-
responding to the vacant spaces which separate the two
others. The third is composed also of four triangles, one
anterior, one external, one internal, and one posterior ; the
latter is irregular, being narrow, elongated, and the lines
forming it sinuous. These three teeth diminish gradually
in size, from the first to the last.
IN THE LOWER JAW the forms of the teeth are the same
as in the upper : the incisors are even, and slightly rounded
on the anterior surface. The first molar has five angles,
or rather five divisions; the first is in form of a trefoil, then
come two small internal triangles, an external and a pos-
terior larger than the middle ones. The second is also
composed
of five triangles : one small anterior, two internal,
one exterior and one posterior. The third appears to have
only three or four triangles, placed nearly one behind the
other, and joined by their angles.
SPECIES I.-The Meadow Mouse.
Arvicola Xanthognatus ; LEACH.
Arvicola Xanthognatus : SABINE, App. p. 660. Say, Long's Exped. to the
Rocky Mountains, i. 369.
Campagnol aux joues fauves: Desm. Mammal.p. 282.
Were we to confine our attention to an individual of this
species, its diminutive size, delicacy of limbs and evident
feebleness, might lead us to consider it as altogether insig-
nificant, and equally incapable of benefiting or injuring
mankind. In this, as in various analogous instances, na-
ture has compensated for individual feebleness by nume-
rical force, and endowed this species with a fecundity which
not only preserves it amidst numerous vigilant and destruc-
tive enemies, but enables it to multiply so extensively as
to become a severe tax, and occasionally a scourge to the
farmers.
The meadow-mouse is found in various degrees of abun-
dance throughout this country, and, as implied by its
name, prefers the meadow and grass fields to other situa-
tions. The banks of drains, and those thrown up to keep

300
THE MEADOW-MOUSE.
off the tide, or overflow of streams, are the favourite
places of their burrows, which are both numerous and ex-
tensive, being continued in various directions and to con-
siderable depths. These burrows are frequently causes of
injury similar to that resulting from those of the musk-
rat, the tide gradually enlarging the cavities, and the bank
finally falling in, until a fair breach is made, through which
the grounds are injuriously inundated.
During the temperate and warm seasons of the year,
the meadow-mice spend the greater part of their time
above ground, travelling about through little lanes and al-
leys among the grass. These small roads are so frequent-
ly travelled, that after the hay-harvest, when they are left
exposed, they have something of the appearance of little
burrows among the grass-roots. At the season of the
first hay-harvest their nests are found in great numbers on
the surface of the ground. These are made very similar
to a small bird's nest, of soft grass, and generally con-
tain six or eight young ones. Recollecting that this spe-
cies breeds more than once a year, we shall find no diffi-
culty in understanding how the meadow-mice may become
very injurious by excessive multiplication, notwithstanding
their defenceless condition and numerous enemies. Be-
sides being preyed upon by owls, hawks, cats, &c. the
country people are very vigilant in putting them to death,
and the hay-makers consider mouse-hunting as one of the
most enlivening circumstances connected with their labours.
Thus far the mischief of which the species is notoriously
guilty, appears not to be compensated by any peculiar
good quality; but although we are unable to state the pre-
cise degree of service rendered, the fact of its existence
is sufficient evidence of importance in the great scale of
creation, whatever difficulty there may be in discovering
or acknowledging it. No doubt this, among other species,
was destined to limit the undue increase of the vegeta-
ble kingdom; various other creatures in an analogous
manner subsist by the destruction of meadow-mice, while
the great destroyer man seems to be the last in the chain
of destructiveness, since he is not only in the habit of ex-
tinguishing vegetable and brute animal life, but of extend-
ing his ravages to his own kind.
The general colour of this species is a reddish yellow,
mingled with black on the upper part of the body, and a
clear cinereous gray beneath. The sides of the head are
a

THE MARSH CAMPAGNOL.
301
fulvous: the tail is black above and white beneath ; the
paws are brownish on their superior surface, and white
beneath. Its length, including the tail, is about five inches.
SPECIES II. — The Marsh Campagno'.
Arvicola Riparius; ORD.
Arvicola Riparius : ORD. Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences, iv. part ii.
p. 305.
This species, like the preceding, makes its burrows in
the meadow banks, and resembles it in various other re-
spects. All that we know of it is derived from the account
given by Mr. Ord, in the work above quoted.
“This species (says he) is fond of the seeds of the wild-
oats (zizania aquatica,) and is found in the autumn in those
fresh water marshes which are frequented by the common
rail, (Gallinula Carolina, Lath.). When the tide is high
the animal may be observed sitting upon the fallen reeds,
patiently waiting for the recession of the water. From its
position when at rest it has much the appearance of a lump
of mud, and is commonly mistaken for such by those who
are unacquainted with its habits. It swims and dives well.”
The head of the marsh campagnol is large, with a thick
obtuse snout,--having small eyes and short roundish ears,
nearly concealed by the hair on the cheeks.
The fore legs
are very short ; the posterior parts of the body are more
slender and weaker than the anterior. The tail is thinly
covered with hair, and tufted or penciled at tip, and is
longest in the male. The upper parts of the body are of a
tawny brown colour mixed with black, the lower parts of
an ash or gray colour. The female has four pectoral and
four abdominal teats, and brings forth eight young at a litter.
-

302
THE COTTON-RAT.
Species III.—The Cotton-Rat, or Hairy Campagnol.
Arvicola Hispidus; ORD.
Sigmodon Hispidum : SAY & ORD, Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences, iv.
part. ii. p. 354.
year
و
This animal was discovered in East Florida in the
1818, by Mr. ORD, whose description was not published
until 1825. He found its burrows in the deserted plantations
lying on the river St Johns, East Florida, especially in the
gardens, where they are seen in every direction. It is
highly probable, he thinks, that this animal will be found a
source of much injury and vexation to the future settlers of
that country.
The head of the hairy campagnol is thick, and the snout
elongated, having eyes of considerable size, and large round
ears ; the tail is nearly as long as the body. The ears are
slightly covered with hairs ; the fore legs are short; the
hind feet are large and strong, with short lateral toes and
stout claws. The upper parts of the body and head are of
a pale, dirty yellow ochre colour, mixed with black ; the
lower parts are cinereous. On the upper parts of the body
and sides the hair is long, plentiful and coarse. The
animal is six inches long from the tip of the snout to the in-
sertion of the tail, which is four inches long. In the adult
animal yellow is the predominant colour, the young are
;
generally black.*
The cotton-rat obtains its name from the circumstance
of making its nest with cotton, which it collects for the
purpose in large quantities ; the nest is generally placed
within a hollow log, or else in a chamber at the extremity
of a burrow.
See note at the end of the next species.


1
2
4
Rider Dez.
W. Zucker .
RATS
2
3
1Merida. 2. Pouched. 5 liter. 4 Commen

THE WOOD-RAT.
303
SPECIES IV.-The Wood-Rat.
Arvicola Floradanus ; ORD.
The Wood-rat : BARTRAM, Travels in East Florida, p. 124.
Mus Floridanus : Say, Long's Exped. to the Rocky Mountains, i, p. 54.
Neotoma Floridana : Say and ORD, Journ. of the Acad. of Nat. Sciences, iv.
part ii. p. 352.
و
.
This beautiful animal was once thought to be peculiar to
Florida, and received its scientific name from that circum-
stance. But it is now highly probable that it is to be found
throughout this country in certain situations ; by Say it
was obtained on the Missouri.
From all that we can learn relative to this animal, it is
of a gentle, timid disposition ; harmless in its manners and
inoffensive in its mode of living. Far from having any
of that peculiar cunning and distrustful air that is so re-
markable in the common rat, it shows few signs of fear
when approached, and allows itself to be made prisoner or
killed without difficulty. They burrow under stones and
among the ruins of buildings, and feed on vegetable substan-
ces. They construct their nests with large quantities of
brush and rubbish.
The wood campagnol is about sixteen inches long, in-
cluding the tail, which measures seven inches. The head
gradually diminishes in size from the ears to the snout, and
is of a lead colour intermingled with gray.
Its ears are
nine-tenths of an inch long, rounded, prominent and open,
having but few hairs on their back part and on the margin
within. The eyes are of a moderate size and prominent ;
the whiskers are arranged in six longitudinal series, the
longest of them surpassing the tips of the ears. The tail is
hairy and brown above; the legs are stout and of nearly
equal length, with white feet, have the toes annulated be-
neath, and the nails concealed by the hair. The thumb is
minute, and the palms of the fore feet have five tuberculous
prominences ; in the soles of the hind feet there are six
tubercles of which the three posterior are distant from each
other.
“ The wood-rat (says Bartram,) is a very curious ani-
mal; they are not half the size of the domestic rat, and of
a dark brown or black colour; their tail slender and short-
proportion, and covered thinly with short hair. They
a
a
.
er in

304
THE WOOD-RAT.
99*
are singular with respect to their ingenuity and great labour
in the construction of their habitations, which are conical
pyramids about three or four feet high, constructed with
dry branches, which they collect with great labour and per-
severance, and pile up without any apparent order, yet
they are so interwoven with one another, that it would take
a bear or wild cat some time to pull one of these castles to
pieces, and allow the animals sufficient time to secure a re-
treat with their young.
The wood-rat has, beyond doubt, been as common
throughout this country at a former period, as it is at pre-
sent in Florida and on the Missouri. It has very uni-
versally given place to the black-rat, and both have dis-
appeared before the Norway rat, as we shall soon have
occasion to state. The wood-rat soon learns to infest the
houses of the settlers, and to do nearly if not quite as
much mischief as the common rat. It is highly probable
that some of these rats still remain in the remote and
barren parts of the Atlantic states, or in situations ana-
lagous to those occupied by this species in the southern
and western country. I
*
Page 125.
I “In turning over some of the baggage we caught a rat somewhat
larger than the common European rat, and of a lighter colour; the
body and outer part of the legs as well as the belly, feet and ears, are
white; the ears are not covered with hair, and are much larger than
those of the common rat; the toes are also longer; their eyes black
and prominent ; the whiskers very long and full; the tail rather lon-
ger than the body, and covered with fine fur and hair, of the same
size with that on the back, which is very close, short and silky in its
texture. This was the first we had met, although its nests are frequent
among
the clifts of rocks and hollow trees, where we also found large
quantities of the shells and seeds of the prickly pear, on which we con-
cluded they chiefly subsist.”—Lewis and Clark, i. p. 289.
$ In the Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences, (vol. iv. part
i. p. 345, 352,) Messrs Say and Ord propose to establish two new
genera for the reception of this and the preceding species, under the
names of Sigmodon and Neotoma, in consequence of the differences
they have observed in the dentition of these animals. These differ-
ences are the following :-In the hairy campagnol (arvicola hispidus*)
" the different arrangement of the folds of the enamel, and the cir-
cumstance of the molars being divided into radicles, certainly exclude
it from the genus arvicola. In relation to the wood-rat (arvicola
Floridanust) they remark, “that the grinding surface of the molars
Sigmodon Hispidum of Say and Ord.
† Neotoma Floridana of Say and Ord. We have, as in all similar instances,
referred the species to the original proprietors or describers, notwithstanding the
changes produced by arranging them under other genera.

CHAPTER XXII.
GENUS XXIII.-LEMMING; Lemmus ; LINK, Cuv.
This genus is closely allied to the preceding, and differs
from it principally in the conformation of the fore feet
and the shortness of the tail. The fore feet are five toed in
some instances, and four toed in others, being provided
with nails fit for burrowing; the hind feet are five toed.
The tail is not very acute at its extremity, is shorter than
the body, and covered by a velvety integument.
The dental system is the same as that of the genus
Arvicola.
SPECIES I.—The Hudson's Bay Lemming.
Lemmus Hudsonius.
Lemmus Hudsonius : SABINE, App. p. 661.
Mus. Hudsonius ; PALLAS, Glires, p. 208, pl. 26.
Rat de Labrador : ENCYCL. pl. 69, fig. 6.
Lemming de la Baie d'Hudson: Desm. Mammal. p. 289.
p.
.
The Hair Tailed Mouse: HEARNE, 8vo. ed. p. 385.
The Hudson's Bay Lemming is covered by a very fine,
soft and long hair, which is of an ash colour, with a
differs somewhat from that of the molars of the genus arvicola, but
the large roots of the grinders constitute a character essentially
different." With due deference to the opinion of our respected
friends, we are decidedly of an opposite belief. This variation of
dental arrangement may be sufficient to indicate modifications or dif-
ferences in the regimen or feeding of these animals, but cannot of
themselves suffice to establish generic distinctions, when the external
characters and habits of the animals are so strikingly similar to the
genus arvicola. The wood-rat certainly is closely related to the genus
mus, and might with great propriety be considered as a distinct sub-
genus of arvicola, as Say and Ord suggest that some naturalists may
consider it. The arrangement proposed by them we esteem to be in
the highest degree artificial, unnatural, and by consequence unneces-
sary, and therefore not to be adopted; at least in a work in which
nature and usefulness are the supreme objects of regard.
VOL. I.
39

306
THE HUDSON'S BAY LEMMING.
.
tinge of tawny on the back, having along its middle a dusky
stripe, and on each side a pale tawny line. The limbs
are quite short, and the fore feet being formed for burrow-
ing, are very strong. The two middle claws of the male,
which are compressed, thick and strong, appear to be bifid
or double, because the skin of these toes is callous, and
projects from beneath the nail.
The mode of life peculiar to this species is but little
known; the Lapland lemming is very notorious for its ex-
tensive migrations, but nothing of the same kind has been
observed of the Hudson's Bay species.
“ The hair-tailed mouse (says HEARNE) is the largest in
the northern parts of the bay, being little inferior in size to a
common rat. They always burrow under stones on dry rid-
ges, are very inoffensive, and so easily tamed, that, if taken
when full grown, some of them will in a day or two be per-
fectly reconciled, and are so fond of being handled that
they will
creep
about
your neck or into your bosom. In
summer they are gray, and in winter change to white, but
are by no means so beautiful as a white ermine. At that
season they are infested with multitudes of small lice, not a
sixth part so large as the mites in a cheese ; in fact, they
are so small that at first sight they only appear like a red-
dish brown dust, but on closer examination are all perceived
in motion. In one large and beautiful animal of this kind,
caught in the depth of winter, I found those little vermin
so numerous about it, that almost every hair was covered
with them as thick as ropes with onions, and when they
approached near the ends of the hair they may be said to
change the mouse from white to a faint brown. At that
time I had an excellent microscope, and endeavoured to
examine them, and to ascertain their form, but the weather
was so exceedingly cold that the glasses became damp with
the moisture of my breath before I could get a single sight.
The hind feet of these mice are exactly like those of a bear,
and the fore feet are armed with a horny substance,* (that
I never saw in any other species of the mouse,) which is
wonderfully adapted for scraping away the ground where
they wish to take up their abode. They are plentiful on
a
* The description given of this " horny substance,” which is a mere
induration of the cuticle covering the palms, and caused by the act
of scraping among the stones, &c. sufficiently indicates the species.

THE HUDSON'S BAY LEMMING. .
307
some of the stony ridges near Churchill factory, but never
approach the house or any of the out-offices. From
appearances they are very local, and seldom stray far from
their habitations, even in summer, and in winter they
are seldom seen on the surface of the snow—a great proof
of their being provident in summer to lay up a stock for that
season.*"
*“I observed with astonishment long ridges of mouse dung, several
inches deep, extending for above two miles. By what means this
could have arrived here I was at a loss to conceive, as I did not see
any mouse-holes or other traces of these animals; besides which they
live in stony dry places, and this was a swamp. It is possible, how-
ever, that this accumulation of the excrements of mice may be from
the mus (Lemmus) Hudsonius, occasionally migrating in the same
wonderful manner as the lemmer of Lapland.”—Lyon's Private Jour
nal, p. 432.

CHAPTER XXIII.
GENUS XXIV. Rat; Mus; L.
GENERIC CHARACTERS.
The head is conical, more or less short, having a pointed
snout, rather large eyes, and almost naked ears. There
are no cheek pouches; the neck is short and the body
;
thick, having from ten to twelve teats, part situated upon
the chest, and part upon the belly. The toes are free, or
unconnected by membrane, and provided with hooked nails.
The anterior feet have four digits and a rudimental thumb,
covered by a blunt nail. The tail is naked, scaly and ta-
pering; the body is covered by long, stiff hairs, intermingled
with a close fine fur.
Dental System.
8 Upper
2 Incisive
6 Molar.
16 Teeth :
8 Lower
2 Incisive
6 Molar.
IN THE UPPER JAW the incisors are smooth and flat, and
rise from the sides of the anterior part of the maxillary
bone. The three molars diminish in size from the first to
the last; they are very remarkable for being inclined from
before backwards. The first molar is composed of six
tubercles, which, considered in a transverse order, present
themselves thus :-two in front, one larger corresponding
to the middle of the tooth, and the other at the insides;
then three, two small ones on the edges, the largest in the
middle; and finally, one at the posterior part of the tooth,
and of the size of the middle tubercle of the three preceding.
This arrangement of the great tubercles in the middle, and

OF THE RAT.
309
of the small ones on the edge, gives the form of a trefoil to
the undulating line they produce. The second molar is
formed of four tubercles, one in front on the inside, two in
the middle, arranged obliquely from without inwards, and
from before backwards, and the fourth at the posterior part
on the outside. The last has also four tubercles arranged
like those of the second molar.
IN THE LOWER JAW the incisors are similar to those of
the upper jaw ; they arise far behind and above the molars,
from the middle of the ascending branch of the jaw-bone,
where its bulb produces a little projection. The molars
diminish in size from the first to the third, and are inclined
in a direction opposite to those of the upper jaw ; that is,
they lean forwards and are equally formed of tubercles.
The first has five, one small anterior, two middle, and two
posterior ; the second has four, also arranged in pairs, two
before and two behind. The last has but three, a single
one in front, followed by a pair.
SPECIES I.-The Common, Brown, or Norway Rat.
Mus Decumanus; PALL.
Mus Slyvestris : Briss. Reg. An. 170, No 3; Mus Norvegicus : IBID. p. 173, No. 8.
Mus Decumanus : L. GMEL. SCHREB. pl. 178, Encycl. pl. 67, fig. 9.
Le Surmulot: BUFF. 8, pl. 27.
Brown Rat: Penn. Quad. No. 298, Arct. Zool. i. 151, No, 57.
It must be confessed that this rat is one of the veriest
scoundrels in the brute creation, though it is a misfortune
in him rather than a fault, since he acts solely in obedience
to the impulses of nature, is guided by no other law than
his own will, and submits to no restraints except such as
are imposed by force. He is, therefore, by no means as
bad as the scoundrels of a higher order of beings, who, en-
dowed with superior powers of intelligence, and enjoying
the advantages of education, do still act as if they possess-
ed all the villanous qualities of the rat, without being able to
offer a similar apology for their conduct.
Among quadrupeds this rat may be considered as occupy-
ing the same rank as the crow does among birds. He is
one of the most impudent, troublesome, mischievous, wick-
ed wretches that ever infested the habitations of man. To

310
THE BROWN RAT.
the most wily cunning he adds a fierceness and malignancy of
disposition that frequently renders him
a dangerous enemy,
and a destroyer of every living creature he can master. He
is a pure thief, stealing not merely articles of food, for
which his hunger would be a sufficient justification, but
substances which can be of no possible utility to him.
When he gains access to the library he does not hesitate
to translate and appropriate to his own use the works of
the most learned authors, and is not so readily detected
as some of his brother pirates of the human kind, since he
does not carry off the prize entire, but cuts it into pieces
before he conveys it to his den. He is, in short, possessed
of no one quality to save him from being universally despis-
ed, and his character inspires no stronger feeling than con-
tempt, even in those who are under the necessity of putting
him to death.
The common, brown, or Norway rat, now so extensively
diffused over this country, is not indigenous to our soil, but
was introduced from Europe, which received it from Asia
in the eighteenth century, as late as the year 1750. There
are few parts of the world now visited by navigators
where this animal has not been introduced, and the imme-
diate consequence of its introduction has been, that all
the native rats have been destroyed, or obliged to with-
draw beyond the reach of this subtle and implacable ene-
my.
Prior to the year above mentioned this rat, now so noto-
rious for its ravages, was almost, if not wholly, unknown in
Europe.* It was conveyed to England about the period
above mentioned, in the timber-ships from Norway, and
hence it has received one of its common names.
Many
* Specie ob hoc (ratto) diversus, mus decumanus, Persia ut videtur
et vicini orientis indigena, vix ante alterum tertiumve sæculi præteriti
decennium Europæ invasisse fertur* et ubi agmina eorum consedere,
domesticum contra rattum sensim defecisse constat. Norvegicum plu-
res nuperorum zoologicorum vocant quam vero appellationem Zim-
mermanus id improbat quod fauna scandinavicæ nullam ejus men-
tionem faciant. At enim vero hoc sane idoneis testibus evictum est
ipsissinium hunc rattum decumanum ante annum MDCCXXX, An-
glis plane ignotum, tum temporis primum et quidem quod expresse
asserunt, ex Norvegia navibus onerariis quæ lignorum materiam inde
advehebant illatum esse. Cumque tum temporis in universa Ger-

THE BROWN-RAT.
311
years subsequently it was brought to this country in Euro-
pean ships, and has been gradually propagated from the
sea ports over the greater part of the continent.
The brown rat takes up its residence about wharves,
store-houses, cellars, granaries, &c. and destroys the com-
mon black rat and mouse, or entirely expels them from the
vicinities it frequents. To chickens, rabbits, young pigeons,
ducks, and various other domestic animals, it is equal-
ly destructive when urged by hunger and opportunity. Eggs
are also a very favourite article of food with this species,
and are sought with great avidity ; in fact, every thing that
is edible falls a prey to their voracity, and can scarcely be
secured from their persevering and audacious inroads. In
the country they take up their abodes according to con-
venience and the abundance of provision, infesting espe-
cially mills, barns and out-houses, or residing in holes along
the banks of races or other water-courses.
The brown-rat swims with great facility, and dives with
vigour, remaining under water for a considerable time, and
swimming thus to some distance. When attacked and not
allowed an opportunity of escaping, he becomes a danger-
ous antagonist, leaping at his enemy and inflicting severe
and dangerous wounds with his teeth. The most eager
cat becomes immediately intimidated in the presence of one
of these rats thus penned up, and is very willing to escape
the dangers of an encounter.
The brown rat is amazingly prolific, and but for its nu-
merous enemies, and its own rapacious disposition, would
become an intolerable pest. Happily for the world, in ad-
dition to man, to the weazel, cat, some species of dog, &c.
rats frequently find destructive enemies in each other, both
in the adult and young state, their numbers thus being pre-
vented from becoming such an intolerable grievance as they
otherwise necessarily would. The strongest of the species
prey upon the weaker, and are the most merciless destroy-
ers of their own kind.* The weazel and the terrier are
а
mania boreali nullibi adhuc visus fuerat inficetum, corruit asseclarum
petitoris quondam regni Anglici figmentum quo illum murem ex Han-
overianis terris in Brittanniam translatum esse fabulabantur.-Jo. Frid.
Blumenbach. Com. Soc. Goett. 1253.
* "It is a singular fact in the history of these animals that the skins
of such of them
as have been devoured in their holes have frequently
been found curiously turned inside out, every part being completely

312
THE BROWN-RAT.
the most efficient rat-killers, as the first can pursue the ene-
my to his most secret retreat, and the second derives from
his superior strength and activity a very decided advan-
tage in the contest. The cat, though in general a very
useful auxiliary in lessening the number of this species, is
very
liable both to be foiled and worsted in her at-
tempts. Bringing forth from twelve to eighteen at a lit-
ter, we have good reason to rejoice that so many animals
have an instinctive animosity against so noxious a marau-
der. *
The cunning of these rats is not less than their impu-
dence ; it is almost impossible to take them in traps after
one or two have been thus caught, as the rest appear per-
fectly to understand the object of the machine, and after-
wards avoid it with scrupulous care, however tempting may
be the bait it contains. The surest way to remove them is
by poison, which, however, they frequently detect and avoid.
The powder of nux vomica, mixed with some Indian corn
or oat-meal, and scented with oil of rhodium, is found very
effectual in destroying them. Arsenic is very commonly
used in the same way for this purpose, but the fatal acci-
dents which frequently occur when this poison is kept about
the house, in consequence of the label being removed or
changed, and the arsenic administered to members of a
family instead of some other medicine, render it a very ob-
jectionable resource.
The brown rat measures about nine inches, and is of a
light brown colour, intermingled with ash and tawny.
The colour of the throat and belly is of a dirty white, in-
clining to gray. It has pale, flesh coloured, naked feet,
with a tail of the same length as the body, and covered
with small dusky scales, with short hairs thinly scattered
between.
a
inverted to the ends of the toes. How the operation is performed it
would be difficult to ascertain; but it appears to be effected in some
peculiar mode of eating out the contents.-Bewick, Hist. of Quad-
rupeds.
The name of this species, decumanus, was given on acount of
its great size, and is equally applicable to its great mischievousness.
The word originally was decimanus, and eventually by custom became
synonymous with magnus or great. See Callipenus, Lyttleton, &c.
*

THE BLACK RAT.
313
SPECIES II.-The Black Rat.
Mus Rattus ; L.
Mus Ratius : PALL. Schreb. &c.
Mus Domesticus Major : Ray, Quad. Sp.217.
Le Rat; BUFF.7, pl. 36.
Black Rat: Penn. Quad. ii. p. 176. Arct. Zool. i. p. 150.
This rat was much more common previous to the in-
troduction of the brown rat than at present.
It is now
found only in situations to which the brown rat has not
extended its emigrations, and is almost as injurious and
destructive, resembling it closely in manners and habits.
It is of a deep iron gray, and indeed nearly of a black
colour above, and of an ash colour on the lower parts of
its body. Its legs are nearly naked, and on its fore feet
instead of the rudimental thumb it has a claw. The length
from the nose to the root of the tail is seven inches; the
tail itself is almost eight inches long.
It has been a matter of dispute, whether this animal
was received here from Europe, or was originally taken
hence to that quarter of the world. Blumembach, who
has devoted much attention to the subject, states it as his
opinion that the black rat was carried from Europe to Ame-
rica.*
Garcilasso de la Vega states, that it was first in-
troduced into South America by the Europeans, about the
year 1544, and Geraldus Cambrensis speaks of them in
Europe previous to the discovery of America.
* De primigenio et patrio Ratti vulgariter domestici habitaculo, div-
ersimodi disputatum est. Mirum videtur paradoxam Linnei opinionem,
qui eum ex Indis occidentalibus in Europam advectum fuisse putarat,
vel ipsi Pallasio ideo non improbabilem visam esse quod apud anti-
quos licet Musculi frequens, mentio nulla occurrat Ratti. Etsi enim
nullus veterum, sive Græcorum sive Romanorum Rattum memoret,
medii tamen ævi scriptores, iique de historia naturali perbene meriti,
diu ante orbem novum detectum de Ratto nostrate agunt, in quibus
egregius Silvester Geraldus anno MCLXXXVIII expresse mures ma-
jores nominat qui vulgariter Ratti dicuntur.* Probabile vero vid-
etur huic Rattum primitus Europam mediam incoluisse donec occasione
commerciorum et præsertim navigationem per universum quæ Euro-
pæis patet orbem adeo propagatus est ut quondam inter prodigia rel-
atum sit nonnullos Germanicæ urbes eo plane caruisse. Blumenbach,
Act. Soc. Gætting. v. 1823.
Vol. 1.
40

31.4
THE COMMON MOUSE.
SPECIES III.-The Common Mouse.
Mus Musculus; L.
Mus Musculus : Erxl, Bod. Schreb. Ac.
Mus Domesticus Vulgaris : Ray, Quad.
Mus Sorex: Briss. p. 169, Sp.2.
La Souris : Burr. viii. pl. 39, id. suppl. viii. pl. 20.
7
Like the two preceding species the Common Mouse is
not an original inhabitant of this country, but was brought
here from Europe, and has long since become perfectly na-
turalized throughout the continent, having been conveyed
in every direction by persons moving their household goods,
even to the most remote frontier settlements.
The common mouse, from its size and feebleness, is to
be regarded rather as a troublesome than a very injurious
inmate of our dwellings, but always likely to effect much
mischief on account of its fecundity, which is full as re-
markable as that of any of its kindred species. It is a
*
timid and vigilant creature, yet confides to a considerable
extent in its swiftness and watchfulness, coming out after
various trials, and stealing about a room even when there
are several persons present, provided they are silent and
do not move.
The mouse makes a nest very similar to that of a bird,
having the inside lined with some soft material, such as
wool, cotton, &c. and brings forth her young several times
during a year, generally from six to ten at each litter. At
birth her offspring are naked and helpless, but in about
fifteen days they are able to shift for themselves, and the
mother is soon at liberty to prepare for another family.
The mouse is a very beautiful little animal, when seen not
alarmed and at perfect liberty. Its long and slender whisk-
ers, which extends in numerous and graceful lines from
around the fore part of the hood, its bright prominent eyes, ,
delicate ears, and slight limbs, with its peculiar move-
ments in search of food, or while sporting with its com-
* “ The propagation of mice, (uves), in comparison with that of
other animals, is very remarkable both for quickness and profuseness.
A pregnant female was shut up in a chest of grain ; in a short time a
hundred and twenty individuals were counted.”-Aristotle, Hist. of
Animals, Book vi. chap. 37.

THE COMMON MOUSE.
315
er.
panions, are all such as to render it a pleasing and inte-
resting animal. It is generally, however, viewed with great
disgust on account of prejudices connected with its mis-
chievousness, and the peculiar smell which is more or less
prevalent in the places where the species is most numerous.
The common mouse has frequently been tamed, and
exhibits a considerable degree of attachment to its feed-
Instances are on record of prisoners who have amused
themselves by feeding one of these little animals, until it
has become quite tame, and appeared immediately, when-
ever called by its master. Among other circumstances
connected with the history of the mouse, it is generally
rumoured that this animal is peculiarly susceptible to im-
pressions produced by music, and some very wonderful ac-
counts have been published on the subject. The following
story may serve as a specimen of the manner in which
facts may be stated with perfect accuracy, and yet con-
clusions entirely unfounded be thence deduced. It is rela-
ted by a gentleman who heard it from another “of un-
doubted veracity.”
“One evening, in the month of December, as a few
officers on board of a British man of war, in the harbour
of Portsmouth, were seated around the fire, one of them
began to play a plaintive air on the violin. He had scarce-
ly performed ten minutes when a mouse, apparently fran-
tic, made its appearance in the centre of the floor, near the
large table which usually stands in the ward-room, the re-
sidence of the lieutenants in ships of the line. The strange
gestures of the little animal strongly excited the attention
of the officers, who, with one consent, resolved to suffer it
to continue its singular actions unmolested. Its exertions
now appeared to be greater every moment. It shook its
head, leaped about the table, and exhibited signs of the
most extatic delight. It was observed that in proportion to
the gradation of tones to the soft point, the extacy of the
animal appeared to be increased, and vice versa. After
performing actions which an animal so diminutive would
at first sight seem incapable of, the little creature, to the
astonishment of the delighted spectators, suddenly ceased
to move, fell down and expired, without evincing any
pain."*
* Barton's Medical Physical Journal, i. p. 38.

316
THE RUSTIC MOUSE.
Of the truth of this narration we are thoroughly satis-
fied, but we should explain it differently. The mouse,
under the influence of disease, and almost in the agonies
of death, came out of its hole when the musician was perform-
ing, and after struggling for a time, until exhausted by con-
vulsions, died. The inferences of its “extacy,” &c. are,
for any thing to the contrary contained in the above ac-
count, entirely gratuitous, and we are much mistaken if the
filing of a saw, the scraping of a gridiron, or the whetting
of a scythe, would not in this instance have been accompanied
by a similar degree of “extacy” in proportion as the
“gradation of the tones" approached the “soft point."
The common mouse is about three inches and a-half
long, and has a long, nearly naked tail. Its colour varies
considerably, but is generally of an ashy brown. It has
four digits on its anterior feet, and a rudimental thumb,
destitute of a claw : the hind feet are five toed. The mouse
is preyed on by cats, weazels, owls, rats, &c. &c.
.
SPECIES IV.-The Rustic Mouse.
Mus Agrerius ; GMEL.
Mus Agrarius: GMEL. PALL. p. 341. Say, Long's Exped. to the Rocky Moun-
tains, p. 369.
This little mouse is very common throughout this country,
and is found in great abundance in places favourable to
their multiplication. They are occasionally very injurious
to the farmers by the destruction of the small grain, the
heads of which they cut off and convey to their subterranean
hoards, which differ very little, if at all, from those made
by the meadow-mouse or campagnol.
The rustic mouse is about three inches long, and has a
streak of a mixed dusky and ferruginous colour along the
back: the spaces between the ears (which are large, open and
naked) and sides are of an orange colour, while the whole
of the under parts of the body, legs and feet, are of pure
white; the tail is dusky above and whitish beneath. The
whiskers are long, and some of the hairs are white, some
black.

CHAPTER XXIV.
GENUS XXV. Pouched-RAT; Pseudostoma; Say.
GENERIC CHARACTERS.
The head and body are large, giving to the animal a
elumsy appearance; the cheek pouches are very extensive,
situated outside of the mouth, separated therefrom by the
common integuments, and are profoundly concave, open-
ing downwards, towards the mouth. The legs are short,
the fore feet large and armed with very long claws; the
hind feet are small.
Dental System.
10 Upper
2 Incisive
8 Molar.
20 Teeth:
10 Lower
2 Incisive
8 Molar.
IN THE UPPER JAW, the incisors, always exposed to
view, are strong and truncated in their entire width at tip,
marked by a deep longitudinal groove near the middle, and
by a smaller one at the inner margin. The molars, eight
in number, penetrate to the base of their alveolæ without
separating into roots, as in the genera Arvicola, Lepus, &c.
having simply discoidal, transversely oblong, oval crowns,
margined by enamel, resembling in general form the mo-
lars of the genus Lepus, but without the appearance of
either a groove at their ends or of a dividing crest of ena-
mel. The posterior tooth is rather more rounded than the
others, and that of the upper jaw has a small prominent
angle on its posterior face; the anterior tooth is double, in
consequence of a profound duplicature in its side, so that
its crown presents two oval disks, of which the anterior
one is smaller, and the lower one somewhat angulated.

318
THE POUCHED-RAT.
All these teeth incline obliquely backward, thus resembling
those of the preceding genus.
IN THE LOWER JAW the teeth are similar to those in
the upper, except, that the molars are inclined forwards.*
SPECIES I.-Pouched-Rat.
Pseudostoma Bursarium; SAY.
Pseudostoma Bursaria : Say, Long's Exped. to the Rocky Mountains, i. 406.
Canada Rat: SHAW, Gen. Zool.ii. part i. p. 100.
Mus Bursarius: Linn. Trans. v. p. 227, pl.
8.
Mus Saccatus : MITCHILL, New York Med. Rep. Jan. 1821. Lewis and Clark, ii. 180.
Cricetus Bursarius : DESM. Mammal. 312.
[Vulgarly called Salamander ; Pouched-Rat; Sand-Rat, &c.]
The pouched-rat, though long since noted by various
observers, is still but little known, even in the vicinities
where it is most common. Its peculiar mode of life, its
nocturnal habits and vigilance unite to secure it from the
view of incidental observers, and those who are desirous
of becoming acquainted with this rat in a state of nature,
must be prepared to exercise the most untiring patience
as well as the most assiduous attention.
In Florida, Georgia, &c., and the plains adjacent to the
Missouri, the pouched-rat is to be found in great numbers;
their burrows are exceedingly numerous in various places,
and give an appearance to the plains similar to that produc-
ed by ploughing. Over their burrows, hillocks of loose
earth are raised, resembling in some respects those thrown
up by the shrew-mole. These hillocks consist of about ten or
twelve pounds of loose earth, which appears as if it had been
emptied out of a flower-pot on the spot ; no hole is to be
discovered under this mass of loose soil, but if it be carefully
removed, it is seen that the earth has been broken in a circle
of an inch and a half in diameter, within which space the
ground is loose, but still without any distinct opening.
This species is rendered peculiar in its appearance by
the cheek-pouches exterior to the mouth, its short fore legs
* This dental system, &c. is from Say. See Long's Expedition to
the Rocky Mountains, i. p. 407.

THE POUCHED-RAT.
319
and long claws. By the aid of the latter the animal is ena-
bled in a light soil to burrow with great rapidity, and is sel-
dom or never dug out, since it can escapethrough the ground
as fast as one person can dig in pursuit.
As the pouched-rat is so entirely subterranean in its
mode of life, it is not surprising that very little should have
been learned of its history; neither can we hope that our
knowledge will be much increased on the subject until some
one, who is sufficiently acquainted with natural history, will
devote himself assiduously to the investigation of the man-
ners of this animal in its native haunts. Except the slight
notices given by Bartram, Lewis and Clark, and Say,
nothing satisfactory on the habits of the pouched-rat has yet
been published.*
The pouched-rat is covered by a reddish brown hair,
which is lead-coloured at base; on the under parts of the
body the colour is somewhat paler; the feet are white.
The eyes are black; the ears scarcely prominent, and the
cheek-pouches, which are hairy internally and externally,
are very capacious. The whiskers are numerous, slender
and whitish. The feet are five toed, the anterior pair be-
ing robust, with large, elongated, somewhat compressed
nails, exposing the bone on the inner side; the middle nail
is much the longest, then the fourth, then the second, then
the fifth, the first being very short. The hind feet are very
slender, with nails concave beneath and rounded at tip, the
exterior being very small; the tail is short, hairy at base,
and nearly naked at its tip.*
* The figures which are given of this animal most commonly rep-
resent it with the cheek-pouches inverted in a most unnatural man-
ner.
† Sav, as above quoted.

CHAPTER XXV.
GENUS XXVI.-JUMPING-MOUSE ; Gerbillus; Desm.
GENERIC CHARACTERS.
THE head is elongated, and the ears are rounded and of
moderate size. The anterior extremities are short, have
four digits, furnished with small nails and a rudimental
thumb; the posterior limbs are either long or very long,
have five digits, each of which is supported by a distinct
metatarsal bone, and provided with a nail. The tail is long
and covered by hair.
Dental System.
8 Upper 2 Incisive
6 Molar.
16 Teeth :
8 Lower
2 Incisive
6 Molar.
IN THE UPPER JAW the incisor, which arises from the
middle part of the maxillary bone, is divided into equal
parts by a longitudinal furrow. The molars diminish in
size from the first to the last. The first is composed of
three transverse prominences, formed by two intervening
furrows, not so deep in the middle as at their extrernities ;
these prominences are slightly depressed in the middle but
the anterior and posterior are narrower than the middle.
The second molar is composed of two prominences, form-
ed by an intervening depression, the posterior being the
narrowest. The third molar is similar to the second, but
smaller, especially its posterior prominence. Hence these
teeth differ from those of the hamster (Cricetus) principally
in the breadth of their prominences. When worn down
these teeth are remarkably like those of the hamster in the


6. B.Ellis
Enged by
Drawn by Rider
American Gerbillus.

THE JUMPING-MOUSE.
321
same condition. They present an even surface, with de-
pressions on the internal and external edges, which are
traces of the extremities of the furrows; the difference
in the breadth of the prominences may still be recognized.
IN THE LOWER JAW the incisor is even ; the molars di-
minish in breadth from the first to the last, the reverse of
what we find in the hamster. The first molar has three
prominences and two furrows, but the first is very narrow
and almost circular. The second has two prominences and
a furrow, and the third is so small as to be scarcely more
than rudimental.
SPECIES I.-The Jumping-Mouse.
Gerbillus Canadensis ; DESM.
Dipus Canadensis ; DAVIES, Linn. Trans. iv. 155.
Dipus Americanus; BARTON, An. Philos. Trans. iv. 114.
Canadian Jerboa: SHAW, Gen. Zool. pl. 2d, i. 192.
Gerbille du Canada ; DESM. Mammal. p
132.
This little animal is very remarkable for the great length
of its hind legs and its mode of progression, in both of
which it bears some resemblance to the kanguroo of Aus-
tralasia, and the jerboa of the old continent. When not in
motion the jumping-mouse might be mistaken for the com-
mon field-mouse, as its general aspect is very similar. To
rectify such an erroneous view, it is sufficient that an at-
tempt be made to capture it, when the force and celerity of
its leaps soon remove it from danger, and the pursuer is
astonished at seeing so small a creature, with very slight
apparent effort, eluding his most eager speed, by clearing
five or six feet of ground at every spring. When the jump-
ing-mouse is pursued by one or two persons, and permitted
to advance in one direction, its movements resemble those
of a bird rather than a quadruped, so high does it leap into
the air, so great is the distance it measures at every bound,
and so light and quick is its ascent and descent. The
jumping-mouse, however, does not exclusively move in this
manner, but is capable of running on all its feet with con-
siderable speed ; hence it frequently excites the wonder of
the country people or gives them much labour in vain when
they attempt to run it down.
Vol. I.
41

322
THE JUMPING-MOUSE.
a
The jumping-mouse is found in this country from Canada
to Pennsylvania, and no doubt still farther south. It is in
size nearly the same as the common mouse.
The head,
back, and upper parts of the body, generally, are of a red-
dish brown colour, somewhat approaching to yellow. On
the back the brown is darker than elsewhere. The under
parts of the body throughout are cream-colour, as well as
the inner parts of all the limbs. Near the lower part of the
nostrils there is a band or yellow streak, which runs on each
side along the whole length of the head and the superior
and inferior side of the fore limbs, whence, passing along
the body, it terminates at the joint of the thighs. The up-
per jaw projects considerably beyond the lower, and the
nostrils are open.
The ears are small, rather oval and
hairy; the whiskers are long. The fore limbs are short,
and have four digits, provided with long and very sharp
nails; there is also a minute tubercle instead of thumb,
which is entirely destitute of nail. The posterior extremi-
ties are very long, especially from the heel to the ends of
the toes, which are five in number, long, slender, and the
three middle ones nearly of equal length. The external
toes are much shorter; the inner one is shortest of all. The
tail considerably exceeds the body in length, and gradually
decreases in size from its orgin to its extremity, being finely
ciliated or clothed with hair throughout, and terminating
with a fine pencil of hairs. On the upper side it is of a
slate brown colour, beneath it is of a yellowish cream-co-
lour, and composed of very numerous joints.
The jumping-mouse is found in the grain and grass
fields, like the other little plunderers heretofore described,
and feeds on the same substances. It breeds very fast,
and may occasionally become injurious to the farmer. It
is not usual, however, to find them in great numbers in
Pennsylvania, though in some vicinities they are quite com-
mon.
At the commencement of cool weather, or about the time
the frost sets in, the jumping-mice go into their winter-
quarters, where they remain in a torpid state until the last
of May or first of June. They are dug up sometimes dur-
ing winter from a depth of twenty inches, being curiously
disposed in a ball of clay about an inch thick, and so com-
pletely coiled into a globular form as to conceal the figure of
the animal entirely.

THE LABRADOR JUMPING-MOUSE.
323
SPECIES II.-The Labrador Jumping-Mouse.
Gerbillus Labradorius ; SAB.
Mus Labradorius : Sal. App. to Franklin's Exped. p. 661.
Labrador Rat : Penn. Quad. ii. 173, Arct. Zool.
Gerbillus Hudsonius : Rafin. Prodr. de Somiol.
This species, which closely resembles the preceding in
its mode of living, is found in the Labrador and Hudson's
Bay country. It is about four inches in length, exclusive
of the tail, which is two inches and a-half long. The gene
ral colour of the superior parts of the body is brown ; of
the inferior parts white. The front is very much arched or
oi
projecting, so that the nostrils present towards the earth.
The mouth, which is far below, is small, with the upper lip
bifid, and long black whiskers projecting in two tufts. The
ears are rounded and situated far back on the head. The
hind legs are an inch and a-half long, covered with short
hair, and five toed, the inner one being the shortest, the
others nearly equal. The tail is covered with black hair
above and white below.

CHAPTER XXVI.
GENUS XXVII.-MARMOT; Arctymos ; GMEL.
-
Germ. Murmelthier.
Ital. Marmotto.
Fr. Marmotte.
Swed. Mormoldjuret.
GENERIC CHARACTERS.
The head, which is thick and flattened, has a blunt and
somewhat compressed snout, with eyes of a moderate size,
and short ears. The trunk of the body is thick, the limbs
short, and the feet robust. The fore feet have four digits,
not united by membrane, and a rudimental thumb. The
posterior extremities have five digits, which are also free ;
all the toes are furnished with strong, hooked, compressed
,
nails. The tail is short, or of moderate length, and covered
with hair.
Dental System.
12 Upper 3 10 Molar.
2 Incisive
22 Teeth:
10 Lower
2 Incisive
8 Molar.
IN THE UPPER JAW the incisive is rounded and smooth
in front, and rises from the anterior and inferior part of the
maxillary bone above the first molar. The first molar is
a simple tubercle with one root ; the three following, which
are of the same size, are divided transversely by two de-
pressions, which produce three prominences; the first of
these depressions traverses the tooth entirely, but the
second is obstructed by a spine or internal spur, which
unites the two posterior prominences. These teeth have
three roots, two external and one internal. The last, or
fifth, resembles the others, except in its posterior promi-


1
Eng." W GB EMS
Radomiu
Ihrann Ww Ride
Maryland
& Marmot
2 American
Percupine.

THE MARMOT.
325
nence, which is extended posteriorly in a sort of spur, which
corresponds to the root analogous to the second external
root of the preceding molars.
IN THE LOWER JAW the incisive is similar to that of the
upper jaw, and rises below the last molar. The four mo-
lars are of equal size and entirely similar in form. They
present a groove on their outside, on the inside a depression
which comprises the whole width of the tooth, and at their
antero-inferior edge a narrow and very salient tubercle,
which diminishes in size from the first to the last. The
first of these teeth has, besides, at its neck and on its ante-
rior face, a hollow bordered by a small spine.
When these teeth are worn to a certain degree, all
their projections disappear, and their crowns become
entirely smooth ; but both subsist during the whole life of
the animal.
Species of this genus are found in various parts of the old
continent, and in the Bahama islands. In this country the
greater numbers of species are found far to the north. The
habits of the genus are detailed at length in describing the
following species :
SPECIES I.-The Maryland Marmot.
Arctomys Monax; GMEL.
Bahama Coney: CATESBY, Carolina, ii. 79. Marmota Americana : IBID. App. 28.
Monax, or Marmotte of America: EDWARDS, Nat. Hist. ii. 104.
Glis Fuscus : Marmota Bahamensis: Briss. Reg. An. 4to. 163. Marmota Ameri-
cana : IBID. 164.
Maryland Marmot: PENN. Synops. 270. Quad. ii. 398. Arc. Zool. i. 111. Shaw's
Zool. ii. 117.
Le Monax ou Marmotte du Canada : BUFF. Hist. Nat. xüi. 136. Supp. iii. 175. pl.
28. Ed. Sonnini. xxxii. 22.
As the Maryland Marmot is no where more common than
in Virginia, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and indeed all the
temperate parts of this country, we state the fact in com-
mencing the history of this interesting species, to prevent
readers from drawing the erroneous conclusion that the
name is a correct indication of the place to which the animal
exclusively belongs. In doing this we cannot refrain from
once more expressing our unavailing regret that the impor-
tance of bestowing right names is still so little felt or under-
stood, and that in heedless haste an original observer
should be allowed permanently to establish designations,
which uniformly betray the ignorant into error,
and prove

326
THE MARMOT.
-
a
sources of vexation to all who feel their inappropriateness.
The abuse of terms, however, has long been justly esteem-
ed as one of the most abundant sources of human mistake
and suffering, and if with all advantages of knowledge men
persist in occasionally calling brutal rudeness by the name
of candour and bluntness,-swaggering, courage, and a
destitution of good breeding and honesty, imprudence, the
student of natural history can scarcely expect that much
attention will be paid to the evils he endures from the im-
pediments thrown in his way by the same prolific source of
michief.
The scientific name of the genus to which the Maryland
marmot belongs is excellent, if the species now under con-
sideration be taken in illustration, for a first glance at the
animal is sure to bring to mind the idea of a bear and a
rat, of both of which this creature is a curious miniature re-
semblance. The thickness of its body, entirely plantigrade
walk, posture when engaged in listening, and heavy gait,
are such as vividly to excite a recollection of the bear,
while the form of the head, teeth, position and appearance
of the eye, and general aspect, equally remind the observer
of the rat. In some of its actions it more nearly resembles
the squirrel, especially when in feeding it employs the fore
paws, yet in this it also exhibits a marked similitude to the
bear, as it frequently uses one paw at a time with the same
awkward facility that appears so singular in bruin. Among
the country-people it bears the name of wood-chuck and
ground-hog, the latter being expressive of its habits of bur-
rowing and peculiar voracity.
This marmot is the cause of great injury, especially to
the farmers engaged in the cultivation of clover, as their
numbers become very considerable, and the quantity of
herbage they consume is really surprising. They are
more capable of doing mischief from the circumstance of
their extreme vigilance and acute sense of hearing, as well
as from the security afforded them by their extensive sub-
terranean dwellings.
When about to make an inroad upon a clover-field, all
the marmots resident in the vicinity quietly and cautiously
steal towards the spot, being favoured in their march by
their gray colour, which is not easily distinguished. While
the main body are actively engaged in cropping the clover-
heads and gorging their ample cheek-pouches, one or more
individuals remain at some distance in the rear as sentinels.

THE MARMOT.
327
These watchmen sit erect, with their fore paws held close
to their breast, and their heads slightly inclined to catch
every sound which may move the air. Their extreme sen-
sibility of ear enables them to distinguish the approach of
an enemy long before he is sufficiently near to be danger-
ous, and the instant the sentinel takes alarm he gives a
clear shrill whistle, which immediately disperses the troop
in every direction, and they speedily take refuge in their
deepest caves. The time at which such incursions are
made is generally about mid-day, when they are less liable
to be interrupted than at any other period, either by human
or brute enemies.
The habitations of this marmot are formed by burrowing
into banks, the sides of hills, or other similar situations, and
are generally inclined slightly upwards from the mouth, by
which the access of water is prevented. In forming the
burrow, where the ground is soft, the fore paws are the
principal agents; the strength of the animal's fore limbs is
very great. Where the soil is hard and compact the long
cutting teeth are very freely and efficiently employed, and
we have been surprised to see large stones and lumps of
hardened clay dug out in this way.
dug out in this way. As the burrow is
deepened the earth is brought out in the following manner:
The marmot first throws the earth, with his fore paws,
under his belly, and when it has accumulated to a certain
degree, he rests on his fore paws and kicks the dirt forcibly
onwards with the hind ones, and thus going backwards to
the mouth of his den he finally throws it to a considerable
distance from the entrance. It is very easy to determine
when one of these animals has been engaged in forming a
new burrow, as his whiskers are worn close to the head in
proportion to the hardness of the soil in which he has work-
ed, and his teeth and the edges of his upper lip show evi-
dent marks of the hard service they have performed. The
paws are admirably adapted for burrowing, both on account
of the length of the toes and nails, and the peculiar arrange-
ment of the skin of the palms and soles of the feet, which
is extended between the toes so as to make them distinctly
semi-palmated or webbed, especially in the hind feet. This
circumstance is not commonly noted by the writers on na-
tural history, but we have repeatedly examined the living
animal, and find the character uniformly present.
That
this structure has reference to burrowing is evident, as
the animal shows a great repugnance to water, very
seldom
-

328
THE MARYLAND MARMOT.
drinking, and then in but small quantity; he suffers exceed-
ingly from exposure to rain.
The burrows extend to great distances under ground,
and terminate in various chambers, according to the num-
ber of inhabitants. In these, very comfortable beds are
made by the marmot, of dry leaves, grass, or any soft dry
rubbish to be collected. It is really surprising to see the
vast quantity of such material an individual will cram into
his mouth to carry off for this purpose. He first grasps with
the teeth as much as he possibly can; then sitting erect,
with both fore paws he stuffs the mass projecting on each
side deeper into the mouth, and having arranged it satis-
factorily, takes up successive portions, which are treated in
like manner; during the whole time the head is moved up
and down to aid in filling the mouth to the very utmost.
This is repeated until every fragment at hand is collected,
and the whole transferred to the sleeping apartment, into
which the marmot retires towards the decline of the day,
and remains there until the morning is far advanced. At
some seasons of the year this marmot is seen out on moon-
light nights at a considerable distance from the burrow,
either in search of better pasture or looking for a mate ; on
such occasions, when attacked by a dog, the marmot makes
battle, and when the individual is full grown, his bite is very
The teeth of the dog give him vast superiority in
the combat, as when once he seizes, he is sure of the hold
until the parts bitten are torn through, while the marniot
can merely pinch his foreteeth together, and must renew
his attempts very frequently. The fight is also soon end-
ed by the dog seizing the marmot by the small of the back,
and crushing the spine so as to disable his antagonist ef-
fectually..
There is no animal so perfectly cleanly in its habits as
this marmot; not only the fragments of its food and the
litter of its bed are carefully removed, but the loose earth
about the mouth of the burrow is carefully scraped away.
However numerous they may be in any vicinity, their ex-
crement is not seen, nor any offensive odour perceived.
Whenever the calls of nature are felt, this animal seeks a
spot at some distance from his dwelling, and having dug a
hole of two or three inches in depth, and performed his
evacuations, he covers it up with extreme care, and not
content with placing a thick layer of earth over it, he pres-
ses it, or rather rams it down with the end of his nose, strik-
severe.

THE MARYLAND MARMOT.
329
a
-
ing with a force which seems very extraordinary when thus
applied.
The Maryland marmot, as we have already mentioned,
eats with great greediness and large quantities. To the wild
animal red clover is a very favourite food, and, when it can
be obtained, lettuce, cabbage, and various other garden ve-
getables. In captivity it eats almost every vegetable offered,
is exceedingly fond of bread and milk, and will display the
most violent anger, by erecting its hair, growling and yel-
ping, if it see a cat or other animal fed with this substance.
One which we kept for a long time in a state of domesti-
cation, would, on such occasions, become almost furious,
and never desist from his efforts until he had broken his
chain, when he would rush to the spot, drive off the cat by a
severe bite, or bite the person who attempted to withhold him
from the dish. Yet on other occasions he did not interfere
with the cats, even when feeding within his reach, though
he would at any time bite them if they came immediately
in his way. This marmot would eat the parts about the
joints of the legs of fowls, when thrown to him, and occa-
sionally a small piece of salt-fish,—but, as a general rule,
refused animal food of every description.
This individual was very tame, playful and cunning,
having the freedom of the yard, and the privilege of per-
forming all his operations unmolested. He was very fond
of being handled and petted, and would play with great
good humour, though in a clumsy and awkward manner.
Every thing fit to make a bed of, that he could get at, was
sure to be carried under ground, and when clothes were
missed, which had been hung out to dry, it was only neces-
sary to fasten a hook to a long stick and draw them out of
his burrow. When this was to be effected, it was neces-
sary to tie the marmot up short, as he appeared to under-
stand perfectly what was to be done, and was by no means
willing that his bed should be rendered less comfortable.
Although he would not attempt to bite the person engaged
in removing his plunder, he would rush to the entrance
and endeavour to make his way in, as if to secure his prize,
or remove it to a still greater distance. On one occasion
he carried off and stowed at a distance of six feet from
the entrance, eight pairs of stockings, a towel, and a girl's
frock, and had he not been discovered in the act, would
have made a still larger transfer of materials to forin a
more luxurious bed.
Vol. I.
a
42

330
THE MARYLAND MARMOT.
-
In whatever action engaged, the vigilance of this animal
was unceasing, and his ear appeared the sense almost ex-
clusively relied on. By observing him closely it was evi-
dent that every variation of sound, however slight, or from
,
whatever different sources, was immediately perceived.
-While earnestly engaged in eating, and making no
inconsiderable noise, in munching lettuce, or other crisp
vegetables, the least noise would be sufficient to sus-
pend his hunger and excite all his vigilance, and if it were
one to which he was unaccustomed, or loud enough to
alarm him, he would run with great precipitation until he
arrived at the edge of his hole, where he would sit up
for
an instant in an attitude of the profoundest attention, and
either return to his food, or take refuge in his hole, as he
might feel satisfied that there was or was not danger to be
apprehended.
To look at the ear of this marmot without close exami-
nation, placed on the side of the head, high up and far
back, with very little external cartilaginous projection, and
a wide orifice leading to the internal ear, it would seem
very inappropriate to the subterranean mode of life, since
it appears to be so placed as to allow the dirt ready ac-
But no such inconvenience takes place, as the ear is
provided with a muscular apparatus, by which the upper
portion is brought down, and the sides of the lower por-
tion are
so accurately pressed against each other, as
effectually to exclude the smallest particles of dirt or
dust.
At the commencement of the cold weather the marmot
goes into winter quarters; having blocked up the door
from within, he there remains until the return of the
warm season revives him again to renew his accustomed
mode of life. The female produces five or six
a litter.
The body of the Maryland marmot is about the size of
that of a rabbit, and covered by long rusty brown hair,
generally gray at the tips; the face is of a pale blueish
ash-colour. The ears are short, but broad, and as if they
had been cropped at their superior edges; the tail is about
half the length of the body, and covered with dark brown
hairs, somewhat bushy at its extremity. The feet and
claws are black; the claws are long and sharp.
All the figures which have been heretofore published of
this animal, (with the exception of one given in the Eng-
cess.
young at

THE QUEBEC MARMOT.
331
lish translation of Cuvier, borrowed from a drawing by
LESUEUR,) have been copied from Edward's, which is al-
together unlike the animal.
SPECIES II.-The Quebec Marmot.
Arctomys Empetra; GM. SCHREB.
Marmotte du Canada : Encyl. pl. 67, fig. 4.
Quebec Marmot: Penn. Synopsis, 270, pl. 24, fig. 2, Quad. ii. 397, pl. 412. ed. 3, ii.
129, pl. 741. Arct. Zool. i. 111, Shaw's Zool. iii. 119.
Arctomys Empetra : SCHREB. Quad.743. pl. 210. GMEL. Syst. Nat. i. 143. SABINE,
App. to Franklin, p. 662. 1BID. Trans. Lin. Society,xiii. 584.
Marmotte de Quebec: DESM. Nouv. Dict. d'Hist. Nat. xix. 314.
Called Siffleur by the Canadians.]
The Quebec Marmot is found throughout the northern
parts of this country, and in its habits closely resembles
the preceding species. Its entire length, from the tip of
the nose to the extremity of the tail, is about twenty-six
inches, of which the tail forms six inches.
The general colour of the upper part of the body is
grayish, the hairs being thus coloured; at the base they are
dark, in the middle yellowish, near their tops black, and
white at their tips; near the tail the white is not so remark-
able. On the cheeks and chin the hair is short, and in-
clines to gray, on the nose dark or blackish, the top of the
head is dark brown; the whiskers and long hairs growing
over the eyes are black. The throat, legs, and all the
under parts of the body are of a dark chesnut-colour.
The hair on the tail is dusky throughout, longer than on
the back and darker at the end. The toes are covered
with short hairs, which are black. The inner toes on the
hind feet and the outer on the fore feet, are shorter than
the others; there is a rudimental fifth toe on the inside
of the fore feet. All the toes are provided with long and
sharp claws, those on the fore feet being longest and most
arched.

332
FRANKLIN'S MARMOT.
SPECIES III.- Franklin's Marmot,
Arctomys Franklinji; Sab.
Arctomys Franklinii; Gray American Marmot: SABINE, Trans. Linn. Society,
xiii. 587, App. to Franklin, p. 662.
a
This interesting animal was found near Fort Enterprize,
by the expedition under command of the intrepid and ad-
venturous Capt. FRANKLIN, in honour of whom the scien-
tific designation was bestowed by SABINE, whose own
name is invariably associated by scientific readers with
profound and philosophical research, illumined and adorned
by a mind richly imbued with the most valuable learning.
As the trivial name, Gray American Marmot is equally ap-
plicable to other species, we have preferred to translate the
scientific appellation, which more definitely refers to the
species in question.
In size this animal equals a large rat, measuring eleven
inches from the nose to the insertion of the tail; the latter,
to the end of the hair at its extremity, is five inches long.
Its face is broad and nearly covered with rigid black and
white hairs, which give it a gray colour; the nose is very
blunt, and the ears are broad and covered with short hairs.
The whiskers on the cheek are short and black, and similar
hairs thinly distributed grow above and below the eyes.*
The upper part of the body is covered with short hairs,
dark at the base, dingy white in the middle, then first black,
next yellowish white, and tipped with black, the whole form-
ing a variegated dark yellowish gray. On the sides the hair
.
is longer, not so black, and destitute of the yellow tinge; on
the belly it is dark at the base, and dingy white at tip. The
tail is covered with long hairs, banded with black and white,
and tipped with white, the whole appearing indistinctly strip-
ed with black and white. The feet are rather broad, the
toes being thin and covered with gray hairs. On the fore
feet the second toe from the inside is longest; the outer short-
est and placed far back; the three centre hind toes nearly
of an equal length, the extremes shorter and far back.
* The upper fore teeth are short and reddish yellow; the lower
fore teeth are twice the length of the upper, and paler.

THE TAWNY AMERICAN MARMOT.
333
The claws, which are of a horn-colour, are long and sharp
on the fore feet, and on the hind feet shorter.*
SPECIES IV.- The Tawny American Marmot.
Arctomys Richardsonii ; SABINE.
Arctomys Richardsonii : SABINE, Linn. Soc. Trans. xiii. 589.
This marmot was found by Franklin's expedition near
Carlton-house, in the Hudson's Bay country, and was nam-
ed in honour of Dr. John Richardson, who, on that peri-
lous journey, was so highly distinguished for his scientific
zeal, and his interpid and philanthropic spirit.
The tawny American marmot, or Richardson's marmot,
is nearly of the size of the foregoing species, but more slen-
der. The top of the head is covered with short hairs, dark
at the base and light at their tips. The nose is tapering,
sharp, bare at the end, and covered above with short light
brown hairs, joining and mixing with those on the top of
the head. The ears are short and oval; the cheeks swol-
len and clothed with light brown hairs; the whiskers are
short, growing from the cheeks, and there are a few rigid
hairs above the eyes. The throat is of a dirty white colour ;
the upper part of the body is covered with short soft hairs,
dark at the base and fulvous at their extremities; in the
middle of the back the hairs are like those on the top of the
head, but lighter. The hair on the sides is longer, when
raised appearing dark at the base, the ends being of a
smoky white; the under parts are similar, but dashed with
a little rust-colour. The tail is three inches and a-half
long to the end of the hair, slender and thinly covered with
long hairs, which, at the base, are of the same colour as
the body, but above of three distinct hues,-first black, next
dark, and lastly light at the upper extremity. The legs are
rather long and slender, with narrow feet, furnished with
sharp, arched, horn-coloured claws. The fore feet have,
on the inside a small toe placed far back, with a blunt claw,
which gives it a character different from the general char-
-
a
.
* See Sabine's paper as above quoted,

334
HOOD'S MARMOT.
acter of the
genus. The outer toe and claw of the fore feet
much shorter than the remaining three, the middle one of
which is the longest.
Of the hind toes the two extremes
shorter and placed back, the other three of nearly the same
length.*
SPECIES V.--Hood's Marmot.
Arctomys Tridecemlineatus ; MITCHILL.
Sciurus Tridecemlineatus ; Federation Squirrel : MITCHILL, Med. Rep. 1821.
Ecureuil de la Federation : DESM. Mammal. p, 339.
Arctomys Hoodii : SAB. Trans. Linn. Society, xiii. 590.
This beautiful marmot is an inhabitant of the northern
and western parts of this country, and when first discover-
ed was thought to be a squirrel, and classed near the
sciurus striatus, or ground-squirrel, to which it exhibits
considerable analogy in the arrangement of its stripes.
Though now properly removed to the genus Arctomys, we
retain the specific name first proposed by our distinguished
countryman Professor MITCHILL, derived from the number
of stripes on the back of the animal, being the same as that
displayed in the star spangled banner" of our federation.*
For the trivial name we have adopted a translation of the
scentific appellation proposed by SABINE, in honour of Lieut.
Hood, so truly meritorious for his exertions on the expedi-
tion commanded by Franklin, and remarkable for having
been so cruelly murdered by one of his fellow travellers.
From the nose to the root of the tail Hood's marmot is
about seven inches and a-half long, and the tail itself two
inches. The top of the head is broad, flat, and obscurely
marked with alternate stripes of dark brown and dingy
white. The nose is tapering and very sharp, being cover-
ed with light brown hairs. The ears are small and very
short, the cheeks tumid and clothed with dingy light colour-
ed hairs, the throat being of the same colour; the whisk-
ers are rather long and grow from between the nose and
* Sabine, as above quoted.
† To the kindness of Dr. J. E. DekaY of New-York, we are in-
debted for an opportunity of examining a fine specimen of this mar-
mot.

இரவை
Trawn by Huder
1
D
Eng! by G.Bells
Hoods Marmot
Marmot. 2 Souisiana Marmoi.


HOOD'S MARMOT.
335
the eyes ; some small rigid hairs, similar to the whiskers,
also grow over the eyes.
The whole of the upper part of
the body is marked on each side longitudinally with three
alternate dark brown and dingy white stripes, the dark
being twice as broad as the light, and dotted in the centre
at equal distances throughout their whole length, with
small spots of dingy white. In the centre of the back
there is a dark stripe, rather broader than the others.
The lowest stripe on each side is not so well marked or
distinctly spotted. All the under parts are of a dingy
white or slightly tawny colour. The tail is indistinctly ban-
ded with dark brown and dingy white, being of the latter
colour at tip.
The fore legs, which are short and small, are covered
with light hairs; the outer toe and claw are small and
placed back, the centre toe is the longest of the other three.
On the inside there is also a rudimental toe with a small
obtuse claw, but this is not so remarkable as in the tawny
marmot. The hind legs are longer than the fore legs, and
clothed with light hairs ; the extreme toes and claws are
nearly of equal length and placed far back; the three others
are also of equal length with each other. The claws are
dark horn-colour, small and light at their ends, the fore
ones being the longest.*
SPECIES VI.-The Prairie Marmot.
Arctomys Ludovicianus ; ORD.
Petit chien : Lewis and CLARK, i. 67.
Wistonwish : PIKE, Exped. &c. 156.
Arctomys Ludovicianus : ORD, in Guthrie, ii. 302. [1815)
Arctomys Missouriensis; WARDEN, Descr. des Etats Unis. v. 568.
Arctomys Ludovicianus : Say, Long's Exped. to the Rocky Mountains, i. 451.
[Le petit chien des Voyageurs ; commonly called Prairie-
dog.]
The vast solitudes of our remote territories, where man
has not yet established his abode, are generally overshadow-
ed by dense forests, which, during an unknown lapse of
* See Sabine, as above quoted.

336
HOOD'S MARMOT.
9
ages, have there successively flourished and decayed ; im
parting to the landscape a character of grand though som-
bre uniformity, broken only by the courses of rivers, the
ruggedness and sterility of some portions of soil, or where
the furious hurricane has swept along, prostrating the
giant sons of earth with a destructiveness proportioned to
their resistance. The traveller who, impelled by curiosity,
advances beyond the “father of western rivers," with de-
lighted admiration finds himself gradually emerging from
these apparently interminable shades, and entering upon
a new world. Before him, spreading as far as vision can
extend, he beholds fields of richest verdure, interspersed
with clumps of slight and graceful trees, as if with an ex-
clusive view to ornament, and discovers the far distant
windings of the river as it steals through the plain, by the
cotton-wood and willows fringing its banks. After tra-
versing such scenes, enlivened by numerous herds of brow-
sing animals, that here find a luxurious subsistence, and ar-
riving at the higher and more barren parts of the tract, he
is startled by a sudden shrill whistle, which be may fear to
be the signal of some ambushed savage ; but on advancing
into a clearer space, the innocent cause of alarm is found
to be a little quadruped whose dwelling is indicated by a
small mound of earth, near which the animal sits erect in
an attitude of profound attention. Similar mounds are
now seen to be scattered at intervals over many acres of
ground, and the whole forms one village or community con-
taining thousands of inhabitants, whose various actions and
gambols awaken the most pleasing associations.
In some instances these villages are limited, or at most
occupy but a few acres, but still nearer to the Rocky Moun-
tains, where they are entirely undisturbed, they are found
to extend even for miles. We may form some idea of the
number of these animals when we learn that each burrow
contains several occupants, and that frequently as many as
seven or eight are seen reposing upon one mound. Here
in pleasant weather they delight to sport, and enjoy the
warmth of the sun. On the approach of danger, while it is
yet too distant to be feared, they bark defiance, and flourish
their little tails with great intrepidity. But as soon as it
appears to be drawing rather nigh, the whole troop preci-
pitately retire into their subterranean cells, where they se-
curely remain until the peril be past. One by one they
then peep forth, and vigilantly scrutinize every sound
a

HOOD'S MARMOT.
337
and object before they resume their wonted actions. While
thus near to their retreats they almost uniformly escape
the hunter, and if killed they mostly fall into their
burrows, which are too deep to allow their bodies to be ob-
tained.
The villages found nearest to the mountains have an ap-
pearance of greater antiquity than those observed else-
where. Some of the mounds in such situations are several
yards in diameter, though of slight elevation. These, ex-
cept about the entrance, are overgrown by a scanty herb-
age, which is characteristic of the vicinity of these villages.
SAY has observed on this subject, that it is not easy to as-
sign a reason for the preference shown by the prairie mar-
mot, which lives on grassy and herbaceous plants, in select-
ing the most barren places for its dwelling, “ unless it be
6
that he may enjoy an unobstructed view of the surrounding
country, in order to be seasonably warned of the approach
of wolves or other enemies.” This reason may be suf-
ficiently valid of itself, but we would suggest another in the
difference of soil, rendering such barren places fitter for
the burrows. It is by no means necessary to suppose that
this marmot obtains its food exclusively near its own dwell-
ing. We know that this is not the case with the Mary-
land marmot, which so closely resemble this species in every
respect, and goes to considerable distances in search of
food, even in the immediate vicinity of man.*
The mound thrown up by the prairie marmot consists
of the earth excavated in forming the burrow, and rarely
rises higher than eighteen inches, though measuring two or
three feet in width at the base. The form of the mound
is that of a truncated cone, and the entrance, which is a
comparatively large hole, is at the summit or in the side,
the whole surface, but especially the top of the mound, he-
ing well beaten down like a much used foot-path. From
the entrance the hole descends perpendicularly for a foot
or two, and then is continued obliquely or somewhat
spirally downwards, to a depth which has not been de-
termined.
This marmot, like his kindred species, passes the win-
ter in a state of torpidity, and to secure himself comforta-
* Pike says of the prairie marmot, that “they never extend their
excursions more than half a mile from their burrows.
Vol. I.
43

338
HOOD'S MARMOT.
bly against the effects of the cold, he closes accurately the
mouth of the burrow, and constructs at the bottom of it
a neat globular cell, of fine dry grass, having an aper-
ture at top sufficiently large to admit a finger, and so
compactly put together that it might almost be rolled along
the ground uninjured.
This active and industrious community of quadrupeds
(like every other society,) is infested by various depreda-
tors who subsist by plunder, or are too ignorant or indo-
lent to labour for themselves. Hence a strange associa-
tion is frequently observed in their villages, for burrowing-
owls (Stryx Hypugea of Bonaparte, *) rattle-snakes, liz-
ards and land tortoises, are seen to take refuge in their
habitations. The burrowing-owl, however, appears to
appropriate an excavation to his own use, as is evinced
by its decayed and delapidated condition, while those fre-
quented by the marmot are always neat and in good re-
pair. The young of the marmot most probably become
the prey of this singular bird. The rattle-snakes also ex-
act their tribute with great certainty, and without excit-
ing any alarm, as they can penetrate the inmost recesses
of the burrow, and a slight wound inflicted by their fangs
is followed by the immediate extinction of life.t
The prairie marmot is about sixteen inches long from
the tip of the nose to the root of the tail, which is two inches
and three-quarters in length. The head is broad and de-
pressed above with large eyes, having dark brown irides.
The ears are short and truncated; the whiskers black and
of moderate length; there are a few bristles above the eye,
and a few also on the side of the cheek; the nose is rather
short and compressed. The general colour is a light dingy
reddish brown, intermingled with some gray, and a few
black hairs, which are dark or dusky at base, then bluish
white, then light reddish, and finally gray at tip. The un-
der parts of the body are of a dirty white colour; the hair
a
* See his splendid work on American Ornithology, vol. i.
† “It is extremely dangerous to pass through their towns as they
abound with rattle-snakes, both of the yellow and black species; and
strange as it may appear, I have seen the wiston-wish (prairie mar-
mot,) the horn-frog (orbecular lizard,) and a land-tortoise all take ref-
uge in the same hole. I do not pretend to assert that it was their
common place of resort, but I have witnessed the above facts in more
than one instance."-Pike, p. 156.

HOOD'S MARMOT.
339
on the anterior legs, that on the throat and on the neck, is
dusky at base.*
All the feet are five toed, clothed with very short hair,
and armed with rather long black nails; the outer one on
the fore feet reaches nearly to the base of the next, and the
middle one is nearly half an inch long. The thumb has a
conical nail, three-tenths of an inch in length; the tail is
banded with brown near the tip, and the hair, except that
next the body, is not plumbeous at base.
SPECIES VII.-Parry's Marmot.
Arctomys Parryii ; RICHARDSON.
Arctomys Parryii, Gray Arctic Marmot; RICHARDSON, App. to Franklin.
Arctomys Alpina: PARRY's 2d Voyage, p. 61.
The ear
This species was brought in by the expedition under
Capt. Franklin, and was named by Dr. Richardson in honour
of Capt. Parry. It is rather larger than the Arctomys
Franklinii, and measures to the root of the tail twelve or
fourteen inches; the tail itself is four inches long, and the
hair at its extremity five inches and a half in length.
Parry's marmot has a broad and flattened body, with
thick legs; flattish head and blunt nose, covered with a
close coat of short brown hairs. The margin of the mouth
is hoary ; the eyes are large and black coloured.
is very short, consisting of a flat semi-oval cartilage, project-
ing about the sixth of an inch over a large auditory passage.
The cheek-pouches, which are very large, open into the
mouth anterior to the grinders.
The body is covered with a soft fur, consisting of a soft
down of a dark smoky gray at the roots, pale clear gray in
the middle, and yellowish gray at the tip. This arrange-
ment causes a crowded assemblage of ill defined, irregular,
and confluent whitish spots, margined and separated by
black. The throat and all the under parts of the body are
brownish red and brownish yellow,or rather an intermedi-
ate colour, blending with the colours of the back. The tail
* The description of this species is from Say, who has given the
best account of the habits of this animal hitherto published.

340
PARRY'S MARMOT.
is flattish and subdistichous, and is at the will of the
animal expanded like a feather ; it is then brown along the
middle, tipped and margined for two-thirds of its length
with black. The feet are furnished with five toes, having
short flattened claws, which are large, blackish, slightly
arched and grooved underneath. On the inside of the fore
fcet, and high up, there is a small toe or thumb, armed with
a
a small nail; the palms are naked and have callous protu-
berances, three of them at the base of the toes, from the
largest of which the thumb rises.*
* Richardson, as cited above.

CHAPTER XXVII.
GENUS XXVIII.-SQUIRREL; Sciurus ; L.
Gr. Σκικρος
Fr. Ecureuil.
Germ. Eichorn.
Ital. Scojattolo.
GENERIC CHARACTERS.
The head is somewhat elongated, with a sharp muzzle,
moderately long ears, and large eyes. The upper lip is
divided, and the cheeks destitute of pouches, the neck of a
middling length, and the body rather slender. The teats
are eight in number, two being situated on the chest and
six on the belly. The posterior are much larger than the
anterior extremities, which have four digits and a rudimen-
tal thumb; the external digit is short, the others are long.
The posterior feet are five-toed, with a short internal
and external digit: the three intermediate toes are long
and slender. The next to the external toe is the longest
of all, both in the anterior and posterior feet, the digits of
which are furnished with curved acute nails, with the ex-
ception of the rudimental thumb, which is blunt and na-
ked. The tail is long and clothed with long and thickly set
hairs.
Dental System.*
{
10 Upper 3 10 Molar.
2 Incisive
20 Teeth:
10 Lower
2 Incisive
8 Molar.
* Frederic Cuvier introduces this dental system by remarking that
it is evidently similar to that of the marmot and spermophili, all form-
ing one and the same family; they differ, however, in some circum-
stances, which are uniform in their occurrence, and by consequence
are characteristic.

342
THE SQUIRREL.
IN THE UPPER JAW, the incisive is smooth and round-
ed in front, and rises from the sides of the anterior part of
the maxillary bone. The first molar is a rudimental and
cylindrical tooth, which falls out very early, and which is
placed against the antero-internal surface of the second ;
this latter, which is sometimes a little smaller than the fol-
lowing, has, like them, a central depression, and another
smaller one at both extremities: from these three depres-
sions results a small spine on the anterior edge of the
tooth, then two prominences, separated from each other by
the central depression, and, finally, another small crest or
spine on its posterior edge.
On the outside of these depressions prominences and
spines remain distinct, but on the inside they are reunited
by a large and circular crest. This crest embraces the se-
cond molar rather less than the others, which thus differs
in being narrower internally than externally: the same is
the case with the last, which differs by the prolongation of
its postero-external part.
IN THE LOWER JAW the incisor is like that of the
up-
per jaw, but is narrower, and rises from below and behind
the last molar. The third molar is a third smaller than
the others, which gradually increase in size to the last,
but all formed alike, presenting in their middle a circular
depression, and on their periphery a crest divided by a
groove at the internal and at the external edge: from the
centre of each of these grooves a small tubercle arises.
Age, however, soon effaces these fugitive characters, and
then these teeth exhibit a nearly smooth surface.
ness.
The species comprised in this genus are in different
degrees remarkable for their sprightly agility and graceful
movements, as well as for their personal beauty and neat-
The forest is their appropriate residence, and na-
ture has provided them not only with the means of rapidly
ascending the loftiest trees, but with teeth capable of open-
ing the way to food, which is effectually secured from almost
every other creature. The hardest nuts found in the
woods afford ample provision to the squirrels, and the num-
ber of nuts destroyed by these animals, though small when
compared with the whole quantity produced, must have
some effect in preventing the superabundant increase of
forest trees.

THE SQUIRREL.
343
The muscular strength displayed by these animals is
very great, when compared with their size. They make
astonishing leaps from branch to branch, and from tree to
tree, when engaged in sporting with each other, or en-
deavouring to escape from pursuit. At such times, when
no tree is sufficiently near to be reached by a single spring,
the squirrel unhesitatingly drops from the greatest height
to the ground, and falls with a force apparently sufficient
to crush him ; but no injury is experienced, and a few se-
conds are sufficient for his escape into the top of the nearest
tree.
The actions of most of these animals are marked by a
peculiar vivacity and playfulness. When moving on the
ground, squirrels advance by a succession of short leaps,
while the long bushy tail, waving in graceful undulations,
renders their whole appearance very interesting. When
engaged in listening, they sit erect on their hinder limbs,
having the tail beautifully raised against the back, and fall-
ing in an easy curve at its extremity towards the ground.
In eating, the position is much the same; the food is held
in the fore paws, principally between the rudimental thumbs
and the adjoining part of the palms. The facility with which
they cut through the covering of the hardest nuts is very
remarkable ; they first turn the nut about until they get it
into the most favourable position, and then examine it by
gnawing slightly in different places. If the nut be with-
ered or rotten it is speedily thrown aside and another
sought. When a good one is obtained, and the proper
place for opening it is selected, (which is the thinnest part,
immediately over the kernel,) a small linear opening is
first made, which at length admits the points of the lower
front teeth. These are now inserted, and the hole enlar-
ged by breaking off successive pieces of the shell in the di-
rection of the kernel. A hickory-nut is thus frequently cut
down on four sides from end to end, leaving the interme-
diate thick portions untouched. After satisfying his hun-
ger the squirrel generally buries the superfluous food ;
previous to the approach of winter large hoards of nuts and
grain are collected and secured in the ground for future
Their nests are at no great distance from these
store-houses, and are built of small sticks and leaves in the
top branches of forest trees, or in hollows of their trunks,
except in the case of a few species which inhabit burrows
at all times. All the squirrels are peculiarly cleanly, and
use.

344
THE SQUIRREL.
and are frequently seen to rub their heads and faces with
their fore paws as if for the purpose of washing. When
they accidentally step into water they make use of their
bushy tail for the purpose of drying themselves, passing it
several times through their hands.
Like most of the animals belonging to this order, they
are very prolific, and multiply until from their numbers
large districts of country are injuriously overrun by them.
They then invade and literally lay waste the cornfields,
consuming vast quantities of grain, and destroy nearly as
much as they eat by breaking it down and scattering it on
the ground. On such occasions the farmers in thinly set-
tled districts severely suffer, and are deprived of a large
share of the fruits of their industry. The efforts of a
whole family are occasionally insufficient to drive off or
destroy these busy plunderers, as new crowds appear to
be continually arriving to renew the depredation.
While travelling through the state of Ohio, in the au-
tum of 1822, we had an opportunity of witnessing some-
thing of this sort. Parts of the country appeared to swarm
with squirrels, which were so numerous that, in travelling
along the high road, they might be seen scampering in
every direction; the woods and fields might be truly said
in the country phrase, to be “ alive with them.” A far-
mer, who had a large field of Indian corn near the road,
informed us, that notwithstanding the continued exertions
of himself and his two sons, he feared he should lose the
greater part of his crop, in addition to his time and the
expense of ammunition used in killing and scaring off the
little robbers. This man and his sons frequently took sta-
tions in different parts of the field, and killed squirrels
until their guns became too dirty longer to be used with
safety; yet they always found, on returning, that the squir-
rels had mustered as strong as before. During this jour-
ney we frequently met squirrel-shooters heavily laden with
which in many instances they had only desisted
from slaying from want of ammunition or through mere
fatigue.
Fortunately for the farmers these animals are not at the
same time equally numerous in different parts of the country.
We found the squirrels in 1822 most numerous through-
out the country lying between the Great and Little Miami
rivers ; they became evidently fewer as we advanced to-
wards Chillicothe, and beyond that place were so rare as
this game,

THE SQUIRREL.
345
to be seldom seen. During some seasons they appear to
move in mass, deserting certain districts entirely, and con-
centrating upon others. In such migrations vast numbers
are drowned in crossing the rivers, and numbers are also
destroyed by beasts and birds of prey, and various other
causes.
END OF THE FIRST VOLUME.
.








Museums
QL
715
6759
1842
V. I
UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
3 9015 06345 2117
OO
UNIVERSTY OF MICHIGAN LIBRARY
CONSERVATION UNIT O
Examination and treatment records
are on file.
Call # OL 715.6591842 V.
Job # 97.33
Work by TOM HOGARTH
Date FEB. 19, 1997