A 437609
The
DICTIONAR
of
EDUCATION
AND
INSTRUCTION
LB
15
.K45
1882
The DICTIONARY of
EDUCATION AND
INSTRUCTION
Stewer

THI
ARTES
1837)
SCIENTIA
LIBRARY
VERITAS
OF THE
UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
TUEBOR
QUERIS PENINSULAM AMO NAM
CIRCUMSPICE

THE GIFT OF
Sheehan Bk. Company
LB
15
.K45
1882
THE
DICTIONARY
OF
EDUCATION AND INSTRUCTION:
A REFERENCE BOOK AND MANUAL ON THE
THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING,
FOR THE USE OF
PARENTS, TEACHERS, AND OTHERS;
BASED UPON THE
CYCLOPEDIA OF EDUCATION.
BY
HENRY KIDDLE AND A. J. SCHEM.
THIRD EDITION.
NEW YORK: E. STEIGER & CO.
LONDON: SAMPSON LOW & CO.
1882.

Special attention is invited to the following publications:
The Cyclopaedia of Education. A Dictionary of Information for
the use of Teachers, School-Officers, Parents, and Others. Edited by HENRY
KIDDLE and ALEXANDER J. SCHEM. One large volume, 8vo. In Paper
Cover, uncut edges, $4.00 (also in 4 divisions at $1.00 each); bound in
Cloth $5.00 and uniform with the volumes of Appleton's American
Cyclopædia, in Library Leather $6.00; in Half Morocco $7.00; in Half
Russia, extra gilt $8.00; in Full Morocco, or Full Russia, with gilt edges
$10.00.
The Year-Book of Education for 1878. Being an Annual Sup-
plement to the Cyclopædia of Education. Edited by HENRY KIDDLE and
A. J. SCHEM. 8vo. Cloth $2.00.
for 1879.
Cloth $2.00.
Edited by HENRY KIDDLE and A. J. SCHEM. 8vo.
In addition to editorial matter on the progress of education in America and foreign
countries, each of these two volumes contains a list of Collegiate and Private Educa-
tional Institutions in the United States and Canada, and other Catalogues and Lists of
value and interest.
Steiger's Educational Directory for 1878. 326 pp.
Limp cloth $1.50.
8vo.
Contents: Lists of Collegiate and Private Educational Institutions (United States,
British Dominions, Germany, Austria). - Catalogues, etc.
A new edition for 1881-82 is in preparation.
Education and General Philology. A Classified Descriptive
Catalogue of American, British, German, French, and other Foreign Publi-
cations on Education and General Philology; together with Works of Reference.
Teachers' Hand-books, etc., exclusive of Text-books. Edited by E. STEIGER,
48 pp. 8vo. Paper 10 Cts. net,
Copyright, 1881, by E. STEIGER & Co.
NOTICE.
Desirous of securing for the Dictionary of Education
and Instruction the widest possible circulation among
teachers, school-officers, parents, and all progressive persons,
the undersigned publishers invite propositions from booksellers,
agents, and others intending to thoroughly canvass certain
limited territory.
E. STEIGER & CO.
1
PREFACE.
The Cyclopædia of Education, the only publication of the kind in the
English language, has now been before the public about four years, during
which time this work has secured the unqualified approval of the most
eminent and experienced educators and official authorities both in America
and abroad. This is all the more satisfactory, as much of the commenda-
tion bestowed has resulted from a careful study and constant use of the
Cyclopædia as an educational guide.
But while the Cyclopædia has been thus cordially welcomed and com-
mended, a demand has been expressed, with increasing urgency, for a
smaller work of a similar character, that, excluding matter of only occa-
sional interest and value to the professional teacher, may contain solely
what is of every-day need; and which may be obtained at a moderate cost,
and yet supply a large amount of information on a great variety of sub-
jects, such as could be obtained only with considerable difficulty from large
and expensive works.
To meet this demand the Dictionary of Education and Instruction is
now offered to teachers and all others interested in education and instruc-
tion, — school-officers, parents, and the public in general.
The Dictionary is, in the main, a compilation of the articles embraced
in only one of the eight departments contained in the Cyclopædia; namely,
those on the Theory of Education and Instruction (Pedagogy and Di-
dactics) which are designed to comprehend a consideration of the principles
of education, in each of its departments, with practical suggestions as to
the best methods of applying them both in training and instruction. To
adapt this class of articles, thus reproduced from the Cyclopædia, to the
wider use now intended, they have been, as far as seemed necessary, ab-
breviated, extended, or otherwise modified. In this way it is expected
that the Dictionary will supply a convenient manual for study and refer-
ence not only to teachers engaged in professional work, and in teachers'
institutes, but likewise in normal schools in which it is designed to serve
as a text-book on Theory and Practice.
To facilitate the use of the Dictionary for this purpose, all the longer
articles have been supplied with indented sub titles so as to enable the in-
structor to conduct recitations on the subject, either by interrogating the
student, or by requiring full statements from him on any of the topics thus
indicated.
The special objects designed to be attained by the publication of the
Dictionary, more specifically stated, are: (1) to supply a brief compendium
of the theory and practice of education in a series of clear and definite
articles, alphabetically arranged so as to be easily referred to, or system-
atically studied; (2) to encourage in this way the study by teachers of the

321394
II

principles and practice of their profession, thus giving to the work of edu-
cation a greater degree of intelligence and efficiency; (3) to afford a con-
venient class manual of pedagogy for use in normal schools and teachers'
institutes as the basis of a course of instruction in principles and methods,
not necessarily superseding other valuable manuals differently arranged,
but accompanying and strengthening them; (4) to supply, at a small cost,
to every teacher that portion of the Cyclopædia which is of especial value
in practical education, reserving this larger work for occasional reference,
particularly when information regarding educational history, biography,
and statistics is needed; and (5) to supply a useful hand-book to parents
in the home education of their children.
Of the character of the articles contained in this work but little need
be here said, as they have already secured the highest encomiums for their
philosophical and professional correctness, practical character, and literary
excellence. This indeed was to have been anticipated, the writers being
all practical educators of long experience and distinction in their profession.
Among the contributors to the Cyclopædia whose articles have been
drawn upon for use in this volume the following may be especially men-
tioned: Professors EDW. OLNEY, of the University of Michigan; FRANCIS A.
MARCH, of Lafayette College; DAVID B. SCOTT, of the College of the City
of New York; E. H. DAY, of the New York Normal College; CHARLES
T. HIMES, of Dickinson College, and J. M. D. MEIKLEJOHN, Professor of
Education in the College of St. Andrews, Scotland; also JAMES DONALDSON,
LL. D., Rector of the Edinburgh High School; THOMAS F. HARRISON and
NORMAN A. CALKINS, Assistant Superintendents of Schools in the City of
New York; and also the editors, HENRY KIDDLE, for many years chief
Superintendent of the schools of the City, and for several years principal of
the Normal School in the city of New York; and Professor A. J. SCHEM,
also one of the Assistant Superintendents of the New York City Schools,
and long and favorably known for his extensive scholarship, literary
attainments, and numerous encyclopædic, statistical, and other works.*
Special attention is invited to the valuable list of educational works for
professional study and reference prepared éspecially for the Dictionary by
W. H. PAYNE, M. A., Professor of the Science and the Art of Teaching
in the University of Michigan.
The hope is here expressed that this book will be favorably received,
and that it will prove the instrument of much good in elevating the teacher's
profession, and in disseminating correct information in regard to the prin-
ciples of education and instruction.


NEW YORK, July 1st, 1881.
* Prof. SOHEM deceased May 22d, while this work was passing through the press.
ABACUS (Gr. åßağ, a slab or board), a piece of school apparatus,
used to facilitate the teaching of children to count, and perform other
simple arithmetical operations. Various forms of the abacus are employed
as counting or adding machines.
A-B-C BOOK, a primer, or little book used to learn the alphabet and
its simplest combinations, with the most rudimental lessons in reading.
(See HORN-BOOK.)
A-B-C METHOD. See ALPHABET MEthod.
ABECEDARIAN. This word, formed from the names of the first
four letters of the alphabet, is generally used to denote a pupil who has not
advanced beyond the most elementary stage of school or book education,
that is, who is learning A B C, or the alphabet. The name has been some-
times applied to one engaged in teaching the alphabet. (See READING, and
WORD METHOD.)
A-B-C SHOOTERS (Germ. ABC-Schützen), pupils of those scholastic
vagrants who, during a certain period of the middle ages, and even later,
used to wander through many parts of Germany, giving instruction to
such pupils as they could pick up, who accompanied them in their jour-
neyings. These pupils were often obliged to purloin food, fowls, etc., to
supply their masters' wants, and hence were called, partly in derision of
their elementary knowledge, A-B-C Shooters shoot, in their parlance,
being the slang word for steal.
How
found.
ABSENTEEISM is opposed to regularity in the attendance of pu-
pils belonging to a school. The number of school sessions from which a
pupil was absent, as compared with the number at which he was
present, during any particular period, gives the absenteeism of
the pupil for that period. The average daily attendance of pu-
pils divided by the average daily enrollment the "average number be-
longing" shows the percentage of attendance; and this subtracted from
100 gives, of course, the percentage of absenteeism. Within certain limits,
this is a criterion of efficiency of management and instruction, since
teachers who interest their pupils necessarily secure a more re-
Test of gular attendance than those who fail in this respect. Where the
efficiency.
basis for computing the degree of absenteeism is the average
enrollment, and where regularity of attendance is made a test of efficient
management, teachers will be more careful to keep the number of pupils
on the rolls as little as possible above the average attendance. Hence, to
render this test reliable, a uniform rule should be followed in the
Uniform discharging of pupils for non-attendance. Such a rule has been
rules. adopted in many cities of the Union, any pupil's name being in-
variably dropped from the roll after a certain number of days of absence,
however caused. This is based on the principle that irregular attendance
is not only of no profit to the pupil concerned, but a positive injury to
the other pupils of the school or class, and is, moreover, a serious hindrance
and embarrassment to the teacher.
.
2
ABSTRACT AND CONCRETE - ACADEMY
ABSTRACT AND CONCRETE. These terms have a very im-
portant application in many departments of practical education. Abstract
has reference to general ideas, or the ideas of qualities considered
Definition. apart from the things to which they belong; concrete, to those
which are only conceived as belonging to particular objects or substances.
Thus, if we speak of a man, a horse, a tree, etc., we use abstract or general
ideas; for we are not thinking of any particular object of the class, but
only of the assemblage of qualities or characteristics that especially belong
to all the members of the class. But when we mention such names as
Cicero, Washington, John Smith, etc., we have in our mind a conception
of the characteristics that distinguish those persons from all other men.
Thus, the expressions five pounds, a true statement, an honest man
represent concrete ideas; the words five, truth, honesty, abstract ones.
The immature minds of young children employ to a great
extent concrete ideas, and hence the instruction addressed
tion. especially to them should deal principally with these. As the
mind advances, it becomes more and more occupied with ab-
stract conceptions, which constitute the material for all the higher forms
of thought and ratiocination.
Distinction
in educa-
ACADEMY (Gr. 'Ακαδημια or 'Ακαδήμεια) was originally the name of
a pleasure ground near Athens, and was said to be so called
Origin.
after Academus, a local hero at the time of the Trojan war. Its
shady walks became a favorite resort for Plato: and, as he was accustomed
to lecture here to his pupils and friends, the school of philosophers which
was founded by him was called the Academic School, or mere-
Academy ly the Academy. During the middle ages the term was but
of Plato.
little used for learned institutions; but, after the revival of
classical studies in the 15th century, it again became frequent. In a
wider sense, it was sometimes applied to higher institutions of learning in
general. Gradually, however, its use was, in most countries,
restricted to special schools, as academies of mining, of com-
merce, of forestry, of fine arts, and, especially, of music. In
England and the United States, the national high schools for the edu-
cation of military and naval officers are called academies. Thus, England
has the Naval Academy at Portsmouth, and the Royal Military Academy
at Woolwich; and the United States, the Military Academy at West
Point, and the Naval Academy at Annapolis. In the United States, the
name has also been assumed by a large number of secondary schools, which
are designed to prepare their pupils for colleges, or to impart a general
knowledge of the common and higher branches of education.
How
applied.
Applied to
learned
societies.
The name academy is also employed to designate an asso-
ciation of learned men for the advancement of science and
art. Some of these associations are of an entirely private
character, others have been founded by the state. The first
academy of this kind was the Museum of Alexandria, in Egypt, which was
founded by Ptolemy Soter. The academies constituting the Institute
of France are among the most important of the kind in the world. The
Académie française is the highest authority upon every thing relating
to the niceties of the French language, to grammar, and the publication of
the French classics. The Académie des inscriptions et belles lettres em-
ACCOMPLISHMENTS - AFFECTATION
3
braces among the objects of its attention comparative philology. Like the
French Institute, the academies in the capitals of Spain, Portugal, Sweden,
Russia, and other countries, have gradually become great national centers
for the promotion of science and art; but no such centralization has been
effected in Italy, Germany, England, or the United States. In the United
States of America, there are also a number of learned societies to which
the name academy, in the sense used on the continent of Europe, has
been applied.
ACCOMPLISHMENTS. This term, as contrasted with culture,
refers to those educational acquirements which fit a person for certain
special activities, while culture has reference to the general improvement
of the character or mental faculties. Hence the expression "external
accomplishments,' or “ornamental accomplishments," such as skill in
foreign languages, music, drawing, painting, dancing, etc. (See CULTURE.)
ACQUISITION. The acquisition of knowledge must be, to a cer-
tain extent, the scope of every process of teaching. Sometimes it is the
primary object; but, in the earlier stages of education, it is generally se-
condary, the educative value of the process taking precedence of the prac-
tical importance of the knowledge communicated. The acquisition of new
ideas must always, more or less, improve the mind by affording additional
material for the exercise of its various faculties; but, in education, what
particular faculties are concerned in the study of any subject or branch of
knowledge, is a matter of pa amount importance, and therefore should
never be lost sight of by the teacher. Where this is disregarded, in-
struction is apt to degenerate into mere rote-teaching; and the teacher
will often rest satisfied when his pupil can repeat the formulæ of knowl-
edge, without evincing the acquisition of new ideas, on which alone the
improvement of the mind depends.
ACROAMATIC METHOD (Gr. åkpoaµatikós, to be heard, designed
for hearing only), a name originally applied to the esoteric teachings of
Aristotle and other Greek philosophers, to designate such as were confined
to their immediate hearers, and not committed to writing. Later, the
term has been applied to a system of instruction in which the teacher
speaks and the pupil only listens. A method of this kind, of course, pre-
supposes scholars of a certain maturity of age and of considerable progress
in intellectual culture. It forms the basis of the lecture system.
AFFECTATION, as opposed to what is real, genuine, and natural,
is carefully to be guarded against in the education of the young. In cer-
tain peculiarities of character, there is a proneness to the formation of
habits of affectation in manners and speech. This tendency, however,
rarely shows itself at an early age. Children generally yield to their na-
tural impulses, and do not assume or reign what they do not feel, or, to
use a common expression, "put on airs". Their mode of training, however,
may tend to this, particularly if they are forced to assume an unnatural
mode of expression in phraseology or pronunciation, in the attempt to
make them excessively precise in such matters. Some styles of reading
and elocution may lead to this characteristic; and hence the importance
of adopting methods that, in all respects, correspond to the prevailing
usage. The standard of the educator should, in every respect, comport
with the ease, grace, simplicity, and beauty that belong to what is
4
AGE
natural; and every tendency to the contrary, in his pupils, should be
promptly and sternly repressed. Locke (in Thoughts concerning Educa-
tion) says: "Plain and rough nature left to itself, is much better than an
artificial ungracefulness, and such studied ways of being ill-fashioned.
The want of an accomplishment, or some defect in our behavior, coming
short of the utmost gracefulness, often scapes observation; but affecta-
tion in any part of our carriage, is lighting up a candle to our defects,
and never fails to make us to be taken notice of, either as wanting sense
or wanting sincerity.'
AGE, in Education. The life of man has been variously divided
into periods, or ages. Thus Pythagoras assumed four, Solon and Macro-
bius ten, different ages, while others have preferred a division
Periods into five, six, seven, or eight. With regard to the education of
of life.
man, one great turning-point stands forth so conspicuously, that
teachers at all times have chosen it as a broad line of demarcation, into
whatever number of periods they have thought it proper to divide human
life. This turning-point in life is the period when man passes from the
age of youth into that of virility. The physical development at
Turning this time has become complete; in social life both sexes have
point in
attained majority; and the education of the young man or wo-
life.
man for the career that has been selected, is, in the main, con-
cluded. Up to this time, the education of man is conducted by others,
chiefly parents and teachers; henceforward, he is expected to educate
himself, and to assume the education of others.
During the period of life when man is dependent upon others for his
education, three different ages are broadly distinguished, childhood, boy-
hood or girlhood, and youth. These are marked, in the physical
Different
development of the body, by the shedding of teeth, the entrance
ages. of puberty, and the setting in of virility. The process of mental
development in these three ages is as different as the physical basis; and,
accordingly, each of them demands a peculiar pedagogical and didactical

treatment.
Childhood, which embraces the first seven years of life, is characterized
by the rapid growth and development of the organs of the body. At the
Childhood. age of seven a child weighs about six times as much as at its
birth, and it has attained one half of the stature, and about one
third or one fourth of the weight of the grown man. The mind is, during
this period, more receptive than self-active; the only manifestations of
self-activity being found in the efforts to retain and arrange the impres-
sions which have been received. All pedagogical influence upon the pupil
in this age can be only of a preparatory character. The body must be
guarded against injuries, and must have opportunities for a vigorous and
manifold development. The mind must be preserved from debasing,
weakening, or over-exciting influences, and must be kept open for any thing
that is conducive to the development of its faculties; and, in order not to
become sated and confused, it must learn to distinguish what is important
from what is unimportant. As the child is thoroughly dependent upon
the educator and unable to direct its own exertions, it should be made to
understand as clearly as possible, that any opposition of its own will to
that of its educators can be followed by only evil consequences. It should,
AGE
5
therefore, be taught obedience, but not obedience through fear, for fear
has a repressive influence upon the development of the mental faculties,
but an obedience springing from confidence in the superior wisdom and
experience of the teacher, and from love produced by his kindness. The
natural educators of the child are the parents, especially the mother; but,
toward the close of this age, systematic teaching by a professional teacher
begins. Legislation in regard to the school age differs considerably in
different countries. In some, children are sent to the public schools when
they are four years of age; in others, not until they are seven. Of course,
instruction at such an age must be limited to the most elementary rudi-
ments, such as reading, writing, and arithmetic. The method should be
thoroughly adapted to the mental condition of the child, and modern edu-
cators are agreed in recognizing the importance of object teaching for the
first stages of a child's instruction. A novel mode of instruction, specially
intended as introductory to the regular primary school, is the kindergarten,
founded by Froebel. The astonishing rapidity with which it has spread
through all the countries of the civilized world, and found admission into
educational systems otherwise radically at variance, seems to prove it to be
a great improvement in elementary education. (See KINDERGARTEN.)

or
Boyhood or girlhood embraces the time from the 7th to the 14th year
of age. In the development of the body, this age is characterized
Boyhood by the appearance of the permanent teeth, by the completed
growth of the brain, and by the first consciousness of sexual
girlhood.
difference. Boys and girls long for the free and frequent exercise
of their muscular systems. At the beginning of this age, girls like to take
an active part in the plays of the boys; but they soon show a preference for
more quiet occupations and less publicity; while, on the other hand, boys
manifest an increased interest in noisy and wild sports. It is among the
prime duties of the educators of this age, to keep the development of the
natural desires and aspirations of the two sexes within the right channels.
The minds of boys and girls afford many proofs of independent thought
and activity. The company of adults is not sought for by them as eagerly
as before, but they feel entire satisfaction in the society of children of their
own age. They think, as yet, little of the realities of life and of their future
careers; but their plays give more evidence, than before, of plan, serious
thought, and perseverance, and generally indicate the faculties with which
they have been most strongly endowed; each child, in this way, foreboding
to some extent its future career. It is of great importance that the edu-
cator should not only understand the peculiar nature of this age in general,
but that he should thoroughly know the character of each individual; for
the faults which are peculiar to this age are best overcome in individual
cases, if the educator knows how to make the right kind of appeal to those
good qualities of his pupils which are most strongly developed. In arranging
a course of instruction for this age, it must be specially remembered that
the minds of boys and girls are predominantly receptive. The memory
readily receives and faithfully retains impressions; and this, therefore, is
the right time for learning a foreign language and geographical and histori-
cal facts. The independence of mind peculiar to this age shows itself at
the same time in the growth of imagination, which awakens in the boy a
lively interest in all that is great and extraordinary in history. On many

6
AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES
questions relating to the education proper for this age, educators still differ.
Prominent among these questions, are, whether the two sexes should be
educated separately or conjointly, to what extent the same course of instruc-
tion should be prescribed for both, whether special studies should be begun
at this age, or whether the entire course should be obligatory upon all the
children of a school.
The age of youth extends from the beginning of puberty to the coin-
plete development of sexuality, or from the fourteenth to
Youth.
about the twenty-first year of age. At this time the growth of
the body is completed; young men and women become aware of their
special duties of life and of the difference in the careers upon which they
are respectively to enter. The time of study is drawing to its close; the
entrance into active life is at hand. Among the lower classes of society,
this transition occurs at the beginning of this age; and the only increase of
knowledge that is accessible to inost persons of these classes must be de-
rived from evening schools, public lectures, and reading; while those of
the wealthier classes, and all who wish to fit themselves for any of the
learned professions, now enter upon the special studies of those professions,
or finish the general studies of the preceding age. Toward the close of
this period, if not earlier, the preparation for entering public life is com-
pleted, or an actual entrance into life begins.

It
AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES. It is only within the last four-
teen years that any general and systematic effort has been made
Congres in the United States to furnish facilities for acquiring a thorough
sional pro- scientific and practical education in agriculture. In 1862, Con-
visions. gress gave to the several states and territories land scrip to the
amount of 30,000 acres for each senator and representative, on the con-
dition that each state or territory, claiming the benefit of this act, should,
within five years from its passage, "provide not less than one college, which
should receive for its endowment, support, and maintenance the interest
of all moneys derived from the sale of the aforesaid scrip or lands.
was further required that "the leading object" of these colleges "should be,
without excluding other scientific and classical studies, and including mili-
tary tactics, to teach such branches of learning as are related to agriculture
and the mechanic arts, in order to promote the liberal and practical educa-
tion of the industrial classes, in the several pursuits and professions of life."
Up to 1865, the agricultural college of Lansing, Mich., was the only one in
the United States in which students could pursue a college course
founded. arranged and adapted to meet the wants of those who might de-
sire, in after years, to engage in agriculture. Since that time,
some colleges have been organized a large proportion of them from parts
of universities which are largely devoted "to teaching such branches of
learning as are related to agriculture and the mechanic arts." As a general
rule, no pains have been spared by these colleges to furnish all
Organiza- the facilities for pursuing a college course at the least possible ex-
equipment. pense. Manual labor is required in many of the colleges; in
others, it is optional. Students' labor is paid for at various rates.
Liberal state appropriations have been made, which have been largely ex-
pended in erecting buildings. The amount of private donations is very
large. The late Ezra Cornell gave $700,000 to the university that bears
Colleges
tion and
ALGEBRA
7
his name, and the total amount of private donations to this single insti-
tution is not less than $1,400,000, of which the colleges of agriculture and
the mechanic arts have received their due proportion. The equipment in-
cludes laboratories, workshops, etc., serving, directly or indirectly, to illus-
trate and teach all the subjects relating to agriculture, as follows: mechan-
ical laboratories or workshops, furnished with tools for working in iron and
wood, and sometimes with engines, planers, turning-lathes, drilling-machines,
saws, and other necessary but less expensive tools; physical laboratories,
most of them furnished with apparatus for illustrating the subjects of
mechanics, electricity, magnetism, heat, acoustics, and optics. Nearly all
these colleges have well equipped chemical laboratories; and several of
them furnish excellent facilities for instruction in chemistry. There are
also anatomical, geological, and botanical laboratories equipped for student
practice in these institutions, and several have greenhouses; also draft-
ing-rooms with the necessary tables and models for illustrating the sub-
jects taught. A large amount of practice in drawing is, moreover, re-
quired in several of the branches related to agriculture. Free - hand
drawing, also, has been to some extent introduced. Several colleges
have large collections of models of farm implements and machinery;
engravings, photographs, charts, and drawings; together with numerous
specimens of grains, grasses, and other plants; geological and mineralog-
ical specimens; collections of insects and skeletons of domestic and other
animals; all constituting what might be called an agricultural museum,
though usually kept in separate rooms for the sake of convenience. For
a fuller treatment of this subject, see Cyclopædia of Education.
ALGEBRA (Arab. al-jabr, reduction of parts to a whole). For a
general consideration of the purposes for which this study should be
pursued, and its proper place and relative proportion of time in the curric-
ulum, the reader is referred to the article MATHEMATICS. It is the pur-
pose of this article to indicate some of the principles to be kept in view,
and the methods to be pursued in teaching algebra.
Why it
should be
specially
studied.
The Literal Notation. While this notation is not peculiar to algebra,
but is the characteristic language of mathematics, the student usually en-
counters it for the first time when he enters upon this study. No
satisfactory progress can be made in any of the higher branches
of mathematics, as General Geometry, Calculus, Mechanics,
Astronomy, etc., without a good knowledge of the literal nota-
tion. By far the larger part of the difficulty which the ordinary
student finds in his study of algebra proper the science of the equation
and in his more advanced study of mathematics, grows out of an imper-
fect knowledge of the notation. These are facts well known to all ex-
perienced teachers. Nevertheless, it is no unfrequent thing to hear a teacher
say of a pupil: "He is quite good in algebra, but cannot get along very
well with literal examples!" Nothing could be more absurd. It comes
from mistaking the importance and fundamental character of this notation.
It is of the first importance that, at the outset, a clear conception be gained
of the nature of this notation, and that, in all the course, no method nor
language be used which will do violence to these principles. Thus, that the
letters a, b, x, y, etc., as used in mathematics, represent pure number, or
quantity, is to be amply illustrated in the first lessons, and care is to be
8
ALGEBRA

Illustra-
taken that no vicious conception insinuate itself. To say that, as 5 apples
and 6 apples make 11 apples, so 5a and 6a make lla, is to teach
error. If this comparison teaches any thing, it is that the letter
tions. a in 5a, 6a, and 11a, simply gives to the numbers 5, 6, and 11 a
concrete significance, as does the word apples in the first instance; but
this is erroneous. The true conception of the use of a, to represent a num-
ber, may be given in this way: As 5 times 7 and 6 times 7 make 11 times
7, so 5 times any number and 6 times the same number make 11 times
that number. Now, let a represent any number whatever; then 5 times
a and 6 times a make 11 times a. The two thoughts to be impressed are,
that the letter represents some number, and that it is immaterial what
number it is, so long as it represents the same number in all cases in the
same problem. Again, the genius of the literal notation requires that no
conception be taken of a letter as a representative of number, which is not
equally applicable to fractional and integral numbers. Thus
Application we may not say that a fraction which has a numerator a and a
to fractions.
denominator b, represents a of the b equal parts of a quantity,
or number, as we affirm that represents 3 of the 4 equal parts; for this
conception of a fraction requires that the denominator be integral; other-
wise, if b represent a mixed number, as 43, we have the absurdity of
attempting to conceive a quantity as divided into 4 equal parts. The only
conception of a fraction, sufficiently broad to comport with the nature of
the literal notation, is that it is an indicated operation in division; and
all operations in fractions should be demonstrated from this definition.
3
So also to read xm "x to the mth power", when m is not necessarily an
integer, is to violate this fundamental characteristic of the notation. In
like manner, to use the expressions greatest common divisor and
Other least common multiple, when literal quantities are under con-
expressions. sideration, is an absurdity, and moreover fails to give any indi-
cation of the idea which should be conveyed. For example, we cannot
affirm that 2ax²-2bxy is the greatest common divisor of 2a³x¹ — 2a²bx³y
+2ab²x²y²-2b³xy³ and 4ab'x³y 2—2ab³x³y³ — 2b¹xy¹; since ax—
ax—by is a
divisor of these polynomials, and whether 2ax²-2bxy is greater or less
than ax-by cannot be affirmed unless the relative values of the letters
are known.
To illustrate, 2ax² - 2bxy=2x (ax-by). Now suppose
a=500, b=10, y = 2, and x=; then ax ·by = 30, and 2ax² — 2bxy
=6. Moreover, it is not a question as to the value of the divisor that is
involved; it is a question as to the degree. Hence, what we wish to
affirm is that 2ax²-2bxy is the highest common divisor of these poly-
nomials, with respect to x.
Literal
notations.
In order that the pupil may get an adequate conception of the nature
of the literal notation, it is well to keep prominently before his mind the
fact that the fundamental operations of addition, subtraction,
and Arabic multiplication, and division, whether of integers or fractions,
the various transformations and reductions of fractions, as well
as involution and evolution, are exactly the same as the corre-
sponding ones with which he is already familiar in arithmetic, except as
they are modified by the difference between the literal and the Arabic no-
tations. Thus, the pupil will be led to observe that the orders of the
Arabic notation are analogous to the terms of a polynomial in the literal

ALGEBRA
9
notation, and that the process of "carrying" in the Arabic addition, etc.,
has no analogue in the literal, simply because there is no established rela-
tion between the terms in the latter. Again, he will see that, in both cases,
addition is the process of combining several quantities, so that the result
shall express the aggregate value in the fewest terms consistent with the
notation. This being the conception of addition, he will see that for the
same reason that we say, in the Arabic notation, that the sum of 8 and 7
is 5 and 10 (fif-teen), instead of 8 and 7, we say, in the literal notation,
that the sum of 5ax and 6ax is 1lax. In fact, it is quite conceivable that
the pupil, who understands the common or Arabic arithmetic, can master
the literal arithmetic for himself, after he has fairly learned the laws of the
new notation.
Positive and Negative. Although the signs and even as indi-
cating the affections positive and negative, are not confined to the literal
How to
illustrate
the
notation.
notation, the pupil first comes to their regular use in this connec-
tion, and finds this new element of the notation one of his most
vexatious stumbling-blocks. Thus, that the sum of 5ay and
2ay should be 3ay, and their difference 7ay, and that "minus
multiplied by minus should give plus," as we are wont to say,
often seems absurd to the learner. Yet even here he may be taught to find
analogies in the teachings of the common arithmetic, which will at least
partially remove the difficulty. When he comes to understand, that attrib-
uting to numbers the affection positive or negative gives to them a sort
of concrete significance, and allies them in some sort to denominate numbers,
he may at least see, that 5ay and 2ay do not necessarily make 7ay; for, if
one were feet and the other yards, the sum would not be 7ay of either. If,
then, he comes to understand that the fundamental idea of this notation
is, that the terms positive and negative indicate simply such opposition in
kind, in the numbers to which they are applied, as makes one tend to
destroy or counterbalance the other, he is prepared to see that the sum of
5ay and
2ay is 3ay; since, when put together, the 2ay, by its oppo-
sition of nature, destroys 2ay of the 5ay. The ordinary illustrations in
which forces acting in opposite directions, motion in opposite directions,
amounts of property and of debts, etc., are characterized as positive and
negative, are helpful, if made to set in clearer light the fact, that this
distinction is simply in regard to the way in which the numbers are applied,
and not really in regard to the numbers themselves.
cation.
So, also, in multiplication, the three principles, (1) that the product is
like the multiplicand; (2) that a multiplier must be conceived as essentially
abstract when the operation is performed; and (3) that the sign
How applied of the multiplier shows what is to be done with the product
in multipli- when obtained, remove all the difficulty, and make it seem no
more absurd that "minus multiplied by minus gives plus," than
that "plus multiplied by plus gives plus": in fact, exactly the same course
of argument is required to establish the one conclusion as to establish the
other. When we analyze the operation which we call multiplying + a by
+ b, we say "+ a taken b times gives + ab. Now the sign + before the
multiplier indicates that the product is to be taken additively, that is,
united to other quantities by its own sign." So when we multiply -a by
– b, we say "a multiplied by b (a mere number) gives — ab (a product
10
ALGEBRA
like the multiplicand). But the sign before the multiplier indicates
that this product is to be taken subtractively, i. e. united with other quan-
tities by a sign opposite to its own." This, however, is not the place to
develop the theory of positive and negative quantities; our only purpose
here is to show that the whole grows out of a kind of concrete or denomi-
nate significance which is thus put upon the numbers, and which bears
some analogy to familiar principles of common arithmetic.
Exponents. One other feature of the mathematical notation comes
into prominence now for the first time, and needs to be clearly compre-
hended: it is the theory of exponents. Here, as well as elsewhere,
Special it is important to guard against false impressions at the start.
difficulties The idea that an exponent indicates a power is often so fixed
pointed out.
in the pupil's mind at first, that he never afterwards rids himself
of the impression. To avoid this, it is well to have the pupil learn at the
outset that not all exponents indicate the same thing; thus, while some
indicate powers, others indicate roots, others roots of powers, and others
still the reciprocals of the latter. Too much pains can scarcely be taken to
strip this matter of all obscurity, and allow no fog to gather around it.
Nothing in algebra gives the young learner so much difficulty as radicals,
and all because he is not thoroughly taught the notation. Perhaps, but
few, even of those who have attained considerable proficiency in inathe-
matics, have really set clearly before their own minds the fact that used
as an exponent is not a fraction. in the same sense as in its ordinary use;
and hence that the demonstration that, as given concerning common
fractions, by no means proves that the exponent equals the exponent.
Other principles bearing on this important subject will be developed under
the following head.
to be
addressed.
Methods of Demonstration. It requires no argument to convince any
one that, in establishing the working features, if we may so speak, of a
science, it is important that they be exhibited as direct out-
Elementary growths of fundamental notions. Thus, in giving a child his first
conceptions conception of a common fraction, no intelligent teacher would
use the conception of a fraction as an indicated operation in di-
vision, and attempt to build up the theory of common fractions on
that notion. It may be elegant and logical, and when we come to the literal
notation it is essential; but it is not sufficiently radical for the tyro. It is
not natural, but scientific rather. So in the literal notation, the proposition
that the product of the square roots of two numbers is equal to the square
root of their product, may be demonstrated thus: Let √a X √b=p,
whence ab = p²; and, extracting the square root of each member we have
✓ab=p. Hence √n × √b = √ab. Now, this is concise and mathe-
matically elegant; but it gives the pupil no insight whatever into "the
reason why. What is needed here is, that the pupil be enabled to see
that this proposition grows out of the nature of a square root as one of the
two equal factors of a number; i. e., he needs to see its connection with
fundamental conceptions. Thus ab means that the product ab is to be
resolved into two equal factors, and that one of them is to be taken. Now,
if we resolve a into two equal factors, as ✓a and ✓a, and b into two equal
factors, as ✓b and b, ab will be resolved into four factors which can be
arranged in two equal groups, thus a √bXva b. Hence ✓a ✓b is
ALGEBRA
11
the square root of ab because it is one of the two equal factors into which
ab can be conceived to be resolved. In this manner, all operations in radi-
cals may be seen to be based upon the most elementary principles of factor-
ing. Again, as another illustration of this vicious use of the equation in
demonstrating elementary theorems, let us consider the common theorems
concerning the transformations of a proportion. As usually demonstrated,
by transforming the proportion into an equation, and vice versa, the real
reason why the proposed transformation does not vitiate the proportion,
is not brought to light at all. For example, suppose we are to prove that,
If four quantities are in proportion, they are in proportion by composition,
i. e., if a : b::c:d, then a: a+b::c:c+d. The common method is
to pass from the given proportion to the equation bc=ad, then add ac to
each member, obtaining c + bc: = acad, or c (a + b)
(a+b) =a (c+d), and
then to transform this equation into the proportion a: a+b::c:c+d.
No doubt, this is concise and elegant, but the real reason why the trans-
formation does not destroy the proportion, viz., that both ratios have been
divided by the sime number, is not even suggested by this demonstration.
On the other hand, let the following demonstration be used, and the
pupil not only sees exactly why the transformation does not destroy the
proportion, but at every step has his attention held closely to the fun-
damental characteristics of a proportion. Let the ratio ab be r; hence
as a proportion is an equality of ratios, the ratio cd is r; and we
have abr, and cd=r, or a=br, and c=dr. Substituting
these values of a and c in the terms of the proportion which are
changed by the transformation, we have a+b=br+b, or b (r+1),
and c+d=dr + d, or d (r+1); whence we see that a:a+b::c:c+d
is deduced from a:b::c:d by multiplying both consequents by r+1
(the ratio +1), which does not destroy the equality of the ratios con-
stituting the proportion, since it divides both by the same number.
Moreover, this method of substituting for the antecedent of each ratio
the consequent multiplied by the ratio, enables us to demonstrate all
propositions concerning the transformation of a proportion by one uni-
form method, which method in all cases clearly reveals the reason why
the proportion is not destroyed.

Special
value
of this
method.
This choice of a line of argument which shall be applic›ble to
an entire class of propositions is of no slight importance in con-
structing a mathematical course. It enables a student to learn
with greater facility and satisfaction the demonstrations, and
fixes them more firmly in his memory; while it also gives
broader and more scientific views of truth, by thus classifying, and bring-
ing into one line of thought, numerous truths which would otherwise be
seen only as so many isolated facts.
Range of Topics to be Embraced. We may distinguish three if-
ferent classes of pupils, who require as many different courses in this
study. First, there is a very large number of our youth who, if
Wants of in the city, never pass beyond the grammar school, or, if in the
diferent
pupils. country, never have any other school advantages than those fur-
nished by the common or rural district school. Nevertheless,
many of these will receive much greater profit from spending half a year,
or a year, in obtaining a knowledge of the elements of algebra (and even
12
ALGEBRA
of geometry) than they usually do in studying arithmetic. (See ARITH-
METIC.) For this class the proper range of topics is: a clear exposition of
the nature of the literal notation; the fundamental rules, and fractions,
involving only the simpler forms of expression, and excluding such abstruse
subjects as the more difficult theorems on factoring, the theory of lowest
common multiple and highest common divisor; simple equations involving
one, two, and three unknown quantities; ratio and proportion; an ele-
mentary treatment of the subject of radicals with special attention given
to their nature as growing out of the simplest principles of factoring; pure
and affected quadratics involving one or two unknown quantities. The
second class comprises what may be called high school pupils. For this
grade the range of topics need not be much widened, but the study of
each should be extended and deepened. This will be the case especially
as regards the theory of exponents, positive and negative quantities, rad-
icals, equations involving radicals, and simultaneous equations, especially
those of the second degree. To this should be added the arithmetical and
geometrical progressions, a practical knowledge of the binomial formula,
and logarithms, and a somewhat extended treatment of the application of
algebra to the business rules of arithmetic. A wide acquaintance
What with the results attained in our high schools in all parts of the
omitted. country, and an observation extending over more than twenty
years, satisfy the writer that time spent in these schools in
attempts to master the theory of indeterminate co-efficients, the demonstra-
tion of the binomial and logarithmic formulas, or upon the higher equa-
tions, series, etc., is, if not a total loss, at least an absorption of time which
might be much more profitably employed on other subjects, such as, for
example, history, literature, or the elements of the natural sciences. The
course taken by such pupils gives them no occasion to use any of these
principles of the higher algebra; and the mastery of them which they can
attain in any reasonable amount of time is quite too imperfect to subserve
the ends of good mental discipline. This second course is entirely adequate
to fit a student for admission into any American college or university. The
third course is what we may call the college course.




should be
>
Class-Room Work. It is probably unnecessary to say, that a careful
and thorough study of text-books should be the foundation of our class-
room work on this subject; nevertheless, so much is said, at the
Utility of
text-books. present time, in disparagement of "hearing recitations" instead
of "teaching," that it may be well to remark that, if our schools
succeed in inspiring their pupils with a love of books, and in teaching how
to use them, they accomplish in this a greater good than even in the mere
knowledge which they may impart. Books are the great store-house of
knowledge, and he who has the habit of using them intelligently has the
key to all human knowledge. But it is not to be denied, that there is an
important service to be rendered by the living teacher, albeit that service,
especially in this department, is not formal lecturing on the principles of
the science. With younger pupils, the true teacher will often preface a
subject with a familiar talk designed to prepare them for an in-
Examples telligent study of the lesson to be assigned, to awaken an interest
in it, or to enable them to surmount some particular difficulty.
For example, suppose a class of young pupils are to have their


of oral
lessons.
ALGEBRA
13
first lesson in subtraction in algebra; a preliminary talk like the following
will be exceedingly helpful, perhaps necessary, to an intelligent preparation
of the lesson. Observe that, in order to benefit the class, the teacher must
confine his illustrations rigidly to the essential points on which the lesson is
based. In this case these are (1) Adding a negative quantity destroys an
equal positive quantity; (2) Adding a positive quantity destroys an equal
negative quantity; (3) As the minuend is the sum of the subtrahend and
remainder, if the subtrahend is destroyed from out the minuend, the re-
mainder is left. Now, in what order shall these three principles be pre-
sented? Doubtless the scientific order is that just given; but, in such an
introduction to the subject as we are considering, it may be best to present
the 3d first; since this is a truth already familiar, and hence affords a con-
necting link with previous knowledge. Moreover, this being already before
the mind as a statement of what is to be done, the 1st and 2d will follow
in a natural order as an answer to the question how the purpose is ac-
complished. To present the 3d principle, the teacher may place on the
blackboard some simple example in subtraction as:
125 He will then question the class thus: What is the 125 called?
What the 74? What the 51? How much more than 74 is 125?
If we add 74 and 25, what is the sum? Of what then is the minuend
composed? What is 51 +74? If we destroy the 74, what remains? If
in any case we can destroy the subtrahend from out the minuend, what
will remain? Having brought this idea clearly before the mind, the teacher
will proceed to the 1st principle. If 3ab be added to 7ab how much of
the Tab will it destroy? (Here again we proceed from a fundamental con-
ception the nature of quantities as positive and negative, thus deducing
the new from the old.) Repeat such illustrations of this principle as may
have been given in addition. If several boys are urging a sled forward by
Tab pounds, and the strength of another boy amounting to 3ab pounds is
added, but exerted in an opposite direction, what now is the sum of their
efforts? What kind of a quantity do we call the 3ab? [Negative.] Why?
How much of the + 7ab does 3ab destroy when we add it? If then we
wish to destroy + 3ab from + 7ab, how may we do it? Proceeding then
to the 2d principle, it may be asked, how much is 6ay - 2ay? If now we
add +2ay to бay 2ay, which is 4ay, what does it become? What does
the + 2ay destroy? What then is the effect of adding a positive quantity?
Such introductory elucidations should always be held closely to the plan of
development which the pupil is to study, and should be made to
Teacher andthrow light upon it. It is a common and very pernicious thing
text-book for teachers to attempt to teach in one line of development,
to agree.
while the text-book in the pupil's hands gives quite another. In
most cases of this kind, either the teacher's effort or the text-book is useless,
or probably worse they tend to confuse each other. Such teaching
should culminate in the very language of the text; and it is desirable that
this language be read from the book by the pupil, as the conclusion of the
teaching. Moreover, there is great danger of overdoing this kind of work.
Whenever it is practicable, the pupil should be required to pre-
pare his lesson from the book. A competent teacher will find
sufficient opportunity for "teaching" after the pupils have gath-
ered all they can from the book. Another important service to be rendered


Special
hints.
14
ALGEBRA
by the living teacher is to emphasize central truths, and hold the pupils to
a constant review of them. So also it is his duty to keep in prominence
the outlines of the subject, that the pupil may always know just where he
is at work and in what relation to other parts of the subject that which he
is studying stands. All definitions, statements of principles, and theorems
should be thoroughly memorized by the pupil and recited again and again.
In entering upon a new subject, as soon as these can be intelligently learn-
ed, they should be recited in a most careful and formal manner; and, in
connection with subsequent demonstrations and solutions, they should be
called up and repeated. Thus, suppose a high school class entering upon
the subject of equations. Such a class may be supposed to be able to grasp
the meaning of the definitions without preliminary aid from the teacher,
save in special cases. The first lesson will probably contain a dozen or
more definitions, with a preposition or two; and the first work should be
the recitation of these by the pupils individually, without any questions
or suggestions from the teacher. Illustrations should also be required of
the pupils; but neither illustrations nor demonstrations should be memo-
rized, although great care should be taken to secure a good style of expres-
sion, modeled on that of the text. To this first recitation on a new sub-
ject all the class should give the strictest attention; and every point in it
should be brought out, at least once in the hearing of every pupil. In the
course of subsequent recitations in the same general subject, individuals
will be questioned on the principles thus developed. For example, what
algebra is will have been brought clearly to view in this first recitation
but when a pupil has stated and solved some problem, and has given his
explanation of the solution from the blackboard, the teacher my ask, Why
do you say you have solved this problem by algebra? The answer will be,
Because I have used the equation as an instrument with which to effect the
solution. Can you solve this problem without the use of an equation?
What do you call such a solution? What is algebra? Again, suppose the
solution has involved the reduction of such an equation as the following:
2.c — † — § (3.x − 1) + § (x + 1). In the first place the pupil will solve
the example and give a good logical account of the solution; but the
teacher will make it the occasion for reviewing certain definitions and
principles with this particular student, in such a practical connection.
Thus he will ask, What is your first equation? What is your last? [x=2.]
Do you look upon these as one and the same equation, or as different
cquations? In how many different forms have you written your given
equation? What general term do you apply to these processes of chang-
ing the form of an equation? What is transformation? Similarly, every
principle and definition will be reviewed again and again in such practical
connections. But mere statements of processes should not be allowed to
pass for expositions of principles. To illustrate, the pupil has placed the
following work upon the board:

·
7x² 28x+14=238
7x²
x²
28x=224
x² 4x 32
\x
X
4x+4=36
6
x = 2 + 6 =8, or — 4.
;
ALGEBRA
15
He is then called upon to explain his work. Something like the
following is what we hear in the majority of our best schools:
"Given 7x 28x+14=238, to find the value of x.
"Transposing, I have 7²
"Dividing by 7,
x²
"Completing the square, x²
28x 224.
4x=32.
4x+4=36.
"Extracting the square root, x .2 + 6.
"Transposing,
x = 2 6
± 8, and 4."
And the pupil turns to his instructor in the full consciousness of
duty nobly done. The fact is, all that he has said is useless, nay, worse
than useless. He has simply intimated what processes he has performed.
That he could solve the problem was sufficiently apparent from his work.
There was no need that he should tell us what he had done, when he had
performed the work before our eyes. What is wanted is a clear and
orderly exposition of the reason why he takes every step. This involves
two points, since he is to show (1) that the step taken tends to the desired
end, that is, the freeing of the unknown quantity from its connections
with known quantities so as finally to make it stand alone as one member
of the equation; and (2) that the step does not destroy the equation.*)
Something like the following should be the style of explanation: "Given
7.x²—28.x + 14=238, to find the value of x. In order to do this, I wish so
to transform the equation that, in the end, x shall stand alone, constitut-
ing one member of the equation, while a known quantity constitutes the
other member. Hence I transpose the known quantity 14 to the second
member. This I do by subtracting 14 from each member, which may be
done without destroying the equation (or the equality of the members)
since, if the same quantity be subtracted from equals, the remainders are
equal. I thus obtain 7.x 28.x 224. I now observe that the first
term of the first member contains the square of x, while the second
contains the first power. I wish to obtain an equation which shall
contain only the first power of x. In order to do this, I make the first
term a perfect power by dividing each member of the equation by 7,
which does not destroy the equality, since equals divided by equals give
equal quotients, and I have x' 4.c = 32. Now, observing that
x-4x constitutes the first two terms of the square of a binomial of which
the square of half the co-efficient of x, or 4, is the third term, I add 4 to
this member to make it a complete square, and also add 4 to the second
member to preserve the equality of the members, and have —4x+4=36.
Extracting the square root of x²-4c+4, I have x-2, an expression which
contains only the first power of x; but to preserve the equality, I also
extract the square root of the second member, obtaining x-2= +6. Fi-
nally, transposing -2 to the second member by adding 2 to each member,
which does not destroy the equation, I have x=8, or 4." If it is de-
sired to abbreviate the explanation, it is far better to make it simply an
outline of the reasons, than a mere statement of the process.
In this case,
an outline of the reasons may be given thus: The object is to disengage x
*) "Destroy the value of the equation," is an absurd expression which we frequently
hear. An equation is not a quantity, and hence has no value. The equality of the
members is meant.
16
ALGEBRA ALPHABET
-
66
from its connections with the other quantities so that it shall stand
alone, constituting one member while the other member is a known
quantity. The first process is based upon the principle that equals
subtracted from equals leave equal remainders, the second, upon the
principle that equals divided by equals give equal quotients," etc. Again,
while it is admissible, when the purpose is to fix attention upon any
particular transformation, to omit the reasons for some of those pre-
viously studied, it is far better that these be omitted pro forma than that
something which is not an exposition of reasons be given. Thus, if the
present purpose is to secure drill in the theory of completing the square,
after having enunciated the problem, the pupil may say: Having re-
duced the equation to the form x²- 4.x 32," etc., proceeding then to
give in full the explanation of the process under consideration. "But it is
well to allow no recitation on such a subject to pass without having at
least one full explanation. These remarks apply to study and recitations
designed to give intelligent facility in reducing equations. In what may
be called "Applications of equations to the solution of practical problems,
the purpose is quite different, and so should be the pupil's explanation.
In these, the statement is the important thing, and should be made the
main thing in the explanation. In most such cases, it will be quite
sufficient, if, after having given the reasons for each step in the statement,
thus fully explaining the principles on which he has made the equation,
the pupil conclude by saying simply: "Solving this equation, I have,"
etc. Outlines of demonstrations and synopses of topics are exceedingly
valuable as class exercises. For example, it requires a far better knowl-
edge of the demonstration of Sturm's theorem to be able to give the fol-
lowing outline than to give the whole in detail: (1) No change in the
variable which does not cause some one of the functions to vanish, can
cause any change in the number of variations and permanences of the
signs of the functions; (2) No two consecutive functions can vanish
for the same value of the variable; (3) The vanishing of an inter-
mediate function cannot cause a change in the number of variations and
permanences; and (4) The last function cannot vanish for any value of
the variable; and, as the first vanishes every time the value of the
variable passes through a root of the equation, it by so doing causes a loss
of one, and only one, variation. We, therefore, have the theorem [giving
the theorem]. Finally, no subject should be considered as mastered by the
pupil until he can place upon the blackboard a synoptical
Blackboard analysis of it, and discuss each point, either in detail or in out-
analysis.
line, without any questioning or prompting by the teacher.
The order of arrangement of topics, i. e., the sequence of definitions,
principles, theorems, etc., is as much a part of the subject considered
scientifically as are the detailed facts; and the former should be as firmly
fixed in the mind as the latter.
ALMA MATER (Lat., fostering mother) is a name affectionately
given by students of colleges and universities to the institution to which
they owe their education.
ALPHABET. The alphabet of any language is the series of letters,
arranged in the customary order, which form the elements of the
language when written. It derives its name from the first two letters of

ALPHABET
17
the Greek alphabet, which are named alpha, beta. The letters in the English
alphabet have the same forms as those of the Latin language, which were
borrowed from the Greek. The Latin alphabet, however, did not
Alphabets contain all the Greek letters. The letters of the Greek alphabet
compared.
were borrowed from the Phoenician, which was that used by
many of the old Semitic nations, and is of unknown origin. It consisted of
22 signs, representing consonantal sounds. Into this alphabet the Greeks
introduced many modifications, and the changes made by the Romans were
also considerable. Its use in English presents many variations from its
final condition in the Latin language. Thus, I and J, and U and V, in-
stead of being merely graphic variations, were changed so as to represent
different sounds, during the 16th and 17th centuries. W was added
previously, in the middle ages. The twenty-six letters of our alphabet have
been thus classified with regard to their history: (1) B, D, H, K, L, M, N,
P, Q, R, S, T, letters from the Phoenicians; (2) A, E, I, O, Z, originally
Phoenician, but changed by the Greeks; (3) U (same as V), X, invented
by the Greeks; (4) C, F, Phoenician letters with changed value; (5) G, of
Latin invention; (6) Y, introduced into Latin from the Greek, with changed
form; (7) J, V, graphic Latin forms raised to independent letters; (8) W,
a recent addition, formed by doubling U (or V), whence its name.
The imperfections of the English alphabet are manifold: (1) Different
consonants are used to represent the same sound; as c (soft) and s, g (soft)
and j, c (hard) and k, q and k, x and ks. (2) Different sounds
English are expressed by the same letter; as c in cat and cell, g in get
Alphabet
imperfect. and gin, s in sit and as, ƒ in if and of, etc. (3) The vowels are
constantly interchanged, as is illustrated in the following table
of the vowel elements of the language and their literal representations,
the diacritical marks used being those of Webster's Dictionary.

ΦΚΟ
Long.
as in ape, they
66 46 care, ere
66
".
".
66
ý
66
" art
"all, orb
66
eve, pïque
α
"what, not
୪
66
Short.
as in end
"hat
"ask
୪
"6
66
"git
? u oo
66
"wolf, put, book
" love, luck
! u oo".
й
ů
i y
oi oy
ou ow
"
her, sir, myrrh
"old
"do, rule, too
66 urn
66 64 use
""
"
" ice, my
" oil, boy
"out, owl
From this table it will be seen that the letter a is used to represent
seven different sounds; e, five sounds; o, six sounds, etc. (See PHONETICS.)
The names given to the letters are not in conformity with a uniform prin-
ciple of designation. Thus, the names of b, c, d, g, p, t, v, and z are be, ce,
de, ge, etc.; while the names of ƒ, l, m, n, s, and x are ef, el, em, en, etc.;
and the names of j, k, are ja, ka. The heterogeneity of these names and
of their construction will be obvious. It is important that the teacher
should take cognizance of these incongruities in giving elementary instruc-
tion, as they dictate special methods of presentation. (See ALPHABET
METHOD.)
18
ALPHABET METHOD
ALPHABET METHOD, or A-B-C Method. This has reference
to the first steps in teaching children to read. According to this method,
the pupil must learn the names of all the letters of the alphabet,
Method
either from an A-B-C book, from curds, or from the blackboard;
described.
that is, he must be taught to recognize the various forms of
the letters, and to associate with them their respective names. The method
of doing this, once very general, was to supply the pupils with books, and
then, calling up each one singly, to point to the letters, one after the other,
and to pronounce the name of each, so as to associate arbitrarily the form
with the name; or, in simultaneous class instruction, to exhibit the letters
on separate cards, and teach their names by simple repetition. This pro-
cess must, of course, be not only long and tedious, but exceedingly dry and
uninteresting to a child, since it affords no incentive to mental activity,
no food for intelligence. By a careful selection and discrimination, how-
ever, in presenting the letters to the attention of the child, its intelligence
may be addressed in teaching the alphabet by this method. The simple
forms, such as I, O, X, S, will be remembered much more readily than the
others; and these being learned, the remainder may be taught by showing
the analogy or similarity of their forms with the others. Thus Ŏ becomes
C when a portion of it is erased; one half of it with I, used as a bar, forms
D; two smaller D's form B; and so on. This method is very simple, and
may be made quite interesting by means of the blackboard.

Com-
parison
of letters.
The letters which closely resemble each other in form, such as A and
V, M and N, E and F, and C and G, among capitals, and b and d, c and
e, p and q, and n and u, among small letters, should be presented
together, so that their minute differences may be discerned.
When the blackboard is used (as it should always be in teaching
classes), the letters may be constructed before the pupils, so that
they may perceive the elements of which they are composed. Thus the
children will at once notice that b, d, p, q, are composed of the same ele-
ments, differently combined, a straight stroke, or stem, and a small
curve. By an appropriate drill, the peculiar forms, with the name of each.
will then be soon impressed upon the pupils' minds; and, besides that, their
sense of analogy, one of the most active principles of a child's mind, will be
addressed, and this will render the instruction lively and interesting.
In
carrying out this plan, the teacher may use the blackboard, and
Apparatus. as a review, or for practice, require the children to copy,
and afterwards draw, from memory, on the slate, the letters taught.
Cards may also be used, a separate one being employed for each letter.
With a suitable frame in which to set them, these may be used with good
advantage, the teacher making, and the children also being required to
make, various combinations of the letters so as to form short and familiar
words. A horizontal wooden bar with a handle, and a groove on the upper
edge in which to insert the cards, forms a very useful piece of apparatus
for this purpose. Letter-Blocks may also be used in a similar manner by
both teacher and pupils. These blocks are sometimes cut into sections so
as to divide the letter into several parts, and the pupil is required to adjust
the parts so as to form the letter. This method affords both instruction
and amusement to young children, and at the same time, gives play to
their natural impulse to activity. These various methods will be combined

ALUMNEUM — ANALYSIS
19
and others devised by every ingenious teacher. In some schools a piece of
apparatus, called the reading frame, is used. This is constructed like a
blackboard with horizontal grooves, in which the letters can be placed so as
to slide along to any required position. By the use of assorted letters, the
teacher can construct any word or sentence, building it up letter by letter,
as types are set. Many interesting exercises in reading and spelling may
be given by means of such an apparatus, the children being required to
construct words and sentences themselves, as well as to read those formed
by the teacher. The A-B-C method of teaching the elements of reading
has now, quite generally, been superseded by the word method. Bain, in
Education as a Science (1881), remarks in relation to this method: “Much
stress is now laid by teachers on the point of beginning to pronounce short
words at sight, without spelling then; and a strong condemnation is uttered
against the old spelling method. The difference between the methods is not
very apparent to me; after a few preliminary steps, the two must come to
the same thing." (See ORTHOGRAPHY, and PHONETICS.)
ALUMNEUM, or Alumnat (Lat., from alere, to feed, to nourish),
the name given in Germany to an institution of learning which affords to
its pupils board, lodging, and instruction. The first institutions of thig
kind arose in the middle ages in connection with the convents. Among
the most celebrated are those founded by Maurice of Saxony, in the 16th
century, at Pforta, Meissen, and Grimma. When the pupils were received
and instructed gratuitously, they were expected to perform various services
for the school and church, such as singing in the choir. The pupils of these
schools were called alumni. (See ALUMNUS.)
ALUMNUS, pl. Alumni` (Lat., from alere, to feed, to nourish) origin-
ally the name of a student who was supported and educated at the expense
of a learned institution (see ALUMNEUM), now generally applied to a gradu-
ate of a college or similar institution. The graduates of higher seminaries
or colleges for females are sometimes called alumnæ.
ANALYSIS, Grammatical, or Sentential.
By the analysis of
a sentence is meant a decomposition of it into its logical elements. Every
sentence must either be a single proposition, or be composed of
Erplanation
propositions more or less intimately related; and every proposi-
of the
tion must contain a subject and a predicate, the former express-
analysis. ing that of which we speak, and the latter, what we say of it.
The entire or logical subject must contain a noun or pronoun, either alone
or with related words called modifiers or adjuncts, or it may be a phrase
or a clause. The entire or logical predicate, in the same manner, must con-
sist of a verb with or without adjuncts. These constitute all the parts.
and all the relations, involved in the construction of a sentence. A few
words, such as interjections. may be used independently of them. Grammar
has been defined as the "art of speaking and writing correctly," or as the
"practical science which teaches the right use of language"; and for general
purposes this account is, perhaps, sufficiently explicit. It does not, how-
ever, truly distinguish grammar from the other arts concerned in teaching
the "right use of language," and hence does not correctly point out its pe-
culiar province. From a want of precision in defining the limitations of
any art or science, there must necessarily follow a corresponding inaccuracy
and looseness in its treatment; since, before we can reason properly as to
20
ANALYSIS
the best methods of attaining any object, we must clearly conceive what
that object is, and carefully distinguish it from all others.
The special province of grammar does not extend beyond the construc-
tion of sentences; but it is quite obvious that to use language correctly,
those principles and rules must be understood which underlie
Province of the proper method of combining sentences so that they may
grammar. constitute elegant and logical discourse. A person may be suffi-
ciently familiar with grammatical rules to construct sentences with perfect
correctness, but may so arrange them as to express only nonsense; and
such a person could scarcely be considered as understanding the "right use
of language." The sentence being the peculiar province of grammar, it
follows that the only subjects of investigation embraced within it are
words, their orthography, inflectional forms, and pronunciation, and their
arrangement in sentences. All grammatical definitions and rules are
founded upon the relations of the parts of a sentence to each other; and,
therefore, these relations should be first taught. It is with reference to
these relations, that words are classified into parts of speech, or, as they
might properly be called, parts of the sentence. To define or explain these
parts of speech before giving any definition of a sentence, is, therefore,
clearly illogical; yet this has been the method of many grammarians, words
being explained and parsed as if they had only individual properties. It is
in this that the distinction between parsing and grammatical analysis con-
sists. Both are, in fact, only different kinds of analysis, and are based on
precisely the same relations, those in which the words stand to each
other as parts of a sentence.
Parsing
and
analysis.
Parsing, as uniformly employed by grammarians, is a
minute examination of the individual words of a sentence,
with the view to determine whether the rules of grammar, proper
to the particular language in which the sentence is written, have
been observed or violated. Analysis, on the other hand, deals with the
relations upon which those rules are based, and which are common to all
languages. Thus, in parsing, the pupil is obliged to scrutinize all the in-
flectional forms in which the words composing the sentence are used; and,
in order to determine whether they are proper or not, must not only know
the rules of syntax, but the relations of the words to each other, so as to
be able to apply those rules. The relations are invariable in all languages,
but the rules which refer to the inflections are founded on particular usage,
and hence are in no two languages exactly alike. On this account, since
the general logically precedes the special, the treatment of sentential anal-
ysis should precede any exercises in parsing. Otherwise, how, for example,
could a pupil be required to distinguish the cases of nouns and pronouns,
and the person and number of verbs, before being taught the relations of
the words to each other?
By means of the analytical method, when rightly applied,
Advantages the study of grammar is made clear, logical, and easy from
of the
the very beginning. The pupil is first taught the nature of
analytical
method. the sentence, its essential parts, and their relations to each
other, and is shown how to analyze sentences of a simple
character. He is troubled with but little phraseology; for all the terms
that are essential to the complete distinction and designation of the parts
ANALYSIS
21
The real
elements
of a
sentence.
of a sentence are subject, verb or predicate, object, attribute, and adjuncts.
These being defined, and the pupil taught how to distinguish them, a com-
plete foundation has been laid for the intelligent study of all other gram-
matical terms and distinctions; and this being the foundation, should, of
course, be the first thing done. Those who oppose the analytical
method assert that words are the real elements of a sentence,
and that any consideration of these involves, therefore, an ex-
haustive analysis of the sentence itself. With the same pro-
priety might it be said that pieces of iron of various shapes are
the elements of the steam-engine. They indeed compose the machine, and
it can ultimately be resolved into them; but could its structure and work-
ings be explained by taking these fragments of metal in a hap-hazard way,
and noticing how they are related to others in immediate juxtaposition,
without regard to the general structure of the machine, and the dependence
of its operation upon a few elementary or primary parts, as the cylinder,
piston, condenser, etc.? Words are not necessarily the real elements of a
sentence. These are the subject and predicate and their adjuncts; and,
unless these component parts of the general structure be first observed, the
relations of the separate words cannot be understood. Hence, we find that
those writers who have ignored a definite consideration of these logical
elements, have fallen into many errors and inconsistencies.
The various systems of analysis in use differ in no essen-
Different tial respect, the chief variation being in the nomenclature
systems. employed to designate the elements of the sentence. The
name generally applied to a proposition forming a part of a sentence is a
clause, and any group of related words not making a proposition is called
a phrase. The modifying elements are by some called adjective or ad-
verbial, according as they perform the functions of adjectives or adverbs.
Instead of the term adjective, adnominal is sometimes employed. The
term adjunct is generally employed to designate an element subordinate to
either subject or predicate. Such adjuncts may be modifying, descriptive,
or appositional. A modifying adjunct changes the meaning of the element
to which it is applied, generally, by making it more specific, or by restrict-
ing the class to which it belongs. Thus animal is a more general term
than four-footed animal; hence, four-footed is a modifying adjunct. But
the term man is no more general than man that is born of a woman, or
mortal man; the adjuncts, that is born of a woman and mortal being only
descriptive, not modifying. Appositional adjuncts only explain; as: He,
the chieftain of them all, in which the phrase, the chieftain, etc., is only ex-
planatory, or appositional. Adjuncts may be single words, phrases, or
clauses; and one of the chief advantages of sentential analysis is to show the
pupil that groups of words are often used so as to perform the same office
as single words. In teaching this subject, a proper gradation of topics
should be observed; and much caution exercised to avoid the perplexing of
the young pupil by presenting to his mind distinctions too nice to be dis-
cerned by his undeveloped powers of analysis. Various methods have been
devised in order to present to the eye of the student the analyzed sentence,
so as to show clearly the relation of its parts; and, in the rudimental stages
of the instruction, these are, without doubt, of considerable utility; but
they should not be carried so far as to present to the student a confused

•


22
ANALYTIC METHOD OF TEACHING
mass of loops, lines, curves, or disjointed phrases, far more difficult to
disentangle than to analyze, without any such aid, the most involved sen-
tence. All such devices, it must be remembered, are only auxiliaries to the
Limits
of the
analysis.
mind's natural operations, and cannot at all supersede them.
Neither should the exercise of analyzing sentences be allowed to
degenerate into the mechanical application of its most simple
requirements. As the student advances, he will be able to omit
more and more of the routine, until he reaches a stage of progress, at which
the general structure of the sentence its component clauses and their re-
lations, will be all that he need observe or state. When judiciously and
rationally employed, sentential analysis must engender a very important
quality of mind, and greatly conduce to clear thinking, intelligent, critical
reading, and accurate, terse expression.
This is the method
ANALYTIC METHOD OF TEACHING.
used by the teacher when he presents to his pupils composite truths or
facts, and by means of analysis shows the principles involved, or
Described. leads the mind of the pupil to an analysis of them for himself.
In this way he teaches principles which the pupil is to apply to the eluci-
dation of many diverse problems. In the synthetic method, the teacher
begins with principles, explains their meaning, and shows how they are to
be applied. Thus, suppose the pupil is to be taught how to add and sub-
tract fractions According to the analytic method, the fractions
Illustrated. to be operated upon are presented to the pupil's mind, and he
is shown, first the difficulty involved, and secondly, how to surmount this
difficulty, by (1) finding a common denominator, and (2) by changing the
numerator so that the fractions with the common denominator may have
the same value as the given fractions. Then the method of addition or
subtraction becomes obvious. In this way learning the principle himself
by analysis, the pupil is enabled to construct a general rule, and apply it to
any given case. In the synthetic method. the pupil would be taught in
the first place the nature and use of a common denominator, then the me-
thod of reducing fractions to a common denominator, and then to add or
subtract fractions by finding a common denominator. If the object of the
instruction given were, exclusively, to make the pupil expert in
Advantages. adding and subtracting fractions, the synthetic method would
perhaps have some advantage over the analytic; but, since an important
part of this object is to train the mind, the analytic method is greatly to be
preferred; for (1) it stimulates the mind to greater activity, (2) it teaches
it how to investigate for itself, and to discover truth, and (3) it gives it a
much clearer knowledge of the fundamental principles involved in the sub-
ject taught. Whether the analytic method should be employed
Limits of and to what extent, is to be determined by a consideration of
the nature of the subject taught, and the degree of advancement
of the student. In the higher stages of education, much time would be
lost by rigorously following this method; and if, in the more elementary
stages, the pupil's mind has been thoroughly trained in this way, it will not
be necessary to adhere to it when he comes to study the higher branches.
At every stage, however, there will be occasion for the use of both analysis
and synthesis; and the judgment of the teacher must be exercised, at every
step, to determine which is the appropriate method to be employed.
its use.

ANGLO-SAXON
23
APPARATUS
ANGLO-SAXON. There are no persons to whom this study is
more important than to teachers of English grammar. The explanations
of the forms of words are all to be sought in it. The origin and meaning
of the possessive ending 's, of the plural endings, of the endings for gender,
of the tense forms and other forms of the verb, the adverbial endings, the
prepositions, may at any time be demanded of the teacher. Pupils will
ask him whether John's book is a contraction of John his book; how comes
geese to be the plural of goose, and men the plural of man; how comes
lady to be the feminine of lord; how comes I have loved to express the
perfect tense; what does the to mean when you say to be, or not to be, that
is the question, and so on without end. But such questions cannot be
answered without knowing Anglo-Saxon. It is the same with questions of
syntax. Almost all difficulties grow out of Anglo-Saxon idioms, or find
their solution in the forms of that speech. Teachers who know nothing of
the history of the language puzzle themselves infinitely with subtle reason-
ings to prove that expressions must be parsed in one way or another, when
a glance at an Anglo-Saxon grammar would settle the matter in a moment.
No teacher can safely pronounce on any such mooted questions of our
language without knowing the Anglo-Saxon forms. No normal school
ought to send out graduates from its grammar department wholly ignorant
of this study. A lesson a day during the last school term skillfully directed
to the most frequent examples in which this knowledge comes into use,
would perhaps answer the most pressing necessities of the common school
teacher. Twice that time would be a meager allowance to lay the founda-
tion of the education of an accomplished high-school teacher in this depart
ment. For this study may be used MARCH's Comparative Grammar of
the Anglo-Saxon Language (New York); this contains a full syntax;
R. MORRIS'S Historical Outlines of English Accidence (London); HADLEY'S
Brief History of the English Language, in Webster's Dictionary (1865).
For a full consideration of this subject, see Cyclopædia of Education, and
Year-Book of Education for 1878.
APPARATUS, School. The work of instruction in school is very
greatly facilitated by sufficient and appropriate apparatus, such as black-
boards, slates, globes, maps, charts, etc. This is especially required in the
teaching of children in classes, as in common schools. By this
Utility. means, the sense of sight being addressed, the impressions made
are clearer and more durable. Besides, the concrete is made to take the
place of the abstract, by the use of suitable apparatus; and, in the first
stages of education, the former is almost exclusively to be employed since
abstract principles or truths are not comprehended by the young mind, ex-
cept upon a sufficiently extensive basis of concrete facts. Thus by means
of the numeral frame, the various rudimental combinations of numbers are
presented to the mind of the young pupil, in connection with actual objects;
and in this manner a clear idea is given of those processes which, merely by
abstract statements of the truths, or by mere verbal repetition,
however long continued, would scarcely be apprehended at all.
Of course, the teacher should be careful not to carry the use of such ap-
paratus beyond its proper limits; since the pupil's mind is gradually to
be accustomed to conceive clearly the truth of abstract propositions with-
out regard to their concrete applications.

Limits.
24
ARCHEOLOGY

Every stage or grade of school instruction must have its appropriate
apparatus. Infant instruction requires a great number and variety of
simple apparatus (gifts) in order, by natural methods, to aid the develop-
ment of the child's mind. (See KINDERGARTEN.) The primary school
should be supplied with a numeral frame, blackboards, slates,
Different and pencils for the use of the children, a box of forms, spelling
kinds. and reading charts, color charts, pictures of animals, etc.; and,
when elementary geography is taught, simple maps and a small globe. For
this purpose, one that may be divided into hemispheres (Hand-Hemisphere
Globe) is best; since by means of it the relation of the planisphere maps
to the globe may be clearly shown. (See GLOBES.) A simple relief globe
is also of great service at this stage. Other ingenious and attractive ap-
paratus has been devised to aid the work of the primary school teacher, to
which a special reference is not needed. In the more advanced stages of
instruction, the use of any other than the ordinary apparatus, such as the
blackboard, maps, globes, etc., becomes less and less necessary, except in
the teaching of certain special subjects; as higher arithmetic, mensuration,
astronomy, and other departments of natural science. For such purposes,
the cube-root blocks and other geometrical solids, a tellurian, an orrery, etc.,
will be of great value. Charts of physiology, history, etc., are scarcely to


Only
simple
apparatus
needed.
be dispensed with. In the teaching of natural science, very
expensive and complicated apparatus is not at first required.
Indeed, the simpler it is, the better; since the use of such appli-
ances will incite the pupil himself to experiment with those
simple contrivances which his own powers of invention will
enable him to devise. Thus the use of the lever may be just as well ex-
plained by means of a pen-holder or a pointer as by a polished steel rod
specially constructed for the purpose. Nothing marks more fully the
ability of the teacher than adroitness in availing himself of all common
resources for the purpose of illustration. Some of the most important
discoveries in physical science have been made with very rude apparatus.
In the use of apparatus to illustrate scientific facts, as of the globe,
tellurian, or orrery for the purpose of teaching astronomy, it should al-
ways be borne in mind that such contrivances cannot supersede the study
of nature itself. Cumbrous and complicated machinery, without an atten-
tive observation of the natural phenomena which they are intended to ex-
plain, rather serve to give false notions than to impart correct ideas of the
actual facts. The latter must be clearly grasped by the mind as facts be-
fore their illustration is attempted by means of artificial contrivances. This
depends upon an important principle which the teacher should be careful
to recognize and apply. (See BLACKBOARD, and NUMERAL FRAME.)
ARCHÆOLOGY (from apxaïos, ancient, and 26yos, knowledge,
science) denotes properly the science of antiquities. In the widest sense of
the word, it would embrace the history, mythology, political institutions,
religion, commerce, industry, literature, and fine arts of ancient times, but
it is now used in a more restricted sense, as treating of the remains of the
primitive inhabitants of a country. Thus, while it is an important hand-
maid of history, it is widely distinguished from it. To the teaching of
history, even in the most rudimental form, this subject is not to be dis-
pensed with.
ARITHMETIC
25
ARITHMETIC (Gr. åρiðµntikh from ápiµós, number), the sci-
ence of numbers. This subject occupies a prominent place in the curric-
ulum of all elementary schools, both primary and grammar, as well from
its educational or disciplinary, as from its practical value. In the practical
consideration of this subject, the first topic that presents itself is:
What should cmstitute the course in arithmetic. In the first
place, there should be a thorough unification of the processes of mental
and written arithmetic. There is but one science of arith-
Mental and metic; and everything that tends to produce the impression
written. in the pupils mind that there are two species, the one in-
tellectual and the other mechanical, is an obstacle to his true progress.
What is valuable in the methods now peculiar to mental arithmetic,
needs to be thoroughly incorporated with what is practically convenient
or necessary in written arithmetic; so that the whole may be made
perfectly homogeneous. The basis upon which this is to be effected is,
that principles should be discussed first by the use of small numbers which
can be easily held in the mind, and which do not render the difficulty or
labor of combination so great as to absorb the attention, or divert it from
the line of thought; and that we should pass gradually, in applying the
reasoning, to larger numbers and more difficult and complex combinations,
in which pencil and paper are necessary. The rationale should be always
the same in the mental (properly, oral) arithmetic and in the written, pen-
cil and paper being used only when the numbers become too large, or the
elements too numerous, to render it practicable to hold the whole in the
mind. For example, suppose the pupil to be entering upon the subject of
percentage. The first step is to teach what is meant by per cent. In order

Illustra-
tions.
to do this, small numbers will be used, and the process will not
require pencil and paper, nor will such numbers be selected at
first, as will cause difficulty in effecting the combinations. Thus,
the first questions may be, "Mr. A had 300 sheep and lost 5 out of each
hundred; how many did he lose?" "What phrase may we use instead of
'5 out of each hundred?" "Mr. B had an orchard of 400 peach-trees and
lost 6 per cent of them; how many did he lose?" "What phrase may we
• use instead of '6 per cent?'" To assign as the first example one like the
following would be a gross violation of this principle: "Mr. A put out
$759 on 7 per cent interest; what was the interest for a year?" After
the principle to be taught is clearly seen, larger numbers should be intro-
duced, and such as require that the work be written. But the same style
of explanation should be preserved; and great care should be taken to have
it seen that the method of reasoning is the same in all cases. To illustrate
still farther: as, in practice, the computer ordinarily uses the rate as the
multiplier, the form of explanation, when the whole is given orally, should
be adapted to this fact. At first, such an example as the first above will
naturally be solved thus: "If Mr. A lost 5 sheep out of 100, out of 3
hundred he lost 3 times 5, or 15 sheep." But before leaving such simple
illustrations, the reasoning should take this form: "Since losing 1 out of
100 is losing .01 of the number, losing 5 out of 100 is losing .05 of the
number. Hence, Mr. A lost .05 of 300 sheep, which is 15 sheep." Thus,
in all cases, the form of thought which will ordinarily be required in solv-
ing the problem, should be that taught in the introductory analysis. A
26
ARITHMETIC
farther illustration of this is furnished by reduction. At first, the question,
"How many ounces in 5 lb.?" will naturally be answered, "Since there
are 16 oz. in 1 lb., in 5 lb. there are 5 times 16 oz., or 80 oz." But in
practice the 16 is ordinarily used as the multiplier, and it is better that the
introductory (mental) analysis should conform to this fact. Hence, the
pupil should be led to see, at the outset, that, as every pound is composed
of 16 ounces, in any given weight there are 16 times as many ounces, as
pounds; and he should be required to analyze accordingly.

Use of
mental
Apart from this use of what are called mental processes,
there is no proper well-defined sphere for their employment. In
practical applications, it is quite unphilosophical to classify the
processes. examples, by calling some mental and others written. We do
not find them so labeled in actual business life. The pupil needs to dis-
criminate for himself as to whether any particular example should be
solved without the pencil or with it. It should also be borne in mind that
business men rely very little upon these mental operations. They use the
pen and paper for almost every computation. In the second place, in con-
structing our course in arithmetic, we need to give the most careful atten-
tion to the condition and wants of the youth found in our public schools.
Perhaps it is no exaggeration to say, that from eighty to ninety per cent
of the pupils disappear from these schools by the close of the seventh school
year; and not more than one in one hundred takes a high school course.
Since all pupils of the common schools have need of the rudiments of
number, as counting, reading and writing small numbers, the simple com-
binations embraced in the addition, subtraction, multiplication,
Primary and division tables, the simpler forms of fractions, and the more
lessons. common denominations of compound numbers, an elementary
text-book is deemed to be needful for many schools. The objections often
urged to having these primary lessons entirely oral are, that it makes an
unnecessary draft upon the time and energy of the teacher, renders the
pupils' progress very slow, does not so readily supply the means of giving
them work while not actually under instruction, and more than all, begets
in their minds a dislike for study and self-exertion, and a disposition to
expect that the teacher must do all the work, and thus carry them along.
But whatever disposition may be made of primary arithmetic, as usually
understood, there is an imperative demand that the course in
Practical arithmetic for the masses should be so arranged that the more
subjects. important practical subjects can be reached and mastered by a
majority of our youth during the comparatively short time which they can
spend in our schools. In order to effect this, three things will be found
necessary: (1) a rigorous exclusion of all topics relatively unimportant,
(2) a judicious limitation of the topics presented, and (3) care that, in the
laudable desire to secure facility in fundamental processes, adding,
multiplying, etc., the teacher does not consume so much time that the great
mass of the pupils will never advance beyond the merest rudiments of the
subject. The range of topics to be included in the common school
Range of course, will be the fundamental rules; common and decimal
topics.
fractions; denominate numbers (care being taken to reject all
obsolete or unusual denominations, and to give abundant exercises calcu
lated to insure a definite conception of the meaning of the denominations);
ARITHMETIC
27
percentage, including simple, annual, and compound interest, with partial
payments, common and bank discount, and some of the more common uses
of percentage. If, after this, the course may be extended, the next subjects
in importance are ratio, proportion, and the square and cube roots; and
in treating these, constant care will be necessary to introduce problems
which occur in actual life, and as far as possible to exclude all others.
Something of common mensuration should be introduced in connection
with the tables of measures of extension; and the more cominon problems
in commission, insurance, taxes, stocks, etc., will be readily introduced in
percentage without occupying either much space or time.
course.
For the few who can take a more extended course, a thor-
Extended oughly scientific treatment of the subject of arithmetic is de-
sirable; and this quite as much for its disciplinary effect, in
giving breadth and scope to the conceptions, and inducing a disposition to
systematize and generalize, and thus to view truth in its relations, as for
the amount of_mere arithmetical knowledge which may be added to the
pupil's stock. Here we may introduce an analytical outline of the subject,
presenting the topics in their philosophical relations, rather than
Analytical in their mere practical and economic order and connection.
outline. Thus, in treating notation, the various forms of notation can be
introduced, as of simple and compound numbers, other scales than the
decimal, various forms of fractional notation, the elements of the literal
notation, etc. Then, as reduction is but changing the form of notation,
this topic will come next, and will embrace all the forms of reduction
found in common arithmetic, as from one scale to another, of denominate
numbers, of fractions common and decimal, etc., showing how all arith-
metical reductions are based on the one simple principle: If the unit in
reference to which the number is to be expressed is made smaller, the
number must be multiplied, and if the unit of expression is made larger,
the number must be divided. Passing to the combinations of number,
under addition all processes thus designated in arithmetic will be treated,
and the general principles out of which they all grow will be developed.
In this method of treatment, the pupil will not find himself merely going
over the elementary subjects through which he plodded in the days of his
childhood, but new ranges of thought will be presented, at the same time
that all the principles and processes of the elementary arithmetic are re-
viewed; the very first sections, even those on notation, reduction, and the
fundamental rules, bringing into requisition most of his knowledge of
arithmetic, and giving vigorous exercise to his mind in grasping new truth.
But in addition to all this, which pertains to the method of presentation,

Business
rules.
there will be much of practical arithmetical knowledge to be
gained. In the business rules, discount needs a much fuller
treatment than it has usually received in any of our text-books.
Many problems, of frequent occurrence in modern business circles, are not
provided for in these books; and, in fact, some of the most common have
had no solution at all which has been made public. The wonderful de-
velopment of the insurance business demands that its principles and meth-
ods receive a much fuller treatment than they can have in an elementary
course: this is especially true of life insurance. Foreign exchange, cus-
toms, equation of payments, etc., are other topics suitable for this
28
ARITHMETIC
The
advanced course, which are quite impracticable in an elementary course,
within the reach of the masses. Two other ends will be subserved by this
method: (1) It will be a leading purpose to teach the pupil how to investi-
gate, and to this end he should be put in possession of the great
instrument for mathematical investigation, namely, the equation.
equation. Of course, only the simpler forms of the equation can be intro.
duced; nevertheless, enough can be given to enlarge very greatly the stu-
dent's power to examine new questions for himself. By means of the
equation, he may be taught the solution of such problems as the following,
which would be quite out of his reach without this instrument:
To find what each payment must be in order to discharge a given
principal and interest in a given number of equal payments at equal
intervals of time.
To find the present worth of a note which has been running a certain
time, and is due at a future time, with annual payments on the principal,
and annual interest; so that the purchaser shall receive a different rate of
annual interest from that named in the note.
These and many other important business problems are quite within
the reach of the simple equation, and are scarcely legitimate questions to
propose to a student who has not some knowledge of this instrument. (2)
The second general purpose which we shall mention as being subserved by
this course is, that by grouping all the arithmetical processes under the
fewest possible heads and showing their philosophic dependence, the whole
is put in the best possible form to be retained in the memory. Thus, if it
is seen that a single principle covers all the cases in reduction, that another
simple principle covers all the so-called “problems in interest," that all the
common intricate questions in discount are readily solved by the simple
equation, etc., these processes will not be the evanescent things which they
have often been.
processes.
Principles and maxims to be kept in view while teaching arithmetic.
- I. There are two distinct and strongly marked general aims in arith-
metical study: (1) To master the rationale of the processes,
Principles and (2) To acquire facility and accuracy in the performance of
and these operations. The means which secure one of these ends
are not necessarily adapted to secure the other. Thus, to secure
the first for example, in reference to addition, the steps are, learning to
count, learning how numbers are grouped in the decimal system, learning
how to make the addition table, and, finally, by means of a knowledge
of the sum of the digits taken two and two, learning to find the sum
of any given numbers. In regard to the latter process, the pupil needs
to know why we write units of a like order in the same column, why
we begin at the units' column to add, why we "carry one for every
ten," as the phrase is, etc. But all this may be known, and yet the
pupil make sorry work in practical addition. In order to secure a knowl-
edge of the rationale, each step needs to be clearly explained and fully
illustrated, and then the pupil must be required to repeat the whole,
"over and over again," in his own language. For this purpose, much
class drill on the blackboard, in having each pupil separately explain
in detail the reasons for each step of the work which he has before per-
formed, will be necessary. Pupils may be required to bring into the
ARITHMETIC
29
class practical exercises solved on their slates, and then sufficient time be
given to explanation from the slates. These three things repeated in about
the same way,-(1) a clear preliminary explanation of principles either given
in the text-book or by the teacher, (2) a thorough mastery of these prin-
ciples by the pupil so that he can state them in a general way, and (3) a
careful and continued repetition of them in the class, in application to
particular examples,—will secure the first of these general ends of arithmet-
ical study. To secure the second, namely, facility and accuracy in apply-
ing these principles, so as to be able to add with ease, rapidity, and ac-
curacy, long continued drill, with the mind quite unencumbered by any
thought of the reasons for the processes, will be indispensable. It will not
be sufficient that pupils solve accurately numerous examples, in the slow
plodding way to which they are accustomed in their private study, but
large numbers of fresh problems should be furnished in the class, which
the pupils should be required to solve with the utmost promptitude, and
with perfect accuracy. In respect to all mere numerical combinations, as
addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, involution, evo-
Oral drills. lution, etc., oral drills like the following will be of the greatest
use and should be continued until the combinations can be made
as rapidly as we would naturally read the numbers: Teacher repeats while
the pupils follow in silence, making the combinations, “5 +3÷2*+3,
squared, 7 ÷ 7×3 +7, square root, etc." These oral drills may be
commenced at the very outset in regard to addition, and extended as the
other rules are reached, and should not be dropped until the utmost facility
is secured. A similar drill exercise can be secured by pointing to the
digits as they stand on the board, or on charts, and simply speaking the
words which indicate what combinations are required. Any figures which
may chance to stand on the board may be used in this way to secure an
indefinite amount of most valuable drill. This latter exercise, making
the combinations at sight is of still greater practical value than the
former, in which the ear alone is depended upon; for it is a singular fact
that facility in one method does not insure it in the other, and the latter
is the form in which the process is usually to be applied.
usually to be applied. Again, in the
business rules, the principles underlying the processes must be clearly per-
ceived, and the pupil, by continued practice in explaining solutions written
upon the board, must become able to give in good language the reason for
each step. But when all this is secured, there will be found need of much
drill on examples to the answers of which he cannot have access, and which
he must take up and solve at the moment. In this department, much
valuable exercise may be given by handing the pupils written notes or
papers in due form, and requiring them to compute the interest, or dis-
count, or make the required computation at sight. But the illustrations
now given will suffice to show that there are, as above stated, two general
purposes — the theoretical and the practical which must run parallel
-
* The signs of division, multiplication, etc., are not used with strict propriety in
this specimen exercise; they are applied to the result of all the preceding operations
in each case as though all before them had been included in a parenthesis. Thus in
this case it is 5 + 3, or 8 which is meant to be divided by 2 giving 4, to this 3 added,
giving 7, this squared, giving 49, etc.
30
ARITHMETIC
through all good teaching in arithmetic, and that they are generally to be
attained by different means.
a
II. In order to realize the above, a careful discrimination
How and needs to be made between simply telling how a thing is done,
why. and telling why it is done. Very much of what we read in our
text-books, and hear in class-rooms, under the name of analysis, in expla-
nation of solutions, is nothing more than a statement of the process
telling how the particular example is wrought. This vice is still so prevalent
as to need the clearest exposition and the most radical treatment. Indeed,
it has become so general as to be mistaken by the masses for the thing it
purports to be; and pupil and teacher frequently seem to think that this
parrot-like way of telling what has been done is really a logical exposition
of the principles involved.
III. There should, also, be a careful discrimination between pure and
applied arithmetic, in order that they may be so taught as to secure the
proper end of each. Pure arithmetic is concerned solely with
Pure and abstract numbers, and the breadth of discipline to be secured
applied by its study is not great; but the applications of arithmetic are
arithmetic. almost infinitely varied, and give a far wider scope for mental
training. In the latter, the questions are not how to multiply, add, sub-
tract, etc., but why we multiply, add, or subtract. Thus, in solving a
problem in interest, it would be quite out of place to cumber the explana-
tion with an exposition of the process of multiplying by a decimal, but it
is exactly to the purpose to give the reason for so doing. The most im-
portant object in applied arithmetic is to acquaint one's self so thoroughly
with the conditions of the problem - if in business arithmetic, with the
character of the business as to discern what combinations are to be
made with the numbers involved. Many of these applications are quite
beyond the reach of the mind of a mere child. Thus, to attempt to
explain to very young pupils the commercial relations which give rise to
the problems of foreign exchange, or the circumstances out of which many
of the problems in regard to the value of stocks grow, would be perfectly
preposterous.
IV. In teaching applied arithmetic, it is of the first im-
Problems. portance that the problems be such as occur in actual life, and
that in expressing them, the usual phraseology be employed. For example,
compare the following:
(1) What is the present worth of $500 due 3 yr. 7 mo. 20 da. hence, at 6
per cent per annum?
(2) I have a 7 per cent note for $500, dated Feb. 6th, 1873, and due July 10th,
1876. Mr. Smith proposes to buy it of me Sept. 18th, 1874, and to pay me such a
sum for it as shall enable him to realize 10 per cent per annum on his investment.
What must he pay me? In other words, what is the present worth of this note
Sept. 18th, 1874?
The first supposes a transaction which could rarely, if ever, occur, and
even disguises that. Most pupils who have gone through discount in the
ordinary way, if asked, "What interest does the $500 bear, in the first ex-
ample?" would answer, "6 per cent." Of course, it is understood that the
money is not on interest. Moreover, we find no such paper no notes
not bearing interest in the market. Again, the assumption seems to
be that the note — if even a note is suggested at all — is discounted at the
ARITHMETIC
31
time it is made. Thus, it is obvious that the first form is calculated to
give the pupil quite erroneous impressious; whereas the second brings a
real trausaction into full view.
V. From the beginning to the end of the course, it should be the aim
to teach a few germinal principles and lead the pupil to apply them to as
great a number of cases as his time and ability may permit.
Principles Thus, at the very outset, a good teacher will never tell the
to be child how to count; but having taught him the names of the
taught. numbers up to fourteen, will show him the meaning of the
word fourteen (four and ten); then he can be led to go on to nineteen
by himself. No child ought to be told how to count from fifteen to
nineteen; and after twenty, he needs only to be shown how the names
of the decades, as twen-ty, thir-ty, for-ty, and fifty are formed, to be
able to give the rest himself; nor does he need to be told how to count
through more than one decade. In reference to the fundamental tables,
it may be suggested that no pupil should be furnished with an addition,
subtraction, multiplication, or division table ready-made. Having been
taught the principle on which the table is constructed, he should be re-
quired to make it for himself. As preliminary to practical addition and
subtraction, the combinations of digits two and two which constitute
any number up to 18 (9 + 9) should be made perfectly familiar. Thus
the child should recognize 1 + 4, and 2 + 3, as 5; 1 + 5, 2 + 4, and
33, as 6 etc.; and this should be made the foundation of addition and
subtraction. He should be taught, that if he knows that 3+4=7,
he knows by implication that 23 + 4 27, 33+ 4 37, etc. Passing
from the primary arithmetic, he should be taught common fractions by
means of the fewest principles and rules consistent with his ability.
Thus in multiplication and division, To multiply or to divide a fraction
by a whole number, and To multiply or to divide a whole number by a
fraction, are all the cases needed; and these should be taught in strict
conformity with practical principles. Thus, to multiply a whole number
by a fraction is to take a fractional part of the number; and to divide
a number by a fraction is to find how many times the latter is con-
tained in the former. To cover all the forms of reduction of denomi
nate numbers, nothing is needed but the principle or rule, that to pass
from higher to lower denominations, we multiply by the number which
it takes of the lower to make one of the higher; and to pa s from lower
to higher we divide by the same number. These simple principles should
be seen to cover all cases, those involving fractions as well as others.
In like manner, by a proper form of statement of examples, and an
occasional suggestion or question, most of the separate rules usually given
under percentage may be dispensed with. In dealing with the cases usually
denominated problems in interest, all that is needed is the following brief
rule: Find the effect produced by using a unit of the number required,
under the given circumstances, and compare this with the given effect.
This should be made to cover the cases usually detailed under six of
eight rules.
VI. There are three stages of mental development which
Stages of
mental de- should be carefully kept in view in all elementary teaching:
velopment. (1) The earliest stage, in which the faculties chiefly exercised
32
ART EDUCATION-ARTS

are observation, or perception, and memory, and in which the pupil is
not competent to formulate thought, or to derive benefit from abstract,
formal statements of principles, definitions, or processes; (2) An inter-
mediate staje, in which the reasoning faculties (abstraction, judgment,
etc.) are coming into prominence, and in which the pupil needs to be
shown the truth, so that he may have a clear perception of it, before
he is presented with a formal, abstract statement, the work, however,
not being concluded until he can state the truth (definition, principle,
proposition, or rule) intelligently, in good language, and in general (ab-
stract) terms; (3) An ultimate stage, or that in which the mental powers
are so matured and trained, that the pupil is competent to receive truth
from the general, abstract, or formal statement of it. At this stage,
definitions, principles, propositions, and statements of processes may be
given first, and illustrated, demonstrated, or applied afterward. (See
ANALYTIC METHOD, and DEVELOPING METHOD.)
•
ART EDUCATION. Every complete system of education must
provide for the culture of all the varied faculties of the human mind,
physical and intellectual, moral and spiritual, esthetic and emotional;
and must, besides, supply the means necessary for the development of
those practical capacities upon which the social and national progress
of every civilized people depends. Among the agencies required for this
purpose, art education claims profound attention. The element of beauty,
which exists in the human mind, when made the subject of progressive
cultivation, and applied to the various industries of social life, becomes
a thing of pecun ary as well as esth tic value. The training of the hand
and eye. which is obtained by drawing, is proved by experience to be of
very great advantage to the operative in every branch of industry; indeed,
in many occupations, drawing is indispensable to success. But the value
is still greater if to this simple training, the culture of the perception and
conception of forms and their combinations is added, leading to skill in de-
signing a branch of art of the highest value in very many departments
of manufacturing industry. "Art education," says an eminent authority,
"embraces all those appliances and methods of training by which the sense
of form and proportion is developed. It is successful when the student
unerringly discriminates between what is ugly and what is beautiful, and
expresses his ideas of form in drawing as readily as ideas of other sorts on
the written page." (See DRAWING.)
ARTS, Liberal. The term arts, or liberal arts, was, during the
middle ages, applied to certain studies which constituted an essential part
of a learned education. The full course of study, at that period, embraced
"the seven liberal arts," three of which
grammar, logic, and rhetoric
composed what was called the trivium (the triple way to eloquence); and
the remaining four music, arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy
constituted the quadrivium (the quadruple way). The term faculty of
arts denoted, in the universities, those who devoted themselves to philos-
ophy and science, in contradistinction to the faculty of theology, of medi-
cine, or of law. Muster (Lat. magister) was used to designate one who
taught the liberal arts; and doctor one who taught or practiced divinity,
law, or medicine. The first degree (gradus) of proficiency in the arts,
instituted, as it is said, by Gregory IX. about the middle of the 13th
ASSOCIATION - ASTRONOMY
33
century, was that of bachelor (Lat. baccalaureus); and the second that
of master, which originally conferred the right, and indeed imposed the
duty, of teaching one or more of the liberal arts. This title, in the colleges
and universities of the United States, England, and France, is now merely
honorary. (See DEGREES.)
tion in
ASSOCIATION OF IDEAS. By this is meant that relation or
connection which is formed between ideas, so that one immediately suggests
the other, hence called by Dr. Brown the principle of simple
Definition. suggestion. This law of mental operation demands a most care-
ful consideration in both moral and intellectual education. Feelings of
pleasure and pain are often associated with certain ideas or objects in the
minds of pupils at school, and thus control their whole after life. Antip-
athies, prejudices, or predilections are thus so firmly fixed,
Applica- that they can never be eradicated. The law of association,
teaching.
rightly applied by the teacher, may thus be used to establish
in the minds of his pupils an abhorrence of meanness and wrong,
of falsehood and dishonesty which will go far toward forming a thoroughly
virtuous character. This law has a very important application in the in-
tellectual training of the young, and in the general cultivation of the mind.
The power to control the succession of our ideas or thoughts very much
depends upon the habits we may have formed in establishing these associa-
tions. If the ideas with which a person's mind is stored are connected
only by arbitrary or accidental associations, he will find it difficult to ar-
range his thoughts on any subject in a regular, logical order. On the
other hand, there are minds so trained as to be able, at any moment, to
command their ideas upon any subject with which they are acquainted, so
that they flow forth in an unintermitting logical stream. This is the in-
tellectual quality to be aimed at by the teacher, in connection with the as-
sociation of ideas. It follows, too, from this that the law by which ideas
become permanently associated by means of repetition, should have a most
important place in the consideration of the teacher. Certain branches of
knowledge require the special application of this law; such as arithmetical
tables, grammatical paradigms, and all other things that, having no logical
relations, are to be arbitrarily associated. The point to be gained in such
acquisitions is to connect these ideas in the mind in such a way that one
will instantly, and, as it were, automatically, suggest the other. The per-
ceptions of sight and hearing may both be brought into play in accomplish-
ing this. Hence the use of the blackboard and slate, particularly the
former; also the importance of repeating aloud from the printed page.
ASTRONOMỶ (Gr. åsτpov, a star, and vóµos, a law), the science
which treats of the heavenly bodies, has peculiarly strong claims to a
place in every educational scheme of study, both as a means
Place in of intellectual training, and on account of the practical value
education. of the class of facts which it embraces, as well as its ennobling
influence upon the mind of the student.
In teaching this subject, the order of investigation - the analytic
method, should be at first adopted, for two reasons: (1) because in this
way we are able to impress upon the mind of the pupil
Analytic
method clearer conceptions of fundamental facts, and (2) because he
required. will thus form the habits of thought which are particularly
34
ASTRONOMY
needed in the study of this science. We should insist upon his observing
for himself all the more obvious phenomena, and then stating, as fully
and accurately as possible, the result of his observations. It is astonishing
how many persons go through the world, filling the measure of a long life,
without casting anything but an indifferent, uninquiring, and uninterested
glance at the glories of the stellar firmament. So it is also with children,
before their attention is attracted, and their interest aroused, to observe
the wonders of the heavens. The teacher, therefore, should lead his pupils,
by questioning them, to notice some of the most ordinary phenomena; as
the rising and setting of the sun and the moon, the phases of
Observa- the latter, the apparent diurnal revolution of the stars, the posi-
tions and apparent movements of the larger and more conspicu-
tion and
inference. ous planets among the stars, the ebb and flow of the tides, the
solar and lunar eclipses, etc. Finding, from such questioning, that they
have really been inattentive to what they might readily have observed, the
pupils will strive to see these things for themselves, and will thus, in a
short time, acquire such an experience of their own, as will enable them
to pursue the study with interest and success. As soon as they have
acquired a clear conception of these natural appearances, their attention
should be called to the explanation of them; and in this, for a short time
at least, it would be well to let the pupils try to think out for themselves
some hypothesis to account for what they have seen, and not to give them
the correct scientific explanation until they have exhausted their own
conjectures. For, it is not so much facts that we desire to communicate
as mental habits; and, by the process here recommended, whatever facts
are finally imparted, though they may be few, will be indelibly impressed
upon the memory. This process is, however, strictly in accordance with
the educational axiom, that the pupil should be told nothing which he
may be made to discover for himself; to which may perhaps be added, that
he should be told nothing until he has endeavored to discover it for himself,
and has failed in the effort. (See SCIENCE.)
After this preliminary instruction, an elementary course in astronomy
should embrace the following topics arranged in the order of presentation:
(1) The earth —its form, magnitude, motions, etc., with the
Elementary phenomena connected with it, and arising from its relations to
course. the sun, such as day and night, and the seasons; (2) The solar
system-its general arrangement, the bodies of which it is composed, with
their magnitudes, distances, periodic times, the position of their orbits and
axes, and their apparent motions; (3) The circles etc. of the sphere; as
equator, equinoctial, ecliptic, meridians, tropics, polar circles, longitude and
latitude, both terrestrial and celestial, declination and right ascension, the
horizon, vertical circles, altitude and azimuth, etc. If the preliminary
instruction has been correct and thorough, these various tropics can be
taught in such a manner as, at every point, to appeal to the learner's in-
telligence, and, not as a mass of arbitrary facts, encumbering his memory
for a while, to drop out afterward as useless lumber. For example, if
we would lead his mind to a clear idea of the use of longitude on the
surface of the earth, we ask him to locate, that is, to describe the location
of, any point on the surface of the globe. He will soon be led to perceive
that this cannot be done without some standards of reference; and thus

ATHENEUM
35
ATTENTION
the use of the equator and meridians will become obvious, and, in a similar
nianner, that of altitude and azimuth, in locating the positions of stars and
planets in the visible heavens, or right ascension and declination, in fixing
their places in the celestial sphere.
No part of this science need be taught arbitrarily. Even the numerical
facts, as distances, magnitudes, periods of revolution, etc., should, in part
at least, be worked out, however rudely, for the student from the
Not data of observation; or he should be required to work them out
arbitrary. himself, after being taught the principles and methods involved.
Thus, the teacher may begin with the diameter of the earth, and show how
this has been determined; then the distance of the sun from the earth,
explaining in this connection the nature and use of parallax; then the
linear diameter of the sun from its apparent diameter; then the sidereal
year of the earth, and the sidereal periods of the planets from their observed
synodic periods; and next the distances of the planets from an application
of Kepler's third law, etc. In this way, the whole subject will be so woven
together in the pupil's mind, that it will be impossible for him to forget
its fundamental principles, however few of its facts of detail he may retain.
After such a course it will be a very simple matter to present for his study
the other important topics comprehended in the general subject.
The use of diagrams and apparatus should be constantly resorted to
in giving the instruction here marked out; but great care should be ob-
and
served to prevent the use of apparatus from superseding or ob-
Diagrams scuring the ideas obtained from the observation of nature itself.
The student must come down to the apparatus from a clear con-
apparatus. ception of the actual phenomena, using the machine to apprehend
the manner in which the phenomena occur. Very simple apparatus is
much to be preferred to cumbrous and complicated machinery,-admirable,
perhaps, as pieces of ingenious workmanship but of little value for the
purpose of illustration.
The student should, however, be thoroughly
practiced in the use of the globes, as a very essential part of the training
comprehended in this branch of instruction. The use of a telescope, of at
least moderate power, is also a valuable means of augmenting both the
interest and information of the student, especially in connection with the
study of uranography, which is certainly one of the most useful as well as
entertaining departments of astronomical science. In this part of the
study, a good planisphere will prove a valuable adjunct.
ATHENEUM, or Athenæum (Gr. 'Avnvaïov, a building dedicated
to Athena, or Minerva, the tutelary goddess of Athens), was the name
applied to a temple at Athens, in which poets and scholars used to meet
and read their productions. In modern times, this name is frequently used
to denote a scientific association or the building in which such an association
meets. In Belgium and Holland, it is used to designate a school of a higher
grade, ranking next to the university.
ATLAS is the name applied to a collection of maps, first thus used by
Mercator in the sixteenth century, the figure of Atlas, bearing the globe
on his shoulders, being on the title-page of his book of maps.
ATTENTION (from the Latin tendere, to strain, implying a strained
effort of the mind) is perhaps the most important of the mind's activities,
since the quality and duration of the intellectual impressions depend upon
36
ATTENTION
Why
How
trained.
the degree of attention with which the faculties have been
exerted in acquiring them. There is no point of difference
important.
between the trained and the untrained intellect so striking as
the voluntary power of fixing the mind for a continuous period of time
upon any given subject. Hence, to discipline this power becomes, in an
especial manner, the office and duty of the educator. Commencing with
the most rudimental exercise of the observing faculties, he passes
on, step by step, to the process by which, through the entire and
determined giving up, as it were, of the whole mind to the
contemplation and study of any given class of facts or ideas, the student
learns to evolve new truths, or analytically to explain the intricacies of
abstruse problems. When the attention has become obedient to the will,
this branch of mental training is complete; and, therefore, the aim of the
educator should be to instill habits of controlling the attention, and rigidly
preventing those of desultory, wayward application, or listlessness. This
power of continuous attention is, without doubt, the most valuable result
of intellectual training. To produce this result, it is of the first importance
to interest the pupils, especially in the earlier stages of instruction. Young
minds have an intense desire to know-not words merely, but things.
They have a strong craving for new ideas, and take the deepest enjoyment
in the exercise of the perceptive and conceptive faculties. Hence the
importance of object-teaching. The perceptive faculties are exercised in
the observation of the sensible qualities of all the different things with
which the child is surrounded, or which may be presented to its view by
the teacher for the purpose of attracting its attention; and these objects
should be diversified as much as possible, so as to appeal to the child s love
of novelty. Hence, there are three things especially needed: (1) Constant
change of exercises; (2) Short and well-adapted lessons; and (3) The
presentation of ideas before words, objects before names.
On other accounts, the attention should not be exercised for long
periods of time. When the teacher perceives that it is flagging, it is best
to stop the exercise; for all that is done while the child's attention is re-
laxed, is worse than fruitless. It is from an inattention to this truth that
children are often made incurably listless in school. They are set at exer-
cises which awaken no interest in their minds, and, consequently, acquire
inera licable habits of superficial, careless attention. In all the subsequent
studies of the pupil, it is essential that his interest be awakened as much as
possible; but it will be found that there is a reciprocal action of interest
and attention. The pupil having acquired in the first stages, in some degree,
the habit of voluntary attention, will, as a matter of duty, apply his mind
to the studies prescribed for him; and this very application, if earnest and
diligent, will soon excite the deepest interest in the subjects of study. The
and
dependence of memory upon attention is well known to all
Memory who have observed, however superficially, the operations of the
mind; and the power to recall at will our mental impressions
attention. and acquisitions is perhaps directly in proportion to the atten-
tion with which the associations binding them together were formed. When
these are feeble, loose, accidental, or formed with little volition, the mind
will have but an imperfect control of its thoughts, and, consequently, will
be wanting in the chief quality of a sound intellectual character.

AUTHORITY
37
Relation
to phys-
Attention requires a vigorous exercise of the brain, and, therefore,
is, more or less, dependent upon the physical condition. When this has
been exhausted by labor, either bodily or mental, or weakened
by disease, attention is scarcely possible; and the effort to give
it is injurious, because it induces still farther nervous prost-
ical health. ration. Neither should deep attention be exerted or attempted
immediately after a hearty meal. The nervous energy is then directed
to the digestive functions, which active cerebration will greatly disturb.
Hence, the diet of a student should be light, but nutritious. The
brain should also be supplied with thoroughly oxygenated blood. No
one can think well in an impure atmosphere, especially if it is con-
taminated by the breathing of inany persons. In this way, children
often suffer a serious loss of health. They are crowded in apartments
too small for the number to be accommodated and very imperfectly
ventilated; and, at the same time, are expected to give close and earnest
attention to the subjects of instruction. This is a physical impossibility,
and the attempt to do it must always be followed by disastrous results.
In no respect has the aphorism, "A sound mind in a sound body" a
more forcible application than to the exercise of attention. For what
contrast can be stronger than that presented by the poor wretch whom
disease has bereft of every mental state but wandering thoughts or ab-
solute vacuity, and the man of sound health and a well-trained mind,
who is ready at will to concentrate all his intellectual energies upon a
given subject, and to keep them steadily fixed upon it until the object
of his investigations has been attained! (See INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION.)
AUTHORITY (Lat. auctoritas), the right to command, or the per-
sons or body by whom the right is exercised; sometimes also. in matters
pertaining to the intellect, the power to influence or exact belief.
How ap. In education, the term has especially this twofold application:
plied in
education. (1) to the discipline, or management of children; (2) to their
instruction. The primary authority, both in respect to time
and importance, to which the child is subjected is that of the parent; and
for several years no other can be exercised over it, except in loco parentis.
It is true, the state extends a protecting care over the child; but only by
an exercise of its authority over the parents, requiring them to perform
their proper duties as the natural guardians of their children. When the
parents neglect or repudiate these duties or are guilty of acts in contraven-
tion of them, the state interposes its authority, but not even then directly,
upon the child, but only to place it under the authority of those who will
better care for its interests, and perform for it the natural duties of its
parents. The right exercise of parental authority is, therefore, one of the
most important elements in the education of the child. (See
HOME EDUCATION.) If the child from its earliest years has been
authority. accustomed to recognize and submit to the authority of its
parents. firmly but judiciously exercised, there will be, ordinarily, but little
difficulty, on the part of the teacher, in making his authority effective.
The child, on entering the school, feels for the first time that it is under an
authority different from that of its parents, to which it has previously
learned to submit with unquestioning obedience. Its first impulse is
perhaps, to refuse submission to this new authority; and the influence
Parental

38
AUTHORITY
of the teacher over the child will greatly depend upon the manner in
which obedience is enforced. (See DISCIPLINE.) In the authority of the
teacher, as well as in that of the parents, two elements are
Authority combined,
one that attracts and encourages, and one that
of the
curbs and subdues. Without the former, authority is arbitrary
teacher. and violent; without the latter, it is feeble and often power-
less. In other words, the authority that truly educates should be founded
not alone upon fear, but upon love and esteem as well. The authority of
the teacher is not, like that of the parents, based upon a natural law, but
is delegated either by the parents or by those who stand in the parental
relation to the child. This is what is meant when it is said that the teacher
is in loco parentis; not that he has exactly the authority of the parent, but
only so far as it is not limited by the general usages of society, or by
special contracts. The conscientious teacher cannot, for a moment, doubt
that it is his duty strictly to observe these limits; since, by willfully over-
stepping them, he must either break a contract, or violate a most sacred
trust; and, in either case, his authority will be either weakened or
destroyed.
ment of
Many cases will arise, both in the family and in the school, in which
children will refuse submission to the authority of their educators; and
hence the mode of enforcing authority becomes a matter of
Enforce serious importance. Authority, of course, implies a control of
the will of those over whom it is exercised; and the means by
authority.
which this is to be obtained will differ according to the disposi-
tion and habits of the child, and, to a considerable extent, also according
to the character of the educator himself. A violent, irascible, morose, or
capricious parent or teacher will have a constant conflict with the child,
and will never be able to establish his authority, to whatever extent, for
the time being, he may compel a seeming obedience. Authority should
not be exercised as such; "the right-feeling parent," says Herbert Spencer,
"like the philantropic legislator, will not rejoice in coercion, but will rejoice
in dispensing with coercion." (See MORAL EDUCATION.) In this connection,
arises the question of the propriety of corporal punishment to enforce
authority in the family or school. All educators are agreed, that the use
of physical force, if at all sanctioned, should be only, as a dernier ressort,
brought in when every other means of coercion has failed; some, however,
condemn the "use of the rod" utterly. Locke assents to it only in cases
of extreme obstinacy.
in mental
The principle of authority has an important application to the mental
as well as the moral education of children. In the earliest stages of intel-
lectual instruction, the child must receive most of the informa-
Authority tion imparted to it on the authority of its teacher; but modern
education. principles and methods require that, even from the first, as
far as possible, the child should learn for itself by the exer-
cise of its perceptive and conceptive faculties, and not merely on the
authority of its teachers. Much, however. must be imparted, that is be-
yond the scope of the child's understanding and experience; and, conse
quently, there will be a wide range for the operation of the teacher's
authority. It will, of course, be greater or less in proportion to his personal
influence in other respects, and particularly in proportion to the confidence
BACHELOR
39
felt by his pupils in his wisdom and attainments. The teacher should in-
fuse into the minds of his pupils an intellectual independence, - not a
skeptical questioning of everything, but a thoughtful investigation of the
why and the wherefore, a diligent balancing of the weight of testimony,
and a habit of inquiring into the ultimate reasons of things, as far as they
can be adduced. This will impart concentrativeness and activity of mind,
and call into exercise the judgment and reflection upon whatever is
presented to the attention, whether in study, reading, or conversation.
Rousseau severely criticised the pedagogy of his time, for basing the
science of education on the principle of authority. He demanded
that the pupil should not know any thing merely because it was told
him by the teacher, but because he understood it. He should not
learn the science, but discover it. "If," said he, "you give him an au-
thority instead of a reason, he will never think independently, but will al-
ways be the football of the opinions of others." This is an extreme view,
as every teacher of experience must know. The authority of the teacher
cannot be eliminated in intellectual education; since to do so would put the
undeveloped understanding of the pupil on an equality with the mature
and developed intellect of the instructor; neither can its just limits be def-
initely fixed. The disposition to accept the statements of the teacher as
truths, when not fully understood, should be cultivated. Modesty is often
as requisite and as becoming in thought as in morals. The great principle
to be kept in view is, that authority should not have its aim within itself,
but that its object should be to develop the faculties of the pupil, so that
he may fully understand as true and right, what he has received on the
authority of the teacher.
The following practical principles are enjoined in a recent publication
of great merit: "(1) Restraints should be as few as the situation admits
of. (2) Duties and offenses should be definitely expressed, so
Practical as to be clearly understood. (3) Offenses should be graduated
principles. according to their degree of heinousness. (4) The application
of punishment should be regulated according to certain principles. [See
PUNISHMENT.] (5) Voluntary dispositions are to be trusted as far as they
can go. (6) By organization and arrangement the occasions of disorder
are avoided. (7) The awe or influence of authority is maintained by a
certain formality and state. (8) It is understood that authority, with all
its appurtenances, exists for the benefit of the governed, and not as the
perquisite of the governor. (9) The operation of mere vindictiveness
should be curtailed to the uttermost. (10) So far as circumstances allow,
every one in authority should assume a benign character, seeking the benefit
of those under him, using instruction and moral suasion so as to stave off
the necessity of force. (11) The reasons for repression and discipline
should, as far as possible, be made intelligible to those concerned; and
should be referable solely to the general good." See BAIN, Education
as a Science (N. Y., 1881).
BACHELOR (Lat. Baccalaureus), a term applied to one who has
reached a certain grade in a college or university education; as, Bachelor
of Arts (A. B., or B. A.), Bachelor of Civil Law (B. C. L.), Bachelor of

40
· BIBLE
BELLES-LETTRES
Divinity (B. D.), etc. The word as thus used is of uncertain etymology.
It was introduced into the University of Paris by Pope Gregory IX., in
the 13th century, and applied as a title to those students who had passed
certain preliminary examinations, but were not prepared for admission
into the rank of master, teacher, or doctor. Afterward, it was adopted
by other European universities, to indicate the lowest academical honor,
as now used in this country and Europe. (See ARTS, and Degrees.)
BELLES-LETTRES is a French expression for polite literature, i. e.,
books and language in so far as they are shaped by the idea of beauty. It
has been used in English to designate a somewhat vague class of studies
connected, more or less, with the mastery of literature on its esthetic side.
Some of the colleges in the United States have had a professor of belles-
lettres, who has taught rhetoric and elocution mainly; but also poetry, prose
fiction, criticism, classical philology, and the humanities in general.
BENEVOLENCE, good-will, general and habitual kindness of dis-
position in our feelings, not only toward each other, but toward the lower
animals, is a trait of character which should receive a careful cultivation
in the education of the young. Children, in general, are not naturally
benevolent. Their undeveloped sympathies, their active propensities and
love of sport, and their proneness to what is called by phrenologists "de-
structiveness", incline them to acts of selfishness and cruelty. In order to
check this tendency, their sensibilities should, as much as possible, be
aroused; they should not be subjected to harsh or inconsiderate treatment,
and they should not only read and hear stories that awaken their sym-
pathies, but should be made to observe objects of compassion that require
their active aid; and they should be incited and encouraged in every pos-
sible way to self-sacrifice in relieving the sufferings of others. In their
conduct toward each other, they should be habituated to lay aside their
resentments, to forgive injuries, to put the kindest and most considerate
construction upon the acts of their companions, and to dismiss from their
minds all suspicions and jealousies, as well as all distrust that is not based
upon indisputable facts. The quarrels of children may for this purpose
become the means of wholesome discipline in instruction; since the dis-
putants themselves may be made to feel the desirability of mutual for-
bearance, and their associates, by being brought in to aid in reconciling
them, may be impressed with the beautiful character of the peace-maker.
In the treatment of the lower animals by children, there is much occasion
for this kind of training; and the skillful teacher will not fail to make use
of the numerous incidents of school life to impress this virtue upon the
child's character. (See MORAL EDUCATION.)
BIBLE (Gr. Ta ßißhía, the books), the book which contains the sacred
scriptures of the Jews and Christians. The use of the Bible in schools
has been for some time a subject of earnest and often heated discussion.
Some regard this use as a necessary adjunct to every system of education,
secular as well as religious, inasmuch as they consider the Bible to be the
basis of all religious truth or spiritual knowledge, and consequently in-
dispensable to the complete development of the mental and moral character.
Moreover, it is the view of this class of educators that secular and religious
education should be always intimately conjoined. Others, who uphold
state or comLion school education, which they regard as necessarily un-
BLACKBOARD
41
sectarian, deem it impracticable to use the Bible in schools, either by
study or simple reading, without trenching upon their unsectarian character,
and hence relegate its use to the Church and Sunday school. Still others,
who regard the Church as the divinely constituted and inspired source of
all religious instruction, oppose the use of the Bible on the ground that it
constantly requires the special exposition which only the Church can give,
or authorize to be given. For a full account of this agitation, see Cyclo-
po lin of Education,
BLACKBOARD, an important piece of school apparatus now in use
in all classes and grades of schools. It is generally constructed of wood,
and is either attached to the wall of the room, or made to stand on an
easel or to revolve in a frame.
The blackboard for the use of the teacher in giving his instruction or
explanations to the whole school or class, should, for the sake of conveni-
How to
be used.
ence, be placed near his desk and in front of the pupils. It is
a great advantage also to have sufficient blackboard surface to
addinit of its use by all the pupils of a class, or by sections of it.
This is especially desirable in higher instruction; but even in elementary
district schools will be found to be quite desirable. Some of the pupils
of a school can be employed in writing, drawing, or working out arith-
metical problems on the blackboards, while others are engaged in oral
recitation. There is scarcely any branch of instruction, or any kind of
teaching from the object lesson of the primary school to the lecture of the
college professor, in which the use of the blackboard is not found to be al-
most indispensable. In teaching mathematics, it has an especial value.
Scarcely a teacher, at the present day, in the most remote country school-
house, would think of teaching arithmetic without a blackboard. But it
is a most important aid also in teaching writing, drawing, geography,
grammar, composition, history, and music; indeed, in every thing that ad-
mits of, or requires, an ocular demonstration addressed to a large number
of pupils. Blackboard d awing can be made very instructive and interest-
ing, particularly when crayons of different colors are used. In some schools
this kind of drawing is carried to great perfection. Map drawing, or rapid
map-sketching, on the blackboard, is also very useful in t aching geog-
raphy. Recitations on this subject may be conducted by this means.
of the pupils draws the outline of the state or country which is the
subject of the lesson; another fills in the rivers; the next, the cities, etc.,
till the map is complete. As the study of maps depends so largely on
the proper and attentive use of the eye, this method of blackboard instruc-
tion cannot fail to be quite effective.
One
Blackboard illustration will also prove very effective in the oral teach-
ing, by a series of lessons or lectures, of abstract subjects other than
mathematics, such as logic, metaphysics. mental and moral
Its use in philosophy, etc. By this means the divisions and subdivisions
oral teach- of the subject, with their exact logical relations, are presented
ing.
to the mind through the eye, and a much stronger, clearer
and more durable impression is thus made. For an excellent example
of this kind of teaching, see MARK HOPKINS, An Outline Study of Man
(New York, 1876).
1
42
BLIND
Organiza-
BLIND, Education of the. The blind constitute. in every country,
a numerous class of afflicted persons for whom special instruction is
needed. An institution for the blind should comprehend three schools, or
departments; namely, the literary department or school proper, the school
of music, and the industrial school. This organization is
essential, in order to give the general instruction which every
tion. child needs, and also such special training as blindness renders
necessary. In the literary department, the course of instruction includes
the branches which are usually taught, in the common and high schools,
to the seeing; the principal difference being in the apparatus and methods
of teaching employed. Instead of the blackboard, wall-maps, slate and
pencil, and pen and ink, there are employed topographical maps,
Appliances. embossed books, slates with movable type to represent numerals
and algebraic signs, geometrical cards with figures in relief, metal tablets
for tangible writing, according to the New York point system,—also for
the New York system of alphabetic writing and musical notation.
The first efforts to instruct the blind found expression in an attempt
to teach them how to read by means of the fingers. Many alphabets in
relief have been devised, but all may be included in two classes: (1) Those
composed of lines, forming the ordinary capital or small letters in their
original form, or in some modification of it; (2) Those in which the letters
are formed of raised points, or dots, in no respect resembling the ordinary
letters, and called the point alphabet. These can be both printed and
written in a tangible form. The use of line letter text-books in classes is
very limited, from the fact that a classification according to reading ability
differs entirely from that based upon mental capacity and attainments.
For this reason, the instruction in each of the departments is chiefly
oral. The instruction of the blind in music is of paramount
Music. importance. It develops and refines the taste, promotes general
culture, affords constant and inexhaustible enjoyment, as well as the means
of respectable support. The musical course of instruction comprises voice
lessons, part and chorus singing, lessons and practice in piano and organ
playing, and a thorough course of teaching and training in the tuning of
pianos. Blind organists, teachers of the piano, and piano-tuners may be
found in all parts of the country. Heretofore, this department of in-
struction has been exclusively oral; but there is now a piano instruction
book, in the New York point system of musical notation, by which the
blind pupil may learn by finger-reading from the printed or written page.


Mechanical
The importance of mechanical training, in comparison with other
branches of instruction, in the education of the blind, is a matter of vital
interest. Some are of opinion that instruction in trades is of the
'first importance; others give it simply a place co-ordinate with
training. other departments of teaching; while still others attach the chief
importance to such branches as lead to those employments in which skilled
manual operations are required. The latter position cannot be maintained,
since in all such operations the guidance of the eye is more or less essential
to perfection and dexterity of manipulation; from which fact it is obvious
that purely mechanical pursuits are not necessarily the best adapted to
those who are deprived of sight. This being so, it is a great mistake to
rest the education of the young blind, and the prospects of their future
BOOK-KEEPING
43
usefulness and welfare, exclusively upon such employments. The true
plan is to give manual pursuits such a place in the scheme of education as
is required by the conditions which blindness imposes. The training of
the young blind in one or more industrial occupations should be rigidly
enforced, not because such employments furnish the only, the best, or the
most available means of future support, but because such training and
discipline of the head and the hand in work are necessary to the proper
education of every pupil. Thus, manual training is made the means to an
end, but not the end itself. Male pupils are taught to make brooms,
mats, mattresses, and brushes; to put cane bottoms into chairs; and to
perform other handicraft labors. Female pupils are taught to sew, knit,
and crochet, to use the sewing and knitting machine, and to work a great
variety of articles useful and ornamental.
BOOK-KEEPING, a system of recording the transactions of a
business so as to exhibit, in a plain and comprehensive manner, its condi-
tion and progress. The usual method of such a record comprises
Mode of (1) a history of the transactions at the date and in the order of
record. their occurrence, in a book, called the day-book, and (2) the
classifying of results in a book called the ledger. This classification
consists in arranging upon opposite sides of separate statements, or
accounts, all items of purchase, sale, receipt, expenditure, investment,
withdrawal, production, cost, etc., which, in any way, affect the business.
The accounts taken together should thus be adequate to express all that
Single
entry.
one may need to know of the progress of the business and its
condition at any time. The simplest form of record, by day-
book and ledger only, here explained, is applicable merely to a
very limited business. In the more extended and complicated enterprises,
various concurrent or auxiliary books are required, their number and
character depending upon the nature and peculiar operations of the
business. In even the simplest kinds of book-keeping, it is customary to
use an intermediate book between the day-book and ledger, called the
journal, the office of which is to state, or separate, each transaction so as
to simplify its transfer to the ledger.
Double
entry.
The only competent system of book-keeping is that known
as double entry, so called from the fact that the complete record
of any transaction requires at least two entries in the ledger
one on the debit or debtor side of some account, and one on the credit
or creditor side of some other account. The terms debit and credit
(meaning debtor and creditor, and usually marked Dr. and Cr.) are, for
the most part, used arbitrarily. They are really significant only when
applied to personal accounts; but their uniform application to all accounts
is a matter of great convenience. The charm and utility of the double-
entry system consist in the philosophical adjustment of mathematical facts
to the most exacting requirements of finance, and in the tests afforded of
the correctness of the work at any point. The simple principles
Underly-
underlying the system may be succinctly stated thus: (1) All
ing prin-
financial resources, or items of wealth, are measurable by the
ciples.
money standard; (2) The sum of all the resources of a concern,
thus measured, less the sum of all its liabilities, is its real or present worth;
(3) All increase or diminution in wealth comes from one of two sources:
44
BOOK-KEEPING
namely, the receiving of more or less for an article than its cost, or the
appreciation or depreciation of the value of an article while in possession:
(4) The immediate result of all gains or losses is the adding to, or taking
from, the net worth of the concern; and, consequently, the net gain or net
loss of a business during any specified time must agree with the increase
or diminution of its net worth for the same period. The foregoing
propositions may be said to be self-evident facts; but they are important
facts nevertheless, and such as any competent presentment of business
affairs must recognize and enforce; and this is just what double-entry
book-keeping does.
described.
The science, or philosophy, of the system is shown in the ledger, which,
as before stated, consists of accounts. An account is a collection of homo-
geneous items pertaining to some part of the business, such as
Accounts the receipt and disbursement of money (cash), the purchase and
sale of goods, the issue and redemption of notes, the incurring
and liquidating of personal indebtedness, etc. All accounts are alike in
their structure, each having a title, more or less significant, and two sides,
with the items on one side exactly opposite in effect to those on the other;
and, like plus and minus quantities, each canceling the other to the extent
of the lesser side, the preponderance, or excess, of either side being the true
showing and significance of the account. Thus, the debit or left-hand side
of the cash account contains the items of cash received; and the credit or
right-hand side, the items of cash disbursed; the difference or balance,
which, if any, must be in favor of the debit side, will be the amount of
cash on hand. Again, the debit of merchandise account contains the
items of the cost of goods purchased; and the credit side, the items of
avails of goods sold, or what the separate sales have produced; the dif-
ference or balance, when all the facts are shown, being the preponderance
of production over cost, or of cost over production, as the case may be — in
other words the net gain or net loss.
All transactions which mark the
progress of the business, having in them the element of gain or loss, must
occur between the two classes of accounts represented by cash and mer-
chandise the one taking cognizance of measuring financial worth, the
other indicating its increase or diminution. (The mere exchange of one
fixed value for another, such as the canceling of a personal indebtedness by
receiving or paying cash, should be called a liquidation rather than a
transaction; for although it requires a complete record, the same as the
buying and selling of goods, it has nothing to do with the progress of the
business, having in it no element of gain or loss.) The real transactions
of the business being, therefore, divided between these two classes of
accounts, we have in the one class such as merchandise the in-
dication or statement of all the separate gains and losses which have
occurred, and in the other—such as cash the complete measure of
the net resources, or real wealth; the two together establishing the
satisfactory concurrence of cause and effect, or assertion and proof. Thus,
the accounts of assertion or cause indicate a net gain or net loss, while
those of proof or effect show correspondingly increased or diminished net
worth.
The peculiar methods or forms of recording business affairs are so va-
rious owing to the great variety of manipulation or processes, as also to
BOTANY
45
the difference in the estimates of a competent record, that they cannot be
pointed out. The general conception of the purpose and sphere of book-
Purpose
of boot-
keeping, however, may be stated as compassing such a record
of affairs as will enable the proprietor to know, at any time,
the extent of his wealth and of what it consists. Of course,
keeping. if the real worth of a business man can be ascertained at any
time, the increase or diminution between any two periods may readily
be obtained.
BOTANY (Gr. ßorávn, herb, plant), the science of vegetable life, treat-
ing of the elementary composition, structure, habits, functions, and classi-
fication of plants, in which are included herbs, shrubs, and trees.
De inition. This is a branch of that general descriptive, or empirical science,
called natural history; being based upon the facts of observation. The
educative value of botany, especially in the early stages of the
Educative mind's development, is very considerable,-far more so, indeed,
value. than its usual place in the curriculum of school education would
indicate; since it is generally superseded by subjects which seem to be of
more practical importance to the pupil in his after life. In the more
modern systems of elementary education, both in this country and in
Europe, particularly in Germany, the training of the perceptive faculties
by the systematic observation of objects holds a very prominent place, in-
deed is considered the basis of all sound mental culture; and among all
the objects of nature, none can claim precedence in point of variety, beauty,
and interest, for this purpose, over those of which botany treats. The
facility with which plants may be collected, handled, and analyzed, as well
as their general attractiveness, makes them peculiarly well adapted for ob-
ject teaching. Bugs and beetles are often quite repulsive to a child, but
where is the girl or boy who is not pleased with the contemplation, or the
manipulation, of leaves and flowers?
For the purpose of this kind of instruction, and as an introduction of
the subject to young minds, the chief point is to direct the attention
of the child to the most obvious characteristics of plants and
How of their parts, as leaves, stems, roots, flowers, seeds, etc.
applied. They should be set at once to collect specimens for themselves,
and be shown how (1) to observe them, (2) how to state and record
the results of their observations, so that they may acquire a knowledge
of the words used to express the characteristic peculiarities of different ob-
jects. Here will be afforded a wide range for the exercise of comparative
observation, in the perception of both resemblances and differences, but
particularly the latter. It is not requisite, nay, it would be injurious, to
teach anything of classification at this stage; nor indeed is it necessary
that the child should know the name of any plant the whole or part of
which is under observation. Some prefer to teach the names; since the
child's mind has a craving for the names of such objects as interest it.
When, therefore, the name is asked for by the pupil, there can be no ob-
jection to the teacher's telling it. The observation and description of the
characteristics are, however, the essential points to be insisted upon. For
Schedule
method.
this purpose, no plan can be better than the "Schedule Method,"
invented by Prof. J. S. Henslow, of Cambridge, England. Ac-
cording to this method, the pupil starts with an observation of
46
BOTANY
the simplest characteristics, as the parts of the leaf - its blade, petioles,
stipules; its venation, margin, etc. The general appearance of these may
be at first represented by pictures, but only to enable the learner to study
the natural objects, which he carefully observes, and writes the characters
in his schedule, attaching each specimen to it, as a verification to the
teacher of the accuracy of his observation. (See YOUMANS's First Book
of Botany.) It will be easily seen that by a continuous application of
this plan, the pupil will acquire a considerable knowledge of the charac-
teristics of plants, as well as of the nomenclature of the science; and,
moreover, that at every step his observation, and his judgment too, will
be thoroughly exercised and trained, in order to be able to describe the
minute distinctions of form, structure, color, etc., that are subjected to
his discriminative attention. This process harmonizes entirely with the
following just view of a distinguished educator: "The first instruction
of children in the empirical sciences should mainly consist in exhibiting
to them interesting objects and phenomena; in allowing them to look,
handle, and ask questions; and in giving opportunity for the free exercise
of their youthful imaginations. A teacher may guide them in their ex-
plorations of the neighborhood, direct their observations, make inquiries,
give explanations, conduct experiments, call things by their right names;
but he must be careful to do it in such a manner as not to check their play
of fancy or chill their flow of feeling." (See WICKERSHAM'S Methods of
Instruction.) But the young pupil is not to be kept constantly at mere
observation, or the comparison of the form, structure, color, etc., of leaves,
flowers, and other parts of plants; his attention may be called to the simple
facts of vegetable physiology, and thus shown "how plants grow" and "how
they behave," as well as what they are. Such information as the circu-
lation of the sap, its use, the functions of the leaf, the root, the flower,
and the seed, communicated in an appropriate style and ex-
Advanced
instruction, plained by their analogy with other things, familiar to the mind
of every child, will properly supplement the knowledge gained
by the pupil through his own observations. If, after this elementary in-
struction, it is deemed important that botany should be studied as a
science, the pupil must be gradually trained in classification, for which
the foundation will have been laid. In this branch of study, as in all
other departments of natural history, the mental processes to be suc-
cessively performed are: (1) Observation, with the view to comparison
and analysis; (2) Classification; (3) Induction, or the discovery of prin-
ciples, so as to embody the observed facts into a science; and (4) Ap-
plication of the scientific principles to new facts. The elementary ex-
ercises already described conduct the pupil through the first stage only;
but the scientific study does not begin until the third, and is not com-
pleted till he has become practiced in the fourth. The observation of
common characters in plants will necessarily lead the mind of the pu-
pil to perceive the method and the value of classification; but such ex-
ercises need not be very protracted, since it is natural even to a child
to generalize and classify. He will soon be prepared for the methodical
study of systematic botany; and then very properly may be
botany. supplied with a good text-book. But the pupils must only use it
as an auxiliary or instrument, in the study of nature. Let them
Systematic
BOYS — BRAIN
47
still be encouraged to collect specimens, to notice as fully and accurately
as possible their peculiarities, and to describe them by the proper terms.
Some simple means of drying and preserving plants will be very serviceable,
so that the school at least may possess a tolerably complete herbarium.

be kept in
BOYS, Education of. In the education of boys, the same general
principles are to be applied as in that of girls; and, up to a certain age,
in their school education, the same arrangements for discipline
Objects to
and instruction will answer. Education, however, rightly con-
sidered, has for its object to aid and guide the development
view. of the powers or faculties, both generic and specific, of the
individuals who are subjected to its ministrations; and, consequently,
its processes should vary with the character of the faculties which are
to be developed. And this is by no means the whole. Education is
to be addressed to all the elements of character, physical, mental, and
moral. There are propensities to restrain and subdue as well as powers to
bring out and direct. There are tendencies to good to cultivate and en-
courage; and there are, from the first, those of an opposite character to
repress or extinguish. There is not only the intelligence to be stimulated
and guided, there is the will to be subdued, to be made subject, not only
to the authority of the educator, but to the conscience of the educated.
Ką
Doubtless, there are principles sufficiently comprehensive to
Discrim-
embrace all these considerations, and to afford a safe foundation
ination
for practical methods and rules sufficiently minute to reach
needed.
every case, however peculiar or eccentric; but what we wish
here especially to lay down, is the important, fundamental law, that edu-
cation, claiming to be scientific, and not a mere mechanical empiricism, must
take cognizance of all these elements of human character, not only in their
average condition and degree, but in those marked diversities which con-
stitute individual character. (See EDUCATION.) According to this prin-
ciple, boys and girls can never properly be subjected to precisely the same
processes of education, because their natures are very different, physically,
mentally, and morally. This fact is, however, not necessarily in conflict
with co-education; indeed, it may be an argument in favor of it. Children
of both sexes may be trained in the same family, and instructed in the same
school or class; but the wise parent and the skillful teacher will often have
to make a careful discrimination in his treatment of them as boys or girls.
BRAIN, the principal organ of the nervous system, and the fountain
of nervous energy to the whole body. It is the seat of consciousness, feeling,
and intellect, and also the recipient of all impressions made on
What is
the brain. any part of the nervous system. The brain being the organ
especially concerned in education, its hygiene is an important sub-
ject for the attention of the teacher. The development of this organ is very
rapid. The average weight of the brain in adults is about 48 ounces, and
this limit is generally attained at the age of thirteen years. No organ
is, from the time of birth, so regularly and so incessantly exercised as the
brain. During the period of infancy, nature herself superintends
this process; and unless her care is interfered with through the
ignorance, folly, or neglect of the mother or nurse, it results in
a healthy growth and development. When the age of infancy is passed,
and the child is surrendered to the educator, intelligence and skill may
Develop-
ment.
48
BURGHER SCHOOL — BUSINESS COLLEGES
"6
accomplish much benefit in regulating the cerebral development; or a want
of skill and intelligence may do, and often does, very great injury. Exercise
is the natural instrument by which all the bodily organs are brought to a
maturity of growth and strength, and by which they are kept in
How a condition of health. In applying this principle, the teacher
regulated.
should see that the exercise be proper, (1) as to its kind, (2) as
to its degree, (3) as to its direction; and in all these respects, that it is
adapted to the age and peculiar physical condition of the child to be
educated. The same process will not answer for all. The teacher who
wishes to do good, whose aim is really to educate, will study the external
indications of temperament, of bodily health and disease, and also of
cerebral structure; and will, as far as possible, regulate his operations
accordingly. The brain is exercised both by thought and feeling; being the
seat of various faculties, both mental and moral, its activities are aroused
by whatever is addressed to the intellect, the conscience, the emotions,
or the propensities. The first step," says Combe, "towards establishing
the regular exercise of the brain, is to educate and train the mental
faculties in youth; and the second is to place the individual habitually in
circumstances demanding the discharge of useful and important duties."
The healthy development of the brain may be prevented (1) by wrong
exercise, (2) by being overtasked, (3) by bad physical conditions, (4) by
bad moral conditions. Overstrained or too long continued attention,
excessive tasks from books, committed to memory under the pressure of
fear, long confinement in close rooms, and hence the want of properly
oxygenated air, will impair the functions of the brain, and lay the
foundation, not only of future disease, but perhaps of future imbecility.
So, too, when subjected to harsh discipline, to unkind treatment, to a
moral atmosphere vitiated by the irritability, ill-humor, and moroseness of
the parent or teacher, the brain of the child loses even its natural or normal
physical condition, and its growth is necessarily morbid. (See PHYSICAL
EDUCATION.)
BURGHER SCHOOL (Ger. Bürgerschule), a name given to many
public schools of a higher grade in the towns of Germany, designed to
educate the children of citizens for a practical business life.
BUSINESS COLLEGES, as distinct institutions, are the outgrowth
of the past thirty years, although schools and private classes for instruction
in the commercial branches-particularly book-keeping and penmanship-
have been in vogue for a much longer time. Formerly, most of this kind
of instruction was given by a few private teachers in the large cities (who
generally united the duties of teacher with those of public accountant),
and by itinerant professors who traveled from place to place, teaching
special classes for a limited number of lessons at low rates. The utility of
this practical training was readily apparent, and as a matter of self-
protection no less than of self-respect, the established schools, public and
private, were induced to recognize the importance of these useful branches,
and to supply instruction therein in more liberal measure.
There sprung
up also, in the large cities and villages, schools, making the practical studies
a specialty, and calling themselves commercial or mercantile colleges. Some
of them were organized under state charters and authorized to issue
diplomas in due form. These institutions placed themselves before the
CALISTHENICS
49
public as professional schools, assuming the same relations to the future
business-man as those which already existed between the medical, law, and
theological schools, and the members of those various professions. See
Cyclopaedia of Education.
On what
based.
Peculiar
CALISTHENICS (Gr. kaλós beautiful, and odévos strength), a sys-
tem of physical exercises for females, designed to promote strength and
gracefulness of movement; or, by assisting the natural and harmonious
development of the muscular system, to improve the health, and add to the
beauty of personal appearance. Calisthenic and gymnastic exercises are
based on the same principle,-that exercise is essential to the
principles proper development of the physical as well as mental faculties,
and to the maintenance of their healthy condition; and that,
in education, it is requisite that suitable exercises should
be systematically employed. The only difference between calisthenics
and gymnastics consists in the adaptation of the former to the physical
education of girls; and, of course, the exercises employed require a less
violent muscular action. These exercises may be practiced with or without
apparatus. The latter, which should be employed first, consist in such
movements as bring into regular and systematic operation all parts of the
body. The movements are neither violent nor coinplicated, being in fact
only such as are required in the ordinary exercise of the limbs. Their
advantage over those required in the common active sports of
value of girls consists in their systematic regulation so as to insure an
equal and regular action of the muscles; while long continued
sports of any particular kind, such as trundling the hoop, using the skip-
ping-rope, etc., have the reverse effect. Calisthenic exercises should,
How used. however, be so varied as to exhilarate the spirits as well as
task the muscles, or they will lose much of their beneficial
effect; since while the body is exercised, the mind must be interested.
The simplest apparatus used consists of wands or poles, dumb-bells, back-
boards, elastic bands with handles, light weights, etc. With such instru-
ments, a great variety of beneficial, graceful, and interesting exercises can
be performed; and when whole classes are exercised simultaneously, there
will necessarily be a healthful mental excitement mingled with the physical
training, particularly when the movements are regulated by the rhythm of
Utility.
music, which is usually the case in modern schools. The utility
of such exercises, when properly and judiciously employed can-
not be doubted, especially after the age of 12 or 14 years, before which
they should rarely, if ever, be resorted to. Numerous ailments to which
females are peculiarly liable are due to the neglect of proper physical train-
ing, and may be prevented or cured by a judicious employment of cal-
isthenic exercises; but in resorting to them, certain general rules and
directions are to be kept steadily in view. They should never be
Rules and practiced immediately after meals, nor very near the time of
directions. eating, as digestion cannot be properly performed when the
system is in an exhausted condition. The best time for exercise
is early in the morning or toward evening. In school, these exercises,
being of a moderate character, may come after the mind is wearied with
•
50
CALISTHENIUM — CATECHETICAL METHOD
protracted intellectual work, for then they will prove a relief; but intel-
lectual efforts cannot effectively be put forth after the physical system has
become jaded and fatigued by protracted exercise. Calisthenic exercises
should always be commenced and finished gently; indeed all abrupt transi-
tions from gentle to violent exertions, or the contrary, should be avoided.
It is by moderate and prolonged or repeated exercise that the physical
organs are to be developed or improved, not by violent and fitful efforts.
The weaker organs should receive the most attention, so that the whole
system may receive a harmonious development. The dress should be light
and easy; and the department in which the exercises are taken should be
spacious, cool, and well-ventilated. All such exercises require to be prac-
ticed with many precautions and with a due regard to the condition of the
individual. Teachers may be the means of doing much injury by indis-
criminately requiring all their pupils to go through the same amount of
exercise. The effect upon every pupil should be carefully watched; and,
in some cases, the advice of a careful physician should not be dispensed with.
CALISTHENIUM, a newly coined term, applied to an apartment
or hall in which calisthenic exercises are practiced. It has been formed
after the analogy of gymnasium.
Limita-
CATECHETICAL METHOD, the method of instruction by
question and answer, according to which the pupils are required to answer
the questions of the teacher, so as to show what explanations
they particularly need in order to obtain a correct knowledge of
tions. the subject; or sometimes they commit to memory and recite
answers to set questions from a text-book. There are but few subjects,
however, which can be properly taught in this way; since, in training the
intellectual faculties, the sequence of facts, thoughts, or ideas, is more im-
portant than their clear apprehension or expression singly and disconnect-
edly. On this principle, there are several objections to the
catechetical method as one of general application: (1) The
pupil is deprived of a proper exercise of the expressive faculties,
Objections
to the
method. being required only to repeat what has been enunciated in the
language of others; (2) The logical relations of the facts learned are apt
to be unnoticed by the pupils, from the absence of those intermediate con-
nective words and phrases by which ordinarily those relations are indicated;
(3) The pupil, by learning merely the answer to a question, fails to obtain
a full idea of the truth, a part of which, and sometimes the most essential
part, is expressed in the question itself. Thus, if a pupil is asked, What
is an island? and he answers, Land surrounded by water, he does not
entirely express the fact, but only a disjointed fragment of it. Many text-
books constructed on the catechetical plan are liable to this objection;
others, however, obviate it by invariably making the answer a complete
statement, the gist of the question being repeated. Thus, the answer of
the question, What is an island? would be, An island is land surrounded
by water. When the catechetical method is employed in giving oral in-
struction, the teacher should be careful to keep this principle in view. A
skillful use of this method will always be found effective in opening
How made up to the mind of the pupil the fundamental ideas and prin-
efective. ciples of a subject previous to its formal study by the pupil him-
self, or, when difficulties arise, in leading the pupil's mind, by
CATECHISM
51
CHARACTER
an adroit series of interrogatories, to such an analysis of the statement or
problem in question as will enable him to apprehend the elementary facts
or principles involved, and thus to solve the difficulty without further aid.
This, however, is not so much an application of the catechetical method as
a skillful use of interrogation, one of the most valuable and indispensable
means of imparting information. (See INTERROGATION.)
The catechetical method was formerly very popular in schools, and
almost universally employed; but, in proportion as mechanical methods
of recitation and rote-teaching gave place to such as appealed
Why directly to the pupil's intelligence and powers of expression
abandoned. the mere question-and-answer system of instruction became,
discredited and was abandoned. In its place, the topical method is now in
quite general use. This requires that the pupil shall give a connected
statement, not simply as an answer to a question, but as logically expressing
the knowledge which he has acquired in regard to the topic assigned by
the teacher.
CATECHISM (Gr. Karηxioμós, instruction), an elementary work
containing a summary of principles, especially of religious doctrine, reduced
to the form of questions and answers. The name catechism for a religious
work of this kind was probably first proposed by Luther, whose two
famous catechisms appeared in 1529. The use of catechisms in formal
religious instruction is very general, the object being not only to present
to children, in the most lucid form, the tenets of the religious communion
of which they are expected to become active members in after life, but to
impress these doctrines indelibly upon their minds.
CATECHUMEN (Gr. Kαтnxovμɛvos, instructed by word of mouth),
the name given, in the early Christian church, to a convert who was
receiving catechetical instruction preparatory to baptism. The catechumens
were divided into different grades or classes according to the degree of their
proficiency, only those of the highest grade, who had been pronounced fit
for baptism, being permitted to be present at the administration of the
Lord's Supper. This appellation was afterward given to the younger
members of any Christian church who were undergoing instruction to
prepare them for the rite of confirmation, or for the Communion, in which
sense the term is still used.
Its import-
ance in
education.
CHARACTER, Discernment of. The perception of the peculiarities
of individual character by its external manifestations constitutes an essential
preliminary to all sound and judicious educational treatment.
There is an endless diversity in the natural inclinations and
capacities of children; and, therefore, no system of education can
claim to be scientific that fails to recognize this fact, and to
supply (1) the principles and rules that should guide the educator in
discerning these individual peculiarities, and (2) the practical methods
of treatment best adapted to each. Generally, however, education is carried
on with but little or no such discriminations; pupils, whatever may be their
temperament, physical condition, state of health, mental capaci-
Neglect of ties, or moral proclivities, are treated according to the same
system or plan. It is true, there is in every mind a kind of instinctive
perception of the peculiarities of character, either the result of an inex-
plicable impression or prejudice, formed with little observation, or a positive
52
CHART
judgment derived almost unconsciously from an attention, more or less
superficial, to the person's appearance, actions, and words on different
occasions. A systematic study of the external indications of character has
not, however, been generally, or usually, enjoined upon the teacher as a
preparation for the work of training and instruction. Nevertheless, the
"Let
most distinguished educators have fully recognized the principle.
him that is skilled in teaching," says Quintilian, "ascertain first of all when
a boy is entrusted to him, his ability and disposition."
classifica-
When children are educated at home by private teachers, and, indeed,
always in that part of education which belongs to the family or home
circle, there is a wide scope for such discrimination; but when large masses
of children are taught together, as in public schools, a discrimination of
individual traits, and a corresponding adaptation of method
Basis of and requirement becomes, except within quite narrow limits,
impracticable; still, it has been questioned whether, in the
tion. organization of such schools, the classification of the children
should not be based upon other considerations than merely their apparent
proficiency in a few elementary branches of study. If to secure these
intellectual acquirements be the exclusive end of the teaching to be given,
the usual classification is, of course, proper; but, even then, it should be
constantly corrected according as individual capacity unfolds itself. Some
pupils will make much more rapid progress than others; and if
Consequen these are kept back in order that the general or average progress
ces of disre of the class may be brought up to a given standard, their future
garding it.
progress will be greatly obstructed; their mental activity and
elasticity will be impaired by the want of due exercise; and their interest
in study will be more or less extinguished. Moreover, not finding the
natural craving of their minds for exercise gratified, their sensuous nature
will be unduly developed, and they will be inclined to plunge into frivolous
and idle amusements. In large schools, conducted almost entirely without
any of the discrimination here referred to, the individual is sacrificed to
the mass; and many a bright youth loses not only the best hours of his life,
but, by untoward habits and a want of due training, the very spring of his
intellectual nature. The moral influence of such indiscriminate treatment
is still worse; since there is nothing that requires so delicate and careful a
consideration as the proper methods of guiding, controlling, and training
the dispositions of children.
CHART (Gr. xáρrns, Lat. charta, a leaf of paper), a large sheet
generally of pasteboard, containing a synoptical exhibit of letters, words,
colors, plants, etc., to be used in giving instruction, particularly to classes.
This is a very useful piece of school apparatus, since by means of
it the eye is addressed, and large numbers of pupils may be
Its utility.
taught simultaneously; while the teacher is relieved from the
trouble of writing out or drawing on the blackboard what is to be
presented. In teaching color by object lessons, a chart is indispensable,
Several excel-
as it exhibits, in a methodical way, the objects themselves.
lent charts for this purpose have been constructed. Charts are also very
useful in teaching phonics. In higher instruction, there are many subjects
in which the use of charts affords an important means of illustration; and,
hence, we find in school rooms charts of botany, physiology, chemistry,
CHEMISTRY
53

astronomy, etc. While the rapid sketching of an illustration on the black-
board has many advantages for certain kinds of illustration and teaching,
the more accurate delineation of objects by charts is often to be preferred,
and, therefore, no school room can be completely furnished without sets of
these articles.
CHEMISTRY, although one of the youngest branches of physical
science in its development, is one of the most important from an edu-
Its edu-
cational
value.
cational point of view. But the attention may be so readily
arrested by its many easily recognized points of contact with the
individual and society, in its numberless applications in the
household, the shop, the farm, etc., as well as in the industrial
processes on a grander scale, that any value it may possess, as a purely dis-
ciplinary agent, may be overlooked, even by teachers of it, and it may be
regarded too much, simply as a low utilitarian element in an educational
course, however valuable it may be admitted to be. It is, nevertheless,
true that, in recent years, much that had contributed a peculiar attractive-
ness to chemistry as a branch of instruction, seemed inextricably involved
in discussion. The perspicuity of its nomenclature, the precision of its
statements, the simplicity and comparatively limited number of the laws
involved in its most complex phenomena, were all apparently affected.
But it has at last emerged from this formative condition, so changed to be
sure, that many well educated in chemistry a few years ago may be obliged
to recast their knowledge in new moulds, but with a system of philosophy
which has much clearer and more comprehensive generalizations. It has,
moreover, lost nothing of its peculiar character as perhaps the most sharply
defined branch of physical science. The changes have not been so much
those of abandonment of views formerly held, as of their expansion, to
provide for the wonderful accumulation of facts since the science first took
form about the beginning of the century. The old nomenclature survives
only in a few general principles. The names, being out of accord with
established and accepted facts, were too precise, and expressed too much.
In teaching chemistry, three methods readily suggest themselves: (1) By
text-books; (2) By lectures, accompanied by experiments; and (3) By ex-
Methods of periments or investigations performed by the pupil. These
Methods of methods are so different in themselves and in the end to be ac-
teaching it.
complished, that they cannot be compared as to effectiveness;
but they so fully supplement each other, that they should as far as possible
be employed together. The tendency, at the present time, is to under-
value the text-book. Whilst there can be no doubt that, by itself, it yields
the least return for the time, attention, and drudgery of both teacher and
pupil, as an adjunct to either of the other methods, it not only imparts
fullness to the knowledge, but also renders it more precise. Another inci-
dental advantage of the highest character consists in a certain facility for
reference, which its study imparts; and, in many cases, an ability to make
use of the literature of the science, and, by means of it, to study up a sub-
ject, or investigate a particular case, may be of far more value than a
memory thoroughly crammed with facts.
Lectures accompanied by illustrative experiments are generally con-
ceded to be valuable, and to some extent indispensable, aids in teaching
physical science. Text-book study, however faithful and earnest, must be

54
CHEMISTRY
But
supplemented by them. The facts formulated in words must be vitalized,
and re-enforced by their objective reproduction. Presented thus directly
to the senses, they not only become more intelligible, but possess
Lectures. a peculiar charm, that impresses them upon the memory, and
renders the whole study more profitable, as well as more attractive.
lectures are more particularly adapted to teach the general principles of
the science, and to develop to its fullest extent the disciplinary value of
the mode of reasoning employed in the investigation of the truths of nature,
and also to cultivate the faculty of observation. They are, however, not at
all adapted to displace the text-book. They are feeble in teaching details.
Simple statement and re-statement, and illustration combined, will not im-
press these upon the memory. If the pupil be required to take full notes,
or indeed be allowed to take any notes at all, it will be at the loss of much
that is peculiarly valuable in such lectures. With the faculty of observa-
tion in the pupil generally untrained, any division of attention between
writing, and listening, and observing will greatly reduce the proper effect
of the lecture. Great pains should be taken to arrange the matter, and
bring it before the pupil so that the salient points may impress themselves
upon the memory; and the lecture should be filled in from memory after-
ward, or it may be a still better plan, in many cases, to furnish, on the
blackboard, a very brief syllabus of the lecture. But much of the effect-
iveness of a lecture is lost in attempting even incidentally to teach numer-
ous details by means of it. It cannot be expected, nor is it at all necessary,
to reproduce all, or indeed a very large proportion, of the facts and proces-
ses of the text-book, in order that it may be fully comprehended. There
are many facts and processes in chemistry that possess a typical character,
aiding directly in the comprehension of many others, and these are the ones
most likely to be drawn upon by the lecturer. There is no branch of physical
science that admits of a fuller illustration and verification of its facts with
comparatively limited and inexpensive apparatus, nor any in which the want
of thorough practical knowledge and skill on the part of the experimenter is
productive of less damage to the apparatus employed. Up to a very recent
date. simple entertainment and amusement have been regarded, almost
equally with instruction, as the objects of such lectures. The most sensa-
tional experiments that the science and the means at command
could afford, were impressed into service; and these, too, often
periments. loosely connected, or arranged in the order of the text-book.
There is still unfortunately a residuum of expectation of something of this
kind. The apparatus and experiments with it are apt to be made the dis-
play features of the instruction. Whilst simple entertainment, or even
amusement, may sometimes legitimately accompany lectures on chemistry,
it should be only as a natural incident; and even then, should not occur
too often, since it is apt to create an expectation of, if not a desire for,
such features; and this will seriously divert the attention of the pupils
from the line of thought which should always connect the experiments.
Every experiment should come upon the scene like a well-trained servant,
just at the right point of time to add its proper effect to the total effect of
the lecture; and, in no case, should it control the lecturer. An experi-
ment without such a subordinate relation is as much out of place as a
word without proper connection in a discourse. As the text-book is
Value of ex-
CHEMISTRY
55
Topical
largely a compendium of details, its somewhat arbitrary plan of arrange-
ment, and its formal, systematic, didactic treatment must give way to the
more instructive, as well as more attractive, Baconian method of
insinuating knowledge into the mind of the pupil in the manner
method. in which it was discovered. Topics should be taken up, dis-
cussed, and illustrated. The most familiar phenomena should be noticed,
and the lecturer should place himself, with his appliances, in the position
of an investigator,-an interrogator of nature, and an interpreter of her
replies. The point of attack, and the line of investigation should be care-
fully determined upon and wrought out, so as to evoke the most valuable
information, and exhibit the logic of facts inductively employed. The
pupil will readily follow the investigator in his alternate inductions and
deductions, as he "guesses and checks his guesses." He will thus not only
learn the subject, but acquire, in a measure, the attitude of mind by which
facts are discovered, judged, and arranged, and by which also they may be
turned to practical account. To take a very simple case: car-
Illustration.
bonic acid being selected as the subject, a burning candle may
suffice to start the inquiry which will lead up to it, and far beyond it.
Then, out of the numerous questions that suggest themselves, the chemist
might ask whether, as the material of the candle evidently undergoes a radi-
cal change, the air surrounding it is affected? It is placed in a jar, and
covered; it goes out. Is the air changed? Test with lime-water. Yes.
Will a splinter change it in the same way? Try. Yes. It is then allow-
able to guess that all burning bodies affect the air in the same way. The
guess may be checked by employing a wax taper; then an oil-lamp; then
a gas-jet. The inference then becomes the very plausible hypothesis, that
burning bodies invariably affect the air surrounding them in such a way,
that it will render lime-water turbil. All would be satisfied to stop at
this conclusion; but a jet of burning hydrogen is at hand, and on repeated
trials, each time with greater care, it fails to give the result predicted from
the hypothesis. The many facts only led up to that degree of certainty;
the one discordant fact shakes the whole fabric. The case is now looked
at anew. What have these bodies in common so as to produce this
identical result in burning, which hydrogen has not? Carbon. A piece
of charcoal is tried. It confirms the conjecture which led to the experi-
ment with it. More cautiously than before, the hypothesis would then be
modified to suit the new fact,-bodies containing carbon in burning modify
the atmosphere in a certain way. From this point, all the leading proper-
ties of carbonic acid could be developed, with but little more apparatus
than may be found in any household: its specific gravity, by pouring it
from ordinary pitchers, or running it off by means of a syphon, by weigh-
ing it in a paper bag on ordinary scales, etc.; its solubility in water, and
the solvent properties it imparts to the water, by passing it through lime-
water, until the precipitate is re-dissolved, then re precipitating it by boil-
ing the solution, etc. The other constituents of the atmosphere are, in a
similar way, readily brought within the range of inquiry. Such a mode
of treatment has for the pupils all the freshness of an original
Effects
investigation. It arouses a spirit of inquiry, and quickens ob-
of this
servation; since they will be far more apt to observe closely
method. when they are to discover what is to be seen, than if required
4
56
CHRIST CROSS ROW
Notation
Experi-
simply to see what is described. There will, moreover, be a pleasing sur-
prise at the evolution of clear general principles from apparently confused
inquiries. In such lectures, a sensational experiment without a direct
bearing upon the subject, would be entirely out of place. Humble and
ap-
parently trifling experiments are frequently found to present the truth in
its simplest, clearest, most intelligible form. In all cases the chemical
notation should be freely employed. All reactions should be
to be used. expressed by symbols upon the blackboard. One fact, how-
ever, should be continually kept in mind in arranging such a
lecture, and bringing the phenomena before the pupils; namely, that in
pupils of all ages, without any previous training in this direction, the
power of observation is generally exceedingly feeble, and that they can fol-
low the lecturer but slowly. They are very apt to overlook or mistake the
feature to be observed, or to be misled by some unavoidably prominent
accessory. An examination upon a lecture of the simplest character will
reveal this fact. The most salient points, even, will often be found to be
wanting. A great part of the value of the illustrations of scien-
tific lectures in our higher institutions, and of the highly elabo-
ments by rated popular lectures is lost for the same reason. This difficulty
the student. may be remedied in a great measure by adding the other method
of teaching suggested; that is, by allowing the pupil, under the direction
of the teacher, to perform the experiments and conduct the investigation,
requiring him to keep accurate notes, and, in some cases, to reproduce the
results in the form of a lecture. Chemistry is peculiarly adapted to this
mode of instruction. A few test-tubes, flasks, corks, etc., and very little
material will put it into the power of the pupil to reproduce the expla-
nation of many facts. He will learn more by a few failures than by a whole
series of experiments successfully exhibited in a lecture, and will realize
how much of care and painstaking accuracy must be expended in the prep-
aration of every successful experiment. He will appreciate the importance
of the most trifling essential condition, and will find that here no over-
sights, no mistakes, no negligence can be condoned; but that failure follows
them as inexorably as effect follows cause. He will be surprised to find
how apparently trifling an oversight often lay between him and success,
and will learn to estimate conditions by other standards than their ap-
parent magnitude or importance. He will thus form the habit of observ-
ing closely, and of noticing every thing exhibited in the course of lectures,
and will carry this habit into all the affairs of life.-See DAUBENY (Prof.
Charles G. B.), On the Study of Chemistry as a Branch of Education, in
Lectures on Education (London 1855).
CHRIST CROSS ROW, or Criss Cross Row, a familiar designation
formerly applied to the first line, or row, of the alphabet, as arranged in
the old horn-books. or primers. In these books, which consisted of only
a single page, the letters were printed in the following manner :
+ A a b c d e f go hijklmnopqrfs t u v w x y z etc
a e io u A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V
W X Y Z
The first line commencing with a cross was called the Christ cross row,
or briefly the cross row.
CHRONOLOGY 57
-
— CLASS
classifi
CHRONOLOGY. See HISTORY.
CLASS (Lat. classis, from Gr. κhãos, from κaλriv, to call, because
applied to an assembly of the people when callod together), a number of
pupils or students in a school or college, of the same grade of
Definition.
attainments, receiving the same instruction, and pursuing the
same studies.
When large numbers of pupils are to be taught, a careful
distribution of them into classes becomes requisite; indeed, nothing is so
important, previous to the work of instruction, as an accurate classification.
Heterogeneous masses of children cannot be instructed simultaneously.
They may be made to perform mechanically certain school exercises,-
may, perhaps, be taught to read, to spell, to write, and to cipher
Need of to some extent; but it can only be by rote, without the due
exercise of their intelligence, and, hence, without proper mental
cation. development. A poorly classified school can never be really
efficient, whatever talent in teaching may be brought to bear upon it. There
is no doubt that individual teaching has many advantages over the teaching
of classes; since there is a better opportunity to observe the pupils' peculiar
traits of character, and to adapt the instruction to them; but class teaching
approximates to individual teaching in proportion as the classification is so
accurate as to bring together under the influence of the teacher pupils of
a like grade of attainments, and of similar disposition, temperament, and
mental constitution. Such a degree of accuracy in classification is ordinarily
impossible; but this is the ideal standard to which the teacher must al-
ways endeavor to approximate in organizing the classes of his school,
or he cannot anticipate success.
Size of
A proper limit as to the size of classes should be carefully observed.
This is difficult to fix by the statement of any particular number, since
the number of pupils that may be properly placed under the
instruction of a single teacher will vary with the age and char-
classes. acter of the pupils, the evenness of the grade, and the skill and
experience of the teacher himself. When the number is between 50 and
100, or over, as it sometimes is in large city schools, of course no proper
result can be effected. "In a large class," says Reid (Principles of
Elucation), "each of whom seldom, and at best only for a short time,
receives individually any attention from the teacher, the progress is slow,
the faculties little developed, and the education altogether very
Discrimi- imperfect. The danger inseparably connected with the in-
nation nec- discriminate treatment of pupils of lifferent characteristics has
essary. been often referred to by experienced educators. Thus, we find
in a work designed to aid practical teachers, the following important
admonitions: "In every class, however well graded, the pupils will differ
much in age, health, mental capacity, and home advantages. A correct
and judicious classification will reduce this inequality to a minimum; but
there will still remain a wide field for the exercise of discrimination, care,
and caution on the part of the class-teacher. The lessons should, in all
respects, be adapted to the average ability of the pupils of the class; but,
even beyond this, some allowance will often have to be made in the case of
pupils of quite inferior mental capacity or opportunities for home studies;"
and further, "Teachers are especially admonished to be considerate toward
pupils of a delicate constitution, an over-excitable brain and nervous system,
58
CLASS
or in temporary ill health. Many children of this class are precocious in
mental activity and exceedingly ambitious to excel; and the greatest care
is required to prevent them from injuring themselves by an inordinate
devotion to books and study." (See How to Teach, N. Y., 1873.) The
comparative advantages and disadvantages of home (individual) in-
struction, and school (class) instruction are quite fully discussed in
Isaac Taylor's Home Education. "A principal and necessary
Home and distinction," he remarks, "between the two systems is this,
school in-
that while, in the one, all methods of instruction and modes
struction. of training are or may be, with more or less exactness, adapted
to the faculties, tastes, and probable destination of the pupils singly,
and may be accommodated to the individual ability of each; in the
other system, that is to say at school, it is the mass of minds only, or
some few general classes, at the best, that can be thought of.... And
yet even this undistinguishing mechanism, which is proper to a school,
and which carries all before it with a sort of blind force, is in itself, in
some respects, a good; and if some are the victims of it, to others it may
be beneficial. There are children who are not to be advanced at all, except
by the means of a mechanical momentum; and such might well be sent
from home to school, on this sole account, that they will then be carried
round on the irresistible wheel-work of school order.... But although in
a large school, even when broken up into classes, little regard can equitably
be paid to individual peculiarities of faculty or taste, the principle which
is characteristic of home education, may readily be extended to schools not
much exceeding the bounds of a numerous family. In fact, it is only the
personal ability of the teacher, his tact, his intelligence, and his assiduity,
that can fix the limits within which the principle of adaptation may be
made to take effect.' The number of pupils that should be placed in a
class is, therefore, a matter requiring the utmost exercise of good judgment,
taking cognizance of all attending circumstances.
Basis of
tion.
What should constitute the basis of classification is also a matter
requiring a careful consideration. The several grades of the course of study
should, of course, be exactly defined, and all the subjects, or parts
of subjects, prescribed, should be carefully adjusted, so that the
classifica- various requirements of the grade may be accomplished simul-
taneously, and a due proficiency in each may constitute the basis
of distribution or promotion at every reorganization of the classes. Still,
let the adjustment be as nice as practicable, some diversity will be found
at the end of each period of instruction. One pupil, for example, will have
made good progress in arithmetic, but very little in reading, writing,
grammar, etc. What, then, is to be done? If the average progress is
taken, pupils of such unequal attainments in particular studies may be
brought together, that the teacher will find it impossible to give instruction
to one portion of the class without neglecting the other, or will be obliged
to divide his class into sub-grades, and thus sacrifice much time in attending
to each separately. This difficulty is often, measurably, obviated by selecting
some one branch of instruction, as arithmetic, and basing the classification
upon the pupils' attainments in this subject, working constantly thereafter
to bring the pupils, as far as may be necessary, up to the same standard in
other subjects.
CLASSICAL STUDIES
59
Whether a school is best taught by classes or by subjects, is a question
that has received much attention from educators; that is to say, whether
each teacher shall instruct a particular class in all the branches
Classes and of study which the pupils are required to pursue; or whether
subjects. each class shall be taught in succession by several teachers, each
one taking a particular subject or class of subjects. The diversity of at-
tainments, mental tastes, and special skill among teachers, would seem to
dictate the subject system rather than the class system; since, were certain
branches assigned as a specialty to each teacher, there would be more time
for the careful study by the teacher, not only of the branches themselves,
but of the proper methods of teaching them; and, of course, better work
woull necessarily be done. Other considerations, however, seem partially
or wholly to neutralize this apparent advantage. The success of a teacher,
especially of young pupils, depends upon his thorough knowledge of their
disposition, and also upon their familiarity with his characteristics; and
this knowledge it would be difficult to acquire if the teacher were required
to spend but a short time with each class, and his means of acquiring it
were distributed over a number of classes. Some educators, however, take
a view directly opposed to this. "If the pupil," says Wickersham, "recite
always to the same teacher, he may become familiar with certain lines of
thought, but he will most likely be confined to them. He might be trained
by a more unvaried discipline, but it is a discipline in one direction. He
becomes imbued with his teacher's peculiar opinions, acquires his man-
ners, and is apt to create a little world in which his teacher is the reigning
sovereign and himself the most conspicuous citizen of the realm. It is much
better for all pupils to have different teachers, with different tastes, talents,
and opinions; but it is very important that this should be the case with
advanced pupils." Nevertheless, it has generally been found that much
better discipline, a firmer control, prevails in schools conducted under
the class-teaching plan than in those taught on the subject or departmental
system; and, consequently, the former is the prevalent mode of organiza-
tion in large public schools. In district or private schools consisting of
but few pupils, and in institutions of a higher grade, as high schools, col-
leges, and universities, the other system is invariably, and of course neces-
sarily, employed.
Loose clas-
Instead of requiring all the members of a class to study the same
branches, some schools are so organized that pupils recite different studies
in different classes. This method has sometimes been denomi-
nated a loose classification. It encourages unequal attainments,
sification.
the pupil being stimulated to do his best in each study without
any regard to his progress in other studies. This is, of course, a great dis-
advantage. Besides, it requires a constant change of classes in the working
of the school, and, consequently, makes the discipline more difficult. "I
recommend," says Wickersham (School Economy), "a close classification,
with such departures from it as overruling circumstances may make expe-
dient." See WELLS, Graded Schools (N. Y., 1862); WICKERSHAM,
School Economy (Phil., 1864); ISAAC TAILOR, Home Education (London
and N. Y., 1836); BALDWIN, Art of School Management (N. Y., 1881).
CLASSICAL STUDIES, a term denoting the study of the Latin
and Greek languages and literatures. The word classical is derived from
60
CLASSICAL STUDIES
Meaning
of the
term.
of teaching
Grades of
instruction.
the Latin word classicus, that is, relating to the classes of the Roman
people, especially to the first class. The best authors known to the
Romans, both Latin and Greek, were rated as classici, that is,
of the first class, or classics. The expression is sometimes used to
designate the standard authors of any nation, but it is chiefly ap-
plied, as it was originally, to the standard Latin and Greek writers.
The method of teaching and studying the classical languages and litera-
tures must, of course, vary according to the object or purpose for which
they are taught or studied. In some schools, the study of
Metho is
these languages (particularly Latin) has been adopted for the
and study.
sole or chief purpose of showing their relation to the English
language, and of giving a clear insight into the meaning of En-
glish words derived from them. Where this is the exclusive object, a com-
paratively small amount of time will be found sufficient for this study.
În classical schools, colleges, gymnasia, etc., classical studies are generally
pursued for the purpose of cultivating and developing the mental faculties,
and introducing the student to the literary treasures of which they are the
keys. It is obviously of the greatest importance, that the teacher should
be fully conscious of the precise aim that is to be attained, and that the
pupils themselves should, as soon as possible, be made to understand the
objects and advantages of the study. The first reading exercises
will, of course, serve chiefly to familiarize the pupil with the
grammatical rules; but, as soon as he understands the peculiar
structure of the language, the teacher should strive to unveil, as much as
possible, what is beautiful and excellent in the classic authors selected for
study. Both translation and explanation should aim not only at increas-
ing a knowledge of the vocabulary and the grammar, but at the training of
the mind to comprehend, to appreciate, and to admire these beauties and
excellencies. The finer parts of a classic author will, of course, require the
greatest and most concentrated attention of the pupil; and, therefore, the
greatest possible exclusion of mere grammatical explanations. It is evident
that none but teachers of the best skill and attainments are competent to
give this kind of instruction. The college graduate who has just com-
pleted his course, however well he may have been taught, cannot be ex-
pected to make the impression, and accomplish the success, by his teaching,
which can spring only from a professor of ripe scholarship, cultivated taste,
and experience in giving instruction. There is no doubt that classical
studies have suffered in repute as the agencies of a higher education, by
the mechanical methods employed by teachers. The letter, and not the
spirit, has been taught; and the consequence has been, that the perusal of
the sublimest masterpieces of ancient history, oratory, and poetry has com-
monly degenerated into the study of petty grammatical subtleties, only
puzzling the mind of the student without informing or elevating it. Next
in importance to the employment of competent teachers, is the
Text-books. selection of proper text-books, in order to produce the best
results in this department of instruction. The books at first needed by
every pupil are a grammar, a dictionary, and books for translation. The
grammars and dictionaries used should be those specially prepared for
pupils; for the wants of pupils are different from those of teachers and
scholars. As regards the editions of classic authors, some teachers prefer
CO-EDUCATION
61
COLOR
texts with notes, others those without notes. In the former case, the notes
should be exclusively calculated to promote the pupil's knowledge of the
language and a clear understanding of the writer's meaning. The use of
translations is generally discouraged by teachers, though all know
Transla- that "ponies" are great favorites with students. There are some
tions. educators who regard a judicious use of translations as not only
not hurtful, but commendable. When a knowledge not only of the classic
language but also of its literature is desired, the use of the entire work of
an author is preferable to that of selections, such as are found in reading-
books. An introduction, giving the pupil information in regard to the
author of the work, facilitates a correct understanding of the work itself,
and increases the pupil's interest. Geographical and historical explanations
should be given wherever they are needed. The translations should be at
first literal, but should, invariably, be converted into good English, and
should reproduce, as much as possible, the excellencies, as well as interpret
the meaning, of the original. Of course, the pupil should not be discour-
aged by too harsh and minute a criticism of his efforts. Minor faults
should, at first, be passed over, and the pupil's mind_gradually trained to
facility, accuracy, and elegance of expression. See BAIN, Education as a


Science (N. Y., 1881).
CO-EDUCATION of the Sexes, a term used to denote the system
of educating males and females together, that is, in the same institution,
school, or class, and by means of the same studies and methods, pupils of
each sex receiving the same school training and culture. See Cyclopædia
of Education, and Year-Book of Education.
COLLEGE (Latin collegium, originally meaning any kind of asso-
ciation) is a name given to large classes of educational institutions, espe-
cially in the United States, England, and France. The academic use of
the word college began about the beginning of the 13th century, and orig-
inated in the following manner. The students who flocked to the uni-
versity towns often came into collision with the citizens, and frequent
brawls resulted. In order to protect the public peace, as well as to watch
over the students, lodging-houses were provided in which the students were
under the charge of a superior. These houses were called colleges; and
this name was afterwards applied to any academic institution of a certain
grade, whether connected with a university or not. Colleges appear to
have been first established in Paris; and soon afterward in Oxford and
Cambridge, in Bologna and Padua, and in Prague and Vienna. They
were richly endowed by popes and other dignitaries of the church, princes,
and powerful families; and, in some of the university towns just named,
they became so numerous in the 15th century, that almost every student
of the university was a member of some one of the colleges.
COLOR, as a branch of object instruction, is of great interest and
value; since, at an early age, children take particular notice of colors, and,
hence, lessons upon this subject furnish an excellent opportunity
Tiity of for training them to distinguish resemblances and differences,
and for encouraging the formation of those habits of attention
and comparison which are necessary to the successful study of other sub-
jects. From the fact that many persons are found to be color-blind, it is
of great importance that suitable lessons should be given children to enable
62
COLOR
teachers and parents to ascertain whether this defect exists in any under
their care, before they become old enough to engage in any occupation in
which color-blindness would be an insurmountable defect. Besides, by the
early training of children to observe colors, much of the inability to dis-
tinguish them, which is commonly not discovered until later in life, may
be overcome by education. Furthermore, a general knowledge of colors,
and of their relations to each other, is of importance in nearly every avo-
cation of life. This becomes especially apparent when it is remembered
how much depends upon color in the manufacture of materials for dress,
furniture, household decorations, in the work of artists, and in various
other kinds of employment.
Since a knowledge of color can be gained only through the sense of
sight, the methods for teaching it in school should be so arranged that the
pupils may have abundant exercise of this sense in distinguishing
Methods. colors. For the first lessons, place before the pupils the best
colors that can be procured, in order that they may obtain correct concep-
tions as to what are good reds, yellows, blues, greens, purples, etc. Com-
mence with showing a single color, as red, and leading the pupils to
compare red cards, paper, silk, worsted, etc., with it, and thus to notice
resemblances and differences between the true red and the several objects
compared with it. Give similar exercises, with each of the primary and
secondary colors, singly; then place two of these colors before the pupils,
and let them select articles to match each of the given colors. Proceed in
a similar way with the other colors; and, finally, place several or all of
them before the pupils at the same time, and require them not only to
point out the colors as named, but to select colored articles to match each.
Frequent changes in the mode of giving these exercises on color will
increase the interest of the children in the subject, and add to their knowl-
edge of it, especially when each one has something to do in the
Varied
exercise. After the pupils have learned to know each of the
exercises. six colors used in the previous lesson, fresh interest may be given
to the subject by supplying each child with a piece of colored paper, tak-
ing care that those who sit side by side shall, as far as possible, hold dif-
ferent colors. When the papers have been distributed, the teacher may
say, "Now, look at your paper, see what color you have, then fold your
arms so as to hide your paper. Now, look at the color which I show you;
all who know that they have a like color may hold it up.-Right.-Now,
look at this color, all who have one like it, hold it up.' Proceed in the
same manner with each color;-to close the lesson, request one pupil to
collect all the red papers, another all the blues, another the greens, etc.
Similar lessons may be given for the purpose of teaching children to
distinguish shades of colors, as dark and light reds, blues, greens, etc.
""
If it be desired to continue these lessons, and teach that the six colors
previously shown may be divided into two groups-primary and secondary
-procure artist's paints: red (carmine), yellow (chrome), blue
Primary (ultramarine); also a small palette, and a palette knife. Place
and à little yellow and blue on the palette, side by side, requesting
the pupils to notice what colors are used. Then, with the knife.
mix these two colors together until green appears in place of
the yellow and blue. Then ask the pupils what color has been produced
secondary
colors.

COMMENCEMENT — COMPANIONSHIP
63
by mixing the yellow and the blue. Proceed in a similar manner to mix red
and blue, to produce purple; red and yellow, to produce orange. The
teacher may now write on the blackboard for the pupils to learn: Mixing
yellow and blue will produce green. Mixing red and blue will produce
purple. Mixing red and yellow will produce orange. Then pupils may
select the two primary colors that will produce given secondaries, also the
secondary that may be made from two given primaries. Show the pupils
also that light and dark colors may be formed by mixing white or black
with other colors. Provide exercises by which the pupils may do some-
thing to indicate that they know each fact taught.
of colors.
In order that children may understand harmony of colors, they must
be led to observe that to produce harmony, the three primary colors must
be grouped together; that if two of them exist in a given
Harmony secondary, the other primary will harmonize with that secondary.
To accomplish this result by teaching, arrange colored paper, or
other material, so that red and green, yellow and purple, blue and orange,
pale green and violet, may be compared, and the sensation noticed. Request
the pupils to tell what colors are compared in each instance; also whether
the three primaries exist in each group; as well as to observe that the
colors of these groups harmonize. Next, compare red and orange, blue and
green, yellow and green, requiring the pupils to observe the effect on the
sense of sight; also to state which primaries exist in each group, and to
notice that the colors of these groups do not harmonize. These lessons
will be more or less useful in proportion to the amount of exercise which
the pupils have in distinguishing and comparing colors, and in observing
their relations. (See SENSES.)
COMMENCEMENT denotes, in the United States, the occasion on
which degrees are conferred by colleges and universities upon their gradu-
ates. This takes place in June or July, and closes the scholastic year, so
that the name in this respect appears to be a misnomer. It refers, however
to the beginning of the student's independent career after being released
from tutelage. The life of school ends, but the school of life commences.
COMMON SCHOOLS, the name given in the United States to
schools maintained at the puplic expense, and open to all. These schools
are public elementary schools, although the common-school system of any
state or city often includes schools of several grades, as primary, grammar,
and high schools, besides normal schools for the special instruction and
training of teachers. Common schools in the rural districts are called
district schools, being under the supervision and control of the officers of
the school district. For the history and description of the common-school
system of each State in the Union see Cyclopedia of Education.
COMPANIONSHIP, as one of the necessary conditions of a child's
life, is an important element in education; indeed, the influence of a child's
companions, either for good or evil, is often far greater than
Why an
important any that can be exerted by parents or teachers.
The social
nature of a child is stronger than that of an adult; and,
element. therefore, to educate it by itself, excluding it from all intercourse
with children of its own age, would result not in a natural or normal
development, but in a kind of monstrous distortion. The selfish principles
of its nature would attain a disproportionate growth and strength; and it
E
64
COMPOSITION
could have neither sympathy nor self-control. Hence, companionship is
necessary for several reasons: (1) To develop the social sympathies and
affections of the child; (2) To cultivate properly its moral nature; (3) To
bring into play its intellectual activities, and to accustom it to their ready
exercise. Besides, without suitable and congenial playmates, it would not
be properly or sufficiently stimulated to bodily exercise, and its physical
growth and development would be incomplete.
Caution
""
Companionship, therefore, being indispensable, it is of the greatest
importance that it should be of the right character. It is particularly true
of children, that "evil communications corrupt good manners,'
and not only manners, but morals; indeed, the society of the
required. debased will inevitably undermine the whole character, leaving
it but an example of incorrigible depravity. Nevertheless, a youth must
gradually be accustomed to the exercise of considerable freedom in selecting
his or her associates, since the circumstances of after life will necessitate
this independence of choice. The great desideratum is, that the child's
mind should be so impressed with right principles, that it will avoid the
companionship of those whose conduct and language it perceives to be
vicious. There is, however, always need of great vigilance in order to
prevent corrupting companionship, even when the greatest care has been
exercised in the previous moral training of a youth; for the
stronger will must always control the weaker will, when brought
together, and children learn much faster from each other than
ionship. from their elders. To influence a young person, so as to form
his character in a particular direction, or fully to control his actions, it
is requisite to cultivate a certain degree of companionship with him.
Parents who pursue this course, fathers making companions of their
sons, and mothers, of their daughters, are the most successful in establish-
ing the character of their children. To a limited extent, the same principle
may be applied in school education. The austere teacher who never strives
to cultivate any other relation between himself and his pupil
than that of authority, will never exert any considerable influence
over his moral character; while, on the other hand, he who is
Parental
compan-
Compan-
ionship of
the teacher, easy and familiar, who cultivates the friendship, esteem, and
confidence of his pupil, will find the latter always glad to be his companion,
and will be able to control his conduct to an almost unlimited extent.
COMPOSITION, as the formal expression of thought, and as a
branch of school exercise, has usually been confined to that which is writ-
ten; but by some the signification of the term has been so ex-
Definition. tended as to embrace also the oral use of language in the ex-
pression of a logically connected series of ideas. Thus, it has been said
that "oral composition may be cultivated from a very early period, indeed
from the beginning of the pupil's school education; and whatever degree
of facility he attains in it will secure his more rapid advancement when he
enters on the study of written composition;" which is undoubtedly true.
At the same time, as nothing is gained by extending the application of a
term beyond the limits of ordinary usage, it would seem best to restrict
the word composition to the written expression of thought; more especially
as this requires a somewhat diverse training from that which is needed in
oral discourse. Of course, the habit of using language correctly in all the
COMPOSITION
65
Use of
oral school exercises, as well as in ordinary conversation, is not only useful
but essential as an antecedent preparation for written composition; and in
view of this, it is important that pupils should be accustomed, in
all their recitations, to be accurate in expression and not only
language. to use the proper forms of words, but to construct complete
sentences, instead of such fragmentary phrases as are very often made use
of in answer to the questions of the teacher. Moreover, in all recitations
which do not absolutely require a verbatim repetition of the language of
the text-book, the pupil should be accustomed to use his own language as
far as possible, thus drawing upon the resources of his own vocabulary, and
his constructive power in expression. But all this is only auxiliary to
written composition, which requires special and peculiar exer-
Exercises. cises, beginning almost as soon as the pupil has learned to
write simple words and sentences; indeed, rudimental exercises in ccmpo-
sition may constitute an essential part of object lessons, the teacher writing
on the blackboard instead of requiring the pupils to write on the slate or
on paper. For example, in the description of an object, the pupils observe
and state each quality successively, and the teacher writes each separate
statement on the blackboard, observing strictly the rules for punctuation
and the use of capitals; and then the pupils are required to put the whole
into a connected statement, which the teacher also writes on the black-
board. Thus, suppose the object is a piece of glass. The pupils say, and
the teacher writes, Glass is hard. Glass is solid. Glass is brittle. Glass
is transparent. Then the whole is formed into a connected statement; and
the teacher writes, Glass is hard, solid, brittle, and transparent. Such
simple exercises are susceptible of a very great variety, and, consequently,
may be made to afford a great deal of valuable training both in thought
and language. Reading also may be made available in training pupils in
the ready and correct use of language, by requiring them constantly to
reproduce, in their own modes of expression, the substance of the lessons
read; and, as soon as they have learned to write with sufficient fluency, to
Akin to
set down on paper, or on the slate, portions of these statements.
this kind of exercise, is the reading of simple narratives by the teacher,
and requiring the pupils to give the substance of them in their own
language.
In all these cases, the pupils are trained chiefly in the use of
words and the construction of sentences; but the teaching of com-
position requires, (1) a cultivation of thought: ard (2) a culti-
Teaching vation of the faculty of expression. Thought implies ideas
composi- and their logical arrangement according to certain laws of as-
tion. sociation. The mind must recall all that it has learned upon the
subject under consideration, ideas, facts, propositions, opinions, etc.,
and arrange them into a symmetrical whole. To do this well requires
not only maturity of mental culture, but much practice in the use
of language, filling the memory not only with a vocabulary of words, but a
large accumulation of phrases, and other forms of expression, associated reg-
ularly with certain recurrent ideas. The difficulty experienced
Writing
by pupils in writing compositions is proverbial; and to a consid
composi-
erable extent, it is to be hoped, obsolete; since modern methods
of instruction have gone far toward eradicating many of the
tions.
66
COMPOSITION
absurd educational practices of by-gone times, one of which was to require
young pupils to write formal compositions upon difficult abstract themes
without any, or with very inadequate, preliminary preparation and train-
ing. The necessity of such training is now pretty generally recognized, and
suitable graded exercises are employed; such as the following: (1) Conver-
sations upon familiar objects, such as usually engage the attention of
children; (2) Sentence-making, in various forms, and affording practice in
the application of grammatical rules; (3) Formal descriptions of objects;
(4) Simple narratives; (5) Didactic essays, graduated from the simplest
composition upon such subjects as a horse, a cow, a flower, &c., up to those
upon complex abstract themes; (6) Argumentative compositions, in which
the principles and rules of logic and rhetoric may find an application and
illustration. Each of these classified forms of exercise needs much con-
tinuous practice; and the pupil should not be required to write mis-
cellaneous compositions until he has been successively trained in those of
the first four classes, and has acquired a fair degree of readiness at each
stage of his progress.
Subjects
for com-
position.
In all the exercises, however, of whatever grade or kind, it is very
essential that the pupil should, as much as possible, be induced to make
use of his own experience in selecting subjects for compositions
writing of what he has himself seen and heard, and using the
simplest and most direct language he can command. Mere gram-
matical exercises are of little use in teaching composition; per-
haps, they are rather a hindrance, since the exclusive attention to the con-
struction of sentences without regard to their meaning or logical coherence,
tends to the formation of habits that are directly opposed to success in ac-
tual compositiɔn. The great point is to accustom the pupils, by constant
daily practice, to the free expression of their thoughts in writing. Let
them have something to say, and then require them to write it in the most
natural way, employing their own modes of thinking and of using language,
and thus, in the course of time, developing a style; since style is only the
peculiar impress of a writer's individuality upon his forms of expression.
Paraphrases and translations, however, afford a very valuable kind of exer-
cise in composition; but should not be employed except in the more ad-
vanced stages of the instruction, since to reproduce exactly the thought of
a foreign writer requires a great command of language.
In the correction of compositions, the teacher should exercise great
prudence, so as to impart the kind and degree of instruction adapted to
the pupil's progress; and, at the same time, not discourage his
Correction. efforts by too minute criticism. If a class is under instruction,
the prevailing errors of the pupils, as discerned on a perusal of the compo-
sitions, will suggest certain topics on which instruction is needed; and this
may then be illustrated by examples culled from the compositions without
referring to them individually. Especially should the teacher avoid hold-
ing up any of the pupils' efforts to ridicule or severe rebuke, unless the in-
accuracies are such as result from sheer carelessness. A pupil's whole in-
tellectual career may be vitiated by an imprudence of this kind; since, in
general, there is nothing in respect to which persons, whether adults or
children, are so sensitive as in regard to their efforts in written com-
position.
CONCENTRIC CIRCLES — CONCEPTION
67
tion.
When the compositions have been carefully read, and the errors
pointed out by suitable marks, the pupils should be required to transcribe
them, so that they may be presented for further revision. The
Transcrip- study of grammar and composition should be pursued together
in the early stages, and rhetoric and composition in the later.
CONCENTRIC CIRCLES, System of. Among the new methods
of instruction which have recently been extensively employed in schools,
that of teaching on what has been called Concentric Circles deserves to be
specially mentioned. According to this method, a subject which is to be
taught in several grades or classes, is not distributed into a number
of consecutive sections of which the lowest class studies the first, the
following the next, and so on, until the last section is reached by the high-
est class; but the most elementary points forming an outline
selected for the lowest class; and in the following class or classes, this part
of the work is reviewed, and the review is combined with additional selec-
tions still covering the entire extent of the subject, but with greater
detail, until, in a number of such concentric circles, the informa-
tion of the scholars is extended to the limit which the course of study
prescribes.
are
In Germany, this plan has been quite extensively adopted in the teach-
ing of history, geography, natural science, and language, as well as in
arithmethic (see DEVELOPING METHOD). See Year-Book of Education
for 1878.
the
CONCEPTION, or the Conceptive Faculty, the faculty of the
mind which retains past perceptions, and forms from them general ideas,
or notions, sometimes called concepts. In this manner,
Definition. individual impressions obtained by perception are associated
in the mind, according to their resemblances and analogies, and become
the materials of thought; for without general ideas thought is im-
Illustration. possible. Thus, the child perceives a horse, but the concept
in its mind as the result of the perception, is not of that
particular horse, which it will remember to have seen at a particular time
and place, but of the horse as one of a class of animals resembling the
one seen; and to each one of this class it is at once prepared to apply
the name horse. As, if you ask a child, How many legs has a horse?
he answers, four; because such is his concept or notion of a horse, formed
"Nature,"
from all the perceptions which he has had of this animal.
says Isaac Taylor, "for purposes which it is not very difficult to divine,
has allowed an absolute predominance to the conceptive faculty during
the season of infancy, and has granted it a principal share in the mental
economy during the succeeding years of childhood." Hence,
Conception it is with this faculty that early education has principally to
in child- deal. At this period, the mind is to be stored with ideas—
hood. images, or mental pictures of past perceptions, which it is to
employ as the material for the exercise of the other faculties,-imagination,
judgment, reason. "A rich and ready conception," says Currie, "is the
soil out of which grows a sound judgment. The cause of error in our judg-
ments lies as frequently in the want of materials on which to base them as
on the want of power to compare them when required." He also judi-
ciously remarks, "It is a great mistake to hasten on the child to use the

68
CONCEPTION
forms of judgment before his mind is stored with the materials to which to
apply them, under the impression that we are teaching him to think." The
Visible
objects.
Cultivation
and con-
faculty of conception is most active in relation to the objects of
sight, that is, the perceptions derived from that sense give rise to
the strongest or most vivid conceptions; hence, indeed, the
word idea, meaning image or picture in the mind. To those who are
deprived of the sense of sight, the perceptions produced by the sense of
hearing stimulate, perhaps, with almost equal force the conceptive faculty.
"The furniture of the conceptive faculty, as derived from the objects of
sight," says Isaac Taylor, "constitutes the principal wealth of the mind, and
upon the ready command of these treasures, with some specific end in view,
depends in great measure its power." The cultivation of this
faculty should aim, (1) To give clear, definite ideas of objects
and their properties; (2) To imprint them deeply upon the
ception.
mind, so that they may be permanently retained, and readily re-
called; and (3) To associate them, as far as possible, according to their
intrinsic or logical relations. It is a well-understood fact that the clearest
and deepest conceptions are obtained by a close and accurate observation
of the objects from which they are derived. Clearness and strength of per-
ception are followed by the same qualities in conception. Hence the
value of object teaching, the best results of which are the effects produced
upon the conceptive faculty. In training the perception, we are. indeed,
training the conception; and it is the latter process that is especially valu-
able, not the former. This training can only be carried on by means of
language. No idea can be fixed in the mind to be of any prac-
Language. tical value, unless there is linked with
tical value, unless there is linked with it its proper verbal desig-
nation. Words as well as ideas are the elements of thought. A large part
of elementary teaching consists in analyzing the parts and properties of
objects, and, after leading the mind to form concepts of them through
sense-perception, applying to them the names by which they are commonly
known. As examples of lessons of this kind, the following are given from
Currie's Early and Infant School Education:


TREE.
PLACE—in the ground, in fields, gardens, etc.
FORM-upright, bending, wide-spreading above, with waving motion, etc.
PARTS-Root, below ground, branching, etc.
Trunk: round, solid, pillar-like, firm, dark, rough, knotty, etc.
Leaves: heart-shaped, oval, etc.; soft, green, yellow, etc.
Blossom and fruit in their seasons.
SOUND (in motion)-rustling, gentle, violent, etc.
GLASS.
COLOR-light, stained, clear, transparent, obscured, etc.
FORM (in windows)-square, round, oval, lozenge-shaped, etc.
Thin, light, hard, brittle, cold, sharp, etc.
SEA.
TASTE-salt, unpleasant, cold, etc.
SIZE-large, broad, deep, etc.
COLOR-green, blue, clear, sandy, etc.
cool, refreshing, cold, etc.
Sight.
Touch.
Taste.
Sight.
Hearing.
FORM--Surface: plain, wavy, billowy, foaming, etc.
SOUND (in motion)-dashing, murmuring, gentle, violent, etc.
Touch.
Such lessons admit of an endless variety, and may be either entirely
objective, that is, given with the objects placed before the pupils, or purely
CONCERT TEACHING
69
conceptive: such as those above on the tree and sen. Both kinds, however,
have the same primary object in view, to train the conceptive faculty in
connection with expression. Observation is also greatly stimulated and
guided by such lessons. Thus, to take so familiar an object as the sky, of
which every child must necessarily have a multitude of conceptions,
although perhaps indefinite and almost useless, because not associated with
any names. How much would his real available knowledge be increased
by an exercise enabling him to enumerate the various appearances of the
THE SKY may be serene, stormy,
sky by proper designations. Thus:
clear, overcast, misty, hazy, foggy, gloomy, lowering, bright, resplendent,
brilliant, deep, dull, brazen, red, gray, azure, starry, dark, lurid, etc., etc.
In a similar manner, the sensible properties of a great variety of familiar
objects may be recalled and named, and in this way the attention of the
pupils to minute characteristics may be cultivated, and their command of
language much increased.
The conceptions of the mind are greatly influenced by the feelings. An
indifferent, apathetic mental mood will effectually preclude the formation
of any deep or durable impressions; on the contrary, the con-
Influence ceptions of objects and scenes with which the mind has been
of the
brought into contact under circumstances causing deep emotion,
Feelings.
"The cherished
either of pleasure or pain. are ineffaceable.
and imperishable recollections of childhood, often as bright and clear at
eighty as they were at twenty, are those treasures of the conceptive faculty
which have been consigned to its keeping under the influence of vivid
pleasurable emotions.' There is no principle which the teacher should
more earnestly consider than this, prompting as it does to the effort to
associate with the scenes of the child's school life every possible object
which may excite its interest, awaken its delight, and lend a charm to its
intellectual acquirements. — See ISAAC TAYLOR, Home Education; CURRIE,
Early and Infant School Education.
CONCERT TEACHING, a mode of instruction in which the pupils
memorize what is to be learned, by simultaneous repetition. It is thus
a kind of rote-teaching, and is subject to all the disadvantages and
liable to all the objections incident to that system. In large
What it is.
schools, in which very many pupils are taught together in a single
class, this has been a common and favorite practice with teachers; because
it has been found a ready way to fix in the memory of children the
rudimentary principles of reading, spelling, arithmetic, etc., and to impart
to the pupils the ability to repeat, in answer to set questions,
Value what has been thus mechanically learned. The arbitrary associa-
of it.
tions established in this way are very strong and durable; and,
as some things are to be taught arbitrarily, and others to be associated in
the mind so that they may be arbitrarily suggested, that is, recalled without
any effort of reasoning or other mental process, the method of concert
repetition, has a place in teaching that is useful and important. For
example, the multiplication table would be of little value if it were so
learned, that the pupil would require to reason out, or reckon up, the
result of each required combination; the associations must be of such a
character, that thought is unnecessary to recall them, the process of simple
suggestion being alone required. Hence, in memorizing such things as

70
CONCERT TEACHING
arithmetical tables, grammatical declensions, conjugations, etc., concert
teaching is valuable, on the principles, (1) that all repetition is valuable in
order to impress the mind; and (2) that, the sense of hearing being strongly
appealed to, the mental impressions and their associations are more durable,
and more easily recalled. Besides, by such exercises, the young pupils are
constantly employed; their minds are kept steadily upon their school work,
and a strong social or collective sympathy is established, which would not
be possible by the exclusive employment of individual exercises. In this
connection, Currie says, "By this oft repeated simultaneousness of thought,
action, and emotion, the mass becomes welded together, takes on one stamp,
breathes one spirit. ... Such is the foundation of that simultaneous action
with which, under the name of collective lessons or gallery lessons, we are
so familiar in the infant school." So strongly is this writer impressed with
its usefulness, that he styles it "the very essence of the infant-school system,
springing immediately from the root of it, and embodying a first principle
of its existence."
The exercise of intelligence is, however, to be considered the chief
instrument of education; and this is so much an individual matter, that
the limits within which concert or simultaneous repetition is
Limits
of its use.
proper, are quite narrow; and the tendency with most teachers
is to transcend them. Consequently, the intelligence of many
pupils, instead of being properly addressed and exercised, is kept in a kind
of stagnant condition, and is thus impaired rather than benefited. The
teacher, in giving simultaneous instruction, must endeavor to prevent this.
The pupils will have different temperaments and different degrees of mental
power; and, consequently, cannot all perform the same work. The questions,
when addressed to the whole class, will not be adapted to all the pupils;
and if the teacher should depend upon a mere simultaneous response,
only a part of the class would be benefited by the teaching. A show of
hands is a ready and useful tentative means of ascertaining the condition
of the class in this respect; and thus the advantages of the simultaneous
and individual plan of teaching may be combined, the teacher selecting
from all who raise their hands those who are to answer, and, at the
same time, observing carefully who do not raise their hands. Then,
when the teacher wishes a certain answer to be repeated for the pur-
pose of impressing it upon the pupils' minds, the class may be required
to repeat it as often as may be necessary in concert. Tact and skill on
the part of the teacher will make this method of elementary instruction
very effective.
In the simultaneous responses, the tones of the voice should be as natural
as possible. Without great care on the part of the teacher, concert exercises
Tones of
are very apt to degenerate into a sing-song monotonous drawl,
which undermines or prevents all proper habits of reading and
the voice. speaking. The pupils, too, are very apt to pitch their voices too
high, or to use a kind of shouting tone, which no intelligent teacher would,
for a moment, permit. Under the limitations referred to, and with all
proper efforts to guard against the abuses to which this system of teaching
is peculiarly liable, it is of great value; but should never be employed,
except when the common nature and common intelligence of the children
are to be brought into play.
CONSCIENCE
71
CONSCIENCE, Culture of. The feeling of moral obligation, the
conviction that certain actions are right and others wrong, the sense of
duty, the moral principle, or by whatever other phrase of similar
Definition. signification we may define conscience, is the most important
object of culture in every department and stage of moral education. The
strength of this principle, as an active element of character, differs greatly
in different individuals, whether children or adults. As a gen-
Degree of eral fact, however, children are influenced but very slightly by a
activity. sense of right or duty; they are acted upon by a different class
of motives. The desire of sensuous enjoyment, the love of approbation,
emulation, self-will, the hope of reward, and the fear of punishment, are
the usual means by which youthful minds are swayed, and their actions
controlled. The appetites are strong; the moral sentiments, weak. Hence,
to address the conscience of a child as a ruling principle would
How to be be a great error; perhaps, a disaster. Still, children should be
developed. treated as possessing at least the germ of conscience; and they
should early be habituated to scan their own conduct as well as that
of others, and apply to it a certain standard of moral rectitude. How-
ever imperfect this standard in a child's mind may be, much will be gained
when we have induced him to ask, in regard to any of his actions, “Is it
right?" The enlightenment of conscience is much easier than its develop-
ment; to one who is deeply impressed with a sense of duty, a knowledge
of specific right and wrong will be very readily acquired. It should be
borne in mind that, while the child is really restrained by the lower mo-
tives of conduct, such as those above enumerated, the conscience is to be
steadily but carefully addressed. Thus, if a pupil, whose love of approba-
tion is strong, has learned a difficult lesson simply to please his teacher, it
is right to accord him all the praise which he craves as the reward of his
conduct; but let not the teacher fail to impress upon his mind, at the same
time, that this praise is given because the action performed is good — is
right; so that his mind may be drawn from his overweening desire for the
approbation of others, and gradually led to appreciate more highly the ap-
probation of his own conscience; and so in respect to all the lower incen-
tives. If the child is punished for a fault by an angry teacher or parent,
he will rather dread the anger than be impressed with the wrongfulness of
his conduct; and, if sly and deceitful, the only result of the punishment
will be to render him more careful to conceal than to avoid similar wrong-
doing in the future. Hence, the interposition of the teacher's personality
in connection with either reward or punishment is an obstacle to the moral
improvement of the pupil; because it diverts his attention from the charac-
ter of his conduct, as good or bad in itself, to an exclusive consideration of
its effects upon the mind of the teacher, as producing praise or censure.
Some thoughtless teachers punish their pupils for not telling of each
other's offenses; when they should be glad to perceive an exhibition of such
a sense of honor, and should rather encourage and commend it. Of course,
if a pupil who is strenuous in his refusal to act the part of a tale-bearer,
as being mean and wrong, could be convinced that his duty demanded
that he should make known the wrong-doer, he would at once yield; but,
after a simple statement of the case, he should be permitted to exercise his
conscience, without any violence or threats being brought against it. A
72
CONVERSATIONAL METHOD
high standard of moral excellence in a child is just as striking an in-
stance of precocity, as great intellectual power and attainments; and is,
perhaps, as much to be discouraged. "Be content," says Herbert
Precocity. Spencer, "with moderate measures and moderate results. Con-
stantly bear in mind the fact that a higher morality, like a higher intelli-
gence, must be reached by a slow growth; and you will then have more
patience with those imperfections of nature which your child hourly
displays."
Value of
moral
precepts.
The conscience is not to be cultivated by simply giving moral precepts.
"Moral education," says Dymond, "should be directed, not so much to in-
forming the young what they ought to do, as to inducing those
moral dispositions and principles which will make them ad-
here to what they know to be right." The highest success in
this is achieved when the pupil is seen to be willing to make
self-sacrifice, to practice self-denial, in order to do what he feels to be
right. This point of moral excellence having been reached, the in-
dividual may, with entire safety, be allowed to control his own actions,
with the assurance that he will not, in any circumstance of life, go far
astray.
The basis of moral rectitude has not here been considered; nor is it
necessary to plunge into any speculations as to what constitutes that dis-
criminative
Basis of
power between right and wrong which is a part of
the original constitution of the human mind. It may undoubtedly
morality. be strengthened by religious training of a proper character;
and hence, such training constitutes a very important agency in the culture
of the conscience. "Parents," says Hartley, "should labor, from the earliest
dawnings of understanding and desire, to check the growing obstinacy of
the will, curb all sallies of passion, impress the deepest, most amiable, rev-
erential, and awful sentiments of God, a future state, and all sacred
things." (See MORAL EDUCATION, and RELIGIOUS EDUCATION.)
CONVERSATIONAL METHOD. This refers to the mode of
giving instruction, in which the lessons, instead of being formal recitations,
exercises, explanations, or lectures, consist of a familiar discourse by the
teacher, interspersed with questions or remarks by the pupils; that is to
say, in which the lessons partake of the character of conversations, both as
to the manner of presenting the subject and the style of language employed.
This mode of teaching is especially adapted to young children, because it
affords the teacher a constant opportunity to appeal to their intelligence
and experience, and to employ the simplest colloquial expressions. Be-
sides, the utmost freedom being given to the pupils, they are enabled
to show by their questions and remarks to what extent and in what
respect they need special instruction and information. In order to arouse
and sustain the pupils' interest, their attention is called to such facts
in connection with the subject as, although quite obvious when shown
or explained, are usually overlooked by children, who are generally but
superficial observers before being trained to close attention and careful
investigation. In object teaching, the lessons should always be conver-
sational, the teacher saying only enough to lead the pupils to observe,
and to talk freely about what they notice.
CORPORAL PUNISHMENT. See PUNISHMENT.


COURSE OF INSTRUCTION
73
COURSE OF INSTRUCTION, or Course of Study, is a series of
subjects of instruction or study, arranged in the order in which they should
be pursued, and grouped or divided into grades, each to be
Definition completed in a certain time. Such an arrangement of studies
and des- is sometimes called a graded course, and, especially in superior
ignations. instruction, a curriculum. When these various subjects are
arranged in the form of a daily order of exercises, showing the time, or the
number of lessons, to be given to each subject, it constitutes the school
programme.

Require-
ments.
In order that the objects of intellectual education may be fully attained,
it is of the greatest importance that the course of instruction should be
judicious in respect to several points: (1) The selection of sub-
jects; (2) Their order or arrangement; (3) The number pre-
scribed for simultaneous study; (4) The division of the course
into grades, with a definite time assigned for the completion of each. 'The
first of these considerations is of paramount importance; since the subjects
of study constitute not only the basis of intellectual culture, but the source
of necessary information. Two points, consequently, are to be
Points to considered in this selection: (1) The value of the subjects as
be consid means of culture; (2) 1 heir importance as sources of infor-
ered. mation. In the early stages of education, the first of these con-
siderations should, without doubt, have the preference; but, as education
advances, the second claims an increasing degree of attention, until, in the
sphere of technical and professional education, it becomes almost the ex-
clusive aim. We cannot, therefore, decide upon a course of instruction,
without considering the nature of the mind to be educated as well as the
objects for which it is to be educated. In elementary or primary education,
Grouping
the necessary subjects of instruction may be grouped into the
following: (1) Language, including reading and elocution. spell-
of subjects.
ing, the analysis and definition of words, grammar, and compo-
sition; (2) Rudimentary Mathematics, including arithmetic, mental and
written, algebra, and geometry; (3) Elementary Science, or a knowledge
of things, graded from the simple perceptive facts of object instruction up
to the rudiments of geography, natural history, physiology, physics, astron-
omy, etc.; (4) History; (5) Graphics, — writing, drawing, etc.; (6) Ath-
letics, gymnastics or calisthenics. To these may be added music, vocal
or instrumental, which constitutes a part of esthetics. In addition to these
branches of study, in some cases. the rudiments of a foreign language are
also taught. The distinction between primary and secondary instruction
not being definitely fixed as to subjects, some of those mentioned above
may be deemed exclusively appropriate to the higher grade. For proper
mental discipline, there must, however, be instruction in things as well as
words, the perceptive and conceptive faculties must be trained as well as
the expressive faculties. so that the mind may be stored with ideas and their
Primary
representatives in language. A proper discrimination between
and secon-
primary and secondary instruction depends upon (1) the kind
of instruction. and (2) the subjects of instruction. Science
taught in the high school is a very different thing from science
in the primary school; in the one case we address to a much
greater extent the higher faculties, — abstraction, generalization, reasoning,
dary in-
struction.
74
COURSE OF INSTRUCTION
etc.; in the other, chiefly the perceptive and conceptive faculties. The
subjects of elementary instruction have been classified by an eminent
educator as follows: "(1) Reading and Writing-the mastery of letters;
(2) Arithmetic-the mastery of numbers; (3) Geography-the mastery
over place; (4) Grammar-the mastery over the word; (5) History—
the mastery over time."
Higher
course.
In schools of secondary instruction (high schools, academies, etc.), the
course includes also language—the vernacular, and one or more modern
languages, and also the rudiments of Latin and Greek, particularly
in preparatory schools; mathematics, including algebra, geom-
etry, trigonometry, mensuration, etc.; science (taught as such),
including physics and chemistry, astronomy (descriptive, at least), physiol-
ogy, etc.; to which are usually added English literature, rhetoric, the
elements of mental and moral philosophy, etc. What properly belongs to
a high school or academic course is, however, far from being settled; in-
deed, to fix the line of demarcation between primary and secondary in-
struction has scarcely been attempted; hence, what should constitute the
course of study in schools of this grade is an open question, which is usually
determined by the circumstances and special aim of the school. Thus, the
course for a business college, for example, is very different from that of a
collegiate or preparatory school. The theory of the common-school system
in the United States requires that the pupil should enter the high school
with a good knowledge of the studies already mentioned ;—at least, read-
ing, writing, arithmetic, geography, English grammar, and the history of
the United States; but it is a great error to suppose that these subjects
"Until all educators," says
can be fully mastered by an immature mind.
a thoughtful teacher, "shall agree as to the precise culture power of each
study, as well as to the exact value of its imparted information, and shall
determine, to the satisfaction of all, what particular faculties each calls into
activity, and just how the calling into action of these faculties educates a
man, it will be impossible to establish a course of study which all shall
acknowledge as absolutely the best.”
The division of the course of instruction into grades is sometimes
made by topics, and sometimes by text-books; and each method has its
advocates. The former, it is claimed, gives more freedom to
Basis of the teacher
more scope for the exercise of intelligent discrim-
graduation.
ination and original treatment; the instruction proceeds to
a greater extent from the living teacher, since there is less inducement to
confine it to a mere hearing of recitations. The subject is the paramount
consideration; the text-book, the secondary. The teacher, and the pupil also
as far as possible, is required to consult various books, to compare their
statements, to correct their errors; and thus, while perhaps a particular
text book is used as a basis for the instruction, a more general knowledge
of the subject is imparted than is contained in any single work. Thus, if
the study is the history of the United States, to one grade is assigned the
Colonial History; to another, the period of the Revolution and the
Establishment of the Federal Government, etc.; while, if the division were
by book, it would be necessary that all the schools should use the same,
and a certain number of pages would be assigned to each grade. For
absolute uniformity, of course, the second plan is preferable; but some

CRAMMING
75
educators claim that uniformity may be carried too far, constituting a
Procrustean standard, and tending to deprive the instruction of one of
its most essential qualities, its adaptability to different
Topical minds. Evidently the topical system makes more demands upon
system. the teacher; and this, it is claimed, constitutes its great
advantage, since it necessitates better information, higher culture, and
more real teaching ability. What kind of development, it is asked, can
result from the mere hearing of recitations? And what kind of influence
can be exerted by a teacher that never goes beyond the narrow scope of
the school text-book? Not that the legitimate use of text-books is to be
discouraged, but only a servile dependence upon them; and it is claimed
that the prescribing of topics rather than books, tends to prevent this.
Says D. P. Page, in Theory and Practice of Teaching, "A teacher who
is perfectly familiar with what is taught, has ten times the vivacity of one
who is obliged to follow the very letter of the book." See THOMAS HILL,
The True Order of Studies (N. Y., 1876).
CRAMMING, a term used in regard to education, to denote the
fault of filling the mind with facts, without allowing it sufficient time to
arrange and generalize them, to compare them with its previous ac-
quisitions, or to determine their real significance, as related to general
principles. It is thus a kind of mental stuffing, and, consequently, is
opposed to the true object of education, which, as the word etymologically
considered implies, is not to pour something into the mind, but to bring
out, by appropriate exercise, its latent faculties. In college phrase, students
are said to cram for an examination, when they make preparation with
undue haste, impressing upon their memory by repetition a mass of things
about which they expect to be questioned, but which, when the examina-
tion is over, they immediately forget. Such a process is exceedingly
injurious to the mind, since it is a misdirection of its powers, wasting
them at a time when they should be all steadily employed in the formation
of those habits of acquisition and thought, which constitute the basis of a
sound intellectual character.
In elementary education, cramming is, therefore, especially pernicious;
and it is at this stage, that it is the most likely to occur. It may assume
various forms, but chiefly the following: (1) Crowding the memory with
verbal formulæ, definitions, rules, statements of facts, names in
geography, dates in history, etc.; (2) Overtasking the powers of the mind
with a multiplicity of studies, or with such as are not adapted to its
immature condition, and, therefore, cannot be comprehended; (3) Undue
haste in instruction, so that the pupils are compelled to commit to memory
what they have had no time properly to digest in their minds. Cramming
may be the result either of the ignorance of the teacher, or of circumstances
which compel him to violate the correct principles of education for some
special end, as the preparation of pupils for a public exhibition in which
they may make an imposing display of their superficial acquirements. Such
a sad perversion of the teacher's work as this implies is of too frequent
occurrence; for parents and patrons are too fond of witnessing such displays,
and there are teachers whose eagerness for praise or patronage is sufficient
to overcome their sense of the true object of their vocation.- See BLACKIE,
On Self-Culture (Edinburgh, 1875).


76
CRECHE CULTURE
CRECHE, a french word signifying a crib or manger, but used in
France, Belgium, and some other countries in Europe to designate a kind
of infant asylum.
CRUELTY (to Animals) is often a prevailing trait in the characters
of children who have not been specially trained to habits of kind, consid-
erate, and humane feeling and conduct. The activity of a child's nature,
its love of sport, and its undeveloped sympathies predispose it to acts of
inconsiderate cruelty. The need of educating the sympathetic affections
in order to counteract this tendency in youthful minds has been very
generally recognized by educators. Habitual training, not mere precepts,
Children,
can alone effect this. Locke is very earnest on this point.
says he, "should be accustomed from their cradles to be tender to all
sensible creatures." See Cyclopædia of Education.
66
""
CULTURE, a term used to denote the improvement of the human
character by means of discipline, training, or self-exertion. It is used in
both an active and a passive sense; in the former, implying the
Definition. use of all necessary means and agencies to cultivate the human
faculties, and in the latter, the result of their operation. Culture com-
prehends both development and refinement; that is, not simply bringing
into active exercise the latent powers of the mind or body, but adding
thereto a nice and careful discrimination as to their proper or improper ex-
ercise, with a due regard to the circumstances which require their employ-
ment. Thus a man of culture not only is able to express his thoughts in
suitable and impressive language, but knows how to adapt his language to
the persons, the place, and the occasions which call for this expression; nor
does he give utterance to his thoughts except when it is proper to do so.
Hence, culture, in its mature stage, not only implies power, but restraint,
both belonging to the inner nature of the individual.~ There are as many
kinds of culture as there are departments of human nature, or
Different
special faculties, to be cultivated and improved. Thus, culture
kinds. may be physical, intellectual, moral, spiritual, and esthetic, ac-
cording as its scope is the improvement of the powers and susceptibilities
of the body, the intellect, the moral sentiments, the soul, or the taste.
General culture implies that everything constituting the character of the
individual has been brought to as high a degree of improvement as is pos-
sible. Special culture has reference to a particular department of human
nature, or to the development of power in a certain direction. Thus, the
culture of the poet, the painter, the orator, the teacher, the lawyer, or the
clergyman is special, developing faculties needed in the particular vocation
of each. Special culture, however, does not exclude general culture; for
no man need be merely a practitioner, or worker in any narrow sphere of
effort. The object of higher education is to give this general culture as a
basis for that which is necessarily special, or technical.
The real instrumentality, in a certain sense the only one, by which
culture can be effected, is self-exertion. None of the faculties, whether of
Self-exer-
tion.
the spirit, mind, or body, can be cultivated except by exercise.
Thus a person can never learn to compose by studying grammar
and rhetoric, nor to think and reason by committing to mem-
ory the rules of logic. If he would learn to write, or to think and reason,
he must write and think and reason, on the same principle and in the same
CURRICULUM
77
DACTYLOLOGY
way as a person learns to swim, or a child to walk. This exercise is the
individual's own work; but the exercise may be unsuitable and injurious,
and, therefore, needs, at first, the careful guidance of experience. Hence,
the need of an educator, until the individual has acquired sufficient knowl-
edge and experience to direct the exercise himself. This shows the relation
of education and culture, the one being the handmaid of the
Instru- other. The instruments of culture vary with its special scope.
ments of For those of physical culture, we must learn what a knowledge of
Culture. physiology and experience in gymnastics dictate; those of intel-
lectual culture can be judiciously selected only by studying the laws which
regulate the operations of the mind. But we are particularly to be on our
guard in supposing that intellectual culture can spring from the mere
study of other persons' ideas. True culture of this kind can alone come
from (1) a patient, laborious, and diligent acquisition of ideas of our own,
by observation and reflection; and (2) the study of the experience of other
minds, and its verification, as far as possible, by that of our own. "The
original and proper sources of knowledge," says Professor Blackie, “are not
books, but life, experience, personal thinking, feeling, and acting." And
again, "All knowledge which comes from books comes indirectly, by re-
flection, and by echo; true knowledge grows from a living root in the
thinking soul; and whatever it may appropriate from without, it takes by
living assimilation into a living organism, not by mere borrowing." (See
Self-Culture, Edinburgh 1875.) This is simply an emphatic and illustrative
expansion of the general principle above stated; namely, that to
cultivate our faculties we must properly exercise them. No
Moral moral culture can be secured by the study of ethics; legitimate
Culture. objects for the exercise of the moral feelings must be sought
for and discovered; and, more especially, the will must be trained so that
it will obey the voice of reason and conscience, even amid the mightiest
Soul
Culture.
tempest of passion and desire. Related to this, is the culture
of the soul a culture which is paramount to all, and to which
every other species of culture is subservient; and just as one
can learn to walk only by walking, to think only by thinking, and to live
nobly only by acting nobly on every occasion, so one can advance in
spiritual culture only by communing, by prayer and contemplation, with
the Great Spirit, the Father of mankind, and the Creator of the universe.
True Christian culture comprehends the development of a
Christian
capacity to do right, and to be right, in every relation which
Culture. we bear to each other, and to our Maker, simply by apply
ing the general principle herein enunciated, of active beneficence, based
upon the simplest principles of moral and religious truth. (See EDU-
CATION.)
CURRICULUM. See COURSE OF INSTRUCTION.
DACTYLOLOGY. (Gr. dákтvλoç, a finger), a method of communi-
cating ideas by means of signs made with the fingers, composing what is
called the manual or finger alphabet, and employed by the deaf and dumb.
There are two alphabets of this kind: the single-hand alphabet, and the
two-hand alphabet.
78
DEAF-MUTES
!
DEAF-MUTES, or Deaf and Dumb, a class of persons, scattered
throughout every nation in a greater or less proportion, who cannot hear
the sound of the human voice, and, consequently, lose that sympathetic as-
´sociation which exists between the organs of hearing and speech, so that
the latter are rendered inactive. Two methods or systems of teaching are
in use (with some modifications) in nearly all the institutions in the world.
One is that of articulation and lip-reading (sometimes called the
Method of German method, because used in most of the German schools),
teaching. the other that of writing, or the sign language. Both have
their special advocates; and each it is claimed, possesses superior facilities
for educating the deaf and dumb. In teaching articulation, the pupil is
placed before the teacher, who begins with the vowels, and requires the
pupil to watch the motions he makes with his mouth, lips, and throat; he
places the pupil's hand upon his own throat, so as to feel the different
movements, and then imitate them himself. When he has succeeded in
some degree, the consonants are introduced and practiced for a longer or
shorter time, according to the ability or aptitude of the pupil. Simple
words are then introduced, and their meaning illustrated by pointing out
the object, action, etc.; and as progress is made in this, qualities and actions
are introduced. This course must be continued, and the lessons repeated,
till the pupil can read the lips of the teacher, and communicate his own
thoughts, in questions and answers. Reading must then be taught; and
the knowledge of language already acquired aids the pupil in understand-
ing what he reads. It will be apparent that this is a work requiring much
time and patience on the part of the teacher as well as of the pupil, merely
to acquire the meaning of the words and their proper pronunciation. Most
of the institutions in the United States give more or less in-
Articula- struction in articulation, generally in special departments. The
tion system. Clarke Institution, the Boston Day School, the N. Y. Institu-
tion for Improved Instruction, and Whipple's Home School make articu-
lation a specialty. This mode of teaching is especially adapted to the con-
dition of semi-mutes, who still retain some remnant of the ability to use
spoken language. Experience has shown that children deprived of the
sense of hearing can learn by means of sight and feeling, to distinguish the
various elements of speech, to read them from the speaker's lips, and to
imitate them in articulation.
The other method, writing and sign-making, is substantially taught in
the following manner: An object is shown to the pupil, as for example, a
cat, and the natural sign made for it, an outline is then drawn on the slate,
and c-a-t is written in the outline; the same sign is applied to

and sign-
Writing the name as was applied to the object and the outline; and the
pupil thus learns the word. The object is removed and the out-
making. line rubbed out; the same sign is used for the word alone, and
the pupil soon associates it with the object. Other objects are presented,
and the same process repeated. The color of the cat is then taught; as, if
black, that is joined to the name, and black cat is learned; then action is
represented, as black cat eats; and then the object follows, black cat eats
meat. The phrases are lengthened as the pupil proceeds, and short stories
are related by signs, and written down by the pupil, the proper distinctions
being made at the time, so that the pupil, in a short time, is enabled to use
DECIMAL NOTATION
79
DECLAMATION
language properly. An important feature of this method is, that the pupil
begins at once to learn words which convey meaning, without the slow
process of learning the alphabet, the single letters of which convey no
ideas; and in this manner the mind is quickened, and incited to redoubled
activity by the knowledge gained. As this proceeds, the pupil becomes
familiar with the printed as well as the written characters, and soon under-
stands short simple phrases; and then only a few months are required to
enable the pupil to understand clearly what is related to him. For further
information, and statistics, see Cyclopædia of Education.
DECIMAL NOTATION, the ordinary method of expressing num-
bers on a scale of ten, ten units of any order being equal to one unit of the
next higher order. The first lessons in arithmetic should give the pupil a
clear idea of the principle of this notation. This can be done by means of
the numeral frame (q. v.).
Objects to
DECLAMATION, or the formal delivery of set speeches or of
memorized pieces of oratory, is a school exercise of considerable im-
portance, when conducted in a proper manner and with a due regard to
its special uses and limitations. The objects chiefly to be
gained by exercises of this kind are the following: (1) The
be kept in training and culture of the voice; (2) Practice in elocution;
view. (3) The habit of speaking in public with confidence, ease, and
grace; (4) The cultivation of a taste for public speaking; (5) An im-
provement of the pupils' style of composition. In the education of boys
and young men particularly, these are all points of great importance,
inasmuch as the ability to speak effectively in public is of great value in all
civilized communities.
The following points should be carefully attended to in giving ele-
mentary instruction in declamation: (1) The piece to be declaimed

Points to
be attend-
ed to.
should be well studied, not only in its language, but in regard
to the thoughts, emotions, reasoning, etc. which it may involve,
and the circumstances under which it was originally spoken, as
well as the character of the speaker; (2) Minute rudimentary
criticism should be rendered unnecessary by sufficient preliminary training
in enunciation and other departments of elocution, as well as in the use of
gesticulation; (3) The various kinds of gestures having been taught, the
pupil should be allowed great freedom in respect to their use; (4) The
spirit, and not simply the form, should be the object aimed at in the in-
struction; and no piece should be assigned to a pupil to speak which is be-
yond his capacity to understand and appreciate. The pupils of the com-
mon schools are generally not advanced sufficiently to receive theoretical
instruction in rhetorical delivery; but this should find a place in the course
of instruction of colleges, academies, and schools of a higher grade in gen-
eral. Even the pupils of elementary schools, however, may be benefited by
appropriate exercises in recitation and declamation; thus, the speaking of
easy and interesting dialogues by two or more children will be found one
of the best methods to impart to young pupils a practical knowledge of
the elementary rules of declamation, besides cultivating a natural style of
speaking.
DEFINITION. In giving instruction upon any subject, the need
of defining terms constantly arises, in order (1) that the mind may clearly
80
DEFINITIONS.
conceive the object to which they are intended to apply, and (2) that
the mind may understand what that object is as distinguished from
all others. Hence, clearness of ideas and precision of thought
Object of depend upon accuracy of definition; for without this there
must be a confusion of language which will preclude the possibility of
correct thinking or reasoning. This may arise ether from a dim con-
ception of the thing spoken of, or from a misapplication
Telation to of the term used to denote it. It is a part of the fundamental
clearness work of the teacher to instill the habit of accurately defin-
of ideas.
ing the terms employed in every subject taught. This is
generally recognized, but the principle is not always correctly applied.
It is customary with many teachers, and most writers of elementary
text books, to begin with definitions, because this seems to be
Place of the most logical in the formal treatment of any subject; but
in teaching this practice is opposed to well-established principles of
pedagogy. Definitions are dependent upon abstraction and generali-
zation; and, without a knowledge of the concrete details from which
they have been deduced. they often convey no distinct ideas to the
mind. Definition should not be confounded with description: the
former includes only what is required to distinguish the objects referred
to from other objects; the latter should comprehend all that is required
to convey to the mind a complete and vivid idea of the thing described.
In teaching, we should rather begin with description and end with defini-
tion; and, when, by this twofold process, the idea of what we wish to convey
to the pupils' mind has been made distinct in itself and distinguished from
all other things, the proper term should be associated with it. This is in
accordance with the requirements of the developing method (q. v.).
A child's
DEFINITIONS, a branch of elementary education, usually having
reference to instruction in the meaning of words. The operations of a
child's mind naturally lead to a knowledge of words as represent-
atives of ideas; and, at quite an early age. a child acquires a
vocabulary. very extensive vocabulary of terms and the ability to apply
them properly, since they are learned not by formal statement or defini-
tion, but by hearing them used, and by subsequent practice in using them
in connection with the actual objects or conceptions which they represent.
In this way, the words which young children learn make but little impres-
sion upon their minds as words; but they are so intimately associated with
the objects. actions, and qualities which they represent, that they convey
to the mind the same ideas as the objects, actions, etc. themselves. The
school exercises or lessons designed to increase the child's vocabulary, or to
teach the meaning of words found in books, often disregard this natural
method of acquisition, and attempt to teach the meaning of individual
words by means of their approximate synonyms, without any regard to
their application, or use in phrases and sentences. Without an embodi-
ment of words in actual speech. the recitation of formal defini-
Proper
tions is of no use.
method of
After sufficient illustration of this kind,
the pupil should be required to tell, in his own language, the
teaching.
meaning of the word in question, which the teacher can then
correct. No exercise in synonyms is of any value, but on the contrary,
rather injurious, until the meaning of words has been thus explained. In
DEGREES
81
DEPARTMENTAL SYSTEM
oral lessons in definitions to classes, one pupil may be required to use the
given word in a phrase or sentence, another to explain its meaning, and
another to give a brief definition by a synonymous phrase or word. Very
simple words, the meaning of which is already known to the child, should
not be given for formal definition; since properly to define such words, re-
quires a nice discrimination in the use of language, and a minuteness of
analysis beyond the capacity of a young child. A full exercise of this kind
should comprise the following: (1) To pronounce the word; (2) To use it
in the construction of a phrase or a sentence; (3) To define it; (4) To write a
sentence illustrating its meaning and use. [A written exercise for the whole
class, each pupil writing a different sentence.] Instruction in the deriva-
tion of words and the meaning of the common prefixes and suffixes should
be commenced at an early stage.
DEGREES are titles of rank conferred upon students in colleges and
universities, as evidence of their proficiency in the arts and sciences, or
upon learned men as a testimony of their literary merits. At first, the
terms master and doctor were applied indifferently to any person engaged
in teaching in the university. In process of time, the term master was
restricted to teachers of the liberal arts and the term doctor to divinity,
law, and medicine. When regulations were established to prevent uuquali-
fied persons from teaching, and an initiatory stage of discipline was
prescribed, these terms became significant of a certain rank, and of the
possession of certain powers, and were called gradus,-steps or degrees.
Below is given a list of the various degrees usually conferred in this
country, with the usual abbreviations employed to designate them.
The colleges for females confer, in the place of the title Bachelor (of
Letters, of Arts, of Liberal Arts), the_title Graduate, though they retain
the abbreviations L. B., A. B., and B. L. A.
A. B., Bachelor of Arts.
A. L., Laureate of Arts.
A. M., Master of Arts.
A.. S., Sister of Arts.
B. A., Bachelor of Agriculture.
B. Arch., Bachelor of Architecture.
B. C. E., Bachelor of Civil Engineering.
B. L A., Bachelor of Liberal Arts.
B. M. E., Bachelor of Mining Engineering.
C. E., Civil Engineer.
C. & M. E., Civil and Mining Engineer.
D. B, Bachelor of Divinity.
D. C. L., Doctor of Civil Laws.
D. D., Doctor of Divinity.
D. D. M., Doctor of Dental Medicine.
D. E., Dynamic Engineer.
D. Sc., Doctor of Science.
L. B., Bachelor of Letters.
LL. B., Bachelor of Laws.
LL. D., Doctor of Laws.
L. Sc., Laureate of Science.
M. B., Bachelor of Medicine.
M. D., I octor of Medicine.
M. E., Mining Engineer.
M. F. L., Mistress of English Literature.
M. L. A., Mistress of Liberal Arts.
M. L. L., Mistress of Liberal Learning.
M. Sc., Mistress of Science.
Mis. Mus., Mistress of Music.
Mus. B., Bachelor of Music.
Mus. D., Doctor of Music.
Ph. B., Bachelor of Philosophy.
Ph. D., Doctor of Philosophy.
Sc. B., Bachelor of Science.
Sc. M., Master of Science.
S. T. D., Sacrae Theologiae Doctor.
DEPARTMENTAL SYSTEM, or Subject System, a method of
school organization in which each department of instruction or subject of
study is assigned to a particular teacher, instead of requiring each teacher
to give instruction to a particular class in all the branches of study
pursued. This system is rarely employed in schools for primary instruc-
tion; but, in those of a higher grade. is nearly universal. In regard to its
advantages and disadvantages, as compared with the class system, many
considerations are urged; and the experience of instructors seems to be
quite diverse as to its success. The chief argument in its favor is, that it
82
DEVELOPING METHOD
would narrow the range of subjects required to be mastered by a single
teacher, and, in this way, improve the character of the instruction imparted,
For other considerations in regard to this question, see CLASS.
Herbart's
DEVELOPING METHOD (in German entwickelnde Methode) is a
term introduced into the science and practice of pedagogy through the
philosophy of Herbart, and popularized among European teachers through
its greatest followers, Beneke and Diesterweg. It means an
Definition. education of the natural endowments of the individual accord-
ing to the psychologic laws of human development, and to the exclusion
of all purposes foreign to such development. The term, in some respects,
is a misnomer, as it implies far more than it expresses. It means a system,
realized in, or applicable to, a variety of educational methods, and based on
the fundamental principle, that human nature alone, as developed and
shown in its best products through a long historical period, should be the
guiding star in all educational efforts. Herbart, who was the
first among the German philosophers, in opposition to the pre-
system.
vailing speculative philosophy, to apply the method of induction
to philosophy, and who based his system on inductive psychology, and
treated the latter mathematically, wrote, as early as 1806, a work on pedago-
gy in which the new drift of educational ideas inaugurated by Rousseau
and Pestalozzi, was reduced to logical principles. He was the first in his-
tory to render intelligible the processes in the human soul which lead to
memory, comparison, the distinction of impressions and their growth into
mental images, notions, judgment and reason, disposition and will; and,
in so doing, he reasoned from the established facts of consciousness, and
developed a long series of mathematical formulæ as evidences of his cor-
rectness in interpreting the facts. Beneke, more straight-for-
ward than Herbart, gave, in his Lehrbuch der Psychologie als
Diesterweg. Naturwissenschaft (1833), and Erziehungs- und Unterrichtslehre
(1835), a very lucid and common-sense exposition of this new system of
psychology, in its application to pedagogy, which, through Diesterweg's
practical treatises and school books, grew almost universally popular among
the German teachers. The founders of this system did not go so far as to
reach all the legitimate conclusions which may logically be derived from its
principles, and which were drawn by the succeding generation of teachers.
The system, as now taught and practiced by men like Dittes and
some of Froebel's followers, has undergone a series of gradual
improvements, and seems capable of many more; since human
nature itself is a subject that receives, through the constant improvement
of all the natural sciences, a daily increasing illustration. Nor is there,
as yet, a complete agreement among the foremost pedagogical writers
upon what may be considered the genuine development of human nature
but the principle itself, that the spontaneous growth of all the faculties of
the mind into the greatest possible harmony should be facilitated accord-
ing to the laws of normal development, which are to be faithfully followed,
not counteracted; guided, but not curbed - and all this in the order
which is indicated by nature herself this principle seems to be so well
established, that, henceforth, only its interpretation can be doubtful.
Beneke and
Improve-
ments.
This new psychology sails clear of all the rocks of preceding systems
and of the maelstrom of party strife; it deals with none but demonstrable
DEVELOPING METHOD
83
facts. Such facts are, that the unfolding of intelligence and mental activity
in the newborn child is caused by impressions from without; that the latter,
called traces, cannot grow into distinct images without a group-
Founda- ing of the traces in an order corresponding to the outward ob-
tion facts.
jects; that we can verify by actual experiment, both with ani-
mals and men, the laws according to which equal traces strengthen each
other, and similar ones aggregate and form opposites to dissimilar groups of
traces; that fugitive impressions have obscure traces, lasting or often re-
peated impressions, clear traces; that one trace or set of traces is for a
time obscured by new ones, and that the consciousness of an image is the
effect of either pleasure or pain of the mind in consequence of the impres-
sions, etc., etc. The theory goes on to show that all the higher
Mental mental processes are repetitions of the photographic action of
processes. the first traces, in a higher order, and follow with mathematical
exactness their laws. A normal pedagogy is, therefore, possible, inde-
pendent of philosophical systems. Disputed questions of physiology and
psychology concern only unimportant topics, and, therefore, may be ignored
and left to the future development of science; but it is all-important in
pedagogy to demonstrate clearly all the conditions without which no mind
can grow, whatever the nature of mind itself may be.
It is, therefore, of the first importance to cultivate the action of the
senses, the gates to all mental development, in such a way as to render
them self-active by their appropriate combination with pleasure
Progress- and pain; next, to offer to their self-activity a succession of out-
ive steps. ward impressions which will leave distinct and, by repetition,
lasting traces and the most complete images of objects, accompanied by
sensations and impulses. The first consciousness being thus awakened, it
follows that a comparison and distinction of the representations once pro-
duced must lead to both clear notions of their single features and clear
consciousness of the mind, without which the origin of self-consciousness
would be retarded, and its growth stunted. The latter taking its start
from the first efforts in speaking, language becomes the chief means of edu-
cation, and its proper use on the part of the educator, in connection with
the objects designated, the way to the subsequent normal development.
The gap in this system left between this stage and the first school age was
not filled until Froebel, starting from a somewhat different stand-point,
invented his kindergarten plays.
Practical
rules.
Great stress is, in this system, laid on the gradual progress of educa-
tion, which, after all, is little more than instruction, a somewhat one-sided
culture of the intellect, the imagination, and the memory. The
teacher is to proceed from the simple to the compound, from the
concrete to the abstract, from perception to reflection in the pu-
pil, from examples to rules, from facts to laws. He is to be more a guide
than a teacher; he is not to tell his pupils any thing which they can be led
to find out themselves. He is to present them just mental food enough,
and no more, at a time, than can be fully digested; and that food ought to
be adapted to the age and degree of development. Every kind of mental
food ought to be so fully digested as to contribute to the strengthening of
every mental faculty. The pupil is to be rendered his own teacher; his
self-activity is to be fostered first, last, and at all times.
84
DEVELOPING METHOD
The cultivation of the memory at the expense of observation and re-
flection, which, in all routine teaching, plays so prominent a part, is made
Routine
unnecessary by stimulating the mental appetite and digestive
teaching.
power of the pupil; whatever is fully understood will forever re-
main mental property. All mechanical drill, and all moral
preaching, is more hurtful than useful, because skill in the learner is to
grow out of repeated self-appropriation connected with that pleasure which
accompanies the satisfaction of every mental appetite; and because an ap-
propriate mental food is conducive to moral power. Development means
self-development, guided by well-developed educators.
It is evident that this new system exacts a far higher standard of abili-
ties and attainments in the educator than ever before had been deemed
Teacher's
necessary. This necessity led to a considerable improvement in
the course of training of pupil teachers in the German and other
require-
normal schools. "The teacher is the school," was the maxim in-
ments.
culcated there. If he be the proper person destined by natural
gifts and prepared for his calling by a careful study of mental phenomena
and a long theoretic and practical training. he will make up for the short-
comings of text-books, apparatus, and previous education. If he be fuil of
enthusiasm for his sacred task of forming minds, and patient in all his
laborious methods, he will mould his pupils' minds and morals by means
of their self-development. The rational sobriety of this system was greatly
aided by the marvelous spirit of self-devotion and educational enthusiasm
which had been engendered in the teaching fraternity by Pestalozzi; and
it may be called a fact. that hardly ever, or anywhere, was there done such
intelligent and faithful work in thousands of schools, and for so scanty a
remuneration. as in the developing-method schools up to the period of the
"School Regulations."
·in special
methods.
Among the reforms in special methods that followed in the wake of
this system, must first be mentioned the introduction of phonic or phonetic
Reforms reading Spelling was althogether superseded, and orthographi-
cal writing exercises substituted. based on a few rules which the
pupils had to deduce for themselves from a comparison of ex-
amples. Gräser and Vogel improved this method, which is
liable to be too mechanically applied, by combining it with the writing-
reading and the synthetico-analytic methods. The former begins with
analyzing the single sounds of which the words consist and teaching the
written signs for them, and continues with writing these and other words;
printed words, or rather sentences, are introduced when the pupils can
read all written letters, and thereafter all that has been read must be fault-
lessly copied. The latter begins with sentences that must be analyzed into
their component words, and the words into their component sounds; the
corresponding signs (letters) are then given, either in written, or in printed
form, or in both (as in Douai's method, exemplified in his Rational Readers)
and then synthesis-reading begins, accompanied with constant copying ex-
ercises, which must be carefully regulated. Another improvement has
been effected by connecting penmanship exercises with the first writing ex-
ercises by means of time-beating (Taktschreiben). The object is to prevent
the forination of careless habits instead of weeding them out when formed,
which is still further aimed at by reading in concert, alternately with indi- .

DEVELOPING METHOD
85
vidual reading. In arithmetic, the beginning was made with mental exer-
cises in the analytic method; but there is a great variety in the methods
of connecting analysis with ciphering, and in the extent to which it is
carried. Great importance, however, is universally attributed to a full
understanding of the value of numbers, both single and in their decimal
orders. Some methods, progressing through concentric circles of 1—10,
10—100, 100—1000, etc., involve. within each circle, all the four ground
ruies; some. only addition and subtraction together, and, later, multiplica-
tion and division together; some, only one at a time, with larger concentric
circles, etc. Some introduce the elements of fractions at a very early
stage, dividing them also into concentric circles; some introduce decimal
fractions even before common fractions. Object lessons in special branches,
according to the older (Pestalozzian) process, were to some extent crowded
out when all teaching became object teaching; yet special object lessons in
zoology and botany, geometry and geography, remained favorite branches
in most plans of teaching. The method of teaching the mother-tongue is
also very variable; but, through all the variety, a tendency is conspicuous
to make the most of the pupil's self-activity by guiding him to form sen-
tences orally and in writing, whether for orthographical, grammatical, rhe-
torical, or elocutionary purposes. Grammatical analysis with parsing oc-
cupies far less time than synthesis. It is a strange fact that the study
of Latin and Greek has, only recently and to a very limited extent,
been subjected to the same method; but the modern languages were
treated in the analytico synthetic way (not to be confounded with the
Ahn or Ollendorff method, from which it is distinguished by its scientific,
pedagogic spirit, and far greater efficiency). There is an endless variety
of special methods in all branches of primary and secondary instruction,
which it is not necessary here to explain.
It is useless to discuss the merits and shortcomings of special methods,
since any one of them that has passed the ordeal of a practical applica-
Methods tion in the school room may be called good, because adapted
not to to the genius both of the teacher and his particular class of
be stereo- pupils. No single practical method can claim universal appli-
typed. cability; since every one will need to be modified in order to be
adapted, not only to the teacher's peculiar development, but also to
that of the class or pupil. He is a bad follower of the developing
method who treats, year in and year out, every new class of pupils
according to a stereotyped manner for each branch of instruction, instead
of accommodating himself to the wants of the class. The developing
method means nothing more nor less than that there shall be method
in all the teacher's doings, — a well-concerted plan, calculated to develop
every gift of each pupil by educating him to self-activity in every branch
of the curriculum, and to produce a certain degree of uniform general
development without neglecting either the forward, or the backward
portion of the class. And high as this standard of effectiveness may be,
experience proves that it will be almost universally realized, if the posi-
tion of the teacher be sufficiently remunerative, independent, and honored,
to attract to the profession all persons born to be teachers. This reali-
zation has, moreover, been considerably facilitated by the preparation for
primary classes, obtained from Froebel s kindergarten.

86
DIDACTICS
DIARY
DIARY, School, a daily record of the lessons, recitations, deportment,
etc., of pupils, kept in a small book which is taken home each day, or each
week, to be exhibited to the parents, whose inspection is attested by their
signature previous to the diary's being returned to the teacher. Thus, a
constant correspondence is kept up between parent and teacher, the former
being continuously informed of the child's progress, merit or demerit, and
behavior; and thus enabled intelligently to co-operate in his school educa-
tion. Instead of the diary, some teachers prefer the monthly report.
DICTATION, a school exercise in which the teacher reads or speaks
(dictates) to the pupils what is to be written by the latter for practice
in writing, spelling, etc. Such exercises are very useful, not only to
give accuracy and expertness in writing words and sentences, but to
train the ear to the ready apprehension of spoken language. In this
respect, it supplements copying, which exclusively disciplines the eye.
DIDACTICS, the theory of instruction, as distinguished from that
of education in its narrower sense, implying simply moral education. It
is commonly treated under two heads: general didactics, which exhibits
Definition the philosophical principles of teaching, and the conditions of

instruction
and its success; and special didactics, or methodics, which applies
division. the general truths to the several branches of instruction, the
different ages to be instructed, and the various individual characters and
their treatment. The distinction between didactics and pedagogy in the
narrower sense is made only for the sake of separate scientific treatment,
as it is universally conceded that all instruction can be rendered
All a means of moral education, and that no instruction deserves
moral. the name, or can be truly successful, without a corresponding
development of moral power. In any branch of instruction,
the very first beginning presupposes attention on the part of the pupil,
while the progress made will depend on his self-activity, and his ultimate
mastership on his full appropriation of all the moral power inherent in
the branch of art or science concerned. On the part of the teacher,
moral power, engendered by such mastership, must be presupposed, if
he is to impart to his pupil attention, self-activity, and love for the
Consid subject. In regard to the age of the pupil, instruction and
eration of moral education bear to each other a changing proportion.
age. During the first age, - from earliest infancy up to the eighth
or tenth year, the so-called formal purpose of education prevails in
importance; the several functions of the youthful mind must be made
self-active, and the material purpose of didactics, the acquisition of
knowledge or positive learning, must be made a mere means to the former,
so that no more of each concentric circle of facts be given to appropriate
than can be digested for the benefit of each function. The second age,
which extends to the beginning of sexual maturity, is the one during
which instruction and education should be, as it were, in equipoise; while,
in the period after sexual maturity, the material purpose, that of the
acquisition of knowledge and skill, may preponderate. In regard to the
branches of instruction, general didactics shows which of these are adapted
to the several stages of the mental and moral development of the three
ages, and which concentric circle of facts and truths of every science and
art may be introduced at the time when it can serve as wholesome mental
DILIGENCE
87
and moral food. A most important distinction is made between the
pedagogical and the scientific treatment of every subject of instruction,
Pedagogi- the latter being of necessity systematic and synthetic, while the
cal and former should be methodic and analytic first, synthetic last;
scientific that is to say, should introduce every object of learning at
treatment. such a time, and in such a manner, that it may be mentally and
morally appropriated.
Special didactics, commonly designated as methodics, treats of the
pedagogical means proper in each branch of instruction, at each age and
stage of development. An explanation of the more important
Special methods of didactics will be found under the titles of the various
didactics. branches. In general, however, we may state that all prominent
educators concur in holding that the teacher is every-where the best
method, as he is in fact the school itself, if he be a true teacher. It would,
however, be a dangerous error to suppose, on that account, that every
teacher should be left free to invent his own methods, or could be expected
to be successful without an acquaintance with the best methods in use.
This error will be avoided by those who, on the one hand, are so deeply
imbued with the great responsibility of their calling, as to feel that the
wisdom of the preceding generations of great teachers cannot be neglected,
and, therefore, that the methods devised and practiced by them should be
made a subject of faithful and conscientious study; but who, on the other
hand, realize the principle that the most approved methods cannot benefit
a teacher who has not mentally so appropriated them as to reproduce them
according to his own individuality, and to be able to adapt them
to the peculiar wants of his pupils, as well as to all other circum-
stances in which he is placed. All teaching should be methodical in
every aspect; it should be based on the thorough appropriation of a
proper system of pedagogy; and it should be a natural outgrowth of the
teacher's personality, if it is to perform its proper office in the work of
real education.
DILIGENCE, the virtue of constancy in labor, is an important,
though not the sole, means of success in any branch of human calling. It
is a function of the will power, as distinguished from intellect and sensa-
tion, and is of spontaneous growth, wherever the occupation is akin to the
inclination and productive of pleasure. It can, therefore, artificially be
engendered only by connecting the occupation with pleasurable emotions
that are not foreign to the subject. Where the latter are missing, only dire
necessity can keep diligence alive, either some necessity from natural, or
from positive law. But then diligence has ceased to be a virtue, though
it may continue as a habit, mechanically as it were. In education, diligence
is more powerful than natural adaptation, as all the experience derived
from the history of great men shows. It is the office of pedagogy to
promote diligence in the pupils by spontaneous growth, as is done in the
kindergarten system of education. Where such spontaneous growth has
not been effected by early influences, an artificial growth must be cultivated;
but the pleasurable emotions to be connected with the occupation, should
be prompted as little as possible by means foreign to the subject, such as,
for instance, outward punishments, rewards, purely mechanical discipline,
or the stimulus of ambition. Whatever the occupation or study in which
88
DISCIPLINE
DIPLOMA
pupils are required to engage, they should, as soon as possible, be induced
to take a lively interest in it for its own sake; because such an interest will
arouse into active exercise all the best powers of their minds, and thus lead
to the most effective and salutary educational discipline. Besides, the habit
of depending upon external incentives, the love of distinction, of praise,
of pleasure, or of gain, must necessarily engender selfishness, and thus
narrow and debase the mind which a generous, earnest zeal in the pursuit
of a praiseworthy object would expand and ennoble.
DIPLOMA (Gr. dinλwua, any thing doubled, or folded), a term an-
ciently given to a formal certificate of authority, because such documents
were usually written on double or folded waxen tablets. In more modern
times, the term was applied to a royal charter or to any governmental
testimonial of authority privilege, or dignity. (Hence the science of state
documents is called diplomatics.) The term is now chiefly confined to a
certificate given by a university, college, or other literary institution, as an
evidence that the person upon whom it is conferred has attained a certain
degree of scholarship; or, in the case of professional schools, as a license to
practice a particular art.
DISCIPLINE (Lat. disciplina, from discere, to learn), a term which,
according to its literal acceptation, means the condition of a disciple, or
learner; that is, subordination requiring strict obedience to cer-
Definition. tain directions or rules, or conformity with a system of instruc-
tion, having for its object some kind of training. Hence the word dis-
cipline is sometimes used in an active sense as synonymous with training or
culture, as in the expression intellectual or moral discipline. Sometimes
it is employed to denote school government; and, frequently also punish-
ment for the commission of offenses. The word, however, should, partic-
ularly in education, be confined to its strict meaning as above defined. In
all teaching, there is need of attention and obedience on the part
Need of of the pupil; and as an important aim of education is to instill
discipline.
certain habits as a basis for the formation of character, the
learner must be required constantly and punctiliously to conform to certain,
rules and general precepts; and the discipline of the teacher is good or bad
in proportion as he succeeds in enforcing obedience to these necessary
rules. In large schools, the system of regulations becomes more compli-
cated, and a habitual ready attention to them on the part of the pupils
produces what is technically called order. (See ORDER.) This
Order. kind of discipline assimilates to what is required in an army,
with the special object of so unifying a large number of men that they may
be moved as a single person. In military discipline, the individual is sacri-
ficed to the general object to be attained by its enforcement; indeed, he
has no claim to consideration, except what is secondary and subordinate.
The danger, in the management of large schools, is that the same principle
will be applied, the interests of the pupils as individuals being lost sight of
in the endeavor to enforce mere discipline for the purpose of general man-
agement or show. In education, however, the interests of the individual
should never be disregarded. School machinery, marching and counter-
marching, simultaneous movements, the motionless gaze, or the dead silence
of multitudes of children, all perhaps trembling under restraint, certainly
constitutes a kind of discipline, but a kind, if not absolutely pernicious, of
DISCIPLINE
89
but little educational value. Order is indispensable to the proper working
of a school; but it has been well remarked that "good order involves im-
pression rather than repression; it does not consist in a coercion from which
result merely silence, and a vacant gaze of painful restraint; but it proceeds
from the steady action of awakened and interested intellect, the kind-
ling of an earnest purpose and an ambition to excel.' Hence, the dis-
cipline that is necessary to produce order in a school or class, is of second-
ary importance, in comparison with that which has for its object to train
the intellectual and moral nature of the pupils as individuals.
By dis-
to be
Moral
""
cipline", says Currie, "we understand the application of the
Motires motives which prompt the pupil to diligent study and to good
cultivated. conduct"; that is, such motives as the desire of the approbation
of teacher or parent, emulation, or the desire of distinction, the
hope of reward, and the fear of punishment. To what extent these mo-
tives should be resorted to, and their comparative efficacy in dealing with
children of different temperaments and traits of character, constitute im-
portant subjects for careful discussion. (See GOVERNMENT, and Rewards).
All moral discipline must be directed to the training of the will; and
it is in this connection that the consideration of motives becomes of primary
importance. Educators are at considerable variance as to the
discipline. proper methods of controlling the will of children. Some ad-
vocate, in all cases, an application of the law of kindness and
contend that physical force should never be brought in to coerce or restrain
even the most self-willed pupil; others are of the opinion, based on ex-
perience, as they claim, that, in some cases, physical punishment is in-
dispensable. The best training is, without doubt, that which brings into
play the pupil's higher nature, and leaves him habitually actuated by
motives derived from it. The child cannot be always restrained by fear, -
that is, the fear of immediate physical pain; and, hence, the discipline to
which he is to be subjected, should be such as will implant motives and
principles of conduct that will be effective as a means of permanent self-
control. The mere subduing of the will of children is not suffi-
Subduing cient; indeed, it may be injurious. The aim of the teacher
the will. should be to bring the will into subjection to conscience and a
sense of right; in the words of a distinguished educator, "to discourage
the child in the proper development of its nature has a tendency to crush
out the life of the child rather than to cultivate that life into better
methods of thought and action". The motives brought to bear in the
school-room should, as far as possible, be those which will be operative in
after life. Special school incentives, such as merit marks etc.,
Incentives. are useful and proper within certain limitations; but the great
aim should be to dispense with them, and substitute natural for artificial
motives motives that will cling to the child during his whole after life.
Unnatural, overstrained discipline, that is, the exaction of a
discipline. precise conformity with the minor regulations of a school, not
only crushes out the individuality of the child for the time, but
in its reaction engenders a feeling of resistance in his mind, which, having
no outward demonstration, naturally results in a habit of deceit. Nothing
is so baneful to the nature of a child as an atmosphere of tyranny and
arbitrary power; and any system of discipline that is founded exclusively
Unnatural
•
90
DISGRACE - DIVERSIONS
teacher.
upon it, must produce the worst effects possible. After all, the best dis-
cipline, even if the outward order should not be so exact, is that which is
brought to bear upon the pupils through the consistent example,
The and the kindly heart-felt sympathies, of the living teacher, whose
very presence is sunshine to his school, and who quells way ward-
ness by the sublimity of his patience, firmness, and perfect self-control.
"The discipline of a school", says Baldwin, in The Art of School Manage-
ment (New York, 1881), "should be intrusted to no one unfamiliar with
the science of duty, for everything of value to human beings is involved in
this science". (See CONSCIENCE, CULTURE OF.)
DISGRACE. See PUNISHMENT.
to natural
DIVERSIONS. An important part of the education of youth con-
sists in affording them an opportunity for natural, unrestrained diversions,
in which they may have free scope to exercise mind and body,
Scope to be particularly the latter, according to their inclinations. During
given the early period of childhood, no tasks can be or need be im-
impulse. posed to guide or accelerate the natural development of the
mental and physical faculties; the buds of humanity open of
themselves, if their condition is normal, and their growth is not arrested
by injudicious interference. At first, nature, as a wise educator, trains
through the pleasurable emotions; for the impulses which she inspires are
all to varied activity, and activity is delight when nerves and muscles have
the spring of health and vital energy. A few lessons in conscious restraint
are all that this period requires or admits. They are purely negative,
checking the violence of natural impulse, not urging the child's activity in

education.
Diversions
any particular direction. This is the education of home and
Home parents, when presided over by love and good sense, during the
first years of the child's existence, a period of continuous diver-
sion. When the age for serious application begins, the season for labor,
or occupation under restraint, the educator should strive to make the
transition as easy and gentle as possible. Frequent diversions should be
intermingled with formal exercises; and much will be gained if those exer-
cises be made to partake of the nature of diversions, by having the
characteristics of novelty and variety, and by stimulating the child's
curiosity. As the age of the child increases, passing into youth, the times
for regular occupation and for recreation, or diversions, become
in youth.
more distinctly separated. The boy or the girl is gradually led
to feel that there are duties to be performed, as well as sports to
be enjoyed; and that the pleasure received from the latter will be greatly
increased by the feeling that it has been earned by a conscientious devotion
to the former. Hence, under no circumstances, should youth be deprived
of their opportunities for free and innocent recreations, except as a penalty
for misdoing or neglect of duty. The office of diversions is
Office.
twofold, recreation and exercise. The former is absolutely
essential after studious employment, to refresh the mind; and the latter
is needed to give health and vigor to the body. Those sports are the best,
therefore, which combine cheerful relaxation of the one with the due
employment of the other. Boys, if left to themselves, will take
Treatment violent exercise, and thus develop their physical powers and pro-
of boys.
mote their growth; and girls will select sports of a lighter

DRAWING
91

character, such as are adapted to their different physical constitution.
It is a serious error on the part of parents to keep their boys under painful
restraint, and, from solicitude for their safety, to debar them the enjoyment
of diversions common to their age, because attended with some degree of
danger. Excessive maternal tenderness and care thus exercised must
result in rendering boys effeminate, and unfit to cope with the dangers and
trials of subsequent life. The only need of restraint is to keep boys from
vicious actions, low company, petulance and a contentious spirit in their
sports, and from too daring and perilous feats of agility and strength.
Gymnastic exercises may also be made a recreation, and, when carried on
with some system, they constitute an important part of a regular physical
education. (See GYMNASTICS.) What has been called athletics, — rowing,
swimming, riding, ball-playing, cricket, etc., are greatly to be encouraged
in the maturer periods of youth, not only on account of their effect in devel-
oping physical vigor, but because they keep those who actively engage in
them from those vicious indulgences which constitute the great peril of
that age.
As for the more quiet in-door pastimes, they should be en-
couraged with moderation. Chess and draughts may be permitted; but,
in these games, particularly in the former, there is great danger of excess;
and it has never been demonstrated that a good chess-player is, on that ac-
count, good for any thing but to play chess. The game of billiards gives
training to the hand and the eye, and involves considerable exercise,
moderate but healthful; yet it may be doubted whether youth should be en-
couraged to engage in it, because of its fascinating character and its tendency
to draw their attention from more useful and necessary employments, not
to mention the dangerous associations of the billiard room.
DRAWING, may be divided into two distinct departments, in-
strumental and free-hand, the former being principally employed in the
mechanical, engineering, and architectural branches of industry; the latter,
by artists, designers, and others. The two divisions are some-
Divisions. times referred to as scientific and artistic, because the subjects
coming under the first group, are based on scientific principles, and the
results obtained are capable of demonstration by geometry; whilst free-
hand work, either in imitation or original design, employs the perceptive
rather than the reasoning faculties, and its results have to be judged
by the standard of taste, in all the features which do not involve a question
of fact.
Instrumental Drawing. The group of subjects which come under
this division may be classified as elementary or applied; the first_teaching
methods of obtaining accuracy of form, and its appearance under given
conditions; the second applying this power of drawing to practical pur-
poses, in the arts of planning, construction, and design. The elementary
subjects are: (1) plane geometrical drawing; (2) projection of
Subjects. solids, (a) radial or perspective, (b) parallel or orthographic;
(3) projection of shadows, (a) radial or perspective, (b) parallel or ortho-
graphic and isometric. The applied subjects are: (1) architectural
drawing and building construction; (2) machine drawing, construction,
and design; civil and military engineering; (3) surveying and topographical
drawing; and (4) ship draughting, and marine architecture. The elemen-
tary subjects teach the student how to draw the forms of lines, planes, or

92
DRAWING
Forms.
solids, either as the eye sees them by perspective, or as they actually exist,
by orthographic or isometric projection. The forms usually employed
in teaching, are regular geometric planes and solids, conveying,
by the instruction given, the principles of representation by
lines, on planes of delineation, when the objects are seen in space, or in a
defined position in relation to the eye. The study of the elements of
instrumental drawing is necessary, therefore, because by it we learn how
to draw, as a science, which is obviously required before we can apply it to
Element- purposes involving a knowledge of the science. The elementary
ary branches may thus be considered purely educational, whilst the
branches. advanced or applied divisions may be described as industrial.
In the applied subjects, a knowledge of plane and solid geometry prepares
the architectural draughtsman to make working drawings for the builder,
the carpenter, the mason, and other mechanics employed in the
Applied erection and construction of buildings; displaying, by geometrical
subjects.
drawings made to a regular scale, the true forms and dimensions
of all parts of the fabric; enabling the builder to calculate exactly the
quantity of materials required in its construction, and each artisan to
prepare his share of the work, so that it shail truly fit its place. The
science of projection and perspective is the basis of the language by which
the architect expresses his design for the whole structure, displaying his
arrangement of the plan, his design for the elevation, the true form of the
building in its several aspects, and the appearance of the whole by means
of a perspective view. Again, in mechanical engineering, the designer
Mechan- of a machine must be thoroughly acquainted with projection
ical engin- as a science, before he can express on paper his devices for
eering. securing the speed and power required for his purpose. Working
drawings have then to be made of the several parts and details, to furnish
accurate information to the model maker, by which he may make each
part of the machine in wood, to the moulder who has to cast it in metal,
and for the guidance of the finisher and fitter who complete the work and
erect the machine. So, also, in surveying and topographical drawing, the
actual features of a country or an estate are ascertained through
Surveying, the application of plane and solid geometry, and reduced from
the natural size to a plan which is, in all respects, like the true
plan of the original, although on a different scale. By the use of such
scale drawings, railways are planned and executed, cíties and towns are
laid out; and, by civil and military engineers, who employ the same means
of delineating their work, cities are drained, supplied with water, or
fortified and protected, bridges are built to span the river, and piers made
to encroach upon the sea, tunnels made to cut through hills and mountains,
and embankments and viaducts to fill the inequalities of valleys. The

etc.
marine engineer or naval constructor is equally dependent upon
Naval con- his knowledge of projection, in laying out the lines of his ship
struction. or boat, in displaying its capacity for freight, and modeling its
shape for speed. All these features of his design are expressed by means
of drawings, which are the application of plane and solid geometry to a
special industrial purpose. It will be evident, therefore, that the constructive
arts, which bear so important a relation to modern civilization, and employ
so vast a number of persons, are all dependent upon drawing for the

DRAWING
93
initiation of their schemes. At the foundation of successful work, in any
and all of their departments, lies a knowledge of elementary drawing,
which, regarded as a language, is of such a character, that it may be
efficiently taught in the elementary schools by the regular teachers
employed to give instruction in general subjects, as soon as this
practically useful subject forms a part of all normal-school education. Pure
Applica- geometry may be considered the study of all these sciences in
tion of the abstract, and this is successfully pursued in the schools and
geometry. colleges; scientific or instrumental drawing, under the headings
called elementary subjects, would be the concrete application of geometry
to the needs of practical education, to be applied at a future time to
actual industry.
Free-Hand Drawing. As the name implies, this kind of drawing is
the expression, by the unassisted hand, of what the eye perceives, or the
mind, or imagination, conceives. Its results, therefore, are de-
What it is. pendent upon the truthfulness of observation or power of con-
ception possessed by the draughtsman, and, in some measure, upon his
manipulative skill as a workman. As a rule, however, the power of draw-
ing, or expression, is equal to the perceptive power, and imperfect or faulty
work proceeds generally from a lack of clear understanding of the subject
rather than want of hand skill. As in instrumental drawing, free-hand
drawing consists of two groups of subjects, elementary and
Divisions. applied, the first being educational, and the second, industrial
or professional. In the elementary division, are all those branches of study
or exercises which develop the imitative faculties, embracing all kinds of
Element- copying from flat examples or round objects, including also the
ary, and subjects of geometrical drawing and perspective, by which alone.
applied. the truthfulness of expressed form can be tested. In applied
drawing, the language of form is employed to embody new ideas, either as
original designs for industrial art and manufactures. or to express the ideal
of fine art, the work of the imagination. It will be seen, therefore, that
both scientific and artistic drawing, by instruments or by the free hand,
have a common characteristic; they both involve a knowledge of, and skill
in, drawing as a language, before the language can by employed
Drawing for original purposes.
To continue the analogy, and regarding
language. drawing as the language of form, its alphabet consists of two
letters, the straight line and the curve. Simple combinations of
these, by elementary practice, produce, as it were, words of one syllable;
the grouping of several objects in a drawing, may be described as a sentence;
and an original design is the same as a composition or essay on a given
theme. The artist uses the expression "out of drawing" in precisely the
same sense as a scholar employs the term "ungrammatical", and (other
terms being substituted) the criticism which has been made on a poem or
a work of fiction, might apply exactly to a historical picture or an ideal
figure, possessing similar characteristics. To ensure success in
Condition teaching the subject in the public schools, the following conditions
of success.
are necessary: (1) Only those elementary branches should be
taught which are educational in their influence, and the knowledge conveyed
by them of general use (such as have been described as being at the four-
dation of all constructive industry). (2) Instruction in drawing should begin
as a
94
DRILL — DULL SCHOLARS
-
with school life, and end only when school, college, or university education
is completed. (3) At the basis of all instruction is geometrical drawing,
which illustrates the facts of regular forms; and perspective, which
determines the appearance of those facts. (4), Original design, either
elementary or applied, should form a part of the regular exercises required
from pupils, alternating with other exercises, such as drawing from memory,
and dictation, in order to give variety to the study. (5) The principles of
drawing, and of shades and shadows, should first be taught from regular
forms, and with scientific method and accuracy, before the pupils are
allowed to draw and shade irregular forms, with no guide but their own
observation. All practice should proceed from the simple to the complex,
from the regular to the irregular, from the fact to its appearance.
The following is suggested as a course of instruction for elementary
schools:
M
1st year.
The names of geometric forms and lines; drawing straight lines and
their combinations into simple forms; also, the same forms from memory. (All
work on the slate.)
2d year. Dictation and memory drawing of geometric patterns; simple
designs composed of straight lines and simple curves. (Slate work.)
3d year. Practice on paper of what has been previously learned; also in draw-
ing, with readiness, from memory and dictation, forms previously drawn from copy.
Designing new combinations from copies.
4th year. - Free-hand outline design, geometrical drawing, model drawing of
both curved forms and objects bounded by right lines.
5th year. - Drawing ornaments and objects of historical character, as Egyptian
lotus forms, Greek vases, etc.; the same to be drawn also from memory; geo-
metrical drawing of a more advanced character.
M
6th, 7th, and 8th years. Free-hand drawing and design, geometrical drawing,
model drawing (from the solid object), and free-hand perspective (developing ideas
in preparation for advanced work), dictation and memory drawing; design with
half-tint back grounds. Botanical names and forms. Colors and the first principles.
of their harmony. See Cyclopædia of Education.
DRILL, a term used in education, particularly in school instruction,
to denote the strict routine of exercises required either to train pupils to the
ready performance of mental or physical processes, or to impress upon
their memory those arbitrary associations of facts or words which are re-
quired in many subjects of study. Thus, a certain amount of drill is
required in teaching the arithmetical tables, the paradigms and rules of
grammar, the spelling of words, and those facts of geography that pertain
to the location of places (memorizing maps). Drill requires definite exer-
cises and regular practice in them, continued a sufficient length of time, in
order to impart a kind of automatic force to the recollection. Both mind
and body, by repetition, acquire fixed habitudes, by means of which thought
and muscular action may be accommodated to the performance of acts
which at first might have seemed impossible. This is the foundation
principle of drill.
DULL SCHOLARS, or Dullards, a class of pupils found in every
school and class, whose perceptions are deficient in rapidity, and whose
mental powers are sluggish. Such pupils need especially the spur of en-
couragement, and should never be subjected to blame or derision on account
of their slowness. Many teachers often greatly err in dealing with this
class of pupils, applying to them such epithets as blockhead, dolt, numb-
skull, simpleton, dunce, etc. They are, moreover, sometimes neglected by

EAR
95
the teacher, who naturally prefers to give attention to those bright, preco-
cious pupils who need but little instruction. The best powers of the
teacher, however, are displayed in developing the latent capacities of these
dull scholars; and very often it has been found that those who bore the
character of dullness in school have risen to great eminence in after life.
The great English poet and novelist, Sir Walter Scott, and the illustrious
German chemist Liebig are often mentioned as examples of this fact.
EAR, Cultivation of the. Recent physiological researches appear
to leave but little reason to doubt that, at birth and for months afterward,
the organs of the special senses exist in only a rudimentary
When to form, and that they owe their gradual development entirely to
the external influences exerted upon them by nature and
be com-
menced. society. It is, therefore, not only probable, but experimentally
demonstrable, that the education of the senses is more or less efficient
according to the time at which it begins after birth. In the light of
modern experience, it is considered by some extremely doubtful whether
there is really any case of actual congenital blindness or deafness. The
tendency to these defects, doubtless, often exists as an hereditary imper-
fection, but is scarcely ever of such a nature as to be incurable, if
discovered and treated properly soon after birth. Hence, except when an
organic malformation exists, it follows that a systematic and judicious
training of the senses, from the earliest infancy, may remedy most, if not
all, cases of such defects as color-blindness, weakness of sight and hearing,
etc. Such indeed is the conclusion derived from the experience gained
in infant asylums, kindergartens, and intelligent families. This is an
important fact, since it serves to correct the notion, so generally enter-
tained, that good speakers and singers must be born such, and
Limit of that there are but few persons thus naturally endowed. There
is, without doubt, considerable diversity in the sensuous endow-
ments of different individuals; but, at the same time, it is impossible to
fix a limit to the improvement of which every organ of sense is susceptible
by continuous and proper education, and particularly by a cultivation
carried on through several successive generations. As regards the ear,
this may be considered as historically established; since, three centuries
ago, there were but an exceptionally few persons who showed any ability to
appreciate, and a still smaller number who were able to reproduce, musical
melody and harmony. The progress of musical art among modern civilized
nations, and particularly the diffusion of musical taste among the people,
are striking illustrations of ear culture, since this progress could not be
effected without an organic as well as an esthetic improvement.
ear culture.
The sense of hearing is the earliest to be developed in infancy, and, at
the approach of death, seems to be the last to be extinguished; it is also
the last to be overcome by sleep, and the first to be aroused on
Sense of awakening.
In reaching objects at a distance, its power is
hearing.
next to that of sight. In the earliest stages of intellectual
development, the sense of hearing performs a most important office, since
language, the most efficient means of all education, depends upon its
exercise. Moral education, no doubt, also begins with the genial accents
of the maternal voice, both in speech and song, as heard by the infant; so
that even the lullabies which soothe it to slumber constitute an agency in
96
EDUCATION
its development. While, therefore, loud and explosive noises may injure
the physical organization of the ear of a child, harsh and angry tones
will affect injuriously the development of its affections and sentiments.
All disagreeable sensuous impressions are deeper and more durable than
Practical those of an opposite character; and, hence when often repeated,
sugjes- they tend to destroy the capacity of the ear for the appreciation
tions. of beautiful sounds. Otherwise, variety of sound is not detri-
mental to the infant's ear, but on the contrary, beneficial, especially when
the source of each sound is, at the same time, presented to the sight, or
touch, or both these senses. From the time the infant begins to understand
simple language, — usually after the fourth month, especially if the words
are accompanied with mimicry or gesticulation, care should be taken to
articulate distinctly. In families in which there is a negligence in this
respect, it will be found that the children either never, or with very great
difficulty, acquire a distinct articulation. It is a great error, quite common
in some families and communities, to repress the natural vociferations of
children, and to insist on the constant use of low tones in speech. Nature
dictates a great deal of crying, shouting, etc., in order that the lungs and
vocal organs may be fully developed; but, of course, all excess should be
restrained, since the habit of yelling and shouting in the open air will not
only injure the delicate organs of the voice, but will have a bad effect upon
the moral development of the child, besides incapacitating him for the
perception and appreciation of those delicate distinctions of sound upon
which musical harmony and melody depend. (See SENSES, EDUCATION OF.)
EDUCATION (Lat. educatio), a general and comprehensive term,
including in its signification every thing that pertains to the bringing up
of children, and the operation of influences and agencies designed
Definition. to stimulate and direct the development of the faculties of youth
by training and instruction, and thus to control the formation of their
character. Hence, education has been divided into several departments,
according to the class of faculties to the development and improvement of
which it is directed, including (1) Physical Education (q. v.),
Classifica- or the education of the bodily powers; (2) Intellectual Educa-
tion. tion (q. v.), that of the mind or intellect; (3) Moral Education
(q. v.),- of the propensities, sentiments, will, and conscience; (4) Esthetic
Education, of the taste, musical, artistic, or literary, that is, comprehend-
ing the sphere of the imagination (see ESTHETIC CULTURE); and (5) Re-
ligious or Spiritual Elucation, — of the religious sentiments, the spiritual
instincts; that is, those which concern the soul as an immortal essence, and
its relations to the Infinite Spirit. (See RELIGIOUS EDUCATION.)
Education is also distinguished into home or domestic education, and
public or common-school education, or, considered as a means for the general
enlightenment of the people, popular education; also into private education,
that is, supported by private funds, and national education, provided
for by the state.
School education, generally called instruction, on account of the more
limited character of its scope and the sphere of its operations, is distin-
guished, according to its grade, into (1) primary instruction,
that is, the instruction given in elementary schools (such as the
common schools,-the primary schools of cities representing only
School
education.
EDUCATION
97
a lower subdivision of primary instruction); (2) secondary instruction,-
as given in academies and high schools (middle schools); (3) superior in-
struction, as given in colleges and universities; (4) special instruction,
as of the blind, the deaf and dumb, and the imbecile; (5) professional and
technical instruction, as in art schools, law schools, medical schools,
military schools, theological seminaries. schools of architecture, etc.
Education is to be carefully distinguished from instruction, the latter
being only a subordinate part of the great schemes of controlling and
Instruc- guiding the development of a human being. To this department
tion. of education the term didactics (from the Greek word didáσkelv,
to teach) is often applied. (See DIDACTICS and INSTRUCTION.) Instruction
is addressed to the intellect or understanding; while education compre-
hends the whole nature of man and the various agencies by means of
which, in its formative state, it may be effected. Its primary object is to
form the character either by stimulating its development in the normal
direction, or correcting tendencies to morbid growth. In respect to the
scientific principles by which its practical operations should be guided,
education is a science; in the relation to the proper mode of performing
those operations so as to render them as effective as possible, it is an art.
The science of education is a very complex one, inasmuch as its prin-
ciples must be drawn from many different departments of science; super-
added to which, as its own peculiar sphere of investigation,
Science of there is the great body of truths which concern the growth and
development of mind and body, and which especially constitute
the theory of education, or pedagogics, as sometimes called. A distinction
is now plainly drawn in the minds of professional educationists between
the old and the new education, the former referring to the system
The old of verbal memorizing, of which there are so many relics at the
education. present time; and the latter, to the development system (q. v.),
by which a constant appeal is made to the intelligence of the
child, in the exercise of its observing and conceptive faculties. Hence the
term New Education is often applied to Froebel's kindergarten. A recent
writer remarks: "The old education was painful and repulsive: the new
education inspires voluntary and glad effort. Adaptation and interest are
cardinal. The old education consisted largely of unmeaning task-work,
which tended to discourage and repress. The new education leads the
pupil to discover and apply, and inspires boundless enthusiasm". BALD-
WIN, Art of School Management (1881).

education.
and new
education.
EDUCATION, Theory of. The word education is derived from
the Latin verb educo which is properly used to designate the sustenance
and care bestowed by a nurse on a child; and it is, no doubt,
Meaning connected etymologically with the Latin verb educo, to lead
and aim of out; but it never has this literal sense, and it is extremely un-
likely that the Romans connected the idea of drawing out with
that of educatio. In order to get a true idea of education, we must look
at the circumstances of the case. We proceed by way of analogy. We
Illustra- know in regard to the seed of a plant that it contains a peculiar
and special power within it. Place it in the proper soil,
with the proper temperature, and it will burst forth into active life.
It will gather from earth and air the means of support and increase. It

tion.

98
EDUCATION
will fashion the elements which it lays hold of into a definite shape, and it
will pass through various stages of progress until it withers away, leaving,
however, behind it the means of continuing the species. Within certain
limits, the plant has a definite form of its own, and its mode of life is also
uniform; and, within these limits, there lies a perfect form and a perfect
life for the plant. It may not be easy to say what is that perfect form and
perfect life, but it is plain to every observer, that it, as it were, strives after
an ideal form and an ideal progress, to which it approximates more or less
closely. Man is like the plant. The living power within him strives to
attain a particular form, and to go through a particular progress, and i
continually strives to attain an ideal of these, within certain limits. The
difference between the plant and the man is, that the limits of his condition
and progress are much wider, and that he can consciously form an idea
for himself, and strive after it. Now education, in its proper sense, is the
deliberate effort on the part of one conscious being to clear the way so a
to enable another to attain this perfect condition of life and this norma
progress. It is assumed that the man naturally strives after perfection
It is assumed that he must move in some direction, whether forward, of
zigzag, or backward; and the educator endeavors to keep the movement in
the right direction.
word.
The word education is used in a variety of senses, connected but no
always compatible with the true idea. Thus man is viewed as being, in hi
earliest stage, a kind of compressed mass of faculties, and
Various education is the drawing out of these faculties. Again, ever
uses of the
thing that acts on man's nature is sometimes said to be educative
whether the result is beneficial or not. Other instances coul
be adduced of the use of the word in the vaguest manner; but by statin
the true idea we oppose ourselves to the vague uses of the word. It i
enough, therefore, to state first that man must be viewed, not as passiv
but as active, not as being drawn out, but as striving to act, and that n
act is truly educative which does not help him to strive after actions tha
are becoming to his nature, or, to express it objectively, to strive afte
what is good, beautiful, or true.
But, in thus stating the work of education in a general proposition, w
have done very little toward explaining its true nature. Education set
before it an ideal. How are we to form anything like a
· The ideal. adequate conception of this ideal? Only by a minute an
careful study of human nature; and, therefore, every educator mus
necessarily devote a great deal of his attention to the phenomena of bod
and mind, and to man, the combination of both. The ideal is a unit
but it is a composite unity, made up of the perfect accomplishment
endless detailed actions, and we must, therefore, examine all the detai
before we can attain to a clear notion of the whole.
Another
The subject may be viewed in another light. Every portion of man
made or preformed for a special function or functions. Thus the eyes a
made for seeing, the hands for grasping, the skin for touch. F
what is the whole body made? For what is man, body an
soul, made? It is the work of the educator to help him who
he educates to discharge the functions for which, as man, he has bee
made or preformed. Accordingly, most of the definitions of educatio
view.
EDUCATION
99
to Herbart.
which have been given, have been based on the answer to the question,
what is the chief end- the summum bonum the destiny of man? This
was a question which occupied the attention of the ancients much, and
Clemens Alexandrinus has gathered together a large number of the answers
which ancient philosophers gave to the inquiry. These are interesting to
the educator, because they suggest different points of view from which to
look at the problem. In more modern timnes, the form which the answer
has most frequently taken is the statement that it is the work of education
to produce, as far as it can, an equable and harmonious development of all
the powers of man. Herbart and his school object to this way of
Aim expressing the aim of education. The term powers is apt to
according mislead. There are no separate and special faculties in man's
mind. All the best psychologists admit that these faculties are
fictions; and therefore, the aim of education must be defined apart from
these. Herbart himself defined the aim of education to be morality; but
he used the word in a truly philosophical sense, in which it is not under-
stood by the masses, and, therefore, he preferred to state the object of
education to be, to produce a well-balanced many-sidedness of interest.
The emphasis laid on interest has been productive of much rich fruit in
educational investigation and experience; but, practically, Herbart's defini-
tion comes to the same as the other. Man is viewed as destined to a series
of activities closely connected the one with the other. These activities may
be in harmony with his nature, or his ideal nature, as we may call it, or
they may be more or less aberrations from it. The business of the educator
is to prevent the aberrations, and to help those activities which are in
harmony. Those activities which are in harmony find their sphere in
nature, in man, in God. It is important that all these activities come into
play. Man does not pursue his ideal course, if they do not come into play.
He must be fully developed. But if his activity comes into play on these
subjects according to the right method, his interest in them is awakened
and becomes stronger and stronger; for all pleasure is the accompaniment
of the vigorous discharge of some function, and all pain is the accompani-
ment of the weak discharge or hindrance of some function. If the organ
which discharges the function is exercised too powerfully, as may be the
case with our bodily powers and lower mental energies, there is first intense
pleasure; but the over-tension impairs the healthiness of the organ temp-
orarily, or it may be permanently, and then the impaired activity is followed
by pain. And the pleasure that may arise, may arise from the exercise of
what we call the lower functions, when the higher are neglected. Thus the
lazy man desires true pleasure, as far as it goes, from the vigorous exercise of
his vital or vegetative powers. But, whatever pleasure does exist, exists
from the efficient discharge of function, or in other words from healthy
activities of body or of mind. This pleasure may not be consciously before
the mind, as in the highest intellectual operations when the student does
not feel how intense has been his enjoyment, until the enjoyment is over.
This accompaniment of all our healthy actions is cumulative. It grows in
degree, in proportion as the actions are repeated in a healthy or proper
manner. And, hence, our interest increases with the healthy repetition of
the activities on the objects. Herbart's definition becomes, therefore,
nearly synonymous with the other, but directs the attention to the external
100
EDUCATION
side of man's activity, to the objects on which the mind works. Both sides
must be carefully considered by the educator; for, in the activity of man,
they are invariably conjoined. The distinction between formal and material
in education has to be made with great caution; and it has always to be
remembered that form is impossible without matter, and matter impossible
without form, that while there can be no right activity, if the mind does
not act in a right manner, it is equally true that there can be no right
activity, if there is not a right object for the mind to act upon.
After having thus generally discussed the aim of education, we should
now enter minutely into particulars, for the general is of slight use with-
Particu- out the particular; but this would be to write a treatise on the
lars. laws of the activity of the human mind, and the modes to be
adopted by men to direct these activities aright in the young. We must,
therefore, confine ourselves to hints which may suggest to the reader the
subjects which deserve his careful and minute examination.
A child gazes at an apple on a tree. What are the operations of the
child's mind? First, we have the exercise of the bodily organ. Then the

but one.
apple produces an impression on the child's mind. This im-
Phases of pression we call a sensation. The child feels something. Some
activity.
change has taken place within him. But, if this is not the first
impression which the apple has made on the child, we can observe that the
sensation has attained in its complexity to three phases: First, the child
has the feeling of pleasure in seeing the apple; second, he sees that there is
an object before him which he calls an apple; and, third, if, on a previous
occasion, he has tasted apples and enjoyed them, the recollection of that
enjoyment comes back, a desire arises within him, and he is under an im
pulse to make an exertion to obtain the apple. In this one instance, we
have the various phases of man's activities. He is, first of all, a physical
being; then he is capable of feeling, — has an emotional nature; then he is
capable of perceiving, has an intellectual nature; and, finally, he is capable
of desiring, of striving after, and, thus, has a practical and moral nature
Though we speak of him thus as if he had four natures, he really possesses
All the distinctions, except perhaps the first, are distinctions
made by the mind, but the facts do not exist separately. The emotional
intellectual, and volitional are blended with each other in the actual human
mind. The mind cannot exist without them. There can be no absolute
separation of them, since they stand in the closest relation to each other
Yet it is essential to separate these elements in our discussion of them, fo
they may blend with each other in different degrees. The one phase may
predominate to the injury of the others. A man may have a clear head
but a hard heart and a stubborn will. Another may be too emotional
ready to melt before the slightest distress, and yet possessing almost n
capability or inclination te relieve the distress. The true aim of man is t
bring out all the elements in harmonious proportion, and the work of th
educator is to help each child to accomplish this difficult task for himself
The aim and end of physical education is to produce health, no
strength in particular organs, but a general healthiness of all the organs
This aim is accomplished by a careful examination into th
Physical nature of the human body, an exposition of the laws of healt
education. which arise from this study, and the exhibition of the reason


EDUCATION
101
Intellectual
which ought to lead us to give all due care to the body. Intellectual educa-
tion is based on a careful investigation into the laws which regulate
the gradual progress of the mind from its earliest weak state of
mere sensation till it reaches the power of dealing with the most
education. abstract ideas. But when we come to the education of the
emotional nature, we enter upon a more difficult sphere- one in which
the educator has often to grope in darkness; for the emotions are
not directly under his control, and the movements of the mind
Education in regard to them are hid in such secrecy, that sometimes
of the
influence which seems to us likely to produce one emotion,
emotions.
actually produces the opposite; as, for instance, efforts to beget
love may have for their result the production of dislike. We can here
take but a short glance at this important subject.
Pleasure
The
an
The first point to which the attention of the educator may be directed
is a general result at which he may aim. The broadest division which can
be made of the feelings is into those of pleasure and those of
and pain. pain. The mind assumes a particular attitude in consequence of
its experiences of these. We shall take a case.
A child per-
forms a mental act. He does it successfully. He feels pleasure. He per-
forms another successfully. The recollection of the past pleasure unites
with the present feeling, and the feeling is stronger. Others thus blend
until the child has a permanent state of feeling; or, as we may call it, a
mood. He looks forward with hope; he expects to be successful; but he
may fail. A failure takes place; he feels pain. The feeling of pain now
acts antagonistically to his feeling of pleasure; and, if these painful feelings
recur, the one set strive for the mastery over the other; and the result will
be, that the mind will ultimately be in a bright and cheerful mood, or in
a dark and gloomy one; it will either be full of hope or be given to despair;
or, at the least, have a tendency to go in the one direction or the other.
There can be no doubt that it is the business of the educator to produce
the bright, cheerful, hopeful mood. This is the natural mood,
natural if we use the word natural as expressive of the ideal after which
mood. nature strives. This mood is the result of the successful dis-
charge of all the functions; and it is of immense consequence for the
child to have this mood. The mind communicates its tone to every thing
around it; and so the cheerful mind sees good in every thing, catches the
bright side, and strengthens all the powers; for the cheerful mind becomes
the strong mind. Obstacles, pain, failure are sure to come; but the cheer-
ful mind casts them all aside, rises superior to them, and, after temporary
depression, sees again with the same clearness, and hopes with the same
steadfastness. The methods by which the educator can help to
Methods. produce this state of mind in his charge are various, and must
all be used. First of all, he must himself be of this cheerful and hopeful
mind. There is no direct teaching on excitation of the emotions; but they
re often produced, in the proper circumstances, by what we may call in-
ection. Love begets love; we catch admiration from those who have felt
the admiration before us; and, no doubt, the sweet, gentle, loving smiles of
mother who is uniformly kind to her child, have a powerful influence on
his whole destiny, a more powerful influence than they are generally be-
ieved to exert. Secondly, health is a mighty agent in the earliest stages
102
EDUCATION
of life, before it can be expected that the mind should triumph over bodily
evils; and, therefore, special care should be taken to render the infant
healthy. And, thirdly, after a certain stage has been reached, some truths
reached by the intellect can come powerfully to the aid of the emotional
nature; such, for instance, as a belief that the arrangements of this world are
in favor of man, that the amount of happiness in the world is much greater
than we may suppose, that God is working all things to wise and noble
ends, and that man's destiny is for virtue and love.
When we pass from this general consideration to the particular feel-
ings, we find ourselves in a labyrinth. A feeling is a phase of mind which
arises from the consciousness of having passed from one state
Particular into another; and, accordingly, no mental act can take place
feelings. without a feeling. Hence, we have feelings connected with the
body, feelings connected with the intellectual operations, and feelings con-
nected with the practical and moral nature. Or we might speak of the
feelings according to the objects which give rise to them; as those that
arise in connection with nature, with one's own self, with man, with God.
We select out of these, two classes of feelings that especially deserve the
attention of the educator. The first class deserve attention principally be-
cause they are in danger of being neglected, owing to the character of the
present age. The educator should awaken and keep alive the
Mystery. feelings of admiration and mystery. A child naturally wonders
and admires, and these feelings must not be allowed to die out. Moreover,
the sense of mystery, closely connected with these, will be a source of great
blessing to him. The practical man is apt to look on all things as definite
and fully known; but the fact is, that nothing is completely known. We
know neither the beginning nor the end of any thing. The smallest object
and the largest are equally invisible to us. Our knowledge is limited by a
boundary that lies far within the infinitesimally great and the infinitesimally
small; and so all knowledge attained points to an infinite region the depths
of which we have not sounded. A consciousness of this is closely con-
nected with a humble spirit, and true humility generally allies itself with
love. The second class of feelings is that which relates to the beautiful.
The sense of the beautiful is the power to feel the loveliness of
The
symmetry, of proportion, of harmony. This power is to be
beautiful.
acquired only by the exercise of it. The symmetry and loveliness
exist in nature. They are calculated to produce an effect on the soul of
man, but the soul of man must be brought into contact with them, before
it can feel them. Therefore, in regard to the cultivation of the feeling for
the beautiful, the one essential condition is, that beautiful objects be placed
before the person in whom the sense is to be awakened and strengthened,
and that they be placed frequently and at proper intervals; because the
sense of the beautiful is awakened only by slow degrees, and it expands,
passing from the external and simple to the harmonies which prevail
amidst the grandest spheres of thought and intelligent existences. But
it can be brought before the pupil in every form at an early stage,
in beautiful pictures, in beautiful rooms, in beautiful landscapes, in order,
in gentleness of tone, in noble action, and in many other ways, 80
as to induce within himself a love of all that is orderly, harmonious, and
peaceful,


EDUCATION
103
Two cautions may be specially urged in connection with the cultivation
of the feelings. The first is, that it is possible to render a human being
too sensitive, to give feeling too great a preponderance in the
Cautions. individuality of the person educated. Such a person becomes
sentimental, is easily moved to joy or tears, is sympathetic in the highest
degree, but the sympathy does not lead to action. The educator has to
take care that every train of feeling be strengthened and guided aright by
clear and well-reasoned convictions, and be followed by appropriate action.
The second danger is, that the feeling of self may become so strong as to
harden every other. Naturally, every one bestows a great deal of attention
on himself, and there is a tendency to feel only when the circumstances
relate to one's self. Here, again, what has to be done is, to prevent the
mind's being occupied too much with self, and to interest it in the thoughts
and circumstances of others. Both these cautions point to the next
division of the sphere of education that of the will or of the practical
The will powers. The exercise of these is closely connected with the
intellect and the feelings, and indeed ordinarily results from
them. Man is naturally a striving or desiring being. He is a force, and
by a force we mean something that strives to exert itself. Accordingly
man's first act is an effort. And the powers which he at any time possesses
strive for spheres of action. But these spheres are in the main determined
by the results of the action of his intellect and the motive power of the
feelings. A child does something which gives him pleasure. He has
finished the action. He turns to something else. What remains of the
previous action? A recollection of something pleasant; but the recollection
of something that is pleasant excites the desire to enjoy it again. Thus
arise desires in the mind; and as these desires arise again and again in
connection with objects belonging to separate classes, groups of desires or
inclinations arise, and we call these groups by general names, such as the
love of money, the love of honor, the love of fame. These desires grow in
intensity according to the amount of time during which they are allowed
to continue in the mind, and the amount of space they are allowed to
occupy in it. Add to this fact that we naturally put a value on the
things which we desire, and regard some as higher than others, and we
enter the region of morals. Two or three functions of mind lie before us
which we are able to discharge at the time. We weigh these functions in
the balance. We pronounce one of a higher nature than the others. This
is the one which we feel bound to perform. Thus the function of the eye
is a nobler one than that of the nose or the taste; and, hence, the educator
who trains the child to see is performing a nobler function than he who
indulges a child's taste for sweets. All functions may be necessary, but
each must have its own place in a well-arranged and systematic order of
gradation.
The first essential, then, to a good practical training is to impress on
the pupil the true value of all actions and things. He is enabled to attain
to this only by having a clear intellect and a right state of
Will and feeling, and, therefore, it cannot be too strongly urged, that a
action. thorough intellectual education is an important element in the
attainment of a sound moral character. But, besides this, we learn to act
by acting. There is a natural instinct to act, and this instinct must not
J
104
EDUCATION
be resisted or blunted. It is by one action that we rise to the power of
doing a greater. Here the same kind of fiction as that which we have
noticed in the case of the mental faculties is apt to mislead. Man is often
spoken of as possessing a will; but man has not one will, but many wills.
The word will is used to denote the complicated power which man
possesses, through his original faculties and the exercise of them, to will
for the future. But, if this be the case, the strength of the power to will
in any particular case depends upon the previous exercise which the mind
has had in willing similar actions; and so a man may have a strong will in
one direction, and a weak will in another. Hence, the educator must take
care to bring into activity the willing power of his pupil in as many
directions as he can, without impairing his strength of will in the most
important directions. Moreover, in action, we are influenced strongly by
the action of others, just as in feeling by the feeling of others. The teacher
who wishes to lead his pupils to ac.ion, must himself act first. The
influence of example is all-powerful in this matter. And, finally, as
willing depends first upon fixing an appropriate aim, and, secondly, on
selecting the right means, the pupil must be trained, in all cases, to
use the right means. The clear insight into the true value of actions,
that is, into the aims which should guide us, may be of comparatively
little use, if we have not the good sense to employ suitable
guidance. means for our purposes. These are the general rules which
regulate practical education. It would be impossible in an
article like this to go into the particular phenomena which must be
investigated before the educator can have a proper grasp of the subject.
Just as in the case of the feelings, desires and inclinations arise in
connection with all the activities of man, with the physical, the in-
tellectual, the emotional, and the practical forms of man's energy; and
they embrace the same extent of objects. They connect themselves with
nature, with one's own self, with other men, with God. But, they have
wider ramifications, and a more potent influence than the feelings, and
open up, therefore, a wider field for investigation; and, in this subject,
aberrations demand the closest attention. The educator has continually
to guard against the formation and strengthening of inclinations which
imperil the well-being of the individual and the race.
Means of
Lastly, there is religious education, embracing within it intellectual,
emotional, and moral aspects. Religion may be said to arise in a feel-
ing. We feel our weakness and littleness. We feel that we
Religious
education. are limited in power, in knowledge, in vital energy. We feel
surrounded, on every hand, by powers that are stronger than
we are, and hemmed in by irresistible forces. If this, however, were
the only feeling, despair would lay hold of us. But, we come to feel
that the irresistible forces are not antagonistic to us, that we can come
into harmonious relations with the supernatural, that, to use the Christian
mode of thought, we can trust in a God of justice and love. It is
when we gain this feeling of trust that we attain to a religion. But,
a religion advances beyond the mere feeling; it sets down God or gods,
as possessing a certain character, and, therefore, enjoining a certain kind
of worship. Especially does the Christian religion present definite con-
ceptions as to the character of God, and enjoin, as the first condition
ELABORATIVE FACULTY
105
ELOCUTION
of worship and as the great law of life, love to God and love to man
practically exhibited. The Christian religion thus brings into play the
feelings as the foundation of religion, the intellectual powers in appre-
hending its great truths, and the inclinations and practical powers in
carrying them out.
The subject of education is discussed in a great variety of treatises.
The most satisfactory discussion, in our opinion, is contained in the
works of Herbart and Beneke. Herbart's educational writings
Literature. have been collected and published recently in two volumes
(Leipsic, 1873-1875) under the editorship of Otto Willmann. Beneke's
great work on the subject is Erziehungs- und Unterrichtslehre (2 vols.,
third edition, Berlin, 1864). The first volume is devoted to Education,
the second to Instruction. Of the followers of Herbart, Ziller's works
deserve special mention; and of those of Beneke, the works of Dittes
and Dressler. The educator will also derive much good from the study
of the best works on psychology. Both Herbart and Beneke have written
hand-books of psychology; and, in English, special mention, may be made
of the writings of Sir William Hamilton, Dr. Morell, Prof. Bain, and Mr.
Herbert Spencer, the last of whom has a work specially devoted to edu-
cation (Education: Intellectual, Moral, and Physical). For other refer-
ences, see Cyclopædia of Education.
ELABORATIVE FACULTY, a term often used, at the present
time, to indicate that function of the mind by which it employs the
materials supplied by sensation, perception, conception, and consciousness
(or the inner sense), and builds them up into systems or chains of thought
and reasoning. The different processes that, according to this nomenclature,
are elaborative, are comparison, abstraction, generalization, judgment, and
reasoning. To these particular processes the term thought is now often
restricted, instead of being, as formerly, applied indifferently to every
intellectual operation. Dr. Hopkins, in An Outline Study of Man (N. Y.,
1876), thus describes this faculty and its functions: "The processes of the
elaborative faculty hold the same relation to the materials brought into
the mind that the processes of building and repairing hold to the materials
which are brought into the body. The building and repairing systems take
hold of that which is brought into the system and elaborate it; they
transform it, and make of it another thing. The elaborative system does
the same thing in the mind. It takes the material given by the presenta-
tive faculty [sensation, perception, etc.], and performs the operations of
comparison, abstraction, etc." Dr. Porter, in The Human Intellect (N. Y.,
1869), thus defines the office of the elaborative faculty: "The thinking
power has been treated as twofold, and been subdivided into two: the
elaborative faculty, as performing the processes, and the regulative, as
furnishing the rules, or more properly as prescribing the sphere and
possibility of thought. These are named also the diamoetic and the noetic
faculty. By some writers they are distinguished as the understanding and
reason, in a usage suggested by Kant, but deviating materially from his
Milton and others call them the discursive and instinctive reason".
(See INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION.)


own.
ELOCUTION, the utterance or expression of thought in reading and
speaking, is an important part of a scholastic education, because of the
106
EMOTIONS
EMPIRICAL METHODS
constant need of such vocal utterance in the ordinary circumstances of
both private and public life. The departments into which this subject
naturally divides itself are the following: (1) Articulation, or the proper
and distinct enunciation of the elementary sounds as usually combined in
words; (2) Pronunciation, as dependent upon a knowledge of the various
sounds represented by letters and their diverse combinations in words, and
upon accentuation; (3) Emphasis, or the placing of a stress of the voice
upon a particular word or words of a sentence, so as to bring out the
meaning fully, and to give life and spirit to the delivery; (4) Voice inflec-
tions, — upward, downward, or waved, as a means of giving a partic-
ular significance to words or sentences, and as auxiliary to emphasis;
(5) Tones, or those variations of the voice in pitch, force, and quality, by
which it is modulated to the expression of particular sentiments and emo-
tions. (See READING, and VOICE, CULTURE OF.)
EMPIRICAL METHODS, those methods of instruction or education
which are based not on theoretical principles, but on the effects of practical
operations as learned by experience. Hence the term (from
Definition. Gr. ¿uneipía, experience). When the application of scientific
methods, or those derived from general principles, is possible, the use of
empirical methods becomes a cause of reproach, and is to be condemned.
The science of education is, however, too unsettled and incomplete to
justify such condemnation, except to a limited extent. Methods that have
stood the test of actual experiment, and have proved effective,
Utility.
are not to be discarded merely because the principle underlying
them is not understood, or because they seem to contradict some favorite
theory. Such experimental processes are the source of much valuable ex-
perience, and the facts thus obtained should be generalized so as to supply
additional scientific principles, or correct those already deduced. In this
way, the practical experience of educators may be employed to improve
and extend the science of education. On the other hand, it is undoubtedly
true that teachers are too apt to follow empirical methods
Not to be blindly, without concerning themselves with principles. The
blindly. complaint is often and justly made that education is not
scientific; and, that, consequently old methods and processes are
often employed, when the circumstances render them entirely inapplicable.
This would naturally be the result of adhering to empirical methods, since
principles alone can guide to a just discrimination as to practical processes.
The "rule of thumb" may answer when the operator is confined
'Principles
needed. to a very narrow sphere of his art, and is never obliged to depart
from it; but it is entirely inadequate to grapple with the difficul-
ties presented in a varied and enlarged sphere of practical effort, whatever
the art or profession may be. This is particularly true of education, since
the elements with which it has to deal are as innumerable in their
combinations as the phases of human character. In proportion as educa-
tion emerges from this condition of empiricism, and assumes a settled
scientific status, its practical operations will rise to the dignity of a pro-
fession, and those engaged in it will receive the consideration which apper-
tains to the professional character.
used
EMOTIONS are those conditions of the mind in which the sensibility
is excited, so as to act upon the will, and with the tendency to outward
EMULATION
107
manifestation in bodily acts. The difference between emotions and pas-
sions is rather quantitative than qualitative; the former, while character-
Emotions ized by an intensity of feeling, still leave a considerable scope
and for the exercise of reason and judgment; the latter, for the time
passions. being, disturb the equilibrium of self-consciousness, and produce
a condition in which the mind is overmastered and controlled by the
particular feeling, and is borne along by its force, helpless and suffering
(hence the name passion, meaning suffering). Of this, we have illustrations
in the effects of extreme anger, love, hatred, or revenge. Emotions are
also to be distinguished from sentiments, the latter being to a
Sentiments. greater extent based on mental discriminations, and more steady
and durable in their nature. Thus, he who has cultivated the sentiment
of patriotism, cannot but feel an emotion of joy at a victory gained by his
country over her enemies. Emotions are likewise to be distinguished from
feelings, or the immediate sensations of the physical organism,
Feelings. giving rise to mental perceptions, or to bodily pleasure or pain.
The nature of children is more emotional than that of grown persons, be-
cause the restraining principle of the mind is less active, and the sensibility
more fresh and more acute. This is particularly true of certain kinds of
temperament and mental constitution. The office of education is to rec-
ognize every principle of the human being, and to employ it or appeal to
it in the educative processes. An emotional nature should be cherished;
inasmuch as one who is deficient in this respect is apt to be cold, selfish,
and unsocial. The emotions are not only compatible with, but
necessary to, the best elements of man's moral nature; and the
educator should strive to connect them with moral motives.
The attempt to awaken emotion in the minds of children by
mere sentimentality is futile and ridiculous. Stirring stories of heroism,
endurance, patriotism, generosity, self-denial, filial affection, etc. will awak-
en corresponding emotions; and when properly applied constitute a means
of emotional culture; but youth should, as far as possible, be permitted to
yield to the natural emotions to which the ordinary circumstances of their
lives give rise; they should witness emotion in others, under restraint, but
still expressed; and by imitation, as well as instinctive impulse, be habitu-
ated to ardor in their feelings toward all that is beautiful, true, and good
in natural objects, historical incidents, or the conduct of those with whom
they meet in their daily lives.
Culture
of the
emotions.
EMULATION (Lat. æmulatio, from æmulus, a rival), the desire to
excel, is a principle of action which has had a very general application in
practical education, being one of the most common incentives
Use of in brought to bear upon children and youth to induce exertion in
education. study. The various systems of merit marks, prizes, etc., are
based upon this principle, inasmuch as they definitely recognize and reward
superiority or excellence.
Scarcely any subject has been more thoroughly discussed than the
propriety of resorting to emulation as a school incentive. On the one
hand, it has been held that the human mind, particularly in its
Arguments immature state, needs the stimulus of secondary motives to
for its use.
awaken its dormant energies, especially for the accomplishment
of tasks in which it takes only an imperfect interest. Naturally, children
108
ENCOURAGEMENT
are but little prone to study, their fondness being rather for active sports
and amusements; and, hence, the awakening of an interest in the studies
themselves, while an important object of the teacher's efforts, cannot be
depended upon to incite the pupil to continuous industry. While there
are some minds and temperaments that feel an almost innate desire for
the acquisition of knowledge, and hence a love of study, on the other
hand, the great majority of children have no such desire until it is
engendered by the force of secondary motives, that is, by holding out
inducements to study based upon the attainment of things in which they
do take an interest. All children are, more or less, prone to emulation;
they love to excel others, particularly in things that bring commendation
and honor, in this respect resembling those of maturer years; for this prin-
ciple of action has been recognized as leading to eminence in every
department of human effort. Hence, in schools and colleges,
Cautions. emulation is an important and valuable incentive which the
educator may, by no means, cast aside. Of course, it is not to be allowed
to degenerate into personal strife, animosity, or jealousy; nor is it to be
indulged in such a manner as to obliterate the pupil's real interest in the
study pursued. It is always to be impressed upon the student's mind that
he is working in a good cause, and that he should strive to attain to the
highest possible degree of excellence in it, higher, if he can, than that
which he sees has been attained by any of his fellow students. Thus what
others achieve becomes the measure of what can be done by him if he
exerts himself to the utmost, and also the standard beyond which he is to
go in order to obtain the prize of excellence. For a fuller treatment of
this subject see Cyclopædia of Education.
ENCOURAGEMENT, as an educational incentive, is of indispensable
importance in dealing with a certain class of minds, particularly with those
Impor- characterized by an excess of caution, timidity, and diffidence.
tance. Many teachers repress the exertions of their pupils by failing to
discern their true character, so as to be able to ascertain the amount of
effort they may have put forth in order to accomplish an assigned task, or
to avoid a temptation to do wrong. Adopting an arbitrary standard, they
sometimes condemn alike all who fail to attain it, making no allowance
for diversity of talent, opportunity, or the power of will; whereas the true
test of a pupil's merit is not the accomplishment of the task, but the
exertion put forth and the self-control exercised in the endeavor to comply
with the teacher's precepts or directions. Encouragement consists in
adjusting the standard of success to the peculiar circumstances
How to be and traits of the pupil. If the latter is dull, indolent, self-
applied. indulgent, feeble in will, and yielding easily to temptation. the
educator who recognizes these traits, accepts with satisfaction the feeblest
efforts at amendment which he sees have been put forth, and by judicious
commendation induces stronger and more persistent ones, until the founda-
tion of moral or intellectual strength has been safely laid. Timid children
must be encouraged to lay aside their fears by being shown that they are
groundless. They must not be repressed by harsh words of censure, or by
those forms of punishment which should be the exclusive penalty of willful
wrong-doing. On the contrary, they should be made to feel that, even if
they have failed, they have won their teacher's approving smiles by their



ENGLISH
109
honest efforts. All the various forms of encouragement, within the power
of a teacher of skill and experience, will find occasions for employment in
dealing with the endless diversities of character presented by the pupils of
a large class or school. Some minds, on the other hand, need rather urging
than gentle encouragement; and the latter, in the form of excessive praise,
to talented pupils is often a means of flattering their vanity, and thus
operates as a kind of moral poison, destroying the force of every true
stimulus to activity.
ENGLISH, the Study of. The mother-tongue has peculiar rela-
tions to education. Language has a twofold nature, on the one side,
Relations voice, on the other, thought. Early thought is almost all stimu-
to educa- lated, guided, and supported by the mother-tongue. All early ac-
tion, quisition of knowledge may be regarded as the study of the
mother-tongue; and, even in civilized nations, few persons ever advance
beyond the knowledge stored up for them in their native speech. The
mother-speech is also the means of communicating with others, and of in-
fluencing them; so that the study of it as an art includes the study of rhet-
oric and oratory, and of the art of poetry.
It would seem then that there are four chief direct uses in studying
English: (1) To understand what is spoken or written in that language;
(2) To speak it well; (3) To write it well; and (4) To master
Uses. English literature. And there are three remoter ends: (1) To
master the language scientifically; (2) To acquire the knowledge of lan-
guage in general; and (3) General culture.
Early study, in infant schools, kindergartens, and primary schools.
The meaning of words is the first thing children learn of languages.
The names of a few familiar objects and acts are repeated in connection
with the objects and the acts themselves so often, that the infant's
Meaning thought passes promptly from the sound to the thing. Thus,
of words.
papa, mamma, kiss, laugh, make the child think of the person
or act before it can speak any words. Many words are also attached to
thoughts by being often heard connected with other words in discourse. Such
knowledge, caught by the child rather than taught to it, is for the most part
very indefinite and inexact, but no part of education is more important.
The objects named should be objects worthy of thought. Good and
bad qualities should be marked by such tones and manner as will give
their names correct and powerful associations. The means of
Names of expressing the affections should be carefully taught. In the
objects. kindergarten or other infant school, care should be methodically
taken to teach the words which accurately name the objects and processes
that the children learn; unnamed objects and processes, however amusing
or ingenious, enter little into thought and contribute little to culture. Ă
leading purpose in all object teaching should be to give valuable ideas; but
that is the same as giving familiarity with good words. Teachers of infant
schools need good books, containing classified lists of important words,
with directions how to teach them by means of well-chosen object lessons,
and amusing occupations. (See KINDERGARTEN, and OBJECT TEACHING.)
For children of a larger growth, we have a great number of Spellers and
Definers, and small dictionaries which teach the meaning of English words.
The latter should be constantly used.



110
ENGLISH
+
The study of meanings in such manuals is, however, of little worth,
unless supplemented by object teaching on the one hand, and by the study
of discourse on the other. Manuals of object teaching arranged
Object for the purpose are wanting. Object teachers often contrast the
teaching.
study of words with the study of things, and condemn the study
of words, instead of teaching them through their exercises. There are
many books made up of progressive selections of discourse, intended to in-
troduce young pupils to words. Most Primers and Readers attempt some-
thing in this way, and some are skillfully prepared with notes and exercises
for this purpose.
To speak well requires a knowledge of the meanings of words and of
the combinations in which they are actually used, of the meanings and uses
of grammatical prefixes and suffixes, and of the exact sounds
How to which are made by good speakers. Speaking must go on at a

cultivate
correct
certain speed; and, therefore, thoughts, words, and the movements
speaking. of the vocal organs must be closely associated, so as to follow
one another without effort and with great rapidity. Much
practice in speaking is necessary in order to speak well; and, in general,
practice in the very kind of speaking in which the excellence is desired.
In the early stages of education, this must be almost wholly imitative
practice. Children catch and use the sounds and forms which make the
liveliest impression on them, and which they hear oftenest; to use a form
or sound once, makes it most likely to occur to the mind again. Teachers
should, therefore, train by inducing imitation of their own speech. Exer-
cises may be used in repeating after the teacher the elementary sounds,
and afterwards difficult words, and then familiar dialogues, and finally
passages of poetry, or elevated prose, which the teacher likes and can
repeat with feeling. Incorrect articulation and bad grammar should be
constantly corrected, not by repeating and caricaturing what is faulty but
by substituting the correct expression. Children should also be encouraged
to talk, at proper times, to repeat the explanations of the teacher, not
verbatim throughout, but yet with a constant, close, and correct use of
the technical terms or important words; nor is it unscientific to commit
to memory formulas of permanent importance, to be fully comprehended
afterwards; such as the multiplication table, catechisms of moral and
religious truth, and noble utterances which it does men good to have fast
in the memory. The youth should be led on by language faster and
farther than his own thoughts could have gone alone. Practice of this
kind will naturally go along with reading.
Learning to read should begin early. The monstrous spelling of the
English language makes this much more difficult than to learn to read
German; and teaching the names of the letters, and the sounds
Methods. of the syllables as if made up of them, has a mischievous effect
on the reason of the learners. Several methods are used in our schools
to overcome the difficulties. The word-method (q. v.) is one.
In this,
children are taught to recognize words as wholes before learning the
letters. In skillfully prepared books, with pictorial illustrations, children
learn to read very rapidly by this method, but not so accurately; and it is
very hard to teach them to spell. Skillful teachers will use a judicious
combination of the two methods. Books are also prepared with an
ENGLISH
111
alphabet in which each letter has always the same sound, a proper phonetic
alphabet, and with classified examples of words, and reading extracts, spelt
in the phonetic alphabet wholly at first, and gradually passing to our
standard spelling. These have been used for some years in New York,
Boston, St. Louis, and elsewhere, and are reported to save one half of the
time usually devoted to learning to read. There is now an active movement
for the reform of our spelling which it may be hoped will save the next
generation much time and toil. (See ORTHOGRAPHY, and PHONETICS.) Books
of this kind are LEIGH's edition of various elementary reading-
Books. books; also DAVIS'S American Primer, Dovar's Rational
Phonetic Primer, LONGLEY's American Phonetic Primer, SHELDON's New
Phonetic Primer, SHEARER'S Combination Speller, VICKROY's Phonetic
First Reader. Primary cards and charts to aid in this early instruction
are to be had in good variety. Practice in writing is one of the best aids
in learning to read and spell, and hence, copying choice extracts, and then
writing them down from memory, is quite useful. Soon after lessons in
penmanship begin, grammar should be taken up.
Grammar is often used as a name for the whole science of language
and the art of using it; but by masters of the science of language, it is now
confined to the classification of words into parts of speech,
Grammar. according to their uses in discourse, the description and exposi-
tion of the changes of form called inflections, and the uses of these in the
correct construction of sentences. There would be some advantage in
dropping the old traditional definitions, which lead teachers and pupils to
expect that the study of English grammar will make them able to speak
and write the English language correctly. It is only one of the helps to
correctness in speaking and writing. The attempt by makers of school
grammars and by teachers to do too much is one reason why the study is
so much neglected and abused. Descriptive grammar consists of defini-
tions of the parts of speech, paradigms, and rules of syntax. With children,
a careful selection of simple and typical matter should be made, just as in
botany or in any other science. This matter should consist of definitions
and rules, stated in accurate scientific language, but simply and briefly;
and of selections of words and sentences, also simple and clear, and suited
to illustrate the definitions and rules. This matter should be managed by
the teacher so as to use mere verbal memory as little as possible, and to
train the pupil to see, hear, and think as much as possible. The definitions
and the rules should be learned like rules in arithmetic, but the main work
should be the application of them to examples. The scholar should every
day hand in written grammar work on the slate or on paper, like sums in
arithmetic; and the preparation and explanation of this work should be
the main grammar lesson in the early years. This method needs some
system of notation by which any sentence may be put on paper or on the
blackboard with its words so designated by signs, or by an arrangement
in diagrams, that the analysis and parsing of it may be made plain to the
eye. Such systems are found in several books. A considerable number
of our best teachers use substantially this method, many of them, without
a book, dictating, day by day, definitions which the pupils are to remember,
and giving out words and sentences to be classified and analyzed, also
proposing trials in collecting and inventing words and sentences of the

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ENGLISH LITERATURE
kind to be studied. Books are often wholly condemned by these teachers,
who collect, year by year, in their own note-books, or memories, a store of
happy questions and examples, as well as carefully considered definitions
and rules; and it would obviously be a great help to young teachers, as
well as to pupils, to get a good note-book of this kind, neatly printed, and
there are some books for beginners which are, in substance, such note-
books. For a full treatment of this subject, with directions as to advanced
instruction, see Cyclopædia of Education.
ENGLISH LITERATURE. This is a very important, but an
enormously extensive subject for school instruction. The whole cycle of
literature is no more to be known by one person than the whole circle of
the sciences, still less by young people at school. The impossibility of
Questions achieving the whole task being seen, two questions at once arise:
to be dis- (1) What shall we teach and what leave untaught? and (2) How
cussed. shall we teach it?
be avoided.
In attempting to answer the first of these questions, we can find some
guidance from analogy; and the school subject which appears, in its vast
size and the enormous contents of its wealth, to have the closest
Details to resemblance to literature is the subject of geography. Now, in
geography, we do not burden the attention and overload the
memory of our pupils with the infinite number of names of small towns,
insignificant rivers, diminutive lakes, and unimportant headlands; but we
take only the most prominent and, as it were, the central features of the
world, and round these we group the knowledge which is intended to abide
with the pupil, and to serve as a nucleus for his subsequent accumulations.
In the same way, there are certain names which the sifting of time has
caused to stand out with always increasing clearness; there are certain
books which have been, and which continue to be, forces in the develop-
ment of civilized humanity; and it is with these authors and with these
books that the teacher should make the pupil acquainted. Thus stated,
the path seems to be plain-so plain that no good teacher can miss it.
But there are two dangers-two besetting sins, which await the teacher
in his attempts toward the systematic treatment of a subject so large; and
Encyclo- these are the vices of encyclopædism and abridgment. Looked
pædism at more closely, both these vices are seen to be only two sides of
andabridg-the same central error an error which pervades all kinds of
ment. teaching, and which is, indeed, the most prevalent educational
error of the present day. By encyclopædism, is meant the desire to include
too many facts — and, in the present instance, too many authors — within
the range of the pupil's mental vision; and the consequence is a pressure
which results in an abridgment of the closest kind an abridgment in
which nothing is said of no facts are given about - the author, but when
he was born, and when he died, and the name of his best-known book. It
is plain that such knowledge is no knowledge at all, and is of no more value
than an acquaintance with the street directory. The desire to teach too
much ends in achieving too little; the attempt to learn everything results
in nothing. Besides, the pupil must have a living and interior knowledge.
of English literature, and not a dead and external acquaintance with its
mere husk, appendages, and circumstances; and the question which presses
upon the teacher is therefore: How is this to be done? Before answering

ENGLISH LITERATURE
113
this question, the teacher must have settled with himself what is to be
done.
(1) Let us suppose that, seeing the impossibility of embracing all the
details of so large a field, he has resolved upon making a selection of the
best writers in prose and verse in each epoch. Round each of
Selection of these he will then collect the most able of his contemporaries,
and explain to his class their relations and the influence which
each had upon the other, and which the requirements and spirit of the
period had upon them all. The teacher will then, probably, select Chaucer
authors.
as the type of the chivalric period of English Literature; Mandeville
as the "Father of English Prose"; Spenser - as the richest poet of the
Elizabethan era; Shakespeare as the greatest dramatist of the period
when the drama was at its highest; Hooker as the type of the ornate
as the most
and elaborate prose style of the sixteenth century; Bacon.
compact and thoughtful English essayist; Milton—as the poet of the Ref-
ormation, and the master of the most sublime rhythms in the language,
and in his prose works the most elaborate of sentence-makers; Butler (in
as the sweetest prose-
parts) as the antipode of Milton; Jeremy Taylor
writer of the seventeenth century; Dryden as the herald of a new and
more "popular" style; Pope as the culmination of the most polished,
clear-cut, and sparkling English; Swift- as the most powerful intellect of
his time; Johnson as the representative of the massive common-sense of
his country, too ponderously, though characteristically, expressed; Gold-
smith- as the most charming writer of his generation; Burke-as the
most brilliant rhetorician that the modern world has seen; Cowper-as
the transition and the link between the age of Pope and the nineteenth
century; Wordsworth as the dawn and the bright shining of the new
day of English literature, and De Quincey-as the most wonderful prose-
writer of the nineteenth century.

Selection of
(2) But it is evident that all the works of these writers cannot be read
in school; and a selection from them is, therefore, necessary. Here again
common repute comes to our aid, and maps out our course for
us. In Chaucer, we should probably find it sufficient to read
works. the Prologue, or the Knightes Tale, or the Man of Lawes Tale;
in Mandeville, a few chapters of his Travels; in Spenser, a book or two of
the Faerie Queene; in Shakespeare, one or two plays, such as the Merchant
of Venice, or King Lear (Hamlet is too difficult and super-subtle, while the
subject of Othello must always keep it out of schools); in Hooker, the First
Book of his Ecclesiastical Polity; in Bacon, twenty of his best Essays,
such as those on Envy, Great Place, or Travaile; in Milton, the Lycidas,
the Comus, the Hymn to the Nativity, and his other minor works, with
perhaps one book of the Paradise Lost; in Butler, one or two Cantos of
the Hudibras; in Jeremy Taylor, a few chapters of the Holy Living and
perhaps a Sermon; in Dryden, the Absalom and Achitophel and the Mac
Flecknoe; in Pope, the Rape of the Lock and the Essay on Criticism; in
Dr. Johnson, two or three of his Lives of the Poets and the Preface to the
Dictionary, with perhaps Rassel as; in Goldsmith, the Vicar of Wakefield,
the Traveller and the Deserted Village; in Burke, the Reflections on the
French Revolution and one of his speeches; in Cowper, the Tusk, the
Progress of Error. Truth, and some of his minor poems, while his Letters
.
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ENGLISH LITERATURE
should be read, were it only for their style; in Wordsworth, the best of his
Sonnets, the Lines on Tintern Abbey, Laodamia, and many of his minor
poems; and in De Quincey, his Suspiria de Profundis, his Vision of
Sudden Death, and some of his criticisms.
But, even after all this has been done and well done, there are still two
things to do. The first is to give the pupil an intelligible and striking
view of our literature before Chaucer that is, from the
Growth of Beowulf of the 5th century -
English.
a poem which, like the Iliad,
existed only in the memory and not in a written form, for
several hundred years down to Caedmon, Beda, and King Alfred, to
the Saxon Chronicle and Chaucer. This ought to be done orally by the
teacher, who should, at the same time, write upon the blackboard short
characteristic extracts from the works of these authors, and explain and
illustrate the growth of the oldest English, with its highly inflected forms,
into our present English. The second thing to be done is, to connect
every-where the appearance and the work of a writer with the
The writer social condition and the political events of the age in which he
and his lived, and to show as far as this can be shown to a young
age. audience how these influenced the character and the feelings
of the writer. Nothing, for example, can be clearer or more easy to explain
than the influence of the two opposite views of politics upon the writings
of the two contemporaries, Milton and Butler.
The standing difficulty and perpetual temptation—a difficulty with
which the teacher will have constantly to fight, and a temptation which
Arbitrary he will have at every moment to resist is to present to his
con- pupils conclusions the data for which have not been given, and
clusions. critical results the steps to which have never been taken by the
pupils themselves. There is nothing more prejudicial to the young
mind—nothing so fatal to its kindly and harmonious growth, as the
presence within it of ready-made thoughts, of alien ideas, and of too easily
accepted results. The pupil may seem to be in possession of such ideas
and conceptions, but he is not; they may seem to be the fruit of his own
mind, but they are really dead artificial apples the witnesses, not of a
vigorous, spontaneous life, but of mental poverty and death. The second-
hand is the deadly foe of original life.
A large part of the benefit of a course of literature will be lost to the
pupils, if they are not required, always and every-where, to react with
their own mind upon the material they receive, and the forms
Proper which they are asked to contemplate. This view demands that,
accompanying every step of the course, there should be a well-
selected and judiciously chosen set of exercises. Such exercises might
include the following:
exercises.
(1) An account of a poem such as Chaucer's Prologue, in the pupil's
own words, always avoiding the vile practice of "paraphrasing." (2) A
short life of an author, from memory. (3) An abridgment of an important
chapter from some prose work. (4) The turning into modern English of a
passage from a writer of the 11th or 12th century. (5) A critical comparison
between the treatment of the same subject by two different writers. (Thus
Autumn has been treated both by Keats and Shelley; the Nightingale by
Milton, Keats, and Matthew Arnold; the Death of a Friend by Spenser
ESTHETIC CULTURE
115
in his Astrophel and by Shelley in his Adonais; an Escape by
Shelley-in his Fugitives, and by Campbell, in his Lord Ullin's Daughter.)
(6) The discussion of separate literary dicta-like the following by Russell
Lowell: "Style, like the grace of perfect breeding, makes itself felt by the
skill with which it effaces itself, and masters us at last with a sense of
indescribable completeness". (This might be at first discussed in the class-
room; and then the line of argument and the results would be given in
the form of an essay or paper.) (7) The story of a play of Shakespeare.
(8) The analysis of some character in a play. There are many others which
will naturally occur to the teacher in the course of his work.
The steady purpose to be kept in view in this instruction is to deposit
in the pupil's mind a few nuclei of thought, and to collect around these
nuclei as large an accretion of cognate ideas from different
Aim. writers and from different ages as possible. The existence of
these nuclei will enable the teacher to preserve unity in his teaching - to
link together his lessons with bonds of "natural piety"; and thus to make
the thoughtful child the father of the wise and instructed man. And, from
the point of view of intellectual training, they will enable him to keep true
to the central principle of repetition without monotony.
The study of English literature is incomplete unless it include a view
of the works of American authors, by whom many departments of the
literature of the English language have been greatly enriched.
American Thus, in poetry, the chief productions of Poe, Whittier, Long-
writers. fellow, Willis, Bryant, etc., should be classified and criticised,
and compared also with the productions of English poets in the same
departments. In history, due attention should be given to Prescott,
Hildreth, Bancroft, and Motley; and, in general literature, including essays,
fiction, etc., Irving, Poe, Hawthorne, Emerson, Tuckerman, Whipple, and
a host of others, claim attention. The principles and methods suggested
in regard to English authors, in this article, are equally applicable to the
American literature of the English language. For a list of books of refer-
ence, see Cyclopædia of Education.
ESTHETIC CULTURE. Esthetics (Gr. aionTikós, from aiovávεovai,
to perceive), the science which treats of taste and its object, the beautiful
in nature and art, has been recognized, since the middle of the
Esthetics. last century, as an independent branch of philosophy. Depend-
ing, as it does, upon the exercise of a special faculty of the mind, it forms
a part of the basis of a complete and harmonious education. However
well the intellect, the will, or the conscience of an individual may have
been trained, if esthetic culture is wanting, he must continue rude and
unrefined; and, hence, in a comparison of nations which are esthetically
cultivated with such as are deficient in this respect, we find a marked
difference in the degree as well as in the general character of the civilization
which they respectively present. The esthetic element, however, cannot
be wholly wanting. Even the rudest nations or the most barbarous tribes
manifest delight in those objects which satisfy their natural sense of the
beautiful. Like children, they feel an intense fondness for showy ornaments,
uncouth pictures and images, harsh and discordant music, and grotesque
dances. The love of these things springs from the esthetic principle in
their minds, in its uncultivated and partly undeveloped condition. Their

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ESTHETIC CULTURE
perceptions of the beautiful are, like their thoughts and their reasonings,
processes unregulated and misdirected. They have, also, the moral sense
the sense of right and wrong, but not knowing how to distinguish right
from wrong, they often conscientiously perform acts which, judged by a
proper standard of rectitude, are reprehensible in the highest degree; for
conscience is only the general impression that a distinction between right
and wrong exists, not a power to discriminate between specific right and
wrong. In the same manner, the esthetic principle is the sense by which
the mind, in a general way, distinguishes between what is beautiful and
what is ugly; but it does not teach specifically what objects are beautiful.
Hence, however advanced persons may be in esthetic culture,
Taste.
they will still differ to some extent in this specific discrimina-
tion. This difference we attribute to a diversity of taste, the word taste
being used to designate the esthetic principle or faculty of the mind. We
find, also, the same diversity in the exercise of the moral sense, in the
absence of a settled standard, some persons regarding as worthy of approba-
tion the same act that others look upon as decidedly sinful.
esthetic
culture.
The aim of esthetic education must, therefore, be to cultivate the sense
of the beautiful, i. e., the taste, (1) by showing what the elements of beauty
are, and thus establishing in the mind a proper standard of the
Aim of beautiful; (2) by presenting to the mind simple forms of beauty,
for the purpose of illustrating this analysis of the elements, and
also impressing them deeply upon the mind, as the foundation
of esthetic culture; and (3) by practice in criticism, so that the mind may
be trained to judge whether in any complex object, either of nature or art.
the elementary principles of beauty are present, and in their normal or
proper combination. The elements of beauty are to be sought for in the
constitution of the human mind; and, therefore, our knowledge of what
they are and how they are to be combined must be derived from experience
and observation, upon the results of which esthetics as a science must be
based. The educator must, antecedently to the exercise of his professional
skill, have acquired a knowledge of this, just as the teacher of mathematics
or of physics must be versed in those branches, before he learns how to
teach them; but with this difference, that in esthetic culture, it is the
faculty that is immediately addressed, the primary object being disciplinary;
while in most other departments of instruction, discipline is a secondary
object, the primary aim being to impart a knowledge of the subject taught.
To illustrate, we do not, in elementary schools, teach esthetics as such; but
we strive to cultivate the esthetic faculty by instruction in drawing,
painting, music, etc. In this department of teaching, the practical value
of the subjects themselves is a consideration of great importance, but the
development of the pupil's taste is indispensable to any true progress, and,
therefore, during the earlier stages at least, must be the primary aim of
the educator. When the mind has become enriched with varied forms of
beauty, the mechanical skill will soon advance to the degree requisite to
give them expression. This work commences in the kindergarten, and is
Practical continued in the object lessons of the primary school, by means
sug- of varied exercises in form or color. The most rudimental
gestions. exercises in drawing should have a strict reference to this
principle; that is to say, the pupils should be required to delineate not



ETYMOLOGY — EXAMINATIONS
117
uncouth figures, but simple forms of beauty. The hand and the eye may
be trained, it is true, by practice in drawing any forms, whether beautiful
or not; but the taste is to be developed and cultivated as well; and,
therefore, only such forms as appeal to the esthetic sense should be. at
first, presented. The elementary forms of the script letters are illustrative
of the esthetic principle; and, hence, writing is a means of esthetic culture.
The letters themselves, however, being complex forms, it is held that
rudimentary drawing should precede writing.
Esthetics is not only concerned in the beauty of forms; it embraces
the objects of every bodily sense, and also of what may be called the inner
a discriminative consciousness of the beautiful in
Applica- sense,
tions. thought and action, which the rhetorician, the poet, and the
orator recognize and address in their several spheres of activity. That
part of esthetics which depends upon the objects of hearing is cultivated
by means of music, which is the expression of the beautiful in sound. The
same guiding principle is applicable to instruction in this as to the teaching
of form. Simple melodious combinations, regular and beautiful in
themselves, should be constantly employed; all that is harsh and dissonant
should be avoided. The beauty of composition, that is, rhetorical beauty,
depending upon subtler principles, requires a more careful treatment in
education. Habit and association, however, play an important part in
this branch of esthetic culture; and, therefore, the child, even from its
earliest years, should be accustomed to hear only chaste, pure expressions;
and the most familiar colloquialisms should be entirely free from what is
coarse and vulgar, and especially from slang. The esthetic element in
poetry cannot be addressed until an advanced stage of culture
Poetry. has been reached. Poetry is the expression of the beautiful by
means of words; it embraces rhetorical beauty, and the beauty of thought
and action, as well as of external forms.
ETYMOLOGY (Gr. érvμohoyía, from Tvμov, the true meaning of a
word), a department of philological science which explains the derivation
of words and their literal meaning. This is historical etymology. (See
ENGLISH, STUDY OF.) The term etymology is also applied to that part of
grammar which relates to the classification of words as parts of a sentence,
and their various inflections, used to indicate their relations to one another,
or modifications of the general ideas which they express. This is gram-
matical etymology. (See GRAMMAR.) As a branch of elementary instruc-
tion, it teaches the component parts of words, — root, prefix, and suffix,
and by explaining the primitive meaning of these parts in the language
from which they are derived, shows the exact literal meaning of the words.
(See WORDS, ANALYSIS OF.)
EXAMINATIONS constitute an important part of the educator's
work in order to test the result of what has already been accomplished, and
to incite his pupils to additional efforts. While it is perfectly true that
the best effects of educational training can be but imperfectly, if at all,
tested by any personal examination; yet, there is no other ready and def-
inite method of ascertaining the efficacy of the teacher's work and the pro-
ficiency of the student. Examinations, moreover, are of great educative
value, if they are conducted on sound principles. The judicious examiner
who is master of the subject, while ascertaining what the student has

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EXAMPLE — EXPULSION
learned, necessarily, to some extent, shows him what he has failed to learn,
either in consequence of an imperfect method of study or a lack of atten-
tion to certain important parts of the subject. Thus he is taught how to
make his future efforts more successful; and, further, by coming in contact
with a mind more mature in its operations and attainments, he obtains
views of the subject which no amount of study of his own could impart.
On this account, examination and recitation should go hand in hand, the
student showing, in the first place, what he has learned of the lesson as-
signed to him, and the teacher then, by skillful examination, demonstrating
to him his ignorance on certain points, and in this way instructing him in
such things as may be beyond the grasp of his unaided research. Exami-
nations of this kind form an indispensable part of instruction itself; those
which occur at the end of certain periods, either for promotion, or for
graduation, have in view the exclusive aim of testing the actual progress
of the pupil. Indirectly, however, such examinations being anticipated
by the student, guide and stimulate his efforts, both in acquiring and re-
membering. See Cyclopædia of Education.
EXAMPLE, the Influence of. This depends upon imitation and
sympathy, two principles of action which are exceedingly potent in the
minds of all persons, but particularly in those of children. Its influence
among men is shown by the existence of national customs, prejudices, vices,
fashions, etc., and by the use of language, which would be scarcely possible
without the force of imitation or example. In infancy and early childhood,
this principle is the almost exclusive means of education, and the impres-
sions which it makes are so strong and durable, that they are hardly ever
obliterated in after life. Parents very rarely appear to realize that they
are, by a kind of "unconscious tuition", educating their children simply
by what they say and do in their presence. The power of example has an
important application in the education of the intellect; since, in giving in-
struction in any department of science or art, the illustrative power of the
teacher, in showing to the pupil what it is desired that he should ac-
complish, has great efficacy in stimulating his efforts, and more especially
in fixing in his mind a definite standard to the attainment of which he
may direct his aim. Indeed, in every branch of instruction, imitation is
one of the most important principles for the teacher to recognize and em-
ploy. But it is in moral education that the force of example has its chief
sphere of activity. In it is comprehended all that we mean by the personal
influence of the instructor. His manners, his modes of action and speech,
the expression of his countenance, and the tones of his voice, all are con-
stituent elements of this influence. This personal power, it has been well
said, is an "emanation flowing from the very spirit of the teacher's own
life, as well as an influence acting insensibly to form the life of the scholar".
See Unconscious Tuition, by Prof. HUNTINGTON.
EXPULSION is often resorted to in schools in the case of pupils
who, by their willfulness, insubordination, reckless and disorderly conduct,
or general depravity, cease to be amenable to the ordinary regulations of
the school, or are likely to contaminate the manners and morals of the other
pupils. It is an extreme measure, which, in public schools, should not be
taken until all other proper means to control the pupils have been employed;
because it generally deprives these pupils of all opportunity of receiving
EYE
119
the education for which the laws of the state provide. Two circumstances
can alone justify it: (1) That the pupil is utterly uncontrollable by any of
the ordinary means of school government; (2) That the depraved character
of the pupil is such as to imperil the welfare of the other pupils. Expul-
sion, in some places, is used as a substitute for corporal punishment; but
the propriety of this has been called in question. In view of the fact that
the expulsion of incorrigible pupils must be occasionally necessary under
all circumstances, it would appear that a reformatory institution constitutes
an essential part of every public-school system.
EYE, Cultivation of the. The sense of sight is capable of an al-
most incredible improvement by culture; of this, modern scientific in-
vestigations leave no doubt. We see improvement in this
Capability
of culture. respect not only in individuals but in the general visual capacity
of whole nations. There can be no question, for example, that,
3,000 years ago, when the civilization of the Chinese came to a stand-still,
they were very deficient in the power of seeing perspectively; so that, in
spite of all their skill in drawing and painting, their pictures show all ob-
jects on the same plane, without any variation of size, or of light and shade,
in order to represent the distances and relative positions of the objects de-
picted. Many proofs might be adduced to show that, in the course of
centuries, the human eye has improved in power. The aim of education
in this respect is twofold: (1) To improve the physiological conditions of
sight, by removing any causes of a morbid state, or by strengthening the
physical organ of vision; (2) To cultivate, by judicious practice, the sense
of sight, so as to render it more observant, and able to receive more full
and accurate impressions of the objects which pass before it. This is of
special importance, as of all the senses that of sight is, without doubt, the
most far-reaching, and leads to the most numerous and vivid conceptions.
The cultivation of the eye should begin soon after birth, and, for a few
weeks, should be confined to keeping the infant from all excessive glare
of light; but, at the same time, allowing it sufficient light
When to properly to excite the nervous activity. Children, like plants,
commence. need a great deal of sunlight, which, provided it is not dazzling,
is the most important agent of both bodily and mental growth. At the
first, it should be a reflected, diffused, and mild light, direct sunlight being
admitted only after several weeks, and then gradually. Weak eyes may
also be caused by surroundings of but one color, particularly if
Methods. decidedly brilliant. Hence, it is well to relieve the impression
made by a single color, by alternation with its complementary. Red or
blue curtains should be never allowed continuously to throw their tinge upon
the infant's eye; but, as a rule, subdued colors should be preferred. The
power of distinguishing both outlines and shades of color is susceptible of
cultivation by means of the slow movement of bodies of different hues
before the child's eyes. This is an exercise which is employed in Froebel's
nursery education, and is very properly accompanied by singing, because
the sense of hearing, having an earlier development, is well adapted to
excite the action of sight. After the second or third month, when the
infant can wield its hands and arms, the sense of touch should be called
into activity in order to correct the impressions made on the eye.
Various contrivances may be resorted to for this purpose, among them

t
120
EYE
the suspended wooden globe and colored balls which Froebel suggests
for use at this stage of education. As the child learns the meaning
of simple language fully one or two years before it is able to repeat
the words, it is safe to let it hear the names of the things which it
sees and handles, but always in connection with the objects themselves.
Thus language fixes, at the age of infancy, the various impressions of
the senses, which impart a definite meaning to every word, and thus
secure the proper expressions when the child begins to speak. When
language has been acquired to some extent, the teacher should, by means
of skillful questioning, attract the child's attention to those visible
properties and peculiarities of things which, without a trained observa-
tion, are generally passed by without notice. It is surprising how much
may be instantaneously perceived by a trained eye, and how delicate
and far-reaching the sense of sight may become, under circumstances
requiring its constant exercise. Thus the practiced astronomer is able
to notice the most minute points of light, which the ordinary observer
utterly fails to detect. On the other hand, the eye is, of all our organs of
sense-perception, the most delusive if it is permitted habitually to gaze at
objects without any comprehensive or discriminative view of their pecu-
liarities and less obvious details. It is on this account, that Froebel
invented that well-arranged system of kindergarten occupations, by which
the free self-activity of the child, stimulated by agreeable intercourse with
those of his own age, learns how to employ his sense of sight in an endless
variety of pleasurable work, that never ceases to educate both mentally and
morally. (See Kindergarten, and OBJECT TEACHING.)
Without any special or technical aid, the teacher may readily discover
whether any of his pupils are color-blind, by a proper use of color-charts
or color-tablets. Every child that cannot select from among
Color- the tablets the exact color which is pointed out on the chart is,

blindness.
of course, more or less color-blind, and should have the benefit
of frequent exercises with (1) the three primary colors, and (2) with their
double and triple combinations. By using very strong and brilliant colors
alternately with those complementary to them, this kind of defect in sight
may be, in part at least, removed. (See COLOR.)
Teachers should not permit their pupils to stoop while engaged in read-
ing, writing, or drawing; since this tends to injure the sight. It is also
advisable to accustom the pupils to use their eyes at changing
Caution. distances of the object with an equal degree of perfection,
especially in reading, writing, and drawing. Then, if the eye be tired at
a given angle of sight, it may continue its work, without injury or discom-
fort, at a smaller or larger angle, and thus be enabled to do more work
without detriment to the sight. Many of the ordinary school arrange-
ments are more or less injurious to the organ of sight. Short-sighted-
ness", says Liebreich (School Life in its Influence on Sight, London, 1872),
"is developed almost exclusively during school life; rarely after-
sighted wards, and very rarely before that time. Is this coincidence of
time accidental, i. e., does the short-sightedness arise at the
period at which children go to school, or has school life caused the
short-sightedness? Statistical inquiries prove the latter to be the case, and
have shown, at the same time, that the percentage of short-sighted children
Short-
ness.
"

FACULTY— FEAR
121
of school
is greater in schools where unfavorable optical conditions prevail". There
are, according to this writer, three changes in the functions of the eye,
which are immediately developed under the influence of school
Effects, life: (1) Decrease of the range of vision - short sightedness
life. (myopia), (2) Decrease of the acuteness of vision (amblyopia),
and (3) Decrease of the endurance of vision (asthenopia). These
are chiefly caused by such arrangements as afford either insufficient light,
or admit it in an improper manner. The following is an important practical
direction in this respect: "The light must be sufficiently strong, and must
fall on the table from the left-hand side, and, as far as possible, from above.
The children ought to sit straight, and not have the book nearer to the eye
than ten inches at the least. Besides this, the book ought to be raised 20°
for writing, and about 40° for reading. See FAHRNER, The Child and
the Desk. (See HYGIENE, SCHOOL, and SENSES, EDUCATION OF.) See also
Year-Book of Education for 1878, art. HYGIENE.
FACULTY (Lat. facultas), a term originally applied to a body of men
to whom any particular privilege or right is granted; hence, in a college
or university, the faculty consists of those upon whom has been conferred
the right of teaching as professors of specific subjects (facultas profilendi et
docendi.) The faculties of a university are subordinate corporations, each
consisting of a body of teachers, or professors, in some particular depart-
ment of knowledge. At first the European university (that of Paris)
comprised but two faculties, — that of arts (q. v.) and that of theology, to
which, in the 13th century, those of canon and civil law and of inedi-
cine were added. The division into four faculties was transferred from
the University of Paris to the German universities; the faculty of arts was
afterwards named the philosophical faculty. Many changes have been intro-
duced in this part of university organization since that time. In American
universities and colleges, the faculty consists of the body of professors,
with the president at its head, and has the power of conferring degrees.
FAGGING, a peculiar custom which has existed, from the earliest
times, in the great public schools of England Eton, Harrow, Rugby. etc.,
according to which boys of the lower forms (classes) perform certain per-
sonal services, for those of the higher. These services are either due to a
particular student-the special master- or to the whole higher class.
The former are such as carrying the master's messages, preparing his break-
fast, waiting upon him at dinner, stoking his fire, etc.; and the general
duties are to attend at the games, in cricket, for example, standing behind
the wickets to catch the balls, and other such minor services. While
many of these services appear to be of a menial character, they are not con-
sidered such, inasmuch as, without a fag, the boy would be obliged to per-
form them for himself. The system of fagging, like pennalism, in the
German universities, has been the means of great abuse and tyranny exer-
cised upon the younger students, yet it has strenuous defenders, as being,
on the whole, beneficial.
FEAR, a sense of danger, the apprehension of coming injury, or the
anticipation of pain, is an emotion of the mind which the educator often
finds it necessary to excite. in order to control the actions of his pupil, but
which he should address with extreme care and only after other means of
122
FEAR
Ного
to be
that of
persuasion have failed. There are two kinds of government,
influence and that of force; and the former should always be preferred to
the latter, because it addresses the inner nature and produces a
permanent effect upon the character, while the latter can be only
employed. temporary. By the one, the will of a child is trained, and a self-
controlling power is fixed in the mind; by the other the mis-
directed, perverted will is still left a prey to vicious propensities, the oper-
ation of which is checked only as long as the external restraint continues.
Some dispositions, however, need to be restrained by a sense of fear before
other influences can be brought to bear upon them. Many children are
inconsiderate, rash, and impulsive, and accordingly yield at once to their
propensities. Physical punishment seems to be needed in order to produce
any conscientious observation of their own conduct; but, without great
care on the part of the educator, in inflicting pain for this purpose, much
injury may be done to the child. Unless the educator's personality in this
infliction can be subordinated, in the child's mind, to the sense of deserved
punishment for wrong-doing, he will antagonize the child, and destroy all
"The moment a child's
means of controlling him by personal influence.
mind is strongly affected by fear", says Horace Mann, "it flies
Effect of instinctively away, and hides itself in the deepest recesses it can
fear. find, often in the recesses of disingenuousness and perfidy and
falsehood. Instead of exhibiting to you his whole consciousness, he con-
ceals from you as much of it as he can; or he deceptively presents to you
some counterfeit of it, instead of the genuine. No frighted water-fowl
whose plumage the bullet of the sportsman has just grazed, dives quicker
beneath the surface than a child's spirit darts from your eye when you have
filled it with the sentiments of fear". This is especially true of certain
dispositions; and, hence, this appeal to fear should not be made without
very careful discrimination. Hecker, in the Scientific Basis of Education
(N. Y., 1868), says, "If cautiousness is too large, seek to influence the
child through his affections. Fear will paralyze such a mind. To make
this faculty useful where it is predominant, the teacher must get the affec
tions of the child, and he can then, by proper direction, make fear an in
telligent restraint". No school government can be approved that is no
intended to amend as well as to control. Children should be made to
fear to do wrong; and this should be brought about as much a
Fear to do possible by what Herbert Spencer calls the method of nature
wrong. that is, by making punishment the necessary consequence of the
wrongful act, on the principle involved in the maxim, "The burnt child
dreads the fire". This eliminates the personal element in the fear implanted
in the mind of the child. He does not fear the teacher, but he fears t
offend, to do wrong. The same consideration excludes from disciplin
all threatening, scolding, and harsh words, for the purpose of engendering
fear, and, especially excludes anger in punishment. The fear to be excite
in the mind of the child should not be an apprehension of personal safety
leading to meanness, cunning, and deception as a means of self-protection
but should be akin to that feeling which Solomon referred to when he said
"The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom". This is not incor
sistent with a constant appeal to the higher motives and finer feelings o
human nature, but may be made a means of their development.



FEMALE EDUCATION
123
FEMALE EDUCATION. This is a subject which, especially in
recent years, has very greatly engaged the attention of practical educators,
scientific educationists, physicians, and all others who have either
Impor written or spoken on questions concerning the present condition
tance of and future prospects of human society and human welfare. The
the subject.
proper education of woman has been recognized as an important,
perhaps the chief, factor of social progress. In ancient times, woman in
general, occupied a secluded state; and it was only in the privacy of the
home circle that she exerted the potent influence inseparable from her sex,
whether as daughter, wife, or mother. The Roman`matron, within this
narrow limit, was an educator of her daughters always, and sometimes
partly of her sons, as in the case of Cornelia, illustrious as the "mother
of the Gracchi”.
History affords many examples of women who, breaking through the
barriers of social custom, became illustrious for their learning and elo-
quence. Such were Aspasia of Athens, and Hypatia of Alexandria. The
career of such women illustrated the intellectual capacity of their sex
under circumstances permitting or encouraging its culture. Female educa-
Education tion, however, has always been viewed as radically distinct from
of males that of males, as presenting entirely different aims, and
and requiring different processes of training and instruction, and a
females. widely different curriculum of study. Much has been said and
done in recent years to modify very greatly this view; but it is still gener-
ally entertained, and is, at the present time, the principle on which most
schemes for the education of females are based. "A system of education",
says Maudsley, "adapted to women should have regard to the peculiarities
of their constitution, to the special function in life for which they are
destined, and to the range and kind of practical activity, mental and bodily,
to which they would seem foreshadowed by their sexual organization of
body and mind". "From the beginning of the eighth year", says Schwarz,
the two sexes require, in almost every respect, a different education".
The culture of girls", says Von Raumer, "commonly requires a process of
instruction entirely different from that of boys". Alonzo Potter, in the
School and the Schoolmaster (N. Y., 1842), emphasizes this principle, and
argues that "there should be, in the education of females, a special refer-
ence to their sex and condition of life". "The best educational training
for a boy", says Dr. Clarke, in Sex in Education (Boston, 1873), "is not
the best for a girl, nor that for a girl best for a boy". Such are the views
upon which the education of females has been based. Arranged, as it has
been by the other sex, the only considerations that have dictated its meth-
ods and processes have been the average physical weakness of women as
compared with men, and the accomplishments they might need as wives
and matrons. It is not difficult to perceive that were the education of
men arranged by the other sex from an analogous stand-point, it would
also be narrowed in its scope and processes. During the last few years,
the questions pertaining to female education have been vigorously discussed
by writers of both sexes; and much experience has been gathered, which
appears to show that the necessity for a modified system of education for
females is by no means so great as has been supposed and asserted. See
Cyclopædia of Education.

124
FICTION
Use in
FICTION, Works of, constitute an important part of the literature
used in the education of children. The young mind delights in interesting
tales, and receives impressions therefrom, deeper and more durable perhaps
than those derived from any other source. While it instinctively
education, perceives what is fictitious in the scenes and incidents of the
story, it imbibes as true the characters of the personages and
their relations; that is, it feels that such characters and relations may,
possibly or actually, exist in real life.
By means of suitable works of fiction, the minds of children and youth
may be cultivated in several respects; (1) By imparting vivid conceptions
of persons and things; (2) By impressing upon them sentiments of virtue,
courage, and patriotism; (3) By developing and training the imagination
and the taste. Such were the reasons which prompted Fénélon to write
Télémaque, and probably Xenophon in the composition of the Cyropædia;
and this office of fiction as a vehicle of instruction and moral elevation has
been recognized by most, if not all, great educators. Pestalozzi selected
it as the most effective means of reaching the popular mind. In his
Leonard and Gertrude (1784), he laid the foundation for a national
pedagogical literature. There are, however, dangers to be avoided
Dangers. in using fiction as an educational agent, which we may thus
briefly summarize: (1) By its exciting character, it may so occupy or
intoxicate the mind, as to destroy the taste for more solid and useful
reading. Such is uniformly the result of permitting children to read the
wild, romantic, and startling stories, with which some of the juvenile
periodicals of the day are filled. The constant perusal of such narratives
is baneful; like ardent spirits, it intoxicates but does not nourish. (2) In
the case of narratives which present instances of suffering, the sympathies
are expended upon fictitious objects, and pity thus becomes habitually a
"In the
mere sentiment, instead of prompting to active beneficence.
healthy state of the moral feelings", says Abercrombie, "the emotion of
sympathy excited by a tale of sorrow ought to be followed by some efforts
for the relief of the sufferer. When such relations in real life are listened
to from time to time without any such efforts, the emotion gradually
becomes weakened, and that moral condition is produced which we call
selfishness, or hardness of heart". (3) By presenting to the young mind
fictitious scenes of immorality, vice, or crime, it becomes familiar with their
associations, and is thus depraved. (4) By impressing upon the mind false
conceptions of the enjoyments, duties, and objects of life, it may be the
means of producing a kind of infatuation, unfitting for every sphere of
useful employment. Johnson, in Rasselas, well describes this mental
condition: ""'The mind dances from scene to scene, unites all pleasures
in all combinations, and riots in delights which nature and fortune
with all their bounty, cannot bestow. In time, some particular train
of ideas fixes the attention; all other intellectual gratifications are re
jected; the mind, in weariness or leisure, recurs constantly to the favorite
conception, and feasts on the luscious falsehood whenever she is offended
with the bitterness of truth. By degrees the reign of fancy is confirmed
she grows imperious, and in time despotic. Then fictions begin to operate
as realities, false opinions fasten upon the mind, and life passes in dreams
of rapture or of anguish". (See IMAGINATION, CULTURE OF.)
FORM
125

FORM, one of the most important branches of object teaching, since,
from the first dawn of intellect, the endless variety of forms presented to
the child's sight constitutes perhaps the most effective means of
Why an awakening and exercising its perceptive faculties. The first
important
branch. comparison which the young child makes between the objects of
its perception must be based upon their resemblances, the con-
scious perception of differences occurring somewhat later. This arises from
its need of forming general ideas as preliminary to the exercise of its think-
ing powers. The diversity of forms, like that of color, as seen by the child,
very greatly interests it and attracts its attention; and, hence, when formal
education begins, the child has already accumulated in its mind, in a rude
and indefinite way, many materials which the expert teacher will use, in
guiding his pupil to more exact knowledge. The untaught child's vocabu-
lary of terms to denote the various forms which it has seen is very meager;
and, hence, its conceptions are too indefinite to form the materials for
conscious thought. They are, as it were, only embiyotic thoughts, to be
developed by the power of language. Hence, an important office of the
instructor is to teach the proper term, or word, by which each particular
object of the child's attention is to be designated, and in this way clearly
individualized. For example, a young child intuitively perceives the dif-
ference between the form of a round object and a square one; but before
the terms round and square have been learned as the names of these forms,
they cannot be used by the mind in any process of thought. Besides, the
young mind, in the exercise of its unaided powers, is chiefly occupied with
the observation of resemblances and analogies, and only after the guidance
of the teacher, comes to recognize clearly points of difference, the sense of
analogy, as it has been called, taking the lead in the first stages of mental
development.
In making use of form as a basis for training the observing faculties
the teacher should be guided by the following principles: (1) Resemblances
are perceived before differences; (2) The concrete precedes the
Guiding abstract; (3) Every object is perceived as a whole before its
principles.
component parts are noticed; (4) Every idea must have its
proper verbal designation to be clearly and permanently fixed in the mind.
The teacher should, therefore, begin with simple regular forms, such as the
cube, prism, parallelopiped, pyramid, sphere, cone, and cylinder. These,
at first, should be all alike in material and color, and about the
Processes. same in size, so that the teacher may clearly develop the idea of
form, as the rudimental step in the instruction. At first the process
should be very slow. Thus the teacher holds up to the view of the pupils
a cubical block of wood [one of the box of solids usually employed in such
lessons], and asks, "What is this?" And the children probably reply, "A
piece of wood". Then the teacher presents successively the sphere, cone,
cylinder, etc., asking the same question aud obtaining the same answer.
The teacher then says, "Each of these is a piece of wood; are they all
alike?" To which the children answer, "No". "Do they differ in color?"
"No". "In size?" "No". This leads the teacher to show, in a very
general way, not by giving names at first, but by directing the pupils' at-
tention, that the objects differ in form; that is, each has its own peculiar
form. The teacher may then go back to the cube, and ask the pupils to
A
126
FRENCH LANGUAGE
mention any other things they have seen which have the same form as the
block of wood; and so on with the other forms. This exercise being a per-
fectly natural one will awaken interest, besides familiarizing the children
with the particular forms presented. The next step will be to lead the
children to observe the points of difference between these forms; and, in
order to do this, the analytic process must begin. Thus, the teacher devel
ops the idea of side or face, and the pupils perceive that the cube has six
faces; the edges, corners, and equality of faces and edges may then be ob-
served. When the pupil has perceived the distinctive characteristics of the
form, its name, as cube, prism, etc., may be taught. This method requires
the teacher to begin with solids (as the concrete) and to deduce from the
observation of them, the ideas of surface, line, and point (as the abstract),
in accordance with the principle (2). After these ideas have been thus
developed, and the method of representing lines and figures on the black-
Varied board shown to the pupil, he is prepared for varied slate and
exercises. blackboard exercises on the positions and combinations of lines
both straight and curved, to be followed by similar exercises on plane
figures. The study of form thus passes into that of drawing, in connec
tion with which inventive exercises of a simple character may be employed!
the children being shown how to combine lines and figures into simple pat-
terns or designs. Of a similar but more elementary character are block
combinations, which will serve to interest and instruct very young children.
Boxes of blocks made for this purpose, with designs for construction, can
be readily obtained. Charts containing diagrams of plane figures will also
be found very useful in giving lessons on form. These lessons should be
systematic, not desultory, but regularly arranged, with the underlying
principle kept steadily in view. Especially should the teacher guard against
requiring the pupils to commit to memory formal geometrical definitions
the chief point to be attained being the discipline of the observing faculties
FRENCH LANGUAGE. The French language is universally recog
nized as standing, with the English and German, at the head of the lan
guages of the civilized world. Wherever a knowledge of any other
Place in than the native language is valued, French always has its claim
education.
considered. Hence, in the schools of the English-speaking world
it usually occupies, with the German language, a place in the course of study
Instruction in French, as in every other foreign language, begins with
the acquisition of a correct pronunciation. Next to English, French is
the least phonetic of all languages; and, therefore, a large
Methols. number of rules must be learned before the pupil is able to
pronounce ordinary words. It is important that this pronunciation
should be learned, partly at least, by means of an imitation of the
teacher's pronunciation. Memorizing lessons, before the correct pronuncia
tion has been acquired is positively injurious. The French grammar offer
but few peculiarities and difficulties. The absence of case-endings and
of many other inflections, and the paucity of simple tenses and o
changes in the radical part of irregular verbs, facilitate the reading o
a French author at a very early stage of instruction. The chief peculiar
ities, such as the interrogative and negative form of sentences, ough
to be frequently practiced. Attention should be called to the rela
tionship which the Latin and the Norman elements of the Englis

GENETIC METHOD
127
language bear to both English and French. Simple exercises in etymology
may greatly facilitate the early acquisition of a sufficient number of
words, to enable the pupil to read easy writers without a too frequent
use of the dictionary. If French is studied by pupils who possess some
knowledge of Latin, this knowledge can be used to great advantage in
etymological illustration, and in giving a clear view of the peculiar
character of the Romanic languages. The understanding of French
authors can be made quite easy for most pupils, who soon find that
the majority of the words have equivalents from the same roots in
their own language. The reading should, therefore, be rapid and not
too much interrupted by graminatical or literary remarks. The aim,
at first, should be to make the language familiar to the pupil, as he
advances, it will be easy, without any sacrifice of time, to call attention
to the rhetorical excellencies of the French classics. Classic prose should
precede poetry, and should be read to a much larger extent. The great
prose writers of the 17th and 18th centuries have some claims to the
privilege of being read first; at all events, they should not be neglected.
French literature is exceedingly rich in works suited, in every respect,
for beginners; and there is no reason why modern writers should deprive
Fénélon's Télémaque and Voltaire's Charles XII of the deserved popularity
which they have so long enjoyed. There is, generally, too little time in
English and American institutions for the study of French literature. In
most cases, the time devoted to it may be more profitably spent
French in improving the pupil's technical knowledge of the language.
literature. Of course, advanced pupils should become acquainted with the
most celebrated authors as well as a rudimentary outline of the literary
history of France; but most of this can best be learned as an introduction
to the reading of the standard writers. Good French reading books, with
literary introductions to the different authors, may be used for this
purpose, especially in advanced classes, with great advantage. The reading
of selections which would make the pupil acquainted with the peculiar
style and excellencies of Corneille, Racine, Molière, Boileau, Fénélon, etc.
of the age of Louis XIV; of Voltaire, Rousseau, Montesquieu, Florian, &c.,
of the philosophical century; of Chateaubriand, Béranger, Lamartine,
V. Hugo, G. Sand, Guizot, Thiers, Michelet, &c., of modern times, is prefer-
able to the exclusive reading of one or two entire works of French
exercises.
literature. When colloquial exercises constitute the chief part
Colloquial of French instruction, and to acquire fluency of speech is the
chief aim, care should be exercised that the command of the
language thus obtained may give to the pupil something more than a
collection of trivial phrases and unmeaning expressions of politeness.
Eminent educators have often called attention to the dangerous influence
which a knowledge, so exclusively formal and without substance, may
exercise upon the pupil's mind.
GENETIC METHOD, in instruction, is but another name for what
is more frequently called the developing method. The term genetic implies
that the mind of the pupil is to be guided by the teacher in such a way
that it will be able to perceive the genesis of the truths communicated,
that is, their development from fundamental principles; or that it will be
128
GENIUS-GEOGRAPHY
led to construct for itself general principles from observed facts as
antecedents. This method recognizes the need of a genesis, or development,
of actual conceptions in the mind of the pupil. as the basis for every
other educational process. (See DEVELOPING METHOD.)
GENIUS (Lât. genius, innate power or capacity, from gignere, to
produce), as used in modern times, has been variously defined by many
writers, who, though differing widely as to its essential quality,
De inition.
are agreed as to its outward, distinguishing manifestation;
namely, unusual mental ability coupled always with great intuitional or
creative power. Akin to genius are those special aptitudes which are
manifested, some times at quite an early age. These, as constituting a part
of the character, should be recognized by the educator; and
Speciil while they shoull not form the basis of general training or
aptitudes.
discipline, should be allowed their specific exercise; and, in the
more advanced steps of education, should become distinct objects of
culture. The existence of this special talent, or of genius itself, should
not be permitted to supersede the necessity of industry and application.
As far as possible, the tasks imposed by the instructor should bear a
proper relation to the special ability of the students, those who are of
brilliant parts being required to accomplish more than those who are
comparatively dull and slow to acquire. Many youths of great promise,
in large schools, are often seriously injured by insufficient requirements,
lapsi g into sloth or bad habits by the want of full occupation. This
principle is of great importance; though its application in school and
college education is accompanied with many difficulties. The true edu-
cator will, however, recognize it, and allow it to guide and regulate many
of his operations. The possession of the brightest genius cannot supersede
the necessity of industry and study. Invention", said Sir Joshua
Reynolds, "is one of the great marks of genius; but, if we consult
experience, we shall find, that it is by being conversant with the inven-
tions of others, that we learn to invent, as, by reading the thoughts
of others, we learn to think”.
GEOGRAPHY (Gr. yέa, yñ, the earth, and yoáprɩ, to write) has in
its own name a concise yet comprehensive definition. In treating of
geography as a branch of elementary instruction (for such it exclusively is
at the present time), we shall consider (I) what are the faculties which are
specially exercised in studying it; (II) the different stages into which the
instruction should be divided, and what is proper to each; (III) the age
at which the study should be commenced; and (IV) the proper methods of
teaching it. Geography presents to the mind conceptions of countries and
Scope.
seen.
peoples that we have never visited, analogous to those which we
have acquired in relation to regions which we have actually
It further seeks to combine and generalize these conceptions into a
systematic view of the earth as a whole, and as the abode of mankind.
The fundamental conceptions, therefore, which are to be thus amplified,
combined, or otherwise modified, must be based upon objective presenta-
tion. A landscape, the more varied the better, or in default of this, a
good pictorial representation, as its nearest equivalent, must furnish most
of the basic elements. The first, though limited, steps must,
First steps. therefore, be made through an appeal to the perceptive faculties.
C.
GEOGRAPHY
129
tion to be
The second stage must consist in an exercise of the conceptive faculties in
vividly recalling and combining the impressions which the objective
presentation has made upon the mind. The pupil must be trained to
recall the image of the mountain, the island, the forest, the placid lake,
the verdant plain, or the flowing river; to see again, as it were, the tossing
ocean and to hear the roar of its waves as they break upon the beach; and
to picture to himself in one season of the year the aspect of nature in an-
other. These and other analogous impressions, already obtained from
physical phenomena, must furnish the indispensable basis for any true
progress in geographical knowledge. But all this training is not the
teaching of geography, but only the necessary preparation for it. These
conceptions are to geography but as the syllables to language,
Imagina- or as the gamut to melody. Throughout the teaching of
addressed. geography, another mental faculty, the imagination of the
pupil, must be brought into exercise. These conceptions of
phenomena and of regions that he has actually seen must now be modified,
amplified, and combined, to form conceptions of phenomena and regions
that he has not seen. The conception of the rivulet must be expanded to
that of the mighty river; the little lake or pond must lead the mind to the
broad ocean; and the little hills, to mountain ranges. The low sun and
snowy fields of winter must be modified into an arctic landscape; and the
verdant meadow, into the boundless prairie. When, at the proper stage,
the study of maps is introduced, the discipline of the memory
Memory. is added to that of the perceptive, conceptive, and imaginative
faculties, as in remembering the location of nountains, islands, rivers, and
towns, and the various facts associated with them; while an appeal is also
made, with increasing frequency, to the judgment, in tracing the necessary
relation of the location of cities to rivers and coast-lines, and in connecting
the general course of a river with the elevations and slopes of the country
which it drains.
II. The successive stages of geographical instruction have been already,
in part, indicated. The conceptions and distinctions of mainland and is-
land; of mountain, hill, and table-land; of lake, river, basin,
Learning valley, peninsula, and cape; of climate, vegetation, race, and other
of terms.
geographical elements, should first be fixed, and then the terms
which embody them should be described by the pupil himself. Too much
stress is usually placed upon the precise and formal definitions of these
terms. Some of them, such as sea, gulf, bay, and lake, as actually used,
defy all sharp differentiation; and others, such as continent and watershed,
are variously used by standard authorities. It must be borne in mind that
the definitions in geography have a totally distinct function from those of
mathematics, gramınar, and other logical or deductive sciences. In these,
the correct conception of a term, such as parallelogram or adjective, is to
be obtained from its definition; whereas, in geography, the definition, if
required, must be developed from a correct conception of the object defined.
The formal definitions of geographical terms have, indeed, their place; but
this is not in the first stage of the subject. The geographical terms and
their association should be followed by ideas of direction or relative posi-
tion, that is, a knowledge of the cardinal points; after this, the construction
and interpretation of a simple map of limited and known localities, be-
130
GEOGRAPHY

ginning perhaps with a plan or map of the school room itself, followed
by a map of the immediate neighborhood, then by that of the county as it
would appear if seen from a balloon. When the pupil has been
Maps. thoroughly trained to understand the symbols of the map, and
readily to picture to himself the things that are symbolized by the various
lines, dots, and other marks, he is in possession of all the elementary ideas
essential to the subject. Either of two opposite courses may now be
pursued in giving the outline of geography itself such as is usually included
in a primary or elementary course for beginners. One of these plans,
known as the synthetic, begins with the study of a map of the
Synthetic
method. locality of the pupil's home or neighborhood; it takes next the
map of the county, then of the state or district, and, finally,
of the whole country in which the pupil resides. After this, follows the
study of the simple outlines of the continent of which the country forms
a part; then the outlines of the other continents or grand divisions, in some
preferred order, and finally a general review, which completes and combines
all that has preceded it into a brief view of the world as a whole. The
other, or analytic system, pursues, at least in its early stages, an
Analytic
exactly reverse course. From the consideration of certain com-
system.
mon phenomena and other well-known facts, the pupil is first
led to form a conception of the earth as a gigantic globe or ball; then of
the primary divisions of its surface into land and water; and then of the
leading subdivisions of these primary elements. After learning the climatic
division of the earth into zones, the pupil studies the continents, each in
its turn, as in the other system. Both of these systems have their strong
points, both have been successfully followed, and both have earnest advo-
cates. Excepting in their initial and terminal stages they have much in
common. One great advantage of the analytic system is, that it more
readily admits the early introduction of the terrestrial globe, and requires
its frequent use throughout. In no other way can certain serious miscon-
ceptions be thoroughly prevented. The use of maps of different scales,
together with the inherent faults of projection, leads to erroneous ideas in
regard to the relative size of countries, and to wrong conceptions of their
relative positions. These first impressions are hard to correct, and, in the
majority of cases, are never corrected. The globe should have
Use of the leading place in teaching elementary geography. It should
the globe.
be used to fix the idea of the spherical shape of the earth, its
dimensions, and the division of its surface into land and water. It should
give the first view of its division into continents, oceans, islands etc., and
just conceptions of their relative position and magnitude. By no other
means can the astronomic elements of primary geography be so simply and
correctly taught; such as the causes of day and night, and of the seasons,
the zones, the nature of latitude and longitude and the need of these
Final measurements. The final stage of geography, as a branch of
stage. elementary instruction, is much more comprehensive than the
preceding stages, and makes more frequent appeals to the judgment and
the memory. The outline already given is to be reviewed and filled up.
Political or social geography is then to be more fully and systematically
taught; and the whole subject of the peculiarities and resources, together
with the commercial and other relations of all the most important coun-


:
GEOGRAPHY
131
tries of the globe, is to be more fully shown. Geographical definitions are
now desirable. These should be followed by a review of the outlines of
astronomical geography, and then by a thorough training in the outlines of
comparative physical geography, as furnishing the only scientific
Physical basis, and the only true principles of scientific generalization,
geography. for the facts of political geography. This training should in-
clude, at first, well-arranged exercises on simple physical maps of the hemi-
spheres, great care being taken, at this stage, to furnish only so much of
topography as is necessary for the lessons on descriptive comparative physi-
cal geography, which should immediately follow. These descriptive lessons
should be brief and clear, and should substantially include the following
points in their proper order: (1) a comparison of the continents or grand
divisions of the land in regard to position, form, size, and principal hori-
zontal projections; (2) the comparison and classification of islands, the
chief mountain systems, table-lands, and lowland plains; (3) the oceans
and ocean currents, and the great rivers and lakes; (4) climate as affected
by latitude, by elevation, and by winds and ocean currents; and (5) the
general distribution of characteristic plants and animals, and of the races
of mankind. All, or nearly all, of these may be profitably taught simply
as physical facts to be known by observation. The study of the explanatory
theories belongs to a higher stage of geographical knowledge. Each of the
six grand divisions should now be considered in turn; first, in relation to
the leading facts of its physical geography, including its surface, drainage,
climate, and characteristic plants and animals, indigenous or exotic; and
secondly, on the basis of these physical facts, in relation to the separate
political subdivisions, their inhabitants, towns and cities, resources, com-
merce, industrial development, government, and general social condition.
Finally, a brief but comprehensive general review should bring out, in strong
relief, the various interrelations of the different countries in regard to com-
merce, government, race, language, and religion.
III. As a general rule, the pupil should not begin the study of
geography, at least, not what may be called map geography, until ten or
eleven years of age. There are, however, geographical lessons,
Early of a very simple character, which may be profitably given to
lessons. younger children. These should, according to the principles.
already stated, be pictorial and descriptive, approximating to object-lessons,
in being designed to develop ideas rather than to impart knowledge. In
relation to this stage of the instruction, Currie says, in Principles of
Early School Education, "The geography of the infant school is a series
of object-lessons connected by a geographical link. It but prepares materials
for the formal study of geography. It may be thought that the use of the
map would facilitate this instruction; but it is quite immaterial whether
the map be in the school or not. It is the business of the next stage of
progress to localize all that has been learnt; which it does by going regularly
over the map, and fixing down in position the countries, which as yet are
only names to the children. The utmost use of the map that should be
made in the infant school is to go over with the elder infants, if time
permit, at the end of their course, on a physical map of the world, distinctly
outlined so as to show the features of districts, the general outline of what
they have learnt". If it were not for the early period at which most

132
GEOGRAPHY
children leave school, the regular study of geography might be profitably
deferred considerably longer. The prevalent practice of thrusting the
study of maps upon the time and attention of very young children has
much to do with the general disgust of both pupils and teachers at the
usual net results of its study. The introductory course should occupy
from a year to a year and a half; the subsequent course, from two and a
half to three years.
IV. The principles which should guide in the selection of methods of
teaching this subject, have already been explained, and the difference
between the synthetic and analytic systems has been defined.
Methods. The following suggestive hints will prove valuable to practical
teachers: (1) The memorizing of the details of maps without sufficient
descriptive matter, will leave no permanent impression on the mind; hence,
(2) let the study of the map be subordinated to that of the other important
facts, such as soil, climate, productions, etc., relating to the separate
countries; and (3) let these facts be presented and studied in a uniform
order, so that the pupil's mind will always have a guide, both for investiga-
tion and oral description. A special order of topics for this purpose has
already been suggested. It must always be Lorne in mind, that in propor-
tion as the pupil becomes interested in the particular country studied, he
will desire to know more of its geographical details, and will remember
them longer. Hence, the exhaustive study of the map should not precede
all other lessons. After fully locating the country to be studied, by means
of its boundaries, etc., the teacher may proceed with a description of some
of its most striking features, passing from these to the more minute details
of topography, as they are brought out by this description until all the
topographical and descriptive details are sufficiently learned. In considering
the methods to be pursued in the study of geography, reference must also
be made to the necessary appliances. For the first stages of the study a
simple terrestrial globe and good wall-maps are indispensable. Relief maps
and relief globes, as now constructed and used, are of great value in giving
correct ideas of the superficial configuration of different countries. As
far as possible, each locality should have some associated idea interesting
to the pupils. Whatever is taught should be frequently and systematically
reviewed by careful questioning, so that the impressions made may be
definite and lasting. In the first stage of geographical study, the teacher
is obliged to do a large part of the work; in the later stage, the pupil
should be trained to do as much as possible for himself. This subject,
when properly taught. furnishes an excellent and necessary discipline for
the memory. The illustrations of the text-book should be supplemented,
if necessary, from other sources. Books of travel may be made one of the
most powerful of auxiliaries in teaching geography. If the school possesses
a cyclopædia or gazetteer. it should be used for illustration or additional
facts. No element in the successful teaching of geography is of greater
importance than thorough reviews. These may take any one or more of
a variety of forms too well known to need description. Cartography, or
the drawing of neat and minutely accurate maps, is esteemed
drawing. by many experience teachers as a valuable adjunct in geograph-
ical teaching; yet it is at least questionable whether the large
expenditure of time required is fairly repaid by the value of the results.
Map-
GEOLOGY
133
The necessary topography may be much more effectively memorized and
reviewed by spirited exercises in drawing, or rapidly sketching, outline
maps from memory, Of systems of map-drawing, for this purpose, there
is a considerable variety, all having more or less merit; but the great
desideratum in this part of the instruction is, that the relative sizes of
countries and distances of places should, by means of it, be permanently
impressed upon the memory. This constitutes what is sometimes called the
constructive method of teaching geography; upon which much dependence
is placed in the German systems of instruction. For the aid of the pupil
various devices are resorted to, some using the square, others a series of
triangulations, and still others a combination of these, in connection with
arbitrary measures. For the literature of this subject, see Cyclopædia of
Education.
GEOLOGY (Gr. yea, yn, the earth, and λóyos, a discourse), the science
which treats of the history of the earth. More exactly, it consists of a
group of sciences which treat of the materials of which the earth
Definition. is composed, and of the arrangement of these materials, whether
superficial or deep-seated, and of their relations to one another; of the
changes which the earth is undergoing at present, and of the series of
changes through which it has heretofore passed.
The general omission of geology from the course of instruction in high
schools and colleges is much to be regretted; since, whether for the purpose
Eluca- of culture or information, it has many claims to consideration,
tion il a few of which are here suggested: (1) Of all sciences it most
value.
thoroughly cultivates a habit of inductive reasoning; (2) It so
completely permeates physical geography that a knowledge of its elements
is essential to the intelligent comprehension of the latter; (3) It is obviously
necessary and proper, while children are taught that the earth revolves
around the sun, and other facts of the solar system, that they should also
learn that the earth of to-day has had a long and eventful history and
that the living forms upon it were not created at once as we find them
now; (4) The practical applications of the truths of geology are not only
of scientific interest and importance but of great general utility.
If it is true that difficulty has arisen in communicating geological knowl
edge, it has, probably, been owing to two causes: (1) To a hesitation in
telling the whole truth, and. (2) to a misconception, in teach-
Dificulty ing, as to what really constitutes the essential part of the science.
in teaching It is customary among teachers to dwell upon the details of strata,
geology. fossils, etc., more than upon general underlying principles. The
inculcation of the latter, at an early age, by reference to surrounding causes
and effects, and in conjunction with the earliest lessons in physical geog-
raphy, would lay & sure basis for the former, to be studied if desirable at a
later date. If you wish to give a child fundamental ideas regarding val-
leyз and mountains make him see that every rain-storm carves out, in
miniature, such surface features in the sand-heap and the clay-bank; and
that it requires but a sufficient increase in the number of the rain storms
to increase indefinitely the extent of their action. With a realization of
the powers constantly at work producing such changes, the student will
advance to an intelligent study of the rocks and of the fossils, as examples
of some of the effects thus produced. See Cyclopædia of Education.

134
GEOMETRY
GEOMETRY (Gr. yewμerpía, from yea, yn, the earth, and μɛrpeïv, to
measure), the science which treats of the properties and relations of
magnitudes. We get the elements of this science as well as the word used
to designate it from the ancient Greeks. Etymologically, the
Definition. word is synonymous with our term land surveying, but it does
not appear that it ever had simply this signification. As far back as we
can trace the history of the subject, there appears to have been a body of
theoretical truths and problems designated by this term. Thus, in the
time of Plato, the word yewμerpía does not appear to have had any more
specific reference to land measuring, than it has with us; for, when he
spoke of God (Oɛòs) as geometrizing, he certainly had no reference to land
surveying. But it is not the purpose of this article to trace the history of
geometry, nor to give even a résumé of its truths and methods. The ob-
ject is to point out its place and function in a scheme of general education,
and to offer certain practical suggestions in regard to the methods of teach-
ing it. These will be presented in connection with the following inquiries
and considerations.
I. How should this subject be approached, in the first instance. by the
learner? The proper reply to this is, he should first become acquainted
with the leading facts of plane geometry, without any attempt at
before scientific demonstration; notwithstanding the fact that the chief
demonstra- excellence of geometry, as a means of mental improvement, lies
Facts
tion. in its admirable body of practical logic. It is, in part, in conse-
quence of this very fact that the learner should have an acquaintance with
the fundamental truths of the science, as facts, before he attempts to reason
upon them. It must be remembered that the logical faculty is not the
inventive faculty. In general, its materials must be furnished it. Espe-
cially is this true with reference to fundamental truths. The history of the
development of science affords abundant proof that these truths are furnished
to the logical faculty rather than by it. Thus, the theorems, If one straight
line meet another straight line, the sum of the angles formed equals two
right angles; The sum of the angles of a triangle is two right angles; The
square described on the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle is equivalent
to the sum of the squares on the other two sides; The circumference of a
circle is a little more than three times its diameter; and many others, were
known to men as facts, and their practical significance was well understood,
long before their logical connection. with axioms and definitions was traced.
As it has been with the race, so it should be with the individual; the facts
are needed as a basis for logical inquiry. We cannot reason about that
concerning which we know little or nothing. Indeed, this principle has
been almost universally acknowledged in the construction of our text-books
on geometry upon the analytical rather than upon the synthetical model.
From the time of Euclid, at least, to the present time, the custom has been
to state each truth in formal proposition before attempting to demonstrate
it; but this is not sufficient. The mere statement of such a truth does not
give the ordinary mind a sufficiently clear and full apprehension of it to
interest the attention or to guide the thought. What is needed by the
individual student is exactly what was possessed by the race, as antecedent
Illustra- to logical inquiry: he needs to know the fact, and to perceive its
tions. practical significance, before he attempts to reason about it. For
GEOMETRY
135
example, if the tyro has learned by trial that he cannot take three given
rods and, by placing their ends together, make triangles of different forms,
he is prepared to understand and reason upon the fact that mutually equi-
lateral triangles are equal. Again, if he has experimented with two sets
of proportional rods, and found that he can combine them only into tri-
angles of the same shape, he is prepared to be intelligently interested in the
reasoning which proves that, if two triangles have their homologous sides
proportional, they are similar. And so of all the fundamental truths of
plane geometry. Much of the superficial and merely mechanical, memoriter
work which is done by pupils in geometry is caused by their having no
adequate conception of the facts about which they are attempting to reason.
Once show the pupil by measurement that the circumference of a given
circle is a little over three times its diameter, and he will be induced to in-
quire whether it is so in another, and finally if it is true in all circles.
Again, let him draw several pairs of chords intersecting in a circle, and by
actual measurement find that the segments are reciprocally proportional,
and his curiosity naturally prompts him to inquire why this is so. Finally,
a few illustrations of the mechanical value of the truths with which they
are becoming familiar will, with most pupils, give added zest to their study
and acquisition. To know that the brace stiffens the frame because the
angles of a triangle cannot be changed without changing the sides, while
those of a quadrilateral can; to see how the carpenter can square his foun-
dation, calculate the length of his brace or rafter, on the principle that the
square on the hypotenuse is equivalent to the sum of the squares on the
two other sides of a right-angled triangle; how inaccessible heights, and the
distances between inaccessible objects, can be determined by the property
of similar triangles- these, and the like applications of the principles he is
about to investigate, give an air of practical reality to the abstract specula-
tions of the science, which will be found exceedingly helpful and stimulat-
ing to the student.
II. It should be borne in mind that geometry is a mechanical as well
as a logical science. No more mischievous mistake can be made than to
underrate the problems of geometry; nevertheless this is not an
Use of uncommon practice with teachers. While some teachers permit
problems. the pupil to omit these problems in construction altogether,
others allow him the almost equally pernicious habit of describing the
construction without actually performing the work according to the
description. Thus, they allow him to tell how an angle is bisected without
requiring him actually to bisect a given angle; they accept a clumsy
description of the process of inscribing a circle in a triangle, illustrated by
a free-hand caricature of the thing itself, instead of requiring a neat and
accurate construction upon correct geometrical principles. Now, this is
geometry with the actual geometry left out. Nor is it simply that the
mere mechanical part (not an inconsiderable or unimportant part) is left
out; but any critical examination of such pupils will usually show that the
logical part is also omitted; in short, that the pupil neither comprehends
the nature of the process and the reasons for its several steps, nor is
actually able to execute it. While it is possible for a person to have the
mechanical faculty in a high degree, and tolerably well cultivated, and yet,
being deficient in the logical faculty, to fail of being a good geometrician,

136
GEOMETRY
it is equally possible, and, as the subject is too commonly taught it is quite
common, to find those who have fair logical powers, or who have learned
the formulas of logic, so destitute of mechanical ability or culture, that
they utterly fail to appreciate the real spirit of geometry, even though they
may know, and be able to demonstrate, its chief propositions. Nor are
the skill and taste requisite to effect neat and accurate geometrical con-
structions, attainments to be despised in securing an education. Shall we
study the science of form, and not cultivate taste, eye, or hand in reference
to form? Shall we call a person proficient in the science of extension and
form, who cannot construct a parallelogram, and whose taste and eye are
so completely uneducated, that he cannot discriminate between a right
angle and an angle of 85 or 95 degrees, and who cannot, with any degree
of precision, construct either? Moreover, the zest which the construction
of neat and accurate figures adds to the study, and the clearness of
perception which is thus induced, are most helpful. In the course here
recommended, a student will never be called upon to demonstrate a
proposition in plane geometry, the figure for which he cannot construct
upon geometrical principles; nor, in any well-conducted class, will the
pupils pass any proposition, the figures for which they have not so
constructed. It is not intended that every figure used for the purpose of
demonstration should be thus constructed; but it is urged that the pupil
should be able to construct every figure thus, and that he should frequently
be required to do this; and, moreover, it is claimed that there is a positive
power to investigate geometrical truth begotten of this method. Who
that has ever attained any proficiency in geometrical investigation does
not know the value of an accurately constructed figure? This is, generally,
the very first step in an original investigation, the construction itself often
suggesting the entire line of thought.
III. But, passing from preliminaries, suppose the student ready to
commence the study of the body of geometrical propositions which make
Proner up the elements of geometry, and to learn how to demonstrate
classifica- them. What should he find presented to him? Most assuredly,
tion. a vell classified arrangement of the subject matter is a prime
requisite in a branch of study which enjoys the distinction of being the
most perfect of the sciences. It is, however, a singular fact, that no such
classification has been commonly found in our text-books. The sole
principle of the arrangement in Euclid, which has prevailed for so many
centuries, is to demonstrate at first such propositions as are elementary,
and hence of essential use in subsequent demonstrations. Of course, such
an order of sequence as this is a necessity; but is there not that in the
nature of the subject matter which calls for a more scientific arrangement?
We venture to suggest the following: (1) The concepts of plane geometry
are the straight line, the circumference of the circle, and the angle; (2) The
two fundamental inquiries are concerning magnitude and form, the latter
of which results from position. Bearing these statements in mind we
shall commence with the simplest concept, the straight line. But shall
our first inquiry be concerning magnitude, or concerning form or posi-
tion? There are two ways of measuring a straight line: (1) the direct
way, by applying one line to another, and (2) the indirect way, as in
trigonometry, when, having two sides and an included angle of a triangle
GEOMETRY
137
given, we determine the third side, etc. Now, in the first, there is
little or no science, and the second is not elementary. Hence, we dismiss
the question of magnitude, and turn to the question of position, which
gives rise to form. Here we at once find legitimate objects of inquiry,
and the rel tive position of two straight lines will be the first section.
The subdivisions will be of perpendiculars, of oblique lines, of paral-
lels. As these are all the positions that straight lines can occupy with
reference to each other, we have exhausted this line of thought. Passing
to the circumference, we dispose of the question o magnitude in exactly
the same manner as we did in the case of the straight line. The direct
measurement by the application of an arc involves no science; and the
indirect, as when we determine the circumference from the radius, is a
remote inquiry. Hence, the question of position recurs. Comparing the
straight line and the circumference as to relative position, we find the
elementary properties of chords, secants, and tangents. Comparing two
circumferences as to relative position, we have external tangency, intersec-
tion, internal tangency, or one wholly interior to the other; and thus we
exhaust this line of inquiry. Reaching the angle, we find that the
elementary method of measuring an angle (by an arc) is the fundamental
object, while the relative position of angles is an unimportant inquiry.
Hence, we treat the measurement of an angle by an arc; and have the
elementary propositions concerning the angle at the center, the angle
between intersecting chords, the inscribed angle, the angle between two
secants, etc. We thus complete the fundamental inquiries relating to the
simple concepts, and proceed to treat them as combined in figures. The
first inquiry now concerns the relative magnitudes of the sides and angles
of a single figure; the second, the comparison of figures. Now, there are
three ideas to be taken as bases of comparison; namely, (1) equality, (2)
similarity, and (3) equiv ilence; out of the last of which grows the idea
of area. Having treated these topics, we have exhausted the subject of
elementary plane geometry. No other elementary inquiry can arise; and
no subsequent inquiries can be carried forward except on the basis of these.
Thus we have hastily sketched the outlines of a scientific arrangement;
but our special purpose is to insist, that some logical order of sequence
be impressed upon the mind of the student, whether it be this or some
better one.
Order of
arrange-
ment.
IV. Hints concerning class-room work. The order of arrangement
in the treatinent of a geometrical proposition should be early fixed in the
student's mind; namely, (1) The general statement of the proposi-
tion; (2) The illustration of this statement by reference to a par-
ticular diagram; (3) Any additional construction which may be
necessary to the demonstration; (4) The demonstration proper.
The exact language of the text-book should always be used in the statement
of propositions, and in quoting definitions and all fundamental principles,
unless such language is changed by the instructor or student for a particular
stration.
reason; but the demonstration should not be memorized, although
Demon- the general order of thought should necessarily be retained, and
the spirit and style of the language be preserved. The diagram
should always be constructed on the blackboard by the pupil, without
prompting from any source. When the construction is complete, he should
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GEOMETRY
usually stand at the board, and trace the line of thought by pointing to the
figure, as he proceeds in the demonstration. Some have thought it best to
use the Arabic figures to designate points, lines etc., instead of the
Diagram. capital letters, as ordinarily found in our text-books, the purpose
being to prevent mere memorizing; but in reference to this, it is to be said
that, besides its exceeding inelegance, and the fact, moreover, that the capital
letters are a part of the language of the science, the device is of little or no
use as a preventive of memorizing. It is quite as easy for a pupil who is
so disposed, to memorize by the mere position or appearance of the parts,
with figures to designate them, or even without any characters attached, as
by means of letters. The pupil can make as perfect a parrot-like recitation,
by merely memorizing every statement as referring to certain
Recitation. parts of the diagram, and by using the barbarous diction, "line
this", "line that", etc., which may be heard in some class rooms, as he can
in any other way. Our counsel is, use the language of the science (the let-
ters), and depend on something less superficial, to prevent all improper
memorizing. In referring to antecedent propositions constituting the basis
of the argument, it is far more important that the proposition be quoted,
than that its number be given; for the latter is of no sort of use except as
a mere class-room convenience, while the former method is of essential
service in bringing out the argument, and also in keeping the truths of the
science fresh in the mind, and familiar on the tongue. Such methods
should constitute the ordinary class room drill; but there are others which
must not be neglected, nor be unfrequent. First among these is
Outline the giving of outlines of demonstrations without going through
demon- the details, and without reference to a diagram. This is one of
the best tests of proficiency which can be applied, and the whole
subject should be repeatedly reviewed in this way. Again, frequent reviews
of groups of theorems without demonstrations are essential. Thus, the
teacher may call for the propositions concerning equality of
Review. triangles, the elementary propositions concerning the measure-
ment of angles, the propositions concerning parallels, etc. When a student
is assigned such a topic, he should give all the facts embraced under it (defi-
nitions, propositions, corollaries, and scholiums), without being prompted.
These three classes of exercises will form the staple of all class-room work.
For a final review, students may be set to tracing certain lines of
thought running through the whole subject. Thus, given the subject of
equality, he will define it, distinguish it from nearly related notions, such
as similarity and equivalence, show that the two latter notions make up the
former, classify all the propositions of elementary geometry which relate to
equality, and be able to give them with their demonstrations, pointing out
any common principle which may seem to run through the demonstrations.
In reference to the latter he will find that equality is always proved by the
mere application of one figure to the other, with the modification, that in
case of equality by symmetry the figures are divided into parts,
Equality which parts are then applied as before. In like manner, he can
and simi- be set to study the subject of similarity. Such a study will not
larity.
be merely a review of the section on equality, or that on similar-
ity, since these ideas are the basis of the thought in many propositions where
they do not constitute the main subject or purpose. In fact, it will be found

strations.

GEOMETRY
139


Practical
that nearly one-half of the propositions of geometry involve one or the
other of these notions (equality and similarity) as the basis of thought.
Again he may be set to select and study the propositions relating to form,
and then those in which magnitude is the object of inquiry: these two ideas
dividing between them the whole domain of geometrical truth. Finally,
it is of the highest importance, that, from first to last, the pupil be trained
in the practical application of the abstract truths as fast as they
are learned. No truth is well learned until it can be applied;
applica- and it would be quite incredible to one who has not had large ob-
tions. servation, how fully one may appear to understand a geometrical
truth, and yet be totally unable to apply it. The writer has examined in
geometry hundreds of students desiring to enter college in "advanced stand-
ing", and has made this a matter of careful observation. For example, he
has usually asked such students, "How do you find the area of a spherical
triangle?" Generally the answer has been promptly given, "By multiplying
the spherical excess by the tri-rectangular triangle"; and, quite generally, the
candidate has been found able to demonstrate the proposition. But in no
instance has the examiner ever found a student, who had not been trained
in the practical application of the statement, able to compute the area of a
triangle the angles of which are, say 110°, 94°, and 87º, on a sphere, the
radius of which is 2 feet. In fact, they could tell what a tri-rectangular
triangle is, what part of the sphere it is, and what the spherical excess is;
but not one could actually find the number of square inches in the area of
the triangle. A student may appear to have thoroughly mastered solid
geometry, and yet be totally unable to solve such a problem as, To find how
many barrels of water a cistern in the form of the frustum of a cone will
contain. It is obvious, therefore, that the teacher of geometry should never
allow his pupils to omit the practical examples.



tions.
V. Geometrical Invention. This term is used to designate the power
to discover demonstrations of propositions or the solution of problems.
Many excellent teachers quite overrate the ordinary student's power in this
direction. Some have even thought, that, from the first, a pupil can be led
to discover the demonstrations of all the propositions. New classes may, in-
deed, make commendable progress in geometry, and have put into
Original their hands only the mere statement of propositions; but it will
demonstra- be found that they do not originate the demonstrations which
they bring into the class; they simply look them up in other text-
books, and thus learn them. After a pupil has acquired a considerable
stock of geometrical knowledge, any real test will show that original
demonstrations are but slowly evolved, even of the simplest propositions.
Many students have little or no capacity in this direction; and, therefore,
to make it the staple of geometrical teaching, would be supreme folly. Some
exercise of this kind may, and should, be given from an early stage of the
study; and students may be stimulated and helped in the work, so that all
the ability for such exercise, which really exists in the class, may be
brought out; but, after all, there is no reasonable ground to expect that
any large amount of such ability can be developed in the majority of stu-
dents of elementary geometry. Certainly, this is not the purpose for which
geometry holds its eminent place in the curriculum of our colleges. It is
that students may learn what a logical argument is and how to frame it,

140
GERMAN LANGUAGE
from the study of such arguments, carefully elaborated and expressed by
the ripest culture. What but the most clumsy work can be expected from
the tyro in framing such arguments, if he has not had much study of the
best models? To put a demonstration in good form, as well as to evolve
it, is the ripest fruit of scholarship, not the daily work of beginners; the
ability to do either is to be acquired, in the first instance, by a protracted
and careful study of the work of masters. It is not the purpose of these
remarks to discourage all attempts to secure original demonstrations, but to
guard against a serious error into which enthusiastic and ambitious teach-
ers are in danger of falling; and the conclusion is, that, for the most part,
pupils must be furnished with the demonstrations of elementary geometry,
either by a text-book, or by the hints of a competent and judicious teacher;
and that it is best that it should be so. But let not this topic of geometrical
invention be confounded with that of practical exercise in applying the
truths learned. The latter is, as has been said, essential for all, but especially
important for those who are dull of apprehension.
VI. Lastly, it is to be remarked that a great change has come about
within the last century, in reference to the kind of demonstration which is
Motion
admissible in geometry. Formerly, geometricians were totally
and time. averse to admitting any conception of motion or time into a
geometrical argument. These were rigidly excluded as foreign to
the subject and as defiling its purity. Both are now freely admitted.
Again, the infinitesimal method was formerly as rigidly excluded, but is
now coming to be admitted. These methods greatly facilitate geometrical
inquiry, and are now freely used by the best writers and teachers. (See
MATHEMATICS.)
GERMAN LANGUAGE. The German language ranks, with the
English and French, in value and importance, above all the other lan-
guages of the civilized world. It is very extensively studied in
Rank. the literary institutions of every civilized country, and as a
department of school and college instruction, continues to assume, from
year to year, greater prominence.
The method of studying German, in English and American universities,
colleges, seminaries, and academies is about the same as that pursued in
the study of French. The most important feature which broadly
Method
distinguishes the German language from the French, and which
of study.
an intelligent teacher will always keep in view from the very
first lesson he gives, is the close resemblance between German and English
words, especially those used in common life. Many of these words are
spelled exactly alike; large classes of other words show so slight a modifica-
tion, that the pupils recognize them at once (as Vater, Mutler, Bruder,
Buch, Haus), and still others present changes made according to certain
laws which are easily understood, even at the earliest stage of instruction,
and by the most youthful beginner (as zehn, ten; Zinn, tin; Tag, day;
sagen, say). By a skillful use of this extensive resemblance of the two
languages, the intelligent teacher has it in his power to give to the
beginner, in a few lessons, the command of a very large number of words.
The strange letters which seem to surround the first lessons in German
with considerable difficulty, are quite easily learned by the aid of words
which are substantially the same in German as in English. Whole German
GERMAN LANGUAGE
141
sentences can, in this way, be at once understood; and when translation
forms a prominent object of the study, the pupil should begin to translate
from German into English, as soon as he knows the letters. For exercise
in the declensions and conjugations, the selection of cognate words for the
paradigms likewise facilitates the progress of the pupils. In this part of
the grammar, German at once seems to the beginner to be more com-
plicated than English, and presents to him the greatest difficulties he has
to surmount; among which may be enumerated the following: (1) The
noun in German has four cases, and the plural is formed in four different
ways as far as its termination is concerned, besides modifying the radical
vowel; (2) Adjectives and adjective pronouns are declined in three different
ways; (3) The past participle generally adds the prefix ge, and, in compound
verbs, this prefix, in many cases, is placed between the verb and the particle
with which it is compounded, or the particle is detached and placed at the
close of even a long sentence. In constructing exercises for the study of
these differences, it will again be found a help to choose for the paradigms
words similar to English words, or such as are common to both languages,
so that the attention of the pupil may be concentrated upon the learning
of the inflectional peculiarities. It is, however, not only the resemblance
of German and English words, but also other points of similarity, in the
etymology of the two languages, that should be made use of. Thus the
possessive case of English nouns may be made to illustrate not only the
German genitive, but the entire declension, of which the English possessive
is a remnant. A reference to the plural forms men, women, feet, geese,
mice, will explain the modification of a large number of German nouns in
the plural; as will also such forms as children, brethren, and pence. The
fact that the division of verbs into strong and weak is the same in both
languages, that the formation of the principal parts of both is similar (see,
saw, seen — se-hen, sah, ge-sehen; love, loved, loved — lieb-en, liebte, ge-liebt)
and that even, as a general rule, the same verbs belong, in both languages,
to the one or to the other conjugation, is easily comprehended even by
beginners, and greatly assists them to understand the structure of the
foreign language.
The comparison of the German language with the English should not
be limited to the points just mentioned; but all the peculiar features of
German should be noticed. In the study of any foreign language,
German a clear understanding of the most conspicuous characteristics helps
and to fix in the mind a clear conception of the language. Among
English.
the features of the German grammar to which special attention
should be called, when they are met with for the first time, are the follow-
ing: (1) The gender of nouns is arbitrary, and many nouns that are neuter
in English are either masculine or feminine in German; (2) One or more
long qualifying adjuncts may intervene between the article and its noun;
(3) The order of sequence of auxiliary verbs is entirely reversed in subjunct-
ive propositions; (4) Prepositions and verbs govern three different cases of
the noun; (5) The object precedes the verb more frequently than in English.
The correct pronunciation of German, as of every foreign tongue, must
be learned by imitating the teacher. This is especially the case with the
Pronun- sounds that have no equivalent in English, as ö, ü, ch, the
ciation. guttural g, short o, r, and the combinations of sp and st. Their



142
GIFTS
number is comparatively small; and, if they are steadily practiced,
it will require only a short time to learn to enunciate them correctly. For
a full treatment of this subject, see Cyclopædia of Education.
Enumera-
tion.
GIFTS, Kindergarten, the term used by Froebel to designate the
apparatus devised by him for kindergarten instruction, inasmuch as they
are not used by the teacher but given to the children, as the
Definition. material for interesting and instructive occupation, by the
manipulation of which their faculties are unfolded in accordance with the
developing method (q. v.). These gifts are grouped in sets, numbered from
1 to 20, and include the following, of which, however, Nos. 8 to 20 did
not originate with Froebel directly: (1) Six soft balls of various
colors, the object of the use of which is to teach color (primary
and secondary), and direction (forward and backward, right and
left, up and down); also to train the eye, and to exercise the hands, arms,
and feet in various plays. (2) Sphere, cube, and cylinder, designed to teach
form, by directing the attention of the child to resemblances and differences
in objects. This is done by pointing out, explaining, and counting the sides,
edges, and corners of the cube, and by showing how it differs, in these
respects, from the sphere and cylinder. The manipulation by the child
should, of course, precede this demonstration by the teacher. The child's
self-activity will prompt it to place these forms in various positions and
combinations, so as to realize in its conceptions every thing that is
analogous or dissimilar in them. (3) A large cube divided into eight
equal cubes, the object being to teach both form and number, also to give
a rudimental idea of fractions. (4) A large cube divided into eight oblong
blocks, designed to teach number and a simple variety of form (cube and
parallelopiped). (5) A large cube divided into 27 equal cubes, three of
the latter being subdivided into half cubes, and three others into quarter
cubes (forming triangular prisms). This is a further continuation and
complement of (3), but affording much ampler means of combination both
as to form and number. (6) A large cube so divided as to consist of 18
whole oblong blocks, three similar blocks divided lengthwise, and six
divided breadthwise, a still further continuation of the ideas involved
in (3). (7) Triangular and quadrangular tablets of polished wood, afford-
ing the means of further exercise in reversing the position of forms and
coinbining them; and presenting, in addition, illustrations of plane
surfaces, instead of solids, as in the previous gifts. This arrangement,
placing the surfaces after the solids, recognizes an important principle of
education, that we should pass from the concrete to the abstract (see
FORM), the square being a side of the cube, and a triangle deduced from
the prism. (8) Sticks for laying, wooden sticks about 13 inches long,
to be cut into various lengths by the teacher or pupil, as occasion may
require. These sticks, like most of the previous gifts, are designed to
teach numerical proportions. The multiplication table may be practically
learned by means of this gift. The forms of the letters of the alphabet,
and the Roman and Arabic numerals, may also be learned. (9) Rings
for ring-laying, consisting of whole and half rings of various sizes, in wire,
for forming figures; designed to develop further ideas of form, also to
afford a means for developing constructiveness of the pupils, and practice
in composing simple designs. (10) Drawing slates and paper, consisting


GIRLS
143
GLOBE
of slates ruled in squares, and paper ruled in squares, for the purpose of
enabling the pupil to draw or copy simple figures, in a methodical manner,
the ruling aiding them in the adjustment of proportions. (11) Perforat
ing paper, ruled in squares on one side only, with perforating needles,
affording more advanced practice in producing forms, and executing
simple designs. (12) Embroidering material, to be used for transferring
the designs executed on the perforating paper, by embroidering them
with colored worsted or silk on card board. (13) Paper for cutting:
squares of paper are folded, cut according to certain rules, and formed into
figures. The child's inclination for using the scissors is thus ingeniously
turned to account, and made to produce very gratifying results. (14)
Weaving paper: strips of colored paper are, by means of a steel or
wooden needle of peculiar construction, woven into a differently colored
sheet of paper, which is cut into strips throughout its entire surface,
except a margin at each end to keep the strips in their places. A very
great variety of figures is thus produced, and the inventive powers of
the child are constantly brought into requisition. (15) Plaiting material,
including sets of flats for interlacing so as to form geometrical and
fancy figures. (16) Jointed slats (gonigraphs), for forming angles and
geometrical figures. (17) Paper for intertwining: paper strips of various
colors, eight or ten inches long, folded lengthwise, used to represent a
variety of geometrical and fancy figures, by plaiting them according to
certain rules. (18) Paper for folding, consisting of square, rectangular,
and triangular pieces, with which variously shaped objects may be formed.
(19) Materi il for peas work, consisting of wires of various lengths pointed
at the ends, which are passed through peas, that have been soaked in water
for six or eight hours; these are then used to imitate various objects and
geometrical figures. Cork cubes are sometimes used instead of the peas,
as being more convenient. (20) Material for modeling: modeling knives,
of wood, and modeling boards, by means of which various forms are
modeled in bees-wax, clay, putty, or some other soft substance. These
gifts thus represent every kind of technical activity, from the mere collec-
tion of the raw material to the delicate processes of design as well as plastic
art. They are designed to develop not only the constructive
Design. ability of the pupil, through his natural impulse to activity, and
by the exercise of the faculty of conception, so characteristic of childhood,
but by their countless combinations of color and form to lay the foundation
for a complete development of the esthetic nature. They address, at once,
his intellect, his emotions, and his physical activities; while, as the child
works out the results himself, he gains confidence in his own ability to
surmount obstacles, and thus learns an enduring lesson of self-reliance.
Kindergarten gifts and occupation material suitable for schools or families,
are put up in sets and sold in boxes convenient for use.
GIRLS, Education of. See FEMALE Education.
GLOBE, Artificial (Latin, globus), a hollow sphere, made of metal,
plaster, or pasteboard, used as a model of the earth, and having delineated
upon it all the various natural and political divisions of the terrestrial sur-
face, together with the circles, etc., used in mathematical geography.
Through its center, runs an iron axis the two ends of which project, and
are fastened to a circle, or ring, of brass, within which the globe can be
144
GÓNIGRAPH - GOVERNMENT
turned around. This ring, called the brazen meridian, is graduated so as
to indicate degrees of latitude, and by rotating the globe can be made to
represent the meridian of any place. The artificial globe is also usually
surrounded with a broad horizontal ring of wood, called the wooden horizon,
which has two slots in which the meridian, and with it the globe move, so
that either pole may be elevated or depressed, and the horizon adapted to
any place. The upper surface of the wooden horizon is divided into several
concentric circles, representing degrees of amplitude and azimuth, signs of
the zodiac, the points of the compass, the divisions of the year into months
and days, etc. Such a globe is called a terrestrial globe. A celestial globe
differs from it in representing the appearance of the starry heavens, constel-
lations, etc., as if seen from the center of the globe. Globes of much
simpler construction are made for elementary instruction.
GONIGRAPH (Gr. ywvía, an angle, and ypápe, to write), an in-
strument used in kindergarten exercises and in object-teaching, to illustrate
the nature and formation of angles and polygons. It consists of a series
of narrow jointed slats of equal length, by the different combinations of
which figures of various shapes may be formed. The number of slats, or
links, varies from 3 to as many as 16, or even more. As a piece of kinder-
garten apparatus (gift), the gonigraph may be made the means of much
instructive entertainment to a young child, who from its manipulation will
acquire ideas of a great variety of figures. In the more advanced object-
teaching, in connection with the subject of form, it will be found very use-
ful, as well as attractive. Gonigraphs are usually sold in sets as a part of
the apparatus necessary for kindergarten work. (See GIFTS.)
GOVERNMENT, School, like the government of a state, must be
based upon the establishment of authority, which includes not only
the right to make laws, but the power, as well as the right, to
Basis. execute them. These powers, in every civilized state and com-
munity, are distributed among different persons, so as to prevent central-
ized authority leading to despotism; but, in the little community of the
school room, they must, to a greater or less extent, be possessed by one
person. General rules for the management of a school, it is true, may be
prescribed by the school officers to whom the teacher is amenable; but the
actual government of the school, that which converts it from a chaotic, dis-
orderly crowd of children into a regular organization, under control and
discipline, must be exclusively the work of the teacher, hence called the
school-master. Force of character in the teacher is the basis of discipline.
"Divest teaching", says Kellogg, in School Management (1880), "of the
personal force element, and of the subtle influence of the teacher, and little
is left".
The character of the school government depends upon the manner as
well as the degree in which the teacher's authority is established; and the
influence of the school upon the intellectual and moral character of its
pupils will depend upon the kind of government maintained.
On what No school can be efficient without order, and order can only
dependent.
result from judicious and effective government. The latter must,
in all cases, depend upon (1) the rules or requirements laid down, and
(2) the manner in which they are enforced. Government is often impaired
by unwise legislation - unwise in the kind of laws enacted, or in their

GOVERNMENT
145
number. The rules made for the government of a school should be as few
and as simple as possible. A multiplicity of set regulations confuses the
pupils, and tends to multiply offenses. Besides, the children,
Rules. by the habit of complying with a kind of written law, are apt
to think every thing right that is not specifically forbidden, and thus fail
to exercise their conscience; that is, in their attention to the mala prohibita,
they lose sight of the mala per se. 'If a school", says D. P. Page, "is to
be governed by a code of laws, the pupils will act upon the principle that
whatever is not proscribed is admissible. Consequently, without inquir
ing whether an act is right, their only inquiry will be, is it forbidden?
Now, no teacher was ever yet so wise as to make laws for every case; the
consequence is, he is daily perplexed with unforeseen troubles, or with some
ingenious evasions of his inflexible code. In all this matter, the worst
feature is the fact that the child judges of his acts by the law of the teacher
rather than by the law of his conscience, and is thus in danger of pervert-
ing and blunting the moral sense". Government by positive enactments
is, therefore, to be dispensed with as much as possible; but such rules as
are made should be strictly and uniformly enforced. These rules constitute
what may be called school legislation, and are not to be confounded with
requirements of a less formal character, which the pupil's own intelligence
and sense of right are to be trained to recognize without particular enunci-
ation, nor with those moral precepts which are addressed rather to the
pupil as an individual, and therefore do not directly concern the organiza-
tion of the school. We here treat of school government in the strict sense
of the term. In the enforcement of school legislation, however,
we are to keep in view the good of the pupil as well as the good
of the school, but primarily the latter. The principle is this: The
school is an organization designed to be the means of affording an education
to a large number of pupils, and the school laws are made to protect that
organization, and render it effective in the carrying out of its proper object;
hence, the welfare of the school must be paramount to that of any
individual pupil. The violation of a rule may, indeed, be sometimes over-
looked without injury to the offender, perhaps to his benefit; but, as such
a course tends to weaken or destroy the school government, the law must
be uniformly enforced. No enforcement of law can be accomplished with-
out the punishment of the offender; hence, the kind of school punishments
that are suitable under the various circumstances that arise becomes a
matter for the careful consideration of the teacher. Whether in enforcing
obedience to wholesome regulations, corporal punishment should be resorted
to, and, if so, to what extent and in what manner, forms also an important
part of the general discussion of school government. But there must be
prevention as well as correction - rewards, as incentives to obedience and
good conduct, as well as punishments to chastise the wrong-doer, and deter
others from wrong-doing. A system of rewards has a very
Rewards. important bearing upon school government when they are dis-
pensed with uniformity and equity. Under this head are included merit
marks, certificates and diplomas of proficiency and good conduct, and
prizes. Many questions arise in connection with the administration of
school government in this respect. The general efficacy and propriety of
rewards cannot be doubted. They appeal to a principle of human nature
Enforce-
ment.

146
GOVERNMENT
universally operative. "Whatever", says Jewell, "may be possible in the
mature man, in the line of that sublime abstraction, 'Virtue is its own
reward', the child is neither equal to such abstractions, nor are they
demanded of him".

the teacher.
The efficacy of school government must depend very much on the
manner in which the teacher exercises the authority conferred upon
him in virtue of his office. If he bases it upon force, if
Conduct of the language he addresses to his pupils be uniformly that
of command, threatening, or angry rebuke, there will be
engendered in their minds a feeling of antagonism, from which will
result disobedience, and occasionally open rebellion. On the other hand,
if he is kind and considerate, but at the same time firm and resolute,
he will gain first the respect of his pupils and then their affection.
When that is accomplished, the government of his school will be quite
easy. (See AUTHORITY.) The following are wise suggestions in regard
to the proper course of the teacher in obtaining and preserving
Sugges- the control of his school: "(1) Endeavor to convince your
tions. scholars that you are their friend, that you aim at their
improvement, and desire their good. It will not take long to satisfy
them of this, if you are so in reality. (2) Never give a command
which you are not resolved to see obeyed. (3) Try to create through-
out the school a popular sentiment in favor of order and virtue. It is
next to impossible to carry into effect, for any length of time, a reg-
ulation, however important, which is opposed to public opinion". Fel-
lenberg strongly insists upon this as the most efficient means of school
government. "The pupil", he says, "can seldom resist the force of truth
when he finds himself condemned by the common voice of his com-
panions, and is often more humbled by censure from his equals, than
by any of the admonitions of his superiors". To the above important
injunctions for the teacher should be added the following: Observe in
your conduct toward your pupils a strict impartiality. Children are
keen observers, and at once detect the slightest indications of favoritism
and nothing more effectually than this destroys their respect for the
teacher, and undermines his authority. Tact and self-control will enable
the teacher to dispense, to a very great extent, with any decided dem
onstration of authority. "There is", says Page, "such a thing as keep-
ing a school too still by over-government.
A man of firm nerve can
by keeping up a constant constraint both in himself and pupils, force a
death-like silence upon his school. You can hear a pin drop at any
time, and the figure of every child is as if moulded in cast-iron. Bu
be it remembered, this is the stillness of constraint, not the stillness o
activity. There should be silence in school, a serene and soothing quiet
but it should, if possible, be the quiet of cheerfulness and agreeable
devotion to study, rather than the 'palsy of fear". (See FEAR.) On
of the most important means of effective school government is to keep
the pupils constantly busy, to awaken in their minds an interest in thei
studies, to vary the exercises so as to prevent tedious monotony, to hav
special methods of relief, after their minds have become wearied by
close attention. For this purpose, in primary schools, in which very youn
children are taught, movement exercises of a simple character may b

GRADE — GRADED SCHOOLS
147
resorted to; and, in all schools, vocal music, which always exerts the most
pleasing and satisfactory influence. Calisthenics and gymnastics may be
employed with good effect. In short, if the school is conducted in such a
way as to recognize the peculiar nature, disposition, and wants of children,
the school government will be found to involve but little difficulty.
GRADE (Lat. gradus, a step), the relative standing of schools, classes,
or pupils, in a system of education. Thus education, or instruction, is
designated, according to its grade, primary or elementary, secondary, and
superior or higher. A course of study is divided into grades for conveni-
ence in classification, all the pupils in each class being supposed to be
nearly of the same degree of proficiency. The number of grades into which
a course of study should be divided is dictated by considerations of expedi-
ency and convenience. The grades, however, should be arranged so as to
assign proper proportions of work for the several portions of time into
which the school year, or the period of the entire curriculum, is divided.
The arrangement of grades is also beneficial in definitely marking the prog-
ress of the pupil, and thus affording him encouragement to proceed by
regular promotion from grade to grade. (See CLASS.)
GRADED SCHOOLS are usually defined as schools in which the
pupils are classified according to their progress in scholarship as compared
with a course of study divided into grades, pupils of the same or
Definition. a similar degree of proficiency being placed in the same class.
An ungraded school, on the other hand, is one in which the pupils are
taught individually, each one being advanced as far and as fast as circum-
stances permit, without regard to the progress of other pupils. The graded
system is thus based upon classification; and its efficacy as a system must
depend very greatly upon the accuracy with which the classifica-
Grades tion has been made. Grades, however, are not to be confounded
and classes. with classes; the former are divisions of the course of study
based upon various considerations, the latter are divisions of the school
based upon uniformity of attainments. In a small school, the same number
of grades may be needed as in a large school, the course of study being the
same, and the promotions being made with equal frequency; hence, as the
number of classes must be smaller, it will be necessary that each class
should pursue two or more grades simultaneously or in succession; that is
to say, the promotions from grade to grade will be more frequent than
from class to class. On the other hand, in a large school, the number of
classes may be greater than that of the grades, which will necessitate the
forming of two or more classes, under separate teachers, in the same grade.
In the management of a large school, this will be found to be better than
a subdivision of the grades, requiring either an extension of the time for
completing the course, or greater frequency in the promotions.
The advantages of the graded system have been thus enumerated:
(1) They economize the labor of instruction; (2) They reduce the cost of
instruction, since a smaller number of teachers are required for
Graded effective work in a classified or graded school; (3) They make
system.
the instruction more effective, inasmuch as the teacher can more
readily hear the lessons of an entire class than of the pupils separately,
and thus there will be better opportunity for actual teaching, explanation,
drill, etc.; (4) They facilitate good government and discipline, because all

148
GRAMMAR
GRADUATE
the pupils are kept constantly under the direct control and instruction of
the teacher, and, besides, are kept constantly busy; (5) They afford a better
means of inciting pupils to industry, by promoting their ambition to excel,
inasmuch as there is a constant competition among the pupils of a class,
which cannot exist when the pupils are instructed separately. On the other
hand, many objections have been urged against the system of graded schools,
chief among which is, that the interests of the individual pupil are often
sacrificed to those of the many, the individual being merged in the mass.
GRADUATE (Lat. graduare, from gradus, a step or degree), to con-
fer an academic degree, thus advancing to a higher rank in scholarship;
also, to receive a degree from a college or university. A person is said to
graduate when he takes a degree, and the college or university is said to
graduate a student when it admits him to an honorable standing as a scholar
by conferring a degree. The person who thus takes a degree, is called a
graduate. (See DEGREES.)
GRAMMAR. The study of grammar now constitutes, in every
civilized country, an essential part of the learning of languages, both the
vernacular and foreign. Opinions, however, still widely differ as to the
place which grammar should occupy in the study of language, the method
by which it should be taught, the point of time at which it should be
begun, and the amount of time which should be devoted to it. There is
at present a more general agreement among educators than at any previous
time, that not only is a grammatical knowledge necessary for a good
command of any language, but that thorough training in the rules of
grammar is one of the best means to develop the faculties of the mind,
and is especially calculated to promote correct and logical thinking. (See
GRAMMAR, ENGLISH; ENGLISH, STUDY OF.) For a full treatment of this
subject see Cyclopædia of Education.
GRAMMAR, English. Probably, there is no subject that has
been taught with so great a disregard of the fundamental principles of
teaching as English grammar; and there is certainly none that
Errors. has so imperfectly attained its practical aim — correctness in
the use of language. This has arisen from two errors of procedure: (1) an
attempt to teach definitions without developing in the minds of the pupils
the ideas underlying them, and rules previous to an illustration of their
necessity; and (2) confining the instruction to merely theoretical and
critical work, without sufficient practice in the application of principles
and rules to the actual use of language. The introduction of analysis was
the result of an effort to reform the first of these errors; and the
Analysis. language-lesson system, a reaction against the second. Grammar
being, distinctively, the science of the sentence, the preliminary step in all
grammatical instruction must be, to give to the pupil a clear and correct
idea of what constitutes a sentence, by presenting for his examination and
analysis examples of sentences of a simple structure, by analyzing which he
will easily be made to see what principal parts must enter into their com
position, and how other parts are used as adjuncts. (See ANALYSIS
GRAMMATICAL.) The outline of a complete scheme of teaching
System of grammar in all its stages is presented in the following points
teaching (1) Principles, definitions, and rules should be progressively
taught by requiring the pupil to analyze, and also to compose



grammar.

GRAMMAR
149
classified sentences commencing with those of the simplest construction,
and passing gradually to such as are of the most complex structure; (2) No
definition or rule should be committed to memory and formally recited
until the pupil, by sufficient practice, has obtained a clear conception of
the office of the word defined, and the nature of the usage which the rule
is intended to guide. For example, it is absurd to try to teach a child the
meaning of a participle or a relative pronoun at an elementary stage of the
instruction, because the structures in which alone they can occur are too
complex to be understood at that stage. And it is equally absurd to
require a child to commit to memory the rule, "A verb must agree
with its subject or nominative in person and number", until by the
comparison of a number of sentences illustrating this usage, he is made to
understand what is meant by agreement in grammar, and how expressions
may be incorrect by a failure to observe this rule. According to this
method, the pupil is first made acquainted with the distinction of subject
and predicate, as being the essential parts of every sentence. This forms
the basis for teaching him the two parts of speech, the verb and the
noun. From this point, the sentence may be complicated by the successive
insertion of modifying words, phrases, or clauses, so as to illustrate not
only the nature and use of each of the parts of speech, but every peculiar
structure. This may be illustrated by the following example of a sentence
thus expanded: (1) Boys learn. (2) The boys learn. (3) The studious
boys learn. (4) The studious boys learn rapidly. (5) The studious boys
learn their lessons. (6) The studious boys learn their lessons in school.
(7) The boys and girls learn. (8) The boys learn, but the girls do not
learn. (9) The boys who study will learn. Of course, each sentence here
given is only a specimen of what may be used at each step; and when these
several steps have been taken, the pupil will have acquired a knowledge of
the functions of the different parts of speech. Thus, in (1), he learns the
noun and the verb; in (2), the article is added; in (3), the adjective; in (4),
the adverb; in (5), the pronoun; in (6), the preposition; in (7), the con-
junction, as a connective of words; in (8), the conjunction, as a connective
of sentences; in (9), the relative pronoun. After much preliminary oral
instruction of this kind the pupil may be required to learn simple defi-
mitions. Underlying the whole process, it will be perceived, is the
analysis of the sentence, parsing coming in at a later stage, as the appli-
cation to particular sentences, according to a given praxis, of the defini-
tions and rules learned. This is the method recommended by
Analysis prominent educators of the present day.
"The analysis of a
and sentence', says Wickersham, "consists in finding its elements,
parsing. or in reducing it to the parts of speech, of which it is composed.
Parsing consists in finding out these parts of speech and determining their
properties and relations. Both should be combined, as is the case in
similar operations in other sciences. The botanist analyzes a plant, and
then names and describes its several parts. The anatomist dissects a sub-
ject, and then characterizes the organs thus brought to his notice. Grammar
can be studied successfully in no other way. Parsing, without a preceding
analysis, can lead but to a very imperfect knowledge of the organic
tructure of sentences". To the value of the analytical method, Prof.
Whitney thus bears witness: "Give me a man who can, with full in-



150
GRAMMAR SCHOOLS
telligence, take to pieces an English sentence, brief and not too complicated
even, and I will welcome him as better prepared for further study in other
languages than if he had read both Cæsar and Virgil, and could parse them
in the routine style in which they are often parsed". Parsing should not
be made a routine; when it becomes such, it is worse than useless. The
constant application of complicated definitions and rules derived from a
language of inflections, to English words and sentences having scarcely an
inflection, is to the pupil a senseless process, and must only tend to dull,
instead of cultivating and sharpening, his intellectual faculties. It makes
him, as has been said, a "parsing machine". The definitions and rules of
English grammar should be simplified, recognizing the fact that
Definitions English is not an inflectional language, except in a very few
and rules. particulars; and hence, that the principles of agreement and
government have scarcely any application. The multiplying of rules that
regulate nothing is idle. Thus, of what use it is to cause a child to repeat,
in parsing, twenty times perhaps in a single lesson, the so-called syntactical
rule. "Adjectives relate to nouns and pronouns", when he has already
learned as a definition that "Adjectives are words added to nouns and
pronouns?" A large portion of the rules of syntax laid down in most
text-books are rather a repetition of the definitions comprehended in ety-
mology than separate rules necessary to guide us in the construction of
sentences. All such needless machinery should be eliminated. The appli-
cation of the terms case, gender, person, and all other designations of in-
flectional variations of words, should be kept within the narrow limits
prescribed by the simplicity of the language. In most systems of grammar,
however, we find these terms used in so ambiguous a way as almost
hopelessly to obscure the subject and perplex the learner. Sometimes, for
example, case is used to indicate a form or inflection, at others, a mere
relation without change of form; while the fact to be taught is, that where
there is no inflection there is no case. The rule that "a noun which is
the subject of a verb must be in the nominative case" is, in English,
useless and absurd. The senseless machinery of English grammar, as it
has been generally taught, has brought the whole subject under reproba-
tion, as being useless in an elementary school curriculum, and as superseded
in that of the high school and college, by the study of Latin; while there is
no doubt that college graduates, in the United States, are generally in
nothing so deficient as in a practical and critical knowledge of their own
language. While it is very true that the use of every language is a matter
of habit rather than of rule; every writer and speaker knows, that there
are myriads of instances in which the ear and the memory, however trained
by habit, will not serve as a guide, and that a knowledge of the principles
and usages of language in regard to nice points of construction, is in-
dispensable. "Since language", says Currie, "is the instrument of all
thought, a more commanding knowledge of it than habit alone can give
must be deemed a necessity of education, and particularly of all education
which pretends to cultivate the mind".
GRAMMAR SCHOOLS, so called, not because they gave instruction
in English grammar, but from the fact of their making the teaching of
Latin and Greek —particularly, and sometimes exclusively, the former
their especial aim, existed in England from the earliest times. They dis-
GREEK LANGUAGE
151
charged the same function as the old cathedral schools or the cloister
schools of the monasteries, and were established and supported either by
the endowments of benevolent individuals, or by governmental appropria-
tions. In England, the endowed grammar schools are very numerous and
many of quite ancient foundation.
Grammar schools, in the United States, were originally of the same
character as in England and Scotland. The gradual development of the
common-school system in the United States, joined with the partial decline
of Latin and Greek as instruments of education, and the demand for studies
of a more practical character, that is, more in demand as a preparation for
the ordinary duties of life, have led to a different application of the term
grammar schools. The study of English grammar having taken the place
of Latin grammar in schools of an elementary grade, such schools came to
be designated grammar schools, and the former grammar or classical
schools received the name of high schools or academies. In most of the
public-school systems of the cities of the Union, grammar schools are
schools of a grade between the primary schools in which the first rudiments
of instruction are imparted, and the high schools. Some of the grammar
schools, so called, have a primary, an intermediate, and a grammar depart-
ment. In these cases, the term grammar schools has been used with no
definite idea of its propriety, except as designating a somewhat higher
grade of schools than those in which the simplest rudiments of an English
education are afforded; since even in these English grammar is taught in
only the higher grades or classes.
GREEK LANGUAGE, one of the two classical languages which as
such constitute an important part of the course of study in all the higher
literary institutions of the civilized world.
In regard to the method to be pursued in teaching Greek, there is a
greater agreement among leading educators, than in respect to many other
studies. It is generally admitted that the comparative difficulty
Method of of Greek grammar, even of its first or etymological part, makes
teaching. it desirable that all whose education is to comprehend a knowl-
edge of this language, should begin the study at an early age, when the
vigor of memory is still fresh, and its function still prevails in the course
of instruction. Hamilton's and Jacotot's methods find now-a-days few fol-
lowers in the teaching of Greek; and the study of grammar, with trans-
lations from Greek into English and English into Greek, chiefly occupies
the attention of the beginner. It has been proposed, and sometimes at-
tempted, to begin the teaching of the language, in accordance with the devel-
opment of Greek literature, with the study of the epic and old Ionic dialects;
but the old practice to make the Attic dialect the basis has victoriously
maintained its traditional ascendency. Exercises in translating from the
native language into Greek should not be omitted, as is frequently done;
though it is well understood that, on account of the greater difficulties
presented by the Greek, and the shorter time allowed for the study of it,
the same proficiency in writing Greek is hardly ever or anywhere attained
as in Latin. The first exercises in translating Greek into English, or any
other native tongue, are now generally provided in the grammars. Where
grammars are used which exclude exercises in translation, the use of a
Greek reader is at once begun. In general, the use of a reader before the
$
152
GYMNASTICS
GYMNASIUM
taking up of a particular author, is continued longer in Greek than in
Latin, because of the longer time required to obtain a good knowledge of
the grammatical rules in the former. When the pupil is far enough ad-
vanced to take up the reading of Greek authors, the teacher, in
Course of making the selection, should not only be careful to proceed from
reading.
the easier to the more difficult writers, and to prefer the classic
authors, but also to read enough of the selected work to give to the stu-
dents an adequate idea of the spirit of Greek literature. The orations,
philosophical dialogues, and dramas are particularly suited for advanced
classes in Greek. Of course, instruction in Greek is not considered complete
without the reading of, at least, one of the Homeric poems; and it is for-
tunate that the easy flow of the language of these poems fits them for an
early stage of classic reading. Among the Greek historians, Xenophon and
Herodotus fully deserve the favor of teachers and students, which they have
enjoyed for centuries. In regard to Herodotus it is, however, desirable to
wait until the pupils are well grounded in the Attic dialect. To include
Thucydides in a regular course appears to many classical scholars objection-
able, as the language is too difficult for the majority of college students,
and as the gloomy period which he describes is not calculated to increase
the students' interest in ancient Greece. Of the dramatic poets, Eschylus
and Aristophanes are not suited for schools; and, therefore, only Sophocles
and Euripides can be recommended.
GYMNASIUM (Gr. yvμváolov, a place for bodily exercises, from
yvμvós, naked), a term applied, in ancient Greece and Rome, to schools
for physical education, but in modern Germany and some other countries
of continental Europe, to a class of secondary schools which hold a middle
place between elementary schools and the universities. In England and
the United States, in which the colleges correspond to the German gym-
nasia, the term gymnasium is limited to places for physical exercises.
GYMNASTICS (Gr. yvµvaotiký, from yvμvós, naked), a system of
bodily exercises designed to develop muscular strength, and to promote
general physical culture and health. In the article on Calisthenics, this
subject has already been treated as far as it comprehends those light phys-
ical exercises which are especially adapted for females, although frequently
used in the education of persons of the other sex; and, in the employment
of the severer gymnastic training, there should be a careful discrimination
having regard to the age and physical constitution of the pupil. Much
injury may be done by requiring all the members of a school or class to
perform the same exercises, more especially such as are of a violent char-
acter. Indeed, it may be doubted whether, up to the age of sixteen, for
the ordinary purpose of physical development and health, boys need any-
thing more than abundant opportunity and time for the out-door sports
and recreations in which their natural activity will generally prompt them
to engage. Beyond that age, gymnastic exercises, properly regulated, may
be made the means of laying the foundation of permanent strength and
health. Military drill is often introduced into schools and colleges, and is
found an efficient substitute for gymnastic exercises, or an excellent auxil-
iary to them. Educators uniformly approve of this kind of exercise in
boys' schools, not only as an effective means of physical culture, but as im-
parting habits of attention, order, subordination, and prompt obedience.


HABIT
153
For schools of most grades, and for either sex, light gymnastics has
been found to supply appropriate and efficient exercise. See Cyclopædia
of Education.
HABIT, a tendency to repeat the same action, more or less uncon-
sciously, or an inclination for the pursuits, occupations, or states to which
the body or the mind has become familiar by use. Habit, as an
Influence automatic tendency, takes a wide range, not only extending over
of habit.
all our mental and bodily acts, but including likewise our moods
of mind, our sources of indulgence, pleasure, ease, and recreation, and com-
prehending also, either by improvement or debasement, our entire moral
and spiritual nature. The singular facility which is acquired by repeated
action, in accomplishing what at first was either difficult or impossible, has
never been satisfactorily explained. The fact, however, is universally rec-
ognized in the old saying, "Habit is second nature", as also in the useful
educational maxim, "Practice makes perfect". "It conditions", says Rosen-
kranz (Pedagogics as a System), "formally all progress; for that which
is not yet become habit, but which we perform with design and an exercise
of our will, is not yet a part of ourselves." Physiologists profess to find a
reason for this power of habit, in the sympathetic nerves; and some psychol-
ogists trace mental habits to the association of ideas. The extent to which
habit influences the daily life of every one even the youngest child, can
scarcely be realized. Consciously or unconsciously, it enters, in some
shape, into every effort at continuous action, physical or mental, and more
or less controls it. From the dawn of intelligence, when the child first
takes cognizance of material things, all through the period of self-education,
which precedes systematic instruction, it is forming, of itself, habits of ob-
servation, comparison, and generalization, which are to constitute the basis
of all subsequent intellectual activity. So is it also forming those habits
which, taken together, make up what is called disposition, temper, etc. It
is this tendency to contract habits which gives such plasticity to the minds
and characters of youth, and which really underlies the power and office of
education; for what we call training is nothing more than guiding and reg-
ulating the formation of habit.
A
While it is the period of formal education at which the child especially
needs to be protected from the influence of habit, to some extent and in
habits.
some respects, the watchful care of the educator is required even
Injurious from the earliest infancy to prevent the formation of injurious
and almost ineradicable habits; indeed, there is scarcely a child
who, on being sent to school for the first time, will not be found to have
contracted habits, both physical and mental, which the teacher will find it
necessary to strive to correct. One of his most important functions will be
to detect and eradicate bad habits, as a kind of morbid growth; for, like
weeds, these habits not only cumber the ground themselves, but render it
sterile for any other productions. For example, what can be done with
that most troublesome of all cases, a "spoiled child", until the habits of
self-indulgence, self-will, wayward caprice, and despotic control of others,
which characterize it, are eradicated, or superseded by other dispositions?
So, too, with habits of deceit, falsehood, cruelty, and many others that are
apt to spring up in even very young minds. In regard to the intellect, the


154
HABIT
same principle holds true; for that natural development which precedes
formal instruction may, indeed, be luxuriant, but cannot be regular. The
mind of the most active child, under circumstances that present the very
best opportunities for development, if it has been left entirely to itself, will
be found to have acquired settled ways of observing, thinking, and speak-
ing which it will be necessary to correct; and, besides, it will generally have
become impulsive, impatient of any continuous attention, and prone to
pass rapidly from one thing to another, in obedience to a mere momentary
fancy or impulse. It will, therefore, be generally found that children, on
being first subjected to regular instruction, need to have habits of attention
formed, in place of those of inattention, which have been implanted by
their own unconscious and unregulated activity. (See ATTENTION.) There
are others, however, of a less general character which will demand special
effort. As an instance, one of the earliest of these objectionable habits,
and perhaps one of the most common, is the unconscious substitution in the
child's mind of the symbol for the thing symbolized. This will be mani-
fested by most children when shown, for example, the picture of a horse,
and asked to state what it is. Usually the answer will be, “It is a horse”,
from the habit of confounding things with their representatives. Hence,
the unresisting facility with which children yield their minds to mere
memorizing and rote-learning, the effect of which is to confirm the bad
habit referred to, and, in its final result, to extinguish intelligence and
destroy mental activity. While some of the habits which demand the
teacher's attention at this early stage, are common to all children, in a
greater or a less degree, there are others of great variety, dependent upon
either peculiar traits of character or peculiar circumstances of early life.
The law of the formation of habit is repetition or exercise. This is recog-
nized in many departments of instruction, as an indispensable
Repetition. means of imparting facility, readiness, and promptitude, without
which certain accomplishments could not be made, or if made, would be
comparatively useless. For example, of what value would the multiplica-
tion table be if its use required a conscious effort of mind at every appli-
cation of any of its details? The same principle is illustrated by the playing
upon a musical instrument, by the use of language in speaking and writ-
ing, and by the varied bodily movements needed in daily life. Good habits
should be formed at as early a period as possible; because ex-
Good perience shows that, when thoroughly established in childhood
habits. or youth, they generally continue, with more or less strength,
through life. Hence the importance of making those qualities and observ-
ances habitual which constitute the elements of practical success in every
walk of life; such as punctuality, order, regularity, and perseverance; to
which may be added neatness, courtesy, attention to the wants of others,
forbearance, and self-control. For the same reason, bad habits
Correction.
should be eradicated before they have reached that mature state,
after which they scarcely ever entirely disappear. It is, indeed, rarely the
case that thoroughly fixed habits are wholly removed; hence, the teacher
should strive to counteract their evil influence, or neutralize their activity,
by implanting those of a contrary nature. In dealing with the bad habits
of children, the teacher should appreciate, and make due allowance for, the
force of habit. He cannot uproot them at once and by violence. As time
HALF-TIME SCHOOLS — HARMONY
155
is an important element in their formation, so is it also in their eradication;
and, therefore, the child is to be led along a divergent path which, by
degrees, will conduct him away from the vicious impulse which, all the
while, tends to overpower his best resolutions. Whatever force or coercion
may be found necessary for this purpose should be gradually relaxed, till
the child has formed, to some extent, the habit of self-control;
Self- which will become the foundation of most other good habits.
control. The implanting of particular habits must not, however, be
deemed the whole of moral training; there must be the culture of consci-
entiousness, of intelligence, of self-respect, of a constant impression and rec-
ognition of the Divine presence, and of all the other principles of human
nature, by means of which it rises to the higher plane of moral responsi-
bility, consciously exercising its own faculties, not blindly obeying habitual
tendencies received from others. Properly educated, the human being, in
the exercise of his own will and conscience, enlists the power of habit in
support of his own moral conclusions, making a useful servant of that by
which so many others are hopelessly enslaved. In this connection, Rosen-
kranz says, "Education must procure for the pupil the power of being able
to free himself from one habit and to adopt another. Through his free-
dom, he must be able not only to renounce any habit formed, but to form
a new one; and he must so govern his system of habits that it shall exhibit
a constant progress of development into greater freedom. We must disci-
pline ourselves, as a means toward the everchanging realization of the good
in us, constantly to form and to break habits." And it is in the attainment
of this grand object of self-culture, that habit may render the important
aid referred to, in making the exercise of self-criticism, conscientious
watchfulness of our own conduct, and obedience to the dictates of reason
and religion, easy and continuous by becoming habitual. Thus it is that
the man for whom education has done all that it can do, within the utmost
scope of its power, truly finds habit not his master but his most useful
servant and friend.
•
HALF-TIME SCHOOLS, a class of schools which, as the name
denotes, hold their sessions during only one half of each day, thus affording
an opportunity to a numerous class of children, employed in workshops,
factories, stores, etc., to attend school without giving up their employments.
They are thus kindred in object with evening schools, which in a certain
sense, may be considered as half-time schools.
All the
faculties to
be trained.
HARMONY in Development, as regards both the mental and
bodily faculties, is now viewed by educationists as the most important aim
of education. "One part of instruction", says Dittes (Schule
der Pädagogik, 1876),"must not contradict another; nothing
should be neglected, nothing exaggerated; all the faculties of
the pupil should be cultivated as much as possible, and all the
different objects and departments of education should receive attention,
without interruption, and in due proportion. The intellect should not be
favored at the expense of the moral and physical nature; and hygienic
considerations should not be left out of view. The teacher should be
especially careful not to accord too much time and attention to favorite
branches of study." The latter is a very important admonition. Every
course of study should be arranged with a view to the average condition of
156
HARMONY
the growing mind and its needs; and, therefore, should comprise such a
variety of subjects as will call into exercise the different mental powers,
and thus become instruments in their culture and development. The
scientific teacher will, however, watch for decided peculiarities
Special
of character, special aptitudes, traits of genius, etc., and will
aptitudes.
modify his course of proceeding so as, while giving scope for the
unfolding of these particular powers, or talents, not to permit them to
repress the growth of other indispensable faculties. Thus, a pupil may
show a special inclination and talent for drawing, which may very
properly be allowed its full development; but, in doing this, the educator
is not to permit all other mental or manual occupations to be neglected.
Indeed, this special gift may be kept in abeyance, and stimulus applied, for
a time at least, to penmanship, and to the study of language, science, or
other important subjects. Some pupils, as a further example, may be too
prone to the exercise of the imagination; in which case, they should be
required to study science or mathematics. Others may show an almost
exclusive bent for calculation or mathematical reasoning, which must, of
course, be corrected by the pursuit of studies calling into exercise other
powers of the mind; such as history, general literature, mental philosophy,
etc. Knowledge is sometimes called the food of the mind, by the assimila-
tion of which its various powers are nourished; hence, to continue the
metaphor, there should be a due variety of this food, and the different
kinds should be selected with a view to the particular condition and needs
of the system which is to be supplied with nutriment. As in physical
education, if a pupil manifests any signs of abnormal development or
morbid growth, such, for example, as distortion of the limbs or curvature
of the spine, continuous exercises and postures are prescribed to correct
this tendency; so, in every department of education, a harmonious
development can only result from a discriminative application of those
agencies which call into active and habitual exercise the powers of
mind and body. Such a development implies, too, a full recognition
of all the relations and powers of the human being, embracing not only
the cultivation of those capacities which concern him as an individual, but
also those on which his happiness and usefulness as a social and moral
being depend. How miserable is the mere student, the solitary genius,
cut off from the exercise of the social sympathies and deprived of social
enjoyments by a one-sided development! The educator must recognize
that there is a body, a mind, and a soul to be addressed and cultivated;
and that man has social, moral, and religious faculties, without the
harmonious development of which he cannot properly fulfil his destiny,
nor attain happiness. The special claims of particular vocations, it is said,
demand one-sided culture. Of this there is no doubt; but
Special
vocations, preceding it, and hence underlying it, there should be such
general culture as the circumstances of man, as man, require.
Profession or business comprehends, in general, but one relation; and un-
fortunate, therefore, is he who can meet the demands of only that relation,
unable to perform aright the domestic, social, political, and religious duties
which are inseparably connected with the position of every person in this
life. In order to perform these duties, every person is endowed with
special faculties, which, by the want of proper cultivation in early life, or
HAZING
157
HIGH SCHOOLS
by disuse, may be so enfeebled as to be unfit for exercise; and the
harmonious development of these is the only true aim of education. If all
these faculties do not, at an early age, receive their due share of training,
self-education, at a later period, cannot, but within very narrow limits,
supply the deficiency. The individual will always find himself more or
less crippled, because no self-culture can entirely supply the place of early
habits. To the doctrine of harmonious development, it has
Innate en- been objected that special innate endowments cannot be re-
dowments. pressed by education; and to address other faculties will only
result in bestowing superficial accomplishments of no practical value.
Thus a youth of decided mathematical genius could never become more
than an imperfect linguist; and one with special talent for language would
be likely to make but indifferent attainments in science. Harmonious
development, however, does not require the repression of special endowments,
but the cultivation of what may be called the general powers, in such a
way as to give support to each particular endowment. A wise educational
training, commenced at the earliest childhood, and continued through each
successive period of the formative state of human character, will not only
fit for any particular vocation for which there may be a special bent, but
will also prepare the individual for general usefulness, and render him able
to enjoy the wonders of science, and the beauties of nature and art, as well
as to participate in all other pleasures incident to his existence as a social
and rational being.
HAZING, a term applied to the mischievous and often abusive and
injurious tricks which are played by older college students upon freshmen.
The term, as well as the practice, is of considerable age; but, during the
last few years, much effort has been put forth by those who have the charge
of higher institutions of learning to suppress the custom as demoralizing
and barbarous.
HEBREW LANGUAGE, the language in which the Sacred Script-
ures of the Old Testament were written, is on that account of special im-
portance both for the Hebrew people and for Christians, more especially
theologians, who desire to read the Scriptures in the original.
As the study of Hebrew, among Christians, generally is not begun
until the students have obtained a good knowledge, not only of their native
tongue, but also of Latin and Greek, the teacher will find it expedient to
pursue a method very different from that observed in teaching young
pupils the elements of Latin and Greek. The mastering of the chief rules
of grammar may be expected to consume comparatively little time. As
the chief purpose of nearly all students of Hebrew is to be enabled to read
the Bible, it is natural that teachers should generally conform their method
to that special aim. The study of the Hebrew Bible is, therefore, begun
as soon as possible, and most of the grammatical peculiarities are explained
in connection with reading. For a full treatment of this subject, see
Cyclopædia of Education.
HIGH SCHOOLS, generally schools of secondary or academic in-
struction, corresponding, to the lower grades of the German gymnasia, but
sometimes partaking rather of the character of real schools. Public high
schools exist in most of the states of the Union, forming a part of the
I public-school system, being the connecting link between the elementary

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HISTORY
district, common, or grammar schools, and the state university, for which
they perform the office of preparatory schools. Some of these schools are
so organized as to comprise academic, normal, and commercial departments.
In small cities and towns, high-school classes or departments, taught in the
same building with the grammar schools, take the place of separate high
schools. There is a great want of uniformity in the grade and character
of these schools in different states and in different cities of the same state.
Some are simply of a higher grade than the grammar schools; that is, they
give instruction in more advanced studies; while others strictly form a
part of a graded system which includes a complete representation of
primary, secondary, and superior instruction.
HISTORY, as a branch of instruction, presents very many important
points of inquiry for the educator. The vast field which it occupies as a

Edu-
cational
character.
realm of facts, the great difficulty in classifying these facts, and
deducing from them any general principles or laws, or even in
associating them so that they may be presented to the mind of
the learner in groups bound together by some common relation,
these characteristics of history make it perhaps the most difficult which
the educator has to deal with. This will account for the diversity of opin-
ion as to the proper method of teaching it, as well as for the many obvious
errors of method that exist. Some, indeed, have condemned it as a school
study; on the ground that the mere facts of history, without the general
laws which they teach, are of no account, while the study of the philosophy
of history is too deep for immature minds. On this account, Prof. Bain
contends that it is a subject proper only for the university. John Locke
said, "As nothing teaches, so nothing delights, more than history. The
first of these recommends it to the study of the grown man; the latter
makes me think it fittest for a young lad". These extreme opinions arise
from viewing the subject from different stand-points. There is no doubt
that the study of history, like that of geography, botany, astronomy, and
other school subjects may be presented to the mind of the child
Mode of in such a manner as not only to be useless and distasteful, but
teaching
history. actually injurious. As in every other subject, the educator is
to consider the nature of the mind to be addressed, and the
character of the study itself. Primarily, history is a narrative; and there
is nothing which pleases children so much as narratives concerning things
in which they take an interest, or with which they are familiar. If children,
therefore, are to study history, they must first be interested in the persons
and things that it refers to. Thus American children will be eager to
learn about the discovery of America by Columbus, because it concerns
the country in which they live; and they will be scarcely satisfied with
any amount of detail in regard to the particular facts connected with that
event. Columbus as a great personage will then loom up in their
imagination, and their curiosity will be exerted to know something
about him. This will interest them in Isabella, the good queen of Spain;
and something may be said of her, and of the country to which she be-
longed. In this desultory way, and without any special effort to show the
relations of events as to time or cause and effect, the conceptive faculty of
quite young children may be addressed in teaching history, and thus their
minds will be prepared for its regular study, by receiving those underlying
1.
HISTORY
159
conceptions which are constantly needed to make formal historical narra-
tives interesting or even understood. "The fact", says Emerson, "must
correspond to something in me to be credible or intelligible". It is in ref-
erence to this principle that Wickersham remarks, "It concerns us little
to know the lineage of kings and queens, the intrigues of courts, or the
plans of campaigns; but it would interest us much to be told how people
in past times built their houses, worked their fields, or educated their
children what style of dress they wore, what kind of food they eat, what
books they read". The latter classes of facts are not, however, more in-
teresting in themselves, but because they are more nearly related to our
individual experience. Different persons will not be interested in the same
class of historical facts. The soldier will attend to the military history of
a country; the statesman and politician, to the political; the agriculturist,
to the methods of husbandry in use; and to a numerous class of minds the
dynastic history the “lineage of kings and queens", will possess supreme
fascination. All departments of history are useful in their special appli-
cations; and are of interest to those who desire to know the facts which
they severally comprehend. In arranging history for educational
Stages of purposes, we must consider the degree of development of the
study. pupil's mind; and in this respect historical study may be divided
into three stages: (1) The introductory, in which the mind of
the young child has to be prepared for the study, as above indicated;
(2) The intermediate, at which the formal study of history commences,
dealing principally with facts and their obvious relations; and (3) The ad-
vanced, in which the higher forms of generalization are presented, consti-
historical

tuting what has been styled the philosophy of history. In the
First first stage, what has been called the "fragments of history", that
stage. is, brief and interesting narratives, biographical sketches, etc.,
clothed in a simple picturesque style, should constitute the subject matter
of the instruction. This may be presented in a desultory manner, without
any special regard to logical or chronological order, the great object being
to interest the learner by filling his mind with vivid conceptions of certain
events and personages. Of course, this preliminary instruction may take a
wide range, embracing the most prominent persons and events in the
history of the world, and thus constituting a valuable outline, on which to
base the subsequent study. But this is not so important as that, in every
thing that is taught, the young pupil's experience and imagination should
be addressed; that is, the facts presented to be learned should be concrete
facts, not mere abstractions. Epitomes of history are valueless for this
purpose, because they attempt to cover the whole ground. As has been
well said by a celebrated educationist, the use of an epitome is like giving
a child an "index to learn by heart".
In the second stage, while the same principle should be steadily kept in
view, the study should become more formal and systematic. It is here that
the most important questions arise for consideration. The first
Second of these concerns the choice between a compendium of history
stage.
The
and a series of historical text-books on different nations.
system of special national text-books grew up at a time when, from na-
tional patriotism, each country considered its own history as foremost and
hence, all others as of secondary importance; and it has been fostered, in
160
HISTORY
the advance of historic learning, by a system of abridgments of large
standard works, or by school books based, in method of treatment, upon
them. But such treatment is not adapted to conditions for which the orig-
inals were not intended. Each of these special works presupposes the
existence of all the others, and thus virtually depends on them for its
general stand-point, and for that knowledge which is indispensable to
render the narrative intelligible; and, hence, for school purposes, the
abridgments are of little use, because this general knowledge cannot be
supposed to exist. Besides that, the large standard works are too exclu-
sively philosophical in their character and arrangement to admit of an
abridgment for school purposes. Narrowing the field of view for the pur-
pose of scientific investigation, such works naturally adopt largely the con-
secutive narrative form; but consecutive narrative is not essential when
only general leading facts are to be presented, and narrative detail is un-
suited to the treatment required for school instruction. There can be
no perspective in such a mode of treatment. Leading facts rank side by
side with subordinate ones, and the history assumes the form of dry
annals. Excessive detail in historical text-books is always a fruitful
source of vexation to both teacher and pupil. What is needed, for this
stage of instruction, is a skillful grouping of facts, which, while it departs
but little from the chronological order, shows the proper relation of
events how one brought about the other. In the history of the
world, as of each separate country, and of every great event, as, for
example, the Reformation, the Thirty Years' War, the Revolution in
England, the American Revolution, the French Revolution, the great
Civil War in the United States, there are certain conspicuous stand-
points. or centers of interest, around which other events should be
grouped, as dependent upon them. The same principle is opposed, in the
teaching of general history, to confining the attention of the pupil
exclusively to each nation in succession, throughout its entire history
(ethnographic method). It is a well-defined feature of every historic
movement that, in many of its epochs, it is carried along by some particular
nation as the representative, for the time being, of some controll-
Ethnograph- ing idea or principle, other nations playing a subordinate part.
ic and This should be clearly brought out in the arrangement of the
grouping
methods. subject (grouping method). It is not always possible, however,
to distinguish a single nation as holding such an undisputed
prominence; but, where this question is in doubt, there is always a move-
ment, more or less general, to which the contemporaneous nations are sub-
ject, and to which, therefore, the history of the separate nations should
have a distinct reference. In the period of the Reformation, for example,
it is desirable to present the nations collectively in their relation to it, the
events which concern their separate existence being kept in the background.
A system of instruction which presents, in succession and at widely sep-
arated intervals, the share of each particular nation in such a great move-
ment as the Reformation, cannot possibly impress the mind of the pupil
properly in regard to it. In the compilation of a compendium of history
suitable for school use, a compromise is requisite between the plan of teach-
ing the history of each nation by itself (ethnographic method) and that of
teaching by periods or epochs, the history of each nation coming in where
HISTORY
161
it belongs in the period (synchronistic method). The latter method, by
short periods, centuries for instance, is useless for beginners, as it gives
only a confused picture of the whole. In ancient history, it has
Synchro- but a limited application; because the nations of antiquity
nistic were essentially separate, coming on the stage at successive pe-
method. riods, and rarely blended, to any extent, in any general move-
ment. The ethnographic method is, therefore, the best for this depart-
ment of history, but may be departed from in certain portions of it, as, for
example, in the history of the states of Greece. For beginners, the eth-
nographic method seems to be best, at least until a good general outline has
been fixed in the mind, after which the grouping method ought to be
steadily pursued, but still with a constant regard to the mental advance-
method.
ment and maturity of the student. The chronological method
Chronologic must, however, lead in every scheme of elementary historical
teaching. The pupil must, above all things, attend to the order
of time; or his subsequent reading and study will be greatly embarrassed.
This method has been used in Germany from time immemorial, with modifi-
cations such as have been referred to, for adaption to the purposes of element-
ary, burgher and real schools, and gymnasia. These modifications consist
chiefly in the relative prominence given to the synchronistic and ethno-
graphic principles. Many of the school text-books on history, published in
Great Britain and the United States, are based on the same system; but
teachers have generally favored the ethnographic system, as less fragmentary
and disjointed. For a field so vast as that of general history, it is of the
highest importance that the idea of both unity and sequence should be im-
pressed upon the pupil's mind. In the chronologic method, the perspective
view which this unification of the broader parts demands, is not dependent
on the special notions of any teacher or compiler, but grows up in the
mind from the study of the facts themselves. In the treatment of antiquity,
the history of the eastern nations precedes that of the Greeks, and the
Greeks the Romans; and while teaching each in chronologic order, the
other contemporaneous nations should be brought in, as episodes, at such
periods and in such connections, as will best illustrate the history of the
great nation which, for the time being, is controlling the affairs of the
world. Egypt, Assyria, Babylon, Persia, Greece, Rome (republic and
empire), may, in succession, be made the leading nation; and all the others
will come in at certain periods. In the middle ages, the treatment should
be analogous; there is at every period, a great tribe or nation, whether the
Franks, the Saracens, the Normans, or the Germans, the history of whom,
treated in its chronologic order, will absorb the remainder, except what
may come in episodically. In modern history, the ethnographic principle
must at first have prominence, before the pupil can study the_great
European movements, such as the Reformation and the Thirty Years'
War, with any real satisfaction or benefit. Chiefly as episodes, in mediæval
and modern history, come in certain great topics; such as the Saracenic
civilization, the Byzantine culture, the Turkish ascendency, the maritime
discoveries of Portugal and Spain, the Italian Renaissance, the struggle of
Syn- the Dutch Republic, the rise of Sweden and Russia, etc. What-
chronistic ever method may be used, synchronistic exercises will be
exercises. constantly requisite to a full understanding of the relations of

162
HISTORY
manual.
events. These may take the form of lists of sovereigns grouped into
centuries and arranged, side by side, in perpendicular columns; or lead-
ing events arranged in the same way. After the history of any nation
or period has been studied in the chronological order, various methods of ar-
rangement may be adopted for the purpose of review, varying the sequence
which has been followed in the regular lessons. Thus, the pupil may be
required to state all the events connected with a particular place, or a
particular individual, which he has previously learned in a strictly chrono-
logical order, or in connection with the national history. The topical
method of recitation will be found the most effective, not only
Topical for the attainment of the best results as far as history itself is
Method. concerned, but for collateral culture, particularly of expression.
On account of the latter, accuracy in language should, as much as possible
be insisted upon; and the pupils should be required to use their own
language, instead of memorizing that of the text-book. Brief written
sketches of events, personages, periods, etc., will be of great use in making
this collateral culture effective, and will also afford much useful practice in
other respects.
- A severe and sustained drill on a single manual
Study of is of great use for the strong landmarks it leaves in the pupil's
mind; but, to be thoroughly effective as an educational process,
it ought to be accompanied with the reading, to some extent, of auxiliary
books giving interesting detail in regard to prominent points. Such a
system of independent reading by the different members of a class, properly
utilized, will lead to the acquisition of much interesting information, each
pupil bringing his own contribution, to be offered in connection with the
class exercises. Children, at an early age, with a taste for reading, will
devour solid books of history, when not under compulsion; especially if
they have a strong frame-work fixed in their minds for the separate facts
to attach themselves to; and such reading will constitute a very important
part of mental culture. - Dates are to some extent needed, but only in
connection with the general narrative. To memorize the dates of isolated
events is worse than useless. The dates of certain great events,
Dates. marking epochs, should be carefully fixed in the mind. As al-
ready said, the method pursued should be such as to keep the stream of
time constantly in view; and this will render the memorizing of many
dates unnecessary. Chronological relations may be better taught by means
of historical charts, representing the exact position in time of every nation
and event, just as a map represents countries, cities, etc., in space.
These
should be large enough to show clearly to the eye what is represented; and
the different nations should be marked out in strong colors. Maps,
Geography. showing the states and countries, and their extent at different
periods, are indispensable. These maps illustrate the relation of geography
and history, and afford an indication of the extent to which geographical
study is needed in connection with that of history. It is, however, desir-
able that all the places mentioned in history should be at least pointed
out on the map.
Good historical lectures are eminently beneficial, in connection with
regular lessons, or re-inforced by suitable class exercises. The taking of
notes by the pupils is of little value; because such notes can
concern only definite and disconnected facts which should be
Lectures.
HISTORY
163
impressed upon the mind by the study of a compendium or by class drill;
while the lecture is designed to give broad, general views of events, in
their relations, and in their bearing on some great historical movement.
The taking of notes by young pupils must necessarily interrupt the current
of their thought, and thus mar the effect of the lecture. It is, however, in
the third or advanced stage of historical study that lectures have their
special place.
Faculties
The class of facts
the kind of material to be selected for the
elementary study of history is another important consideration for the
teacher, as well as for the compiler of a school compendium.
Class There is a great diversity in this respect. In some text-books,
of facts. undue prominence is given to the political and military history,
every thing pertaining to social life being left out. This deprives the study
of much of its strongest and best interest. The condition and progress of
the industrial and fine arts,
the people in the elements of civilization,
literature, education, social culture, manners, customs, etc., should be
graphically sketched, in connection with the political history, which must,
of course, constitute the frame-work of the whole. The office
addressed. of history as a school study, is not only to give information in
regard to the events of the past, but is to discipline the mind
by cultivating and improving (1) the memory, (2) the imagination, (3) the
judgment, (4) the power of expression, and (5) the moral and emotional
nature. The pupil, when properly instructed, has his sympathies aroused:
he applauds the noble, the patriotic, and the virtuous; he condemns the
mean, the selfish, and the wicked. Every lesson teaches him by example,
for it confronts him with either human virtue or human wickedness. The
false tinsel of glory must not be permitted to conceal the selfishness, cruelty,
and wrong of the ambitious tyrant or conqueror; and the nobleness of the
martyr will not be debased because he pines in a dungeon or dies on the
scaffold. Treated in the right spirit, history thus becomes a great moral
teacher for pupils of every class and grade.
In the third stage, that of superior instruction, history has strong claims
to attention. Whatever the sphere of life in which the student is to engage,
he should possess himself of the key to the records of the past
Third
stage.
history of mankind. History may peculiarly be called a "living
study", since it draws its interest at once from the slow but
certain movement of human forces, among which self-interest, will, and
passion play a great part. The field is so vast, that the untrained student
will be lost in the maze, and will wander about aimless and bewildered.
It is the office of education to show that the elements are really simple,
and to impart a system to the vast crowd of facts, by which they may
become useful, by being co-ordinated. It is here, then, that history assumes
whatever scientific phase it may be capable of. What has been called the
philosophy of history is, in an especial manner and degree,
Philosophy suitable for college study, as it brings into play the higher
of history faculties of the mind, generalization, reason, and judgment.
At this stage, we do not rest satisfied with a simple narrative of events,
but we attempt to trace them to their real causes, and deduce from them
those general laws on which political and social science must be based.
This gives rise to various theories; as the materialistic theory, which sup-

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HOME EDUCATION
poses the co-ordinate factor in bringing about the changes in history to be
the forces of material nature, acting on human character and human will;
the spiritualistic theory which attributes to the soul of man a certain
freedom of purpose and will, acting independently of its material sur-
roundings; and the theistic theory, which attributes great movements and
changes in the world's history to the special interposition of an overruling
Providence, a Divine will, and thus makes "God in history" the supreme
source of all the great events that have marked the intellectual, social, and
moral progress of mankind. These theories may, however, be called the
metaphysics of history; they are not essential to the investigation of the
laws which constitute its philosophy; inasmuch as the generalizations upon
which these laws are based, are chiefly independent of them, the course
of human events, like the course of nature, being controlled only by
general laws.
·
What has already been suggested has exclusive reference to facts, or
statements of facts, accepted as such; but there is another department of
history which concerns the sources of history, their nature and
Sources of credibility; and this has an indisputable claim upon the atten-
history.
tion of those who teach, and those who study history in its ad-
vanced stages. Two objects will be subserved by this: (1) The mind will
acquire the useful habit of withholding its assent from all statements that
are not supported by sufficient testimony; and (2) The judgment and
critical faculty will receive a practical culture which must prove of great
service in the further prosecution of study, and in the affairs of daily life.
In the prosecution of this historical criticism, the student is invariably to
consider (1) the writer or writers from whom the narration proceeds,
(2) their means of information, (3) their character for sagacity and dis-
cernment, (4) their interests, associations, and affections. All these in-
evitably color the narrative, and hence constitute an important element to
be considered in the kind and degree of credibility to which it is entitled.
- In the struggle, for some time in progress, between the friends of classic-
al and of scientific studies, history as a branch of education holds a strong
and prominent position. While it is a record of the past, it is, in fact, the
science of the future; and one only has to imagine the condition of the
world, were all its annals destroyed, to appreciate the practical
Value of value of this science. The studies pertaining to matter and
history. force claim supreme consideration with many; and those per-
taining to the mere linguistic expression of thought, often obsolete and
valueless, with many others; but history deals with the facts of human in-
telligence and will, illustrates the principles which control the progress of
mankind in all the elements of civilization, and hence assumes an office and
agency in connection with human education, without which it must be
measurably ineffective and imperfect. For a full list of references see
Cyclopædia of Education.
HOME EDUCATION is that which is carried on in the home
circle, or family, as contrasted with that which is afforded by the school.
Up to a certain age, and within a certain sphere, home education,
Office.
or its equivalent, is not only indispensable but inevitable. The
parents are the first teachers, especially the mother; and the educative in-
fluences of the nursery not only precede in time, but exceed in power,
HOME EDUCATION
165
those of the school. Here the foundation is laid on which the school-
teacher must subsequently build; and, comparatively speaking, more is ac-
complished in the period of earliest childhood, both in storing the mind
and in forming the disposition and character, than during any equal
number of subsequent years. "A child gains more ideas", says
Unconscious Lord Brougham, "in the first four years of his life than ever
tuition. afterward". Early home education consists peculiarly in what
has been called unconscious tuition, by means of which the plastic nature
of the young child is insensibly moulded by the agencies which environ it.
The mother chiefly controls these agencies, which may be enumerated as
follows: (1) The affectionate tenderness which she displays, in ministering
to the wants and gratifying the desires of the child, and in sym-
Maternal pathizing with and alleviating its distresses; (2) Her behavior,
education. as being delicate and refined, or coarse and rude, showing
self-restraint and dignity, or manifesting impulsiveness and passion; (3) The
tones of her voice sweet and tender, or harsh and dissonant, firm and
decisive, or weak and yielding; (4) The expression of her face, implying
similar traits; (5) The force of her will, under the intelligent guidance of
educational principles and the restraints of conscience. Such are the ele-
ments of a mother's educative power, a power the exercise of which
results in forming in the child traits of character that no succeeding agency
of circumstance, education, or self-discipline can entirely efface. It will be
seen, from this enumeration, that the mother's influence is rather moral
than intellectual; indeed, the special period of its exercise supersedes the
necessity of any formal cultivation of the knowing faculties. The child,
during the first few years of its existence needs little direction
Education in this respect. Natural curiosity and innate activity constantly
of the
stimulate the growth of the mind, and fill it with those ideas
intellect. which are to constitute, in succeeding years, the materials of
of the
thought. It is just as absurd to subject a very young child to formal in-
struction as it would be to attempt the development of its physical powers
by gymnastic exercises. Watchfulness is, however, constantly required to
check the formation of bad habits, which have just as strong a tendency to
spring up in the young mind as rank weeds in a virgin soil. (See HABIT.)
The period of exclusive home education here referred to being so decisive
of the future character of the child, and the mother being the first and
most effective of all educators, it will be apparent that the science of edu-
cation, in its most comprehensive sense, should constitute an
Education essential part of the curriculum of every female seminary or
mother. college. Particularly should the future mother be taught to
appreciate the character of the influence, in all its phases, which
she is to exert; as well as to understand how to render it effectual in con-
tributing to the future welfare of her child. The father, at a somewhat
later period, but in a similar manner, is a powerful educator within the
circle of home. Both by precept and example, but especially by the latter,
he makes life-long impressions. In vain are precepts, however, if they are
not fully supported by example. The impressions, both intel-
Moral lectual and moral, received by children in very many of the
influence home circles of what are considered the better classes of so-
of home.
ciety, are rather debasing than elevating. The complaint is
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HOME EDUCATION
often made by teachers that the children placed under their care are so
depraved by bad home training, or in consequence of absolute neglect, that
their efforts to discipline and instruct these pupils are almost useless. This
is the more to be regretted, as school education can, in most cases, only sup-
plement that of home; and because the influences that center in the latter
are always more potent than those wielded by the former, chiefly because
school education is primarily intellectual; whereas that of home is primarily.
moral. At any rate such is the fact generally.
After the period of formal instruction has arrived, the question arises
in the minds of many parents, whether it is better to detain the child at
home to be instructed by private tutors or to submit it to the discipline
and instruction of the school. This question has been much discussed by
educators. The following arguments are generally adduced to
Advantagesprove that the education acquired in school is to be preferred to
of the
school. any that is possible by private tutors at home: (1) The intellectual
training is more effective; since the boy or girl coming in com-
petition with those of the same age is stimulated to greater exertions than
would be possible in any system of home instruction. As Quintilian says:
"At home, the boy can learn only what is taught himself; at school, he will
also learn what is taught to others. He will hear many things approved;
many others, corrected. The reproof of a fellow pupil's idleness will be a
good lesson to him; as will, likewise, the praise of his neighbor's industry.
He will think it disgraceful to yield to his equals in age, and great honor
to excel his seniors. All these matters arouse the powers of the mind; and
if ambition be an evil, it is often the parent of virtue". The child edu-
cated at home can never realize the full extent of his own powers, having
no standard by which to measure them. Hence, he is satisfied with meager
results, at the same time that he is likely to be filled with self-conceit. It
is, however, scarcely disputed that the school, as a mimic world, presents
a variety of incentives which a home education could never afford; and that
it is favorable to rapid mental growth. But it is its influence on the moral
nature that has been chiefly called in question. Home has been depicted
as the abode of purity and innocence, of kindness, gentleness, and affec-
tion, of courtesy and refinement, of morality and religious influence;
and such it ought to be, and it is to be hoped, often is. From such an
atmosphere, the home-bred child is at once introduced into a new, and to
him utterly unknown, world. Instead of sympathy, he finds, among his
school-mates, indifference; instead of courtesy and kindness, a thoughtless
disregard of all weakness, either of mind or body, except, indeed, to turn
it into ridicule. He finds that, if he is not mindful of himself, and
sufficiently self-assertive, he will be borne down in the mass. There is an
antagonism — an aggressiveness in those around him that begets caution
and resistance; there is a sense of danger that cultivates courage, and a
matter-of-fact spirit that crushes out egotism and sensitiveness. Thus the
boy, in the little world of the school, is prepared for the greater school
beyond. Better, therefore, it would appear, is it to unite the education of
a good school with that of a properly ordered family, in which combination
the evils of school life will be "neutralized by the stronger and purer in-
fluences of home. Not home or school, but home and school, constitutes
the proper agency for the education of children, whether boys or girls. It


HOME LESSONS ·
167
is the opinion of some, however, that admitting the advantages, in general,
of a school education, that of home generates certain peculiar traits and
excellencies of character which are essential to the welfare of society.
HOME LESSONS, or Home Studies. The question whether home
lessons, or home studies, should be a part of the system of instruction in
schools of different grades, and if so, to what extent they should
Propriety be permitted, and in what manner they should be pursued and su-
of pervised by the teacher, is one of considerable importance, which
is still extensively discussed by writers on education. The need of home
lessons for pupils of secondary and higher schools has never been disputed.
In regard to the schools of a lower grade, many physicians have strongly
objected to any kind of home lessons, as long as the children are required
to spend from 4 to 5 hours a day in the school room. Their arguments
are, however, chiefly directed against the length of the school sessions.
From an educational point of view, it has justly been urged by recent
writers, that the regulation of this matter must chiefly depend on the
question, for what purpose should home lessons be given. On
Object of this point, educators, at the present time, are much more nearly
agreed than formerly. No writer of note will, nowadays, maintain that
home lessons should be for the mere purpose of preventing idleness-of
keeping the children busy, or as a punishment for delinquencies; but it is
agreed that all home studies should aim at training the pupils to self-
exertion, at giving them the ability to depend upon their own efforts as
students, and by degrees, to dispense with the aid of a teacher. If this
principle is accepted, several corollaries are self-evident. Home lessons
should not begin at too early an age. Young children need the
Directions.
supervision of a teacher to a much greater extent than those of
a more advanced age, and are much less fitted to spend their time
profitably without direct guidance. Moreover, while the school sessions
for young children are as long as for older ones, the medical warning not
to overwork the brain, applies with much greater force to the home lessons
of the former than to those of the latter. Special care should be taken
that all the children fully understand the work which they are required to
perform at home, and that they are competent to do it. No child of good
standing in the class should feel it necessary to apply to his parents or
adult friends for help. It is especially this point that is so apt to be
disregarded by teachers. Parents have a right to object to any home lesson
or exercise which requires, in the case of diligent pupils, any help in
addition to that of the teacher. All exercises of this kind prove
aid. a torment, and are absolutely injurious. "The school", says
Diesterweg, "must teach the method of home studies. It is not
enough that the home lesson be appropriate in itself; the pupil must be
enabled to prepare it in a proper manner. How often poor children tor-
ment themselves where this is not taught! The teacher should show them
how to memorize, how to prepare or review a lesson, how to write a compo-
sition, by previously memorizing, preparing, reviewing, etc., with them at
school. Thus the teacher becomes the pupil's friend, and this is more than
to be his master". Moreover, when pupils are required to write
Exercises. exercises at home, the teacher should faithfully correct them.
The failure to do this fosters habits of carelessness. Many teachers greatly

Extraneous
168
HYGIENE
HORN-BOOK
E
err in this regard, burdening children with the task of writing pages of
exercises, and correcting but few, or none, of them. Certainly, no teacher
who is guilty of so serious a mistake, can be regarded as understanding the
work either of instruction or of discipline.
HORN-BOOK, a book consisting of a single page, formerly used to
teach children the alphabet and other simple rudiments. It was, in fact,
the first page of the primer, pasted on a thin board, which terminated in a
handle, and having, fastened over the printed matter, a thin plate of trans-
parent horn, to protect it from being soiled or torn by the young learner.
See Cyclopædia of Education.
HUMANITIES (Lat. humaniora or literæ humaniores), those
branches of education or study, which are included in what is called polite
or elegant learning, as languages, grammar, rhetoric, philology, and poetry,
with all that pertains to what is called polite literature, including the
ancient classics. The name implies that the study of these branches, in
opposition to the physical sciences, which especially develop the intellectual
faculties, has a tendency to humanize man, to cultivate particularly
those faculties which distinguish him as man, in all his relations, social
and moral; that is, which make him a truly cultured man.
HYGIENE, School, has reference to that department of school
administration, which pertains to the preservation of physical health. This
is to be distinguished from physical education, which looks
Object of rather to the special training or developing of the body; while
hygienic principles and rules have for their object to preserve that condi-
tion of health in which all pupils are supposed to enter school, and, by
their constant though unobtrusive influence, to make that condition
permanent.

tions
The subject of the preservation and promotion of physical health in
the school involves the following considerations: (I) the character of the
site on which the school building is erected; (II) the mode of
Considera- constructing the building, as well as the location and construc-
involved. tion of the out-buildings, water-closets, etc.; (III) the construc-
tion and arrangement of the class-rooms; (IV) the size, number,
and distribution of the windows for the admission of light; (V) the mode
of ventilation; (VI) the manner of heating the rooms, and the average tem-
perature preserved in them by artificial heat; (VII) the adaptation of the
school furniture to the physical wants and condition of the children;
(VIII) the kind of discipline employed, in regard to hygienic principles;
(IX) the degree of attention given to the personal condition of the pupils,
so as to preserve cleanliness and prevent the communication of disease;
and (X) the means afforded for physical exercise. Each of these will be
considered in its order, according to the above enumeration.
I. Modern sanitary science, fortunately, has given such particular
attention to the subjects of site and exposure, and has impressed the public
mind so thoroughly with the necessity of their healthfulness,
Site. that only willful ignorance or obstinacy will, in our day, permit
a building designed for human occupancy to be placed in a manifestly un-
healthy location. The healthfulness of a school site depends upon (1) the
character of the soil; (2) its elevation; (3) the circumstances which facilitate
or obstruct proper drainage; (4) its remoteness from any stagnant water,

HYGIENE
169
or marshy ground, liable to produce malarial fevers; (5) its remoteness
from any factory or establishment poisoning the air by the issue of
deleterious and offensive gases; to which may be added (6) the amount of
space it affords for play-grounds, so as to facilitate physical exercise.
II. The construction of the school building will depend on the number
of pupils to be accommodated; the kind of school, as regards the sexes; and
the grade, — whether primary, grammar, or high school. (See
School SCHOOL-HOUSE.) In regard to water-closets and urinals, it is
building.
hardly necessary to say, that they should, for convenience, be as
near the school-house as possible, without being near enough to allow the
perception of any odor. The approaches from the school-house should be
under cover, the ventilation and the supply of light should be ample. They
should also be enclosed from observation.
Class
III. Construction and Arrangement of Class Rooms. This varies
with the conditions under which the school-house is built. The rooms,
however, should always be constructed so as to allow at least
108 cubic feet of air-space to each pupil, and 9 square feet of
rooms. floor-space. The height of ceiling recommended by the best
authorities is a minimum of 12 feet and a maximum of 15 feet, if the room
is not very large. These provisions are absolutely necessary to furnish to
each pupil the amount of air necessary for health. (See VENTILATION.)
IV. Currie, in School Education, remarks: "The provision for light-
ing a school should have two ends in view: (1) a proper amount of light,
and (2) its just distribution. The effect either of an excess or
Windows. a deficiency of light is to strain the eye and cause a depression
of spirits, especially as the day advances. In regard to distribution, all the
parts of the school should be equally lighted, which may be more easily
done with a few judiciously placed windows of respectable size than with
a number of smaller, straggling apertures. Good ways of lighting a school
are these: (1) Perhaps, the best of all is when the light is admitted from
the roof, as it is then steady, equable, and free from shadow. (2) The win-
dows may be placed in the ends of the school room, or in two adjacent
sides, so as to admit the light from the pupil's left. Where there are win-
dows in front of the classes, they should be at some distance from them,
and in every case they should be at such height in the walls as to remove
all danger from drafts when they are opened. School windows should be
of the same shape as ordinary house windows; at any rate, lattice windows,
with numerous, small, lozenge-shaped panes of glass should be avoided, as
the light transmitted through them is so broken as to be extremely fatig-
uing to the eye. (3) Each window should be fitted with blinds to moder-
ate the intensity of light, when necessary, particularly to exclude the direct
rays of the sun. If the windows are used for ventilation as well as light-
ing, the difficulty of using the blinds in such a case may be obviated by
having a fixed Venetian blind outside the window at the top, and hanging
the inside blind on a level with the bottom of it. (4) The tint of the
school walls should neither be too dull, so as to absorb the light unduly,
nor too glaring, so as to dazzle the eye by reflection. Of the colors com-
monly employed: namely, the white, the ocher, the stone color, and the
lightish-brown, the last two are obviously to be preferred". If the lighting
of the school room is from the roof, care should be taken that the windows
170
HYGIENE
or sky-lights should not slope to the south or west, as the heat and sunlight
will be intolerable in hot weather, and their regulation by blinds will be
difficult. If the lighting, on the other hand, is by side windows, "the
height of the window sills from the floor", says ROBSON (in School Architect-
ure) "should always be considerable, and the heads near the ceiling. Much
of the cheerfulness of a school room, especially in a town, depends on the
amount of sky which can be seen from the windows. The height of the
sills from the floor, therefore, should never be less than five feet, and may
be even more with advantage. This will enable the top or head to be
placed nearly, if not quite, up to the ceiling, and then the upper stratum
of vitiated air can be more readily removed". The importance of this sub-
ject in regard to health is very great. Liebreich, in his report to the Col-
lege of Preceptors of London (July, 1872), attributes several diseases of the
eye to this cause alone; and Dr. Cohn asserts that of 410 students ex-
amined by him, only one-third possessed good eye-sight, the remaining
two-thirds having had their sight injured, in his opinion, by the deficient
lighting of the school rooms in which they studied. A rough calculation,
from researches made on the subject, gives 200 square inches of window
glass as the proper number for each scholar. In the above remarks by
Currie, the left side has been designated as the one from which the light
should come, because this insures the fullest illumination of the page, with
the least inconvenience, and the least injury to the eye. When light is
admitted through the front of the room, the glare is directly in the face
either of teacher or pupils, they being supposed to face each other. If it
falls from behind, the shadow of the head is thrown directly upon the
page; if from the right side, the shadows of the arm and hand, in the act
of writing, equally obscure it. The light, therefore, should fall.
Mode of from the left side, and, as far as possible, from above. In even-
lighting. ing schools, the lighting should be, as nearly as possible, equal to
that by day. If gas is used, the glass cylinder with a reflecting shade is
recommended, for the purpose of steadying the light and making it stronger
and whiter. Ground glass shades are now generally discountenanced, their
effect being to diffuse the light. For general illuminating purposes they
are desirable, as in the parlor or concert room; but are out of place in the
school room, or in any room where the object is to concentrate light upon
a particular spot.
V. The Mode of Ventilation. See VENTILATION.
VI. Many methods, based upon ingenious theories and provoking
heated discussion, have been adopted to overcome the difficulties attending
this subject; but it is, probably, not unfair to say that an en-
Mode of tirely unobjectionable heating apparatus, as regards health, has
heating. yet to be devised. Wood is, of course, too dear for general use.
The ordinary stove, the cellar furnace, and all devices for warming air by
passing it over heated metal surfaces are now entirely discountenanced, it
having been discovered that a highly poisonous gas is set free, and passes
through heated metal as through a sieve. The steam coil, placed outside
of the school room and heating a column of air which is drawn from the
outside, and, after heating, ascends into the room, has, of late, been exten-
sively used. At the opposite end of the room, a grate, varying in size
with that of the room, is placed; the theory being that, as the heated air


HYGIENE
171
ascends in one end of the room, the cool and foul air is forced out at the
other through the flue of the grate, in which a fire is usually kept to facili-
tate the current. This method, while perhaps the least objectionable of
any, has been opposed on the ground, that by it the stratum of air nearest
the ceiling is kept warmest, while that nearest the floor, which should be
the warmest, is least so. To obviate this difficulty, it has even been pro-
posed to make the floor of stone and warm it after the manner of an oven,
i. e., by kindling a fire under it. Whatever method is adopted, however,
fluctuations of temperature should, as much as possible, be avoided, and
the air of the room should be kept steadily at from 65 to 70 degrees.
VII. Several diseases have been traced to faultily-constructed school
furniture, chief among which is curvature of the spine, with the diseases
consequent upon it. This is sometimes the result of insufficient
Furniture. lighting; but more frequently it arises from the improper con-
struction of the desk and seat, or the arrangement of them. (See SCHOOL
FURNITURE.)
sessions.
VIII. The methods of discipline which militate against bodily health
are fortunately growing less in every civilized country, as more study is
given to the subject of education. It may be said briefly that
Discipline. whatever discipline tends to bodily deterioration in any way
should be discountenanced, as the object of discipline is to train, not to
break down. (See DISCIPLINE.) Of the errors, under the head of school
management, which affect health may be mentioned those which arise
from (1) the length of the daily school session. These errors are frequently
due to the fact that courses of study are laid down first, with
School the view of accomplishing a certain result, and the pupils'
powers are made to conform to them. By this inversion of the
natural method, sessions of five and six hours, with only slight intermis-
sions, are sometimes ordered; this can result only in physical injury. The
reversal of this, i. e., a study of the child's physical necessities first, and a
school course based on them, will insure the adoption of the only safe and
reasonable method consistent with health. This should be so arranged, by
a judicious alternation of sedentary occupations, physical exercises, and re-
cesses, that no "violation of the primary laws of physiology", as Prof. Owen
terms it, may be possible. In a room supplied with proper hygienic facili-
ties, four hours per day is thought to be the maximum for very young pu
pils, and five hours for older ones. (2) The number, length, and distribu-
tion of recesses must vary with the different ages of the children to such an
extent, that the only practicable guide for their regulation must
Recesses. be found in the discretion of the teacher. It may be said, in
general, however, that the weariness of the pupil, which is shown by his
restlessness and want of attention, furnishes the best indication of the time
when the ordinary text-book studies should be superseded by physical ex-
ercises, or by the absolute recreation of the play-ground. (3) The number,
length, and distribution of vacations are, in a general way, governed by
the same consideration that prescribes the number, length, and
Vacations. distribution of recesses; namely, the freshness, both mental and
physical, of the pupil, with such modifications as may be suggested by
climate, prevailing contagious diseases, or other conditions. The tendency,
of late years, in the United States, has been to begin the school session
172
HYGIENE
about the first of September, and to continue it uninterruptedly
with a
slight intermission of a week during the holidays — till the following June
or July. By this arrangement, a long, continuous vacation is insured dur-
ing the warmest season of the year, when, it is claimed, rest is most
needed. It has been objected to this, and perhaps with reason, that
the heat of the summer months renders them unfavorable for that out-
door exercise which is most needed for the recuperation of the system,
and that the health of pupils would be promoted rather by confining
them indoors. As long, however, as the summer heats are avoided by
a flight to the sea-shore or the mountains, this practice will probably
prevail; and though it may be said that the poor of cities, who are by
far the largest patrons of the public schools, cannot afford to leave the
city for summer retreats, it must be remembered, on the other hand,
that the greater prevalence of fatal diseases in cities, during the summer
months, renders a vacation desirable even in their case. (4) The regu-
lations of the school may, by their severity, seriously interfere
Regula with bodily health, by checking or entirely repressing that activ-
tions ity which is so marked a characteristic of childhood and youth.
Reid, in his Principles of Education, says, "There is nothing in which
parents are often more tyrannical and unreasonable than in expecting
children to be quiet and good, and give them little trouble, when they
will not put themselves to the least trouble to find suitable occupation for
the active and restless faculties of their children. The trouble that a child
gives to those in charge of it, should very often be viewed as an effort of
nature to recall them to their neglected duty". The degree and kind of
restraint, exercised over pupils, therefore deserve careful consideration. In
this connection must be condemned all those restrictions which
Restraint. repress, for any considerable time, that innate activity which is
a necessity of the child's very being, and the repression of which, though
not immediately and actively productive of disease, becomes passively so
by the condition of atrophy which it tends to produce. Want of exercise
is frequently as inimical to health as excess of it. The number and length
of lessons, also, by their excess may become physically injurious.
Lessons. "With young children", Currie says, “a lesson should not aver-
age in duration more than a quarter of an hour, and on no account exceed
twenty minutes. It is hard enough to sustain the attention, even for this
period; and no child will be able to retain more than we can tell him
within it. The teacher should subdivide his lesson rather than trespass
beyond this limit. Lessons of different kinds, i. e., occupying different
senses, should follow each other; this is a great relief. It is absurd to speak
of these frequent changes as causing loss of time". Excitement and over-
work, also, should be avoided. The same general directions, however,
given in regard to the number and length of recesses, are applicable here.
The lessons assigned by the teacher and studied in his presence may be
easily directed; but those which are pursued at home should receive equal
attention. (See HOME LESSONS.)
IX. Cleanliness, being a necessary condition of health, should be
strenuously insisted upon. Cleanliness of the person will sometimes be
Personal found, especially in schools among the very poor, to be neglected.
habits. The danger of the outbreak of disease, or of its communication
IMAGINATION
173
from this source, is always great in large schools; and, therefore, the
frequent use of the lavatory, in such cases, is necessary. Cleanliness
of clothing is no less necessary to prevent the communication of disease.
Realizing the neglect of a proper care of the clothing, natural to children
through thoughtlessness, many school boards have made the daily dusting
and brushing of clothes by the pupils a part of the school routine. In
Germany, this is often insisted upon, and the necessary provision made
at the expense of the school. Cleanliness of habits is a no less essential
condition of good health, and should be watched, as far as may be, and en-
forced with a view to the prevention of ill health. It frequently happens
that diseases, more or less contagious in their nature, break out in schools,
and lead to the closing of the schools for a time, with sometimes more
serious results. In many cases, these could have been prevented, or con-
fined to the original case, by a proper precaution on the part of the
teacher. Ophthalmia, hooping-cough, scrofula, scarlet fever, small-pox, and
skin diseases, whether of the head or the body, are cases of this kind. A
slight knowledge of the symptoms should apprise an intelligent teacher of
the danger at once, and secure the removal of the case to the home or the
hospital.
X. That exercise is one of the most effective of all agencies in preventing
disease, is now generally admitted, though the excess to which it is often
carried in our day has, for some time, been creating a reaction
Physical
exercise. against it. The phase of the question which calls for attention
here, is its use not so much as a means of development, as in
promoting health. On this account, one of the most important accessories
of the school-house is the play-ground. Whether this is used as a place
for continuing the discipline of the school room, or simply as a spot where
children may be absolutely free to pursue their games, its size, location,
and exposure should be carefully considered.
IMAGINATION, Culture of. Imagination is the power by which
conceptions, originally formed from the perception of natural objects or
their representatives, are reproduced in a fictitious combination which
resembles the natural. This faculty, existing as it does, in a greater or
less degree, in every mind, and entering to some extent into almost every
mental act, must be placed among the few great powers of the mind which
demand careful cultivation. The influence of the imagination
Influence. is equally felt in moral and intellectual action. By its aid, the
man of science, recombining the elements gathered by an observation of
the visible world around him, projects his thought into the unseen universe,
and determines the existence of conditions which knowledge alone could
never detect, but which observation serves only to confirm. Through the
influence of imagination alone, the record of the past becomes a guide and
a warning to the present. Thus, the hand of charity is opened to relieve
necessities which the active exercise of this faculty pictures to us as exist-
ing in the homes of want and misery. The every-day thought of the boor,
and the rare flight of the man of genius are alike indebted to its aid. The
universality of its presence, therefore, and the danger attending its unregu-
lated development, constitute its peculiar claim to attention at the hands of
the educator,
174
IMAGINATION

Notwithstanding this, however, the need of a systematic cultivation of
the imaginative faculty seldom receives practical recognition. This is
owing somewhat to the fact that the want which would be
Culture. produced by its total neglect, is partly met by its indirect and
irregular cultivation in the studies of any ordinary school course; but more
to the hidden nature of its action, and the want of that subtle discernment
necessary in the teacher to detect its influence in the mental operations of
the pupil. A knowledge of its power and of the consequent need of its
cultivation is derived almost entirely from our own experience. The ex-
tent, therefore, to which it influences or controls the judgment, is appreciable
only in our own case, and in that only approximately; and, hence, an
analysis of its effect on the thought or actions of others becomes a matter
of extreme difficulty. The neglect of its cultivation in the
Neglect. ordinary school curriculum is productive of results hardly less
pernicious than its abuse by undue stimulation; for, while by the latter
the judgment and reason are subordinated, and the mind is turned from
the consideration of the practical, and concentrated too exclusively upon
the ideal, thus enveloping the daily concerns of life in a kind of mental
mirage, which results in disappointment and discouragement when the
cloud is dispersed; by the former, the dull, matter-of-fact phase of existence
acquires undue prominence, to the suppression of all sentiment and that
love of the beautiful which cheers and helps us to find, even in the com-
monest aspects and the least fortunate circumstances of life, reason for
admiration and gratitude. These considerations should secure for it care-
ful attention.
C
The development of the imaginative faculty begins at a very early
period. The consciousness on the part of the child of objects external to
itself, constitutes perception. This is very soon followed by
Develop conception, which consists in taking from the object perceived a
ment. mental picture capable of reproduction at pleasure, in the absence
of the original. This latter may be called the first act of the imagination
the storing of the mind with materials for future use. Simultaneously with
- the
this, or only shortly after, occurs the naming of these materials
association of thoughts with words, with a view to their expression as
language. (See INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION.) Thus far, the action of the
imagination depends upon the perception of actual objects. It now remains
for the imagination to use the materials already provided, by discarding
the actual object, and forming, partly by the aid of words as symbols of
general ideas, an ideal picture; or, independently of words, and by its own
act, creating for itself scenes and images not less vivid than their tangible
representatives. The work of the imagination, therefore, is complementary
to that of observation. The order is, (1) perception, (2) conception, (3)
imagination. The action of the latter is presupposed by that of the two
former. Knowledge alone the mere storing of the mind with facts and
conceptions would be of little value without the vivifying power of
imagination. Its function is to lift the mind from the contemplation of
the actual, and carry it beyond the field of mere observation, into those
ideal regions where the tangible has no existence, or where its existence
cannot be actually verified.
In the cultivation of the faculty of imagination, several methods are
IMAGINATION
175
+
open to the teacher, the most common of which are pictures, oral narratives,
and reading, or combinations of these. In all, the attention is the prin-
cipal object to be secured; since thus only can a vivid mental pic-
Methods. ture be formed, and any other is worse than useless. The picture
is, of course, the surest instrument for accomplishing this result, since it is
a direct appeal to the eye — the earliest and most powerful agent by which
knowledge is obtained. It is desirable, therefore, that the picture should
be clearly drawn or painted, and in as simple or elementary a form as is
consistent with the idea of completeness. A few salient features, therefore,
are all that are necessary for this purpose; since fine gradations of color or
shading can be observed only at the expense of the general impression. In
oral narrative, the degree to which the clearness of the general impression
is produced, depends entirely upon the teacher. A warm, sympathetic
nature is here the only qualification. By it he is enabled to place himself
on the pupil's level, to enter into his thoughts, and by the use of figures
and illustrations familiar to youthful minds, to produce a correct and
precise mental image. Any other disposition than this is a decided dis-
qualification for the cultivation of the imagination by this method. Where
the picture and the oral narrative are used together, the former should not
be exhibited till after the description. It should then be produced to re-
inforce the description and give it greater clearness; but, if it is exhibited
before that time, the attention is drawn to it at once, to the neglect of the
narrative. Pictures which are to be used for the purpose of illustration,
should, if possible, be new to the pupil in order to produce their best effect.
Of the methods mentioned, however, for the cultivation of the imaginative
faculty, reading is not only the most common, but is, in most cases, in-
dispensable. The requisites in this case, however, are still the same. The
object being always to fix the attention as powerfully as possible upon a
mental picture, the style should be simple and clear, but graphic and
forcible, abounding in concrete terms, not in abstract phrases, and appealing
to the experience of the pupil, and awakening his sympathies. An ex-
cellent test of the clearness of the mental picture formed is that of
recalling at the end of the reading, the scenes, incidents, and actors in the
order of their introduction or occurrence. Almost every branch pursued
in the ordinary school or college course affords some opportunity for the
cultivation of the imaginative faculty, but special fields for its most active
exercise are found in geography, history, and poetry. Even in the teaching
of subjects usually considered dry and uninteresting, there is field for the
exercise of this faculty. Grammar, mathematics, political economy, and
logic, if illustrated by a teacher of active fancy, can be freed. in large
measure, from the abstract nature which is supposed to be essential to
them, and which renders them ordinarily so uninviting. In regard to the
use of fiction as an agent in the cultivation of the imagination, much dis-
cussion has arisen, the objection usually urged being that its effect is to
stimulate this faculty unduly. This is probably true of one class only;
namely, those in whose minds the imaginative faculty exists by nature in
an abnormal degree. Where this power is deficient, it will hardly be said
that the perusal of works of fiction can do more than do develop the faculty,
so as to bring it into proportion with the other mental powers; while the
probability is, that the result will fall short of this. In the remaining class,



176
IMITATION
those in whom this faculty exists in a normal proportion, the evil result of
stimulation produced by the reading of works of fiction, has, perhaps, been
overrated. The reading alone can only serve to fill the mind with high
ideals the harm resulting has probably been produced by neglecting to
provide the necessary means or occasions for an active exercise of the high
and generous sentiments and resolves thus aroused. If we read continually
of suffering, but never give alms, habit soon causes us to accomodate our-
selves to this condition as the natural one, and the mental excitement
ceases to seek any outward, active expression.
"All mere drudgery", says James Freeman Clarke, in Self-Culture
(Boston, 1880), "tends to stupefy the imagination. And all work is drudg-
ery which is done mechanically, with the hand and not with the mind;
when we are not trying to do our work as well as possible, but only as well
as necessary. Such work stupefies the ideal faculty, quenches the sense of
beauty". This is a truth of great practical significance to the teacher.
IMITATION. The possession of this important faculty, and the
desire to exercise it, constitute two essential elements of all human progress.
From childhood to maturity, and even beyond as long, indeed,
Office. as the effort at self-improvement is kept up- a vast majority of
the human race are employed merely in imitating the models that have
been set up by individual genius, or by the accumulated wisdom and taste
of ages; and their success in life is greater or less, according to the accuracy
of their imitation. Especially during childhood and youth, is this faculty
brought into active play. It is the necessary accompaniment and basis of
instruction, the stepping-stone to all excellence. Being of so great im-
portance, therefore, in nearly every department of education, it should
receive the special attention of the teacher. The conditions of
Conditions success in imitation are chiefly two: (1) accurate observation,
of success.
and (2) a retentive memory. Probably few have noticed how
slightly the faculty of observation is usually exercised. This, however, may
be easily illustrated. Of twenty persons listening to a speaker whose voice
has some peculiar tone or inflection, it will probably be found that only
half a dozen or perhaps even less will notice it, unless it is very marked;
and of these, only two or three will be able to reproduce it with any degree
of accuracy. How often do men differ as to the form or color of some
feature in the face of an acquaintance! For example, let a draughtsman,
whose attention has not previously been specially called to the object, be
asked to draw a rose-leaf. The probability is, that he will confess his in-
ability to do so, though he would recognize a rose-bush without difficulty.
Instances might be multiplied of the loose, general way in which this faculty
is used, the result of which is, that only an indefinite impression is left on
the mind, instead of an accurate picture. (See ATTENTION.) If it be
granted then, that mere imitation, when uncultivated, cannot be depended
on, it will probably not be denied that a good memory, and, in most cases,
a certain degree of mechanical skill, is necessary, when it is cultivated, to
produce the best results.
It only remains, therefore, to point out a few of the studies and pursuits
in which imitation is the chief instrument, and to indicate some of the
Field of methods by which it may be made most efficient. Among the
activity. first, may be enumerated writing, map-drawing, as now generally

INCENTIVES — INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL
177
used in teaching geography, and nearly all the arts; among them, draw-
ing, with all the professions that immediately depend upon it, as sur-
veying, civil engineering, mechanics, architecture, together with all the
natural sciences in the teaching of which, sensible objects are to be repre-
sented. In learning to speak a foreign language, also, a direct appeal is
made to the faculty of imitation. Among the methods used for producing
efficiency in imitation, the kindergarten system is of great value for insur-
ing steadiness of hand and accuracy of eye. (See KINDERGARTEN.) The
usual school exercises of reading, declamation, dialogues, etc., are more or
less successful, according to the closeness with which the feelings and ex-
pressions of imaginary persons are imitated.
INCENTIVES, School, consist of rewards of various kinds, offered
to pupils for progress in study and good behavior; such as "good tickets”,
certificates of merit, books, and other things awarded as premiums for ex-
cellence either in proficiency or conduct. Besides these, various expedients
are resorted to for the purpose of exciting emulation, which are also to be
classed among school incentives; such as giving public praise, awarding
merit marks, putting the names of meritorious pupils upon a roll of honor,
suitably embellished and framed, and hung in a conspicuous place in the
school room. Daily or weekly reports to parents showing the number
of merit marks received by the pupil, as compared with the full number,
and thus exhibiting the standing of the pupil, are very generally used by
teachers as an incentive. The dismissal of pupils from school previous to
the usual time is also to be placed among the same class of incentives. To
this, however, strong objection has been made, inasmuch as it seems to
imply that attendance at school is burdensome and grievous, whereas it
should be made pleasant and attractive; but the efficacy of this incentive, as
every teacher knows, is very great, because it appeals to the natural activity
of the child, upon which the confinement of school cannot but operate as
a restraint, however well it may be administered; and experience has
demonstrated that an occasional relief from this confinement does not, on
the whole, weaken the pupil's attachment to school. All such incentives,
it must be borne in mind, are of a secondary nature; and the educator
should always exercise care that their influence should not be so exerted as
to impair the force of higher and more enduring motives to good conduct.
(See REWARDS.)
upon
INDUCTIVE METHOD, in education, is but another name for the
developing method (q. v.). It is so called because it is based the
principle of logical induction, or the process of deriving general principles
from an observation and comparison of individual facts. Instead of teach-
ing definitions, principles, and rules arbitrarily, and illustrating them by
facts, the teacher who uses the inductive method, calls the attention of the
pupil to a sufficient number of the facts to enable him to find the principle
or rule for himself. The learning of the definition, which, in the deductive
method, is the first thing to be done, in the inductive method, is the last
step in the process. Most text-books follow the deductive method, but
the most effective elementary instruction is inductive.
INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL. The term industrial education is used
to designate the training of pupils, not only in the common branches of
instruction, but in certain industrial or business pursuits. An industrial
178
INSTRUCTION
school, in the widest sense of the word, denotes any school for teaching one
or several branches of industry; but the special schools of this kind, and,
in particular, those of a higher grade, are more generally comprised under
the name of technical schools; and the name industrial school is usually
restricted to a school for neglected children, in which training in manual
labor or industrial pursuits constitutes a prominent feature of the plan of
education. The common schools, however, sometimes have classes, in which
children are instructed in certain industrial pursuits.
office.
INSTRUCTION (Lat. instructio) is the communication of knowl-
edge. Education trains the powers of the individual, in order that he
may attain to the perfection of his being; instruction supplies
Special him with something that is objective or external. Instruction
has specially to do with the intellectual development of the
child, and is an instrument in the hands of the educator, which he can
wield with the greatest precision and in the most skillful manner. He may
attempt to act on the feelings and the volitions; but so obscure are the
operations of the soul in these regions, that he may produce exactly the
opposite effect to that which he intended. But when he communicates
knowledge, he knows that, if the pupil is capable and attentive, he will re-
ceive exactly that which it is intended he should receive. Moreover,
knowledge stands in close relation to the feelings and volitions; and, ac-
cordingly, the teacher employs it for the purpose of influencing and direct-
ing these. Thus, it comes to pass that instruction occupies the largest
part in the work of education, and constitutes that portion which can be
undertaken and provided for by a community, since it can be delegated by
a parent to a regularly trained teacher with the best results. Instruction
is putting something into the mind; education is strengthening and devel-
oping the powers of the mind. It is plain that a teacher should put noth-
ing into the mind which does not train and develop its powers; but as it
is possible to do so, and as this frequently takes place, instruc-
Divisions. tion is to be divided into educative and non-educative; and one
of the most important questions which a teacher can investigate, is the
nature of educative instruction. There are three qualities which attach to
all educative instruction: (1) Instruction, to be educative, must follow
the natural laws of the intellectual development of man. Man's intellectual
life begins in the exercise of the senses. He accumulates a large
Intellectual number of individual observations. In these observations, like
develop- gathers to like. A child looks at a tree; and the tree produces
ment.
an impression on his mind. The next day, he sees another tree;
and the resemblances in this tree strike his mind, and recall the former
impression. The two impressions thus unite, and form a stronger impres-
sion than either separately. Other impressions of a similar nature unite,
until the child forms a definite notion of a tree. The child is thus gather-
ing into unities the various impressions which he is continually forming;
and this process continues. He learns the individual first, and groups his
observations. Thus instruction, to be educative, must always proceed from
the individual to the general, from the concrete to the abstract. There is
no reversal of this process in education; but the process is often reversed
in instruction with baneful effect. To the teacher, the general truth con-
tains the sum of all the particulars, and he thinks he gives to the child this
INSTRUCTION
179
general truth with all its contents, when he urges it upon him, makes him
commit it to memory, and frequently recalls it to his mind; but the fact
is, that the child learns the general truth without the contents. He has
the shell without the kernel. The result is, either that the truth lies dor-
mant until experience gives him the particulars, and he may then recall the
truth, or that the child is lulled into the belief that he has learned some-
thing when he really knows nothing, and his mind is prevented from stẹp-
ping forward in that direction, by the belief that he knows the truth already.
Furthermore, this non-educative instruction loses a great opportunity. If
the child is allowed time, and is supplied with a sufficient number of indi-
vidual instances, he is sure to make the generalization himself. Nothing
imprints the truth more permanently than the discovery of it for himself,
and nothing brings into play all the powers of the soul more healthily than
the discovery of a truth. The teacher must, therefore, always proceed from
the concrete to the abstract; but, in employing this method, he must exer-
cise very great patience. Generalization is a slow process, somewhat un-
certain in time. The child seems to be just reaching the truth, but he
turns away with a bound, and he may take some time more to master it
completely. Or he may, one day, have a glimpse of it, and the next, it
has vanished. But, however slow or uncertain the process may be, it is
the only truly educative mode of giving instruction. The teacher, like
Socrates, is a maieutic artist, and he must watch carefully over the birth
of a truth, not forcing nature, but giving nature every help that she will
willingly receive. (2) Educative instruction arrests the atten-
Attention tion and awakens the interest of the pupil. The rule implied
and in this statement may be expressed in the words, that the
interest. teacher must attach the new matter to the old by a natural con-
nection, that he must pass from the known to the unknown. The subject
of attention is one that cannot be discussed here. We can note only how
it is to be secured. The pupil must be on good terms with his teacher.
Where there is antagonism, there can be no satisfactory attention. The
pupil may, indeed, attend through fear; but fear is a weakening force; and
the result is, to associate in his mind with the subject comprehended feel-
ings of dislike and disgust, so that at the end there is no interest in the
subject, but, on the contrary, a wish that he may never have to do with it
again. Then, the teacher must carefully consider the state of the pupil's
mind, when he commences. Probably, he has come from the play-ground.
His mind is occupied with some occurrence that has taken place there, and
his mind will remain occupied with it the whole hour, if the teacher does
not employ means to displace it. Some little time should be given to the
pupil to calm down; and then, when he is prepared to listen, the teacher
should start with something that the pupil knows well and feels an interest
in, and from that gradually work his way to the new matter which he has
to communicate. The result of his teaching should be, that the child has
a stronger interest in the subject than he had before. To rouse this
interest, the teacher has to remember that every intellectual activity is
closely connected with corresponding feelings and exertions, and the
teacher succeeds when he makes his intellectual propositions awaken the
appropriate feelings and exertions. (3) Educative instruction always keeps
in view the principal aim and end of education. It always works for

180
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION
a purpose. The object is not to cram the pupil with a certain amount
of knowledge, to give him an hour's dose of information, without regard
to his whole being. It deliberately asks whether the information which
is to be imparted, will fit into the harmonious development of the child's
powers. It will, therefore, proportion the amount given to the healthy
evolution of the child's nature. It will not look to the greatest success in
the particular department, but to the greatest success compatible with the
healthy action of all the child's powers.
It is not necessary, in an article like this, to go further into the
questions to which the subject of instruction gives rise. They are treated
in separate articles. We may, however, take a general view
Subjects of of them: (1) We should have to treat of the subjects of in-
instruction.
struction. These may be divided into those that relate to
nature, those that relate to man, and those that relate to God. The
first gives us the natural sciences, a knowledge of the earth in its
present state, geology, botany, zoology, physics, including astronomy and
chemistry. Then come the abstract subjects arising out of these: the
science of numbers and of magnitude, arithmetic, algebra, and geometry.
Next follows the knowledge that relates to man: physiology, psychology,
and sociology; but the latter sciences cannot be taught scientifically to
children. The main facts are made known concretely in literature, and
therefore the pupil learns languages, his own, modern languages, and
ancient languages. Education insists that these should ultimately, and
as soon as possible, pass from being mere studies of words to be a means
of acquainting the pupil with the feelings, thoughts, and desires of great
and good men, past and present. Closely connected with languages is
the study of history; and allied to history and intermediate between the
first and second classes of study, is geography, a knowledge of the
earth as it has influenced man and been used by him. The third class
of subjects relate to religion; but this is closely allied to the second,
and, indeed, falls properly under it; for it is the knowledge of man's
relations to God. (2) We should have to inquire into the educative
value of all these studies, but this inquiry belongs to the special articles.
Here it has to be remarked, that none of the subjects must be entirely
omitted. The mind of man must not be deliberately made one-sided.
The multiplication of interest is one of the great objects of education.
(3) We should have to inquire into the methods of education; and (4) into
the organization, private and public, necessary to render instruction effec-
tive. All these subjects are discussed in the ordinary manuals on in-
struction.
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. The term intellect (Latin, in-
tellectus, from inter, between, and legere, to gather, or collect) is used to
denote the faculty or faculties by which man knows, in distinction from
those of sensibility and will. In the formation of the human
Culture character, the culture of the intellect is of subordinate impor-
of the
tance to that of the other two mental functions,
the proper
order in this regard being (1) will, (2) sensibility, (3) intellect;
for the intellect is only an instrument, the use of which must depend upon
the natural strength and educational training of the other elements of
human character. There is, however, without doubt, a reflex action of

intellect.
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION
181
sound intellectual culture, by means of which the propensities and tastes
of an individual are ennobled, and his moral sense strengthened. In order
to direct the education of the intellect, it is necessary to understand its
operations and the mode of its growth from infancy to mature age; the
processes by which its powers may be guided, stimulated, and improved,
and the agencies by means of which this improvement, or culture, is to be
effected. The human mind acts, as it were, by separate faculties;
Faculties. it appears to possess distinct powers. These faculties, or powers,
are without doubt, intimately associated. They are but functions of a
single agent; but they are functions distinct, both in their mode of opera-
tion and in the objects upon which they are exercised. To form an
idea from a present object of sensation is obviously distinct from re-
calling that idea when the object is no longer present. This again differs
essentially from the suggestion of one idea by the presence of another
in some way associated with it. Again, to create from the simple im-
pressions derived from natural objects an original picture, or series of
pictures, such as those of Hogarth on canvas, or of Bunyan, in written
composition, is certainly a very different process from the selection and
combination of elementary propositions so as to derive from them an
original principle, or truth. The mind is, nevertheless, a unit; and all
its operations, of however diverse a character, may be conceived to depend,
directly or indirectly, upon some rudimental process; but nothing would
be gained practically by such a procedure; and, therefore, we may prop-
erly conform to the common usage in this regard, and consider the
intellect as comprehending many distinct faculties, which, of course,
cannot be cultivated and strengthened by the teacher without a suf-
ficient knowledge of their respective spheres of action, their modes of
operation, and the objects upon which they are specially exercised. These
have been conveniently classified and designated as follows: (1) The
acquisitive faculties, including consciousness and sense-perception; (2)
The representative faculties, including conception, association, memory,
and imagination; (3) The elaborative faculties, including comparison,
abstraction, generalization, judgment, and reason.
The senses, those avenues of communication with the external world,
are first to be considered, since probably ideas at first spring from
sensation, which appears to be the primitive stimulus of activity
Sensation. in the whole animal kingdom. (See SENSES.) It is, however,
in no other way connected with the mind than as the means of supply-
ing the material upon which the first mental operations are performed;
and when this material is afforded, the mind as an entirely independent
agent may or may not act upon it, this act being controlled by what
is called attention (q. v.), which is only a condition of activity assumed
by the mind in regard to any of the objects of sensation or consciousness.
When sensation and attention exist simultaneously, there must
Perception. result what is called perception, sensation being simply the
effect produced by external objects upon the bodily organs, and percep-
tion the act of the mind in becoming cognizant of it as proceeding from
some cause extraneous to itself. The product of these two acts, constitut-
ing what is called sense-perception, would be only momentary, or would
last only during the presence of the object perceived, but for the existence
182
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION
of a faculty by which the mind retains impressions thus made, recalls
them voluntarily or involuntarily, and thus is enabled to make them the
subject of independent mental action. These impressions, and in an especial
manner those made through the medium of sight, become in this way a
part of the mind; they are imprinted upon its very texture, as it were, like
pictures upon the photographic glass. Hence the name ideas (from the
Greek word ideiv, to see). This faculty is called conception
Conception. (q. v.). It requires the most careful cultivation in childhood and
youth; since it alone enables the mind to store up the materials of knowl-
edge and thought in its wonderful and mysterious repository. The intellect
of childhood is chiefly employed in the exercise of it — in storing up ideas,
and gathering materials out of which to produce its subsequent creations,
whether these are the fantastic pictures of fancy, the more regular combi-
nations of imagination, or the sequences of ratiocination. Whatever,
therefore, hinders this process, shrivels the mind and stunts its growth.
Its vitality dies out for want of exercise, and torpor takes the place of
elasticity and vigorous life. This is, therefore, one of the first faculties to
be addressed in education. Its activity is to be fostered by supplying it
with abundant food — objects on which it may be exercised, and language
designed to bring into clear mental view the conceptions already acquired.-
tion.
The next mental process to be considered is association. In the
Associa- first stages of the mind's growth, there exists but little power of
combination, certainly none of logical combination; but there is
an elementary principle of intellection by which ideas tend to become linked
together according to certain relations; this is called association (q. v.).
Perhaps, the most important of the elementary associations established in
regard to the conceptions is that of words or names with the conceptions
of objects which they are thus made to represent. This is, without doubt,
one of the earliest, as well as one of the most rudimental, of the mind's
combinations. The association itself, it must be borne in mind, is all that
is arbitrary; since it is not words themselves that are associated with the
conceptions of the objects, but conceptions of the spoken words, formed
through the medium of hearing. What is meant by asserting that the
association alone is arbitrary, is that the spoken word, as an actual sense-
perception, is retained and recalled by conception, and is, therefore, no
more arbitrary than any other idea; but having no intrinsic relation to the
conception for which it is to stand, it is associated with it arbitrarily, that
is, by repeatedly bringing the two conceptions together, in accordance with
that law of mental action by which ideas repeatedly brought into connec-
tion suggest each other.
Without the association of words with ideas, the mind could advance
but a very few steps in its development; because, (1) it would be unable to
receive any stimulus by communicating with any other minds;
Language. (2) it would be powerless to control the order in which the
conceptions would present themselves to the mind, or to divest them of the
vagueness of revery or dreaming; and (3) no process of thought or reason-
ing could be carried on without the assistance of language. This need of
words is illustrated by the efforts of children to talk, and call things by
names, long before the power of articulation exists, thus showing that,
although they are unable to employ words for the expression of ideas, the

INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION
183
mind is constantly making use of them in carrying on its rudimental oper-
ations. It is an important law that conceptions are more strongly
associated when their corresponding perceptions have been associated.
Thus, suppose it is desired to teach a child the meaning of the word ship;
in other words, to associate in his mind the spoken word ship with the
conception of the ship, so that the one will always suggest the other. If
he has never seen a ship, nothing but the actual perception will suffice, and
he must be taken where one may be actually seen; but if he has seen the
object without learning its name, the conception may be recalled to his
mind either by questioning him or by showing him a picture of it. Without
doing this, the word ship may be repeated to him, and he may pronounce
it any number of times, without learning any thing, since it would be
presenting to his mind a sign without showing what it signifies. In
elementary instruction, this error is quite often committed.
It is important to consider upon what fundamental or primary notion
the mind proceeds in establishing the arbitrary association between things
and their names; that is, between conceptions which intrinsically
Things and have no relation to each other. A slight observation will as-
names. certain that the mind very early requires the notion of names
as representatives of things, and thus comprehends the relation existing
between a sign and the thing signified; not that this notion is made an
object of actual consciousness or reflection, but that it is intuitively recog-
nized by the mind, and is practically employed by the child in making known
its wants or expressing its feelings. The question, What is it?" so often
heard from the lips of a young child on seeing a new object, appears gen-
erally to have reference only to this notion. The child perceives the need
of affixing a name to the object in order that it may become a definite con-
ception, as well as be prepared for expression; and when a name is given,
however arbitrary or unintelligible, the inquiry proceeds no further, the
child appearing entirely satisfied. It is only when the mind has made
more progress in development and has acquired a knowledge of other rela-
tions, that this question can possibly have any other import. Very much
of the early development of a child's mind thus consists in acquiring a
knowledge of words, but, let it be carefully observed, of words only as
representatives of actual conceptions. In this way the knowledge of
things and the knowledge of words, increase pari passu, and the mind is
prepared for operations of a more advanced character; since it is only by
symbolizing individual conceptions that generalization can take
General- place, that is, that individuals can be conceived with reference
ization. exclusively to certain qualities which they possess in common,
and thus be arranged in classes. This office of language has been ex-
plained in the following manner by a very acute writer (H. L. Mansel):
“Intuitive generalization consists in directing the attention, voluntarily or
involuntarily, to the common features of several objects presented to us,
neglecting or not perceiving those qualities which are peculiar to each. It
is not a distinct cognition of the class as a class, nor of the individuals as
individuals; but a confused perception of both together. To form a
complete cognition of the individual, I must, by the aid of imagination,
supply those distinctive features which I am unable clearly to perceive.
To form a complete cognition of the class, I must separate the common

•
184
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION
attributes from their connection with a definite time and place. But how
are attributes, apart from their juxtaposition in space, to be so connected
together, as to constitute a single object? The head and trunk and limbs
of an individual man are connected together by continuity in space, and by
that continuity constitute a whole of intuition, whether distinctly recog-
nized in that relation or not. How are the attributes of mankind in general
to be separated from their position in space, and yet so united together as
to constitute a whole of thought? To effect this we must call in the aid of
language. The word is to thought what space is to perception. It con-
stitutes the connecting link between various attributes the frame, as it
were, in which they are set and thus furnishes the means by which the
features characteristic of a class may be viewed apart from the individuals
in which they are intuitively perceived, and combined into a complex notion
or concept". In regard to the same point, Whately remarks, in Elements
of Logic: "The majority of men would probably say, if asked, that the
use of language is peculiar to man; and that its office is to express to one
another our thoughts and feelings. But neither of these is strictly true.
Brutes do possess, in some degree, the power of being taught to understand
what is said to them, and some of them even to utter sounds expressive of
what is passing within them. But they all seem to be incapable of another
very important use of language which does characterize man; namely, the
employment of common terms (general terms) formed by abstraction, as
instruments of thought; by which alone a train of reasoning may be carried

on.
And accordingly a deaf-mute, before he has been taught a language
-either the finger-language or reading - cannot carry on a train of
reasoning any more than a brute. He differs indeed from a brute, in
possessing the mental capability of employing language; but he can no
more make use of that capability till he is in possession of some system of
arbitrary general signs, than a person born blind from cataract can make
use of his capacity of seeing, till the cataract is removed".
Next to the association of things with words as their representatives,
is that founded upon a perception of resemblance in the objects from which
conceptions are derived. This, it will be perceived from what
Resem-has already been adduced, takes place prior to generalization, to
blance and which it directly leads. There is, probably, no relation so ob-
analogy. vious to a child as that of resemblance or analogy, and none
that affords so much employment to its mind, or that affects it with more
pleasurable emotions. This is particularly the case with the relation of
analogy when found to exist between objects quite dissimilar. The facility
and readiness with which very young children discern resemblances,
whether they are founded upon form, color, or structure, indicate a
natural aptitude of the mind to perceive the varieties of these qualities
in different objects, of these qualities especially, because they are ad-
dressed to the sight, which of all the senses gives rise to the most vivid
conceptions. The varieties of color (tints), form, etc., generally have no
designations in the child's mind no symbols in language; and, therefore,
cannot be made distinct objects of conception or of consciousness; and, in
the earliest stages of mental development, this is not required to enable the
mind to carry on its rudimental processes. Very young children can learn
to classify objects with respect to their resemblances in form, color, etc.;
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION
185
66
and to require them to do this, is one of the best exercises that can be em-
ployed to aid the development of their minds. The readiness with which
children apply the same name to objects having only a general resemblance
to each other in form, color, or structure, is another proof of this charac-
teristic of the human mind. Children", says Aristotle, "at first call every
mau father, and every woman mother, but afterwards they distinguish one
person from another". The perception of resemblance is, thus, prior to
that of difference, and, apparently, for a very good reason; since, if the re-
verse were the case, the mind, instead of requiring immediately words as
the representatives of classes, would need a word for every object of per-
ception, and thus could make no advancement in developing the higher
faculties. This was the doctrine of Pestalozzi, and a basic principle of his
system. There is no doubt that very great diversities in objects excite the
attention more readily than corresponding resemblances, just as rapid
transitions from one color to another, from intense darkness to a brilliant
illumination, etc., produce activity in the perceptive faculties; and hence,
the employment of such processes in the education of those mentally defi-
cient; but where any two objects are placed before a child, of which
the points of resemblance and of difference are equally obvious to the
developed and mature mind, the child will intuitively notice the former
before he will the latter. The constitution of the mind seems to neces-
sitate this. Objects which are very unlike may, indeed, have some points
of resemblance which escape the notice of a child, and which, therefore,
the teacher will need to point out so as to assist in their discovery, and,
in this way, to cultivate the habit of observation. The whole structure
of the intellect as a thinking and reasoning apparatus seems to be based
on the ready recognition of likeness and analogy in the various objects
presented to the senses. Isaac Taylor remarks, in Home Education: "The
sense of resemblance runs before the power of discriminating or designat-
ing differences; hence, it happens that by the infant and the savage the
names of individuals are extended to species, and the names of species to
genera". "Thus", as Mansel remarks, "by the aid of language, our first
abstractions are, in fact, given to us already made; as we learn to give the
same name to various individuals presented to us under slight and at first
unnoticed circumstances of distinction. The name is thus applied to dif-
ferent objects long before we learn to analyze the growing powers of speech
and thought, to ask what we mean by each several instance of its applica-
tion, and to correct and fix the significance of words at first used vaguely
and obscurely". The association of the conceptions as dependent
Intuitive upon an observation of resemblance, has been called intuitive
generaliza- generalization; since it does not consciously follow any process
tion. of abstraction, because, from the failure of the undeveloped
mind to notice distinctions and differences, no such process is needed for
the purpose. For example, a child sees a book for the first time, and
learns its name, book; now, on seeing another book, however different from
the first in size, color, etc., he invariably applies to it the term book, by the
perception of analogy leading on to intuitive generalization. Common
names are, therefore, first learned, and particular or proper names only
given to such objects as are constantly presented to the mind; since, by
being thus more intimately known, their distinctive peculiarities are more
186
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION
clearly discerned, this discernment leading to an individualization, as the
next step in the growth or development of the mind. The operation
of the sense of analogy is seen in the use of figurative, or more defin-
itely, tropical language; and its rudimental character is illustrated by the
fact that children and savages are particularly prone to the use of this
language. Indeed, as before remarked, it is one of the most intense
mental pleasures of the child to trace analogies in objects of consider-
able diversity in general appearance, and to apply such metaphorical
terms as will forcibly express them. This again adds very greatly to a
child's power of expression, since, without the perception of these anal-
ogies in objects, every variation would require some specific term, met-
aphorical names ceasing to have any meaning whatever. This charac-
teristic of a child's mind gives to the intelligent teacher considerable
resources for illustration, particularly in the use of words and their appli-
cation to the objects which they represent. Thus, the term cape would be
much better understood if its exact literal import were explained, and the
analogy exhibited between the head and a cape, or headland. It is un-
fortunate that so few compound or derivative words in English are formed
from the simple words of the language itself, and that recourse has been had
to so great an extent to the Latin and Greek languages for a supply of such
roots; since, in consequence of this, most of the words of the language are nec-
essarily taught as arbitrary terms, which, otherwise, would be the means of
stimulating mental activity in the learner. A striking contrast has very often
been made, in this respect, between the English and German languages,
such terms as Regenschirm (umbrella), Sonnenschirm (parasol), Handschuh
(glove), Fingerhut (thimble), einsaugen (absorb), durchsichtig (trans-
parent), etc., illustrating very clearly the fact referred to. This peculiarity
of a language, in drawing alinost exclusively from its own primitive words
the materials for the construction of complex epithets, is also very
prominent in the Greek language, and constitutes one of its excellencies.
Where it exists, it must afford great facility in education, and must form
the basis for processes which are impracticable where a language, such as
the English, is to be employed, which derives nearly all of its abstract and
scientific terms from languages not merely foreign but entirely out of use.
The growth of mind in its relation to language has been here dwelt upon
at some length because of its importance as a source of practical knowledge
to every teacher who makes the study of mind the basis of his operations.
Arbitrary rules may be laid down, and applied; but the scientific teacher
who investigates the foundation of these rules in the principles of in-
tellectual science will best know how to adapt his methods to the diversified
exigencies of his work. Association as an elementary function of mind,
is dependent upon a variety of circumstances other than those enumerated;
as time, place, cause and effect, and design. These are, however, of second-
ary importance for the study of the educator.
The peculiar functions of the representative faculties, memory and
imagination should receive a careful study, since they underlie many of
sentative
the most important processes which he is called upon to direct.
Repre- (See IMAGINATION, and MEMORY.) The elaborative faculties,
faculties. comparison, abstraction, and generalization, have already been
referred to in relation to the rudimental stage of their operation;
INTEREST
187
INTERMEDIATE SCHOOLS
in the higher grades of instruction, they find constant exercise in the
studies of mathematics and natural science, which form a part of the cur-
riculum of every high school, college, and university. Judgment
Elaborative and reason pass through a gradation of development from the
faculties.
most elementary to the highest stages of education.
Such is the field which a discussion of the principles of intellectual
education embraces. In the practical application of these principles, the
teacher is to be guided not only by a knowledge of the general
General functions of mind and their development, but by all the pecu-
principles. liarities of individual endowment which he may be able to
discern. (See CHARACTER, DISCERNMENT OF.) He is to permit the mind
to expand by its own intrinsic activities, only interposing restraining or
stimulating agencies when and where he finds a tendency to abnormal or
morbid growth. There are, however, special methods of operation in in-
tellectual education, partaking more of a positive character, by means of
which the teacher is directly to impart knowledge — to communicate infor-
mation; and, thus, is opened up a consideration not only of the mind to be
cultivated, but of the branches of knowledge to be taught, in relation to
the several faculties which they tend to cultivate. (See INSTRUCTION.) In
this connection, and by the use of the same guiding principles, the proper
order of presenting these studies must be considered and ascertained, this
order being correlated with the natural order in which the intellectual
faculties are developed. (See ORDER OF STUDIES.) The final result of this
department of education should be, to enable the individual, in all the
circumstances of life, to exercise with efficiency and address the various
intellectual faculties with which he has been endowed. (See CULTURE.)
INTEREST. To awaken an interest on the part of the pupils in the
subjects of instruction should always be a prominent object of the teacher's
efforts, since it is an indispensable condition of all true success. Anteced-
ently, the young pupil feels no interest in the school studies; he neither
appreciates their importance nor has any desire to acquire a knowledge of
the subjects of which they treat. But the skillful teacher knows how to
stimulate curiosity, and to impress upon the mind of the pupil the idea
that he is acquiring knowledge, and thus to awaken an interest in the
processes of instruction. When these processes are appropriate and natural,
the pupil's interest is easily sustained; and it will be generally found that
a flagging interest is due either to previous defective training or to the
endeavor to teach subjects for which the pupil's mind is not prepared. It
is a psychological axiom that the mind has no less appetite for knowledge
of the right kind, than exists physically for proper food to nourish the
body. It is, therefore, the office of educational science to determine the
kind of mental food proper for every age, and how it should be prepared
so as to stimulate, while it satisfies, the mental appetite. There should
also be individual adaptation, the teacher giving whatever attention may be
necessary to the special inclinations, tastes, and capacities of his pupils.
(See ATTENTION.)
INTERMEDIATE SCHOOLS are schools of a grade between
primary schools and grammar schools, or between elementary schools and
high schools. Such schools generally constitute an important part of the
graded school system. Schools of a grade between elementary schools (in

་

188
INTERROGATION — ITALIAN LANGUAGE
German, Elementarschule), and colleges and universities, are often called
middle schools (German, Mittelschule).
INTERROGATION, or the Interrogative Method, is an indis-
pensable means of conducting most processes of instruction; particularly
those of an elementary grade. Its office is either (1) tentative, or
(2) illustrative. As a tentative process, the teacher uses it to determine
the quantity and the quality of the knowledge which the pupil has attained.
Thus, in hearing recitations, the teacher, by means of questions, ascertains
how much of the lesson previously assigned, the pupil has learned, and
with what accuracy it has been learned; and on the kind of questions
asked, as well as on the manner of asking them, depends the degree of skill
and effectiveness of this important part of the teacher's work. The same
is true, also, of the conducting of examinations by school inspectors or
superintendents. The process of questioning is also tentative when used
as preliminary to a course of instruction, in order to determine the amount
of information, or the kind of ideas, already acquired by the pupil, either
directly relating to the subject or remotely connected with it, and constitut-
ing the elementary conceptions upon which it is to be based. Instruction
on every subject needs such preliminary questioning. - Interrogation is
illustrative when it is used as a direct means of instruction, in order to
induce the pupil to combine his ideas in such a way that he may be led to
a clear conception of the truth. This was the process used by Socrates in
giving instruction; and hence, it is often called the Socratic method. Great
skill can be exercised by the teacher in the use of interrogation for this
purpose; indeed, the art of questioning (catechetics) becomes a special de-
partment of the work of teaching, and has been so treated.
Rules can
scarcely be given for its attainment; but it may briefly be said that it
depends upon (1) a thorough training of the analytic faculty of the
teacher, (2) such a minute and accurate knowledge of the subject to be
taught as will enable him to resolve it into its elementary principles,
(3) a full appreciation of the pupil's condition of mind, both as to capacity
and degree of attainment, and (4) sufficient practice in interrogation to
produce facility in framing questions of every kind and form. Where
these conditions exist, the questions asked will be an effective means of
making every subject clear to the learner's mind. (See CATECHETICAL
METHOD.)
INTUITIVE METHOD. See OBJECT TEACHING.
ITALIAN LANGUAGE. The Italian language has no claims
commensurate with those of the German or the French, to a place in any
regular course of instruction the object of which is general
Place in culture, and which, to that end, embraces the study of one or
education. two modern languages. Its value for this purpose has not,
however, been without advocates. Thus L. Gantter, the author of the
article on the Italian language, in Schmid's Encyclopädie (vol. III), in
discussing the relative importance of the principal modern languages for
the German gymnasia, from an educational point of view, assigns the first
place to English, the second to Italian, and the third to French; and he
appeals to Goethe, Niebuhr, Raumer, Gregorovius, and many other
celebrities to prove that the educational impulse which may reasonably be
expected from a study of the Italian language and literature, would prove

JUDGMENT
189
Special
value.
stronger and more conducive to a general development of the mental
faculties than that received from the study of French. Italian has, how-
ever, special importance for all students of music, vocal and
instrumental, as well as for students of the fine arts. Music, in
every country of the world, uses to a large extent technical ex-
pressions borrowed from the Italian; the Italian opera is exceedingly
popular in every large city of the world, and there is no student of the
fine arts who is not anxious to complete his study of Italian art in Italy.
These considerations have not only created a demand for instruction in
Italian, but they are sufficiently important to recommend to students of
music and of the fine arts a much more general study of this beautiful
language than is to be met with at present; and it is to be regretted that
universities, colleges, academies, and especially female institutions of a
higher grade, do not, more frequently than is the case at present, afford to
their pupils an opportunity to learn this language.
The special motives which, in a majority of cases, lead to a study of
this language, naturally suggest a method of instruction different from that

istic.
pursued in the teaching of French and German. The beauty of
Character the language, which is reflected in its structure and pronuncia-
tion, and which is so intimately connected with the lofty position
which Italian art has attained in the history of civilization, should be pointed
out with special care. Exercises in grammar and translation will require
comparatively little attention; for not only is the structure of the language
unusually simple and easy, but its study is hardly ever begun until, in
addition to the vernacular, the knowledge of some other language has been
acquired. All the greater prominence, on the other hand, should be given
to the practice of conversation; for only in this way will the pupil fully
realize the superiority of the language in point of beauty and euphony,
and prepare himself for a visit to the country which, more than any other,
captivates the affections of every artist. The literature of Italy scarcely
admits of a comparison with that of Germany or France; but the golden
age of Italian literature presents names which will never fail to recommend
the study of the Italian language to advanced scholars. Dante
Literature. ranks with Homer, Virgil, Milton, and Goethe, as one of the
greatest poets of the world, whom all civilized nations will always admire;
and Italian would be studied, if it were only to read the Divina Commedia.
See Cyclopædia of Education.
JUDGMENT, Training of. This department of intellectual culture
needs no special attention, if the whole educational system, in other
respects, is judicious and rational; i. e., adapted to the individual both as
to age (degree of maturity) and peculiarities of character or endowment.
Where this is not the case, an efficient corrective may be applied by
bringing into exercise the pupil's mental faculties in various ways and in
connection with various subjects. The departure must be taken from the
sphere of the pupil's experience; he must be led (1) to accurate observation
of particulars minute details; (2) to their collation, as preliminary to
generalization; and (3) to their classification under appropriate heads.
When general principles or rules have been established in the pupil's mind
in this way, his judgment will be brought into play in the application of
190
KINDERGARTEN
the principle or rule to particular objects or facts. Thus, in natural history,
after the pupil has learned the characteristics of genera and species by a
minute and accurate observation of individual specimens, he cannot,
without an exercise of judgment, determine whether any particular
specimen, previously unobserved, belongs to one or the other genus or
species. He must have a clear conception of the distinguishing qualities,
both of the individual and of the class, in order to determine whether the
correspondence exists or not. As regards concrete objects, the judgment
is exercised at a very early age, and is constantly trained more or less by
every legitimate process of intellectual education; but as regards abstract
truths, this faculty is one of the last to attain a full or mature development.
Accuracy in judging depends very much on the mental habits formed
during the period of early education. Habits of attention, careful observa-
tion, dispassionate, conscientious reasoning, and a profound and earnest
love of truth, will qualify any person for the exercise of a sound judgment
in regard to any subject of study or investigation. A mental character
based upon such habits will be free from prejudice, and will readily learn
to eliminate all passion from its intellectual processes; and, hence, its
judgments being solely based upon the facts acquired, will be correct or
the contrary, in proportion to the accuracy and extent of the information
possessed.


How
deduced.
KINDERGARTEN (Ger., children's garden), a peculiar system of
education, founded by Friedrich Froebel, designed to precede all other
elementary training, and to prepare the child for regular instruction by
exercising all its powers so as to render it self-active. While the reformers
of education before his time, Pestalozzi included, whose assistant
Fundamen- he was, treated the youthful mind, more or less, as a passive
tal idea.
recipient of truth, goodness, and beauty, it was Froebel's
fundamental idea to set the child to do whatever it could be induced to do
as a kind of amusement, exercising its observing faculties in connection
with its playthings and games, and thus to create in it an interest in
learning. He discovered, by means of half a century's attentive
practice in teaching, in association with many other excellent
educators, that the faculties of most children are stunted in
infancy and earliest youth by the want of appropriate mental food; that
every child may be developed (may develop itself) into a self-educator by
appropriate amusements; and that, in this manner, pleasure may be made
the most efficient instrument in the first stages of education. He studied
all the plays and games in use from the most ancient times, in order to
find their special adaptation to mental and bodily growth, and thus formed
a complete philosophical system of early intellectual culture. This culture
was to begin in the earliest years, with ball plays, accompanied
Elementary by snatches of song and rhyme; later, with a sphere, a cube, and
culture. a cylinder of wood, used for various amusing exercises, and
calculated to enliven the attention, and increase the self-activity of the
infant. The two little books for mothers, which contain his suggestions
for this purpose, disclaim any merit of invention; he considers them derived
simply from a diligent observation of the methods of many excellent and
successful mothers. But it was not from books alone that he intended
KINDERGARTEN
191
that mothers should learn how to train their children. They were to be
educated, as young children, in a kindergarten, and afterwards, before
graduating from the upper classes, to learn the art of infant education in a
model kindergarten. It was in this way that he hoped to render, in the
course of time, all mothers true educators of infancy, the centers of happy
family circles, and the priestesses of a higher humanity, so that they might
be "in harmony with themselves, with nature, and with God".
education.
But mere family education being liable to one-sidedness and exclu
siveness, social education should begin early, in order to complement the
former. During part of the day, the child should be in company
Social with many other children of the same age, and should engage in
such plays as supply, in a gradually ascending scale, proper
food for the mental and bodily appetites and functions, while making the
company of little ones as happy as possible. This can be done only under
the guidance of a true teacher, who should be a female capable, by natural
endowments and previous study, to take the place, in this respect, of the
mother. The locality should be å hall in a garden, with flowers, shrubs,
trees, each child having its own flower-bed, so that it may learn how to
raise plants, and to enjoy nature. The playful occupations of the pupils
comprise a great variety of plays in a given order which, however, should
not be absolutely fixed, but should afford a healthy change, without in-
ducing habits of imperfect attention and restlessness. None of these
occupations were the invention of Froebel; they had all been practiced
more or less before his time. But their combination into a harmonious
whole, their adaptation for mental food in every direction, and their
development in detail must be set down as Froebel's creation; and the ex-
perience had with them for more than twenty-five years, and in many
hundreds of kindergartens, justifies the wisdom of the system. There is
still much controversy among the followers of Froebel themselves in regard
to the minor details of the system; and some improvement has been made
upon his own first practical realization of the idea, which, from insuffi-
ciency of means, could not be all that he desired; but the indefinite
perfectibility of the system in practical details, according to its principles,
insures its progressive success.
The exercises of the kindergarten are alternately carried on in a sitting,
and in a standing or walking position, for the sake of a salutary change,
and are partly such as can, without special training, be guided
Exercises. by any good teacher; namely, singing; the reciting of child-like
poetry committed to memory by means of the teacher's frequent repetition;
light gymnastics, marching exercises, and easy ball plays; acting the doings
of men and animals; all these accompanied from time to time with
song, or turned into object lessons by frequent conversation on the things
mentioned or represented; also amusing employment, with playthings,
called gifts, of which there are several sets. (See GIFTS.) The guidance
of these occupations requires a practical training, on the part of the
teacher, and a theoretical study which never can be too thorough, if the
pupil's mental and moral development is to become what Froebel intended
it to be. Each of these exercises serves a threefold purpose, to produce
forms of beauty, forms of life (such as resemble things that occur within
the child's experience), and forms of knowledge (such as may lead to a

192
KINDERGARTEN
į
knowledge of the qualities, quantities and actions of objects). The child
itself is to produce these forms; the teacher is not to teach them, but to
lead his pupil by suggestions conveyed in questions or conversation, so
that the child may become inventive. To do this properly, Froebel has
advised a method based on the law of contraries and their combination
into a higher unit; but the teacher is to abstain from all learned lore
from using abstract expressions. Abstract notions and works are severely
banished from the kindergarten; it is merely concrete facts, which the
child can learn through the senses, and can clothe in its own language,
that can become familiar to it by its own mental assimilation. Neither is
discipline to be maintained by authority or by any mechanical means; but
by the suggestions of the teacher, and by the pupils' own ab-
Discipline. sorption in the interest of their occupations. Thus children are,
at an early age, enabled to discipline themselves through pleasant em-
ployment, to submit to the will of the majority of their equals, on the one
hand, or to assert, on the other, their own free volition, if they can induce
others to agree with them. Thus, they are to take their first lessons in
moral self-government.
An objection has been urged to the general introduction of the kinder-
garten as being too costly; but experience has established the indisputable
fact, that a good kindergarten need cost no more than the best
Costliness. primary school. The genuine kindergartner — and none but
such ought to be employed-can superintend more than a hundred children
at a time, provided she begin with no more than twenty, adding twenty
more as soon as she has a good assistant able to replace her; and again
twenty more, and so on, whenever one more assistant is prepared to take
her place. Such assistants may be pupils of the training or normal school
classes, who wish to acquire the art of infant education, and need not be
paid for their assistance. These pupil-teachers will not, of course, by
merely six months' help in this way, be fully able to conduct a kindergarten
independently; but they will learn enough to be valuable assistants, and to
become good educators as mothers. This is not merely an economical
measure but is sustained by pedagogical principles. The little pupils of a
kindergarten, from four to seven years old, will form several grades, that
can simultaneously be engaged only in certain occupations; while, in all
others, they must be separately employed. As, then, divisions into grades
are indispensable, and the principal teacher must go from one to the other,
she can leave all the grades under the guidance of proficient assistants,
taking the pupil-teachers along from division to division, thus affording
them an opportunity to witness the greatest variety of exercises possible
within a short space of time, and to practice every one under her direction.
Besides, she can hardly fail to receive valuable support in the singing,
articulation, and gymnastic exercises, from the talents of some of her as-
sistants. But even more important is the following consideration. It is
almost impossible to carry on a genuine kindergarten successfully without
the exercise of a wide-spread and lively interest in it among the women,
especially the mothers, of the community. So long as they do not fre-
quently visit the institute, they will not fully appreciate its purposes and
results; they will insist that their children should begin to learn the
alphabet; and, if that is not done, they will perhaps take them away to
LANGUAGE
193
some primary school. Many kindergartners of our country yield to the
demand of the mothers, and make the alphabet and ciphering a part of the
regular kindergarten exercises; but this is a positive loss to the children.
Owing to the necessity of special skill and training in order to conduct
a kindergarten efficiently, many persons who undertake this work fail,
through want of preparation, to produce the results designed.
Test of In this way spurious kindergartens have caused much complaint,
efficiency.
and brought considerable discredit upon the system. The test
of a good kindergarten is its obvious effect upon the pupils, in exciting
cheerfulness, intelligence, activity, and a fondness for the school work. If,
on the other hand, the children dislike the school, it is an evidence that
there is a want of tact and skill in its management. There may, indeed,
exist in such a school all the occupations recommended by Froebel, and
each may be used according to the established formula; but if the spirit in
which the exercises are to be conducted is missing, if the treatment is
mechanical, all the moral influence which should spring from the cheerful
self-activity of the child, is lost. If too, the teacher shows always the calm
and dignified deportment of the ordinary class disciplinarian, instead of
entering with all her heart into the harmless joy from which the child's
self-government is to take a fruitful growth, and calming only the trouble-
some excess of this mirth by now and then a look, a word, or a gesture,
she is not well fitted for her calling. A genuine kindergarten teacher
will, like the best of mothers, take a lively interest in remedying, as far as
possible, the bodily, mental, and moral defects of every child under her
care, uncleanly and disorderly habits, want of attention, stammering,
color-blindness, a bad gait or posture, imperfect articulation, etc. She will,
in this way, earn the gratitude of the children and their parents, and exert
a great moral influence. Her efforts in this respect are, in a great measure
facilitated by the pliability of the child's powers, as well as by its desire to
avoid ridicule, and to enjoy the society of its comrades. Abundant ex-
perience teaches, that there need be no incurable cases of the above kind
among children who have the full use of their senses; that all children may
learn drawing, singing, correct enunciation, geometry, and many other arts
and accomplishments that are, by common prejudice, pronounced attainable
by those only who are specially gifted. It is evident, therefore, that a
kindergartner can hardly be too well educated; and, also, that no education
repays so abundantly its cost. For literature of this subject, see special
list in the Appendix of this work.
LANGUAGE (Lat. lingua, the tongue, speech), according to the
ordinary acceptation of the word, is the utterance of articulate sounds for
the purpose of expressing thought. This mode of expression constitutes
one of the characteristic faculties of man; since no community of human
beings, in historic times, has been found entirely destitute of language; and a
broad line of demarcation separates every kind of human speech of which
we have any knowledge from all the modes of expression used by brutes.
The development of language in a child should not outrun his mental
development; it should at first follow, and subsequently accompany it.
Develop-
The child, from his first infancy, has a tendency to give some
ment. kind of expression to all the emotions of his mind. At first,


-
194
LATIN LANGUAGE
various movements of the body, and inarticulate sounds serve for the
purpose; when the perceptions become more distinct, the child looks
around for more definite expressions, and finds them in the word-language
of those who surround him. If the child has sound organs of speech, the
task of the educator, at first, is comparatively easy. An artificial plan is
neither necessary nor practical; an occasional influence is sufficient. By
hearing the names of objects, actions, qualities, circumstances, and rela-
tions, which he perceives, correctly and distinctly pronounced, the child
obtains his first knowledge of words, and learns to associate them with the
designated objects. The memory, without difficulty, retains a large number
of words, and frequent practice soon leads to readiness of speech. Occa-
sional conversations with the child on the objects of his attention, with
little descriptions and narratives, afford him the necessary material for
expressing the combinations of his thoughts, and aid in the development
of his mind. Where the cultivation of speech is neglected in the educa-
tion of a child, the intellectual development is likewise retarded. On the
other hand, any attempt to force unduly the rapid development of speech,
may lead to vain and thoughtless garrulity, or to a production of erroneous
representations in the mind, which will obstruct its harmonious development.
During this first stage of education, the mother is the child's natural and
best teacher of language, and the language which the child thus learns has
justly been called the "mother-tongue". Home education may receive a
useful, and in many cases a very desirable, aid in a good kindergarten.
Vernac-
ular.
The instruction provided for in the common schools of modern times
aims chiefly at perfecting the pupil in his vernacular language. The course
of instruction to this end embraces exercises in spelling, reading,
writing, definitions, composition, English grammar, elocution,etc.
There is still great diversity of opinion among educators as to
the best methods of teaching each of these branches, and as to the relative
position which each of them should occupy in the course of studies.
This subject is fully discussed in the special articles devoted to
Methods. the branches of instruction just enumerated. All educators,
however, agree in regarding it as one of the chief aims of school education
to give to the pupil a good knowledge of his vernacular language, and
fluency in speaking and writing it correctly. Even in those branches of
study which neither solely nor chiefly aim at improving the linguistic
knowledge of the pupil, as arithmetic, geography, history, etc., every
educator nowadays requires that pupils shall be trained in the correction
See MARCEL,
of language, and taught to avoid common errors of speech.
Language as a Means of Mental Culture and International Communica
tion (London, 1853); and The Study of Languages (N. Y., 1869); WHIT-
NEY, The Life and Growth of Language (N. Y., 1875).
J
LATIN LANGUAGE, one of the two classical languages, which as
the language of one of the greatest empires of the world, and of one of the
richest of literatures, and subsequently as the official language of the Catholic
church, the literary language of western Europe, and the mother of the
Romanic languages, has been among the foremost agents in developing
modern civilization. For a full account of its development as a branch
of modern education see Cyclopædia of Education. We give here only a
few practical suggestions as to the methods of teaching it.
LATIN LANGUAGE
195
However much the methods of teaching Latin may differ in certain
details, no one should dispense with a thorough drilling in the inflectional
part of the language and in the principal rules of syntax. Exer-
Methods. cises in translating from Latin into English, and from English
into Latin, are now quite generally connected with the very first grammar
lessons. In accordance with the principles of modern educational writers,
the exercises in translation are now, from the beginning, very properly
given in most of the text-books in the shape of complete sentences. In the
system of T. K. Arnold the inflectional peculiarities are learned gradually,
as in the Ollendorff system, and almost the first step taken by the pupil is
an exercise in construction.
The very large extent to which words of Latin origin have been received
into English can be turned to great advantage by the intelligent teacher.
But few words will be met with in the Latin exercises, which
Relation to are not etymologically related to words in the English dictionary;
English.
and a constant reference to this kinship not only facilitates the
acquisition by the student of a copious Latin vocabulary, but at the same
time enlarges his knowledge of English. The introduction of young
students who have sufficiently mastered the elements of the language, to
the Latin classics is considerably obstructed by the want of good
Need of juvenile works in the literature of Rome. If that literature

juvenile
books.
ever had its Barbaulds and Edgeworths, their fame has perished
with their works. The books which for centuries have been the
first to be read in Latin schools, Cornelius Nepos and Cæsar, were
certainly not written for boys and girls. Even in Rome, they were as little
read by children of ten, eleven, or twelve years, as our children of that age
are expected to read Shakespeare, Gibbon, or Macaulay; and it is, there-
fore, undoubtedly a pertinent question, from an educational point of view,
whether it is consistent with common sense to expect English boys and
girls to read and appreciate writers whom the youth of the same age in
their own country would have found too difficult to understand. Various
attempts have been made, in modern times, to supply this want, and to
provide young Latin students with suitable reading. Sometimes modern
imitations of the ancient Latin have been selected for the purpose. Such,
for example, is Willymot's Century of Maturinus Corderius
Text-books. Colloquies, long familiarly known in Scotland under the name of
Cordery. Certain portions of the dialogues of Erasmus have the same ob-
ject in view. As the most successful attempt of the kind, many Latin
scholars regard a little work entitled De Viris Illustribus Urbis Romæ,
and commonly known in the United States as Viri Roma, by L'Homond,
a French professor of the eighteenth century. This work contains the
most interesting stories related by Livy, Valerius Maximus, Florus, and
other eminent writers, as much as possible in the very words of those
writers, and is still extensively used in the United States, Great Britain,
France, and, to a less extent, in Germany. Attempts have also been made
to epitomize special Latin classics for the use of young students; thus, in
recent times, an epitome of Cæsar, prepared by Dr. Woodford, classical
master in Madras College, St. Andrews, has been in extensive use. Many
of the Latin readers also contain attempts of this kind. The reading of
Latin classics constitutes the principal part of the study of Latin wherever
196
LIBRARIES
LECTURES
it is pursued, except when only the elements of Latin etymology are taught
for the purpose of elucidating the structure of English. See Cyclopædia
of Education.
LECTURES, or Lecture System, a method of giving instruction
by formal expositions, generally written out and read to the learners. Hence
the term lecture (from the Latin, meaning reading or something read).
Lectures are, however, quite often extemporaneous, or delivered without
previous preparation of the language. The lecture differs from the lesson
chiefly in dispensing with the ordinary processes of the recitation room
question and answer, repetition, etc. The learners simply listen, or take
notes, while the lecturer reads or speaks, with or without illustrations by
means of the blackboard, maps, pictures, apparatus, etc. Lectures, as a
system of instruction, are chiefly depended on in higher education - in
colleges and universities, also in technical, scientific, and professional schools,
because the students are supposed to have acquired a considerable maturity
of intellect, enabling them not only to receive knowledge without exercises
specially designed to awaken attention or stimulate the understanding, but
to exercise their own faculties in arranging it in their minds for use, — in
other words, co-ordinating it with their previously acquired knowledge.
They are, besides, supposed to appreciate the importance of the information
communicated, so as not to need any special stimulus to self-activity. In
elementary instruction, all these conditions are reversed; and, therefore,
the lecture system is inappropriate at that stage. In middle schools (second-
ary instruction), lectures may be used with good effect, in connection, or
alternation, with the ordinary recitation processes. When the material
has been methodically arranged, and when the statements are definite and
precise, the language simple and forcible, and the style earnest, lectures may
be made to subserve a very useful purpose.
LIBERAL EDUCATION, literally, that which is suited to the
condition and wants of a freeman or a gentleman, that is, extending
beyond the practical necessities of life; hence, contrasted with a practical
education, or that which is designed to fit for mechanical or business pur-
suits. A liberal education embraces within its scope instruction in all
those branches which collectively are called the humanities (q. v.).
LIBRARIES constitute one of the most important instrumentalities
for stimulating the intellectual improvement of the people, as well as for
the mental and moral training of pupils in schools. The value of a school
library will depend upon the character of the books of which it is com-
posed, and the uses to which it is applied. A large and expensive collection
of books is not needed; but the books should be instructive and interesting
to children, so that through their perusal they may not only obtain useful
information, but imbibe a taste for reading. By this means, an antidote
may, in part at least, be applied to the influence of the trashy, exciting,
and sensational literature, which so greatly abounds at the present time,
and which is so apt to corrupt both the minds and morals of the young.
"A library is the indispensable supplement to the systematic mental
instruction given in the class-room. If, for instance, care be taken and
opportunities sought during the lessons in geography, history, or in any of
the departments of science, to introduce some little book from the library,
and to read a few interesting paragraphs illustrating the lesson, a brief
LICENSE
197
LOVE
notice and commendation of the book at the close of the exercise, with a
few hints as to how best to read it, will utilize many a valuable work that
might otherwise remain untouched upon the shelves. . . .. A teacher has
failed in one of the most important of all his functions, if, being in posses-
sion of a good school library, he has not fixed, in at least some of his
pupils, the habit and love of self-culture, by leading them to become
habitual readers".
LICENSE, Teacher's, a legal permission to give instruction, gener-
ally in a public school. This license is usually conferred after examination,
and attested by a certificate, either temporary or permanent, which is
evidence to employing school boards that the holder is a qualified teacher,
sometimes called a certificated teacher. The object of such a license to
teach is to protect the interests of the community against the evils arising
from the employment of incompetent persons by those who might not be
able to test the qualifications of applicants, or who might, from favoritism
or corrupt motives, be willing to employ as teachers persons not possessing
the requisite qualifications. In the United States, the requirement that
all teachers should be duly examined and licensed previous to appointment
is almost universal. The practice in regard to the mode of examination,
and the forms and grades of the certificate, varies considerably in the
different states, for information in regard to which, see the titles of the
states, respectively. In all an unqualified attestation of moral character
is required, in addition to literary and professional qualifications. (See
WALSH, The Lawyer in the School-Room, N. Y., 1871, s. v. The Law
as to the Teacher's Morality.)
LOVE, on the part of pupils for their teacher, is one of the most
essential elements of his success, just as antipathy constitutes an unsur-
mountable obstacle to the exertion of any important educational
Importance.influence. The first thing, therefore, which the educator should
strive to do is to win the affection of his pupils; if that is accomplished,
every thing else will be done without difficulty. It is of little use to address
merely the intellect of children. Their curiosity, it is true, can be excited,
their attention aroused, and the faculties of their minds, to a certain
extent, be developed and sharpened; but the real elements of character are
behind all this; and these cannot be affected in any important degree by
mere intellectual training. The heart the sensibilities and the will
must be reached; and the key to success in this, the greatest office of the
.educator, is love. When love for the teacher reigns in the bosom of his
pupil, there is entire confidence in him, a desire to obey him, to please
him, to listen to his precepts, to imitate his example, both in words and
in acts; indeed, by an inexplicable psychologic law, the pupil seems to be
bound to the teacher by a kind of magnetic chain, and is subject in every
thing to his will. Fear, on the other hand, repels, and thus
Fear. prevents the operation of that influence without which educa-
tional processes are, more or less, nugatory. The fear to do wrong, and of
the punishment which is to follow it, is not, however, inconsistent with a
love of the teacher. (See FEAR.) The latter must make himself, and the
authority which he wields, respected; or he will incur the contempt of his
pupils; and this is, of course, antagonistic to love. Children naturally
recognize authority, however much they may strive to evade or defy it;
198
MANNERS
LYCEUM
How to
and its just and rightful exercise does not interfere with their warmest
affections toward parents and teachers. Hence, love is not to be inspired
by making improper concessions to children, for these they
construe into weakness, which they despise. Minute directions
inspire
love. may be given for the winning of the pupil's affections, but
these would be either unnecessary or futile. Love on the part
of the teacher can alone produce love in the hearts of the pupils. He
cannot put on a semblance of affectionate regard for his pupils; he must
feel it. Children have naturally deep intuitions into character, and detect
hypocrisy almost instantly; hence they at once discern whether there is
any real affection in the mind of the teacher toward themselves, or only a
mere pretense. Love will show itself in his appearance, his words, his
manners; every tone of his voice will indicate it, if it exist, and the
pleasant smile beaming habitually from his countenance will, while making
his own labors pleasant and easy, make light the hardest tasks of his
pupils, by exciting their ambition and determination to accomplish it.
The teacher should, however, never forget the relation existing between
him and his pupils. "Some teachers", says Hart (In the School-Room,
Phila., 1868), "in avoiding a hard, repulsive manner, run to the opposite
extreme, and lose the respect of their scholars by undue familiarity.
Children do not expect you to become their playmate and fellow, before
giving you their love and confidence. Their native tendency is to look
up. They yearn to repose upon one superior to themselves”.
The ability to infuse a love of study into the minds of his pupils is the
characteristic of a thoroughly successful teacher. This is the basis of
diligence, which is but another name for love. "There is no higher
hygienic law", says Baldwin (School Management), "than to love with our
whole soul, and to work with all our might". (See DILIGENCE.)
LYCEUM (Gr. Avketov, named after the neighboring temple of Apollo,
kýkɛloç, a surname which is differently explained by Greek etymologists),
a gymnasium or public palestra with covered walks, in the eastern suburb
of Athens, where Aristotle and the philosophers of his school taught. In
England and in the United States, the word is not applied to any class of
schools, but is sometimes given to literary associations.
MANNERS, the genuine or simulated manifestations of disposition
towards each other, which occur in the intercourse of human beings. The
ordinary use of the word manners restricts it to those personal
Definition. and visible peculiarities of deportment which characterize the
intercourse mentioned. The agents commonly employed for this purpose
are the eye, the voice, language, and gestures. When persons are brought
together without previous knowledge of each other, or with no common
ground of taste or experience between them, custom has prescribed a
conventional code of formal manners, characterized as etiquette, which
serves to relieve the awkwardness of the situation. That this,
Etiquette. however, is temporary in character, and not intended to survive
its original uses, is evident from the fact, that after it has, in great measure,
been laid aside, any attempt to revive it, as the exclusive medium of kindly
expression, is regarded as a just cause for resentment. The fugitive character
of mere etiquette can never constitute it an equivalent for that abiding
MARKING
199
even
kindliness of disposition which finds expression in genuine politeness.
Manners, therefore, are more decidedly moral in their nature than a super-
ficial observation would lead us to suspect; hence the usual association of
"morals and manners". The basis of agreeable manners is that
Basis. humanity, or feeling of brotherhood, which, in a greater or less
degree, pervades the human race, and which every century, by its multi-
plied means of communication, is tending to extend and strengthen. It
is, therefore, essentially Christian; and pleasant manners may be regarded,
not as an accomplishment merely, but as one of the legitimate ends of a
thorough education. In social intercourse, agreeable manners are far more
powerful than intellectual accomplishments; while the displeasure produced
by rude manners often neutralizes moral worth, and renders mental acqui-
sitions, however great, comparatively useless. Momentous issues
the destiny of a lifetime may hang upon the apparently unimportant
question of manners. To educate thoroughly, therefore, and neglect the
means by which that education is to be made effective, is self-evident folly.
Beyond the ordinary rules of etiquette, no set rules can be given for the
production of good manners; since, in addition to the moral basis above
referred to, they are largely dependent upon temperament; but, no precept
is half so powerful in the furtherance of this end, as the daily
example. example of the teacher, the parents, or other persons with whom
the pupil is brought into daily contact. The indirect though
constant insistence upon the claims of every individual to respect and
kindly attention, which results in a practical recognition of this by the pu-
pil, together with the daily example referred to, constitute, perhaps, the
most effective method for the grafting of agreeable manners on the conduct
of the pupil. (See MORAL EDUCATION.)
Force of
MARKING, as a means of briefly and definitely stating or register-
ing the character of the recitations or examinations of pupils, is one
of the most important of the teacher's instrumentalities, if
Object. justly and judiciously employed. Although the pupil is not to
receive the impression that he is to study merely to obtain good marks,
but for the benefits to be derived from the study itself; yet, in the imma-
ture development of motives in the child's mind, secondary motives or
special incentives are usually indispensable, in order to stimulate to exer-
tion or arouse ambition. These secondary incentives are to be used by
the teacher with great care, avoiding excess and watching their influence
upon the pupil's mind, for different dispositions are affected by them in
very different ways.
Marking, in the hands of a judicious teacher, is a great help, and when
kept within due limits, is as salutary to the pupil as it is useful to the
teacher. Still it should never be regarded as other than an
Special
value. expedient, and as subordinate to the creation of the true mo-
tives. Its special value is in the definiteness with which it
records (1) the character and value of the pupil's work, (2) his standing as
compared with other pupils, and (3) the approval or disapproval of the
teacher. This very definiteness, however, may be the means of great
injury, if it is not applied with strict justice. When its appli-
How to be cation is based on correct principles or criteria known to both
applied. teacher and pupils, and these principles are strictly adhered to,
200
MATHEMATICS
without the least partiality, the marking system is divested of most of the
objections which have been urged against it; because, while it presents a
definite recognition and reward of merit and success, it does not absolutely
discourage the less deserving and talented.
An absolute standard of excellence or proficiency is, on the whole, to
be preferred to a varying one; since while the latter, recognizing the
diversities of talent among the pupils, and being based on the
Standard. moral consideration of diligence and effort, is more just in itself
as a criterion of merit, it nevertheless can by no means give as good satis-
faction to the pupils as the former, which recognizes only the actual
achievement of the pupil, without regard to diversities in intellectual
endowment. The latter cannot be considered by the pupils; nor is it safe
to treat one class of pupils as if they were incapacitated to perform the
same tasks as their school-mates of the same grade or class, since that, in
itself, would be a degradation and a discouragement. It is better to let
them learn this fact by experience in competing with the more talented
for the attainment of a common standard.
The teacher is not to degenerate into a mere "marking machine" in
the use of this system. While employing it for the purpose of justly


to the
recording the success or failure, merit or demerit, of his pupils,
Caution he is to encourage, to aid by explanation, sometimes specially
directed to the inferior minds, and thus strive to equalize the
teacher. difficulties to be mastered. Before all things he must study his
pupils, and be guided by their respective traits of character. To this the
marking should be subsidiary.
The scale most frequently adopted for marking is that of percentage,
100 indicating the highest degree of merit or excellence; and perhaps this
is the most convenient for the purpose. See BALDWIN, Art of School
Management (N. Y., 1881).
MATHEMATICS. - The term mathematics is the Latin word
mathematica, or the Greek word μavnμaтiká, anglicized. The Greek word
was derived from μavávw, to learn; whence μávnois, learn-
Definition. ing. Both the Greeks and the Romans used the word muthe-
matica as we do the word mathematics. The use of the plural form in-
dicates that this department of human knowledge was formerly considered
not as a single branch, but as a group of several branches, much as we use
the phrase the mathematical sciences. This group of sciences is subdivided
into pure mathematics and mixed, or applied, mäthematics. In
Classi-
this article we are concerned mainly with the former.
fication.
branches of pure mathematics are arithmetic, algebra, the cal-
culus, and geometry. In this classification, the calculus is made to include
the infinitesimal calculus, the calculus of finite differences, and the calcu-
lus of variations; while geometry includes the common or special geom-
etry, general (analytic) geometry, descriptive geometry, trigonometry,
conic sections, and the new science of quaternions.
-The
No attempt to give a philosophical definition of the department of
knowledge embraced under the term mathematics, has as yet been so success-
What the ful as to be generally accepted. The statement that "mathe-
term matics is the science of quantity" is often flippantly repeated as
embraces. a definition, but it can scarcely serve for that purpose.
Comte
MATHEMATICS
201
defines mathematical science, as the science which has for "its object
the indirect measurement of magnitudes, and constantly proposes to
determine certain magnitudes from others, by means of the precise
relations existing between them". It is not a little singular that, while this
great thinker rules geometry out of the realm of pure mathematics, he
bases his definition of the science exclusively on the geometrical conception.
That he does so is especially apparent in the discussion from which he de-
duces the definition. Moreover, it is not clear how the abstract principles
of the science can be included in this definition. Such propositions as,
"The product of the multiplicand and the multiplier is equal to the sum
of the products of the parts of the multiplicand into the multiplier";
"The root of the product of several quantities equals the product of their
like roots"; "The bisector of any angle of a triangle divides the opposite
side into segments which are proportional to the adjacent sides"; etc., are
scarcely embraced in Comte's definition without an unjustifiable extension
of the signification of its terms. We propose the following definition:
Pure mathematics is a general term applied to several branches of science
which have for their object the investigation of the properties and relations
of quantity comprehending number, and magnitude as the result of ex-
tension- and of form. It will be observed that this definition embraces
that of Comte, inasmuch as the measurement of quantities, or the determi-
nation of unknown from known quantities, is effected by an investigation of
their relations; but, on the other hand, we can scarcely say that all investiga-
tions of the relations of quantities are for the purposes of measurement, or
of determining unknown quantities from known.
But the chief purpose of this article is to inquire as to the place which
mathematical studies should occupy in our courses of elementary instruction.
In such an inquiry, the leading considerations are, (I) For what
education. purpose should these studies be pursued in such courses?
(II) To what extent should they be pursued? and (III) What
general principles should govern our methods of teaching?


Place in
I. Mathematical studies should be pursued in elementary schools pri-
marily as a means of mental discipline. Notwithstanding all that Sir Will-
Obser-
vation.
iam Hamilton has said, and the formidable array of names which
Mental
he adduces in support of his views, it may still be claimed that
discipline.
there is no single line of study pursued in schools, which develops
the mind in so many ways, and is so well adapted to every stage of mental
growth, as mathematical studies. It has been asserted, and quite generally
conceded, that the power of observation is not developed by
mathematical studies; while the truth is, that, from the most
elementary mathematical notion which arises in the mind of a
child to the farthest verge to which mathematical investigation has been
pushed and applied, this power is in constant exercise. By observation, as
here used, can only be meant the fixing of the attention upon objects (phys-
ical or mental) so as to note distinctive peculiarities — to recognize resem-
blances, differences, and other relations. Now, the first mental act of the
child recognizing the distinction between one and more than one, between
one and two, two and three, etc., is exactly this. So, again, the first geomet-
rical notions are as pure an exercise of this power as can be given. To
know a straight line, to distinguish it from a curve; to recognize a triangle
202
MATHEMATICS
and distinguish the several forms - what are these, and all perceptions of
form, but a series of observations? Nor is it alone in securing these fun-
damental conceptions of number and form that observation plays so im-
portant a part. The very genius of the common geometry as a method of
reasoning a system of investigation is, that it is but a series of obser-
vations. The figure being before the eye in actual representation, or before
the mind in conception, is so closely scrutinized, that all its distinctive
features are perceived; auxiliar lines are drawn (the imagination leading
in this), and a new series of inspections is made; and thus, by means of
direct, simple observations, the investigation proceeds. So characteristic
of the common geometry is this method of investigation, that Comte, per-
haps the ablest of all writers upon the philosophy of mathematics, is disposed
to class geometry, as to its methods, with the natural sciences, as being
based upon observation. Moreover, when we consider applied mathematics,
we need only to notice that the exercise of this faculty is so essential, that
the basis of all such reasoning, the very materials with which we build,
have received the name observations. Thus we might proceed to consider
the whole range of the human faculties, and find for most of them ample
scope for exercise in mathematical studies. Certainly, the memory
Memory. will not be found to be neglected. The very first steps in
number, counting, the multiplication table, etc., make heavy demands on
this power; while the higher branches require the memorizing of formulas
which are simply appalling to the uninitiated. So the imagi-
Imagination, the creative faculty of the mind, has constant exercise in
all original mathematical investigation, from the solution of the
simplest problem to the discovery of the most recondite principle; for it is
not by sure, consecutive steps, as many suppose, that we advance from the
known to the unknown. The imagination, not the logical faculty, leads in
this advance. In fact, practical observation is often in advance of logical
exposition. Thus, in the discovery of truth, the imagination habitually
presents hypotheses, and observation supplies facts, which it may require
ages for the tardy reason to connect logically with the known. Of this
truth, mathematics, as well as all other sciences, affords abundant illus-
trations. So remarkably true is this, that to-day it is seriously questioned
by the majority of thinkers, whether the sublimest branch of mathematics
and
the infinitesimal calculus - has any thing more than an empirical
foundation, mathematicians themselves not being agreed as to its logical
basis. That the imagination, and not the logical faculty, leads in all
original investigation, no one who has ever succeeded in producing an
original demonstration of one of the simpler propositions of geometry, can
have any doubt. Nor are induction, analogy, the scrutinizing
Induction of premises or the search for them, or the balancing of proba-
analogy. bilities, spheres of mental operation foreign to mathematics. No
one, indeed, can claim a pre-eminence for mathematical studies
in all these departments of intellectual culture, but it may, perhaps, be
claimed that scarcely any department of science affords discipline to so
great a number of faculties, and that none presents so complete a gradation
in its exercise of these faculties, from the first principles of the science to
the farthest extent of it's application, as mathematics. There are, however,
two respects in which, probably, special pre-eminence may be claimed for
MATHEMATICS
203
mathematics as a disciplinary study; namely, training the mind to the
habit of forming clear and definite conceptions, and, of clothing these con-
ceptions in exact and perspicuous language. This pre-eminence
Conception. arises, in part, from the fact that, in this branch of knowledge,
the terms convey exactly the same meaning to all minds. Thus, there can
be no difference between the conceptions which different persons have of
five, six, a straight line, a circle, a perpendicular, a product, a square root;
or of the statements, that 3 and 5 make 8, that the sum of the angles of a
plane triangle is two right angles, etc. The conception in each case is
definite, and the language may be perfectly clear. That this is not so in
most other sciences, no one needs to be told. Can we be sure that all have
the same conception of the metaphysical terms idea, perception, reason?
Can any one discriminate infallibly between an adjective and an adverb;
between downy, hirsute, and pubescent? Are the conceptions designed to
be conveyed by the terms schistose, fissile, slaty, laminar, foliated,
squamose, so distinct that no two mineralogists will ever interchange them?
Is the meaning of a Greek text always unequivocal? Is it an easy matter
for any two persons to get exactly the same conception of the causes which
led to a certain political revolution; can either be absolutely certain, from
any language which he can use, that no one will mistake his conception?
That the habit of mind which rests satisfied only with clear and definite
conceptions, and the power of speech which is able to clothe such concep-
tions in language perfectly unmistakable, are most important attainments,
need not be argued; and these are exactly the ends which mathematical
studies, properly pursued, are adapted to secure. In this hasty review,
nothing has been said directly of these studies as a means of
Reasoning. developing the reasoning faculties, since it is generally conceded
that pure mathematics is practical logic, and that pupils, who do not learn
to reason by their study of mathematics, fail of the most important end of
such study.



value.
Doubtless, the common answer to the question, Why should mathe-
matical studies be pursued in schools, would be, for their practical value;
by which is meant, their direct application to the affairs of life,
Practical as in reckoning bills, computing interest, measuring distances, vol-
umes, areas, etc. It is, indeed, true, that in the every-day affairs
of life, to the accountant, and to the man of business, a certain amount of
arithmetical knowledge is essential that surveying, civil engineering,
mechanics, navigation, geography, and astronomy, are based on geometry.
But, let it be observed, that only a special few practice the arts last
named, and that for the masses embraced in the former specifications, a
very limited amount of arithmetical knowledge is all that they are required
to apply. And still further, while it is, indeed, necessary that the business
man should be able to add, subtract, multiply, divide, and compute inter-
est, skill in these operations can never form the basis of practical success
in life, except in the case of mere clerks. Many of the most sagacious
business men would make wretched work with their ledger columns, and
they know too well their own deficiencies to risk themselves in any impor-
tant numerical computations. Indeed, the elements of practical success in
life are quite other than a specific knowledge of any branch of science
whatever, however indispensable a certain amount of such knowledge may
204
MATHEMATICS
+
be in particular callings. The conclusion, therefore, is that the important
point is not, how much mathematical knowledge can be crammed into
the minds of pupils, but by what methods of teaching and study such
habits of mind can be secured, as will make the pupils most efficient in
performing the duties of life.
II. What place should mathematical studies occupy in the course of
study? Were we to judge from the practice of most schools, we should
conclude that mathematical studies ought to occupy from one-third to one-
half of the pupil's time throughout his school life, unless, indeed, a slight
exception is to be made in favor of other studies for the last two years of
a college course; that is, that reading, spelling, writing, geography,
grammar, history, literature, rhetoric, logic, the whole domain of natural
science, including the physical constitution of the human system, chemistry,
languages, metaphysics, political economy, all these, and whatever else
goes to make up the furniture, and secure the discipline, of a well-cultivated
mind, are only to receive as great, or at most twice as great, a part of the
pupil's time, as his mathematical studies. And this is no exaggeration, as
will be obvious from an inspection of the curriculum of a graded school,
school
course.
or college. For the first six or seven years of the ordinary
Public graded public school course, if we include the oral lessons, in
number and form, of the lowest grade, arithmetic forms one of
the three main studies for the entire course; and, in not a few
cases, there are two arithmetical exercises, one in mental (oral), and one in
written arithmetic, or one in arithmetic and another in algebra, each day,
constituting, in such cases, fully one-half of the school work.
During the entire course of the high or preparatory school,
school. either algebra, higher arithmetic, or geometry constitutes one
of the studies, except for a part of one year; but this exception is much
more than made up by the large relative amount of time which the
pupil's mathematical studies usually occupy, and by the fact that not
unfrequently some two of these studies are pursued at the same time. In
High
course.
the college course, one of the three regular studies for the first
College two years is, almost invariably, mathematics. So far, reference
has been had exclusively to pure mathematics, including only
arithmetic, algebra, and perhaps a little of general (analytical) geometry
and the calculus. Whatever of applied mathematics, including surveying,
mechanics, astronomy, etc., is to be studied, must find additional time in
the course. The question then arises, can the legitimate purposes for
which mathematical studies should be pursued, be secured in any less time?
In order to answer this, let us observe the exact proportion of time usually
given to the pure mathematics in a course of training extend-
Time given ing through the ordinary college course. Arithmetic has from
to mathe- one-half to one-third of the pupil's time in the elementary
schools. In the high-school or academic course, to obtain any
creditable knowledge of algebra, geometry, and plane trigonometry, and to
review the arithmetic, at least one-third of the time is consumed. Passing
into the college with this knowledge of mathematics, the student finds
one-third of the time, for the first two years, scarcely adequate to secure a
respectable knowledge of higher algebra, geometry, and trigonometry, the
elements of the general geometry, and the infinitesimal calculus; and
matics.

MATHEMATICS
205
whatever of applied mathematics is learned, as of surveying, mathematical
drawing, mechanics, astronomy, etc., must find a place in the other two
years of the college course. Now, all this is simply inevitable, unless relief
can be found in the course prior to entrance upon college work. If, how-
ever, the inordinate demands of arithmetic can be so abridged (see
ARITHMETIC), that the grammar school course shall include, at least,
eighteen months' study introductory to algebra and geometry, the high
school can save this time for other studies, and also secure such thorough-
ness in preparation, that the student's course in college will be far more
rapid and satisfactory than at present. With the quality of preparation
now secured, it should be borne in mind, that the student comes to college
having, it is true, been over the requisite amount, but with so little of the
real strength and knowledge which that course should impart, that, if he
does justice to his mathematical studies for the first two years, nearer one-
half than one-third of his time is consumed upon them. By rigidly con-
fining the study of elementary arithmetic to its proper domain, giving a
year in the grammar school to an introduction to algebra, and half a year
to the definitions and facts of plane geometry, the pupil may come to the
high school so thoroughly prepared in the elements of the three great
mathematical studies, arithmetic, algebra, and geometry, that between
two and three years in the high school will be amply sufficient to secure
such further proficiency in these branches as is consistent with the course
here marked out. Moreover, if the pupil's school life closes with the
grammar school, the course thus secured will be of far more value to him
in after life, both for practical uses and as a discipline, than the ordinary
one. (SEE ARITHMETIC, ALGEBRA, and GEOMETRY.)


The
calculus.
In the above, it will be observed, that the general geometry and the
infinitesimal calculus are included in the college course. The elements of
the former are usually required, although it is quite common
(for no good reason) to make the latter elective. By omitting
the calculus, the graduate leaves college without ever having
looked into one of the sublimest departments of human knowledge, or
having even the remotest idea of the language and methods of the mechan-
ics and astronomy of the day, or being able to read an advanced treatise
upon any scientific subject as treated by the modern mathematician. Nor
can the beauty and power of the general geometry be appreciated without
a knowledge of the calculus. Thus the pupil who is allowed, at his option,
to leave this out of his course, leaves college a hundred years behind his
time, in one of the leading departments of human knowledge.
III. What general principles should govern our methods of teach-
ing mathematics? - This topic has been quite fully treated in the separate
articles ARITHMETIC, ALGEBRA, and GEOMETRY, to which reference is made.
It is proper to add here, that, from first to last, the methods
Methods. should be such as will give absolutely clear perceptions and
conceptions, and secure facility, accuracy, and elegance in expression.
These ends are of vastly more practical importance than the mere ability
"to get the answer" of special problems. The notion which prevails
among some teachers, that if the pupil learns the process, and becomes
expert in it, he has obtained every thing that is essential, and that, what-
ever of the rationale may be desirable will be, in some way, induced by

206
MEMORY
MATRICULATE

this mechanical process, is an exceedingly vicious one.
In the first place,
it is far more important that the pupil should be able to comprehend the
logic, and to express his ideas in intelligible language than
Culture. merely to solve any number of problems, since the former ability
he will have occasion to use every day of his life, while he may never need
the latter at all. But we are not driven to the alternative of securing
culture at the expense of mechanical skill; the very best means to acquire
expertness in mathematical manipulations is that which secures the best
results in culture. No greater intellectual monstrosity probably ever pre-
sents itself than he who is usually known as a mathematical genius; that
is, one who has a wonderful ability to do what nobody else can do, or cares
to do - to solve knotty and often senseless mathematical problems. On
the contrary, the object of mathematical study should be to develop men
with cultured minds, not to make them mere computing machines.
MATRICULATE (Lat. matricula, a public roll or register), to admit
to membership in a college or university, by enrollment.
MEMORIZING, committing to memory, or, as it is sometimes
called, learning by heart, generally implies repetition or rote-learning;
though it need not be without an understanding of what is memorized.
The law of repetition has an important application in many processes of
instruction that are addressed, wholly or in part, to the memory. The
mere memorizing of words and sentences, in order to produce a show of
knowledge is a great abuse. Children may, however, be required to com-
mit to memory some statements which they do not perfectly understand,
such complete understanding requiring a more mature degree of intellect-
ual development. "No doubt", says Calderwood (On Teaching, Edin.,
1874), “all children must commit to memory a good many things they do
not rightly understand. Such storing of the memory belongs less or more
to all study". This is the view also of Thring (Education and School,
London, 1864): "There should be a clear perception how far it is wise to
explain, and to proceed on the principle of making a boy thoroughly
understand his lessons, and how far they should be looked on as a mere
collecting of material and a matter of memory. It must be borne in mind
that, with the young, memory is strong, and logical perception weak.
teaching should start on this undoubted fact. It sounds very fascinating
to talk about understanding every thing, learning every thing thoroughly,
and all those broad phrases, which plump down on a difficulty, and hide
it. Put in practice, they are about on a par with exhorting a boy to
mind he does not go into the water until he can swim." The method
referred to in this citation is the other extreme from mechanical word
memorizing, and while not as injurious, or as likely to be adopted, is
equally unphilosophical. The extent to which memorizing is to be carried,
and the branches of instruction to which it is to be applied, constitute
important subjects for the exercise of the teacher's judgment and intelli-
gence. (See CONCERT TEACHING, MEMORY, and ROTE-TEACHING.)
All
MEMORY is often represented as a distinct faculty of the mind; but
this may do harm in education. The mind is one, and has no separate
faculties distinct from each other, the term faculty being used
How to be merely for the sake of convenience. It is important to turn
regarded. away from this mode of conception, and to look at the phe-
MEMORY
207
the mind
nomena as they arise in the mind. An object and a mind come into
connection. What is the result? An impression is produced on the
mind, or more correctly the mind forms an impression of the object.
What becomes of this impression? A new object presents itself, and then
the impression disappears before the new impression which the mind forms
of the new object. Has the former impression disappeared altogether?
No. We believe that, in some way or other, it still remains in the mind.
If a similar object were to come before the mind, it would be conscious
that it had formed an impression of it before, and the two impressions
would blend into one. We have here, then, a peculiar power of
Power of the mind to retain what it has once had; and this power does
to retain. not apply merely to perceptions or other intellectual acts, but
to feelings and desires. A longing for an object has been
aroused within us. The longing is displaced for a time by some other
pressing passion. But the longing is still in the mind; and when the
appropriate causes of excitation occur, the longing will come back, and, it
may be, blend with the new longing which helps to awaken it, or repel the
new longing which has aroused it by contrast. This then is the first
feature of memory. The soul has the power of retaining feelings, voli-
tions, perceptions, and thoughts. The question has been raised, can these
feelings, volitions, and thoughts entirely and absolutely vanish from the
mind? A categorical answer caunot, from the nature of the case, be given
to this question; but, certain facts render it likely that the mind retains
every thing, and that it is merely the power of resuscitation which is
defective. Many circumstances which seem to have been entirely for-
gotten, are, under peculiar conditions, recalled to the memory. It is said
that often, when persons have been drowning, they have seen, as in a rapid
vision, their past life in multitudinous details which they had entirely for-
gotten. People, in diseases of the brain, have remembered languages,
which they had learned in early days, but which they seemed to have lost
completely. Facts like these point to the indestructibility of that which
has once had a place in the soul.

tion.
But, besides the power of retention, there is the other power of repro-
duction; and it is to this power that the educator has to direct his at-
tention. What are the means of strengthening the reproductive
Power of power of the minds of children? We have to look at the con-
reproduc- ditions of its exercise; and, in this connection, we must consider
the four following principles: (I) It is plain that the impression
will be reproducible in proportion to the strength and vivacity with which
it is first made. This strength depends partly on the natural capacity
of the child, partly on whether the stimulus in the object is such as
to produce a strong impression. The educational inferences from this
/statement are numerous. Thus it follows that wherever a real object
can be presented to a child, it should be used in preference to any
picture of it, and that a picture of it is better than a mere verbal descrip-
tion. Moreover, if more than one sense can be employed, so much the
better. If any object is to be remembered, the child will remember more
easily, if he can touch, smell, or taste it, as well as see it. This arises
partly from the fact that these direct sensations produce strong impressions,
but partly also from what we call our second principle of memory. (II)

208
MEMORY
Every means should be used to concentrate the attention on the object.
If we wish to make a child remember an object, the object must be allowed
to lie before the child's eye or mind for some time. In the perception of
every object the process is somewhat as follows: the perception or sen-
sation has first to displace the preceding perception or sensation. It then
gathers strength and occupies for a time the whole mind. But, soon after,
another object of perception or of thought presents itself; and the mind
will occupy itself with this. This new perception will weaken, and finally
expel, the other. Each perception is connected with two other perceptions
or mental acts with the one which it expels and the one by which it is
expelled. Now, the power of reproducing the mental act depends not
merely on the strength with which the act is executed at its central moment,
but also on the strength of the connections which it may form with the
antecedent and subsequent acts; and this strength depends partly on the
time and attention with which they can be kept together in the mind; for,
in every mental act, there are subsidiary simultaneous acts which scarcely
reach the point of consciousness. For instance, when I examine a house,
there is some slight perception of the intermediate space between me and
the house, of the objects, such as trees, which may be in that space, and of
the sky which is overhead. These pass from the one definite perception
to the other, and in a latent state help to recall the one, when we get the
other. The strength of the connection is increased, if there be a natural
connection between the two mental acts, such as that of cause and effect,
means and end, or if there be some points of resemblance between them,
or some points of contrast. But, in all cases, time must be given to let
these points of resemblance or contrast flow over, as it were, from the
one to the other. The danger to which the educator is here exposed,
is that of attempting to do too much and, therefore, doing what he does
too hurriedly. He must be patient. He must try to intensify the
impression by allowing the various senses to deal with it, and he can
thus concentrate attention longer on it than he could otherwise do. And
he must, as far as possible, bring only two objects or two ideas at a
time before the pupil's mind. These should be held together for some
time; and they should, if it is possible, be naturally connected. Of course,
there are occasions in which this is neither possible nor advantageous.
There are some occasions in which the teacher must pass over a good deal
of matter in a short time. He does not wish his pupil to remember the
whole, nor would it be good for the pupil to do so; but these cases should
be limited to those of necessity. And a warning should be given against the
danger of indulging too much in reading books which, awakening the in-
terest strongly and thus disturbing the nervous system, do not demand of
the reader an accurate recollection. This is specially true of novels. The
frequent and rapid reading of these works, in which the reader has no stim-
ulus and no occasion to remember the incidents accurately, fills the mind
with a great number of vague memories. These memories render indistinct
what ought to be distinct, for they abstract so much of the valuable
that the mind possesses for reproduction; and the habit of reading with-
power
out caring to remember, is apt to transfer itself to the books and acts
which ought to have the closest attention. (III) There must be fre-
quent repetition. An object or thought is reproducible easily, when it

MEMORY
209
has been made to occupy a large space in the mind. The power of repro-
duction is limited by time, and the mind can only reproduce within cer-
tain limits in this respect. If, therefore, an object is to be reproduced,
the faded impression must be renewed; and the renewal of the impression
strengthens its hold. It is thus that a fact may become indelibly imprinted
on the memory. The value of the repetition cannot be overestimated, but
great care must be taken not to make it wearisome. (IV) The power
of reproduction greatly depends on the state of the health. That there
is a very close connection between this power and the body, is proved
most conclusively by the numerous instances collected by Dr. Abercrombie,
in which abnormal states of the brain were accompanied by abnormal
developments of memory. When, therefore, a child forgets, it must not
be always attributed to carelessness. A child learns a word on Monday,
and knows it with perfect accuracy; but when he comes, on Tuesday morn-
ing, to repeat it, he finds he cannot. In all probability, the impression
was too weak to last a whole day, and to resist the many and more inter-
esting ideas which have intervened; but the lesson is not lost. The orig-
inal impression is there; the teacher patiently and pleasantly renews the
impression; and the old blends with the new, and strengthens, until repe-
tition fixes it in the mind forever. But it may be merely a temporary
suspension of the child's power of reproduction, in consequence of illness;
and there is no surer sign of latent disease than when a child, generally
ready and quick, stumbles and forgets. Some physiologists go the length
of affirming that, owing to the freshness of the nervous system, the exer-
cise of the memory should be assigned to the morning; while other men-
tal efforts, such as those of imagination, should be reserved for the evening.
These four principles lead not only to the power of reproduction, but to
the power of ready and accurate reproduction. In order that the mem-
ory may embrace a wide range of subjects, it is essential that the mind
should devote itself to such a range of subjects. The power of reprodu-
cing a subject depends upon the frequency and strength with which it has
come before the mind. It is, therefore, not quite correct to say, that a
person has a good or a bad memory. Every one has many kinds of mem-
ory. If he has exercised his mind in words, he will remem-
Specific ber words; if he has given much attention to numbers, he will
Memory. remember numbers; if to any other class of ideas, he will re-
member such ideas. But, however great bis practice in numbers may be,
that practice will not enable him to remember words; and the converse is
also true. The teacher must carefully exercise the pupil in each group of
notions, if he expects him to remember them readily and accurately. Per-
haps, one of the questions which deserve careful consideration
What in education is what ought to be forgotten. The human mind
ought to be is limited in its range, and cannot reproduce every thing.
forgotten. Ought it to put into its store-house any thing that it cannot
hope to reproduce? We think that it ought. Where the aim is to pro-
duce in the pupil a clear idea or notion, many particulars must be ad-
duced which, studied attentively for a short time, will render the notion
clear and distinct; but it is not necessary that the mind should retain all
these particulars. This is the case, for instance, in geography. In order
to form a correct notion of a country, many particulars must be carefully

:
210
MINERALOGY
METHODICS

weighed; but, after the notion has been attained, the pupil will wisely
drop a great deal of the knowledge which he has temporarily mastered,
deeming it enough to know where he can get the knowledge when he
wants it. Again, when the object is to inculcate a great principle of
action, the same course may be pursued. If, for example, a teacher wishes
to impress upon his pupils the true idea of toleration, he may choose many
incidents in history to bring it home to their minds, and may go into the
minutest details of these incidents in order to awaken interest; but he
succeeds in his purpose, if he leaves a strong and accurate general im-
pression, even though the pupil forgets most of the details which have been
given him. The power of forgetfulness is one that can also be directed,
as well as the power of reproduction. It is, indeed, true that the greater
the effort to forget any thing, the more surely is it impressed on the mem-
ory; but this holds true mainly in those matters in which there is a
strong personal element; and just as a man who sleeps in a room where a
clock strikes can make up his mind not to take any notice of the striking
of the clock in his sleep, so, in the impersonal matters of the intellect, we
can make up our minds to let such and such facts fall into oblivion. Kant
distinguished memory as the mechanical, the ingenious, and the judicious.
The mechanical is employed when the only bond of connection
Committing is, that the two things are in the mind at the same time, the
to memory. one immediately succeeding the other. This is what is called
committing to memory, or learning by heart. Such kind of memory must
be frequently used in early education. It is important for the teacher to
note its character. It depends on simultaneity and succession, and any dis-
turbance of these circumstances disturbs the memory.

METHODICS. See DIDACTICS.
MINERALOGY. Under the head of mineral substances, or those
which constitute the mineral kingdom, are included all inorganic bodies;
that is to say, by strict definition, all substances that are not the products
of life. While in its severely scientific aspects this subject properly belongs
to advanced education, as a sequel to other departments of science, yet as
embracing the study of natural objects, it may, like botany, be pursued as
a branch of elementary object instruction. When taught in this
education. way, and primarily as a means of cultivating the observing fac-
ulties, the same principles should guide it as one applicable to
that kind of teaching; and especially should the teacher endeavor to lead
the pupil to discover for himself the qualities of every specimen examined,
and impart nothing that can be thus discovered. The pupil will then
search for similar specimens, and be able to write out their characteristics.
Place in
system.
↑
The schedule system is applicable to this subject as well as to
Schedule botany. (See BOTANY.) Thus a regular formula should be
adopted, noting form, structure, cleavage, hardness, weight,
color, luster, etc.; and every term should be carefully explained as an
addendum to the pupil's observation. A small cabinet of mineralogical
specimens is an almost indispensable requisite for carrying on this instruc-
tion. Minerals, regarded merely as the materials of which the earth's
crust is composed, offer examples of so many physical properties that come
under the cognizance of the senses, either unaided or aided by the simplest
experiments, that they afford excellent material for this kind of teaching.
MISCHIEVOUSNESS
211
They present these properties in the simplest conditions, uncomplicated,
as in vegetable or animal materials, by the effects of vitality; and they
are superior to artificial objects for objective teaching, because, if
Objective rightly used, they may be made to elucidate all that can be elu-
teaching. cidated by the former, whilst they become, in addition, founda-
tion stones upon which a more advanced and scientific study may be satis-
factorily based. In this manner, they may be used to inculcate, in its most
elementary form, a scientific method of research. Thus, by means of the
physical characters of minerals, observation, accurate as far as our unaided
senses can make it, and exactness of thought, and consequently of speech,
may be cultivated in regard to external form, internal structure, color,
diaphaneity, luster, hardness, tenacity, fracture, etc. Observations, element-
ary it is true, but still of a fundamental character, regarding specific gravity,
solubility, and fusibility, may be induced by simple experiments with the
balance, the test-tube, and the blowpipe. Such knowledge, acquired from
the common minerals around us, will undoubtedly be a valuable stepping-
stone to further acquisitions. At a later stage, if practicable, instruction
in the use of the blowpipe might be made to yield a further insight into
simple chemical phenomena, and, if carried far enough, might be made an
excellent starting-point for systematic scientific investigation by analysis.
In connection with mineralogy, attention should be given to lithology,
or the science of mineral aggregates, or rocks. This subject presents many
points of interest both from a scientific and an educational point
Lithology. of view; and in its connections, on the one hand, with geology,
and, on the other, with mineralogy, affords the materials for practical
study as well as useful mental culture, thus constituting an element of both
technical and liberal education. The works necessary to the general reader
for reference on topics of mineralogy and lithology are few; and those only
are here named that are perfectly accessible. See Cyclopædia of Education.
MISCHIEVOUSNESS, as applied to the disposition of a child, or
school pupil, is the occasional transgression of an established rule in a play-
ful spirit, but without a malicious intention. This disposition is usually
the result of the union of humor, or love of fun, with sound bodily health.
The exuberance of spirits thus produced generally finds vent in actions
which are denominated mischievous. This spirit is so widely different
from the willful breaking of rules with an evil intent, that the easy sup-
pression of a continued exhibition of it rests entirely with the teacher; the
good nature with which the mischievous act is accompanied generally caus-
ing the perpetrator to desist on a slight warning. To bring the mis-
chievous spirit under speedy control, two qualities only are necessary in
the teacher: quick discernment of its real nature, and tact in correcting
it. The want of these sometimes leads to needless irritation on both sides,
and may end disastrously to the teacher's influence, and, through that, to
the discipline of the school. If, on the other hand, the good humor of the
transgressor is met by a similar feeling on the part of the teacher, the task
of correction is usually easy, and causes no offense; while, in the end, it
secures a respectful obedience on the part of the pupil. If, however, the
mischievous disposition is not corrected in this way, it may lead to vicious
habits, which will tend to undermine, or permanently deprave the moral

character.
212
MODERN LANGUAGES
MODEL SCHOOLS
MODEL SCHOOLS, a term usually applied to schools of practice
annexed to normal schools, or teachers' seminaries.
MODERN LANGUAGES, in the literal and widest sense of the
term, are the languages now in use, in contradistinction to those which
were formerly spoken, but are now extinct. Taken in this sense, the term
embraces the mother-tongue, in which the home education of the
The mother child is conducted, the national or ruling language of the country,
tongue.
which is the medium of instruction in the schools, and the living
languages of foreign nations. It is the general tendency of the age, to
make a thorough knowledge of the national language the center and the
chief aim of all school instruction; though it has been demanded, from an
educational point of view, that wherever the mother-tongue of a large
portion of the inhabitants of a country is different from that of the national
language, its claims should not be ignored. The admission of modern
foreign languages into a regular course of instruction is of
Foreign comparatively recent date, and the credit of having first obtained
languages.
this recognition belongs to the French language. Until very
recently, French has enjoyed, in this respect, an acknowledged superiority
over any other language of the globe; and it is but recently that English
and German have to any considerable extent begun to compete with it.
At present, French, English, and German are studied all over the world, as
the chief representatives of modern culture. The Italian language is
learned by many of the students of fine arts and of music in preference to
any of the three principal modern languages; but more in courses of
private instruction than in schools.
Since modern languages have come to be studied on a much more
extended scale than the classical, a great variety of methods have been
proposed. The authors of some of these methods are by no
Methods. means distinguished for modesty, and do not hesitate to declare
all former modes of instruction absolutely useless, as having been wholly
superseded by their own. In most cases, they have wholly forgotten that
the method of teaching and learning a modern language must, to a very
great extent, be dependent upon the purpose for which it is learned. If
the student chiefly aims to acquire the ability to express his thoughts in
the language of another person belonging to a foreign nation, the methods
which make conversation the basis of instruction will justly commend
themselves to the attention of the instructor. When a foreign language
is learned as a means of understanding the literature of a particular
nation, an early knowledge of the inflectional part of the language, of all
its peculiarities in etymology and syntax, and of its vocabulary, will be
felt as an urgent want; and grammar lessons connected with translating
exercises, will form the chief means of instruction. In the combination of
grammar and translation, every possible method has been tried: the strictly
synthetical, which starts from the parts of speech, and teaches them singly,
before proceeding to a regular system of translations; the strictly analytical,
which begins with the analysis of foreign sentences, and from them, by
degrees, derives the knowledge of grammatical forms; and the synthetico-
analytical, or analytico-synthetical, which, from the first, endeavors to
combine instruction in the grammatical structure with practice in using
the foreign language. Of these, the former may be said to have been

MONITORIAL SYSTEM
213
MORAL EDUCATION
almost entirely abandoned, the latter being the one generally preferred
in schools. In regard to the arrangement of the grammatical rules, an
infinite variety may be observed in the numerous grammars of modern
languages. See the article on MODERN LANGUAGES in the Cyclopædia of
Education.
MONITORIAL SYSTEM, sometimes called the Madras system,
because it was introduced into England from Madras, by Andrew Bell;
also the Lancasterian system, after one of its most enthusiastic advocates,
Joseph Lancaster. It is, moreover, often designated the system of mutual
instruction, because conducted on the principle of requiring the pupils of
a school to teach each other. The name monitorial instruction is derived
from the circumstance that the pupil teachers employed to carry on the
system were called monitors. For a full account of this system see Cy-
clopædia of Education.
MORÁL EDUCATION has for its sphere of operation the culture
of those principles which influence or control the voluntary action of
human beings. The elements of self-control exist, in a greater
Sphere. or less degree, in every mind, as a part of its original constitu-
tion. They are distinct from its intellectual faculties, and need a special
education, which is far more important than intellectual education, be-
cause it contributes in a much higher degree to the good both
Duty. of the individual and of society. The subject of moral educa-
tion is duty, and its office is both speculative and active; that is (1)
to implant correct principles of rectitude in the pupil's mind-to teach
what duty is, and (2) to cultivate a desire to do what is right for its own
sake to respect duty, or moral obligation; in other words, to feel a sense
of right — to listen to the voice of conscience (q. v.); to which may be
added, as an important additional object, to implant in the youthful mind
such motives as will aid the moral sense, and enable it to triumph over the
natural propensities and desires, when the latter are in conflict
Means with it. The means employed in moral education are the
employed. following: (1) precepts, addressed both to the understanding and
to the conscience, the object being to enlighten the latter, which of itself
does not recognize specific right and wrong; (2) example, appealing to
imitation as well as to conscience, and enforced by the love and respect
felt by the child toward its educator, leading the former to feel that
whatever is done by the latter is right, and hence should be imitated (see
Example); (3) habit, inducing, by means of repetition, an inclination to
act in the same way under the same circumstances (see HABIT); (4) exer-
cise, for the purpose both of strengthening the moral feelings brought into
play, and of forming habits. Exercise, in moral education,
Exercise. is just as important as in physical or intellectual education;
indeed, there can be no training or culture without it; and, in carrying
this on, the teacher must avail himself of every possible circumstance that
arises in connection with his intercourse with the pupils, or their inter-
course with each other, to give occasion for this exercise, and thus form a
basis for the desired culture of the moral faculties. This culture or train-
ing must have a twofold object: (1) to cultivate virtues, and
(2) to correct vices. Among the former, as especially necessary,
may be enumerated truthfulness, honesty, justice, candor and


Twofold
object.
214
MORALIZING

modesty, kindness or benevolence, diligence, obedience to proper authority,
gratitude, fidelity to every promise or trust, and patriotism; and among
the latter, the opposites of these, as lying and deceit, a disposition to steal,
cruelty to animals, unkindness and injustice to playmates, violence and
combativeness, ill temper, anger and irritability, obstinacy, laziness, irreso-
lution, leading to procrastination, excessive self-esteem, leading to arrogance
and self-conceit, etc. These are specific qualities of character which need
a particular recognition and treatment on the part of the educator; but
when the moral sense has been thoroughly developed, the Christian moral
principle, to do unto others as we would that they should do unto us, will
comprehend, in approbation or condemnation, every class of actions, and
give the means of a just discrimination as to what is virtuous
Moral and what is vicious. But the conscience is not developed in
discipline.
children; and very often, not even in adults. Hence, the need
of moral discipline, in order to afford to the educator the means of bring-
ing to bear upon his pupils external restraint, as preliminary to self-
restraint; for it must be borne in mind that any government that does
not contemplate the cultivation of the elements of self-control can
scarcely be considered as forming a part of moral education. The three
elements of sensibility usually appealed to in connection with moral dis-
cipline or restraint, are fear (q. v.), hope (q. v.), and love (q. v.). (See also
AUTHORITY.) The conscience being very imperfectly developed in child-
motives.
hood, secondary motives, such as the love of approbation, the
Secondary hope of reward, the desire to excel, may properly be appealed
to, in order to promote well-doing on the part of the pupil,
and thus lead to the formation of good habits. Caution should be exer-
cised, however, in employing such incentives; and the educator should
always keep in view the just limits of their use, the injurious consequences
of depending too exclusively upon them, and the importance of so employ-
ing them that they may lead on to the primary motive · the desire to do
right for its own sake. (See EMULATION.) The practical application of
the system here briefly outlined, is attended with very great difficulty, and
requires peculiar intelligence and skill on the part of the educator; and not
alone this, but moral culture, involving self-control, patience, and a delicate
appreciation of moral distinctions, as well as a full sympathy with the
general peculiarities and wants of childhood. To this may be added, with
emphasis, the ability to discern the peculiarities of individual character, as
dependent on both mental and physical constitution; for the processes of
moral education cannot, like many of those employed in intellectual train-
ing, be applied to children in large masses. Suitable modifications must
be made in the application of general principles and rules, or much injury
may be done. (See DISCERNMENT OF CHARACTER, and MORALIZING.)
Its use.
MORALIZING, the formal inculcation of moral truth by means of
precept, or of stories related for the sake of the moral, with the view of
influencing conduct. This practice, common in the home circle
and in the school, is the result of a consciousness on the part of
the parent or teacher of a duty unperformed, the discharge of which is
attempted in this perfunctory way. It is hardly necessary to say that it
almost always fails; since it is either an attempt to reason with the young
a process for which their minds are not yet sufficiently mature
or an
MUSIC
215
NEWSPAPERS
effort to impose mechanically on their minds generalizations which can
only be reached naturally after the observation of many individual in-
stances. In either case, the abstract nature of the appeal is so far beyond
their powers, that the attention which is given, if indeed it is given, is only
the amiable toleration of a discourse which arouses no interest. Of course,
moral lessons received in such a spirit accomplish no useful purpose, if
indeed they are not positively hurtful; since they tend to produce disgust
for an important branch of education, which in maturer years, would be
interesting. The conceptions existing in the minds of children and youth
being in large measure concrete, the true method of approaching their
intelligence is through concrete images. In intellectual training, this is
usually done, and is always the most successful method. In one of the
Moral
stories.
-
methods of moral training above referred to that of moral
stories this is attempted, and doubtless, it is supposed, with
success; but it is safe to say that the interest aroused is not ex-
tended to the moral deductions drawn from the acts of the persons intro-
duced, but ends with the acts or actors themselves. Thus the fables of
Æsop are interesting to the young only as long as the men and animals
which is not till
are, so to speak, in motion. When the moral is reached
after the narrative has been brought to a climax, and the actors have been
dismissed — their interest is at an ebb; and not till many years later is
that moral brought home to them by the manifold experiences of life. This,
therefore, is the peculiar value, and the only proper use, of the fables of
Æsop, namely, that they present in a striking way the truth desired to be
impressed on the mind, not with the design of making it immediately in-
fluential, but with an effort which, for the moment, is apparently
without result the feeling which attends the planting of a seed, i. e., the
certainty of future development. The mind of youth, in fact, is not given
to that sober, contemplative process which we call moralizing.
Proper Its natural disposition is one of gaiety, ceaseless activity, and
method. even boisterousness. The exuberance of spirits natural to this
period of life, therefore, makes the child indisposed to give patient attention
to any purely speculative process of thought. That this is a wise provision
of nature for the development of the physical powers, has long been
recognized by observant educators; and any attempt to curb this spirit,
with the view of inculcating moral truth, only inverts the natural order of
development, and, in healthy children is apt to result disastrously. The
only method of moral training effective with youth is that which discards
formal precepts, and by restraint of actual vice, or practice of the desired
virtue, engrafts it insensibly on the daily conduct. The habit of right act-
ing is thus unconsciously acquired, but not till a much later period is the
mind disposed to survey critically this action, and pass judgment upon its
propriety. The maturity of the mind is an indication of the proper season
for moralizing.
MUSIC. See SINGING.
MUTUAL SYSTEM. See MONITORIAL SYSTEM.
NEW EDUCATION. See EDUCATION.
NEWSPAPERS. The objection is frequently made to the character
of the instruction ordinarily imparted at school, that it has little relation
216
NEWSPAPERS
to the concerns of daily life. This want of relation sprung originally from
the fact that the literary class, in earlier times, was a class apart, having
only slight connection with the masses who, possessing few po-
School and litical rights, were unworthy of consideration. The instruction
daily life.
given, therefore, was purposely of a kind to emphasize the ex-
clusiveness of the educated class. Under the changed political conditions
of our day, however, the tendency has steadily been to equalize the two
classes in intelligence to lift up the masses to the level of the educated,
on the one hand, and, on the other, to bring the studies of the school and
college more into accordance with the daily life of the majority. Traces of
the original exclusiveness still remain, however, in the unpractical char-
acter of much of the instruction, imparted in school.
Almost every
youth, on entering upon the business of life, becomes conscious of this
with chagrin. The arithmetic that he studied, for instance, seems to have
little application to the concerns of daily life; the book-keeping which he
mastered with so much difficulty, seems now, at this later date, to have
been filled with theoretical cases which have no parallels in actual expe-
rience; even the geography, in which he attained such proficiency, has
little place in his daily routine, while algebra, geometry, and many other
studies, have none at all. The result is a feeling of inferiority when he is
brought into contact with others of his age whose training has been en-
tirely that of practical life, which leads him to suspect that his time has
been wasted. Not till long afterwards, perhaps, does he recognize the fact
that the principles on which both theoretical and practical knowledge are
based, are the same, and that the ability to apply these principles was his
chief want. The feeling of disappointment referred to might have been
entirely removed, if, in his instruction, the teacher had kept constantly in
mind, not the mental discipline alone, but the mental discipline and the
adaptability to the affairs of life of the knowledge used in acquir-
Use of the ing that discipline. One of the most useful instruments for
newspaper. accomplishing this double purpose is the newspaper. The
arithmetic which is now taught by the use of unusual and improb-
able examples, could be made a living and interesting thing, by the use
of problems to be found in its pages, which introduce the actual prices of
articles in daily use. Interest, discount, exchange, the price of bonds and
stocks, could be made so familiar to the pupil in this way, that the change
from school to counting-house, which is now attended with such a want of
ease and so much disappointment, would seem but the continuation of
study in another class. Reading, also, if taught from the newspaper,
would familiarize the pupil with the terms used in the daily conversation
of professional and business men; and, through the reports of proceedings
in every field of human activity, fresh interest could be aroused in studies
already taken up, while attention could profitably be called to those
which are ordinarily pursued in more advanced courses; and a partial prep-
aration for them could thus unconsciously be made. Thus the study of
geography would receive increased attention, if it could be connected with
the reports of the interesting events from all parts of the world which are
daily chronicled, by inquiring into the position on the map, population,
form of government, etc., of the different countries referred to. By fol-
lowing, in this way, the records of campaigns and battles, a knowledge of
a
NORMAL SCHOOL
217
the topography of the country could be obtained almost without effort,
which would be easily retained in the memory of the most apathetic schol-
ar; while opportunity could, at the same time, be taken for digressions
into its history. Any means within the teacher's reach of divesting the
studies pursued of their dry, text-book character should be taken advan-
tage of; and this cannot be done in any way so easily as by investing them
with a human interest, by showing that inen and women similar to those
with whom he daily associates are the actors in all these stirring events.
For this purpose, hardly any medium is superior to that of the daily
paper.
NORMAL SCHOOL, the name given, in the United States and in
some other countries, to a school for the instruction and training of teach-
ers, being a translation of the French term école normale (from the Latin
norma, a rule or model), applied to such schools on their establishment in
France. "The term normal school", says Hart (In the School-Room,
Phil., 1868), “is an unfortunate misnomer, and its general adoption has led
to much confusion of ideas". In England, these institutions are styled
training colleges, and in Germany seminaries. Connected with these
schools there are usually model schools, or schools of practice, in which
the theoretical principles and methods taught are applied to the actual
work of instruction and discipline.
The normal school is properly a professional school for teachers, and
its curriculum should have strict reference to the special object of such an
institution. Without this, normal schools are only such in
Special name, as all are who permit the professional element to be
aim of
normal merged in those that pertain to general culture. Such culture
schools. is, of course, needed by the teacher, as it is by the lawyer, the
physician, or the clergyman, who acquires it in an academic in-
stitutioncollege or university; but this by no means supersedes the law
school, the medical school, or the theological seminary. In like manner
the normal school proper presupposes academic training, and builds upon
it the special accomplishments needed for educational work. Normal in-
struction would be rendered more effective were this fully recognized, and
a proper separation made between the academic department of such an in-
stitution and the professional department. When this distinction is not
made, the latter is very apt to be overlooked; and the antiquated notion
followed that all that is needed by the teacher is to know what he or she
has to teach. This is overlooking entirely the science of education, now
embodied in so many excellent works on the theory and practice of teach-
ing, and on school management.
The course of instruction for normal schools should embrace (1) the
history of education, including the systems or methods of distinguished
educators; (2) the principles of education and instruction, de-
Course of duced from intellectual, psychological, and ethical science, (see
instruction. EDUCATION, and INSTRUCTION); (3) the art of teaching (didactics);
and (4) the methods and rules of school management and discipline (school
economy); besides (5) the application of these principles and methods to
specific branches of knowledge, since every subject has, to a certain extent,
its own system of methodics. See BAIN, Education as a Science (N. Y.,
1881); BALDWIN, The Art of School Management (N. Y., 1881); JOHONNOT,

218
NUMBER
Principles and Practice of Teaching (N. Y., 1881); KELLOGG, School
Management (N. Y., 1880); SWETT, Methods of Teaching (N. Y., 1881).
See references to educational authorities in the Cyclopaedia of Educa-
tion, passim; and special list of books for teachers' study, in the Appendix
of this work. (See also TEACHERS' SEMINARIES.)
How to
NUMBER is here considered as a branch of elementary or object in-
struction. Great importance should be placed on the means by which
children acquire their first ideas of number. Since a child's knowledge of
this subject begins with counting, the first exercises for teaching it should
be the counting of objects. The child may first be taught to
be taught.
count as far as ten by using the numeral frame (q. v.), or but-
tons, pencils, the fingers, sticks, marks, or other objects. Next
he should be taught to count groups of balls, buttons, sticks, or other ob-
jects, used to represent the several numbers, one, two, three, four, five, etc.
By using the groups of objects thus counted as illustrations of the several
numbers, figures may readily be taught. Let the pupil count one ball on
the numeral frame, one pencil, one finger, one mark, and then show him
the figure 1 to represent the number of each object. Next let him count,
in groups, two balls on the numeral frame, two pencils, two fingers, two
marks, etc.; then show the figure 2 as a symbol of the number of objects
in each group. Afterward, require the pupil to count balls, pencils, and
other objects in groups of three, and then show the figure 3 as the repre-
sentative of the number counted in each group. In a similar manner, the
several figures from 2 to 9 may be associated, and their value learned by
means of counting. In order to teach children the value of the several
figures by personal experience, let them count in groups two balls, or but-
tons, etc., and observe that each group contains two ones, that two is
equal to one and one more, or two ones. After the pupils have counted
several kinds of objects in groups of three, lead them to notice that one
and one and one, or three ones, make three, also that two and one make
three. Proceeding in the same manner to count in groups four objects,
let the pupils observe that four ones, or two and one and one, or three and
one, or two and two, or two times two, make four. By means of similar
exercises, the value of each number from two to nine may be thoroughly
learned by children. As additional exercises, or a review of previous les-
sons, let the pupils count as many balls on the numeral frame, or hold up
as many fingers, as the given figure represents. By this means, all the
figures from 1 to 9 may be learned as symbols of numbers. In subsequent
lessons, for teaching figures as representatives of numbers greater than
nine, let the figures be arranged in groups as follows:
First group,
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
Second group, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19
Third group, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29
and so on to 99. Requiring the pupils to count as many balls, or other ob-
jects, to represent in order the numbers symbolized by each of these
groups, will lead them to understand the value of the numbers that are ex-
pressed with two figures. This part of the instruction may be greatly
facilitated by giving the pupil several small sticks, like matches, and requir
ing him to count and tie in bundles as many sticks as each of the figures
from 1 to 9 represents. Then to furnish the pupil with favorable oppor-

NUMERAL FRAME
219
tunities of learning, by personal observation and experience, that each
number represented by two figures in the second group is composed of one
bundle of ten ones, and one or more single ones added, let him count and
tie in a bundle ten sticks to represent the number 10; and then tie ten
sticks in a bundle and add to it one single stick to represent the number
11, and so on to 19. Two bundles of ten sticks each may be made for the
number 20, and two similar bundles and a single stick for 21; and so on to
29. In this manner, children may be taught to comprehend the value of
all the simple numbers to 100. The knowledge obtained by means of the
exercises described above will prepare the pupils to learn readily and in-
telligently both the value and the form of writing numbers through hun-
dreds, and thereby to understand the principles of numeration and notation.
See CURRIE, Early and Infant School Education (London); Calkins,
New Primary Object Lessons (N. Y., 1871).
NUMERAL FRAME. This simple apparatus has been in use for
many centuries. In some form or other, it is now used for teaching num-
ber, in all parts of the world. It is sometimes employed to represent
units, tens, hundreds, thousands, etc., in numeration. This use of the
numeral frame renders it necessary to give artificial values to the balls on
different wires; and notwithstanding that this is analogous, in order, to the
arrangement of the numerical system of figures, there is danger that young
children, by the use of it for this purpose, may become confused between
the actual numerical value of a ball and its several artificial values.
Inasmuch as numeration can be illustrated much more intelligently by the
method described under Number (q. v.), if aided by the use of the black-
board, it is not advisable to attempt an explanation of it by the numeral
frame; not, at least, until the pupils have acquired a definite understand-
ing of the relation between the value of single figures, and their values as
dependent upon their relative positions in regard to other figures. The
most important uses of the numeral frame are, to teach a class of pupils to
count, and to illustrate the value of numbers and figures; also to teach the
first steps in adding, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing. For the first
steps in adding, let the pupils add balls on the numeral frame, by ones as
far as ten. When they can do this readily, let them add on the black-
board a column composed of 1s; then let them add a like column of figures
on their slates. Subsequently, teach them to add balls on the numeral
frame by twos; then to add a column of figure 2s on the blackboard; and
then on their slates. When the adding of Is and 2s has thus been learned,
proceed in the same manner with threes, fours, etc. After the pupils have
learned to add threes as above, they may be taught by these three steps to
add ls and 2s in the same column; then to add Is, 2s and 3s in the same
column. In this manner the pupils may be taught to add readily and
rapidly single columns composed of such figures as 6, 7, 8, 9. To give
children an idea of subtraction, teach them to count backward on the
numeral frame from ten; thus, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0. Sub-
sequently, call on a pupil to hold the numeral frame, to take one ball from
two balls, and tell how many remain; then one ball from three balls, etc.
Proceed in a similar manner with other numbers, taking care to arrange
the exercises so as to give the pupil as much actual practice as possible in
taking balls or other objects from a larger number of objects. To illustrate

220
OBJECT TEACHING
the first ideas of multiplication to a class of young pupils, arrange the balls
on the numeral frames in groups of twos, threes, etc. Place on one wire
two groups of two each, and lead the pupils to perceive that they may say
that, "two and two make four"; or that "two twos make four"; also that
"two times two make four". Place on another wire three groups of two
each, and let the pupils observe that "two and two and two make six"; or
that "three twos make six"; also that "three times two are six". Proceed
in a similar manner with numbers, and so arrange the exercises as to
furnish the pupils as much individual practice as possible. After each step
has been illustrated by the numeral frame, place figures on the blackboard
to represent what has been thus taught. To illustrate the first ideas of
division, arrange balls in groups of four, six, eight, ten, etc., on the
different wires. Lead the pupils to see that each of these groups can be
divided into groups of twos. Then require them to divide the groups thus
and tell how many groups of twos can be made from four balls, six balls,
eight balls, etc. Let the pupils also find how many threes there are in six,
nine, twelve; and how many fours in eight, twelve, etc. That which is
learned in each step may be represented by figures on the blackboard.-
(See NUMBER.)
By whom
introduced.
"6
OBJECT TEACHING, a method of instruction in which objects
are employed by means of which to call into systematic exercise the
observing faculties of young pupils, with the threefold design,
Design. (1) to cultivate the senses, (2) to train the perceptive faculty, so
that the mind may be stored with clear and vivid ideas, and (3), simul-
taneously with these, to cultivate the power of expression by associating
with the ideas thus formed appropriate language. The merit of introducing
object teaching as a special method of elementary instruction, is
usually attributed to Pestalozzi; but Comenius, Locke, Rousseau,
Basedow, Rochow, and others based their systems of education,
more or less, upon the same principle; that is, they recognized the necessity
of communicating ideas, or of affording to the mind the means to grasp
ideas from objects, by actual perception, before attempting to teach the
verbal expression of those ideas, and that, without such ideas, mere
book-learning" is useless, Pestalozzi appears, however, to have had only
a slight knowledge of the works of those educationists. Inspired by the
reading of Rousseau's Emile to study the phases of mental
Pestalozzi. growth, he arrived at the conclusion that the teaching of his
day was fundamentally wrong, from its violation of, or inattention to, the
laws of mental development. These laws he believed to be, (1) that the
knowledge of things should precede that of words, (2) that, for the acquisi-
tion of this knowledge, the only effective agents, in the first stages of
mental growth, are the senses, chief of which is the eye; (3) that the first
objects to be studied by the child are those immediately surrounding it,
and these, only in their simplest forms and relations; and (4) that from
these objects as a center, the sphere of knowledge should be widened by a
gradual extension of the powers of observation to more distant objects.
The first instruction, therefore, according to this plan, should consist in
concentrating the attention upon concrete things, in such a way as to re-
sult in a thorough training of the observing faculties, so that the concep-
OBJECT TEACHING
221
tions with which the mind is stored may be as well defined, and as true
to nature, as possible. So impressed was Pestalozzi with the correctness,
and the supreme importance, of this method, that he declared that the sum
of his achievements in education was the establishment of the truth that
"the culture of the outer and inner senses is the absolute foundation of all
knowledge the first and highest principle of instruction".
The failure of the first attempts of Pestalozzi and his followers, how-
ever, in the practical application of his theories, was discouraging; and the
faith of the progressive educators who had accepted them as a
Why not
new gospel, was seriously shaken. The reason of their failure,
successful.
however, was that their practice was in conflict with the very
principles which Pestalozzi had enunciated as fundamental. The human
body, with which they began their instructions, is not only highly compos-
ite in its structure, and difficult of description in the language of the child,
but, by its very nearness, is rendered unfit for an object of study by
children, their senses being most powerfully, and, indeed, almost exclusively,
turned to the observation of objects external to themselves. By attempt-
ing, therefore, to name in detail and to describe the limbs, their form,
color, size, actions, and uses, the new theory was exposed to the ridicule of
its enemies, and placed in serious peril. In all the Protestant countries of
Europe, however, and especially in Germany, the leaven of truth contained
in the principles of Pestalozzi, wrought a gradual but sure reform in the
old method of instruction. -Object teaching became universal
Effect of in the primary schools; and the dignity and usefulness of the
its intro- teacher were increased by the very impossibility of prescribing
duction. any one method in which the principles should be applied, thus
giving special prominence to the fact that the determining cause in favor
of one method over another was the individual ability of the teacher. In-
stead of one invariable method, which might be unintelligently acquired
and mechanically applied, a variety of methods now presented themselves,
each dependent for its success upon circumstances. The individuality of
the pupil suddenly acquired a new importance; and the teacher's individu-
ality, also, became more than ever before an essential factor in the
successful conduct of the school. For the difficult work thus foreshadowed,
a long and careful preparation was necessary on the part of the student.
The first step in this preparation was the observation of the
Preparation educational work of some good teacher; then a thorough study,
required. in the normal school, of the subjects of pedagogy, psychology,
the history of education, the natural sciences, universal history, mathemat-
ics, and arts; and, finally, a course of practical teaching in trial lessons,
under the supervision of model teachers and the student's own associates.
Among the writers above mentioned, one of the principal points of con-
troversy was in regard to the necessity of educating the senses.
Points of Many denied altogether this necessity, and insisted that object
controversy. teaching should be reserved exclusively for exercises in using
and understanding language. The senses, so they argued, take care of
themselves, whenever an interest in surrounding objects is awakened by
the necessities of daily life; and the common school, they said, can present
but few objects of interest on which the senses can be profitably exercised.
If, for instance, pictures of objects are presented—as is most frequently


222
OBJECT TEACHING
the case, and if these pictures are large and faithful copies of the originals
which is rarely the case- the exercise is still confined to only one
sense; and experience proves that this is insufficient to awaken a lively
interest. The impression made on the sight, therefore, is short-lived and
feeble. If, on the other hand, the objects themselves are produced, as
these are generally house utensils, or articles of school furniture, only a
languid interest is aroused in the pupils' minds, because there is rarely any
new feature to be observed in objects so familiar. The incentive to any
observation or comparison of qualities, therefore, is utterly wanting; and
any sharpening of the senses is improbable. If, on the contrary, the exer-
cises upon objects be carried on for the purpose of enriching the child's
vocabulary, and of storing his mind with just and accurate conceptions, by
causing him to connect with every word its proper idea, all will have been
done to benefit the pupil that can reasonably be expected. The opponents
of this view, however, insisted that the use of object teaching for the
exclusive purpose of the acquisition of language, would overthrow that
fundamental principle of the system which discountenances mere word
learning. The correct understanding and use of language, also, they
thought, could be learned as well from books and conversation; while, if
the child is made to understand, that to talk fluently and correctly of ob-
jects is all that is required, and that a real knowledge of those objects is of
no consequence, clever talk will always be more highly valued by him
than exact knowledge. According to their view, the pupil brings with
him to the primary school only the raw material out of which objective
knowledge and the proper use of the senses may be developed: his mental
pictures are wanting in definiteness and in order. These must be taken
to pieces, i. e., analyzed, and recomposed, i. e., synthetized, at the sight,
hearing, or touch, of real objects. If the interest of the children in the
exercise of the senses is lacking, it is the teacher's duty to excite it; and
this should be easy with young children, if the teacher's interest in the
subject is lively enough to communicate itself to them.

of the
While the rapid progress of science and art in our day infinitely aug-
ments the mass of knowledge which it is desirable and important for every
body to learn, the increasing artificiality of our daily life tends to alienate
us from a spontaneous exercise of our senses; and this deficiency must be
supplied by education, to enable us to compass the amount of knowledge
which it is desirable to acquire. The exercise of the senses is
Education not only practically useful, but it is, in most cases, full of inter-
est. To illustrate this, let pupils be asked to estimate by sight
senses. the length of a pen-holder, the dimensions of a window-pane,
distances on the floor or on the ground, the weight of objects that can be
held in the hand, or to distinguish shades of color, and the differences in
pitch or quality of musical sounds. Such exercises are not only amusing,
but useful; while, on the other hand, there is abundant evidence that the
circumstances of daily life do not, of themselves, educate the senses. Thus,
let a dozen countrymen be asked the length of a certain way over which
they often travel, and the probability is that a dozen different answers will
be given, many of them wide of the mark. Instances might be multi-
plied indefinitely to show that the senses are not self-educative. Some
educators, while not objecting to any of the five purposes to which object
OBJECT TEACHING
223
lessons may be applied; namely, (1) the preparation of the pupil for
serious learning; (2) the sharpening of the senses, and the exercise of all
mental functions; (3) exercise in language; (4) the acquisition of
Object knowledge; and (5) moral training; still have insisted that a
teaching & distinction should be made between object teaching and objective
objective
teaching. teaching; the former comprising exercises in which the ob-
jects are taught for themselves, i. e., for instruction in all the
properties which are peculiar to them; the latter, for the acquisition of
that generalized or fundamental knowledge which is common to many
widely different objects. The former, they contended, should occupy only
a part of the time during the first year or two, after which it should cease;
but every branch of learning should, in turn, be treated objectively. The
method of procedure should be, first, the presentation of the object. This
should be analyzed by the pupils, and immediately reconstructed, the
teacher supplying nothing but technical terms which are supposed to be
unknown to the pupils, but guiding them by conversation to observe, com-
pare, and reason correctly and in proper language, to rise from the single
features of the object to its entirety, from similar features to generaliza-
tions, from the concrete to the abstract, from facts to laws. The oppo-
nents of this view said that the principle was good, but did not go far
enough. In the first place, there is a vast body of knowledge that cannot
be treated objectively. All facts, for instance, in regard to the days of the
week, and the months, their names, number, etc.; many facts in regard to
time, such as the number of seconds in a minute, the number of minutes
in an hour, etc., the names of the seasons, the method of telling time by
the clock, these and many other necessary facts cannot be objectively
presented, but must be learned arbitrarily; while, at a later period in edu-
cation, there appear astronomical, geographical, and historical facts, which
must simply be taken on trust, and committed to memory. In view of
these things, text-books are indispensable; and all attempts to teach with-
out them are useless, and result in a waste of precious time. While rec-
ognizing, therefore, the value of object teaching in many branches, and
its pre-eminent value in a few, they assert that it has its natural limita-
tions beyond which memorizing and an adherence to the text-book are the
only proper means to be relied upon by the teacher. At the present time,
this latter view that a combination of the two methods should be em-
ployed, is in the ascendant. In Europe, especially in Germany, this re-
actionary movement is thought to be fostered from political and religious
motives. In the United States, the demand for teachers has so far ex-
ceeded the supply from the normal schools, without a corresponding rise
in salaries, that the standard of qualifications for teachers has not been
maintained at the height which many educational reformers had hoped it
would be. In short, the principles and system of Pestalozzi cannot be
said, at the present time, to be fully carried out. Object teaching should
be begun as early as possible, and in the manner of the kindergarten, and
should be followed by objective and conceptive teaching, which
teaching. should be carried through every branch of learning. The men-
tal growth of pupils, however, should not be retarded by a
superfluous use of this method. A safe criterion, by which the teacher
may know, at any moment, whether he has made a proper use of the ob-
Object
224
ORAL INSTRUCTION
ject method, may be found in the self-activity of his pupils, their ability
to grasp, in their answers to his questions, the general fact, proposition, or
law. The new method is justly called the developing method (q. v,), the
pupils' minds being made to develop themselves, the teacher only suggest-
ing what they are to discover. Every pupil is, as it were, to rediscover
every science in the genetic method (q. v.), a difficult task for the teacher,
and apparently a circuitous way for the pupil. But because of its thor-
oughness, it is the most rapid way of learning; and its results are in-
delibly fixed in the mind. This method, also, if early begun, and consist-
ently carried out, is successful with every child, and saves precious time,
which, later in life, may be devoted to those higher branches, that lie
beyond the common-school course, but which are every year becoming, in
many cases, highly desirable, and, in some, indispensable. The literature
of object teaching is very extensive; for an enumeration of the principal
works, see special list in the Appendix of this work. (See also COLOR,
FORM, and NUMBER.)
ORAL INSTRUCTION is a technical term in use in the common
schools of the United States to denote instruction, without text-books, in
the nature and uses of common objects, and also in the elements of natural
science. In a certain sense, all instruction given by the teacher
Defined. in the class room, either to supplement the text-book, or by way
of general explanation, may be said to be oral; and, considered in this
sense, it belongs to every subject taught. But oral instruction, as it ap-
pears in courses of study, is limited to a distinct channel of teaching, and,
therefore, is not to be confounded with general class instruction in the
entire range of subjects. It is distinct from object teaching, because it is
not confined to teaching through sensible objects. It deals also with more
advanced pupils those, for example, who have passed through the lowest,
or primary grades, and who may be supposed to have benefited by what is
known as object teaching. It has to do. moreover, with elementary knowl-
edge, and has been gradually narrowed to instruction in natural science.
As might be gathered from the word oral, its leading or cardinal idea is
instruction without a text-book. The teacher is in the place of the book.
The information given flows entirely from him; and the skill with which
he imparts this, is the measure of his success. Closely allied in importance
to the foregoing, is the principle that the instruction shall be familiar. In
its methods, it must approach closely those that are adopted in
Methods. an intelligent family circle; it must emulate the kindliness,
patience, and watchfulness of a parent, or of a deeply interested friend.
With a clear idea as to the kind and amount of instruction to be given at
each lesson, it must avoid mere amusement and puerilities, on the one
hand, and the danger of a mechanical and hard method, on the other.
The test of such familiar instruction is the interest which the teacher
creates and maintains; the want of life and animation on the part of the
pupils is an unfailing measure of the teacher's short-coming. But instruc-
tion to be familiar must be fertile in illustration. In no part of the teach-
er's work is there greater need of versatility. It is in this that the vast
advantage of oral teaching over that which depends on the text-book is
apparent. Pliancy, variety, suitableness to the particular wants of certain
pupils, or of the class as a whole, simple familiar allusions and illustrations,
ORAL INSTRUCTION
225
all come into play. If experiments are necessary, they should be always
of the simplest kind, and with the commonest materials, such as nearly
every child can obtain, if he can be induced to imitate the experiments. So
far as objects are needed, those that are easily obtainable are to be prefer-
red. The approach to the pupil's mind through his senses is carefully to
be kept open; most constantly of all, the avenue of sight, although, of
course, the other senses are not to be neglected. As a natural result of
this familiar instruction, the interest of the pupils will manifest itself in
inquiries, and especially in a desire to communicate the glimmerings of
their own knowledge. This will render the exercise still more familiar,
break down the barrier of reserve on the part of the pupils, stimulate
observation and thought throughout the class, and react on the mind of
the teacher, compelling perhaps new illustrations, a more carefully con-
sidered statement, or fresh investigation outside of school. From what
has been stated, it will be seen that oral instruction is widely separated
from lecturing. The children are brought immediately in contact with the
mind of the teacher, by means of skillful questioning on his part, by re-
quiring from them connected statements, and by stimulating them with his
approval when a happy answer or statement has been made. This method
never loses sight of class instruction, and, therefore, cannot be carried on
without the assistance of the class. Nor is it a recitation in the generally
received acceptation of the word. There is no lesson to be learned in the
sense implied by a recitation, nor any to be recited. The memory is of
course taxed, but it is not taxed by any lesson to be committed as a task.
The measure of the pupil's interest is the measure of his acquisition. What-
ever he learns is in no sense compulsory. Skillful reviewing is, indeed,
used to test the hold that the oral instruction has kept on the pupil, and
to supplement what has been imparted, by new or more lively illustration.
But repetition, in a mechanical or rote sense, as understood to be an under-
lying principle in text-book instruction, is not used in oral instruction.
The subjects to which oral instruction, as a special method, is usually
confined, are embraced, under the head of natural science. While it
science.
does not aim to make the instruction in these subjects scientific,
Natural it does aim to impart such instruction in a methodical
way, and with the most careful accuracy. Wherever classi-
fication is necessary, such classification naturally becomes more or less
scientific. Whenever definitions are necessary, they must approach
scientific accuracy.
But the scientific nomenclature, except in those
cases in which it has passed into common use, is carefully avoided.
Latin or Greek terms, therefore, being burdensome to the young, however
instructive to the adult, are generally to be discarded, and familiar or com-
mon names to be used. As a thorough scientific classification is not the
object of oral instruction, neither does it endeavor to make the treatment
of the various subjects exhaustive. It has done much of its true work
when it has awakened attention, strengthened observation, led the pupils
to collect illustrative objects, taught them to group and arrange what they
have observed, and implanted in them a tolerably clear idea of the simpler
elements of the science, to which the instruction has been confined. It has
done its full work when, in addition to this, it has accustomed the pupil to
express, in his own language, what he has learned and retained, without the
226
ORDER
and con-
painful halting and poverty of language so often manifest in the class room.
With some approach to scientific accuracy, oral instruction may be defined
as the union of conceptive and objective training. It does not
Objective discard objective illustration, nor does it depend entirely on the
development of perception to furnish new ideas. It proceeds on
ceptive.
the principle, that, in the mind of every healthy child of eight
years of age, there is a vast number of tolerably distinct conceptions, ob-
tained through the senses, as well as from conversation, from reading, from
home instruction, and from play; that these conceptions are particularly
abundant in relation to natural objects; and that it is the office of the oral
instructor to recognize their existence by using them to form more complex
ideas, or as the nucleuses around which to arrange the new ideas imparted
during instruction. As to the age when this instruction should
Age and be given, as well as its importance, the following words of Pres-
importance. ident Porter, in The Human Intellect, may be cited.
studies which should be first pursued are those which require and discipline
the powers of observation and acquisition, and which involve imagination
and inemory, in contrast with those which demand severe efforts and trained
habits of thought. Inasmuch also as material objects are apprehended and
mastered in early life with far greater ease and success than the acts and
states of the spirit, objective and material studies should have almost the
exclusive precedence. The capacity of exact and discriminating percep-
tion, and of clear and retentive memory, should be developed as largely as
possible. The imagination in all its forms should be directed and elevated
"The
we do not say stimulated, because in the case of most children, its
activity is never-tiring, whether they be at study, work, or play. We do
not say, cultivate perception, memory and fancy, to the exclusion or
repression of thought, for this is impossible. These powers, if exercised by
human beings, must be interpenetrated by thought. If wisely cultivated
by studies properly arranged, they will necessarily involve discrimination,
comparison, and explanation. To teach pure observation, or the mastery
of objects or words, without classification and interpretation, is to be igno-
rant even to simple stupidity". Further on, the same author, in speaking
of the various studies to be prosecuted in childhood says, "Natural history
in all its branches, as contrasted with the science of nature, or scientific
physics, should be mastered with the objects before the eye-flowers,
minerals, shells, birds, and beasts. These studies should all be mastered in
the spring-time of life, when the tastes are simple, the heart is fresh, and
the eye is sharp and clear. But science of every kind, whether of language,
of nature, of the soul, or of God, as science should not be prematurely
taught".
•
ORDER, in school management, implies (1) the existence of a judicious
system of regulations, and (2) a uniform and habitual observance of them
by the pupils. It is one of the most important elements of a good school,
since it enables the teacher to concentrate all its educative agencies without
embarrassment or interruption. The characteristics of good order are (1)
attention on the part of the pupils to the legitimate work of the school,
(2) obedience and respect to teachers, (3) decorous deportment the ab-
sence of tumult, rudeness, frivolity, and frolicsome actions, calculated to
disturb the school, and (4) propriety and exactness in the school evolutions
ORDER OF STUDIES
227
ORTHOGRAPHY
"
and drill. Order is the result of skill and tact on the part of the teacher;
it cannot be fully maintained unless he is vested with suitable authority,
so as to be able to correct disorder, as soon as it manifests itself. Gen-
eral disorder in a school can result only from bad management, indicating
incompetency on the part of the teacher. "If a school be well organized
says Wickersham, "its classes well arranged, its work well systematized;
if pupils be properly employed in study, in recitation, in exercise; if
school-government be well understood and wisely administered, a large
proportion of the offenses which now occur in school will disappear."
(See DISCIPLINE, and GOVERNMENT.)
ORDER OF STUDIES. See COURSE OF INSTRUCTION.
ORTHOGRAPHY, as a science, treats of the representation of
spoken language by visible signs; it includes a systematic history of such
signs, and a discussion of the principles according to which they
Of what
should be made and used. Picture writing is first used; pictures
it treats. of objects are used as signs of the names of the objects, then of
initial syllables in such names, and finally of elementary sounds. The
pictures, meantime, are abbreviated and modified to what we call letters.
The essential principle of alphabetic writing is that a perfect alphabet
must have one character for each elementary sound in the language, and
only one. Subordinate rules are, that the characters should be
Perfect
alphabet. easy to write and to distinguish, and shapely; like sounds should
have like signs, and similar series of sounds should have anal-
ogous sets of signs; each character should be so shaped as to suggest, to some
extent, the position of the organs of speech in forming the sound; derived
alphabets are esteemed the better for embodying important history; all
nations should use the same signs with similar values. No nation has
ever made any near approach to a perfect alphabet. The growth from
picture writing goes on without much guidance from ideas, and all the
qualities which are merely matters of history and symmetry, are of little
consequence in comparison with the essential principle of phonetic con-
venience. The Anglo-Saxon language was reduced to writing in Roman
letters by the missionaries, who converted the people to Christianity, and
gave them a pretty good alphabet. The letters were used in
Anglo-Sax their Roman values, or nearly so, and new characters were
on spelling.
added for the sounds of a in fat, th in their (dh), th in thin,
After the Norman conquest, chaos came again with Anglo-
Saxon, or rather English, spelling. A large part of the words of each
race of the new people were difficult for the other to pronounce. The
scholars inclined to spell in the old book fashion; but the Normans dropped
the special Anglo-Saxon discriminations, and left many of their own letters
standing which were not pronounced by the people; and many
Norman letters were inserted to no purpose in ill-directed attempts to
spelling.
represent the strange combinations. Then followed a change
in the whole gamut, so to speak, of the vowel sounds. The close vowels
were changed under the accent into diphthongs by taking an a sound
before them. The old i, pronounced as in machine has thus changed to
ai, pronounced as i in mine; u as in rule has given rise to au,
changes. pronounced as ou in house. The open and mixed vowels have
become closer: a, as in far, changing to a (that is, e) as in


and w.
Other
228
ORTHOGRAPHY
fate or wall, or to o as in home (A-S. hẩm); e as in they, changing to
e (that is, i) in me; o as in foe, changing to oo (that is, u) as in
moon (A-S. môna). Single characters have thus come to stand for diph-
thongs, and the long and short sounds, which go in pairs in other languages,
are denoted in ours by different characters, and come from different
sources. Intermediate between the old a (far) and e (met) has become
established a in fat, fare; between a (far) and o (note), o in not and nor,
and the sounds of u in but, burn, have also arisen. All these have no
special signs. Four consonants sh, zh, th, dh are in the same condition.
The people have long since ceased to feel any necessity for keeping sounds
and signs together. Changes go on without any record in the writing; ety-
mologists slip in new silent letters, on the ground of imaginary deriva-
tions; old monsters, fertile in the popular fancy, propagate themselves in
the congenial environment; and, altogether, we have attained the worst
alphabetical spelling in the world. For the history of all these changes,
see ELLIS'S History of English Pronunciation (London, 1867); SWEET'S
History of English Sounds (London, 1874); HALDEMAN'S Analytic Or-
thography (Phila., 1858); MARCH's Anglo-Saxon Grammar (N. Y., 1870);
and the articles ANGLO-SAXON, and ENGLISH, THE STUDY OF, with the au-
thorities there referred to.
Orthography, in a narrower sense, is the art of spelling correctly, ac-
cording to the standard of a language. It first demands the attention of
teachers as the art of inculcating the spelling of English accord-
Correct ing to the dictionaries of our language. In early times, there
spelling.
was no standard English spelling. The printers added or sub-
tracted letters for convenience of spacing; the same word will be found
spelt several different ways on the same page. Dr. Johnson's Dictionary
(1755) was the first recognized standard. The common way of teaching
spelling, is to teach from a spelling book the form and name of each of the
letters of the alphabet; then to practice on combinations of the
Methods letters in pairs, naming each letter and then uttering the sound
of teaching of the combination; then to practice in the same way on com-
spelling.
binations of three letters; then on words of two syllables, and
so on. These syllables and words are selected with care; similar sounds
are grouped together, and the groups arranged in a progressive order of
difficulty in spelling-books. The first steps of this process may be made
easier by using blocks with the letters on them for the learner to name
and arrange into syllables; by setting him to write the letters on the slate,
on paper, or on the blackboard; by adding pictures of the objects the
names of which are spelt; or by the use of rhymes, and other contrivances
of artificial memory. Another method is to begin with words as wholes,
and, after some progress has been made in reading in that way, to direct
attention to the separate letters, their names, and sounds (word method).
Teachers proceeding in this way often name the letters by the sounds which
they have in the word to be spelt, and not by their proper names.
is sometimes called the phonic method. Scholars are led on to more
difficult words. Text-books of hard words, more or less classified, with
rules for the most puzzling groups, are prepared, and blanks for written
exercises in spelling. Some little help may be gained by rules, and mne-
monic contrivances; but the standard spelling of our language is so ir-

This
ORTHOGRAPHY
229
Spelling
regular, that continual practice for many years is necessary to make any
approach to the mastery of it. Among the most efficient helps to the
teacher is the spelling match, for which sides are chosen which contend for
the victory. It should be noted that continual practice in
Spelling reading and writing is needed, or training to spell aloud in class
match. will not save from mistakes in writing. Further, the most
important words for each person are his own vocabulary, the words
which he uses in his own writing. Perfect accuracy in these is the
end most to be desired in teaching. If this habit is once established, un-
usual words will be looked up, when the writer has occasion to use them.
With all aids and arts, good spelling is one of the most rare and costly
accomplishments; and, naturally, stress is laid on it as the sign of a
thoroughly educated person out of all proportion to its real value. The
best teachers in other respects often fail in spelling. English orthography
is the opprobrium of English scholarship, and the greatest hindrance to
education and to the spread of our language. Our children spend three
years in learning to spell a little; while German children get further in
a single year. Millions of dollars are spent every year in
reform. printing silent letters. Earnest efforts are now making for re-
form. The philological associations of England and America,
teachers' associations, state and national, in England and America, and
some state legislatures, have committees appointed on the subject. Several
schemes of reform have been presented, the most important of which are
those of A. J. Ellis and I. Pitman, E. Jones, A. M. Bell, and E. Leigh.
Mr. Bell has invented a set of characters wholly unlike our present letters,
which indicate by their form the position of the organs of speech. It can
hardly come into speedy use in common books. Scholars have begun to
use it somewhat in scientific treatises. (See BELL, Visible Speech, Lon-
don, 1867.) Mr. Pitman has proposed an alphabet containing 16 new let-
ters; and there is already quite a body of literature in that alphabet. Dr.
E. Leigh has combined a phonetic print, like Pitman's, with the standard
spelling. (See LEIGH, Pronouncing Orthography, St. Louis, 1864, and
his later publications in New York.) Elementary books for schools,
printed according to his system, have been used for several years in St.
Louis, Washington, New York, Boston, and other cities, and are said to
save much of the time usually spent in learning to read. Editions of most
of the elementary books (primers, etc.) published in the United States are
issued in Leigh's print. (See PHONETICS.) Mr. Ellis and Mr. Jones pro-
pose systems based on the present spelling, using always the same letters
for each sound that are now oftenest used to denote it, as follows: (Mr.
Jones's scheme) a as in at, aa (father), ai (aid), au (taught), b, c (cat), ch
(chip), d, e (met), ee (eel), f, g (go), h, i (in), ie (pie), j, l, m, n, ng (sing),
o (on), oe (foe), oi (oil), oo (ooze), ou (out), p, r, s, (sun), sh (ship), t, th
(their, thine), u (bun), ue (hue), v, w, y, z (zeal). This scheme is de-
fective in giving the letters different values in combination from those
which they have when alone, and in representing so many elementary
sounds by digraphs. Besides, it does not serve to bring our spelling into
harmony with other languages. Its advantage is, that it can be set up
from common printer's cases, and that it can be read by any one who can
read the old spelling.· See Cyclopædia of Education.

230
PATIENCE — PENMANSHIP
PATIENCE, the calm endurance of necessary toil or suffering. This
quality, though similar to perseverance in the prolonged effort which its
exercise presupposes, differs from it chiefly in the equable temper with
which that effort is made. A patient spirit is one of the most important
elements in the character of a successful educator. Many occasions, indeed,
will occur when patience will be the only virtue which will command suc-
cess. Its cultivation, therefore, is desirable both on this account, and
because of its value in mental discipline. Its possession, moreover, is
necessary both to the teacher and to the pupil. To the former, it is of
special use in his treatment of the varying dispositions with which he has
to deal. The provocations to impatience and ill temper are so many and
so constant, that, without patience, the teacher's life will be a continued
series of annoyances. Impatience in children is the result either of tempera-
ment or hereditary predisposition; and, in dealing with it, the teacher
should remember that nothing so tends to develop and foster it in his
pils, as a constant practical exhibition of it in his daily intercourse with
them. As nothing is so infectious as ill temper, so nothing tends so
rapidly to curb ill temper as that quiet forbearance which a patient spirit
diffuses around it like an atmosphere. The mental powers, also, act with
much greater effect when the calmness of the judgment is undisturbed by
ill temper or impatience. Perseverance may, indeed, exist without patience,
and to a certain extent may accomplish its objects; but it is safe to say
that more than half the good results which perseverance aided by patience
might accomplish, are thrown away if patience does not accompany it.
pu-

PEDAGOGY, or Pedagogics (Gr. naidaywyía, from nais, naidós,
a boy, and άywyós, leading or guiding), the science and art of giving in-
struction to children, particularly in school, or as by a school-teacher
(πaιdaywyós). This term is more generally used in Germany than in the
United States or Great Britain, in which the theory and art of the teacher
or educator is designated as instruction or education; indeed, the word
pedagogue is, in these countries, used as a term of reproach. For infor-
mation in regard to the various departments of pedagogy, see EDUCATION,
INSTRUCTION, DIDACTICS, etc.
Value.
PENMANSHIP, writing with the pen, although the term is some-
times used to indicate any kind of handwriting, or chirography, the
pen being the most important instrument for writing. The
ability to write is one of the two fundamental characteristics of
an educated person, the inability to read and write constituting what is
technically called illiteracy; and yet, in advanced education, a legible or
elegant style of handwriting is not considered of great importance; for the
cases are very few in which a candidate either for admission to a college or
university, or for a graduating diploma, is rejected for not being able to
write; any scrawl, however illegible or inelegant, being usually accepted as
evidence of such ability. The consequence is, that good penmanship has
not been the distinguishing feature of college graduates, but rather the re-
verse. When the value of this accomplishment, in every sphere of life, is
considered, it will be obvious that the policy of thus disparaging penman-
ship as an accomplishment of a scholar is an entirely mistaken one. It is
true that it cannot be considered as an element of superior instruction;
but those who have the direction of that grade of instruction, should al-

PHONETICS
231
ways insist upon
the completion of the inferior grades as an indispensable
prerequisite for admission to higher studies. In elementary schools, pen-
manship constitutes a very important branch of instruction; and, in these,
sufficient time should be given to it to insure, at least, a respectable degree
of excellence to each of the pupils.-There are various so-called
Methods of systems of teaching penmanship, but the underlying principles
teaching. are the same in all, the difference chiefly consisting in a diversity
in the arrangement of the elements of the letters, with slight modifications
in their forms and mode of execution, and in the exercises for practice. In
order to write well, the pupil must have (1) a thorough knowledge of the
forms of the letters, and (2) a command of the pen to execute them.
The two fundamental requirements must be made simultaneously, except
that some previous elementary instruction and practice in drawing will
aid the pupil very much in his first lessons in penmanship. In these les-
sons, the forms should be adapted to the pupil's untrained muscles, and
should increase in complexity and difficulty pari passu with the training
of the hand and arm. The proper position of the body and the correct
mode of holding the pen are indispensable prerequisites to successful work.
Lessons in penmanship also presuppose a careful analysis of the elementary
forms of the letters; and, in this respect, systems greatly differ. They
have, however, many points in common indeed every thing that is es-
sential. Commencing with straight lines, to be made at the proper slope,
and with perfect parallelism, the pupil advances progressively to the pot-
hook, the loop, the ellipse, as in the letter o, etc., till, by practicing these
and their combinations, he has mastered all the small letters of the script
alphabet, when he proceeds, in a similar manner, with the capitals, from
which he passes to words, phrases, sentences, and paragraphs. The copy-
book should not be used after the pupil has become thoroughly familiar
with the proper forms of the letters, and thus acquired a fair style of
writing. Much time is frequently lost in compelling pupils, year after
year, to write copies. Quantity as well as quality should be required;
excellence in penmanship consisting both in correctness and speed of exe-
cution. Many useful exercises may be blended with practice in penman-
ship, as the learning of the forms used in business, such as bills, receipts,
modes of superscribing and addressing letters, etc. Practice in calligraphy,
or artistic penmanship, is also of use, but should not be carried to an
extreme in schools.
PHONETICS (Gr. pwvnτiká, from pwvý, voice), a term used to denote
not only the science of voice-sounds (phonology), but the arts of phonot-
ypy (printing words by their sounds), and phonography (writing words
by their sounds). It is also used to designate phonetic teach-
Definition. ing, or the practical application of phonetics. In all these cases,
the use of the term phonetic as an adjective is more common; as, phonetic
science, phonetic print, phonetic writing, and phonetic teaching. In this
article, these will be severally treated in the order here enumerated.
I. Phonology, or phonetic science, is, properly, a branch of the science
of acoustics, which embraces a consideration of the sounds used in speech,
as well as those used in singing, and in other departments of
Phonology music. Phonology is related, on the one hand, to physiology,
as far as the organs of speech, and their action, are concerned; and, on the

•



232
PHONETICS
other, to philology, being now recognized by the most eminent philologists
as lying at the very foundation of that science, and hence of much greater
importance than any mere orthographic etymology can be. This subject
can be best presented and understood by approaching it from the side of
our own language, and considering the elementary sounds of
Elementary that language in their natural order and relations. This will lay
sounds. a good foundation for the study of general phonology, and for a
comparison of the sounds of all languages. The English language contains
nearly all the sounds needed for a full outline of phonology; and, more-
over, in Webster's and Worcester's dictionaries (now very generally ac-
cepted as standards of reference, in the United States, universally
adopted as such), there is to be found a complete analysis of these sounds
one in which they fully agree, though neither presents them in their
natural order, giving them merely as the particular sounds of the letters.
In arranging them according to the latest results of phonetic science, we
inay take these distinctions as we find them in the dictionaries, where they
are correctly made: (1) the sixteen simple vowel sounds heard in the fol-
lowing words: fate (same as ei in veil), fat, care, far, ask, all, what (same
as o in not); mete (same as i in pique), met, fin, note, whole [recognized
as an English sound, but not sanctioned in orthoëpy], rude, pull, us, urn.
These naturally arrange themselves in the following order, with the addi-
tion of ü and ở from the German to complete the scale:


FULL VOWELS.
Long, when accented.
Brief, when unaccented.
MIDDLE
VOWELS.
STOPPED VOWELS.
Staccato or exploded.
Always short in English.
MIDDLE
FRONT
SERIES
SERIES
BACK
SERIES
FRONT
SERIES
SERIES
BACK
SERIES
pique
kühn
rude
fin
Künste
pull
(1)
1
ü
u
i
ú
И
veil
Goethe
note
met
Boecke
whole
(2)
е
Ӧ
0
e
care
her
all
fat
us
what
(8)
æ ə
Ə
D
10
far
ask
a
DIPHTHONGS.
my
oil
pi
out
хи
tune
iu
use
y
The full and stopped vowels occur in pairs, and in three corresponding
series, as shown in the following table:
pique
1
fin
kühn Künste
rude
pull
i
ü
ú
u
veil
met
Goethe
Böcke
note
U
whole
e
e
ö
Ö
0
care
fat
her
us
all
what
æ
ว
a
D
Ο
20
"far ask
a
a

PHONETICS
233
No distinction is made in these tables between the sound of e in term
or i in girl, and that of u in urn or in furl. These sounds, however,
though kindred, are distinguishable, and are so marked by Webster, who
says, "The vulgar universally, and many cultivated speakers both in Eng-
land and America, give the e in such words the full sound of u in urge, as
murcy for mercy, turm for term, etc. But, in the most approved style of
pronunciation, the organs are placed in a position intermediate between
that requisite for sounding u in furl and that for sounding e in met, thus
making (as Smart observes) 'a compromise between the two'." The vowel
sounds, as arranged in the above tables, may be thus described. Starting
from the fundamental sound, a in far (or a in ask), they branch upward
in (1) a front series, with the tongue rising upward and forward, to i in
pique; (2) a middle series, with the tongue rising to i, directly upward,
and not pushed forward or backward; and (3) a back series, with the
tongue rising upward and backward to u in rude. The succession in the
order of the sounds as judged by the ear, corresponds to that of the move-
ments of the tongue, as perceived by the muscular sense. The diphthongs
are arranged below the simple vowels according as they terminate in the
upper front vowel i or the upper back vowel u. The relations of the full
and corresponding stopped vowels to each other, as affected by quantity,
may be further studied by the aid of the following arrangement of words,
in which they respectively occur in accented and unaccented syllables (the
double letters indicating prolonged sounds):


eat
ii
eternal kühn Künste prude
prudentia
i
ü
ü
uu
u
it
wood
ii
i
ии
น
mate
maternal Goethe Böcke oak
location
ee
e
ة
00
O
-
met
spoken
ee
e
00
0

care
clairvoyant cur
curtail
aught
authentic
ææ
æ
əə
סס
D
carry
curry
not
ex
B
əə
ә
♡♡
20
part
partake
aa
α
ask
α
αα
It may be observed that the stopped vowels do not, and cannot, rise
quite so high in the scale as their corresponding full vowels; but this
difference is reduced to a minimum in the fundamental pair, a a, and in
the lower front pair, æ e.
The following is a synoptical arrangement of consonant sounds, some
German sounds being added. [a, indicates aspirates; t, subtonics; n, nasals;
7, liquids; v, vowel consonants]:
234
PHONETICS
CONSONANTS.
LIP
LIP-
TEETH
TONGUE
TEETH
TIP-
TOP-
ROOT-
TONGUE TONGUE TONGUE
up
tone
chin
cat
(a) p
be
t
ch
C
do
jar
get
(t) b
d
j
g
von
if
thin
us
she
ich
(a) v
f
th
S
sh
dh
wie
veil
this
zone
usual
Tag
(t) w
V
dh
Z
zh
g
me
no
senor
sing
(n) m
n
ñ
ng
let rare
1rx
(2)
what
(a) hw
we
(2) W
he
20
h
ye
y
For an account of the development of the present method of indicating
these sounds in the English language, the reader is referred to the article
on ORTHOGRAPHY.
II. Phonetic Print. The elementary sounds of the English language
are usually represented in dictionaries by diacritical marks; but various
methods of phonotypic notation, other than this, have been employed.
That of Dr. Edwin Leigh has been extensively used for school purposes,
and has attained a considerable degree of popularity. An ingenious
system of representation approximating to the diacritical, is used in
Shearer's Combination Speller (N. Y., 1874).
III. Phonography, or phonetic writing, in its more general sense,
would include any script in which the letters are used to denote sounds;
but it is now appropriated, in a special sense, to Pitman's particular system
of phonetic short-hand. It can be studied in Pitman's manuals, especially
those of 1860 and 1865; or as it appears in the text-books of Andrews and
Boyle (Boston, 1846); Langley (Cincinnati, 1851), Graham (N. Y., 1858),
Ben Pitman (Cincinnati, 1855), Marsh (San Francisco, 1868), Munson
(N. Y., 1866), and E. V. Burnz (N. Y., 1872). In connection with any
of these (especially those prior to 1860), Parkhurst's Stenophonographer
(N. Y., 1852-76) can be used, and will give to the investigator, teacher,
or practical reporter, the history and discussion of the various improve-
ments, proposed or made, since 1852. Phonography, notwithstanding
its many advantages over the ordinary script, has made but little progress
since that time as a general method of writing, its use, at present, being
almost exclusively technical. Hence, it has not been generally introduced
as a branch of instruction, except in commercial schools, or for the special
purposes of preparing for the occupation of the reporter.
IV. Phonetic teaching now quite generally constitutes a part of the
lowest grade of elementary instruction, its object being to facilitate the
气
​
PHONIC METHOD — PHYSICAL EDUCATION
235
teaching of children to read. (See PHONIC METHOD.) By means of phonetic
exercises, the vocal organs of children are trained to clearness and cor-
rectness of enunciation, while the ear is cultivated so as to be
Methods. able readily to distinguish sounds. At the same time, children
necessarily acquire a better idea of the use of letters and of the sounds
which they are employed to denote. Most educators, at the present time,
recommend this mode of teaching; although there is some diversity in the
manner in which it is applied. Beginning with simple words in which
single letters are used to denote simple sounds, and in which no silent let-
ters occur, the child is led to perceive the use of the letters, and to associate
with them their proper sounds, the teacher passes progressively to more
complex and irregular combinations, until the pupil is able to analyze
words into their component sounds, and state how these sounds are repre-
sented. After such preliminary exercises, in order that the pupil may fully
understand the relations of the sounds to each other, and be systematically
drilled in their utterance, all the elementary sounds must be presented
synoptically. This is done by phonetic charts, which should ex-
Phonetic hibit (1) a logical enumeration of the elementary sounds, illus-
charts. trated by their use in well-chosen words; and (2) the letters of
the alphabet with their various sounds, and diphthongal combinations.
Very many of the faults in articulation so frequently met with may be
prevented or removed by persistent drilling in the elementary sounds.
These phonetic drills may comprise exercises in the vowel sounds by them-
selves; but the consonant sounds are often most effectively practiced in
combinations with vowels. In teaching persons, whether children or
adults, to pronounce a foreign language, this training is indispensable. Of
course, it should be preceded by a careful investigation into the particular
defects which constitute what is called the "foreign accent", so that the
elementary sounds involved may be made the special subject of the drill.
Phonetic analysis should not cease in the lower grades, but should, at every
stage, constitute a part of the regular reading or elocutionary exercises.
Like the fingers of the pianist or violinist, the vocal organs need constant
technical exercise in order that they may perform their office most effect-
ively. The enunciation of the open vowel sounds constitutes a most im-
portant part of vocal training. (See VOICE, CULTURE OF THE.)
PHONIC METHOD, a term applied to a method of teaching read-
ing, in accordance with which pupils are taught, in pronouncing words,
to use the sounds of the letters, instead of their names, so that they may
at once perceive the result of combination, and thus without difficulty give
the correct pronunciation. For example, when the pupil is required to
pronounce the word dog, he does not say de-o-ge, dog, but gives to each let-
ter the proper sound, phonetically, and thus at once pronounces the word
dog as the necessary product of the elements thus combined. This
method is considered by teachers to possess many advantages over the old-
fashioned way of compelling the pupils to learn the names of the letters
of the alphabet, and then teaching them to read by spelling exercises.
(See ORTHOGRAPHY.)
PHONICS. See ORTHOGRAPHY, and PHONETICS.
PHYSICAL EDUCATION may be defined as that systematic train-
ing of the bodily powers which tends to render them, in the highest pos-
236
PHYSICAL EDUCATION
sible degree efficient in their several functions. The necessity for this
training is generally acknowledged, as a basis for the higher departments
of education. Among the ancients the Persians, the Greeks,
Definition. and the Romans, especially, the highest respect was accorded
to physical culture; and the means employed were generally well adapted
to the purpose, although merely empirical; but, at the present time, the re-
searches of science ought to supply a far better and more accurate basis
for an effective system of bodily training. Physical education looks to
two objects: (1) to encourage a normal development of bodily powers; and
(2) to check morbid growth. Incidentally to these, of course,
Objects. the preservation of health, that is, protection against disease, is
an important object; since a condition of health is the foundation upon
which all physical culture must rest; indeed, if children are successfully
protected from morbid influences and disturbances, normal development
must result.
(1) The application of appropriate means to stimulate or guide the de-
velopment of the bodily powers constitutes what is called physical training.
This training may be (1) general, or (2) special. Up to a certain
Physical age, all physical exercise must have for its object general develop-
training. ment; beyond that, the special purpose of the training must dic-
tate the nature of the exercise to be employed. Military drill, it is true,
is often employed in schools to promote general development, but there is
very much required in military discipline that is quite unnecessary for or-
dinary physical culture. The importance of systematic exercise has been
considered in the articles calisthenics and gymnastics (q. v.). Such exer-
cise, however, must not look exclusively to muscular development; but to
the prompt use of muscular power in obedience to the dictates of mind.
Such power systematically exercised in any given direction becomes al-
most automatic, as is seen in the case of the skillful oarsman, rider, or
swordsman; or in adepts in athletic games, such as those of ball and cricket.
All such means of physical culture become of special value, as bringing the
powers of the body under the immediate control of the will; and, hence,
under the name athletics, they have been generally encouraged by those
who have the direction of superior education. In the same category, are
to be placed the exercises which regard the due development of other phys-
ical powers, as the senses, the vocal organs, the lungs, and, in a closer re-
lation to intellectual education, the brain. Educators err greatly in for-
getting that the brain is a physical organ, and that its exercise is subject
to the same laws and to the same limitations as other bodily organs; and
that, therefore, physical considerations should have a controlling weight in
determining the means and, to some extent, the methods of intellectual
training. (See BRAIN.) Many are inclined to regard the direction of phys-
ical training as unnecessary. They think that the physical powers of
children and youth receive, in the instinctive and irrepressible exercises
natural to that age, a sufficient education for ordinary purposes. From
this view arises a neglect which is fraught with serious injury. Not only
does the individual fail to act appropriately and energetically at every
trying period of his life; but, in most cases, his action falls somewhat below
what is required for effective results, through want of the full co-operation
of the bodily powers; and, toward the close of life, decrepitude is accelerated
PHYSIOLOGY
237
by the partial atrophy occasioned by imperfect development and by
disuse.
(2) To check morbid growth or to prevent disease, careful attention
must be given to the surroundings of the child, particularly in school; as
Relation
there he is subjected to constant restraint, and, hence, cannot
Morbid exercise his natural instincts which would prompt him to es-
growth.
cape from such surroundings. The preservation of children
from morbid influences in school depends upon a great variety of circum-
stances, for a full enumeration of which, see HYGIENE, SCHOOL. The prac-
tical aim of physical education, under the influence of modern life, is al-
most always intellectual. Gymnastics and calisthenics, however, indirectly
exert a moral influence which, of itself, makes their practice desirable.
This is that magnanimity which is produced in generous minds
to morals. by the consciousness of bodily health and power, and a dispo-
sition to use that power worthily. A feeling of inferiority has
always associated with it an element of immorality, which leads its posses-
sor to acts of duplicity and meanness to preserve his equality. There is still
that which relates
another phase of physical education to be considered
to the joint action of the mind and body through the medium of the senses.
(See EAR; EYE; and SENSES, EDUCATION OF.) The minute subdivision of
labor characteristic of the age in which we live, by giving a
The senses. utilitarian value to the cultivation of the senses is rapidly con-
stituting this an element of increasing importance. Already, the success
of numerous trades and employments is dependent upon a nicety of discrim-
ination by means of the eye, the ear, the taste, or the touch; and the
number of these is steadily increasing. The cultivation of the senses,
therefore, is desirable from a merely utilitarian point of view; while for gen-
eral culture, such as is required in many of the arts, its absolute necessity
is manifest. Many considerations and interests, therefore, conspire to
make the subject of physical education one of constantly increasing
importance.
PHYSIOLOGY (Gr. pois, nature, and 26yoç, discourse), the science
which treats of vital phenomena as contradistinguished from anat-
omy, which treats of the structure of living bodies and the materials
of which they are composed. In the course of education, it presup
poses some preliminary knowledge of chemistry, physics, anatomy, and
especially of microscopic anatomy, or histology; and, in turn, it pre-
cedes the study of hygiene, or the laws of health, and that of pathology,
or the science of abnormal function. As a science, physiology is of
recent origin, though the name has been in use from antiquity. Like
all other natural sciences, as Dalton observes, "there is only
How to be one means by which physiology can be studied; that is, by
studied. the observation of nature". It has been built up by experiment;
and many of its most essential truths, and these in their practical results
the most important to mankind, have been gained through vivisection. As
the principal foundation of hygiene, it is obvious that its principles should
be so far made an element of general education as may conduce to a just
appreciation of nature's sanitary code. How this may best be accomplished
School is a question that has hardly received the attention it de-
physiology, serves.
School physiology, in many cases, consists of a smat-


238
PICTURES
tering of anatomy; in others, of a still more unsubstantial fabric of in-
formation regarding function; or, in still others, of a blending of the two
with hygienic doctrines, often based not on a wide conception of biological
truths, but on the meager knowledge gained by personal experience. The
difficulty has always consisted in attempting to build upon too narrow a
foundation, and that by means of an erroneous method. Thus, the attempt
is made to teach the elements of physiology without a sufficient ground-
work of chemistry and physics, and exclusively from books, instead of from
practical experience in the laboratory. The results have been as those
of book learning and lecture teaching in natural science, without observa-
tion and experiment, always must be- unreal and evanescent; hence, by
such instruction the true nature of vital phenomena is never clearly appre-
hended; and the hygienic deductions are, of course, correspondingly il-
logical. Doubtless, a great amount of knowledge has been imparted, in
these later days, to the people in general on this subject; but the advance
that has been made in sanitary practice is, probably, due not so much to
the results of school education, as to the improved education of medical
men, and to their advice spoken and written to communities, learning by
practical experience the penalty of infringing hygienic laws. The real
requisite in general education on this subject appears to be, that, when a
sufficient foundation has been laid, a practical course of biology
Biology. should be employed to elucidate the general laws of life; and
then the habit of scientific thought and reasoning, formed by such training,
will lead to a correct application of general principles to the special condi-
tions of human life. Some such course of biological study as A Course of
Practical Instruction in Elementary Biology, by Huxley and Martin,
might properly form a part of the curriculum of every collegiate institution;
and, in all schools of a lower grade, as much preparation should be made
for such a course as is practicable. Objective teaching, in outline, of anat-
omy, by the dissection of the lower animals, accompanied by such simple
practical suggestions as arise from the interpretation of the mechanical ar-
rangements of the body, may be early commenced; but, in all cases, this
foundation should be laid systematically, with a definite end in view, and
by instructors who have qualified themselves to teach, by following a
complete practical course, such as is above suggested. Teaching merely
from text-books and by pictures, will be almost useless, because
Text-books. superficial; and no demonstrations, even from the best models,
can ever be so effective as those from actual dissections of the lower ani-
mals. A pupil will gain a better idea of the appearances presented by his
own organs, and of their own relations to one another, from seeing a
demonstration of those of a rabbit or a dog, for example, than from any
rigid, and necessarily unreal, model, however skillfully constructed and
colored. Such models, however, admirably subserve secondary demon-
strations. For a list of works of reference, see Cyclopædia of Education.
PICTURES. One of the earliest efforts of the human mind, after
spoken language, appears to be the communication of ideas by tangible ob-
jects. The use of pictures and images is common among sav-
Use of.
ages every-where. It is no less characteristic of the infant mind
among civilized races, children being not only interested in looking at
pictures, but, by a natural prompting, attempting to imitate them. The

POETRY
239
first ideas which the child takes from objects being concrete, its means of
expressing them takes the concrete form its first effort being, as near as
possible, a reproduction of the objects themselves. Not till a higher devel-
opment has been reached, is it fitted to make use of a system in which
purely arbitrary forms are employed. This early and almost universal
instinct, therefore, involving, as it must, the ability to understand ideas so
communicated, suggests the peculiar fitness of this method for use in the
instruction of children. This form of expression being attended with so
much pleasure, it finds its natural place in the kindergarten system; and
we find, accordingly, various exercises there for the employment of it. It
is even extended into the ordinary school system in the shape of object
lessons. But this method, useful as it is at certain stages, has
Limitations. its limitations. It should not be forgotten that, with children,
the object itself, for purposes of instruction, is always better than any
representation of it. As the picture of an animal, for instance, is only one
phase of the form of that animal, and does not usually take into considera-
tion size, color, and many other essential qualities, only a very imperfect
impression can be gained from it. This fact should suggest the limitations
mentioned. These have reference principally to the end to be attained, to
the correctness of the picture, and the number and nature of the objects
represented. As to the correctness of the picture, little need be said; as
modern publications, in this respect, show a constant improvement, and
leave little to be desired. The number of objects represented in each
picture should be limited, single figures being, at first, given; afterwards
two or three. The objects represented, also, should be familiar things, and
several of a kind, inasmuch as, by the contemplation of these, the child's
conceptive faculty, or imagination, and powers of generalization are exer-
cised. In this respect, also, the right method in primers and elementary
books, is, as a rule, instinctively taken though not always. The value
of this last restriction, at a later period, may be easily illustrated. If the
object be to give an idea of some animal never seen the camel, for
instance the task is made comparatively easy from the child's having
seen illustrations of somewhat similar objects with which it is familiar; as
the horse, cow, etc. It seizes at once upon the points of resemblance, and,
immediately after, upon the points of difference, and thus makes a positive
addition to its knowledge. But let the same child be confronted with a
picture of a star-fish, or a printing-press, and the probability is, if it has
never seen these or any similar objects, that it will get only a very imper-
fect idea of either. The reason is obvious. With no previous preparation,
it is called upon to establish in its mind an entirely new conception, solely
from the picture, without any corresponding tangible basis in its experience.
The result is a thwarting of the tendency to generalization- so strong with
children always—and a confusing of the mind by an indistinct conception,
invariably accompanied with a loss of interest. The special uses to which
pictures are put, whether as diagrams in illustration of particular studies,
or a part of a higher, artistic education, need not here be considered.
PÕETRY, or the written expression of beauty, is an important instru-
ment in certain departments of intellectual culture, besides aiding in the
education of the emotions and sensibilities, and in the cultivation of taste.
(See ESTHETIC CULTURE.) The pupil's first knowledge of written poetry
240
POETRY
tion.
is usually obtained from the school reader. The manner of its presentation
there, however, is susceptible of improvement. The free use of figures of
rhetoric, and of obsolete or unusual words and phrases, renders
Mode of poetry inappropriate to the minds of children till after the usual
presenta- modes of expression have become familiar. Its proper time for
presentation, therefore, is when rhetoric is studied—that is, dur-
ing the latter part of the high-school course, or in the college. Yet nothing
is more common than to find a highly-involved passage from Shakespeare,
or an abstruse paragraph from Wordsworth, in a reader intended for pupils
of from ten to fifteen years of age. Some vague or half-considered idea
that these passages are, in some way, to serve as models, by being thus
presented, or are necessary for elocutionary purposes, is probably in the
mind of the compiler. But what should we think of the music teacher
who should present a symphony of Beethoven, as a model, to a beginner
The result is
practicing the scales? The parallel case is quite as absurd.
bad in two ways: (1) the unintelligibility, to the child, of such
Result. a poetical selection deprives it of all use as a model; and (2) the
disgust thus occasioned becomes permanent, and leads the pupil, even in
manhood, to avoid a reperusal of the author thus used. How many per-
sons, of mature years, date their dislike to Milton, for instance, from an
enforced use of his works as reading or parsing exercises in early youth!
The introduction of poetry into the school curriculum should
Sug- follow the natural plan, the first poems used being exceedingly
gestions.
simple, containing no words beyond the vocabulary of the child,
and treating of subjects and objects of every-day familiarity. An excel-
lent plan would be to place, as an introductory lesson in reading, a para-
phrase in prose of the poem to be used. In this way, the pupil, being
possessed beforehand of the meaning of what he is approaching, is at
liberty to give more attention to the poetical mode of expression, this being
the principal thing to be considered; for, if the meaning were the prin-
cipal thing, prose would be preferable it being more direct and in more
familiar language. The fact that rhythmical language is, in many cases,
of assistance to the memory, indicates its peculiar fitness for
certain educational purposes. By its aid, abstract truths and
arbitrary rules may often be fixed in the mind, in a way not
possible by any other. Moral truths, also, may often be better retained in
the memory by their expression in rhythmical form. The experience of
most persons will probably furnish illustrations of this fact. There appears
to be a limit to this use of rhyme, however, determined partly by
Use of the nature of the things to be remembered, and partly by the es-
rhyme.
thetic effect produced by such use. It may be said, in general,
that all concrete ideas and relations, those which, upon suggestion, call up
in the mind material images do not require the aid of rhyme to fix them
in the memory; while ideas and relations of an essentially abstract or
arbitrary nature, are more easily retained in the memory by a rhythmical
expression of them. As an illustration of a violation of the first proposi-
tion, may be mentioned a rhymed text-book on geography. In the study
of geography, the definitions, descriptions, etc., being always accompanied
by pictures and maps, are firmly fixed in the mind by the eye
effective of all the agents used in acquiring knowledge. To call in the aid
Special
value.
the most
PRAXIS PRIMER
241
of the ear, therefore, is superfluous, and tends, rather, to distraction. If
there had been originally any vagueness of conception left by the image
addressed to the eye, the ear might, with propriety, be called in to aid it;
but, from the nature of things, this is impossible. The picture of a
material object will always present to the mind a clearer idea of it, than
any verbal description. A further objection, in this case, ts
Further that the rhymed version, degenerating, as it is almost sure to
objection.
do, into grotesque doggerel, familiarizes the mind of the pupil
with the most degraded form of poetry, and tends to unfit it for an appre-
ciation of the higher. In regard to the second proposition mentioned
above, it may be said that we naturally seek some short, succinct form for
expressing generalizations, and abstract and arbitrary relations, which shall
make them convenient for use; and that form is often found. If the poetic
forin would enable us to remember them more distinctly, and if no objec-
tion to its use could be raised, it would be allowable; but if this form,
besides adding little to our ability to remember, is open to the additional
objection that it presents to the undiscriminating mind of the pupil a bad
poetical model, it would seem that it ought not to be used. It can hardly
be claimed that rhymed versions of the Lord's Prayer, or of the Proverbs,
for instance of the propositions of geometry, or of the rules of arith-
metic, have helped us materially to learn more readily or appreciate more
fully the truths contained in them. The very nature of some truths is
averse to ornament; and the use of it, in such cases, should be discounte-
nanced. A frequent result of the appreciation of the beautiful, which
underlies all poetry, is the attempt of youth sooner or later to
Writing write poetry. Every teacher's experience will supply instances
poetry. of this. This inclination usually makes its appearance between
the ages of 15 and 20, in minds that have a natural taste for beautiful
objects, after a considerable command of language has been obtained, and
before the realities of life have come to darken, with their shadows, the
bright sky of youth. As not one in a hundred, however, of those who
write verses, at this age, will become a poet, the teacher's course is plain.
His method of cure should be, unsparing criticism, but applied in a
kindly spirit. It will require only a few exposures of bad rhymes, false
similes and metaphors-and of these, the most preposterous will generally
be found to be the most cherished by the writer-to recall the would-be
poet to a more sober and useful pursuit.
PRAXIS (Gr. πрāşıç, from πрáσσει, to do), a particular form of
exercise designed to afford practice to the pupils; as a praxis for parsing
or analysis, in teaching grammar.
PREPARATORY SCHOOLS, schools for secondary instruction,
in which pupils are prepared for admission to the college or university.
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION. See EDUCATION.
PRIMER (Lat. liber primarius, a little book containing the offices
of the Roman Catholic Church, so called because used at prime-prima
hora the first hour), originally a small book of prayers, or for element-
ary religious instruction, but at the present time, an elementary reading-
book of the lowest grade. The literature relating to primers, or A-B-C
books, is very curious and interesting, some of these books having had
great fame on account of their long and extensive use.
One of the very
242
PUNISHMENT
PRIZES
earliest was Luther's (or Melanchthon's) Child's Little Primer, containing
the Lord's Prayer, etc. In 1534, a Prymer in Englyshe with certain
prayers, etc., was printed by John Byddell; and, in 1545, King Henry
VIII. ordered an English Form of Public Prayer, or Primer, to be
printed; and to be "taught, lerned, and red" throughout his dominions.
Bienrod's primer, containing an illustrated alphabet, was the earliest
publication of this kind in German, dating back to the middle of the 16th
century. The horn-book was the simplest and most noted of primers.
(See HORN-BOOK, and CHRIST CROSS Row.) The Royal Primer of Great
Britain and the New England Primer also had great fame.
PRIZES. See EMULATION.
PROGRAMME. See SCHOOL MANAGEMENT.
PROMOTION. See SCHOOL MANAGEMENT.
"is
PSYCHOLOGY (Gr. vxý, soul, and λóyos, discourse), the science
which treats of the human soul and its manifestations, that is, of the phe-
nomena of intelligence, sensibility, and will. It embraces a
Definition. consideration of all that pertains to the inner consciousness of
man, whether derived from external or sensuous impression, or from the
intuitions and activities of the soul itself, considered as the conscious ego
animating, informing, and employing the material form, or body. "Psy-
chology", says President Porter in The Human Intellect (1869)
a science. It professes to exhibit what is actually known or may be learned
concerning the soul, in the forms of science—i. e., in the forms of exact
observation, precise definition, fixed terminology, classified arrangement,
and rational explanation". Psychology embraces a wider field of research
than mental and moral philosophy, for it comprehends the whole science
of human consciousness, and is concurrent with anthropology as far as the
latter treats of the soul and its relations to the body. Those manifesta-
tions of intelligence which are based upon the observation of external
things are the peculiar field of intellectual science, but the vast field of
intuition is the peculiar sphere of psychological investigation; for it is
upon a careful study of the inner perceptions and the independent activities
of the soul itself, that we must rely to obtain a knowledge of its nature
and its relation to the Universe and its Creator.
Relation to
Education as a complete science must rest upon psychology, and can
never reach its full development in theory and practice until psychological
investigation has been carried beyond its present stage of prog-
education. ress, and has fully developed the principles needed for the
construction of a complete practical system. Such a system
would constitute the art corresponding to the science which President
Porter in the above cited definition outlines, and would place the practical
educator in possession of the principles and rules requisite for the aid and
guidance of the soul in developing itself in all its relations—intellectual,
ethical, and spiritual. This subject is in this work treated in detail in
separate articles. (See EDUCATION, INSTRUCTION, INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION,
PHYSICAL EDUCATION, etc.)
PUNISHMENT is the intentional infliction of pain for the purpose
of controlling the will, either to compel action or to restrain it. In educa-
tion this is often requisite, for the sake both of the pupil and
Defined. of the school. Lawlessness would prevail were every individ-

PUNISHMENT
243
ual allowed, without restraint, to exercise his own self-will. There must
be authority, and that authority must be recognized and enforced. (See
AUTHORITY.) The proper discipline of the pupils requires that
Need of they should be brought under control, either by means of agen-
punishment.
cies that will lead to self-control, as appeals to reason and con-
science, or to other motives, such as the love of approbation, the desire to
excel, the hope of reward, etc. Where these fail, appeal must be made to
the sense of fear, through the apprehension of mental or physical
Physical pain. This, as being the lowest principle to which recourse may
pain.
be had, should be the last, and should always be employed by
the teacher with great reluctance and with the greatest possible caution.
(See FEAR.)
Where it can be made effectual, the best form of punishment is censure,
which may be expressed by direct reproof, by demerit marks, or by public
disgrace. Reproof, to be effective, should be sparing, and never
Censure. administered in tones of anger or irritation, as if the teacher
had suffered some personal grievance, and were vindicating himself rather
than pointing out and condemning the fault of the pupil. The teacher's
personality must be eliminated in administering punishment, except as far
as he may make apparent his sorrow that punishment is necessary, and
his regret that it is his duty to inflict it. The object must be felt by the
pupil to be chastisement and correction, not vindictiveness, or the desire
to avenge offended dignity or authority. Constant scolding is exceedingly
injurious to the pupil, and of no efficacy whatever; nor can the
Scolding. attempt on the part of the teacher be approved to wound the
feelings of the pupil by satirical or sarcastic remarks; for the latter
instinctively feels that this is a mean advantage taken by the
Sarcasm.
teacher both of his position and of his superior ability.
Demerit marks have the advantage of definiteness in expressing, and in
a way that is unanswerable, if just, the amount of censure administered
for neglect or wrong-doing; and, when these are required to be
exhibited to parents, the punishment may be very severe. Forms
Demerit
marks. of disgrace, humiliating positions, or badges, may be rendered
exceedingly painful to some minds; while others would only be hardened
by them. Extreme caution is required in employing this kind of punishment.
The character of the pupil should be carefully studied, and the
Forms of effect watched. Delicacy of feeling and self-respect in the pupil
disgrace. are never to be sacrificed for a temporary advantage. Deten-
tion and the imposition of tasks are also to be resorted to with care, or
the school may become to the pupil a hateful place.
ment.
As to corporal punishment, the lowest form of all, there is great dif-
ference of opinion among educators regarding the propriety of ever resorting
to it in schools. D. P. Page, an educator of long experience,
Corporal great moral force, and singular kindliness of nature, fully ad-
punish mitted the necessity of corporal punishment as a last resort.
"I do not hesitate", he says, "to teach that corporal infliction is
one of the justifiable means of establishing authority in the school-room.
To this conclusion I have come after a careful consideration of the subject,
modified by the varied experience of nearly twenty years, and by a some-
what attentive observation of the workings of all the plans which have

244
PUNISHMENT
:
been devised to avoid its use or to supply its place". Horace Mann, one
of the most enthusiastic advocates of moral suasion, yet recognized the
Punishment", he says,
necessity of corporal punishment in some cases.
"should never be inflicted except in cases of the extremest necessity; while
the experiment of sympathy, confidence, persuasion, encouragement, should
be repeated forever and ever". An English teacher says, "It is necessary
for a child to learn that violation of law, whether of school, society, or
God, brings inevitable suffering. The sense of right is so imperfectly
developed in children, that one of the ways of impressing upon a child
that right is right, and wrong is wrong, is by showing that suffering fol-
lows from one, enjoyment and a sense of satisfaction from the other".
(The Educational Reporter, London, July 1., 1874.) Corporal punish-
"This
ment is sanctioned by Rosenkranz in Pedagogics as a System.
kind of punishment", he says, "provided always that it is not too often ad-
ministered, or with undue severity, is the proper way of dealing with will-
ful defiance, with obstinate carelessness, or with a really perverted will,
so long or so often as the higher perception is closed against appeal."
Under peculiarly favorable circumstances, a condition of things which
may be considered ideal, that is, where the home training of the pupils of
a school has been judicious and correct, where all have been taught, from
their earliest years, to obey their elders and superiors; and this not by vio-
lence and severity, but with gentleness and firmness; and moreover, where
the teacher or teachers of the school are gifted with the same talents for
discipline, under such circumstances, most educators would agree that
a resort to corporal punishment would scarcely ever, if at all, be necessary.
But such are not the circumstances under which children are instructed in
school. Bain, in Education as a Science (1881) says: "Where corporal
punishment is kept up, it should be at the far end of the list of penalties;
its slightest application should be accounted the worst disgrace, and
should be accompanied with stigmatizing forms. It should be regarded
as a deep injury to the person that inflicts it, and to those that have to
witness it, as the height of shame and infamy. It ought not to be re-
peated with the same pupil: if two or three applications are not enough,
removal is the proper course".
As to the offenses for which corporal punishment should be inflicted,
and the proper mode of inflicting it, the following suggestions (of a practi-
cal teacher) would probably meet with universal approval from those who
claim that this mode of discipline is, in certain cases, indispensable: (1) It
should be reserved for the baser faults. A child should never be struck
for inadvertencies, for faults of forgetfulness, for irritability and careless-
ness, or for petty irregularities. It is a coarse remedy, and should be
employed upon the coarse sins of our animal nature. (2) When employed
at all, it should be administered in strong doses. The whole system of
slaps, pinches, snappings, and irritating blows is to be condemned. These
petty disciplines tend to stir up anger, and rather encourage evil in the
child than subdue it. (3) In administering physical punishment to a child,
the head should be left sacred from all violence. Pulling the hair or the
ears, rapping the head with a thimble or with the knuckles, boxing the
ears, slapping the cheeks or the mouth, are all brutal expedients. These
irritating and annoying practices are far more likely to arouse malignant
PUPIL-TEACHER
245
READING
passions, than to alleviate them. (4) The temper with which you ad-
minister punishment will, generally, excite in the child a corresponding
feeling. If you bring anger, anger will be excited; if you bring affection
and sorrow, you will find the child responding in sorrowful feelings; if you
bring moral feelings, the child's conscience will be excited. Anger and
severity destroy all the benefit of punishment: love and firmness will, if
anything can, work penitence and a change of conduct. See Cyclopædia
of Education, art. CORPORAL PUNISHMENT. (See also AUTHORITY, DISCI-
PLINE, and GOVERNMENT.)
PUPIL-TEACHER, a term used, chiefly in England, to designate a
boy or a girl employed to perform certain duties connected with the teach-
ing and management of a school.
QUADRIVIUM. See ARTS.
READING, as the basis and instrument of all literary education, is
the most important branch of school instruction. After the child has
learned to talk, he may be taught to understand, and to give vocal ex-
pression to, such written language as is adapted to his degree of mental
development. To do this involves an association, in the mind,
Processes. of the printed form of the word (1) with its proper sound, or
pronunciation, and (2) with the idea which it is intended to express. In
teaching children to read, the first of these processes requires the principal
attention; but, as progress is made, the second constantly increases in im-
portance. The word, and not the letters composing it, is the true element
in reading. No one can be said to know how to read who is obliged to
stop at the word, and study its composition, before he can pronounce it.
The due meaning and pronunciation of every word must be immediately
recognized by the mind, without pause or hesitation, in the act of reading.
But the word is made up of separate characters, representing elementary
sounds; and hence arises a diversity of methods in teaching children to
pronounce words. The alphabet method, or A-B-C method (q. v.),
Alphabet
method. requires that the child should learn the names of all the letters
of the alphabet, and then, by means of a spelling process, learn
the proper pronunciation of their combinations. This process is condemned
by most teachers of the present time, as long and tedious, as well as illogical;
the method most generally preferred being that denominated the word
Word
method.
Phonic
method (q. v.), by which the child learns at once to pronounce
short words, and is taught the sounds and names of the letters,
by an analysis of them. When the sounds of the letters are
used instead of the names, the process has been called the phonic method
(q. v.), which, in modern didactics, is most generally approved. Certainly,
it is more rational to expect that a child will perceive the true
method. pronunciation of a word through an analysis of the sounds of
the letters, than by using their names, many of which afford no
key to the sound. For example, if the word be cat, the child reaches the
pronunciation at once by enumerating the sounds k-a-t; while by spelling,
he is obliged to say se-a-te, introducing sounds entirely foreign to the word.
In the one case, the mental association required is simple and direct; in
the other, it is complex and indirect. It is true that, by long and diligent
246
READING
rote-teaching, children learn to read by the latter method; but the question
arises, are they not to a certain extent unfitted for other instruction by so
illogical a process? Auxiliary to the phonic method, and, indeed,
Phonetic dictated by its needs, is the phonetic method, in which the absurd
method. contradictions of the alphabet are removed by using the letters
slightly modified, so as to have a character for each separate sound, and
each sound represented by one, and only one, character. (See ORTHOGRAPHY,
and PHONETICS.) These various methods are dictated by what may per-
haps be called the mechanics of reading; but, in connection with that, the
teacher must always bear in mind, that what the child is learning to pro-
nounce is a symbol of thought; and, hence, at every step, the pupil's under-
standing is to be addressed. "Each sentence read", says JOHONNOT (in
Principles and Practice of Teaching, N. Y., 1881), "should be the em-
bodiment of a thought which the pupil thoroughly understands, and should
be delivered precisely as it should be spoken. The practice of allowing
the words, of a reading-lesson to be pronounced separately should never be
permitted". Reading, as a part of education, has a twofold object: (1) to
understand what is read; and (2) to give proper oral expression
Object. to it; that is to say, reading is either for the purpose of gaining
information for one's self, or for imparting information to others. To teach
a pupil to read properly implies far more than correct elocution. It implies
the development of that judgment and spirit which, being brought to the
perusal of useful books, or other reading matter, will enable the student to
gather up information, and, in every available manner, make the realm of
books tributary to his own mental wants. Hence, as auxiliary to reading,
the proper meaning of words, phrases, and idioms must be taught; and
exercises must be employed for the purpose of ascertaining to what extent
the pupil has received correct ideas from what he has read. When the
object is to teach the pupils elocution, the exercises should be specially
adapted to that end. Thus, the pupil, having read in order to understand
for himself, should be required to read the same passage for the information
of his fellow pupils. For this purpose, it has been recommended, in class
teaching, to permit only the pupil reading to use the book, all the others
being required to listen; because, in this way, the pupils will be on the
alert to hear and know the meaning of what is read, and will, besides,
better appreciate the true end of reading; while, on the other hand, the one
reading will endeavor to pronounce correctly, enunciate distinctly, and
emphasize naturally. Reading-books should be constructed with
Reading- a special reference to the accomplishment of this object; and,
books. hence, the lessons should be adapted, at each stage, to the mental
status of the pupils. Moreover, the material should not consist of mere
fragments, without any logical continuity; but should be of such a
suitable
character as to discipline the mind in connected thinking upon
subjects, and to awaken an interest in the minds of the pupils. Usually,
this essential object of reading in schools is defeated by the use of extracts
from essays on difficult, abstract subjects, or from authors whose style is
too complex, and whose vocabulary is too ponderous for children.
Simultaneous reading is commended by some teachers as an
Simulta- elocutionary drill, as being useful (1) to impart habits of distinct-
exercise. ness of enunciation, (2) to remove the habit of too rapid or too
neous

RECESSES
247
RECITATION
slow a style of reading, (3) as means of voice culture for elocution. (See
ELOCUTION, and VOICE.)
RECESSES. See HYGIENE, SCHOOL, and SCHOOL MANAGEMENT.
RECITATION, a term used in American colleges and schools, to
denote the rehearsal of a lesson by pupils before their instructor, or the
repetition of something committed to memory. The manner in
How to which the teacher should conduct the daily recitations of his
class is a matter of very great importance, since apparently
conduct
recitations. perfect recitations may be gone through with which not only
have little educative value, but may even be productive of positive
harm to the mind of the pupil. The surest guide in this respect, is that
which is derived from a consideration of the essential meaning of the word
education, no method of recitation having any value which does not keep
constantly in view the development of the pupil's mental powers. It
should always be remembered by the teacher that the supreme object of the
recitation is to accustom the pupil, by daily practice, to use the faculties
of which he is possessed. Many a so-called recitation results, by too much
explanation on the part of the teacher, in a reversal of the functions of
the teacher and the class the former reciting to the latter, instead of
the latter to the former. The passive attitude of mind in which pupils
listen to a long explanation is the very attitude from which they need to be
roused. There are two stages in the development of a mental power as
produced by the exercises of the class room: (1) the knowing what to say;
and (2) the saying of it. The first stage the pupil is supposed
Stages of to have reached by the study of the lesson; the second and most
development.
important one, is not passed through by the pupil in the case
above supposed. Of far greater service is it, therefore, to the pupil, to be
allowed to state the result of his study in his own language, halting and
imperfect though it be, than to compel him to listen to an exposition by
the teacher. Under the first condition, it will be apparent, at every step,
whether he really understands his lesson; and, if he does, every day will
add to the copiousness of his vocabulary, and his ease of mental action,
and give to his recitation its highest educative result; while, under the
second the condition of a "passive recipient", there will always
be apparent to every discerning person, an inexact apprehension of the
thought presented, a certain degree of insincerity, strengthened into a
mental habit through fear of ridicule, and mental powers "rusting in
disuse". Even apt pupils, under such conditions, will become, at best,
theorists or dreamers critics, ready to pass judgment upon others'
performances, but powerless to act for themselves. The utmost that can
be claimed for this method is, that a single faculty, that of mem-
Memory. ory, has been cultivated; while this cultivation has been ac-
complished not only by the neglect, for the time being, of the other
powers, but at their expense; since the pupil is daily becoming confirmed
in the idea that they are properly exercised, and, by pursuing all future
studies in the same way, acts to their permanent injury.
It is not intended by this to discountenance the explanation of those
difficult points, which will always occur, sometimes through a feebleness
Expla- of the pupil's understanding, and at others through a failure of
nations. the text-book to supply a link necessary to the continuity of
248
RECITATION
thought. Such explanations are legitimate, and should be made in
language suited to the pupil's comprehension; the most thoughtful edu-
cators agreeing in this, that one of the gravest errors on the part of the
teacher is an explanation in terms so unfamiliar as to be unintelligible, or
so as to leave on the mind of the pupil only a vague and unsatisfactory
impression. One of the most conspicuous merits of an able teacher is his
ability to explain, in concise and simple language, the difficulties which
necessarily beset the paths of his pupils. But it must always be borne in
mind that one of the greatest merits of a recitation is to compel the pupil
to discover and present for himself the difficulties which he has en-
countered.
neous
recitation.
The method of simultaneous recitation is open to the objection that
by it the errors of backward pupils and those, therefore, who are most
in need of instruction are concealed under the readiness of the more
forward. The result usually anticipated from this method,
Simulta- i. e., a quickening of the mental powers of backward pupils
under the spur of emulation, does not appear in practice. Says
an eminent teacher, "Simultaneous recitation may sometimes
be useful. A few questions thus answered may serve to give animation to
a class, when their interest begins to flag; but that which may serve as a
stimulant must not be relied on for nutrition. As an example of its use-
fulness, I have known a rapid reader tamed into due moderation by being
put in companionship with others of slower speech, just as we tame a
friskful colt by harressing him into a team of grave old horses. But aside
from such definite purpose, I have seen no good come of this innovation”.
Though this method is resorted to often from necessity in large schools, its
operation should be carefully watched. It is open, also, to the objections
common to all rote teaching, the answer committed to memory from the
book being never so sure an indication of the pupil's apprehension of the
meaning, as his answer, before the class, in his own language. This latter
furnishes not only an accurate register of the pupil's real progress, but is
a mental exercise of the highest value, since it leads to accuracy of concep-
tion and expression, and increases the power of continuous thinking. (See
CONCERT TEACHING.)
teacher.
The first requisite for skillfully conducting a recitation is a thorough
preparation by the teacher for the particular lesson he is to hear, so that
he may be able to follow each step taken by the pupil, and may
Prepara- stand ready, at any moment, to supply the needed word in
tion of the which the pupil is striving to embody his thought. This word,
in case the pupil's conception of the idea is correct, but its ex-
pression unfamiliar, will usually be some simple generic one for which
the special or technical word may properly be substituted by the teacher.
Another point to be remembered is the order in which the different parts
of a subject are presented. Where these parts depend upon
Order of each other by a natural progression, as they frequently do, a
presen-
tation.
skillful teacher will so order the recitations of a class that those
parts of the subject which are the natural stepping-stones to
other parts, shall be presented first, such an arrangement conducing
powerfully to a correct comprehension of the subject as a whole. In some
studies—in the natural and exact sciences, almost always — this method
RELIGIOUS EDUCATION
249
is absolutely necessary; but, while in other branches its value is not so ap-
parent, the advantage to be derived from its adoption is generally con-
siderable.
hension of
recitations.
A thorough comprehension by the pupils of the subject under con-
sideration will insure the maintenance of three other conditions necessary
to success in teaching, and usually quite strenuously insisted on
Compre- by writers on the subject; namely, animation, attention, and a
the subject.
natural tone. When pupils understand what they are reciting,
their attention and animation are, by that fact, made certain;
and a natural tone is instinctively adopted. In youth, the appetite for
new truths is so eager, the exultant feeling which accompanies the con-
quest of difficulties is so keen, that the reflection of this in the voice and
manner of the pupil is a matter of certainty. Indeed, their opposites,
inattention and want of animation, are generally considered by educa-
tional writers as an indication of a want of comprehension as the sure
test by which the teacher may, at any moment, judge of the success of his
instruction. The length of recitations has been more carefully
Length of considered during the past few years than ever before, the
weight of authority. having constantly inclined to a diminution
of the time considered proper for this purpose only a generation ago.
Currie, for example, considers that fifteen minutes is the proper medium
for classes of very young children, twenty being the maximum; while half
an hour is the average for classes generally, the fixing of the attention for
a longer period not being attended with profit. In classes' of older
children, and in advanced instruction, the time of recitation may, of course,
be considerably prolonged beyond these limits, the principle, however,
being still carefully observed. The following is the view of a recent writer:
The best results are secured within the following limits: (1) Primary
school, from 10 to 20 minutes; (2) Grammar school, from 20 to 30
minutes; (3) High school, from 30 to 40 minutes; (4) College, from 40 to
60 minutes”. —Ď. P. Page says on this subject: "As a motive for every
teacher to study carefully the art of teaching well at the recitation, it
should be borne in mind that then and there he comes before his pupils
in a peculiar and prominent manner; it is there his mind comes specially
in contact with theirs, and there that he lays in them, for good or for evil,
the foundations of their mental habits. It is at the recitation in a pecul-
iar manner that he makes his mark upon their minds; and as the seal
upon the wax, so his mental character upon theirs leaves its impress
behind".
RELIGIOUS EDUCATION is that which has for its special object
the cultivation of that faculty of the human soul by means of which it is
enabled to realize the existence and constant presence of the
Definition. Deity, to know Him, and to commune with Him in worship and
prayer. Some have designated this the religious sentiment; but strong
exception has been taken to that term, as belittling the basis of religion in
the human soul. An experience of human nature, in its various degrees
of culture, shows that there are what may be called religious
Religious intuitions, common to all minds of whatever grade of develop-
ment; but that while these may prompt to worship, yet, without
religious instruction, they can lead only to superstitious and debasing prac-
sentiment.

250
RELIGIOUS EDUCATION
tices. The religious or spiritual instinct does not necessarily involve any
act of the intellect; for those whose intellectual education and endowments
are quite inferior, often show a surprising degree of spiritual insight
and religious fervor. This fact, however, does not supersede the ne-
cessity of appealing to the understanding in imparting knowledge of those
religious truths which have been communicated by divine revelation; but.
in receiving these truths, the intellect assumes the attitude of
Intellect. faith rather than of inquiry; that is to say, having become
satisfied of the authenticity, or the authority, of the source whence these
truths, or dogmatic teachings emanate, it does not exercise its powers to
establish their validity, but only to conceive them in their true import and
relations. Hence, the intellect is not to be cultivated by means
Office of of religious instruction; although its exercise cannot wholly be
religious
education. dispensed with. The specific office of religious education is
thus twofold: (1) to cultivate the religious instincts; and (2)
to impart religious truth. The one is accomplished by means of devo-
tional exercises; the other, by dogmatic teachings. In the first stages of
religious education, appropriate exercises constitute almost the only
agency needed, nothing but the simplest religious truths being requisite
(such as are usually contained in the catechism); but, in the more ad-
vanced period of culture, the importance of dogmatic instruction increases.
Simple prayers and hymns, with just enough teaching to enable the child
to realize their full significance, are the usual and the most effective means
of exercising the religious faculty. It must, however, be borne in mind,
that the mere saying of a prayer, or the singing of a hymn,
Prayers. will not necessarily give this exercise, any more than merely
committing to memory a definition or a rule will exercise the intellect.
The mechanical repetition of prayers, in religious education, is just as
useless as rote-teaching in intellectual education. By an inattention to
this principle on the part of parents and religious teachers, no doubt,
many children become disgusted with religious devotion, while others
imbibe the notion that religion is only a matter of forms and ceremo-
nies, or the repeating of the catechism. In either case, the religious
instinct becomes dormant for the want of due exercise.
The relation of moral and religious education should be carefully studied.
In brief, it may be said that the former deals with the relations which man-
kind sustain to each other; and the latter, with those which man
Moral & as a spiritual being sustains to the Infinite Spirit, the Creator
religious
education. and Preserver of all things. In the one, the principle addressed
is that of conscience (q. v.), the sense of right; in the other, it is
the religious principle, the spiritual instinct, by which man is brought into
communion with his Maker. (See MORAL EDUCATION.) In a certain sense,
these two departments of education are independent, for conscience oper-
ates independently of religion; but a religious sanction is the strongest
foundation for moral precepts. For this, the Christian revelation affords
the fullest authority, the "first and great commandment" being to love
God; and the second, "to love thy neighbor as thyself". The several
departments of education are not to be divorced from one another, but all
are to be carried on together, so as to produce a harmonious development
of character. (See HARMONY OF DEVELOPMENT.)
•

REWARDS
251
In imparting religious instruction, the same principles are to be applied
as in intellectual education, as far as language is the vehicle of the
instruction. Very much of the religious teaching given in the
Principles Sunday-school is of no value, because of the neglect to observe
& methods.
these principles. Committing to memory formulated dogmas,
verses from the Bible, doctrinal lessons, etc., without any proper apprecia-
tion of their significance, can be of little service; and in some cases may do
positive harm. Oral instruction plays a most important part in this kind
of teaching; and Bible expositions, when clear, definite, and illustrative,
always prove the most effective as well as the most attractive means of
instruction. In the effort to avoid sectarianism, the secularization of the
common schools in the United States has been carried to the extreme, and
religious education has been too much neglected. It is well said by Bald-
win, in The Art of School Management (N. Y., 1881), that "society in
its protest against bigoted ecclesiasticism and clerical control in education,
rushes to the other extreme- non-religion. All agree that sound morality
must be made the very sub-basis of an educational system. But how
shall we build up moral character, if we exclude from our schools God, the
Bible, responsibility, future life?"
REWARDS, as an instrument of family or school discipline, are
benefits or privileges conferred to incite children to well-doing. Primarily,
the offer of a reward, as an incitement to effort on the part of
To what, the pupil, appeals to hope, as punishment does to fear; but
they appeal.
there are other elements of individual character also addressed,
depending on (1) the nature of the reward offered, and (2) the individuality
of the pupil. Thus, the pupil who is particularly fond of praise, if offered
a valuable gift as an inducement to do right, would strive to obtain it as a
striking token of his teacher's approval; while one who was naturally ac-
quisitive, or eager for gain, would regard only the intrinsic value of the
reward. Hence, in one case, the pupil's approbativeness would be stimu-
lated; and, in the other, his acquisitiveness; but in neither would the sense
of duty be cultivated. The necessity of exercising great care in
Caution. offering rewards will, therefore, be obvious. While an appeal to
hope as an incentive to do right, is in most cases, if not always, preferable
to an appeal to fear; yet, it must be borne in mind that rewards as well as
punishments constitute only a temporary expedient in the discipline of
children, and should, as soon as possible, give place to a direct appeal to
conscience, or the sense of right. (See CONSCIENCE.) When rewards are
offered to a number of pupils, to be conferred upon those who excel all
the others, they become prizes, and are liable to all the objections
Prizes and which have been urged against the prize system; but when
premiums. rewards (premiums), whether gifts of money, books, pictures,
or other articles of value, or merely tickets or certificates of merit, are
offered to all who reach a certain specified standard of merit, either in
study or behavior, these objections are obviated; as, although the mercenary
spirit may still be addressed, there is not the same liability to injustice, or
the same cause of envy and jealousy. Rewards may, however, consist
merely of special privileges conferred upon meritorious pupils;
Privileges. such as dismissal before the usual time for closing school,
permission to occupy some post of honor or authority in connection with


252
RHETORIC
the management of the school or class, or to engage in some special sport
or recreation planned by the teacher, as a means of encouraging well-doing.
All these, doubtless, have their place in a proper scheme of school discipline;
and, when used with discrimination, are beneficial.
A system of rewards has been objected to as appealing to the lower,
rather than to the higher, motives; but an educator must not be led astray
by any transcendental view of human nature. He must rec-
Objections. ognize the moral imperfections of his pupil, and strive to lift him
gradually to a higher plane of thought and action. In this connection, it
has been properly remarked, “whatever may be possible in the mature
man, in the line of that sublime abstraction, virtue is its own reward, the
child is neither equal to such abstractions, nor are they demanded of him.
They may, it is true, be gradually wrought by instruction into the body of
his thought, for the sake of their ultimate effect on his principles as a
man; but, embraced, as he is, in a world of perceived realities, and only
capable of attaining the subtler ideals by passing to them through the fine
gradations of a progressively reduced and sublimated reality, it is absurd
and tyrannous to rob him of the stimulus, guidance, and aid of proper
rewards as outward realities foreshadowing the ideal of absolute virtue,
and rendering possible both its conception and attainment".
RHETORIC (Gr. pnтopikh, art of oratory) was originally applied to
that branch of study in which students were trained for public speaking.
In Greece and Rome, the orator was directly the most powerful
of rhetoric. exponent of truth and opinion. As a teacher, as well as a

Province
persuader, his influence was, to a great extent, confined to his
hearers; and eloquence was, therefore, in the greatest request. But, even
in the writings of the three greatest of the ancient rhetoricians, - Aris-
totle, Cicero, Quintilian, there is evidence that rhetoric embraced com-
positions not intended for delivery in public. In modern times, rhetoric
as an art treats of all composition, whether spoken or written. It has
been well defined as the art of discourse, and discourse itself as "the
capacity in man of communicating his mental states to other minds by
means of language". It embraces poetry as well as prose "because", as
Campbell says, "the same medium, language, is made use of; the same
general rules of composition, in narration, description, and argumentation,
are observed; and the same tropes and figures, either for beautifying or
invigorating the diction, are employed by both. The versification is to
be considered as an appendage rather than a constituent of poetry". In the
most recent treatises on rhetoric, elocution, or the art of delivery, has been
omitted. Day very justly says, "that this mode of communication is not
essential. The thought may be conveyed by the pen or by the voice.
Elocution, or the vocal expression of thought, is not, accordingly, a neces-
sary part of rhetoric". In Whately's treatise (Elements of Rhetoric),
however, a work considerably used by students, a large part is devoted to
elocution.
It has often been observed that there must have been orators before
there were rules in oratory; and this is often used as an argument for
undervaluing the study of rhetoric, just as kindred arguments
are advanced against the study of logic and grammar. But
there can be no question that immense progress has been made
Value as
a study.
RHETORIC
253
How to
be re-
elocution.
through the critical study of writers of standard reputation by comparing,
discriminating, and deciding on, their faults and graces, thus teaching us
what to avoid, and what to emulate. In its best sense, rhetoric presup-
poses an acquaintance with logic the science and art of reasoning;
because conviction and persuasion are two of the great objects present in
the minds of speakers and writers. It also requires an acquaintance with
grammar, as teaching the proper arrangement of words and sentences.
Rhetoric may be regarded from two points of view: (1) as a purely critical
study; and (2) as the constant practice of an art. To the extent that either
of these views becomes more prominent in the teacher's mind,
will the character of his instruction be affected. It is quite
garded. possible to prepare students to recite well in the statement of
principles and definitions; and yet the same students may be
very deficient in the development or expression of spoken or written
thought. In the celebrated treatise of Blair, Lectures on Rhetoric and
Belles-Lettres, taste and style are so treated as to occupy a very large part
of the subject. It is largely so with Campbell's Philosophy of Rhetoric.
Whately drew particular attention to the subject of invention;
Invention, but he follows style with a chapter on elocution. The practice,
at present, which seems to be increasing in favor with teach-
ers, is to omit elocution, or the training in mere delivery, and to ex-
tend the importance of invention even beyond that assigned to it by
Whately. The two great divisions of rhetoric are thus invention and
style. There can be no question as to the importance of invention in
rhetoric. The arrangement of the thoughts according to their logical
dependence must be the foundation of the art of discourse. Good thinking
must always precede good writing. The office of invention is to train the
pupil to habits of correct thinking. It does more than this; it seeks to sup-
ply the thought. Thus, invention is naturally divided into two parts,
the supplying of the thought, and its proper arrangement; and of these
two divisions, the second is dependent on the first. It may, however, be
doubted, whether invention can be properly studied at the early age when
pupils are usually required to study rhetoric. In many of its steps, it is
essentially logical, and presupposes an acquaintance with that subject,
and this again demands some considerable maturity of mind. The prepara-
tion of arguments, or the art of influencing the will by discourse, is a power
the development of which goes on past middle age; but it is a power that
cannot be successfully trained in very early years. The chief danger in
teaching this particular division of rethoric, is that it may be made too
scientific. There are few young minds so trained, or of such native vigor,
as to be capable of dwelling long, and with benefit upon even well enunci-
ated truths and definitions; but, even where it is insisted on and continued,
the results are not always beneficial.
The second grand division of rhetoric, style, deals more particularly with
the form of the thought. Perhaps no word has given more difficulty to
define. Without speech, "thought is not possible in reality".
Style. Though so endlessly variable in its form, so subtle as almost to
defy minute analysis, so subject to the moods of thought, and yet so plastic
as to conform to its most sinuous and involved movements, we soon realize
by a little study, how completely it is a part of the thinking. The thought
254
ROTE-TEACHING
and the style are thus seen to be one living body. As a subject of study,
it is that part of rhetoric which has always created and maintained the
greatest interest in the minds of young students. Treating of the form of
the sentence, and also of its component words, it depends, to some extent,
on grammar, and may be said to follow it, in a natural order of study. It
is, therefore, to young minds more suitable than the other division
invention. The practice which it requires in the substitution of words, the
inversion of sentences from grammatical to rhetorical forms, the use of
rhetorical figures, the expansion and contraction of language, furnishes a
constant stimulus to mental exertion. Such exercises in style show the
student how powerfully the thought is influenced by the vehicle of
thought, how it may be modified by the substitution of a clearer word,
or remarkably affected by a different position of the same words.
The advantage of sentential analysis in the careful study of style can
scarcely be overrated. The arrangement of words, phrases, and clauses,
peculiar to the great English writers, affect most powerfully the
Sentential turn of the thought, and are open to investigation through this
analysis.
analysis. The kind of sentences they use, and the variety in
which they indulge, give that harmony of movement so indescribably
pleasing. We, thus, see from what arise the clearness and greatness of
Hume, the energy and brilliancy of Macaulay, the grace of Irving, the
manly vigor of Sydney Smith, the philosophic calmness of Helps, the in-
comparable plasticity and fire of Byron's prose. Perhaps no part of rhet-
oric offers a finer field for both teacher and student than the application
of sentential analysis to an investigation of the striking peculiarities in the
style of great writers.
In no branch of study, is there greater necessity for abundance of
practice on the part of the student. In none is there greater necessity
that the student, and not the teacher, should do the chief part of the work.
The value of rhetoric, as a branch of study, is to be tested by its
Need of practical utility, by what it contributes towards developing
practice. clearness, force, and beauty of expression in language. Any
thing else, however scientific, in this branch must prove to the young stu-
dent a comparatively barren and irksome task. In this light, the constant
application of a few simple principles to the criticism of great writers is an
admirable part of the training. In Blair's Lectures on Rhetoric, there is
a series of papers from Addison illustrating this view; and it is to be
doubted whether modern treatises on rhetoric, aiming at a more philo-
sophic treatment of the subject, while they have gained in scientific
arrangement, may not have lost some of this critical training. Accuracy,
as well as force of expression, purity, propriety, grace, are, to most stu-
dents, the result of constant, careful practice, combined with criticisms on
distinguished writers.
ROTE-TEACHING, or Teaching by Rote (Fr. route, road,
whence routine), a method of giving instruction by means of constant repe-
tition, particularly of certain forms of speech, with little or no attention to
their meaning. Hence, such teaching is often described as mechanical, that
is, impressing the memory through the ear and the eye, but not exercising
the understanding. Rote-teaching may be regarded as an abuse of the
principle of repetition. (See AssOCIATION, and CONCERT TEACHING.)
SCHOOL SCHOOL FURNITURE
255
SCHOOL (Lat. schola, from Gr. oxo2n, leisure, especially for literary
studies, and hence applied to the place where such studies were pursued,-
a school), a term now applied to an educational establishment, particu-
larly of the primary or secondary grade; as a primary school, a grammar
school, a high school, a classical school, etc. Schools of the secondary
grade are, however, often designated academies, seminaries, etc. The
term school is not applied to an institution of learning of the superior
grade, but institutions for scientific or professional instruction are usually
called schools; as theological schools, medical schools, law schools, polytech-
nic schools, art schools, etc.
SCHOOL ECONOMY, a general term applied to the collective body
of principles and rules by which the keeping of schools is regulated. In its
widest sense, it embraces all that pertains to the construction and furnish-
ing of the school-house, the proper apparatus to be employed in carrying
on the processes of instruction, the various modes of school organization
and administration, including a consideration of the length and arrange-
ment of school sessions and terms, the proper records to be kept, the course
of study, programme of daily exercises, and the modes of discipline, man-
agement, and instruction.
SCHOOL FURNITURE. Under this head will be considered
(1) desks and seats; (2) platform; (3) blackboard; and (4) miscellaneous
furniture and apparatus.
In the matter of health, desks and seats are, perhaps, the articles of
the greatest importance in the school room. Notwithstanding their im-
portance, however, as deciding the pupil's position for several
Desks and hours of the day, and thus determining, in a great measure, his
seats. future health and bearing, school authorities are not yet
entirely agreed as to their style, dimensions, or arrangement; each civilized
country using its own, on account of some peculiar advantage, the relative
value of which is determined by observation from its own stand-point.
The first consideration, in the construction or arrangement of desks and
seats, should have regard to their influence upon the health of the pupils;
the second, to the convenience of the teacher and pupils, in the adjusta-
bility of the desk and seat for different exercises, or for purposes of school
government, which last would be determined principally by the arrange-
ment, and the means afforded for facilitating the entrance or exit of the
pupils. Of the comparative advantages of different styles of desks or
seats, it is not necessary here to speak, the subject being treated exhaust-
ively in the works referred to at the end of this article. The books that
have been written on this subject in different countries form almost a
library of themselves. Perhaps the best form yet devised is that described
in the report of M. Buisson, French commissioner to the Exposition at
Vienna in 1873, which was selected for special commendation, after an
examination of all the styles there presented. It is known as the Bapte-
rosses desk and seat, from the name of the inventor, who designed it for
use in his factory at Briare. It has recently been introduced into the
normal school at Auteuil. The chair is single, the seat being of wood,
round or square in shape, and supported by an iron leg which slides up or
down in a sheath, or hollow cylinder, the base of which is firmly screwed
to the floor. The leg and sheath together form the support of the seat,
256
SCHOOL FURNITURE
which is checked at any height, in its upward or downward motion, by a
thumb-screw. The back of the chair is of the ordinary pattern, and is
slightly inclined. The desk is stationary, and is supported by a cast-iron
upright. Its upper surface is divided into two parts in the usual manner
a narrow horizontal part at the, back, and a sloping part, much
larger, and nearer the pupil. It is provided either with a lid which
converts the desk into an ordinary box, or, if the top is not movable,
with compartments which open laterally. A small leaden pipe, extending
the whole length of the desk, under the horizontal part of the upper sur-
face, serves as an inkstand. It is provided with a vent at each end,
secured by a copper cap, and, opposite the pupil, is pierced to receive a
small copper funnel of sufficient size to allow only the point of the
pen to enter. By this arrangement, the pupil can neither dip his pen too
deeply, so as to get too much ink, nor upset his inkstand. Near the
foot of the leg of the desk is a foot-rest, which may be raised or lowered
by the same device of slide and thumb-screw that is used for the seat.
The thumb-screws used on the chair and desk are so arranged that they
cannot be turned except by a key, which is kept by the teacher. The
principal advantage of this desk is, that it can be adapted to pupils of
different heights; its other recommendations are obvious. An improve-
ment, perhaps, might be made by providing the desks with two supports
instead of one, thus securing a firmness which desks supported by one
central pillar do not usually have. The single desk should be 2 feet long,
from 25 in. to 29 in. high, and 18 in. wide; the double desk should be 4
feet long, the other dimensions being the same as those of the single desk.
The seats should be from 12 in. to 16. in high. Recitation seats as well
as desk seats should be provided with backs. It should not be forgotten,
however, that no arrangement of desk or seat, however ingeniously
adapted to the pupil's comfort, can take the place of that frequent change
of position which is a necessity of his being. Of the dimensions of desks
and seats, Robson says, after a careful comparison of the works of Zwey,
Falk, Frey, Cohn, Kleiber, and Virchow, "The weight of opinion is to the
effect that the height of the seat should correspond to the length of the
scholar's leg, from the knee to the sole of the foot. There must be no
stretching of muscles; therefore, the sole of the foot must rest on the floor
or upou some flat surface. If the seat be too high, the swinging of the
foot in the air causes a compression of the blood-vessels and nerves of the
hinder part of the leg and knee; if it be too low, the thighs of the scholar
are pressed against his stomach to the disadvantage of health. * * * In
order to prevent the scholar's slipping forward, the seat should be slightly
declined backward. The height of the desks should be so arranged, that
the under part of the arm may rest comfortably on the desk-top, and that
the powers of vision may not be strained, or, in other words, that the
normal distance of vision may be preserved. Desks which are too low cause,
by the bending of the scholar, a pressing on the chest and lower part of the
body; while those which are too high cause the right shoulder to be so
lifted, as to remove the upper part of the arm so far from the body, that
the lower arm cannot be laid flat on the table, thereby causing the arm
to be unsteady and easily tired". Much ingenuity has been exercised in
devising scats capable of transformation into a variety of forms. The
SCHOOL FURNITURE
257
tendency in this respect is frequently towards a mechanism so complicated
that it defeats its own object by becoming easily disarranged; and, even
if this were not the case, many of the transformations will usually be
found to be useless. The really desirable changes of form are very few.
Says an eminent educator: "If seats could be so contrived as to remain
firm when placed horizontally, to allow the pupil to lean forward easily to
write upon his desk, and then could be made to have an inclination back-
ward when the pupil desires to read or study, it would add much to his
comfort in sitting, and something, perhaps, to the comeliness of his
figure". Concerning the distance of the seat from the desk, a considerable
difference of opinion exists, some teachers considering only one inch neces-
sary, others as much as three. On this point Dr. Wiese says:
"It is,
therefore, desirable, that the inner edge of the desk should be distant from
the front of the seat only about one inch". Robson says: "The scholar
who sits too far from the desk, either bends too much, and thereby hurts
his chest and eyes, or he glides too far forward on his seat, and so gets an
unsteady position. *** It is recommended that the vertical distance
from the desk to the seat-top should be the length of the fore-arm, or
one-sixth the size [height] of the body of the scholar. Too great a distance
encourages crooked growth; for the scholar, while writing, has his body
weighing on one arm, instead of having the arm naturally resting on his
body. If the difference in height between the desk and the seat be too slight,
then the chest sinks, and the back is bent out so as to encourage stoop-
ing". Of the arrangement of desks, many methods have been advocated,
and different ones prevail in different countries; but the weight of author-
ity seems to be in favor of seating the pupils in pairs, this method being
economical as to space, and more advantageous for both teacher and pupil
in the efficient carrying out of the daily exercises. Its superiority, also,
in the matter of ingress and egress of the pupils is manifest. The arrange-
ment of desks in regard to space and light has been considered in the
article HYGIENE, SCHOOL. Many other considerations present themselves
in this connection, the chief of which are the following: the form and
height of the back of the seat; its attachment to, or independence of, the
desk immediately behind it; the variation in the height of seats and desks
as arranged on the same level for pupils of different sizes; the slope of the
floor, or its construction in steps, for the same purpose; the movable desk
or seat as compared with the stationary; the mountings of desks and seats
on casters; the varying slope of the desk-top for different purposes; the
space between the desks; the breadth of aisles, etc. These are all consid-
ered, however, in works specially written for the purpose; and the merits
of each for different purposes are fully set forth.
The platform is now considered highly desirable, if not indispensable,
in the school room. On all public occasions, whether of examination or
exhibition, it is indispensable; while there are many occasions in
Platform. the usual routine of the school, when it is exceedingly useful.
It should be not less than 6 feet wide, and 15 inches high, and should be
divided into two levels or risers. In schools in which all the exercises are
conducted in one room, closets for the storing of school apparatus are often
placed at each end of the platform. Recitation rooms are usually fitted up
without platforms, the teacher's desk standing on the floor.
258
SCHOOL-HOUSE
and
At the back of the platform, against the wall, and facing the school or
class, is placed the blackboard. It should extend the entire length of the
platform, should be at least 4 feet wide, and extend to within
Blackboard. three feet of the floor. It should be provided with a frame all
around, and a trough at the lower edge for the chalk, and to catch dust,
and should have hooks, on which pointers may be hung. The material of
blackboards is of three kinds: wood, slate, and a kind of slate-surface
made to lay directly on the wall. The last, by combining in a medium the
best qualities of the two others, is the most desirable. (See BLACKBOard.)
The principal consideration under the head of furniture and apparatus
not so much the comparative values of different articles, but what articles
are indispensable or, at least, highly necessary. Among these,
Furniture may be mentioned a clock, a small bell for the calling and dis-
apparatus. missing of classes, chairs for visitors, closets or wardrobes,
provided with wrought-iron hooks and pegs, a thermometer, sets
of maps and charts, a terrestrial globe, an abacus, or numeral frame, and
a collection of miscellaneous articles to be used in giving object lessons.
The extent to which the articles desirable for the school room have been
added to, and perfected, both in the United States and on the continent of
Europe, is remarkable; the list given above, however, furnishes a tolerably
complete outfit for a primary school. One consideration remains to be
insisted on; namely, the exercise of good taste in the selection of furniture
and articles intended to be in constant sight of the pupils. On this subject,
the architect of the London School Board remarks: "The furniture of the
school room should be graceful in form, and good in quality and finish.
Children are particularly susceptible of surrounding influences, and their
daily familiarization with beauty of form or color, in the simplest and most
ordinary objects, cannot fail to assist in fostering the seeds of taste, just as
daily discipline tends to promote habits of order. Furniture finished like
good cabinet work is more likely to be respected, even by the mischievous
school boy, than that of an unsightly or rough character". For further
information on this subject see Cyclopædia of Education.
SCHOOL-HOUSE. Of the first importance in any system of public
instruction, is school architecture, including every thing that relates to the
building in which the instruction is to be imparted. All matters that
concern the health of the school; namely, the situation of the school-house,
its furniture, the temperature of the rooms, and the means for warming,
lighting, and ventilating them, are considered either in separate articles in
this work, or under the head of HYGIENE, SCHOOL. It is designed here
specially to treat of (I) the construction of the school-house, and (II) its
internal arrangement.
I. What material should be used in the construction of a school build-
ing depends entirely upon its location and the means at command. Owing
to the improved modern methods of building, wood, brick, or
Construction.
stone may be used indifferently, as far as healthfulness is con-
cerned, economic considerations alone deciding which is to be employed. It
may be said, in general, that these considerations point to the use of stone
or brick in cities and towns, and of wood in the rural districts, except in
old and thickly-settled countries where wood is scarce. The increased
attention bestowed upon the appearance of the school-house at the present
SCHOOL-HOUSE
259
time is one of the most encouraging proofs of the general and permanent
interest aroused in the welfare of schools, since purely esthetic consider-
ations are generally the last to make themselves felt. The rudeness of the
district-school building is proverbial, yet the expression of the cherished
memories that cluster around it forms a part of the choicest literature of
every civilized country. If the transfiguring power of early association,
therefore, renders it an object of affection through life, in spite of its un-
couthness, how much stronger would that affection be if the matured taste
of later years confirmed the preference of childhood! Not only the tes-
timony of eminent writers, but the unwritten experience of every observing
person, bears abundant witness to the subtle and enduring influence of early
associations; and now, when the subject of education is receiving so large
a share of careful thought, with a view to discover all available ways to
perfect its means and methods, it would seem that this powerful agent
should not be neglected. Without squandering money, therefore, to make
the school-house pretentious, or a perfect specimen of one of the conven-
tional orders of architecture, pains should be taken that it should not be
an offense to the eye, or out of harmony with the landscape. Since this
can generally be done, also, without any, or with only slight, additional cost,
the educational value, moral and esthetic, of the appearance of the school-
house, may properly be included in the plans of the architect. As to the
solidity of the school building in all its parts, it is not too much to say that
no financial objections which would impair this, should, for a moment, be
entertained. The contingencies which may happen at any moment where
large numbers of children are gathered together, are so momentous in their
character, as to render this imperative. The size of the school-house should
be determined, of course, by the number of pupils it is intended to accom-
modate. An eminent authority says that, a building designed for an un-
graded school to be taught by a single teacher, should contain, at least,
900 sq. ft. of floor space; being intended to accommodate from 50 to 80
pupils. In regard to the proper size of class rooms, see HYGIENE, SCHOOL.
II. Every district-school house should have a vestibule, a main room,
and one or more class-rooms, unless the school is taught by only one
teacher. The vestibule should be commodious, dry, well-lighted,
Internal and properly supplied with pegs for hats and outer garments,
arrange- mats, wash basins, and all means for ensuring personal clean-
ment. liness. In mixed schools, it should be divided into two rooms.
The best authorities are almost unanimous in the opinion that the shape of
the school room proper should be that of an oblong about twice as long as
broad, the size being determined by the probable attendance. The ceiling
should be from 12 to 15 feet in height, the controlling consideration being
that each pupil should have not less than 108 cubic feet of air space. The
door and the teacher's desk should be at opposite ends of the room, the
former, when practicable, at the southern extremity, the northern being
without windows, and provided with a shallow platform about 15 inches
high. This arrangement enables the teacher to survey the school, and is
simple and convenient for examination or exhibition purposes.
large school rooms are not expedient, experience having shown that a large
number of pupils may be supervised and taught to better advantage in
two rooms of medium size, the teacher having an assistant for the purpose,

Very
260
SCHOOL RECORDS
SCHOOL MANAGEMENT
than in one large room. A separate class room is indispensable in all
schools, except the smallest, the number being increased according to the
size of the school. In its construction, the class room should conform
proportionally to the school room, and should, if possible, be in immediate
connection with it, but separable from it completely as far as noise is con-
cerned. The teacher's room, in small schools, could be utilized as the
school library, or as a temporary storing place for such delicate apparatus
as required special care. Schools of other grades and sizes will, of course,
require a different arrangement of rooms. Nearly every civilized country,
in fact, has its own plans for the construction of school houses, and the
arrangement of school and class rooms, determined by the peculiarities of
its school system, or by national characteristics. See SCHOOL FURNITURE.
SCHOOL MANAGEMENT is a department of the teacher's profes-
sion which includes (I) the organization of the school, and (II) its conduct.
Under the former, must be considered (1) the classification (see CLASS);
(2) the distribution, as to order and time, of the branches to be taught,
(course of instruction and programme); and (3) the proper assignment of
the work of instruction (in a graded school) to the several teachers, either
in accordance with the class system or with the departmental system (q. v.).
The conduct of the school has reference (1) to instruction, and (2) to
discipline. Great care should be taken, by means of a carefully con-
structed programme, or daily order of exercises, to secure to each subject
its proper amount of time, according to its place in the course of instruc-
tion, as well as to insure an equable advancement on the part of the pupils
in each subject of the grade, as preliminary to promotion. The promotion
of pupils is a matter of great practical importance in the management of
a school. One of the most serious errors made by teachers is the too rapid
advancement of their pupils. Promotions should always be based upon
a careful examination; and, in a graded school, care should be taken that
every grade is passed through in a legitimate manner, that is, without hurry
or cramming. When the school is ungraded, the advancement of in-
dividual pupils is to be considered; but there is the same need of avoiding
haste, so as to secure thorough proficiency, as the basis of promotion.
Government is, also, an important department of school management;
since, without efficient government, all attempts at effective school instruc-
tion must be fruitless. (See COURSE OF INSTRUCTION, DISCIPLINE, and
GOVERNMENT.)
SCHOOL RECORDS are of great importance, both in connection
with the management of the school itself, and for the purpose of affording
a means of obtaining accurate and valuable returns to be embodied in a
general system of school statistics. These records are, therefore, to be ar-
ranged from a twofold stand-point: (I) What are needed as auxiliary to
the keeping and instruction of the school itself; and (II) What are required
for a proper administration of the school laws, as well as to show the con-
dition of the system to which the school belongs, and the progress of edu-
cation in the town, city, and state in which it is located, as compared with
other places.
I. For the carrying out of the first object, there should be an accurate
registration of each pupil's name and age, his parents' name, the date of
his admission into the school, of his successive promotion from grade to
SCIENCE
261
grade, and of his discharge, with the cause of the same, thus presenting
a history in outline of the pupil's whole career in the school.
Register. The register kept for these items should be in such a form as to
be easy of reference, either by a numerical designation of the pupils in the
order of their admission, or by an alphabetical arrangement. Auxiliary
to the school-register, there may be (in large schools, should be) an admis-
sion book, and a discharge book, the entries being first made in these
books, and transferred at stated times (weekly or monthly) into
Auxiliary the register. The admission book should contain a statement
records. of the antecedents of the pupil, and the discharge book, the
cause of his leaving the school, and his destination. There should, also,
be books showing the school history of the pupil more in detail, as his
daily attendance, conduct, merit and demerit marks for recitations, etc.
One book, usually called the roll book, may be used for all these particulars,
there being, in a graded school, one such book for each class, and kept by
the class teacher. In this book may also be entered the place of residence
of each pupil, in order to facilitate communication with the parents. The
school diary is auxiliary to this, containing transcripts from the roll book,
with summaries of marks and a statement of class standing, the pupil being
required to take this diary home for the inspection and signature of his
parents. Other records, besides those enumerated, may be kept for special
purposes; but, ordinarily, these are all that are indispensably requisite to
carry on the internal operations of the school.
Legal
records.
II. The records made necessary by the provisions of law under which
the school is established and supported, will vary, of course, with the
nature of those provisions, and with the organization of the system to
which the school belongs. But there are certain common and
indispensable features, inasmuch as there are facts which all
school records for this purpose should aim to show, among which
may be mentioned the following: (1) The number of pupils enrolled during
the year; (2) The average enrollment, or "average number belonging";
(3) The number in attendance at each session of the school; and (4) the
number of pupils of each grade, and of certain specified ages. No at-
tempt is made in this article to present the forms of these records, as there
is a wide diversity of form in different places, and as the form is of second-
ary importance to the presenting of the required facts.
SCIENCE, the Teaching of. In this article, the treatment will
refer to the teaching of science (I) as a branch of elementary instruction,
and (II) as a department of higher education.
I. This subject is one into which great confusion has been introduced
by the use of the words science and scientific in two different senses.
science.
In
the strict sense of the term, the scientific knowledge of a sub-
What is ject is a knowledge of the laws which harmonize and explain
its various phenomena. Science goes beyond mere appearances,
and finds that, amidst endless variety, there is unity; and, amid apparent
discord, there is harmony. In this sense, it is the highest outcome of in-
tellectual effort. The human mind deals first with the concrete. For a
long time it scarcely rises above the information of the senses. It then
groups the impressions of the senses into more comprehensive unities, and
in this process gains a certain power of abstraction. But science supposes
262
SCIENCE
organ-
that the mind has been long practiced in that power of abstraction and
generalization. It views in succession the principal facts in any depart-
ment of nature as a whole, and it seeks to find the invisible order which
pervades them all. In this sense of the term, also, all subjects admit of
scientific treatment; as there can be no doubt that law pervades all phe-
nomena, there must be a science of mental phenomena as well as of physical
phenomena; and, therefore, no single phenomenon can exist which has not
its own place in the system of the universe. But, from various considera-
tions, the term science has been often restricted to the explanation of the
laws which regulate matter, and this is the sense in which it is used in
this article. Now it is plain that, in the strict sense of the term, children
cannot be taught science. If the scientific stage is the highest in the
development of the intellectual faculties, we cannot expect to find it in
the school. It belongs to the university. But we may lay the foundation
of it at an earlier period. Indeed, we cannot help doing something to-
ward this work; but we may do it awkwardly and unconsciously, or
skillfully and consciously. The latter is the function of the educated
teacher. We must, therefore, inquire more minutely into the mode in
which the foundations of science are laid. For this purpose we shall quote
the words of the late Professor Payne. Science he defined as
ized knowledge", and, after explaining the meaning of organized in this
definition, he proceeds: "Returning to the other factor of the definition,
knowledge, we observe that there are two kinds of knowledge
Two kinds what we know through our own experience, and what we know
of knowl
edge. through the experience of others. Thus, I know by my own
knowledge that I have an audience before me, and I know
through the knowledge of others that the earth is 25,000 miles in circum-
ference. This latter fact, however, I know in a sense different from that
in which I know the former. The one is a part of my experience, of my
very being. The other I can only be strictly said to know when I have,
by an effort of the mind, passed through the connected chain of facts and
reasonings on which the demonstration is founded. Thus only can it be-
come my knowledge in the true sense of the term. Strictly speaking,
then, organized knowledge, or science, is originally based on unorganized
knowledge, and is the outcome of the learner's observation of facts
through the exercise of his senses, and his own reflection upon what he has
observed. This knowledge, ultimately organized into science through the
operation of his mind, he may with just right call his own; and, as a
learner, he can properly call no other knowledge his own. What is reported
to us by another is that other's, if gained, at first-hand, by experience; but
it stands on a different footing from that which we have gained by our
own experience. He merely hands it over to us; but, when we receive it,
its condition is already changed. It wants the brightness, definiteness,
and certainty in our eyes, which it had in his; and, moreover, it is merely
a loan, and not our property. The fact, for instance, about the earth's
circumference was to him a living fact; it sprung into being as the out-
come of experiments and reasonings, with the entire chain of which it
was seen by him to be intimately — indeed, indissolubly and organically
connected. To us it is a dead fact, severed from its connection with the
body of truth, and, by our hypothesis, having no organic relation to the


SCIENCE
263
living truths we have gained by our own minds. What I insist on, then,
is, that the knowledge from experience—that which is gained by bring-
ing our own minds into direct contact with matter is the only knowl-
edge that, as novices in science, we have to do with. The dogmatic
knowledge imposed on us by authority, though originally gained by the
is, as far as we are con-
same means, is really, not ours, but another's
cerned, unorganizable, and, therefore, though science to its proprietor, is
not science to us. To us it is merely information, or hap-hazard knowl-
edge". — The account here given contains the very pith of the matter, and
cannot be too deeply pondered and impressed on the mind; and we shall,
therefore, put the same thoughts in another shape. The child
General first perceives individual objects. He notices the qualities in
ization. these objects; and, when he finds the same qualities recur in
different individual objects, he naturally groups them together under the
same notion or name. This is the child's first effort at generalization.
(See INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION.) Now, it is plain that if he had not
known the individuals, he could never have made the generalization; and
that, if any one were to tell him the generalization without his having seen
the individuals and noticed the similarity, the generalization
Rules for would be of no real use to him. Out of this fact flow some of
teaching
science. the principal rules in regard to the method of teaching science:
(1) The pupil must be brought face to face with nature; he
must see the individual; he must himself make the experiment. (2) He
must make the generalization, himself; he must be a discoverer. It is here,
however, that the skillful teacher can wisely interfere. The child, if left
to himself, might be too long in making the discovery, for he might not
stumble upon individuals which contain similarities. The teacher, there-
fore, takes care to bring similar individuals before his pupils in sufficient
number. He sternly checks his own wish to shorten the work by telling
the generalization; but he prepares the way for the pupil's making it by
adducing instance after instance, until the similarities cannot but become
visible to the pupil's mind. And this rule suggests another, — that,
wherever it is possible, the pupil should be led along the road over which
mankind traveled in making the discovery originally. He must, of course,
commit many blunders before he reaches the truth; yet, under a skillful
teacher, such a process is eminently educative. But, besides the making
of generalizations, there is also the faculty of observation to be carefully
cultivated. Indeed the cultivation of the faculty of observation is essen-
tially necessary to the formation of correct generalizations. At first, the
child makes his generalizations unconsciously. He sees a tree, and then
another tree, and then another, and somehow they impress him as being
like; but he has no accurate conception in regard to the points in which
they are like.
Even when he becomes conscious of the points of resem-
blance in objects, he may find that the resemblances in them are on the
surface, and that there are greater differences separating the objects from
each other. He is now coming nearer the stage in which he can deal with
a subject scientifically. For observation has to furnish, as the basis of
scientific conceptions, a more accurate knowledge than that possessed by
the ordinary observer. The pupil has to notice qualities which ordinarily
escape observation. The teacher again must take the utmost care that
264
SCIENCE
the pupil has really observed the peculiarity before he tells him the special
name given to it. Else the pupil's mind will be crammed with a
number of technical terms of the meaning of which he probably will
have no clear conception; and even should he have a clear conception of
their meaning when he hears it from his teacher, he will be sure to forget
it very soon. In one word, the pupil must conquer every step in science
by personal observation and experience. He must find out every thing
himself. The teacher has simply to arrange the order in which the facts
of nature are to be presented to the pupil, and to lay before him only
those phenomena which it is important for him to observe. From what
has been said, it is plain that the plan of going through all the principal
phenomena of a science is not to be adopted in schools. This is a method
appropriate only to the last stage of scientific instruction. The teacher
must select the portions of science which will be most educative; and he
will treat them in such a way as to interest the pupil, and make him
take an active part in ascertaining the facts of nature. At the same time,
he will take care to make his various lessons bear on each other. Though
he does not disclose a law, but leaves it to dawn upon the pupil's mind
from the presentation of instances, he will see to it that each lesson adds
to the structure which the previous one has helped to raise. He will have
a fixed plan in his own mind; and he will look forward to the intellectual
result which he is to produce, in process of time, by the examples and ex.
periments which he makes the pupil observe and perform.
In all these considerations, we have been looking at science as a sub-
ject worthy of being studied for its own sake. This is unquestionably
true. The intellectual powers of man are an essential feature
Other con- of man's nature, and they demand exercise. This exercise is
siderations. invariably accompanied by an intense pleasure. Now, the

+
scientific knowledge of nature is eminently calculated to call the intellect-
ual powers into activity, and therefore it opens up to man a source of
pure and lasting enjoyment. But the teacher may look on the knowledge
of science from other points of view. Man is corporeal, and his physical
well-being depends on his coming into proper relations with physical nat-
ure. It is important for him to know these relations, and the teacher of
youth will endeavor to enlighten the mind of his pupil in regard to them.
At the same time, these relations are most deeply impressed on the mind,
when the facts of science are taught according to the laws of education.
If I inform a boy that carbonic acid gas is deleterious, the impression is of
the faintest nature, and will not lead, in nine cases out of ten, to any ac-
tion; but if I show the boy how to produce carbonic acid gas by the union
of its component elements, that is, if I lead him to make experiments by
which the truth will be forced upon his mind without my telling him that
it is injurious to life; and if, in addition to this, I make him discover that
he is continually exhaling this gas, he will be deeply impressed with the
necessity of ventilation, and will make every effort to procure it. Then,
again, nature presents herself not merely as the embodiment of law but
also as the embodiment of beauty; and the teacher should, therefore, en-
deavor to bring out this feature occasionally. He will point, for example,
to the exquisite structure of flowers; he will lead the child to feel the
loveliness of landscapes; he will interest him in the habits of animals; in
SCIENCE
265
fact, he will try to make nature reveal herself to him in her concrete love-
liness and variety.
selection.
Among the questions keenly discussed in connection with science teach-
ing are (1) the order in which the sciences should be taught, and (2) what
sciences are suitable for schools. Opinions on these subjects
Order of will necessarily differ until agreement as to the meaning of
terms is reached. The fact is, as we have seen, that all the
sciences call for processes of thought which can be reasonably expected
only in mature minds; but it is true, at the same time, that separate facts,
in all these sciences, tending toward a unity, may be discovered by a child
of eleven or twelve years of age. Faraday said that chemistry could be
taught to a boy of eleven; others denied that it could; and in a certain
sense, both were right from their respective points of view. At the same
time there is no doubt that the facts of some sciences, in the average, are
much more complicated than those of other sciences; and, therefore, there
is wisdom in teaching them in a certain order. Botany, for instance, is
among the simplest of the sciences. It calls into play the power of minute
observation. The child is interested in examining the structure of the
plant and the growth of the various parts. An appeal is also made to his
powers of grouping or, in other words, of classification. And the pupil
has a large field in botany for these two activities. (See BOTANY.) ~ The
same is true of the other science of classification, zoölogy; but the processes
are a little more complicated. It should, therefore, naturally follow
botany. From these, the pupil should proceed to some department of
physics, and from that, advance to chemistry. The one should go before
the other, because the processes of chemical motion are much more dif-
ficult to observe accurately than those of mechanical motion. And the
course of science might well end with physiology, in which many of the
modes of reasoning employed are abstruse, and the student is continually
liable to be misled by appearances and analogies.


In
II. One of the most important aims of the educator is to lead man to
recognize how to live most successfully for himself; to realize the responsi-
bilities of his position, and, by seeking to comply with these re-
An im- sponsibilities, to attain to the greatest possible happiness.
portant
aim. this
process of education, the student must be led to recognize
the material and physical conditions of his existence; to know
himself, not as an independent being, but as one dependent upon the mul-
tifarious conditions of the vast scheme of nature, and as one, who, alike
in what he is and in that of which he is capable, is strictly under the
control of natural law. In other words, man can only know himself by
comparison with other objects in nature, can only know his powers by
comparison with the forces by which other forms of matter are controlled.
Again, as a mere question of material prosperity, the study of
natural science is forced upon our consideration. No thoughtful
man wandering through the aisles of a great international exhibi-
tion can fail to see that all progress in applied science and the
arts must be based, in the first place, upon an exact knowledge of natural
resources, material and physical. It will be admitted that knowledge of
all kinds is fundamentally based upon the evidence of our senses, but such
evidence is apt to mislead, unless checked by experiment; experiment, to
Study of
natural
science.

266
SCIENCE
essential to
be of real utility, must be exact and systematic. The reasoning that
draws conclusions from such experiments must be logical; and language,
at once ample and exact, is required as an implement, only of value when
wielded with precision, to widen the fields of inquiry with the utmost
economy of mental labor.
We are compelled to make these remarks
because the true importance of a scientific study of nature has not been
recognized by the greater part of those who are engaged in education. A
knowledge of the leading truths of natural science is, however, essential to
education, (1) because of their fundamental character, and (2) because of
the method by which such sciences are pursued, which method
Why it is is the same as that which ought to obtain in every action of our
education. every-day lives. Comparing the training given by language and
mathematics with that given by natural science, we see that,
whilst language cultivates the memory, and mathematics trains the reason-
ing faculties, neither affords any means for the cultivation of observation
and experiment. Turning to the natural sciences themselves, we find that
the physical branches cultivate observation, experiment, and inductive
reasoning; while the material branches, including the natural history
sciences, cultivate especially the faculties of observation and systematic
classification. But, in addition to this, from the multitudinous data with
which the latter deal, and the impossibility of obtaining complete series of
such data, these studies inevitably lead the inquiring mind to a constant
consideration of probabilities, or, in other words, to a habit, of the utmost
importance to us practically, of justly weighing circumstantial evidence.
In view of the vast mass of facts accumulating more and more rapidly each
day from the various fields of scientific investigation, it is impossible that
any human mind can grasp all the details of even a single branch. The
following considerations are, however, important in this view of education:
(1) that, by experience in some two sciences, the one physical and the other
relating to the forms assumed by matter, the student should learn the
principles on which these natural sciences are pursued, and therefrom be
able to appreciate the value of scientific training and knowledge; (2) that
he should understand the general scope of the various scien-
What the ces; (3) that he should be familiar with the broad generali-
zations of science; (4) that he should not be ignorant of such
common scientific details as occur to us every day, and have an
immediate and direct connection with our welfare and success in
life; and (5) that he should be taught how to obtain information by refer-
ence, and how to weigh the trustworthiness of authorities. In order that the
second and third of these requirements may be intelligently obtained, they
must logically be preceded by the first, and simultaneously the acquisition
of the knowledge implied by the fifth may well be commenced. In the
physical branches of scientific inquiry, qualitative analytical chemistry
theoretically best meets the requirements of the case; in the material
sciences, we may select one of those which are called natural history
sciences. Under this head, certain of the natural sciences which
Natural treat of the living forms of matter were formerly included; but
history.
the term is a most indefinite one, and must cease to be used at
all, if confined to its old signification. The sciences especially included
under it, botany and zoölogy, have been placed upon altogether new and

student
should
learn.

SCIENCE OF GOVERNMENT
267
broader foundations as branches of biology, so that they now cover
morphological and physiological ground never contemplated in the old
use of the term. There would seem to be a propriety in using the term
to express that pursuit of nature which is essentially out-of-door in its
character, the study of the external relationship of beings to each other;
and in this view we should certainly need to include geological investiga-
tions. At the same time, it will be apparent to every naturalist that the
scope of such a term could not be rigorously defined. There can be no
doubt that an out-of-door study of nature ought to be an essential element
of education. It may be long before it is generally introduced into the
course of school education, but it should certainly be enforced upon the
community as a duty at least in home culture. It should be used to cul-
tivate habits of close, exact and systematic observation, commenced in
the field and continued in the laboratory; of judiciously collecting, care-
fully preserving and classifying, some one or more series of natural objects;
and of referring for information not to be obtained by personal inquiry,
regarding the objects observed and collected, to trustworthy sources. By
well-judged, training in either botany or any one of the branches of zoology,
the ends above indicated may be attained; whilst the general spirit of ob-
servation and inquiry in the wide field of natural science that will be en-
couraged, will lead to a breadth and liberality of mental tone. Nor need
this general and more desultory observation be dreaded, as apt to lead to
hasty, unfounded, and inexact acquirements, if the mind is duly drained,
as had been suggested, in rigorous methods of thought by the exact pursuit
of some special subject of scientific study. If there be any truth in the
suggestions just thrown out, it will be apparent that such training in the
natural history sciences cannot be commenced too early in life, because the
spirit of the training is such that it should imbue the entire mental cult-
ure of the individual; and, furthermore, if this early training has been
neglected, the study of science in an advanced period of education, will
not be so successful, because it will lack the vivid conceptions which can
only be acquired by the exercise of the observing faculties in early life.
It only remains to add that, as all teaching by the very nature of these
sciences must be objective, the duty of the instructor, at every stage of
science teaching, is to supplement nature and not to take her place,
not to impart information but to guide the pupil in the self-
Duty of
the weacher, acquirement of knowledge. Books, similarly, are only to be
permitted as dictionaries to explain such points as the pupil
cannot elucidate by his own efforts. For a valuable list of works on this
subject, see Cyclopædia of Education and the Appendix of this work.
SCIENCE OF GOVERNMENT, the name given to a branch of
instruction in primary or secondary schools, which is designed to impart
to the pupils a knowledge of the political system under which they live,
and to make them, as far as requisite, familiar with the different functions
of government, and the mode in which they are performed. It, generally,
includes a consideration of the constitution of the country or state, the
qualifications and duties of the principal officers of government, the legal
restrictions imposed upon citizens, and an outline of civil and municipal
regulations. Many excellent treatises have been prepared for this purpose
for use in elementary schools; and, there can be no question of the value of

268 SECONDARY INSTRUCTION
SELF-EDUCATION
this department of instruction for all classes of pupils, particularly in
public schools, one of the most important objects of which is to prepare for
intelligent and useful citizenship.
SECONDARY INSTRUCTION, that grade of instruction which
is usually afforded in high schools, academies, etc., or in institutions above
the ordinary grade of a common or primary school. This grade of instruc-
tion is intermediate between primary instruction and superior instruction,
or that afforded in colleges and universities.
SELF-EDUCATION, that development of the powers which is
carried on by the individual himself, without the aid of others. To a
certain extent, this education is not only unconscious, but in-
What it is. evitable. The constant recurrence of like conditions or actions,
the knowledge of which is conveyed to the individual by the senses, during
the growth of mind and body, is always attended with an increased skill in
the use of the powers of both, which, of itself, constitutes an education.
The agents by which this knowledge is converted into an un-
Agents. conscious education are chiefly habit and experience; the one
producing increased ease of action under like circumstances, and thus
rendering the individual more capable; the other enabling him to system-
atize his knowledge, and to use it as an instrument for further acquisition.
To determine, in all cases, just where this education ceases, and voluntary
self-education begins, would probably be very difficult; yet, in
Limit. general, it may be said that the active intervention of the will
is the most obvious feature by which self-education may be distinguished.
It is usually regarded as that education which is carried on intentionally,
outside, or beyond the influence, of the school. Even here, however, the
definition is imperfect; for it must always be difficult to estimate at its
true comparative value the strength of each of two impulses which act thus
at the same time and invisibly; but, probably, a truer conception of the
two powers, self-education and school education, may be acquired by sup-
posing the difference between them to be one of function rather than of
degree-school education serving rather as a director or systematizer of
power, while self-education must often be looked upon as identical with
innate power, from our inability to separate the one from the other. We
know what training the school gives; and, though we cannot analyze the
results it produces with sufficient accuracy to assign to the school and to
the individual the proper share due to each, we know from many
comparisons made between countries with schools and those without them,
that the advantage lies decidedly with the former. That the school
rather a director of power than a creator of it, is shown by contrasting the
large number of men who have enjoyed its advantages without manifesting
special ability afterward in any walk of life, with those who have risen to
the highest positions without this privilege. Education is of two
Two kinds, -practical and theoretical, the first based principally
kinds of
education. upon facts and experience, and dealing largely with human
nature; the other, acquired from books, and concerning itself
in great measure with abstractions and theories which, though valuable
enough for purposes of general culture, are of little use in practical life,
and, if exclusively pursued, produce a positive disqualification for it. Of
these two kinds of education, it is hardly too much to say that the former
SELF-EDUCATION
269
is the more available, in the ordinary affairs of life, in a vast majority of
cases. Hence, it should never be forgotten by the educator, that the facil-
ities for mental acquisition which he offers the pupil by systematic
instruction, too frequently result in vacillation, or feebleness of purpose,
and are almost inevitably accompanied with a loss, on the part of the latter,
of that vividness of apprehension which experimental acquaintance gives.
The only amends, therefore, he can make is to render his instruction as
practical, and as far removed from mere book-learning, as possible. Knowl-
The
edge and rote-learning have often a wonderful resemblance,
Self-taught while, essentially, they may have nothing in common.
men. picture of a Lincoln, hastily gathering book-knowledge by the
light of the cabin fire; or of a Franklin, finding in the intervals of his work
in a chandler's shop and a printing office, an equivalent for the school,
should be a sufficient admonition to every teacher, that the privileges of
the school room are not indispensable to the most brilliant success. It is
not necessary to multiply instances of self-taught men; the ranks of great-
ness have been almost exclusively filled from this class. Three most valu-
able attributes are strengthened, if not created, by a course of
Advantages self-education: self-confidence, independence of judgment, and
of self-
education. perseverance. He only who has always depended upon himself,
knows accurately the limit of his powers, measures beforehand
every difficulty, and does not look, at the last moment, for extraneous aid;
while the habit of self-reliance thus cultivated, lays the foundation for a
solidity of character which, in critical moments, is not swayed by fitful or
transient influences. The third attribute, perseverance, is the necessary
result of such an education. Having always been accustomed to encounter
obstacles, and having always overcome them, the joy of conflict and the
joy of conquest, become, to self-taught men, synonymous. The atmosphere
of difficulty is as the breath of life and the result is never doubtful to
those who gather strength from opposition. These are the most essential
elements of success, and, in practical matters, weigh more than all the
advantages of the school. On the other hand, the commonest
Disad- error of the self-taught man is a depreciation of all studies or
vantages. pursuits which have no practical bearing. General culture
knowledge for itself alone, with all the pleasures and consolations which
it brings
is underestimated. Accustomed always to see his thoughts
followed by tangible results, the moral aspect of thought is lost sight of;
and his ideal standard never rises above this utilitarian level. This
narrowness of mind leads almost inevitably to a want of sympathy with
liberal pursuits, and sometimes to a kind of hardness or positiveness of
character which bears the appearance of arrogance. Weakness being scarcely
understood by the successful, self-taught man, want of charity is a natural
fruit of his habits of thought. These defects, however, are frequently
removed by age; and, even at their worst, can hardly be said to be so serious
as those which have been cited as inci lent to misdirected education in the
school. Of the two kinds of education - self-education and school educa-
tion, it may, therefore, be said in general, that the former is of greater value
than the latter; that for all practical action in the familiar matters of daily
life, all great emergencies, whether of peace or war, which require inde-
pendence of judgment, promptness of decision or action, and inflexible

270
SENSES
SEMINARY
--
perseverance, the self-taught man is vastly the superior; while, in purely
speculative pursuits, in researches or projects undertaken without hope of
immediate or material result, the man of the schools, whose education bas
been conducted with that broader outlook upon life which leads directly
to culture solely for its own sake, manifests a far greater zeal and activity.
Neither kind of education is to be commended by itself; since the
deficiencies of one need to be supplied by the advantages of the other.
SEMINARY (Lat. seminarium) a place where seed is sown, from
semen, seed), a term, used in education to denote an institution of learning
of any grade, though oftener applied to one of secondary grade. It is also
applied to certain kinds of professional schools; as a theological seminary,
a teachers' seminary, etc., the idea intended to be conveyed by the term
being that of preparation for subsequent usefulness.
SENSES, the Education of the. Education, through the senses,
has received a great amount of attention in recent times, and a special
effort to systematize it, is made in the kindergarten (q. v.); but compara-
tively little thought has been given to the training of the senses themselves.
And, yet, there is ample experience to prove that much can be
Value of done in this direction. In cases where special senses have been
called into the most vigorous action, they have attained capabilities which
could scarcely have been dreamed of. It may not be advisable to attempt
to cultivate each sense in every individual to the same degree of acute-
ness that has been reached in these extraordinary instances; but, there is
no doubt that the neglect to train the senses, now almost universal, is not
justifiable. The special attributes which we may assign to the senses, are
quickness in receiving impressions, strength in taking hold of the impres-
sions, and vivacity in noticing not merely the unity which is presented to
the mind, but in remarking the various details which compose or char-
acterize this unity. These three qualities are quite different from each
other. If an object is held up before a number of children, some will be
found able to form an impression of it much more quickly than others,
while some will be very slow to catch a notion of it. So, again, they will
differ in the strength of grasp with which they seize hold of the object.
On some it will produce but a feeble impression, and that impression will,
consequently, soon die away; but by others the object will be grasped
firmly, and, consequently, held firmly. Many, too, that may be able to
take strong impressions, may be surpassed by others of less strength in the
capacity to catch the multiplicity of details which are presented to the
view. In fact, the strong sense is generally absorbed in the unity; but the
less vigorous notices the details along with the unity. Now, these quali-
ties are inborn with the senses; and it is likely that the original difference,
in these respects, which exists in different minds, is sufficient to account
for the mental differences that ultimately appear among human beings.
Circumstances will explain the rest of the phenomena; but these qualities
are capable of cultivation, being intensified in proportion to the healthy
exercise of the senses.
In attempting to train the senses, the most essential process is
Most essen- isolation. The blind man becomes singularly expert in the sense
tial process. of touch because he brings it into continual play, and trusts
much to it. He must voluntarily follow the course which necessity compels
SENSES
271
him to follow. Science has not thrown much light, as yet, on the
lower senses; and, therefore, little can be done for their training. The
vital sense is so closely connected with processes which take place in un-
consciousness that little can be made of it. Somewhat more can be done
and smell.
with the senses of taste and smell. lf the child were asked to
Taste shut his eyes, and determine by taste what objects were pre-
sented to him, the sense might become much more perfect and
much more useful. Attention could be called to the general harmony
that exists between the taste and healthfulness of objects, and the child
might thus learn, in many cases, to choose the good and reject the evil.
The same remarks apply to the sense of smell; but a wider range could be
given to its activities. The child, for example, might be required to
determine flowers by their smells. But it is when we come to the higher
senses that much can be done by isolating practice. In regard to the sense
of touch, there are three exercises which may be usefully prac-
Touch. ticed. First, the sense of touch over the body may be rendered
much more acute; and, in consequence, what are called the sensory
circles, very much narrowed. Experiment has proved this fact most con-
clusively. Then, from touch we derive the sense of pressure. Here the
child may find interesting exercise in trying to estimate the weight of an
object from its pressure on the hand, or on other parts of the body. This
constitutes one of the peculiar exercises of object teaching (q. v.). More-
over, touch gives the notion of temperature; and here again the child
might be taught to come very close to the exact degree of Fahrenheit by
the sense of heat which he has in his touch. The training which
Hearing.
may be given to the sense of hearing, is also various. The
child might be exercised in ascertaining from what direction sounds come.
He might be taught to distinguish various sounds, and, especially, musical
sounds; and he might learn to analyze complex sounds. Some think, that
the last exercise should always be preliminary to learning to read. Thus,
the instructor utters a word, and draws the child's attention to the fact
that it consists of several sounds. The child is then asked to analyze the
sounds; and the child does not commence to learn to read until he is able
to analyze short words into their simplest sounds. Spelling, in the sense
of analyzing the sounds, according to this method, precedes reading.
According to the phonic method, the analysis of sounds is employed to
facilitate the pronunciation of words, and, hence, as auxiliary to reading.
(See PHONIC METHOD.) — The sense of sight is the one through which
education takes place most of all. It is, therefore, brought into
Sight. continual activity, and thus receives greater training. In the
object-teaching system, this is accomplished in various ways, but, particu-
larly, by the use of color (q. v.). Distinct colors are first brought before
the child's eye, and he is gradually practiced in distinguishing them, so as,
ultimately, to be able to note the minutest shades of difference. Then,
again, the child is taught to form from sight an accurate idea of size and
distance.
The space here does not admit of more than a mere glance at this im-
portant subject; and only in connection with the training of children.
But, while there is no doubt that the greatest good can be done in the
earliest years, the training may profitably be continued throughout the
272
SINGING
SENTENTIAL ANALYSIS
:
whole period of education. The organization of methods for such train-
ing has still to be discussed by educationists. Moreover, physiologists are
still in great uncertainty as to many points. Great discoveries have been
recently made by the researches of Weber, Wundt, Helmholtz, and others;
but we may expect still more important discoveries from the investiga-
tions now going on; and there is no doubt that such discoveries will
throw light on the proper method of training the senses. See G. WIL-
SON, The Five Gateways of Knowledge (4th ed., London, 1863); WYLD,
Physics and Philosophy of the Senses (London, 1856); JULIUS BERNSTEIN,
The Five Senses of Man (N. Y., 1876). (See also EAR, and EYE.)
SENTENTIAL ANALYSIS. See ANALYSIS, GRAMMATICAL.
SIMULTANEOUS INSTRUCTION. See CONCERT TEACHING.
SINGING. From the days of St. Ambrose and Gregory the Great
to the present age, singing-schools and classes have existed, for purposes
of instruction in elementary vocal and choral exercises. The need of early
training has always been recognized by the great masters as indispensable
to extensive and thorough accomplishment in this art. The educational
value of music, and more particularly vocal music, has been universally
conceded by both theoretical and practical educators, as well as by
statesmen and philanthropists. Martin Luther attached very great im-
portance to it; and through him the choral and the special hymn were
given to all the people. Subsequently, not only Germany, but Great
Britain, and the United States of America, greatly encouraged the cul-
tivation of vocal music, in its higher relations, among all classes of people.
It is the opinion of some, however, that the people of the United States
are a century behind the more powerful and influential of the European
nations in a systematic fostering of the science and art of music by the
state; but, through the more general diffusion of knowledge by means of
schools, the press, and other agencies, the individual efforts of Americans
are widespread, toward imparting a more thorough understanding of that
which is, to the vast majority of people, an unknown language; namely,
the secret of the independent reading of vocal music with facility.
The origin of the staff, and the use of the syllables Ut, Re, Mi, Fa,
Sol, La, Si, seem to have been nearly contemporary. These, together with
the clefs, notes, and chromatic signs, constitute the written language of
music as recognized by every civilized country; and it is not
Language
of music.
possible to change them for the letters only, valuable as these
are in certain relations, without disastrously revolutionizing the
whole written system of modern music, and all its magnificent accessories.
Large numbers of most valuable works upon harmony, counterpoint, and
orchestral effects have been written, besides innumerable scores, with all
of these well known musical signs, and with the employment of the syl-
lables Ut, Re, Mi, etc., as denoting absolute pitch constantly in view; and
to reduce them to the dimensions of lettered signs simply, and require
singers and players to translate them into music agreeable to the ear,
would be an interminable and tedious task. The modern Italian method
of presenting the scale through the familiar syllables Do, Re, Mi, Fa, Sol,
La, Si, has the merit of being direct and of appealing to the ear; and it is,
Italian
method,
also, quite unique, since the syllables are at once the vehicles of
variations of sound required in rendering the scale, and the
SINGING
273
The
signs denoting absolute pitch, like the letters to the Germans and to
the English. So that, by this method, the pupil has to remember only
one particular syllable, either in naming a key-note or in singing it. To
the Italians and to the French, and to very many others who have been
taught by this method, this association of a certain syllable with a certain
key-note, that particular syllable being the very vehicle for the production
of the tone desired, is deemed, in many respects, an advantage. The fixed
and immovable Do becomes the middle C of the system. All other tones
of that octave, diatonic and chromatic, revolve around it, as the planets
around the sun. The major scale, with its intermediate half-tones, be-
comes the nucleus of the entire tonal system. In exact proportion as the
scholar acquires a thorough knowledge of the scale, by regular degrees, by
intervals small and large, by chromatic as well as by diatonic
progression, and by all the varities of melodic and harmonic
scale. effect of which it is susceptible, will his succeeding study be
made satisfactory and available. Multiply this knowledge of the resources
of one scale within the compass of one octave by twelve, the number of
independent key-notes included within the limits of the chromatic scale,
and thereby are obtained the changes of progression possible in all the
twelve keys, in the circle of harmony, through the transposition of the
key-note. Now this may seem complicated to the uninitiated; but it is
quite clear to all who have mastered the changes obtainable within the
compass of one octave, and afterward have learned the rule of transposi-
tion to the succeeding eleven keys. This, indeed, is the first direct business
of the faithful musical instructor and his pupils. There is no escape from
traveling this well-known and well-beaten road, if accuracy and a full
comprehension of the groundwork of music be really desired. In schools
where the very tender age of the pupils hardly admits of any extended
course of vocal musical instruction, it is now positively ascertained that
the association of the sounds of the major scale with the nu-
Numerals. merals 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, is of direct and permanent use.
Practicing fragments of the major scale, ascending and descending, by reg-
ular degrees and in wider intervals, with frequent recurrence of the key-
note 1 or 8, and unisonant passages, has the effect of locating the sounds
of the scale in their exact order, and immediately secures the attention
and the active participation of the pupils, because the order of the nu-
merals is already familiar to them; and, in this way, each sound of the
scale becomes gradually associated with its corresponding numerals. If
to the use of the numerals be added that of the syllables, Do, Re, Mi, Fa,
Sol, La, Si, which are more musical in themselves than the numerals, there
are obtained three indicators of the different sounds of the scale; namely,
the letters, the numerals, and the syllables, all of which are use-
Letters, nu- ful for special purposes: the letters, for denoting absolute pitch and
merals, and
syllables. the location of the key-notes, changeable only with the clefs; the
numerals, for drilling in the plain sounds of the scale, and ulti-
mately for practical use in the study of harmony, one and eight being used
as key-notes in one or all of the twelve keys; and the syllables, for sol-faing,
used according to the Italian method, C being always the fixed and im-
movable Do. It is at this point that this Italian method, which recognizes
the syllables as necessary indicators of absolute pitch, and at the same

274
SINGING
Use of
time as necessary in sol-faing for the production of an equable and yet
varied effect, differs from three other methods which are in extensive use:
(1) from that of the Germans, who, with a special name for
syllables. every plain sound of the scale, and for every augmented or depres-
sed interval thereof, rely chiefly upon vocalizing with different
vowels to secure accuracy in all chromatic as well as diatonic progressions;
(2) from that of the United States, which quite generally, but not entirely,
employs a movable Do as the starting-point or key-note of the major scale,
the key-note for any relative minor becoming La; and (3) from that of the
Rev. J. Curwen, the success of whose method in England has been quite
remarkable, a method, which is identical with that so extensively prac-
ticed in the United States, in the use of a movable Do, but which substi-
tutes the syllable Te for Si; the names of Mr. Curwen's syllables being
Doh, Ray, Me, Fah, So, La, Te. This method of lettered and numeral
abbreviations, as substitutes for the staff, clefs, chromatic signs, bars, meas-
ures, and time-table of the present musical sign-language will be more
minutely considered further on.
& immov-
To return to the two methods which are chiefly employed in the United
States, it is, really, very important to the beginner that he adhere to one
method until it is thoroughly acquired. It is the united testimony of ex-
perienced teachers of vocal music that good readers are educated
Movable by both of these methods, provided the teacher begins, continues,
able Do. and ends the work of strict reading by adopting only one method
at a time. The pupil may afterward become acquainted with
all other methods, and with advantage; since subsequent experience will
enable him to test the merits of the method which he most thoroughly
understands, and which he can make most effective. To attempt to teach.
or to learn, both methods at the same time, produces a confusion of asso-
ciations, and a consequent bewilderment, which should be avoided. It has
been the experience of the writer to be required to teach contemporaneously
according to both of these methods; and, while it must be admitted that
the method which retains the immovable Do has a unity and consistency
which demand time for their thorough appreciation and practical use, it is
easier, in the first stages of instruction, to change the Do with each suc-
cessive key-note of the entire twelve. By the former method, Do is inva-
riably associated with a certain letter and a certain line or space; by the
latter, Do becomes the key-note, or numeral one or eight, of every one of
the major scales. One or the other of these ways of using the
Order of syllables being accepted, the natural and ordinary divisions of
teaching.
elementary vocal teaching into those of tune, time, and expression
present themselves; tune, or melody, addressing itself more directly to the
soul than time or rhythm, is certainly first in order in the musical education
of the young. By common consent, the major scale, in great variety, is
now practiced with numerals and with syllables in the primary departments
of schools, as a preparation for the presentation of the staff, clefs, notes, etc.,
at a later period. It is a matter of no consequence whether the scale be
based upon one particular line or space in preference to another, if the
movable Do be used; but if it be the teacher's design to employ the Italian
method, with its Do immovably fixed upon middle C, it is conducive to a
clearer understanding of the subject of the transposition of the key-note to
SINGING
275
start from this point. If another letter be selected as the base of the scale
in the earlier lessons, it is necessary to return to middle C when the subject
of transposition is introduced, and the ordinary rules for changing the place
of the key-note by help of the sharps and flats, are fully explained. After
some familiarity with the sounds of the major scale is acquired, a division
of the class should be made, whereby singing in two parts can be attempted.
This phase of elementary vocal instruction may be postponed, in teaching
children, until a considerable knowledge of the diatonic intervals of the
major scale has been made familiar to them. With adults, however, the
natural division of the class of mixed voices arising from the selection of
the soprano, alto, tenor, and base voices, each to sing in a compact body,
and in a separate location, is obviously necessary as a measure of interest
and advantage to all four of these parties, after the quality of tone and
compass of each voice have been ascertained. Beating time should be
introduced and rigidly enforced as soon as the staff and its division
into measures by bars have been explained, especially in the simpler
forms of twofold, threefold, and fourfold measure. The department of
expression, with its more apparent varieties off, p, mf, legato, staccato,
and
, may accompany the performance of the simplest ex-
ercises, and grow with the growth and strengthen with the strength of the
pupil as he advances toward the execution of more elaborate examples
in melody, rhythm, and harmony. They who clog the wheels of musical
progress with dull and incompetent ears must gradually disappear.
is a rule without exception.

This
Allusion has been made to the success of the Rev. J. Curwen's Tonic-
Sol-Fa system in England, of which Miss Sarah A. Glover, with her so-
called tetrachordal method, was the forerunner. It is claimed
Tonic-Sol- that it is better suited for vocal practice than the ordinary
Fa system.
signs, and many of Mr. Curwen's disciples consider it available
for the presentation of every possible variety of music, instrumental as
well as vocal. The syllables Doh, Ray, Me, Fah, Soh, Lah, Te, are
pronounced as they are spelt, Te being substituted for Si, to avoid confusion
with So when only the initial letter is used, as in the printed music
the initial only is employed. To indicate the higher or lower octaves,
figures are placed by the sides of the letters which stand for notes, as d¹,
d², m³, and S2, M2, d2. The tune America is presented thus: | d d r t₁
d r m m fm rdr dt₁, etc. Different key-notes are announced by letter
at the beginning, as key G, key A, etc. The key-note of the relative
minor is always Lah. Changes of key are effected by what are called
bridge tones. The note, or rather the letter indicating a certain sound,
is placed side by side with the letter indicating the pitch of the letter in
the key approached, and pupils are taught to think and sing the sound
of the first note or letter and to call it by the name of the second. Thus
dr mf sd t d would show a modulation to the key of G. Tonic-Sol-
Faists consider that this affords an easier mode of making modulations
and transitions than the older system. The chromatic scale is named by
adding the vowel e to the initial of sharped notes, and a (aw) to flatted
notes. Thus de, re, fe, se, are respectively d, r, f, s sharp; and ma
(maw), la, ta, are m, l, t flat. The sharp or augmented sixth of the minor
scale is called bah, to distinguish it from fe, the sharp or augmented



1

276
SINGING
fourth of the major scale. Time and accent are indicated by measure-
ment across the page, thus:
:
:
:
the space between one sign and the next representing the beat; the line
the
showing the stronger accent, and the colon the weaker. Short divisions are
indicated on halving the measure by one dot | . : and commas are used
to divide the measure into quarters, and other divisions are similarly shown.
The method cannot easily be understood without reference to the Tonic-
Sol-Fa arrangement, i. e., the distinctive plan of teaching the musical facts
indicated by the lettered notation. It is the result of laborious inquiry
and experience on the part of Mr. Curwen and his fellow laborers. Great
importance is attached to the doctrine of what is called mental effect, but
which has been previously named more properly emotional effect, by which
is meant a certain coloring or impression produced by each sound of the
scale when sung slowly. Thus doh is considered firm; te, sharp and piercing;
lah, sorrowful; fah, gloomy; soh, bright and clear, etc. Teaching by pat-
tern is also required; the scale is taught in the following order: (1) the
notes of the tonic common chord d, m, s, or doh, me, soh, and their repli-
cates; (2) the notes of the dominant common chord s, t, r, or so, te, ray;
(3) the common chord of the subdominant f, l, d, or fah, lah, doh, which
are simply the fundamental harmonies of the scale, embracing
Modulator. all its sounds, and giving birth to the name of the system,
Tonic-Sol-Fa. The backbone of the system, however, is the Modulator,
without a proper use of which the method cannot be taught.

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SOCIAL ECONOMY
277
This Modulator is a map of the musical sounds to be read in an ascend-
ing order, showing the scale, its minor, its chromatics, and its more closely
related keys or scales. By familiarity in the use of this chart, the upward
and downward motion of the notes all on one level, is gradually learned by
the pupil. Syllables are used to show the length of the notes according to
the French Chève system. So taa is the name of one beat, taa-tai of a
half-beat, and ta-fa-te-fe of quarter beats. Continuations of any kind are
met by dropping the consonant. Sol-Faists consider that the more intricate
and refined of divided beats can be sooner learned in this way than in any
other. But this Tonic-Sol-Fa-method, more than any other, requires the
living teacher to illustrate the meaning of its signs; and it follows, of course,
that the teacher of any particular method of imparting musical instruction
will best succeed with that which he most thoroughly understands.
SOCIAL ECONOMY. The place actually held by the science of
social or political economy, in modern education, presents a strange con-
trast with that which its importance demands. If the object of
Place in education is to fit the young to become self-supporting citizens
education. in a progressive society, conducing at once to the happiness of
all, while securing their own, then must the science whose special function
is the elucidation of the conditions of man's well-being in society, rightfully
claim a foremost place in every school curriculum. It is, nevertheless, to
be noted that, up to the present time, instruction in this science has been
limited to the few who attend colleges and universities, and to the pupils
of a small number of schools, of which further mention will be made in
the course of this article. A part of the difficulty popularly experienced
in appreciating the proper position of this subject in the course of study
appropriate to youth, is probably to be ascribed to the name, or rather to
the different names which have, from time to time, been given to the
science. The most appropriate term, of the many which have been sug-
gested, will be found, on examination, to be that under which the subject
is here treated, that is, the science which treats of the manner in which
are regulated the affairs that relate to man in society, a meaning fully
suggested by the etymology of the words. Nevertheless, this term, as
well as the allied name political economy, is apt to suggest to the unpre-
pared mind a science dealing with a very different set of ideas from those
of which it treats.
The dissatisfaction which has thus arisen with the name social economy
has led to the attempt to adopt various other forms of expression to
designate the science, of which attempts the happiest perhaps
Desig- has been the proposal to call it the "science which teaches the
nation. conditions of human well-being". But this title is not without
objection. In the first place, it is wanting in that terseness which is a
main requirement in nomenclature; and, secondly, it is wanting in pre-
cision. This expression would logically include many other sciences; as,
for instance, hygiene, a due regard to the laws of which is assuredly a
condition of human well-being. If the science had to do solely with the
production and distribution of wealth, the term originally employed by
Adam Smith, the father of the science, namely, the wealth of nations,
would be specially appropriate; but, even this is inadequate; for, although
the laws of the production and distribution of wealth influence in a mate-

278
SOCIAL ECONOMY
rial degree the conditions of human well-being, the science which we have
called social economy includes also most of the moral elements that enter
into the economy of society. The diversity of names that, from time to
time, have been suggested, has, not unnaturally, given rise to the idea that
there must be something especially abstruse in a science the professors of
which have been unable to agree even upon the name by which it should
be known. The difficulty probably arises from the modern use of the
term economy, which has, to some extent, lost its original and etymological
signification. Another cause of the misapprehension of the proper place
of social economy in education, arises from the intimate relations into
which every person unavoidably enters with the subjects it elucidates, at
nearly every instant of his industrial life; so that all persons are unavoid-
ably possessed of some notions on the subjects of which it treats. Now,
as there is an infinite number of modes of error and only one of truth, it
is only by starting rightly, and proceeding, systematically or scientifically,
from the known to the unknown, that error can be avoided; hence, the
notions taken up in the course of practical life are, in the ab-
Difficulty. sence of systematic study, generally erroneous. But it is usually
the most ignorant who wrangle and dictate with the loudest assumption of
knowledge; and, hence, people are led to suppose that there is a differ-
ence of opinion on economic truths among the students of the science, and
that, therefore, the subject must be too difficult to be understood by chil-
dren. It is, nevertheless, true that, as far as regards the elements of the
science, there is no more difference of opinion among those who have
given systematic study to it, than there is among the students of
mathematics upon the elementary principles of geometry. Another and
more serious obstacle to the introduction of social economy, as a subject of
instruction for the young, is the following. Owing to the extremely
complex nature of human society, it is impossible to take all of its factors
into account when investigating its elementary principles. But it is also
true that the geometrician disregards the breadth of the line, and the
mechanician the weight of the mechanical powers, when investigating the
laws of magnitude in space, or the relations of forces; but as soon as the
geometrician or the mathematician begins to apply the principles of his
particular science to practical engineering, these discarded factors form
data in his problems; and their effects are estimated by means of the very
laws which were established while disregarding their existence. So with
the laws of man in society. The laws of the production and distribution
of wealth were investigated by rigorously excluding the sympathetic side
of man's nature and looking upon him as purely a self-seeking being; but
the principles of social economy can only be understood by regarding him
from both points of view. All educators have agreed that the earlier
years of youth must be directed to concrete, before proceeding to ab-
stract, studies to observation rather than to causation. While, speaking
generally, this rule is sound, it is not to be understood as requiring the
exclusion of the reasoning process from even infant minds; but, because the
reasoning faculties are comparatively dormant in early youth, knowledge
should be obtained through observation (as for instance in natural history);
and from the facts thus obtained the child should be trained to reason
logically. Now, for this purpose, social economy presents many advan-
SOCIAL ECONOMY
279
tages, and this hardly less as a mental discipline than for the knowledge it
imparts. But the teaching of science to the very young should always be
in connection with facts or subjects presented to the senses.
Advan For instance, suppose a lesson is to be given upon bread to
tages of the
study. children 8 or 9 years of age. After the children have observed
those properties which are directly cognizable to the senses, the
judicious teacher will proceed to the more elementary of those facts
relating to it which physics, chemistry, and physiology have made known
to us, and will not shrink from gradually introducing the pupils, not-
withstanding their youth, to the terms used by men of science in speaking
of those facts. Instruction of this kind has, for a long while, been given
by the best teachers, in what are termed object lessons; and they have now
only to add the facts relating to bread which are made known
Taught by to us by the science of social economy to complete their course.
object
lessons. They will find it far easier to adopt this course with the social
bearings of objects than with those which relate to physics,
chemistry, or physiology, because many of the social facts will have been
spontaneously and unavoidably noticed by the children themselves; and
when once they perceive that what goes on around them at home, in the
workshop, and in the store, has a scientific value and importance, and that
an observation of surrounding facts and events can be used in school work,
and have a fitting place found for it, as a help to further knowledge,
their observation will be suddenly and wonderfully awakened, and fresh
facts and events will be poured upon the teacher by the children them-
selves. By this method, long before children have passed out of the pri-
mary grades, they may have acquired a knowledge of not only the funda-
mental laws of the production of wealth, but morals also, as well as many
of the consequences of the division of labor, and other matters connected
with the interchange of commodities. At an age even earlier than that
at which it is now deemed proper to commence the study of geometry,
that is to say, 11 or 12 years, social economy may be taught as a special
subject; but the opportunities afforded by object lessons, of observing the
social aspects of the objects under consideration should always be made
available. In teaching social economy, as a special branch, to
A special scholars of from 11 to 12 years of age, the subject should, as far
branch. as possible, be introduced in a manner analogous to that of
object teaching. Attention should be called to the comforts enjoyed by
the children, and by people in general, in the country in which they live,
things to which they have perhaps become so accustomed that they
have given no thought to the means by which they have been provided at
the time and place at which they are needed to be used and enjoyed. With
children who have not before received any instruction in the science, some
simple object of their daily use should be noticed, and its history exam-
ined, from the first preparation for the production of the raw material of
which it is mainly composed, down to its distribution in the form in which
it is required to be ready for their consumption. Such an examination
will bring vividly before the minds of the pupils the fact that nearly all
Topics for the necessaries and comforts of life are produced by labor; and
the course then the name wealth, by which these products of labor are to
of study. be thenceforth denoted, may be given to them. Industry,
280
SOCIAL ECONOMY
economy, knowledge, and skill will next be evolved as necessary to
individual as well as general well-being; and the division of labor will
be examined, with its resulting enormous increase in the productive-
ness of labor. The opportunity should then be taken to exhibit the
groundlessness of prevailing prejudices in regard to the relative honor
to be attached to one class of labor over another, and to point out that
those by whom household labors are performed are as much engaged in
the business of production as other laborers. The pupils will now be ready
to observe with understanding the simpler phenomena of interchange; and
then the paramount importance of honesty, truthfulness, and thorough
trustworthiness on the part of all will be evolved and made apparent.
While carefully avoiding all appearance of dogmatism, the teacher can
hardly devote too much time to multiplying illustrations, and reviewing the
investigations of the pupils, upon this head. The various forms of un-
trustworthiness, and the consequence thereof, should be made very clear,
nor should the subject be left until the pupils have arrived at a hearty
detestation, not only of unsuccessful, but still more of successful, dis-
honesty. The natural laws regulating the relations of employer and em-
ployed will next be studied; and, either now or at a later period, the
rules of trades-unions, and the effects of strikes and of combinations,
should be closely examined; nor should the subject of wages be left until
the pupils see clearly, that the wages which they, as sellers of their labor,
are destined to earn, will depend almost exclusively on the productiveness
of their labor, and that all those rules of trades-unions etc. which tend to
diminish the productiveness of labor, of necessity, lower also the wages of
labor. The laws determining the administration of capital will next en-
gage their attention; the idea of profit will be evolved, and its nature
determined with precision; the mischievous results of combinations
among capitalists, both to themselves and to the community, will be in-
vestigated, until it becomes apparent that the profit of the capitalist is
the reward paid him by society for the services he has rendered, of which
services it forms also, in most cases, an accurate measure. Property in
land will next claim attention, the justification for its adoption, as well as
its just limitations, being ascertained, and the principle of rent determined.
As the next step in the course of study, the idea of exchangeableness,
and the name value, will be evolved. The laws which regulate value
will then be investigated, and the necessity of precision, alike in ideas and
the use of words, will be again impressed upon the minds of the pupils,
and forcibly illustrated by as many examples as possible. It will now be
time to examine into some of the means which have been adopted to facili-
tate interchange, among which money will be seen to hold a prominent
place; the reasons for selecting gold or silver for money will be examined;
the impossibility of fixing the relative values of the two metals, and, con-
sequently, the want of wisdom shown in enacting laws making both
metals a standard of value for the same contract, will be readily perceived;
nor will it be difficult for the pupils to discern the only proper functions
to be fulfilled by a mint. The causes of fluctuations in the value of money
will be next investigated, and the phenomena of price and its fluctuations
observed. The use and functions of credit will now be inquired into, and
the unhappy consequences of its abuse traced to their source. Now, or at
SPANISH LANGUAGE
281
a later period in the course, the causes of the so-called "tightness in the
money market", of business derangements, commercial crises, and of
panics, will be rigidly investigated and their only remedy discerned,
namely, greater trustworthiness and honesty, to be secured by the im-
proved teaching and training of youth. The policy of laws for the recov-
ery of debts may now be profitably inquired into, as also the function
which, at best, governments may hope to perform in the economy of so-
ciety. Bills of exchange, rates of exchange, the par of exchange be-
tween distant countries, rates of interest, banks and banking, may all
now, in turn, be discussed, and the want of wisdom shown by legislatures
in the enactment of usury laws, and of laws which attempt to control or
regulate banking, may be made apparent. Paper money, and the promise
made by the issuers thereof, the dishonesty evinced in breaking the prom-
ise thus made, and the duty incumbent upon those who have either dis-
honestly or ignorantly broken such promises, should be dwelt upon, and
illustrated by examples drawn from history. Foreign commerce may
next be illustrated, its origin and the cause of its existence observed, and
the want of wisdom shown by those legislatures which have attempted
improperly to interfere with it. The proper mode of raising revenue,
to be deduced in great part from the truths discovered when consider-
ing the phenomena of rent and its progressive increase, will next be in-
vestigated; and the wisest methods of expenditure, both public and pri-
vate, may then be discussed. With the consideration of all these ques-
tions, and mainly in the order in which they are here sketched, the school
course of study in social economy may be closed. Not, however, without
warning the pupil that he has, by no means, mastered all the truths of the
science, but that, if he has thoroughly assimilated the lessons he has re-
ceived, they will suffice to direct his path in industrial life.
The course
as sketched in these pages should occupy from two to four years of the
school curriculum,two years, if the knowledge to be acquired is to be
learned from books; but about four years, if the Socratic method be
adopted by the teacher. Another method of instruction, and one which,
like that already indicated, has been successfully practiced, is
Socratic the division of the science into progressive problems, demonstrat-
plan. ing these either on the Socratic plan or by a deductive process,
as in the study of geometry. The former of these two plans is that chiefly
followed in the admirable Birckbeck schools of London, which were found-
ed and endowed by William Ellis, of that city, for the special purpose
of introducing the science of social economy as a branch of school teach-
ing, especially for the children of mechanics and laborers. Since the year
1848, this instruction has been continued in these schools, and their
example has, at last, been followed by the London school board. - For
educational literature of this subject, see Cyclopædia of Education, and
list of educational works in the Appendix of this work.
SPANISH LANGUAGE. The Spanish language has but little
claim to a place in the regular course of instruction, in schools and col-
leges, in comparison with the French and German languages. As Span-
ish, however, is not only the language of one of the nations of Europe,
but is spoken in all the countries of South America, except Brazil; and
also in Central America, Mexico, and even in some parts of the

282
SUPERVISION
SUPERIOR INSTRUCTION
3
United States, and is thus the vernacular language of at least 60
millions of people, practical considerations commend its study to thou-
sands of persons, students and others, in preference to either German
or French. Independently of this consideration, the Spanish language,
as a school accomplishment, is not without attractions. It ranks, indeed,
among the most euphonious of modern languages, being even preferred,
by some linguists, to the Italian; and its literature contains many works
of enduring interest and value. While the Spanish language presents a
considerably larger number of non-Latin elements than either French or
Italian, it deviates but little from these two sister languages in its structure
and grammar. In the pronunciation of the vowels, it entirely agrees with
the Italian. The two double consonants ll and ñ are peculiar to the Span-
ish, and of the English consonant sounds, z (as in zone) is entirely want-
ing. Though substantives have only two genders, masculine and feminine,
the article has three, el, la and lo; the last, which is the neuter form, being
used to change adjectives into substantives (lo bueno, that which is good).
The Spanish is richer than either French or Italian in augmentatives and
diminutives; and the reflexive form of the verb is used more extensively,
perhaps, than in any other language of Europe. The subjunctive has two
more tenses than the Italian or French (amare, future; amara, second con-
ditional). In words derived from Latin, the e and o of the accented penul-
tima have frequently been developed into ie and ue, a change which in this
class of words, gives to the Spanish an undoubted superiority in euphony
(Spanish tiempo, fuerte; French temps, fort; Ital. tempo, forte).—The prop-
er method of teaching Spanish does not differ from that of teaching the
French language (q. v.). A few lessons in comparative etymology will
greatly facilitate the study of this as of every language. If, for instance,
the pupil learns that such combinations as cl, fl, pl, etc. in English words
of Latin origin are often changed into ll (llamar, clamor; llama, flame;
llano, plain), a large number of words will, at once, be familiar to him.
SUPERIOR INSTRUCTION, a term used to denote instruction of
the highest grade, or that given in colleges and universities, both in the
academic course, or in special or post-graduate courses.
SUPERVISION, School, constitutes one of the most essential ele-
ments of an efficient school system. The supervision which is necessarily
given by the principal of the school to the work performed by his assistants
is not here referred to, but that which is usually assigned to a superin-
tendent of schools, whose special function it is to see that every school
under his jurisdiction is efficient both in discipline and instruction. As a
general rule, no extensive work employing a large number of operatives,
each performing certain prescribed duties, which contribute toward the
accomplishment of a general result, can be carried on efficiently without
constant supervision. School supervision is needed for two purposes:
(1) to enforce the general rules and regulations prescribed by
school authorities; and (2) to see that the proper methods of
instruction are employed, and that the teaching is made effective.
To attain these objects, the schools must be both inspected and examined.
By inspection the superintendent keeps himself informed in regard to the
discipline of the school and the methods of instruction employed by the
teachers; by formal examinations at stated periods, he is enabled to as-

Why
needed.
SYMPATHY
283
certain, to a certain extent, the actual result of the teaching, that is, its
effect on the pupils' minds, both as to imparting information and training.
Both of these are considered indispensable. "An inspection", as defined
by Superintendent Philbrick, "is a visitation for the purpose of obser-
vation, of oversight, of superintendence. Its aim is to discover, to a greater
or less extent, the tone and spirit of the school, the conduct. and applica-
tion of the pupils, the management and methods of the teacher, and the
fitness and condition of the premises. Good inspection commends excel-
lences, gently indicates faults, defects, and errors, and suggests improve-
ments as occasion requires. * * * An examination is different from an in-
spection, both in its aims and methods. An examination is a thorough
scrutiny and investigation in regard to certain definitely determined mat-
ters for a specific purpose". The best methods of teaching, if not uni-
formly and diligently employed, will not impress the pupils' minds; and
on the other hand, the pupils may gain considerable knowledge of the
prescribed branches of study, but not in such a way as to cultivate proper
habits of thought. Regular examinations, besides ascertaining the merits
and qualifications of the teachers, afford a wholesome stimulus, when judi-
ciously and skillfully conducted, and afford a definite aim toward which
their efforts may be directed. On the other hand, if attempted by in-
competent and indiscreet persons, supervision of this and every other kind
may do much harm. The qualities necessary for a good examiner are well
defined by Supt. Philbrick: "In the first place, he should be
Qualifica- independent, or, to speak more precisely, he should not be de-
tions of a
good
pendent upon the teaching corps. He ought to have had ex-
examiner. perience in teaching; and if he has had experience in grades
similar to those in which he examines, so much the better. His
mind ought to be liberalized by a wide range of educational reading and
study. He ought to have a good deal of practical common sense.
He
should be more inclined to look on the bright side of things than on the
dark side. He should look sharper for merits than for demerits. He
should fear only two things: he should fear to do injustice, and he should
fear himself. He should be eminent for good breeding, as a guaranty of
respectful treatment from teachers and pupils. And to make sure of the
requisite sympathy, like Burke's lawgiver, he ought to have a heart full of
sensibility. In one word, for the successful exercise of this delicate and
most useful function, the very best educators are demanded".
objection has sometimes been urged against examinations of this kind,
that they encourage cramming; but this will, of course, depend upon the
character of the examinations themselves. See PAYNE, School Supervision
(Cin., 1875). (See also EXAMINATIONS.)
The
SYMPATHY, an instinctive feeling of interest in, and affection for,
others, which prompts a correspondence of emotions. Persons in sympathy
readily discern the mental states of one another, and evince by their actions
that they suffer, mentally, the same distress, and feel the same joy. It is
difficult to ascertain and define the source and basis of this sympathetic
relationship; but personal influence greatly depends upon it. It is natural
to some persons to be in sympathy with others; they seem to exert a kind
of positive influence, drawing and binding all around them to themselves.
Others, on the contrary, seem to be negative in their influence; they repel
284
TEACHER — TEACHERS' INSTITUTE
instead of attracting. They are cold and indifferent to others; or, if other-
wise, unconsciously show that their apparent interest is feigned, not felt,
proceeding from a sense of duty, not from natural warmth of feeling.
The teacher, above all others, should be sympathetic, because so much of
his success depends upon personal influence. He should habitually strive
to cultivate this quality, feeling assured that the measure of his professional
skill and efficiency is the degree of sympathetic regard with which he
inspires his pupils. (See ANTIPATHY, and LOVE.)
TEACHER, a person who assists another in learning, that is, in ac-
quiring knowledge or practical skill. A school-teacher's office is, for the
most part, confined to aiding the pupil in acquiring knowledge, with the
twofold object of (1) mental discipline, and (2) imparting valuable infor-
mation. Which of these is to be considered of primary importance depends
upon the grade of the instruction and the subject taught. Although teach-
ing is only a part of education, the teacher should be an educator, since he
is required to perform an office which bears an important relation to the
general development, or education, of the child; and, consequently, he
should clearly understand the nature of that relation. In other words, no
person can be merely a teacher; he must, to be truly efficient, educate
while he teaches. Indeed, he cannot but do so. His example, and his
personal influence of every kind, will necessarily educate · will tend to
form, permanently, the character of his pupil, either for good or evil. This
consideration should determine the qualifications of the teacher, which
should not consist merely in scholarship, book learning, or intellectual
culture, but that assemblage of personal qualities and accomplishments
(including scholarship) which will render his influence in every respect
effective and salutary. The requirements of a successful teacher, inde-
pendent of intellectual accomplishments are thus summarized in a
recently published work: "(1) The teacher must love his work. (2) He
must understand, and sympathize with, the motives which govern human-
ity - especially children. (3) The whole scope of his intercourse with his
pupils must be to secure their co-operation and thus develop self-govern-
ment. (4) He must plan to interest his pupils. (5) He must give them
constant employment. (6) He must conduct his work with the utmost
system. See KELLOGG, School Management (N. Y., 1880). (See DIDAC-
TICS, EDUCATION, and INSTRUCTION.)
TEACHERS' INSTITUTE, the name given, in the United States,
to an assemblage of teachers of elementary or district schools, called to-
gether temporarily for the purpose of receiving professional instruction.
Such meetings are held under the direction of the school authorities,
usually the state, county, or town superintendent; and quite often there is
a provision of law requiring the teachers employed in the common schools
to attend, and permitting a continuance of their salaries during such
attendance. A teachers' institute is usually conducted by an experienced
teacher, having special skill for the work. This requires a good knowl-
edge of the practice and theory of teaching, especially as applied to the
ordinary branches of common-school education; it also needs ability as a
lecturer. Teachers' institutes are designed to serve as a substitute for, or
as complementary to, normal instruction; and as such they constitute a

TEACHERS' SEMINARIES
285
TEXT-BOOKS
valuable agency in connection with a system of common-school instruction.
- See BATES, Method of Teachers' Institutes (N. Y.); and Institute Lec-
tures (N.Y.); FOWLE, The Teachers' Institute (N.Y.); PHELPS, The Teach-
ers' Hand-Book (N. Y.).
TEACHERS' SEMINARIES. Schools for the education and
training of teachers are called teachers' seminaries in Germany, Russia,
Finland, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, and the German cantons of Switzer-
land; training schools, in Austria and the Netherlands; preparatory
schools, in Hungary; and normal schools, in France, Great Britain, Italy,
Spain, Portugal, Greece, Roumania, the French cantons of Switzerland,
and the United States. In Great Britain, the name training college is
very generally used. (See Normal School.)
TEMPER, the disposition or constitution of the mind, in relation
particularly to the affections and the passions. Good temper implies a
serenity of mind, and a natural or habitual cheerfulness, which is not easily
disturbed. It is opposed to peevishness and sullenness, which seem to be
characteristic of certain minds. As good temper predisposes to docility,
so ill-temper is directly antagonistic to it; hence, the educator must culti-
vate the former in the mind of his pupil, and strive to eradicate the latter.
In dealing with this fault, the utmost patience is requisite; since any ex-
hibition of ill temper on the part of the educator will, from the force of
example, as well as from the additional irritation caused by it, aggravate
the difficulty, and foster the natural failing in the pupil's mind into a
confirmed vice. Allowance must always be made for the natural peculiar-
ities of children; since these cannot be immediately or forcibly repressed,
but must, by careful training, be brought under self-control, which is one
of the earliest lessons to be taught, but one of the last objects attained in
education. Discouragement may sometimes take the form of ill temper;
and, in such a case, the teacher must make concessions, and give special
attention to remove the feeling and restore confidence. A violent, irascible,
or stubborn temper in the pupil is to be met with calmness and firmness
on the part of the teacher; and very often the marked contrast between his
manner and that of the pupil will serve to recall the latter to himself, and
excite in his mind a feeling of shame at his haste or violence. Nothing
will tend so strongly as this to cure the vice, since it really leads the child
to punish himself for his fault. Ill temper that takes the form of obstinacy,
is the most difficult to deal with; and it is this that Locke reserves as the
special and only case for the use of the rod. A resort to this should not,
however, be hastily made, and will scarcely ever be needed, if the circum-
stances admit of persistent discipline of another kind by the educator. In
school, unfortunately, this is not always the case, the teacher being obliged
promptly to choose between the immediate conquest of his stubborn
pupil, or the disorganization of his school. (See PUNISHMENT.)
TEXT-BOOKS, for educational purposes, are books designed to be
used by pupils in connection with the instruction given by the teacher.
Their purpose is threefold: (1) to aid the teacher, by affording to the pupil
independent sources of information and instruments of study; (2) to aid
the pupil, in acquiring habits of self-reliance in study; and (3) to enable
the pupil to learn how to use books, as a means of self-culture. These
objects dictate the mode of constructing school text-books; and should all

286
TOPICAL METHOD — UNIVERSITY
be carefully kept in view by the teacher in the selection of books, so that
they may be suited to the mental status and grade of culture of his pupils
in regard to the following points: (1) language and style; (2) arrangement
of topics and general treatment of the subject, and (3) adaptability to the
time and general opportunities of the pupil. The object of using text-
books is often entirely defeated by a disregard of the first of these points.
A text-book written in a style beyond the capacity of the pupil is not only
useless, but positively injurious; since the pupil either becomes disgusted
with the study and neglects it altogether, or he commits to memory the
language of the book, under the impression that he is acquiring knowledge;
and thus his mental habits are seriously, if not permanently, vitiated.
The following cautions should be particularly observed by teachers in the
use of text-books: (1) the book should not be permitted to supersede the
teacher, its use being always preceded, accompanied, and supplemented by
oral instruction; (2) it should never be paramount, in the pupil's mind, to
the subject, the impression being constantly inculcated by the teacher that
it is the subject that is studied, and that the book is only an instrument
of the study, or an auxiliary to it; (3) it should not be allowed to su-
persede the necessity of acquiring knowledge, as far as possible, by per
sonal experience, particularly in elementary education. In advanced in-
struction, it will always be found that those will use text-books most ef-
fectively who have acquired the most knowledge without them.
ORAL INSTRUCTION.)
(See
TOPICAL METHOD. See CATECHETICAL METHOD.
TRAINING, a department of education, in which the chief element
is exercise, or practice; the object being to impart practical skill, or facility
in any bodily or mental operation. No teaching can be effectual that is
not supplemented by training; that is to say, not only is the understanding
of the pupil to be addressed, but the principle of habit is to be appealed
to. (See HABIT.)
UNIVERSITY, a name first given, in the middle ages, to institutions
for superior instruction. In the second half of the 12th century, a free
union of students of medicine was formed in Salerno (1150), and another
of students of law in Bologna (1158). The students had equal rights
with the professors in these unions; which soon attracted such crowds
that, in Bologna, the studies of medicine and theology were added; and,
in Salerno, those of law and philosophy. This was the origin of the
modern European university. At the university of Bologna, as well as
at the universities of Padua and Naples, which were early established,
the study of law remained predominant, ecclesiastical and secular law
(decreta and leges) being eagerly studied in order to obtain high offices in
church and state. In Paris, a university arose from the cathedral school,
and as the chief seat of scholasticism, soon attained the rank of the fore-
most university of western Europe. The formation of nations and of
faculties exerted a decisive influence upon the further development of the
university. As scholars from all parts of the Christian world flocked to
Paris in large numbers, and the government of the state took no notice
of them, they found it necessary to form national groups for the purpose
of self-government. Thus, the four nations of the Gallicans (including

VENTILATION
287
Spaniards, Italians, Greeks, and Orientals), the Picards, the Normans, and
The
the English (including Germans and Northmen) were formed.
formation of special faculties was caused by the Mendicants' orders, which
early recognized the importance of the rising university, and, as teachers
of theology and ecclesiastical law, assumed, in regard to the nations, an
independent position. In consequence of the complications which were
produced by their teaching, the professors of theology (about 1270), and,
somewhat later, those of medicine and of ecclesiastical law, formed a union,
and in this way organized three distinct faculties. The faculties represented,
therefore, special sciences; while the four nations, as a continuation and
enlargement of the former cathedral school, represented the trivium and
the quadrivium, or the preparatory sciences. Following, at length, the
example of the other faculties, the nations gradually transformed them-
selves into the faculty of the liberal arts, which, for a time, occupied a
position inferior to that of the older faculties. These developments made
the university of Paris the great literary center of Europe; and, at times,
it was attended by more than 20,000 students. See Cyclopædia of Edu-
cation.
VENTILATION. Probably no subject connected with the improve-
ment of schools has, of late years, been more fully and earnestly discussed
than that of ventilation. Unfortunately, however, the results reached
have by no means corresponded in importance to the length or vigor of
the discussion. Notwithstanding the minute and elaborate experiments
made by modern science on this subject, it is hardly too much to say that
the only point of agreement is, that ample ventilation is of paramount im-
portance in the economy of the school room. Any recommendation of
particular methods of effecting this, or any appeal to statistics or experi-
mental details, becomes at once the occasion for fresh dispute. The subject
will be considered here under the following heads: (I) The conditions
favorable to proper ventilation; (II) The methods employed to utilize
those conditions; (III) Some of the ways in which ventilation is pre-
vented.
I. Under this head, will be considered (1) the sources from which a
proper supply of fresh air for the school room is to be obtained, and the
quality of air so obtained; and (2) the determination of the quantity
needed by each pupil for purposes of respiration. That the great reser-
voir of the outer air which surrounds the school room is the only proper
source of supply for the lungs of its inmates, requires no demonstration;
the only question being that which concerns its purity. The
Fresh air. direct and intimate connection which has been ascertained to
exist between the air which we breathe and the blood, has been found to
extend to the brain, and healthful intellectual activity and pure air are
now almost convertible terms. Whatever causes, therefore, tend to viti-
ate the air surrounding the school building should be carefully eliminated.
(Concerning the proper site of the school building, as regarded from a
sanitary stand-point, see HYGIENE, SCHOOL.) Another cause which, in
certain sites, and, at certain seasons of the year, in any site, may affect
the quality of the air introduced into the school-room, is the height above
the ground from which it is drawn. The danger to be apprehended from
288
VENTILATION
malarial fever, one of the most insidious foes of the human race detected
by modern sanitary science, has led recent writers on the subject of venti-
lation to recommend that the inlet for fresh air be placed as high as pos-
sible, so that the lower stratum of air — that near the ground or from the
cellar be not admitted.
Much of the difficulty which attaches to the subject of ventilation,
arises from the fact that medical men who have given special attention to
the matter, are by no means agreed as to the amount of pure
Cubic feet air needed by each person for purposes of respiration; their
of space. estimates of the number of cubic feet of space required by
each pupil in the school room where the ventilation is ample, varying from
300 to 1,200. From a comparative examination of various estimates, it
appears that the average amount of fresh air required by each individual
hourly is at least 1,000 cubic feet. In school rooms provided with ade-
quate means of ventilation, this requires, according to most sanitarians, at
least 300 cubic feet of space for each pupil. This, though hardly above the
minimum, exceeds, probably, in a majority of cases, the most liberal allow-
ance made by those school officers who pride themselves on their generosity
in this respect. Usually, the allowance is less than 110 cubic feet. The
quantity of air, also, admitted by the ventilating apparatus, bears a con-
stant relation to the size of the room. Says Dr. A. N. Bell on this point,
"The smaller the space, the greater the necessity for, and the larger the
opening required for, the admission of fresh air. *** It has been calcu-
lated that, with ordinary exposure, an open space equal to 5 inches in the
square, will admit the passage of 2,000 cubic feet hourly; this, of course,
implies that there should be an equal amount of open space for the escape
of the air displaced".

ventilation.
II. In considering the different methods of ventilation, attention
should, at the same time, be given to the method of warming the school-
room; since the two subjects are almost inseparably connected.
Methods of The entrance of warm air into a room for breathing purposes,
is inevitably attended by, and naturally suggests, a correspond-
ing exit of vitiated air, and points unmistakably to the resulting current
as the most efficient means for ventilation. If the question were merely
that of determining the easiest way of replacing a certain amount of im-
pure, by a corresponding amount of pure, air, the problem would be one
of easy solution; since the difference of temperature which generally exists
between the outer air and that of the school room furnishes the condition
most favorable to ventilation, the only agent needed being a connection
between the two, which is readily supplied by an open door or window.
In summer, this method, which may be called the natural one, is in almost
universal use, and is accompanied generally with satisfactory results. In
winter, however, the violent displacement of one atmosphere by the other,
which results from the greater difference in their temperature, and which
immediately begins when a connection is made between them, makes itself
felt in the shape of dangerous drafts. The problem for the inventor,
therefore, is how to produce this change of air without any perceptible
draft; and to this additional condition, is to be attributed the practical
failure of so many ingenious devices which, in theory, are admirable. One
of the simplest and most effective methods of ventilation is used in connec-
VENTILATION
289
tion with the method of warming described under the head of school hy-
giene. (See HYGIENE, SCHOOL.) It consists of a chimney with two flues,
one for the fire, the other for ventilation. The latter is separated from
the former by a partition of metal which becomes heated by the air from
the fire, and, by warming the column of air in the ventilating flue, causes
it to ascend, tending thus to produce a vacuum, which the vitiated air of
the room flows in to fill. The ventilating flue has two registers, one near
the floor, the other near the ceiling, both of which can be controlled at
pleasure. A more economical method consists in making a ventilating
Hlue only, but making it sufficiently large to permit the passage of the
stove pipe along its middle line, while leaving considerable air space
around the latter. By extending the stove pipe to the top of the house,
the heat of the stove is used, as in the previous case. If the room is
warmed by an open fire, the increase in the amount of fuel used should be
charged to the account of ventilation, and the additional expense incurred
should not be regarded as a violation of the laws of economy, but rather as
an observance of the provisions of that true economy which does not look
for immediate and petty results, but is fundamental in its action, and
conducive to the permanent benefit of teacher and pupil. For combined
ventilating and warming purposes, in small school rooms, the open grate
fire has many advantages; but, of course, it should be carefully screened.
For more elaborate methods of ventilation, with modifications to suit cir-
cumstances, see the works quoted in the Appendix of this work, in which
the subject is exhaustively treated.

Obstruc-
III. The great importance of effective ventilation, to which it is ex-
ceedingly probable that the public mind is not yet sufficiently aroused, and
the practical difficulty which attends it when any but the
tions and simplest means and appliances are used, render it necessary to
defects. make some mention of the ways in which proper ventilation is
thwarted, even when it is apparently provided for. These are
principally two: (1) a ventilating apparatus, originally inadequate in size,
or, if adequate, the ineffective working of it, through frequent derange
ment; (2) the overcrowding of the school room after the originally liberal
estimates for air supply, based on a smaller number of pupils, have been
made. Insufficient apparatus, from either the first or second cause men-
tioned above, is one of the commonest difficulties with which intelligent
school officers have to contend; so easy is it for any one, in the absence of
decidedly bad results, to lose sight of the essential conditions of a healthy
school room, and so clamorous is the tax-payer usually for smaller demands
upon his purse. In the compromises which generally follow these contests
between the pocket and the lungs, it is too often found that the greater
concessions have been made by the latter. In the second case that of
overcrowding the same deleterious effects follow, insufficient air space
being the evil in both. Even intelligent teachers are, in this way, fre-
quently deceived. The number of pupils is increased so gradually that the
evil is for a long time unsuspected, and not till its effects have declared
themselves in some unmistakable, and perhaps fatal, manner, is attention
called to the probable cause. As has been said, the air provided for
breathing purposes should be drawn from out-of-doors, at a height above
the ground sufficient to preclude all danger from exhalations, and should


290
VOICE
be introduced into the room at the opposite end from that at which the
impure air passes out, and at the top of the room, but in such a way as to
prevent drafts. This is best done by providing a number of small aper-
tures, the air from which passes through the vitiated air of the room in
numerous small currents which are imperceptible, and which cause the
fresh air to be evenly diffused. If warmed by a cellar furnace, it should
not be introduced into the room by floor registers, since these are always,
more or less, traps for dust, which thus, in some shape, is liable to be
taken into the lungs. The ventilating apparatus should not only be suf-
ficiently large at the outset, but should be thoroughly tested before it is
introduced, so as to ascertain whether its working sustains the theory of
its construction, and should be carefully examined, from time to time, with
the view to secure its constant efficiency. For literature of this subject,
see the Appendix of this work.

Injury to
the voice.
VOICE, Culture of the. The human voice may be considered as
the audible expression of the mental and physical characteristics of its
possessor; and, therefore, no means employed in the varied processes of
education are of more importance than those that have regard to its
culture. Its powers are often widely misunderstood and mis-
applied, sometimes abused and destroyed. In the very begin-
ning of education, large numbers of boys, in addition to marked
inherited peculiarities, such as defective ears, weak lungs, asthmatic and
husky bronchial tubes, contracted chests, elongated palates, and inflamed,
swollen tonsils, are permitted to indulge in the pernicious habit of loud
shouting and hurrahing, and in the baneful and distressing use of the chest
tones, so frequently heard in the singing of male pupils. Every boy should
be made to understand that if he thus abuses his voice, he must not expect
to overcome his constitutional defects, or retain a tone which, even by as-
siduous practice, will become agreeable to his audience, in reading, decla-
mation, or vocal music. Girls, while in many instances they have all the in-
herited disadvantages above referred to, present, through their more deli-
cate organization and guarded habits, far more promising material for the
production of purely musical effects. Parents and teachers may well take
warning, also, in the education of either boys or girls, against a long-
continued strain upon their vocal chords. Many a young voice has been
completely ruined by this untimely forcing of the powers of the youthful
candidate for declamatory or musical honors. A child five years of age,
for example, is placed on a chair, to amuse a large audience by speaking or
singing in a forced utterance, and with an unnaturally loud chest tone,
entirely beyond its years, or powers of endurance. Such a tax upon its
vocal chords, if long continued, is exceedingly injurious. The medium or
falsetto tone, that most mellow, most musical, most sweet and expressive
part of the female voice, or of the unchanged voice of the boy, gradually
deteriorates, and is finally lost by this injurious process. The remedy for
this destruction lies in the early protection of the health, and in
Remedy. the careful use of the young voice, at home, in school, in the
church, and wherever there is any danger of this overstraining of its
powers. The vocal exercises should be within a limited compass, neither
too high nor too low. All forcing of the voice should be positively for-
bidden and avoided; and each lesson should come to a close without fatigue.

VOICE
291
An easy and systematic mode of breathing should be an early acquisition,
since it lies at the foundation of all success in singing, as well as in speak-
ing. Tone, of itself, being nothing more nor less than breath,
Tone, how
or air in motion through contact with a sonorous body, it is
produced.
important to know, to some degree at least, the character of
the organs which enter into the production of vocal tone. All culti-
vated speakers and singers are conscious of a thorough employment of
the abdominal muscles, and of those of the diaphragm, in order to secure
complete control of the breath. Inhaling, however, may be carried to
excess, a result well known to professional dramatic vocalists, who often
protect themselves against rupture by wearing shoulder braces, trusses,
and abdominal supporters. Exhaling involves that careful use of the
diaphragm, which keeps the intercostal nerves and muscles in a state of
tension, in order that the lungs may have their fullest play. To know
when and where to inhale and to exhale, is as necessary to the speaker, iu
his written or extemporaneously delivered sentences, as it is to the singer,
in the enunciation of his musical phrases; and, in such case, it assumes the
dignity of consummate art, an indispensable and prime necessity to the
conscientious interpreter of either classic language or classic music. With-
out ease, sustained repose, and a method made effective through long habit,
in the management of the breath, all subsequent attention to details in the
art of speaking or singing is measurably lost. Demosthenes, with pebbles
in his mouth, declaiming to the winds and waves on the sea-shore, and
Braham, lifting up his voice amid the hills and forests of Northumberland,
may profitably be remembered and imitated by all students who desire to
remedy defects, and to acquire new breathing power. A graceful attidude,
and thorough skill in the proper use of the breath being gained, the close
sympathy always existing between the bronchial tubes and the stomach
next demands attention. A rapid and complete digestion is esteeined by
all intelligent persons the greatest of physical blessings; and to no one is
it a more necessary condition of success than to the public speaker or
singer. So important is this to the professional vocalists, that those times,
in the daily routine of duty, which find the lungs and bronchial tubes freest
from the oppression arising from sympathy with the stomach, in its process
of digestion, should be selected for practice. Proceeding upward toward
the organs of articulation, we arrive at the trachea, or windpipe, the larynx,
and the pharynx. It is a prolific subject of discussion among speakers
and singers, whether the character of the tone depends as much upon the
size of the lungs, the bronchial tubes, the windpipe, the larynx, and the
pharynx, as it does upon the condition of the muscles and nerves, and
more remotely still upon the general organization, temperament, will, and
endurance of the speaker or singer. It is surprising to notice the compass
and the variety of tone which the larynx can produce, by using the vowels
alone. Beginning with the lowest sounds of the base voice, and ascending
in regular order through its limits, of one and a half or two octaves;
through the compass of the baritone, with a similar register, though some-
what higher in pitch; and, successively, through the registers assigned to
the tenor, contralto, mezzo-soprano, and soprano voices, there is embraced
Bass a compass of four octaves of available tones susceptible of cul-
tivation to an almost infinite degree of excellence.

voice.
Bass
292
VOICE
voices confine themselves mainly to the use of the chest tones through-
out their entire register; but the barytones, by a prudent use of the
somber tone, and of the medium register, greatly increase the pure quality
and flexibility of the higher portions of their voices. For the orator or
declaimer, there is no quality of tone comparable to that of the orotund
base or barytone voice; and, in the oratorio and opera, it is assigned to
characters of inherent dignity and force. The tenor voice, un-
Tenor. doubtedly, demands a combination of native and acquired
qualities, which, in some countries, are exceedingly rare. In its uncultivated
state it is thin, reedy, and somewhat nasal; but steady, persevering practice
upon the open vowels ah, oh, and oo, soon corrects this defect, and renders
the tenor, of all male voices, the most tender and expressive. Great care
should be exercised by tenor voices, lest the clear timbre of the chest tone
be carried too high, thereby crushing out the delicacy of the real medium
register, which is the most flexible and available part of the tenor voice.
The contralto, mezzo-soprano, and soprano voices encounter a
Contralto similar difficulty, at the very outset of their practice, in combin-
& soprano. ing the chest with the falsetto or medium voice. While this
difficulty occurs in the higher register of the male voice, it is found in the
lower register of the female voice, and presents obstacles in the way of
cultivation, which nothing but long and persistent practice can overcome,
though the strain upon the nervous system is far less than that experienced
by the male voice. The contralto yields to no other female voice in depth
and richness of tone, as is clearly evident after listening to singers like
D'Angri and Alboni. Naturally not so flexible as the soprano or mezzo-
soprano, it is yet endowed with a wonderful power in causing effects
replete with the most ardent passion, and with the most noble womanly
feeling. There is a great temptation to abuse the lower register of the
contralto voice by indulging in the disagreeable habit of forcing the chest
tones to a point bordering upon masculineness, if not positive coarseness.
The practice of descending runs, diatonic and chromatic, using the medium,
veiled, or somber tone, will gradually change this objectionable habit.
There are not wanting cases, also, of contralto voices which have been
destroyed by attempts to cultivate the tone and compass of the soprano,
a process absurd and unnatural to the last degree. Notwithstanding the
efforts of some late authors to ignore the division of the female voice into
at least three different registers, namely, the chest, the medium or falsetto,
and the head; these registers are now generally recognized by the
highest and most competent authorities. Elaborate methods
Methods of and studies for the development of the contralto, mezzo-
development.
soprano, and soprano voices have been devised with these
three divisions constantly in view. Some even assert that there are
five distinct registers, requiring as many different modes of producing the
tone, a condition of the larynx and pharynx suggesting an expertness
in the management of the voice which may well be deemed bewildering.
It is, however, too certain to admit of a doubt, that the voices of the
most accomplished female vocalists living have been trained by recognizing
this division into the chest, medium or falsetto, and head registers, and are,
moreover, preserved in their wonted availability by adhering to the same
method. Allusion has been made above to the pharynx, or arched chamber

VOICE
293
Articu-
immediately back of the palate, which is a most important modifier of the
voice in its passage from the larynx, and the expansion and contraction
of which gives greater or less volume of tone, especially if the
The root of the tongue be not artificially enlarged, so as to produce
pharynx. an impure throatiness of tone, frequently heard in voices im-
perfectly cultivated and badly managed. To know the important influence
of a healthly pharynx under complete control, it is only necessary to com-
pare the voice of one possessing it, to that of a vocalist suffering with a cold
in the head, or with a catarrhal affection and swollen tonsils. The dif-
ference in the clearness of the vibrations, and in the diffusive character of
the tone, is very perceptible and marked. A clear knowledge of the
organs which are employed in producing a vocal tone, and of the proper
combination of the registers to secure power, purity, and equality through-
out the entire vocal compass being gained, the organs of articulation
present themselves for particular consideration; and this leads
directly to the subject of musical elocution. System and facility
lation. in breathing, the employment of all the proper organs, in their
healthy condition, for the production of a pure tone, expertness in reading
music, and the minutest attention to attitude and gesture, will all fail to
produce an impression worth remembering, unless a true conception of
the meaning of the words and music, a bold enunciation, a distinct articula-
tion, a well-rounded phrasing, and an accurate intonation be added to the
acquirements of the finished vocalist. Conception relates to both words
and music. If it be necessary for the speaker to study well the significa-
tion of words, in order to get at the true meaning of the poet, it is even
more necessary for the singer to do so; since the effect of melody
Conception. and harmony upon all persons, is such as to deprive them,
measurably, of the power, for the time being, of judging of the signification
of words. The singer who rests upon the simple effect of his melody, is
certainly as weak as the speaker who relies upon his manner of uttering
fine language, rather than upon the strength of the ideas involved. Ă
true conception, it is hardly necessary to add, is the rarest of possessions
among modern vocalists. Pronunciation, in its musical connection, not
only implies that enunciation, or careful throwing out of each syllable
ciation.
A
and word which good speech and declamation require, but also
Pronun- that which, not particularly recognizing the inflections of reading
or declamation, is entirely absorbed in the far more permeating
channel of sound, a melody or recitative song according to a given key or
scale. Dr. Rush alludes to this as the special advantage which the singer
has over the speaker. Slowness and quickness of utterance are also con-
trolled, to so great a degree, in music, by the relations of the notes, the
bar, the fractional measure-marks, and words indicating varieties of move-
ment, that there is left less liberty to the singer than to the speaker, in
many respects. But such curtailment of liberty (which liberty, by the
way, is often a clog to inexperienced speakers), and, by consequence, greater
concentration upon the characteristics of the melody, only tie the singer
to a more vivid conception of the subject, and to a more distinct pronuncia-
tion of the words. For the correction of marked inelegancies of pronuncia-
tion, whether of foreign or native growth, no means are so effective as the
careful study of the classic languages, together with the study of the prin-
294
VOICE
cipal modern languages taught by native professors. Of these latter, the
Italian is most musical in itself, and, therefore, is most useful to the music-
al student, whose pronunciation of his native language, particularly if he
be English or German, will be vastly improved by often reading and
singing in the most euphonious of modern languages. Of distinct articu-
lation, it may in general be said, that the vowels only are sung while the
consonants are articulated; in other words, that the vowels are sung, and
the consonants are spoken. In vocalizing alone, the larynx, obedient to
the mind and will, performs unassisted, save by the lungs, trachea, pharynx,
and diaphragın, all those changes which promote power, purity, sweetness,
and flexibility of tone. Some slight changes in the position of the jaws,
tongue, and lips are necessary in vocalizing with aħ, ee, oh, and oo; but
only the consonants, as initial, intermediate, or final letters, require a
constant and vigorous use of the tongue, teeth, and lips, which are the chief
agents in acquiring an effective articulation. Full respirations should be
the rule, and partial respirations the exception. In plain music, where
one or two notes are appropriated to a syllable, the article should not be
separated from the noun or qualifying adjective, nor the adjective from the
noun, by a separated breathing; nor should the syllables of a word be
separated. Long diatonic or chromatic runs, arpeggios, trills, and cadenzas,
must, however, be executed with an unbroken continuity of the musical
phrase. The orotund basso or barytone, as well as the rich and deep con-
tralto, require to be particular in their articulation, in order to be heard,
since the very fullness of their voices produces a resonance not easily over-
come in large assembly rooms. Good phrasing implies good singing; such
a knowledge of the composer's idea on the part of the singer, as shall not
mar, to say the least, either the poetic or musical symmetry of
Phrasing. what is sung. The singer should be able to analyze the phrases
he sings, in order that, in melodic and harmonic construction, he may dis-
cover where they begin, how they progress, and where they end. But, if
he cannot do this, he should be able, intuitively to grasp a musical passage
to the fullest extent of its melodic proportions, and spontaneously to pre-
sent it with such accessories as shall make it appear his own. All the
bright coloring which may be imparted by a vivid conception, a good
pronunciation and articulation, will be seriously dimmed by defective
phrasing. Last, but by no means least, there must be the accurate inlona-
tion which is the result of a correct ear. Some persons do not hear cor-
rectly, concords becoming to them discords. Whether it be a local dif-
ficulty of the tympanum, or, as is more probable, a rigidity of the entire
organization and sluggishness of temperament, the fact is obvious that de-
fective ears are by no means uncommon; and, of course, to imi-
Intonation, tate musical sounds with the voice, in such cases, is an impos-
correct ear. sibility. The commonness of the defect increases, as we descend
in the scale of social being, particularly where, in addition to poverty
and moral degradation, there is superadded the prolific cause, absence of
youthful opportunities of hearing music well sung or played. Could all
classes, without exception, be gladdened, when young, by hearing music
correctly sung and played, the number of those who pass through life un-
moved "by the concord of sweet sounds", would be much diminished. It
is important, also, that the sounds heard by children, be correct both as to


WORD METHOD
295
WORDS
melody and rhythm, if it be expected that such children, when grown,
shall have a so-called good ear for music. In remarking upon articulation,
the value of the vowel sounds ah, ee, oh, and oo was noticed; and it is known
that a thorough scale, and rhythmical use of these, combined with all the
consonants as initial and final letters, will not only develop a more distinct
articulation, but also a purer, more effective, and manageable tone. For
standard authorities, on this subject, see Cyclopædia of Education.
WORD METHOD, a term applied to the analytic method of teach-
ing children to read. The process consists of using short words instead of
letters in the first lessons, the pupil learning to recognize and pronounce
these words, and sometimes to read easy sentences, before learning the names
of the letters. When a sufficient number of words have been learned, the
pupil is shown their composite character, and taught the names and sounds
of the letters which form them, thus learning the alphabet. In this proc-
ess, care should be taken to select appropriate words, and present them in
man, fan, can,
a progressive manner, as: cat, rat, hat, mat,
dog, log,
etc. The pupil, in this way, perceives the power of each letter, and soon
learns to spell and pronounce words, after which the synthetic method
may be employed. (See ALPHABET METHOD.)
—

WORDS, Analysis of. The analysis or resolving of words into
their elementary parts, is an important branch of the study of languages,
the native as well as foreign. In ordinary school parlance, this branch is
sometimes styled etymology, since the analysis comprehends not only an ex-
planation of the meaning of each of the parts of a word-both root and
affixes, but a knowledge of the derivation of these. For elementary school
purposes, however, it should be borne in mind that the latter is of
secondary importance. In the study of the native tongue, it will be
acknowledged, the importance of training pupils to analyze compound and
derivative words can hardly be overestimated. The fact that
Value of the English language derives about one-half of the words in ordi-
the study.
nary use from the Latin, renders exercises in word analysis, of far
greater necessity for the study of English, than for that of most other
languages. That, without being trained in this analysis, pupils will
scarcely be able to grasp the true meaning of English words, probably no
experienced teacher, at present, will be inclined to dispute. To very many
of the pupils who are merely drilled in spelling and reading, the force
even of the most common Anglo-Saxon prefixes, like a, be, en, etc., and of
suffixes, like dom, hood, ship, etc., must remain unknown.
How many,
for example, will be able to infer the meaning of for or fore in forswear
and forego? The knowledge of the Latin prefixes and suffixes, even in
the words of ordinary life, will be acquired with still greater difficulty by
pupils not sufficiently trained in word analysis. On the other hand, only
a slight knowledge of the simplest Latin prefixes, as: ad, con, pre, pro,
sub, etc., affords a key to the distinctive meaning of a large number of
words. It is, therefore, a matter of gratification to find that, at present,
this branch of study is scarcely ever entirely omitted from the common-
school course of instruction.
In regard to the method of teaching word analysis, it may justly
be said that there are few subjects taught in elementary schools to
296
WORDS
which the fundamental principles of the developing method can so eas
ily, and with so much advantage, be applied as to this. At whatever
stage of the pupil's progress the instruction may begin, provided
Methods of a knowledge of reading and writing has been acquired, the
teaching.
number of words already learned, will be found ample for
the first and easiest exercises. Hardly any arbitrary memorizing is
needed, since, if the teacher follow a natural course, he will only have
to develop the knowledge already in the child's mind. Thus, children,
even in the lowest grades, knowing the meaning of words like teacher and
preacher, will not find the least difficulty in understanding that er, in
both these words, means one who, and in perceiving that these words mean,
respectively, one who teaches, and one who preaches. Nine-tenths of a class
of pupils, of ordinary intelligence, will now readily find, among the words
they are accustomed to use, several others in which the suffix er has the
same meaning. They will not only fully comprehend this initiatory les-
son, but they will feel a manifest delight that one simple explanation has
so greatly added to their knowledge of the meaning of words. The intelli-
gent teacher will not fail to perceive that the more closely he is able to
accomodate his teaching to the knowledge of the words which belong to
the pupils' own vocabulary, the more rapid will be their progress, and the
more intense will be the interest which they will take in the new study.
It is obviously a point of great importance that the first examples of pre-
fixes or suffixes that are presented, should fully illustrate their general
meaning. Thus, the word teacher would be a better selection for this
purpose than grocer; sailor, better than tailor; and repay, better than
receive. In the further progress of the study, it is important that the
most common prefixes and suffixes should be learned before those of rarer
use. It shows a great lack of pedagogical tact in a teacher to drill his
pupils on preter, subter, and retro, before they know the meaning of sub,
con, and in. A more difficult stage of this branch of study, is that which
treats of the Latin roots, and their use in English words. Here,
also, a strict adherence to the principle that we should proceed
from the "known to the unknown" from an analysis of what
is already in the pupil's mind to that which is new, will guide the teacher
with unerring certainty on the right path. For example, a judicious
teacher who desires to familiarize his pupils with the derivates from the
Latin root duc or duct (from duco), will not, at first, select such words as
induct, inductive, superinduce, etc., or even words like adduce, conduce,
deduce, before his pupils have learned to analyze words of a more obvious
meaning; as introduce, produce, reduce, aqueduct, viaduct, etc. What is
here meant is, that the first lessons in this kind of analysis should concern
only those words the meaning of which may readily be explained by
showing the meaning of their parts. In every subject of instruction, the
order of presenting the various matters which are to be learned by the
pil, is of vital importance; but in none is it more essential than in the
etymological analysis of words. The numerous class of words which can-
not be explained, except by the history of their formation (such as ambi-
tion, candidate, chancellor, peculiar; also sycophant, gazette, quarantine,

Latin
roots.


Greek
roots.
pu-
The
etc.) should be reserved for a higher grade of this study.
analysis of words derived from the Greek, should follow that
ZOOLOGY
297
of words derived from Latin roots; and the discussion of the etymolog-
ical affinity of the words of different languages should be reserved for
that stage of the course of studies which comprehends comparative philol-
ogy. For list of works on this subject, see Supplementary List in the
Appendix. (See also ENGLISH, THE STUDY OF.)
Elementary
ZOÖLOGY (Gr. (ov, an animal, and 26yos, a discourse) treats of the
structure, classification, habits, etc., of animals. It is an important branch
of descriptive natural science. or natural history, and usually forms a part
of the course of study in various grades of schools. In element-
instruction. ary instruction, it constitutes, with its sister science, botany.
one of the most effective and available subjects for training
the observing faculties; and, hence, is often comprised in the course of
instruction prescribed for common schools. This subject has peculiar
attractions for children; since, as is well known, they invariably manifest
a deep interest in animal life. The principles by which the teacher
should be guided in giving instruction in this, as in other branches of
natural science, have been to some extent explained in previous articles.
(See ASTRONOMY, and BOTANY.) In teaching zoology, care must be partic-
ularly taken to exhibit as much as possible the natural objects them-
selves; and, in elementary teaching, this comes first. That is to say, the
pupils are not to be required to commit to memory dry definitions and
formulated statements; but their minds should be brought in contact with
the living realities. In this way an interest in the study will be created
without which no real progress can be made. After a considerable amount
of discursive observation, so that the child's mind has become stored with
conceptions, a more systematic treatment may be commenced, approaching
the elements of classification, the pupil being gradually made to perceive
the distinctions upon which the classification depends. In order to fix
these destinctions in the mind, well-known animals may be taken as types:
as (class 1) man, monkey, bat, cat, rat, horse, deer, cow, whale; (2) eagle,
parrot, canary, rooster, ostrich, snipe, duck; (3) turtle, alligator, rattle-
snake, frog; (4) perch, cod, shark, etc.; (5) bee, butterfly, beetle, etc.; (6)
spider, crab; (7) squid, snail, oyster; (8) starfish, jellyfish, coral. Thus
the classes, orders, and genera may be illustrated very clearly, and in an
interesting manner.
At first it is better to use the simple English vocabulary than to trouble
the mind of the young pupil with the difficult, and to him unmeaning,
scientific terms; as four-handed instead of quadrumana, gnawers for
rodentia, scratchers, for rasores, two-winged for diptera. etc. In this
elementary instruction, it is not necessary that the classification should
include species and variety, in some cases not even genera; but in describ-
ing an animal it is proper to require the pupil to mention the class, order,
fumily, and genus, and in this order.
Great care should be taken, as in all science teaching, to have the pupil
depend as much as possible upon his own observation for the facts used;
and, as in botany, the schedule system may have a modified or limited
application in teaching this subject. Microscopic examinations of a simple
kind may also be resorted to in order to increase the interest of the pupil,
and kindle a desire for closer research.



298
ZOÖLOGY
instruction.
In the higher grades of instruction, the three different departments of
the science—morphology, physiology, and distribution, should systematic-
ally be treated. In every grade of instruction, however, the
Higher teacher or professor cannot too closely follow the principle
laid down by Huxley: "The great business of the scientific
teacher is to imprint the fundamental, irrefragable facts of his science,
not only by words upon the mind, but by sensible impressions upon the
eye, and ear, and touch of the student, in so complete a manner, that
every term used, or law enunciated, may afterwards call up vivid images
of the particular structural, or other, facts which furnished the demon-
stration of the law, or the illustration of the term". Moreover, every
teacher should bear in mind that a good share of his own knowledge
should be at first-hand acquired by his own observation, not simply
gleaned from books or he will not succeed in awakening an interest in
the minds of his pupils. The proper method of teaching this subject has
been clearly shown by one of its greatest masters. See HUXLEY, On the
Study of Zoology, in The Culture demanded by Modern Life. (N. Y.,
1867.). (See SCIENCE, THE TEACHing of.)
APPENDIX.
A SELECT LIST OF
EDUCATIONAL WORKS,
ENGLISH, FRENCH, AND GERMAN,
ARRANGED BY
W. H. PAYNE, A. M.,
PROFESSOR OF THE SCIENCE AND THE ART OF TEACHING
IN THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN.

THE DICTIONARY OF EDUCATION AND INSTRUCTION
"A true university in these days is a collection of books."
CARLYLE.
"If the soul of a library be its librarian, its heart is the
catalogue."
Gentleman's Magazine.
"If you are troubled with a pride of accuracy, and would
have it taken completely out of you, print acatalogue.”
STEVENS.
CONTENTS.
I. WORKS OF REFERENCE.
II. ALLIED SCIENCES.
III. GENERAL EDUCATION.
IV. SPECIAL EDUCATION.
V. SCHOOL ECONOMY.
VI. HISTORY OF EDUCATION.
VII. MISCELLANEOUS EDUCATIONAL LITERATURE.
BOOKS FOR TEACHERS' LIBRARIES.
NOTICE.
This List purposely omits works that are out of print, or are privately
printed, or otherwise difficult to obtain. On the other hand it is intended
to enumerate within its limited compass publications now in the
market that are of sufficient merit and importance. It will be revised for
future editions, and the undersigned publishers will, therefore, be obliged
for the suggestion of corrections and additions.

E. STEIGER & CO.
300
THE DICTIONARY OF EDUCATION AND INSTRUCTION
1. WORKS OF REFERENCE.
Bibliographies, Catalogues, Cyclopædias, Dictionaries, Hand-
Books and Text-Books of Education.
Henry Barnard. Library of Practical
Pedagogy. 8vo. 10 vols. National
System of Education. 8vo. 10 vols-
400 Treatises on Educational Sub.
jects. —

$6.00. Half Morocco. $7.00. Half Rus-
sia. $8.00. Full Morocco or Full Russia.
$10.00
An educational library in itself, invaluable
to every progressive teacher.
tionary of Education and Instruction;
A Reference Book and Manual on the
Theory and Practice of Teaching, for
the use of Parents, Teachers, and
Others; based upon the Cyclopædia of
Education. 12mo. N. Y. Third Edition
(1882). Cloth. $1.50
H. Beyer's Bibliothek pädagogischer H. Kiddle and A. J. Schem. The Dic-
Classiker. Sammlung der bedeutend-
sten pädagogischen Schriften älterer
und neuerer Zeit. Unter Mitwirkung
mehrerer Schulmänner und Gelehrten
neu hrsg. v. FRDR. MANN. Parts 1-98.
8vo. Langensalza. Each $0.20
Dictionnaire de Pédagogie et d' Instruc-
tion Primaire. Redigé par T. BUISSON.
Parts 1-100. 8vo. Paris. Each
$0.20
Now in progress of publication in parts.
The work will probably comprise six volumes
of about 1000 pages each, and will be the most
valuable of its kind ever published. Contains
a bibliography of French educational works.
Adf. Diesterweg's Ausgewählte Schriften,
hrsg. v. EDU. LANGENBERG. 8vo. 4 vols.
Frankfurt a. M. $5.50
The Year Book of Education for
1878. 8vo. N. Y. Cloth. $2.00
The Year Book of Education for
1879. 8vo. N. Y. Cloth. $2.00
Pädagogische Bibliothek. Sammlung
der wichtigsten pädagogischen Schrif-
ten älterer und neuerer Zeit. Im Ver-
ein mit Gesinnungsgenossen hrsg. v.
K. RICHTER. 8vo. Parts 1–96. Leip-
zig. Each $0.20
Real-Encyclopädie des Erziehungs- und
Unterrichtswesens nach katholischen
Principien. Unter Mitwirkung von
geistlichen und weltlichen Schulmän-
nern für Geistliche, Volksschullehrer,
Eltern und Erzieher bearbeitet von H.
ROLFUS u. A. PFISTER. 8vo. 4 vols.
F. A. W. Diesterweg. Wegweiser zur
Bildung für deutsche Lehrer. In neuer
zeitgemässer Bearbeitung hrsg. von dem
Curatorium der Diesterweg - Stiftung⋅
8vo. 3 vols. Essen. $7.70
Education and General Philology. A
Classified Descriptive Catalogue of
American, British, German, French, K. A. Schmid. Pädagogisches Hand-
and other Foreign Publications on
Education and General Philology; to-
gether with Works of Reference, Teach-
ers' Hand-Books, etc., exclusive of Text-
Books. Edited by E. STEIGER. 8vo. N.
Y. $0.10 net.
Encyclopädie d. gesammten Erziehungs-
Mainz. $10.30
buch für das Haus, die Volks-, Bürger-,
Mittel- und Fortbildungsschule. Auf
Grundlage der "Encyclopädie des ge-
sammten Erziehungs- und Unterrichts-
wesens" in alphabetischer Ordnung be-
arbeitet. 8vo. 2 vols. Gotha. $8.45
"A vast mine of information on everything
QUICK.
und Unterrichtswesens, bearbeitet von connected with education ”.
einer Anzahl Schulmänner und Gelehr- G. E. Schott. Handbuch der Pädagogi-
ten, hrsg. unter Mitwirkung v. Palmer schen Literatur. 8vo. 3 Parts. Leip-
u. WILDERMUTH, v. K. A. SCHMID. 8vo. zig. $2.20
11 vols. Gotha. $55.75
H. Kiddle and A. J. Schem. The Cyclo-
pædia of Education: A Dictionary of
Information for the use of Teachers,
School Officers, Parents, and Others.
8vo. N. Y. Third Edition (1882). In
paper. $4.00. Cloth. $5.00. Sheep.
Steiger's Educational Directory for 1878.
8vo. N. Y. Limp Cloth. $1.50
August Vogel. Systematische Encyclo-
pädie der Pädagogik. Ein Wegweiser
durch das gesammte Gebiet der Erzie-
hung. Mit ausführlicher Angabe der
Literatur. 8vo. Eisenach. $1.50
301
THE DICTIONARY OF EDUCATION AND INSTRUCTION
II. ALLIED SCIENCES.
Anthropology, Ethnology, Ethics, Linguistics, Metaphysics,
Psychology, Physiology, Sociology, Political Economy.
John Abercrombie. The Philosophy of 8. T. Coleridge. Aids to Reflection in the
the Moral Feelings, edited and adapted Foundation of a Manly Character.
to the use of schools by JACOB Abbott. 12mo. London. Cloth. $2.10
12mo. N. Y. Cloth. $0.90

Inquiries concerning the Intellectual
Powers, edited and adapted to the use
of schools by JACOB ABBOTT. 12mo.
N. Y. Cloth. $0.90
Aristotle.
The Rhetoric and Poetics,
12mo. N. Y. Cloth. $1.50
And. Combe. The Principles of Physi
ology applied to the Preservation of
Health, and the Improvement of Phy-
sical and Mental Education. Illustr.
18mo. N. Y. Cloth. $0.75
and Nicomachean Ethics. BOHN's trans-Victor Cousin. Course of the History of
lations. 2 vols. London. Cloth. Each
Modern Philosophy. 2 vols. 12mo.
N. Y. Cloth. $4.00
$2.00
Alexander Bain. The Senses and the In-F. W. Farrar. Chapters on Language.
tellect. 8vo. N. Y. $5.00
Mind and Body. The Theories of
their Relation. 12mo. N. Y. Cloth.
$1.50
The Emotions and the Will. 8vo.
N. Y. Cloth. $5.00
8. P. Bates. Lectures on Mental and
Moral Culture. 12mo. N. Y. Cloth.
$1.50
8vo. London. Cloth. $2.80
Joseph Marie de Gerando. Histoire com-
parée des systèmes de philosophie, con-
sidérés relativement aux principes des
connaissances humaines. 2e partie:
Histoire de la philosophie moderne à
partir de la renaissance des lettres jus-
qu'à la fin du 18. siècle. 4 vols. 8vo.
Paris. $8.60)
Guizot. History of Civilization. 2 vols.
12mo. N. Y. Cloth. $4.00
3 vols. London. Cloth. $3.75
Fr. E. Beneke. The Elements of Psy- F.
chology, on the Principles of Beneke,
Stated and Illustrated in a Simple and
Popular Manner by G. RAUE. Fourth E. Haeckel. Freedom in Science and
ed. by JOHANN GOTTLIEB DRESSLER. Teaching. 12mo. N. Y. Cloth. $1.00
Translated from the German. 8vo. H. Hallam. Introduction to the Litera-
ture of Europe in the Fifteenth, Six-
teenth, and Seventeenth Centuries. 2
vols. 8vo. N. Y. Cloth. $2.50
Oxford. Cloth. $3.00
Commended by Dr. DONALDson.
Julius H. Bernstein. The Five Senses
of Man. 12mo. N. Y. Cloth. $1.75
A View of the State of Europe during
the Middle Ages. 2 vols. 8vo. N. Y.
Cloth. $2.50
H. T. Buckle. History of Civilization in
England. With a complete Index. W. Hamilton. Lectures, embracing the
2 vols. 8vo. N. Y. Cloth. $4.00
Metaphysical and Logical Courses.
S. Butler. Unconscious Memory: A 2 vols. 8vo. N. Y. Cloth. $7.00
Comparison between the Theory of Dr. The best system of psychology, for the
EWALD and "The Philosophy of the scientific study of education, with which I am
Unconditioned" of Dr. EDWARD V. HART-acquainted.
MANN. With translations from these Mark Hopkins. An Outline Study of
Authors, and Preliminary Chapters Man. 12mo. N. Y. Cloth. $1.75
bearing on Life and Habit, Evolution W. S. Jevons. Elementary Lessons in
Old and New, and Mr. CHARLES DAR-
WIN's edition of Dr. KRAUSE's "Eras-
mus Darwin." 8vo. London. Cloth.
$3.00
W. B. Carpenter. Principles of Human
Physiology. By H. POWER. 8vo. Illus-
trated. London. $11.20
The same. New American from 8th
London ed. Illustr. 8vo. Philadel-
phia. Cloth. $5.50 Leather. $6.50
Logic, Deductive and Inductive. 16mo.
London. Cloth. $0.90
The Principles of Science. A Treatise
on Logic and Scientific Method. 8vo.
London. Cloth. $2.75
Krauth-Fleming. Vocabulary of the
Philosophical Sciences. 12mo. N. Y.
Cloth. $3.50
Invaluable to students of philosophy and
educational science.
302
THE DICTIONARY OF EDUCATION AND INSTRUCTION

Albert Lemoine. L'Habitude et In-J. D. Morell. History of Modern Phi-
stinct. Etude de Psychologie Comparée. losophy. 8vo. N. Y. Cloth. $3.50
16mo. Paris. $0.90
G. H. Lewes. Problems of Life and Mind.
5 vols. 8vo. Boston. Cloth. $14.00
Noah Porter. The Human Intellect. 8vo.
N. Y. Cloth. $5.00
J. Bay. Mental Hygiene. 16mo. Boston.
Physiology of Common Life. 12mo. Cloth. $1.50
2 vols. N. Y. Cloth. $3.00
H. Spencer. The Study of Sociology.
Sir John Lubbock. The Origin of Civ- 12mo. N. Y. Cloth. $1.50
ilization, and the Primitive Condition
of Man. 12mo. N. Y. Cloth. $2.00 W. Thomson. Outline of the necessary
Laws of Thought. 12mo. N. Y. Cloth.
J. M'Cosh. Intuitions of the Mind, in-
ductively investigated.
Cloth. $3.00
H. Longueville Mansel.
8vo. N. Y.
$1.50
One of the best introductions to logic.
Metaphysics; R. C. Trench. On the Study of Words.
12mo. N. Y. Cloth. $1.25
or, the Philosophy of Consciousness,
Phenomenal and Real. 12mo. N. Y. F. Wayland. The Elements of Political
Cloth. $1.75
C. Marcel. The Study of Languages
brought back to its true Principles.
12mo. N. Y. Cloth. $1.25
Economy. 12mo. N. Y. Cloth. $1.75
Abridgment for schools and acade-
mies. 16mo. N. Y. Cloth. $0.70
Richard Whately. Elements of Logic.
H. Maudsley. The Physiology and Path- 12mo. N. Y. Cloth. $0.75
ology of the Mind. 8vo. 2 vols. N. Y. W. D. Whitney.
Cloth. $4.00
Body and Mind: an Inquiry into
their Connection and Mutual Influence,
especially in reference to Mental Dis G.
orders. With Appendix. 12mo. N. Y.
Cloth. $1.50
J. 8. Mill. A System of Logic. 8vo.
N. Y. Cloth. $3.00
of Language.
The Life and Growth
12mo. N. Y.
N. Y. Cloth.
$1.50
Wilson.
Knowledge.
R. 8. Wyld. Physics and Philosophy
of the Senses. 12mo. London. Cloth.
($3.00) reduced to $1.50
The Five Gate-cays of
12mo. London. $0.40
G. Moore. Power of the Soul over the E. L. Youmans. The Culture demanded
Body, in relation to Health and Morals. by Modern Life. 12mo. N. Y. Cloth.
12mo. N. Y. Cloth. $1.00
$2.00
III. GENERAL EDUCATION.
Philosophy of Education. Science and Art of Teaching (Peda-
gogy and Didactics). Special Didactics. Home Education and
Self-Education.
1. Philosophy of Education. H. Barnard. English Pedagogy
Alexander Bain. Education as a Science.
12mo. N. Y. Cloth. $1.75
"Signalons au premier rang les essais de
pédagogie psychologique, les articles récemment
publiés par M. Bain."
COMPAYRé.
A text-book in the Science of Teaching, in
the University of Michigan.
F. A. P. Barnard. Early Mental Train-
ing, and HENFREY'S Lecture on the
Educational Claims of Botanical
Science, contained in "The Culture de-
manded by Modern Life". By E. L.
YOUMANS. 12mo. N. Y. Cloth. $2.00
Old
and New: or, Treatises and Thoughts
on Education, the School, and the
Teacher. First Series: Ascham to
Wotton. Second Series: Arnold to
Wolsey. 8vo. Hartford. Cloth. Each $3.50
American Pedagogy: Contributions
to the Principles and Methods of Edu-
cation. 8vo. Hartford. Cloth. $3.50
German Pedagogy: Views of
German Educators and Teachers
on the Principles of Education, and
Methods of Instruction for Schools of
different Grades. 8vo. Hartford. Cloth.
$3.50
303

THE DICTIONARY OF EDUCATION AND INSTRUCTION
H. Barnard. Aphorisms and Sugges-Johann Amos Comenius. Grosse Unter-
tions on Education and Methods of In-
struction- Ancient and Modern. 8vo.
Hartford. Cloth. $3.00
richtslehre. Aus dem Lateinischen über-
setzt und mit Anmerkungen versehen
von JU. BEEGER und FRI. ZOUBEK. 8vo.
Leipzig. $1.30
These books, and others that will be named,
are republished from Barnard's American "As a school reformer he was the forerunner
Journal of Education, a periodical that can of Rousseau, Basedow, and Pestalozzi, sug-
not be too highly commended.
gested a mode of instruction which renders
E. Barth. Ueber den Umgang. Beitrag learning attractive to children by pictures and
zur Schulpädagogik. 8vo. Langen-illustrations, and wrote the first pictorial
salza. $0.55
New Amer. Cyclopædia.
school-book".
G. Baur. Grundzüge der Erziehungs-W. J. G. Curtmann. Lehrbuch der Er-
Lehre. 8vo. Giessen. $2.20
Béesau's Spirit of Education.
Syracuse. Cloth. $1.25
ziehung und des Unterrichts.
2 vols. Leipzig. $2.80
12mo.
F. E. Beneke. Erziehungs- und Unter-
richtslehre. Neu bearbeitet und mit Zu-
sätzen versehen v. J. G. DRESSLER. 8vo.
2 vols. Berlin. $4.40
C. W. Bennett. Education Abroad. 12mo.
Syracuse. $0.25
C. Beyer. Erziehung zur Vernunft. Phi-
losophisch - pädagogische Grundlinien
für Erziehung und Unterricht.
Wien. $1.10
8vo.
J. S. Blackie. On Education. 8vo. Lon-
don. $0.40
Ernst Böhme. Des Sohnes Erziehung.
Pädagogische Briefe an eine Mutter.
12mo. Dresden. $0.85
K. Bormann. Ueber Erziehung und Un-
terricht. 8vo. Leipzig. $1.10
8vo.
B. G. Denzel. Einleitung in die Erzie-
hungs- und Unterrichtslehre für Volks-
schullehrer. 8vo. 3 vols. With 5 plates.
Stuttgart. $4.00
Frdr. Dittes. Grundriss der Erziehungs-
und Unterrichtslehre. 8vo. Leipzig.
$1.10
Methodik der Volksschule. Auf ge-
schichtlicher Grundlage. 8vo. Leipzig.
$1.35
Schule der Pädagogik. Gesammt-
Ausgabe der Psychologie und Logik,
Erziehungs- und Unterrichtslehre, Me-
thodik der Volksschule, Geschichte der
Erziehung und des Unterrichts. 8vo.
Leipzig. $3.70
J. Donaldson. Lectures on Education in
Prussia and England. 8vo. Edin-
burgh. Cloth. $1.40
Mrs. E. B. Duffey. No Sex in Education;
girls. 16mo. Philadelphia. Cloth. $1.00
or an equal chance for both boys and
Pädagogik für Volksschullehrer, auf
Grund der allgemeinen Bestimmungen
vom 15. October 1872, betreffend das
Volksschul-, Präparanden- und Semi-
narwesen, bearbeitet. 8vo. Berlin. $1.50 F. A. Ph. Dupanloup. De l'Education.
W. Braubach.
8vo. 3 vols. Paris. $3.50
Fundamentallehre der
Pädagogik oder Begründung derselben Die Erziehung. Aus dem Franzö-
zu einer strengen Wissenschaft. 8vo._sischen übersetzt. 8vo. 3 vols. Mainz. $4.25
R. L. and M. Edgeworth. Treatise on
Practical Education. 12mo. N. Y.
Cloth. $1.50
Giessen. $0.60
Buell's Elements of Education. 12mo.
Syracuse. $0.15
E. H. Clarke. The Building of a Brain.
16mo. Boston. Cloth. $1.25
Sex in Education. A fair Chance
for Girls. 16mo. Boston. Cloth. $1.25
G. Combe. On Education. 12mo. N. Y.
Cloth. $5.00
Edward Everett. Importance of Prac
tical Education and Useful Knowledge:
being a Selection from his Orations and
other Discourses. 12mo. N.Y. Cloth.$1.50
F. W. Farrar. Essays on a Liberal
Education. 8vo. London. Cloth. $3.00
J. Foster. Essays on the Evils of popular
Ignorance. 12mo. N. Y. Cloth. $1.25
Johann Amos Comenius. Pädagogische
Schriften. Uebersetzt und mit Anmer-
kungen und des Comenius Biographie 0. S. Fowler. Education and Self-Im-
versehen von TH. LION. 16mo. Langen- provement. Illustr. 12mo. N. Y. Čloth.
salza. $1.10
$3.50
hung und Unterricht. Bearbeitet und
mit Erläuterungen versehen von Karl
RICHTER. EVO. 2 vols. Langensalza.
$2.20
Ausgewählte Schriften. Mutter- A. H. Francke. Schriften über Erzie
schule, Pansophie, Pangnosie, etc.
Uebersetzt und mit Erläuterungen ver-
sehen von JU. BEEGER und Ï. LEUT-
BECHER. 8vo. Leipzig. $1.10
304
THE DICTIONARY OF EDUCATION AND INSTRUCTION
Th. Fritz. Esquisse d'un système complet Ph. Gilb. Hamerton. The Intelectual
d'Instruction et d'Education et de leur Life. 8vo.
8vo. Boston. Cloth. $2.00
histoire. 8vo. 3 vols. Strasbourg. $4.50 Part III. (Of Education) is especially
H. Gräfe. Allgemeine Pädagogik. In
drei Büchern. 8vo. 2 vols. Leipzig. Higher Education. 12mo. N. Y.
$4.40
Cloth. $1.00

valuable.
Deutsche Volksschule, oder die Bür-Elizabeth Hamilton. Letters on the Ele-
ger- u. Landschule nach der Gesammt- mentary Principles of Education.
heit ihrer Verhältnisse. Nebst einer 32mo. 2 vols. London. Cloth. $1.60
Geschichte der Volksschule. Ein Hand-Sir William Hamilton. Discussions on
buch für Lehrer und Schulaufseher. Philosophy and Literature, Education
Neu bearbeitet von J. CHR. GOTTLOB and University Reform. 8vo. N. Y.
SCHUMANN. 8vo. 3 vols. Jena. $5.35 Cloth. $3.00
Frdr. Froebel. Gesammelte pädagogische
Schriften. Hrsg. v. WICH. LANGE. 8vo.
2 vols. in 3 divisions. Berlin. $8.80 John Hecker. Scientific Basis of Edu-
Separately:
cation. 8vo. N. Y. Cloth. $2.50
Contains the famous essay on the value of
mathematical studies.
in chronologischer Keihenfolge. Hrsg.
v. O. WILLMANN. 8vo. 2 vols. Leip
zig. $5.50
I. 1. Aus Froebel's Leben und ern-J. F. Herbart. Pädagogische Schriften
stem Streben. Autobiographie und klei-
nere Schriften. With portrait. $2.60
I. 2. Ideen Froebel's über die Men-
schenerziehung und Aufsätze verschie
denen Inhalts. With 3 plates. $2.95
II. Die Pädagogik des Kindergar-
tens. Gedanken F. Froebel's über das
Spiel und die Spielgegenstände des Kin-
des. With 4 pages of music and 16
plates. $3.30
John Gill. Systems of Education: A
Herm. Hoffmeister. Comenius und Pes-
talozzi als Begründer der Volksschule.
8vo. Berlin. $0.55
Examen-Katechismus. III. Päda-
gogik. Ein Repetitionsbuch für Abitu-
rienten, Schulamts-Candidaten und As-
piranten der Mittelschullehrer- und
Rectoratsprüfung. 8vo. Berlin. $0.95

History and Criticism of the Princi- F. D. Huntington. Unconscious Tuition.
ples, Methods, Organization and Moral
Discipline Advocated by Eminent Edu
12mo. Syracuse. $0.15
This essay is an educational classic.
cationists. 8vo. London. Cloth. $1.00 Thos. H. Huxley. Lay Sermons, Ad-
J. B. Graser. Divinität oder das Prin- dresses and Reviews. 12mo. N. Y.
cip der einzig wahren Menschenerzie- Cloth. $1.75
hung zur festen Begründung der Erzie- Imm. Kant. Ueber Pädagogik. Mit Ein-
hungs- und Unterrichtswissenschaft. leitung und Anmerkungen von ОTTO
8vo. 2 vols. Bayreuth. $3.60
WILLMANN. 8vo. Leipzig. $0.40
A. W. Grube. Pädagogische Studien Jos. Kehrein. Handbuch der Erziehung
und Kritiken für Lehrer und Erzieher.
Vermischte Aufsätze aus den Jahren
1845-1860. 8vo. Leipzig. $1.65
Neue Folge. Studien und Kri-
tiken für Pädagogen und Theologen.
8vo. Leipzig. $0.75
Von der sittlichen Bildung der Ju-
gend im ersten Jahrzehend des Lebens.
Pädagogische Skizzen für Eltern, Leh-
rer, etc. 8vo. Leipzig. $0.75
Blicke in's Triebleben der Seele.
Psychologische Studien für angehende
Pädagogen und Psychologen, wie auch
für gebildete Väter und Freunde der
Seelenkunde überhaupt. 8vo. Leipzig.
$1.10
W. N. Hailmann. Lectures on Educa-
tion. 12mo. Milwaukee. $0.25
Erziehungs-Grundsätze für Schule
und Haus. 12mo. Milwaukee. $0.251
und des Unterrichtes zunächst für Se-
minarzöglinge und Elementarlehrer.
Nach dem Tode des Verfassers bearbei-
beitet v. A. KELLER. 8vo. Paderborn.
$1.00
L. Kellner. Kurze Geschichte der Erzie-
hung und des Unterrichtes mit vorwal-
tender Rücksicht auf das Volksschul-
wesen. 8vo. Essen. $0.75
Zur Pädagogik der Schule und des
Hauses. Aphorismen, Schulaufsehern,
Lehrern und Eltern gewidmet.
Essen. $0.70
8vo.
Volksschulkunde. Ein Hand- und
Hülfsbuch für katholische Seminare,
Lehrer und Schulaufseher. 8vo. Essen.
$1.10
Die Pädagogik der Volksschule und
des Hauses in Aphorismen. 8vo. Essen.
$0.55
305
THE DICTIONARY OF EDUCATION AND INSTRUCTION

L. Kellner. Pädagogische Mittheilungen A. Oppler. Three Lectures on Education,
aus den Gebieten der Schule und des Le-
bens. Mit besonderer Rücksicht auf die
Fortbildung der Volksschullehrer in den
Conferenzen. 8vo. 2 parts. Essen. $1.50
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THE DICTIONARY OF EDUCATION AND INSTRUCTION

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J. Jacotot. Enseignement Universel. I. Joh. Heinr. Pestalozzi. Wie Gertrud ihre
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309

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Dav. Stow. Training System in Glasgow|J. E. Frobisher. Voice and Action. A
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310
THE DICTIONARY OF EDUCATION AND INSTRUCTION
Anleitungen zur rationellen physischen
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211
THE DICTIONARY OF EDUCATION AND INSTRUCTION
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J. E. Erdmann. Vorlesungen über aka-
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A Bohlmann. Vollständiger Lehrplan F. W. Farrar. On Some Defects in Pub-
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312
THE DICTIONARY OF EDUCATION AND INSTRUCTION

H. Feix und F. Jung. Durch die Hei-John; Henry Newman. Idea of a Uni-
math. Umschau in Haus, Schule, versity; considered in Nine Discourses,
Garten, etc. Ein Beitrag zur Erweite Occasional Lectures, and Essays. 8vo.
rung des sinnlichen und sittlichen Vor-
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gogik. Schulreden. Hrsg. v. ALB.
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H. Pestalozzi. Buch der Mütter, oder
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schrift. 8vo. Leipzig. $1.05
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richt. Mit besonderer Berücksichtigung C.
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Westminster Review.
staltung. 8vo. Berlin. $1.35
G. Luz. Der Anschauungsunterricht für Ernst Senckel.
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313
THE DICTIONARY OF EDUCATION AND INSTRUCTION

S. H. Taylor. Classical Study.
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Method of Classical Study.
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HOLTZ-BUELOW. Traduit de l'allemand
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Berlin. Raper. $3.70; cloth. $4.40
0. F. Thwing. American Colleges: their
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F. Wiedemann. Der Lehrer der Kleinen.
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ziehung der Kleinen interessiren. 8vo.
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Wm. Whewell. On the Principles of En-
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Fröbel'schen Erziehungsmethode, Spiel-
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Goldammer-Reffelt. Die Einordnung
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Joseph Gruber.
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stalt.
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W. N. Hailmann. Four Lectures on
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Anna Buckland. The Use of Stories in
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Adolf Douai. The Kindergarten. A
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A. S. Fischer. Der Kindergarten. Theo-
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Handbook for the Kindergarten. With
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Fröbel's über das Spiel und die Spiel-Alex. Bruno Hanschmann. Friedrich
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Kindergarten Culture in the Family
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trated. 12mo. Cincinnati. Cloth, net
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Fröbel. Die Entwickelung seiner Er-
ziehungsidee in seinem Leben. 8vo.
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Manual pratique des jardins d'en-
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Mme. la baronne de MARENHOLTZ-BUE-
LOW. With 85 engravings and several
pages of Music. 8vo. Bruxelles. $3.70
Herm. Goldammer. Friedrich Fröbel,
der Begründer der Kindergarten-Er-James Hughes. The Kindergarten; its
ziehung. Sein Leben und Wirken. 8vo. Place and Purpose. An Address,
Berlin. $0.75
12mo. N. Y. Paper. $0.12
Das System des Kindergartens nach
Fröbel. Für Mütter und Kindergärt-
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Eleonore Heerwart. An Abstract of
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Paper. $0.50
314
THE DICTIONARY OF EDUCATION AND INSTRUCTION

Der Kindergarten in Amerika. Entsteh-B. von Marenholtz-Bülow. Die Arbeit
ung, Wesen, Bedeutung und Erzieh- und die neue Erziehung nach Fröbel's
ungsmittel des Fröbel'schen Systems Methode. 8vo. Cassel. $1.65
und seine Anwendung auf hiesige Ver-c. Mayo. Lessons on Objects in a Pesta-
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Kinderfreunde kurz dargestellt. 12mo. Cloth. $1.75
N. Y. Paper. $0.15
Aug.Köhler. Die neue Erziehung. Grund-
züge der pädagogischen Ideen Fr. Frö-
bel's und deren Anwendung in Familie,
Kindergarten und Schule. 12mo. N. Y.
Paper. $0.15
Die Praxis des Kindergartens.
Theoretisch-praktische Anleitung zum
Eliz. Mayo. Practical Remarks on In-
fant Education, for the Use of Schools
and Private Families. 12mo. London.
$0.50
Bertha Meyer.
Von der Wiege bis zur
Schule an der Hand Frdr. Fröbel's.
8vo. Berlin. $0.85
Gebrauche der Fröbel'schen Erzieh-Lina Morgenstern. Das Paradies der
ungs- und Bildungsmittel in Haus, Kin-
dergarten und Schule. 8vo. 3 vols.
Weimar. $5.10
(L. With 18 plates. $1.70; II. With 40
plates. $1.70; III. With 2 plates. $1.70)
Maria Kraus-Boelte. The Kindergarten
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perience as Trainer of Kindergarten
Teachers in this Country. An Address.
N. Y. Net $0.06
and John Kraus. The Kindergar-
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Matilda H. Kriege. The Child, its Na-
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Frabel's Principles of Education. A
free rendering of the German of the
Baroness MARENHOLTZ-BUELOW. 12mo.
N. Y. Cloth, gilt top. $1.00
Friedrich Fræbel. A biographical
Sketch. With portrait. 12mo. N. Y.
Paper $0.25; cloth $0.50
Mary J. Lyschinska. The Kindergarten
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Chief Applications. 12mo. London.
Cloth. $1.80
Kindheit. Eine ausführliche Anleitung
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Haus- und Kindergarten praktisch aus-
8vo.
zuüben. With 150 woodcuts.
Leipzig. $1.65; cloth $2.05
'
B. Morehouse. The Kindergarten:
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practical Explanation of the System of
Illustrated. 12mo.
Paper. $0.25
Joseph Payne. The Science and Art of
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Fræbel and the Kindergarten System
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of Elementary Instruction.
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A Visit to German Schools. With
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Elizabeth P. Peabody. Guide to the
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MARY MANN. Revised Edition. 12mo.
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Education of the Kindergartner.
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The Nursery. A Lecture. 12mo.
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B. von Marenholtz-Bülow. The New
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HORACE MANN, with the assistance of Paper. $0.10
LEOPOLD Noa. 12mo. Camden. Net
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Fræbel. 12mo. N. Y. Paper. $0.10
erziehende Menschenbildung. 8vo. 2
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315
THE DICTIONARY OF EDUCATION AND INSTRUCTION

:
Johannes and Bertha Ronge. Apractical
Guide to the English Kindergarten,
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Teaching, accompanied with a great
variety of Instructive and Amusing
Games, and Industrial and Gymnastic
Exercises. With numerous Songs set
Elizabeth P. Peabody. The Identification
of the Artisan and Artist the proper
object of American Education. Illus-
trated by a Lecture of Cardinal WISE-
MAN, on the Relation of the Arts of De-
sign with the Arts of Production. With
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mary Education. 8vo. Boston. Paper.
$0.20
1
to Music and arranged for the Exer-Walter Smith. Art Education, Scho-
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London. Cloth. $2.10
Boston. Cloth. $5.00
Frdr. Seidel. Katechismus der prakti-C. B. Stetson.
schen Kindergärtnerei. With 35 illustr.
16mo. Leipzig. $0.45
Illustr. 8vo.
Technical Education:
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Results of Technical Education in Eu-
rope, as shown by Official Reports.
16mo. Boston. Cloth. $1.25
Emily Shirreff. The Kindergarten. Prin-
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The Claim of Fræbel's System to be
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N. Y. $0.12
Edward Wiebe. The Paradise of Child-
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field. Paper. $1.50; cloth $2.00
3. Commercial, Military, Naval,
Industrial and Technical Edu-
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cation and Schools.
Henry Barnard. Military and Naval
Schools in France, Prussia, Bavaria,
Italy, Russia, Holland, England,.and
the United States. 8vo. Hartford. Cloth.
$5.50
Technical Training.
Being a suggestive sketch of a National
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don. Cloth. $4.50
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Cloth. $5.50
S. P. Bates. Institute Lectures on Mental
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Science and Art. Systems, Insti
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struction, applied to National Indus-
tries in different Countries. Vol. I.
8vo. Hartford. Cloth. $5.50
Method of Teachers' Institutes, and
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Cloth. 0.75
G. Brzoska. Die Nothwendigkeit pä-
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tät und ihre zweckmässige Einrichtung.
8vo. Leipzig. $1.50
G. Coulie. The Education of Boys for H. Deinhardt. Ueber Lehrerbildung und
Business. Being practical Suggestions Lehrerbildungsanstalten. 8vo. Wien.
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don. Cloth. $1.60
dung. 8vo. Frankfurt a. M. $0.20
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Reisebericht über Industrie-, Strick- und
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tion und Erweiterung, nebst einer kriti
schen Beleuchtung der Strohflechterei.
8vo. Gotha. $0.60
J. Langl. Modern Art Education. 12mo.
Boston. Cloth. $0.75
H. R. Palmer. Music-Class Teaching.
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Pädagogisches Wollen und Sollen.
Dargestellt für Leute, die nicht fertig
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316
THE DICTIONARY OF EDUCATION AND INSTRUCTION
T. Grünewald. Wie erhält sich der Leh-,
rer den idealen Schwung und die Begeis-
terung für seinen Beruf? 8vo. Lüne-
burg. $0.20
F. Leutz. Die Theorie und Praxis des
pädagogischen Unterrichts an den deut-
schen Schullehrer-Seminarien.
Karlsruhe. $0.50
Alexandre Rodenbach. Les Aveugles e,
les Sourds-Muets. Histoire, instruction
éducation, biographie. 2e édition, re-
vue, corrigée et augmentée d'un alpha-
bet des sourds-muets et deux fac-similes.
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8vo. Jos. Ruppert. Ueber Erziehung, Unter-
richt und Versorgung der Blinden. 8vo.
München. $0.30

C. Nohl. Pädagogische Seminarien auf
Universitäten.
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W. F. Phelps. Teacher's Hand-Book for E. Seguin. Idiocy, and its Treatment by
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the Institute and the Class Room.
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E. B. Pusey. Collegiate and Professional
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Wm. Russell. Normal Training. 12mo.
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5. Schools for the Blind, Deaf
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and
the Physiological Method. 8vo. N. Y.
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Traitement moral, Hygiène et Edu-
cation des Idiots et des autres enfants
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loppement, agités de mouvements invo-
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Henr. Söder. Die Methodik des Sprach-
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T. R. Armitage. The Education and 6.
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been, is, and ought to be. 8vo. Lon
don. Cloth. $1.00
H. Barnard. Reformatory and Preven-
tive Agencies. 8vo. Hartford. Cloth.
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Tribute to Gallaudet; with History
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tion. 8vo. Hartford. $0.50
Mary Carpenter. Reformatory Schools,
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T. Guthrie. Ragged Schools. 12mo. N. Y.
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$1.00
M. Hill. Anleitung zum Sprachunterricht
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Wm. H. Latham. First Lessons for
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Education of Women, or Fe-
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don. Cloth. $2.00
"Ce sont les femmes qui font et défont les
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SAINT PIErre.
Mme. Cl. Beaudoux. La Science mater-
nelle; ou éducation morale et intellec-
tuelle des jeunes filles. 12mo. Paris.
$1.40
Anna C. Brackett. The Education of
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Edu. Cauer. Die höhere Mädchenschule
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Edward H. Clarke. Sex in Education;
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A strong statement of the physiological ar-
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terrichtsplan. Mit besonderer Benut
zung der einschlägigen Literatur. 8vo.
Berlin. $1.00
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Women. 12mo. London. Cloth. $1.40
·
Darwin's u. Hufeland's Anleitung zur
physischen und moralischen Erziehung
des weiblichen Geschlechts. Hrsg. v. F.
A. AMMON. 8vo. Leipzig. $0.40
317
THE DICTIONARY OF EDUCATION AND INSTRUCTION

Fr. Fénélon. De l'Education des Filles. Chas. Kingsley. Health and Education.
12mo. Paris. $1.20
12mo. N. Y. Cloth. $1.75
F. J. Günther. Briefe an eine Mutter Gius. Lauri. Manuale di ginnastica edu-
über die wichtigsten Mängel in der jetzi- cativa ad uso delle scuole elementari
gen Erziehung der Tochter höherer maschili e femminili. 4. Macerata.
Stände. 8vo. Bielefeld. $1.50
$0.90
Harriet Martineau. Household Educa-Dio Lewis. New Gymnastics for Men,
tion. 12mo. Boston. Cloth. $1.25 Women and Children. Illustr. 12mo.
Boston. Cloth. $1.50
J. S. Mill.
On Liberty: The Subjection
of Women. 8vo. N. Y. Cloth. $2.50 Archibald Maclaren. A System of Phys-
ical Education, Theoretical and Prac-
Hannah More. Strictures on the Modern
tical. With Illustrations. 12mo. Lon-
System of Female Education; with a
don. $2.25
View of the Principles and Conduct
prevalent among Women of Rank and E.
Fortune. 2 vols. 12mo. London. Cloth.
$4.00
J. Orton. Liberal Education of Women.
12mo. N. Y. Cloth. $1.50
Paz. La Gymnastique obligatoire.
12mo. Paris. $0.40
La Gymnastique raisonnée, moyen
infaillible de prévenir les maladies et
de prolonger l'existence. 8vo. Paris.
$1.75
Mrs. A. H. L. Phelps. Fireside Friend;
or, Female Student: Advice to young Aug. Ravenstein. Volksturnbuch, im
Ladies on Education. 12mo. N. Y. Sinne von Jahn, Eiselen und Spiess.
Cloth. $1.50
8vo. Frankfurt a. M. $2.95
J. Preis. Die beste Ausstattung für junge C. J. Robinson. Hand-Book of the Phys-
Damen. 8vo. Brieg. $1.50
K. v. Raumer. Die Erziehung der Mäd-
chen. 8vo. Gütersloh. $0.90
Miss E. M. Sewell. Principles of Edu-
cation drawn from Nature and Reve-
lation, and applied to Female Educa-
tion in the upper Classes. 12mo. N. Y.
Cloth. $2.00
Emily Shirreff. Intellectual Education
and its Influence on the Character and
Happiness of Women. 12mo. London.
Cloth. $2.40
ical Training in Schools, including full
Directions for a Variety of Calisthenic
Exercises. Adapted to Classes of all
Grades, and to Social and Individual
Practice. 16mo. San Francisco. Paper.
$0.75
Math. Roth. Gymnastic Exercises ac-
cording to Ling's system. 12mo. Lon-
don. $0.50
R. Schenström. Réflexions sur l'Educa-
tion physique et les Mouvements cor-
porels à l'occasion du projet de loi sur
la Gymnastique scolaire obligatoire
dans les écoles de France. 8vo. Paris.
$0.75
Augustin Thery. Conseils aux mères
sur les moyens de diriger et d'instruire
leur filles, à l'usage des mères, des in-D. G. M. Schreber. Aerztliche Zimmer-
stitutrices et des maîtresses de pensions.
12mo. 2 vols. Paris. $2.40
John Todd. The Daughter at School.
12mo. Northampton. Cloth. $1.50
7. Physical Education.
Cath. E. Beecher. Physiology and Cal-
isthenics in Schools and Families.
Over 100 Illustr. 16mo. N. Y. Cloth.
$1.00
H. Klencke. Schul-Diätetik. Praktische
Gesundheitspflege in Schulen und Ge-
sundheitslehre für Knaben und Mäd
chen in der Schulzeit. Ein Buch für
Unterrichtsbehörden, Schulvorstände,
Lehrer und Eltern. 8vo. Leipzig. $0.70′
gymnastik,oder System der ohne Geräth
und Beistand überall ausführbaren heil-
gymnastischen Freiübungen. 8vo. Leip-
zig. Boards. $1.10
R. Th. Trall. The Illustrated Family
Gymnasium. 12mo. N. Y. Cloth. $1.50
J. Madison Watson. Manual of Calis-
thenics: A systematic Drill-Book with-
out_ Apparatus, for Schools, Families,
and Gymnasiums. With music to ac-
company the Exercises. 8vo. Illustr.
N. Y. Cloth. $1.20
Hand- Book of Calisthenics and
Gymnastics: A Complete Drill-Book
for Schools, Families, and Gymna-
siums. With music to accompany the
Exercises. 8vo. Illustr. N. Y. Cloth.
$2.00

318
THE DICTIONARY OF EDUCATION AND INSTRUCTION
"

8. Moral and Religious Educa-B. W. Dwight. Higher Christian Edu-
cation. 12mo. N.Y. Cloth. $1.50
tion; Sunday Schools.
Ed. Eggleston. The Manual. A Prac
tical Guide to the Sunday-School Work.
32mo. Chicago. Paper, $0.30; cloth,
$0.75
Jac. Abbott. The Teacher. Moral In-
fluences employed in the Instruction
and Government of the Young. 12mo.
Illustr. N. Y. Cloth. $1.75
J. Abercrombie. The Philosophy of the
Moral Feelings, with Additions by
JACOB ABBOTT. 12mo. N. Y. Cloth.
$0.90
Culture and Discipline of the Mind,
and other Essays. 12mo. Edinburgh.
Cloth. $1.40
Amos Bronson Alcott. Record of a
School, exemplifying the Principles
and Methods of Moral Culture. 16mo.
Boston. Cloth. $1.50
A. M. Gow. Good Morals and Gentle
Manners for Schools and Families.
12mo. Cincinnati. Cloth. $1.25
D. S. Gregory. Christian Ethics; or,
The True Moral Manhood and Life of
Duty.
Duty. A Text-Book. 12mo. Phila.
Cloth. $1.50
A. W. Grube. Von der sittlichen Bildung
der Jugend im ersten Jahrzehend des
Lebens. 8vo. Leipzig. $0.90
William T. Harris. Moral Education in
the Public Schools. A Paper. 24 pp.
$0.06
F. Beard. The Blackboard in the Sun-
day-School. A Practical Guide for
Superintendents and Teachers. 12mo. J. S. Hart. The Sunday-School Idea;
N. Y. Cloth. $1.50
Cath. E. Beecher. The Religious Train-
ing of Children in the Family, the
School, and the Church. 12mo. Ñ. Y.
Cloth. $1.75
C. Bray. Education of the Feelings, a
Moral System for Secular Schools. 8vo.
London. Cloth. $1.00
N. C. Brooks. School Manual of Devo-
tion. For Daily Exercises consisting
of Selections, Hymns, and a Form of
Prayer. 18mo. N. Y. Cloth. $0.75
consisting of an Exposition of the Prin
ciples which underlie the Sunday-School
Cause, and setting forth its Objects,
Organization, Methods, and Capabili
ties. 12mo. Phila. Cloth. $1.50
Excelsior, or Essays on Politeness, Edu-
cation, and the Means of Attaining
Success in Life. Part I. For Young
Gentlemen, by T. E. HOWARD. PartII.
For Young Ladies, by a Lady (R. U.
V.) 12mo. Baltimore. Cloth. $1.50
Scripture Manual; or, Religious 8vo. Stuttgart. $2.65
Chr. Palmer. Evangelische Pädagogik.
Exercises for the Morning and Even-
ing of each Day in the Month. For E. P. Peabody. Record of Mr. Alcott's
Academies, Schools, and Families.
18mo. Phila. Cloth. $0.75
And. Combe. A Treatise on the Physio-
:
16mo.
School exemplifying the Principles and
Methods of Moral Culture.
Boston. Cloth. $1.50
logical and Moral Management of In- Mrs. Lincoln Phelps. The Student; or
fancy. For the Use of Parents. 18mo.
N. Y. Cloth. $0.75
Fireside Friend; with an Appendix on
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W. F. Crafts. Childhood. The Text N. Y. Cloth. $1.50
Book of the Age. A Book for Parents, Cath. A. Sedgwick. Morals of Manners;
Pastors, and Sunday-School Teachers. or, Hints for our Young Folks. 16mo.
12mo. Illustr. Boston. Cloth. $1.50 N. Y. Cloth. $0.60
Through the Eye to the Heart, or, Fz. Splittgerber. Die moderne wider-
Eye-Teaching in the Sunday School.
Revised Edition, with Illustrations for
the International Lessons for 1877.
12mo. Paper. $0.50; cloth $1.00
christliche Pädagogik, nach ihren
Bahnbrechern Rousseau und Basedow
vom Standpunkte des Evangeliums aus
dargestellt und beurtheilt. 8vo. Leipzig.
$0.75
F. Dittes. Naturlehre des Moralischen
und Kunstlehre der moralischen Er-
ziehung. 8vo. Leipzig. $0.55 J. Stadlin. Die Erziehung im Lichte der
M. G. Dursch. Pädagogik oder Wissen Bergpredigt. 8vo. Aarau. $1.30
schaft der christlichen Erziehung, auf
dem Standpunkte des katholischen
Glaubens dargestellt. 8vo. Tübingen.
$3.00
J. Todd. The Sabbath-School Teacher.
Designed to aid in elevating and per
fecting the Sabbath-School System.
12mo. Northampton. Cloth. $1.50
319
THE DICTIONARY OF EDUCATION AND INSTRUCTION
V. SCHOOL ECONOMY.
School Laws; School Architecture; School Hygiene; School
Furniture and Apparatus; School Supervision, Discipline, and
Management; School Libraries and Museums; Teachers' Manuals.
Jac. Abbott. Gentle Measures_in_the|J. R. Blackiston. Hints on School Man-
Management and Training of the agement. 12mo. London. Cloth. $0.75
Young, or the Principles on which a Buckham. Hand-books for Young Teach-
firm Parental Authority may be estab-
ers. I. First Steps. 16mo. Syracuse.
lished and maintained without violence Cloth. $0.75
or anger, and the Right Development
of the Moral and Mental Capacities be
promoted by methods in harmony with
the Structure and Characteristics of the
Juvenile Mind. A Book for the Par-Lyman Cobb. The Evil Tendencies of
ents of Young Children. 12mo. N. Y.
Cloth. $1.75

The Teacher. Moral Influences em-
ployed in the Instruction and Govern-
ment of the Young. 12mo. N. Y. Cloth.
$1.75
E. Ackermann.
Das Ehrgefühl im
Dienste der Erziehung. 8vo. Eisenach.
$0.20
F. Buisson. Devoirs d'Ecoliers Améri-
cains, récueillis à l'Exposition de Phi-
ladelphie (1876). 16mo. Paris.
Corporal Punishment as a means of
Moral Discipline in Families and
Schools, examined and discussed.
Part I. Objections to the use of the
Rod. Part II. Substitutes for, and
Preventives of the use of the Rod. 8vo.
N. Y. 1847. About $2.00
The whole book deserves study, though
Part II. is particularly valuable.
Cohn. Die Schulhygiene auf der Pa-
riser Weltausstellung, 1878. 8vo. Bres-
lau. $0.55
C. Dalton. A Treatise on Physiology
and Hygiene; for Schools, Families,
and Colleges. 18mo. Illustr. N. Y.
Cloth.$1.50
Charles F. Adams, Jr. The Public LiH.
brary and the Common Schools: Three
Papers on Educational Topics. I. The
Public Library and the Public Schools; J.
II. Fiction in Public Libraries, and
Educational Catalogues; III. The New
Departure in the_Common Schools of
Quincy. 16mo. Boston. Paper. $0.25 E. W. DeGraff. The School-Room Guide,
A. B. Alcott. Record of a School. 16mo.
Boston. Cloth. $1.50
H. Barnard. American Graded Public
Schools, with Plans of School-Houses
and Equipment and Regulations for
Schools in Cities. 8vo. Hartford. Cloth.
$3.50
School Codes: Constitutional Pro-
visions respecting Education, State
School Codes, and City School Regu-
lations. 8vo. Hartford. Cloth. $3.00
School Architecture: Principles,
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for Educational Purposes. 8vo. Hart-
ford. Cloth. $5.00
C. W. Bardeen. Common School Law.
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and Common Law as to the Relations
of the Teacher to the Pupil, the Parent
and the District. With four hundred
references. 16mo. Syracuse. $0.50
A. J. Bicknell. School Houses and
Church Architecture. 4to. N. Y. Cloth.
$3.00
embodying the Instruction given by the
Author at Teachers' Institutes in New
York and other States, especially__in-
tended to assist Public School Teachers
in the Practical Work of the School-
Room. 16mo. Syracuse. Cloth. $1.50
M. et Mme. Delon. Méthode intuitive,
exercises et travaux pour les enfants
selon les méthodes et les procédés de Pes-
talozzi et de Fræbel. With 24 lith. plates.
8vo. Paris. $2.45
Theodore Dwight, Jr. The School-Mas-
ter's Friend, with the Committee-Man's
Guide; containing Suggestions on
Common Education, Modes of Teach-
ing and Governing, arranged for ready
Reference; Plans of School - Houses,
Furniture, Apparatus, Practical Hints
and Anecdotes on Different Systems,
etc. For daily use in Common Schools;
also Directions to Committee-men and
Trustees of Schools, and Friends of
Education, on the Means of improving
Schools this Year. Plates. 12mo. N. Y.
1835. About $1.50
320
THE DICTIONARY OF EDUCATION AND INSTRUCTION

Unterrichts für Fachleute an Lehran-
stalten und Instituten jeder Art, insbe-
sondere an Volksschulen, Fortbildungs-
schulen, höheren Bürgerschulen, Leh-
rerseminarien, Realschulen, Gymna
sien, etc. With 576 woodcuts. 8vo.
Bensheim. $2.75
8. F. Eveleth. School-House Architecture]
Designs for School-Houses, with Per-
spectives, Elevations, Plans, Sections,
Details, and Specifications, all drawn
to working scale, with methods of Heat-
ing and Ventilation. 4to. N. Y. Cloth.
$4.00
F. Falk. Die sanitäts-polizeiliche Ueber-Henry Latham. On the Action of Exam-
wachung höherer und niederer Schulen inations considered as a means of Se
und ihre Aufgaben. 8vo. Leipzig. $0.90 lection. 8vo. London. $3.50
J. Frey. Der rationelle Schultisch als L. W. Leeds. A Treatise on Ventilation.
das hauptsächlichste Verhütungsmittel
der schlechten Brustentwickelung, der
schlechten Haltung und der Rückgrats
verkrümmung. With 8 plates. 8vo.
Zürich. $0.55
A. Freimund. Ueber körperliche Züch-
Ueber körperliche Züch
tigung beim Unterricht. 8vo. Leipzig.
$0.40
John Gill.
Introductory Text-Book to
School Education, Method, and School-D.
Management. 8vo. London. Cloth.
$1.20
Comprising Seven Lectures delivered
before the Franklin Institute, showing
the great want of improved methods of
Ventilation in our buildings, giving the
chemical and physiological process of
respiration, comparing the effects of the
various methods of heating and lighting
upon the ventilation, etc. 8vo. Ilustr.
N. Y. Cloth. $2.50
F. Lincoln. School and Industrial
Hygiene. 16mo. Phila. Paper. $0.50
Should be studied by every teacher.
J. 8. Hart. In the School-Room; or, Horace Mann. Lectures and Annual
Chapters in the Philosophy of Educa Reports on Education. New Edit. 8vo.
tion. 12mo. Phila. Cloth. $1.25 Boston. Cloth. $3.00
A. Holbrook. School Management. 12mo. F. Migerka. Das Unterrichtswesen in
Cincinnati. Cloth. $1.50
den Vereinigten Staaten. 8vo. Wien.
Fr. S. Jewell. School Government: A $0.60
Practical Treatise, presenting a T. Morrison. Manual of School Manage-
Thorough Discussion of its Facts, ment. 12mo. Glasgow. Cloth. $1.60
Principles, and their Applications; John F. Moss. Handbook of the New
with Critiques upon Current Theories
of Punishment, and Schemes of Ad-
ministration. 12mo. N. Y. Cloth. $1.50
J. Johonnot. School Houses. 8vo. N. Y.
Cloth. $3.00
P. W. Joyce. A Hand-Book of School
Management and Methods of Teach-
ing. 12mo. London. $0.80
C. Kehr. Die Praxis der Volksschule.
Ein Wegweiser zur Führung einer ge-
regelten Schuldisciplin und zur Erthei-
lung eines methodischen Schulunter-
richtes für Volksschullehrer und für
Solche, die es werden wollen. 8vo.
Gotha. $1.50
John Kennedy. The School and the
Family: The Ethics of School Rela-
tions. 12mo. N. Y. Cloth. $1.00
Abounds in good sense and in practical
suggestions.
C. Klett. Der Lehrer ohne Stock. Gegen
die körperliche Strafe in der Schule.
8vo. Stuttgart. $0.30
G. Kõpp. Illustrirtes Hand- und Nach-
schlagebuch der vorzüglichsten Lehr-
und Veranschaulichungsmittel aus dem
Gesammtgebiete der Erziehung und des
Code of Regulations, 1880; and other
Official Instructions, Orders, and Cir-
culars, of the Education Department.
12mo. London. $0.80
Félix Narjoux. Règlement pour la con-
struction et l'ameublement des maisons
d'école, arrêté par le Ministre de l'In-
struction Publique, suivi d'un Com-
mentaire et des plans explicatifs. 8vo.
Paris. $0.75
F. M. Norman. The Schoolmaster's
Drill Assistant: A Manual for Ele-
mentary Schools. Boys', Girls', or
Mixed; by aid of which any Teacher
may easily Drill his or her own
Scholars. Being Military Drill simpli-
fied and adapted for School use; with
Class Drill, Dual Desk Drill, and other
useful Exercises, specially prepared for
Schools. Illustr. 12mo. London. Cloth.
$0.80
Charles Northend. The Teacher's Assist
ant, or Hints and Methods in School
Discipline and Instruction; being a
Series of Familiar Letters to one enter-
ing upon the teacher's work. 12mo.
N. Y. Cloth. $1.50
321

THE DICTIONARY OF EDUCATION AND INSTRUCTION
W. H. Payne. Chapters on School Super-
vision. A practical Treatise on Super-
intendence; Arranging Courses of
Study; The Preparation and Use of
.
Embracing simple rules for military
and gymnastic exercises, and hints
upon the general management of the
school-room. 12mo. N. Y. Cloth. $1.00
Blanks, Records, and Reports; Exam- M. Mc.N. Walsh. The Lawyer in the
inations for Promotions, etc. 12mo.
Cincinnati. Cloth. $1.25
Jas. Pillans. Rationale of Discipline in
the High School of Edinburgh. 8vo.
Edinburgh. Cloth. $2.00
School-Room. Comprising the Laws
of All the States on important Educa-
tional Subjects. 12mo. N. Y. Cloth.
$1.00
An admirable book.
L. A. Prévost-Paradol. Du Rôle de la W. H. Wells. The Graded School. A
Famille dans l Education. 8vo. Paris.
$0.90
Ambroise Rendu. Code universitaire ou
lois, statuts et règlements de l'Université
de France jusqu'au 1er janvier 1846.
8vo. Paris. $4.50
A. Riant. Hygiène Scolaire, Influence
de l'Ecole sur la Santé des Enfants.
18mo. Paris. $1.05
Graded Course of Instruction for
Public Schools: with copious practical
Directions to Teachers, and Observa-
tions on Primary Schools, School Dis-
cipline, School Records, etc. 12mo. N.Y.
Cloth. $1.00
J. P. Wickersham. School Economy. A
Treatise on the Preparation, Organi-
zation, Employments, Government, and
Authorities of Schools. 12mo. Phila.
Cloth. $1.50
L'Hygiène et l'Education dans les
Internats, Lycées, Colleges, Pensionats, G.
Maisons d' Education, Ecoles Normales,
Ecoles Speciales, Universités, etc. 8vo.
Paris.
Wilson. A Handbook of Sanitary
Science. 12mo. London. Cloth. $3.40
L. Wintrebert. Consultation hygiénique
à propos de la Construction et de l'A-
meublement d'une Ecole primaire à
Lille. 8vo. Paris. $0.55
E. R. Robson. School Architecture.
Practical Information on the Planning,
Designing, Building, and Furnishing A. Wolpert. Theorie und Praxis der
of School-Houses. 8vo. Illustr. Lon-
Ventilation und Heizung. 8vo. 2 vols.
don. Cloth. $6.30
Braunschweig. $7.35
S. Roggero. Le nostre scuole considerate W. T. Wylie._ Lessons and Prayers for
in relazione coll' igiene e colla morale. the School-Room. 8vo. Philadelphia.
8vo. Viterbo. $0.90
Cloth. $3.00
N. W. T. Root. School Amusements; or T. Ziller. Die Regierung der Kinder. 8vo.
how to make the school interesting. Leipzig. $0.75
VI. HISTORY OF EDUCATION.
Histories; Biographies and Memoirs; Descriptions of Edu-
cational Systems; Catalogues and Reports.
H. André. Nos Maîtres, hier. Etudes sur H. Barnard. German Teachers and
les progrès de l'éducation et sur les déve-
loppements de l'instruction populaire
en France, depuis les temps les plus re-
culés jusqu'à J. J. ROUSSEAU. 16mo.
Paris. $1.25

Nos Maîtres, aujourd'hui. Etudes
sur les progrès de l'éducation, les
méthodes et les établissements de tous
les degrés en France depuis J. J. Rous-
SEAU jusqu'à nos jours. 12mo. 2 vols.
Paris. $1.75
M. Arnold. Higher Schools and Uni-
versities in Germany. 8vo. London.
Cloth. $2.00
Educational Reformers: Memoirs of
Eminent Teachers and Educators with
contributions to the History of Educa-
tion in Germany. 8vo. Hartford. Cloth.
$3.50
French Teachers, Schools, and Ped-
agogy Old and New. 8vo. Hart-
ford. Cloth. $3.50
English Teachers, Educators, and
Promotors of Education. 8vo. Hart-
ford. Cloth. $3.50
American Teachers, Educators and
Benefactors of Education. With Por-
traits. 8vo. 5 vols. Hartford. Per
vol. $3.50
322
THE DICTIONARY OF EDUCATION AND INSTRUCTION
Holland, as regards Schools for the
Working Classes and the Poor. 12mo.
London. Cloth. About $3.00
H. Barnard. Pestalozzi and Swiss Ped-V. Cousin. On the State of Education in
agogy: Memoir, and Educational Prin-
ciples, Methods, and Influence of JOHN
HENRY PESTALOZZI, and Biographical
Sketches of several of his Assistants
and Disciples; together with Selections
from his Publications, and Accounts
of Schools and Teachers in Switzerland.
8vo. Hartford. Cloth. $3.50

Report on the State of Public In-
struction in Prussia. 12mo. London.
About $2.00
These reports led to a reorganization of the
school system of France, and had a marked
A. Beer u. F. Hochegger. Die Fort-influence on the educational policy of this
schritte des Unterrichtswesens in den country.
Culturstaaten Europa's.

I. Das Unterrichtswesen in Frank-
reich und Oesterreich. 8vo. Wien. $4.40
II. 1. Das Unterrichtswesen Russ-
lands und Belgiens. 8vo. Wien. $1.85
II. 2. Das Unterrichtswesen der
Schweiz. 8vo. Wien. $2.60
F. Cramer. Geschichte der Erziehung
und des Unterrichts im Alterthume.
8vo. 2 vols. Elberfeld. $6.60
Geschichte der Erziehung und des
Unterrichts in den Niederlanden wäh-
rend des Mittelalters, mit Zurückfüh-
rung auf die allgemeinen literarischen
und pädagogischen Verhältnisse jener
Zeit. 8vo. Elberfeld. $1.85

E. Biot. Essai sur l'Histoire de l'Instruc-
tion Publique en Chine et de la Corpo-
ration des Lettrés, depuis les anciens Frdr. Dittes.
Geschichte der Erziehung
temps jusqu'à nos jours. 8vo. Paris. und des Unterrichtes. 8vo. Leipzig.
$3.60
J. Boehm.
Geschichte der Pädagogik
mit Charakterbildern hervorragender
Pädagogen und Zeiten. Als Commen-
tar zu seiner "Kurzgefassten Geschichte
der Pädagogik. 8vo. 2 vols. Nürn-
berg. $2.95
Wm. Oland Bourne. History of the Pub-
lic School Society of the City of New
York. 8vo. N. Y. Cloth. $5.00.
Oscar Browning. History of Educational
Theories. 16mo. N. Y. Cloth. $1.00
$1.10
J. Donaldson.
M.
Lectures on the History
of Education in Prussia and England,
and on kindred Topics. 12mo. Edin-
burgh. Cloth. $1.40
A book of great value.
Duschak. Schulgesetzgebung und
Methodik der alten Israeliten, nebst
einem geschichtlichen Anhang und
einer Beilage über höhere israelitische
Lehranstalten. 8vo. Wien. $1.35
Educational Code of the Prussian Nation.
With its Present Form. 18mo. London.
$1.00
and E. R. A Short History of Edu-
cation: being a reprint of the article
"Education" from the ninth edition of W. Everett. On the Cam. Lectures on
the Encyclopædia Brittannica. 16mo. the University of Cambridge in Eng-
Syracuse. Cloth. $0.50
G. Bruckbach. Wegweiser durch die
Geschichte der Pädagogik. 8vo. Leip-
zig. $0.55
Joh. Bruestlein. Luther's Einfluss auf
das Volksschulwesen und den Religions
unterricht. 8vo. Jena. $0.75
Augustin Cochin. Pestalozzi. Sa Vie,
ses Oeuvres, ses Méthodes d'Instruction
et d'Education. 12mo. Paris. $0.50
E. Celesia. Storia della Pedagogia ita-
liana da Pittagora ai di nostri. 8vo.
Milano. $2.00
G. Compayré. Histoire critique des Doc-
trines de l'Education en France depuis
le seizième siècle. 8vo. 2 vols. Paris.
$2.45
"Le livre de M. COMPAYRE est certaine-
ment un des plus complets et des plus interes-
sants qu'on puisse lire."
Revue des Deux Mondes.
land. 12mo. Cambridge. Cloth. $1.00
W. Fraser. The Life and Educational
Principles
Principles of David Stow, Esq.,
Founder of the Training System of
Education. With portrait. 8vo. London.
Cloth. $2.50
Th. Fritz. Esquisse d'un Système com-
plet d'Instruction et d' Education, et de
leur Histoire. 8vo. 3 vols. Strassburg.
$4.50
Fred. J. Furnivall. Education in Early
England. Some Notes used as fore-
words to a Collection of Treatises on
"Manners and Meals in Olden Times",
for the Early English Text Society.
8vo. London. $0.40
M. Giordano. Dell' istruzione pubblica
in Italia nei suoi rapporti economici,
morali e religiosi. Osservazioni é
proposte. Parte I. 16mo. Napoli.
$0.75
323
THE DICTIONARY OF EDUCATION AND INSTRUCTION

8vo. Berlin.
James Grant. The History of the Burgh Sophia Jex-Blake. A Visit to some
Schools of Scotland. 8vo. London. American Schools and Colleges. 8vo.
Cloth. $3.70
London. Cloth. $1.75
W. N. Hailmann. Twelve Lectures on F. E. Keller. Geschichte des preussi-
the History of Pedagogy, delivered be- schen Volksschulwesens.
fore the Cincinnati Teachers' Associa- $2.95
tion. 12mo. Cincinnati. Cloth. $0.75 c. Kehr. Geschichte der Methodik des
Annual Reports of the deutschen Volksschulunterrichts. Unter
Mitwirkung einer Anzahl Schulmänner.
8vo. 3 vols. Gotha. $6.60
W. T. Harris.
Schools of St. Louis. 8vo. St. Louis.
Cloth. Each $1.50
These Reports are among the most valu- L. Kellner. Erziehungsgeschichte. 8vo.
able educational documents published in this
country.
Essen. $2.95
gik von den ältesten Zeiten bis auf die
Frdr. Körner. Geschichte der Pädago-
Gegenwart. Ein Handbuch für Geist-
liche und Lehrer beider Conjessionen.
8vo. Leipzig. $1.50
Ja. Morgan Hart. German Universities;
A Record of Personal Experience and
a Critical Comparison of the System of
Higher Education in Germany with
those of England and the United States.
12mo. N. Y. Cloth. $1.75
W. B. Hazen. The School and the Army
in Germany and France. With a
Diary of Siege Life at Versailles. 12mo.
N. Y. Čloth. $2.50
H. Heppe. Das Schulwesen des Mittel-
alters und dessen Reform im sech-
zehnten Jahrhundert. 8vo. Marburg.
$0.55
C. Hippeau. L'Instruction Publique en
Angleterre. 12mo. Paris. $0.50
—
Herman Kruesi. Pestalozzi: His Life,
Work, and Influence. With portraits
and illustr. 8vo. Cincinnati. Cloth.
$2.25
Ja. Leitch. Practical Educationists and
their System of Teaching. 12mo. Glas-
gow. Cloth. $3.00
(Locke; Pestalozzi; Bell; Lancaster; Wil-
derspin; Stow; Spencer.)
Letters from Hofwyl by a Parent on the
Educational Institutions of FELLEN-
BERG. 12mo. London. Cloth. $2.25
L'Instruction Publique dans les
Etats du Nord, Suède, Norwége,
Contains a series of letters written by M.
Danemark. 12mo. Paris. $1.40 C. Woodbridge, and originally published in
the Annals of Education.
L'Instruction Publique en Alle- Fred. Lorenz. The Life of Alcuin.
magne. 12mo. Paris. $1.25
Translated by JANE MARY SLEE. 12mo.
London. $0.75
L'Instruction Publique aux Etats-
Unis. 12mo. Paris. $1.40
L'Instruction Publique en Italie.
12mo. Paris. $1.25
L'Instruction Publique pendant la
Révolution. 12mo. Paris. $1.40
All the books on education written by this
author are trustworthy and valuable.
John S. Hittell. A Brief History of
Culture. 12mo. N. Y. Cloth. $1.50
V. A. Huber. The English Universities.
Horace Mann. Annual Reports on Edu-
cation from 1839 to 1848. 8vo. Boston.
Cloth. $3.00
Mrs. Horace Mann. The Life of Horace
Mann. By his Wife. 8vo. Boston.
Cloth. $3.00
Baroness Marenholtz - Buelow. Remi-
niscences of Frederic Fræbel. Trans-
lated by Mrs. HORACE MANN. 12mo.
Boston. Cloth. $1.50
An abridged translation edited by H. Mascher. Das deutsche Schulwesen
F. A. NEWMAN. 8vo. 3 vols. London.
Cloth. About $12.00
G. P. R. James.
On the Educational In-
stitutions of Germany. 12mo. London.
Cloth. About $3.00
Education in Japan. A Series of Let-
nach seiner historischen Entwickelung
und den Forderungen der Gegenwart.
Vom Standpunkte der Staats- und Ge-
meindeverwaltung, sowie der National-
ökonomie dargestellt und beleuchtet.
8vo. Eisenach. $1.50
tional Reformer; Dr. Andrew Bell.
12mo. London. Cloth. $1.40
ters addressed by prominent Americans J. M. D. Meiklejohn. An Old Educa-
to Arinori Mori, Japanese Minister.
12mo. N. Y. Cloth. $1.50
Thomas Jefferson and J. C. Cabell. Let-
ters on Early History of the University
of Virginia. 8vo. Richmond. Cloth.
$5.00
Everardo Micheli. Storia della Pedago-
gia italiana dal tempo dei Romani a
tutto il secolo XVIII. 16mo. Torino.
$1.50
324
THE DICTIONARY OF EDUCATION AND INSTRUCTION

Its method, its
12mo. London.
J. Michelet. Nos Fils. 8vo. Paris. $1.25|J. E. T. Rogers.
(Livre III: Rabelais; Montaigne; Come-
nius; The Jesuits; Port Royal; Fénélon; Locke;
Rousseau; Pestalozzi; Fræbel.)
Education in Oxford:
aids and its rewards.
E. Sassi. L'istruzione pubblica in Torino
dal mediævo ai tiempi nostri. Con note
e documenti. 8vo. Torino. $1.35
Frédéric Monnier. L'Instruction Popu
laire en Allemagne, en Suisse et dans
les Pays Scandinaves. 8vo. Paris. H. I. Schmidt. History of Education,
$2.65
J. Morley. Rousseau. 8vo. 2 vols. Lon-
don. Cloth. $9.00
ancient and modern. 18mo. N.Y. Cloth.
$0.75
Struggle for National Education. K. Schmidt. Die Geschichte der Päda-
8vo. London. Cloth. $1.20
J. Bass. Mullinger. The Schools of
Charles the Great and the Restoration
of Education in the Ninth Century.
Century.
8vo. London. Cloth. $3.00
John Henry Newman. Historical Sket-
ches of Universities. 12mo. 3 vols.
London. Cloth. $6.30
Chr. Palmer. Evangelische Pädagogik.
8vo. Stuttgart. $2.70
Jules Paroz. Histoire Universelle de la
Pédagogie. 16mo. Paris. $1.50
For a work in small compass, this is the
best History of Education within my knowl-
edge.
F. W. Pfeifer. Die Volksschule des 19.
Jahrhunderts in Biographien hervor-
ragender Schulmänner. 8vo. Nürnberg. A.
$3.40
gogik dargestellt in weltgeschichtlicher
Entwickelung und im organischen Zu-
sammenhange mit dem Culturleben der
Völker. Vermehrt und verbessert von
WICH.LANGE. 8vo. 4 vols. Cöthen. $11.00
Singly: I. Geschichte der Pädagogik in
der vorchristlichen Zeit. $2.20 — II.
Geschichte der Pädagogik in der christ-
lichen Zeit. $1.85 — ĭI. Geschichte der
III.
Pädagogik von Luther bis Pestalozzi.
$2.95 IV. Geschichte der Pädagogik
von Pestalozzi bis zur Gegenwart. $3.30
-
Geschichte der Erziehung und des
Unterrichts. Für Schul- und Predigt-
amtscandidaten, für Volksschullehrer,
für gebildete Eltern und Erzieher über-
sichtlich dargestellt. Hrsg. von WICH.
LANGE. 8vo. Cöthen. $1.50
Schorn. Geschichte der Pädagogik
in Vorbildern und Bildern. 8vo. Leip-
Philobiblius (Dr. L. P. Brockett). History zig. $1.10
and Progress of Education. 12mo. J. C. G. Schumann. Geschichte der Pä-
N. Y. Cloth. $1.50
dagogik im Umriss. 8vo. Hannover.
R. H. Quick. Essays on Educational $1.05
Reformers. 12mo. Cincinnati. Cloth. J. K. Shuttleworth. Four Periods of
$2.00
(Schools of the Jesuits; Ascham, Mon-
taigne, Ratich, Milton; Comenius; Locke;
Rousseau's Emile; Basedow and the Phi-J.
lanthropin; Pestalozzi; Jacotot; Herbert
Spencer; Thoughts and Suggestions about
Teaching Children; Some Remarks about
Moral and Religious Education; Appendix.
Josiah Quincy. A History of Harvard
University. 8vo. 2 vols. Boston.
Cloth.
8. S. Randall. History of the Common
School System of the State of New
York. 8vo. N. Y. Cloth. $3.00
K. von Raumer. Geschichte der Päda
gogik vom Wiederaufblühen klassischer
Studien bis auf unsere Zeit. 8vo. 4 vols.
Gütersloh. $9.45. Singly: I. Das Mit-
telalter bis zu Montaigne. $2.20
II. Vom Tode Baco's bis zum Tode
Pestalozzi's. $2.40 — III. Unterricht.
$2.65— IV. Die deutschen Universitäten.
$2.20
Copious translations from this work are to
be found in BARNARD's American Journal of
Education.
Public Education, 1832, 1839, 1846,
1862. 8vo. London. Cloth. $4.90
H. Smart. Indiana Schools and the
Men who have worked in them. 12mo.
Cincinnati. Cloth. $1.00
Goldwin Smith. The Reorganization of
the University of Oxford. 16mo. Lon-
don. $0.80
A. P. Stanley. Life and Correspondence
of Thomas Arnold. 8vo. 2 vols. N.Y.
$2.50
Howard Staunton. The Great Schools
of England. An Account of the Foun-
of England.
dations, Endowments, and Discipline
of the chief Seminaries of Learning
in England. 8vo. London. Cloth.
$3.00
Heinrich Steffens. German University
Life. The Story of my Career as a
Student and Professor. With Per-
sonal Remembrances of Goethe, Schul-
ler, Novalis, and Others. Translated
by W. L. GAGE. 12vo. Phila. Cloth.
$1.25
325
THE DICTIONARY OF EDUCATION AND INSTRUCTION

A. Stöckl. Lehrbuch der Geschichte der A. Vogel. Geschichte der Pädagogik als
Pädagogik. 8vo. Mainz. $3.10
Wissenschaft. 8vo. Gütersloh. $2.75
Karl Strack. Geschichte des deutschen G. A. Walton. Report of Examinations
Volksschulwesens. 8vo. Gütersloh. $2.05 in Norfolk County, Mass. 8vo. Boston.
W. B. S. Taylor. History of the Univer- Paper. $0.50
sity of Dublin: Its Origin, Progress,
and Present Condition. Illustr. 8vo.
London. Cloth. $2.50
Adalb. Weber. Die Geschichte der Volks-
schulpädagogik und der Kleinkinder-
erziehung, mit besonderer Berücksich
tigung der Letzteren. Ein Handbuch
für Lehrer und Lehrerinnen, sowie
Eisenach. $1.85
zum Gebrauche in Seminarien. 8vo.
L. Wiese. Das höhere Schulwesen in
Preussen. Historisch-statistische Dar-
And. Ten Brook. American State Uni-
versities; their Origin and Progress.
A History of Congressional University
Land-Grants; a particular Account of
the Rise and Development of the Uni-
versity of Michigan; and Hints toward
the Future of the American University
System. 8vo. Cincinnati. Cloth. $3.50
Augustin Thery. Histoire de l'Educa-
tion en France, depuis le Ve siècle
jusqu'à 1858. 8vo. 2 vols. Paris. $4.20
E. B. Tylor. Primitive Culture. 8vo.
2 vols. N. Y. Cloth. $7.00
stellung, im Auftrage des Ministers der
geistlichen, Unterrichts- und Medicinal-
Angelegenheiten herausgegeben. With
illustr. 8vo. 3 vols. Berlin. $14.60
German Letters on English Educa-
tion. Written during an Educational
Tour in 1876. 8vo. London. Cloth.
$2.00
VII. MISCELLANEOUS EDUCATIONAL LITERATURE.
Educational Periodicals. Proceedings of Educational Asso-
ciations; Mixed Educational Writings; Reviews.
—
$1.00
1. Educational Periodicals. | Canada School Journal. 12|4. Toronto.
(The figures -e. g.418 denote the number
of issues per year, and the size of these.) Centralblatt für die Unterrichts- Verwal-
Allgemeine deutsche Lehrerzeitung. BER-
tung in Preussen. 1218. Berlin. $2.10 net.
THELT. Leipzig. 5214. $2.40 net.
Common School Teacher. CRISLER and
American Journal of Education. BAR-
FIELDS. 1218. Bedford. $1.00
NARD. 418. Hartford. $4.00
Cornelia, Zeitschrift für häusliche Er-
The American Journal of Education-from ziehung. PILZ. 10[8. Leipzig. $1.35 net.
1856 to 1880-consists of 30 volumes (over Le Courrier de l'Enseignement Libre.
26,000 pages), with 800 wood cuts of struc- 1218. Paris. $3.60
tures for educational purposes, and 130 por-Eclectic Teacher. CHASE and VANCE. 12|8.
traits of eminent educators and teachers.
Cloth. $135; half goat, $164. Single vols.,
cloth. $5.00; half goat, $5.50
A complete set of this Journal is invalu-
able. It is a mine of information on educational
Lexington. $1.00
L'Ecole Laïque. Revue hebdomadaire de
l'Instruction populaire et laïque. ST.
MARTIN. 5218. Paris. $2.40
L'Ecole Nouvelle. Revue de l'Education
intégrale, scientifique, industrielle, ar-
tistique et de la réforme pédagogique.
FRANCOLIN. 1218. Paris. $2.10
Education. BICKNELL. 618. Boston. $4.00
Journal des Ecoles pri-
maires. 5218. Paris. $3.00
Educational Journal of Virginia. Fox.
1218. Richmond. $1.00
topics of every sort: historical, biographical,
practical, statistical. American subjects are co-
piously treated. The various works published
by Mr. BARNARD are made up of selections from
his Journal. Unfortunately, the same matter
is made to do service under different titles; so
that for educational libraries, the more econo-
mical plan is to buy a complete set of the L'Education.
Journal rather than the republications under
special titles.
American Journal of Education. MER-
WIN. 1214. St. Louis. $1.00
Bulletin Officiel de l'Instruction Primaire
du Département de la Seine. 1218. Pa-
ris. $2,00
Canada Educational Monthly. ADAM.
1218. Toronto. $1.50

The Educational News. A Weekly Re-
cord and Review. 5214. Edinburgh.
$2.00 net.
Educational Times, and Journal of the
College of Preceptors. 1214. London.
$2.00 net.
326
THE DICTIONARY OF EDUCATION AND INSTRUCTION

Educationist. Hoss. 1218. Topeka. $1.00 Pädagogium. Monatschrift für Erzie-
Die Erziehung der Gegenwart. SCHRÖDER.
1214. Dresden. $1.20 net.
Erziehungs-Blätter. KLEMM. 1214. Mil-
waukee. $2.00
First Teaching. For Primary and Kin-
hung und Unterricht. DITTES. 1218.
Leipzig. $3.60 net.
Parents' and Teachers' Monthly. CLINE,
WILLIAMSON, HARDIN. 1218. Lexing
ton. $1.00
dergarten Teachers. 1214. N.Y. $1.00 Pennsylvania School Journal. HIGBEE.
Indiana School Journal. BELL. 1218. 1218. Lancaster. $1.50
Indianapolis. $1.50
Der praktische Schulmann.
L'Instruction Publique. Revue des let- 818. Leipzig. $3.00 net.
RICHTER.
tres, sciences et arts. BLOT. 5214. Paris. Primary Teacher. SHELDON. 1218. Bos-
$7.20
ton. $1.00
Iowa Normal Monthly. 1218. SHOUP The Princeton Review. 618. N. Y. $2.00
This Review is noticeable for the high qual-
Dubuque. $1,00
La Jeune Mère, ou l'Education du pre-ity of its papers on educational subjects.
mier age. Journal illustré de l'enfance. The Public School.
BROCHARD. 1218. Paris. $2.40
Journal des Instituteurs et des Biblio- Repertorium der Pädagogik.
12/8. Ulm. $1.75 net.
thèques Publiques Scolaires. 5218. Pa-
ris. $2.40
Journal Général de l'Instruction Pub-
lique. 1218. Paris. $6.00
Journal of Education, New England and
National. BICKNELL. 5212. Boston. $2.50
Journal of Women's Educational Union
SHIRREFF and BARTLEY. 1218. London.
$2.00 net.
Kindergarten, Bewahranstalt und Ele-
mentarklasse. KÖHLER, SCHMIDT, SEI-
DEL. 1218. Weimar. $1.20 net.
Boston. $1.00
BICKNELL. 1214.
HEINDL.
Revue de l'Enseignement Secondaire
Special et de l'Enseignement Professio-
nel. 1218. Paris. $2.60
Revue des Deux Mondes. 2418. Paris.
$13.75 net.
Questions of national education are dis-
cussed with great clearness and ability in the
pages of this Review.
Revue Internationale de l'Enseignement.
DREYFUS-BRISAC. 1218. Paris. $7.20
Revue Pédagogique. HANRIOT. 12/12
Paris. $2.70
New Rheinische Blätter für Erziehung und
Unterricht. (Founded in 1827 by A.
DIESTERWEG.) LANGE. 618. Frank-
furt. $2.40 net.
Kindergarten Messenger and the
Education. HAILMANN. 1214. Syra-
cuse. $1.00
Rundschau über das Unterrichtswesen
aller Länder. KONZE U. KLOSE. 24|8.
Berlin. $3.60 net.
Louisiana Journal of Education. LUSHER
and ROGERS. 1218. New Orleans. $1.00
Magazin für Lehr- und Lernmittel.
SCHRÖDER. 2414. Leipzig. $1.20 net.
Manuel Général de l'Instruction Pri- The School Board Chronicle. An Educa-
maire, journal des Instituteurs et des
Institutrices. 5218. Paris. $2.40
Maryland School Journal. NEWELL. and
FDWARDS. 128. Baltimore. $1.25
Michigan School Moderator. 5211. Grand
Rapids. $2.00
New York School Journal. KELLOGG.
5212. N. Y. $1.50
Normal Teacher. SHERRILL. 1218. Dan-
ville. $1.00
Ohio Educational Monthly and National
Teacher. HENKLE. 1218. Salem. $1.50
Organ der Taubstummen- und Blinden-
Anstalten. MATTHIAS. 1214. Fried-
berg. $1.35 net.
Pacific School and Home Journal. Ly-
SER. 1218. San Francisco. $2.00
Pädagogische Blätter für Lehrerbildung.
KEHR. 68. Gotha. $3.60 net.
Pädagogisches Archiv, KRUMME. 1018.
Stettin. $4.80 net.
tional Record and Review. 5214.
London. $4.75 net.
School Bulletin and New York State
Educational Journal. BARDEEN. 1214.
Syracuse. $1.00
Texas Journal of Education. HOLLINGS-
WORTH. 1214. Austin. $2.00
Wisconsin Journal of Education. WHIT-
FORD. 1218. Madison. $1.00
Zeitschrift für das Gymnasialwesen.
HIRSCHFELDER. 1218. Berlin. $6.00 net.
Zeitschrift für die Oesterreichischen Gym-
TOMASCHEK. 1218. Wien.
nasien.
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Zeitschrift für weibliche Bildung. Central-
organ für deutsches Mädchenschul-
Desen. SCHORNSTEIN. 1218. Leipzig.
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2. Proceedings of Educational A. du Mesnil. Congrès international de
Associations; Mixed Educa-
tional Writings; Reviews.
Bruxelles. Lettre à M. Jules Ferry,
ministre de l'instruction publique et des
beaux-arts. 8vo. Paris. $0.75
liche Pädagogik. 1880. ZILLER. 8vo.
Langensalza. $1.85
American Institute of Instruction. Lect-Jahrbuch des Vereins für wissenschaft-
ures. Boston. 1830-1880. Each about
$1.00. Price variable according to scarc-
ity of volumes.
C. W. Bardeen. Common School Law
for Common School Teachers. To
which are added the Questions given at
the New York Examinations for State
Certificates. 16mo. Syracuse. $0.50
H. Barnard. Compulsory School Attend-
ance. 12mo. Hartford. Cloth. $1.00
G. Jost. Les_Congrès des Instituteurs
allemands. Paris. 12mo. $0.75
Horace Mann. Annual Reports on Edu-
cation from 1839-1848. 8vo. Boston.
Cloth. $3.00
Lectures and Annual Reports on
Education. 8vo. Boston. Cloth. $3.00
A. D. Mayo and T. Vickers. The Bible
in the Public Schools. 12mo. N. Y.
Paper. $0.25
Official Reports as Superintendent
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Schools, R. I., 1 vol.; as National Com- National Educational Association. Ad-
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1858-1880. Each $2.00
volume, 8vo. Cloth $4.50
The Bible in the Public Schools. Argu- pedagogy are to be found in these volumes.
Some of the best specimens of American
ments in the case of John D. Minor et
al. v. The Board of Education of the Pädagogisches Jahrbuch.
City of Cincinnati et al., in the Su-
Wien. $1.10
1880. 8vo.
perior Court of Cincinnati; with the Pädagogischer Jahresbericht von 1879.
"Opinion and Decision of the Court. DITTES. 8vo. Leipzig. $3.70
8vo. Cincinnati. $2.00
Plato. The Republic. 16mo. London.
Cloth. $1.25
Arguments of Messrs. Ramsey.
Sage, and King in the above case in
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Cincinnati. $0.50
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and Matthews in the above case against
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Opinion and Decision of the Supreme
Court of Ohio in the above case.
Cincinnati. $0.25
8vo.
Goold Brown. Grammar of English
Grammars. 8vo. N. Y. Sheep. $6.25
Chas. L. Brace. The Dangerous Classes
of New York, and Twenty Years' Work
among them. 12mo. N. Y. Cloth. $2.50
Classical Studies. By a Scotch Graduate.
12mo. N. Y. $0.50
Conférences pédagogiques de Paris en
1880. Rapports et procès-verbaux.
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Victor Cousin. Lectures on the True, the
Beautiful, and the Good. Translated
by WIGHT. 8vo. N. Y. Cloth. $2.00
Chas. Dickens. Schools and School-
masters. Edited by T. J. CHAPMAN.
12mo. N. Y. Cloth. $1.25
R. Dulon. Aus Amerika über Schule.
deutsche Schule, amerikanische Schule.
und deutsch-amerikanische Schule. 8vo.
Leipzig. $1.65
C'est le plus beau traité d'éducation qu'on
ROUSSEAU.
jamais fait.'
The Regents' Questions. 1866 to 1876.
Being the Questions for the Preliminary
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University of the State of New York,
prepared by the Regents of the Uni
versity. Compiled by D. J. PRATT. 18m0.
Syracuse. $1.00
Regents' Reports on the Academies and
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8vo. Albany. Price variable accord-
ing to scarcity of volumes.
S. Smiles. Thrift. 12mo. N.Y. Cloth.$1.25
Should be on every teacher's desk for oc-
casional reading.
Meta Wellmer. Deutsche Erzieherinnen
und deren Wirkungskreis. 8vo. Leip-
zig. $0.75
L. Wiese. Verordnungen und Gesetze für
die höheren Schulen in Preussen. 8vo.
2 vols. Berlin. $3.70. —Singly: I. Die
Schule. $1.85. II. Das Lehramt und
der Lehrer. $1.85
Deutsche Briefe über englische Er-
ziehung, nebst einem Anhang über bel
gische Schulen. 8vo. Berlin. $1.00
328
THE DICTIONARY OF EDUCATION AND INSTRUCTION
Books for Teachers' Libraries.
Selections recommended by
Prof. W. H. PAYNE,
for Collections of about 100 (A), 50 (B),
25 (C), 10 (D), or 5 (E) volumes.
Jac. Abbott. The Teacher. Moral Influences employed in the In-
struction and Government of the Young. 12mo. Illustr. N. Y.
Cloth. $1.75
F. Adams. The Free School System of the United States. 8vo.
London. Cloth. $3.60
A B C
A B
Amos Bronson Alcott. Record of a School, exemplifying the Prin-
ciples and Methods of Moral Culture. 16mo. Boston. Cloth. $1.50 A B
Matthew Arnold. Higher Schools and Universities in Germany.
With a new Preface comparing the Policy of the Prussian
Government towards Roman Catholic Education and Roman
Catholicism with that of the English Government in Ireland.
8vo. London. Cloth. $2.40
A
A
Roger Asham. The Scholemaster. With copious notes and a glos-
sary by J. E. B. MAYOR. 12mo. London. Cloth. $2.40
Alexander Bain. Education as a Science. 12mo. N. Y. Cloth. $1.75 A B C
C. W. Bardeen. Common School Law. A Digest of the Provisions
of Statute and Common Law as to the Relations of the Teacher to
the Pupil, the Parent and the District. With 400 references. 16mo.
Syracuse. $0.50
Henry Barnard. American Journal of Education. 1856–1881.
31 vols. Cloth.
Cath. E. Beecher. Physiology and Calisthenics in Schools and
Families. Over 100 Illustr. 16mo. N. Y. Cloth. $1.00
Chas. A. Bristed. Five Years in an English University. 12mo.
N. Y. Cloth. $2.25
Oscar Browning and E. R. A Short History of Education: being a
reprint of the article "Education" from the ninth edition of the
Encyclopædia Britannica. 16mo. Syracuse. Cloth. $0.50
Oscar Browning. History of Educational Theories. 16mo. N. Y.
Cloth. $1.00
Norman A. Calkins. Primary Object Lessons, for Training the
Senses and Developing the Faculties of Children. A Manual of
Elementary Instruction for Parents and Teachers.
and enlarged. 12mo. N. Y. Cloth. $1.25
Re-written
A B C
A
A B C
A B
A B
C D E
A B C D
Manual of Object-Teaching. With illustrative lessons in
Methods; and the Science of Education. 12mo. N. Y. 1882. $1.25 A B C D
Edward H. Clarke. Sex in Education; or, A Fair Chance for the
Girls. 16mo. Boston. Cloth. $1.25
A B
The Building of a Brain. 16mo. Boston. Cloth. $1.25 A
C. Compayré. Histoire critique des Doctrines de l'Education en
France depuis le seizième siècle. 8vo. 2 vols. Paris. Paper. $2.45 ▲ B
V. Cousin. Report on the State of Public Instruction in Prussia.
12mo. London. About $2.00
Emily Davies. The Higher Education of Women. 12mo. London.
Cloth. $1.40
A
A B
Dictionnaire de Pédagogie et d'Instruction Primaire. Redigé par
T. BUISSON. Parts I-100. 8vo. Paris. Each $0.20
A
J. Donaldson. Lectures on the History of Education in Prussia and
England, and on kindred Topics. 8vo. Edinburgh. Cloth. $1.40 A B C
Fel. A. P. Dupanloup. The Child. Translated by KATE ANDERSON.
12mo. Boston. Cloth. $1.50
A
329
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R. L. and M. Edgeworth. Treatise on Practical Education. 12mo.
N. Y. Cloth. $1.50
W. Everett. On the Cam. Lectures on the University of Cambridge
in England. 12mo. Cambridge, U. S. Cloth. $1.00
F. W. Farrar. Essays on a Liberal Education. 8vo. London.
Cloth. $3.00
A B
A
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J. G. Fitch. Lectures on Teaching delivered in the University of Cam-
bridge during the Lent Term, 1880. 8vo. Cambridge. Cloth. $2.25 A B C D E
James Grant. The History of the Burgh Schools of Scotland. 8vo.
London. Cloth. $3.70
A
W. N. Hailmann. Kindergarten Culture in the Family and Kinder-
garten: A complete Sketch of Fræbel's System of Early Educa-
tion, adapted to American Institutions. For the use of Mothers
and Teachers. Illustrated. 12mo. Cincinnati. Cloth. $0.75 net. A B
Ja. Morgan Hart. German Universities; A Record of Personal
Experience and a Critical Comparison of the System of Higher
Education in Germany with those of England and the United
States. 12mo. N. Y. Cloth. $1.75

A B C
Thomas Hill. The True Order of Studies. 12mo. N. Y. Cloth. $1.25 A B C
J. Hughes. Mistakes in Teaching. 12mo. Syracuse. Paper. $0.50 A B C D
Thomas Hughes. Tom Brown's School Days at Rugby. 12mo.
Boston. Cloth. $1.25
A B C
F. D. Huntington. Unconscious Tuition. 12mo. Syracuse. $0.15 A B
James Johonnot. Principles and Practice of Teaching. 12mo. N.Y.
Cloth. $1.50
John Kennedy. The School and the Family: The Ethics of School
Relations. 12mo. N. Y. Cloth. $1.00
A B C
A B C D E
H. Kiddle and A. J. Schem. The Cyclopædia of Education: A Dic-
tionary of Information for the use of Teachers, School Officers,
Parents, and Others. 8vo. N. Y. Paper (4 parts). $4.00; Cloth.
$5.00; Sheep. $6.00; Half Morocco. $7.00; Full Morocco. $10.00 A B
The Dictionary of Education and Instruction; A Reference
Book and Manual on the Theory and Practice of Teaching, for
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pædia of Education. 12mo. N. Y. Cloth. $1.50
Henry Latham. On the Action of Examination considered as a
Means of Selection. London. 8vo. $3.50
A B
C D E
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Simon S. Laurie. On Primary Instruction in relation to Education.
With an Appendix on "Secondary Instruction". 8vo. London.
Cloth. $1.80
Ja. Leitch. Practical Educationists and their System of Teaching.
12mo. Glasgow. Cloth. $3.00
A
D. F. Lincoln. School and Industrial Hygiene. 16mo. Phila. $0.50 A B C D E
John Locke. Some Thoughts concerning Education. With Intro-
duction and Notes by Rev. R. H. QUICK. 12mo. Cambridge.
Cloth. $1.40
Archibald Maclaren. A System of Physical Education, Theoretical
and Practical. With Illustrations. 12mo. London. $3.00
Mrs. Horace Mann. The Life of Horace Mann. By his Wife. 8vo.
Boston. Cloth. $3.00
A B C
A B
A
C. Marcel. The Study of Languages brought back to its true
Principles. 12mo. Ň. Y. Cloth. $1.25
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J. M. D. Meiklejohn. An Old Educational Reformer;- Dr. Andrew
Bell. 12mo. London. Cloth. $1.40
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D. P. Page. Theory and Practice of Teaching. 12mo. N. Y. Cloth.
$1.50
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Jules Paroz. Histoire Universelle de la Pédagogie. 16mo. Paris. $1.50 A B
330
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other Lectures and Essays. Edited by JOSEPH F. PAYNE. With an
Introduction by Rev. R. H. QUICK. 8vo. London. Cloth. $3.60 A B C
Elizabeth P. Peabody. Guide to the Kindergarten and Intermediate
Class. And Moral Culture of Infancy. By MARY MANN. Revised
Edition. 12mo. N. Y. Cloth. $1.25
Jas. Pillans. Rationale of Discipline in the High School of Edin-
burgh. 8vo. Edinburgh. Cloth. $2.00
Noah Porter. The American Colleges and the American Public.
With afterthoughts on college and school education. 12mo. N. Y.
Cloth. $1.50
A B
A
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A. Potter and G. B. Emerson. The School and the Schoolmaster:
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R. H. Quick. Essays on Educational Reformers. 12mo. Cincin-
nati. Cloth. $2.00
E. R. Robson. School Architecture. Practical Information on the
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8vo. Illustr. London. Cloth. $7.20
A B C D
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Carl Rosenkranz. The Science of Education; or, Pedagogics as a
System. Translated from the German by ANNA Č. BRACKETT. 8vo.
St. Louis. Paper. $1.00; Cloth. $1.50
J.J. Rousseau. Emile, ou de l'Education. 16mo. Paris. Paper. $1.05 A B
K. Schmidt. Die Geschichte der Pädagogik dargestellt in weltge-
schichtlicher Entwickelung und im organischen Zusammenhange
mit dem Culturleben der Völker. Vermehrt und verbessert von
WICH. LANGE. 8vo. 4 vols. Cöthen. Paper. $11.00
Emily Shirreff. Intellectual Education and its Influence on the
Character and Happiness of Women. 12mo. London. Cloth. $2.40 A B
Sir J. K Shuttleworth. Public Education as affected by the min-
utes of the Committee of Privy Council from 1846 to 1852. 8vo.
London. Cloth. $3.60
Four Periods of Public Education, 1832, 1839, 1846, 1862. 8vo.
London. Cloth. $4.90
Herbert Spencer. Education: Intellectual, Moral, and Physical.
12mo. N. Y. Cloth. $1.25
A
A B
A
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Howard Staunton. The Great Schools of England. An Account
of the Foundations, Endowments, and Discipline of the chief
Seminaries of Learning in England. 8vo. London. Cloth. $3.00 A
Heinrich Steffens. German University Life. The Story of my
Career as a Student and Professor. With Personal Remembran-
ces of Goethe, Schiller, Novalis, and Others. Translated by W.L.
GAGE. 12mo. Phila. Cloth. $1.25
A B
A B
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C. B. Stetson. Technical Education: What it is and what American
Public Schools should teach. An Essay based on an Examination
of the Methods and Results of Technical Education in Europe, as
shown by Official Reports. 16mo. Boston. Cloth. $1.25
John Swett. Methods of Teaching. A Hand-Book of Principles,
Directions, and Working Models for Common School Teachers.
12mo. N. Y. Cloth. $1.50
August Vogel. Systematische Encyclopädie der Pädagogik. Ein
Wegweiser durch das gesammte Gebiet der Erziehung. Mit aus-
führlicher Angabe der Literatur. 8vo. Eisenach. Paper. $1.50 A
J. P. Wickersham. Methods of Instruction, or, that part of the
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Branches of Knowledge, and the Method of Teaching them. 12mo.
Phila. Cloth. $1.75
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Samples of Type used in the AHN-HENN Latin Course.
467. All words which may be grouped into one
family so as to associate their meaning are said to
have a common ground-form or Root. Thus:
ăcăō, -ěrě, to whet
ăcutus, -ǎ, -um, sharp
ǎcūměn, -Inis, acuteness
ăciēs, –ēī, an edge
may all be retraced to the ROOT AC.
ăcăs, -ūs, a needle
ăcĕr, -ris, -rě, sharp
ăcerbus, -ă, -ŭm, sharp
ăcīdus, -ă, -ŭm, sour
468. The Stem must be distinguished from the Root. The
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927. Horace uses the Hexameter in his Epistles and Satires.
The Odes include nineteen varieties of strophe, viz.:
1. Alcaic Strophe, consisting of:
Two Greater Alcaics(2X2X22
10: 1X 1X LUULUTUS
One Trochaic Dimeter with anacrusis ʊ : Lulu | Lulo
One Lesser Alcaic
LUULUULULO
Justum ét tenácem próposití virúm
Non cívium árdor práva jubéntiúm
Non vúltus ínstantís tyránni
Ménte quatít solidá neque Aúster.
From Vocabularies to Third Latin Book.
ā, ǎb (with abl.), from, by
abditus, -a, -um, hid
abdōměn, –Inis (n.), the abdomen
abducō, abduxi, abductum, ab-
dūcērě, to carry away; to take
ǎberrō, -āvi, -ātum, -ārē, to go
ǎbhinc, ago
the abdomen, abdomen
to abet, adjuvare
ability, facultas
[astray
to be able, posse, quire; not to be
able, nequire
an abode, domicilium
From Index to Latin Grammar.
925. 10
925. I
advenīre, with in & acc., 690
adventu, abl of time, 673
Adverbial accusative, 586; phra-
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Adversative conjunctions, 451,853
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