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H A N D B O O K
OF
C I N C H O N A C U L T U R E,
A

HANDEOOK
OF

CINCHONA CULTURE,
BY
KAREL WESSEL VAN GORKOM,
Formerly Chief-Inspector of Cultures in the Netherlands East Indies.
TRANSLATED BY
BENJAMIN DAYDoN J Ackson,
Secret a ry of the Z in n e a n Society of Z on do n.
AMSTERDAM. — J. H. DE BUSSY.
-*.*.*.*.*.*.*.*, *, *, *-
LONDON. — TRÚBNER & Co.,
57 and 59, LUDGATE HILL.
188S,
Science Library
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2.95.
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TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE.
The following pages are a translation of the portion relating
to Cinchona, published last year in the author's “De Oost-
Indische Cultures in betrekking tot handel en nijverheid”. My
endeavour has been to give as close a rendering of the original
as lay in my power, and I have chosen rather to run the risk
of occasional awkwardness, than to express the author's meaning
by periphrasis. This treatise being intended for practical men,
I have tried to present the following record from a practical
man, with the fewest possible changes; I have even adhered to
slight peculiarities of arrangement, or division of sentences, with
that end in view. I trust, therefore, that those readers into whose
hands this volume will come, will kindly excuse any seeming
inelegancies of style.
There is no need for me to bespeak attention on behalf
of Heer VAN GORKOM; for he is too widely known as the
energetic director of Cinchona culture in Java, and the author
of the success of the government plantations in that island,
to require any advertisement at my hands In the narrative,
which will be found in the proper place, it will be seen how
much of the present splendid position of the Javan enterprise,
is due to the indefatigable perseverance of the author: — it
was he who found the culture in a depressed and languishing
condition, from which he was able to raise it, and place it in
its recognised high position.
The early history of Javan Cinchona culture has been
lightly dwelt upon in Chapter IV; a full account of this phase
of the undertaking will be found in Dr. DE VRIJ's “On the
cultivation of Quinine in Java and British India”. London,
Eyre & Spottiswoode, 1865. 89. pp. 27.
A few notes will be found scattered throughout the
volume, which have been added by me, and are marked as
such by my initials. They are usually reductions of foreign
measures and weights to English standards, but occasionally they
supply information of later date than the text.
Whilst this translation has been passing through the press,
the seed of a new variety of Cºnchona Calisaya, has been
introduced into the London market. This, termed “Calisaya
verde” is stated to be very vigorous in growth, thus resem-
bling C. succèruðra, and its yield of bark is very much larger •er
than that of C. Zedgeriana, although its percentage is only
two-thirds of the best Ledgeriana. Its greater robustness and
quickness of growth, are stated to give it a preference when
planting, even over the choice Javan variety.
The Index which ends the volume has been compiled
with a view to practical use; if I had indexed every mention
of Cinchona the Index would have assumed an inconvenient
length. Each important paragraph, will, I trust, be found set
out in such a manner that the searcher for information may
readily find what he requires.
B, DAY DON JACKSON,
3o Stock well Road,
LoNDoN, S. W.
November 1882.
C O N T E N T S.
TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE.
CHAPTER I.
Introductory remarks.
CHAPTER II.
Early history of Cinchona .
CHAPTER III.
Botanical descriptions. Original occurrence .
CHAPTER IV.
The Introduction of Cinchona into Java
CHAPTER V.
Continued development of Cinchona culture in Java
CHAPTER VI.
Cinchona cultivation continued; from the death of Junghuhn
to the present time.
CHAPTER VII.
Species and varieties of Cinchona cultivated in Java .
CHAPTER VIII.
Chemical Investigations .
CHAPTER IX.
The cultivation of Cinchona. Propagation by seed.
CHAPTER X.
Gathering and keeping the seed .
CHAPTER XI.
Artificial propagation .
CHAPTER XII.
Erection of propagating houses and laying out beds .
1—2
3—30
31–38
38 - 62
63–69
69–89
89—106
106–129
129–185
135–138
139–150
150–158
Clearing the ground. Commencement of nurseries .
Diseases and enemies.
Sorting and packing .
CHAPTER XIII.
CHAPTER XIV.
The space between the plants.
CHAPTER XV.
Maintenance of Cinchona plantations.
CHAPTER XVI.
CHAPTER XVII.
Harvesting the Cinchona bark.
CHAPTER XVIII.
Stripping and drying the bark.
CHAPTER XIX.
CHAPTER XX.
Administration of Cinchona.
CHAPTER XXI.
Artificial preparation of Q
Expense of the government Cinchona undertaking in Java.
Malay Archipelago .
The preparation of Quinin
The Quinine alkaloids
INDEX .
uinine .
CHAPTER XXII.
Production and Commerce .
CHAPTER XXIII.
CHAPTER XXIV.
Private plantations of Cinchona
CHAPTER XXV.
The acclimatization of Cinchona, outside the limits of the
CHAPTER XXVI.
e e e º e
CHAPTER XX
VII.
153–163
163—172
172–177
177—184
184—199
200–205
205—211
211—215
215–217
217—252
252—255
255–259
259—267
267—270
270–275
277–292
Page
3-)
3%
9%
3°,
9°)
92
**)
**
3%
8,
I4,
32,
33,
4O,
IO3,
I49,
I7O,
I7 I,
2 I I,
2 II,
E R R A T A.
/ime 2 from bottom, for averdupois, read avoirdupois.
,, 17 for governement, read government.
, 24 for height, read heights.
3') 3 from bottom, add B. D. J.
,, 28 for naturet, read nature.
,, 17 for iudividuals, read individuals.
/ast line, two letters have been dropped, read houses.
top line, for content, read contend.
/ime 25 read happen only in.... &c.
9°) 6 for nomenelature, read nomenclature.
/ast two lines, for enough recognise, read have recognised.
H A N D B O O K
OF
C I N C H O N A C U L T U R E.
C H A P T E R I.
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.
Cinchona has assumed an increasingly weighty position,
amongst the newer colonial productions which have recently
acquired significance in the markets of the Netherlands.
Previous to 1870, only a single sale by auction had taken
place in the Netherlands, and this was due to mere acci-
dent, and not to direct importation. It consisted of a more
or less damaged parcel from a vessel laden with Cinchona
bark which had become subject to average, and was therefore
compelled to discharge cargo in one of the Dutch harbours.
The results of this sale appeared satisfactory, and testified
that articles of commerce in request do not need to be con-
fined to a fixed market, but find a ready sale wherever the
existing needs can be provided for.
The centres of the Cinchona trade at the present time are
established in England, France and North America; as to the
Dutch market, a continually increasing significance has been
I
assured since 1870, provided it is supported and conducted by
skilful brokers, and if the State does not permit itself to be induced
to disturb the natural movements of the trade, by charges and
formalities. We shall consider each of these more at length
in the chapter devoted to the Cinchona trade.
In Cinchona we have a subject of wide extent. Indeed, it
comprises not only important questions of production, trade and
industry, but has also in a high degree to do with botanical,
medical and chemical science.
Thirty years ago, ideas about the origin, differences, use
and application of Cinchona, were very vague; they formed
a mere chaos of contradictions. Little by little, this state of
things has come to an end; in proportion as the field for im-
portant investigations was enlarged and sufficiently extended
to admit of observation and attention to the most important
phenomena, a clearer light was shed over the whole.
Even at the present time, if many points are not fully
cleared up, at least they no longer escape attention, but
are recognised as objects for accurate investigation. Every year
brings us nearer to solutions of manifold and indisputable im-
portance
Having devoted my best and strongest years in the field
of experiment, that the before-named Cinchona questions might
be brought out more clearly, it will be readily understood,
why I entertain a certain predilection for the subject The his-
tory of it teaches that the labour is crowned with a satisfactory
return. This explanation is not meant as self-adulation; but it
must be borne in mind, that I shall by and by have to speak,
principally on the ground of personal exertions and experience;
exaggerated modesty indeed might as in this case, actually do
halm to the public interest.
C H A P T E R II.
EARLY HISTORY OF CINCHONA.
As a remedy, especially as a febrifuge, Cinchona bark was
known in South America, as far back as the beginning of the
seventeenth century.
Tradition states, that an Indian, who was lying helpless in the
wilderness, sick of a violent fever, and urged by burning thirst,
dragged himself to a pool of water, which he spied close at
hand. When he had quenched his thirst, he felt his strength
gradually return, so that he was able to get up and return
home. The relation of his experience excited no small
surprise, as no approved remedy had yet been discovered
for intermittent fever, itself one of the most dreaded dis-
eases. No wonder, therefore, that a desire to know about the
case, caused the place itself to be visited. The bitter taste
which the water had, seemed, after long search, to be owing
to the bark of one of the trees lying in the pool, which was
similar to several living specimens in the vicinity, and further
on in the virgin forest.
The natural consequence of this discovery probably led
to experiment with the wonderful bark, at first on the part of
the natives themselves on due occasions, but later, when Euro-
peans had learned the remedy, methodically and on a larger
scale, on the fever patients in hospitals.
In 1636 the wife of the Viceroy of Peru, Don Luis Gero-
nimo Fernandez de Cabrera y Bobadilla of Mendoza, fourth
Count Del Chinchon was lying ill of fever, when the corregidor
(town governor), Juan Lopez de Canizares, recommended the
use of bark in the form of powder. This was followed by
complete recovery.
4
If the whole story seems more legendary than historical, it
gives in either case a very probable explanation of the manner
by which the bark became known as a febrifuge; an explanation
which possesses more probability than all traditions relating
to the first knowledge of coffee and tea. In 1639 Count Del
Chinchon despatched a scientific expedition having Texeira as its
commander, to the Cinchona regions. We are indebted to the
Jesuit, Cristoval de Acuna, who formed part of this expedi-
tion, for important communications and illustrations, and also
for the first earnest attempts to diffuse the knowledge of the
bark in a wider circle. In 1640 the family Del Chinchon
removed to Europe, and naturally took the opportunity to
bring with them a considerable quantity of the marvellous bark
in powder.
How great a value was already attached to this remedy
appears from the fact, that Dr. Juan de Vega, who accompa-
nied the Viceroy, sold a pound of the powder for IOO dollars
In honour of the noble countess who made this precious
remedy generally known, and who generously distributed it, it
was named pulvis comitissae. When later the Jesuits encou-
raged the diffusion, it obtained the name of pulvis yesui-
ticus. In Rome, where it was introduced by Cardinal Juan
de Vega, it became known as Cardinal's powder, and in
France it appeared as Poudre de Talbor (medicamentum
Talborii, seu anglicum) after a certain doctor Talbor, who
about 1671 brought it over from England, and sold it as a
secret remedy to Louis XIV for 2000 Louis d'or.
In the language of the Incas it appears as Quina, China,
Kina or Kina-kina, febrifugal bark; and Quina-Quina (from
which the French name Quinquina is derived) indicated
specially efficacious bark.
The first description of the tree, from which Quina-Quina
seems derived, was given by La Condamine, who travelled
| Markham states that this is a Spanish corruption. B. D. J.
through a part of South America in 1737–1738. He named it
Quinquin a de Uritusing a (Quin a primitiva, our
modern Cinchona officinalis). As early as I 742, Linnaeus esta-
blished the genus Cinchona, and he called the species de-
scribed by La Condamine, C. officinalis. At a later period Kunth,
in Humboldt and Bonpland’s ‘Synopsis', changed it into C. Con-
daminea, but Hooker restored the Linnean name, which to
this day is generally received.
In proportion as Cinchona bark became known and valued,
the exports from the country producing it increased, and it
happened frequently that the quality of different parcels varied
so extremely, as to create doubts regarding its use and appli-
cation. Thus gradually it came to be understood, that various
barks from different species were mixed together.
The interests of merchants and pharmacologists were really
concerned in a fuller knowledge of the subject, but nothing better
could be arrived at, than that attained by botanists themselves,
from investigations and researches on the Cinchona trees; indeed,
the confusion in quinological matters continually increased as
the number of searchers became greater, whilst their vanity
and jealousy spurring them on, trade mystifications became yet
more involved.
Karsten writes: - “Whilst, on the one hand, botanists
uncertain of the knowledge of species, intentionally compli-
cated matters, on the other hand pharmacologists went
astray in the endeavour to distinguish Cinchona barks
widely distributed in commerce under manifold names,
assigning them to species hardly known and altogether
undescribed by botanists, supposing that the barks of all
Cinchonas were met with in commerce.”
We leave these accusations against scientific men entirely
to the account of the eminent German professor. The same
view is taken by the famous French Quinologists, Delondre
and Bouchardat, where they assert: —
“The influence of mercantile trickery went so far, that
at Cadiz, by the king's order, a large quantity of the best
orange Cinchona, collected by Mutis at the king's expense,
was burnt, whilst in all the Spanish hospitals there was
the greatest scarcity of this precious product of America.
A parcel of this Cinchona, intended for the flames, was
secretly bought at Cadiz by some English merchants,
and sold in London at high prices.”
However this may be, the fact is, that as soon as the heal-
ing power of Cinchona bark became widely known, and the
enquiry for this article gradually increased, a source of riches
for South America was opened up, and the exploitation of the
Cinchona trees assumed ever widening proportions.
The harvest of the fever-bark in the primeval forests of
America is really an expedition. Experience, courage and
perseverance are indispensable requisites for those who engage
in it, and who form a special caste
The collectors, known under the name of Cascari//eros,
unite themselves into gangs, under the direction of a major-
domo, and work on their own account, or as more often happens
engage themselves on behalf of particular people or companies.
From the moment the working party sets out, it is exposed
to continual dangers and endless hindrances; what they seek
is only met with in distant, desert, inclement mountain regions,
where all progress through the wild, formidable interlaced
vegetable growth, has to be won by cutting a path, foot by
foot, with the hatchet.
Days even weeks, sometimes elapse, whilst the party is
engaged in endless climbing up and down, and environed by
dangers and hindrances, before a single Cinchona tree is met
with in the thick forests.
It is not seldom that the heaviest work then begins. The collect-
ors are surrounded by a crowd of forest giants, inaccessible be-
cause of the strong, many, branched web of Zhanas, and by num-
bers of creeping, climbing and thorny plants, which must as a
rule be cut down in order to clear a tolerably large space
before one of the wished for trees can be felled and barked.
The forest-clearer in the wild forest regions amongst the high
mountain ranges in Java, can form some idea of the difficulties
and troubles mentioned.
The most experienced Cascarilleros, the Ozésáros, form
the pioneers in the search. These people seem actuated by
instinct, nothing escapes them, a handful of leaves carried
by the wind on to their path, or the peculiar lustre of a leaf-tip,
are for them sufficient signs of recognition to lead them in a
direct course to the tree sought.
If a district is considered suitable for working, a sleep-
ing hut is set up, and the ground cultivated so as to afford,
during the uncertain time of their stay, some such food as
maize, and pease; the men afterward scatter themselves in
groups or single file in all directions so that the collection may be
carried out over an extended field. The major-domo remains
behind with a few people in the primitive headquarters, as
much to guard these, as to dry and sort the barks successively
brought in. The bark of slight thickness, from branches and
slender stems, is sufficiently dried by the warmth of the sun
alone, and rolls inward like quill cinnamon. For drying heavy,
thick pieces of bark, sometimes assistance from fire heat is
necessary, or else, during dry favourable weather they are stacked
like firewood, and the mass weighted with stones. The latter
manner of drying yields, as a rule, the thick flat bark of com-
merce. As soon as a tree of considerable dimensions is felled,
the trunk and thick branches are deprived, by brushing, of
their uppermost layers, and subsequently divided into equal
portions by circular incisions. *
Between the incisions, the bark is afterwards cut lengthwise,
* It will be hereafter shown, that by this brushing the actual value of the bark is really
diminished, without it being so considered or perhaps even conjectured by the natives.
8
lifted up and gathered, as far possible, in pieces of similar
dimensions, one after another.
This cleansing with brushes is not done to the bark of the
smaller stems and branches; these consequently retain their
upper layers and mossy covering. The latter has been long
considered a valuable means of recognising to what species
the bark belongs, and still, at the present day, by druggists
at least, it is highly prized.
The dried bark is packed in a light cloth, and transported
by the Cascarilleros themselves, or by means of mules, to the
houses of business. Here it is packed anew, either in cases,
tubs, drums, or more usually in ox or buffalo hides, with the
hairy side turned inwards. These hides, wholly or partly fresh,
or at least purposely wetted, gradually draw together strongly,
and thus firmly secure the packed bales, or serons. A seron
weighs about 70 to 80 kilograms, and, as a rule, contains
a great admixture of barks, or at all events it is not sorted
according to form and thickness, etc. The hides themselves have
a marketable value and are turned to good account.
It is evident that so careless and crude a method of collec-
ting, renders the separation of the various barks extremely
difficult. Formerly the opinion was held that all barks came
from one kind of tree; the produce therefore could only differ
in shape and size, as it was obtained from the larger or
smaller stems and branches. This opinion was not universal;
on the contrary some even thought that the heavy pieces came
from an entirely different species from the light ones. The custo-
mary trade names were of no use in determining their identity,
these being derived from the colour, local origin, port of ship-
ment, and the like, and thus little decisive or explanatory. The
confusion became greater, when it was made known, that the
*.
1 In English averdupois, from 1 cwt. to 14 cwt., for practical purposes, a kilo-
gram may be reckoned as IO per cent more than 2 lbs., and IoI5 to the English
ton, B. D. J.
9
Cinchona trees consisted of various species and varieties, and that
to botanical descriptions of these species were mixed up, and
confounded with the commercial names. The worthless names,
which gave no information either of the parent-trees which
yielded the bark, or of a still more important matter, the
quality of their bark, were still retained.
As subsequently we shall see, science has been able,
thanks to the bringing over of the Cinchona to the Dutch
and English colonies, to disclose, or at least to make clearer,
most of the mysteries; and it is known now that not only very
many species and varieties of Cinchona exist, each possessing
its own special form and composition, but that even the com-
position varies in the same species or variety, so that thougt
the actual value of a bark may be approximated by means
of the microscope, it can only be completely ascertained by
chemical analysis.
It will be readily understood that the nearest and the most
productive of the Cinchona districts would be first worked
out, so that the workers must go farther and farther to find
other advantageous spots. The rough manner in which they
always went to work, chiefly thinking of present gains, could
only lead to local exhaustion and extirpation. Primeval forests
may maintain themselves, but the conditions, into which the
Cinchona trees were brought were as a rule very unfavourable.
Control and supervision were absent, and the care absolutely
needed for Nature to restore and build up again, was wanting.
There was much wasted; for as long as abundance lasted for the
covetous, there was no thought of economy in gathering the bark.
Delondre, who visited the Cinchona regions in 1816–17,
wrote thus concerning them : —
“On descending the mountain, I could not help lament-
ing the indifference with which the Indian delivered his
axeblows at a certain height above the ground, so as not
to have the trouble of stooping. It is the same in all the
10
South American forests; they also leave the trunk at the
point whence the branches spring, and it may be gene-
rally calculated that only one half of the bark is col-
lected which each tree could furnish.” (Delondre & Bou-
chardat, “Quinologie”, p. 21).
If a tree is felled at the surface of the ground as usually hap-
pens, under favourable conditions it is able to shoot up again
and form new stems, of somewhat more slender dimensions; but
the Cascarilleros did not permit of these favourable conditions,
and even where these new shoots did show themselves on
the prostrate trunk, numberless hindrances still interfered to
prevent their further developement.
Cinchona seed is extremely fine and light, the sport of wind
and weather; even if it reaches a fertile soil in the thick pri-
meval forests, the chances of its germination, and the success
of the tender plant in the struggle for life, are very small.
That the government for the time being, should have
framed no regulations to guard against unnecessary loss and
eventual extirpation, may seem strange indeed and greatly
to be deplored, but it is apparent that the South American
States have been constantly involved in political difficulties,
which hinder manifold efforts or a strong policy. They are
persuaded of the inexhaustibility of their resources, and are op-
posed to any organisation for a decisive forest-policy in the
extensive chain of the Andes. Thus much is certain, that the
existing governments have always had an eye to present
rather than to future profit. At one time they burdened the
exports of Cinchona with duties, granting the right of work-
ing to a certain company, and at another time forbade any
exportation whatever. A systematic exploitation joined to simul-
taneous maintenance and proportionate replenishing by new
plantations, whenever it has been taken into consideration, has
never come to anything. For the first time, quite recently, as
will be seen from a report of the Dutch Consul-general at
11
La Paz, Heer Schuhkraft, a systematic cultivation, of Cin-
chona has been attempted in its mother country. '
#: ;
#:
The classic land of the Incas, since its discovery and con-
quest by the Spaniards, though already a favourite country for
investigation by naturalists and historians, enjoyed much increase
of business after the indigenous Cinchona was found, and a number
of learned men went thither, simply to accurately study the
Flora of the country. Amongst the travellers who have spe-
cially devoted themselves to the knowledge of the Cinchona
tree of South America, and who either as writers, or as collec-
tors of material, have rendered themselves deserving of notice,
we may mention: —
C. L. de la Condamine (1737–38), J. de Jussieu (1739),
Santesban (1755), Mutis (1760–18OO), Renquifo (1772), Ruiz
(1790), Caldas Zea (18OO) Pavon (1801), Tafalla (1802–08),
Humboldt and Bonpland (1807), Bergen (1822), E. Poeppig
(1827–32), Weddell (1843–48), Delondre (1846–48), Hasskarl
(1853–54), Scherzer, Markham, Spruce, Pritchett (1859–61),
Warczewicz, Triana, Rampon, etc. etc.
We do not attempt a bibliography of the subject Cºn-
chona ; a summary of the existing literature would bear the
marks of incompleteness so numerous are the published works
and scattered articles. If entertaining, instructive, and ample
reading be wanted, the following may be consulted.
H. A. Weddell, “Histoire naturelle des Quinquinas’’. Paris,
Victor Masson, 1849. C. R. Markham, “Travels in Peru and
India”, London, John Murray, 1862, and the splendid work
published by L. Reeve and Co., J. E. Howard, “The Quino-
logy of the East Indian plantations”, London, 3 parts, 1876.
' Cultivation has also been attempted at the present time in the republics of .
Ecuador, Venezuela and New Grenada, it seems, even so far as importing rich
species, by using seed collected in Bolivia.
12
With these special recommendations, we do not wish to pre-
judice the many other highly deserving writers and compilers.
The works named give, however, the most complete natural
historical and scientific summaries, by which most practical
needs may be satisfied.
What we know meanwhile about the earliest history of
Cinchona, by no means bears the stamp of absolute certainty, or
even of completeness; this indeed was hardly possible.
Before the advent of the Spaniards in South America, there
was naturally no notion of methodical search. When the medi-
cinal virtues of Cinchona bark became known in whatever
manner, to Europeans, they very decidedly aimed at diffusing
this remedial agent, and it can readily be believed that its
diffusion by various persons about the same time, and to its being
tested in various ways, have given rise to the contradictions
which have been recorded concerning the subject. The main
point remains, that the discovery took place during the first
half of the 17th century, and that its blessings have extended
to civilised people, and will extend more and more to man-
kind at large.
No single scientific traveller has been able to learn all
that the Cinchona regions, in their full extent may offer. Per-
chance in many places the forests which formerly sheltered the
Cinchona tree, were already destroyed when the first investi-
gators found them, and thus complete certainty cannot be
attained concerning its original, natural, and geographical dis-
tribution, although on the other hand, botanists happened to
state the fact, that various species of Cinchona existed and
were met with there. In relation to the real remedial pro-
perties of the various species, gross darkness prevailed, until
the moment when chemistry came forward to help, and by sepa-
ration of the alkaloids (182O) indicated the only trustworthy
means of recognition.
The noteworthy and fruitful journey of Dr. H. A. Weddell,
13
is first of all, known on account of its important results".
Weddell drew serious attention, to the danger attend-
ing a continuous, irregular, uncontrolled exploitation, and it is
above all due to his unwearied pleadings and his admirable
writings, that the French government concluded to introduce
the Cinchona tree into its colonies. This was the first powerful
impetus given to the further acclimatization trials.
From a practical standpoint, (which we must as far as
possible endeavour to vindicate), we have now to follow up
the history, with reference to the explanations of Weddell and
others, which led, as mentioned later on, to the importation of
Cinchona cultivation into the colonies of European States
During the years 1845–48 Weddell was occupied with an
investigation regarding the natural occurence of the Cinchona
tree in South America, the description of the species, and the
methods by which it might be cultivated.
Commenting on the recklessness with which the primeval
Cinchona forests were cleared without any check, and expressing,
as indeed many before him had already done, the fear that
some day would see a necessary want of genuine Cinchona
he says: —
“There remains the resource of cultivation, and it must
be employed. If there is a tree worthy of acclimatization
in a French colony, truly it is Cinchona, and posterity
will bless those who shall have carried out such an idea.”
In the report of MM. de Jussieu, Richard and Gaudichaud
read before the French Academie des Sciences, the following
passage occurs: —
“We can only recommend experiments, and it is the duty
of government to make them, for although we have no exact
" In April 1877 Weddell took an important part in the International Congress
at Amsterdam. Not long after the intrepid traveller died (in his 60th year); to him
mankind owes an eternal debt of gratitude, for the impulse which he gave to
the acclimatization of Cinchoma.
14
data as to the number of years required by the tree for
the bark to reach its maximum yield and perfection, we
may calculate upon a tolerably long time, and the profits
are too uncertain, and much too distant, to engage private
industry in such attempts.”
We must pay attention to this declaration, for it induced
the French governement to undertake acclimatization trials in
Algeria, which compelled other nations to follow that example.
The inducement to introduce Cinchona cultivation in the
East Indies is thus explained, and we do not need to add
to it anything further. ſ
In the year 1869 an investigation set on foot by a scien-
tific commission of five persons, ascertained the increasing
scarcity of genuine Cinchona barks in America (see “The Andes
and the Amazon”, London, Sampson Low). In 1870 Dr Kerner,
the wellknown chemist of Zimmer's quinine manufactory at
Frankfort, in his “Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Chinin-Resorp.
tion” (Bonn, 1870, printed by Carl Georgi) dwelt with
emphasis on the ever diminishing arrivals in Europe, of good
barks, especially those rich in quinine.
Since the discovery of the special febrifugal properties of
Cinchona bark, the seat of the alkaloids, and their separation
earnestly attempted, the arrivals of this product have not
actually diminished, although naturally we are more informed
as to its percentage, and anon the figures given will plainly show
that, though South America is very far from being exhausted
yet, still a very unfavourable proportion may be increasingly
remarked between the arrivals of the barks which are rich,
and those which are poor in quinine.
So much apprehension was excited that South America at
some time would fail to yield Cinchona, looking to the
augmenting use of quinine, that the French Academie des
Sciences, as already stated, offered a high premium for the
preparation of this indispensable alkaloid, by the method of
15
synthesis. Up to the present time there has been no indication
of adjudication of the premium, but in another chapter we
shall show that the idea is not abandoned, and really the
intention seems now likely to be realised.
Many travellers and writers at different periods have pointed
out the danger of a slow, but sure extirpation of the Cinchona
trees in their native land; others on the contrary, believed that
the primeval Cinchona forests were almost boundless and not
even fully known, and further that Nature herself was competent
to maintain this valuable plant.
We most decidedly side with the first declaration to a cer-
tain extent; although the occurrence of Cinchona trees (which
in each case appear confined to limited areas not as yet fully
understood), can with difficulty be compared, for example, with
the distribution of the coal beds.
What the care of Nature means, we may sum up in a
single word, our doubts and small expectations.
Under date 30 March 1865, Heer Schuhkraft, the Dutch
Consul-general at La Paz, reports as follows: —
“When in 1860, the prohibition on export was taken
off, which is known to have been in force for eight
years (in Bolivia), the exploitation of the forests and the
exports there during 1861–63, amounted to about
50,000 Spanish quintals, of 46 kilos, averaging 55
dollars per quintal on its dispatch from Bolivia.
“To this must be added five dollars per quintal, export
duty, and another five for packing and shipping charges
in Peru, etc.
' A Spanish quintal would thus amount to 3 Qrs 17 lbs. B. D. J.
16
“The value of the exports, free on board in the Pacific
Ocean may thus be estimated at 4,000,000 dollars, or
about £650,000.
“The exports are chiefly consigned to England, but in
consequence of the war, the United States have trans-
mitted considerable orders, and the remainder goes to
France and Italy.
“This trade has yielded the best results for all concer-
ned in it; from the Indian labourer who fells the tree,
strips off the bark and dries it, and the house exporting it in
Bolivia or Peru, to the firm in Europe which receives the
consignment. La Paz was the centre for this trade, to which
all the Cinchona procured by the workmen from the forests,
was brought to market.”
Thoughout the entire report, mention is constantly made of the
extent of the Bolivian trade, and the great profits thence resulting.
No complaints were made of reckless exploitation, nor fear of
extirpation, but, on the contrary, of local difficulties which made
themselves felt in increasing measure. Schuhkraft was of opinion
that the exploitation of the Bolivian forests must be stopped,
whenever the prices ranged low as a consequence of the Sup-
plies from Columbia and other places. According to his notions
the tree was not extirpated in Bolivia; but it was found only
at constantly greater distances, and this naturally made the
transport much more costly. He considered it illusory to
expect the existing government to open up roads. Since 1863,
several private individuals endeavoured to export Cinchona by
the Madeira and Amazon rivers, vià Para, on the Atlantic
Ocean. The costs of carriage were so slight, that the Cinchona
transport by that route could be delivered on board at Para,
at most at 40 dollars per quintal.
The success of these attempts ought again to assure the first
place for Bolivian Cinchona, and to the supplanting of all other
sorts in the European markets!
17
Meanwhile, there appeared to be very great difficulties against
this method of transport, and certain parcels of Cinchona,
brought to Europe via Para, were found not to be the genuine
Calisaya, and were therefore worthless.
The price of good quality Cinchona at La Paz, was 52 dol-
lars per quintal.
In 1865 also, on the authority of a thoroughly competent
judge, (in opposition to many earlier and later declarations of
scientific travellers,) there. was no positive fear of the rapid
exhaustion of the valuable primeval Cinchona forests, but on
the other hand, there was threatening competition, and the
enhanced expense of exploitation.
In 1873 Schuhkraft sent to the Dutch government, an admir-
able map, wherein were indicated as far as possible, the
previously mentioned Cinchona regions, with observations about
their extent at the time, and of exploitation in the various
forests. This illustrated representation gave but little real
support to the loud and repeated lamentations about a rapid
extirpation. It is quite evident though, that where no care is
taken to maintain the forests, or to plant new, the future must
be positively menacing. A new point of view is thus opened up
by the report of our zealous and able Consul-general for the
year 1878. In this Schuhkraft says: —
“The great event in the agricultural region of Bolivia,
is the planting of the Bolivian Cinchona forests, of
which an earnest beginning was made in 1878, not by
official pressure, but by a genuine initiative of the land
owners and other private persons. The high prices of the
last three years, and the reports of the Cinchona culti.
vation in India, have at last awakened here the spirit of
enterprise. Tre river Mapiri, in the province of Larecaja,
department La Paz, has been the centre of the movement,
and already the young trees of two years growth, may be
reckoned at from four to five hundred thousand.
18
“The Songo and Challana valleys in the same province
which turn out equally fine quality Cinchona, number also
some plantations, though of less importance. In the pro-
vince of Yungas, the districts from Coroico and Coripata
to the Casones river are being energetically planted, and an
extensive valley where there still exist numerous groups of
bushes, stumps, and shoots from old stems, called the
Quinuni valley, has by purchase passed into the hands of
private persons, who intend to close it for some years,
to allow the young plantations to grow up.
“Planting is done in two ways; that which is done on
private estates (haciemdas) and that which takes place
on government land (ferremos &alaios). Excepting the
Quinuni valley, and the lands on the Mapiri and Casones
rivers, all that I have mentioned are private property,
and formerly were divided into haciendas, whose prin-
cipal produce were, coca, coffee, cacao, Sugarcane, bananas,
etc., These were cultivated from the foot of the moun-
tains to three-fourths of their height, whilst the Cin-
chona tree was found in the forests which crown the
summits, or in the mountain gullies (gue&radas). The
regions, formerly under cultivation, may properly be
termed semi-tropical. The trees found there, on account of
their near proximity to La Paz, were the earliest to be
cut down, and later on, when the bark became dearer and
scarcer, the collectors were driven into the tropical parts
of the forests lying towards the interior, and not yet brought
into cultivation; consequently on the land belonging to the
state, the groups of trees have mostly disappeared.
“The former crude way of working is known; the tree was
'cut over' at the height of from one to two feet above the
ground. The branches, which for a long time were not known
to be actually richer in alkaloids than the stem itself, were
cut off and left as worthless to rot upon the damp earth.”
19
(As the testimony of experiments and chemical investigations
in Java will show, Schuhkraft has here made an evident error.
It can now be asserted quite positively, that the bark of the
branches is in no case richer in quinine, than the stem of the
same tree.)
“Merely the trunk was stripped, sometimes only on the side
lying uppermost. If it was too heavy, or cost too much
trouble to turn it over, it was allowed to lie half stripped.”
(This declaration is in accordance with the experience of
Weddell, Delondre and other travellers)
“Similar stems, naturally of great value if they are
not entirely rotted, ought at the present day, to be not
infrequently found in the forest. The stumps remaining in
the ground, again shoot out like willow trees, and from
these stumps, shoots, branches, bushes, and here and there
the young stem of a neglected or hidden tree, during the
last ten years since the thick stems have been exterminated,
quilled Cinchona has been obtained, which formerly no
one besides the quinine manufacturer knew, but now is
generally known, to be richer in salts than the stem bark.”
(This opinion is not confirmed by experience gained in
cultivating Cinchona in Java and elsewhere. The percentage
of quinine is by no means dependent on the form of the bark,
but on the contrary is closely connected with the kind of trees,
from which it has been obtained. Thick barks preserve their
original shape sufficiently in drying, if they are not cut too
wide, in which case they curl up somewhat, whilst lighter,
thinner barks roll together in drying.)
“When the price at La Paz, owing to excessive com-
petition, reached 225 dollars per quintal, equalling about
8 francs per kilo, free on board at Mollendo, in order
to bring a few more pounds of bark to market, the collect-
ors began to dig out the stumps and roots entire, so that exter-
* That is, about 3s. 2d. per lb. English, B. D. J.
20
mination would have been completed, if it had not been
that only low prices were offered in trade for this descrip-
tion of Cinchona, and thereby no profit could be relied
on, by which in some measure the ravage was at least
confined within limits.
“The systematic replanting on private estates, was done
cheaply enough. The contract between a Yungas landed
proprietor and his Indian agricultural labourers (peones,
colonos) for ages has been as follows. Each household
receives a piece of land with dwelling in usufruct, and its
members bind themselves to perform field labour on behalf of
the hacienda, for 2, 3 or 4 days in each week, in return for
wages of 4 to 5 reals for each man, 2', to 3 reals for
each woman or child (13 to 16, and 8 to Io Dutch stuivers
respectively ) per day; the remaining days in each week,
the colonist or peon is free to employ upon his own allot-
ment. A few days in each year suffice to clear the
ground for beginning a Cinchona plantation, to put out
the plants from the nurseries, and to keep the ground
free from weeds, one year, or at most two years. After
that, the trees can take care of themselves. Such a
Cinchona plantation costs the proprietor little or nothing.
(When we proceed to treat of the cultivation in Java, it
will appear that there it is less simple and more expensive. If
experience in Bolivia merely dates from 1878, we fear that
time will bring forth disappointment; we willingly admit the
Cinchona in its native country may show itself less susceptible
and tender, than it does in those countries where it has been
acclimatized, or even become naturalised.)
“In the regions still uncleared on the Mapiri, the
undertaking requires greater labour and more capital.
The land must be acquired of the state. The requisite
petition is called a denuncia, and contains a description
* The Dutch stuiver is equivalent to an English penny. B. D. J.
21
of the land declared to be Öalažo (vacans ager) and a
list of witnesses to testify that it is not private property. After
the witnesses have been examined, there follows a valuation
on behalf of the state, and thereafter a sale by public
auction, at which the petitioner enjoys a certain prefer-
ence or choice, above other bidders. Onesided preference
always plays a great part in these grants. If the petitioner
is an insignificant person, without influence or influential
friends, his letter of request is apt to be delayed. On the
contrary some lands are valued at low assessments,
and, as in the case of the Quinuni valley, as good as
given away. This valley, probably Io German miles in
extent was given over to a private planter for the sum
of £ Ioo, and a still larger estate on the Mapiri river,
for £ 25O.
“Planting on such land is done by contract with natives
of inferior standing, who usually want advances, and in
their turn sublet the actual work to Indians, thus acting
as middlemen.
“The work chiefly consists in making ready the ground,
which usually presents itself as thick wood. First of all,
the trees, saplings, and plants, are cleared off the ground,
piled up, and after some weeks, when they are consi-
dered dry enough, are burnt.
“The entire procedure is termed la rosada. During
the time this is going on, the nursery, exposed to free
currents of air, but lying partially sheltered, is sown with
a liberal hand, and when the young plants are a foot
high, they are considered fit to transplant. The cleared
land or the so-called rozadero is cleaned a second time
of weeds; the cuttings (the writer means the seedling
plants) are put out in rows, at 5 to 6 feet from each
" If Io German Geographical miles are here meant, this would be a fraction
over 46 English statute miles in length. B. D. J.
22
other, bananas being planted here and there, to afford
shade for the first and second years, and then the
middleman by means of his Indians, looks over the ground
from time to time, and keeps it in good order. From
March to June is the most suitable season for beginning,
for then the rains are over. A year after planting, the
plantation is delivered over, the withered cuttings (read:
young plants) are pulled out, and those remaining are
counted. For each yearling plant the middleman receives
two reals, or about seven Dutch stuivers'. According to
this scale, the cost of planting on the Mapiri should be
as follows:
Rent of land, 3OOO francs; 300,000 plants at 35 cents
= 105,000 francs; overseers, erection of dwellings, etc.
IO,Ooo francs; for interest the second year at IO /, on
I 20,000 francs = 12,000 francs. Total 130,000 francs ".
“It has already been stated, that cutting can begin in
the fourth year, though I doubt this, and it is most
likely that the bark on account of its young state, would
possess but little quinine, for it appears to be an estab-
lished fact, that, the older the tree, the richer it is in
salts (read: alkaloids), and this explains probably the
hithertho paltry percentage in Javan Cinchona, obtained
from the seeds sent by me in 1865 (read: 1864).”
For a correct understanding, we must here introduce a few
remarks. The reader is aware that there is a disagreement between
the declaration, that the Cinchona tree is richer in alkaloids in
proportion to the age reached, and the earlier statement, that
the branch-bark is more powerful than the stem-bark. It is
evident that in the same tree the branch-bark must in its
entirety be younger than the stem-bark, and hundreds of ana-
| Sevenpence. B. D. J.
* Amounting at par, to £ 5,200 sterling. B. D. J.
23
lyses have shown, that a tree needs a certain time for the
formation of its maximum percentage of alkaloids, though,
at the same time, there is a limit which cannot be exceeded.
Now it has already been mentioned that Schuhkraft's first
dispatch of Cinchona seeds, reached the Netherlands in 1864;
half were sown in that country, the other half were sent
on to Java. This was the origin of the Calisaya Schuhāraft
trees. The first plants were put out in the open ground in
Java in July 1865, and at Lembang, Nagrak and Tjiniroean,
there must still be some specimens which have thus reached
the age of fifteen years.
Thus there was ample opportunity for determining the per-
centage of alkaloid at various ages, and analyses were carried
out, and have decisively shown, that though the Calisaya
Schuhkraft yields an excellent pharmaceutical bark, yet it
cannot as a rule come into consideration, for the preparation of
quinine, on account of its small percentage of that alkaloid.
, On the Mapiri plantation there are already some
plants, which were put out earlier than 1878, and the pro-
prietors affirm, that from these and two-year-old plants, they
have already obtained 300 quintals of quilled Cinchona, say
13,800 kilos, and thus received back a part of their capital,
though this seems to me to be only boasting.”
Here also an explanation may be desirable. Since Schuh-
kraft has not informed us “from how many trees the 13,8oo
kilos were obtained”, naturally we cannot judge, how far the
produce was profitable. But in Java there are Cinchona trees
3 to 4 years old, developed under favourable conditions, which,
while fit for harvest, have not yet attained their maximum per
centage. It is evident that only quilled bark could be
obtained from such young individuals, for it would be still thin, and
thus curl up on drying. It is new information that the quilled
form can be any criterion of its quality, it is rather the contrary.
“After delivery by the middleman of a number of 20,
24
30, or 40,000 plants, the buyer has to bear all risks, and
must now commit the superintendence and proper mainte-
nance of the ground to his subordinates. In the first and
second years, the plant is exposed to two dangers, namely,
drought, and destruction by ants; after that time there is
no further danger from these. The drought which prevailed
in 1879 throughout Bolivia (in India and Europe on the
contrary, there was great complaint of the unusually wet
weather) killed thousands of plants in Mapiri.”
Once more we must venture a remark. It occurs to us, that
there is a connection between the two dangers specified, drought
and ants.
Schuhkraft says that plants are put out, when the rainy
season is past. If this rule prevails, it is not to be wondered at
that the young plants suffer from drought; we notice little
provision for an artificial watering, where all the industries
seem to be highly primitive and superficial. The young plants
have thus slender chances for actual, robust development, and
under these circumstances they are much exposed to influences
from without, or from ants, to which they can offer but little
resistance. If the plants were turned out some time before the
rains, probably less loss would be suffered.
“Already new experiments have been made on young
trees, to strip the bark and preserve the trunk, by ripping
it off in long strips by portions, and leaving the trunk to
cover itself with bark by another year; in other words,
not to strip the stem once for all, but partially and at
different times. The experiments through, have given the
conviction, that it is better, as of old, to cut over the
stem at one or two feet above the ground and to bark it
entirely, for when the stump remains in the ground, it
generally shoots up again.”
The partial stripping of the tree by cutting out strips, was
first tried by Mc Ivor in Madras, and distingiushed as strip.
$” 25
ping, in contradistinction to coppicing or cutting down to the
stump. The trees bore the operation well, provided it was done
with care; Mc Ivor even contrived a special knife for it. To
the stripping process was soon added the plan of mossing; the
exposed portions of the stem were covered with moss, and
from this it was expected not only would there be a more complete
and quicker regeneration of bark, but also an enhancement of
the alkaloid percentage. The experiments were crowned with
complete success, and were carried into practice on a large
scale; indeed the renewed and mossed bark, has, from the
very first, in British India possessed a higher value. As to
the various methods of harvesting the bark, we shall naturally
recur more at length.
“Whether the planting in Bolivia (to which the planters
in Java cannot be indifferent), will be earnestly prosecuted,
depends partly on the market prices of the ensuing three
or four years; if these fall in consequence of the increas-
ing exports from the East Indies, or from other causes,
then the enthusiasm will speedily cool, and give place
to the old indifference and neglect, the more so, as the
available labour in the Yungas, scarcely suffices to work
the more profitable and surer coca plantations (we suspect
that coca cultivation is said to be more lucrative, because
the produce is greatly in demand on the spot, and thus
does not require high transport charges, which make
Cinchona bark so dear) besides, the increasing wellbeing
of the peons or colonos of the hacienaas, following
upon high coca prices, makes them more and more inde-
pendent of the landowners, and Chinese immigration is
still unknown in Bolivia. Further, there prevails a feeling of
insecurity, as to whether private property will be respected,
or the law be powerless to prevent pillage on what were
once state lands, but are now in private hands. The question-
able origin of the newer possessions, and the doubtful right
26
of the proprietors, are but too well known, and under a
change of government it could easily happen, that for the
existing Cinchona bark-cutting classes in the provinces, the
plantations should be considered as public property, and no
difference pleaded as to the earlier condition, when the
felling of the forests was allowed.
“To oppose force by force, and to defend one's own pro-
perty weapon in hand, would be permitted, though the
European proprietor might be found wanting in such a
struggle. Even with a favourable concourse of circumstances,
I do not think that the replanting of Cinchona trees in
Bolivia, need awaken great concern in Java. With absolute
security for property and life, peace and order, capital going
hand in hand with earnest spirit of enterprise; planters so
situated can afford to sustain competition with a land where
all these factors are wanting, and where no attention is paid
to what has been done in Java; the plant here (in Bolivia)
being endemic, all theories and experiments are held to be
superfluous.”
We cannot wholly endorse this opinion. We have already briefly
stated, that in the different South American countries, various
kinds of Cinchona are met with, which vary greatly in quality.
From the seeds which we repeatedly received in Java from
Schuhkraft, which were thought to be product of the best
variety of Calisaya, there were no trees derived which possessed
a high percentage of quinine, and we have no reason to suspect
that that species has degenerated in Java. It is true that in 1873
Schuhkraft sent us likewise, a parcel of bark samples, and
the richest specimens appeared to contain 3.02 % of quinine,
an amount which is also found in some of the Javan Calisaya
Schuháraft and javanica but appears always higher in another
variety of Calisaya, the Zedgeriana, which also was received
from South America.
It seems to us that the great question remains, viz: — “which
27
can yield the richest bark”, and up to this time, commerce has
received from the native country of Cinchona no produce that
can compete with the Ledgeriana bark from Java.
This strangely sounding fact demands an explanation, and
is we think, found. An actual and regular survey of our
subject is however desirable, and this we give in the chapter
devoted to the species cultivated in Java.
“It is also by no means certain that the method of plant-
ing in rows like coffee trees, instead of groups amongst
other trees as Nature seems to require, is not entirely
wrong, and this plan will probably yield as a rule
produce poor in salts (read: alkaloids) A bark yielding
less than 2 % quinine, as export produce from Bolivia,
is for trade, as good as worthless, and plantations of
similar trees are good for nothing. Thus success is
by no means sure, and in every case, the chances are
every bit as much in favour of the Javan, as of the
Bolivian planter. If however, this part of Bolivia were
annexed to Chili, then from the stringent regulations of
that country, an entirely different result might be expected,
which would have serious effects upon the Cinchona cult-
ivation in Java.”
Although the Cinchona trees are met with in their natural
state under and amongst their brethren of the thick, primeval
forests, it is not thereby proved that only under analogous
circumstances can they be planted out and thrive. Junghuhn
clung to the opinion here enunciated by Schuhkraft, but ripe
experience gained in Java and British India, tells quite another
story. Every cultivator knows that plants put out under the
shade of great, heavy trees, or, in thick, sombre forests, cannot
come to proper development, setting aside the numberless
dangers to which they are constantly exposed in the forests.
Young plants want more light and air than they can get in such
surroundings. Whatever may be known of the original occurence
28
of the Cinchona trees in the American forests, it must not be
forgotten that they form part of the forest itself, and are developed
under the same conditions as their surrounding neighbours. This
circumstance agrees more or less with the commencement of a
Cinchona or coffee plantation, the plants and the sheltering trees
growing simultaneously, and it is well to distinguish this from
putting out young individuals in an already complete, thick forest,
which dominates over the soil, light, air, and entire surrounding.
There is one supposition which might fairly be entertained, in
conjunction with the fact, that Cinchona trees never form entire
forests by themselves in their natural state, as for instance the
Djati (teak) in Java, but are always accompanied by other trees, the
supposition namely, that with an accumulation of Cinchona plants,
perhaps the individuals might be deprived of an opportunity of
forming their full amount of quinine. Against this, however expe-
rience acquired in close, regular plantations of Cºnchona Zedge-
7-iana and C. officinalis, has already sufficiently declared, and
microscopical, united to chemical investigations, have also taught
with certainty, that the alkaloid formation holds the closest
connection with the anatomical structure of the types. Very
strongly, indeed indisputably is this fact shown by the results
of grafting, to which we shall hereafter recur in detail.
That barks having less than 2 °/, are worthless for export,
is quite possible as regards Bolivia, because the cost of trans-
port is very high there, but that such inferior barks must be
worth as much to Bolivia, as to the other South American states,
from which they are exported in quantity, is comprehensible
without gainsaying.
The East Indian barks with less than 2 °l, of quinine, appear
well worth exploitation and export; it is also true, that barks
with less than 2 % of quinine may still be very suitable for the
separation of this alkaloid, and are used for want of better,
provided that separation is not hindered by too great a quantity
of secondary alkaloids. &
29
“The total export of fine factory Cinchona bark in 1879,
from the port of Mollendo, merely amounted to between
3oo,ooo and 350,000 kilos, half of which was derived
from the province Caupolican, the extreme north of Bolivia,
which tends to show that there the extirpation of the trees
has not yet reached its climax as it has in the Yungas.
“A portion of the Caupolican bark is not Bolivian in a
geographical sense, but is brought from the neighbouring
province of Carabaya, belonging to Peru. Peru forbade
cutting any Cinchona bark throughout the entire republic,
doubtless with the intention after a certain time, of
forming an estanco or monopoly of this produce, though
the fruitlessness of these attempts having been recognised,
the government of Peru by decree of December 11th, again
permitted the cutting, on condition that every person
engaged in this industry should plant ten trees in the
forest annually, an ordinance which remains, and will
remain, a dead letter. This is much to be deplored, for were
such a regulation stringently maintained, it would effectually
take away all fear of extirpation. The southern provinces
of Santa-Cruz and Cochabamba yield an ample supply of
false Cinchona bark possessing no quinine, and worthless
for the manufacturer, but it serves for the fabrication
of another very useful product in Europe, the so-called
quinine-wine. Of these trees, from which I am doing my
best to obtain seeds, is to be discovered as yet no trace
of any diminution, although the yearly exportation of the
bark exceeds 200,000 kilos, the average value being about
three gulden per kilo '. The price of fine quill factory
Cinchona varied in 1879 from 180 to 225 dollars per quintal
free on board at Mollendo, equalling 15 to 17 francs per
kilogram.” *
This report of our esteemed fellow countryman Schuhkraft
* Roughly, about I S. Io d. per lb. avoirdupois B. D. J. *
30
is extremely interesting. From a recently received private
report it appears that shortly afterwards, the Bolivian govern-
ment promulgated a new and amended law as to ob-
taining state lands, by which the holders are assured of better
guarantees.
An explanation is certainly wanted as to Schuhkraft's state-
ment that he was busy collecting seeds from species of
Cinchona whose worth he himself considered small '. That
it is profitable to export barks which are only fit for phar-
maceutical preparations, when it is previously explained that
barks of less than 2 °/, quinine, are as regards export as
good as worthless, sounds strange indeed, especially when we
take into consideration the situation of the producing regions
with relation to the nearest places of shipment Certainly a
great difficulty for export from Bolivia, is that produce as
a rule must find its way through foreign territory (Peru) to
reach the principal, and oft mentioned port of Mollendo. But as
the South American barks must be destined for the preparation of
quinine-wine, then it will not be doubted that on account of
the expense, it cannot remain in competition with the Succº-
ruðra barks raised in the British and Dutch Indies, which are
eminently suitable for that purpose. This species can hardly
thrive quicker and more robustly even in South America, than it
does in suitable estates in the Indian possessions of both nations,
where it can return a rich paying harvest in from 4 to 6 years,
provided the prices of the last years do not fall too much.
! Letters received at the moment of going to press give us the key to the riddle,
and it now seems that I myself can give the clue. I had commissioned de Heer Schuh-
kraft to collect seeds from various districts, that we might thereby possibly meet
with superior kinds for cultivation.
31
C H A P T E R III.
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTIONS, ORIGINAL OCCURRENCE.
The Cinchona trees grow on the eastern slopes of the Cor-
dilleras, or Andes range of mountains, between North Lat, Io"
and 22° South Lat., and thus are localised in the territories of
the South American States of Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, Columbia
(formerly called New Grenada) and Venezuela. The height
above the sea level, at which the trees occur, varies from 1200
to 3270 metres , and so extends from the temperate regions
to the cold mountain zone. The exact limits cannot be given;
on this subject the reports of numerous travellers differ widely,
and as all of them furnish what appear to be accurate height
measurements, it becomes very difficult to sharply define the
places of Cinchona growth, since the exploitation of the trees
in the course of time has materially altered and restricted the
original limits.
Cinchona trees are usually met with, according to C. A. J. A.
Oudemans “, between 162o and 26oo metres * above the
sea. On the testimony of various travellers, who in his opinion
had opportunity to become thoroughly acquainted with the
subject, Junghuhn accepted the notion, that Cinchona barks
were more powerful or effectual the higher and colder the
district in which trees grew, on the other hand the less
effectual the lower and warmer the locality. Humboldt and others
seem to be of the same opinion; Weddell left the question
open, and according to our experience in Java, this was very
" In English feet, 3937 and io/30 respectively. B. D. J.
* Handleiding tot de pharmacognosie van het planten- en dieremrijk. Amsterdam,
(C. L. Brinkman) 1880. (Introduction to the pharmacognosis of the vegetable and
animal kingdoms.)
* Reduced to English feet, 5250, and 8530 B. D. J.
32
prudent. To confine ourselves to simple fact, we observe that
Junghuhn estimated the C. Calisaya zone to be between
4500 and 5500 feet, and the C. ſancifolia zone between
65oo and 7500 feet above the sea '.
We now know, that amongst the Calisayas, some are to be
found very poor in quinine, yet to make up for that, the better
Calisayas are much superior to the best C. lancifolia.
Meanwhile, the experiments in India have not as yet given
us positive information whether the richness of the various species
of Cinchona, or even of the individuals of the same species,
is absolutely and by preference, dependent upon the relative
situation of the localities of growth above the sea. Nevertheless,
it is quite certain that the influences of climate and soil,
produce effects upon the growth, development, and duration
of the species and individuals ".
The most westerly point in the Cinchona regions, lies in
Loja, formerly called Loxa, the mart of the Cinchona barks
of Ecuador, and the native country of C. succăruára and C.
officinalis, South Lat. 4", and West Long. 62° "; the most
northerly at Caracas, the chief town of Venezuela, North
Lat. Io" 30', and West Long, 49” “; the most southern at Santa
Cruz in Bolivia, South Lat. 18° and West Long. 45° 30' ".
The entire region thus forms a wide bay, the opening of which
* These height are given in Paris feet, and the equivalents in English measure
are 4924, 6027, 7 II 3 and 82O7. B. D. J.
2 Junghuhn has himself in a later report, doubted the influence of high situation
on the amount of alkaloid, whilst De Vrij remarked that the amount of alkaloid
and quinovic-bitter shows itself to vary so greatly in different material, that general
conclusions may be derived from it, with some amount of certainty.
The Cascarilleros are convinced, that “el arbor qui mira la nevada” (the
tree which looks upon the snow) is the richest, and the nearer to the snow the
richer! Also the trees met with on the eastern slopes are considered the poorest
and this in proportion as they grow lower down, and are more exposed to the mists
rom the rivers.
3 West Long. 79° 52' from Greenwich. B. D. J.
* West Long. 67° 2' from Greenwich. B. D. J
* West Long. 62° 23' from Greenwich. B. D. J
33
is turned towards the east. The whole Cinchona region is
estimated to cover a surface of 20,000 square miles, ‘an extent
as large as France, Spain and Portugal together.
As to Cinchona forests in a strict sense, there are none so
far as we know; the trees are met with scattered throughout
the forests. In the territory of Bolivia, the Andes reach their
greatest height, and at the same time their greatest breadth.
The elevated valleys of the Andes have an agreeable climate;
in Peru the Andes divide into two or three parallel chains,
which again unite into colossal groups of mountains, and so may
be considered to form a series of table lands and high valleys,
which average from .35oo to 4000 * metres above the level
of the sea. The highlands proper have a dry climate, visited
however, almost daily by tremendous thunder storms.
Humboldt estimates the average temperature at a height of
from 5400 to 7200 feet in the Andes, at 20—18° centigrade”.
Subsequent observations by Caldas show however, 15–14° centi-
grade, for a height of 5000 to 8300 feet “. Numerous observ-
ations taken by Junghuhn on high mountain summits in Java,
yield the result that in all zones lying above 6000 and 7000
feet, the temperature falls more rapidly than is the case in
similar latitudes in South America, so that thus the snow line
would in all probability be lower in Java, and might perhaps
be found at a height of 13,000 feet or thereabouts, if mountains
of that elevation existed in Java.
The greatest ascertained height there is only I 1,500 feet.
The difference in temperature can be explained by the isolated
situation and conical shape of the Javan mountains, by the
excessive steepness of the slopes considered as a whole, and also
by the general condition of the island, which is all together
* 20 Ooo geographical square miles, 15 to a degree, are equal to 4,237,522 English
square miles. B. D. J.
* In English feet, I I, 483 and 13, 124.
* ln English feet, 5910 and 7880, and a temperature of 68–64° Fahr. B. D. J.
* Similarly reduced, 5472 and 9083 English feet. B. D.J.
3
34
wanting in the extensive, outstretching table-lands, like those
which the continent of South America possesses.
In spite of these observations, and the conclusions drawn thence,
Junghuhn supposed that in the temperate mountain zone of
South America where the Cinchona trees are met with, espe-
cially on the eastern slope of the Corderilleras between 5000 and
7OOO feet, that on declivities covered with forest, under
similar circumstances, the same, or at least a slightly varying
temperature is found, as is the case at similar heights, and
on the same, or nearly the same latitude as Java. The
difference should by analogy of outward circumstance, be actually
not more than one degree centigrade lower than in South
America. In the latter country however the temperature shows
3 to 4 degrees more than in the same zone of elevation in Java.
As Junghuhn has pointed out, the similarity of the flora of
South America and that of Java at about the same heights is
remarkable. That he nevertheless, as much as possible aimed
at cultivating Cinchona in the latter at a greater relative height,
than it was met with in the former, is explained by the
opinion to which he clung so long, that more efficacious barks
are obtained from the trees, in proportion as they grow at
a greater elevation.
We are involuntarily obliged to speak of the original occur-
rence of the Cinchona when entering into comparisons with
regard to Java; we have come to it by a regular transi-
tion, and its intimate connection with our present topic, and
thereby spare a longer relation, when we shall presently have to
treat of the acclimatization of the Cinchona plant.
:k: ::
$:
The genus Cºnchona belongs to the Natural order RUBIACEAE,
of which CINCHONEAE form a section. e
Cinchonae are evergreen trees or bushes with opposite, decus-
sate, simple, entire, petiolate leaves, having the centre vein
*
35
strongly developed, and on the under surface, a considerable
number of side veins. In shape the leaf varies from nearly
circular to lanceolate, the upper surface being with or without
hairs. Certain species met with in Java, C. Pahudiana,
C. Hasséarliana, and some varieties of C. Calisaya are very
hairy; C. lanceolata is so to some extent, though this may be con-
sidered as identical with C. Pahudiana, or almost a variety of it.
The leaves of nearly all Cinchona plants of whatever species
are hairy at first. The circular leaf is mostly met with in
the large leaved kinds, of which we possess in Java, C. succi.
rubra, C. caloptera, C. micrantha, C. Calisaya, and its variety
anglica, and C. officinalis, which are divided into almost
numberless varieties, amongst which the lanceolate leaf occurs.
In the axils of the primary side veins in some species, for
example the true C. Calisaya, C. officinalis, C. lancifolia,
C. micrantha, and C. Hasséarliama, are found little pits, or
scrobicul, which exude an astringent juice; in other cases a
small tuft of stiff hairs. In the intervals between the insertion
of the leafstalks, on both sides of the young branches, there
are two crooked, small, supporting leaves, or stipules, which
soon fall off, and belong naturally, one to the right, the other
to the left hand leaf.
The flowers form at first a dichasium ” which again forms
a rich, feathery, radiating inflorescence, shortly stalked, and
provided with bracts. They have further, an inferior, two-
celled ovary, with numerous ascending ovules, attached to
the partition, a trumpet-shaped sweet smelling corolla, with
five oblong or ovate segments, having tufted fleshy hairs, or
fringe on the inner surface and along the edges, valvate in
aestivation, with a small five-toothed calyx, five stamens alternate
* A dich a siu m is, according to Dr. Oudemans, what was formerly termed
a cyme, that is an inflorescence which never gives off more than two side bran-
ches from the axis. The same phenomenon repeats itself frequently in the secondary
axes, which themselves branch in the same manner.
36
with the segments of the corolla, situated either low down
in the corolla tube of the long styled flowers, or high up in
those of the short styled form, dehiscing inwards by slits, towards
a short or long style, which terminates in two stigmas. The
flowers of Cºnchoma are thus dimorphic; but whether dimor-
phism occurs in the same tree, as asserted by some, has never
been certainly seen by us.
The fruit crowned with the calyx, is an ovate, oblong or
lanceolate capsule, which divides from beneath upwards, the
fruit stalk also splitting, springing open with two valves, and
contains numerous flat, broad-winged, shield-shaped seeds.
When properly matured, the seeds are brownish yellow or
light brown, those of C. officinalis, however, are always darker
coloured, sometimes chestnut brown. These are also distin-
guishable by their considerably greater size and weight, and their
broader thicker embryo. Well developed capsules contain I2 to
38 perfect seeds, on an average about 25. A thousand well dried
seeds, freed from all impurities, weigh from O.355 to O.365 gram-
me, consequently a single seed weighs about half a millegramme. '
The seeds of C. officinalis however, form an exception;
we have not our observations on this point at hand, but we
shall not be far from the truth, in estimating them to be from
50 to IOO per cent. heavier. \
As regards the odour of the Cinchona flowers, we cannot
fairly compare them with any well known European flowers.
They resemble the jasmine, as well as the lilac; it is worth
mentioning however that, this scent does not occur in every
species of Cºnchona, for it is strongest in C. Calisaya, and
absent from C. Pahalaſiana. The colour of the flowers, varies from
pure white, as in the true C. Zedgeriana and C. micrantha,
through rose, in C. Calisaya, C. succăruðra, C. Pahudiana to
1 One thousand seeds would therefore average, say five and a quarter grains,
about one-ninetieth of an ounce troy; a millegramme is approximately O.I.543 of a
grain. B. D. J.
37
violet or purple, in C. officina/s and C. Mancifolia. The colour
of the leaves is also very varied; ranging from light green
in C. succăruðra, to a darker lustrous tint in C. officinalis
whilst C. micrantha is brownish-green, C. caloptera shows a
lighter shade, and certain varieties of C. Calisaya, such as
Schuhéraft and Ledgeriana, are coloured on the underside
of the leaf with clear chestnut brown. Indeed if attention
be given to the various shades and shapes of the leaf, even
on the same tree, they are found to be so various, that by
them alone a species or variety cannot be recognised with
certainty.
All the forms, even of the tree in its entirety, seem depend-
ent on a chain of circumstances; it has further been amply
ascertained, that Cºnchona easily degenerates, and passes through
innumerable gradations, in consequence of the influences of
soil and climate, as well as of hybridization.
The height and age attained by Cinchona trees in South
America, are naturally difficult to state, for no one has followed
the development-history of individuals; in the East Indies, the
cultivation of the acclimatized plant is still of too a recent date
to give an answer. However, so far as experience has gone,
we shall hereafter show.
In America trees are met with of a height of 80 feet, with
a circumference of five feet; on the other hand, there are also
bushes merely from 4 to 12 feet high. According to Weddell,
a tree of the best description, may yield 6 to 71, aroðas of
dry bark, each aroda being 1 I'/2 kilos; and from individuals
of Io metres high, and O.6 metre in circumference, an average
of IO kilos is obtained. Plenty of specimens like this, from Io to
I5 years old, can already be pointed out in Java, and we may
refer to the information given by S. von Warsewicz, inspector
of the botanical garden at Cracow, who made important inves-
tigations in America, that C. officinalis is a tender species,
but it seems to thrive well in Java, growing there as quickly
38
and even taller than in America. Warsewicz was obliged to
search eight days in the Cinchona forests, before he found
C. Calisaya growing as high as 50 to 60 feet.
In the East Indies the most important thing is, that many Cin-
chona trees there have already attained an age of 20 years, and
that their development, where they have been planted and
maintained under moderately good conditions, on comparison
with other introduced cultivated plants and even with indi-
genous trees, in our judgment, leaves nothing to be desired.
The Cinchona plant possesses a so called tap-root, like
coffee; this form however is only absolute in young individuals,
and alters much during the further growth. The roots rarely
penetrate deeper than O.6 metre, and as a rule branch imme-
diately from the collar, in which case, the secondary roots be-
come more strongly developed than the primary or tap-root
itself.
C H A P T E R IV.
THE INTRODUCTION OF CINCHONA INTO JAVA.
In our historical summary, the instigation towards undertaking
trials for acclimatizing the Cinchona plant, was sufficiently set forth.
At the instance and by help of Weddell, the French government
took the initiative in Algeria. At the beginning it appeared
as if good results might be looked for; but either the choice of
situation was not fortunate, or else the officials were insufficiently
acquainted with the needs of the foreign nurslings, so that
they were not placed under the most favourable conditions; the
39
experimental planting, therefore, soon went entirely to the bad; ac-
cording to the official reports they were annihilated by the sirocco.
The English government was no more fortunate in its first
attempts, and it was generally thought that the Netherlands
in its rich and extensive colonies, possessed the best opportun-
ity with regard to satisfactory results, to venture on a new and
earnest experiment. Indeed, the question of a lasting supply from
the mother-country of Cinchona, having regard to the uncontrolled
exploitation in South America, had taken an international charac-
ter, in which all civilised peoples may be said to be concerned.
In the Netherlands, the full weight of this consideration was
also felt. A first attempt towards bringing over the Cinchona
to Java, was made in 1829 by Blume. During the years from
1830 to 1837 the subject was considered also by Korthals,
Reinwardt, Fritze and Junghuhn; meanwhile with but little
good result.
The government was quite convinced of the desirability of
earnest efforts being made, but the conditions of the time
could not be called favourable for the prosecution of a task which
would doubtless demand considerable pecuniary sacrifices, and
of which the results and eventual fruit could not be anti-
cipated.
It is a noteworthy fact, that, when the Director of Cultures
in Java, Heer de Vogel, in 1837 drafted model-contracts for
issue in hiring waste lands, he was already thinking of the
possibility of a special exploitation by private means for Cin-
chona culture.
But the time for vigorous measure had not yet arrived;
men however like Vrolik, Mulder, de Vriese, and Miquel were not
weary of calling the attention of the government to the subject
and keeping it awake, and it may be added that finally the
travels and writings of Weddell, gave an impetus towards a
decision which could no longer be restrained, after his increas-
ingly weighty argument, of the real urgency of the case and
40
his exact information given about the ways and means towards
succeeding in the quest.
It was reserved for the Minister for the Colonies, Ch. F. Pahud,
to undertake and carry out the necessary arrangements for the
great work. In the year 1851 Pahud communicated his plans
to F. Junghuhn, at that time sojourning in the Netherlands,
and already famous as an Indian naturalist. These plans were
on an ample scale, and of wide comprehension.
The government wished to send an expert to South America,
there to collect seeds and plants and bring them over to Java.
Junghuhn was chosen for this difficult but honourable task, and
it was expected of him, that he would eagerly seize the oppor-
tunity to attain to a thorough knowledge of the country, which
had become famous by the classical writings of A. von Hum-
boldt and many others. Junghuhn applied himself assiduously
to study all the existing writings and official information, which
would conduce to his preparation for this highly important mis-
sion, and the satisfactory issue of the subject.
Meantime, the project came to nothing. As Junghuhn testified
some years later in his reports, he gave up his commission,
and the distinction of the mandate, on behalf of his old friend,
J. K. Hasskarl, who had been the colonial botanist during the
years 1837 to 1843, and in 1846 was engaged at the state botan-
ical garden at Buitenzorg in Java, but afterwards having been
removed from his proper sphere, was at that time in Dussel-
dorf employed in business, still ardently longing to be replaced
in active service, which would satisfy his scientific knowledge
and love of Naturet.
What followed need not be detailed. The fact is, that the
Dutch government forced the difficult mission on Dr. Hasskarl,
whose doings and actions we must now briefly recount.
Difficulties and dangers of all kinds were involved in the
commission, for cooperation on the part of the South Americans
could hardly be reckoned on. It might rather be expected that
41
every step, and every action which might seem to threaten the
maintenance of their monopoly would be resisted, whilst in the
distracted political condition of the South American Republics,
any foreigner appearing to cherish the design of attacking the
most notable and richest source of livelihood, had very little
guarantee of his personal safety ".
Thus the commission required the utmost delicacy of man-
agement. Confidence was reposed in a scientific man, who
possessed besides courage and hardihood, a strong constitution,
experience and hearty devotion.
Hasskarl was sufficiently prepared and ready to start, when
a circumstance happened which did not make his task seem
easier, and moreover compelled him to be very careful. An inter-
ested but somewhat clumsy publicist, unseasonably disclosed the
plans of the Dutch government abroad, and it was reasonable
to expect that this would be reported to South America,
where the inhabitants thus enlightened, would certainly do their
best to counteract and frustrate all attempts. Hasskarl's papers
were drawn up and made ready, with an eye to these facts
and considerations.
The intrepid explorer left Europe in December 1852, as
Herr Müller, native of Cassel, living at Amsterdam. Having
arrived in the West Indies, he thence travelled over the Isthmus
of Panama to Callao, which port after numerous difficulties
and perils was reached on the 31st January 1853.
In the West Indies and at Panama yellow fever was
then raging, consequently quarantine was observed in the
splendid bay of Callao.
A surgeon came on board to inspect the crew and passen-
* It appears quite true, by reports just to hand from the heart of the Cinchona
countries, that the South Americans are still out of humour at the disturbance of
their monopoly. At the present time however it is easy to collect seeds of Cinchona
there, although the illusion of thereby getting possession of the better sorts must
not be entertained. On the contrary, there prevails a resolute intention, to further
the propagation of inferior descriptions outside their own country.
42
gers. He did ample justice to the abundant table of the steam
ship, and probably it was to be ascribed to this, that he did
not notice the symptoms of the dreaded disease, which accord-
ing to everyone else, were plainly to be recognised in one
of the passengers; the official doctor saw no danger, and
declared everything in order. The quarantine was raised, the
passengers disembarked, and the following day, Callao for the
first time became acquainted with the terrible yellow fever.
The passenger died; Callao was infected.
Herr Müller hastened to leave the place, and turned imme-
diately eastward towards Lima, the ancient royal city, the Paris
of South America. Various circumstances here compelled him
to a stay of three months, which he turned to profit in
acquiring the language of the country, and opening up good
connections.
Just at this time, the Peruvian government had the idea of
peopling the eastern districts of its territory with European
colonists. The distant uncultivated wastes were still for the
most part unknown.
Our traveller made good use of this circumstance. He had
pretended to travel with a scientific aim, and now agreed to
give his best experience and observations, provided the govern-
ment assured him of its moral support. *
Thus it fell out; recommendations were sent to officials and
the clergy in the interior; the government therein expressed
its desire that all things required by the traveller Müller,
should be furnished, and indeed, he thus obtained the best
opportunity to procure the necessary knowledge and data.
For more than a year Hasskarl roamed about the Andes,
sometimes penetrating to a height of 15,000 feet above the sea 2.
From every point of view, and in ample measure he experienced
difficulties, incidental to a waste, unknown, aud very primitive or
uncivilised country. There was no lack of dangerous, and some-
1 In English feet = 16404. B. D. J.
43
times droll adventures; with all that even in the midst of
the Cinchona forests, it seemed still difficult to collect seeds
and plants. Now and then, it cost much toil and tact, to
dispel arising distrust or to adroitly divert it, and once
in that position, there was no end to obstructions and impo-
sitions.
Nevertheless he succeeded in getting possession of some
seeds, and sent them by trusty hands direct to the Netherlands,
and after the turn of the year, several hundreds of young plants
were collected, which safely reached the coast, packed in
twenty one cases. By a concurrence of accidents, some others
dispatched in advance, were injured by neglect at Panama.
At the end of August 1854 Hasskarl was able to embark
at Callao with his costly treasures on board the Prins Fre-
derik Hendrik, a war ship sent from the Indies. A heavy task
was accomplished, but the series of cares and disappointments
was not closed with it.
Sailing in a westerly direction in the Pacific Ocean, they
arrived at Makassar, where the war steamer Gedeh took over
the charge, and brought it to Batavia on the 13th December 1854.
The concern now was to forward the young plants to the
cool mountains as speedily as possible. During the long voyage
they had suffered much, so that not more than seventy reached
Tjibodas on the Gédé range of mountains, an establishment to
be described presently.
Hasskarl's mission may be said to have been completed with
credit and satisfaction, and the Dutch government gave him
substantial proofs of recognition and estimation. Certainly to
no one better than to him, could the further care of the new
colonists be entrusted; so Hasskarl was charged with the direction
of Cinchona culture in Java, and acquitted himself of the task
according to his powers till the commencement of 1856, when,
in consequence of continued weariness, constant application
and perhaps also of disappointments without end, he became
44
ill and found himself obliged to return to Europe, about the
middle of the year . Dr. F. Junghuhn was enjoined to take
over Hasskarl's work and to continue it.
What was it meanwhile that had taken place there at that
time and previous to Hasskarl’s mission?
Many years previously, a plant which had been sent to Java
by Miquel, was planted in the hospital garden at Weltevreden,
and there was long considered to be the true Cºnchona. In
1856 I saw the plant, then a healthy bush, but it had been
known for some time, to be nothing else than Cascarilla
muzoniensis.
In 1851 there was in Paris a true Cºnchona plant belong-
ing to the best species, C. Calisaya, it was raised from
seed, collected by Weddell in America. Professor de Vriese
received this precious specimen from MM. Thibaut et Keteleer
of Paris, in exchange for certain Indian plants. Transferred to
the garden of the academy of Leyden, it was afterwards placed
with the greatest care in a specially prepared case and dispatched
to Java, 1st December 1851, by the sailing vessel Frederik
Hendrik, P. Huidekoper, master. In April 1852, Teijsmann,
the curator of the state botanical garden at Buitenzorg,
received this firstling. It had suffered so much, that it could
not be kept alive, but thanks to Teijsmann's care, one cutting
was obtained before it succumbed, which developed robustly and
was transferred to Tjibodas in the Gédé range of mountains,
the so-called strawberry garden of the Governor General, about
4400 feet above the sea”. The diligent Teijsmann quickly obtained
a new individual from this plant, itself once a cutting, and the
specimen booked as Calisaya No. 2, obtained a place close
to the parent plant, between the thick roots of a hewn down,
1 Dr. Carl Müller gave a long account of Hasskarl's noteworthy travels, in
the “Deutsche Revue der Gegenwart” for 1873 The whole question of the intro-
duction of the Cinchona tree into Java, was taken up by Dr. W. H. de Vriese in
an interesting pamphlet in 1855.
* In Paris feet, or 4812 English feet. B. D. J.
45
gigantic forest tree. Though this situation may seem very
narrow and confined, experience had taught the skilful propa-
gator to reckon precisely on it, that on the other hand, an
excellent shelter would be secured for the tender nursling.
The parent tree and its offspring vied with each other in
rapid growth; according to the observations of 1st January 1856,
N°. I had developed to 3 metres, and Nº. 2 to 2°/, metres.
In July 1859 the dimensions indicated were 16 and 15 feet,
and in January 1865, 28 and 24 feet. In 1866 Nº. 2 (the cutting
obtained from Nº. 1) began to languish, and then threatening
to die, it was sawn off about 2 decimetres’ above the ground.
The tree of about fourteen years old had reached a height of
8. I 25 metres, with a circumference round the trunk of O.8 metre.
Io kilos of dry bark were obtained from the sawn off stem,
whilst if the tree had been dug out, and the bark harvested from
all the branches, the stump, and the roots also, the outturn
would certainly have amounted to 12 kilos. A large piece of
the sawn trunk was forwarded to Bandoeng, and being of
historical value, it is carefully preserved in the office of the
Director of the government Cinchona culture. In the same
way, disks were taken from the handsome stem with the bark
still on, and sent to the Colonial Museum at Haarlem. The
tree N°. I remained several years alive, and attained consi-
derable dimensions; from the stump of Nº. 2, numerous, robust
Suckers sprang up; but the original Cinchona establishment
was abandoned about the year 1866, and attached as a section
to the state botanical garden. Special care being no longer
demanded, the nurseries for Cinchona cultivation were transferred
to the central range of Preanger, and then, as the original
trees at Tjibodas were no longer necessary for propagating,
they had less attention devoted to them, so that at the present
time, they probably are no longer to be found.
* Nearly eight inches. B. D. J.
46
It will presently appear that the two nurslings so often ment-
ioned had their full share in the multiplication, and thereby must
constantly have been subject to severe treatment. Thus, for the
purpose of chemical investigation, strips had been repeatedly
cut from the bark of the stem, all of which taken together
from these two, as well as from all the remaining original Cin-
chona trees at Tjibodas, so much and so long experimented
on, in every shape and form, that their tenacity of life may
be appreciated now that they did not succumb more speedily
and in greater numbers. In the barks of Calisaya I and 2, from
5 to 6°/, of alcaloids were found, under different circumstances,
and by various analysts, produced for the most part as quinine
and its analogous compounds.
We were therefore right in hoping we possessed the best and
richest description of Cinchona, and it is not to be wondered
that, that the endeavour was to increase the number of indivi-
duals of such excellent quality by artificial propagation, as
rapidly as possible. The trees flowered repeatedly but the
flowers always withered, and fell off without setting fruit. From
1864 onwards, the trees at Tjibodas were allowed to rest, and
in the year named, two of the specimens in the strawberry-
garden were manured. In 1865 they yielded some well deve-
loped capsules, from the seeds of which a few young plants
germinated and were planted out at Tjineroean in the Malawar
range. The seedlings did not wholly resemble the parents,
but by progressive development, the majority at an advanced
period of life, came to resemble small trees showing single,
unmistakable, important deviations, amongst other things, in
hairiness of the leaves.
The strawberry garden at Tjibodas, where the two parent
trees stood isolated, was so far separated from the higher
situated Cinchona plantations, where other species occurred,
that it was hardly possible to suspect hybridization, unless
insects might have conveyed the pollen from the trees at a
47
higher station; the wind though could not be the carrier, for
a broad strip of forest between both sections of the nursery
was left untouched.
We shall subsequently see that bastards or varieties are
mostly obtained by multiplication by seeds, and that these, har-
vested from one tree and at the same time, as a rule produce
plants, very various in appearance and form. It is well to
remember that from seeds brought by Weddell from America,
hybrids or varieties were already derived (See Vol. 1, p. 61 of
my book, De Oost-I n dische cultures in be trekking
to than del en nijverheid, where the distinguishing points
of hybrids are considered,) and in this case it is explained,
that in the seedlings the characters of both the parent-trees
reVert.
With regard to quality, it appeared in the course of time,
that the barks just described were not in reality so good as the
first repeated analytical results had declared. Since chemistry
has taught how to separate with greater nicety the various
Cinchona alkaloids, analysis brought to light the fact, that much
of the pretended quinine in the Calisaya barks, N* I and 2,
was nothing else than quinidine and the so called amorphous
alkaloid.
Having thus in a short space sufficiently recounted the
history of the first Cinchona plant which reached Java, we
must now return to Hasskarl's mission and closely follow up its
results.
We have mentioned in passing, that Hasskarl during his
stay in America, sent seeds to the Netherlands. According to
his statements, these were derived from two varieties of Cºn-
choma Calisaya, and also from C. ovača, C. amygdalºfolia,
and C. pubescens. Some of these seeds, were, with the pow-
erful cooperation of de Vriese, immediately sent to India,
and the remainder were entrusted for sowing, to the directors
of the botanic gardens, in the Netherlands.
48
In Java, the curator Teijsmann was naturally selected as
the man to take charge of the treasure thus acquired. Teijs-
mann knew that the home of the Cinchonas was in the higher,
cooler, mountain zones, and at Tjipannas, Tjibodas, Tjibeurem,
and Kandang-batak, respectively about 1200, 1290, 1460, and
2372 metres above the sea, he, with the assistance of the
skilful superintendent Teuscher, laid out numerous and extensive
nursery-beds, on which the seeds were sown with the greatest
care, and provided with the needful protection.
These estates were chosen, for the simple reason that no
other land under Teijsmann's supervision was available. He
gave an account of his proceedings in letters dated 30th January
1854, to which he added a proposition, that in order to ensure
the germination of the seeds, a commission of experts should
be nominated, whose function it would be, to trace out suitable
lands, and to determine their elevation. He further urged the
experimental culture of Cinchona in selected places, not confin-
ing it to that region, but also seeking elsewhere for suitable land.
With this reminiscence, borrowed from authentic sources,
we join in a hearty protest against the accusation, so often
rumoured, that Teijsmann “obstinately and irremovably clung
to the purpose of fixing the future Cinchona culture, exclusively
to the Tjibodas estate”. Whoever at the present time, ascribes
the sad ending of the Tjibodas Cinchona plantation to Teijs-
mann, simply shows insufficient acquaintance with the facts,
and besides, inattention to the history of the plantation. It
would be useless, and here at least is not the place for it,
to awaken old quarrels, or to take sides with this or that cham-
pion, but esteem for Teijsmann's industry compels us to place
the facts in their true just light, and as we were never infa-
tuated with the idea of an extended Cinchona cultivation on
the narrow mountain ridge on the northwest aspect of the Gédé
* In English feet 3637, 4232, 4790, 7546. B. D. J.
49
range, we may not deny, that the soil and climate at least did
not appear unfavourable there. The two oldest Calisaya trees,
and many others, of IO to 14 years old planted still higher,
which we have visited repeatedly, have always astonished us
by their strength and active development, in spite of the mor-
tal experiments to which as will immediately be shown, they
were subjected when young by attempts at artificial propagation,
how many of the previously mentioned intended nursery-
beds succeeded, we cannot say for certain. The plants resulting
therefrom, with those subsequently brought from the Nether-
lands, raised from the seeds entrusted to the various botanic
gardens, were put out at regular intervals of 20 feet, in the
specially cleared ground. In December 1854 Hasskarl himself
came over, and brought with him specimens from America,
though it seems uncertain what this number was. On the first of
January 1856 there were mentioned as being at Tjibodas, the two
Calisayas in the strawberry garden, respectively 3 and 2.75 metres
high, 42 Calisayas and 6o Ovatas, raised from seeds. Amongst
the plants introduced direct from America, there were three,
O.8, O.5 and O.25 metre high. The weather was unfavour-
able at the beginning of 1856; many plants were damaged
by violent winds, and the frequent showers did much harm.
By this time 238 Calisayas and 50 Ovatas, had been obtained
from cuttings. It was said in the earliest reports, that the plants
showed a strong inclination to branch quickly, and these branches
made suitable cuttings. On attentively going over the monthly
reports in succession, it will be perceived, that Hasskarl and
Junghuhn also, by persevering, accomplished much by making
cuttings, although it becomes apparent thereby, that relatively
few grew up to plants, though Junghuhn states in one of those
reports, that not more than 10 °/, of the cuttings failed.
The truth is, as we have found during eleven years, when
we could avail ourselves of riper experience and better means,
that, except in C. succiruðra and C. officinalis, cuttings as
4.
50
a rule, are most troublesome and deceptive. If well put in, and
looked after, cuttings will sometimes for months maintain a favour-
able outward appearance, and some will even seem to grow.
If however they are examined more closely, there will be found
little or no sign of rooting, but on the contrary, at the base of
the cut surface, a knob shaped thickening, the so called callus.
Now we can imagine, that at first the propagators allowed
themselves to be deceived by these appearances, and that
they seemed to see thrifty, healthy plants, while they really
were merely fresh and green cuttings, without a good system
of roots. Such individuals planted out in the open ground, must
as a matter of course speedily die, and we must seek in this
direction for the explanation of numberless disappointments,
which were constantly experienced in propagating, when this
was not accomplished by means of fresh, well developed seeds.
So also at the present time it does not seem strange to us
that so few plants germinated out of the mass of seeds sent
by Hasskarl. Granted that they were in a germinative condi-
tion, it remains still a fact, that the older the seed, the more
difficult to start it into growth, and if many even now are
lost from fresh, healthy seeds, sown broadcast on beds however
protected against wind and weather, etc., it is evident that but
little was to be expected from seed that had travelled far, was
neither new nor fresh, and treated in the way above mentioned.
From 1864 onward, we have repeatedly received Cinchona
seeds direct from America, or vià the Netherlands, and by
another method of treatment, which we shall describe hereafter,
we always obtained a satisfactory number of plants. If the seed
sent by Hasskarl had yielded results in proportionate mea-
sure, Java would in 1855 already have rejoiced in the pos-
session of many thousands of Cinchona plants. But the pro-
perties of the Cinchona seed were to be learned only by costly
and tedious experience. The cultivator Teijsmann himself, who
had by the end of 1853 extensive beds, sown with Cinchona,
51
which judged from our present standpoint, really obtained no
results worth naming, taught us in March 1864 a method of
germinating seeds which we have always found excellent, even
when we had to do with seed no newer and even worse
cared for, than that sent in quantity by Hasskarl.
On the first of May, 1856 there were recorded at Tjibodas,
43 Cinchona Calisaya, 76 C. ovata and 3 C, lanceolata besides
865 cuttings.
The total number of plants was thus actually lessened by
one C. Calisaya, but increased by 15 C. ovata. The C. lanceolata
which are here enumerated for the first time, appear later on
to be identical with the C. ovata, or at most only a variety of it.
In the strawberry garden the two oldest Calisayas con-
tinued growing, and there also we find mentioned a specimen
of Cºnchona pubescens, introduced as we suspect, from the
Netherlands. This plant did not long survive, at least it was
soon omitted from the reports, and it may be left out of our
reckoning, for no propagation if it seems to have taken place.
This single specimen had reached a height of O.5 metre.
Ths latest reports of Hasskarl concerning Tjibodas, are dated
2 and 3 July 1856, and are compiled from data of the super-
intendent Teuscher on duty there.
According to this official report there were on July 1st as
follows, 1 13 Cºnchona Calisaya and 88 C. ovata, the latter better
developed than the former. Junghuhn who on the 3rd July follow-
ing personally inspected the condition of the plantation, reported
only 63 plants in all, 37 being C. Calisaya. The dimension of
these were, 26 under, and 9 above o.25 metre; the two others had
reached a height of even more than O.5 metre, whilst of C. ovata
only 8 specimens attained more than O. 275 metre. With the trans-
fer of the direction of culture, there was thus suddenly brought
to light the inaccuracies, for which Hasskarl, then already under
treatment in the hospital at Weltevreden, can hardly be blamed.
# *
Sk
52
Quite in accordance with Teijsmann's representations of
30 January 1854, Junghuhn had already succeeded in directing
the attention of the Dutch government to the excellent situa-
tion for an extension of Cinchona culture offered by the cen-
tral mountain range of Preanger. He had moreover weighty
objections to Tjibodas, and also in a general way, against
clearing the Gédé range.
The objections consisted in the unfavourable formation of
the ground, the want of shelter against wind and of water
supply, the inadequacy of the ground, as well its quality
and lastly the impending danger from the active neighbouring
crater. Above all, Junghuhn considered the plantation to
lie too low.
In the Malawar range (Zuid-Bandoeng, about the centre of
the Preanger regency) there was not one of these drawbacks;
on the contrary every condition was favourable, both in regard
to climate and soil, as to the formation of the ground and
the amount of suitable lands disposable. Junghuhn visited this
region first in October 1839, and all his subsequent writings
and actions testify to his great liking for this neighbourhood.
At that period, there was nothing to be found but boundless,
impenetrable forests, in which the only open spaces were due
to the sulphur springs of the Wajang mountain, and a few
warm springs close by. The entire tableland of Pengalengan,
within the vertical limits of 4400 to 4500 feet above the sea,
estimated to be 9 kilometres from east to west, and fully IO
from north to south, was covered with forest to the tops of
the surrounding mountains. No other mountain district exists
in Java which can vie with this, in its great extent, propor-
tionate height and favourable situation. Towards the close of
1839 a passangrahan (resting place for officials and travellers)
was built, an opening made in the forest at the most suit-
able point, and a road constructed. From this point, the forests
! Respectively 4812 and 492 I in English fect. B. D. J
53
were begun to be cut down, and plantations laid out; this increas-
ing year by year, ended by taking in a considerable portion of
the higher lands.
Junghuhn had fixed his eye upon this region, so highly
favoured by nature. Here would be room for an almost unlim-
ited extension of Cinchona culture, and in these highlands,
which offered the most striking resemblance in climate and
vegetation to the native land of the Cinchona, these plants
brought from South America would not feel strange. The simi-
larity is really remarkable enough to warrant the hypothesis,
that here the Cinchona tree would have to undergo a process
of naturalisation, rather than acclimatization.
Junghuhn started to return on the 1st September 1855 by the
sailing vessel “Minister Pahud” (W. Pfull, master), bringing
with him the Cinchona plants which had been left in the Aca-
demy garden at Leyden. Timely information had previously been
given to the Indian government, so that regulations could be
drawn up for the speedy transmission of the plants on their arrival
at Batavia, to the place chosen by Junghuhn at Pengalengan.
Hasskarl charged himself, during the close of 1855 with-
making the ground ready for the reception of the new guests.
Two kilometres north east of the passangraham Pengalengan,
the centre of the extensive government coffee plantations, and
above these, a space in the forest of about 300 feet in length,
and the same in breadth, was cleared with the utmost celerity.
From the stream which there flows, the future establishment
was named Tjinieroean, 1566 metres above the sea l.
Junghuhn had come back with four cases of a special con-
struction, the so-called Wardian cases, containing 55 Cinchona
Calisaya, 88 C. ovata, and 6 C. lancifolia plants, which whilst
on board, one with another, had reached the height of 1 to
1'), feet, Arriving at Batavia in the first week of December,
Junghuhn reported to the government, that he had succeeded
* That is, 51.40 English feet, B. D. J.
54
in bringing over 139 plants out of 149, in a perfectly healthy
and fresh state. During the voyage, the plants had grown so
much, that their diligent guardian was obliged to cut off some
of the tops, which were put in as cuttings.
On hearing of the arrival, Hasskarl hurried to Batavia, to
transport the new treasure himself to Tjinieroean By the 2nd of
February he was compelled to record the death of 4 C. Calisaya,
and 18 C. ovata. Most of the plants seemed to lose their leaves
and buds, so that they really looked greatly diminished in
general aspect. On the other hand, the same plants had a tendency
to bud out at the bottom of their woody stems. This appearence
was a natural consequence of the topping practised by Junghuhn.
By Hasskarl's report there now remained only 103 plants,
that is, 46 C. Calisaya, 50 C. ovata, and 7 C. lancifolia. The
biggest plant was O.2 metre high .
We must here remark, that the C. lancifolia plants were not
derived from seeds collected by Hasskarl. The Berlin professor,
Dr. Karsten, travelling in New Grenada, had there procured
seeds, which by exchange with the Governor of Surinam, were
presented to the Dutch government. From these, 6 or 7 plants
were raised in the botanic garden at Leyden, which reached
Java under Junghuhn's care.
About the same period as the dispatch of the “Minister Pahud”,
there were shipped to India by the “Corigene” (Rijken master),
106 plants, which were raised in Utrecht. This consignment
did not receive skilled supervision, and thereto it must be ascribed
that although these plants were dispatched forthwith to Tji-
nieroean, according to Hasskarl's report, not more than 7 came
to hand in a fresh state, and 13 in a doubtful condition.
On the 1st April there were only 40 of Junghuhn's plants,
C. Calisaya, 33 C. ovača and 6 C. lancifolia still living; whilst
of the Utrecht consignment not more than two remained.
Dating from Tjinieroean, Hasskarl presented another report,
Not quite 8 inches. B. D. J.
55
with a description, of the Cinchona varieties indicated, accompa-
nied by C. Calisaya leaves of five different forms, to show
that the form of leaf differs remarkably in individuals of the
same species. The report and appendixes were sent to the
Netherlands for the opinion of De Vriese, who confirmed the
accuracy of Hasskari's statement. It was of the utmost import-
ance, to know whether we really possessed the true Cinchoma
Calisaya because this species was generally considered to yield
the barks richest in quinine. De Vriese had kept back a few
plants, and on his proposal Weddell, who was still held to be
the highest authority in the domain of quinology, was invited to
inspect this treasure and pass his opinion thereon. This took
place at Leyden, on the 27th September 1855, and whilst still
at a distance, Weddell recognised and distinguished amongst the
plants, “the true Calisaya, and nothing else, without the slightest
doubt”.
It is necessary to bear in mind, that at this time, only young
plants were to be had for investigation and determination. As
peculiariy characteristic of C. Calisaya, the scrofficul; and the dull
velvety appearence of the leaves were relied on, although this
last is due to a special condition of the cells of the upper
surface of the leaf.
How deceptive these characters are, and how difficult it is
to distinguish even developed, flowering, and fruiting Cinchona
trees, will be seen later on. The scroðicul, do not serve as
a special characteristic of the true C. Calisaya, for as we have
already shown, they are also met with in other species, though
certainly not in the species then called C. ovata.
On the other hand, C. ovata displays in its young state, as
plainly, its peculiar velvety surface. One after another fact was
cleared up by the dispute which ensued later as to specific
determination, as also the fact that the original names seem
to be not entirely irreproachable.
sk ºk
$
56
In June 1856 Hasskarl returned to Europe, resigning the
prosecution of Cinchona culture to Junghuhn.
With this transference of management, the first period of the
new culture was closed. There was now a trial plantation at
Tjibodas; disapproved of by Junghuhn as already stated, and
a second at Tjinieroean, which estate be considered to lie too
low, whilst he moreover deplored the planting out of Cinchona
trees on cleared ground, he had there placed them under the
shade of intentionally planted Dadaps".
Junghuhn also saw a threatening danger in the circumstance
that the stumps and roots of the felled forest trees were left
in the ground; in his opinion the vegetable portions would
proceed to rot, and in every respect open a favourable oppor-
tunity for cryptogamic vegetation, of which the developed
mycelium would overrun and kill the delicate Cinchona plants.
The fact that afterwards, sickly or dead Cinchona plants were
met with, attacked by mycelium, gave support to Junghuhn's
suspicions and fears. Meanwhile we may now, by reason of
many years' experience on hundreds of hectares of ground
cleared and again planted, declare with the greatest possible
certainty, that the causes of the deaths of the Cinchona plants
did not lie in the method of clearing and planting.
Junghuhn's first report was dated 25 July 1856. Besides
the 7 C. Calisaya and one specimen of C. pubescens in the
strawberry garden at Tjibodas, there were then recorded in
that plantation, 41 C. Calisaya and 65 C. ovata.
A mighty revolution was begun in the Malawar range.
From Pengalengan to the summit of the mountain, were twelve
nurseries made, adjoining in a straight line, Tjinieroean being
one, which was already made by Hasskarl. These collective
trial nurseries now lodged 143 plants, 66 of which were at
Tjinieroean, Junghuhn now distinguishing 7 as C. lanceolata.
In the higher plantations there were placed 56 C. Calisaya,
" Various species of Erythrina B. D. J.
57
77 C. ovata, 7 C lanceolata, and 3 C lancifolia, all protected
with the greatest care against injury by animals, etc. The
plants brought by Junghuhn himself from the Netherlands, were
all at Tjinieroean, those higher up the mountain, were derived
from Tjibodas, where the oldest individuals, and the more
difficult to remove, were destined to remain to supply cuttings,
under the care of the superintendent Swart.
In August 1856, the first propagating house at Tjinieroean,
18 feet long and 13 feet wide, was finished; Junghuhn was
hard at work to turn the Malawar range into an English park,
by making roads, leading from Tjinieroean to the upper regions,
which cut through the primeval forest in various directions. Above
Tjinieroean, in the middle of a thick, majestic forest, at a
height of 5790 feet, a small passangraham was built, and
ground cleared. From this place, Gedong-banteng, Junghuhn
wished to regulate and watch his projected gigantic labours.
On 31 August 1856 there were emunerated; on the Malawar
range 143, and at Tjibodas IOS plants; the latter were mentioned
by Junghuhn as being already great, heavy trees. Some hun-
dreds of cuttings (as the small branches or ends of branches when
cut off are called) were taken from these every month, which
were then wrapped in Žisang (Musa) leaves, and sent to Tjinie-
roean, and there received in the propagating house.
It needs scarcely be told, that the first planted or trans-
planted young trees were placed by Junghuhn in the thick
shade of the forest. It appears from everything, that he
remained convinced that these conditions were the prime
requisites for a good and lasting development of Cinchona.
At first the young nurslings were put out along the newly
constructed roads, and thus had, relatively at least, more light
and air, than the rows which were later made, at distances
of 25 feet apart, in the thick forest.
Both undergrowth and trees alike were felled; the ground
cleared simply of weeds, and the Cinchona turned out into a
58
deep, broad hole, so that they were at least from six inches to
a foot when settled, above the trodden ground, in consequence
of breaking up the soil in the hole, after which they were
provided with stout fencing. In this fashion gradually a hundred
thousand Cinchona plants were systematically planted out in
the forests of Malawar, Wajang, Kendeng, Wringin, Patoeha,
and Tangkoeban-Prahoe ranges.
In October 1856 Junghuhn's expectations of the near future
were so great, that he drew up an outline of instruction for
the officers, charged or about to be charged with the super-
intendance of Cinchona culture, and of rules for the foremen in that
department. A preliminary Guide to the culture, soon saw the
light namely in 1858, and even from our present standpoint, it
contains considerations and information in natural history and
climatology of extreme interest.
Junghuhn on the 2nd November 1856, reported that 22 plants
had died at Tjinieroean, which he attributed to the still
imperfect experience of the foreman; the remaining plants
grew day by day.
At that time there was actually an experimental planting
in the Ajang-range (Besoeki) in order to observe the influence
of a drier climate.
Junghuhn carried out this plan on the 21st May 1859; 9 Cºn-
choma Calisaya, 8 C. ovata, and 4 C. lanceolata were planted
at that date at Wonodjambi, 22 19 metres above the sea, in
very fertile soil, in the midst of the forest, each plant separately
provided with a strong fence, since it would not be possible
there to keep a constant watch.
Within two years, 3 individuals were dead, and when the
writer of this visited Wonodjambi in September 1865, he found
still there, 15 vigorous and tall trees, but in want of air and
space, so that a thinning of the surrounding forests was greatly
to be recommended. At the same time it appears that in 1859
* In English feet, 7280. B. D. J.
59
young plants could not be clearly determined; for there stood
prominently forth a handsome specimen of the species, which
Miquel afterwards described as C. caloptera.
In 1863 Junghuhn planted on the cleared table-land Diéng;
2O46 metres above the sea behind the passamgraham there, in
an enclosed nursery, 16 Cinchona trees, belonging to C. Cali-
saya, C. Pahudiana (formerly called C. ovata) C. lancifolia,
and C. succiruðra, (met with amongst C. ovata, and at first
called C. cordifolia, but afterwards C. caloptera) four of each
species. When I surveyed this plantation in September 1865,
there were still 14 freely developed bushes living.
At Tjinieroean meanwhile the dwellings of the foreman and
the staff of workpeople, and the nursery accommodation were
actively pushed on. On the 4th December it was said; all “plants
in the open ground more than three inches high, are growing
admirably, those in the frames satisfactorily; the cuttings root
so fast, that they must be shifted into the largest sized pots.
Tjibodas yields about 300 cuttings per month on an average,
and this number will be increased to 500 or 600, as soon as
sufficient nursery accommodation can be prepared at Tjineroean.”
At Tjibodas they began at this time to take (ſangkokéen, Or
layers, from the biggest trees, by which means robust young
trees could be readily assured.
The report of the 4th January 1859 states, that many plants
in the open ground had died, in consequence of frequent rains,
against which the insufficiently rooted cuttings appeared unable
to contend. In future so far as possible, planting out will be
done after the rainy season. At the end of 1856 at Tjibodas,
there were still recorded, 41 C. Calisaya, and 64 C. ovata, and
on the Malawar hills, 66 C. ovata, 62 C. Calisaya 7 C. lanceolata
and 3 C. ſancifolia, without reckoning the cuttings in the
propagating houses. Contrary to the great expectations che-
rished of the artificial propagation, and often repeated, the
' That would amount to 6713 English feet. B. D. J.
60
actual increase cannot be considered particularly satisfactory.
A new period of happy augury set in, when on the Ioth
June 1857, flowers were discovered for the first time on a
specimen of C. ovata 9 feet in height. In August, 6 C. ovata
from 8 to 12 feet, and 7 C. Calisaya, of 7 feet high each were
flowering; Junghuhn remarked, that those branches on the
C. Calisaya tree which were intended for layers, bore the most
flowers. Amazement at this, surely testified to want of expe-
rience in propagating trees. The operation of ringing as
a provocation or incitement to flower, was known long ago,
and often in later years it has been applied with the happiest
results to trees of C. Calisaya, C. lancifolia, and C. caloptera.
In the month of June 1869 Junghuhn noticed a specimen with
a large leaf, amongst the C. lanceolata which was held to be C. cor-
difolia until more recent investigations and comparisons convinced
him that here he had to do with C. succèruðra 1. But this
opinion also seemed wrong, when he was able to compare this
species, with specimens of C. succiruára received from British
India in 1862, and Miquel recognised it as C. caloptera.
The pretended C. succăruðra remained for years known to
the labourers in the Cinchona establishments as Kortefolia,
(short-leaf) and we also, previously to 1866, did not dare
to doubt officially, its identity with the true C. succèruðra.
Miquel undertook and completed the task of making an end
of the existing confusion as to species. In arranging the material
collected by Hasskarl in America, which was preserved in the
Leyden herbarium, the expert systematist Miquel by set study
and analysis, arrived at accurate botanical determinations. Where
the data for a thorough investigation failed, the plantations in
Java were able to supply them. We had the privilege of
supplying the eminent botanist with important and desired
" According to Oudemans, Howard considered this plant to be C. succirubra
Hasskarl however had not visited the mother country of this species and so it
must be considered strange or purely accidental if he had brought seeds of it thence.
61
material, and numerous questions concerning the natural occur-
rences of the living tree were readily and with the greatest
exactitude answered.
In 1869 the fruit of his labours saw the light; it was en-
titled: — “De Cinchonae speciebus quibusdam, adjectis is quae in
Java coluntur”, Amstelaedami (C. G. van der Post).
Miquel's declarations were not implicitly received on all
sides; as for ourselves we had no definite reasons for doubting
the accuracy of his botanical determinations, although we
could advance certain objections to the estimated values of the
species and varieties investigated, on the strength of the
chemical analyses which were made in Java.
It would lead us too far, were we to follow minutely the
official reports as to the history of the development of Cin-
chona culture in its second period, under Junghuhn. Many
times and in many ways it was faulty, but it was an experi-
mental field in the fullest sense of the word, and conclusions
and deeds of the most apparently logical kind could only
expose the experimenters to disappointment so long as expe-
rience had not yet, by means of long practice, decisively
declared. A man like Junghuhn stands too high, for the errors
which arose under his superintendance, to depreciate his well
merited fame and name. His unbounded love of nature, his
unwearied diligent endeavours, his clear and sharp insight, and
his comprehensive knowledge, speak in his numerous and most
important writings. Junghuhn's work in Java is unsurpassed of
its kind at the present day, and will always remain a trusty,
unmistakeable testimonial to the Indian naturalist. Cinchona
culture has benefitted immensely by his information as to the
most suitable soils for it, and his perseverance in accomplishing
his task. His acrid criticism on his predecessors, Teijsmann
and Hasskarl, criticism which indeed had no right to be made, is
however to be deplored. If the course adopted by conviction
by both these men, and dealings with regard to Cinchona
62
culture did not coincide or agree with those of Junghuhn, this
champion for light, right, and truth might have refrained from
depreciating and discrediting the activity of his predecessors,
though which his own mistakes and shortcomings, were more
or less hidden.
The acclimatization experiments have set loose debate, in
which many have taken part, both Dutch and others. It be-
comes an international question, in as much as all civilised
peoples must have an interest in the success of the attempts to
subject Cinchona to regular cultivation outside its native land ".
We will not interfere with the contentions of passion caused
by devotion to the object, perhaps also a little by vanity.
Henceforth we have merely to do with actual facts, and
by them, to ensure a clear exposition of the whole history,
which may serve as fruitful instruction, and as sure guidance to
planters of the present day, as well as those the future *.
* Among the many foreign periodicals, which have applauded the success of
Hasskarl's mission as a triumph of science and civilisation in the cause of humanity,
we may name, Hooker's “Journal of Botany”, - the “Annuaire des deux mondes”
of 1855, and various Journals and Reviews of the United States etc.
In 1867 Rochussen wrote:
“The eyes of Europe are fixed upon this enterprise, which interests it in
the highest degree; for it is, so to speak, to procure for the sick, the means
of life, and to procure it at a cost which will not exceed his means. This is
no common speculation, it is a humanitarian work that the Dutch government
has undertaken and carried it out; it does not wish for monopoly; it does not
hide it under the veil of secrecy.”
Even so lately as 1864, it was expressly stated by decree of the Indian govern-
ment of February 14, that the culture of Cinchona must not be regarded in any
aspect as a financial speculation.
We know to day that the sacrifice made on behalf of humanity, has actually in
the end, succeeded fiscally, and also as private undertakings.
* It long was a great mistake in British India, as well as in Java, that the con-
cern was much more for what might be, that is to say, for what was hoped for, –
than for what was. Many disappointments were felt by going too fast and too
far, which would not have been experienced in calmly working on,
63
C H A P T E R V.
CONTINUED DEVELOPMENT OF CINCHONA culturb, IN JAVA.
***ººmsº
The first seeds were obtained in Java about the middle of
1858 at Tjibodas. The bearing trees had thus scarcely attained
the age of four years, but although the crop of seed constantly
increased up to 1866, it took place exceptionally, or in very small
quantities, in the species considered the best, C. Ca/isaya.
At the end of 1859 there were out in the open ground,
I9 C. Calisaya and 27,702 C. ovata, raised from Javan seed.
In addition there were in the nursery beds, 2,401 C. Calisaya,
and 68,569 C. ovata, whilst 1 1,668 C. Calisaya and 408,230
C. ovača seeds had been sown. There were held in reserve,
950 C. Calisaya, and 415,OOO C. ovata.
It deserves remark that the seeds were still carefully
With arti-
ficial propagation there was no need henceforth to be so
strict, the extension of the cultivation in that direction was
no longer necessary and in truth, even at the present time
but comparatively paltry results have been obtained from it. At
the end of 1859 the total number of trees, brought from else-
where or raised from cuttings, amounted to 1,445, amongst
which, there were probably many cuttings of doubtful vitality.
The subjoined summary shows the out-turn of the five fol-
lowing years.
counted, so high a value was set upon them.
1859 I86o I861 1862 1863
Seeds not yet germinated . . . . . 722,681. 593,660. 479,750. 391,486. 208,322.
Plants in the nurseries . . . . . Io8,603. 355,901. 541,861. 633,944. 612,770.
Do, in open ground . . . . . . . 33,483. º 135,580. 330,965. 539,040.

64
We shall presently record the proportionate numbers of the
various species. Meanwhile it already appears from this summary,
what strides the culture took, as soon as seeds could be used.
Junghuhn utilised his ripe knowledge of soils, in extending the
Cinchona establishments, and did not restrict himself in that,
to the Malawar range, but chose a series of central localities,
situated on different mountains and various elevations, so as to
bring together as many factors as possible, for comparing the
power of growth, under widely different circumstances.
Besides the existing establishments at Tjibodas (1430 metres
above the sea) and Tjinieroean (1566) there were successively
formed, Tjibeurem (1560) on the Malawar in 1858, Rioeng-
Oenoeng (1625) on the Tiloe in 1859, Kawa-Tjiwidei (1950)
on the Kendeng in 1859, Nagrak (1625) on the Tang-
koeban-Prahoe in 1859, Tjibietong (1527) on the Wajang in
1860, Rantja-Bolang (1917) on the Kendeng-Patoeha in 1860,
Telaga-Patengan (1576) on the Patoeha-Djampang in 1862,
and Lembang (1251) on the Tangkoeban-Prahoe in 1862.
We have already mentioned the small experimental plan-
tings at Wonodjampi in Besoeki, and on the Diéng in Bagalen;
there was no previous talk of further extension there. Each
of the above named ten establishments however, all situated
in the western half of the Preanger regency, was separately
placed under the orders of a European superintendent, for
whom a suitable boarded dwelling was built, and to whom was
assigned a native foreman (mandoer) and several permanent
labourers (Öoedjangs). For the latter, uniform dwellings were
made under a roof, whilst day labourers (£oelis or coolies)
served as wanted at the time. Only the superintendent, at
Tjinieroean and Lembang had shut-up propagating houses; at
the others places merely nursery beds were used.
At Gedong-Banteng on the Malawar between Tjinieroean
and Tjibeurem, but situated higher than these, also at Lorrok-
Kidoel, between Rantja-Bolang and Telaga-Patengan, Junghuhn
65
built passangrahans, where he could stay during his periodical
inspections, and whence he could visit the seven establishments
lying south of Bandoeng. His own dwelling was at Lembang, from
which place it was possible to reach Nagrak in an hour's time.
Meanwhile, during the progress of these activities, investiga-
tion as to the worth of the various species of Cinchona, and
the exact definition of these, was not discontinued. On the
other hand, outside Java gradually arose a great dispute in this
matter, which bore very much the semblance of passionate
vehemence.
As far back as 1855, doubts were entertained in the Nether-
lands, about the good quality of those species of Cinchona
collected and dispatched by Hasskarl. Professor De Vriese at
that time assuredly was the person who had the greatest share
in everything that concerned the introduction of Cinchona cul-
ture into Java. He was not only the scientific adviser of the
government, but also at the garden at Leyden most Cinchona
plants were raised, whilst all that were sent from America,
there underwent critical investigation. The questions which
were here considered, could not from their very nature, be
mysterious or secret; though it appears to be a fact that Pro-
fessor Blume at Leyden, who may certainly be styled an autho-
rity in botanical matters, vainly instituted attempts to see the
Cinchona plants which had been reared in the academical garden.
It was not until after Weddell's visit and declaration mentioned
on page 55 that this readily comprehensible desire was fully
gratified, when Blume also recognised plainly, the C. Calisaya
type, in the specimens which had been left behind ".
' The writer of this is thoroughly acquainted with the special circumstances of
the case, and was concerned in them more than was agreeable to him. He was at
that juncture at Leyden, by command of the colonial minister, on purpose to
employ himself with quinological studies, and saw the living Cinchona plants for the
first time simultaneously with Blume, who complained that De Vriese should have
carefully denied all access, until Weddell had reported on the identity of the
C. Calisaya.
66
The seeds which Hasskarl had sent, belonged to the following;
Cºnchona alisaya, C. Covada, C. amygdalifolia and C. pubescens.
From the last but one, nothing seems to have been raised, whilst
of C. Auðescens only one plant was produced, which however
must soon have died.
Junghuhn soon had suspicions regarding the C. ovata and
for a short time supposed them to be C. Condaminea, although
they were already in 1856–59 entered in the reports as
C. lucºmaefolia. &
Junghuhn sent leaves, flowers and fruit of this sort to Mr. J. E.
Howard of London, who saw in it a new and hitherto unre-
cognised species, and christened it in honour of the Dutch
statesman to whom Javan Cinchona culture is so deeply indebted,
Cºnchona Pahudiana. Since 1861 it is has been mentioned in
the reports under this name, and still affords dispute among
botanists, whether Miquel in his monograph formerly quoted,
has not described it as a worthess species, C. carabayensis.
This question is no longer of practical importance, for since 1864
the propagation of C. Pahudiana or C. carabayensis has been
discontinued. Its further propagation was forbidden so early as
1862, by decree of the Indian government of 11 September,
because of the doubts concerning it, and the possession of other
species whose value was considered superior in every respect '.
Amongst the imported C. ovača, certain specimens were
distinguished and considered to be C. lanceolata, and amongst
these, Junghuhn noticed an individual, which by its peculiarly
large form, as well as by the colour and substance of the leaf,
showed marked divergence and was styled C. cordifolia. Sub-
sequently named C. succèruóra, Miquel has finally pointed out
its identity with C. caloptera. The dispute however did not
end with these confusions and elucidations.
* In spite of prohibition, the multiplication was not actually stopped. Plenty
of seeds were obtained from C. Pahudiana, and of the others few or none. In
striving after extension, we were obliged to make shift with C. Pahudiana.
67
From the first harvested C. Calisaya seeds gathered at Tjibodas
from plants which were raised from seeds sent over by Hass-
karl, there were 5ooo plants obtained in 1859–61, which were
naturally regarded as C. Calisaya. In 1864 it was abundantly
evident, that these were very different in outward appearance
from all those of C. Calisaya which had been obtained by cuttings,
and also from a few individual seedlings planted out in the forest
at Nagrak. When, in the beginning of 1865, these doubtful
plants began to flower, the suspicion gained ground that here
also confusion must have prevailed, and since then these pseudo-
Calisaya have been distinguished, as C. duðia, until Miquel
recognised them as a particular species, and named it in
honour of Hasskarl, C. Hassàarliana.
Others have asserted and still do assert, that this C. Hass-
Áarliana is a hybrid originated at Tjibodas, from the fertili-
sation of C. Calisaya flowers by pollen from C. Pahudiana.
C. Hasséarliana has truly a strong family likeness to C. Pahu-
diana, though it is wholly distinct from the latter, and it will here-
after be seen that it again runs into varieties, shown by superficial
differences in the shape of the fruit as well as in form and more
or less hairiness of the leaf. C. Hasséar/iana in common with
C. Calisaya, possesses the oft mentioned scrofficul; in the axils
of the veins of the leaf. However this may be, we certainly
do not consider ourselves qualified to take sides in the dispute;
Miquel was an established authority as a systematic botanist,
and he had found material in Hasskarl's collections identical
with C. Hasséarliana, a tolerably good proof that this existed
in America before its discovery in Java. Still further we would
recall the fact, that amongst the originally received C. ovata,
there were also found divergencies from the typical form, and
that both Hasskarl and Junghuhn met with great diversity
amongst the earliest specimens of C. Calisaya.
Besides, it is very difficult to base knowledge upon an inves-
tigation of dried leaves, flowers and fruits; young Cinchona
68
plants resemble each other so much, that even the most experi-
enced eye must sometimes hesitate, before making a catego-
rical declaration.
At the same time it happens, that the chief distinguishing
characters of C. Calisaya, namely the presence of scrofficul,
and the velvety appearance of the leaves, are both criteria
borne also by many other species. Both readily show that mis-
takes would be sure to arise so long as no arrangement existed
and the fully developed material at hand requisite for thorough
study and mutual comparison. The eminent systematist may
have made mistakes in dealing with defective data, such as
obtained in this case at first, without endangering his reputation.
Thus much as to the species, to which we must again return
when speaking of their chemical value.
We already know Junghuhn's opinion, that Cinchona ought
to be planted in primeval forests, and we are also aware that
he held to this system with great tenacity. In this respect he
blamed the principles of both his predecessors, which once
more gave opportunity for a strong debate, and this time it
resulted in the express desire of the government that a trial
at least be made, in planting on cleared and unshaded ground.
To this mandate is owing the origin in 1862 of the Cinchona
establishment at Lembang. Junghuhn here was able to arrange
it on ground cleared some years before, in the immediate
neighbourhood of his own dwelling, situated on the southern
slope of the Tangkoeban-Prahoe range, at a height of more
than 1 251 metres above the sea.
The ground was thus under Junghuhn's own personal super-
vision, by which regular observations and continuous comparisons
were possible.
On the other hand however, according to Junghuhn's own
ideas and conviction, the elevation was far too small. There
were formerly coffee plantations laid out here, which, however,
were soon obliged to be given up because they did not suc-
69
ceed; the ground thereafter became like a meadow, frequented
by buffaloes, oxen and horses; it was level, hard trodden, and
gradually became covered with a rampant growth of alang-a/ang'.
It was first begun to be planted in 1863, and then with 6000
C. Pahudiana. The ground for them was not worked or otherwise
prepared; the a/ang-alang was merely cut away at certain dis-
tances, so as to allow of regular plant-rows. Thus the young Cin-
chona plants possessed in this thrifty, tall growing grass, sufficient
shelter on the north and south sides; on the other hand in the
long run, the most injurious influences must have been experienced
from a weed, dreaded most justly by the planter; from all that we
can gather we are not convinced that he was in earnest in this
experiment, but rather it seems to us that he gave a passive execu-
tion to an explicit, a priori pre-condemned order. In conclusion,
when we have recalled the fact that Junghuhn both at Tjibodas,
and Tjinieroean caused many Cinchona trees to be lifted, and
transplanted near the higher situated forests, with the intention
of withdrawing them from the unfavourable conditions under
which he had seen fit to place them, we can herewith regard
the second period of Cinchona culture in Java as closed.
C H A P T E R VI.
CINCHONA CULTIVATION CONTINUED ; FROM THE DEATH OF
JUNGHUHN TO THE PRESENT TIME.
In the second half of 1863 Junghuhn began to feel himself ill.
He had demanded too much from his strength, and relied on its
inexhaustibility. By the beginning of 1864, his condition had
become critical; a visit on furlough to the Netherlands for the
* Imperata arundinacea, Cyrill. B. D. J.
70
restoration of his health, could no longer be deferred. This
leave was granted as a matter of course by the government, and
at the same time, 14 March 1864, the temporary succession
of the director of the Cinchona culture was provided for. The
nature of the malady made it necessary to return to Europe
by a sailing vessel; but when the wished for opportunity of em-
barkation arrived, the patient was so far exhausted, that his
journey was perforce delayed. The great naturalist died on the
24th April, he whose eminent abilities, unwearied and fruitful
activity are fully acknowledged, although he was engaged in
scientific disputes more or less all his life long. His ashes were
committed to earth in a spot chosen by himself in the middle
of the future Cinchona plantation at Lembang, and a simple
pillar placed over his grave.
Junghuhn might well say in 1859 in poetic language: — the
splendour of Cinchona cultivation in Java to our earthly vision
can hardly be exceeded ! for his risen spirit may behold the
Cinchona forests at the present time representing millions, and
ready to yield a richer reward.
The Cinchona plantation at Lembang was laid out in such
a manner, that Junghuhn's grave made a point of junction
with two main paths, along which at the present time are
formed fine avenues. The white column may be descried from
far down these; the peaceful spot at the mountain's foot, agrees
well with the respect and appreciation due to him, and involunt-
arily cheers one to thankful remembrance of the great and gifted
man, who endowed with rare knowledge and unequalled indus-
try, and animated by inward reverence and love for Nature,
investigated the geological formation and vegetable productions
of Java, and in many writings of greater or lesser extent, strik-
ingly made plain these facts to all.
His formal resignation of the supervision of Cinchona cul-
ture could not take place; but his undivided devotion declared
itself in the broken utterances in which Junghuhn committed
71
in trust to his successors, the continuation of work begun
by him.
Truly, this continuation was no easy task. However esteemed
the mandate might be, the new director felt to the full the
heavy responsibility laid upon him, and did not conceal his
serious anxieties from the Indian government '.
What then was the state of things? To judge accurately
of this, it is necessary to follow yet further, the history of
Cinchona in those days. The third period of the culture is
distinguished by radical divergencies from the system pre-
viously followed, and this must be explained by an exposi-
tion of the facts themselves, without in the least clouding the
great services and renowned name of Junghuhn.
| In June 1855 the Colonial Minister requested Professor G. J. Mulder to select
a person who should be appointed by the government as chemist to the then recently
introduced Cinchona culture in Java. The choice having fallen upon me, I consi-
dered it my duty, by order of the minister, and following out Mulder's advice, to
concern myself exclusively with quinological studies at Leyden and Utrecht in suc-
cession. In April 1856 having set out for Java, I found myself on my arrival at
Batavia, effectually disappointed in my expectations. Appointed army apothecary to
the large hospital at Weltevreden, I was, however, after eleven months of pharma-
ceutical service, nominated assistant at the Laboratory of agricultural chemist y at
Buitenzorg. In September 1860 this institution was given up, and the government
placed me in the Inland Board, where I remained as acting-Controller until the
enactment of 3 Is December 1863, appointing a commission to enquire into the
condition of the government coffee culture, and I was assigned as secretary to
the commission. Then, when Junghuhn needed a substitute, the government
remembered my original destination and no longer delayed entrusting to me the
further conduct of Cinchona culture, despite the real difficulties I pleaded in the
presence of the Governor-general Baron Sloet van de Beele. The provisional
appointment in March, was followed by the definitive in August, and thanks to the
powerful support of the government, as well as to the hearty help and cooperation
of scientific men, at home and abroad, it has been my good fortune to carry on
the work not without success, so that when I in my turn, in March 1875, resigned
the conduct of the Cinchona culture, on my being nominated Chief-inspector of
cultures, a candid observer might see that my devotion and endeavour to establish
firmly and extend Cinchona culture, were not fruitless. In a scientific point of
view, from the first I found especial support in my old fellow-student J. G. Bernelot
Moens; and I have to thank his many sided knowledge and powerful cooperation for
a considerable portion of the success which has been obtained.
72
At the end of 1863 there were in the open ground:
C. Calisaya . . . 7,408, amongst which 5000 were C. Hass-
Áarliana.
C. succăruára. . . 71, of which 56 were C. calop/era.
C. ſancifolia. . . IO4.
C. Pahudiana. , 531,456, in which are included the identical
C. lanceolata.
C. micrantha . . I, with I 2 true C. succiruffra received
from British India in 1862.
In the nurseries at the same time there were:
C. Calisaya . . . 4,685, amongst which were 4, 144 so called
rooted cuttings.
C. succārazóra . . 18, cuttings, all C. caloptera.
C. lancifolia. . . I47, do.
C. Pahudiana. , 607,920, amongst which were 55 rooted
cuttings.
Besides these, there were 208,322 seeds sown of C. Pahu.
diana which by the end of the first quarter of 1864 were com-
pelled to be written off as bad. Further, 737 C. Calisaya
seeds, which gave no favourable return, and about 7000
cuttings of the various species, with 6500 of C. Calisaya, from
which little could be expected.
A marked disproportion thus prevailed between the species
considered valuable, and the others which were held to be
doubtful. Very little alkaloid was found in the young C. Paku-
diana bark, and therefore relatively little quinine, but some
were of opinion that the amount would augment with age,
and Junghuhn estimated the age of exploitable Cinchona trees
at 30 years. The future would thus it was thought bring improve-
ment, and this suspicion based itself partly on the circum-
stance, that the roots of C. Pahadiana contained more alkaloid
than the stem-bark.
On the other hand, trust in the future was precarious, and
it was established as an indisputable fact, that although the
73
C. Calisaya plants were of the same age as those of C. Pahu-
diana, the former were already far richer in quinine than
the latter. The question could have been positively settled,
or even obviated, if a careful analysis of the barks of the
various descriptions brought over by Hasskarl had been made.
For that purpose there was certainly old material at disposal, of
C.. Pahudiana or C. ovata as it was originally called.
It is certain that Junghuhn did not propagate C. Pahudiana
by distinct preference, but because the first seeds, and after-
wards a constant abundance, were harvested from it. Everything
shows that the few C. Calisaya specimens at his disposal, had
the greatest care devoted to them, and were valued most
highly. The regulations which he devised for this purpose, seem
not very happily chosen, and witness rather to his well-inten-
tioned purpose.
Transplanting fully developed trees from the cleared grounds
to the shady forests, could not conduce to flowering and
fruiting. Light and air are of the first requisites for the
production of blossoms and seeds.
Those trees which were too big to be transplanted remained
in their original, unsheltered position, but care was taken to
better their condition. A bamboo roof was provided for shelter
against wind and rain, but we shall bye and bye see that this
measure was not altogether a success. The trees showed con-
siderable inclination to flower, and already in the years 1859–61,
a tolerable supply of seeds was harvested, which produced
about 19 C. Calisaya (planted at Nagrak in the forest) and
quite 5000 C. Hasskarliana. These, at all the older establi-
ments were planted out in the forest, and since 1864, were
particularly well looked after, so that most developed into
healthy trees, some of which may still be met with here and
there at the present day.
Although the oldest specimens were now sheltered from wind
and rain, nevertheless it acted injuriously, hindering robust
74
growth, and the flowers did not come to development. By
1864, these were free strong plants, with thick stems and
branches and well spreading crown, but bearing every token
of being drawn up in vertical growth. They appeared like bushes
with a short thick stem. When it is borne in mind that these
few individuals, were continually being severely cut back each
month to obtain cuttings, it cannot be a matter of surprise,
that constant and great disappointments should take place.
The small branches and twigs which were cut off, could not
possibly be called good cuttings, and this explains the fact
that in spite of constantly putting-in on a large scale, no com-
mensurate number of healthy flourishing plants were obtained.
Experience of later years has amply shown, that C. Calisaya
can only be successfully propagated by cuttings, if thrifty
twigs from young, strong plants are procured, or better
still, healthy, fresh young shoots; even in this case good results
appear greatly dependent on many factors, lying outside the
general routine in the nurseries. It also seems that good and
healthy roots are not put forth in every season.
At all events, the government decree of the I Ith September
1862, containing the express order to suspend all further multipli-
cation of C. Pahudiana, was and remains in full force. Junghuhn,
strong in his convictions, had not actually adhered thereto,
but in the transfer of the direction this had to be looked tâ in
the very first place, followed by an orderly amelioration in the
proportion of species to each other, — the exclusive multiplication
of the more suitable, better species, and thereby make use of the
lesson which disappointing experience had enforced.
Making cuttings from the oldest trees was therefore suspended,
and their artificial roofing was taken away.
Several specimens of C. Mancifolia and C. caloptera (at that
time still booked as C. succirubra) which had been transplanted
into the high forest on the Malawar range, were dug out with
an enormous ball of earth, and brought back to their original
75
station on open ground at Tjinieroean. All these measures were
intended for nothing else than to favour the flowering and fruit
setting, and they appear to have been successful in that direction.
So also, with partial success, detached spirals in the manner of
ringing, were tried on the thickest branches of the oldest C. Cali-
saya tree, and also on a C. lancifolia and C. caloptera. From the
first named, a couple of hundred young plants were obtained
in 1865, which were planted out at Tjinieroean, though most
of them died. In 1866 the first seeds of C. caloptera, and in
the following year, the earliest germinable seeds of C. lancifolia
were harvested. In 1866 seven C. Calisaya trees at Tjinieroean
were so heavily laden with fruit, that their branches bent under it.
Since that time the production of seeds has constantly aug-
mented, so that gradually a selection could be made in
accordance with the comparative analyses of the barks, to
decide concerning this or that variety.
In 1867 so great a value however was still set upon the
seed-crop, and so emulous were the superintendents as to their
management in this, that from each careful collection, the
portions obtained after cleaning, were accurately counted and
parcelled out. It is well to recall these facts, for at the present
time owing to the actual abundance little attention is best-
owed on economy or careful treatment.
It can hardly be realised now, that long years of trouble
and debate ensued, before the first seeds of a Cinchona tree
of good quality were obtained, and these then were worth
their weight in gold, and counted by tens. '
In the meantime the government had also made use of the
help of its consular agents in South America, to provide Cin-
chona seeds, and succeeded therein, thanks to the exertions
* This reminiscence has this confirmation: Within the last dozen years, millions
of good seeds have been distributed to private speculators both at Java and else
where. What has been obtained from these, is relatively paltry, and surely does
not plead in favour of an always exact valuation of what is liberally bestowed.
76
of our energetic Consul-general Schuhkraft. As early as 1864,
he sent a parcel of Cinchona capsules to the Netherlands, which
by Miquel were determined as the produce of three varieties
of C. Calisaya, namely, vera, morada and Žosephiana. Half of
the seeds were entrusted to the nurseries in the gardens of
the Academy, the other half were sent to Java.
In the first half of 1865, about 200 plants raised from seed,
were sent from the Netherlands by various means to Java,
and planted out at Nagrak. Nine were planted at Lembang
and probably are still there in part. In Java itself 1200 plants
sprouted, which found room at the various establishments and
since then have been distinguished as Calisaya Schu/Araft.
In the months of May and December 1868, seeds were
again received from Schuhkraft, from which many plants were
obtained, which did not differ in appearance from the first sent.
In 1873 there was again a small remittance; the dozen plants which
grew from these, showed for the most part, a chestnut brown
colour on the underside of the leaf, these stand in the small
plantation at Tjinieroean. From yet another parcel sent in 1877,
about 2000 plants were obtained, although up to the present
time it does not appear that Schuhkraft succeeded in procuring
for us the Calisaya variety, which excels in its large amount
of quinine.
In the beginning of 1868 seeds reached Java under the
name of C. succiritéra, sent by the Dutch Consul-general Rol-
danus at Caracas, which however I was not fortunate enough
to see germinate. In 1870 from the same source came a
second remittance, which was said to be derived from C. coraz-
folia var. rotundifolia. According to the consul’s report, great
quantities of bark of this species were exported, although stated
to possess only one per cent of alkaloid. The seeds produced
ten plants, which when developed to trees, were recognised as
C. ca/opčera.
In December 1865 we came into possession of a parcel of
77
Calisaya seed, from which 20,000 plants were raised, though
not more than 12,000 were planted out, because at Lembang
as well as the highest situated establishments Tjiwidei and
Ranta-Bolang, on account of their still incomplete arrange-
ments and capacity of propagating houses, many thousands of
plants perished in their first stage of existence. We forbear
speaking particularly of this sort, at this moment, which after-
ward became generally known as C. Ledgeriana, because by it,
the Cinchona culture of the future has entered upon an entirely
new phase.
Negociations were set on foot with the directors of Cin-
chona culture in British India, at Madras, Bengal, and Ceylon
in 1864 by means of the English consul at Batavia, Mr. Fraser,
assuring the transmission of new valuable species of Cºn-
chona, such as C officinalis and C. succirubra, in exchange
for C. Calisaya and C. lancifolia.
In 1862 there were received 12 C. succèruðra and I C. mi-
crantha, which were planted out in one row, along the path-
way near the crater at Nagrak, and there grew into tall trees,
except two C. succèruðra, which died. In 1865 four cases of
C. officinalis were sent from Madras; hardly a dozen plants
arrived in a thoroughly healthy and fresh state at Tjinieroean,
and here, after a short time of preparation, they were turned out
into the open ground. From these handsome specimens, we got
cuttings as quickly as possible, and it appeared that the species
was propagated without difficulty by that method. In the course
of 1865 there were further received some seeds of C. officinalis
from Madras and Ceylon, and in 1866 another batch from
Bengal, with seeds of C. succiruðra.
Thus in truth, a new period was entered upon, and the
results of the attempts to improve and increase the species of
Cinchona considered superior to C. Pahudiana, surpassed our
most daring expectations.
There were 100,000 plants of C. Pahudiana still in the
78
nurseries, when the culture was transferred in March 1864,
and these were as soon as possible planted out in the open,
where, according to official reports more than half-a-million of
this species already existed.
In Junghuhn's system, the Cinchona plants were distributed
in the forests of the frequently mentioned mountains. They
stretched over an extent of about 75 square palem (a square
paa! = 32O bouws, and each Óouw = 7096.5 metres ", and
any one who knows what the high, uncultivated mountain
regions are, will understand that under such circumstances, sub-
ject to neither strict control, nor to a constant sufficient mainte-
nance there but little to boast of. i
Wild beasts, falling trees and many other destructive causes,
must cause the ruin of thousands upon thousands of plants,
whilst moreover the natural conditions are not wholly favour-
able for an unobstructed development.
By 1864, the condition of cultivation permitted a rigidly
accurate observation and comparison, as well as an estimate of
the different influences. At a glance, only those trees were
in a fresh and robust state, or growing well, which had been
allowed enough space, or at least had been assured of a fair
amount of direct sunlight. So also, amongst other things, here
and there along the principal roads, by accident, or else by the
caprice of a superintendent, some had been planted in more
open spots. In seeking for the original plant-rows in the forests,
many of them appeared to have wholly vanished; even where
scattered Cinchona plants had bidden defiance to their unfav-
ourable surroundings, they showed themselves slender, spindly,
and almost branchless, and with respect to these, entirely out of
proportion between vertical and horizontal development. It was
evident that these tall, slender trees, could not support them-
selves if the surrounding growth was cleared or even if vigor-
* This would make each bouw a trifle more than 1 acre, 3 poles. B. D. J.
79
ously thinned. Besides, the bark of the oldest and best deve.
loped trees was as thin as paper.
There was nothing to hope for in the future from this state
of things, and as to providing more light and air to the
IOO,OOO C. Pahudiana, by cutting out forest trees, that,
apart from the question as to whether the doubtful value of
the bark would repay it, must be looked at from reasons of
administrative and technical character. Therefore we con-
fined ourselves as much as possible, to bringing under more
favourable conditions, the 5000 or more trees which stood
in our books as C. Calisaya, but have been since named
C. A/asséar/iana.
This fact was truly surprising, that just the few trees which
abundantly enjoyed light and air, were seen to be most
strongly developed, and that not less in the lower, than in
the highest situated plantations. Wherever both conditions of
existence were fully conceded, the plants appeared to develope
readily into trees.
On the basis of these observations and of various economic
considerations, the decree of the government of the 29th Septem-
ber 1864 was issued, containing the injunction : — “That no more
C. Pahudiana plantations on a large scale shall be laid out,
and the stock of plants in the nursery-beds, shall be applied
only to repair and replenish”. Further, “that no more labour and
expense shall be devoted to existing C. Pahudiana plantations,
than is unavoidable to prevent their total extinction”.
These restrictive measures, caused by the fact that it did
not appear necessary to institute experiments on so large a
scale, together with the insufficiency in the first place of
material for the propagation of species of good quality, led to
the following changes.
The Telaga Patengan establishment was given up in 1865;
the passang ran Lorrok Kidoel was removed to Kawah-Tjiwidei,
and the neighbouring Rantja-Bolang moved to this establishment.
80
Two years later the transfer of Tjibodas to the curator of the
government botanical garden took place. The number of super-
intendents was consequently reduced from IO to 7, and in the
course of 1864, the forests were begun to be cut down systematic-
ally, from each superintendent's dwelling onwards, to make
room for the plantation of Cinchona on the open spaces. Thus
these dwellings gradually became the centres of plantations, and
proportionate riper experience more and more showed, that
Cinchona, under conditions in other respects favourable, does
not require shade; on the contrary there were manifest diffi-
culties in single forest trees being allowed to stand; so the
forests were more completely cleared, only leaving strips
untouched, where these might serve as protection against wind.
Having thus to deal with new species of Cinchona, and to plant
them out under entirely fresh conditions, the method of rearing
them also gradually underwent alteration.
The number of propagating houses was considerably increased,
and each establishment had its own arrangements. The bamboo
nursery pots, which seemed very dear, while possessing many
good qualities, had also preponderating bad ones; these were
laid aside, or at least the manufacture of them was stopped,
and they were regularly replaced by pots of baked earth, which
three Javanese at Bandoeng under our instruction, and after a
little practice, very soon learned to turn out in great numbers
and at very moderate cost. Previously to this, Junghuhn had
imported several thousand flower pots from the Netherlands, but
the expense was so great, that it could not be continued.
The method of germination, also underwent a radical change,
under the direction of Teijsmann, which we shall notice when
describing the cultivation.
The progress did not confine itself however to these modi-
fications and changes. There was another question of quite as
great importance, that was, the labour question. From the
beginning, both at Tjibodas and Tjinieroean, all the business
8]
of Cinchona culture was done by paid statute-labour, and all
supplies of material were ordered by the Administration. This state
of things could not continue; Cinchona culture was not reckoned
among the cultures “by the powers that be” as a consequence
of the known system. By government decree of the 24th February
1864 (Nº. 27) it was laid down, that labour in Cinchona culture
merely by way of exception, might be performed by paid
statute-labour, and that as a rule, permanent, voluntary work-
men should be engaged for that service. The advice of the
Administration as well as that of the Inspector, Junghuhn, had
stated, that free supplies of material in the elevated cool moun-
tain ranges, was out of the question, and still less dependence
could be placed on a regular provision of the necessary volunt-
ary workpeople. The Preanger Regencies were at that time
still in an entirely special condition of proprietary and patri-
archal administration; the chiefs and head men as so many
great and little potentates were predominant, and the people
could with difficulty form a fair idea of individual freedom,
because they had never experienced it. Investigation instituted
showed, that the young Cinchona culture in the last few years,
required on an average 3oo rendering statute-labour besides the
permanent labourers settled upon the establishment, which were
accounted for by the Inland Administration. This regime could
not exist officially, though actually in force, and on the transfer
of the culture in 1864, there were free supplies of materials
and voluntary statute-labour still seeming to find countenance.
The superintendents unanimously declared that if the system
were given up, they must be dependent on the caprice of the
labourers, and their belief found powerful support in the Inland
Administration, so that greatly fearing a rupture of its authority
and power, that body preferred to permit the continuance of
the compulsion.
At the end of March 1864, after a careful inspection and
complete consideration of the condition of things, I approached
6
82
the heads of the Administration with the request, that they should
forbid all direct interference with Cinchona culture on the part
of their officials and chief clerks, and only to afford help when
it was asked through me personally. It was emphatically im-
pressed upon the superintendents that they would be simply
removed and replaced, in case it appeared that they were
wanting in the tact to provide themselves by voluntary agree-
ments with material and labour. One helped another; during
1864 there were still many appeals for help from the admini-
stration, because the new regulations did not sit easily at first,
and the population came slowly to just ideas, but little by
little improvement set in, and since 1864 there has been no
question of direct interference of the Administration. When in
May 1865, Governor-general Sloet van de Beele came to
inspect the Cinchona plantations, after searching interrogatory
of the officials he was able to state the fact, that the govern-
ment-culture had now really become a wholly free undertaking.
The above named decree also contained an emphatic recom-
mendation, that whilst the greatest possible economy was to
be observed in the culture, it was never intended that the intro-
duction and prosecution of it should be merely a financial
speculation. This recommendation was a direct consequence
of the impatience which gradually showed itself in the Ne-
therlands, where it was fancied that the results were not pro-
portionate to the considerable sacrifices already incurred. All
these together did not make the task an easy one to the
new Director, and it was made still more burdensome by a
stringent protest of the Administration against cutting down
the forests, which had been begun as an indispensable con-
dition to the success of the undertaking. g
Hereupon followed the previously mentioned visit of the
Governor, who settled the question by granting full liberty to
the Director of Cinchona culture to go on in the way begun,
and desiring the Administration to interfere no further in
83
the operations with regard to the Cinchona department.
In the Dutch States-general, questions were put to the
colonial Minister almost every year about the condition
of the new culture, and as a rule there was no lack of com-
plaints about its defects and slow improvement. It was
not encouraging to the Director in Java, to be compelled
repeatedly to protest that the development could not be forced
on, that the young plants demanded time to grow into trees,
and that the necessary experiments would take up many years,
before all debated points were solved.
Comparisons were made with British India, where Cinchona
was introduced later, but was said to be relatively and abso-
lutely much more forward, and further it was stated that the
English had profited by the experience gained in Java, and would
thus evidently incur fewer failures. On the one side complaint
were made of the heavy expense which seemed to bear no
fruit; on the other side dissatisfaction at the slow progress
made, and whispers were not seldom heard, urging that all
these costly experiments should be ended.
As to how far the complaint of “slow development” had
any right to be made, or even counted as a reproach, may be
learned from the official reports we have quoted; with regard
to the cost, the summary of results since 1864, which we shall
presently give, will speak for itself.
In the beginning of 1869, the Upper Administration expressed
an explicit desire to know, whether the culture could be extended
more vigorously; the opportunity for it existed in ample mea-
sure at the time, and the exports had only to do with the
question as to the stocks possessed. The culture-reports and
pecuniary accounts for the Upper Administration could be called
satisfactory in every sense, whilst to prove that Java could already
turn out produce, and that the future was far from being hazar-
dous or hopeless, there were several hundred kilos of Cinchona
bark harvested in 1869, and sent to the Netherlands for sale.
84
We must here pause for a moment to consider the fol-
lowing facts.
After the abandonment of the establishments Tjibodas and
Telaga-Patengan. and the union of Rantja-Bolang with Kawah-
Tjiwidei, there still remained seven establishments, two to
the north, and five to the south of Bandoeng, which served
and still serves as the residence of the Director of the cul-
ture. The many and radical changes to which the culture was
necessarily subjected, made it urgently necessary that the respons-
ible director should as much as possible himself be on the
spot, where the business had to be carried on and regulated.
Now it needs no argument to prove, that it was impossible
to simultaneously superintend the seven outlying plantations,
even with the greatest diligence and the strongest constitution.
The staff of superintendents itself, was obliged to accommodate
itself to the new order of things, and changes were continually
taking place, so that repeatedly the guidance and teaching of
novices had to be begun from the beginning. It was thus
impossible that the director of the culture, although trained as
a chemist, should confine himself to the laboratory, whilst the
whole of his time and pains were most of all wanted in the field.
On the other hand, the continued debate as to the intrinsic
value of the numerous Cinchona barks, obliged him to be
especially cautious in the choice of stock-plants for propaga-
tion, and it was about that point, in which he from the first
sought as much enlightenment as possible from chemical ana-
lyses of different material. In these attempts he found his chief
support in Heer I. C. Bernelot Moens at Weltevreden, whose
help since 1865 has been incessant and disinterested.
Samples of bark were submitted to examination, from trees
considered to be of good quality, which promised shortly to
produce seed. If analysis proved the superiority of this or that
tree, then seeds were gathered exclusively from it, and sown.
Were any one were at the present time to go over the analyses
85
of those days, he would come to the conclusion that the plan-
tations in Java had no other individuals than those yielding manu-
facturer's bark of the best description. Meanwhile this was by
no means the case, and it must be accepted, either that Cin-
chona propagated by seed degenerates, or, that the older
analyses do not show the precise value.
We shall here append a few results in elucidation of this; they
deal exclusively with C. Calisaya, inasmuch as no other species
was propagated in Java from seeds for several years after 1863.
Repeated investigations had, up to and including 1864,
shown that in the barks from two of the oldest C. Calisaya
trees at Tjibodas, there was more than 5°), alkaloid, of which
about four-fifths consisted of quinine and its analogues. Pro-
pagation of these trees and their descendants, was thus wholly
justified according to the then scientific standpoint.
In 1868 flowering and fruit bearing trees of the false Calisaya,
were examined which afterwards was described as C. Hass-
#arliana, and it was actually when analysed booked as Calisaya
dubia. In the handsome bark from a tree about seven years
old, raised from Javan seed, 4.960 °l, alkaloid was found, of
which 2.845 °/, was quinine. This amount authorised its multi-
plication, and at Nagrak in 1870–71 there were large plant-
ings made of this species. Another old specimen of similar
age and origin gave 4.030 °/, alkaloid, 3.320 °/., being quinine,
and a true Calisaya tree, obtained from the first harvested
seeds at Tjibodas, and planted in the forest at Nagrak (known
as Nº. 4) showed an amount of 4 300%, with 3.08oºl, of quinine.
A specimen of Schuhéraft three years old, raised from seed
received in 1864, yielded 3.91 2 °l. alkaloid, and 3. Io9 °', quinine,
(see 1868 Reports). In 1869 again, analyses of flowering trees
took place, to answer the enquiry as to which might rightly be
propagated. C. Hasséarliana of 7 to 8 years old gave 2.714 °/.
quinine, and one 5 year old tree from a cutting of this species,
appeared to possess 6.oro", alkaloid, of which 2.331", was
86
quinine. A flowering Calisaya tree of 4 years old, raised
in 1864–65 from Javan seed, possessed 7.483 °/, of alkaloid,
and 3.670°), quinine. This little tree stood in the yard of the
passangrahan at Tjinieroean and yielded an abundance of seeds
which were sown without any scruple. The analyses of 1870 again
confirmed the belief that we possessed and were propagating
only superior kinds of Cinchona. In specimens of Schuhkraft
4 and 5 years of age there were 2.4 °/, and 4.4 °l, quinine found,
and in a Calisaya anglica of 3"/, years (the seed was received
from Madras in the middle of 1866) 6.3 °/, alkaloid and
3.3 °l, quinine was met with. * -
Many samples were examined in 1872, Moens then finding
the average amount from 8 Calisaya ſavanica to be 1.23 °l.
quinine, 1.24°/, quinidine, 1.52 °/, cinchonine and I.O.I °l, of
amorphous alkaloid. This result was not satisfactory, after we
had done our best by confining our propagation only to those
trees which showed a higher percentage of quinine.
Moens calculated as average figures the following, from 8
Calisaya Schuhkraft, (from which during 1865–71 by far the
most of the Calisaya plantations were obtained) 2.33 °l, quinine,
o,43 °l, quinidine, o.79 cinchonine and 1.34% amorphous alka-
loid. This species had then remained constant, and it might
consequently be expected that the great mass of Cinchona
bark which those plantations would produce, would turn out
to be useful manufacturer's bark.
Nevertheless, experience disappointed our good expecta-
tions. Here and there samples of Calisaya ſavanica, Calisaya
Schuhéraft, Calisaya anglica, also Cºnchona Hasséarliana,
were found to be rich in quinine, but taken at random, the
barks of those varieties were not suitable to use for the sepa-
ration of quinine.
Granting that by accident, a small part was propagated from
a parent tree of inferior quality, still the fact is not explained,
why the bulk of the plantations should yield barks so poor in
87
quinine. The suspicion that actual degeneration arises from
propagation, is in opposition to other experience; in each case
it can be absolutely demonstrated that there is no invariable
rule as to degeneration.
In the report of the chemist Moens, appended to the official
statements for 1873, he says: —
“There is still a very important question; namely,
whether there is ground for supposing that the plants
which were reared from seed, will vary from the type of
the parent-tree, whereby it may be feared that either the
species will degenerate, in the sense that is inferior, or
will possess less valuable alkaloids.
“Comparison is somewhat difficult, because it may be
admitted that the separate determination of each of the
alkaloids, was not sufficiently accurate in all the earlier
analyses, by reason of the faulty analytical methods em-
ployed. Nevertheless facts can be shown, which are
satisfactory from that point of view.” • , ~
I hereby testify that in 1874 I cut out pieces of bark, and
gave them to Moens for examination, from several living trees
of Calisaya javanica, from plantations then 7 to 8 years old,
and intended in that year to be harvested in part. The results
were of such a character, that we might fairly flatter ourselves
that we were about obtain from those plantations, produce suitable
for the preparation of quinine. When subsequently samples were
taken from the entire mass as harvested and ready for market,
they showed lower figures than these of the former analyses,
and so we were once more disappointed. These and other
facts show that there is still much that is wanting in our
scientific knowledge, but at the same time they incite us to con-
tinue in methodical investigation. &
Whatever was possible to throw light upon this subject,
and to ensure the diffusion of plants of good quality, was done.
It is just possible that the parent-trees from which seed was
88
harvested, had come under the influence of foreign pollen, pollen
that is, of inferior kinds. The strictest watchfulness cannot prevent
such an eventuality, when C. Pahudiana occurs everywhere
by thousands, and it was still more an impossibility to keep
all the numerous species and varieties of Cinchona isolated.
The question as to the choice of sorts, by the end of the
year 1872 was confined to very narrow limits. From that time
it has been a fought-out question; henceforth only C. Ledgeriana,
C. officinalis and C. succirubra were to be propagated, to the
exclusion of all other species and varieties. From that time
also, it was possible to lay down stringent regulations, necess-
arily at the expense of much material, tending to prevent
degeneration by crossing. *
The near future will show if these regulations have hit the
mark, and whether it lies in the power of the raiser to ensure
a constant amount of quinine, by a rigid choice of seed.
Distinct from the question if determination of value, the
chemist had still to inform us in another direction, when oppor-
tunity should serve thereto, by matured material.
We wanted to know, whether the place of growth, relative
elevation above the sea, shade, or direct exposure to sunlight,
kind of soil, prevailing winds, etc. can be considered to
influence the formation of alkaloid.
By continued methodical analytical research, it was further to be
cleared up, in which portion of the tree the most valued alkaloids
accumulated, and if there were changes in quantity and quality
during the different seasons as well as at various ages.
In one word; now that individuals occurred in all ages of
development, of all species of Cinchona, at different localities
and height, the chemist can and must give a helping hand to
the planter, that he may help to solve Nature's enigmas. Now
also had the day dawned for tracing out the best methods of
harvesting and drying the bark, and for a regular, systematic
examination of the parent-trees reserved for future seed supply.
89
In 1870 the Indian government was disposed on account of all
the above detailed motives, to satisfy the urgent want of a skilful
chemist to Cinchona culture, and in 1872 Heer J. C. Bernelot
Moens, who had already shown himself so disinterested and
serviceable was definitely appointed as such. With this gain
to the culture a new period was opened up, that brought to
light constantly occurring facts, and gave more positive shape
and power to their further direction.
Before speaking of the results of chemical examinations, we
must now take another subject in hand.
C H A P T E R VII.
SPECIES AND VARIETIES OF CINCHONA CULTIVATED IN JAvA.
All that we have previously given of the botanical description
of Cinchona, and its introduction into Java, does not release
us from the duty of giving a short account of the various
species and varieties of Cinchona which are cultivated in Java.
In cultivation there are:
1. Cºnchona Calisaya. This species which is met with in
almost boundless variety, owes its existence in Java to various
sources of supply, namely; — to the original plant from Paris; —
to seeds, brought by Hasskarl from South America, or sent
thence by him; — to seeds repeatedly procured by Schuh-
kraft; — to the seeds offered by Ledger; — and lastly, to those
plants which came to us from British India in 1866. Gradually
the plants came to be distinguished by their various sources, as,
Calisaya ſavanica, Schuhéraft, Ledgeriana, and anglica.
This distinction however, does not nearly express the characters
of the individuals belonging to each section. Both in form and
90
chemical contents the four named kinds vary greatly from each
other, moreover each kind displays a diversity in its individuals,
which frequently makes this determination of identity very
troublesome. Only by experience and close acquaintance with
the plants, can their typical form be recognised, now and then
without being able to formulate the exact reason.
Fortunately numerous experiments and chemical examinations
have done away with much of the difficulty so far, that since
1872 we know that of all these Calisaya forms, the Ledgeriana
best merits propagation exclusively, or at least with decided
preference. We have now to devote our special attention to
this variety, and its history is so striking in many aspects,
that we here append it in its entirety.
:* *
Sk
During the years 1841—58, an Englishman, Mr. C. Ledger,
was travelling in South America, with the object of purchasing
vicunas, an animal resembling the alpaca, which he had under-
taken to deliver to the Australian government.
Amongst his following there was a certain Manuel, formerly
a cascarillero. This man being thoroughly conversant with the
Cinchona districts, knew on the best authority that officials as
well as natives regarded with district and suspicion all attempts
on the part of foreigners to collect Cinchona seed, and opposed
the exportation both of seeds and plants ".
Speaking of this and other things to Ledger, he further
asserted that most collectors were misled by good seed being
changed for bad, or else the germinative power of it destroyed;
he promised however to procure seeds of the best species of
Cinchona, if his master desired it.
In 1865 having returned to Peru from Australia about the
middle of that year, Ledger received a visit from his old
Concerning this see note on p. 95.
91 *
servant, who took the opportunity to hand him a packet of
Cinchona seed, which he had collected in the Bolivian province
of Caupolican.
By July of the same year Ledger had sent the seeds from
Arica to his brother in London, to offer them to the English
government. As luck would have it, an opportunity to enter into
correspondence with the English government did not soon
present itself, and so the greater part of the seed was bought
by Mr. J. W. B. Money, the possessor of extensive Cinchona
plantations in British India. With the remainder, Ledger turned
to the Dutch government, a preliminary deposit of a hundred
francs was paid, to which a moderate addition would after-
ward be added on the germination of the seed in Java, and
if it appeared to belong to a good sort; by the advice of
Miquel this was accepted.
These seeds then came in December 1865 into the posses-
sion of the Director of Cinchona culture, who one year after-
wards was able to report, that about 20,000 had germinated.
Ledger thereupon received a further sum of 500 francs and
was therewith well content '.
Meanwhile Money had not himself used the seed he had
bought, but had exchanged it for C. succirubra seed with
McIvor, the head of the government Cinchona culture in
Madras. The reason for this was, that he considered his own
plantation to be situated too high for the cultivation of C. Cali-
saya, under which name Ledger had offered his treasure. On
the other hand, McIvor had already expressed himself repeatedly
as not prepossessed in favour of C. Calisaya cultivation. The
Ledger seed was sown at Ootacamund, but produced no plants,
at least if any there were, they were not specially noticed or
mentioned. From a small quantity parted with to a colleague
in Bengal, a few trees were raised in Sikkim which first began
* The total sum received by Ledger from the Dutch government was thus a
trifle less than £ 24 sterling. B. D. J.
$
92
to attract attention, when the fame of the Ledger Calisaya.
spread afterwards from Java ‘.
In the months of November and December 1866, about
12,000 young “Ledger” plants, were planted in the open ground
at the various establishments. Thus of the sprouted seedlings,
sundry thousands had gone to the bad. At that time, we
was no reason to suppose that we had come into posses-
sion of an especially valuable description of Cinchona, on the
contrary we thought we were dealing with the identical Cali-
saya we already possessed, and so the “Ledger” plants were
put out in small plantations quite by themselves. This mea-
sure of precaution was natural and requisite, having regard
to our old Calisaya trees which had scarcely begun to bear
fruit, and each tiny seed was thus looked upon as an impor-
tant gain. *
The C. Ledgeriana plantations at Tjinieroean, Tjibeurem,
and Rioengoenoeng were of some importance; the greatest
quantity were planted out at these three establishments, at
the others comparatively few were planted, and most of those
that were, died. *
The new nurslings developed into handsome young trees,
without any sign, at least on a hasty glance, of showing them-
selves distinct from the already indicated, indubitable C. Cali-
saya, the offspring of Javan seed.
Several specimens began to flower in the course of 1872;
the flowers distinguished themselves by their small size, as
much as by their creamy white colour. Samples of bark were
cut from the trees, now aged five and a half years, and
chemically examined. The results were surprising; the percent-
age of alkaloid appeared higher than in any hitherto known
1 The superintendent of the government Cinchona nurseries in Bengal, Mr. Gammie,
obtained about 8oo plants from Ledger's seed, and made so many cuttings from
them, that in 1880 he planted Io acres of ground with it. Moens who has seen this
planting, says that the type is quite like that we have in Java, but the plants had
not developed so strongly. * af 3 .#
93
Cinchona bark. A quantity of 260 kilos was harvested, and
sent to the Amsterdam market in four cases, as a test. The
testers there termed the bark, “average quill, silvergrey”, and
assessed the value at 240 to 250 cents per half kilo. Samples
taken from the whole parcel, showed 7 per cent of alkaloid, from
which quite three-fourths of pure quinine could easily be separated.
The dealers paid double the assessed price; the reputation of
this description of Cinchona was thus assured, and has since
splendidly maintained itself at each auction.
Meanwhile the examination of the trees was continued, and
whilst the flowers and fruit really gave an evident token of
difference from all the other kinds of C. Calisaya, it appeared
from chemical analyses more and more certain, that we had
here to do with a hitherto unrecognised type of great richness.
Chance had played into our hands, and with this discovery,
Cinchona culture entered into a new period, its third *.
The answering of the question: “From which species of
Cinchona, should we propagate by choice?” was thus no longer
difficult. We could henceforth steadfastly maintain that the future
must be sought for in C. Ledgeriana, that joined to it, for
the preparation of quinine, only C. officinalis could be noticed
and for the production of pharmaceutical or druggist's bark,
C. succèruðra deserves the front rank.
With this idea, in conjunction with Moens it was decided and
ordered, that all plants of every other variety were to be turned
out of the nurseries. Henceforth, no other kinds than C. Led.
geriana, C. officialis and C. succiruára, and we have kept
strictly to this.
Howard after accurate examination, has ascertained the typical
* In truth, the parties interested in South America are perplexed to this day
by reason of the richness of the C. Ledgeriana bark, of which they can form no
idea by want of their own experience. It is considered that in America no Cinchona
tree has been found of so rich percentage, and the surprising results in Java,
are ascribed to the influence of climate and soil. We by no means subscribe to
this opinion.
94
form of our new C. Calisaya and has named it C. Calisaya, var.
Ledgeriana in honour of Mr. Ledger'.
Since plantations have been made exclusively of Ledgeriana,
it has been noticed that the trees showed innumerable varieties
of leaf, but proportionately as we became more experienced,
we learned to point out with certainty the individuals of
the common C. Calisaya which had slipped into the C. Led.
geriana plantations by repairing gaps. Very seldom any doubt
existed where flowers and fruit appeared, and in a few
cases, chemical examination settled the question. That is to
say, after numerous analyses of specimens which differed
mutually both in form and colour of the leaf, it was verified
that the quantity of the alkaloid was not always constant,
whilst the quality and relative proportions were, and that further,
chemistry could accurately indicate the type.
In 1873 the first seeds were gathered, and from them,
several thousand plants were reared. Meanwhile directly after
the discovery of the treasure a beginning was made of artificial
propagation by means of cuttings, which however yielded no
results commensurate to the material used.
At first all the seeds were used, because the flowering and
fruit setting occurred sporadically, but by choice, when more
trees beginning to bear fruit, a careful selection and limitation in
seed saving became possible and desirable. The examined
trees were accurately marked and registered, so that the
raiser was and remains in a position to estimate the richness
of his plants, and to try the value of them by comparative
examination.
Howard has described the Ledger Cinchona as C. Calisaya,
var. microcarpa, and has found different sub-varieties amongst
the material sent to him from Java, which differ somewhat
in shape and colour of flower and leaf, but the small capsules
* Quite recently it has been raised to the rank of a distinct species, C. Ledgeriana,
Moens; see Trimen’s Journal of Botany, 1881, pp. 321–325, with two plates. B. D. J.
95
and small seeds, may be said to be permanent charactistics’.
Calisaya Schuhéraft according to Howard belongs mostly to
... In the ,Pharmaceutical Journal and Transactions” of March 13th 1880, Howard
has recounted the following particulars as to the origin of the Calisaya Ledgeriana
of commerce, which he had described in his “Quinology of the East Indian plan-
tations”, as well known in commerce as the finest description of Calisaya bark.
“We are indebted not to systematic botanists, but to the experience and
sagacity of an Indian, for our knowledge of the best kinds of Calisaya bark;
whilst to Mr. Ledger belongs the whole credit of the exterprise of obtaining
the precious seed to which the hope of future success attaches in Java and
perhaps in other parts of the East Indies.
I have pleasure in now recording the name of the above-mentioned Indian
servant of Mr. Ledger, Manuel Incra Mamani, to whom was entrusted in 1861 the
commission of obtaining the seed of the best Calisaya. At page 48 of my
(unfortunately) little accessible “Quinology of the East Indian plantations” will
be found many details, but I now quote more fully from Mr. Ledger's original
letters. Under date December 22, 1864, I find the following: —
“Manuel Incra Mamani delivered the seed he had collected, in June 1865. He
then told me that the best bark trees had not produced ripe seed for four
years previously. When the trees were full of flower and most promising, a
frost (helada) in April destroyed it all. The inferior sorts had not suffered.
He had been cutting bark with his sons and patiently waited for opportunity
for complying with my orders, obtaining only the best sort.
“He assured me too, he had seen several parties collecting seed for gentlemen
in La Paz; that they did not obtain a single good seed till 1865; and this
assertion seems now to be corroborated by result of Schuhkraft's remittances
in those years.
“After paying him well, he returned to his home in Bolivia, having engaged
with me before leaving to obtain more seeds of the Rojo, the Morada, the
Nazanjado, and of the Calisaya of Moco-Moco.”
The sequel is a sad one. After relating the particulars of the murder of
another servant, (Cabreri) Mr. Ledger says.
“Poor Manuel is dead also; he was put in prison by the Corregidor of
Coroico, beaten so as to make him confess who the seed found on him was
for; after being confined in prison for some twenty days, beaten and half
starved, he was set at liberty, robbed of his donkeys, blankets and everything
he had, dying very soon after.” (Op. cit. 730).
Ledger further wrote, “Manuel assured me that the greater part of the seed
came from Rojo trees, he had brought in one bag the seeds collected from
about fifty trees, the harvest of many days.” This explains a certain divergence
in the forms of Ledgeriana; all belong however to the best Calisaya, which we
know at the present time as Ledgeriana.
Howard further states, that the Ledgeriana, especially where it is carefully
propagated, yields on an average about 1o percent of quinine. He nowhere
96
the variety C. Calisaya josephina, which was formerly des-
cribed as a bushy form. Although “Schuhkraft's" indeed shows
certain characters that way, still in spite of great diversity, it is
readily recognised, and the development of numerous indivi-
duals in Java, informs us that the tree-form not infrequently
occurs amongst them.
For the preparation of quinine, this Calisaya cannot come
into prominence in comparison with Calisaya javanica, amongst
which Howard noticed some evidently different, although he
finds ground for the assertion, that it has originated spontaneously or by hy-
bridization.
The Calisaya Ledgeriana, appears then as the legitimate descendent of the
noblest variety of the noblest species of the Bolivian forest, and there occurs
also in various forms, differing from each other chiefly in the shape of the
leaf, but on the other hand agreeing in a high percentage of very pure quinine
in their bark. These plants quite early distinguish themselves from the other
varieties of Calisaya, and are regularly recognised in Java by their small
white flower, which in South America appears to be very sensitive to frost. The
bark has a peculiarity quite its own. The cause, why this variety does not
reach Europe in large parcels, appears to be, that in Java very properly the
trees of less value are cut down, whilst the best are reserved for later
growth. On the other hand there is fear that in British India, many of the
best C. succirubra and C. officinalis trees have already been felled.
Howard is not able to refrain from declaring his vexation, that those who
have suffered and striven so much to introduce this valuable tree into India
should have been so ill rewarded. Ledger sacrificed his labour, and his servant
his life, though the first was as little valued by the English government as
by the Dutch.
We must here remark, that Ledger appeared to be content with the purchase
money furnished by the government of the Netherlands.
It was not known at that time, that the C. Ledgeriana exhibited so high a
value, and in every case, the seeds alone could not assure the future; this is
seen in British India. Dr. King, director of the botanic garden at Calcutta,
visited the state plantations in Java, by command of his government. His
report is to be found in the April number of the “Indian Forester” and is
commendation throughout. He makes a complete statement, that the English
in Sikkim also possess the true C. Ledgeriana but he recognises that, actually,
in consequence of various influences the bark there does not possess so great
a percentage of quinine at that in Java. We can scarcely credit this, and
entertain better expectation as to the results from the plants which have been
received in British India from Java.
*
97
ranked it with var. }osephiana but approximating more nearly
to the tree-form. He was able, like the rest, to define the characters
of Calisaya vera, and in Java C. javanica is met with as tall
sturdy trees as well as bushes.
Calisaya anglica is strongly divergent from the three de-
scriptions just spoken of, it plainly recalls C. succirućra both
in shape of the tree and the leaf. It betrays however more
of the Calisaya type, by substance and surface of the leaf, by
the scrofficul; there found, and by the flower.
In 1866 Mc Ivor sent to us a parcel of Calisaya seed from
Madras. Probably this was obtained from the plants which
had previously been received from Java. Within six months,
these seeds had yielded strong lusty plants, a success which
neither before nor after, from no single batch of any kind of
seed, has been obtained '.
In a few years the plants grew into tall stout trees, and
at first glance they showed great similarity to C. succirubra.
Howard supported our suspicion that we here had to do with
a hybrid, originating from the influence of C. succăruðra on
C. Calisaya. Analysis of the bark also showed contents between
that of both species, less than in the first named, but higher
than in the second. However, for the preparation of quinine,
C. anglica has not proved suitable,
Thus there came into Java four chief kinds, classes we
might say, - of Cºnchona Calisaya, and each separately showed
numerous varieties, which were however tolerably typical of
each description. All the barks are suitable for pharmaceutical
use, though only C. Zedgeriana yields factory bark, and this
it does excellently well. If systematic propagation of all these
kinds were carried on, irremediable confusion would ensue, and
private speculators, who cannot busy themselves with special
! I here testify with emphasis, on the ground of personal experience and experi-
ment during a series of years, that in Java we have always obtained the best plants
from Cinchona seeds which were sent to us from South America or British India.
7
98
scientific examinations and continual experiments, would not be
able to entertain the hope of producing rich Cinchona barks.
All sorts must be raised in the government undertaking, that
a choice may be made, and there also, exist the will and
opportunity for distinguishing and disentangling. Since the
Superiority of C. Ledgeriana has been known, only this has
been propagated, and gradually all the other Calisaya have
been cleared away by harvesting, so that at last no more will
be kept, than are necessary to keep the species in existence,
the aim here intended being of a purely scientific kind.
2. Cºnchona officinalis. This species was received in 1865
from Madras. Amongst the plants sent, there had also been
distinguished three varieties, C. officinalis crispa, C. o. Cha-
Żuarguera and C. o. Uritusinga. Subsequently C. o. augusti-
folia was noticed. After the receipt of this first dispatch, seeds
were repeatedly sent of C. officinalis from Madras, Bengal and
Ceylon, and from these constantly fine plants were obtained.
In Java a great difference may be readily remarked, but
examination of the bark shows always a relatively rich quinine
percentage, so that C. officina/is after C. Zedgeriana, appears
the most suitable for the separation of that alkaloid by the
manufacturer.
To obtain manufacturer's bark therefore, quite rightly, the
propagation of C. officinalis is decreed. Which variety or form
contains the most quinine, cannot at present be said decis-
ively. Individuals are found with large, middling, small and
even a rolled up leaf, though analyses have not yet been able
to show assuredly a distinct superiority of any.
On the whole, C. officinalis may be distinguished in each
known form even by the novice, from the various kinds of
C. Ca/saya. The tree remains more slender, and displays relati-
vely thin branches which soon show a tendency to droop.
The leaf is of a dark green, and glossy, generally smaller than
that of C. Calisaya and the flower distinguishes itself by its purple
99
or violet colour, from the rosier or whiter hue of the former. The
bark has a more or less brown tint, and is strongly cleft
(grooved) so that the bark, in the older trees, shows itself by
lengthwise, as well as transverse indentations, which divide the
cork-layer into noticeable, foursided pieces.
Warsewicz has declared . that in America C. officinalis grows
no higher than 12 to 15 feet, and that it can be treated suc-
cessfully in the European copsewood fashion. Indeed it shoots
quickly and thriftily from the felled stems, and cuttings may
be taken from the plant with the best result. In Java there
are numerous trees of 7 to 8 years of age, which by measure-
ment, have already reached more than 20 feet in height, and
Pavon described the species C. Uritusing a discovered by him,
as a tree of 60 feet and more.
C. officina/is therefore is a rich species and we may add
that it is one of the most ornamental; it appears however
especially susceptible to climate and soil, and thrives by prefe-
rence in the higher districts. For culture in Java on a large
Scale, it is probably less suitable on account of its delicacy;
most plantations remain backward, and were also visited most
heavily by disease (Cinchona rust), so that frequently extensive
plantations, must be written off as promising little.
Moreover in this species of Cinchona, the assurance has been
decisively given in Java, that propagation by seeds does not
necessarily lead to degeneration from the type, or from the
bark-contents. On the other hand we have to state, that seeds
received from British India have always yielded stronger plants,
than those harvested in Java. This fact declares the desirability
of exchange in regard to Cinchona seeds.
3. Cºnchona succèruóra, The young plants considered origin-
ally by Junghuhn to be this species, had no right to the name,
later they appeared to be C. caloptera, (see under No. 7). The
first true C. succèruðra were received from Bengal in 1862,
twelve in all. From 1866 seeds have several times been sent
100
to us from Bengal, Madras and Ceylon, and in Java C. succi-
zuòra was energetically multiplied by cuttings with the best
results. *.
No description of Cºnchona grows quicker or more robustly,
or is more readily propagated by cuttings. C. succirubra deve-
lopes itself in 6 to 8 years to a vigorous tree, with thick
branches, and large, light green leaves. The flower is pale
rose-red. At seven years old, individuals have been measured
34 feet high, by a stem-circumference of eighteen inches to
two feet. The oldest tree in 1874 was about 13 years old,
13.260 metres high, and O.72 I round the stem ".
There is no Cºnchona bark richer in alkaloids, and though
C. succiritóra from which “red bark” is obtained, is not suit-
able for the preparation of quinine, because it can only be
extracted with trouble and much expense, yet it has a pre-
ponderance of the secondary alkaloids.
No better material for pharmaceutical purposes is known,
and on that account its propagation is desirable from every
point of view *.
We have learned thus to know the three previously des-
cribed species of Cºnchona, which were necessary and best
for our culture; they are mutually so easily distinguishable, that
there can be no fear of confusion between them.
As the extremes in form, as well as the power of develop-
ment, we may name C. succiručra and C. officinalis. The
latter remains a slender tree, with thin, drooping branches;
the former grows tall and robust, and betrays itself at a dis-
tance by its large leaves. The stem of C. succiruðra is seen
to be light coloured, that of C. officinalis is relatively darker.
| About 43 feet, and 2 feet Io inches respectively B. D. J.
* It is truly remarkable, that although De Vrij as far back as 1876 had directed
the attention of government thereto, the East Indian C. succirubra is still not
rightly appreciated as an official Cinchona bark. People only know what is familiar
to them, the above mentioned barks are not properly known because they are in
cach case considered to be of inferior quality,
101
Between these two types, comes C. Ledgeriana which offers
an endless diversity. Its crown of foliage betrays itself at a
distance by its peculiar brown tint, and the colour of the stem
is midway between both the other species, whilst the branches
grow more vertically, forming an acute angle with the stem,
similar to C. lancifolia.
Whoever has once seen the three species together, (provided
he has no other species under his eyes), has conviction so strongly
impressed upon him, that all hesitation in the definition of their
identity is removed.
4. Cºnchona Pahudiana. Howard. We have already fully
detailed the history of this species. No single private planter
has brought it into culture; the species grows exceedingly well,
but in mature age yields no better result than when young.
Moens found in a 20 year old tree no more alkaloid than as
a rule, younger individuals had shown. It will not be soon extir-
pated in Java, especially as there are still specimens remaining
scattered in the forests.
C. Pahudiana distinguishes itself by its coarse hairy leaf,
and in outward appearence it approaches nearest to : —
5. Cºnchona Hasséarliana, about which we have nothing
more to say, after our account already given of its origin. It
is distinguished from C. Pahudiana by a finer leaf, which is
also less hairy, and moreover displays the oft mentioned scro-
ôiculi. On the whole, the tree grows fuller and broader; whilst
its bark contains less alkaloid than the common Calisaya. In
1864 many plants were obtained from cuttings, which grew up
into stout trees, the bark of which was of excellent thickness
and good appearance. At least two varieties of C. Hasséarliana
are to be found, one with short thick capsules, the other with
long; the former which has also a more shiny and less hairy
leaf, is considered the better.
6. Cºnchona micrantha. One specimen was received in 1862,
together with the 12 C. succirućra from Bengal. We have
102
never purposely set ourselves to propagate this, on the ground
of the inferior quality of its bark. The shape of the tree is
like that of C. succèruára, but its leaves are tinted brown,
and the stem approaches that colour. Amongst the plants
which were raised in Java from C. succiruára seeds received
from British India, many C. micrantha were met with. In the
early years of Cinchona culture, the English appear to have
bestowed little attention to keeping the different Cinchona
species separate, and thus degeneration and mingling occurred.
7. Cºnchona caloptera. In form this is between C. succèruóra
and C. micrantha; C. caloptera has also a large leaf, harder
and rougher than that of the two species named, and further
is to be ranked between both, as regards its colour. Jung-
huhn had discovered it amongst C. Pahudiana (at that time
C. ovača) and it was brought forward as C. succèruðra. The
same species was obtained in 1870 from seeds sent from New
Grenada.
8. Cºnchona lancifolia. This in America grows at a greater
elevation than any other Cinchona, and yields the Pitayo bark
so much in demand, and said to possess 2 °/o of quinine.
Dr. Karsten collected seeds of this species in America, which
he was kind enough to send to the Dutch government; this
we have already mentioned. C. lancifolia developes into a tall
tree, whose shape, leaves and flowers, comes midway between
C. Calisaya and C. officinalis. Its growing power in Java does
not appear out of the common, though the isolated propagation
of this species has not been purposed long, because its bark
was not considered suitable for the separation of quinine. It is
quite true that examination has shown some very rich specimens,
but these were exceptions, and there is every reason to believe,
that C. ſancifolia degenerates by propagation. Howard was unable
to recognise some material sent to him, as being of Karsten's
species.
With these remarks we conclude our discussion of the species.
103
Purely scientific botanical descriptions lie outside the plan of
this work; those who desire it, may consult the works on the
subject given on page II. Our aims are confined to that
which can be called important and useful to the planter and to
industry.
We once more emphatically repeat, that seeds from the
same tree, as a rule yield plants of very diverse forms; thus
we are sure that crossing occurs in very many cases. The
habit of young plants however, is apt lead us astray by too
hasty determinations; with development of the individuals, the
differences mostly vanish, at least the forms sometimes change.
Hybrids occur abundantly in all species, and this need not be
thought amazing.
Cinchona plantations were really like a pattern-card of species
and varieties, and as long as the period of experiment con-
tinued, there was nothing to alter therein; it was an absolute
impossibility, to strictly isolate iudividuals. In proportion as
extensive plantations of the valuable species came into con-
dition, and in these, more trees began to flower, the chances
of fertilization with foreign pollen were naturally restricted,
and from the oldest C. Ledgeriana nurseries, those individuals
could gradually be weeded out which were of doubtful parent-
age, or seen, by means of analysis to be really inferior.
These improvements came by degrees, and by careful selec-
tion it was possible to aim at the enriching and perfecting
an entire plantation.
Chemical analyses have shown that an intimate connection
exists between the form of a tree and the quality of its bark.
Consequently by diligent observation in a plantation of a
particular kind, the hybrids may readily be distinguished, and
these it is well to eliminate betimes, or at least, in case of
harvesting, to bring them into the market.
The following statements may give an idea of the com-
parative development of the plantations.
104
There were in the open ground, by the end of the years
1863
53 I, OOO
1864 1865
8 I 3,OOO 909, OOO
Pahudiana plants all of which had been raised under Jung-
huhn's direction. Since 1864, this species has not been propa-
gated, only those which were to hand in the nursery beds,
were planted out. Several thousand plants were put out in the
open ground at Rioengoenoeng and Lembang.
It happened at the latter place that on account of the poor
soil and other reasons, few prospered; at the former, the very
few individuals which were planted out, in 4 to 5 years
developed into thriving harvestable trees. *
After 1865 the Pahudiana figures in the reports underwent
no change, though it is evident that their accuracy could not
be ensured, scattered as the individuals were in extensive
forests, where they were continually perishing by thousands,
or destroyed by wild beasts, falling forest trees, etc. Permission
was therefore asked, and accorded by decree of 15 February
1870, in future to omit all mention of C. Pahudiana.
The reports show, that at the end of each year, there were
in the open ground as follow: —

Calisaya Succirubra Officinalis Lancifolia Micrantha
1864 II,000 8I * 171 I
1865 27,000 34I I 2 332 I
I866 56,000 792 2,400 418 I
1867 I98,OOO 3, IOO 9 4OO 569 3
I868 429,000 I2,7OO 24,OOO 57O 386
1869 564,000 45,000 61,000 797 4. I4.
1870 843,000 I3O,OOO I2O,OOO 6,400 758
1871 I,009,000 I64,000 188,000 I6,000 I,050
1872 I,235,000 I79,OOO 262,Oco 27,OOO I,O3O
With this the third period may be said to be closed, for
henceforth the rule has been to propagate C. Ledgeriana and
105
C. officinalis exclusively, and to keep the C. succiruðra planta-
tions at full strength.
Amongst the C. Calisaya figures, the C. Hasséar/iana are
hidden, and amongst those of C. succiruðra the C. caloptera, of
which altogether IO,Ooo must have propagated, whilst the total
C. Hasséarliana have never exceeded 80,000. Up to 1866 there
were not more than 12 true C. succiruðra noted; the rest, brought
forward under that name were C. caloptera, raised from cuttings.
Good seeds of C. lancifolia were harvested first in 1870, of
C. caloptera already in 1867, though then also were C. succiruára
seeds received from British India. In August 1866 the first C.
Zedgeriana were put out, they were then noted as C. Calisaya.
In the following statement we now only mention the three
principal varieties, which have been, and still are since 1872
exclusively propagated.

Ledgeriana Officinalis Succirubra
1873 IO,OOO 337,OOO 190,000
1874 44,OOO 426,000 185,000
1875 IoS,OOO 491,000 I79,000
1876 167,000 5O4.OOO I62,OOO
1877 I97,OOO 507,OOO I 57.OOO
1878 353,OOO 535,OOO I77,OOO
1879 355,000 377,009 219,000
188o 498,OOO 4OI,OOO 278,000
The richest parent trees were always reserved for propagating
C. Ledgeriana, and in proportion as these began to flower and
fruit in abundance, it was possible to become more exacting,
and therefore the very finest of the best were exclusively
reserved for seeding.
If it were still possible that the decendants should seem to
' At the close of 1880, there were besides in the nurseries 272,000 Ledgeriana,
208,000 succi ubra, and 80,000 ºfficinalis. Furthermore in the open ground, 630,000
Calisaya and Hasskarðaſta, 16,700 lancifolia and 260 micrant/ia.
106
fall away from their percentage of quinine, still on the average,
rich barks would be harvested. This illusion if it be one,
depends upon facts already experienced in other species of
Cinchona, and is at the present time, not disproved by the
analytical results from descendants of 3 to 4 years old. These
indeed do not yet possess the quantity of the parent tree, but
the quality is seen to be identical. Four year old trees are
as a rule not developed enough to yield a ripe, mature bark
of much consequence. . The first thing to be kept in mind, is,
to be sure of having the typical form in the offspring, for the
qualitative composition corresponds to the form.
C H A P T E R VIII.
CHEMICAL INVESTIGATIONS.
*-i-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-
In the year 1820 Pelletier and Caventou happened to dis-
cover the existence of alkaloids in Cinchona bark, and to
separate two of them, which were named Quinine and Cin-
chonine.
In 1833 Henry and Delondre discovered a third alkaloid,
which later become better known through Pasteur's labours,
and since then has been termed Conchinine. In 1847 Winckler
found Cinchonidine; in 1872 Hesse did the same by Qui-
namine and Paricine, and in 1879 A. C. Oudemans detected
Cinchonamine. Quinamine and Paricine have thus far only
been met with in certain C. succºratóra barks from British
India. From the bark of Buena heasandra as early as 1845,
Paricine had been separated by Winckler. Oudemans found
his Cinchonamine in Quinetum, a preparation said to contain
all the alkaloids of the bark together, which we shall later on
treat of more at length.
107
Aricine, Cinchovatine, Cusconine, Javanine, and others, are
less known alkaloids, which have been met with in certain
barks, such as that of C. pubescens, and Javan Calisaya.
Besides the foregoing crystallizable alkaloids, the majority of
cultivated varieties of Cinchona have also some which do not
crystallize, termed by the analytical chemist amorphous alkaloids.
They remain combined with acid in the mother-liquor, from
which the crystallizable bases have already been separated,
and are thence thrown down by ammonia as a dark-brown,
brittle, slightly alkaline precipitate, which fuses below Ioo” Cent.
and is named Quinoidine. It is brought into commerce as a
slightly coloured muriate or sulphate, and is extolled by many
as a cheap substitute for sulphate of quinine.
Further, three kinds of acid have been met with in Cin-
chona barks, tannic, quinic and quinovic acids. We confine
ourselves at present, to the simple statement; we shall deal
with the previously mentioned alkaloids, at the conclusion of
this subject in its general bearings. The last word has not
yet been spoken by the chemist, and debate has long con-
tinued over the nature of the various alkaloids, whilst their
number has constantly increased, so that a presentation of the
enquiry may as soon bring a still greater complication to light,
as a simplification of the existing state of things.
It may be that some alkaloids which are thought to be
pre-formed in the Cinchona bark, are merely the results of the
chemical treatment of the raw material. Thus Mulder and others
allege, that Quinidine as such, does not occur in the bark.
Investigation of the living tree must be continued for many
years yet; who knows whether we may not find out that
Nature changes one form into another? In that case, we may
indulge the idea, that under the hand of the manufacturer or
analyst, similar processes may come to pass.
Meanwhile it is a remarkable fact, that the various Cinchona
types, with regard to their alkaloids, qualitative at least,
108
remain tolerably constant, and thus the planter has to prevent
deterioration by choice in propagating.
When the first alkaloids were separated, it was evident that
the principal power of the raw material was sought for, and
therapeutic experiments confirmed this opinion. Quinine appeared
the febrifugal specific, and thus in the treatment of fever patients,
it came to supplant the use of the bark in its entirety.
We shall bye and bye devote a special chapter to the use
of Cinchona bark and the value of its various constituents.
We must now fix our attention on the results of chemical
investigations, in so far as they can be called in the first place
useful and important to the planter.
In the year 1857, Dr. J. E. De Vrij, who during several
years had busied himself in quinological studies, and whose
name as a chemist was of high repute, returned to Java as
Inspector of chemical investigations. As a fellow worker with
the naturalist Junghuhn, valuable results were expected, and
for six years De Vrij devoted his rare chemical attainments
to the interests of the young Cinchona culture.
The material for an extended investigation, and for method-
ical, orderly and regular experiments, was up to 1863 limited,
and thus even from the most earnest endeavours, there could
be no results expected, of real decisive usefulness.
In 1863 De Vrij returned to Europe, and remained there,
unweariedly devoting his time to quinological researches, by
which, above all, the support of the already more advanced
English planters was assured to him.
Simultaneously also, Howard, Hesse, Kerner, Oudemans,
Van der Burg, Stoeder, Broughton, and many other untiring
naturalists and analysts, were busy about the subject, but no one
more so, or more fortunate in opportunity of realising the fruit
of his activity than J. C. Bernelot Moens, who from 1864 to 1872
uninterruptedly superintendended all the analyses, which were
committed to him by the Director of Cinchona culture in Java,
109
for the appraisement of the imported species of Cinchona. In
the middle of 1872, Moens was appointed chemist to the
Government culture, since when hundreds of analyses of most
diverse material, display not merely the results of his uncom-
mon powers of work, but also decided many pending questions.
This is not the place to follow up the scientific aspect of
the plan adopted, or the course of the investigations; we must
confine ourselves to showing the results obtained. For so much
as this is meant as an indication of the relative value of cult-
ivated Cinchonas, tabular statements of the results of analyses
of samples of bark, appear the most suitable to us. All the
remaining results we condense into small compass, and we can
do so honourably, because before long by Moens's own hand,
a work on Cinchona will appear, which promises to give a
clear and ample account of the subject, from the present scientific
standpoint.
Zedgeriana. 175 samples of bark, cut from the same number
of parent trees of this kind, (raised from Ledger's seed and
mostly planted in November and December of 1866) were
during the years 1872 to 1878, tested for amount of alkaloid.
The following summary will give an idea of the composition.

5 g a Alkaloid. ' Quinine. Average Number
# # # # amount. of samples.
g = | # 5 |THTTHT THT = T 2. & ..!,
4–2 ºf º # E 5
a # ‘E 5 º: O) & 5
1872 7 3.88 9.O7 3.35 8.15 7.08 5.58 2 *
1873 2O 2.24 I4.3.I O.65 IO.90 8.58 6.06 8 8
1874 29 5.93 I2.97 3.82 II.68 9.56 7.37 8 7
1875 I4. 7 91 I2 28 4:39 Io.72 9.79 8 26 I 3
1876 52 4.67 I3 35 | 2.57 13.25 | 8.86 || 7.23 6 6
1877 I9 4.90 I3.50 I.67 I2.3.I 8.56 7.06 3 4.
1878 54 4.64 II.67 3.22 Io.67 859 7.34 I 9
'At the time of packing, the barks hold about 13.5% of water. If the percentage
of alkaloid in all air-dried state is wanted, the averages must be multiplied by osé.
1 10
It is quite evident, that the identity of certain individuals
in the Ledgeriana plantations was doubted reasonably. The
doubt became certainty through the results of the analyses;
though these were given in the tabular statements, and thereby
the averages are actually not high enough for the genuine
Ledgeriana. Before this kind was known in Java, it was con-
sidered that American barks with 3 °/o quinine were of very
good quality; barks with more than 5% were held to be
exceptionally fine. This fact gives cause for consideration. We
now know that Ledger's seed was obtained from fifty trees,
and the seedlings must thus represent a great diversity of
forms. From America however, there was nothing brought
into commerce of so rich an amount, and this confirms our
opinion that the Cascarilleros bestow too little care upon the
selection.
Quinidine and Cinchonidine were found exceptionally in
Ledgeriana bark, they only occurred together in three cases;
Cinchonidine showing itself the most. Quinine is predominant,
and the quantity remains constant in each case; it amounts to
7o or even 80% of the total alkaloids and is accompanied
merely by a little Cinchonine and amorphous alkaloid. It is
this proportion which causes the separation of quinine to be
so easy and so clean.
From the amounts of the produce in bulk, meanwhile more
accurate exhibitions were obtained, whenever the results were
compared with the analyses of samples taken from cases and
bales. It was quite possible here and there to lay the hand
upon a specimen which was not derived from the true Ledge-
riana; (indeed for repairing the original plantation, other Cali-
sayas, such as Calisaya Javanica, were used) but although the
analyses of such a sample might give lower figures, yet in the
bulk of the bark, usually 65 to 75 kilos per case or bale, the
few quills of poor quality could not be said to have a consi-
derable influence.
}
111
wh --
Gl)
bſ) Total Alkaloid. uinine 4-
# | Net weight | * 2.101 Q Average
C agreed price
Crop. 3. of bark - - er /, kilo
– I in / kilos. . . . . sy - e. * per /,
Cö IIll Ill Iſltl 111, IIlaxIIIlúIIl, II]. Iniſatirºl TIlaxiſſill Iſle II]. francs.
§
1872 4. 522 6.72 742 5 24 5:48 5.02
I873 23 2,944 6.84 8.58 5.48 6.69 3.87%
1874 || 28 4,500 4.5 9.6 3-2 7.4 3.70
1875 28 4,452 5.6 8.3 3.9 7.2 386
1876 29 3,925 5.O 8.3 3.9 7.2 8.79
1877 I9 2,419 5. I 8.5 4. I 7.O 5.61
1878 66 8,009 6.3 9.6 5.O 8 O 6.31
1879 61 7,850 6. I 8. I 6.o 7.o 4.46—10.51
Total 258 34,619

In 1878 a trial was made of the outside scrapings (or shav-
ings) from Ledgeriana. The produce was brought to market as
scrapings in 12 cases, 1620 half-kilos, and here fetched 9 francs
per half-kilo. Two samples contained 9.5 and 7.5 alkaloid, of
which 8.3 and 6.7 were quinine. It is therefore of especially
favourable proportions, which well deserve attention, against
the fact that the Cascarilleros are wont to deprive the thick
branches of their epidermis by brushing. Cinchona barks såne
epiderme have long been shown to be the most costly; in
truth however by this brushing the finest portions are lost.
For this discovery, as will appear later on, we have to thank
the regular methodical investigation of Moens.
In 1879 there were 5 cases harvested, containing 544 half-
kilos, of scrapings. By advice of the Examination-commission
in the Netherlands, the term schilfers (scales) was given to
them. Analyses showed 9. I alkaloid, of which 7.8 was quinine;
this time also the highest prices were realised for the scrapings.
Numerous examinations of 3 to 4'ſ, year plants, reared from
Ledgeriana seed, obtained in Java, seem even now to lead to
the encouraging declaration, that no degeneration, in a chem-
ical sense, has taken place, and that in each case, the plants
112
which most resemble the parent trees, agree most nearly also
in chemical composition. The quantity of alkaloid is indeed
smaller; but in such young individuals the maximum amount
cannot be expected, and the chief and principal thing is, that
the quality of the occurring alkaloids should be in harmony with
the parent trees ".
C. officinalis. In 1872 a young tree of four years old was
examined, it contained 4.36 alkaloid, 1.75 being quinine. In
1873 the figures of the analyses of 13 trees ran thus: —
alkaloid, 3.73 to 8.65, average 6.77%, and quinine 1.75 to
7.52, that is, about 4.17%. In 1877 in one tree there was
found 3,OI of quinine in 4.05 of alkaloid, and 8 trees examined
in 1878, showed 3.39 to 6.05, average 4.77 alkaloid, of which
I.74 to 4 95 or about 3.07% was quinine.
Cºnchona officinalis thus yields a bark of great value for
quinine manufactures, and comes immediately after Ledgeriana.
Experience has already abundantly shown that the amount of
quinine is not lessened in consequence of propagating by seeds;
there is no apprehenion of degeneration, either in a chemical
or botanical sense. There are many hybrids met with amongst
this species, which probably owe their existence to the action
of foreign pollen. Their recognition is however less difficult than
in Ledgeriana, because through all its varieties C. officinalis
remains a very characteristic species of the genus.
It is not a specially productive kind; but it may very likely
be that the existing plantations are not best adapted for it,
as regards their soil and elevation. In general it may be seen
as a slender plant, and admeasurements, even of fully deve-
loped trees, seem relatively slight. Altogether the C. officinalis
culture may be said to be the least successful, although in the
* From a private plantation in Pekalongan recently there were barks examined
at Amsterdam, from 2 year-old Ledgeriana, which appeared to possess I 2 %
quinine, neither cinchonidine nor quinidine, with o 25 cinchonine and amorphous
alkaloid; a result indicating a very pure type.
113
government plantations, many handsome specimens may at all
times be met with, and certain plantations were developed
fully and advantageously.
The following summary confirms the foregoing statement.
# Net weight Total alkaloid. Quinine Agreed price
Crop. #. of bark r - per '/, kilo
T; in 's kilosſ minimum. maximum. I minimum. maximum l in francs.
É
1872 8 814 more than 4% alkal. of which 50% quinine 2.OI
1874 6 665 66 46 P
1875 I8 2,02I 5||7 42 about 2.59%
6.25 and 3.23°
1876 32 3,75I 4.9 57 35 4 win 2 auctions)
1877 34 3,347 4|8 3:O about 2 98%
1878 25 2,702 3.7 48 2 3. I 2.4I to 3.30
IS79 .30 3,365 5.3 6.8 I.2 4.6 2.41 to 5.94
Total | 153 16,665

If now a comparison be made of the crops of Ledgeriana and
Officinalis barks given on pages IO4–5, then the far poorer
returns of the Officinalis culture will be plainly apparent. When
at the close of 1866, the first Ledgeriana were planted out,
to the number of about 12,OOO, we had it is true only
2,400 young trees of C. officinalis, but that figure was already
increased to 24,OOO in 1868, and by 1870 to 120,000, whilst
the propagation of the Ledgeriana first acquired significance in
1873. Up to and including 1879 there were not more than
16,665 pounds of Officinalis bark harvested against 34,619 of
Ledgeriana, and moreover it must be remarked that of the
original Ledgeriana plantation of more than I 2,OOO trees, to
the present time about one half remains untouched. From this
half, at most single branches have been taken.
The raising of C. officinalis is not deprecated here; it is
effected both by cuttings and seeds, and the trees produce a
8
1 14
handsome bark, readily distinguishable, relatively rich in quinine,
and it fetches a high price. We were not fortunate at the com-
mencement of the plantations, but where good soil is reserved
for it, and a suitable elevation above the sea is chosen, (it
grows by preference in the highest regions) the results will be
satisfactory; riper experience of recent years guarantees this '.
C. succiruára. No description of Cinchona grows more
quickly, thriftily, robustly and seems to require less actual
needs as to soil and position than this; there is also no other
which has more alkaloid throughout. Amongst these, however
quinine occurs in relatively so insignificant a quantity, that
the bark is unsuitable for the preparation of that alkaloid. On
the other hand, amongst the many varieties of Cinchona, there
is no plant known which is more advantageous to cultivate,
or has so quickly found and surely held its position for phar-
maceutical purposes. It is needless to give a statement of repeated
analyses, they all indicate high figures which run from 6 to
IO %, in a single case remaining below the minimum, but
sometimes exceeding the maximum. McIvor showed that the
amount of alkaloid, especially the quinine, can be increased by
covering the stem with moss, also by partial stripping of the
tree, in whose renewed bark an enhancement, of even higher
proportion, has been ascertained. Meanwhile, in spite of the
increased quinine percentage, the improved bark must remain
less in demand for manufacturing purposes, so long as the manu-
facturer can manage to get material in which the quinine pre-
dominates; the equivalent greater bulk of secondary alkaloids
makes the separation of pure quinine, troublesome and costly.
The following statement displays the quantity produced and
the value of Succirubra culture in the government plantations
in Java.
! It may probably be worth while to plant C. officinalis between C. Ledgeriana,
and when fairly developed, to make use of the latter first.
1 15

§ # Total alkaloid. Quinine Quantity Market price
Crop. #: of bark per '/, kilo
3 *, dispatched *
*: minimum. maximum. minimum. maximum. in iſ, kilos. in francs.
1872 5 sº tº-sº *E**** * 724 1.14 to 1.16
1873 36 || 9, 19 9.46 O.74 I.5 4,425 |1.07" throughout.
1874 || Io9 6. I 8.6 O.5 o.8 14,249 jo.85 )
1875 || 125 6.2 9.2 o.6 I. I I6,502 |I.43° )
1876 || 290 . , 6.1 8.6 o.6 I.O 38,769 |1.62 & 1.30
throughout.
(two sales.)
1877 || 293 || 6.0 8.7 o.7 I.4 38,188 lo.86% –
1878 || 349 || 6.4 8.6 O.9 I.2 43,525 (O.97 to 2.55
1879 || 199 6.o 8.o o.6 O.9 25,207 |1.30 to 3.62
Total 1405 181,509
If the statements on pages 104—5 showing that the planting of
C. succiruára which in 1868 first attained any importance, I 2,700
plants being then in the open ground, amongst which however,
C. caloptera was still included, be again referred to, it will be seen
that no variety of Cinchona can be cultivated in Java, with
better prospect of speedy and ample production. If it were
certain that good prices would be maintained, then without
doubt, preference should be given to the culture of C. succiruára.
But as long as quinine is wanted, and it is not supplanted by
the secondary alkaloids, or frequently replaced by them, so
long can there be no satisfaction in cultivating C. succiruára to
the exclusion of all other kinds. The market may easily be
oversupplied with the so-called pharmaceutical or druggist's
barks, to which C. succirućra belongs, so that the heavy fall in
prices thence resulting, would make the profits of this culture
very questionable".
' De Vrij has remarked that the C. succirubra barks which are brought to market
from private plantations in Java, are less rich in alkaloids than those of the
government plantations, and he very justly wonders at it, because the private
| | 6
In our analytical tables we have not taken up the relative
amounts of schilfers (scales), the uppermost and richest part
of the bark, gruis (dust), waste, mostly of inferior quality,
gemoste (mossed) or geregemeerde (renewed) bark, which seems
richer than the original, uncovered bark, and the root-barks,
in which as a rule, more alkaloids are met with than in the
stembark. The figures cited have thus relation to normal barks.
In the case of Ledgeriana, the root-barks attain the highest
prices because they are the richest. Dust and waste fetch the
lowest prices, not only because they are mostly of inferior
quality, but also because they can with difficulty be selected
by the eye.
What we have hitherto enumerated concerning the three
chief varieties of Cinchona, is sufficient to give an estimate of
their value. There is not a single planter who has taken up
the culture of the remaining varieties imported into Java;
so that we have not to deal with them in detail, and as to
the latter we can complete it with a tabular statement of the
results of the analyses of samples drawn from various crops.
estates in British India do not share in that decline. We here note, 1st That private
planters in Java probably strip their trees while young, and 2nd That C. succirubra
raised from Javan seed are usually more or less deteriorated. Since it has been
practicable to harvest seeds from extensive, fully developed enclosures, the danger
of deterioration is certainly lessened. It is a fact, that by far the most Succirubra
barks, which the government has brought to market to the present time, were
harvested from trees raised from British Indian seed, and cuttings from them.
E

C. Hasskarl-
C. javanica. | C. Schuhkraft| C. anglica. iana. C. caloptera. | C. lancifolia. | C. micrantha. | C. Pahudiana.
Crop. - ;
# | # # | # | 3 || 3 || 3 | # | # | # | 3 | # | 3 | # | # | #
3 ă 3 3 º: 3 g 5 j 5 3 5 3 5 ſº 5
Tº: cr' Tº: cº Tº: cº Tº O' Tr: U' Tº: O' Tº o Tº ty"
1873 2.4I ;: : º, 5,28 o 86 || 5.74 2.05 I.4 o. I6
1874 ;3 : 5.6 o,7 I.2 O.2
2.2 O.3 * 2.O O.5 3.7 O. I I.4. O.2
1875 4.6 I.7 3.2 O.4 5.9 I.7 4.2 2.O 3.9 O. I I.7 O.3
2.5 O.2 2 I O 2 2.8 O.9 f
1876 4. O O.5 27 O. 5 4.5 2.O 3.6 O.4 e
O 9 O.2 I 9 O.3 I 3 O.3
1877 48 I.7 2.8 O 6 4. I I.2
I.7 O 4 I 5 O 3 2.4 O.2 2.O O.4 4.3 I.O
1878 4.9 I.2 3.9 I ; 4.8 I O 3.8 I .2 3.8 O.9 7.2 I.8 I.5 O.3
2.8 O.8 I.9 O.4. 4.6 O.7 2.4 O.4. en
1879 44 I 6 3.6 I. I 6. I I.3 4.4 I.8 | Q I.5 O.3
|
l 18
It is plainly apparent that amongst these species, C. Pahu-
diana lags behind all through, whilst C. lancifolia excels all the
rest. As the latter is of particularly robust growth, its propa-
gation should be taken into consideration.
C. Hasséarſiana produces an excellent druggist's bark, and by
careful selection, it would yield plenty of material even for quinine
manufacture. Javanica and Schuhkraft run close together. Of
Anglica the same can be said as of Hasskarliana. Meanwhile
all taken together, there is no more room for doubt or hesitation,
and most properly, C. Zedgeriana, officinalis and succiruára, were
chosen for exclusive and regular culture. It is remarkable that
principally in the eight inferior kinds of Cinchona, the greatest
percentage was found in the bark of the roots.
In Ledgeriana and Officinalis bark, quinine is always the
prevailing alkaloid. Quinidine occurs in some specimens of the
former, but is not always indicated in Officinalis, and was
virtually absent from Succirubra, with the exception of a few
barks from stems which had been covered with moss. On the
other hand Cinchonidine is constant, and in considerable measure
in Succirubra and Officinalis; in Ledgeriana it is, as with quin-
idine, not continously met with, but much more often in the
latter. Root-bark of Ledgeriana contains less quinine than the
stem-bark, though it has more Cinchonine and often Cinchonidine
also. In Succirubra and Officinalis, the root-bark as a rule appears
richer in alkaloid, and sometimes even to have more quinine
than the stem-bark; the amount of Cinchonine is in all root-
barks greater than in the stem-bark.
The following results, of importance chiefly to the planter,
were obtained by experiments extending over many years.
Moens himself owns that they are not decisive in every point,
and that methodical examination, systematically pursued on the
living trees, has yet to confirm or throw more light upon certain
phenomena.
Time is essential for the formation of the full quantity of
119
alkaloids in Cinchona bark. Under a certain time, in con-
junction also with individual development, the normal typical
percentage of alkaloid in the tree is not formed; beyond a
certain age, having regard to the degree of development, the
percentage does not increase.
This fact may be ascertained by analyses of various trees
of different periods, and on barks of similar origin, but of
different ages.
Certain full-grown trees were divided into similar pieces,
and these were separately subjected to examination. By this
method, in the first place, the age of a bark would be ranked
the younger, in proportion as it was taken at a greater height
from the stem, or thinner, newer branches.
In 1872 Moens examined a C. succăruðra tree, 6 metres in
height, which was sawn into six pieces of equal length. The
bark from each piece was separately powdered, and a sample
of that powder analysed. The bark of the entire stem and
its large branches, weighed, when dried in air, 1.68 kilograms,
of which :
o.44 kilo yielded by the lowest '/o part of the stem.
O. 33 }} 3) 7) 1) }} 2nd 2? }) 77 3 *
O. 2 8 }) }) }} }} }} 3rd 2) }} ?? })
O. 23 3) }) }* }} }} 4th 5) }} }) })
O. II n ‘5) 5" × . . .
O.O5 }} }) }} }) }} 6th }) }) }} })
O. 24 m }) n thick branches.
The total percentage of alkaloid of the three lowest portions,
therefore to three metres from the ground, appears sufficiently
equal; as also the amount of quinine, although the portions
could not embrace the same period of life, for the third metre
was positively fully two years younger than the first. Insensibly
the percentage of alkaloid decreased as it neared the top. The
fourth and fifth portions have very much of a mutual agree-
120
ment. Up to and in the youngest portion, the nature of the
alkaloids is identical, and in it, even relatively, as much Cin-
chonidine found as on the oldest pieces. The bark of the
branches agrees most with that of the youngest part of the
stem. There were found :

tº . . . . chaºlcian. *
was as tº out-ºº:
In the lowest portion . . . 11.71 469 || 7.23 o.85 2.35 | 2 94 | 1.09
second. . . . . . . . . . I2.28 3.14 7.55 o.76 2.95 2.74 I, IO
third . . . . . . . . . . . . I3.63 2.90 7.o I o.83 3.09 2.O7 I.O2
fourth . . . . . . . . . . . I2.O3 2.97 6.38 o.58 2.38 2.58 O.84
fifth . . . . . . . . . . 12.12 3.51 5.95 o.58 1.87 2.60 o 84
sixth . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.67 | 4-2 4.49 O.39 I 48 I.59 I.O3
seventh (branches) . . . . I 3.06 5.89 3.83 O 23 I.22 [.3O I.o8
Quinidine was not indicated; in normal Succirubra this alkaloid
which in therapeutic value is sufficiently similar to quinine, is
not met with.
In 1879 Moens took a still more accurate test with a I 3 year-
old Ledgeriana of 9 metres height. The results are combined
in the following statement.
a;d. Quinine. Quinidine. Cinchomine. *
Bark from the thickest roots 7.67 4.85 O. II §§ O.39
Barkscrapings from the same 2.42 I.74 | . . . . . o,66 O.O2
Bark from the thin roots IO.- 8.31 o 27 o,85 O.57
Stem-bark ſº
I decimetre above the ground 8.65 7.63 | . . . . . o.61 O.4. I
5 ) ) ) ) 9 25 8.17 tº a tº & O.74 O 34
I metre ) ) Y Io 6o 9.O4 . . . . . I.O4. O.52
I'/.. ) ) ) ) Io.26 9. Io e 8 tº s a O.54 O.42
2 ) ) ) ) 9 O4 8.32 . . . . . O.4. I O.5I
2% ) ) ) 9.48 887 tº g a tº O 3O O.3.I
3 J) ) ) ) 8.5o 7.83 | . . . . . O. 52 O. I 5
3"|2 ) ) Y) Y) 8. I2 7.62 | . . . . . O.30 O.2O
4 ) ) ) ) 8 II 7.59 | . . . . . O.32 O,2O
4% ) ) ) 9.05 8.45 | . . . . . O.35 O.25
5 ) ) ) Y) 99.I 9 24 s & º º o.38 O.29
5%. X ) ) ) 8.48 7.93 | . . . . . O.4 I O. I4.
6 ) ) ) ) 7. I 3 ' 6.33 | . . . . . o 6o O.2O
6%. , \) ) ) 5.7 I 4.76 | . . . . . o.8o O. I 5
7 ) ) ) }) 2 65 I.72 | . . . . . o.72 O.2 I
#3ark from the thickest branches 8.49 7.4O | . . . . . O.42 O.29
) ) » medium ) 5.34. 4.63 | . . . . . o.64 O. 45
) ) » thin ) I og o,64 | . . . . . o.27 o, I8
121
Thus was confirmed, that in this species the amount of Cin-
chonine in root-bark increases greatly, whilst quinine diminishes;
the latter remains even to a great height up the stem, as an
important factor. The bark of the thick branches is similar to that
from the stem, whilst that from the young branches approaches
more to that of the stems of younger trees. In 1879 the two-
year shoots (new stems) which had grown from the stump of
an eleven year old Ledgeriana previously felled, were examined
There were found in this still very young bark, 4.8% alkaloid, of
which 2.86% was quinine, 1.43% cinchonine and O.6 % amor-
phous alkaloid. In plants of three and four years of age, raised
from seed in Java from the Ledgeriana originally planted, there
was found I.O.55 % alkaloid, and 7 69% of quinine.
Numerous young descendants of parent trees whose per-
centage was known, were examined, and the analyses have
yielded the satisfactory result that no fear need be entertained
of any decrease in percentage. It is true that many young
plants gave comparatively low figures, but in most cases
certain divergencies from the form of the parent tree might be
remarked in the individuals themselves. The careful and exper-
ienced raiser can very well avoid the danger of mixing rich
barks with the poor ones.
If it is now undoubtedly made out that the amount of alkaloid
in the different portions of the stem, is more or less diverse
according to its age, not the less sure is it, that the amount
does not regularly increase with the age of the bark, that is,
certain limits cannot be exceeded, and normally developed trees,
from six to eight years old, will have formed their maximum
contents. With regard to C. succèruðra it is belived to have
been observed, in Java as well as in British India, that after a
certain period, the quinine decreases rather increases, or else
remains stationary. *.
Experiments were made as to the influence exercised by the
different periods of the year on the contents of the bark.
122
Several series of trees of similar age and origin, were during
a twelvemonth, regularly each month, with that object, deprived
of a strip of bark of the same breadth, and at the same height
on the stem. These experiments have not led to absolute
conclusions It may be presumed, that it would be during the
rainy season, and towards its end, that the maximum would be
attained.
Some researches concerning the influence of light and shade
on the amount of alkaloid, gave still less grounds for a settled
decision. They only confirmed the supposition that in bark of
the selfsame stem, cut out at the same height, a great difference
may be met with, a difference however that can in one sense
be ascribed to the greater or lesser degree of light to which
the bark was exposed.
Still as little can this question be answered, whether in the
amount of alkaloid of flowering or fruiting trees, a consider-
able, or transitory alteration arose. Such alteration can in no
case be important; the analyses show that quite clearly.
The elevation above the sea appears to have but little
influence upon the amount of alkaloid, at least within the
limits of the government Cinchona plantations, I 250 to 1950
metres 1. Barks were examined from trees which were reared
at no greater elevation than 150 metres, even these showed
no important discrepancy. Trees of a known type give, both
in the highest as well as in the lowest nurseries, a bark which
in quality and quantity of alkaloid, is entirely satisfactory and
corresponds to the typical amount.
Moens has directed many analyses with the view of deciding
in various varieties of Cinchona, what may be the difference
of the alkaloid percentage in various portions of the bark. It
is made out distinctly that the outermost rind (primary layer)
is richer than the innermost (secondary layer). The comparative
figures declare that plainly. The taste of Cinchona is partly bitter,
41oo to 6400 English feet. B. D. J.
123
partly astringent; the outermost layers excel in bitterness, the
innermost in astringency. Not only are the inner layers poorer
than the exterior in total alkaloid, but it is chiefly the better
known febrifugal bases which greatly diminish, whilst cinchonine
prevails in relatively large quantities in the layer situated close
to the cambium region.
Older trees are apt to lose the bark-scales (rhytidomata); this
is especially seen whilst the barks are in course of drying. We
have already on an earlier page remarked, that the best American
barks, are sent most improperly into the market without covering,
the outer bark-layers having been rubbed or brushed off and
thrown away. For this and other reasons, together with the
conviction that cork and other trees, submit very readily to
deprivation of their upper corky layers, Moens brought it to
the test on a large scale.
The question was, how to harvest the largest quantity of
quinine-containing bark layers by scraping, without injury to the
Cinchona tree. We shall bye and bye recur to the harvesting
operation; for the moment we had to ascertain the fact, that
the chief seat of the quinine first of all, is really to be found
in the outermost layers of the entire Cinchona bark.
The question as to whether sun heat exercises injurious
influences on the drying of the bark, is quite settled. Even
before the first real harvest began in Java, we determined
this matter by comparative experiments. Since then Moens has
dried the rich bark-scrapings in various ways, and made it
certain that neither the quantity nor the character of the
alkaloids, undergo thereby any change or damage.
A particularly noteworthy series of experiments now deserves
our attention. The most skilful, and the earliest director of Cin-
chona culture in India, Mr. McIvor, hit upon the happy idea
of increasing the produce of his Cinchona trees, and enhancing
their value, by partially stripping them, that is to say, to cut
out small, vertical, long strips of bark alternately, and let the
124
bark renew itself on the exposed parts of the stem. That such
a renewing soon takes place, experience both in British India
and in Java had already taught, where so frequently pieces of
barks had been cut out of the living tree, to ascertain the
value of the various kinds of Cinchona, and in individuals of
one and the same species.
By these experiments it was already known, that the renewal
takes place the quicker and more completely, in proportion as
the superficial layers only are cut out, and the strips of bark
taken are narrower.
McIvor however did not merely strip, but he covered the
exposed parts of the stem with moss, and covered also entire
stems with the same material. After a certain time, about a
year, in those parts covered with moss, the barks appeared
actually richer in alkaloid, and the renewed bark had gained
considerably in bulk. McIvor experimented principally upon
Succirubra trees.
After his example, in Java so soon as 1864, there were a
hundred young trees of various kinds, covered with moss. At
that time however our attention was still too much confined
to Cinchona culture as a whole, to allow us to stir heart and
soul in a direction which at that time was only of secondary
importance. It may be partially ascribed to that, that many
trees under the mossing-process languished and died, whilst on
the other hand, the results of the analyses which Heer De
Vrij instituted on mossed and exposed Javan barks, did not
induce us to give more attention to it, or to really follow it
up by experiments.
Moens caught up the subject with avidity, though in the mean-
time the English authorities, Broughton, King and Howard, did
not seem to be infatuated with McIvor's continuance of the prac-
tice, and I, on my part, continued to maintain and urge, at all
times, the great difficulties against the mossing-process. Moens
quickly remarked that the virtue did not consist in the moss itself.
125
In Java, this material can only be got in sufficient bulk with
great difficulty, and in consequence a trial was made in the
use of indſoek, the thick, strong vascular-fibres of the Areca
palm, with entirely satisfactory result. The outcome of the
experiments supported the opinion of Mc Ivor.
The barks of C. succiruffra, C. Hasséarliama, C. micrant/a
and C. Pahudiana by 1878, after having been one year covered
with moss, had really made more alkaloid, especially quinine.
In 1879 the experiments were repeated. On the whole this time
the outcome was less satisfactory, because the renewed bark
did not, as always has been the case in C. succèruára, appear
to be appreciably better than the original. The conclusion arrived
at, is, that the renewing process is not applicable to inferior
kinds of Cinchona,
The character of the alkaloids remains in the renewed bark,
as a whole, just the same as in the original; only the quanti-
tative proportion changes. This change is peculiar to the
renewing, and hardly at all ', sometimes not in the least
dependent on the kind of covering material used.
It is principally C. succirzóra and C. officinalis which seem to
fabricate a richer bark by this process. The amount of quinine
is considerably more, that of cinchonidine is diminished, and
in C. officinalis in most instances entirely suppressed. Quinidine
also increases, whilst cinchonine remains about the same.
For science in general, and plant-physiology in particular, these
and many other results are all important. We consider it none
the less prudent, especially in practice, to see no fixed rule
in the results obtained to the present time. They are in our
* Following the example set in British India, in the last months of 1880, an
experimerit was tried by covering with alangalang, (Imperata arundinacea) which
wild grass, is in most places only used for forage. Meanwhile Moens was able by
personal examination in British India to state, that the prejudice against McIvor s
system has no foundation, and the prediction that the partially stripped trees would
speedily die, is triumphantly disproved by an experience of seven years. We rejoice
in this fact, that thereby the crown and completion is set to McIvor's work.
126
opinion, data which must be followed up for years, and be
fully carried out, before they can fulfil the requirements of a
substantial and regulated decision. How often have we found
ourselves disappointed; how frequently have we been deceived,
by a series of independent phenomena and experience, to follow
those things which must afterwards be again doubted! We rejoice
beforehand, rather in the actual perseverance with which the
scientific method is carried out hand in hand with practice.
They offer to our view, the disclosure of still very many
secrets of nature, and we must wait upon their positive decla-
rations, before we pass to a decided course of procedure, which
may bring an entire industry into danger.
An examination, both scientific and supported by facts, was
accomplished in 1879 by Moens and Scheffer, commissioned
thereto by the Indian Government, led to the decision, that
by application of the scraping-method on fullgrown Ledgeriana
trees, a kilogram of superior bark could annually be harvested
from each.
The first great scraping experiment had yielded really excel-
lent - results; one year later however, it was found that the
doctrine of proportions did not come into play here. It is the
invariable practice in natural science to build upon a long,
linked series of facts; or else, from one independent fact, by
logical consequences to reach a desired conclusion. Although
the bark renewed in one year of the second scraping, had
almost the same thickness as the original, the new tissue did
not seem to be so rich in alkaloid as the former, and thus
it was deemed advisable, to allow a period of two years for
the renewal. In quality as well as in quantity the result thus
miscarried; whilst in the first experiment the trees had appa-
rently not suffered, in this regard also, the second time gave
a less favourable return. It is true, that this time scraping
had been done during a different season, so that now it was
judged, that the trees would best bear the operation in the
127
dry weather; the experiment thus has not quite run its course,
the value of the process is not yet known, and it has not been
practically applied. Under the direction of a man like Moens,
this highly important question, will no doubt be decided in
the near future".
Each unaccustomed wound to a tree must lead to its injury,
and if continued, result in its final annihilation, therefore an
important thing is the modus 7uo. It is now quite evident,
that whilst the scraping-process can be effected one or many-
times with good returns, under the actual superintendence of
the skilful, in no case can the operation be called an every day
ordinary, careless, crude affair, as will soon be known if the
matter is given over and entrusted to underlings aud labourers.
In giving these hints we do not wish in any sense to decry
the value of this process. On the contrary we are delighted with
the earnest attempts towards attaining this most desirable end;
but we would impress this axiom, that continous application, with
accurate observation of phenomena, must speak out, before the
practical man can enjoy the prevailing desire, which a priori
and on good grounds, is therein sought and may hereafter be
discovered.
Original Ledgeriana and Succirubra barks are light coloured
and have a greyish-white exterior, the consequence of lichens
growing thereon. By mossing these seem to die, and the bark
obtains a darker look, whilst here and there little knobs pro-
ject, which present themselves as large lenticels. Bark renewed
after partial stripping of the tree, likewise possesses a darker
outside; its entire surface is smoother than that of the original
According to the Report of 1879, the second scraping gave 20% less produce,
which in general contained less quinine. The expense of scraping is relatively
slight, and we are of opinion that a special worktool should be prepared, to ensure
the success of the operation, such as the special knife which McIvor had previously
contrived for stripping. In 188o the scraping of certain trees, Ledgeriana, Succi-
rubra and Officinalis, has been continued, though this time merely one half of their
circumference, by which the chances of a consequent injury are naturally less.
128
bark which remained longer covered, but the above mentioned
knobs are much more numerous. Lastly, the bark which is renewed
after scraping, is likewise darker in colour, though smooth, and
without knobs.
Bark which has altered under moss-covering appears more
brittle than usual, but not so brittle as renewed bark. The
cause of this lies in a lessening of the vessels in the bark,
against an increase of cellular-tissue, and seeing that this latter
is the principal seat of the best alkaloids, so the mossed bark is
richer than original, and renewed again is superior to the first.
The bark renews itself more readily after scraping than after
stripping. We have quite recently shown that, in direct pro-
portion as the stripping is superficial, and in smaller strips,
the renewal follows more surely, quickly and completely. Yet
further it appears, that young trees submit best to stripping, or
at least recover quicker from their wounds.
Succirubra renews itself after scraping less quickly than does
Ledgeriana.
I can assert with tolerable certainty that the Succirubras on
which the experiments were made, were younger than the
Ledgerianas which served the same purpose, or at least, that
the upper layers of the latter, were more developed, more
characteristic and easier to remove.
Moens and Scheffer made diligent use of the microscope, in
comparing the anatomical structure of the various kinds of bark.
The results thence drawn, full of industrial importance we shall
produce later on. At present we must deal with the proper
cultivation of Cinchona, and especially the raising of plants; the
propagation by art, as well as by seeds, will be brought prom-
inently forward. As regards clearing the land, commencement
and maintenance of nurseries etc. in general, we have suffi-
ciently touched upon that when treating of tea and coffee-culture ".
* See the author's ‘De Oost-Indische cultures', vol. I, pp. 1–111. A portion has
been translated and will be found in chapter xii of this volume, B. D. J.
129
What has there been said on the subject, holds good in most
cases also for Cinchona, but the especial requirements of the
latter will not be passed unnoticed.
C H A P T E R IX.
THE CULTIVATION OF CINCHONA. PROPAGATION BY SEED.
On page 36 we have given a short description of Cin-
chona seed, and the results of the first sowing in Java. This
having turned out very unsatisfactory, when Junghuhn har-
vested germinative seeds for the first time in 1858, he tried
many methods of germination, that he might find out the
best plan. From 200 well developed seeds, sown broadcast
upon well prepared beds, there was hardly one healthy plant
obtained. Junghuhn ascribed this misfortune to the fineness
and lightness of the seeds, which were there exposed to all
the caprices of wind and weather, and further pointed out the
dangers without number, which existed also from the first
sprouting in the beds. Now that the field of experience has
become wider and clearer, we know also that the quality of
the first harvested seeds, must in part be blamed for the bad
returns at the outset. On well prepared, carefully kept, and
shaded beds, it is proper to expect a fair return from good
developed seed, sown broadcast. The beds however must at
first be kept in semi-darkness, and the soil must be neither
too moist nor too dry, and not alter much in its condition.
In Cinchona plantations there are often found under the seed
bearing trees, abundance of young plants, the spontaneous result
of the seeds which had fallen upon the earth beneath. On the
estates of Tjiomas near Buitenzorg, such little plants were
9
130
found in thick masses under the oldest trees, which were there
planted in 1865; they were afterwards found also at Nagrak
and other districts, in some places in great abundance. The
circumstances however must be very favourable; amongst other
things, the soil must be more or less clayey, and not be too
thickly covered with weeds.
In the old, extensive government plantations, amongst the
millions of seeds which fell upon the crumbly, little disturbed
soil, it was exceptional to find any developed, and when these
were met with, it was only near felled tree trunks, or at the
base of old stumps, where the seeds had found a natural
shelter. *
Meanwhile, the results of simply sowing broadcast upon beds,
as a rule had not been brilliant.
Junghuhn now ordered the seeds to be sown in pots. For
these he took thick pieces of bamboo, about nine inches long,
a bottom being made by thrusting in some indſoek. These
cases or little pots were filled, with purified, finely sifted wood-
earth, or else with a mixture of this and a fourth part of black
volcanic sand, composed of felspar, hornblende, and magnetic or
titanic iron, where this was obtainable. After this the filled
pots were placed close together, on covered beds, arranged
in amphitheatre fashion in the mountain clearings. In the first
experiments, each bamboo pot served for the reception of a
single little seed, afterwards two or three were put in; this was
done in a small superficial pit, made by pressure of the finger
in the loose soil in the centre of the pot, which was then
sprinkled with the black sand just mentioned, to a thickness
of /, or at most 1 millemetre to hinder the seed being blown
away, and to prevent it being dried too much by the air.
From this time the soil in the pots was kept constantly moist,
by means of a very fine water-pot.
According to Junghuhn's observations, under favourable con-
* A millemetre is only 'ſes of an English inch, B. D. J.
131
ditions, good seed and good soil, the majority germinated in
about six weeks. In a few cases he observed growth after
22 days or even 20, but never after Ioo days. By germinating,
Junghuhn understood the visible breaking out of the rootlet,
which at first crept on the surface of the soil, but in less than
24 hours secured itself thereto, and after the course of two to
three days the tiny stem shot forth, on the top of which the two
seed-leaves might be observed. As soon as germination had taken
place, growth was kept up by sprinkling, so that directly the
young, tender rootlets had obtained a hold, progress might go
on without hindrance. After eight or nine months the plants had
reached a height of six inches, and were fit to be transplanted
into the open ground. The nature of the covering of the nur-
sery beds, lying as they did on the edge of the mountain
clearing, naturally supplied the young nurslings with sufficient
light only on one side, and thus gave rise to an evident
inclination to grow up in a slanting direction. To restore the
balance, the pots were turned half round every week.
From this description it will be seen that neither pains nor
expense were spared, yet we have every reason to believe
that in spite of all this, the results for a long time were not
so brilliant, as might have been expected from Junghuhn's
representations. When in March 1864, we took over the direc-
tion of Cinchona culture, we found a hundred thousand Pahu-
diana seeds sown as previously described; for three months
the superintendents had vainly looked for plants therefrom, and
the out-turn was thus obliged to be considered a total failure.
Seeds which are not properly ripe when harvested and dried,
in damp earth become black and mouldy. Nothing hinders
germination more than alternate drought and moisture; there-
ſore waterpots with the finest roses must be used, or spray
from a syringe, for even the weakest, slightest stream of water
may disturb the extremely light seed, and do harm to the
tender seedling.
| 32
We acquired a method of raising from Heer Teijsman, which
we have described in our ‘De Oost-Indische cultures' vol. i,
p. 63, and quote as follows; we have strictly kept to this plan '.
Unglazed, baked earthen pots, common flower-pots, rather
broader than deep, are filled two-thirds of their depth with
sand, on which is spread out a layer of loamy soil, properly
moistened, of about a few centimetres in thickness. On this
prepared soil the seeds are scattered, as thickly as possible
together, but taking care not to heap them up.
Tha pots are then put into saucers filled with water, by
which means, quite a sufficient quantity of moisture is drawn
up by capillary attraction, whilst the sprinkling of the seeds is
made unnecessary. In sprinkling or watering the limits of the
desired moisture may easily be overstepped, moreover the seeds
themselves may be damaged, and sometimes be dislodged
or removed.
It is quite clear that favourable conditions for the germination
of the seeds and development into plants cannot be sufficiently
ensured in the open ground, and thus it is necessary to have
well devised propagating houses. These are simply indispens-
able where artificial propagation is aimed at, and we here
testify plainly, that an intelligent Cinchona planter must devote
himself to directing the propagation, that he may guarantee
the maintainance of his typical descriptions
The erection of the propagating houses will be described in
chapter XII. s
If the seeds are treated as we have described, they will
germinate in eleven to fourteen days, old seeds take longer
time, but after forty days all hope may he given up. Here
is apparent the advantage of the improved method, over that
! We put the seedpots on saucers Since then the pots have often been put into
hollow trunks of trees, bowls or troughs, and then complaints have begun about
the amount of mildew. Our seed-pots and saucers belonged to each other, and
were delivered together by the potter. *
133
followed by Junghuhn. The present mode is moreover very
inexpensive, because there was always a great amount of space
lost, by the room which the non-germinating seeds took up.
Before the seeds are sown, they are steeped some hours in
water. Putting out each seed, one by one, after a little practice,
is and rapidly easily done, by help of a flat-pointed piece of
wood or bamboo, by which the seeds are picked up.
Germination betrays itself by swelling, and the appearance
of white points. As soon as these show themselves, the
development goes on quickly; white threads spread them-
selves over the surface, straighten themselves up, two little
leaves unfurl, and on one of then is seen the husk of the
seed, sitting like a little cap.
After twenty to thirty days, they have formed four leaves, and
now the delicate plants whose rootlets do not penetrate into the
clayey soil, but lie outstretched thereon, must be separated and
transplanted, pricked out as English nurserymen call it; this is
easily done, by using a flat-pointed bit of wood or bamboo.
One by one, the tiny plants are carefully taken out of the
pot, and then shifted into common flowerpots, filled with pre-
pared garden soil. In doing so, it must be especially seen that
the roots are put perpendicularly in the earth, for which pur-
pose a little hole is made, and when the plant is put in, the
earth is pressed together again with the fingers. According to
the size of pot used, each takes from 5 to 20, or even more,
depending upon the room in the nursery, and the number of
plants and pots at command. The seedlings often were actually
planted out on well prepared and protected beds. If these are
kept closed at first against wind and rain, and above all against
direct light, then the results are satisfactory, but it is much
the best plan, in the first instance to make use of pots in
the manner just described, and to keep them a few months
in the propagating house. Here they can be put close together,
all harmful influences seen and provided against, with more
134
care and success in the requisite watering, and in a word the
whole thing may be watched continuously and without fatigue.
During the first few weeks, but little progress can be noticed,
the reverse seems rather to be the case. The backward tendency
is however scarcely visible, once begun, development goes on
apace, provided in the first place, a moderate sprinkling be
given, and a steady regulation as to the amount of light. After
four to six months the plants are so much grown that they stand
in one another's way. They must now be separated and potted
singly, or else transplanted into nursery beds, which demand
most careful watching during the first few days, so that the
transition may be felt as little as possible. In the beds they
are planted at mutual distances of eight inches; from here
they can afterwards be lifted with a good ball of earth,
embracing the entire root-system. In nine to thirteen months
after the sowing of the seeds, the plants will have attained a foot
in height, and whilst in these beds, are not allowed to branch;
they now only await a favourable moment for transplantation
into the open ground.
In the introduction to our ‘De Oost-Indische cultures' we
have fully dealt with nursery work as a whole and hence do
not consider it necessary to go further into the subject. Un-
doubtedly perishable pots deserve great recommendation; it
needs scarcely to be said that the soil-in the pots must be as
clean as possible, that watch be kept against immoderate
moisture, against insects, etc. The use of cutting instruments
in the propagating houses and in the beds, should be avoided
as much as possible, and the surface soil should rather be
kept open, cleaned and crumbled with the fingers from time
to time
This method of propagating must not be reproached with
being too expensive or giving too much trouble. If there be
unlimited command of seed, and if it does not matter if
50 °/, and more be lost, then the seed may be sown broad-
135
cast upon well prepared beds, and it is right to say, that those
plants which win in the struggle for life, will be even stronger
than those procured by the former method.
Meanwhile we are immoveably convinced that we should
never have obtained the priceless Ledgeriana in Java, if we
had spared ourselves in any way, trouble, care or cost. What
results have been obtained in British India, from the other
half of Ledger's seeds? Little enough, and certainly a less
careful treatment is to blame for it *.
C H A P T E R X.
GATHERING AND KEEPING THE SEED.
Cinchona flowers at all seasons, quite as coffee does, another
introduction into Java. As soon as the trees have attained
maturity that is to say, have reached a certain development,
they begin to flower, and show henceforward, constantly flower-
buds, blossoms, or fruit, some all three at once. Under the
influence of shade, flowering takes place later, and always in
more scanty measure.
Young trees of four years of age or even less, sometimes
shoot into flower; where this appearence presents itself, it is
not considered a favourable sign, but as surely indicative of
an unfavourable condition.
* In 1864–65 we tried at many times, and in many ways, to artificially awaken
or help on, the germinative power of old Cinchona seeds. It was all in vain, for
no single method gave evidently declarative results.
Seeds which swell with difficulty, as in Papilionaceae, are shaken up with sharp
powdered-glass; the hard outer skin receives scratches, which readily take up water,
and thereby help on germination. This means however has no signification or
application to Cinchona seeds.
136
As previously remarked in America by Warsewicz, it was
confirmed many times in Java, that the twigs which have
flowered and borne fruit, for the most part die; in every case
the extension in growth is hindered by flowering, and thus it
happens, that from a plant which bears flowers on its summit,
no further development can be fairly expected. It is of no use
cutting away the flowerbuds; if the tendency has once declared
itself in an idividual, it cannot be repressed '.
Although flowers may be seen thoughout the entire year,
yet it seems in the high mountain districts of Java, that the
true blossoming period in some measure coincides with the end
of the west monsoon, say about the months of January to March.
About ten to twelve months after the buds began to appear,
the fruit ripens. All fruits in an inflorescence do not attain
complete development, still less do all the seeds in the capsules.
For seed-saving, the handsomest, strongest trees are selected,
and especially amongst those whose superior value has been
ascertained by chemical examination. Disappointment is inevit-
able where the eye and botanical characters alone are made
use of and trusted to; the whole issue depends upon the cer-
tainty that varieties rich in quinine are exclusively propagated.
The choice being made, there is something else which must
not be neglected; it further behoves us to be perfectly sure
that the tree is not fertilised with foreign pollen, that is to
say, pollen of an inferior tree or variety. We know that Cin-
chona readily hybridizes. Darwin, Hildebrand, Muller and Kuntze
maintain that plants with dimorphic flowers, are dependent
upon crossed or mutual fertilisation; that the latter seldom
occurs from its own pollen, and even then, with little success.
The cascarilleros had previously noticed that Cinchona dis-
tinguished itself by dimorphic or heterostylous flowers, and
" If cuttings are made of the shoots which are inclined to flower, they are often
seen to bear blossoms. The true Ledgeriana appear only by exception to arrive
at this stage, before their fifth or sixth year.
| 37
they named the flowers with short styles, Macho, - the flowers
with long styles, Hemóra. C. Ledgeriana shows both forms,
though the hemóra prevails, and from this the conclusion can
be drawn, that nature here assists in the fertilisation of both.
Experience meanwhile has fully shown that plants can be
raised from seed, which both in botanical and chemical aspects,
equal the parent-tree. Trials were made purposely, in the govern-
ment nurseries, as to artificial fertilisation. Calisaya flowers were
touched with pollen from Caloptera, and vice versa. In the
plants reared from the seeds so obtained, the type of the
parents in various degrees could be recognised. The proofs
were thus amply made out; besides, there may be seen trees
by hundreds in the plantations, bearing the mark of the
influence which the parents experienced from others. Princip-
ally in the Officinalis nurseries the unmistakeable hybrids occur,
now recalling Succirubra, then again Pahudiana or Calisaya,
and chemical analyses have over and over again shown that
the percentage in the barks, agrees with the botanical charac-
ters, and thus regard must be had to the typical percentage
of both parents *.
Although it is quite possible, that by careful selection and
crossing, in the long run new varieties may be called into
existence, decendants at least of superior value which have
taken up the chief virtues of both parent, yet it remains most
advisable for the planter, that he should as much as possible
withdraw the trees he has selected for seed-saving, from the
influence of other trees of doubtful value. If only one species
is possessed from the same origin, then there is naturally no
danger, although it is readily understood that all individuals
do not possess the same amount of alkaloid; chemical research
decides in that case. When a tree flowers, from which seed
* It had been remarked in previous years, and again in 1879, that various insects
prey upon the Cinchona flowers, and may thus play an important part in fertilization,
by transporting the pollen.
138
is desired, the proper thing is to cut away all flowerbuds in
the neighbourhood, from those individuals which cannot be
depended on. This is the method which has been followed
for years in the government nurseries to guard against dege-
neration. In spite of every care, however, a complete isolation
could not be assured to the selected trees; against it were
the numerous species and varieties, together with the great
dispersion and extent of the nurseries, which difficulties were
not to be overcome.
As soon as the fruits begin to turn dark brown or black, the
best plan is to envelope the entire inflorescence, or truss, in a
gauze bag. Light and air can pass in unhindered, whilst loss
is guaranteed against, when the capsules eventually spring open.
When the largest fruits of an inflorescence are plainly ripe,
that is, darker coloured, and on the point of bursting, then
the truss is out off and hung up in a dry airy place, to prevent
mould or rot. When it is wanted to gather the seeds, the
fruits are laid spread out on paper for several hours, in a
sunny spot. They then readily spring open, and the seeds
may be winnowed or siſted, and after carefully picking out
the pieces of capsule and rubbish, are separated quite clean.
Well dried seed preserves its power of germination for a con-
siderable time, provided it is kept airy and dry. Hermetical
sealing is unnecessary, even dangerous; dispatches are best done
in cartridge paper, when in large quantities preferably mixed
with powdered charcoal.
139
C H A P T E R XI.
ARTIFICIAL PROPAGATION.
It appears from the statement of the first years of Cinchona
culture, that from the commencement, attempts were made to
multiply by cuttings: Teijsmann succeeded in striking a cutting
from the first Cinchona tree obtained from Paris, and from
that plant again, to raise a living progeny. The history of the
two oldest cuttings has been given on pages 44–45, it tells us
that Cinchona may be propagated by cuttings; but afterwards
many disappointments were encountered, which may chiefly be
imputed to less careful treatment, and restricted disposition of
excellent material. In the years 1864–65 we were obliged to
apply ourselves heartily to artificial propagation, because the
trees which then were reputed to be the best in Java, still failed
to produce fruit.
We were not very fortunate, although our trouble and care
were not unrewarded. From the seedling Calisayas, which later
on appeared Hasskarlianas, we raised by cuttings in 1864, those
which at that time already distinguished themselves from all
other, similarly named sister plants, also got from cuttings. The
Hasskarliana cuttings yielded handsome plants which grew up
at Tjinieroean to tall, thick trees, and in 1876 there were still
hundreds of them noticed in full vigour. In 1871–72 from these
trees, then seven years old, there were sent away fully 1500 kilos
of bark of handsome and bold appearence, in slender silver-
grey quills.
When in 1865–66 cuttings could be got from young, robust
seedlings, the results were at once more favourable, though by
this time there were more and more seeds harvested, and thus
cuttings were thrust into the background (nevertheless artificial
140
propagation of Succirubra and Officinalis continued, with the
greatest success) until in 1872 a new start had to be made,
after the discovery of the splendid quality of the Ledgeriana,
of which at that time, no seeds were to be had. Thousands
of plants were obtained by cuttings, but thousands also, in the
open ground, came but slowly, or not at all, to development.
New regulations were repeatedly tried in the hope of better
results, though still they fell short of expectation. The best
returns were always got from the shoots which sprang up from
the stems of Ledgeriana trees, which had been sawn down for
the bark-harvest. The shoots were taken off with a heel from
the stem with care. Otherwise the cutting is usually a twig
of 9 to 20 centimetres in length , which is cleanly cut
horizontally below an eye, and should possess two or more
eyes, one of which is put into the soil, and lightly pressed
therein.
Experience has taught, that it is not a matter of indifference,
in what season, or from which plant cuttings are made. By
similar treatment, under circumstances in other things identical,
widely varying results were obtained, at different times of
the year.
The formation of the root in a cutting is explained in the
following way. The eyes above ground, under favourable con-
ditions of warmth and moisture, bud out; too much moisture
being avoided. The young shoot thus in activity and elabor-
ating sap, sends this below, where it exudes or oozes out,
and produces a knob or callus, which is the medium of pro-
ducing the rootlet, from which this appears to grow at the
proper time. From this period we have a complete plant, which
however is still very tender, but when further developed and
hardened off, and brought into the open ground, will continue
to live.
The course of this process gives us information of the earlier
| Three and a half to eight inches. B. D. J.
141
noticed fact, that frequently disappointment was experienced from
cuttings, which in the propagating houses seemed perfectly fresh
and growing. Many cuttings which remained several weeks in
the propagating house, and presented a healthy appearence,
when taken out of the soil, showed at their base a hard knot,
instead of a gentle swelling. The exudation may sometimes
be so excessive that decay sets in, and for this reason, subse-
quently cuttings were provided at their foot with a little pellet
of clayey soil, which absorbed the too rapidly exuding sap '.
This way of artificial propagation succeeds better with soft,
than hard wood, as a rule; so therefore, Succcirubra and Offi-
cinalis permit of being increased more easily by cuttings, than
Calisaya. In every case the raising of cuttings must be done
in propagating houses.
Trials have also been made with layers. Layers have really
a surer chance of good results than cuttings; on the other
hand, they demand more care, and as a rule are not used in
Cinchona culture.
When in later years it was possible to devote to the culture,
a Superintendent who had been trained as a propagator in
Europe, a new phase was entered upon, which promised better
results, and whereto we must devote our particular attention.
Instead of propagating by cuttings, we now began by grafting
the noble Ledgeriana on young stems of Succirubra, thus quickly
multiplying it, and keeping it true to type; we know that Succi-
rubra grows the most readily and thriftily.
In 1866 already were Calisaya and Pahudiana grafted by
the so called cleft- or crown-grafting, and the trials turned
out successful, they were however not continued, as soon
Calisaya seed could be had in abundance.
* Artificial propagation in this manner has always been carried out with most
satisfactory results at the establishments at the highest elevation, where only
C. officinalis is grown. Each of the cuttings was provided with a little claypellet
at its foot and the consequent advantages could not be doubted.
142
The technical question thus being answered in a satisfactory
sense, there now remained the question, whether the stock (the
stem on which the graft is made) exercises any inſluence upon
the scion, in other words, whether its growing on, and retaining
its own tissues, would also form a corresponding amount of
alkaloid. As far back as 1679 Mariotte had shown by ingenious
experiments, that plants do not merely take up nutriment, but
that they also digest this according to their wants, and the
vigour of their structure; it was possible however, that trees
which were cultivated for their fruit, might behave quite differently
to those raised for their bark contents. The cultivated pear,
grafted on a wild pear tree, brings forth cultivated pears. If
now a wild pear branch be worked on a shoot of the cultiv-
ated pear, then it will bear no other than uneatable fruit. The
same sap in the trunk, thus show itself in each shoot from the
graft to have different proportions.
The analyses which Moens in 1873 directed on the previously
mentioned Cinchona trees, which had been grafted in 1866,
have brought to light the natural vigour in relation to Cin-
chona, at least so far shown, that therefrom the best hope
may be entertained for practical results. The Calisaya graft
seems to possess the normal percentage of alkaloid for the
species; the stock-Pahudiana stem, seems however to have felt
the influence of the scion, so far that is to say, that the
quantity of alkaloid exceeds the normal amount; the quality
remaining unchanged.
From these trials and analytical results Moens deduced the
following, that the nature of the alkaloids, which are seated in
the bark of the various species of Cinchona, is dependent upon
the special tissue of the bark, each sort for itself.
This conception gave support to the idea of making trial
with grafts of Ledgeriana on Succirubra stems, a trial, which
began in 1879, and commenced well. Moens hoped by this
not only to be able to propagate the best parent-trees by
143
artificial means, but moreover in some sense to make the
Ledgeriana partakers of the strong, rapid growth of Succirubra.
Grafting is continued to the present time with satisfactory
results, the worked plants grow unmistakeably much quicker
and stronger than cuttings. The advantages are so obvious,
that we must place in the foreground, what has been actually
accomplished during five years by means of chemical analyses,
that the scion attains to the chemical contents of the parent-
tree in practical completeness. Succirubra plants can easily be
raised in unlimited quantities, seeds may be harvested in abun-
dance and without intermission, and the plants thrive quickly
and robustly. Young stems of Succirubra can thus always without
difficulty be had ready for use, and when once command is had
over several hundreds or thousands of developed Ledgeriana
trees, there will be even less want of scions prevalent '.
Moreover, in the government Cinchona nurseries, there are
hundreds of Ledgeriana trees already analytically examined, the
specimens of highest percentage of alkaloids are there known,
and can be specially reserved for propagation. Gradually as
plantations were made, possessing exclusively individuals of
superior worth, and as they increased in numbers, so those of
* The following communication is not uninteresting, and is in each point well
worth considering.
An American nurseryman, Henderson, recommends a new method of making
cuttings. He breaks or cuts the branches, of which cuttings are to be made, ten or
twelve days before, so that a portion of the vascular tissue remains connected with
the plant itself. The cuttings by this slight connection obtain sufficient nutriment,
and root much quicker than would otherwise be the case, whenever they are put in.
Henderson alleges, that in the previous autumn, he had made 10,000 cuttings of
tricolor Pelargoniums iu this fashion, with a loss of hardly I per cent, whilst
previously 50 per cent. miscarried.
Such cuttings root within ten or twelve days, unless they are over-watered or
too much exposed to the sun.
In this way, a number of plants and vegetables can be treated, such as Bignonias,
Carnations, Heliotropes, all sorts of Cactus, Oleanders, Pelargoniums, Geraniums,
etc. This plan has this further advantage, that the parent-plant itself is less
weakened, and that new shoots arise from below the branches which were broken
off, which can afterwards be used as cuttings.
| 44
smaller worth have been cleared away, and the prospect is held
out, that bye and bye, only Ledgeriana containing IO per
cent and upwards, will be reared.
As only the best are kept of that noble sort which we
possess in the Ledgeriana, the latest descendents of those
fifty different trees, from which Manuel collected his seeds with
so much intelligence, will in Java, appear to be the very pick
of the choicest kind.
The method of grafting which was introduced by the skilful
superintendent Veulemans, and is continued with reasonable
success, bears the name of side-grafting, and is an operation
which is in constant use in the European nurseries, applied
under various modifications. The assistant-director of the govern-
ment Cinchona culture, R. van Romunde, has given us an accurate
description of the system followed in Java, and has made it
quite plain by a clear sketch of Veulemans, which will be found
at the end of this volume. For Scions, young twigs of Ledger-
iana trees are taken, those with one joint are large enough,
though as there are no reasons for extraordinary economy, it
is better to use tops of branches with two to three joints. The
woody stem of a young Succirubra plant serves as a stock,
preferably a seedling, because cuttings usually possess a less
developed root system. Succirubra stems, as thick as a lead- .
pencil, offer sufficient surface; stronger stems may perhaps
supply more nutriment to the scions, but it is an advantage
on the other side, that the diameter of stock and scion should
agree, that the opposed barks may be united as completely as
possible.
A slanting incision, is made with a sharp knife (D) in the
stem, (B) of the stock for about '/s to 'i, its length. The
scion (C) is cut wedgeshaped, and so placed in the incision
in the stock, that so far as possible, the bark may touch on
both sides, when it is in a slanting position in the divided
portion of the stock (f), against which the tongue of the graft
újų“，
V. L. M.
J H de Bussy, Amsterdam.

145
is pressed, as if to make one single being with the Succi-
rubra stem *.
Next comes the fastening, or tying round with soft string
which will not cut, the best being that from unravelled gummy-
bags, see figure A e. The pots (A) in which the operation is
performed, are next put into frames, closed by glazed lights, in
the propagating house. They are carefully watered, and in dry
weather the frames are kept close, usually a little air is left
on by leaving the upper edge of the light a little way open.
In this way the air is kept sufficiently moist, to make watering
unnecessary. After Io to 14 days the pots can be taken out
of the frames; the closing of the wounds, the union of stock
and scion, will then have ensued. The greater part of the
lower leaves of the scion are cut away, and it is a good sign
if the remaining portions fall away of themselves. If on the
contrary they remain hanging, stiff and black, that appearance
betrays sickness or death. It happens just the same when trees
are transplanted, if the leaves fade and remain hanging, instead
of falling off, the conclusion may be drawn that the trans-
plantion has not succeeded.
From the frames the pots are put out into the propagating
house, where they are now stood upright, after the plants have
been cleared of the possibly still adhering, useless leaves and
half-perished stipules. If the Succirubra stems themselves after
a fortnight should have so developed, that they rob the graft of
light and air, then they are shortened back, by topping. Some
weeks later, whenever it appears quite evident that the graft
has started into growth, the ties are slackened, and the Succi-
rubra stems are again shortened as may be needed. A month
' The part of the stem which is cut open, shown by f in the sketch, may be
entirely taken away. In this case the scion C is only cut on one side, thus not
wedgeshaped, and then pressed with its cut surface against the wound of the stock.
The scion is supported on the base of the cut surface of the stock, and the operation
will succeed in proportion as the dimensions, agree more perfectly, permitting a
more complete union of the barks at the foot as well as over the entire length.
IO
146
after the loosening of the ties, the Succirubra stems are cut
away above the union of stock and graft. If there is plenty of
space under glass, then the pots are allowed to stand as long
as possible in the houses. The appearance of the grafts is some-
times deceptive, and if exposed too soon to the free air outside,
with all its uncertainties, the apparently strong grafts may still
frequently disappoint. When brought into the open ground,
the grafts should beforehand be habituated to this transition,
or preferably be prepared thereto, by remaining some time
under care in covered cradles, where the winds and direct
beams of the sun would not cause real injury.
Once fairly in the open ground, the grafts sometimes show
themselves still very sensitive, and many die outright, in spite
of the best care. Under favourable conditions we say that they
grow half as fast again as cuttings or seedlings. Taken one
with another, although a practised workman will graft 300
plants in one day, still we cannot say that the results leave
nothing to be wished; more than half the grafts seem to
miscarry; the operation is not of the greatest simplicity, and
demands much time and space in the propagating houses *.
We should be glad to see the experiment repeated by crown-
grafting, now that a skilled staff is at command. Succirubra
trees of six years old, at a decimetre above the ground, usu-
ally to have a circumference of O.3 to O.6 of a decimetre *.
If these are sawn off at that height, an ample crop would be
* In our opinion, the disappointments must in part be ascribed to this, that in
Java propagation goes on uninterruptedly almost the whole year round. The good
results of grafting are dependent upon the choice of scions. The twig must be
zife, and not too young. The best Scions are those which are cut in the transition
period between the East and West monsoons, after the trees have enjoyed a period
of comparative rest, and are about to enter on a period of renewed, robust vital
functions. The tops of the twigs which may then be got, are certainly the most suit-
able, for the young, green, Sappy portions of the plant can give no hope of the best
results. No direct sun-light should penetrate into the frames, and they must be
kept fully moistened, avoiding however such an extreme as would lead to the
plants damping off.
* From one inch to two and a quarter at nearly four inches above the ground. B. D. J.
147
obtained, and on each stump 3 to 4 Ledgeriana grafts might
be inserted. By the same operation it would be possible to
call a Ledgeriana plantation into existence, under the most
favourable conditions, established without loss of ground, and
with the least cost or trouble, provided ample supplies of strong
grafts are at hand. That good results are possible in this
fashion, in the open ground, and free air, our experiments in
1866 on cleft-grafting have shown. Providing shade, is more-
over not an impossibility, still less an overpowering difficulty.
For many years all plants which have been turned out into
the ground, have been shaded by a bottomless basket, made
of plaited bamboo, O.5 metre in height and O.4 metre in dia-
meter. Since then this careful provision has been deviated from,
and it cannot be doubted, that the increased number of deaths,
and slower development, are the consequences ".
If artificial propagation be taken in hand with the hope
of good returns, it is essential to ensure the help of a skilful
experienced staff, and on a large Cinchona undertaking, the
appointment of a clever propagator cannot be too strongly
recommended.
We cannot here go into details, but it is certain that in
the briefly described method of side-grafting (which with
the drawing appended needs no further explanation), can be
modified in many ways, and that abundant experience and
practice are necessary to make a good choice of stocks and
Scions, to unite these together, to watch over them, and con-
stantly to regulate the proper degree of light, air and moisture.
' The Succirubra trees intended for crown-grafting must not be allowed to grow
too thick, the young trees should be thinned out as soon as their bark is fit to
harvest. It is recommended to cover the cut surface of the tree stump with grafting
wax, after inserting the graft. Commonly the stump soon sprouts out, and all the
shoots should not be cleared away, until the grafting is seen to take A further
recommendation, is that trial deserves to be made after grafting to bury the
whole tree-stump, that is to say, if need be to cover the whole with an enclosure
of soil.
148
In connection with the foregoing, some good hints must
here be given, for which I am indebted to the able director
of the Royal School of Horticulture, “Linnaeus”, Heer Krook.
In the Catalogue of the Brothers Dittmar at Heilbronn in
Wuerttemburg, amongst other work tools the following are
mentioned, which seem capable of the most extended use in
working Cinchona.
Nº. 18. Spal/proffmesser [Graftingknife]. Mark 1.60.
Nº. 25. Copulär or Vered/ungsscheere [Grafting shears]
by which the stock and scion are sufficiently shaped to
each other at one operation. Price 7 marks.
#:
$ $4
Grafting wax for use on a large scale.
One kilogram of yellow rosin, and o. 1 I unsalted hogs' lard',
are melted together in an iron pot, and thoroughly mixed.
After being stirred sufficiently, the mass is poured into a tub
of warm water, and as soon as it has cooled to permit of being
conveniently handled, it is briskly kneaded with the hands
into balls, which are afterwards thrown into cold water to
complete the cooling; they can then be preserved wrapped
in paper.
For use, one of these balls is melted, and the stock, on
which budding or grafting is done, is smeared with the fluid
wax by means of a small brush. The temperature of the wax
must not be higher than needed to make it flow.
Grafting wax for use in small quantities.
Under the name of Aaltſ'ilsſºger Baumwachs a special
grafting wax of excellent quality prepared by the firm of
Theine and Leibig at Hannover, is sold put up in small tin
boxes. [A similar preparation known as Mastic / Homme
Zefort, or French cold grafting wax, is sold by nurserymen
in England. B. D. J.]
' These proportions are roughly as 35 to 4. B. D. J.
149
The scion or bud is smeared all over with the grafting wax,
which secures it from all damage or harm which might come
to it from outside influences, and the bursting forth of the
buds through the thin layer of grafting-wax, is neither hindered
nor delayed.
#:
£ 4:
To graft, bud, inarch, etc. with success, it is essential that
the stock be in active growth, whilst on the other-hand, the
buds of the scion must be in a dormant condition. In the
tropics, where plants are always growing and flowering, it is
not always easy to remark the periods of strong activity and
of comparative repose. In order to ensure good scions, it is
recommended, that the selected tranches of a tree chosen to
supply them, be cut off, and kept moistened in a shady spot,
so as to compel them to rest. In dicotyledons, an eye, visible
or invisible, is found in the axil of each leaf, and when the
leaves of the severed branch die and drop off, the sap causes
the eyes or buds to push, a matter of everyday observance
among propagators.
Scions having one eye in the cleft, and one above it, two
buds in all, give the most certain result.
The whole process of grafting depends on the fusion of the
Camõium, a very loosewalled cellular-tissue, and thus it is not
essential that the outermost corky layers should come into contact
with the scion, so long as care is taken to bring the similar
formative layers, the Camõium of each, together.
:k:
$ tº
The best expectations are justly cherished of grafting that
splendid scion Ledgeriana, on the stumps of Succirubra trees.
This method has the advantage of requiring no propagating
uses, and moreover can be put to use after cropping an
150
inferior Cinchona plantation. For splitting the stumps, the
stocks, and inserting therein the Scions, use may be made of
the grafting-knife previously mentioned as Nº. 18 on page 148.
C H A P T E R XII.
ERECTION OF PROPAGATING HOUSES AND LAYING OUT BEDS.
Propagating houses for a Cinchona speculation, are not
luxurious erections. Whoever spares the cost of these, practises
an economy which will permanently affect his interests, and
upon them are entirely dependent the seizing and confirmation
of the opportunity of propagating by art, the choicest, best
and richest Cinchona plants, and continuing in this path, to pro-
vide exclusively the best types. Propagating houses have already
been most strongly recommended for increase by seeds, whilst
without their help, an earnest, successful artificial multiplication
is scarcely to be thought of The arrangements have for aim,
the assurance as far as possible, of an equable temperature,
with the exclusion of all atmospheric and other disturbing
influences.
The expense can be confined to a minimum by a suitable
construction of Junghuhn's contrivance, which we have steadily
kept to as follows.
On the spot which has been chosen for a propagating house,
an open trench or passage is dug in the earth, with upright
walls, to a depth and breadth of about four feet. The upright
walls are faced with rough planks, to prevent the soil bulging
out or giving way. These are instead of dwarf walls of masonry,
which in the high, distant mountain districts would be too
troublesome and costly to build, not only on account of the
151
necessary transport of stone and lime, but also because of the
want of skilled labour. Wood as rule is made use of; rough
planks can be cut by every native, and for the entire simple
timberwork, there is only need of one carpenter, who for this
propose, need not be particularly skilled in his trade.
Thus the propagating houses are actually built in the ground.
In the trench which has been dug out, there is ample room
for movement, and the nursery-pots are accommodated on the
common soil, right and left of the passage, as far as can be
reached with the hand. Glazed lights form the roof, the ridge
running parallel to the length of the house, and is raised six or
seven feet above the bottom of the passage, borne by wooden
pillars, which are placed at suitable distances in the direction of
the length of the trench. The length of the propagating house is
optional; the longer it is, however, the more choice there is
of an even temperature. One end is entirely closed, up to the
roof light, at the other in the closing wall, is constructed a
little door, which gives admission to the trench by a gentle
slope'. A simpler and less expensive propagating house can
scarcely be built; the main cost lies in the glazed lights and
putty. These are best ordered from the factory, where they
are prepared by machinery; or they may be obtained more or
less weather-beaten, which will serve very well, and be bought
cheaply. Attention has many times been given to an iron
framing for a roof and lights, woodwork naturally being less
lasting (though it is a fact that by careful choice of wood, a
well built propagating house will remain six years in good con-
dition), and the erection, the placing if necessary of it properly
framed, over an already executed trench, should cost a min-
imum of time and labour. But, — iron is not indestructible;
more especially where it is exposed to the changeable influences
of the weather in the high, moist mountain regions; and were
defects once remarked, the means would be wanting for promptly
* When the propagating house is of great length, we use a door at each end.
152
remedying them. Experience in Europe has also taught, that
the panes of glass are exposed to more injury by breakage in
iron lights than in wooden rabbets, because the former are
more liable to expansion and contraction than the latter.
The glazed lights forming the roof, are provided with move-
able blinds, which are best made of a wild reed Kassoh, (Sac-
charum spontaneum) or of split bamboo, with gemoet; cord
prepared from indſoek as binding material.
By day, whenever the sun's rays would burn by too direct
influence, the blinds are allowed to roll over the frames, so
that the Sun's rays are partly kept off, and always broken.
Really if we wished to describe a model propagating house,
we do not know how to improve upon the foregoing. Full
account must be kept of the circumstances to which the planter
must submit, far from the help which art and industry could
offer him, and destitute of skilled labour. As to its shape it
matters nothing, the chief thing is to create an enclosed space,
in which the changeable influences of the weather are as little
felt as possible, and so that the propagator has sufficient room
to move about in easily.
Cleanliness and method must prevail in a propagating house.
Strong currents of air must be guarded against, but on the
other hand care must be taken to renew and change the air.
In a propagating house, much water is used for sprinkling the
plants, and in that narrow pent-up space, the atmosphere may
soon become mouldy and musty, and fungoid growths find a
fruitful field. In soft and quiet weather the door can now and
then be set open, otherwise the ventilation is regulated by
small moveable frames.
The nursery beds are laid out at a breadth of about six
feet, and about six inches above the trodden ground, to secure
good drainage. Both sides of the beds must be kept free, so
that their entire surface may be within easy reach.
For covering, use is made of a/ang alang (/mperata arun-
153
dºnacea, Cyr.), or nipa, (Mºffa fruticans, Thunb.), as may be
most easily be locally procured. As regards the direction of
the beds, the construction of the covering etc., no fixed regu-
lations can be prescribed, because so much depends upon local
considerations. The plants in the beds should by preference,
enjoy the morning Sun, and in every case as much as pos-
sible be sheltered from the wind.
All regulations which apply to raising and rearing cultivated
plants in general, hold good also for Cinchona, and therefore
we have no need to go into further details.
C H A P T E R XIII.
CLEARING THE GROUND. COMMENCEMENT OF NURSERIES.
With regard to clearing and laying the foundations of planta-
tions, Cinchona demands nothing more than do Tea and Coffee
culture; we quote from our ‘De Oost-Indische Cultures' the
following passage, for any further information reference can be
made to that work itself.
“In clearing we have to reduce to regular culture, that
is, making ready, or preparing to plant, on waste lands,
which at the present time only show the natural vegeta-
tion, or which after a temporary use, have again returned
to a condition of wilderness or jungle. Such waste lands
are covered either with virgin forest, scrub, or wild
grasses.
If we have to do with a thick forest, the trees must
be felled and cleared away as much as possible. Big
trees are not grubbed up, the expense would be too
great, and not seldom at least in the mountain clearings,
154
it would disturb the covering of earth too much to tear
them up.
If the giants of the forest are of considerable diameter,
they are by preference, cut over several feet above the
ground. This spares much labour, whilst the stumps which
remain in the ground, do not much interfere with the
planting of the entire estate, or at least only a few feet
occasionally. In exceptional cases it may be best to grub
up such hewn down trees. They gradually waste away by
continual exposure to the atmospheric influences, and their
roots also, rot away little by little.
The felling of the forest is best done in the dry season;
moreover, the axes used by the natives are difficult to
use in rainy or damp weather.
The masses of wood are burnt where possible, to eco-
nomise room as well as labour and time If the combus-
tion is effected with care, there need be no fear of actual
loss of humus. On the other hand, there is gained a
fertilising ash, mixed with plenty of charcoal, and the only
thing required, is that these remains are not suffered to
stay heaped up, but are spread equally. By this firing, the
estate is purified from weeds, and from injurious animals,
larvae of insects and their eggs.
The felling of big forest trees is no common cooley
work; it demands experience and management. Before
giving the first blow of the axe, the tree must be exam.
ined, to see whether it has any tendency to fall in a
definite direction, in consequence of growth or top hea-
viness. The felling is begun on the side where the tree
must tumble; thereafter, when a half or one third part
cut through, a beginning is made on the opposite side.
If the trees on the cleared land are close and regular,
then much labour is saved by merely cutting down a
certain number, as may be pointed out, on one side only.
155
By felling the trees on the boundaries, these will in their
fall, drag down also their neighbours.
Scrub and bushes must be grubbed up, not only because
it does not want extraordinary labour to do it, but also
because by simply cutting down to the stump, they would
readily spring up again, and threaten to create a wilder-
1162.SS 2-116 W.
So also must herbaceous and grassy plants be uprooted,
thrown into heaps, and after sufficient drying, be burnt.
If these precautions are neglected, a new plantation will
Soon demand uncommon vigilance.
Level and hilly lands require special treatment.
If an estate is deprived of its natural covering, then it
must, if level, or slightly inclined, be regularly ploughed
in its entire extent, or worked with the padjol, or mattock.
The deeper and more thoroughly this is done, the better;
the plants to be thereon cultivated will soon show their
gratitude. In proportion as the soil is stiff and more
tenacious, it requires to be more repeatedly gone over,
either with the plough or the patjol, and these operation
are conducted in proper turn, so that the maiden soil may
have opportunity by the alternation of light and air, to
prepare itself to nourish cultivated plants.
According to the destination of the cleared and worked
land, it is parcelled out into regular compartments by larger
and smaller roads or paths, as it were to cut it up. Such
a systematic division, at a later period, simplifies super-
intendence and management. It permits of an accurate
apportionment of labourers, and indication of maintenance,
and thus gives a desirable uniformity and order in all
actions, as well air in the administration.
Level lands of certain extent, are easy to work, and
to divide regularly. They have this disadvantage on the
156
other hand that they can hardly be irrigated. A good supply
of water may be ensured by a system of channels which
for the most part, can follow the paths, and whose capacity
can be estimated for, in regard to the nature of the soil
and its situation.
On sloping lands, water may cause damage by too
quickly or readily running off. The soil being washed away,
natural channels are formed which expose the fertile crust
to constant harm and loss. If the slope be planted, then the
removal or denudation of the earth will cause, in one
place an uprooting, in another an earthing up. Mountain
slopes which are taken into cultivation, are continually
liable to the loss of their fertile soil, and though the
injury to a plantation may not be noticed immediately,
yet the danger is great, that after a few years, it will
be necessary to write off that land as valueless.
Many planters rest content with giving to each plant
separately, a little surface in the slope, a scooping out.
The maintenance of a plantation arranged in this way, is
difficult, and is seldom unattended with damage. Besides,
the little plateaus or hollows become reservoirs of water
or filth, which is heaped up and injures the plant.
But there is a sufficient means of preventing the injurious
consequences which tilling or planting the slopes may have
or draw after them. That, is by the laying out of terraces,
which levels the arable or worked surface.
By steady labour very steep slopes may be made suit-
able for regular cultivation. In proportion as the slopes
are steeper, the terraces must have a narrower breadth,
and it is wholly unnecessary, moreover frequently it is
impossible, that the breadth should be the same over an
entire terrace.
The soil cleared of its covering and rid of jungle and
stumps, is traced out by means of lines which are accurately
157
levelled along the slopes. The grass and weeds are heaped
up alongside these lines, having been cut down by a hatchet
or light use of the paſſol.
The labourer places himself below the row of weeds
and begins to work upon the ground above him with his
Aaffol, and in such a way, that the first spit comes to
rest upon the weeds, and gives the necessary solidity.
Thus he goes on, the upper spits and clods being con-
stantly turned over upon the preceding, for the entire space
between the two successive traced out lines, until it has
lost its inclination. As soon as this rude commencement
is made over the whole estate, a slight slope is given to
the steep sides, (which must in no case have erect walls,
by which the terraces would degenerate into canals) and
made tolerably even.
After this, the terraces themselves are worked over with
the paíſol, sparing the edges, because these must possess
a suitable solidity.
On wooded grounds, the working up of the soil in its
entirety may precede the forming into terraces, because
these soils are by nature already loose and friable. Pre-
vious working is often quite necessary, on account of the
endless hindrances which present themselves on the cleared
estate, and the workpeople in the actual, previous beginning
of the terraces, would be in the way.
The direction and breadth of the terraces being wholly
dependent on the nature of the soil, it is evident that the
terraces cannot be arranged for any premeditated culture,
but on the other hand, that which concerns the order
and space for plants, must be ruled by them.
The edges and slopes (talus) of the terraces are allowed
to be grown over. The weeds thereon developed can be
kept short, but it gives solidity, and rather than attain
this by pressing together, use is made of some such plant
158
as antanan, (rendeng or pagagan) [Hydrocotyle hirsuta,
DC.] to replace it.
This way of beginning has for a long time found
strenuous opponents. The plan has been said to be ex-
pensive, but on the other hand it may be said briefly,
that if a permanent or a lasting plantation is to be made
on mountain declivities, the costs of terracing can better
be met, than constant expectation of great, irreparable
disappointment.
It has already been stated that on steep slopes where
foundation of terraces requires in some cases to be deeply
dug out, a barren subsoil may be dipped into, wherein
the plants can thrive only with difficulty. If planting must
be done, either in a medium which cannot be considered
fertile soil, or which cannot come into that category within
a certain time, is surely better not to plant at all. Excess
in any direction is punished, so also in the choice of lands
for clearing. Meanwhile the alleged danger is as a rule,
fanciful. To whatever depth the soil may be stirred, the
fertile upper layers are not thrown aside, but simply
replaced. By mingling the poorer subsoil, with the richer
surface soil, and the whole being weathered for a sufficient
time, there is no risk run of improverishment, but on the
other hand, the conditions for favouring the remaining
plants must be considered to become more favourable.
The subsoil may be either, vegetable humus, clay,
loam or sand; it cannot offer sufficient nutriment, unless
it is properly exposed to the aforesaid influences.
By mixing surface soil and subsoil, or else by exposure of
the latter, a fertile crust is created which defies disappoint-
ments. Of course all considerations restrain one, where
159
the subsoil may appear so unserviceable, that it would be
foolish to destine that estate for clearing.
On sloping ground, a regular division into similar plots
or gardens becomes difficult. The paths to be laid out,
cannot follow the shortest line; for they would then serve
as water-channels. Continual damage and loss of ground
would be the consequences, and to prevent these, the
paths are laid out on the slopes in a diagonal direction,
zig-zag fashion. A gradient of one in a hundred, seems
to be the most that can be recommended, so as to secure
a sufficient fall but not too much. As much as possible
the paths are allowed to be overrun with grass, it gives
them fixity and cohesion, and alongside them are dug the
channels in which the superfluous water can run off, which
is contributed to by the gutters which are laid out across
the terraces, as may be necessary.
As a free or unrestricted choice is not always obtain-
able and thus one cannot voluntarily arrange matters on
this or that mountain slope, so it does not always profit
one to know which declivity with relation to its aspect,
is most advantageous for cultivation. It may be well to
stop operations, and institute comparisons, so as arrive at
proper knowledge. Many allege that the slopes which are
turned towards the equator, come under the most favour-
able climatic influences; after that, the eastern and western
follow. Others are of opinion that plants in leaf require
the morning sun, on the other hand fruiting plants want
the evening rays.
In a country covered with mountains, no fast rules
can be laid down on the subject. As we have to treat
of the climatic conditions of the East Indian Archipelago,
it is quite evident, that the relative situation with regard
to the aspect, is a very weighty question. The local
currents of air with their own characteric features, vary
160
greatly and in some measure determine the temperature
and moisture.
There are however other considerations which compel
respect when clearing away primeval forests. It is to be
remembered, that the local temperature and moisture must
undergo an important change at least for a time, by the
disafforesting over a large area. The cleared ground is
more quickly warmed than the soil which is covered over
with a thick leafy canopy. By continued exposure to the
heat of the sun during the dry season of the year, especi-
ally if assisted by violent winds, the upper layer of the
soil is brought into conditions unfavourable for vegetation.
If the surface is quickly and strongly heated by day.
because unprotected, it will also by night quickly radiate
and cool. Sudden transitions are the causes of sickly con-
ditions which although mostly transient, may disturb the
more delicate subjects of cultivation.
Constant exposure creates barrenness in the arable sur-
face. It seems certain that even the thickest layers of the
cultivable soil cannot hold out against the pertinacious
working of a high degree of heat. If it is not shaded by
vegetation, it dries up and offers only sustenance to
grasses like a/ang-alang [/mperata arundºniacea, Cyr.].
Such land will not regain its ancient fertility, until again
covered by a plantation, which will prevent those quick
and powerful alternations which we have previously des-
cribed. This possibly supplies the reason of the often
remarked phenomenon, that it is very difficult in old
plantations to get the “repairs” to do well. The incom-
pletely sheltered superficial ground is sacrificed to a too
powerful chemical action, and it wants a sufficient time
under favourable conditions to regain its original qualities.
Frequently also great difficulty is experienced in getting
a new plantation to do well on lands once cultivated.
161
Experienced planters know full well the dangers to their
plantations, which exist in exposure to violent currents of
wind. Circumstances compel earnest care in the clearing
of forest-lands, and as a rule it is desirable to leave con-
siderable strips of forest untouched.
For laying out roads, terraces, etc. a certain instru-
ment deserves recommendation, which as we are informed
by Heer O. von Winning of the Dutch East Indian army,
is made by Böhme of Berlin. This surveying instrument
consists of a case with the theodolite, box-compass, and qua-
drant, so proportioned, that they are carried on a single-
footed staff. With this simple and handy combination,
by which the contriver has done good service to forest-
clearers, all requirements are readily and amply met. With
proper explanation and some practice, nonprofessionals
readily work with it.
The future is assured by suitably beginning the permanent
maintenance of the fertile surface; this need not be done so
regularly for Cinchona as for Coffee or Tea, which by period-
ical cropping are kept within definite bounds, whilst Cinchona
is regarded more as forest-culture; — order and regularity
must reign in every case, not the least to facilitate control,
and to excite and further pleasure in Supervision and main-
tenance..,
Previous to the year 1866, the government plantations were
not actually in every case laid out in terraces. At that time
in some places they were wholly unknown, and superintendents
as well as labourers had a prejudice against them. The transition
from forced to free labour, and many other burning questions of
paramount interest, compelling the consequences of not plunging
into all requirements at one time, brought matters to a focus.
In the government reports for the years 1864 and 1865, the
methods were described whereby the clearing and founding
of estates took place in those years. The director gave ex-
II
162
planation and account of both one and the other; his actions
were not of free-will, but were regulated by circumstances.
The forests were cut down, with the exception of certain
handsome forest-trees'. The felled trees were deprived of their
branches, divided into as many pieces as were necessary, and
then heaped up into rows, at regular distances of 2 5 to 30 feet.
In this fashion they formed high, broad galangans, between
which the Cinchona plants were put out, and enjoyed a certain
degree of shade. Whilst there was thus no foundation of ter-
races, all fear of loss of the fertile soil by its being washed
away might be said to be abandoned, because of the stacked up
masses of wood. The wood piles slowly rotting, formed after
a course of years a considerable layer of humus, which was
then equably spread over the gardens, whilst the scanty pieces
of wood still remaining intact, yielded a fertilising ash after
burning. From that time terraces were as much as could be,
formed, and most certainly in its entirety the ground had lost
nothing of its fertility, but rather gained. At the establishment
Nagrak, the felled masses of wood were heaped up, not in
rows, but heaps, which might be regarded as rubbish heaps,
from which the rains washed out and distributed through the
plantation, the perishable soluble portions. From 1866 onward,
cutting down was strictly kept to terracing the clearings, though
no one will wonder that in consequence of the dislike which
prevailed among certain superintendents and workfolk, the ter-
races were not constructed as they should have been.
This one thing is certain; care and pains were devised
against any loss of the fertile soil, which then occurred but
seldom, and since then only to an insignificant extent.
! On page 82 it is mentioned that the “Western department” protested against
the disafforestation. Governor-General Sloet, visited the Cinchona establishments in
May 1865, and acquainted himself with the furthering of the culture, and the new
direction of it, though he urged none the less, that exposure of the Cinchona
plantations was probably going too far. We were of the opposite opinion; and
gradually went even to a complete clearance. f
163
When large tracts were cleared and planted, on the other
hand it was not seldom to be feared, that too great opportunity
was afforded to the influence of wind and sunheat, and first of
all at Tjienieroean in November and December 1866, in the
plantations of Ledgeriana, there were actually shelter plants
put out. Some years later these companions were cleared away,
when they began visibly to hinder the Cinchona trees.
We always thought it possible to defend the position, that
in the long run the soil might even gain in fertility if loss were
guarded against; weeds, fallen Cinchona leaves, etc. being allowed
to remain, and turned into the ground in a general clearing up.
Our hope was established on this basis, that on the same
land, Cinchona should continuously remain, and our system
of exploiting Cinchona was thereon projected.
In practice difficulties seem to have arisen, which here
demand a closer consideration, and can be conveniently spoken
of, under the very important question of spacing the plants.
C H A P T E R XIV.
THE SPACE BETWEEN THE PLANTS.
After numerous comparative trials, we had as a rule resolved
to plant out, Cºnchona officinalis at 4 feet, C. succiruára at
7 feet, C. Calisaya and the remaining Cinchonas at 6 feet
distances each way. If the plants develope well, after 6 to 8
years they will meet, and the want of space must be met by
thinning out. Thinning is now adopted as a regular harvesting,
and in proportion as the gaps occurring had been filled up,
and the supplementary plants have become the greater, the
164
original plants are gradually removed; according to this view,
uninterrupted use and profit can be made of the same land.
In 1869 the first exploitation took place of several planta-
tions which had been laid out in the immediate neighbourhood
of the establishments. From that time, harvesting was regularly
continued and the old nurseries made ready anew for the recep-
tion of other, preferentially the richer Cinchona sorts. The results
of the new plantings, still at that time mostly on a restricted
scale, were not bad, and at least gave no reason to fear that
repeated planting on the same land, would in the long run
end in disappointment.
In the first place it must not be forgotten, that the first planta-
tions were still more or less sheltered by the original forest trees,
which were spared when clearing; in the second, that at first
the maintenance, when the planting was still restricted, could
be carried out with greater care than, when later on, the nur-
series were considerably extended, and a complete staff of
labourers could not always be obtained. The latest nurseries
stood moreover quite open and exposed, therefore at their
commencement the land was entirely cleared. Where the Cin-
chona grew immediately, it was able more or less to protect
the soil from the direct sunrays. On a few grounds however,
the development left much to be wished, that being where
the growth was very slow, and where effectual superintendance
could not take place by want of labour power.
For two years past, complaints have again been made, that
in many places where the first Cinchona plantings have been
exploited, those following will have a difficult task to succeed ',
| In British India about this ample experience has already been obtained; the
same sort of Cinchona does not thrive again, on the old, worked grounds. The
land is therefore continually changed, and for that purpose, a great reserve of
land is held in Bengal. It deserves remark however, that most of the lands which
were destined for Cinchona culture in India, had already been cleared and worked
by the natives. This makes a difference between it and primeval, virgin forest-
lands, which must not be lost sight of
165
Endeavours were made to trace the causes, and to attain a
tenable hypothesis by means of logical deductions; possibly the
hypothesis did not agree with the actual results of examination,
and in every case experiments may go on for years, before it
can be raised to a firm natural law. Nature is jealous of her
riddles and secrets, and does not disclose them except after
earnest enquiry and continued attempts.
Cinchona holds in one sense a different position to Coffee,
Tea and other constant crops, whose regular, harvests con-
tinually withdraw a large amount of nutriment from the soil.
The cultivation of Cinchona approaches more to the case of
timber-culture, and of original or natural forests, where a con-
stant, undisturbed development, requires constant nutriment
from the soil, without however exhausting it. It seems that
the disposition of the ground, its defence, so to speak, can
keep pace with the development of the forest, which is not
regularly carried off, and withdrawn in bulk; on the contrary,
all the fallen leaves, fruit, wood, etc., remain on the soil, and
add to its fertility.
Certainly, timber culture seems to rob the soil so little,
that the reasons for unfruitfulness cannot be found in that
impoverishment. At the end of the 16th century, Van Hel-
mont instituted an experiment which as ingenious as decisive,
removes all fears on this score.
He planted a willow cutting of five pounds weight, in a pot
with 200 pounds of dried soil. After five years, the cutting
of five pounds weight, had developed into a tree of 169 pounds,
whilst the earth had not lost more than two ounces in weight.
The loss was thus not worth mention, and there now exists
no single reason to suppose, that Cinchona is more exigent that
the willow . The direct impoverishment of the soil, thus cannot
' Dr. Van Vlaanderen at our request in 1869, examined certain Cinchona barks
as to their percentage of inorganic constituents, and found in Calisaya bark,
2.332 % of which o.728% was lime In no single case was lime wanting in the
different samples of soil, taken from the Cinchona nurseries.
166
be the cause of the phenomenon, that a new planting of Cin-
chona appears to have no actual chance of success, on the
same ground whence similar plants of 8 to Io years old have
been removed.
But there is still another plea against the notion of exhaustion.
If a Cinchona plantation of 8 years standing be harvested,
all the trees dug out, the soil worked anew, young Cinchona
plants brought in, still, - the young nurslings will sometimes
refuse to thrive.
If an old plantation be harvested, but the trees cut over and
not dug out, what happens then? The stumps again sprout
out, forming new stems and new trees | For this development
as much nourishment was necessary, as the young plants require,
as far as we can see. If the opinion be held, in the first case
that exhaustion of the soil was the cause, the second directly
and fully contradicts it.
In coffee culture the same phenomenon is to be seen. Whilst
cutting over, close to the ground in old plantations which have
ceased to yield fruit, forms new trees or bushes, it has long
been known that planting afresh in those plantations is not
profitable, unless the ground is used for other cultures for some
years. Supplementing old nurseries simply leads to disappoint-
ments. The old trees, whether coffee, tea or Cinchona, con-
tinue to grow quickly and strongly, and experience nothing of
declining nutriment from the soil, whilst on the other hand,
the young individuals placed between, show themselves unable
to develope properly. With these supplementary plants, truly,
the opinion may be held, that, between the old trees and the
young ones, which must draw their nourishment from the same
medium, the struggle for existence must end disastrously for
the latter. It may also be thought that the shade of the old
trees, hinders the young tender nurslings, although shade is
by some considered useful, by others necessary.
All these phenomena put together, and logically reasoned
167
out, with an eye on the nature and action of the cultivable
soil, added to the influences from within which act upon the
soil, we arrive at the following hypothesis, which we put
forth not as an axiom which we wish to announce, but which
we, after deep study and consideration believe to be the most
plausible.
In the Introduction to our ‘De Oost-Indische cultures' we
have shown how a chemical action constantly prevails in the
cultivable soil; for details reference may be made to pages 12
to 16, etc. Most of the forest-lands of the high mountain
ranges where Cinchona is planted, are mainly composed of
humus (or leaf-mould) and sand; clay is seldom preponderant.
The latter holds the soluble portions, and where the soil pos-
sesses sufficient clay, the chance of soluble material being
washed out, or carried deep down, is slight. Therefore we
believe that the disappointments mentioned in replanting,
mostly if not exclusively, are to be feared and felt on lands
which are poor in such constituents as clay, which possess
great power of absorption, and able to form the oft-men-
tioned Zeolithic masses. In some Cinchona plantations, as at
Nagrak and Rioengoenoeng, where substantial terraces must
be laid out on the mountain side, and the more clayey sub-
soil mixed with the rich humus of the surface, there very pro-
bably the second planting will succeed very well, because the
disposition, the constitution of the ground, is less likely to be
disturbed by the loss of its constituent elements.
In most primeval forests the humus is almost always pre-
dominant, and that is equally important as the clay, but by
clearing, the upper surface is exposed to the direct action
of the sun's rays, and the continual working of the ground,
constantly exposes fresh surfaces to those influences. Now these
influences are powerful, as we have mentioned in the Intro-
duction to our complete work ‘De Oost-Indische cultures', the
humus being soon destroyed, this decomposition breaks up the
168
union of the cultivable soil, and under circumstances tending
thereto, even makes of it waste steppes, and barren sandy
deserts, where only the alang-alang can find a home.
Soils cleared some years since, and rich in humus, give
indeed many times, after long protracted drought, the impres-
sion of a dried up, crumbly mass of sand. Under such circum-
stances the rains have free play; the soluble parts of the earth
not being kept or held together, sink into the lower layers,
and may under unfavourable conditions of the ground, even
be washed away, and be wholly lost. In each case the upper
layers are actually robbed, and it is evident that young tender
plants cannot root therein, at least cannot find the food so
necessary, within their reach. It is not so with the already
developed trees. As young plants, the latter found a still rich
maiden soil; they throve apace, both above and below the
ground, and the root system keeping pace with the develop-
ment, followed the nutriment in the soil, or had the power to
keep it within reach.
Where a first planting throve from the very first con-
tinuously, and whose leafy crown quickly covered the ground
with its own shade, there we consider, the soil will not be
too decomposed, and a second planting will thus have less to
do with changed conditions when rooting. However it is not
usual for plantations to start away from the beginning. At
one place the young nursery stock was perhaps not strong
enough, at another, the soil itself was not particularly fertile,
at a third, the outward influences worked unkindly.
In our annual report for 1870, we wrote: “Unless a detailed
and strict superintendence and arrangement is possible, the
result probably reached will be, that one fourth will be in bad
condition, one fourth will give but little hope from the begin
ning, and the remaining half, can be said to be partly satis-
factory, partly very favourable. No cares avail against such a
diversity, there is generally an equal amount of good and bad,
169
they may be seen next to each other. The origin of the dis-
similar development of individuals of the same variety may
be in the original differences in the young plants as much as in
the diversity of the ground, for very important local differences
occur in the latter, in mountain lands of volcanic quality.”
Of late years, the system of closer planting has been adopted,
chiefly on the proposal of R. van Romunde, Adjunct to Cin-
chona culture. Van Romunde recommended that Ledgeriana
and Succirubra should be planted four feet apart each way,
and Officinalis at three feet. The alleged advantages were, that
the plantation would be sooner obtained with a closer growth,
shading the soil by which the development of weeds would
be hindered, and the maintenance correspondingly lightened, –
that losses by death would be less noticed, and filling up would
not be necessary, - that bastard plants could be “rogued” out
as soon as seen, without leaving too wide gaps, and finally,
that by close planting, straight stems would be formed, which
would not readily branch, and entail the otherwise too early
necessity of thinning.
All these advantages were fully recognised; if an abundance
of young stock is at command, close planting is the best,
although it is not always possible to call a regular plantation
into existence on sloping and cleared lands.
Experience must teach, whether grounds on which a thin
planting with difficulty comes to maturity, we should say it
points out, that a thicker planting undoubtedly assures better
chances. As the young plants from the nurserybeds are put
out at 6 to 7 feet apart, they seem to have superabundant
space, a similar impression however is given by planting at
3 to 4 feet apart. If the plants meanwhile grow thriftily with-
out disturbance, after six or eight years Ledgeriana and Succirubra
appear to stand far too close to each other, and must be thinned
out or shortened back, so as to cause a further healthy develop-
ment. If on the other hand, the growth has been small, or
170
else, if the plantation has to content with injurious influences
such as disease, then there will be ample space for eight or ten
years to come.
Whenever things go on prosperously, after a few years thin-
ning must take place, whether planting has been done at 6 feet
or 4 feet intervals, in the latter case, two years sooner. Where
the development leaves much to be desired, the plantations
still have abundant space, however thickly they may have
planted. The principal question is, whether a thick plantation
really offers more chance of actually good undisturbed develop-
ment, than a thin one. In this case also, the answer can only
be given with respect to easy maintenance. The chances are
in favour of this system; the nearer the plants stand to one
another, the sooner will they support and shelter each other,
and shade the ground with their leafy canopy. It is also easier
to thin a plantation, to give more space air and light when
wanted, than to fill up or supply the empty places in a thin
plantation.
In this too, the thinning of a young plantation is not a total
loss, or waste of valuable material. Analyses of three to four
year-old Ledgeriana have shown that the quinine contents of
such young individuals, are already fit for the manufacture of
this alkaloid.
Thus there are indisputable advantages arising from close
planting, but foresight must be exercised, greediness must be
guarded against, and the requirements of timely thinning borne
in mind. Indeed, the thicker the planting, the more spindly the
plants grow up, and the proportions as to length and circum-
ference of stem, will be too slight and slender. To amend this
condition, thinning out must not be delayed too long; the
uniformity once broken cannot be restored. The long spindly
young trees do not quickly recover themselves, but appear
weak, susceptible to influences from without. The thousands
of Cinchona trees which were planted out in the thick woods,
171
and were many years afterwards admitted to the light by fel-
ling the original forest-dwellers, have shown this.
In 1870–71, on account of want of ground ready for plants
at Rioengoenoeng, there were thousands of Succirubra put out
at distances of 4 feet instead of 6 or 7 feet, and of this
planting it cannot be said, that within the same time, it
yielded as strong trees as the thin plantations. Even after
thinning, still the question remained, whether the trees would
outgrow the damage inflicted by the want of space at first.
At the same establishment the first Ledgerianas at the end
of 1866, were put out at mutual distances of 6 to 7 feet, and
we have never seen a plantation of handsomer or stronger
trees. Every plant in six years, grew into a vigorous tree,
whilst on the contrary the Ledgerianas planted at the same
time close together at Tjinieroean, against all instructions at
four feet apart, at ten years of age were still very poor in
comparison.
Numbers of examples might again be given, to show that
it is well to plant Cinchona with ample space, when a quick
and strong development is aimed at; we meanwhile willingly
recognise that very much may be said for close planting, and
as a rule, after the experience gained during the last few years,
it well deserves recommendation, provided there is ample com-
mand of young nursery stock.
It will happen in exceptional cases, that a plantation, what-
ever distances may be taken for the plants, grows up regu-
larly; the nursery-plants themselves in germination show more
or less stronger development. If close planting be done, in
the first place it may and should be that those young trees
which remain backward or wanting in vitality, should be
rejected, and at the same time also, these individuals which
may be thought of less value, by their difference of botanical
Structure.
In each case 3 to 4 feet is quite enough for C. officinalis.
172
This species is more slender than others; it does not form
thick stems, still less thick branches, and so, as in C. Ledger-
Žana it comes about, that the bark is not the most handsome
to look at, although it will continue to be destined for manu-
facturing purposes ".
It is quite otherwise with Succirubra, from which a hand-
some bark is wanted, and this can be with difficulty pro-
duced by young slim trees, which receive but little light on
their stems.
It therefore happens that the more robust growth of C. succi-
zuòra, which are planted at 6 to 7 feet, under normal circum-
stances wholly cover the ground with their own canopy of
leaves.
C H A P T E R XV.
|MAINTENANCE OF CINCHONA PLANTATIONS.
In close connexion with the subject of our last chapter is
the question of maintenance.
Our directions were strict, we required a continual super-
intendence and maintenance. As soon as a certain height was
reached the weeds were to be cut down. Twice a year it was
ordered, that the entire plantations should be deeply dug, and
First one thing and then another induced us to allow the C. Ledgeriana plants
to remain at 7 to 8 feet, but to place between them C. officinalis, which could
be harvested first, and whose slender growth not only required less space, but
would not seriously hinder C. Ledgeriana. In 1873–74 we laid out a plantation
at Rioengoenoeng of Ledgeriana cuttings, and the nursery was filled up by C. off-
cinalis, Van Romunde writes to us that this has developed very thriftily, and
according to his system a simultaneous rearing of Ledgeriana and Officinalis, is
likely to turn out excellently.
173
the weeds buried. This rule could however be applied to the
full extent of the planting but merely by exception.
There were so many things without number to be done,
that the means and power available often fell short of the
wants. By constant extension the old nurseries were frequently
left to themselves longer than was proper; but in no case
was the delay harmful. Fresh weeds on good soil, which
increase by seeds, grow quickly and die away, cannot be, in
our opinion injurious to the soil, and still less be of direct
hindrance to the young plants, so long as the latter are not
covered, or thickly grown round. It was a different matter
when the ground was covered with noxious weed such as
alang-alang, as it was at Lembang, as noted on page 69.
No establishment has demanded greater expense in manage-
ment; we have patiently expended really extraordinary care
and cost, to see what could be obtained from a more thorough
working of the ground. The result of this long continued deep
tillage and burial of the weeds, has surpassed our expecta-
tions and even struck the attention of the native foremen.
The plantation, because of its barren soil, and unfavourable
aspect, exposed to the full fury of the winds, had remained
in a backward state for years, but it recovered itself under
the hearty attempts towards improvement, and according to
the later reports, the progress appears very satisfactory. At
Nagrak, where things went on very calmly and orderly, all
performances could be adapted to the want, and the results
have not remained without observation.
We have always found that, where the natural conditions
were favourable, the plantations developed themselves advant-
ageously even when the care was not too abundant; where
these conditions did not prevail, in spite of extremest care,
some of the nurseries could not be raised out of their low
backward condition. This will be shown plainly by figures
which are given further on.
174
The original Ledgeriana plantation consisted of about 8%,
bouws ', and was laid out at the end of 1866. Up to and
including 1879, there were thence harvested 179,500 kilos of
dry bark, and at least an equal quantity was still to be ex-
pected from the remaining trees. Results more brilliant are
difficult to imagine. The most exigent can hardly expect in thir-
teen years from 8'ſ, bouws, to harvest more than 35,000 kilos,
that is on an average more than 2000 kilos per bouw, or
about I 54 kilos per bouw annually. The results from the Succi-
rubra plantations have not been less favourable; on the other
hand the Officinalis nurseries have well nigh continually dis-
appointed.
If deep broad plant-pits are dug, then the whole ground
may be covered thickly with grown up weeds, whilst the plants
themselves are still free. The deeper and cleaner the soil is
worked, the longer it remains free from weeds and we con-
sider that it is no injury, for the young plants to be shut in with
the surrounding weeds, at certain distance round the limits of
each pit, for the soil is thereby kept from being dried up,
and the plants themselves, in no small degree are protected
from wind and the fierce rays of the sun.
At the present time weeds are considered injurious, and
after the example of some English planters, the absolute clean
state of the nurseries, is thought to be one of the first requisites
for the good success of a Cinchona plantation. Then too, the
great use of deep broad plant-pits is no longer regarded, and
the cost of these can be spared, if the ground is merely well
worked in its entirety. Naturally this new doctrine is connected
with the system of close planting, and we do not venture to
predict the result until experience becomes ripe, with the results
of the harvest, but we fully recognise the good that is con-
tained in the new elements. Meanwhile the danger is, that
the labour and means may frequently fall short of completely
* See note on p. 78. B. D. J.
175
and continuously keeping the young plantations at the abso-
lutely clean state required, will presently not be less trouble-
some than the earlier ways ".
We learn from the course of the history of Cinchona culture,
first and foremost, that the prescription of fixed rules may be
abstained from, or rather the establishment of a programme,
which furthers unconditional maintenance. “To keep the land,
constantly and completely, clean, is an excellent principle”
cannot be declared, only because once and for a definite time,
unusual results have been remarked from it.
Elsewhere no such rule was observed, and the results were
in no sense worse; the reverse held true also. Experience is not
sufficiently attained by the practice of single years in restricted
plantations, but must, to be of practical value, embrace all
plantations, and under various circumstances, during as many
years as may be needful to institute a comparison with regard
to the crops. If the land is kept absolutely free from weeds,
then it is absolutely exposed to the operation of sunheat, and
the fear of that harmful factor must not be underestimated,
meanwhile not taking it a priori forcertain that the plantation
will actually very speedily shield and shade itself.
Circumstances must always direct the rule of conduct of
work, and the more extremes are avoided, the less chances
are run of acting against the true interests of the culture.
The management of the ground is a chief essential in every
culture, because the plantation must supply continuous nourish-
ment. But the plantation itself needs watchfulness and super-
! We consider deep plant pits altogether unnecessary where the soil in its entire
extent is deeply stirred. Digging deep pits is a compromise between deep tillage
and none at all. In India as well as in the Netherlands and elsewhere in the world,
the richest results may be expected from the remaining plantations in proportion to
the depth of soil worked. If the ways and means do not permit of deep working,
then we show that broad and deep plant pits are a substitute that cannot be
spared, and will make a reasonable return.
176
intendance. Harmful influences from without have to be guarded
against, and amongst these, gusts of winds do not count for
the least. Should shoots show themselves from the stems, they
must as soon as possible be removed. As a rule though, they
show themselves in an abnormal condition, either of disease,
or injury to the plant. Branches bruised or broken off, are
cut clean away, and particular care must be taken against
hurting or damaging the stem, which has to yield the bark,
and the healthier and sounder in appearence the better.
When the Cinchona plantations are once so far developed,
that it is possible to more freely under the leafy roof of the
trees, then there is little more to attend to. On the soil no
weed can grow which can do any harm and the trees give
mutual support and shelter, when the allotted space is filled
up there is no more need for close attention. If however the
space is limited, the branches growing amongst their neigh-
bours, then the light cannot penetrate beneath, and the lowest
branches pine and die.
It will be proper to cut these away, because intentional
lopping and felling, alone should cause gaps. For the rest, the
planter has little more to do in such a plantation; he intends
it for the production of bark, and harvests it according to
circumstances, more about which anon.
Where the Cinchona trees do not normally develope, or
else make branches too soon, thus hindering the formation of
good stems, pruning may be necessary. In this case the opera-
tion is confined to (sleunen) thinning out; the lowest branches
are cautiously removed, not so high up however as to break
the proportion. In like manner those branches mostly second-
ary which close up the head of the tree, are to be taken away,
they would hinder the development of the principal branches.
For pruning or thinning, sharp tools are of course used.
Care for proper irrigation, to keep up the condition of
the fertile soil, and other purposes is not less important in
177
Cinchona culture than in the cultivation of any other crop.
In poor plantations it deserves recommendation to dig ditches
wherein the weeds are collected, or if practicable, manure is put
into them. The earth dug out is spread about the plantation.
This plan has frequently achieved excellent success'.
C H A P T E R XVI.
DISEASES AND ENEMIES.
Junghuhn, during the first few years, had to contend against
the attacks of a small beetle, which he took to be a species
of Bostrichus or /)ermestes. The insect, black in colour and
no bigger than a pin's head, bored horizontal holes through
the bark and wood of the stems and thicker branches, quite
to the centre. From there it made vertical passages, up and
down, so narrow as hardly to admit a thread or a needle.
Only by means of a magnifying glass could the opening
which gave admittance, be seen, but by accurate examination
there might be perceived also a reddish, very bitter-tasted
fluid, which hardened on the surface after oozing out. The
beetle laid its eggs in the bored holes and died thereafter.
After the young brood have lived through their larval and
pupal conditions, making many tunnels and great cavities in
the trees, and have themselves developed into beetles, they seek
to quit the tree by these newly bored openings, to repeat their
destructive work or another tree.
The attacked and relinquished tree soon begins to languish, and
now there may be discovered on the stem, short streaks of tiny,
yellowish white fine sawdust, that pours out of the bored holes.
' These are termed “renovation pits” in British India. B. D. J.
I 2
178
In consequence of the small total of Cinchona trees possessed
at that time, each one destroyed was a heavy loss, and thus
it may be understood that Junghuhn did everything he could
to obviate the mischief, but no single means availed. The
boring beetles chiefly attacked the transplanted trees, and from
this fact, as well as the circumstance that in later years we
have rarely been troubled with them, we conclude that this
kind of beetle visits sickly trees by preference.
More damage, although relatively of less significance because
it was soon noticed, and showed itself sporadically, we exper-
ienced with a large brownish-yellow larva, of what ſamily we
have not been able ascertain, but only its appearence. Atten-
tive observation in developed plantations, more particularly of
C. succiratēra, will reveal at a certain height on the stem, a
ringshaped swelling of light yellow colour, and warty exterior.
More closely examined, the stem seems to possess a broad
opening from which the ringshaped appearence is gnawed away,
so that the finely masticated fibre presents itself as a ring
composed of moist sawdust. If this be removed, the stem shows
itself “ringed” to the wood. If the “ringing” be complete, the
portion above must die, and the best thing to do, is to saw
off the stem, under the ring. If it be not complete, then the
tree may live and recover itself, provided that the cause of the
mischief is removed. This, the larva above mentioned, deve-
lopes, if we are not mistaken, into a large black beetle. With
a bit of iron-wire or sharply pointed piece of rotan, the
opening of the stem is probed, by which means the larva,
called by the natives oelam-pahit, may be brought to the out-
side, or else pressed to death.
Where the effect of the gnawing has already proved harmful,
it betrays itself at a long distance off; stem branches and leaves
have then a dry, reddish look. The tree then has very little
vitality left, it will be well to cut it down and burn the affected
parts, to prevent the increase of the insect.
179
However, the destructive work should not be suffered to go
so far. Moderate attention on the part of the labourers, will
detect the foe, and it can be killed before the damage is
irreparable.
In the propagating houses, in the beds, and in the nurseries
the plants are exposed to all sorts of danger; diligent attention,
however, will by prevention, guard against great loss occurring.
A blackish-grey larva which lives in the ground just below
the surface, in certain places, and seasons, ravenously devours
the crown of the roots of the newly planted stock. The natives
call it hiled orož. If fresh planting is going on daily, then
the existence of the larva is soon betrayed by single plants,
broken off and lying down. The insect may soon be found,
by carefully feeling in the soil with the hand round these young
plants. When the plants have once a firm hold with their
roots, these larvae seem to do no further harm, in every case
this plague is never of such great significance, that it cannot
quickly be overcome on its first appearence in a new plantation.
Actually and seriously we only dread one disease or plague
in Cinchona culture, (which we may therefore style Cºnchona
disease) known as Cinchona rust, it seems to have the same
origin as the so-justly dreaded tea-rust.
In the year 1868 the first Ledgeriana plantation, at Tjinie-
roean, then about eighteen months old, became diseased, and
the same mischief so soon showed itself in other plantations
at all the establishments, under such various circumstances,
that we could find no explanation of the case.
The disease manifested itself in the leaf. An abnormal increase
of the cellular tissue here took place, the epidermis becoming
thicker on the spots attacked. When the morbid swelling is full
grown, the epidermis becomes corky or suberified, and thereby
locally hinders the further development of the leaf. The sur-
rounding parenchyma continues growing, and the leaf puckers up,
whilst at the same time it is covered with rusty knobs, which
180
afterwards break through. The malady proceeds to the young
tops of the plants, which are seen to die off, when wholly corky.
If broken across, inside they appear still fresh and green.
Only a few plants succumbed to the evil, which since 1868,
has occasionally shown itself and again disappeared, bringing
fear and hope, but each time leaving behind it deep traces
of partial damage, which injured the shape of the plants, and
prevented lusty development.
In the year named, Teijsmann and Scheffer visited the plan-
tations, and the latter thought be discovered little eggs on
the parts of the plants attacked; the idea was then that insects
were the cause; however no insects could be detected.
In 1869 the disease showed itself in greater force, although
still confined to certain plantations and certain varieties of
Cinchona. More and more it was ascribed to the action of
insects, it appeared also that the older, developed plantations,
had not suffered from it. On the other hand, extensive young
plantations were so heavily harassed, that it was in considera-
tion to root them up, and commence afresh.
Plants which seemed quite fresh in the evening, by the
following morning were badly attacked. The leaves of these
plants looked as if burned, withered, covered with brown dots,
spots and inflated patches, whilst the young tops of the stem
and branches seemed dead and suberified, though internally
still wholly green, fresh and sappy.
What experiments were not made to restore the plants, and
to check the evil! If the diseased parts were cut away and
burnt, the new shoots were not free. Decoctions of tobacco,
solutions of sulphate of lime, etc., were profitably used for
sprinkling; but whenever it was thought that good results
were to be seen, then it happened that some individual which
had not been treated, came round by itself and at the same
time. Thus there was no nearer approach to a decision, with
regard to the causes and remedies.
181
At last was tried the plan of working the ground to an
unusual extent, and severely cutting back the plants attacked.
We here aimed at improving the conditions for sturdy deve-
lopment, and to strengthen the power of endurance of the
plants. We certainly found some good in these measures, the
evil was stayed for a time at least, and when it again showed
itself afresh, the same means were employed against it.
On my proposition, made to the Government, Heeren Teijs-
mann, Bernelot Moens and Scheffer, came in 1871 to observe
the disease. Teijsmann continued to ascribe the cause to insects;
his fellow-commissioners by microscopical research, came to
the conclusion that the disease revealed itself by a crypto-
gamic growth, a species of fungus, situated on the surface,
no mycelium being found within the plant. On the whole,
the commission considered the evil less serious than was
supposed, in so far as the greater part of the plants was not
attacked.
Thus the examination did not give definite knowledge, still
less a specific for restoration or prevention. The plan of pruning
and stirring the ground remained therefore the indicated pre-
liminary means. At one time it seemed by this proceduce to
diminish, even to disappear entirely suddenly, however it showed
itself again, and thus it remains at the present day, inspite of all
regulations and temporary illusions, in spite too of the com-
plete knowledge of the causes, for which we have to thank
Moens.
In the report for 1875, the first which Moens made, we read:
“The Cinchona trees are treated by pruning, and it
seems always, that by this the disease, which for so long
has shown itself, now in one, then in another plantation,
is so restricted, that it does little permanent harm. Very
skilful tea-planters are of opinion, that this malady is
the same as occurs in the tea-shrubs, and that the cause
lies in the puncture of an insect belonging to the order
182
Hemiptera. It has not yet been possible to completely
confirm this ".”
In the year 1876 pruning was still recognised as the best
method of preventing the injurious results of the disease, except
that it caused the plants to grow bushy. Repeated pruning,
however useful it might be in this case, remained an heroic
remedy, to that degree that it could never be heartily recom-
mended.
In 1877 the appearences presented themselves in especial
strength and on an extensive scale, and Moens ascertained
it to be due to the influence of an insect, the same indeed,
which causes the tea-rust and was described in British Indian
Journals, as Helope/ſis theiwora, or Tea-bug, but is termed by
Snellen van Vollenhoven, He/opeltis Antonii.
This insect, which according to Moens, when fullgrown is
about O.OI 1 metre *, sticks its proboscis through the upper
epidermis of the young leaves and tops, and thence sucks out
the sap. The inflammation which is the consequences makes
the spot in the circumference of the puncture to become dis-
coloured and black, and the tissue dies. Only the unattacked por-
tions develope themselves further, by which the leaf puckers
up in all directions and grows into itself. The same happens
with the young tops.
The discovery of eggs in a fertile female was an important
find. These eggs are white, I'/4 millemetre long, and provided
at their smallest extremity with two thread shaped appendages.
Eight to fourteen eggs were met with in each female. These
were laid by means of the ovipositor, in the ends of the branches
and the leafstalks. They lie therein entirely hidden, so that
usually only the threadshaped appendages are visible, and found
with difficulty. When the young are hatched, they are wing-
| The honour of first calling attention to this insect, belongs to Heer Meijboom,
the planter, at Bandoeng in Java.
* That is not quite half-an-inch, a fraction less than / 6. B. D. J.
183
less, and thus confined to a restricted dwelling place, they find
in the neighbourhood of their birth place the food intended
for them, the sap of the young parts of the plants, and it is
these newly born creatures, which chiefly cause the worst devasta-
tions. Although the insects may be found in various phases
of development the whole year through, the young are most
abundant by far in the months of May, June, July, whilst
after that time they slowly disappear, and are only met with
in single specimens'.
After the causes of the evil were completely known, cutting
out still remained the best remedy: It was now strictly followed,
and the prunings burned, so as to destroy the eggs as much
as possible. As to capturing the perfect insect, which occurred
by millions, that was not to be thought of in the extensive
plantations. In small nurseries of Ledgeriana cuttings, to whose
unimpeded growth most value was attached, it was applied how-
ever, and that with good results.
For 1878 it was stated, that the Helope/tis had again caused
much damage; it again showed itself in strong force, notwith-
standing the severe pruning of the previous year. That the
young plantations might as far as possible be rescued, it was
resolved, that the insects should be taken by women and
children, a means that is reputed to be the best in the large
tea eStates.
The thousands which were daily captured and killed, of
course could not follow out their work of destruction, and
where they were thus checked, the plants recovered them-
selves all the quicker. In the Malawar mountain range, eight-
tenths of the C. officinalis plantations had to be written off as
* In the report for the fourth quarter of 1880, is it stated, that this insect has
shown itself for the first time in a new plantation which was laid out and managed
with the greatest care, possessing plants obtained by grafting, and of whose hand-
Some and speedy development there had been thus far no reason to be otherwise
than satisfied. It appears from this, that the insect cannot be kept back by the
extremest care of the planter, nor are the strongest saplings spared.
184
worthless, having suffered the most for some years, from the
repeated attacks of Helopeltis.
Now that the nature of the disease is known, and the
relationship of its originators, more than previously, it is to
be hoped that some complete remedy may be found. Short
of an entire stamping-out of the insect, which is hardly to
be thought of, chance only offers us the discovery of other
plants which the insect would possibly prefer to Cinchona.
Helopellis having once obtained a footing in a Cinchona
plantation, it is hardly conceivable that the enemy can be
hunted out; where it has not as yet entered, careful attention
must be given, so that at the very first appearence, it may be
immediately dealt with, by burning or other means, to frighten
away the immigrant and drive it back.
All other troubles and maladies in Cinchona culture are
insignificant compared to this; and are probably due to un-
skilful, awkward management of the planter himself.
CH A P T E R XVII.
HARVESTING THE CINCHONA BARK,
When is a Cinchona tree fit for stripping 2 This question
repeatedly put whilst the history of the tree in its develop-
ment was yet unknown, and at that time remained without
satisfactory answer, now finds us fully prepared to reply, since
regular cultivation has informed us of its power of growth,
and chemical analyses have thrown light upon the formation
and amount of the alkaloids. We can at present definitely say
that the question resolves itself into a pure speculation, within the
discretion of the planter himself, from the moment when the
185
tree is fully developed, that is to say, has formed its different
layers, ranging from without inwards as, cork, parenchymatous
layer and liber 1.
Under favourable circumstances of soil and climate, and with
unimpeded development, Cinchona plants may be stripped with
advantage in six to eight years from being planted out; so far
at least as then the maximum percentage of alkaloid is formed
by that time.
The maximum percentage of alkaloid however has nothing
to do with the maximum production of bark; naturally this
increases with the age of the plants, and so it is a consider-
able advantage for Cinchona culture, that its cropping is not
obligatory upon fixed, periodically recurring times. For instance,
if the coffee berries are ripe then they must be gathered without
delay, and within a short margin of time; negligence in this
would lead to loss. In most cultivated plants this is case, but
not so with Cinchona. An exploitable tree loses nothing by
delay in harvesting; on the contrary, having here to deal with
the bark, when the tree has reached its maximum percentage
of alkaloid contents, the bark itself increases in thickness and
quantity, in proportion as it is allowed to grow on. The great
difficulty lies in the choice of the genuine plants, and progress
in propagating and rearing them. When the tiny plants have
become actual trees, then they require little more attention or
expense, and a Cinchona tree eight years old, which may yield
a kilogram of dry bark, gives every promise (certainty even,
if the plantation is not disturbed in its development) of pro-
ducing 25 to 50 % more at ten years old. The value attained
by the process of nature in eight years, is doubled in the four
following years; thus if the planter is not forced to realise,
he acts foolishly in beginning to harvest too soon. This truth
* For accurate knowledge of the anatomical structure of the Cinchona barks,
Oudeman's ‘Handleiding tot de pharmacognosie van het planten- en dieren-rijk’,
may be consulted [Also Howard’s ‘Quinology of the East Indian Plantations’. B. D. J.]
186
needs no further comment. The harvest once begun, it can be
carried on systematically, proportioned to the nature and extent
of the planting. If a fullgrown tree is smitten by serious dis-
ease, and its life is endangered, then it is evident it should
be stripped; the bark is not easily stripped from sickly or
dead trees, and they never yield regular handsome pieces.
What system should now be followed, to ensure the exploita-
tion on the same land, as long as possible? If close planting
has been done, then the trees are thinned out as required.
Each thinning yields a crop, and gives more room to the
remaining individuals to progress towards healthy develop-
ment. There will be about 4500 plants in each Óouw, if
planted at 4 × 4 feet, and if undisturbed in their growth,
after four years, they will interfere with each other. Then
one half should be removed, to give the other half the chance
of stronger development. When the first thinning has to do
with comparatively young trees then it does not produce much;
besides, the full amount of alkaloid has not yet been reached.
However, C. Zedgeriana of four years old contains already so
much quinine, that its bark can be considered fit for the pre-
paration of that alkaloid. It is the same with C. officinalis, and
C. succirućra of four years will yield a product that as regards
alkaloid contents, has already a high pharmaceutical value.
This first thinning therefore assures a financial profit, but has
chiefly for aim, to bring the remaining trees under more
favourable conditions. Two or three years later, these will
appear to stand far too close to each other, and once more,
half are taken away, which will give a good quantity of bark,
and this time pretty nearly with the full percentage. Now then
we have 1200 trees of seven to eight years of age left, and in two
or three more years, the thinning can be repeated, until the point
is approached when by the superabundant space, the creation of
a new planting must be taken into consideration. The following
harvests will generally yield a product of similar quantity,
187
although each time the number of trees is 50% less than at
the previous thinning. * *
That so regular a course is to happen constantly or even
frequently, must not be expected. It is but seldom that a
plantation grows on without disturbance. When the mischances
are within moderate limits, it is satisfactory; it diminishes the
amount and the value as a whole, or the after welfare of the
trees, if a less uniform thinning leaves here and there some
in mutual relationship not to be desired. A plantation cannot
develope itself so advantageously, but that certain individuals
will always give out, whatever may be the causes or influences,
and the plants themselves may vary much from each other,
even when derived from seeds from the same parent tree; it
is therefore well to attend to these when thinning.
Without being a skilled botanist, the experienced and attentive
observer recognises the typical forms, and those individuals which
show a strong divergence therefrom, should be removed as soon
as their removal can be useful to the plantation as a whole; the
product hence derived must be treated by itself and offered
separately. If these regulations are strictly kept to, then after
several years, the plantations will possess trees exclusively of
a high percentage, and at the same time the chances of a
progressive degeneration are more and more diminished ".
With close planting such we have just spoken of, the first
and perhaps the second thinning also must be done by com-
pletely digging out the trees. A stump cut over, would soon
throw out shoots, though the new branches would not succeed,
because a thrifty development could not take place in such
insufficient quarters.
By digging out, the entire stem is obtained and use can be
made also of the rootbark. If the stump is cut or sawn over,
* It should be considered when removing these, whether it is practicable to cut
over the trees and to graft better sorts on the stumps. By this the risk which is
inseparable from filling up, is avoided,
188
then a partial crop is obtained, but the chance remains of
new produce within a few years. Of these two systems which
is a priori the best is more than can well be answered. All
depends on local conditions and surrounding circumstances. The
stock of plants in the nursery, is the first thing to be asked;
a second, is the chance of success in filling up. The soil may
have become quite unfit to ensure a new planting living and
thriving. In this case the right way is to cut over the stem,
so that new stems may be obtained from the old tree. Then
again, ground which seems unable to support a second crop,
after having given one, must have a change, so that the
constituents of the soil may be restored. The planter who works
with foresight and deliberation, so regulates his planting and
harvesting, that he can proceed uninterruptedly, and does not
trust to one card turning up trumps, by which a temporary,
possibly years-long stagnation would be the consequence. -
In the government Cinchona culture, we were driven to
various methods, not only to arrive at the most profitable and
handiest method by means of comparisons, but also chiefly
because of the great diversity of our varieties of Cinchona.
Originally indeed, the regulation of planting was founded in
the just described plan of thinning. Since however the actual
value of the different kinds has become known, we were
obliged to follow another direction. When in 1872 it was
made certain, that for the production of manufacturer's bark,
only C. officinalis could thought of after C. Ledgeriana, natur-
ally the fiat went forth, that all planting of the less valuable
kinds were now to be methodically grubbed up, to make room
for C. Ledgeriana.
After the new kind become available for enriching and
extending the undertaking, room had to be found in the most
profitable way to be start new nurseries. These were found
in the plantations of the old common C. Calisaya, C. A/ass-
Áarſiana, C. caloptera, C. ſancifolia, etc. whose propagation
189
was given over for good, and thus they were removed in succes.
sion, as soon as they were fit for exploitation. Dug out, roots and
all, these gave the double advantage of an entire crop, and a
freed plantless soil, which otherwise must have been cleared in
the virgin forests, at the sacrifice of much expense and time.
Whilst this was being done to the great mass of our Cinchona
plantations, the original Ledgeriana nursery had on the other
hand, another, and wider significance and destination; therein
lay the whole future of Cinchona culture, because it must yield
us the seeds, as well as the cuttings for multiplication. There-
fore the crops, which have been obtained annually since 1872,
were taken from the pieces of the tree sawn off the stump, or else
from single, lopped thick branches. The stumps gave numerous
shoots, which offered excellent material for artificial propaga-
tion. Some were merely allowed to grow to obtain new stems,
it would have been a great blunder to let all remain, because
they would have hindered each other's development, partly
by want of sufficient space, partly by their manifold require-
ments in taking up nutriment. At best the result would have
been a bush with many small stems, each remaining thin and
weak. By cutting or sawing out thus, a tree is not sacrificed,
and at the same time a rich source of material is created
for propagating. The thicker branches are sawn off by choice,
cutting causes some loss of bark, and there is also more
chance of damage.
Thinning by cutting over did not always take place in regular
alternate order. Indeed, the most valuable parent trees had to
furnish seed, and flowering individuals which seemed on chemical
analysis to possess excellent qualities, were spared in every case.
For years the government Cinchona undertaking has been
an experiment on a large scale; the fixed rules and system-
atic methods, the fruitful sequence of this, come chiefly to the
profit of the private planters who are travelling on this road
by help of the government.
190
Whether thin or close planting be adopted, in both cases a
time comes when the original planting requires thinning, and
then for the first time a crop is reaped, which at the same
time, tends to improve the planting. At the first thinning, the
choice has to be made between uprooting or felling to the
Stump.
Another ſmethod can be applied to the remaining trees;
they are standing at sufficient distance, and will soon offer
stems of considerable dimensions. Upon these can be tried
the plan already mentioned of partial stripping or shaving. So
also may attempts be made to enhance the amount of alka-
loid, by temporary covering (one year or longer) with moss,
2nd/oek, or other materials at hand, such as alang-alang.
We have always had a prejudice against partial barking,
stripping as the English call it; that is, the cutting out of
long strips of bark. The tree may bear the operation well
enough, if it be done with care, but they are none the better
for it, and as soon as it is applied on a large scale, the
labourers can not be kept under strict supervision, and there-
fore the chances of damage to the trees are considerable.
C. officinalis is of a kind too slender to be subjected to
the stripping process. However small may be the strips taken
from it, the cutting out would harm the relatively thin stem.
The stems of C. succºratóra, tall, and stout, with flat, smooth
bark, offer more favourable conditions, but the newly formed,
so called regenerated, or renewed bark, is less attractive to
the eye, and so long as the more restricted shop or drug-
gist's material is bought, its outside appearence has great
significance, according to which in part its value depends.
The stems of C. Ledgeriana at the same age are seldom
as tall and as thick as C. succirudra, and its bark for that
reason, also because as a rule it is less even, smooth, and
thick, is not so easy to strip off. Morever it is this variety
in particular, which deserves preference for Moen's method of
191
shaving, above the plan of partial stripping, the more so as
C. Ledgeriana is not so certain as C. succirućra to possess
a higher percentage of quinine in the renewed bark. The bark
seldom renews itself completely, that is to say, the exposed
portions of the stem, are wholly covered again; on the con-
trary sometimes considerable wounds remain visible. Young trees
recover quickest and most completely.
In the ordinary course of things, more or less derived from
the normal, simple rules in force, too much trust should not be
reposed in the average native labourers; this fact only should
be full in view, that when an estate is far enough advanced
to allow of it, then regular harvesting, repairing gaps, filling up and
planting afresh, as a rule making use of no artificial means to
hasten it, but strictly confining oneself to taking the crop by
thinning, either by digging up or cutting down to the ground.
It is possible that by this plan, chances of enriching the stock
may be missed, but on the other hand the danger of damage is
escaped, and it is quite sure that the handsomest produce is
to be got by a regular stripping of natural, original bark from
entire 11ntact StemS.
Briefly, and for as much as we have not already treated it in
chapter VIII, ‘Chemical investigations', we will here mention
the conclusions to which Heeren Moens and Scheffer come,
at the end of their course of investigation in 1878.
The microscopical examination concerned C. succiruára as
well as C. Ledgeriana. For mutual comparisons of both, there
were taken : — original barks, – barks which had been some
time under a covering of moss, – and finally barks which
had been renewed both after partial barking by longitudinal
strips, and after shaving off the uppermost layers. The last
named, shavings, were further distinguished, as having been
covered with moss or indſoek.
These barks, derived by these various methods were very
easy to distinguish from one another by the look, as we have
192
already stated on pages 127–8. Under the microscope the
recognition is instant.
The original C. succèruðra bark possesses sap ducts plainly
visible. The cells of the outer and inner bark (parenchyma)
are arranged in tangential rows, and extended in the same
direction. The cells of the medullary rays have an altogether
different direction.
After remaining fifteen months under moss (every other
harmless covering seems to have the same effect, so long as it
excludes light and air) the bark had become perceptible thicker
than the uncovered bark of the same tree. The bark vessels
were very slightly increased in number, the thickening occurred
almost entirely in the cells of the inner and outer bark, or from
the Outermost portion of the entire bark. No wonder therefore
that chemical examination detected a higher percentage in mossed-
Öará, and that it obtained a higher price in the market.
By the uneven augmentation of the cellular tissue, the vascular
layer was surrounded by a thicker row of cells, and the former
farther separated from the circle of sap ducts. The medullary
rays are far more easily seen than in the original bark, and
after the outer bark has enlarged to a great extent, an abnor-
mally vigorous increase of the cells takes place.
The barks renewed after partial stripping and covered with
moss for thirteen to sixteen months, under the microscope
have quite a different appearence to the original. Firstly, in the
samples examined, almost all the cells of the inner and outer
bark were found to be arranged in radial rows, by which the
renewed bark is recognisable at first glance. These cells, which
are longer than they are broad, always have their greatest
length in a radial direction: Secondly, in the new growth no
ducts were observed, and lastly, the vascular layer is very
small, hardly amounting to one fifth of the entire thickness of
the bark.
These vessels however are placed very close to each other,
193
and are merely separated by very small medullary rays. The
absence of ducts may be observed in barks of various species,
especially in full grown specimens, and as these latter, in quality
and quantity of alkaloids rank above the younger, the alkaloids
certainly do not reside in the ducts, and the want of these
in the renewed barks, is consequently no token of inferior
quality.
From the anatomical structure of renewed bark, it might
be already inferred that it is richer than mossed bark, and
analysis confirms this idea.
In the examination of bark renewed after shaving, it appears
that whenever a portion, however small, of the original bark
remains seated on the cambium layer, the renewing commences
anew in the cambium, the thin inner layer which remains after
shaving being thrown off like cork.
This layer forms then, a protecting envelope round the cam-
bium and the renewed bark. On the contrary, if the shaving
is more superficial, so that a thicker layer of the original bark
is left, then it is not thrown off, but the new growth takes
place from the medullary rays, towards the outer side of the
vascular layer of the bark. The structure of the bark renewed
in this way, is the same as that arising after partial stripping
and mossing.
Examination further showed, that bark which was renewed
on the lower extremity of the stem, possessed more bark-
vessels than that which had re-covered the higher portions of
the stem. Chemical analysis had already suspected the existence
of a difference, by finding a larger amount of Cinchonine in
the lower portions of the stem.
If a piece of bark is cut out of a stem, then the formation
of new begins, first and quickest from the edges of the cut, but
it has been observed at many places independent of each other,
to take place over the entire exposed portion of the stem.
Where the cambium layer is not in the least interfered with,
I 3
194
that is, when the shaving has not gone through to the woody
portions, the renewing naturally takes places most quickly and
vigorously.
The bark of C. Zedgeriana under the microscope, has an
entirely different appearance to that of C. succărubra. In
neither of them, either in the original or in the renewed bark,
were crystals discovered. (Howard thinks he has seen these in
various other species.)
Sap ducts in original bark, were found in only very few
cases, in renewed bark, not in one single case. Where they
were met with, they appeared much smaller than those of
C. succăruára. The cells of the inner bark are always in ori-
ginal bark arranged tangentially, in renewed bark in radial rows.
After shaving, the newgrowth takes place in the same way
as in C. succèruðra ; here also it proceeds from the cam-
bium if a little bark is left. Newly formed bark again is much
poorer in liber-cells than the original. Renewing takes place
much quicker after shaving, than after partial stripping.
In original Ledgeriana bark, besides the usual cells, there
occur three other forms which deserve particular mention.
Two kinds are thin walled, and possess an opaque substance.
One of these, quite filled with this substance, occurs in the
original liffer portion of the cellular tissue, and like it, is very
strongly tangential in original barks, in renewed barks it stretches
radially quite as strongly. The second sort, whose contents
are much less than the cell-wall, occurs in the deeper layers,
between the parenchyma of the bark, and is somewhat round
or square. Both sorts were found in all the barks examined,
most abundantly in the renewed. The cells of the third de-
scription have an entirely different appearance. By Howard they
were termed resin-cells. They possess a very strongly thickened
wall, with very evident canals, sometimes, but rarely with
branched pores. The circumference of the cells is more angular
or square than that of the surrounding cellular tissue; from
195
the latter they are, besides their larger size, easy to be
recognised by different contents. These are opaque, insoluble in
boiling absolute alcohol; are coloured dark brown by iodine,
not blue, and only partially fill the cell. The cell wall itself,
like the wood vessels, is coloured light yellow by iodine.
The thickening of the cell-wall is frequently very irregular.
In all original barks these thickened cells are only found in
one or two layers of the outermost bark, immediately under the
suberous or corky layer. Very rarely there are two or three
close together, and their number is small.
In bark renewed under moss or indſoek after shaving or
stripping, these same cells were large and extended in a some-
what radial direction. Furthermore they are irregularly scattered
through the entire cell-layer, although they always leave off
where the cortical vessels begin. From the occurrence of these
cells, not only immediately under the cork-layer, but in the
whole breadth of the parenchyma, the barks renewed under
moss or indjoek can at once be distinguished from original.
This renewed article, has in anatomical structure, great resem-
blance to the Quina roſa of Mutis, figured by Howard in
O
his ‘Nueva Quinologia', n° 26; the agreement is seen both
in the broad layer of resin-cells, and in the want of sap ducts.
Only the cells of our renewed barks are arranged radially,
and there the cortical vessels appear much less numerous.
Some have connected the presence of resin-cells with the
lower qualities of the Cinchona barks. In C. succiruára they
do not occur in its entirety; they do, in C. Ledgeriana but
then with simultaneous increase of cellular tissue and decrease
of bark vessels. As to the inferior quality of C. Zedger-
zama, – there is indeed no reason to complain as to that
Ledgeriana bark renewed after shaving without being covered
up, is almost as thick as the original, the resin cells however,
here hardly occur in the same degree and in the same place,
as is the case with original Ledgeriana barks. The quantity
196
of bark after shaving, thus remains the same, whether it be
covered with moss or indſoek or not; the anatomical structure
is however, different, and chemical analysis has still to make
out, which treatment is best. So far as relates to C. succèruðra
it appears meanwhile fully made out, that covering has a very
favourable action upon the formation of quinine.
If we have dwelt in some measure unduly on the anatomical
structure of the barks, as they are formed in the living trees
under different conditions, we intended chiefly to show how
Moens was led by purely scientific examinations and inductions
to the harvest-method of shaving. The first trials have con-
firmed the economic use of it. The shavings contain a greater
percentage of quinine than the bark as a whole, and there-
fore command a higher price in the market. It is evident that
a raw material such as this, has a special value for the quinine
manufacturer who will desire the uppermost layers of the Cin-
chona trees by preference, provided he can perfectly rely on
the care of the producer, and the conscientiousness of the sales-
man. There is this against this method of cropping, that it
must be under good control and be conducted with prudence,
also that it has not been applied long enough to warrant the
declaration, that in the long run it will deserve preference.
Continued experiments during a series of years, must yet show
whether the trees can really bear repeated shaving without
injury. If this appears to be the case, then it will be that the
tall, lusty trees which remain after the completed thinning of
a plantation, will bear a periodic, say biennial, shaving, and in
the meantime between them a new plantation can be laid out.
2k
3k 3;
How much produce can a Cinchona tree readily yield within
a certain time? That is the question which each planter puts
to himself and on the answer to it, his financial position is
largely dependent. Less than with other plants of cultivation,
197
can the production be estimated beforehand on the whole with
certainty. We shall meanwhile give what experience has taught
us to the present time.
In 1869 the first crop was taken. From 220 C. Pahudiana
trees of seven years old, which had grown up in the forests
in thick shade, we then obtained 125 kilos of dry bark. The
freshly peeled bark lost 71 % by drying. From 255 four to
five year-old C. Pahudiana trees at the same establishment
but from cleared ground and thus developed in full sunlight,
we got 192 kilos of dry bark. The loss of weight in drying
here barely reached 58%. These figures speak for themselves,
they show that planting in full light assures far quicker and
ampler return.
I IO four to five year-old C. Calisaya frees, raised from seeds,
bushes from two to four metres high, grown on open ground,
yielded 199 kilos of fresh bark, which lost 62% in drying, and
thus gave a net product of I Io kilos.
29 eight year-old C. Hasséarſiana trees which from 1861
to 1864 had stood in the thick shade of the primeval forests,
though afterwards they had enjoyed more light, in consequence
of thinning out the forest trees, produced 57 kilos of dry bark;
here the weight lost amounted to 61%.
At a visit from Governor-General Mijer on 22 September
1871 to the Cinchona plantation at Nagrak, four trees were
grubbed up and peeled under the eyes of the Council of State.
One tree of C. Hasséarliana nine years old, yielded 7.85, one
C. Calisaya seven years old, 6. Io, one C. succirztára of six
years-old, 4. Io, and one C. Pahudiana of seven years, 2.85
kilos of dry bark.
These trees were selected at the same establishment, and
give no support to the opinion that all trees of similar kind
and age, will yield an equal quantity of bark, but a hint may
be drawn from the ideas here given, the good development
of a plantation being taken for granted. The tabular statement
198
which we have given on pages 104—I 15 of the crops of C. Led-
geriana, C. succirubra and C. officinalis, give further a more
detailed view of the produce to be expected. We wrote in
our report so far back as 1864, that in Cinchona cultivation
a period of eight years growth must be reckoned on, before
the trees can be harvested successfully, with an eye to the
development of their alkaloids, and that to a certain extent
one may reckon upon as many half kilos of dry produce, as
there were plants originally. We still believe that a calculation
on this basis, will obviate disappointments.
The plants of the same plantation, even if not very exten-
sive, rarely grow equally quick and strong. Many remain in
a backward state; some are susceptible to harm, others do
not perceptibly progress. By disease and other influences,
individuals are constantly perishing, or are hindered in their
development. The law of averages, when computing a future
crop, can find no foundation in the results of trials on single
trees. In the same nursery, say for example, of 8 years old, a
tree may be seen which will yield upwards of 4 kilos of bark,
whilst another will give barely four-tenths of a kilogram or
even less.
From the introduction of Cinchona culture, every quarter,
measurements have been taken of several trees of each descrip-
tion, so as to ascertain their power of development. The last
measurement taken was in December 1876 and may give an
idea of the relative vigour in development. The tables never
had any wider application than to show the general develop-
ment of Cinchona trees in Java, under favourable conditions.
For this purpose the handsomest trees were not carefully
selected; still less was a choice made of these which grew
under abnormal circumstances, or whose development might
be disturbed by noticeable causes.
199

* Girth of stem £
É Height at end of at end of §
5 Locality. Description. 1875. 1876. 1875. 1876. .3
(i)
2. Inetres. *
I C. Calisaya | 13.980 13.98o o:704 O.705 I 5
* Nagrak succirubra 12.75o I 2.95O o 650 | o,670 I 4
3 g & is s id. IO.030 IO.430 O 71o o.720 I 2
4 id... II.390 II.590 o,630 | o 650 I 2
5 Hasskarliana 8.2Oo 9.2Oo o.76o o.770 ſ 5 #
6 id. Io 6oo Io.6oo o,630 o.640 id.
7 Tjibeurem. . ." Pahudiana Io.5OO IO.5OO o 440 , o,440 id.
8 Ledgeriana 6.700 7.500 o.415 O.450 I I
9 succirubra I 1.8oo ! I 2 200 o.625 o.7oo 9
IO Calisaya 9.7OO Io. I 7o O.5OO O.37O II #
I I succirubra 9 270 Io.oro O.670 o.750 9
12 Tjinieroean . lancifolia 9.OOO 9. Too O.35O o.360 I 2
I 3 micrantha 8.900 9.57O O. 550 o. 580 IO .
I4 ; : Pahudiana 11.700 11.700 O.640 o,645 I9}
15 Rioengenoeng officinalis 7 3OO 7.7oo O.390 O.4 IO IO

To exhibit as far as it is possible the
in the first years of the plants, we here append a statement,
which was furnished in the report for 1868.
Growth of certain plants in the new plantations.
developmental power

à, . É Height at the Girth of stem
#3 Plantation. £ Planted. end of at the end of Explanations.
(L) <!-> ~5
Q Z. | 1866 | 1868 || 1866 | 1868
* * - .5 ; eº- , ; c. ;: :: *: . . tº i.
I May 1868] 1.530 3.38o o.o.90 o. 180 #### ##j ###
2 : ) I.240 2.55o O.OSo o. 155 § 3 ; ; ; *.3 : ...; ; ;
co 5 ° 3 + 3 + 3 + 6.5
3 Y) I.I.Io 3. Ioo O.O60 O. 18O * #3; # 3 #3 & 53
* pº º . . . ; ; ; E. g .: ; 3 + 3 +. To
sº e tº s 4 ) I.73o 4.07o O.OG5 O IOS ## ºf #: #### t
§ Tjinieroean . 5 P 2.OOO 3.300 O.I.OO O.260 #: #: $; $7, 20-25
§ 6 || > 1864; 2.400 3.75o o.o.70 O. 120 # ## § 5 ###### ă
#3 7 ) 2.450 | 3:55o o.oz.5 o. 125 | #5. E #2: 3; e #### 3
O | | 8 | y, 2.050 | 3.8oo o.oS5 o.130 #: gää ºf # , s: T
9 : ) 2.25o 3.7oo o.oz.5 o.16o #3 ºg # 5 g : ##;
Io Febr. 1865 2.440 4.65o o 150 o 360 | #2 *āş; Eáº; 2 ###
Nagrak. . . . ( II o 2 ozo 3,400 o.15o o.330 ## 3 gº; ##### *.*
I 2 ) 2.Ooo 3.220 o. 170 o.35o £3 s... : #### ####
t | 33 g; # 35 = 3; ###
§ e e is I |May 1865: I.28o 3600; o.O65 ozoo 33 ÉÉé. 3:#1 #####
‘g Tjinieroean . 2 Y o,890 2.5oo o.o.45 o.190 | ## a 3.5 ##########
.5 3 ) 1.8oo 4.700 jo.11o o.260 | < ######### ~£3.5
•- ºr ~ sº sº, e = * * 5 -t: ~ : *
3 Nagrak . 4 Sept 1865. 2.320 4.900 §§ o,400 || 3:=##5 33 §§ à #3 s
.5 s : -; ury v. E. P. T. r
Uſ) || 5 ) | 2.17o 5,420 oibo o400 j ### *e jº # 3.5
sº *** *-5 (l) *
W e May 186 6 ...] §§5 g g ##### *g, *:
‘G.§ tº º º |May 1894 -742|| 3:272 9.999 || 2:139| ##############3;
#3 Tiinieroean . 2 | } I.8oo 3.7oo o.offo o. 120 ## 3 #: a*ašš tºº
º “º || 3 || > I.90o 3.700 | O.O60 | O.II 5 #############
3 g 5 × 5 # E & "" ; 3:5;E # ©
...! t º bſ) * * 9. E *s .5 bf)
#3 | Rioengoenoeng 1 |May 1866 – 3.020 | – | o. 120 | *#######3:53." ii.
§ 3 | Tiinieroean | 2. May 1864 – || 3:303 | | | 3 ||3| ###jöääz: #3 & ###
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200
C H A P T E R XVIII,
STRIPPING AND DRYING THE BARK,
The crop may be taken in any season, but for drying it, the
rainy season is not favourable. Day after day, sometimes quite
suddenly, the rain comes down, each time interrupting and
hindering the drying process, and moreover it then requires
more attention, care, and labour. On the other hand, the vital
functions of the Cinchona trees in this and the transitional
seasons, appear to be most vigorous, and therefore the bark
is easier to remove.
As a rule, meanwhile, it will be well to complete the periodical,
main harvest, during the prevalence of the East monsoon, but
that does not prevent utilising the produce throughout the entire
year, when thinning the plantations of trees for one reason or
another.
The stripping of sound, healthy stems and branches requires
but little trouble; the more sappy the bark is, the more readily
it comes away. Longitudinal incisions are made as far as the
wood with a sharp knife, and afterwards, circular cuts at definite
distances, naturally dependent upon the dimensions desired
for the bark.
The bark is then carefully turned up along the first named
incision with the back of the knife, and so on, until it is
liberated. If the stem is provided with knots or other inequal-
ities mostly caused by old wounds, bruises, or the sprouting
of branches, then the bark clings more tightly to its seat, and
more care and patience much be employed '.
' Knives of bamboo or buffalo-horn, shaped like a paper knife, are made use of
for peeling. Iron or steel knives might bruise the bark when loosening it, and also
discolour it by the action of the tannic acid upon the metal.
201
At first we cut the Java barks, o. 2 metre long, and O.O5
broad. The fresh strips feel like damp sole-leather, but are very
brittle, especially that from Ledgeriana, on account of their
short vessels. If handled roughly the danger is run of breaking
the regularly cut piece.
By circular incisions on the stems and branches thus, the
bark is perforce taken at the required length; the breadth as
may be convenient, which may be ascertained after peeling.
The breadth we at first fixed upon, O.O5 metre, was not
without reason. In a fresh condition the bark strips are flat;
in drying they bend, and show a strong tendency to curl
inwards, forming quills. Now a width of O.05 metre, forms
after complete drying a close quill; the longitudinal edges of
the strips just meet each other. If the strips were taken
broader, then the quills would be less regular in shape, or else
curl up too much, and they would then be awkward to pack,
because they should be filled up with thinner quills, which again
gives fresh difficulty, and necessitates moreover a strict sorting.
The planter directs the industry according to local circum-
stance. Drying, sorting and packing the produce, must be done
on the spot. A building is erected on the estate, where there
is space for the drying arrangements, and where constant
supervision can be kept. Drying on the spot itself, would
reduce the weight and bulk of the product for transit, but the
necessary care can hardly be expected in the different planta-
tions, not to speak of the great number of sheds or roofed
erections that would be wanted there because of the uncertain
or changeable state of the weather. Stripping on the other
hand, is preferably done in the plantations, the transport of
the entire trees would be too expensive and troublesome.
From the nature of the principles which stand in the fore-
ground of exploitation, it is evident that the planter as a rule,
himself should mark out the trees which are intended for
stripping.
202
Whether uprooting or cutting over be adopted, the work
must always be done by a gang of trusty workmen. The trees
being felled, are deprived of their branches on the spot, and
these together with the stem, are transported to a central
point in the "plantation, where the barkers or shavers have
come together in a shady spot, so that during the hours of
labour the direct sunheat may not be overpowering.
Having regard to sorting it is now advisable to keep quite
separate the barks taken off at various heights of the stem, as
well as those from the thick and the thin branches. We know
that the contents of the bark varies in proportion as it is met
with higher or lower on the stem, and diminishes much up-
wards, that is to say, towards the younger portions. The same
is the case with the relative weights of the barks, and sorting
may very well be done after drying according to its thickness,
but it seems to be a safer rule for the estimation of its value,
to keep separate directly after stripping, the barks from the
lower, middle, and upper portions of trees of similar age. Indeed
from one tree the middle bark may be as thick as the lowest
from another, so that the age and quality, are not always
strictly defined by relative thickness.
This method of immediate preliminary sorting, is moreover
easier and surer, because it has not the least to do with
valuation, and thus can be entrusted to any one.
Accurate sorting is of very great importance, if the analyses
are remembered which were performed on the bark at different
heights on entire trees. For the quinine manufacturer the bark
is more suitable and valuable, in proportion as it contains a
preponderance of quinine. At a certain height on the stem,
this alkaloid diminishes noticeably in quantity; also the weight
of the bark is less than that taken lower down; though mixed
with so much that is richer, the mass as a whole is poorer
as to percentage.
The case may present itself, that the bark from a tree
203
which is only considered fit for pharmaceutical use, by good
selection and picking over, may yield its quota for the manu-
facturer.
When the daily task is completed, the labourers take the
peeled bark in baskets to head quarters, where the pro-
duce is received by men thereto appointed and regularly laid
out on light, oblong squared racks of plaited bamboo. The
filled racks, placed on rough frames to a height of I'', metre
above the ground, remain in the open air exposed to the
direct action of the sun's heat. In foggy or wet weather, and
towards the afternoon or evening in the mountains regions,
when it becomes cloudy and moist, the racks are brought into a
shed or under cover. Very soon the fresh strips of bark begin
to curl up; thereupon the opportunity offers to unite the
masses on two racks in one, and gradually more drying room
is available. In the meantime, the original sorting is strictly
kept to, and care is especially taken that the produce of diffe-
rent kinds and from various plantations is not mixed.
In favourable weather the drying is complete in a few days.
When the barks rattle on being heaped up and have lost their
pliability, a simple practical proof of their air-dried state may
be taken. A piece is put upon a block of wood, and cleft
across the middle, by a violent blow of a hatchet. If the clean
cut pieces spring up briskly, then the drying process can be
considered complete, and it is now ready, to be preserved in
its dry state. To this end it is stored in dry airy warehouses.
Whether the stripping be done in the plantations or at
head quarters, it is most essential that the barks of each kind
of Cinchona of similar origin and age, should be kept by them-
selves, and be sorted according to their station on the stem
and branches. To sort strictly and to cut in regular uniform
pieces, are actions of the highest importance, which cannot be
too closely observed. How and where the various operations
take place, matters nothing; the planter must guide himself as
204
to these, with regard to circumstances which concern the econ-
omic and practical importance.
Peeling the branches is naturally slower and less easy than
doing so to the stems, and still more troublesome is barking
the roots. From the later, only bits and broken fragments
can be got, and no regular pieces. The workmen must be for-
bidden to wash off the earth adhering to the roots; they should
instead, be provided with stiff brushes.
*
sº ºt
Comparative trials have repeatedly shown, that no harm
accrues to the contents of the bark when dried by summer
heat. Artificial drying demands costly contrivances, and more-
over, damage to the outward appearance of the produce may
soon be done, not to speak of the chances, that in dealing
with large quantities, a remnant of moisture might be over-
looked. One cannot be sure of equal drying, and by too violent
a heat the contraction of the outermost layers of the bark may
be so great, that the produce may outwardly seem quite dry,
and inwardly be still more or less green and wet. If there
should be a single piece of bark in a bale or chest, which is
not completely dry, it might spoil the entire mass. It is well
therefore to keep a sharp look out, so as not to include any
suspected pieces when packing.
The case may occur, that small parcels of bark, gathered
for some reason at other times than the usual, must be arti-
ficially dried. Then an enclosed but well ventilated place is
selected, merely taking care that the barks are not exposed
to the smoke, and still less to the direct heat of the fire,
the action of which would then be hard to regulate.
Succirubra barks, which are usually termed ‘red bark' in
trade, are seen in section and inside plainly red, and this
colour is probably enhanced by slow drying and temporary
scalding of the fresh bark, by which it is longer exposed to
205
the influences of light and air. At the auction of 1879 a small
parcel of scalded bark was offered, but the results of the sale
have declared nothing decided. Even less did a parcel of Succi-
rubra bark, which had been covered with moss, attain a higher
value. This last bark was distinguished by its deeper colour
and its brittleness.
C H A P T E R XIX.
SORTING AND PACKING.
What we have just now said as to sorting and its conse-
quences, must be considered more at large in this chapter.
The trade in Cinchona barks divides into two principal cate-
gories, whether they are destined for the preparation of quinine,
or else in pharmacy and industry as raw material for decoc-
tions, infusions, extracts, powders, tinctures, wine, etc. The
latter are termed pharmaceutical, druggists, or shop barks, the
former manufacturer's bark.
The value of manufacturer's bark entirely depends upon the
amount of quinine, and that can only be determined by chem-
ical analysis. We now know that each description of Cinchona
possesses its own special composition, which agrees with the
typical form of the tree and the anatomical structure of the
bark, but it is seen quite as clearly, that, whilst the quality
of the alkaloids remains constant, the quantity may vary in
individuals of the same kind and origin; this is not yet ex-
plained.
In other words, while the producer can give the most positive
assurance, that he is offering Ledgeriana bark and nothing but
Ledgeriana bark, without previous chemical examination he is
206
not in a position to state the percentage of quinine in his
produce. Of course he knows, that his bark must possess
abundance of alkaloids. and that quinine prevails among them.
Indisputably it is of great importance for the producer,
that he should be able to tell the chemical value of the pro-
duce he brings to market. First, he can thereby approx-
imately estimate the money value, but also, the merchant
whose confidence he has won, will deal with him more readily,
because he can confine himself to a definite control, and is not
obliged to get analyses made with substantial accuracy of each
parcel offered.
The value of the manufacturer's bark is thus actually regul-
ated by its percentage of quinine; the shape and outward look
of the produce has little to do with it, but it should not be
purposely rejected. The eye also has its requirements, and it
may be fully satisfied by carefully, uniformly treated produce,
without any more trouble or expense.
This comes about by careful sorting; we cannot repeat it
too often, that no produce of different percentages should be
mingled, where with a little care, they can be kept separate.
Absolute high percentage of quinine alone, does not deter-
mine the value for the manufacturer. If a bark possesses with
plenty of quinine, a preponderant quantity of secondary alka-
loids, then reasonably enough, its manufacture is difficult. Succi-
rubra bark with 3 % of quinine, approaching 7 or more per cent
of secondary alkaloid, will not be chosen before Ledgeriana
bark, which with a total alkaloid contents of 3%, has more
than 2.5% quinine.
Irregular pieces and fragments, morsels, shavings, powder
from inferior kinds, have a relatively small value; but if it is
certain that it is suitable for quinine preparation, then the form
occasions no real difficulty.
It is altogether different with the druggist's or shop-barks.
For these a more distinctly taking appearance is required; they
207
are bought more by this outside, than after their chemical
contents, which can be pretty well guessed when the origin of
the produce is known.
The trade prefers regular quills, the longer the better, (the
longer quills of 5 to 6 decimetres in length, appear much in
demand, and evidently do fetch higher prices) with strong
healthy appearance, silver grey in colour from being covered
with lichen growth. The flat shape is also highly appreciated,
provided it is the result of the natural thickness of the bark
and not a consequence of artificial drying and weighting the
fresh bark during that operation. The thick barks from stout
stems, do not curl up in drying, but remain almost flat, only
somewhat bent into a gutter shape, where it was cut.
If now a parcel of Cinchona be bought, judging by the out-
side of the samples, and on unpacking it be seen that the
sorting leaves much to be desired, and that the entire bulk is not
uniform, then the buyer's disappointment will make him dis-
trustful. .
Thin, less robust quills of barks are also in request, pro-
vided they are seen to be similarly shaped, intact, and hand-
somely covered, and are offered for what they really are.
Sº
& C
The first crop of Javan Cinchona was sent in mats, bags
and cases. This was done to learn the best, and at the same
time most economical packing. Meanwhile the primeval forests,
destined for the planting of Cinchona yielded such an abun-
dance of timber, that we gave the preliminary preference to
cases. These were prepared at the Cinchona establishment by
ordinary carpenters, O.7 metre in breadth and length, and O.42
metre deep. Such cases, well packed, hold 60 to 75 kilos of
bark, according to the weight of the latter. The barks cut to
a length of O.2 metre, were stood upright therein, and put
close together in two rows, one above the other.
208
A few quills were then put in a horizontal direction to fill
up the space at the top. Plaited mats of Pandanus leaves were
so put into the case, that they bent over the edges of these
in sufficient measure, that when brought back over the upper-
most layer in the cases, they entirely covered the whole con-
tents. Cases packed thus, with a stout cover nailed down,
were so solid, they were able to withstand the roughest trans-
port. An experiment was made with a loaded bullock cart,
which was purposely overturned on the edge of a ravine, so
that the five cases had a serious and long continued tumble.
They seemed quite uninjured by this violence, and thus they
might be supposed capable of withstanding the most trouble-
some travelling.
The packing thus described is still kept to, though in 1874
another plan was also tried, on the ground of the conviction,
that private planters at least, in the long run might be unable
continuously and economically to provide themselves with
the necessary timber for the cases. The cases weighed more-
over one with another about 20 kilos, and as all the wood
was not absolutely dry at all times, they might show a con-
siderable difference in the tare, found when sending from the
establishment and on its arrival in Europe.
The cost of a case amounted to about one guilder', and for
that price efficient, strong gunny-bags were obtainable. The kind
however used in forwarding coffee, rice etc., would not answer
our purpose; regular packing of Cinchona bark in these is
hardly practicable. We therefore prepared bags with a circular
bottom, and a corresponding loose cover. By folding the loose
margin over and back, the quills can be put in there as evenly
and closely as in the cases. Five of these rows found room
in the usual bag one metre high; if desired, barks of greater
length than O.2 metre of course can be included in these bags,
or rather, fewer rows placed on each other, so as to keep the
! One shilling and eight pence. B. D. J.
209
packages uniform. The packing finished, the loose cover was
sewn on, and the bale thus formed was furnished with four
solid enclosing hoops of rotan, and over these, a transverse
band of the same material. The well-filled bale has a clean
cylindrical shape, is easy to handle, and as appears from several
years' experience, can withstand a violent blow. The tare is
from 1% to 2 kilos; a difference in weight compared to the
cases of considerable importance, both as to the cost of the
entire freight, and transportation power of the carts, and
therefore in the long run on the freight.
The principal thing in each way of packing, is that care
be taken to prevent chafing and consequent damage to the
upper layers. We therefore supply the following method of
filling,
The prepared barks are tied together in bundles of the same
thickness. For packing in cases they are made of such dimen-
sions, that four bundles just cover the bottom of the cases,
but leaving empty places, where they do not touch one an-
other, because of their cylindrical form; these spaces are filled
up with loose quills. Afterwards the ties are taken away, and
the case is rocked lightly to and fro, to give the barks an
upright direction. If it now appear that the closing up was
not complete, a handy workman puts a quill here and there
carefully between the others, so that the whole mass is wedged
together and all movement prevented.
As the barks were all cut to the same length, not quite
halfway up the case there is a new firm bottom, on which the
second layer is piled in the same careful way. When it seems
necessary, the ends are filled up with barks put horizontally,
as we have already described.
In filling the bags, we go to work in the same fashion, only
here the bundles are made about the same diameter as the
bottom of the bag.
Since 1874 dispatching in bags (or bales) has much increased,
I4
210
and the cases in like ratio, have been less used. The bales do
excellently; only once (crop of 1876) was there any complaint
made in the Netherlands. This however was not due to the
mode of packing as it has just been described; it so happened
that at offe of the establishments, for a moment the packing
had not taken place with the usual care and supervision.
If it is wished meanwhile, to bring a selected parcel into
the market of cabinet pieces, then cases, though heavy, must
always have the preference.
Each case or bale has its marks denoted on a place easily
seen. These consist of the initials of the species of Cin-
chona, and the plantation, the number of the package, and
the gross or tare weight. For the bales, denoting the tare is
superfluous as it is known once and for all time.
The three principal descriptions of Cinchona, C. Calisaya
Zealgeriana, C. succèruóra and C. officinalis, are denoted by
the letters C. C. L., C. S. and C. O.
If a descriptive invoice be sent with the goods, showing the
contents of the various parcels of bark, it is certain to gain
the confidence of the market, so soon as the bidders (buyers)
are convinced that the statement is accurate.
When the systematic harvest is begun in the commence-
ment of the East monsoon in June, it is possible to send the
produce by steamer to Europe in the same year, and thus
there is no need to wait long for realisation.
The producer must calculate, that his success in the long run is
dependent on the confidence that he can inspire in the mer-
chants, by strict order and accuracy in sorting, packing and
marking. He must never think of offering his produce under a
name which does not belong to it, but on the contrary con-
sider that honour should be observed in the sale and nothing
against it. ?
From the first crop and onward, we had to accustom the
merchants to judge of the barks, and to receive them under
211
the names of the trees from which they were procured. The
Netherland advisers were not at one with us at first, and
thought we must persevere in the old trade names of “brown”,
“crown-bark”, etc. Thus it fell out, but quite soon and properly
there were in the German periodicals, remarks thrown out
against the old nomenelature '.
Since the first auctions, there has been a general adhesion
to our wishes, and the Javan barks are still sent to market
under the names of their botanical origin. In like manner the
antique trade names, which still obtain even in scientific works
and Pharmacopoeias, with time must undoubtedly give place
to a nomenclature which denotes the exact origin, and thereby
conduces to estimation of the value.
C H A P T E R XX.
ADMINISTRATION OF CINCHONA.
Previous to 182O, Cinchona bark was used remedially exclus-
ively in the form of powder or extract, infusion or decoction.
The Cinchona alkaloids were not then sufficiently known, but
although the discovery and separation of quinine soon obtained
a wide application in medicine, still the old forms are not
entirely discarded, and it has appeared many times that
an effective use of the bark according to pharmaceutical pres-
criptions, has effected recovery or amelioration where quinine
alone was inoperative.
* In Buechner's “Neues Repertorium für Pharmacie”, vol. XX, p. 343, Jobst
says, speaking of Javan brown bark, “without doubt the famous Pahudiana” and
at p, 657 Henkel remarks, that of the Javan barks no accurate account of their
origin was given, which is simple, for no single Cinchona expert would enough
recognise the offered barks under the trade names which had been abandoned.
212
The conviction has more and more gained ground, that
good Cinchona barks judiciously applied, frequently do not
merely rival quinine, but even surpass it in useful effect.
More attention is now being devoted to the secondary alka-
loids, and at various places these have been tried separately
on thousands of patients. The results are not universally in
accord, but they have sufficiently demonstrated that the healing
power must not be ascribed exclusively to the quinine, but in
many cases it resides in the subsidiary alkaloids".
The enormous quantity of Cinchona bark exported from
America and the East Indies, and not destined for the preparation
of quinine, can really be called an assurance that the bark, as
such, is much used and highly valued. Quinine indisputably
remains the preeminent febrifuge, and its physiological action
action is best and most completely known. This does not take
away the fact, that there are other medicinal virtues in the
bark besides, and in many cases of sickness, the combination
of different chief-constituents of the bark, conduces to its favour-
able action.
A large amount of the produce serves for the preparation
of quinine wine; great quantities also, in British India especi-
ally, are intended for the manufacture of Quinetum, which
possesses all the Cinchona alkaloids in one, thus named and
highly recommended by Dr. de Vrij. Quinetum is another
name for the mixed crude alkaloid, rough mixed alkaloid,
* It is now some years since therapeutic experiments were made, and Pleischl,
Appolzer, Seitz, Briquat, Bouchardat, etc. testify to the value of the secondary
alkaloids of quinine. In British India on a greater scale, attention was fixed on
the subject, but in the Dutch East Indies there was no energetic testing as to
the use of the associated alkaloids of quinine. Really it seems folly to seek after
a surrogate for quinine, as long as these known, valuable and cheap bye-alkaloids
can be had in quantities. On pharmacodynamic grounds we are meantime going
backward, instead of forward, by urging the use of a mixture such as quinettºn,
so long as it has not a fixed composition which can be guaranteed. With Quintettºn,
as prepared from Succirubra barks, the doctors have no fixed guage to go by as
to its results.
213
Cºnchona fedrifuge, Indian guinine or Quinquinine prepared
in British India, and an improvement on the older prepara-
tion, Quinium of Delondre, in which much quinovic acid
OCCUITS. -
It is not possible for us to give in a short space, a com-
plete statement of the manifold and multifarious applications
of Cinchona in its different forms and preparations.
In a medical work it would be appropriate to give the
many experiments, which have already been made, and still
are, on the various alkaloids. They have at all times led to
disputes, sometimes very violent and unrefreshing, which the
planter and dealer can very well neglect. For the two latter,
after knowing the different Cinchona species and their chemical
contents, the only really important thing is the certainty, that
the use of Cinchona is very far from having yet reached its
limit. A considerable part of the population of the globe,
remains still ignorant of its use, and as for another part, Cin-
chona and its preparations are luxuries which by their costliness,
only permit the most moderate use.
The alkaloids occur in almost every part of the Cinchona
tree; it is true, not to any great extent in the wood, and only
traces in the leaves. Moens separated pure quinine from the
wood of Ledgeriana. Meantime, the quantity to be obtained
elsewhere than from the bark of the stem, branches and roots,
can never be of practical significance.
The leaves can if necessary serve for the preparation of
Quinovic acid, which is recommended in medicine, for amongst
other things, dysentery, and it can easily and in ample measure
be separated.
Dr. Phoebus, sixteen years ago, advised the admixture of .
the sweet-smelling Cinchona flowers with tea.
We have often tried this, but we cannot say that the tea
has thereby gained any special scent; on the other hand we
do not believe in the medicinal effect of so paltry a quantity
214
of Cinchona flowers as can be mixed with tea, unless the flowers
themselves were used for a drink.
In the list of remedies, Cinchona holds undoubtedly the
highest rank Its consumption as a specific in fevers, falls short
of the definand. The produce is still scarce and consequently
too expensive. Since Cinchona however has been brought into
regular culture outside America, the chance exists, that this
excellent, almost indispensable remedy, before long will be
produced in sufficient quantity to satisfy the extensive demand
for it, and at the same time the price reduced to bring it
within reach of the sick poor. Though the high prices which
are now obtained, will then fall considerably, still the culture
will remain a profitable one; above all, humanity will be bene-
fitted; but the producer will still be rewarded with satisfactory
profits, although he may have based his calculations, and directed
his undertaking, on the maintenance of high prices. For the
time being therefore, the raiser of raw material of good quality
is guaranteed high profits.
It is quite another question, whether science will ever succeed
in preparing quinine by method of synthesis. Allured by the
high prices obtained, led also in part by purely scientific inte-
rests and aims, the chemists have been busy for years on this
highly important question. If it attain to a reasonable, practical,
satisfactory solution, then a comparison of the expense must
be made, with that occurring in the existing culture, as to
whether the latter is only valuable for firewood. We shall in
the next chapter adduce what is known about this matter.
215
C H A P T E R XXI.
ARTIFICIAL PREPARATION OF QUININE.
Even at the present day, chemists are not entirely agreed
as to the composition and constitution of the different Cinchona
alkaloids, for whilst Hesse describes a new Quina-basis under
the name of Homocinchonidine, Skraup on the contrary denies
its existence, because he considers it identical with Cºachomime;
thus it seems that chemistry in the domain of quinology, has
not as yet spoken the last word.
By numerous experiments, (whose continuance will certainly
not be suspended, until the aim is reached, or else the con-
viction is attained, that in the present standpoint of science,
any further search must be pronounced hopeless) it has been
endeavoured to ascertain the constituents of the Cinchona bases,
so that afterwards possibly thoses base might be built up
synthetically.
At the present time, Cºnoline and Cinoleine are considered
to be two, isomerous bases, very much resembling each other,
about analogous in nature and reaction to aniline, both having
the formula C, H, N. The one occurs in coal-tar and can be
thence separated by partial distillation, the other is with
many other productions, formed by dry distillation of quinine,
quinidine, cinchonine and cinchonidine, with potash or soda.
That both these isomerous bodies are very much alike, is
is generally admitted. Dr. Hoogewerff at Rotterdam obtained
from both bases, the same products, by oxydation with Chamae-
leon mineral. These constitute a series of homologous bodies,
belonging to the same class, distinguishable by great stability
when heated with nitric acid. Lepidine (C, H, N), Dispoſine
(C, H, N) etc. belong here. Certain members of this series
are met with in coal-tar.
216
For some time there have been active endeavours to build
up quinine from this Cinoline, and chemists of good name
and repute do not doubt the eventual success of these attempts.
It has even happened in Germany, that an actual artificial fabrica-
tion of a Cinchona alkaloid has been effected, but it possessed
no polarising power, therefore not identical with the natural
production, and decidedly differing in other properties.
Granted now, that at no very distant period it may be
possible to prepare the most valuable Cinchona alkaloid by the
synthetic method, what dangers have the Cinchona planters
to fear from this scientific triumph 2 In our opinion the natural
product would not be thrust aside, though the competition might
become serious. It is by no means certain, that with a similar
chemical composition, similar physiological and therapeutical
effects would follow, and even were it so, then people would
for years cling to the old well ascertained state of things, before
an unconditional trust would be placed in the new venture.
In any case the artificially obtained quinine would require costly
production, and experience must show, by which way this
remedy can be most advantageously prepared.
What does the history of madder teach us? Its culture seemed
doomed to entire extinction, when the way to prepare that
colouring matter artificially was found out. Yet it is not only
still existent, but it is even considered at the present day, that
an extension of madder cultivation is desirable and profitable,
where it can be prosecuted under favourable conditions. The
product of art does not seem to satisfy the dyers in every
point, as well as the material which nature offers.
Indigo also has now been prepared artificially; this fine dis-
covery however will be first valuable to industry, only as soon
as the indispensable raw material can be procured in sufficient
quantity and in a profitable manner. Indigo culture goes on
its way, and is not as yet dangerously menaced.
If quinine can be obtained synthetically more cheaply than
217
is:
from Cinchona bark, and further if it appear that the artificial
product quite ousts the vegetable bases, the need of Cinchona
bark as such, is in no sense abandoned. Pharmacy will not
contract its considerable demand for it, but will still utilise it.
The possibility of an artificial preparation of quinine may
rise up before the planters as a threatening spectre, but we
continue convinced, that the cultivation of Cinchona thereby
would in no way receive a death-blow, that at most it would
have to be narrowed or modified, and yet remain profitable.
C H A P T E R XXII.
PRODUCTION AND COMMERCE.
Among the Cinchona producing countries, besides the original
fatherland of the Cinchona trees, there have come into notoriety
during the last ten years, Madras, Bengal, Ceylon and Java.
In other countries also, as we shall bye and bye show, the
culture has been tried and introduced, with however as yet
lesser production.
The produce of the plantations of the Dutch East Indian
government exceed as yet that from all the private growers
together in Java. In the meantime these last are continually
extending and within a few years the relation may be reversed,
and we believe the exports from Java, will exert a certain
influence upon the Cinchona trade even of the globe. The
private speculations are still quite young; a few only, Krawang,
Buitenzorg and the Preanger, on the private estates of Pama-
noekan, Tjasem and Tjiomas, and the leasehold estate Nas-
pada, possess important exploitable plantations.
218
The following statements show the production, in so far as
they can be compiled from the official reports and brokers'
circulars. The figures may not be absolutely correct, but cannot
be far from the truth.
TRODUCTION OF PRIVATE ESTATES.
1875 1876 1877 1878 1879
In half-kilos, 3, I 25 914 6,387 20,606 48,777.
PRODUCTION OF GOVERNMENT PLANTATIONS.
1869 933 half-kilos. I875 87,273 half-kilos.
1870 9,000 }) 1876 94,548 7)
I87 I I 5,200 7) 1877 Ioo, 178 7)
I872 36,000 37 I878 I 2 I,343 }}
1873 50,000 }} I879 IOC, OOO 17
1874 66, OOO jº 188o Io9,08o 7:
In these figures, except those for 1880, not only are the
exports and sales comprised, but also the quantities which
were destined in the Dutch East Indies or the Netherlands
for the medical service of the state, or the preparation of crude
alkaloid.
The following tables A, B and C, give a summary of the
Javan Cinchona sold by auction in the Netherlands. If these
data are compared with the indications concerning the develop-
ment and the strength of the plantations, an idea will be obtained
of the productive power of these within a certain number of
years. It must be borne in mind however, that in each single
year was harvested whatever seemed fit for it, also what in the
interest of the culture as a whole was thinned out or uprooted
to prepare the place for better descriptions of Cinchona.
h
#
1869 1870 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 I88o Total
Succirubra. . . . . . *- tº; 724 4,425 || 14,249 | 16,502 || 38,769 || 38,188 || 43,525 25,207 || 13,323#| 194,912}
C. Javanica . . . . . 282 : 12,662 26,811 || 25,026 37,054 26,991 27,757 || 23,494 | 8,517 | 16,06042O4,6544
C. Schuhkraft . . . . . — # § -* 1,289 || – 687 8,663 II,727 | 18,658 40,987 61,256; 143,2673
C. Anglica . . . . . . tº- & #. 692 242 | 1.963 503 tº- I22 320 6,584 * Io,426
C. Ledgeriana. . . . — gº -3 522 2,944 || 4,500 || 4,452 3,925 2,419 8,007 || 7,850 4,235 | 38,854
e ſ: 85 .5 -
Hasskarliana . . . . – 3. .* 2,716 692 | 1,699 6,339 4,740 | 13,004 || 12,346 || 9,413 | 6,234 || 57,181
officinalis. . . . . . . * # 5 É 814 * 665 2,021 3,751 3,347 2,702 || 3,365 5,417 22,082
Pahudiana . . . . . . 657 § É ‘ā 4,386 975 3,704 | 1,654 482 I2 I Io'7 I2 I I22 I2,323
Caloptera . . . . . . – | H # | * I24 — 388 — 96o | – | 1,646 — º- 3,118
micrantha . . . . . . +- # # - *-i- - 434 - -** *- - º 434
lancifolia . . . . . . . tº- # -- tº- - -ºº: - - 1,516 || – 2,433 3,949
various . . . . . . tº- O 7,600 4,721 | Io,759 I5, Io'7 3,282 --> *- - — 41,469
» bales. . . . . . . I4. 4. I cº-º-º-º: - * 63 248 499 578 8o3 753 825 3,824
Total packages . . . I4. 69 6I 208 332 44O 587 687 775 9I 5 8o3 851 5,741
*ś.” "| 933 6,900 6716 || 30,240 42,099 || 62.953 | 84,753 9,563 96,635 | 11,234 iozo,4|io998o |746.287
SENT TO THE NETHERLANDS FROM THE GOVERNMENT
PLANTATIONS IN JAVA.
(dust, powder or
broken bits).
N°. cases. . . . . . . - 28 6I 208 332 377 339 I88 I97 II 2 49 26 I,917
ight of e

220
Of the 1873 crop, 80 cases containing IoI 52 half-kilos
Calisaya javanica, were lost by the wreck of the steamship
Primes Hendrzá in the Red Sea.
With the crop of 1874 there was a beginning of the selection of
the barks into first and second quality, according to its thickness.
They were also for the first time cut at double their former length.
In 1878 as an experiment, I 2 cases with 162o half-kilos of
shavings of Ledgeriana bark were sent to market. In the year
following there were offered 5 cases with 544 h similar material,
and moreover I case of Officinalis shavings containing 93 Ib. This
time the name schraapse! (scrapings) was replaced by that of
schilfers (scales or shavings).
From the beginning we strove to obtain from the govern-
ment Cinchona exploitation, an endeavour after proportionate
yearly increase of produce. If we had only actually tried to
deliver from what might be got from the same kinds at the
same age, without doubt by this time, there might have been
3 or 4 times as much sold. In the last year or two no more was
harvested than was moderate and reasonable, agreeably to the
principle aimed at, because the continuous wet weather was not
favourable, and also because the means of transport, conse-
quent upon cattle-disease, or the workpeople, the result of fever
epidemic etc. fell short. If less has been harvested in 1879 and
188o than was expected, the plantations which have been that
much spared, can meantime form so much the more produce, and
the following years may, under favouring circumstances, yield so
much the more than the average
In 188o there was harvested and exported of renewed bark, Led-
geriana in shavings, one case, containing I I I half-kilos. Analysis
shows that this contains 7.5% quinine in a total alkaloid contents
of 8.7%. Further, 18 cases of Ledgeriana shavings, containing 1890
half-kilos, of 7.9 and 8.8% quinine, in a total alkaloid content of
9 and 8.8%. Lastly, there were 6 bales Officinalis bark, 694 half-
kilos in shavings, containing 4.2% quinine in 6.5% of total alkaloid.
B.
IN JAVA WITH THE RESULTS OBTAINED.
STATEMENT OF THE AUCTION-SALES OF CINCHONA FROM THE GOVERNMENT PLANTATIONS
* ------> *-ºs-ºs-ºs- ****-
Accounted for Auction of
by the Trading Company. 20/io || 14/3 27/5 31/3 || 3o 6 I/6 I/74 18|7 || 30'4 || 3ol.4 2/7 2O/7
in kilograms. 1870 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1877 1878 1879 1879 188o
A. Shipped at Batavia . | IOOI 6744 II,299 || 13,195 || 24,579 || 32,963 || 31,725 | 12,116 || 47,166 || 45,594 | 9892 5O,422
sold.
B. Delivered at Amsterdam 876 62oo Io,924 | 12,616 22,318 || 31,523 29,970 | 11,586 46,103 || 44,581 9373 || 46,685
Waste . . . . . . . . . . . 12.6% 8% 3.3% 4.38% 9.2% 4.3% 5.5% 4.3% 8.83% 2.2% 3.2% P
Proceeds, gross . . . . . . f 2225 |f 17,616 f31,097 |f 32,163 |f 64,329 |f Io2,332|f 153.270 fso, IoS | f 95,565 |f 158,992 fº,425 |f 201,599
do. net . . . . . . . f 1935 | f 15,552 | f 27,193 |f 27,772 | f 56,oi6 |f 91,693|f 140,926|f 26,764 |f 81,215 f 144,624 f55,076 |f 184,761
Charges . . . . . . . . . . I4.19% II.71 % 12.55 % | 13.65% 12.90% 10.39% 8.05% II og 9% | 12.92% 96% 8.7% 8.3%
* †. } f 1.28%"|f 148"|f 1.42**|f 1.27"|f 1.44"|f 162** f 2.55' |f 1.29" |f 1.02 |f 1.74" | f 2.03 |f 15,
Cinch, powder, as per A. * sº 3898° 2047 | 6043" " | 8321 I23 6600 8 ss=sº º * sºs
) ) » ) B. * *º-º: 3808 2009 || 5548°." | 77487 I 285 644* * * *º-ºº: *sº *=
Gross proceeds of ditto . º *=== f 1181 | f 2232 | f 7955 | f 8982 | f 208 | f 802 tºº * ſº *E* *
Net ) }) \) . * * f 606 | f 1884 | f 6864 | f 7642 | f 186 | f 690 * wº tºº-ºº. tºº,
Furnished to War Depart. º-ºº: ** — | 8 bales.
Cinchona bark, as per A. — *=== * 257" 492" " | 587 ºs 664* a
) ) » ) B.] — * *º-º-º-º: 255 457 577° ęmººse 643° — - tºº.
Cinchona powder ) > A. — *sº 237, a --- tºº tº-º-º: *mm. – – º
) p > ) B *º tºº * 236 {-ºº-º-º: * * * º — — *º-
Ditto brought into account — º tºº-º-º: f 638 | f 1223 | f 1619 wº f 2857 – — sº-ºº.
Gross proceeds, total . . . f 2255 | f 17,616 f32,278 |f 35.033 | f 73,507 |f 112,933 f 187,242 foś,565 f I97,417 ress,
Net ) ) f 1935 | f 15,552 | f 27,799 | f 30,294 | f 64, 103 |f 100,955 f I71,423 f 83,215 f 179,700 º
222
There is much information to be drawn from this statement
of the 12 government sales and therefore we must fix our
attention on certain points of it.
The calculated average prices, in which also the purchased
samples are brought into account', are naturally useless for
estimating the prices of the different kinds and varieties of bark.
On pages I I I—I I5, we have given a summary of the sales
of the three principal kinds, and only these are of significance
for the future, because though not exclusively, yet they are
raised by preference and in quantity. The prices of these three
chief species; C. Ledgeriana, C. officinalis and C. succèruóra,
will probably always strongly fluctuate in relation to each
other, yet in accordance with their typical percentage, they
will come more and more to fixity. Each species or variety
is moreover again sorted, as the bark is derived from stems,
branches or roots; whether cut in short or long pieces, or else
delivered as pieces or fragments (dust) They are further
distinguished as we have already said, as bark in shavings
(superficial barking) mossed, and renewed bark.
Within a short period the market prices may show consider-
able differencies, which are dependent upon the various actual
needs, in connection with greater or smaller imports and expecta-
tions about these. At the auction of I I March 1881 at Amster-
dam, prices were obtained for ordinary Javan barks, which
otherwise were usually grudged for good raw material for
quinine making, and so also at the auction of 18 January pre-
vious, single parcels of Schuhkraft ran up to 205, and rootbark
of this species, to 231 cents per kilogram.
Great differences were noticed in the invoiced freight, and
delivery weight of the Cinchona packages. From our summary
B, it appears that the waste, from the shipment at Batavia, to
! Samples were given out thus; for the sale of
30 April 1879 – 175 kilos fr. 1132.OO
2 July 1879 – 4420 × » 397. IO
20 y 1880 — 251.15 ) » I 538.05
<^
223
the delivery at Amsterdam, amounted from 1.83 to 12.6 per
cent., and as we have heard on good authority, private con-
signments at the present time lose from 5 to 7 per cent. in waste.
The product of the first two government auctions was sent
by sailing vessels, and thus was longer exposed to loss, than
the later consignments which were sent by steamer. The weights
as invoiced, might differ considerably from the bills of lading,
because the weighing of the packages did not take place at the
Cinchona establishments, but in the coffee warehouses closest
at hand. When the Cinchona establishments were subsequently
provided with weighing machines, it was not even than possible for
various reasons, for the Director of the government undertaking
to ensure accurate weighing. And were the just weight taken,
the weighing machines at the establishments and those of the
factory at Batavia, would probably always show certain dis-
crepancies. In later times things have been managed better;
in every instance the weighing machines at the establishments
and at Batavia, were brought into complete accordance by
testing against standards. Meantime it must be understood that
the difference in weight when shipped at Batavia and delivered
at Amsterdam, is in no case to be imputed to negligent weighing
here or there, and now the loss which is constantly leading to
the disappointment of produces or consignor, must receive a
clearing up and explanation.
The Cinchona barks are delivered air-dried and packed in
cases or bags. Trials carefully made at my request by the firm
of Heeren d'Ailly have shown that Cinchona bales after remaining
ten days under a shed exposed to the air outside, gain in weight,
that is, take up water, and the bags also are hygroscopic;
that on the other hand, loss of weight takes place in parcels
of bark, remaining a similar period, in a closed room, exposed
to a temperature of 16° to 17° centigrade. [60° to 63° Fahr.]
In transport by steamer, the packages are not only con-
stantly exposed to the influence of a certain current of air,
224
but at most times also to a more than ordinary temperature. It
is thus admissible that they lose in weight, but a priori the
influences and circumstances are hard to calculate which come
later into play, when the same packages are turned into the
warehouses in Amsterdam for some time, and there remain
open for many days. The bags cannot exert any important
influence upon the gross weight of the packages, for they do
not weigh more than about one and a half kilogram; the cases
on the contrary have usually a weight of about 20 kilograms
and as they, especially in the first years, were not made up
of thoroughly dry and seasoned wood, it may be understood
that they must lose in drying, and notwithstanding that the
tare denoted in India is allowed for, yet a loss of weight
actually occurs, to the advantage of the buyer, but to the
loss of the seller. Lastly it deserves to be noticed, that the
invoices speak of half-kilos, and the deliveries, (although the
Cinchona prices are noted by the half-kilos), on the other
hand take place by kilograms without the turn of the scale,
also the worthlessness of the lower portions, at least in a
considerable number of packages, may have for the seller a
very injurious difference. It is possible that the buyers reckon
advantageously upon these turns of the scale, but the producer
who brings his produce to market is advised to keep account
of all these circumstances, for otherwise be may easily be
exposed to great disappointment.
We shall presently give the conditions of auction, and
then the charges which are noted in our tabular statement B,
find therewith an explanation. We must first let a display
follow of the results, obtained at the auctions held in Amster-
dam in the years 1878–80 of private Cinchona growers from
Java.
§


J.
Ledgeriana.| Officinalis. Succirubra. |Schuhkraft. Javanica. Hººk unnamed Total.
* ſº Extreme prices
Auction of -3 § w; g g w; wi § *
# | 3 | #| 4 | # | 3 | #| 3 | #| 3 | #| g | # | g | #| per # kilo.
# à || 3 | # | # | # # # # à | #| # # É | # É
& à || 4 || 3: §: * | * | * ; 4 || 3 | <
28/2 1879 || 2 || 135 | – | – || – || – 58 || 3840 | – || – amº gº-sº ºsmº sºmeº 6o 3975 | 75 to 170 cents.
18/4 D gº sº * | * * ºsmºsºms 39 27oo || 3 || 210 | – || – sº I ºme 42 29Io 9o o 162 >
3O/4 » 2 | 129 || – || – 8 || 499 || 30 | 1891 || – || – $ºsº || mºs a sºr ºs 40 || 2519 || 70 185 )
26/9 ) * I ammºnsº I sº I ºmºs *= ºs I2 355 | – || – * | * I I9 I3 374 25 II 5 º'
26/9 ) * I ass= i = 1 = | * : * 38 || 2 IOO | – | – || – | – | – || – 38|| 2 Ioof 49 123 o
26/9 9 * smºs 9 || 550 | – || – || Io& | 73oo 19 | 125o 5 3OO | – | – || I4I IO4OO || 54 » 295 y
I4/. 1880 || 2 || 75 || 3 || 28o | – | – || 35 2200 || 5 || 320 | – || – || – || – || 45 2775 | 84 » 205 o
2I/5 ) — | – || – || – || – || – | 128 905o 20 75o | – || – || – | – || 148 || 98oo 37 o 355 y
ro ~5
% by § ºf d
I5/10 ) 2 | ### 3 || 360 3 220 | 395 |29500 | 16 || 1375 9 || 675 1 | ###| 429|3203ol 92 26o
### äää
I5/IO ) 23 1419 | – || – * I smºm, 33 2152 | – || – * I ºmºsº º gº 56 3571 | 81 171 o
9/II ) * | *-* | *= i ºs * | * 28 P - I - I - - || – || – 28 || P sold by tender.
25/II ) * | * 17 | Ioo 8 || 335 | 296 || 21935 | 4 || 240 2 || I5o || 2 | IOO || 314||2288o 37 to 233 cents,
|anglica
Total. 31 1758 || 17 | Io90 | 19 || Io?4 |I2OO |83023 || 67 || 4145 | 16 || II.25 4 I 19 |1356 | 93334|| 25 to 355 cents.
236
So far as we can trace, there were no other sales in 1879
and 1880; earlier sales are of no significance. A small parcel
of inferior Cinchona from the Koripan estate (Buitenzorg) was
sold on 17 April 1877 at 29 to 61 cents. The outward appear-
ance, sorting and packing, left much to be wished; the same
day government Cinchona sold for 81 cents for powder, 141
for dust (broken bits) and 168 to 879 cents throughout, for
the different descriptions. A few parcels of Ledgeriana reached
Io85'/2 cents per kilo, circumstances being very favourable for
disposal.
De Vrij in a published letter of 12 March 1881 remarks,
that the Succirubra barks brought from private growers in
Java, fall below the quality of the government and English
plantations, and he calls it a sad fact, on which attention
should be carefully fixed.
It may be useful with regard to this, to give some ex-
planation.
The Succirubra seed gathered in Java, when only a few
trees flowered and bore fruit, gave plants, which in a great
measure departed from the type of the parent trees. Evidently
the flowering parent-trees had experienced the influence of
foreign pollen. Since the time when seeds could be collected
from extensive, enclosed, and developed plantations, greater
assurance could be felt of having true, undegenerated seed,
therefore is it to be expected that younger Succirubra plant-
ings will show slighter aberations from the typical form. That
in certain exceptions, true Succirubras were raised in Java
from seed received from British India, is to be attributed to
the fact that the plantations in British India are composed
almost entirely of C. succiruðra, and little danger is thus run
of fertilization by pollen of inferior species of Cinchona. In the
government plantations in Java there were many species of
Cinchona to be met with, and the scattered Succirubra trees
were exposed to fertilization by pollen of the common C. Cali-
337
saya, C. Hasséarliana and even C. Pahudiana. The old planta-
tions of C. Ledgeriana were designedly isolated, but it was
absolutely impossible to ensure a like isolation also with regard
to the rest of the varieties. For raising C. succirubra and
C. officinalis, we gave with good reason, always the pre-
ference to seeds from British India, and the C. succèruðra
barks brought to market from the government plantations, can,
in by far the greatest proportion, be considered to be derived
from trees raised from British Indian seed.
Another cause of the inferiority of private-grown Javan barks
may be in this, that private planters are impatient and crop
too early, whilst besides, there are well founded reasons to
suspect, that it is not every grower who is in a position of
certainty as to the identity of his plants and trees. At Amster-
dam we have seen produce offered for Ledgeriana bark, that
as soon as our eye fell upon it was distrusted, and by analysis
it was seen to be of very poor quality, thus having nothing
in common with Ledgeriana.
It has already been mentioned, and now may once more
be seriously pressed, the great importance for the producer to
particularly to attend to the identity of his plants, the careful
selection, and true naming of the harvested barks.
The Dutch East Indies will for several years yield the
finest manufacturers' bark, C. Ledgeriana and C. officinalis,
and further the druggists' bark most in demand, C. succiruffra.
As it has been shown by the history of the culture, there
has always been the endeavour to propagate the most valu-
able kinds, and to relegate the inferior descriptions to the
background.
This has not been the case in British India. In Bengal,
C. succèrudra was almost exclusively propagated; the culture
228
of C. officinalis opened well, but resulted in disappointment
Up to and including 1877–78 there were obtained from the
government plantations in the Himalaya mountains, Darjeeling
being the central point, 878,242 pounds avoirdupois of bark,
most of it being utilised for crude alkaloid, “Cinchona febri.
fuge”; it is now estimated that from 300,000 to 4oo,ooo
pounds weight can be taken annually. The production of
1877–78 amounted to 344, 225 b, which according to the
official report, remained at the disposal of the government
chemist Mr. Wood, at Mongpoo, for the preparation of the
previously mentioned alkaloid. The delivery in that year
amounted to 5 162 pounds of alkaloid, which with that for
former years made a total quantity of Io,901 b. '
This alkaloid was partly sold publicly, partly applied to and
the medical service of the State, to economise the more expensive
sulphate of quinine; instead of one part of quinine, three parts
of Cinchona febrifuge were administered. Various medical men
have for many years tried this remedy on thousands of fever
patients, and it is officially stated that in the above named
proportion, the Cinchona febrifuge may serve very well as a
substitute. About this for several years, many voices have been
raised against the administration of a remedy, whose thera-
peutic action cannot be accurately foretold, on account of its
complex and varying composition.
In the Cinchona febrifuge, following the explanations, there
occur besides quinine (this always in small quantity) Cinchonine,
Cinchonidine, Quinamine and amorphous alkaloid; each of these
alkaloids is febrifugal, but each shows its power in its own
' The preparation of the quinetum in Bengal, is done so simply, that it can
be left almost entirely to the natives to perform. Meanwhile it appears a deplor-
able fact, that the extraction from the bark is very incomplete, for one half of the
alkaloids go to waste. It appears from the report for 1879, that things are not
more fortunate in Java. In the chemical laboratory at Weltevreden, from 3ooo kilos
of Succirubra bark, which positively averaged 6% of alkaloids, there were not
more than 56 kilos of quinetum made.
229
degree and way, that is to say, the action of each separately,
is different. The great danger however lies in the circumstance
that the named alkaloids, although they occur constantly and
together in the same mixture, vary in mutual quantitative pro-
portion at each time of preparation.
The Bengal government meanwhile, makes its Cinchona
culture serviceable before all things to the wants of its popula-
tion, and thus only asks itself, how the people and army may
be provided with febrifuges on the most advantageous terms.
Starting from this principle, the financial results of the under-
taking have been extolled, but in fact these last may, on good
grounds be doubted.
No account has been taken of the bark, the raw material.
The question has not been raised what this would realise at
public sales, and thus it comes about, that the price of this
substitute for quinine is placed no higher than 2 I francs
[16 shillings and 9 pence] per pound avoirdupois.
It is a wellknown fact, that not one half of the alkaloids
possessed by the raw material are obtained, the greater part being
lost. The large quinine manufacturers on the other hand, for
whom the secondary alkaloids properly are a disadvantageous
bye product, obtain them in bulk, because they must be separated
to attain the entire and complete purification of quinine; they
might thus yield a Cinchona febrifuge of constant composition,
relatively and perhaps absolutely cheaper, or at least no dearer,
than the raw produce at the present time costs the Bengal
government.
It does not lie within our scope, further to speak here of
the therapeutic value of the different Cinchona alkaloids; still
less to solve the question as to whether the Bengal govern-
ment will attain its end, in the most economical and practical
way, by the method at present followed. It is certain that
private planters do better to sell their bark, leaving the manu-
facturer to utilise it; at least so long as the manufacturing
230
separation does not become simpler, completer and less costly.
In 1879 the private undertakings in Bengal must have har-
vested IO50 packages of bark ".
There were brought into the London market during the
years 1877 to 1880 in succession, 6260, 6250, 13,460 and
20,690 packages of British East Indian bark. The weight of
these packages varied greatly, sometimes being very small.
".
In 1879 there were harvested in Madras, from the govern-
ment plantations (Dodabetta, 429, Neddivettum, 779, Pykara,
241) 1449, and from private plantations, 557 packages. In
1877–78 the former produced 138,808 th of which I 32,951 ſh
were shipped to England. The rest was at the disposal of the
medical service or remained in reserve.
In the Madras presidency, where the culture is prosecuted
in the high-lying Nilgiris (Neilgherries, central point Ootaca-
mund) C. officinalis thrives better than in Bengal, but is less
propagated than C. succèruára. Here also all the other kinds
of Cinchona introduced have no significance as regards trade.
According to the “British Trade Journal”, British India,
excepting Bengal and Madras, furnished in the years
1875–76 26,992 ſh valued at £ 2,570
1876–77 72,952 a n n n 6,413
1877–78 286,944 . , , , 39,635
I878–79 227, 179 m }} n n 28, 196
1879–80 459,286 m 7) n n 66,071.
Within the last few years, Cinchona culture has attained
considerable dimensions in Ceylon. Here also it is chiefly con-
1 Moens who visited British India in the second half of 1880, explains that the
application of quinetum is more and more extended and believed in. The Dutch
government has lately ordered the delivery of 300 kilos of quinetum, and therefore
experiments will be importantly extended.
231
fined to C. succirubra and C. officinalis. In the years 1875 to
188o there were successively exported, 18,731, 16,842, 56,598,
173,497, 373,511 and 1,208,578 pounds of bark '. Other
sources give for 1879 a total of 6229 packages, 3098 of which
consisted of bark from branches, and dust.
Jamaica yielded in 1879 a crop of 16 bags. We have not
met with advices from other countries where Cinchona culture
has been introduced; the crops therefrom can in no case be
considered as of any importance in trade.
From the foregoing data of the English and Dutch pos-
session it seems quite clear, that the American Cinchona trade
has already to dread a strong competition. What the produc-
tion of America really is, can hardly be shown. No one knows,
even approximately, the extent of the forests in which the
Cinchona trees are scattered.
The exports of South America differ much from year to
year, and that cannot be greatly wondered at, having regard
to the ever changing political condition of the South American
republics.
In every case there is no ground for the opinion that in
the long run the exports will be diminished, and the fear of a
possible extirpation of the original Cinchona forests, seems
indeed to have been overdrawn.
Exports are chiefly consigned to London, iNew-York and
Paris. In the last year or two, some well selected kinds of
bark have come from Porto Cabello and Maracaibo. The price
of the last named description, we see noted at the auction at
London of 30 January 1881 at from 6 d. to I S. 8 d.
According to a communication of the Dutch Consul, the
imports of Cinchona bark at Hamburg amounted to a value
of 177, I 50, 34,830 and 177, 150 marks, in the years 1877 to
* Ceylon Observer of November 9, 1880. Other reports do not agree with the
figures here noted, which difference we can only explain by some confusion or
combining the crops of succeeding years.
232
1879 successively. In 1878, 3995, and the following year 6794
kilograms of quinine, were imported, valued at the present
time at 535,62O and 1,043,450 marks. Nine tenths of these
quantities were derived from Germany, the remainder mostly
from London. A considerable part of this quinine was again
sent to North and South America. The following statement
of the trade in Cinchona has been drawn up from the most
important English, French and German reports.
§
D. LONDON MARKET.
1879 1878 1877 1876 1875 1874 1873 1872 1871 1870 1869 1863
Imports of
Calisaya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91.90 7835 68oo 3440 6060 7460 7083 6337 7300 6329 402I 3539
Columbia, Carthagena, N.-Gre-
nada, Pitayo, East Indian, etc. j. 4948° 3745 245° 17295 | *oto 29490 37356 25679 2471 I 17947 | I 1634 III 56
Total serons and bales . . . . . 58670 || 45.25o 31320 | 20735 | 34O70 3695o 44439 32106 || 2901 I 24276 15655 14645
Deliveries of
Calisaya . . . . . . . . . . . . . {- 8585 7865 6305 5065 6230 6415 68oo 6591 8Ioo 5441 3628 4487
other sorts . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44965 3591o 20860 | 32085 2925o 31385 27673 22484 || 21763 12998 || 13701 | 12172
Total serons and bales . . . . . 5355o 43775 27165 3715o 3548o 378oo 34473 29075 29863 | 18439 17329 | 16659
Stock at the end of
Calisaya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1625 IO25 Iočo 565 2190 2385 I34I IoS8 I312 2 I I2 I224 831
other sorts . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12580 8065 6560 290o 17690 18935 20835 | I I I49 7954 8o06 3057 SI24
Total serons and bales . . . . . I42O5 9090 762o 3465 1988o 21320 22175 12207 9266 | IoI 18 4281 5955
Prices at the end of
Yellow Calisaya per pound . 7 s. 8 S. 5 s. 6 d. 6 s. 3 s. 6d. | 3 s. 6d. |4s, 3 d. 3 S. 9 d. 3 s. 8d. | 3 s. 6d. 3 s. 5 d, .2 s, II d.
Sulphate of quinine per ounce II S. 13 S. |Io.s. 6d. II s. 6 s. 6d. 6 s. 9d. 8s 6d. 7 s. 9 d. 7 s. 8d. 7 s. 5 s. 5d. |4s. 6d.


234
Thus the imports into London have considerably increased,
but the consumption must have augmented in like proportion,
since the prices both for bark and quinine have risen much
instead of falling.
The imports during the years 1877 to 1880 are specified
as follows.
1877 1878 1879 188o
Calisaya . . . . . . . . . . . 68oo 7835 91.90 658o serons and cases.
Columbia . . . . . . . . . . Iof Io I535o 16370
New Grenada and Pitayo 5025 IOO45 I4290
Carthagena . . . . . . . . . 2615 5777 5360 648o 9 ) )
East India and Ceylon . . 626o 625o 13460 20690 bales and cases,
(some very small).
}* ) » bales.
Total 31220 45.25o 58670 78250
From these figures the influence of the culture in British
India becomes very evident. Whilst the imports of bark into
London have much increased, their percentage of quinine in
the years 1877—79 in the contrary seems respectively, and
in 1879 even absolutely to decline, Messrs. Gehe and Cº. note
in their annual report for 1879 that there were sold at London,
1879, 53303 packages with a calculated contents of 41695 kilos quinine.
1878, 43775 ) ) ) ) ) » 47746 ) )
1877, 27165 ) ) ) ) ) » 3O425 ) )
Possibly these imports from British India bear the less favour-
able proportions, because they are mostly Succirubra barks,
which are rich in alkaloids, but relatively poor in quinine.
According to the English official reports there were imported
into England, in
1877, 34936 quintals of bark, value £ 402234
1878, 54746 ) ) ) » ) 658228
1879, 60878 ) ) ) » ) 97.3163
The imports into France amounted in the years 1877–79 to
235
1877 1878 1879
Fine Calisaya, about 30 grammes \
and upwards of quinine contents f * 3.387 1658
Do, 20 grammes and upwards. . . . . 754 I 595 3617
Do inferior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360 I34I 426
Do, not specified, and flat . . . . . . 770 8oo 718
Do. Schuhkraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 540
Do. flat, specified. . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Total 4816 7I23 8o34
North America imported from Columbia and New-Grenada
in the years 1872–80, packages as follows, 34,473, 35,344,
42,720, 35,150, 32,400, 23,400 41,000, 46,700 and 32,8oo.
Messrs. Lewis and Peat state that the best barks find their way
in increasing measure to England, and the ordinary qualities go to
America. In July 1879 the import duties of 20% on sulphate
of quinine in North America were abolished, and thereby
there was a greatly increased enquiry after this salt from
Europe, in spite of the existing manufacturers in Philadelphia.
It is certain that the latter, for whatever may be the reason,
cannot deliver quinine at the same price as the large European
establishments, thus the conclusion is patent, that the market in
North America will gradually confine itself to the sale of so
called druggist's or pharmaceutical barks, and the best manu-
facturer's material will be exclusively sent to Europe.
The imports of the three chief markets during the years, are
London. Paris. N. America. Total.
1876 2O735 7900 324OO 59335
1877 3I32O 7900 2340O 6262o
1878 452.50 I IQ4OO 4IOOO 98.190
1879 58670 I 5990 467OO 121360
I88o 78.25o 20166 328oo 131216
As the weights of the packages (serons, bales or cases)
vary greatly, it is difficult to give a just notion thereof.
Meantime a comparison of these figures with those which are
afforded by the Amsterdam market, show that the last named
must gain in importance, and there is every reason for the
236
belief, that within ten years' time, the Dutch market will
outstrip the Parisian.
From our statements it appears most plainly, that the con-
sumption increases with the exhanced imports, and that to the
present time the ampler production has not as yet led to
lowering prices.
It is difficult to foresay what the future in this aspect is
likely to bring. It is beyond all doubt that even in civilised,
and regularly governed countries, every year thousands suffer
from fever, which is not combated in time by the administration
of the necessary but expensive means of health, further that
entire countries still remain insensible to the excellent remedy;
so we may picture to ourselves, that the consumption at the
present day of Cinchona and its alkaloids, merely represents a
paltry fraction of the quantity which will be required, to satisfy
the prescriptions of medicine and humanity in every country,
and among all classes and races of men.
In fact, the want may be termed limitless. Meanwhile, the
planting in the English and Dutch possessions and other colonies,
not to speak of the culture in America itself, broadens out
greatly, and within a few years the production will have increased
to such colossal proportions, that at least the relations of supply
and demand will become more reasonable.
The culture in Java as regards extent, is not to be com-
pared with that of British India or Ceylon. Whilst in the
former we reckon plants by the hundred thousand, in the
latter, they already reckon them by millions. A hundred-weight
of Cinchona seed is obtained every year from the English
possessions. If now the number of plants obtainable from one
pound of seed be taken at 80,000, then hardly any one,
affrighted at such tremendous figures, would dare to commence
new undertakings, but would even relinquish existing planting,
for another staple. Augmented production furthers the general
interest, but not the individual planter. The governments
237
which have brought Cinchona into their colonies, started actu-
ally with purely humanitarian principles; it is however seen
that selfishness herewith need not be indispensable in this
natter.
For the rest, large figures cannot daunt us. For years
together we were reproached, because we allowed ourselves
to be outstripped by British India, although we began in Java
earlier. Indeed, the English Cinchona reports soon spoke of
higher numbers than ours. Though if we keep account of the
mighty strides of the government plantations in Madras and
Bengal, and our more modest progress in Java, we have at
the present time, no cause to complain. The government planta-
tions in British India are not so strong as might be expected,
after the colossal propagation, which the official reports men-
tioned during so many years. The report for 1877–78 estim-
ated the strength of the planting in Madras at 569,031 plants,
of which 226,936 were C. officinalis, 260,837 C. succiruára,
and 2762 other sorts'. In Bengal the government plantations
consist of a surface of about 2240 acres, according to the
same report, the number of trees thereon is not given, but it
may fairly put down at 2000 per acre.
In 1866 the Madras official reports showed I, I 23,759 plants,
notwithstanding that the highly skilful and energetic director
of the culture, Mr. W. P. McIvor, had parted with quite Ioo,ooo
to private parties.
At the same time Dr. Anderson at Darjeeling in Bengal
! It becomes more and more difficult to provide labour power. The mossing process
which was carried on especially in Madras on a large scale, was seriously threatened
by the scarcity of moss. This last danger occurred to us insignificantly, for, for the
covering of Cinchona stems excellent use may be made of other, often occurring
materials, and a short time since, successful use has been made of alang-alang.
On old grounds in British India the Cinchona trees do not seem to be more than
8 years of age, and the deaths in young plantations are still considerable. When
it once comes to this, that the want of new ground leads to a struggle, then the
sudden over prosecution of the culture will produce its effects.
238
had carried his total to 192,765, and Dr. Thwaites happened
in Ceylon, to be at Hakgalle in possession of 500,000 plants,
besides the 18O, ooo which he had already imparted to private
speculation. We have the greatest respect for the energy and
activity by which our English brother-official in the time, gave
evident tokens. His reports were held up to us in Java, as
being more or less a reproach. But we remember that in one
of those reports, about 800,000 plants of C. officinalis were
mentioned as being written off, because they promised nothing,
and we add thereto, that there they have much long confined
themselves to propagating only C. succèruðra in quantity, which
is indeed is the easiest and quickest to propagate, but is not
really the most valuable species, – then we cannot refrain
from inferring, that too much has been built upon illusive
prospects afar off, and calculations based thereon, and that the
figures at the present day, would not have the present value,
which we might expect. If we had once in Java set ourselves
to create large extensive Cinchona forests, we had the amplest
opportunity for it, by abundance of C. succèruóra seeds and
cuttings, and most certainly that would have spared us the
difficulties and cares, which our endeavour to propagate the
species richer in quinine such as the best Calisaya, brought in
their train.
We do not by any means seek to depreciate the labours
of our former brother-official by these retrospective views, on
the contrary we do public homage to their value, and all
thanks especially to the too early deceased McIvor, for whose
important and valuable information as to improving the con-
tents of the bark in the living tree, and for so much else;
we have thought we must advert to the facts, in the interest
of the growers; these must attain the important conviction,
that their best interests must be sought for in the species,
than in the quantity of Cinchona trees. If they adhere to this
principle then not only will they be able to withstand the
239
powerful competition of South America, but in the long run,
to exercise considerable influence on the exploitation of the
Cinchona forests in that country. The production of good Cin-
chona barks, harvested from the primeval Cinchona forests,
seems indeed to stand in no specially favourable relation to
that obtained by methodical cultivation. The transport of the
produce, from the Andes to the port of shipment, is at the
present day at least, and probably for all time, far dearer
than the entire culture and exploitation in Java, Ceylon, Madras
and Bengal.
2}:
>< 3:
$
In Java also a true Cinchona-fever has prevailed. Dazzled
by the fabulous results of single government plantations, the
creation of a Cinchona plantation, was thought nothing less,
but even better, than laying open a rich gold mine. With
strenuous eagerness clearing was entered upon, after doubting
for years as to the future welfare of a Cinchona undertaking.
Many have begun their task without the slightest knowledge,
the smallest idea of the proper requirements of the plant they
wish to rear. For them Cinchona was no other than Cinchona.
The history of it has taught meanwhile, that this culture
requires quite other attention, than that of coffee or tea for
example, and that a man may be an excellent planter in
general, without possessing any qualification or skill as Cin-
chona grower.
What then is the case? The planter who wishes to grow
Cinchona, is dependent upon the seeds and plants which he
can procure, and must exercise an unconditional trust, where
he himself cannot judge. That trust may be well reposed, or
it may disappoint. We have seen how hard it is to distinguish
the plants when young; we know that degeneration when pro-
pagation is done by seed is not infrequent, and that the most
various plant-forms may occur from seed of the same tree.
240
Definite certainty or even satisfactory guarantees that he is
creating a valuable product, the inexperienced planter thus
cannot have. If he is neither a chemist nor a botanist, he
will not readily attain to certainty, and his produce not being
selected with the required precision, the consequences do not
promise an advantageous realisation.
During the last six years numerous parcels of waste land
in Java have been given up to clearing for Cinchona nurseries.
We do not accurately know the extent of the planting, but
we do know that millions and millions of seeds have been
distributed from the government plantations, and that very
scanty results in proportion have been obtained therefrom. The
seed of the best species is limited; he who does not do his
utmost to ensure its germination, is opening for himself by
that means alone, a source of disappointment.
Where a plantation of genuine trees exists, there should
artificial multiplication be set on foot, as a security against
degeneration, and as a means in the long run to have material
at disposal for propagating by seeds, as well as cuttings or grafts.
It is possible that among the foregoing hints, here and there
we may have seemed to say, what we have already repeatedly
said. The common welfare has impelled us thereto. The lesson
which we ourselves have drawn from the history of the creation
and development of Cinchona culture in Java, was long and
costly; may it teach and profit others!
*
#: Sk
When speaking of sorting and packing it has been already
remarked that the trade in Cinchona bark divides itself first
of all into two chief divisions, according as they are suited
and destined for manufacturer's use, or else intended for
pharmaceutical ends.
In the long run undoubtedly those rich in quinine, the factory
barks, obtain the best prices. We have endeavoured to show
241
that many Cinchona trees may yield both factory material and
for pharmacists, provided the bark from the different heights
on the stem is kept separate; if mixed, they will possess an
average contents, less serviceable and less in demand by
manufacturers.
Strong, heavy barks, poor as to quinine like C. succèruðra,
have a higher value for the pharmacist or druggist, than light
fine quinine-rich material, such as C. officinalis for example.
The outward appearance of druggist's bark exercises so import-
ance an influence upon the price, that this may run up 50
or Ioo 9% higher, than its actual value in contents would
warrant '.
The London brokers take out very large samples from the
packages of druggist's bark for inspection, whilst on the other
hand, from each separate package of manufacturers bark, only
a little portion is taken.
These little sample portions are afterwards mixed together, and
from the similar mass, as finely powdered as possible, a
necessary destined quantity is taken for analysis. The result
of the chemical examination shows, as near as possible, the
percentage of the entire parcel, and the quinine manufacturer
estimates therefrom from the price he can afford to give.
Separate analyses of samples from each package, would
cost too much time, trouble, and labour.
From table D it appears that the trade still names the barks
from their place of origin of shipment. -
Calisaya only is an exception, and although its bark may
be recognised by its extraordinary percentage, as the history
of culture in Java has sufficiently shown, the true identity of
the botanical derivation can still less be defined by bald state-
ments of the place of origin or dispatch, which may yield in
" It is evident, that in case the secondary alkaloids of quinine come into use in
medicine, the pharmaceutical barks, C. succirubra excepted, will be regarded from
another point of view.
I6
242
the same region in the wild forest, many descriptions of Cinchona.
The division into Columbia, New-Grenada and Pitayo barks,
which have so often occurred, has for trade not the slightest
value. It is known that in the fight with Spain, Bolivia pro-
claimed the republic Columbia (1819) at that time consisting
of 12 departments, with Bogota as chief town. One year after
Bolivar's death, that is in 1831, the confederation resolved
itself into three independent states, Venezuela, New Grenada
and Ecuador. The last but one was in 1861 rechristened
Columbia, and Pitayo is a town in its southwest district. The
Pitayo bark is mostly derived from our C. lancifolia. In a
certain sense then they know Columbia, Pitayo and New
Grenada to be the same tract of country, and the same can
be said of Carthagena, one of the principal ports of Columbia.
Peru and Bolivia yield chiefly, the Calisaya barks (yellow
or crown barks) to which Ledgeriana and Schuhkraft belong;
in the Paris market also the last is so called, after our consul-
general at La Paz. In America the baptismal name Ledger-
iana given in Java is quite unknown. The republic of Ecuador
produces chiefly the C. succèruðra (red bark) and C. officinalis
(Loxa bark or crown bark) noted as the best varieties.
The old division of barks into yellow, brown, grey and red,
was founded on the outward difference; it was further meant
that quinine was prevalent in the yellow, cinchonidine in the
brown bark, and that both alkaloids occurred in the red in
about equal quantities It is not so actually, and moreover the
colours run into each other so much, showing so many shades,
that the same bark might as well be assigned to one as
the other.
Scientific value is not attached to division by colours.
Young Cinchona quills are naturally light or dark grey; older
or flat pieces, are yellow, brown or reddish. Lichens which have
developed on the outer surface, may change the appearance,
the chalky-white or black spots must be ascribed exclusively"
243
to those cryptogams. Smooth when young, the Larks attain a
wrinkled surface, and in still older specimens a grooved appear-
ance, as we have described when treating of C officinalis. In
thick Calisaya barks the cork layers often fall off or are inten-
tionally removed, Cortex sine epiderme, and impressions may
be seen on the exposed bast-layer termed, after their shape,
shell or ſinger-grooves. Old stembarks are beset with a crust,
and are thereby very uneven and pimply. On the inner sur-
face Cinchona barks are smooth, finely or coarsely striped, and
finely or coarsely fibrous, whilst their colour is a lighter or
darker brown or else wine-red.
Dry Cinchona is brittle; Cinchona in quills especially, will
not bear rough handling without breaking. The solidity of
Cinchona is usually considerable, though latterly certain sorts
have been readily divided, in the sense namely, that the inner-
most or bast-layer can be split up into its fibres with the
nail. These softer barks are not considered to belong to the
best descriptions ".
On fracture, Cinchona quills are always smooth and even
outside, but shortly fibrous within.
In pieces from old branches or heavy pieces from the stem,
the smooth layer may be wholly wanting or in long fibres.
The taste of Cinchona is partly bitter, partly astringent; the
former resides more in the outer layers, the latter in the inner.
There exists very little connection between the bitter taste
and the quantity of quinine. A bark may contain much quinine,
C. officinalis for instance, and be comparatively only slightly
bitter. Vice versä, the intense bitterness does not ensure a
high standard of quinine.
::
$ $:
* The dividing into hard and soft barks is nothing more than a trade test.
Buyers will feel good Cinchona in the hand, and this really seems to be the case
in practice. The false and inferior barks are termed very light. Pitayo and New
Grenada barks are usually styled hard barks, Columbia and Carthagena barks
as soft. In these distinctions and differences we recognise but little harmony.
244
It appears desirable to us, to bring the conditions of sale
which are current at Amsterdam, before the notice of the East
Indian grower and the trade. We here give a literal trans-
cription of them. [Translation].
CONDITIONS OF SALE BY AUCTION OF THE
DUTCH TRADING COMPANY. *
(De Wederlandsche Handelmaatschappij.)
ARTTICLE I.
The sale will take place absolutely, without further claim
or compensation, the lots seen or not seen; in cents per half
kilogram in lots as set forth in sale-list.
ART. 2.
The weighing will be done without bias, by whole kilo-
grams, per case or per bale. The tare will be deducted,
according to the amount marked on the cases or bales in
India or in the bills of lading.
ART. 3.
The registration duty and all other costs of sale, reckoned
altogether at one per cent., must be borne by the buyer.
ART. 4.
For delivery, which must take place where the goods are
lying, a term of fourteen days is allowed. After that time,
and consequently after. . . . . . the expenses of transport and ware-
housing, (notwithstanding any injury or loss in consequence of
fire, burglary, or other occurrence), must be borne by the buyer.
- ART. 5.
Payment must be made at the Company's premises, or at
their agents at Rotterdam, Middelburg, Dordrecht or Schie-
dam, on receipt of the goods, at the buyer's option, either
under an abatement of one per cent., or without discount by
approved acceptances at three months from the date of sale,
payable at Amsterdam, Rotterdam, Middelburg, Dordrecht or
Schiedam. 4.
245
ART. 6.
The lots which are not cleared within the stipulated time
and after notice thereof, shall thereafter be resold, at the cost
of the defaulting buyer, who shall, in case of loss, make good
the loss so occasioned, but without benefitting from any gain
which may thence accrue.
ART. 7.
Brokerage amounting to one and a half per cent of the value
is disbursed to the brokers dealing in Cinchona bark, at the
place where the auction is held in respect of all that is brought
by them, or in their name; they shall within three days after
such sale, deliver in the name of their principals, living within
the realm, to the agent of the Company, together with the accept-
ances of their principals; in the mean time the Company is at
liberty, whenever the reported buyer or buyers is or are not
sufficiently known to it, to demand the appointment of gua-
rantees; in both cases, whether the names of the principals
dwelling in this realm be not given up, or if no guarantors
of sufficient standing be appointed, then the Company shall
proceed to resell the said lots, and the broker shall make
good any injury thence accruing; as set forth in Art. 6.
ART. 8.
The Company reserves to itself the right not to accept a
bid from any one whe shall not be sufficiently known to it,
unless he shall be prepared to give a satisfactory guarantee.
ART. 9.
Delivery will take place the day following the demand
thereof; in so far as it shall be possible, against the warrant
of the buyer.
Note. — The 1 % received as recompense for costs of
sale, as defined by Art. 3, and the 1 % allowed for cash pay-
ment, Art 5, cancel each other, and therefore no notice will
be taken of either, but the net amount.
246
CONDITIONS OF SALES BY AUCTION OF THE
DUTCH EAST INDIAN BANK OF COMMERCE.
(De Wederlandsch-Indische Handelsbank.)
The auction will take place in the premises, without further
claim or compensation, the lots seen or not seen, in cents
per half kilogram in lots as specified in the sale list.
The weighing shall be done without bias, by half-kilograms,
and tare per bale I'/a kilogram.
Registration-duty and further costs of sale together reckoned
at one per cent shall be borne by the purchaser.
For receiving, a period of fourteen days shall be allowed, after
that time all costs and damage shall be at the purchaser's risk.
Payment shall be made by bills at 3"/, months, dating from
the date of auction, or by cash at one per cent discount, at
the option of the Dutch East Indian Bank of Commerce.
Brokerage at the rate of I'/2 per cent. will be allowed to
drug brokers, for all purchases made through or by them of
Javan Cinchona bark. The said brokers are on their part,
obliged to give in the names of their clients to the agent of
the Dutch East Indian Bank of Commerce, which reserves to
itself the right of demanding guarantees whenever the pur-
chaser is not sufficiently known to it.
Note. — The sale will take place in lots of I to 6 pack-
ages. The packages lie opened for some time, and on certain
days in the warehouses for inspection. Samples will be given out
at fixed prices. The Dutch East Indian Bank is accustomed to
submit the samples from its lots for analysis to de Heeren d'Ailly
en Zonen (Messrs. d'Ailly and Sons); analyses of the barks
from the government plantations, are made in Java by the
chemist of Cinchona culture. The Company abides by these,
and the trade must place confidence therein.
•º-ºº-ºººººº-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-wºma
247
The net production is shown in table B, as well as the
gross. According to the official reports the charges are thus
made up : — costs in the Dutch East Indies, principally ship-
ping charges, marine insurance, freight from Java to the Nether-
lands (shipment usually by steamer, the crop of 1877, packed
in 197 cases and 578 bales, together 775 packages, and
weighing on arrival at the Netherlands 55,774 kilograms,
amounting to 53314 measurement tons), captain's premium,
maximum of one per cent. per ton, lock dues, brokerage on
on sale at I'ls 9%, registration and additional percentage, recom-
pense for scientific work at 1 %, costs of warehousing, fire
insurance, sale charges, commission at 2 %, clerks salary etc.
The gains are thus manifold; the sale is considerable. The
charges for scientific work were instituted at our request, when
in 1869 we sent the first trial of Cinchona from Java. They
have been kept up since then; they have exclusive reference
to the outward appearance of packing and of contents, and
we looked to these to give useful hints for service in the
ensuing dispatch. Private grower's Cinchona is not subject
to a similar scientific testing of its exterior. What concerns
the percentage of the Cinchona barks, are the analyses of the
chemist to the culture, transmitted with the parcels of govern-
ment produce. Private planters do not furnish the like lists,
but samples are taken at Amsterdam, for examination. (See
Conditions of sale, page 246).
The results of the auctions thus far have been very satis-
factory; particularly when it is taken into account that the
Cinchona market in Amsterdam is still very young, and has
as yet attracted little or no attention from merchants outside the
Netherlands. This is shown most plainly by this fact, amongst
others, that after the last Exhibition at Paris, the Director of
248
the government undertakings in Java, received letters, enquiring
how the Javan Cinchona could be procured.
The principal Cinchona dealer at Hamburg declared in 1880
to our vice-consul at that place, that for several years he
tried to bring Javan Cinchona into the Hamburg market, but
had not been able to sell any. He was all the same time
aware, that the Javan barks had a very good name on account
of their high percentage.
The market in the Netherlands has really a great future. In
proportion at the imports from India become greater, attention
from foreign countries will be attracted, und when once it deals
chiefly in Ledgeriana bark, which no other country can offer in
like quantity and so soon, we even dare to predict that manu-
facturers will fix their attention by preference on the Dutch market.
Now as we have in tables B and C given a full statement
of the auctions of Javan Cinchona at Amsterdam, it may be
useful for comparison, to supply an impression of the results
obtained by American and English produce on the London
market. It seems to us desirable to give some of the English
reports without alteration, by this means the nomenclature and
the distinctions made by our neighbours will be learned.
REPORT OF LEWIS AND PEAT, DATED I4 FEBRUARY I879.
The auctions, since our last, have embraced the following,
viz: —
18 Packages Calisaya Quill.
736 ) Soft Columbian.
653 ) New Grenadian.
IO Y) Hard Pitayo.
48o )) Carthagena.
26 Y) Red Bark.
I923 Serons.
At the auctions no Calisaya or Columbian, and only a little
New Grenadian were sold. Carthagena all sold with good com-
f
<
petition at only slightly easier rates on the average.
249
3 Packages Calisaya Quill, fine picked . . at Io s. o d. perfb.
116 ) ) » fine . . . . . » 7 s. 9 d. 9 º'
66 ) }) » good . . . . . » 5 S. 9 d. 9 º'
7 ) ) Flat, good . . . . . » 3 s. Io d. to 4 s. o d. 9 º'
igz
527 Packages Soft Columbian, very good . . » 4 s. 2 d. 2 4 5. 3 d. 9 º'
61 ) y) Y) good . . ... }) 3 S. 9 d. 9 º'
32 ) }) ) middling . . . » 2 s. O d. 9 )
62o
67 Packages N. Granadian, good . . . . . . » 5 S. 5 d. 9 o
42 ) ) ) air . . . . . . . 4's 3 d. 2 4 s. 6 d. 9 )
IOI ) ) Y middling . 3 s. O d. 2 3 S. 9 d. 9 5
62 ) } ) common and ordinary ) I S. 2 d. ) 2 s. 6 d. 9 )
5 } ) ) very low (Maracaibo) ) o s. 2 d. 9 o s. 6 d. 9 o
277
Io Packages ard Pitayo, very good . . . . » 3 s. 7 d. ) >
196 Packages Carthagena, very good . . . . v 3 s. 6 d. 2 4 s. o d. 9 w
83 ) Y fair to good . . . ) 2 s. 7 d. 2 3 s. 3 d. ) >
242 ) 9 ordinary . . . 2 s. 2 d. ) 2 S. 4 d. 9 )
77 Y) )) common . . . . » I S. I d. 5 I S. 5 d. ) 0
, 508
I Case Red bark, fine bold . . . . . . » 8 s. I d. 9 )
2O Cases ) » bold quills . . . . . . » 3 s. 9 d. 9 3 s. 3 d. 9 º'
3 ) ) » fair » . . . . . . » 3 s. o d. , 3 s. 3 d. 2
2 ) common, part damaged . . . . . » I S. I d. 9 I S. I d. 9 )
26
The auctions included 41 I packages E. I. Cinchona (chiefly
government importations), nearly the whole of which sold at
good prices.
312 Bales Madras Cinchona, all sold.
5 Bales rich open Quill . . . . . . at Io s. o d. perfb
3 ) small » part open, very curly ) 7 s. 2 d. ) >
8
I4 Bales Neilgherry renewed Crown . . . » Io s. o d. perfb
I9 ) ) mossed ) . . . ) 7 s. 2 d. ) >
2O ) ) unmossed ) • . . ) 5 S. II d. ) \,
92 ) Neddivitum renewed ) . . . » 9 S. o d. to 9 S. 4 d. 9 o
85 ) Y mossed ) . . . ) 8 s. I d. 9 o
74 ) ) unmossed ) . . » 5 S. 8 d. 9 5 S. 9 d. ) )
3o4 Government Importations,
--
45 Cases Calcutta Darjeeling. – Withdrawn
54 Packages Ceylon Cinchona. — All sold.
Good Quill . . . . . . . . . . . » 4 s. I d. 4 s. 3 d. 9 o
Fair » . . . . . . . . . . . ) 2 S. 9 d. 3 s. 5 d. 9 )
Middling, part broken . . . . . . . » I S. 8 d. 9 2 s. 9 d. 9 ×
Twigs and Chips . . . . . . . . . » I S. 3 d. , )
250
Arrivals have consisted of 477 serons Calisaya, 591 packages
New Grenadian, 266 packages Soft Columbian, 309 packages
Carthagena, 768 packages East Indian, and 316 packages Crown
and Grey (Druggist's).
Sulphate of Quinine I I S. 3 d. per oz. for English and
French; Io S. 9 d. for German.
REPORT OF LEWIS AND PEAT, DATED 14 FEBRUARY 188o.
The auctions since the 30th January have embraced the
undernoted, viz: —
Io87 Packages Soft Columbian.
IO5o ) New Granadian.
I 5o }) Hard Pitayo.
Only 60 serons of the New Granadians, 70 packages of
the Soft Columbian, 1o packages of the Hard Pitayo, and .
32 packages Maracaibo sold in the room, and are included in
the following summary of all the transactions of the fortnight;
superior qualities of both New Granadian and Soft Columbian
have brought long prices; in none other is there any change,
and our supplies increase,
90 Packages Calisaya, very fair . . . . . at 4 s. 3 d. to 4 S. 9 d. per th
I5 ) ) common . . . . . » 2 s. 9 d. 3 s. 3 d. ) o
IO5
389 Packages Soft Columbian, very fine . . . » 5 S. o d. ) )
66 ) ) ) good to very good ) 3 s. 5 d. ) 3 s. O d. ) )
32 ) ) ) middling to fair. ) 2 s. 2 d. ) 3 s. O d. ) )
57 ) ) Y) ordinary . . . ) I S. 4 d. 2 I s. 7 d. ) >
544
15 Packages New Granadian, very fine . . . » 8 s. 9 d. ) )
63 ) ) )) ordinary . . . ) 2 s. o d. ) 2 s. 6 d. ) )
57 ) )) ) common and
--- Maracaibo sort ) O s. 6 d. ) I s. 7 d. 9 )
I23
Io Packages Hard Pitayo middling . . . . ) 2 s. O d. ) )
Arrivals have consisted of 800 packages Calisaya, 7 Io packages
New Granada, 41 I packages Carthagena, 92 packages Drug-
gist's, and 1205 packages East Indian,
251
Sulphate of Quinine steady. We quote English 12 s., French
12 s., in bottles, German I I s. 3 d. per oz. in tins.
E. I. B. A. R. K.
At the sales held on the Ioth Inst., 34o packages Ceylon,
14 packages Madras, and 202 packages Calcutta were offered
and sold.
Ceylon.
OFFICINALIS
Quill, fine bold . . . . . . . . . at 6 s. I d. to 7 s. 2 d. per ſh
» small . . . . . . . . . . » 4 s. 8 d. 9 o
Branch, Small . . . . . . . . . . » 2 s. I d. 9 )
» and chips . . . . . . . . » I S. Io d. 2 3 s. 6 d. 9 º'
Chips and dust . . . . . . . . . » 2 s. 6 d. 9 y
Twigs. . . . . . . . . . . . . » I S. 9 d. 9 o
Dust . . . . . . . . . . . . . y o S. 7 d. 9 o S. Io d. 9 )
SUCCIRUBRA.
Quill, bold and mixed . . . . . . at 2 s. 9 d. per b.
» mixed . . . . . . . . . . . I s. 8 d. to I s. 6 d. 9 )
) ) . . . . . . . . . . » I S. 4 d. ) I S. 6 d. 9 2
» poor thin . . . . . . . . . » o s. 6 d. ) >
Branches and twigs . . . . . . . ) o S. Ic d. ) I S. O d. ) )
Twigs . . . . . . . . . . . . » o s. 6 d. ) I S. 1 d. ) o
Roos . . . . . . . . . . . . » 2 s. 3 d > 2 S. 4 d. 9 º'
Root and Chips . . . . . . . . . » 2 s. 2 d > )
Madras,
CINCHONA.
Quill pale open rich . . . . . . . . at 9 s. Io d. to 9 S. II d. per ib.
» small open rich . . . . . . . » 7 s. 6 d. 9 )
) X . . . . . . . . . . . ) 5 s 6 d. 9 )
Branch and Twigs . . . . . . . » 3 S. O d o 9
Twigs and Chips . - - - - - - ) 4 S. IO d. ) >
Twigs. . . . . . . . . • . . ) O S 9 d. 2 o
Calcutta,
DARJEELING.
Quill very bold handsome . . . . . at 4 S I d. per ſh
» medium. . . . . . . . . . » 2 S II d. 9 )
» good bold mossy . . . . . . ) 2 s. 3 d. to 2 s. 6 d. ) o
» bold and medium . . . . . . . 2 s. O d. , 2 s. 2 d. 9 o
) long, medium and mixed . . . ) I S. 7 d. ) 1 s. Io d. , )
» small and Branch . . . . . . » I S. I d. , )
Dust . . . . . . . . . . . . . ) O S. 2 d. , )
Arrivals: -- I2O5 packages.
--sºm-sº-sºmºsº. -- - - ---sºm º ---------
The English auctions of 1879 show in telling figures the
remarkable difference in price between mossed, unmossed and
renewed bark,
252
Here for the present we leave the consideration of produc-
tion and trade. A positive declaration of the cost of harvesting,
drying, sorting, packing and transporting to the port of ship-
ment in India is not admissible, for it must differ for each
undertaking, according to its situation. The stoutest bags of
jute, such as we have described, are obtainable for one gulden
[one shilling and eight pence] and as they hold when pro-
perly packed about 70 kilos, the charge upon each kilo of
bark is at most I"/2 cents. Labour itself falls below the common
business charges; women and children can do much of the
work as well as strong men. The cost of carriage from the
mountain to the parts is certainly not small, but in proportion
to the value of the product is of less importance, and in no
case so high, as in South America.
C H A P T E R XXIII.
EXPENSE OF THE GOVERNMENT CINCHONA UNDERTAKING IN JAVA.
For years the government Cinchona culture in Java, has
been spoken of as an undertaking which has swallowed up
millions of dollars of capital. How exaggerated this representa-
tion is, we will show by the figures themselves, which will also
be of use in reckoning the lump sum required to start a
private plantation.
It is beyond our power, or at least beyond the present
moment, to give the amount of the disbursements which were
made for the introduction of Cinchona from America by Hass-
karl's mission. So too, the cost of dwellings for the European
staff, though known, are not included.
It must also be borne in mind, that the Dutch government
253
did not undertake the Javan Cinchona culture as a speculation,
also, that necessarily years were taken up in experiment, in
various places at the same time, the question therefore was not
how to proceed in the most economical way. What was wanted
first and foremost, was to know how to propagate and rear, the
choice of varieties, and the wants of the new denizens. All
work and regulations had this aim in view, to ascertain the
best methods and to pave the way for private planters.
We confine ourselves thus to actual performances, as on
a somewhat moderate scale which the government culture has
had to keep in account in its exceptional development-history.
These are only of interest to the private grower, who himself
must know how much he can afford for administration and
dwellings, but with regard to the capital actually needed for
work, the interest and charges thereon, that naturally is con-
nected with, and dependent on circumstances.
The actual disbursements for Cinchona culture from its intro-
duction, to July 1856 cannot be given with accuracy. They
can however be fairly estimated, for besides Hasskarl's salary,
they are of comparatively little significance.
From 1st July 1856 to 1st May 1858, the returns furnished
to the Audit department, amounted to the sum of 31 24 fr.
34 c. ".
' Costs of clearing lands, salaries to permanent and temporary native staff,
purchase of materials and implements, carriage and other daily requirements.
Form 1 May 1858 to the end of 1859 . . . . . . . . . I5,096 fr. 40 c.
During the year 1860 . . . . . . . . . I2,408 46 »
) » 1861 . . . . . . . . , 16,158 W 36" ×
) » 1862 . . . . . . . . . 24.404 » 68 )
) » ) 1863 . . . . . . . . . 21,039 ) 32 )
) ) » 1864 . . . . . . . . . 16,563 x 46 »
) » ), 1865 . . . . . . . . II,871 » 74 »
) » 1866 . . . . . . . . . I 1,645 64 »
) » ) 1867 . . . . . . . . . I7,379 ) 25 )
) » ) 1868 . . . . . . . . . I7,401 ) 42 )
) » 1869 . . . . . . . . . 24,948 × 77 )
) » 1870 . . . . . . . . . 22,232 ) 17* >
) » 1871 . . . . . . . . . 25,041 29° W
) » 1872 . . . . . . . . . 25,964 » 6I* >
Y) » ) 1873 . . . . . . . . . 25,920 ) 77 )
) » ) 1874 . . . . . . . . . 25,179 ) 55 )
) » 1875 . . . . . . . . . 24,881 ) 5 I }
) » ) 1876 . . . . . . . . . 22,627 W 36" ×
) » ) 1877 . . . . . . . . . 32,575 ) 20° W
) » ) 1878 . . . . . . . . . 29,686 » 57 )
) » o 1879 . . . . . . . . . 32,735 ) 86 )
Total to and including 1879 in francs 461,829.31%
To understand the true import of these figures it must be
remarked that in the years 1864 to 1875 about 700 hectares
were cleared in the primeval forests. Further, amongst the
payments, there are also included considerable sums, which
had not strictly to do with the undertaking itself, such as for
distributing plants amongst the population of the entire Archi-
pelago (1869–71), for sending to various Exhibitions, for experi-
ments, etc. Also the expense of harvesting, treating, packing
and convenance of produce to Tjicao, (the place from which
further carriage to Batavia is done by water) are comprehended
in these figures.
These can be no doubt, that for its kind, the government-
undertaking is carried on, in the most economical way. The
plantations lie mutually far apart, and so it costs more than
would be the case, if they were all close together on one
range of hills, or at least were situated in the neighbourhood
of each other. There was every opportunity for that, but then
255
the culture would not have been an experimental one. It was
essential to try it under unfavourable conditions, and though,
in spite of them, all payments whatsoever are at the present
time already covered by the results of the crops. Yes, if it
were wished to realise the actual crops which are at this moment
in the plantations, the costs of shipment would once again
appear far below the present value.
C H A P T E R XXIV.
PRIVATE CINCHONA PLANTATIONS.
The initiative in these, was taken in 1866 by Heer K. F. Holle,
on his rented grounds (later taken on lease) near Garolt in the
Preanger. We granted with great pleasure the desired coopera-
tion with Holle, and devoted heart and soul to the first begin-
ning so as to assure extend Cinchona culture through the efforts
of private landowners.
By repeated attempts we had aroused Heer Hofland the
proprietor of the extensive estates, Pamanoekan and Tjiasem in
Krawang, to make a trial. There was however no expectation
of profitable results; our representions were often listened to
with the utmost politeness, without being carried into execution.
The second pathmaker amongst the Javan planters was Heer
Seelig, manager of the fine estate Tjiomas in Buitenzorg,
who allowed himself to be persuaded by the friendly com-
pulsion of Governor-General Sloet van de Beele.
In 1866 Heeren Holle and Seelig received a parcel of plants
from the government plantations, and two years later, a trial
was made on the previously mentioned estates in Krawang.
The Cinchona barks which are brought to market in Java at
256
the present time, are derived with relatively insignificant excep-
tions, from the estates Tjiomas, Pamanoekan and Waspada,
aud for several years special attention has been given to the
extension of Cinchona plantations, whose value has now to be
estimated.
In 1869 thousands of plants were distributed throughout
the entire Archipelago, the intention being to make the native
acquainted with, and as far as possible, taken with the denizen,
Everywhere nurseries were made, or single plants were accom-
modated, on the grounds of the aborigines dwelling in the
higher mountains. The excellent opportunity here opened, to
observe the power of growth in various regions, might be at
once a spur and guide to private workpeople, and here and
there to start an undertaking.
The population to the present time, has shown no great liking
for the culture. It requires too much care; the rearing of plants
is not easy, and probably the great advantage or preeminent
importance of the cultivation are not yet sufficiently visible.
On the other hand the results of the government under-
taking are attracting more and more the attention of the land
owners, and from various quarters there constantly come requests
for plants and seeds. In 1874 for the first time, a plot of waste
land was requisitioned, specially for Cinchona culture. From
day to day this occurs in the Preanger, already there are per-
haps twenty plots worked with that end in view, besides others
still whereon coffee or tea is cultivated as well as Cinchona.
For five years past, direct encouragement has not been required,
rather it may be said, that a temporary exaggeration has pre-
vailed, resulting in a feverish hunt for lands 1.
* According to the Colonial return of 1879–80, 26 leaseholders are busied with
Cinchona culture in Java, 9 as the chief concern, 17 as subsidiary. We cannot
consider these returns as complete At three places, in Preanger, Bagelen and
Semarang, crops had already been taken. For several years certain Europeans have
commenced work in Sumatra, with good success from the first The latest official
reports do not mention this.
&
257
The Cinchona planter must reckon, that he must make
pecuniary sacrifices for at least eight years, that he must be (at
least at the outset), dependent upon the issue of seeds from
the government nurseries, and that these may offer abundant
disappointment, as the seed saving of the last two years has
taught, (in consequence of wet weather) so that the chiefly
desired Ledgeriana trees almost all miscarried.
The foregoing facts deserve to be well and seriously pondered;
no one can with certainty define or foretell that within a certain
number of years, he will possess a given extent of Cinchona
plantations; the expenses of management, etc. in the meantime
continue pressing.
The government has from the commencement always shown
itself ready, to accord its co-operation disinterestedly. In British
India, plants and seeds are sold to planters as asked for;
there is much to be said for this system in Java, when once
the value of Cinchona culture has become indisputable.
:*:
#: ;
Countries outside the limits of the East Indian Archipelago
have profited in ample measure from the introduction and well-
being of Cinchona culture in Java. The government attends
really and loyally to all requests for help or co-operation. Plants
and seeds are constantly being exchanged with the English
authorities; where it is possible to help one another, it has
on both sides been readily and promptly done.
By requisition of the governments concerned, or from private
persons, from the government nurseries in Java, seeds and
plants have been repeatedly dispatched to Algeria, Martinique
and Guadaloupe, the Sandwich Islands, Australia, Cochinchina,
Japan, Mauritius, Réunion, New Caledonia and the Portuguese
possessions.
At the various International Exhibitions at Vienna, Paris,
Philadelphia and Amsterdam, complete collections of Javan Cin-
17
258
chona barks made the best impression, and on each occasion
were awarded the highest distinction. Scientific institutions
abroad as well as in the Netherlands did not vainly ask for
material to be placed at their disposal, for study and instruc-
tion, and the Cinchona culture in Java, whose introduction by
the late Professor de Vriese was termed “a pearl in the crown
of the Netherlands”, is really known at the present day over
the entire civilised world, and valued as an undertaking begun
and carried on in the common interest of mankind.
We here take leave of our subject, so far as it relates to
our East Indian colonies ".
The history of our Cinchona culture in all its extent, and
transitions, is in no sense completely told, still less system-
atically followed up, for our chief intention was to lay it open
and make it useful, more especially for the planter and trader.
Although we have kept our attention more to the practical side
than the purely scientific, historical truth has been rigidly
adhered to, and the power of facts, in a culture, so full and
easy to see as that of Cinchona, may be a rich source of
information, for those who would extract such herefrom seriously
and advantageously.
We have in conclusion still to speak of the acclimatization
and its propagation outside the East Indian Archipelago.
This history is rich in important facts and costly lessons;
From the latest official returns there seems to be no great liking for Cinchona
culture among the native population. As to this we must be silent, but lament
that the private growers do not send annual tabular statements to the Director
of government cultures, of the state of their nurseries and plantations. In 1870 we
offered them printed forms for that purpose, at the instigation of thc Society of
Agriculture and Industry at Batavia. These had only to be filled in, and returned
with comments to the above named Director. (See Cinchona report for 1870). In
this fashion hearty co-operation towards information and knowledge, collected from
all, would now have been guaranteed, and satisfied all parties as to their achieve-
ments as well as their disappointments.
259
we must not, however, pass over it in its entire extent, because
thereby our work would overstep its appointed limits, and would
not be of paramount importance to the Javan planter.
Still, a short summary should not be wanting, were it only
to estimate what England performed, France tried, and the
‘Société d'acclimatation' at Paris, continued with unabated energy
to essay.
C H A P T E R XXV.
THE ACCLIMATIZATION OF CINCHONA, OUTSIDE THE LIMITS
OF THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO.
As early as 1813, Dr. Ainslie in his ‘Materia medica’
remarked upon the lamentable fact that no trial had ever been
made, to acclimatize Cinchona in British India.
In 1839 Dr. Forbes Royle, in his work ‘Illustrations of
Himalayan Botany' strongly adverted to the introduction of
the Cinchona plant in British India, and indicated the Nelg-
herries and Sylhet as the most suitable regions. Lord William
Bentinck showed great interest in the question, but it never
resulted in action. After the opportunity of a preliminary
attempt of Blackwood at Lima, to introduce the cochineal
culture into British India, Royle again took up the question
of Cinchona. Three years later, 1850, John Grant of the
(British) East India Company, in a communication, warmly
recommended the undertaking, and in 1852, there were serious
efforts made by the East Indian Government itself, which first
of all published an elaborate opinion of Dr. Falconer, director
of the botanic garden at Calcutta, and a partisan of the ideas
brought forward by Royle. This opinion placed in the fore-
ground, that a properly qualified and equipped person should
260
be charged with a mission to South America. One report after
another was sent to England and urged by Royle. It was to
be expected that the latter would support his representations
with emphasis and force. This occurred in a report of 27 June
1852, wherein he asserted, among other things, that after tea,
there was no plant more desirable to introduce than Cinchona.
Touching the mission to America, all advisers were at one,
that this could only be committed to an experienced scientific
man, since the Cinchona tree had never been an object of
regular culture, and accurate investigations must be made about
its local requirements, in the original forests.
Before passing however, to a recommendation so full of
difficulty, and expensive a measure, the English government
wished first to try how far it could procure this material, by
the assistance and help of its consuls in South America.
The reply from Mr. Mark at Bogota was not encouraging.
Mr. Sullivan in Peru reported that he had applied to Vice-
Consul Crompton at Islay and Arica; the latter gave small
hopes, and his attempts to procure Cinchona seeds broke down.
Mr. Cope at Quito was more successful; he was able to send
several Cinchona plants from Loja, which however reached
England in a hopeless condition.
In 1853, six Calisaya plants were sent to Calcutta, raised
from seed collected by Weddell. They did not reach their
destination alive. No better results were obtained from seeds
sent by Weddell to Mr. Pentland, but these had been kept a
long time; sent to Calcutta, they did not come to germination,
notwithstanding Falconer's earnest care. Meanwhile Royle did
not remain inactive. In 1853 he once more wrote a stringent
communication concerning the acclimatization of Cinchona, and
in March 1856, be made use of a powerful argument with
the East India Company to set about earnest and vigorous
measures. At this juncture, he pointed out Dr. Jamieson,
Professor of Botany in the University of Quito, as the man
261
best fitted to undertake the commission. One year later Royle
made a fresh appeal. The question seemed now to be approaching
its much desired solution, but alas! the true, courageous cham-
pion, one of England's most famous, and, for her colonies especi-
ally, most deserving botanists and naturalists, was not able
to put the crown upon his labour. To his worthy successor,
Dr. Forbes Watson, fell the task in part, to seek out and pro-
pose, to whom might be entrusted the expedition to Ameriea.
In April 1859, Mr. Clements Robert Markham was charged
with this onerous commission. The choice was fortunate. Mark-
ham had already travelled in South America as archaeologist
and ethnologist; he was versed both in the native languages
as well as Spanish, and knowing how much Hasskarl's mission
had awakened the jealousy and suspicion of the population
in the Cinchona districts, he considered it of pressing import.
ance, to be prompt and ready in dealing with the matter. That
was to be accomplished by the commission operating simul-
taneously in different regions, a measure which at the same
time would be less costly.
On Markham's proposal, four expeditions were organised. He
charged himself with collecting C. Calisaya and C. micrantha
in Bolivia and Peru (Caravaya). For the exploration of Ecuador
to obtain C. officina/s and C. succirie&ra plants and seeds,
Spruce was designated, a skilled botanist who had known
South America for years. By recommendation of Sir William
Hooker, Markham and Spruce were respectively furnished with
experienced gardeners, Weir and Cross. When Spruce was ill
in America, Cross worthily carried on his work. To Pritchett
the task was assigned, of searching the forests of Huanuco and
Huamalies to obtain C. nitida and C. glandu/ifera; he also
had been acquainted with the regions for years.
The fourth expedition was charged to explore the forests of
New Granada, for the seeds of C. Pitayo and C. lancifolia.
Towards the close of 1859, Markham had completed his
262
arrangements, so that he was able to start on 17th Decem-
ber of that year from England to Lima, where he arrived
26th January 1860.
We cannot follow the important commission on its difficult
and dangerous paths. Suffice it to say, that it fulfilled its task
with talent and perfect success. Before the end of 1860, the
English possessions received the new nurslings from America,
seeds as well as plants'.
In a highly interesting book, ‘Travels in India and Peru'
(London, Murray, 1862) Markham has described the expedi-
tion entrusted to him, and under his guidance so splendidly
successful, at the same time he has thrown clearer rays of
light over the classic land of the Incas. The same author has
recently brought out a new work, “Peruvian bark. A popular
account of the introduction of Chinchona [sic] into British
India'; London, 188o.
In Bengal, Dr. Anderson, director of the botanic garden
at Calcutta, was charged with the care of Cinchona culture,
which speedily became an accomplished fact at Darjeeling in
the Himalayas. In Madras it was committed to the energetic
William McIvor, and in Ceylon Dr. Thwaites, of Peradeniya,
laid out the grounds at Hakgalle for the now gigantic culture.
On 21st August 1862, there were counted in Madras already
72,568 plants, that is of C. succèruðra 30, 150, C. Calisaya
* In May 1860, Markham was able to dispatch 15 Wardian cases with 529 young
plants (497 C. Calisaya, 25 C. ovata and 7 C. micrantha) from Islay; they arrived how-
ever in a deplorable state at Bombay. A parcel of plants collected by Pritchett,
had no better fate; seeds however (of C. nitida and C. micrantha) sent at the
same time, yielded 890 plants. Spruce was the most fortunate; he was able to send
Io,ooo seeds and 600 plants of C. succirubra to England. Cross who afterwards
went a second time to America, in 1861 sent IOO,Ooo seeds, via Southampton to
British India. On the voyage through the Réd Sea, however, the plants suffered so
greatly, that they reached their place of destination in a hopeless condition. Besides
these, there were 463 C. succirzebra and 6 C. Calisaya plants, brought by Cross
himself from England, and given over to McIvor in a fresh state, together with a
large quantity of seeds.
263
Io50, C. Condamânea var. Uritusing a 41, C. Comdaminea var.
Chahuarguera 20,030, C. Condaminea var. Cresp?//a, 236,
C. ſancifolia I, C. nitiala 8500, C. micrantha 7400, C. peruviana
2995, C. Pahudiana 425 and an unnamed species 2240.
As early as 1863, private persons began to devote them.
selves to the culture. They were readily furnished with plants
from the government nurseries.
The plantations at Darjeeling received their original plants,
partly from the botanic garden at Calcutta, where Anderson
had reared them from American seeds, partly from McIvor at
Ootacamund, partly also from Java, to which place Anderson
betook himself in 1861, to personally inspect the culture
already there advanced.
We have already in Chapter XXII, PRODUCTION AND TRADE,
seen what an enormous extension the culture has received
within a few years, in all parts of British India and Ceylon.
What Minister Pahud did for Java, with regard to Cinchona,
Lord Stanley fulfilled for British India. Royle, Falconer, Forbes
Watson, Sir William Hooker, and his son, J. E. Howard and
others, were the skilful, courageous, and trusty counsellors
who did not remain behind in their competition with the pre-
viously named Dutch scientific men.
Hasskarl was the great executant of the Dutch plans, Mark-
ham fulfilled that task for England, on a greater scale, but
also better prepared and with ampler help. McIvor, Anderson
and Thwaites were by Markham and his coadjutors, put into
positions to lay the foundations of a culture which in 20 years'
time may acquire an unimaginable significance and extent.
If rivalry has prevailed between the English and Dutch
directors of Cinchona culture, it has in no sense harmed the
development of the latter, the most cordial co-operation on
both sides continues undisturbed. Impelled by international
interest, it was held to be a principle of humanity.
In the year 1879 Dr. King the present superintendent of
264
Cinchona culture in Bengal and director of the botanic garden
at Calcutta, visited the government undertaking in Java, shortly
after the well-known Money, one of the foremost British Indian
planters, had also visited our plantations. Both men declared
their full appreciation of what they noticed in Java. In the
second half of 188o, Bernelot Moens, the director of the culture
in Java visited Ceylon, Madras and Bengal.
If we trust that this excellent opportunity for fruitful com-
parisons shall lead to unfettered judgment, still more do we
look for, from the impressions received and the enlarged field
of view, the scientific work carried on, which has so long
been in hand, and most certainly with great completeness and
undisputed knowledge of material, will indicate our present
standpoint in the domain of quinology. We might already
understand both one and the other from private reports and
English periodicals (especially the “Ceylon Observer”), we do
not, however, find ourselves at liberty at the present moment,
to reveal anything. Only a complete report can conduce to
the advantage of the planter and of science; and this the
compilation of Moens purposes to do.
Only we must state the cheering fact, that the hearty co-opera-
tion and mutual estimation between the neighbouring Cinchona
authorities, remain unbroken.
:};
:k #
Fulfilling instructions received, Markham sent seeds from
America to Jamaica, where they were entrusted to the care
of Mr. Wilson, superintendent of the botanic garden. By
November 1861, Wilson was already able to plant out some
in the open ground. He was greatly taken with the new
culture, which he believed to have a great future. At the
close of 1867, one specimen of C. succirućra had reached the
height of 18 feet. Besides this species, C. micrantha and
C. mitida were raised. Shortly after this Wilson retired on
265
his pension, and since that time there seems to have been a
temporary disturbance in the progress and development of
Cinchona in Jamaica.
As far as may be seen, they might have been as forward
there as in the Hindostan and Ceylon; the produce, however,
is still of little significance, as appears from our statements.
From later reports it seems, that Jamaica had already sent to
the London market, in 1878 seven bales, in 1879 six, and in
1880, 303 of Cinchona bark; each bale weighing from 60 to
80 pounds avoirdupois. º
Baron Ferdinand von Mueller, government botanist at Mel-
bourne, in Victoria, and Dr. Walter Hill, his colleague at
Brisbane, in Queensland, have introduced Cinchona. Both autho-
rities extol the good development of the plant, and predict
favourable results. Up to the present time, however, no Cinchona
has been exported from Australia.
In Mauritius also, Trinidad and New Zealand acclimatization
has been tried; as to produce, at least of any exportation, that
is meantime unknown to us. Nor do we know any more, with
certainty of the attempts in Brazil, where Senor Glaziou took
the initiative, which, afterwards received the attention of the
government; still less of Mexico, where the English govern-
ment provided plants and seeds for the Imperial government
for the time being.
The Portuguese have thought the Cinchona plant would
thrive in their various over-sea possessions, Madeira, the
Azores and the Canary Islands, in Goa and at Timor. As
almost everywhere else, the first reports sound very favour-
able, and testify to thankful trust and great expectations. Mean-
time more precise information tarries, and the trade still knows
nothing of any fruit of the culture.
Whether Spain has satisfied her declared wish to introduce
Cinchona into the Philippine Islands we know not; still less
if Russia has passed to an experiment in the Caucasus. Even
266
Turkey and Egypt had good intentions, and private persons
at Alexandria, some years ago, desired a consignment of seeds,
a request which we then, as always, gladly fulfilled.
In 1849 M. Hardy, director of the botanic garden at Hammar,
in Algeria, received some Cinchona plants, which had been
raised under the care of Houllet, in France, from the seeds
collected by Weddell. These were actually the first Cinchona
plants which found a place in the open air, outside their parent
country. La Condamine had already earlier, endeavoured to
make the culture prosper in French Guyana but in vain.
Hardy's cares were not rewarded by good results.
Wardian cases were afterwards sent from Java with plants,
but it seems quite clear that the good expectations, cherished
of the climate in some parts of Algeria, could not be realised.
In 1876 several plants were sent from Java to Japan, and in
1878 a second expedition followed thither for continuing, as
the first experiment was satisfactory.
In Martinique and Guadaloupe again, there was no success.
Better success was attained in Réunion where MM. Morin
and Vinson, have devoted great pains and care for years.
Here also from Java repeatedly, large parcels of seed were
received.
New Caledonia, Cochinchina and Tahiti, have likewise received
material for experiments, and the acclimatization Society at Paris
for a long time took much pains to encourage and further the
acclimatization and culture of Cinchona in the French colonies.
In 1861 it offered a prize of 1500 francs for the actual
introduction of the culture in one of the French colonies or
else in the south of Europa.
On May 1st 1875 this prize was awarded to the previously
mentioned MM. Morin and Vinson. We have every reason to
believe that the Cinchona of Réunion is derived from Javan
267
seed. The late General Morin, formerly Director of the ‘Con-
servatoire des arts et des metiers' at Paris, had entered into
direct relations with us, and received seeds more than once
from us, which he sent to his son. François Pollen the well-
known naturalist, connected with the museum at Leyden, on
his visit to Réunion delivered likewise three small packets
of Javan seed, and by the intervention of the often named
‘Société d'acclimatation', there were seeds procured from Java
on several occasions.
In 1879 Réunion possessed more than 5000 plants from
I to 6 metres in height, and 2500 cuttings and seedlings all
of which by the end of that year, were ready to be trans-
ferred to the open ground. Indeed the care, cost and trouble
which have been incurred by private persons in Réunion, give
every promise of a paying success.
We close this important subject with the hearty wish, that
Cinchona culture wherever it has been introduced, may con-
duce in increasing measure to the profit of the growers, as
well as of mankind in general.
C H A P T E R XXVI.
THE PREPARATION OF QUININE.
Not long after the discovery of the alkaloids in Cinchona
bark, the firm of pharmacists, D'Ailly and Nieuwenhuis at
Amsterdam, was among the first to devote itself to the separa-
tion of quinine. In this course it did not long persevere; it
was confined to the years 1825–30. When the manufacturer's
barks go beyond a certain price in the market, the manufacture
can no longer be carried on at a profit. Abroad, factories were
erected on a large scale, especially for this intention, the action,
268
which here was considered as a subsidiary thing, became further
impossible, whilst abroad they were content to submit patiently
to costly erections.
When the first Javan barks arrived in the Dutch market, the
then head of the old firm D'Ailly and Sons, Heer J. A. Rijk,
prepared a sample of “Sulphas chinicus” from a parcel of
Calisaya, which he offered to the government. The latter
accepted it with great satisfaction, and gave the salt to the
judgment of the skilful, unquestionable authority on the topic,
Dr. J. E. de Vrij. The examination of this led to a most
favourable and flattering report, giving rise to the notion, that
the old industry in the Netherlands would rise again, and with
the increasing imports from Java, a great future would be
assured. #
Such a course however could not be followed. To erect, put
in order, and conduct a factory, which could compete with the
older renowned sister-establishments abroad, would go beyond
the powers of a private firm on account of the high requirements.
No smaller capital than 300,000 to 500,000 guilders' was the
amount of capital estimated to be necessary. Within a short time
however, an active association has taken up the subject, made its
calculations, and applied itself to erecting a factory at Amsterdam.
If this city were once in reality to become the great Cinchona
market, then a factory could be well supported, for the pro-
jector could secure the services and sustenance of an experi-
enced maker.
After the London market, that at Paris is the most important
at the present time. New York in its competition with London,
has lost much of its importance since the abolition by the
United States of the import duties on quinine, in July 1879.
Two large factories are working at Philadelphia, of which it
has been said, that they together turn out more produce than
all the European factories. But these factories do not seem
| From £ 25,000 to £ 41,667 Sterling. B. D. J.
269
able to continue competing with the great European firms, and
America requisitions more and more of quinine salts from
Europe and gradually the New York market will be compelled
to confine itself to pharmaceutical barks.
Although London is more favourably situated than Paris,
which must receive its raw material by a longer journey, from
Havre, yet the Paris market has good development of business,
thanks to the low costs of entrepots, etc. At Paris there are four
quinine factories at work, of which two, Armet de Lisle et Cie,
(maison Pelletier) and A. Calandier, are very extensive, that
of F. Dubosc et Cie, moderately so, and that of Schiffmann
frères the smallest. For distribution, Paris is particularly well
situated, and is as it were a centre for all the continent.
The two large factories at Philadelphia stand under the
name of Messrs. Rosengarten and of Messrs. Porvers and
Weigtman. At London the principal factory is that of the
well known quinologist, Mr. J. E. Howard, and the second of
Whiffen. At Milan is the large Fabrica Lombarda; at Genoa
the undertaking of Dufour. Large factories are also to be met
with at Stuttgart and Frankfort aſ M., respectively of Herren
Jobst and Zimmer, whilst less extensive establishments are
those of Koch at Oppenheim, at Brunswick under the name
of ‘Braunschweigsche Kininefabrik' and one at Stuttgart be-
onging to Boehringer and Sons.
Thus altogether, so far as we know, there are 15 factories,
and the annual production of the above named may probably
be estimated at 15,000 to 25,000 kilos of sulphate of quinine.
That the number should remain so limited, must be the special
knowledge demanded for the extraction from the raw material,
and separating into the one desired form, that of salts. Indis-
putably this knowledge is confined to a few people, and it
remains more or less a secret, which each establishment keeps
to itself. It is said that the British Indian Cinchona barks on
account of their hardness, their amount of secondary alkaloids,
270
and percentage of resin, are still difficult to work in France,
though it seems that both the English and German manu-
factnrers do not experience any invincible difficulties therein.
We do not presume to give more than an outline of the
manufacture; the full treatment of the subject would be out of
the place here. Still for Cinchona planters if not for chemists,
it will not be unwelcome to cast a rapid glance over certain
special points concerning the alkaloids of Cinchona.
C H A P T E R XXVII.
T H E QUIN IN E A L KAL O ID S.
According to De Vrij, the alkaloids occur in Cinchona barks
as chino-tannates, as well as hyper-salts.
If powdered Cinchona bark is treated with water, then the
acid combinations divide into basic and still more acid-alkaloid
salts. The latter are soluble, whilst the former cannot be
extracted by water alone. By this it becomes clear that barks
for pharmaceutical needs, in simple decoctions and infusions,
may yet be excellent for the preparation of quinine, it being
taken for granted, that this alkaloid, which forms combinations
of difficult solubility, was present in certain quantity in the
raw material.
The following gives a connected statement of the principal
alkaloids, of which we cannot further sum up the manifold
derivatives and salts.
a. Quinine \ . C. H. N. O
tº gº ºn tº 1SO1116.1"OUIS
6. Quinidine ſ x - 20 * *24 - > 2 > 2
do. C, H, N, O
(according to Hesse, C, H, N, O.)
c. Cinchonine
a. Cinchonidine }
271
a and d are right-handed in polarisation, 6 and e left-
handed.
e. Amorphous-alkaloid, as such indicated by Hesse in Cin-
chona bark and named, Diconchinine, C, H, N, O, and Dicin-
chonine C, H, N, O,.
a, 6 and c are soluble in ether, c and d not, or hardly so;
a and d are precipitated as almost insoluble tartrates from the
dissolved salts, by potassic or sodic tartrates, whilst the tartrates
of 6, c and e, are easily soluble in water.
Besides these, there are separated from Succirubra barks of
Bengal and Java, Chinamine and Paricine; whilst Hesse has
separated from Calisaya javanica, an alkaloid provisionally
christened Javanine, which is accumulated in the amorphous
basis, and is probably fugitive.
The methods for separation of the alkaloids most commonly
used, are,
(a.) The lime and spirit method, in which fine Cinchona
powder is mixed with milk of lime, and after complete
desiccation, lixiviated with spirit of 90 %. For lixiviation,
tar oil is used in France ".
(6.) The acid method, in which the Cinchona powder
is completely exhausted with water acidulated with hydro-
chloric acid, the resulting liquids percipitated by soda- or
potash-lye, and the alkaloids collected and washed out
with weak lye, and afterwards separated.
This separation of the diverse Cinchona alkaloids, generally
takes place in the factory, by crystallisation of the sulphates
and repeated crystallisation, by which the sulphate of quinine
as the salt most difficult of solution, constantly falls down in
the greatest quantity. The solubility of the different sulphates
* In the earliest times Pelletier and Caventou used dilute sulphuric acid when
boiling down Cinchona. Afterwards by advice of Henry, hydrochloric acid was
made use of. At the present day, other solvents are employed in extraction, and
even De Vrij admits that all the agents applied in the factories are not known
to him. (Nieuw Tijdschrift voor de Pharmacie, February 1880).
272
of quinine, quinidine, cinchonine and cinchonidine, are res.
pectively exhibited by the fractions ++º, ++o, ++w, s'i.
For quantitative determination of the different alkaloids,
these are taken as a whole, together, dried at boiling point
of water, and weighed, afterwards dissolved in dilute hydro-
chloric acid, neutralised, filtered after cooling, and then mixed
with */s of its weight of potassic-sodic-tartrate (salseignette).
After twelve hours, the precipitated tartrates are separated by
filtration from the quinine and cinchonidine, which are dried and
weighed, after which it is again dissolved in hydrochloric acid,
to which solution soda and ether are to be added. The cin-
chonidine remains tolerably insoluble, whilst the etherial quinine
solution, evaporated by the atmosphere, is dried at boiling
point of water, and the quantity of anhydrous quinine is
indicated.
To separate the previously treated tartrates from the mother-
liquor, they are precipitated by soda. The precipitated alka-
loids are obtained by filtration, washed as may be requisite,
the washing repeated with spirit of 40% after drying, by which
the amorphous alkaloid is dissolved and cinchonidine remains
behind.
If quinidine prevails in the bulk, it is precipitated from the
mother-liquor by potassic-iodide as hydro-iodates; the dried
precipitate is dissolved in hydrochloric acid, the quinidine
separated by soda, dried and weighed.
By these short instructions, we do not think we have put
the means into the hands of the non-chemical planter of exa-
mining his barks himself On the contrary, it appears how far
from simple the analytical methods are, and it may be calcu-
lated that much practice is necessary, even for a chemist,
before he can exhibit the exact composition accurately, of so
complex a structure as Cinchona bark. As we have previously
said, analytical research has not uttered its last word on this
score by a long way, and we can only act as a fingerpost,
273
so as to give some notion of the extent and importance of
quinology in its entirety'.
What the future may bring, who will venture to predict?
There is no doubt that the secondary alkaloids of quinine will
be more and more esteemed, and thereby perhaps another
direction given to Cinchona culture; in so far as the quinine-
rich Cinchona species, their right to the chief place will seem
to be disputed. We have, though, remarked that they are not
always the easiest and most luxuriant growing, and it some-
times appears that the cultivation of the vigorous C. succiruára
will really assure great advantages to the planter.
The prices of quinine are subject to violent fluctuations,
which are as much connected with the greater or smaller
importations of manufacturer's bark, as of the temporary want
of this still above-all valued febrifuge. The following state-
ment which merely extends over a short term, shows the
results of the periodical, public contracts at the Hague, for
the state service in the Netherlands and the East-Indies. The
contracts embrace, as a rule, a quantity of 200 kilograms, to
be delivered in parcels of 50 kilograms.
Tendered for * maximum minimum.
26 August 1880 . . . . . . . . . . fr. 256.89 fr. 247.20 per kilo.
21 September 9 . . . . . . . . . . ) 249.70 » 236.80 × )
18 October ) • . . . . . . . . . ) 234.95 » 224.5o )
I2 December ) . . . . . . . . . . )) 222.4 I » 204.98 ) >
29 ) ) • . . . . . . . . . ) 2 I4.3O » 203.OI ) )
21 January 1881 . . . . . . . . . . ) 223.− » 215.46 » 2
3 March ) . . . . . . . . . . » 262.33 » 237.87 ) >
14 April ) . . . . . . . . . . )) 224-40 Y) 2 I I.- ) Y)
Contracts were accepted by four parties in the month of
March for 300 kilograms quinetum prepared from East Indian
* The Grahe Cinchona test rests upon the property of quinine, cinchonidine and
isomerous bodies in the barks containing them, to develope carmine-red vapours
by heating in a test-tube. Barks which do not possess the named alkaloids, yield
only brown coloured fumes, and finally a brown tar. This test has some value as
an indicator, but none as a means of registering. The carmine-red fumes are
characteristic.
274
bark. The tenders ran from 40 francs to 72.89 francs per
kilo. On the 27th and 31st May following 200 and 300 kilo-
erams of sulphate of quinine were contracted for. For the
first contract, the minimum tender was 194.95 francs; the
maximum at the same, 206.70 francs. At the second, the
minimum I 91.50 francs, the maximum 204.88 francs. The
quinetum 'prepared from East Indian C. succăruðra bark pos-
sesses cinchonine, cinchonidine, amorphous alkaloids, quinine,
besides water and impurities, and is left-handed in polarisation.
Each manufacturer will turn out these alkaloids in various
quantities, and in different mutual relation, as may be under-
stood from the statement of the analyses of C. succăruára
barks, which are given on pages II 5–I I 9 and also ascertained
by numerous examinations of de Heeren De Vrij, Stoeder, Moens,
Mr. Wood, etc. De Vrij reported in the ‘Nieuw tijdschrift
van pharmacie', 1878, p. 179, that the percentage of quinine
plus cinchonidine in quinetum prepared by him, varied from
39% to 70%, whilst in the quinetum of commerce, it varied
from 28% to 68%. Meanwhile the secondary alkaloids in the
great factories are obtained in such large quantities, that there
would be no trouble in producing a quinetum of definite con-
stitution by mixing. The prices of the salts of the bye-alkaloids
are far below those of quinine; quinidine is the most valuable
which, however, occurs the most scantily, after it follow cincho-
nidine, cinchonine, chinoidine. The prices of these alkaloids
also vary much, but that they remain far below those of
quinine, is well shown by the result of the public contracts
for this end 1.
The minimum tender was 40 francs per kilo, the delivery appeared granted at
the price of 60 francs. We add that once it happened, that 7.5% alkaloid was
separated from a large parcel of Succirubra bark, then for the contract delivery
of 300 kilograms of quinetum, 4000 kilos of raw material is needed, and if this
is bought at 3 francs per kilogram, the buying price of the raw material alone is
as much as the minimum price, for which the quinetum was to be delivered. In-
stead of 7.5% however, on an average at most not more than 6% alkaloids may
be calculated on, and the lowness of the tenders seen from this side, become patent.
275
With this we consider our task as regards the Cinchona
planter complete.
We have kept strictly to fact in our history, and especially
in this most important staple, may it be as a compass by
which the producer may direct his course.
F I N I S.
I N D E X.
Acid method of making quinine 271
Acids found in Cinchona bark . Io?
Acclimatization experiments . 259
of Cinchona urged sº I3
Accuracy of description by vendor
requisite in trade . . . . 2 IO
Acuna, Christoval de, his account
of Texeira’s mission . . . . 4.
Administration of Cinchona . 2 II
Admixture of barks. . . . . 8
Advantages of shaving bark . . 196
Age connected with alkaloid de-
velopment . . . . . . I IQ
fit for cropping . . I 85
necessary to develope the
alkaloid in bark . . . . . IO6
Ages of trees as affecting alka-
loids . . . . . . 88
Ainslie, his wish to introduce
Cinchona into India . . . . 259
Ajang-range, experimental plan-
ting in . . . . . . . . 58
Alang-alang, a grass (Imperata
arundinacea) as shading mate-
rial. . 69, I 52
used in mossing . . . . I23
will thrive when all else
dies. tº º ſº I6O—I68
Algeria, abortive attempts to in-
troduce Cinchona into . 38
— Cinchona plants in . 266
stock sent to . . . . . 257
Alkaloid-formation, if affected by
outward circumstances . 88
Alkaloids, amorphous Ioy
Alkaloids developed with age I Ig
—— first separated . e tº I 2
—— in the young barks . IO6
in various Javan barks. 85–86
quinine . . . . . . 27o
subsidiary, often efficacious 212
Amorphous alkaloid, its compo-
sition . . . . . . 271
in Calisaya bark . . . IOZ
Amsterdam exhibition, bark at . 257
market, success of. . . . 247
proposed quinine factory at 268
Analysis of barks, for guidance in
culture. . . . . . . 84
of Ledgeriana barks IO9
— of Officinalis bark II 2
— of samples . 24 I
— of species . . . . I 17
of Succirubra bark . . I I 2
Anhydrous quinine, how deter-
mined . . . . . . . . . 272
Anderson, Dr., charged with Cin-
chona culture . . . . 262
Andes, Cinchona regions of . 3 I
climate of . • . . . 33
Andes and the Amazon, a book
so-called . . . . . . . I4
Antanan, a species of Hydrocotyle 158
Appearance of cuttings often de-
ceptive - . . . . . 50
Appolzer on secondary alkaloids. 212
Arable surface affected by expo-
Sure. . . . . . . . . . I6O
Areca palm-fibre or indjoek, used
instead of moss. . . . I 25
278
Arica, failure to obtain seeds from 26o
Aricine occasionally found in bark Io/
Armet de Lisle et Cie, their qui-
nine factory at Paris . . . . 269
Artificial heat in drying 2O4
hybridization º I37
preparation of quinine . 2 I 5
—— premium offered for
its preparation . . . . . . 14
propagation . . . . . I38
Aspect in relation to growth I 59
Astringency in Cinchona bark in
inner layer . . . . . . . 243
Auctions in Netherlands, sale con-
ditions of. e tº e 244–246
of Javan Cinchona 22 I
Australia, Cinchona introduced
into. . . . . . . . 257, 265
Azores, Cinchona culture intro-
duced into the . 265
Bales, marks on . tº 2 IO
packing in . 2O8—209
Bamboo blinds used in culture . I 52
knife for barking . 2OO
pots for Cinchona I 3O
— —— their use discontinued 8O
racks for drying barks. 2O3
Bark, costs of freight, etc. 247
—— estimated average produce 198
false, from Santa Cruz and
Cochabamda . . . . . . 29
—— first brought to Europe . 4.
from Carabaya . . . . 29
—— from Caupolican . . . 29
— grooves in . 243
harvesting . . . . . . 200
—— how distinguishable . . . 99
influence of appearance or
price of . © 24. I
its preparation in the forests 7
—— Javan, Sold . . . . . 22 I
— loss of weight by drying . I97
—— lost in Red Sea . . . . 22O
—— of C. officinalis analysed I I 2
—— of C. Succirubra . IOO
—— of Ledgeriana, its analyses IO9
—— renewal after shaving I93
—— renewed, appearance of I27—I 28
—— richer than mossed . I93
—— sorting 2O2—2O5
Bark of trees when shaded, its
thinness . . . . . . . . 79
Bark-layers, respective richness of
I 22—I 23
Bark-scales apt to be thrown off
by old trees e I23
Barks, acids found in . . IO7
—— analysed for seed trees . 84
—— of best quality not yet sent
from Java . . . . . 96
—— became mixed in trade . 5
—— British Indian, stated to be
difficult to work by French, . 269
—— dimensions when cut 2OI
—— hard and Soft . 2I 3
—— of 2 % alkaloid . . . . 28
—— their appearance when cove-
red with moss . I9 I—I92
—— trade names from shipment
ports . . . . . . . . 242
Batavia, water carriage of bark to, 254
Baumwachs, Cold grafting wax . I48
Beetle injurious to Cinchona . 177
Bengal as bark producing. 217
—— exchanges with Java . . 77
—— land reserved in, . I64
—— visited by Moens. . . 264
Bentinck, Lord William, his in-
terest in Cinchona culture in
India * * * 259
Bergen in Peru . . . . . . I I
Besoeki, experimental planting in, 58
Bibliography of Cinchona . . . I I
Bitterness in Cinchona bark, in
Outer layer . . . . . 243
Blinds for shading plants . I 52
Blume, his attempts to introduce
Cinchona into Java . . . . 39
—— — to see Cinchona plant
growing at Leyden . . . . 65
Boedjang, a native labourer . . 64
Boehme, useful survey instrument
by . . . . . . . . . . I6 I
Boehringer & Sons, factory at
Stuttgart . . . . . . . . 269
Bogota, Consul Mark at, his abor-
tive attempts to procure seeds 26o
Bolivia, Calisaya bark yielded by 242
—— Cinchona regions of . . . 31
—— culture in I7—18
279
Bolivia, export duties in . . . 15
—— Ledger's seeds from Cau-
polican in . . . . . . 9I
—— Markham's mission to . 261
Bonpland in Peru . . . . . 71
Bostrichus, a beetle harmful to
Cinchona . . . . . . . I77
Bouchardat on secondary alkaloids 212
Bouw, quantity of land defined 78
—— number of plants in each,
when planted close . . I 86
—— amount returned from each I 74
Box-compass for surveying I6I
Branches, to be removed when
needed . . . . . . . I76
‘Braunschweigsche Kininefabrik’. 169
Brazil, attempt to introduce Cin-
chona into . . . . . . . 265
Briquat on secondary alkaloids . 212
Brisbane, Cinchona culture at 265
British India, Cinchona culture in,
compared with Java . 83
Brittleness of Cinchona bark . 243
—— fresh-peeled bark. 2O I
—— renewed bark . I 28
Broughton, his investigations . IO8
Brunswick, factory at . . . 269
Brushes for cleaning rootbark 2O4
Brushing the bark done by natives 7–8
Buena hexandra, its bark yielding
Paricine . . . . . . . . IO6
Buffalo horn knife for barking 2OO
Burg, Van der, his researches IO8
Bye-alkaloids, quinetum made by
mixing . . 274
C. C. L = mark for Ledgeriana 2 IO
C. O. = mark for Officinalis 2 IO
C. S. = mark for Succirubra 2 IO
Cabrera y Bobadilla, Viceroy of
Peru in 1636 . . . . . . 3
Cadiz, orange bark burnt at . . 6
Calandier, quinine manufacturer
at Paris, . . . . . . . . 269
Calcutta, Calisaya plants sent to,
from Weddell's seeds 26O
Calisaya, development of first 44–47
—— Javan, . . . 26
—— so called ë $ I 7
Cambium layer, effects in renew-
ing, when not touched . 193
Cambium of scion and graft must
meet . . . . . . . . . I49
Canary Islands, Cinchona culture
introduced into 265
Canizares, Juan Lopez de, recom-
mends Cinchona to Countess
Del Chinchon . . . . * 3
Capsules, seed, their contents 36
Carabaya or Caravaya bark. 29
Caracas, the northernmost limit
of Cinchona . 32
Caravaya, Markham's mission to 261
Cardinal's powder . . . 4
Carthagena bark, so called 242
Cascarilla muzoniensis, cultivated
at Weltevreden as Cinchona . 44
Cascarilleros, their method of
working . . . . . . . . 6
Cases for Javan bark 2O7—208
—— marks on dº 2 IO
Caucasus, Cinchona in . 265
Caupolican bark . . . . . . 29
Caupolican, Ledger's seeds from, 91
Caventou and Pelletier discover
Cinchona alkaloids IO6
Ceylon as bark producing. 217
—— Cinchona introduced into . 262
—— exchanges with Java 77
—— visited by Moens. 264
“Ceylon Observer” newspaper,
reports in, . . . . . 274
Characters of C. Calisaya. 55
Charges on transit of bark 247
Chemical investigations. IO6
—— testing of barks 272
Chemist to Cinchona culture ap-
pointed . º 89
China, a Spanish corruption of
the native name . . . . .
Chinamine from Succirubra bark 27 I
Chinchon, Count del, sends Tex-
eira to Cinchona regions
—— Countess del, cured by Cin-
chona . . . . . . . . . 3
Chinchona, Mr. Markham's me-
thod of spelling Cinchona . 262
Chinoidine, mentioned . 274
Cinchona, its administration . 2 I I
—— amygdalifolia, seeds received
from Hasskarl . 44
280
Cinchona amygdalifolia, no seeds
of Hasskarl’s reared . . . 66
anglica a variety of C. Cali-
Saya . . . . . 89
—— —— its origin 97
—— —— leaf of . . . . . 35
—— bark first brought to Europe 4
botanic account of . . . 34
—— burnt at Cadiz * * 6
—— Calisaya at Paris in 1851 . 44
—— —— characters compared
with C. ovata . . . . 55
* =m. cuttings, only ten per
cent. failed with Junghuhn. 49
sºmºsºms ºsmºsºme five varieties of leaf-
form in * * * g e 55
—— — — its origin in Java 89
—— —— numbers reported IO4
— —— leaf of 35–37
gº ºsmºsºm & seeds from Hasskarl 47
—— —— var. Ledgeriana, one
of the three selected. . 88
— var. microcaspa = C.
Ledgeriana . . . . . . . 94
—— —— var. Schuhkraft, its
origin . . . . . . . 75
* * zone as estimated by
Junghuhn. . . . . . . . 32
—— caloptera termed Kortefolia 60
—— —— account of . . I O2
—— —— leaf of 35–37
—— Condaminea, Kunth = d.
officinalis, L. . . .
culture,
forestry * * * * g e
dubia = C. Hasskarliana .
its exploitation in native
Country . .
— febrifuge .
—— flowers first seen
forced sale of .
in Java .
—— genus revised by Mique 60–61
—— Hasskarliana, its origin .
—— — — its origin— two varie-
ties of tº º
—— —— leaf of
—— introduced into Java .
—— javanica, a variety of C. Cali-
Saya
varieties of, at Madras 263
a department of
I65
7
6
2 I 3
6O
I
67
IOI
35
38
89
Cinchona lancifolia, number re-
ported . . . . . . . . IO4
*** *sº yielding Pitayo. bark,
origin of . . . . . . . . IO2
* =gº zone as estimated by
Junghuhn. . . . . . 32
—— Ledgeriana, a variety of
C. Calisaya . . . . . . 89
—— — bark, high price real-
ised by first samples 93
analyses of . IO9
—— —— analysed according to
ages of portions I2O— I 2 I
—— —— distinguishing charac-
terS . . . . . . . . IOO
*Eºmº º first growth . . . 77
—— — — first seeds harvested 94
—— —— its origin . 90–96
—— — — numbers reported IO5
—— micrantha, derived from India IOI
—— — — leaf of . 35–37
—— — — numbers reported IO4.
—— never forms exclusive forests 28
—— officinalis, analysis of bark of II 2
—— —— cuttings . . . . . 49
—— —— discovered by La Con-
damine . . . . . . . . 5
its distinguishing cha-
racters. . . . . . . 98
—— — — its native country 32
—— — — its origin in Java. 98
—— — its poor growth I I 2
—— — — leaf . . 35–37
—— —— name restored by
Hooker . . 5
— — —— numbers reported IO4—IO5
—— plantations destroyed
by Helopeltis . . . . . . 183
—— —— one of the three selected 88
—— — — var, Chahuarguera . 95
—— —— var. Crispa . . . . 98
— —— var. Uritusinga . 98–99
— ovata, seeds from Hasskarl 47
––– Pahudiana, domiciled in Java IOI
— — —— leaf of 35
— — —— numbers raised by
Junghuhn . . . . . IO4.
— — — — its poverty in alkaloids 72–73
—— — — named by Howard .. 66
—— — — propagation forbidden 66
281
| Cinoleine 2 I 5
Cinoline . . . . . 215–216
Clay pots made by labourers 8O
soil, its treatment . . . I 58
—— necessary for self-sown plant 130
Cleaning the seeds . tº º I38
Clean-keeping of plantations . I75
Clearing jungle I 53
—— in Java . . . . . . . I62
Cleft-grafting Cinchona . . . . I41
Coal-tar product resembling qui-
nine . . . . . . . . . 2 I 5
Cochabamba false bark 29
Cochinchina, stock sent to 257, 266
Coffee plantations at Lembang
given up and used for Cinchona 68–69
Colour divisions of bark, quite
Cinchona planted with shelter trees 56
—— plants sent by Hasskarl 4 I
—— pubescens mentioned as
being at Tjibodas. . . 5 I
— — — — seeds from Hasskarl 47
—— regions of Andes. 3 I
—— rust, account of I79
—— —— on C. officinalis 99
Schuhkraft, a variety of C.
Calisaya . . . . . . 23, 89
—— seed, its chances of germina-
tion in a state of nature IO
—— —— its prospects of ger-
mination after travelling 5O
—— — — sowing . . . . . . 129
— — sent to Netherlands for sale
in 1869 . . . . 83
—— species in 1863 72
––– —— and varieties cultivated
in Java . . . . . . . . 89
—— succirubra analysed, accord-
ing to age of portions . I IQ—I2O
*=ººmsº analysis of its bark . I 12
—— —— bark from British India
yielding Paricine & Quinamine IO6
—— —— cuttings . 49
—— —— its native country 32
— — — — its history in Java 99
— — — — its robustness . II 2
—— — — leaf of . 35–37
numbers reported IO4—IO5
one of the three to be
Cinchovatine found in bark IO7
propagated . . . . . . . 88
–– Uritusinga from Pavon's de-
Scription . . . . . . . . 99
Cinchoneae, a tribe of Rubiaceae 34
Cinchonamine discovered by Ou-
demans . . . . . . . . IO6
Cinchonidine absent from Ledger-
iana bark . . . . . I I 8
always greater in roots than
StemS . tº s e º ºt II 8
—— composition of . . . 27O
— discovered by Winckler IO6
—— solubility of . . . . . 272
Cinchonine, composition of . , 27O
—— discovered by Pelletier and
Caventou . . . . . . IO6
solubility of . . . 272
illusory . . . . . . . 212
Columbia, formerly called New
Granada, its Cinchona region 31
—— bark So called. 242
Commerce in bark . 217
Compass for surveying . I6 I
Conchinine discovered by Henry
and Delondre . . . . . IO6
Conditions of sale in Nether-
lands . . . . . . 244-246
—— to be observed in grafting 148
Consular attempts to procure seeds
for English government. 26O
Consuls in South America re-
quired to procure seeds 75
Cope, Consul, sends plants from
Quito . & º & º º 26O
Coppicing . . . . . . . 25
—— Cinchona officinalis . , 99
Copulirscheere, or German graft-
ing shears I 28
Cortex sine epiderme . 243
Costs of planting in Bolivia . 20–22
—— government Cinchona cul-
ture in Java. e 252—254
Criticism of Teijsmann and Hass-
karl by Junghuhn . . 61—62
Crompton, Vice-Consul, his failure
to obtain seeds . . . . 260
Crop, when and how to be taken 185
Cropping the bark . . . . . 200
Cross, his help in Spruce's mission 261
—— seeds sent by . 262
282
Destruction of C. plants in forests 78
Devastation of Cinchona forests Io
De Vogel, his ideas on Cinchona
culture . . . . . . 39
De Vriese's confirmation of Hass-
karl’s species . . . . 55
—— calls attention to Cinchona
culture . . . . . . 39
—— his work in Java mentioned, Io&
sends a plant of Cinchona
Calisaya to Java . . . . 44
—— visit mentioned 65
—— work on Cinchona 65
Dichasium, explanation of the term 35
Dicinchonine, its composition. 27I
Diconchinine, its composition. 271
Dièng, plantation at . . 58
Diestros, the most experienced
cascarilleros . . . 7
Differences in tare weight. 273—274
Digging plantations . e I72
Dimensions of Javan barks 2O I
Diminishing production of bark in
South America . . . I4
Dimorphism of Cinchona flowers
36, I 36
Disafforesting, changes of climate
resulting from I6O
Discovery of therapeutic virtue
of Cinchona . . . . . . . 3
Diseases of Cinchona 177
Dispatch of seeds I 38
Dispoline • e º ºs e e 2I 5
Dispute as to value of Cinchona
species . . . 65
Drainage of estate & I 56
Drought, its effects on soils . I68
—— in Bolivia, and its influence
on planting . * * * 24
Drying the bark . . . . 2OO
—— in the Cinchona forests . 7
—— weight of bark lost by I97
Dubosc et Cie, quinine makers in
Paris . . . . . . . 269
Dufour, manufacturer in Genoa , 269
Dutch government, one half of
Ledger's seeds bought by . 9I
Ecuador, Cinchona regions of 3 I
—— Loja or Loxa bark, from 32
—— Spruce's mission to . I 5–26
Darjeeling, Cinchona culture at 262—263
Deaths of early planted trees not
caused by clearing . . . . 56
Deceptive appearance of cuttings 50
Degeneration of Cinchona. 37
—— feared when seed only is
used for propagation . . . .
Del Chinchon, Countess of, cured
by Cinchona . . .
* G & 3
Delay in harvesting not injurious 185
Delondre in South America . I I
—— his laments regarding the
natives' wastefulness . . . . 9
—— and Bouchardat, their ac-
count of bark-trade tricks . . 6
—— with Henry discovers Con-
Crown-grafting Cinchona I4 I
—— recommended for renewing
a plantation after cropping I46
Cultivation of Cinchona in its own
country º I I
—— in Bolivia . . . 17
—— urged by Weddell I 3
Cusconine found in bark Io?
Cutting tools in propagating to
be avoided . . . . . I 34
Cutting-over for cropping . I66
Cuttings of Cinchona . . . . 139
—— of Calisaya, Junghuhn's suc-
cess in making . 49
—— of Ledgeriana . I4O
—— on Henderson's plan I43
—— readily obtained from C.
succirubra & a wº IOO
—— sent in Musa leaves . 57
—— only of C. Succirubra and
officinalis succeed . . . 49
—— their deceptive appearance 50
Cyme, inflorescence of Cinchona
described as a, . . . . 35
Dadaps, various species of Ery-
thrina . . . . . . . . 56
D'Ailly, experiments of, on loss
of weight . . . . . . . 223
D'Ailly and Nieuwenhuis, their
preparation of quinine 267
chinine tº ge IO6
Denudation by rains g 156
Dermestes, a beetle injurious to
Cinchona. 177
283
‘Fredrik Hendrik', Cinchona sent
to Java by . . . . . . .
Freight charges on bark . ſº
French colonies, prize for Cin-
chona culture in * e tº
Fritze mentioned in relation to
Cinchona culture .
Fruit of various species
“Fungus in Rust” e ‘p tº
Fungoid enemies of Cinchona
Fungoid growth the result of care-
lessness * * * * * *
Gammie, his success with Led-
ger's seeds . . . . . . .
Gaudichaud, Richard and Jussieu,
report on culture .
‘Gedeh', Hasskarl’s
plants conveyed to Java by .
Gedong-banteng,junghuhn's head-
quarters at • sº e < * *
Gemoeti cord from Areca fibre
Gemoste (mossed) bark
Genoa, manufactory at,
Germination of Cinchona .
—— on Teijsmann's plan.
Geregeneered (renewed) bark
Girth of Cinchona trees g
Glaziou, Senor, attempts Cinchona
culture in Brazil * * *
Goa, Cinchona culture introduced
into sº e º ºs s sº º º
Gorkom, van, appointed Chief in-
spector of culture . . . . .
appointed successor to Jung-
huhn tº º º
—— his training . . . . . .
Government sales of Javan Cin-
chona . 4s º gº & º º
Gradients, the steepest allow-
able . . . .
Grafting Cinchona
—— best period for
Grafting-knife, German .
Grafting-shears German
Grafting-wax, two kinds
Grahe Cinchona test. * *
Grant's recommendations as to
Cinchona . • * * * *
Grass allowed to grow on paths.
Grooves in bark . it tº
Cinchona
Effects of seasons on yield of alka-
loid . . . . . . . . I 22
Eggs of Helopeltis discovered I 82
—-— of destructive insect, fancied
discovery of . . . . . I8O
Egypt and Cinchona culture . 266
Elevation, whether it affects the
alkaloids . 88, 122
Enemies of Cinchona 177
England, Talbor carries the bark
from . . . . . . . . . 4
Erection of propagating houses . I 50
Erythrina used as a shade plant 56
Establishments given up . . . 79
Exhaustion, so called, of Cinchona
plantations . . . . . I66
Experimental nature of govern-
mental planting . 98, 189
Experiments carried out on early
Cinchona plants . . . . . 46
Exploitation in native country of
Cinchona . . . . . . . . 6
Exports of bark from Bolivia . 16
Exposure of arable surface to
Sun, its bad effects . . I6O
—— affecting alkaloids . . . 88
Extent of Cinchona regions . . 32
Falconer's opinions as to Cinchona
introduction . . . 259—26O
Felling timber for culture . I 54
Fibre plugs to bamboo pots . . I 30
Finger-grooves in bark. 243
Flowering of Cinchona . I 35
Flowers first seen in Java . . 60
—— in various species, their co-
lour . . . . . . . 36–37
—— of Cinchona with tea 2 I 3
Fluctuation in prices of bark. 221
—— of quinine . . . . 273
Forests, effects of clearing . . I69
—— felling of, deprecated by the
Inland department . . . 82
—— first planting in the . . . 57
—— systematically felled . . . 8O
Formation of alkaloids, whether af-
fected by outward circumstances 88
Frames in propagating houses I45
Frankfort, manufactory at . 269
Fraser, English Consul at Batavia,
his assistance in exchanging . 77
44
247
259
I 59
2 I 3
284
Grubbing-up trees usually not
|
done when clearing . . . I 53
Grubs, destructive, I78–179
Gruis or dust, usually poor I I6
Guadaloupe, stock sent to, 257–266
Guide to culture by Junghuhn 58
Gunny bags, used for tying grafts. 145
—— —— for packing bark . 2O8
Gutters by sides of paths. I 59
Guyana, abortive attempts to
grow Cinchona in , . . . . 266
Haarlem, specimen of early Cin-
chona at museum in . . . 45
Hague, contracts at the, for qui-
nine . . . . . . 273–274
Hamburg, Javan Cinchona not yet
appreciated in . . . . . 248
Hammar, Cinchona plants at, 266
Handpicking of Helopeltis. 183
Hard barks, so called . . 242
Hardy, his Cinchona plants in
Algeria tº e g - 266
Harvesting the bark I84—2OO
Harvests, explanation of recent
small, . . . . . . . 22O
Hasskarl, arrival in Java, . . 49
—— charged with direction of
Cinchona culture . 43
— — —— resigns it . . . .
—— his mission to South Ame-
rica tº º e Q . I I, 40–43
Hasskarl’s mission, its lessons
learnt by English expedition . 261
—— return to Europe. . 56
—— specimens from America . 60
Height of Cinchona trees . 37
Helmont, van, his experiment
on a willow cutting . . . . I65
Helopeltis, attack by a species
of, in 1878 . . . . . . . 183
—— Antonii, causing Cinchona
ruSt. * @ e º 'º' I82
theivora, or tea-bug, . I 82
Hembra,the short-stamened flower I 36
Hemipterous insect causing rust 181
Henderson's plan of preparing
cuttings I 43
Henry and Delondrediscover Con-
chinine
Hesse, his Homocinchonine 2I 5
|
|
|
{
Hesse, Javanine separated by
—— his researches. tº e
Heed-orok, a destructive grey larva
Hill, Dr. W., and Cinchona culture
at Brisbane . . . . . . .
Hilly country, method of clearing
Himalayas, Cinchona culture at
Darjeeling in the, .
History of Cinchona
Homocinchonine, Hesse on,
Hoogewerff’s researches on artifi-
cial quinine. . . . . . .
Hooker, Sir W. J., on Cinchona
acclimatization . • * * *
—— his aid in Cinchona culture
Hoops round bales . . º
Horn-knife for barking . . . .
Howard, Mr. J. E., Cinchona Pahu-
diana named by, . . . .
—— his help in Indian Cinchona
culture . . . . . . . .
—— his “Quinology of the East
Indian Plantations”. II,
—— his researches tº º
Howard and Sons, manufacturers
in London . . . . . . .
Huamalies, Pritchett's mission to,
Huanaco, Pritchett's mission to,
Humboldt and Bonpland in Peru
Humus or vegetable mould
Hybrids arising from seeds
Hybrids in various forms very
COIIll I) Ol) . e e s e º 'º'
Hydrochloric acid used in ex-
traction • e º e > *
India, Ainslie and others urge Cin-
chona culture in • * *
—— Cinchona culture in, as Com-
pared with Java
Indian quinine . . . . .
Indigo culture, its lessons .
Indjoek fibre from palm leaves
used instead of moss ©
—— made into cord . . . .
—— used to plug bamboo pots
Inflorescence of various species
Imperata arundinacea, a weed .
—— used instead of moss
IO6 Import duties of quinine on United
States abolished
271
IO8
178
265
I 55
262
2 I 5
2I 5
62
263
209
2OO
66
263
185
IO8
269
26 I
26I
I I
I 58
47
IO3
27I
259
82
23
2I6
I25
I 52
I 30
35
69
I45
268
285
Instructions drawn up by Jung-
huhn for Cinchona cultnre. 58
Insect causing Rust . . . . I82
Insect-fertilization of Cinchona I 37
Insects injurious to Cinchona. 177
Insecurity of planters in Bolivia. 25–26
!
|
i
t
|
t
t
Introduction of Cinchona into Java 38
Introductory remarks I
Irrigation of estates . . . I 56
—— to be kept in mind . . . I 76
Islay, failure of English consuls
to obtain seeds from . 26O .
Isolation of choice varieties 138
—— of varieties and species not
always possible 88
Jamaica, Seeds sent to, . . 264
—— little return from, . . . 265
Jamieson, Dr., recommended as a
Cinchona expert by Royle 26O
January, Cinchona flowering in, . I 36
Japan, stock sent to. 257, 266
Java, as a bark producing Country 217
—— exchanges with British pos-
Sessions . . . . . . . . 77
—— introduction of Cinchona into 38
—— slow development of culture
in, compared to British India 83
—— temperature in, compared
with Andes . . . . . . . 33
Javan barks, the best not as yet
sent to market. . . . . . 96
Javan Cinchona, first method of
packing . . . . . . . . 207
—— —— Sold at Amsterdam . 219
Javanine, an alkaloid separated
by Hesse . . . . . . . . 27 I
—— found in bark . 187
Jesuit's powder • • * 4.
Jobst, manufacturer in Stuttgart 269
Junghuhn's arrival in Java with
Cinchona plants . . 53
—— character and work . . . 61
—— charge of Cinchona culture
in Java . . . . . . . . 56
—— code of instructions for Cin-
chona culture . . . . . . 58
—— death . 7O
—— estimates of Cinchona zones 32
—— first arrangements with Dutch
Government.
Junghuhn, his first attempts as to
Cinchona culture 39
—— first report . . . 56
—— grave at Lembang 7o
—— illness. . . . . . 69
—— imported flower-pots from
Netherlands . . . . . 8O
—— projected mission to South
America . . . . . . 40
—— theories as to proper tem-
perature for Cinchona culture 34
—— war against insect enemies 178
Jungle, clearing, for culture I 53
Jussieu, J. de, in South America II
Jussieu, Richard, and Gaudichaud,
recommend culture . . . . I 3
Kandang-batak, nursery at . . I 8
Karsten's opinion of trade mysti-
fications . . . . . . . . 5
—— seeds of C. lancifolia . . IO2
—— —— how obtained . . 54
Kassoh, or reed, blinds for pro-
pagating houses I 52
Kawah-Tjiwidei estate . 64
—— changes at, . . . . . 79
Kendeng, original planting in, 58
Kerner's remarks on the bark
arriving in Europe I4.
—— researches º IO8
Kina, the native name . 4
Kina-kina 4.
||
King, Dr., visits java 96. 263–26,
Knife for stripping I 27
—— used in barking 2OO
Koch, manufacturer at Oppenheim 269
Koelis or Coolies, as day labourers 64
Kortefolia, a Javan name for C.
caloptera . . . . . . . . 60
Korthals, mentioned in connection
with Cinchona culture 39
Labour question in Java 87
Labourers in nurseries . . . 64
La Condamine in South America II
—— his knowledge of the Cin-
chona tree . . . . . . . 5
Larvae harmful to Cinchona . 178
Layers, taken at Tjibodas 59
—— moderate success of I4 I
Leaf when attacked by rust, its
appearance . I79—18O
286
Leaf-form in various species . 35
and colour . • . . . 37
—— of C. Calisaya, five varieties of 55
Leaves, their appearance in good
and bad grafting . . . I 45
Ledger, account of his seeds 90–96
Lembang establishment . 64
—— Junghuhn's grave at, 7o
—— overrun with alang-alang
grass . e 9 s tº e 176
—— propagating house at 64
Lepidine . . . . . . . . 2I 5
Level country, how cleared . II 5
Lewis and Peat, Reports by 248—251
Leyden garden, Cinchona plant
recognised there , 65
—— herbarium, dried Cinchona
specimen in . 6O
—— plant from . 54
Liber-cells of bark . . I 94.
Lichen-growth, outward change
of bark due to . . . 242
Lichens on Cinchona barks give
a character to them . . . . 127
Light as affecting yield of alkaloids 122
Lime in barks. . . . . I65
—— Sulphate of, used to combat
“rust” . . . . . . . . I 80
Lime and spirit method of making
Quinine e ‘s e 271
Loamy soil . . . . . . . . I58
Loja, formerly called Loxa, Ecua-
dor barks from . . . . . 32
—— plants sent by Consul Cope
from 26O
London, Cinchona collected by
Mutis, secretly sold in . . . 6
—— Cinchona reports from . 248
—— manufacturers in, 269
— market the most important 268
—— Samples as taken in . 24. I
Lorrok-Kidoel estate . . 64
—— removed to Kawah-Tjiwidie 75
Losses of Cinchona due to insects 178
Louis XIV, his purchase of the bark 4
Loxa, now called Loja, bark from 32
Macho, the long-stamened flower 136
McIvor, Cinchona culture by. 262
—— exchanges C.succirubra seed
with Money for Ledgeriana 9I
i
McIvor, his plan of stripping 123—124
—— sends Calisaya seed from
Madras • . . . . . • 97
Madder culture, its lessons 2I6
Madeira, Cinchona introduced into 265
Madras, a bark producing country 217
—— Cinchona culture in, . 268
—— exchanges with Java 77
—— seed of Calisaya from, its
splendid germination . , 97
—— visited by Moens . . . . 264
Malawar, planting originally done
in . . . . . . . . . . 58
—— range of mountains chosen
for Cinchona culture by Jung-
huhn . . . . . . . 52
—— twelve nurseries laid out in
that range . . . . . 56
Mamani, Manuel Incra, a servant
of Ledgers 90–95
Mandoer, a native foreman . 64
Manure, when applied . 177
Map of Cinchona regions prepared
by Schuhkraft . . . . I7
March, flowering of Cinchona in 136
Mark, Consul, his failure to obtain
Seeds . . . . . . . . . 260
Markham, C. R., his mission and
its success º 26I —262
—— in South America I I
Marks on packages . . . 2 IO
Martinique, stock sent to, 257, 266
Mastic, cold French, for grafting 148
Mattock used by native labourers I 55
Mauritius, stock sent to, 257, 265
Measurements of trees . I98–199
Meijboom, tea-bug discovered by 182
Method of packing . 2O8
of grafting used in Java I44
Mexico, stock sent to, . 265
Microscopic appearance of bark IQ4
Miquel on Cinchona culture . . 39
—— on revision of Cinchona 60–61
Milan, “Fabrica Lombarda’ at, 269
Mixed plantations of C. Ledger-
iana and C. officinalis 172
Moens as analyst to culture . 84
—— definitely appointed such . 89
—— fellow student of, and
co-worker with author . 71
287
Moens his visit to British India.
264 New York market, has lost its im-
——, his work in analysis io9–109 | portance . . . . . . 268
—— —— on “Rust” I81 New Zealand, introduction into . 265
Moens and Scheffer's investigations Nipa fruticans as shading material I53
on Scraping . . . . . . . I25 Numbers in reports, see under
Moisture affected by felling forests 16o respective names of species
Money, a planter, half of Ledger's Nurseries in the Malawar moun-
seeds bought by, . . . . . 91 tains, twelve laid out by Jung-
—— his visit to Java, . . . . 264 huhn . . . . . . . . . 56
Monsoon, east, best to harvest Nursery beds, their laying out . I 52
during. . . . . . . . 200 Odour of Cinchona flowers in
—— west, flowering of Cinchona various species. . . . . 36
at end of . . . . . . 136 Oelam-pahit, a destructive yellow
Morin, General, seeds sent to, 267 larva . . . . . . . . . I78
Morin and Vinson, their success in Ootacamund, Cinchona culture at,
Reunion . . . 266 alluded to * * * * 268
Mossed bark . 25, I 16 —— Ledger's seeds Sown at 9I
—— —— poorer than renewed 193 Oppenheim, Koch’s manufactory at 269
Mossing on McIvor's plan 124 Oudemans, A. C., discovers Cin-
—— a failure in some cases I 25 chonamine . . . . IO6
Mueller, Baron Ferd. von, and —— his “Handleiding” I85
Cinchona culture in Australia 265 —— his researches . . . . . IO8
Mulder on Cinchona culture . 39 —— his statement as to Cin-
—— selects Van Gorkom for chona Zone . - tº 3 I
Cinchona chemistry . . . . 7 I Paal, a measure defined 78
“Müller”, an assumed name of i Packing bark . . . . . . . 205
Hasskarl . . . . . . . . 41 Pagagan, a species of Hydrocotyle I 58
Musa leaves used to enfold cuttings 57 Pahud, Minister C. F., his initiative
Mutis in South America . . I I | towards Cinchona culture 4O
—— bark collected by, burnt by | Palen (plural of paal), a measure
royal Order . . . . . . . 6 defined e - © . 78
Mycelium overrunning Cinchona Para, Cinchona viá . I6—17
plants . . . . . . . . 56 Parent trees, the richest specimens
Nagrak estate first mentioned 64 always spared for . IO5
—— self-sown plants at I 3O Paricine from Buena hexandra . IO6
Natives, culture not taken up by, ! —— Cinchona Succirubra. IO6
254—256 —— in Succirubra barks . 271
Natural occurrence of Cinchona —— separated by Winckler. IO6
trees . . . . . . . . . 28 Paris, exhibition barks shown at, 257
Neilgherries indicated by Royle as ——- manufacturers in, . 269
suitable for Cinchona culture . 259 —— market, ranks next to Lon-
Netherlands, bark from Java sold don in importance 268—269
in, . . . . . . . . . . 219 Passangrahan, term explained as
—— questions asked in, relative a resting place . . . . . . 52
to Javan Cinchona culture . . . 83 Pasteur's laboursin connection with
New Caledonia, stock sent to 257–266 Conchinine . . . . . IO6
New Grenada, now called Colum- Patjol, or mattock, the common
bia, its Cinchona regions 3 I tool of natives . tº º º I 55
—— bark, so called 242 Paths in newly cleared land . I 55
—— Karsten's seeds from 58
54 Patocha, Original planting in .
288
Pavon in Peru. b tº e I I
Perishable pots for Cinchona. I 30
Pekalongan, pure type of bark
from private estate at . I I 2
Pelletier and Caventou, their dis-
covery of Cinchona alkaloids Io9
—— —— their method 27I
Pengalengan table-land selected
for Cinchona culture . . . . 52
Pentland, seeds from Weddell,
forwarded by . . . . . 26O
Peru, Cinchona regions of. 3 I
—— Calisaya yielded by . 242
—— climate of Andes in . 33
—— Consul Sullivan in, his fai-
lure to get seeds . º 360
—— Markham's mission to, . 26 I
Pharmaceutical bark, C. succi-
rubra as . . . . . . 93—IOO
Philadelphia, exhibition, barks
shown at, . . . . . . . 257
—— quinine factories in . 268—269
Philippine Islands, Cinchona in . 265
Pisang or Musa leaves used to
enfold cuttings . . . . .
Pitayo bark from C. lancifolia I O2
—— so called ' . . . . 242
Plant-pits, for renovation . I 74—I75
Plantations, so-called exhaustion of 166
Planting as done originally 57–58
—— in Bolivia, . . . . I8–22
Planting-out Cinchona Seedlings . I 34
Pleischl on secondary alkaloids 212
Poeppig in South America I I
Polarising power, artificial quinine
deficient in, . . . . . . . 246
Pollen, conveys seeds to Réunion. 267
Portuguese colonies, stock sent
to, . . . . . . . . 257, 265
Porvers and Weigtman at Phila-
delphia . . . . . . 269
Potting Cinchona seedlings I 34
Pots of bamboo, use discontinued 80
—— made by natives . . . 8O
—— used for Cinchona Seed I3O
Poudre de Talbor . . . . . 4
Preanger, nurseries chosen by
Junghuhn in . *
Premium offered for
quinine
. . . . 52
artificial
I4
Preservation of the seeds . 138
Prevention of loss of seed. . . 138
Prices of bark as affected by look. 244
—— fluctuations in, . . . 22I
—— of quinine, fluctuation in 273
Pricking-out Cinchona Seedlings. I 33
“Prins Frederik Hendrik”, ship-
ment of Hasskarl’s plants by, 43
“Prins Hendrik”, lost in Red Sea
with Calisaya bark . . . 22O
Pritchett in South America II
—— his mission to Huanaco. 26I
Private Cinchona estates in Java
217—218
—— —— plantations . 254
Produce in a given time I96
Production and commerce. . 217
Propagating house, first established 57
—— its use in grafting I45
—— the mode of erection I 50
—— the number of, increased . 8O
—— —— where situated. 64
Propagation by art . . . . I 38
—— only done from the richest
treeS e e º ºs e IO5
Protection given to young plants 56
Pruning when needed 176
Pulvis comitissae . . . . . . 9
Pulvis jesuiticus * * * 4
Quadrant for Surveying. . . I6 I
Quantitative determination of al-
kaloids . . . . . . . . 272
Quills, how formed .
2O7
—— much in demand . 2O7
Quina, the native name . . . 4
Quina primitiva of La Condamine 5
Quina Soja of Mutis, alluded to, 195
Quina-quina, a specially efficacious
kind of bark . . . . . . 4
Quinamine in red bark. IO6
Quinetum tº $ tº tº 2 I 2
—— compounds found in, IO6
—— contracts for, at the Hague. 273
—— prepared by mixing bye-
alkaloids . . . . . . . . 274
—— prices tendered for Supply of 274
Quinic acid in barks. . . . Io?
Quinidine, composition of, 270
—— found sometimes in Ledge-
riana bark I8I
289
Quinidine, solubility of . *
—— stated not to be found na-
turally in the bark . . . .
Quinine amount not to be guaged
by bitterness tº s
—— cheap substitute for .
—— composition of. . . . .
—— contents of bark augmented
by stripping . . . . . .
—— discovered by Pelletier and
Caventou. • * * * is s
—— factory, capital needed for
—— from samples of bark .
—— high per-centage of, in
shavings . . . . . . . .
—— import duties on, abolished
by United States . . . .
—— not easy to obtain pure
from C. Succirubra gº º º
—— premium offered for its arti-
ficial production
—— preparation of . ſº
—— solubility of, . . . . .
Quinine-barks, C. Calisaya and C.
officinalis. e e e º ºs
Quinium . e ºf
Quinoidine . . . . . ge ſº
Quinquina de Uritusinga of La
Condamine . * - e º e
Quinquinine . . . . .
Quinovic acid from leaves
—— in barks . . . . . . .
Quito, Consul Cope sends plants
from . . . . . . . . .
Racks for drying barks
Rampon in South America
Rantja-bolang estate
—— changes at . . . . . .
Recklessness of exploitation in
Bolivia . . . . .
Red-bark, C. Succirubra
—— yielded by Ecuador.
Reinwardt, mentioned in regard
to Cinchona culture . e
Rendeng, a species of Hydro-
cotyle . . . . . . . . .
Renewal of bark, how effected .
Renewed bark . . 25,
—— richer than mossed bark
Renovation-pits
272
Io?
243
IO/
27o
II.4.
267
272
93
2 I 3
Io/
2 I 3
2 I 3
IOZ
26O
2O3
I I
79
I9
IOO
242
39
Renquifo in South America . I I
Repairs, in a plantation, why they
do not usually succeed . . I6O
Replacing nurseries . I64
Reported numbers, see under
respective names, .
Resin-cells of bark . . . I94
Re-transplantation of certain old
Cinchona trees. 74
Réunion, stock sent to, 257
—— success in, . . . . . . 266
Rhytidomata or bark-Scales, apt
to be cast off . . . . . . I23
Richard, Jussieu, and Gaudichaud
recommend culture . . I 3
Richest trees spared for stock
parents . . . . . . . . IO5
Rijk, prepares a sample of quinine
from Javan bark . . . . 268
Ringing as provocative of flower-
—— tried on Cinchona 74
—— done by a destructive larva I 78
Rioeng-oenoeng estate . 64
Roads, Cinchona planted by, 57
—— laid out in newly-cleared
lands . . . . . . . . I 55
Rochussen, his opinion of the im-
portance of the culture. 62
Rogueing Cinchona plants. I69
Romunde, R. van, his advocacy
of close planting . . . . . I69
—— his description of Cinchona
grafting in Java . . . . I44
Root-barks, usually rich I I6—I I8
Rooting-out plantations, when ad-
visable. 188—I 89
Rooting-up jungle not usually
done tº gº sº e I 53
Roots, alkaloids in, . ſº º 72
—— of Cinchona, their form. 38
Rosengarten’s manufactory at
Philadelphia. e º 'º 269
Rotan hoops round bales . 2O9
Rough mixed alkaloid . 2 I 2
Royle first urges Cinchona cul-
ture in. * = & tº 259
—— his renewed urgency. 26O
193 | Rubiaceae, Cinchona a genus of 34
e II
I 58
I93
I I6
179 Ruiz in Peru
290
285
I79
—— on Cinchona officinalis . . 99
Russia, Cinchona in the Caucasus.
Rust, on Cinchona, account of
Saccharum spontaneum, blinds
made of, . . . . . . . I 52
Sale-conditions in the Netherlands
244–246
Salseignette, used in analysis. 272
Samples taken by London brokers. 24.I
Sandwich Islands, stock sent to, 257
Sandy soil, its treatment . I 58
Santa-Cruz, false bark from . . 2
—— the southern-most limit of
Cinchona . . . . . . . . 32
Santesban in South America . . I I
Saucers, water supplied to seeds
by . . . . . . . . . . I 32
Scalding red bark to heighten its
colour. - © e 2O4.
Scales, term first used . 22O
Scheffer's observations on Cin-
chona rust . . . . I8O—I8I
Scheffer and Moens, their report
on Scraping . . . I 25
Scherzer in South America . . . iſ
Schilfers, or shavings of bark I I I–II6
—— term first used 22O
Schraapselor scrapings, term aban-
doned . 22O
Schuhkraft, Consul-general, his
reports. . . . . . . . . I 5
—— dispatch (1864) of seeds, 23
—— his energy in procuring Seeds 75
—— variety named after him . 75
Scions when to be cut . . . . I46
Scrapings of Ledgeriana bark, their
richness © º gº tº I I I
—— use of term abandoned. 22O
Scrobiculi in various species . . 35
—— not exclusively characteristic
of C. Calisaya . . . . . . 55
Scrub and low jungle to be grub-
bed up . . . . . . . . I 55
Seasons as affecting alkaloids. I 22
Secondary alkaloids in Succirubra
bark . . II.4— I I 5
Seed-beds . . . I3O
—— broadcast I 34—I 35
Seed-crop, value set on, . . . 75
—— heavy . . . . . . . 75
Seed-Sowing . . . . . . . I29
Seed-raised plants show great
divergencies. . . . . . IO3
Seedling Succirubra, used as stocks
for Ledgeriana. I43
Seeds, cleaning the, . . . I 38
—— first obtained in Java at Tji-
bodas . . . . . . . . . 63
—— of various species . . . 36
—— home-grown slower in de-
velopment than foreign . . . I99
—— of Cinchona Ledgeriana first
gathered on 1873. . . . . 94
—— preventing the loss of, . I38
—— from Hasskarl . . . . . 47
—— —— few germinated . . 50
—— from various quarters, col-
lected by Schuhkraft . . . 30
Seitz on secondary alkaloids 2 I 2
Selecting, first attempted . 22O
Serons, account of . . . . . 8
Side-grafting Cinchona . . . . I43
Sikkim, a few of Ledger's seeds
Sown in . . . . . . . . 91
Shade as affecting alkaloids . . 88
—— of forests deemed needful
by Junghuhn for Cinchona . 57
Shaving, Moens's method of . I9 I
—— its advantages . I96
—— quicker than stripping . I94
—— renewal of bark after I93
Shavings of Ledgeriana bark,
their richness • tº I I I
—— term first used 22O
Shell-grooves in bark 243
Shelter needed by young nursery
stock . . . . . . . . . I 53
Shelter-plants occasionally used . I63
Skraup on Homocinchonine . 2 I 5
Slopes, terracing, . . . . . I 56—I 57
Snellen van Vollenhoven, on Helo-
peltis Antonii . . . I82
Soda, precipitation of alkaloids by 272
Soft barks, so called 243
Soil for seed sowing . . . . I 30
—— to be kept loose by the
fingers. tº g º º q I34.
Solvents for extraction of quinine 271
Sorting the bark. 2OI—2O5
—— first attempted 22O
291
—— —— in barks.
Sorting, its importance . . . . 205
South American republics, their
shifty policy tº * * IO
. Sowing seed of Cinchona . I29
Spacing-out the plants . I63
Spaltpropfmesser, or German
grafting knife . . . . . I48
Spanish colonies, Cinchona in 265
Species and varieties to be exclu-
sively propagated . . . . . 88
Sporadic growth of Cinchona in
native forests gº tº gº 28
Spruce in South America. . I I
Stanley, Lord, his work for Cin-
chona culture in India . 263
Statute labour-question in Java 81
Steam-ship, consignments pre-
ferentially sent by . . . . 223
Steel knives not used for barking 200
Steeping Cinchona seeds . I 33
Stipules, their early fall 35
Stoeder, his researches. is IO8
Stripping the bark . 24, 25, 200
—— on McIvor's plan. I 23—I 24
—— reasons against . . I90
—— enhancement of quinine by I I4
Stripping, renewal after, slower
than shaving & ſº I94
Stripping-knife, special . I 27
Stuttgart, manufactory at, 269
Subsoil, question regarding I 58
Sullivan, Consul, his failure to
procure seeds . . . . . . 260
Sulphate of lime used to combat
“rust” . g e º & ſº I8O
—— of quinine, quinoidine IOZ
Sulphuric acid used formerly in
extraction . . . . . . 27 I
Sunlight, as affecting alkaloids 88
Superintendents diminished 8O
Sylhet selected for Cinchona cul-
ture by Royle . . . . . . 259
Synthesis of Cinchona alkaloids. 216
Tafalla in Peru ge & © II
Tahiti, stock sent to, 266
Talbor's powder . . . . . . 4
Tangkoeban-Prahoe, first planting. 58
Tannic acid of bark, discoloration
in barking by steel on . 2OO
IO7
Tare of cases . 2O8
—— bales . . . 209
—— difference in, 223-224
Tea, Cinchona flowers mixed with 213
Tea-rust analogous to Cinchona
rust. . . . . . . . . . I 82
Teijsmann, his method of germi-
nation . . . . . . . . I 32
—— receives the first Cinchona
plant . . . . . . . . . 44
—— and Scheffer's observations
On rust. . . . . I8O— I 8 I
Telaga-Patengan estate. 64
—— given up . . . . . . . 79
Temperature affected by disaffo-
resting . . . . . . . I60
—— —— by Cinchona 33
—— of Andes * * * * *
Tenders for Quinetum at the
Hague. . . . . . . . . 274
—— for Quinine, at the Hague. 273
Terraces, method of laying out . I 56
Testing barks chemically . 272
Teuscher, a superintendent under
Teijsmann . . . . . . 48
Texeira's mission to the Cinchona
regions . . . . . . 4.
Theodolite for surveying . I6 I
Therapeutics of Cinchona . 2 II
Thibaut and Keteleer of Paris, rear
a Cinchona plant . . . 44
Thinning out e I86–190
—— not to be too long delayed I70
—— treated as a method of
cropping . . . . . . . . I63
Thwaites, Dr., Cinchona establish-
ed at Hakgalle by, . . . . 262
Timber, how disposed of when
felled, in Java . I62
Time of flowering in Java. I36
Timor, Cinchona culture intro-
duced into, . . . . . . 265
Tjangkokken, or layers, taken . 59
Tjibeurem estate . 64
—— nursery at . 48
Tjibietong estate . . . . . 64
Tjibodas, nursery at. . 48, 49–52
—— objections to, . . . . . 52
—— seventy Cinchona plants
reached . . . 43
292
Tjibodas transferred to botanic
garden. . . . . . . . .
—— the so called “Strawberry
garden” the first Cinchona nur-
sery at Java. . . . . . .
Tjicao, shipment to Batavia from. 254
Tjinieroean, estate founded . . 53
Tjiomas, young seedlings at, self
8O
SOW1] . • * * * * I 29
Tjipannas, nursery at, . . 48
Tobacco, use of, in “Rust’ I8O
Trade circulars by Lewis and Peat
248–25 I
Trade-names of bark . . . 2 I I
Traditional history of Cinchona. 3
Transit of bark 2 IO
Transplantation . . . . I 3 I
—— of old Cinchona trees . 74.
Transportation of bark from forests
to port . . . . . . . . 8
—— of seeds best method I38
Treatment of certain old Cinchona
trees . . . . . . . . . 73
Triana on Cinchona. I I
Trinidad, introduction into 265
Turkey and Cinchona culture 266
Utrecht, plants from . . . . 54
Variation in leaf of Cinchona Cali-
Saya . . . . . . . . . 55
Variations in seed-raised plants I23
Venation in various species . . 35
Veredlungscheere or German
grafting shears . . . . . . I4I
Vega, Juan de, his charges for
the bark . e e e 4.
Vegetable mould soil I 58
Venezuela, its Cinchona regions 31
Ventilation of propagating houses I 52
Veuleman's sketch of grafting as
practised in Java . . . . I44
Victoria, Cinchona culture in, 265
Vienna, exhibition barks shown
at, . . . . . . . . . . 257
Vlaanderen, Dr. Van, his analysis
of inorganic bodies in barks . I65
Vrolik on Cinchona culture 39
Wajang, planting how done in, 58
Warcewicz in South America . I I
Wardian cases from Leyden with
Cinchona plants . . . . .
Waste in felling original forests.
—— in shipment, amount of,
—— (gruis) usually poor . &
Watering seeds and young plants,
precautions necessary . . .
Watson, Dr. Forbes, his help in
Indian Cinchona culture
Wax for grafting . . .
Weddell, his influence or
chona culture º
—— plants raised from seeds
collected by, tº e
—— —— at Algeria . tº º
—— his visit to Leyden to de-
termine Cinchona there .
Weeding plantations. . . . .
Weeds allowed on edges of ter-
1 a CCS . . . . . . . . .
Weir, a member of Markham's
expedition
Cin-
Weighing machines . . . . .
Weight of bark lost in drying
—— of seeds .
Weltevreden, false Cinchona plant
at . . . . . . . . . .
Whiffen, a manufacturer in London
Wilson, Cinchona culture in Ja-
maica by . . . . . . . .
Winckler discovers Cinchonidine
and Paricine e Q &
Wind, danger in exposure to,
Winds, prevailing, how they affect
the alkaloids * * * * *
Wood, quinine separated from the
Wonodjambi, first planting at .
Wreck of ‘Prins Hendrik’ and loss
of bark. . . . . . . . .
Wringin, original planting in, . .
Yellow bark (Calisaya) yielded by
Peru and Bolivia . tº tº e
Yield of Cinchona trees
Zea in Peru is e e o &
Zigzag paths quite necessary on
slopes . . . . . . . . .
Zimmer, manufacturer in Frankfort
—— alluded to .
I 3, .
53
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